'iu

^

%..

.o/vt>^^^

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

V

//

^/

%"

<^*,^

S'^

1.0

=y=

1.25

;2.5

2.2

2.0

1.8

1-4 11.6

9J

^

n

%

o

ei

.^.

/A

'/

rv

^

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

m

Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques

1980

Technical Notes / Notes techniques

The Institute has attempted to obtain the best
original copy available for filming. Physical
features of this copy which may alter any of the
images in the reproduction are checked below.

n
m

Coloured covers/
Couvertures de couleur

Coloured maps/

Cartes gdographiques en couleur

Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/
Pages d6color6es, tacheties ou piqu6es

Tight binding (may cause shadows or
distortion along interior margin)/
Reliure serr6 (peut causer de I'ombre ou
de la distortion le long de la marge
intdrieure)

L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire
qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Certains
ddfauts susceptibles de nuire d la qualitd de k
reproduction sont notds ci-dessous.

n
0

D

Coloured pages/
Pages de couleur

Coloured plates/
Planches en couleur

Show through/
Transparence

Pages damaged/
Pages endommagdes

T

P
o

fi

7
c

G

a

7
f

ii

D

Additional comments/
Commentaires suppldmentaires

Bibliographic Notes / Notes bibliographiques

D
D
D

Only edition available/
Seule Edition disponible

Bound with other material/
Reli6 avec d'autres documents

Cover title missing/

Le titre de couverture manque

□ Pagination incorrect/
Erreurs de pagination

D
D

Pages missing/
Des pages manquent

Maps missing/

Des cartes g6ographiques manquent

D
D

Plates missing/

Des planches manquent

Additional comments/
Commentaires suppldmentaires

The images appearing here are the best quality
possible considering the condition and legibility
of the original copy and in keeping with the
filming contract specifications.

Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le
plus grt>nd soin, compte tenu de la condition et
de la nevteti de i'exemplaire film6, et en
confo'/miti avec les conditions du contrat de
filmage.

The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall
contain the symbol —►(meaning CONTINUED"),
or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever
applies.

Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la der-
nidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas:
le symbols —^ signifie "A SUIVRE ", le symbole
y signifie "FIN".

The original copy was borrowed from, and
filmed with, the kind consent of the following
institution:

National Library of Canada

L'excmpiaire filmd fut reproduit grAce d la
gdndrositd de I'dtablissement prdteur
suivant :

Bibliothdque nationale du Canada

Maps or plates too large to be entirely included
in one exposure are filmed beginning in the
upper lAft hand corner, left to right and top to
bottom, as many frames as required. The
following diagrams illustrate the method:

Les cartes ou les planches trop grandes pour dtre
reproduites en un seul clichd sont filmdes d
partir de I'angle supdrieure gauche, de gauche d
droite et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre
d'images ndcessaire. Le diagramme suivant
illustre la mdthode :

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

5

6

T II E

CANADIAN NATURALIST

Axn

OKOI. oaisT,

{ r. I - M O NTH r. Y ISSCK,)

COMPLKTK IX KLEVEX \ Ol.lMES S.o: BOl'XI) IX CLOTH. WD
ILLl'STHATED WITH iMAPS, PLATES. AXD AVOOD-tl TS.

IMITCE

OR P.Y srX(JLE VOLUMEi?, ?3 PER VOLUME, EXCEITIXC

VOL. r.. WHICH is xot sold separately.

r

'..1

Tiie.^0 voUuncs nontiiin ii masT of information— ikiI to \c niot w'th elso-
wlioic— relating: to the Natural History and resources of Canada.

Many of the contribution.'' are of srcat pr.ictical value. All the chief
Miiiiufi regions of the Dominion have been noticed, and tlie sf icntiUo .■<ide of
the chief manufactures of the Provinces has been discvsscd. ,., ,.

Tl)c Fauna of Canada is almost complete. Many valuable contributions on
the fur- bearing animals hive been received from ollicers of the Hudfon'.s
Ray Comitany. l>r. Dawsim ha.'^ written many valuable artic'e.« on the
lower forms of animal life.

In GcoloRy :>nd Pahoontc lojjj', Mr. B Hins.>J, Dr. Dawson and Sir William
LoKan have largely contributed. In Chemical Physics, Dr, Sterry Hunt has
many valua'.)le articles. In Botany there are many important contributitms
by tlie late Dr. B irnston, Dr. Dawson and Mr. Watt. In Metcorologv, by
Dr. Smallwood.

A glance at the contents of those volumes will show that there are
writers in Canada, competent, to treat of all the Natural Sciences, as
illustrating or developing tlie natural resources of the country.

!j

11 '

DAWSON BROTHERS,

u

TIIK

CANADIAN NATURALIST

\

AMI

(Ouiivtcilif Jfouniitl of §ciCiUf,

IXCLrniNd TlIK rKOCKHDlXCS OF TIIH XATIh'A
lilSTOlJY SOCIKTV 01' MONTl.'K A L.

1'^

la eoIunlcnfin^' it now issue of this i)erioilicaI. as a. (Jiiiirtcib' Jmirniil of
Scifiioe. the I'libiislicrs liiivo much sntisfiiction in iinnouncin? th.it its Kasis
is now so L'xtenilud as to include a larwr lieKl of i!0|tnlar interest, and a
more treneral seiontifie scope than Icretoforo. Kspccially with regird to tlie
Tec'inology of (ioolosical, Mining. Chemical and AKriculturiil Science, new
materials are made availalile, and a genera! suinmary of scientific fads and
discoveries forms an important feature. The oublieation is still under the
au.sp'cos of the Natural History Society of Montreal, which has a|>pointed
die following fi:ontleinen to act as an Editing Committee, viz :—

Principal Dam'SoN, T.R.S.- (loolojry and Fossil Botany.

T. Stkkry ITlnt, FR.S.— Chemistry. ^Finoralopy and AFining.

K. IJiMJNcJH, F.U.S.— I'aheontolofry.

C. Smam-wooI), LL.D.— Meteorology and Astronomy.

.J. Bakku Ei>WAiii)s, I'll. D., F.C.S.— Chemical TocluK.logy. and AFicroscopy.

P. P. CATirKNTKK, Ph. J).— (Socjal and Sanitary Science.

J. F. WiiiTKAVKS, F.(!.S.— Zoology.

D A. P. Watt, Feci.— Botany.

A. S. Hrrrini;, Esq.— Entomology.

Subjects other than those mentioned will coaie under the cognizance of tiic
Choirman of the Committee.

The authors of [apers will he considered alone responsible for the facts
and opinions contained in their rospectivi; communications, and the several
editors will be respensibl'j only for communications bearing their nauu or
initials.

DAWSON BROTHERS,

PiiLI'isIki:^.

CANADA

NATIONAL LIBRARY
BIBLIOTHFQUE NATIONALE

Z

c

/

1 1

/^il^

OK

ZOOLOGY:

■WITH KKAMPLKt* FKOM

CANADTAN SPEClEiS, llECENT AND FOSSIL.

HY

J. W. DAWSON, LL.r>.,F.R.S.,&r.

Part I.— INVERTEBRATA.

WITH 275 ILLUSTRATIONS.

r; DAWSON BROTHERS, OT. JAMES STREET.

1870.

QLf8

Entered according to tho Act of tho Parliament of Canada,
in tho year one thousand eight hundred and seventy,
by Dawson Brotiibus, in the Ollicc of the Minister of
Agriculture.

n dCo

JOnN tOVEtl, rRINTKE.

ad a,
;ntj,
sr of

In teaching Zoology nothing is of more importance than
to have the means of directing the attention of the stu-
dent to the animals of the country in which he livcfi.
For this reason I have been in the habit of preparing a
synopsis of the subjcot for the uso of my classes, with ex-
amples taken as far as possible from common native
species . In preparing a new edition of this synopsis, I
was advised by the publisher to give it greater extension,
in the hope that it might be useful to other teachers,
and also to isolated students and collectors. The present
manual is the result of this attempt ; and the only merit
which it claims is that of giving a skeleton of the sub-
ject, with illustrations taken from spceies which the
student can collect for himself within the limits of Brit-
ish North America, or can readily obtain access to in
public or private oollections.

Fossil animals are included as well aa those which
arc recent, because many types not repre^nted in our
existing fauna, occur as fossils in our rock formations ;
and because one important use of the teaching of Zoology
is that it may be made subsidiary to geological re-
search.

11

IV

PREFACE.

I have avoided the modern doctrines of a '' physical
basis of life" and of "derivation," because I believe
tlicni to rest on grounds very different from those of
true science, and therefore to be unsuiluble for the pur-
poses of a text-book. I have also retained the Cuvicrian
Provincce of the Animal Kingdom ns amended by
modern discoveries. I am quite aware that there are
Zoologists who affirm that the Province liadij\ta liar^ been
"effectually abolished" and that other provinccR should
be broken up; but a.s I cannot help perceiving that the
four types of the great French naturalist exist in
nature, I have not scrupled to adhere to them, as the
cxpresvsion of a grand -and philosophical idea, essential
to an accurate and enlarged concx?ption of nature.

In the present chaosof synonymy in Zoology, I have
ofton been perplexed {is to the generic and spocific
names to be given to our most common animals ; but
have endeavoured to take such a middle way between
the older names and the later innovations, as seemed
likely to be Icxast perplexing to the student.

For many of the illustrations I am indebted to tiic
memoirs of 3Ir. Billings in the publications of the Geo-
logical Survey, and also to the papers of Mr. D'Urbain,
Mr. Whiteaves and Mr. Packard in the " Canadian
Naturalist." A number arc from my own papers in the
Naturalist and" from "Acadian Geology,'' and many are
original. I have to thank Dr. P. P. Carpenter and Mr.
Whiteaves for some valuable hints toward the improve
mont of the chapter oa MoUusca.

TREFACE.

ShouUl this volume be well received, it may bo fol-
lowed by another on the Vertebra tn. In the mean
^imo T shall be much indebted to nny of my fellow
workers who may use this manual, if thi^y will give mc
the benefit of such hints as may occur to them, cither
with reference to a new edition or to a Rcoond volume.

I may add that I have kept in view the possible
utility of this manual to tourintR and visitors to the
sea-Ride, who will find it to contain figures or notices
of most of the common animals they arc likely to meet
with, as well as directions for collecting and preserving
specimens.

McGiLL College, Montreal,
Dec. 18G9.

K li RATA .

rage 7 lino 5— /w and read oach.

" 7 " 20— /(>r vory largely present in all rend also largely' prownt

in tlioeo.
" 10 " 2 Irora bottom-/^)*' MoUusous rend Molluscou?.
" 83 " 17— /or anologics raul analogies.
" 40— /or class 2, Aoalepluc, road claw 8, Acalepha;; nnd for class

3, Antliozoa, road class 2, Anthozoa.

CONTENTS.

CIIAITKK I.

rUYfllOLOOICAL Z00t0<»Y:

1. (ioneriil nature of tho Animal 8

2. TIsHUL'S of tli(> Animal 5

r i'uuctioQs of the Animal 10

CUAIIEU II.

ZootOOIOAL CLAPPIFIC ATION :

1. (jicneral considoratlona 20

2. Tlu> epecles in Zoology 'IS

fi. Concra and higher gronps 30

4. Division into rrovincee 84

f). DiviHion into Classes 31)

0. Division into Familioe and Orders 42

CIIAITER III.

DicfiCRiPTivR Zoology— Radi ATA :

('laRs 1. I'rotozoa 47

Clasa 2. Antlmzoa or Actinozoa fil

Clan's 8. Acalophnc or ilydrozoa 76

Clase 4. licbinodcrmata 88

CIIAll'ER IV.

DBflOniPTIVE ZOOLOOY— Mor,LU60A:

('lass 1. Hotorobranchiata 102

Clasa 2. liamellibranchiata 128

Class 3. (jiastKropoda 144

Class 4. CVpbalopoda. ICG

CUAPTEK V.

DBSCmrXTVE Zooloot— Auticul ATA :

Class 1. Annulata 170

Class 2. Crustacea 1U2

Class 8. Insocta 209

Class 4. Arachnida 237

ArrKNDIX A.

CLA88IP10ATI0K OP VeeTEBBATA 247

APPENDIX B.

XkBtritotions for Colleotjko akd Pbebeuvibtq Ikveute-

BRATE AVIMAie I ^

■"HI

mmmm

lIANDliOOK OF ZOOLOGY.

Zool();.';y is the name under wliicli avc arrange
our kno^vlel.llre of animals, considered as olyects of
natural history study — that is, as ol)jects of obser-
vation, comparison, and classification. The ele-
ments of the subject may be grouped under the
following heads :

1. Tltd (jemral nature of the animal— its comii.
iucnt tissues and its functions.

2. Tlte principles of classification as applied to
ihc animal Icingdom.

3. The detailed description of animals^ in con-
nection ivith their classification.

The first of these subjects may be named Phy-
siological Zoology ; the second, Zoological Classi'

fication ; and the third, Descriptive Zoology.

B

Wc shall consider these in their order, devoting
one chapter to each of the two first suhjects, and
entering at greater length into the third, which
necessarily includes the laigcr ynrt of Zoology
proper.

i t

II

1 1

• CIIArXER I.
niYSIOLOGICxVL ZOOLOGY.

1. General Nature of the Animal.

In answer to the question — ""What is an animal ?'"
— Ave may say, in the first place, that an animal is
a being composed of certain organised tissues and
possessing powers usually styled vital forces.
The tissues of the animal arc such as membrane,
flesh, nerve-matter, bone ; and these are built up,
especially in the higher animals, into orgars or
more or less complex machines. The results of
vital force acting in the animal, are such processes
as digestion, nutrition, circulation, respiration, sen-
sation, muscular action. The tissues and organs
arc necessary to the performance of these func-
tions ; but the tissues and organs themselves can
only be produced under the influence of life. The
tissues and organs may, however, continue to exist,
or may be preserved for a greater or less time after
their vitality has departed. These statements arc
sufiicient to distinguish animal organisms from
mineral substances, though the constituent elements
of the former are the same with a part of those
occurring in the latter. It is further to be observed
that since structure and pecuhar chemical com-
pounds pervade the animal organism, we can, by
the aid of the microscope and of chemical tests,
distinguish the smallest shred of animal matter irom
that which is merely mineral : and this even when
the former, imperfectly preserved or partially min-

GENERAL NATURE OF THE ANIMAL.

eraliscd, is imbedded in a fossil condition in tlio
rocks of the earth.

Plants arc organised and living, aS well as aiil-
mals, and contain the same organic compounds,
though in different proportion from that in which
they occur in the animal.

To distinguish the animal from the plant, we may
affirm, 1st, that the former is reproductive by
eggs or ova and not by seeds and spores, the
latter being distinct in their origin, their struc-
ture, and their chemical composition ; 2nd, that in
its processes of nutrition it digests organic food in
an internal cavity, subsequently consuming a part
of this food at the expense of the oxygen of the
atmosphere ; and that it builds up its tissues prin-
cipally of nitrogenised matter ; 8rd, that the animal
possesses the power of voluntary motion, and to
subserve this, muscular tissue ; 4th, that it possesses
sensation, and to subserve this and motion as well,
a nervous system and external senses.

We thus find four general characteristics of the
animal :

1. Sensation — by means of a nervous system

and special senses.

2. Voluntary motion — by means of the mus-

cular and nervous systems.

3. Nutrition — by means of a stomach and
' intestines, with absorptive, circulatory,

and respiratory apparatus.

4. Reproduction — by ova and sperm-cells.
In every animal, even the simplest, these func-
tions are in greater or less perfection performed;
and it is the presence of the aggregate of these
functions or the organs proper to them, that enables

TISSUES OP THE ANIMAL. O

US to call any organism an animal. It is important
to carry with us this definition of the animal; first,
as indicating the limits of the creatures which the
zoologist has to classify; and secondly, as pointing
out to us the nature of the characters on which we
must rely in our classification. For the student, I
hold it to be necessary, before proceeding further,
to understand well these functions and structures,
as they exist in some one of the higher animals.
For this purpose it will be sufficient that he should
read carefully any small elementary work on anim.al
physiology, such as any of those mentioned below.*
In this outline, I shall merely indicate in the follow-
ing sections, the most important points to be known.

2. Tissues of tub Animal.

The animal tissues are known to us principally
by means of the microscope ; and animal histology
or the study of animal tissues, has, in modern
times, grown to be an extensive and most important
branch of investigation, affording to the micros-
copist some of the most interesting as well as
intricate subjects of observation, and yielding the
most important results with reference to the prin-
ciples of physiology. f

The essential material of the animal tissues is
albumen, a substance with which we are famiUar as

* Agassiz and Gould's Principles of Physiology. Hux-
ley's Elements of Physiology.

t The tenchor should if possible illustrate the several
tissues by specimens seen under the microscope. If this
cannot be doue, by as good drawings or plates as can bo
procured. Those of Marshall, issued by the Department of
Science and Art, England, arc very useful.

^

b TISSUES OF THE ANIMAL.

white of eti'ir;, and which, with aULi-lit modification:?
and addition of mineral matter, is capable of fur-
nishino; the material of all the or<2;an3 of animals.
Albumen is a strictly or^i^anic substance, occurring
only as a component of living beings, and produced
in the first instance in the cells of plants. It is a
compound of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro-
gen, with a minute proportion of sulphur. In
consequence of the prevalence of albumen and
albuminoid substances in the animal tissues, the
animal may be regarded, in a chemical point of
view, as cor.sisting of only four elements, carbon,
oxygen.^ hydrogen, and nitrogen.

•ill

Fig. 1.— Cclluhir TLsuo— Shuwlu^ Nti .'el iiiul Niic'toli.

jPiV/. '2.— Young iUood-CcU, (alttr 1); tiie).

J'"i(/ 3. — Fibrous TiRsuu uiid l'';it-<jfl!s.

/'«(/. 4.— Htriat oil Jiluscular i'ibro with Nirvo-F.brj3 nnl Nuclear
mattor— (alter IJoalo.)

Mij. 5.— Cartilajie, ahowinjj groups of colls with Nu'.;!oi.

Fi(j, 6. — lioue, showiu;? colls uudllavoroluuCaual; (a) Young Bone-
Ce! ; (6) Mature iionc-Coll.

Fig. 7.— Nerve-Cell and Nerve-Fibros— (after 15ca!e.)

Figs. 1 to 7 represent Tissues liighly magnified.

TISSUES OF THE ANIHAL.

Cellai2jtr Ti*tsiic. — The simplest kind of
animal tissue i3 that to wliich wc gi/c the name
cellular. It consists of cells or sac3, with albu-
minous walls more or less firmly attache I together,
and containing a semi-fluid substance named sarco-
de,Y.'ith a central mass, usually granular in aspect,
called the nucleus, and which is al ?o albuminous.
The nuclear matter would seem to bo that which is
most active in vital processes. It appears to pre-
cede the formation of the complete cell, and is most
abundant in young cells. Animal cells tend to increase
in dimensions up to a certain point, but they a;e
usually microscopic in size. They also have the
power of multiplying rapidly, new cells being pro-
duced from those previously existing. Large por-
tions of the bodies of many of the lower animals are
composed entirely of simple cellular tissue ; and it
also exists in the higher animals, in the c[)idermis
and other membranes, glands, cartilages, &c. It
is very largely present in all animals in their earlier
embryonic stages. (Figs. 1 — 2.)

S'"'iI>ro!a>^ or Cosjjiociave TS-»s»ae. — This is
composed either of gelatine or of albumen, and pre-
sents the aspect of fibres either parallel or inter-
laced. The dermis or true skin, and the finer
membranes which pack and connect or give form to
the different organs of the body, consist of it ; and it
forms also the tendons or cords connecting the muscles
Avith the parts which they act upon, and the liga-
ments which bind toi2:ether the bones or other hard
parts. The gelatinous form of fibrous tissue is white
and inelastic, and can be boiled into glue or tanned
into leather. The albuminous form is yellow and elas-

^m

8

TISSUES OF THE ANIMAL.

tic ; it constitutes the clastic ligaments, and enters
into the coats of the larger arteries. [Fig- 3.]

muscular or Contractile Ti§8uc — This,
like the last, is fibrous, but it is composed of the
animal substance fibrine, a member of the Albu-
minoid series. It is possessed of the power of
shortening and thickening its fibres, and again
lengthening them, in such a manner as to produce
the effects of muscular contraction and relaxation,
on "which the greater part of animt 1 motions depend.
The muscular fibres of the ordinary muscles or flesh
of the higher animals are transversely striated or divi-
ded into joints, -which shorten when the fibre con-
tracts. The ultimate fibrilloe are united into fibres,
each enclosed in a delicate structureless membrane.
These fibres are again bound up into larger bundles,
enclosed in fibrous tissue ; and these are collected
into muscles of various form and size. Smooth
muscular fibres occur in some involuntary muscles
of the higher animals, and in the lower tribes of ani-
mals. (Vig. 4.)

Oi^scous or lBoi«y Tissue. — Eone consists of
gelatinous animal matter in -which are imbedded
granules of phosphate of lime. It is not absolutely
solid, but filled with microscopic spaces or Jacttnue,
from the sides of which rnmify numerous canaliculi
or minute tubes connecting the lacunoc with each
other, and the whole with canals traversing the
bone, (Haversian canals) which carry the l)lood-
vessels that nourish the bone. These vessels open
upon the surface of the bone, and unite with those of
the periosteum, a strong membrane covering
its surface. Bone in its young stat'3 is usually a

TISSUES OF THE ANIMAL.

9

compact elastic substance knov;n as cartilage or
gristle. Under the microscope this presents a series
of nucleated cells imbedded in a firm animal sub-
stance, and the whole mass gro^Y3 by division of the
cells, and development of intercellular substance
between their separated parts. In the ossification
of the cartilage, the intercellular matter is hardened
by deposition of mineral granules, and the cells
become the lacunce of the bone. In some animals the
skeleton remains permanently cartilaginous ; and in
all, the extremities of many bones remain capped with
cartilage. The substance of teeth is a modification
of bone. In ivory the Haversian canals are absent,
and the bone-cells drawn out into narroAV contiguous
tubes. Enamel, which is the hardest kind of bony
tissue, consists of solid bony prisms placed side
by side. (Figs. 5— 0.)

IVci'Voiis Tissue — This is of two kinds —
nerve-cells and nerve-fibres. The former occur
principally in the brain, the spinal cord and the
organs of sense, and constitute what is sometimes
called gray nerve matter. They are the sources
or storehouses of nervous power. They give off
tubular prolongations of their walls, which connect
the cells with each other, or form the roots of nerve
fibres. . These last consist of a central cord, sur-
rounded by a clear substance, and this by a more
opaque coating enclosed in a structureless membrane,
the Neurilemma. The animal matter constituting
Nerve, contains phosphorous as one of its essential
elements, but the relation of its composition and struc-
ture with its function is not known. This function
is the most remarkable performed by any tissue,
namely that of being the matei-ial medium of the

10

FUNCTIONS Of THE ANIMAL.

proper vitality of tho auimal, as cxliibitod in sensa-
tion and voliintary m)tion. Without the action of
nervous cells and fibres, we can have no perception
of impressions from without, or of changes taking
l)lacc within, the body ; and without this action no
muscular fibre can contract, and consequently no
motion can take place. For this reason, thetimount
and perfection of the nervous system, marks more
than anything else, the rank of the animal in nature,
and the plan of distribution of the nervous system,
is the surest index of its type of structure. (Figs.
4&7.)

The above tissues exist in their full development
only in the higher animals ; but, under various modi-
fications and simplifications, they may be traced in
all except the very lowest forms of animal life.

8. Functions op the Animal.

In order to perform the functions of animal life,
the tissues are built up into organs and systems of
organs, to each of which certain functions are
allotted. These functions may bo roughly grouped
under two heads. 1st. Tiiose of the animal life pro-
per, which are peculiar to the animal. 2iid. Those
of the vegetative life, which arc common to plants
as well, though performed in these in a different
way. The former arc Sensation and Voluntary
Motion. The latter are Nutrition and Ileproduction.
Of these functions we can give only a very gene-
ral summary.*

• These functions should be illustrated to tho clas?, either
by nctual specimens of tho organs referred to, or by models
or good figures : the engravings already mentioned will be
found very useful.

rUNCTlONS OF TUB ANIMAL.
SENSATION.

8

11

BaAix OP 0PO5PUM dirtor Owon) (a) Olfactory Lobes; ( A ) Cerobral
llemisi)bt'rt's; (li)UiJtlc Lubes; (C) Cercbdlum unci ori^^iu of Spinal
Cord.

^ a

Fig. 9.— Dinjrrmn of P.rain of r.inl, ( Myclcnccpbalous).— (a) Olfactory
Lobes; (b) Cerebral Uouiisplicrcs; (c) Optic Lobes; (</) Cerubellum;
(e) Mcdnlla Oblongota; (./) Auditory nerves; (r/) Spinal Cord.

Ml/. 10.— Diagram of nervou.s system of a worm, ( Honu.gangliate);
(a) (iisophageal ring; (b) Double abdominal cord with ganglia.

J<'iq. 11.— Diagram of nervous systemof aJIollusk (lleterogangliate)
(a) OEsopbageal rin^j aud ganglia; (0) I'edal ganglia ;^(f) Visceral
ganglion. ^r<,.-< «

Fig. 12.— Diagram of ncrvo system of a Star-flsb; (a) (Esophageal
ring.

12

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL.

The orcrans of ^5cnsatioll arc the nervous system
iiml special senses. The former consists of nerve-
centres and nerve-fibres, and these may be arrang-
ed in four dliferent vays.

1. Ifl.yclriieciilasiloiis. — Consistin,"; of a pro-
per brain, pUiced over the gullet, -with a dorsal
spinal cord, from whicli all the nerves of the extre-
mities branch oft'. The brain consists of several
pairs of lobes ; viz. : the olfactory, presiding over
the sense of smell, the optic, relating to the sense
of sight, the cerebral hemispheres, relating to the
general sensation and intelligence, and a single
posterior lobe, the cerebellum, presiding over volun-
tary motion. The parts of the braui arc connected
below with the spinal cord, by a mass of fibres and
cells called the medulla oblongata. T!ie spinal
cord is divisible into four columns, two posterior, and
two antero-lateral, the former devoted to sensation,
and the latter to voluntary motion, and the nerve
fibres taking their origin in part from each. The
mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes have their nervous
system constructed on this type. (1^'ig. 8 & 9.)

2. BIo3n;>s;asi;i-IBrttc— In this type the princi-
pal nerve-centre consists of a ring surrounding the
gullet, with a mass above giving off nerves of sensa-
tion, and a mass below giving oft' a double abdo-
minal cord, having ganglia or subordinate masses of
nerve-matter at intervals. This is the nervous
system of spiders, insects, Crustacea and worms. —
(Fig. 10.)

3. IIcterog:aii,i?lBatc.— Tn this type the prin-
cipal nervous masses are distributed around a large

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL.

13

prm-

ccsopliagcal rin;;, and in tlio course of ncrvc-corcls
irregularly distributed to the different organs.
This is the nervous system of cuttle-fishes, land and
water snails, bivalve sliell-fisbes and their allies. —
Fi g. 11.)

4. IVcitiatoiiotirrMis or ESa«li?»t<Mi.— In this
the centre of the nerve system consists of a simple
ring, giving off radiating branches to the extremities
of the body, and without disthict ganglia. This
is the nervous system of star-fishes and their allies.
(Fig. 12.)

In some of tlie lovrer animals the nervous system
has not been made out ; but there can be little
doubt that, even in those of simplest organization,
there must be at least scattered nervous cells and
fibres.

The nervous fibres subsorvc the two-fold function
of carrying to the muscles the impulse by which they
arc excited to action, and of conveying to the brain
sensational impressions from the extremities. Dif-
ferent fibres arc supposed to be devoted to these
separate uses. Tlie function relating to muscular
movement is known as the efferent or out-going
function ; that relating to sensation as the afferent
or in-going influence. It is the latter that concerns
us under the present heading, and in performing it
the nervous system is connected with organs of
sense, the general nature of which can alone be re-
ferred to here.

The sense of ToibcIi is distributed generally
over the outer surface of the body, though with dif-
ferent degrees of intensity in different parts. In
the higher animals this sense informs of resistance,
character of surface and temperature, being acted on

*>t|

-^1

14

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIiMAL.

not only by objects In contact with the skin, but by
radiant licat from bodies at a distance. In some of
the lower animals with transparent bodies, it is pro-
bably acted on by light as well,' being in all animals
the most truly general sense. The structures con-
nected with the sense of touch arc the extremities of
mmutc nerve-fibres, or loops of such fibres, disposed
on the inner surface of a membrane, and thus pro-
tected from direct contact with external bodies.
This sense is possessed by all animals.

The sense of T«slc resembles that of touch in
the apparatus provided for its exercise ; but the ner-
ves appropriated to this sense arc distributed to the
papillae or prominences on the surface of the tongue.
These nerves, in addition to tactile properties and
temperature, take cognizance of the sapid properties
of bodies, and, in conjunction Avitli the sense of smell,
of flavours also.

The sense of J!^esb«.'!1 resides in the nerves distri-
buted over a delicate moist membrane in the nos-
trils. In ..uimals breathing air, this membrane is af-
fected by odorous particles diiTusiblc in that medium.
In animals living in water,by particles in suspension
or solution in the water, or in the free oxygen
contained in it. Tbore is reason to believe that
this sense is possessed in some degree by all ani-
mals, but the character of the impressions which it
conveys, must be very different in different crea-
tures, and in many animals it is not connected with
the organs of respiration.

The sense of iieariiis: relates to the vibrations of
sonorous bodies ; and in the higher animals the ear
is a very complex apparatus, giving very distinct
impressions of different qualities of sound. la

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL.

15

animals of lower grade it is often simplified to a sac
filled Avith fluid, and containing minute ramifications
of the auditory nerve, in connection -with small solid
granules to concentrate the vibrations of the "water
or air.

The sense of J^igSa J, tlie highest and most Impor-
tant of all,requires very complicated arrangements.
In addition to the optic lobes and nerves, the re-
tina of the eye, -where the minute ramifications of the
latter terminat'"', is the screen of a camera, provided
with a highly perfect optical arrangement for throw-
ing on it a minute picture of the objects without.
The varied colours and lights of this picture,
acting on the ramifications of the optic nerve,
give the power of vision. In the higher animals
the optical apparatus consists of a doubly convex or
globular lens imbedded in humours of different
refractive poAvers. In insects and some other crea-
tures, there arc great numbers of minute tubular
eyes centering in a common point. In animals of
still lower grade, the eye consists merely of a globu-
lar transparent sac filled with a clear refractive
fluid, and having at the back, a retina or optic
nerve, and a coat of pigment cells for absorbing
tho W'Ait Cvfter it has acted on the nerve.

VOLUNTARY MOTION AND SUPPOIIT.

With reference -to the apparatus for voluntary
motion and support, all animals may be arranged
in four great groups, corresponding to those referred
to under the last head. These types of structure
are :

1. Vortebrati', in which the body is supported
by a series of bones (vertcbroe), articulated

16

FUNCTION" OF TOE ANIMAL.

together, and having the principal nerve cord above
their centres or surfaces of attachment, and the
viscera below. The limbs do not exceed four. The
Avhole skeleton is internal, relatively to the muscles
that act upon it. This group coincides with the
myelenocplidla, and incudes mammals, birds, rep-
tiles, and fishes. (Fig. 13.)

tt

Fig. 13.— Section of Skeleton of a Fish (Vertebrate); (a) Spinal
cord.

Fig. 14.— Section of Skolotou of a Crustacean (Articulate); (a)
Abdominal nervous cord.

/Vr/.IS.— Section of mantle of a Cuttle-fi^h (Saccate or Molluscous);
(a) Internal shell.

Fiff Itj.— Soctijn of Skeleton of a Coral, (Radiate.)

2. Articulate or AiiiBBilo««e. — In this,
support and locomotion are provided for by a series
of external rings, enclosing the body and limbs,
and acted on by muscles placed within. This group
coincides with homogangliata, and includes the
spiders, insects, crustaceans, and worms. (Fig. 14.)

3. Mofilii^oia?^ or Saccate. — In this there is
no skeleton, but the body is enclosed in a muscular

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL.

17

sac or mantle, and the locomotive organs, -when
present, consist of layers of muscles without hard
parts, but there are often shelly organs for support
and protection. This coincides with heterogang-
liata, and includes cuttle fishes, snails, bivalve shell-
fishes, &c. (Fig- 15.)

4. Kacliatc. — In this, the skeleton, when
present, is internal with reference to the muscles,
and consists of pieces disposed in radiating lines,
or of a solid, stony, or corneous mass ; but in many
there are no hard parts, or only an external case
or tube. This coincides with nematoneura, and
includes star-fishes, sea-urchins, cural animals, sea-
jellies, &c. (Fig. IG.)

NUTRITION.

In the higher animals the process of digestion
requires: (1.) Organs of prehension and masti-
cation, which arc often of the highest importance
as means of zoological distinction. In connection
with these, the salivary secretion affords the means
of preparing the food for the processes to which it
is subsequently subjected. (2.) Digestion proper,
carried on in the stomach by the aid of the gas-
tric juice, and completed in the small intestines by
the action of the bile and pancreatic juice. (3.)
Absorption by the villi or processes of the intestine,
from which the fluid nutritive matters, the results
of digestion, are removed from the intestinal canal
and conveyed to the circulatory system. (4.)
Excretion of the matters not available for nutri-
tion.

In animals lower in the scale, these arrange-
ments are variously simplified, until tho^ whole of

c

18

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL.

the apparatus and secreted fluids arc concentrated
in a simple sac ; and in the very simplest animals
digestive cavities appear to be temporarily exca-
vated in the soft substance of the body.

The process of circulation, \\l:,ereby the blood, or
corresponding fluid containing the products of diges-
tion, is circulated throughout thu body, is per-
formed in the highest animals by a muscular heart
of four cavities, with arteries for the outflo^Ying,
and veins for the inflowing blood. In animals lower
in rank, the same purpose is served by a heart of
two cavities, or even of one ; and finally the blood
is circulated without the action of a heart, by a
network of vessels similar in function to those called
capillaries in the higher animals.

In all animals the vital fluid requires aeration,
or exposure to the action of oxygen. This may
take place directly in the air by moans of lungs or
similar contrivances, or indirectly in water contain-
ing free oxygen in solution, by means of gills. In
either case the essential condition is that the blood
shall be carried by minute vessels along a moist
membrane, separating it from the oxygen-bearing
medium. In the higher animals there is a special
circulation to the lungs or gills. In lower ani-
mals the respiration is often a mere incident in
the general circulation, and in some of the lower
forms of life the general surface of the exterior
or interior of the body, is used as a means of respi-
ration.

Nutrition proper is performed by the absorption
of the materials required to form or repair the
various tissues, from the blood or nutritive fluid ;
and in all animals these tissues, chemically changed

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL.

19

by use In the production of animal force, are
removed from the body by excretory processes, to
which, in the higher animals, complicated organs,
as the kidneys, and perspiratory^glands of the skin,
are devoted.

REPRODUCTION.

In all animals new individuals arise from the
formation of ovarian or embryo cells, the fcrtihza-
tion of these, by the introduction of the matter of
another kind of cell, the sperm cell, and the sub-
sequent development within and from the ovum
of an embryo capable of advancing to the mature
condition of its species. In some of the lower
animals, however, in addition to this process of true
sexual reproduction, we observe : (1.) Reproduc-
tion by spontaneous fission, or separation of the
body of the animal into two distinct parts, each of
which may become a complete animal. (2.) Re-
production by gemmation or budding, in which a
process developed from the body of the parent
becomes a separate individual. These modes. Low-
ever, are usually characteristic of the immature
or embryo stages of animals, but they include
many of the most interesting and complicated phe-
nomena in the reproductive and embryonic history
of some of the more simple creatures.

CHAPTER II.
ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION.

II

I

i: :illJ
'11"

I

1. General Considerations.

No subject is at present more perplexing to the
practical zoologist or geologist, and to the educator,
than that of zoological classification. The subject
in itself is very intricate, in consequence of the vast
number of species to be arranged ; and tho views
given as to certain groups by the most eminent
naturalists are so conflicting, that the student is
tempted to abandon it in despair, as incapable of
being satisfactorily compiehended.

The reasons of this, it seems to the writer, arc
twofold. First, zoology is so extensive, that it has
become divided into a number of subordinate
branches, the cultivators of which attach an exagger-
ated value to their own specialties, and are unable to
appreciate those of others. Thus we find naturalists
subdividing one group more minutely than others, or
raising one group to a position of equivalency Avith
others, to which, in the opinion of the students of
these others, it is quite subordinate. So also we
have some zoologists basing classification wholly on
embryology or on mere anatomical structure, or even
on the functions of some one class of organs.
Secondly, there is a failure to perceive that if there
is any order in the animal kingdom, some one principle
of arrangement must pervade the whole ; and that
our arrangement must not be one merely of conve-
nience, or of a desultory and uncertain character,
but uniform and homogeneous.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

21

Tlio writer of these pages does not profess to be
in a position to escape from these causes of failure ;
but as a teacher of some experience, and as a
student of certain portions of the animal kingdom,
he has endeavoured carefully to eliminate from his
own views the prejudices incident to his specialties,
and to take a general view of the subject ; and is
therefore not without hope that the results at which
he has arrived may be found useful to the young
naturalist. More especially we may hope to present
to the student a mode of arranging animals which
experience has shown to be well suited to the pur-
poses of the learner.

Classification in any department of Natural His-
tory is the arranging of the objects which we study
in such a manner as to express their natural rela-
tionship. In other words, we endeavour in classi-
fication to present to our minds such a notion of the
resemblances and differences of objects as may
enable us to understand them, not merely as isolated
units, but as parts of the system of nature. With-
out sucli arrangement, there could be no scientific
knowledge of nature, and our natural history would
be merely a mass of undigested facts.

At first sight, and to a person knowing only a
fev/ objects, such arrangement may appear easy ;
but in reahty it is encompassed with difficulties,
some of which have not been appreciated by the
framers of systems. The more important of these
difficulties we may shortly consider.

1. There are in the animal kingdom a vast num-
ber of kinds or species. To form a perfect classi-
fication it would be necessary to know the charac-
ters or distinctive marks of all these species. To

22

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

I ;

I !

I <

make even a tolerable approximation to a ;^ood
system, requires an amount of preparatory labour
'which can be estimated only by those who have
carefully worked up at least a few species in these
respects.

2. So soon as we have ascertained the characters
of a considerable number of species, we find that
in their nearest resemblances these do not consti-
tute a linear serieo, but arrange themselves in
groups more or less separated from each other like
constellations in the heavens, and having relation-
ships tending with more or less force in different
directions. This not only introduces complexity
into our systems, but renders it impossible to
represent them adequately in written or spoken
discourse, or even by tables or diagrams. We
think and speak of things in scries, but nature's
objects are not so arranged, but in groups racUating
from each other like the branches of a tree ; and
our imperfect modes of thought and expression are
severely tested in the attempt to understand nature,
or to convey ideas of classification to the minds of
others.

3. The considerations above stated oblige us to
enquire what leading characters we may take as
the principal guides in our arrangement, so as to
make this as natural as possible and at the same
time intelligible. It is simplest to take only one
obvious character, as if for example we were to
arrange all animals according to their colour or to
the number of their limbs ; but the greater the
number of characters we can use, or the more
completely we can represent the aggregate of
resemblances and differences, the more natural will

V '

TUE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGY,

23

and

our arrangement be, and consequently also the
more scientific and useful.

In attempting to -weigh the several characters
presented by any object, we find some that are of
leading importance, otliers tliat arc comparatively
unimportant, though still not to be neglected ; and
we find that some indicate grades of complexity,
others are connected with adaptations to certain
uses, and others indicate plan of construction. Duo
weight must be given to all these kinds and degrees
of characters. It is perhaps in the proper estima-
tion and value of their relative importance and
different modes of application that the greatest
failures have been made.

Keeping in view these difficulties of the subject,
we may now proceed to the consideration of the
more elementary of the groups in which we arrange
animals.

2. The SrEciES in Zoology.

We cannot consider the animals with which we
are familiar, without perceiving that they constitute
kinds or Species^ which do not appear to graduate
into each other, and which can be distinguished by
certain characters. Yet simple though this at first
sight appears, we shall find that many intricate
questions are connected with it. Our idea of the
species is based on the resemblance of the indivi-
duals composing it in all the characters which we
consider essential. li, for instance, a number of
sheep and goats are placed before us, wo readily
select the individuals of each species. In doing
this we give no regard to differences of sex or age,
but put the young and old, the male and female, of

I

I

I

11 I

24

THE SrECIKS IN ZOOLOGY.

each species top;ctlicr. Nor do wo pay attention
to merely accidental differences: a mutilated or
deformed specimen is not on that account separated
from its species. Nor do •svo attach value to
characters which experience has proved to vary
according to circumstances, and in the same line
of descent. Such, for example, arc differences of
colour, or fineness of the hair or wool. The
remaining resemblances and differences aro those
on which we rely for our determination of the
species, and which we term essential. We shall
find that these essential characters of the species
are points of structure, proportion of parts, ornamen-
tation, and habits.

These characters constitute our idea of the
species, which we can readily separate from the
Individuals composing it. The individuals are
temporary, but the species is permanent, being
continued through the succession of individuals.
If all the adult individuals are alike and indis-
tinguishable from each other, then any one may
serve as a specimen of the species. If there are
differences of sex, or Varieties subordinate ta the
species, then a suite of specimens showing theso
will represent the species. The species is thus an
assemblage of powers and properties manifested in
certain portions of matter called individuals, and '
which are its temporary representatives. It follows
tliat the species is the true unit of our classification,
and that the indefinite multiplication of individuals
leaves this unchanged.

Our idea of the species will however be imperfect
if we do not distinctly place before our minds its
continued existence in time. This depends on tha

THE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGY.

25

po\Yor of reproduction, wlicrcby the individuals now
cxistinr^ liavo descended from similar progenitors,
and Avill give birth to successors like thcmsclvcg. A
moment's thought Avill suffice to show that, indepcn-
dentlv of this, species could have no real existence
in namre. If animals were not reprojuctivo, the
species would become extinct after the lapse ol a
generation. If their reproduction followed no
certain law, and the progeny might be dilferent
from the parents, then the characters of the species
would speedily become changed, and it would
practically cease to bo the same. Agahi, it is
necessary that the reproduction of species should
be pure or unmixed ; for an indiscriminate hybridity
would soon obliterate the boundaries of species. It
is impossible, therefore, to separate the idea of
species from the power of continuous unchanged
reproduction, without depriving it of its essential
characters.

In like manner it is obvious that we must assume
a separate origin for each species, and that we need
not assume more than one origin. Practically, spe-
cies remain unchanged, and do not originate from
one another ; and if all the individuals of a species
v/ere destroyed except one pair, this ^vould, under
favourable circumstances, be sufficient to restore
the species in its original abundance.

The questions which have been raised as to the
origin of species by descent with indefinite variation,
and as to the possible creation of individuals of the
same species in different places or at different times,
are not of a practical character, at least in zoology
proper, inasmuch as species are unchanged within
the limits of time included in our observations of

: I

I i

I I '' ;

|! ;i!

< ill

26

THE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGT.

nature ; and the whole burden of proof may bo
thrown on tliosc who assert sucli views.

Wc arc thus brou.i^ht to the definition of species,
long ago proposed by Cavier and De Candolle ; and
may practically unite in one species all those indivi-
duals which so resemble each other that wo may
reasonabl V infer that they have descended from a
common ancestry. All our practical tests for the
determination of species resolve themselves into this
general consideration. The only modification of this
statement on which even an advocate of the muta-
bility of species can insist, is, that a sufficient time and
great geological changes being given, one species
may possibly split into two or more ; and since this
is an unproved hypothesis, wc may practically
neglect it, except as a warning to be very sure that
we do not separate as distinct species any forms
which may be merely varieties of a single species,
an error exceedingly prevalent, and which vitiates
not a little of our reasoning on such subjects.

The origin of the first individuals of a species
may be, and probably is, a problem not within the
province of natural history. In the case of vital
force it is the same as in the case of gravitation and
other forces. We can observe its operation and
ascertain the laws of its actio i, but of the force
itself we know nothing, nor do we know to Avhat
extent it may be identical in its essence with other
forces, since the interchange offerees observed in na-
ture may be as different from the actual conversion of
one force into another, as the substitution of one ele-
ment for another in a chemical compound is different
from the conversion of one clement into another.

With regard to the properly creative force or

TIIS SPECIES IN ZOOLOay.

27

power, if wc suppose this to be distinct from mere
vital force, we arc still more ignorant. We do not
Avitncss its operation. Wo know nothing, except by
inference, of its laws ; and whatever we may suc-
ceed in ascertaining as to these, wo may be sure that
in the last rcoort we shall, as in the case of all
other natural cifects, be obliged to pause at that lino
where what ayc call force resolves itself into the will
of the Supreme spiritual power. The " miracle" of
enactment must necessarily precede law ; the '* mir-
acle" of creation, the existence of matter or force.
Those who deny this have no refuge but in a bald
scepticism, discreditable to a scientific mind, or in
metaphysical sub til ties, into -which the zoologist
need not enter.

We must not suppose, however, that the species
is absolutely invariable. Variability, in some spe-
cies to a greater extent than in others, is a law of
specific existence. It is the measure of the influence
of disturbing forces from without, in their action on
the specific unity. In some cases it is difficult to
distinguish varieties from true species, and with
many naturalists there has been a tendency to intro-
duce new species on insufficient grounds. Such
errors can be detected ordinarily by comparing large
suites of specimens and ascertaining the grada-
tions between them, which always occur in the
case of varieties, but are absent in the case of spe-
cies truly distinct. Such comparisons require much
time and labour, and must be pursued with much
greater diligence than heretofore, in order to settle
finally the question whether the varietal perturba-
tions always tend to return to a state of equilibrium,
or whether in any case they are capable of indefi-
nite divergence from the specific unity.

T

28

THB SPECIES IN ZOOLOaY.

%

'^i:

:'li

ii

I M'

The species is the only group which nature
furnishes to us ready made. It is the only group in
which the individuals must be bound together by a
reproductive connection. There might or might not
be affinities which would enable us to group species
in larger aggregates, as genera and families ; and
the tie which binds these together is merely our
perception of greater or less resemblance, not a
genetic connection. Wo say for example, that all
the individuals of the common Crow constitute one
species, and we know that if all these birds were
destroyed except one pair, the species would really
exist.^ and might be renewed in all its previous
numbers. We can make the some assertion with
reference to the Haven or to the Blue Jay, consid-
ered as species. But if, because of resemblances
between these species, we group them in the genus
Corviis or in the family Corvidos, we express merely
our belief in a certain structural resemblance, not
in any genetic connection. Nor need we suppose
that if any of the species of a genus were destroyed
they would be reproduced from the others. Further,
while all the individuals of any of the species may
be precisely similar to each other and still be dis-
tinct individuals, all the species of the genus cannot
be similar in all their characters, otherwise they
would constitute but one species.

In other words, the species and the genus, consid-
ered as groups, differ, not in degree merely, but in
kind. To make this very plain, let us take a fami-
liar illustration. I have a number of maps, all
uniform ni size and in style of execution; but in the
whole there are only two kinds, — maps of the east-
ern hemisphere, and maps of the western hernia-

THE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGY.

m

pherc. Now all of the maps of 07ie kind constitute a
species ; those of both kinds, a genus. The indivi-
duals of one species, say of the eastern hemisphere,
are all alike. They have all been struck from one
plate, from -which many similar maps may be pro-
duced. But the other map, though necessary to
make up the set or genus, may be quite dissimilar
in all its details from the first,^ and could not be
produced from its plate. We have no difficulty here
in understanding that the specific unity is of a
different kind from the generic unity, and that the
distinction is by no means one of mere grade of
resemblance. A very little thought must convince
any one that this applies to species and genera in
zoology ; and that those naturalists ■who affirm that
species have no more real existence in nature than
genera, have overlooked one of the essential ele-
ments of classification. Nor would this distinction
be mvalidated by the assumption of a descent with
modification, unless it eould be shown that in actual
nature species shade into each other ; and this is
certainly not the case in those which are reckoned
as good species.

I have been thus careful to insist on the nature
of the species in natural history ; because I beheve
that loose views on this subject have caused a large
proportion of the errors in classification.

Though the groups higher than species do not
exist in nature in the same sense in Vi'hich species
exist, they are not arbitrary, but depend on our
conception of resemblances and differences which
actually exist. We go out into the forest and per-
ceive difierent species of trees ; but, at the same
time, wo find that these species can be grouped in

't\

30

THE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGY-

I

. li '

I :

1 i
I i-

genera, as Oaks, Birches, Maples, &c., under each
of ^Yhich generic names there may be several spe-
cies. It is evidently not an arbitrary arrangement of
ours thus to group species : they naturally arrange
themselves in such groups, under the action of our
comparing powers.

3. Genera and Higher Groups.

In comparing species with each other for purposes
of classification, there are four distinct <2;rounds on
which such comparison can be made. These are :
— 1st. intimate structural or anatomical resem-
blance ; 2nd. Grade or rank ; 3rd. Use or function ;
4th. Plan or type. All of these ma) oe, indeed
must be, used in classification, though in very differ-
ent ways.

1. Intimate structural relatlonsh'p is the ground
on which we frame Genera. Two or more species
resemble each other structurally to such an extent
that the same definition will in many important
points apply to both. Such species we group in a
genus. It is most important to observe, as xVgassiz
has well pointed out, that this close resemblance in
structure is really .our main ground for the forma-
tion of genera. But for this very reason it is not
to be expected in our higher groups.

2. Grade or rank refers to degree of complexity
of structure, or to the degree of development of
those functions that are the highest in the animal
nature. A coral polyp is more simple in structure
than a fish, and is therefore lower in rank. A fish
is less highly endov>-ed in brain, sensation, and intel-
ligence, than a mammal, and is therefore of lower
rank. An egg or an embryo is simpler than the
adult of the species to which it belongs; and when

THE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGY.

31

one animal resemblca the cmbrj^o of another, it
ranks lower in the scale. A worm ranks lower than
an insect whose larva it resembles.

We use this diflfcrence of grade or rank in group-
ing genera in Orders ; but it occupies a very subor-
dinate place in the construction of other groilps.
Many grave errors have arisen from its indiscrimi-
nate application ; most heterogeneous assemblages
being formed when we construct groups larger than
orders merely on the ground of similar grade : and
when, on the other hand, we separate the lower
members of natural groups on the ground of simpli-
city of structure, we fall into an equal mistake of
another kind. Of errors of these kinds still current,
1 may instance the attempt of some naturalists to
establish a province or sub-kingdom of Protozoa,
to include all the simplest members of the Animal
Kingdon, and the separation of the Entozoa or intes-
tinal worms from the other worms as a distinct class.

There are two kinds of investigation much used
in classification, which more especially dcvelope
the idea of grade or rank among animals. One is
that of embryology, or the development of animals
from the ovum. Another is that of cephalisation,
or the development of the head and organs con-
nected therewith. Both of these are of great im-
portance, but, on the principles above stated, they
aid us chiefly in referring animals to their Orders.
Other limitations of the criterion of grade or rank
will appear when we arrive at the consideration of
Classes.

3. Function or Use. — In different animals wo
often find the same use served by different kinds
of organs, as, for instance, the wing of a bird and

mm

82

THE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGY.

the wing of an insect, ^Yllicll, though both used for
flying, arc constructed in very different ways. It
would lead us astray were we to arrange animals
primarily on this ground : for instance, if we were
to group together lishes and Crustacea because both
swim ; or birds and insects, because both fly.
Again, in different groups of animals, certain func-
tions and the organs Avhich subserve them, are
greatly developed in comparison with others. For
example, the enormous reproductive power of
fishes, or the remarkable development of the loco-
motive organs in birds, as compared with other
vertebrates. This consideration is not applicable
in our primary division of animals, but it constitutes
the principal ground on which naturalists have
based the secondary divisions or Classes ; and it
serves also to indicate the anologies between the
corresponding members of different primary groups,
as, for instance, of the birds in one group to the
insects in another.

4. Plan or Type. — Under this head we con-
sider the similarity of construction in different
animals or organs, without regard to uses. We say,
for example, that the wing of the bird and the
bat, the paddle of the whale, and the fore-leg of the
dog, are similar in type or homologous to each
other, because they are made up of similar sets of
bones. They are modifications of one general plan
of structure. Animals thus constructed on similar
plans are said to have an affinity with each other.
It is evident that this consideration of homology
or affinity, if we can really detect it in nature, should
be a primary ground in our arrangement ; because,
if we regard nature aa an orderly system, and still

THE SPECIES IN ZOOLOGY.

as

used for
rays. It
3 animals

we were
luse both
both fly.
;ain func-
;hem, are
srs. I'or
)Ower of

the loco-
ith other
ipplicable
onstitutes
ists have
f ; and it
ween the
7 gi'oups,
)up to the

, we con-

difforent

We say,

and the

-leg of the

s to each

lar sets of

neral plan

on similar

,ch other.

homology

ire J should

; because,

i, and still

more if we regard it as the expression of an intelli-
gent mind, tliis must be the aspect in which wo
can best comprehend its scheme or plan of con-
struction.

As a simple illustration of this and the preccd'
ing heads, we ma^^' suppose that we are writing a
treatise on architecture, or tlie art of building. Wo
observe 1st, that there are differences of material
employed, as stone, brick, or wood ; 2nd, that there
are various grades of buildings, from the simplest
hut to the most elaborate palace or temple ; ord,
we fmd a gruii variety of uses for which buildings
are constructed, and to Avhich they are adapted ;
4tli, there are different orders of architecture or
styles, which indicate tlie various plans of con"
struction adopted. It will, in studying such a sub-
ject, bo the most logical order to consider, 1st, the
several orders oi architecture or plans or types
adopted ; 2nd, under each of these to classify the
various kinds of buildings according to their uses ;
3rdly, under each of 'these secondary heads, to
treat of buildings more or less elaborate or complex ;
and 4thly, to consider the materials of which the
structures may be composed. This is precisely
what the most successful formers of systems have
done in natural history, in dividing the animal
kingdom into provinces or branches, classes, orders,
and genera. On the other hand, classifications pro-
duced by mere anatomists who content themselves
with a close adherence to similarity of structure
and rigid definitions based on these, may be com-
pared to a system of architecture produced by a
mere bricklayer, who regards only the materials
used and the manner of putting them together.

34

PRIMARY DIVISION.

4, Primary Division of Animals into Pro-
vinces, Branches, or Suc-kingdoms.

This, on tlio principles already stated, must be
made solely on the ground of typo or plan, taken
in its most general aspects.

If we bring before U3 mentally the several
members of the animal kingdom, we shall probably
be struck in the first instance with the general
prevalence of bilateral symmetry, or the arrange-
ment of parts equally on the right and left sides.
We may observe, however, that there is a large
group of animals to which this general style of
construction does not apply, and which have, in
the words of Agassiz, a '^ vertical axis around
which the primary elements of their structure are
symmetrically arranged," conforming in this
respect, and also often in other points, to the
symmetry of the plant, rather than to that of the
more perfect animals. We would thus obtain what
is perhaps the most obvious of all primary divisions
of animals, — that into those with bilateral symmetry
and those that are radiated, or the Artiozoaria and
the Actinozoaria of Blainville. We shall soon
find, however, on more detailed examination, that
this division is very unequal, since the first group
includes by far the greater part of the animal
kingdom, and its members are nearly as dissimilar
among themselves as any of them are from the
radiates.

Penetrating a little deeper into structural cha-
racter, we find that one large group of the bilateral
animals possesses an internal skeleton, arranged in
such a way as to divide the body into an uppcv

PRIMART DIT1SI05.

3S

chamber holding the brain and nervous system, and
an under chamber for holding the ordinary viscera ;
•whereas in the greater number of the bilateral
animals and all the radiates, there is but one
chamber for containing the whole of the organs.
The first of these groups^, from the vertebra) or
joints of the back bone, peculiar to its members, we
name Vertehrata, and all theother animals J/2 yer^e
hrata, as proposed by Lamarck : this division cor-
responds to the Enaima and Anaima of Aristotle.
Here also, however, wo have a very unequal
division, — the Invertebrata being a vast and hetero-
geneous assemblage.

If, however, after separating the Vertebrata on
'(Joji one hand, and the lladiata on the other, we
study the remainder of the animal kingdom, wo
find that it readily resolves itself into two groups,
known as the Artlculata and the 3Iollusca. We
thus reach the fourfold division of Cuvier ; which is
by much the most natural and philosophical yet
proposed. This system may be summarised as
follows :

1. Vcrlclirsita, including Mammals, Birds,
Reptiles, and Fishes. All these animals are bilateral
and symmetrical, have an internal vertebrated
skeleton, a brain and a dorsal nerve-cord lodged in
a special cavity of the skeleton. With reference
to their general form, they may be termed doubly
symmetrical animals ; with reference to their
nervous system, Myelence-plmlous.

m llfl , . \

I

I I-

I

36

PRIMARY DIVISION.

Fifj. 19.

VKiiTEimATE Typo.
Fig. 20.

AiiTitULATE or Annulose Type.

2. Articulata, ^ including Araclmida, or spi-
ders and scorpions ; Insects ; Crustaceans, and
"Worms. These animals are bilateral and symme-
trical. They have an external annulose skeleton,
and a nervous system consisting of a ring and
ganglia around the gullet, connected with a double
abdominal nerve-cord. They are othervase named
Annidosay longitudinal animals, or Homogangliata.

* I prefer this term to "Annulosa," as being Cuvier'g
original name — a fact "which should overrule merely verbal
objections.

PRIMARY DIVISION.

37

Fly. 21.

.-^[^f^

MoLLCScous or Saccate Tyiie.

3. iflolliiiiiicn, including Cuttle-fish and their
allies ; Gasteropods or univalve shell-fishes and their
allies; Lamellibranchiates or bivalve shell-fishes,
&c. ; Brachiopods and their allies. They are bi-
lateral but not always symmetrical, have no skeleton,
and an oesophageal nervous ring with nerve-fibres
and ganglia not symmetrically disposed. They are
otherwise named Saccata, or enclosed in mantles,
massive animals, or Heterofjangliata,

Fi<j. 22.

I

Kadi ATE Type.

■If '■[

V

n

PRIMARY DITiaiON.

4. AlivMliata, including; Sca-urchlns and Star-
fishes ; Sea-nettles and Hydras ; Polyps and Coral-
animals ; and Spon^^es and their allies. These have
the parts arranged radially around a central axis,
and have the nerve-system when discernible con-
sisting of a central ring with radiating fibres. They
may be otherwise named Act'uwzoarla, peripheric
animals, or JSfematoneura.

This fourfold division includes t:i3 whole animal
kingdom, and is the only rational one which can
be based on typo or plan of structure. Since
the time of Cuvier, though modifications in detail
have become necessary, it has been strengthened
by the progress of discovery ; and more especially
Von Baer has proved that the study of embryology
establishes Cuvicr's branches, by showing that in
their development, animals pass through a scries
of forms bolon'jfin;' to their own branch and to that
only.

The attempts which have been made to introduce
additional branches or provinces, I regard as retro-
grade stops. Such for example is the province
Ooelenterata of Leuckart, including the Polyps and
the Acalcphs, both of them good classes, but not
together constituting a group equivalent to a
province ; the province Protozoa of Siebold, which,
to resume our architectural figure, includes merely
the huts and cabins which it is difficult to refer to
any style of architecture, but which do not, on
that account, themselves constitute a new style ;
and the Provinces Mollmcoida and Annuloida
of Huxley, which, as their names indeed import,
are in the main merely simple forms of MoUusca
and Articulata.

DIVISION OF PROVINCES INTO CLASSB8.

39

5 and Star-
and Coral-
Thcsc have
entral axis,
rniblo con-
n-Qi. They
peripheric

Lole animal
which can
re. Since
13 in detail
'engthened
especially

mbryology

0. Division of Puovinces into Classes.

Having formed our Primary divisions or Pro-
vincos on the ground of tj'pe or plan, we must, in
dividing these into classes, have regard either to
subordinate details of plan, or to some other ground.
In point of flict, naturalists seem to have tacitly
agreed to form classes, on what Agassiz terms the
" manner in which the plan of their respective great
types is executed, and the means employed in their
execution." In other words, they have, in forming
classes, adopted, perhaps unconsciously, ufanctional
system, similar to that employed by Oken in form-
ing his primary groups. They have taken the
relative development of the four great functional
systems of the animal, — the sen. /ive, the locomo-
tive, the digestive, and the reproductive. This is
very manifest in the ordinary and certainly very
natural sub-division of the vertebrates into the four
classes of ]Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, * and Fishes.
The Mammals are the nerve or sensuous animals,
representing the highest development of sensation
and intelligence. The Birds are eminently the
locomotive class. The Reptiles represent merely
the alimentary or vegetative life. The Fishes arc
the eminently reproductive or embryonic class.

If this is a natural division of vertebrates into
classes, and if the other three Provinces are of

-K

* The Aiiiphi/jlu, as Dana well argupg on the principle of
coplialiaation, ai-e clearly Rer)tile3, because we arrange
animals in their mature auil not in their embryonic condi-
tion, and because the points of reproiluction in which
Amphibia difF^T from ordinary reptiles, have relation to aa
aquatic habitat, and are ordinal or rank characters merely.

I

' ' i!

W i ;!

; M . . 'I

M I

I I

40 DIVISION OP PROVrXCES INTO CLASSES.

equivalent value, then there should be but four
classes in each, one corresponding to each of the
great functional systems. We may name the first
of these the nervous class : the sccotid, the motive
class; the third, the nutritive chiss ; the fourth, tiie
reproductive or embr3n)nic class. Let us then
endeavour, '^3 a test of tlic truth of this system, to
make such an arrangement of the classes of the
animal kingdom.

TABLE OF CLASSES OF ANIMALS.

I'roviiici's or
BruiiuhcM.

jVortebrata 'Artkiiliita.

MulIuscA.

1. Nervous class Mammatkt.

2. Jllotivo class.,

fires.

Jr(i(Uni(la'*'(.\'phitfo2)0(kt .

a.Nutritivo clai>s neptilia.

4. Embryonic or. Pisces
Koproductivi'
class.

Insi'cta.

Crustacea.

Annrilnia . .
(iiicliulliir;
Ilol'ij'cra).

Gnxti'vopoda^m
cliidii

eluding I'tero-

LamcUibrauchi-
[ala.

Ilelcrnhvanrhid'
/rt iucludinjj[7'».
n'tcxta. linu'hh)-
2>oda^ Jiryozoa

Kadiata.

F,chhin<h'r-
[mala .

•Icnlcplur.

Aufhowd,

Proto::()a.

* The ViUik given to t' linida will be disputed by some

naturalists; but a cr*- .loh of the structur»\s of these

animals will show ' .• relations to the insects and the

Crustacea are sim .nose of the mammals to the birds an i

the reptiles ; and . ,i. ii is no more reasonable to say that
the avachnldaus are nearer to the crustaceans than to the in-
sects, ou the ground of general structure, than it would be to
do t'l'jsarae iu the case of the mammals and the reptiles as
Compured with the birds.

LASSES.

UIVISIOX OF PROVIXCES INTO CLASSES. 41

bo but four
each of the
amo the first
, tho motive
0 fourth, the
iCt us then
IS system, to
asses of the

LS.

liadiata.

tru-

Cill-

ita.

L'a
'lio-

Rchinrxh'T-
[mala.

Acnh'phcp.
Antho-:oa.

Protor:oa.

mtedby somo
111-03 of tlieso
sects ri.ul tho
the birds un I
'■ to say that
lan to the in-
woiild be to
e rc2)tiles as

All of the above groups arc rcco.i^nlzed ])y com-
mon consent as classes, except a few ■which have
been already incidentally adverted to, and to which
it is not necessary a;i;aln to refer here.*

It will be observed that the order in dosconding
the columns Is that of a//?/j/7//; that in readingacross
tlie columns is the order of analofjj/. With rcvfe-
rcnce to the analogies, it avIU be seen that the first
class in each province Includes animals I'cmarkable
for condensation of the head and body, where the
former exists ; for high nervous energy, sensation,
and intelligence ; for prehensile apparatus, and for
absence or simplicity of mctamorpliosis. The classes
in the second line are cliaracterlzod by the greatest
locomotive powers in their respective provinces ;
those in the third lino by tho development of the
nutritive apparatus and of vegetative growth ; those
in the fourth lino by embryonic characters Avheu
mature, and by abundant reproductive energy.

It will be observed also as a necessary conse-
quence of tho system we have pursued, that each
of our classes includes animals of very various rank
or grade. Indeed, most of tliom have, at their
bases, forms so simple or impoifect that it is almost
impossible to include them in the class-characters.
This is no objection to our arrangement, but a proof
of its correctness ; for we have now arrived at the
point where wo must form Orders based solely on
this consideration of rank. Of these humbler mem-

* Before rondinnr tlie paragraphs following this table, the
student should turn to the jjagcs in the descriptive zoology
referring to the si.'veral classes, beginning with Protozoa, and
familiarize theuiself with the foruis of the creatures included
in them.

; !

1

1

r

1

i^

42

DIVrSION OF CLASSES.

bors of our clai-^os wo m ly in^iifclon tlr3 Mirsupials
and the Mnioiremes ainoiig the mammals, tlie
AmpJiibia among the reptiles, the Mites among tlie
arachnidans, the ^lyrlapods among the insects, the
Eiitozoa among the worms. Indeed it is quite pos-
sible on this ground to divide eacli of our classes
into two or more Sub-classes. This is sometimes
convenient for tlie sake of mo- accurate doiinifclon ;
but it is not necessary, since the division into orders
sufficiently expresses tliese grades of complexity or
elevation.

G. DiviSLOx OF Classes into Orders and Fami-
lies.

Orders, as already stated, are basoil principally
on rank or 'I'rade, to be determined bv relative
complexity, or by the development of the higher
nature of the animal. The last section, however,
obliges us to take tliis with some limitation ; for since
we have four descriptions or sorts of classes, each of
these must have the grade within it ascertained on
special grounds. For example, the orders of birds,
insects, gasteropods, and acaleplux), should be ascer-
tained chietly by reference to the locomotive organs,
as being the system of organs most eminently re-
presented in the class. If we glance for a moment
at the systems which have been proposed, we sliall
see that this view has unconsciously commended
itself to naturalists. Tlie orders of insects, for
example, are very plainly based on sucli characters,
being founded mainly on the wings. This Is nearly
equally manifest in the ordinarily received orders
of birds. It appears in the division into Pfceropods,

DIYIglON OF CLASSES.

4S

Iloteropodj^, and GastoropoJs proper anionic t!io
Gasteropoda. It is also seen in the orders Ctenop-
hora, Dlscophora^ Stphonophora, among Acalepbse.
It would by easy to show by a detailed review of the
orders l.i the animal kingdom, that, in so far as they
have been distinctly defined, they have in most
cases been framed with a reference to the prevail-
ing characteristics of the class ; and also with the
idea of grade or rank as a leading ground of
arrangement. As previously observed, also, it is in
the construction of orders, and in ascertaining rank
in other divisions, that embryology and the doctrine
of cephalisation are chiefly useful. For the present,
however, we must leave this subject until we shall
have an opportunity to enter into descriptive
' zoology.

In Botany, orders and families are identical. In
Zoology we use the term Family for a group infe-
rior to an order, and equivalent to the sub-order or
tribe in botany. The family consists of an assem-
blage of genera resembling each other in general
aspect. Most large orders arc readily divisible into
such assemblages, which, though in themselves
somewhat va"!;ue,havetlic advantai2;o of bcinii; formed
on grounds which, being conspicuous and obvious at
first siiiht, much aid the naturalist in the prelimi-
nary part of his work. For example, among the
carnivorous mammalia such groups as the MuHteUdm
or weasels, the Canuiae or dogs, the Fdldce or cats,
are so obvious that any me aber of one of these
groups can be referred to that to which it belongs
almost at first sight. Still I do not regard famihes
as necessary divisions of the order. Some small
orders may not admit of division into families ; and

44

DIVISION OF CLASSES.

I'!

! i

li

!!"

! !

; H

!l^

even Avliorc audi division Is admissible, tlie genera
may be studied as members of the order, -without
being grouped in families, tliou/rh this grouping is
often very useful and convenient.

It is important to observe, before leaving this
part of the subject, that, in consequence of the
great multiplication of species in some groups, and
the close scrutiny of their structures, it is the ten-
dency of specialists to form many small genera.
This leads to the construction of numerous families,
many of which would more properly remain as
genera. A stil) worse consequence is, that, instead
of forming sub-orders and sub-classes, such special-
ists often call sub-orders or even families orders,
and raise sub-classes or orders to the rank of nomi-
nal classes, thus introducing a confusion which
leads the student to suppose that these terms have
no definite meaning. I Avould further observe here,
that I do not so much insist on the use of one name
for a group rather than another, as on the constant
use of each term for groups truly equivalent in the
system.

It may be necessary here to state that the forma-
tion of orders on the ground of rank, and of families
on the ground of general aspect, docs not exclude
the ideas of rank and general aspect from the pro-
vince or class. On the contrary, us a secondary
ground, general aspect is a good character in the
province and class, and a gradation of rank can be
perceived in provinces and classes. In the pro-
vinces, the Vertehrata stand highest, and the Ra-
diata lowest, the Articulata and the Mollusca
being nearly equal, and their lower members not so

DIVISIOX OF CLASSES.

45

high as the highest Radlata ; so that they would
stand in a diagram thus :

Vertehratcs

Articulates MollusJcs

Hadiates.

So

among classes,

tlie nerve class in each pro-

vince is the highest and the embryonic class the
lowest, and the other two intermediate ; but the
idea of rank is not here the primary one, as it is in
forming the orders. It is also true that from the
province downward the idea of type or plan is con-
stantly before us.

We have now, in descending from provinces,
reached the genera and species, with the considera-
tion of which we commenced ; and if the preceding
views have been understood, we shall be prepared
to commence the study of Descriptive Zoology, or
to enter upon the details which fill up the outline
which has been sketched. In doin^; this we must
take specimens of known species and study them in
their structural and physiological peculiarities, and
in their relation to the other species congeneric
and co-ordinate with them.

1 .

I 1

CHAPTER III.
DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY.

Province Radiata.

Parts arranged around a central axis — iVb dis-
tinction between neural and hcemal sides — Nervous
system nematoneurous, or not discernible.

Class 1 . Protozoa — Auimalculiio, Sponf^es.

" 2. Acalephoi — Jelly-fishes, and Ilydroid Polyps.
" 3. Anthozoa — Sea- anemones, Coral Animals.
" 4. Echlnodcrmata — Sea-urchins, Star-fishes.

Fig. 23.

DlAGKAMa OP TlADIATES .

(A) Protozoan; (H) Ilydroid; (C) Authozoon; (D) Ecblnodorra;
(a) Jlouth ; (o) Ovary.

Many naturalists have abandoned the Cuvierian
province of Radiata, and have proposed to constitute
the Protozoa a distinct province, to include the Acal-
ephoe and Antliozoa in another sub-kingdom to be
named that of the Coelenterata, and to associate the
Eckinoderms with the Annelids. That this pro-
posed improvement is founded on a misconception of
the true plan of nature, I have no doubt ; but as it

PROVINCE RADIATA.

47

has been adopted in many recent works, the student
should be acquainted with it. It does not make any
material change in the limits of the four groups
above noted as classes.

Class i. — Protozoa.

Bodi) composed prinolpall// of gelatinous sarcode
— destitute of distinct interjial cavities and nervous
sjjstem — Motions principally hj cilia or pseudojm-
dia.

The Protozoa are the simplest in structure of all
animals. Their bodies are composed of a thin
apparently structureless substance, which lia. been
named " Sarcode,'' and the only proper tissues
associated with these arc of a cellular nature. They
possess a reproductive organ of the nature of an
embryo cell, and called the nucleus, and a circulat-
ing or excretory organ, styled the pidsating vesicle.
The locomotive and prehensile apparatus, in some
consists of extensions of the sarcode substance
known as p>seudopodia. In others locomotion is
performed, or currents of water produced by micro-
scopic vibratile threads {Cilia}. These organs
are seen in Figs. 25 & 41. Most of the Protozoa are of
minute size, though some grow to large dimensions
by indefinite multiplication of similar parts. Their
reproduction takes place when immature by fission
and gemmation, when mature in so far as known by
germ-cells or granules, developed from the nucleus.
►Simple though the Protozoa are, they admit of
subdivision into orders on the basis of relative rank,
or degree of complexity. Those naturalists, however,
who regard the Protozoa as constituting a distinct

I I

!•

48

PROVINCE RADIATA.

province,

elevato tlieso orders to the position of
classes. Tlic orders of Protozoa are the followina; : —
<>r«lca» I. SCIfiB/osHMla, incbiding those Pro-
tozoa -wliich are destitute of a mouth, and move and
obtain their food by extensions of the sarcode of
the body, or Pseudopodia. These arc the Foramini-
fera and their allies.

OiNl«r 3. PoriJei-a, includiu'j; those >vhich
have the sarcode mass .supported on a corneous,
silicous or calcareous skeleton of fibrous or spicular
structure, and traversed by canals throu_<^h which
water is drawn bv cilia. This order is that of the
Sponges, at one time supposed to be plants, but now
known to be truly animals.

Oraler tt. liiigaiiBiorsa, including those which
have an oral aperture, and an integument of
cellular tissue enclosing the sarcode mass, and
provided with external cilia.

To these arc usually added the ThalassicoUdce ,
creatures of uncertain affinities and apparently
allied to Rhizopods, and tho Crrec/arinidcv, a group
of parasites, probably rudimentary Entozoa.

1- Slhixopocaa.

We may take as a type of this group the Amoeha^
a microscopic creature frequently found in ponds
containing vegetable matter. It occurs in Canada,
and may readily be procured by the microscopist.
Different species have been described, but they are
very similar to each other. When placed under
the microscope, a living specimen appears as a
flattened mass of transparent jelly ; the front part
moving forward with a sort of flowing motion, and

\

PROVINCE RADIATA.

49

jutting forth into pseudopodial prolongations ; the
hinder part appearing to be drawn after it, and
presenting fewer irregularities. In its interior are
seen minute granules which flow freely within its
substance, and one or more vesicles which alternately
expand and become filled with a clear fluid, and
contract and disappear. Often also there are cer-
tain spaces or vacuoles, in which may be seen minute
one-celled plants or other particles of food which the
creature has devoured, and which are in process of
digestion. The outer portion of the substance of
the Amoeba appears to be more transparent and
dense than the central portion. So soft is the tissue
that the creature seems to flow forward like a drop
of some semi-fluid substance moving down an
inclined surface ; but as the Amoeba can move
forward on a horizontal plane or up an incline, it is
obvious that its movement proceeds from a force act-

Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

A3C0XBA, (Montr«Bl,)
Mas;nitl«d.

AoTiwoPHRYS, (Montrwl,)
Magnified.

1 ^,

il'

! *

60

PROVINCE RADIATA.

ing from within, and probably of the nature of mus-
cular contraction. Nor are there wanting indications
that these motions are voluntary and prompted by
the appetites and sensations of the animal. Fig. 24
represents one of the states of a specimen from a
pond on the Montreal Mountain.

Another generic form found in the same situation
is Actinophrt/3 yiho Sun-animalcule. In this the outer
coat is more distinctly marked, and the body retains
a globular form, while the pseudopodia are very slen-
der and thread-like. Fig. 25 represents a specimen
found with the preceding.

Amoeba and Actinophrys belong to a family of
Rhizopods, (the Amoebina), which either have no
hard covering or a thin crust or lorica covering part
or the whole of the body. The remainder of the
Rhizopods are protected by calcareous shells, often
of several chambers and perfornted by pores for the
emission of pseudopodia,(^(9r«?/im2/er<«),or they are
covered by a silicous shell or framework of one piece
(^Polycistina). The whole of the Rhizopods may
thus be included in the following groups, which may
be regarded as sub-orders or families :

1. Amoebina^ without hard skeletons, and mostly
fresh-water.

2. Foraminifera, with calcareous skeletons ;
marine. ..

3. PoZ«/m<ma, with silicous skeletons ; marine,*
" The Foraminifera are the most important of these

groups, since they occur in immense abundance in
the waters of the ocean, and in its deeper parts

* Some naturalists form for these a separate class or order
{Radiolaria) .

PROTINCB RADIATA.

51

their calcareous shells accumulate in extensive
beds. According to Messrs. Parker and Jones, from
80 to 90 per cent, of the matter taken up by the
sounding lead in deeper parts of the Atlantic, is
composed of their remains. In like manner, in the
sea bottoms of former geological periods, were accu-
mulated, by the growth and death of Fox arainifera,
the great beds of chalk and of Nummulitic and Milio-
hte limestone. In the older formations also, these
creatures are found to have attained gigantic dimen-
sions as compared -with living species. A Foram-
iniferal organism of dimensions unequalled in the
modern seas (Eozoon Canadense, Fig 36) occurs in
theLowerLaurentian,and is the oldest form of animal
life known to us. The forms figured (Figs. 26 to 35) ,
as seen under the microscope, are some of the
most numerous in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; in
the deeper parts of which great numbers of these
creatures occur.

Fig. 26.

Fig.2'

lUTOOSOL-ENIA OtOnOflA,

(tiulf ^t. Lawrence.)

ENTdfSOLENTA C08TATA,

((jiult bt. Lawreucc.)

52

PROVIITCE BADIATA.

Fig, 28.

Entosolknia squamosa, three varieties, (Gulf St. Lawrence.

QuiNQUELOocLiNA SEMiNULUM, ((jiulf St. LftAvrence.)

Fig. 30.

PoLTMORPHiNA LACTBA, (Gulf St. Lftwrcnce.)

I

Ml

M

PROVINCE RAPIATA,

53

.z

Fig. 81.

BuLiMiNA Presli, (Gulf St. Lawrence.)

^■«r..,32.

I'.ff. 33.

BiLOOULlNA RINOENS—

Section, (Gulf St. Lawrence.)

rOLTSTOMELLA CRTBPA,

(Gulf St. Lawrence.)

54

PROTINCE RADUTA.
fiff. 34. J^- M-

<3

NOWIONINA BOAPHA— Var. TttUMOATULXNA LOBULATA,

Labradorioa., OulfSt. Luwrwnce. Uulf St. Lawranc*.

Fin. 86.

EozooK Cakadbn^k— Dawson.— Laurentian System.Canada. Section
of a small specimen natural size.

The Polycistlna are almost equally widely diffused
in the sea,though less abundant than the Foramini-
fera, and their silicious skeletons are often of great
beauty and symmetry. Fig, 37 represents two
species obtained from a depth of 313 fathoms in the
Qulf of St. Lawrence, by Capt. Orlebar, B. N.

PROVIXCE RADIATA.

55

Fig. 87.

;ifl

('EUATOSPYUI3 aud DioTYOCUA ACULEATA ? G ulf St, Lawrcuco,
313 Fathoms.

2. Porifera.

Of this order any of the sponges, whether those
foreign ones used by us for washing purposes, or
those occurring on our own coasts, rivers and lakes,
may be taken as examples. Iri the ISpongilla, or
fresh-water sponge, as wxU as in the species often
washed on shore on the sea coast, the skeleton
consists of a network of corneous fibres, in which are
inserted very numerous tubular spicules of siUca,
only visible under the microscope. In the living
condition this skeleton supports a soft ,.^iiry mass
of sarcode, similar to that found in tho Amoeba,
but perforated by numerous canals and cavities

b6

PROVINCE RADIATA.

through which water freely percolates, and is kept
in motion by cilia placed on the sides of the canals.
The currents thus produced, entering by the smaller
pores on the surface, and passing out by larger
pores, carry into the organism the microscopic
organic matters on which it feeds, and subserve also
the purpose of respiration.

Of the numerous species of sponges found in
this country few have been described. A species
of Tethia, dredged in deep water at Portland, has
been named by Dr. Bowerbank, T. Hispida. A
closely allied species from the Post-pliocene clays,
and probably still living in deep water, has been
named by the writer, T. Logani, in honour of the
distinguished head of the Geological Survey, (Fig.
38.) One of the fresh-water sponges found in

f^^

Tbthea LoGAifi, Post pliocene ; (a) Specimen in cl«y ; (b)(c)((l)
fpiculefl.

uy

PROTINCE^ RADIATA.

67

the St. Lawrence, has been described by Dr.
Bowerbank as Sponcjilla Bawsoni, and is very
closely allied to the British jS. lacustris. Two of
the most common species on our shores are the
beautiful funnel-shaped or cup sponge of the lower
St. Lawrence, (Isodicft/a) Fig. 39, and the pal-

Fig. 39.

Ipodictya, Murray Bay; (a) general form— reduced; (b) Spicules
highly magnilied.

mate sponge of the Atlantic coast. Another very
common species found attached to sea-weeds, is
the close-grained and shapeless " crumb-ot-bread
sponge." Many other species have been collected,
but they have not been named or described. It is
difficult, in the present state of our knowledge, to
form any natural classification of the sponges. A
very convenient subdivision, proposed by Dr.
Bowerbank, is based on the composition of the
skeleton, and may serve for the present th'^ pur-
poses of classification. He divides the order mto :

Il

p^

Iha

58

PROVINCB.RADIATA.

(1) Calcarca, or those supported by calcareous
spicules ; (2) ^ilicea, or those supported by
silicous spicules ; and (8) Keratoma, or those
having only horny fibres. All our common native
sponges belong to the second of these groups.

Several kinds of Protozoa of affinities not quite
certain, occur in the older Silurian rocks of Canada.
Of these may be mentioned Receptaculites ; (Fig.
40.) supposed by Salter to bo a Foraminifer ; and
i\LQ%'^QQ\Q^oi Areliceocyathus, Calathium, Trichos-
pongia and Rliabdalla described by Mr. Billings
and supposed by him to be allied to Porifera.* A
species of Dentalina occurs in the Lower Car-
boniferous of Nova Scotia. t

Fig. an.

RKCEPTActjLiTES Occident ALI8, (Salter); (a) Portion of surface
removed, ehowing iuterior structure.

8. lufiisoria.

Examples of these creatures may be found in
stagnant water, or in any vegetable infusion which

• Palaeozoic Fossils of Canada, Vol. I.
t Acadian Geology^ 2nd Edition,

ion of surface

PROVINCE I3IADIATA.

59

las been exposed to the air. They are all micro-
Icopic in size, though more complex in structure
Ihan the previous orders. Some are locomotive,
khers fixed. As a type of the first, the genus
^aramoecium may be taken (Fig. 40.) The species

Fig. 41.

Fig. 42.

PARAMCECitjJi -Magnified. Vorticella— Magnified.

of this genus are very common in infusions. They
are oval in form, with a minute slit or depression at
one side, which is the mouth. The surface is
covered with vibratile ciUa, by the motion of which
the animals can swim rapidly. Within the ciliated
cuticle is a cortical layer of dense sarcode, with
the pulsating vesicles, and the interior is occupied
with soft sarcode like that of an Amoeba, in which
may be perceived a nucleus or reproductive organ,
and vacuoles or cavities filled with food. The animals
of the genus Vorticella afford an example of fixed
or attached Infusoria. They are conical or cylin-
drical in form, with the upper surface alone ciliated,

li:.

■1,

—I

i

IP

! I

1
I

I

60

PROVINCE RADIATA.

and attached at the base by a cord or stalk, in
which is a spiral contractile thread, enabling the
animals suddenly to retract themselves on the
approach of danger. The Vorticellas are found in
stagnant -water, aquaria and similar places. (Fig.
42.)

The reproduction of the Infusoria takes place by
spontaneous fission, by gemmation or budding,
and by a process of encysting followed by sub-
division into minute embryos. This last is probably
a true reproductive process, and in some species
reproduction takes place by the formation of em-
bryos in the nucleus without encysting. By these
various means of multiplication the Infusoria are
enabled to increase with wonderful rapidity, and
thus most efficiently perform their office of sca-
vengers in places where organic matters are in
process of decay. Their embryos also are not only
present in all natural waters, but are able to float in
the air, so that it is very difficult to prevent them
from finding access to any infusion.

A great number of species of Infusoria have been
described by microscopists, but it is possible that
many of these are embryonic states of other
animals, or even minute plants or spores of plants.
The grouping of the species in families is, as yet,
by no means certainly ascertained.

Green's Manual of Protozoa ; Carpenter on Foram-
'T.^fera (Royal Soci. Trans.) ; Bowerbank on
Sponges ; and Pritchard's Infusoria, may be con-
sulted with advantage on these creatures.

I

PROVINCB RADIATA.

61

TABULAR VIEW OF PROTOZOA.

( Amoebina.
Rhizopoda, I Foraminifera.
( Polycistina.

_ ( Calcarea.

Protozoa. <; P or if era. I Sil^jea.

( Keratosa.

Infusoria.

m

I

ii

Class ii. — Anthozoa, or Actinoza.

Body naked or in a eorallum, with a distinct
internal cavity divided by radiating partitions into
chawhers communicating with a central digestive
sac. Tentacles with urticating organs. Repro-
ductive organs internal. (Fig. 23c.)

The Anthozoa present a considerable advance in
complexity beyond the Protozoa. Their parts are
grouped around a central stomach or digestive sac,
which is surrounded by a perivisceral space sepa-
rating it from the outer body wall ; and this space
is traversed by radiating membranous plates or
mesenteries connecting the wall of the stomach with
the body wall.l^The tissues constituting these
organs arc membranous and muscular. The body

'i

•I'

! i

62

PROVINCE RADIATA.

of tho individual Anthozoon thus presents in cross
section the aspect of a wheel with radiating spokes.
The stomach opens above in the centre of a disc,
surrounded by hollow tentacles, provided with
thread cells, capable of emitting spiral threads
provided with sharp spicules and covered with a
poisonous secretion, by means of which the animal
prey of these creatures is paralyzed when seized.
When the tentacles are expanded they present a
beautiful flower-like appearance, whence the name,
Anthozoa. The name Actinozoa is derived from
their radiated structure, and that of Polypi or
Polyps, from their numerous tentacles.

Fiy, 48.

Actinia (Urticaria) ckassicornis.

Some of these creatures are altogether soft
(Malacodermata) . Others secrete hard parts or
corals, which may be calcareous or corneous in their
composition, and are either produced from the base
of the Polyp merely (sclerobasic), or from the sub-
stance of its body wall as well (sclerodermatous).

PROVINCE RADIATA.

63

^he Anthozoa multiply freely by gemmation
and fission : and in tho case of those which have
hard corals, this produces complex structures con-
sisting of many individuals, having their skeletons
united directly or by a common substance (cocn-
oecium). The individuals of these communities,
are to some extent nourished in common. The
reproductive apparatus of Anthozoa is attached to
the mesenteries of the perivisceral cavity. The
individuals are either dioecious or monoecious.

The existing Anthozoa may be divided into t^yo
orders.

1. Zoaiitltaria or Actiinoid^. These are
either naked or provided with a sclerodermatous
(rarely sclerobasic) corallum, and have the tentacles
simple, usually numerous and in multiples of six or
of five. When the corallum is developed, it has
radiating septa corresponding to the soft mesen-
teries. In this group are the Sea-anemones and
their allies, and the Madrepores or reef-building
corals. (See Figs 43, and 47 to 50.)

2' Alcyoiiaria or Alcyonoids. These differ
from the last in having the tentacles and mesenteries
limited to eight in number, and the former fringed
or provided with pinnate processes. The corallum
is corneous or calcareous and sclerobasic, often with
spicules of calcareous matter imbedded in the soft
parts. In this group are the Alcyoniums, Sea-
pens, Organ-pipe corals. Sea-fans, Red corals, &c.
(See Fig, 51.)

In addition to these there are two orders of
extinct or fossil corals, found more especially in the
older rocks of the earth's crust. These differ
materially in their structures from modern corals,

i

I 1

64

PROVINCE RADIATA.

and have been referred by some naturalists to the
present class, by others to the next. I believe with
Agassiz that some of these corals are closely allied
to modern corals of the next class ; but there are
others which present characters indicating that the
animals, if known to us, would prove to be similar
to those of Zoantharia, or intermediate between
these and the Alcyonaria. These extinct corals
are included in the following orders :

1. Ru$?osa. In these the corallum is sclero-
dermic, with septa arranged in four and multiples
of four, and often with horizontal floors or tabulae
and a well developed external wall or theca.
In some the septa and tabulae coalesce into a
vesicular substance very unlike that of modern
corals. (Fig. 44, 45.)

Fig. 44.

Zai'uukntis prolifica— Billing!— jDj-foiifflrt.

J

PROVINCE RADIATA.

GB

Fig. 45.

Hi

' tA

■ m

Cystipuyllum sulcatum— Billings, Devonian— Section.

Count Pourtales has recently dredged from a
depth of 324 fathoms oif the Florida reef, a remark-
able coral, Haplophjllia paradoxa,apparently closely
allied to, if not a modern representative of the
Rugosa. The animal was of a greenish colour, with
a circle of about 16 tentacles, rather long and
abruptly tuberculated at the tip ; outside the ten-
tacles was a membranous disc with radiating and
concentric folds. This is the first indication of the
ocurrence of these remarkable corals in the modern
seas.

2. Tabulata. In these the corallum consists of
simple, often hexagonal, tubes, without se^ta or
with rudiments of septa, and with well marked
horizontal tabulae. Some of these corals approach
rery closely in their characters the Millepore corals
belonging to the next class. (Fig. 46.)

1

' I'H '

06

PROVINCE RADIATA.

mg. 40.

Favositks (JoTiiLA^JDiCA—Goldf.— Upper Siliu-lan.

The orders Iiup;osa and Tabulata include nearly
all the numerous fossil corals found in the limestones
of Canada. (See Figs. 58 to Gl.)

1. ZoaiiUiai ia or Aciiiioids.

The Actinias or Sea-anemones may bo taken as
the type of Zoantharia ; and as an example of these
the species named by Agassiz Ilhodactinia Davisil,
and which is the most common species on the
north shore of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence,
may be noticed hero. It is probably a variety of
Actinia crassicornis of the British Coast. Exter-
nally, when expanded, it presents a cylindrical
body attached at the lower extremity to a rock
or stone, and at the upper having a crown of
thick worm-like tentacles arranged in several
rows, in the centre of which is the mouth. The
external surface of the body, the tentacles and disc
are often gaily coloured in shades of purple,
crimson and flesh colour, though different indi-
viduals differ very much among themselves in
this respect, and also in the smoothness or tubercu-
lated character of the body. When fully expanded,
the animal has the appearance of an aster or other

PROVINCE RADIATA.

67

stellate flower. When irritated or alarmed it
withdraws its tentacles, contracts the body wall over
the disc, and assumes the form of a flattened cone.
Its food consists of such small animals as may be
attracted by its gay colours, or may accidentally
come within reach of its tentacles. To enable it
to seize these it has in the substance of the tentacles
an apparatus of extensile and retractile thread-
cells, by means of which it can hold with some
tenacity any object which touches the tentacles,
and can also exert a benumbing influence tending
to paralyze and subdue the resistance of its prey.
The specimens figured (Figs. 43 and 47,) were
dredged in Gasp^J, and referred to a new species,
it. nitida, but may possibly be a variety of the
above. Another variety found in the lliver St.
Lawrence, is permanently tuberculated and cannot
be distinguished from A. ( Urticlna) crmsicornis,
as ordinarily seen in Great Britain.

Fig. 47.

AcTiMA{Urticina) crassicohms, contracted, ami smaller indivi-
dual exiauded.

A larger and often more beautiful representative
of the Aciino'ds is the Metridium marginatum, a
species close y allied to the Actinia dianthus of

68

PROVINCE RADIATA.

Great Britain. It is founil In great perfection at
the mouth of (Jasp6 Basin, where the specimens
represented in the following figures (Figs. 48, 49)
were obtained. In this species the tentacles are
in two series, the outer series being very numerous
and arranged on lobes of the edge of the disc.

Fh). 48.

Metridium marginatum, Edw. & Haimo, (Gasp6.)

PROVINCE RADIATA.

Fifj. 49.

69

M. MAnoiNATUM, contractod.

In some Actinioc rudiments of a nerve system
are believed to have been detected, but, though
sensitive to light, they are not supposed to have
organs of vision. They multiply by budding, and
also by true ovarian reproduction, the ovaries being
attached to the mesenteries.

The folio win *^ arc the principal famihcs of Zoan-
tharia.

1. Aeiiiiiae2a3. No Corallum. Polyps usually
independent, attached by a broad base, but
locomotive at will. Examples, Actinia, Rhodactinia,
Metridium.

2. Ilyaiitliiflnc No Corallum. Polyps inde-
pendent, with rounded or tapering base. Examples,
Ilyanthes, Cerianthcs.

t

1'- i*
tt .

!:

It

m 1

«f ^„

M6

•ITW'T 'I

70

mOVIXCE PvADIATA.

3. Zoaiitliitlac Corallum spiculatc. Polyps
attached to a horizontal cocnosarc or common soft
basis. Example, Zoanthes.

4. Aiitipatliidac Corallum sclerobasic, hav-
ing Polyps Avith six tentacles. Example, Antipathes.

5. FiiEig;i(!ac, Corallum calcareous, septiform.
Individuals mostly distinct and l&rge, ^vith numerous
tentacles.

6. Astreadae, Septa numerous, cells attached,
without cocnenchyma.

7. PoriHIdae, Corallum reticulate, cell- walls
not distinct from surrounding cocnenchyma.

8. Ociil^Eiselac Cocncnenchyma abundant, com-
pact, calcareous.

9. Ma€li*eB>«r£«»ie. Corallum compact but
porous, septa distinct.

The animals of the five last families are mamly
instrumental in the accumulation of the great coral
reefs of the intertropical seas. Only a few small
species of these coral-producing Anthozoa, arc
found in the Northern seas. Fig. 50, taken from
Dana, shews the appearance of onq of the tropical
species.

AsTRKA ruRruR£A, wiUi polyr* expauded— after Dana,

^^>>^

mOVINCE RADIATA.

71

2- Alcyoiiaria or Alcyoiioids.

As a native example of this ^roup,we may take the
Alcyonium ruhiforme Fig. 51, ^vhich is sometimes
cast up in storms, on the shore of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and may be obtained alive by dredging
in deep water. It presents tuberculated yellowish
or pinkish masses of a club-shaped form, from an
inch to three inches in length, and of a spongy or
firmly gelatinous structure. The surface is studded
with round or star-shaped cells of small size, from
which, when tJio creature is alive and undisturbed,
delicate semi-transparent polyps protrude them-
selves and extend their tentacles. These little
animals can be easily distinguished from those of
the last group by their pinnate tentacles eight in
number. The corallum or skeleton is of a corneous
and fibrous nature, and the animals are connected by
numerous canals traversing its substance.

Firj. 51.

1 1

Alcyohium RUBxroRMEj Panft (Gafv^)> (a) Ti ^cxiandcd) (t
Polyp conUacted.

"P

if

Ml

1 ■ In <

I

I' I,

iii

:l:!-

i: I

Jl

72

PROVINCE RADUTA.

The families of Alcyonaria are the following :

1. Alcyoiiidac. The Alcyonia, which have
a sclerodermic corallum, spiculous or fibrous, and
when dry resemble sponges.

2. Tubiporiflac. The Tube-corals. The co-
rallum is composed of a number of distinct calca-
reous tubes connected by horizontal plates.

3. PciiiiatiiMfllae. The Sea-pens. In these
the corallum is free or with its base immersed in
mud at the bottom of the sea. The cells are
placed on pinnate branches.

4. Oorgoiiitlae. The Sea-fans and true red
corals. In these the corallum is sclerobLsic and
either corneous or calcareous, and the fleshy matter
enclosing it and in which the polyps are imbedded,
is fortified with calcareous spicules.

3. Itiigosa anil Tabulata.

Figs. 52 to 57 represent Canadian species of
corals of the order Rugosa, and Figs. 58 to 61
represent corals of the order Tabulata. All of
these are fossil.

Fig.

Fif/. 53.

^~^,W

iF^''i !i ill' M

mr '»

W^'i>:

IlKLlOPHYLLUM IIALU,

D«YOuiau.

PtTUAIA COBNICULUS,

L. SilurlEtn.

•>i^ ■''*

v§

PROVINCE RADIATA.
^iff' 54. Fig. 55.

73

rETUAiA profuiula, Ilall,
1'. ailudaii.

i^if/. 56.

SxnOMBODKS SIMPLEX,

liall, Devonian.
Fiff. 57.

CYSTirHYLLrM Amkbicanum,
E, & II., Devonian.

Ctathothyllum rectum,
Ilall, D«vouiau.

J< i;:

f^

! I

I
1

!!■

i!

Ir

^gm

' .1 I

74

PROVINCE RADIATA.
Ftfj. 58.

IlELiOLiXES sruciosus, Billiugs— Upper Silurian.
Fig. i)d. Fifj. GO.

Syrinoopora Macluuei, Columnauia alveolata, Goldl.—

liilliugs— Devoiiiaa.

L. iSilurian.

li'ALYBiTfiS CATEXQLA.TUS, Ui-pcr Silurian.

PROVINCE RADIATA.

TABULAR VIEW OF ANTIIOZOA.

75

/•

Anthozoa.

Zoantharia<

C ActiniacliTQ.
Il^'antliidis.
Zoanthidnc.
Antipatliidoc.

\

Fungida:.

Astracadsc.

Poritidoe.

Oculinidac.

Madrcporidrc.

( Alcyonidsc.
Alcyonariaj Tubiporidac.
PcnnatulidiTQ.
Gorixoniada).

r

Rurjosa.

Fossil Antiiozoa j

OR

Hydrozoa.

<

Tahulata.

\

( Cyathopliyllidtc.
1 Cystiphyllidse.
j Cyathaxonidse.
l^ Stauridae.

Favositidixi.

Ccriatoporida3.

Tliecidte.

Milne Edwards* Corailiaircs in the " Suites a
Buifon," Greene's Manual of Coclenterata, and
Verrill on American Polyps, (^]Mcmoirs of Boston
Society of Natural History,) may be consulted with
advantage on this class. American fossil species will
be found in the reports of the PaUxjontology of
New York and Canada, by Prof. Hall and Mr.
Billings.

B1

wKt' *

H^R' 1

■'.?'■■

. '•r-'

■^K'>'

■' • •;■;

He*]

'.'.!•■;

' Hb')'

1 i!

> I

111

76

PROVINCE RADIATA.

Class hi. — Acalepile or Hydrozoa.

Bodi/ naked or in an external tithe or sheath ;
locomotive or fixed ; digestive cavity of an outer and
intier chamber, the latter communicating tvith a
more or less complex vascular system — tentacles
hollow tvith dart or tltread cells; Reproductive
organs external. (Fig. 23b.)

The Acaleplioi are by many naturalists regarded
as of lower grade than the Last class, in consequence
of the apparently more complex internal structure
of the latter. But to counterbalance this, we have
in the present group a much higher development of
locomotive and sensonal powers. In other words the
Anthozoa excel in the complexity of the organs of
vegetative life : the Acalephoc, in those of locomo-
tion and sensation. Hence, the same grounds
which would in the vertebrates induce us to give the
birds a higher place than the reptiles, should place
the Acalephae higher than the Anthozoa. Still it must
be admitted that the difference of rank is not great,
and that the lower forms of Acalephoe are of very
simple structure in comparison with the higher
members of the same group.

The Acalephoe resemble the animals of the last
class in having a polyp-like form ; but they have
the di«[;estive sac turned outward instead of beinii:
folded inward; and instead of the perivisceral cham-
bers, there is an internal chamber or tube, in the
higher forms communicating with a system of nutri-
tive canals excavated in the wall of the body. Some
of these animals are altogether soft, others have
horny or calcareous skeletons, which are destitute of
radiating septa and wholly sclerodermic. The
lower Acalephae multiply freely by gemmation and

PROVINCE RADIATA.

77

form complex communities. In the higher groups
such multiplication takes place only in the immature
states.

This class contains three orders :

1. llyflroida, or Ilydroid Polyps. Individual
animals polyp-like, and either solitary or in com-
munities. Body naked or inserted in a cell (Hydro-
theca). Eeproductivc organs attached externally to
individual polyps, or developed in separate capsules,
and often attached to free bell-shaped individuals
differing much in form from the ordinary Hydroids.
These are the Ilydroid Polyps of the fresh waters
and of the sea, the Millepore corals, the Physalias,
&c. (Fig. 62.)

2. Discopliorn. — Individuals distinct and often
of large size, free and oceanic, with the disc extend-
ing into a broad bell-shaped or umbrella-shaped
swimming organ (Nectocalyx). Ova borne under the
disc and developing into hydra-formed progeny.
These are the Mcdusiie or jelly-fishes and their
allies. (Fig. 66.)

Jl. Ctciiopliorsi,— Disc closed at both poles,
giving to the body a double appearance like that of
the Anthozoa, though the parts are much more com-
plex. Tentacles absent or reduced to two ; when
present, pinnate. External surface with eight bands
of paddles (Ctenophores) which are the locomotive
apparatus. (Fig. 67.)

l.—nydvoUln.

The fresh-water Hydra of Europe, which is one
of the simplest of these organisms, presents the
appearance of a sac composed of an outer and inner
layer. At the base is an adhesive disc or foot. At
the summit is the proboscis or external stomach,

('

.

f ■■'

!1 : ' ,

iii"i'.'

'I i;'ri

' I',

78

PROVINCE RADTATA.

around the neck of "svhich arc tlie tentacles, ■which
like those of Anthozoa,are furnished "with urticating
darts. The Hydra, thougli soft and gelatinous in
texture, is carnivorous and very voracious ; and
though it usually remains fixed, it can move at
will. Its ova are borne on the external surface of
the body, and are hatched into ciliated embryos
like animalcules. These creatures also increase by
gemmation and have remarkable powers of repair-
ing injuries.

Fit/. 62.

Hydroida, Gulf St. Lawrenco, Xat. ?izo and magnified.

{a) Sprtulm-ia {Dynamena; pumila. Lamx.

{b) Tubulan.i (I'arypha) crocea A p.

(cj Canipauularia (Laomedea) amphora Ag.

The type of structure exhibited by the Hydra is
capable of a vast variety of modifications in its
kindred inhabiting the sea. These modifications

PROVINCE llADIATA.

T9

* n

tlcpcnd prIncipaUy on ilio possession of liard Invest-
ing organs, on aggregation of the cells into complex
structures (hydrozoary), and on the production of
different kinds of Polyps or Polypitcs ; some being
stomach-bearing, others tentacle-bearing, others
ovarian. By such modifications are produced the
families noticed below.

Another remarkable point in the history of these
oceanic forms, connecting them with the next group,
is that many of them develop, by a process of gem-
mation, individuals provided with a swimming disc
and not attached, and it is in these locomotive
individuals that the ova are produced. This locomo-
tive progeny of the hydroids constitutes the group of
Naked-eyed-Medusixj, at one time regarded as a
distinct order. Fig. G3 shows these two forms as
they exist in one of our American species.

Fir/. G3.

CoHTNE MiRAniLTS, (after Agasfiz.)
(n) Young Mediipoid.
(t) The lame detached.

1 1 ('.

m

I -^

80

PROVINCE RADIATA.

V

I ■ 'i

1. llyilritlie. — Polyps independent, locomotive,
naked. Example, Hydra viridis.

2. Coryiiifltv. — Polyps independent or in com-
munities. Animals enclosed in tubular corneous
cells. Example, Corync mirabilis (Fig. G3).

a. Ttibiilurinda; — Polyps solitary, in elon-
gated corneous tubes, and with two rows of tentacles.
Example, Tubularia crocea. (Fig. 02).

4. liIiico|»i(ln; — Polyps in corneous conical
cells at the extremities of the branches. Example,
Laomedea amphora. (Fig. 62).

5. ScrtiiSariadav — Polyps arranged in cor-
neous cells on the sides of branching tubular stems.
Example, Sertularia pumila. (Fig. 02).

6. l*liiinii1ariatlte. — Polyps in single rows
on one side of corneous branches. Example, Plu-
mul ria falcata.

T. IlytlractiiiiadaN— Polyps sessile, with a
spinous skeleton, attached to shells, &c. , and of
t^YO sorts. Example, Hydractinia echinata.

8. iflilleporicla;. — Polyps of different kinds,
in cells in a stony coral. The cells divided by
transverse tabukc. Example, Millepora.

In or near this group may probably be placed
the fossil tabulate corals referred to under the
Anthozoa. The recent Milleporas are tropical
animals.

9. Calycopliorida;. — Polyps of different
kinds attached to a common stem moved by swim-
ming bells, and supported near the surface by a
float at its extremity. Example, Nanomia cara.

10. Pliysoplioriclac- — Polyps of different
kinds supported on the lower surface of a floating
vesicle or pneumatophorc. Example, Physalia
arethusa. '

TROVIXCE RADIATA.

81

The riiysalias and their allies arc tropical ; but
one species, P. arethusa^ is occasionally found on
the coast of Nova Scotia.

11. To these may be added the fossil family of
GraptoUtidae, characteristic of some portions of the
Lower Silurian rocks. They are regarded by Pro-
fessor Hall as alUed to Sertulariadce. (Figs. 64 and
G5.)

Fig. 64.

Fig. 65.

iced

the

)ical

Irent
Ivim-

)y a
ja.
Irent
Iting

salia

>

m

I DicTTO^JEMA WEnBTEur. DawpoTi— UppcrJSilurian ; (a
V rortion magnified showing tho cclh.

GnAPTOLITHTJfl nicoR:Nis,
Hall— L. Silurian.

2. — Dkscopliora.

One of the best representatives of this order on
our coast is the great blue Jelly-fish, (Tyrtrica Arctica,
(Fig. GQ), which is often found in the Gulf of St.

■ ; i

-.! I

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

m

^

//

/.

(j.

%

'<" C?x

{/ ^//4

^!'. ^0

&.<

t^-

5^

1.0

I.I

1.25

2.2

iti

lio III 2.0

1.4

1.8

1.6

V]

<^

/]

A

e:

e}.

^ y

'e'.

J^

V

/A

%Px.

Q-

h:

h

I

82

PROVINCE RADIATA.

Fig. C6.

Cyanea AncTicA, rer. and Lea. reduced.
(«) llydroid progcmy.
(b) Strobila.

Lawrence and on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia,
a foot or more in diameter, and is said sometimes to
attain the enormous diameter of seven feet. The
most conspicuous part of this creature, as it floats
in the sea, is its great violet-coloured disc, the edges
of -which are moved slowly up and down as it swims
along. In the centre of this disc below, projects
the proboscis or external stomach, furnished with a

PROVINCE RADIATA.

88

^■1

jotia,
les to
The
liloats
jdges

^wims
pjects
rith a

profasion of filmy fringes hanging at the extremities
of the four lateral processes into which its free end
is divided. From the margins of the disc float
backward innumerable long reddish tentacles armed
with urticating thread cells, which paralyze any little
animal they may touch, and enable it to be drawn
into the mouth. These tentacles are often several
feet in length. Between the tentacles and the base
of the proboscis, when the creature is mature, may
be seen four great ovaries loaded with yellowish
eggs. The eyes and car-vesicles, each eight in
number, are placed in notches in the margin of the
disc, while circulation and respiration arc provided
for by a network of vessels ramifying through the
disc. Though these animals are as tenuous as jelly,
and contain very little solid matter, their organs are
of singular complexity, and the body consists of
several layers of cellular and fibrous tissues. The
reproduction of the Cyanca, as described by Agas-
siz, forms an interesting example of the changes
through which animals of this type pass in attaining
to maturity. The eggs arc hatched into ciliated
embryos which swim freely. These attach
themselves to the bottom, and are developed into
little hydroids, with tentacles^ in fours and multiples
of four (Fig. (j6 a), and which have the power of
increasing by gemmation. From t)iis stage the
young animal passes by a transverse fission into a
sort of jointed form (the Strobila. Fig. GG b), and
this, breaking up into separate segments, produces
free swimming discigerous animals, formerly known
by the name of Ephyra, and which arc the young of
the Cyanca. Thus each animal passes through four
definite stages, before attaining the perfect form,
and one ovum may produce several adult Cyaneas.

■. .1

84

PROVINCE RADIATA.

Another very common species on our coasts is
the white or colourless J cWy-^sh, Au7-elia Jlavidula.
It has four white or milky spots (the ovaries) seen
conspicuously through its transparent body, and has
short marginal tentacles.

The Discophora are divided into the following
sub-orders or families ;

1. fiSliizostonic£e, — in which the proboscis is
divided into a series of ramifying tubes, through
which nutriment is absorbed. Some very large
tropical Medusoe belong to this group, but none
are known on our coasts.

2. Nciiiaco^$t4»ii(eic, — in which the proboscis
is divided into labial processes or oral tentacles. This
group includes our commoner species above men-
tioned.

3. Iisii>Io.<«toiiics<). — Are simple-mouthed
Medusae, including the curious animals known as
Lucernaria, a species of which is found in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence, adhering to sea-weeds or floating
freely. It forms a curious link between the Polyp
and Medusa forms, having a stalk for attachment
developed in the middle of the disc.

^' Ctciioi»liora-

Pleurohracliia rhododactyla of Agassiz (Fig. 67)
may be taken as a type of this group. As it occurs
on the Atlantic coast of New Englana, it is
thus described by Madame Agassiz : —

"The body of the Plcurobrachia consists of a transparent
sphere, varying, however, tVora the perfect sphere in being
somewhat oblong, and also by a slight compression on two
opposite sides, so as to render its horizontal diameter longer
in one direction than in the other. This dirergence from the

PROVINCE RADIATA.

85

Fig. C"

I \

PLEunoBRACiriA iiiiODODACTYLA, (aftcr Ajfasaiz.)

globular form, so slifjhtin Pleurobrachia as to be hardly per-
ceptible to the casual observer, establishing two diameters of
diflerent lengths at right angles with each other, is equally
true of the other genera. It is interesting and important, as
showing the tendency in this highest group of Acalephs to
asBume a bilateral character. This bilaterality becomes still
more marked in the highest cl.ass of Radiates, the Echiuo-
derms. Such structural tendencies in the lower animala
hinting' at laws to be more develo} ed in the higher forms, are
always significant, as shewing the intimate relation between
all parts of the plan of creation. This inequality of the dia-
meters is connected with the disposition of parts in the whole
structure, the locomotive fringes and the vertical tubes con-
nected with them being arranged in sets of four on either side
of a plane passing through the longer diameter, shewing thus
a tendency toward the establishment of a right and left side
of the body, instead of the perfectly equal disposition of parts
around a common centre, as in the lower Radiates.

" The Pleurobrachiai are so transparent, that, wiui some
preparatory explanation of their structure, the most unscien-
tific observer may trace the relation of parts in them. At one
end of the sphere is the transverse slit that serves them as
a mouth ; at the opposite pole is a small circumscribed area,

''I

86"

PROVINCE llADIATA.

in the centre of which is a dark cyc-spcck. The eight rows
of locomotive fringes run from pole to pole, dividing the whole
surface of the body like the ribs on a melon. Hanging from
either side of the body, a little above the area in which the
eye-speck is placed, are two most extraordinary appendages
in the sliape of long tentacles, posi;essing such wonderful
power of extension and contraction that, while at one moment
they may be knotted into a little compact mass no bigger than
a pin's head, drawn up close against the side of ihe body, or
hidden within it, the next instant they may be floating behind
it in various positions to a distance of half a yard and more,
putting out at the same time soft plumy fringes along one
side, like the beard of a feather. One who has never seen
these animals may well be pardoi.ed for doubting even the
most literal and matter-of-fact account of these singular ten-
tacles. There is no variety of curve or spiral that does not
seem to be represented in their evolutions. Sometimes they
unfold gradually, creeping out softly and slowly from a state
of contraction, or again the little ball, hardly perceptible
against the side of the body, drops suddenly to the bottom of
the tank in which the animal is floating, and one thinks for a
moment, so slight is the ihrcad-like attachment, that it has
actually fallen from the body ; but watch a little longer, and
all the filaments spread out along the side of the thread, it
expands to its full length and breadth, and resumes all its
graceful evolutions."*

Agassiz divides these animals into the following
families :

1. Eiiryi^toincte, — with large mouth, and no
tentacles or lobes. Example, Idyia roseola Ag.

S. Saccatn;, — with body more or less globular
and long pinnate tentacles. Example, Pleuro-
brachia rhododactyla, Ag.

3. Taciiiatae, — with the bodj produced at the
sides into two wide appendages. Example, Cestum
Veneris.

Agassiz, Seaside Studies, p. 27.

PROVINCE lUDIATA.

87

4. liOliatw, — having the oral end of the body
divided into two wide lobes. Example, Bolina
alata, Ag.

Some European naturalists have proposed to
separate the Ctenophora from the Acalepha), and
place them with the Anthozoa ; but this does not
seem to be a natural arrangement.

In the Acalephce generally, the radiated
arrangement of parts is very regular ; but in the
highest group, the Ctenophora, there is an
obvious tendency to bilateral symmetry.

TABULAR VIEW OP ACALEPIIiE.

. no

c

ACALEPH^
OR \

Hydrozoa. I

Ilydridge.
Corynidoe.
Tubulariadae.
Eucopidse.
Sertulariadse.
Hydroida. ^ Plumulariadae.
Hydractiniadse.
Milleporidae.*
Calycophoridse.
Physophoridoe.
^ Graptolitidae.

Dlscophora.

Ctenophora.

\

Rhizostomeae.

Semaeostomege.

Haplostomeoe.

Eurystomeje.

Saccatge.
. Taeniataj.
i^ Lobatge.

• Near these should perhaps be placed the Favositidce and
other Tabulata.

1

',1

'1

i '

1 i

!h

[; '^f

1 ;;

' ■

If
1, '

1 ■;■

m

f '*

-A
■J

88

I'ROVINCE RADIATA.

The best descriptions and figures of the North
American Acalephoc are to be found in Agassia'
Contributions to the Natural History of America,
vols. 3 and 4. There is a good summary of the
species in the Illustrated Catalogue of the Harvard
Museum, by A. Agassiz, and the student will find
the general characters of this and the previous
class well stated in Greene's Manual of Coelentorata,
London.

Class iv. — Eciiinodermata.

Animals usual!// free and repent ; nervous sys-
tem nematoneuTous ; alimentary canal in a distinct
internal cavity ; circulation hy a vascular system ;
respiratory organs in some. Integument hardened
hy calcareous plates or spines, and ivith erectile
tube feet. (Fig. 23 d.)

These creatures are the highest in rank of the
lladiata, and in their adult state and in their more
typical forms, present very admirable examples of
radial arrangement, though in some of the more
aberrant forms we cannot fail to perceive an approach
to bilateral symmetry. With the exception of
the lowest group, these animals arc all free-moving,
but not swimmers like the higher Acalephs.
They have a nervous system, consisting of an
oesophageal ring and radiating fibres. Organs of
sense exist in some of the species. The alimentary
canal is contained in a proper visceral cavity, and
in some is tubular and convoluted. They have also
a complex vascular system, including blood-vessels
and aquiferous canals. Distinct respiratory organs

! ■•'

• If ■' '1

PROVINCE KADI ATA.

89

exist only in the lii«^hcst group. All of these animals
have a complex skeleton, quite distinct in clio/acter
from that of any other animals, and consisting of
numerous calcareous pieces articulated together,
and composed of carbonate of lime arrannrod in a
loose cellular manner, so as to combine great
strength with lightness. This skeleton is properly
internal to the muscles, but there are often added to it
external spines or plates. The organs of locomotion
are erectile thread-like organs with suctorial discs
at their extremities (tube feet). There are also in
many species minute stalked pincers for cleaning
the surface of the body (pedicellaritc).

• The orders of Echinodermata are :

I. Criiioidca. - These have a central body or
disc, with or without articulated rays, and covered
with an inflexible shelly case. The arms or rays
when present are furnished with pinnate processes.
Some of the species arc attached for life by an
articulated stem. Others are attached when young,
free when adult. These are the Feather-stars.
Encrinites, Cystidcans. (Fig. 08.)

S' Opliiiiruli'ii' — These have a central disc
protected by plates and furnished with tube-feet.
The rays are simple or forked, and are supported,
internally by a series of articulated pieces, and pro-
tected externally by plates or by plates and spines.
Serpent-stars, Brittle-stars. (Fig. 72.)

J*. Astcroi(le». — These have the disc and rays
confluent, and the latter fliick and traversed by
ramifications of the digestive apparatus, and fur-
nished with rows of tube-feet along their lower
sides. Ordinary Star-fishes. (Fig. 74.)

90

PROVINCE RADIATA.

4. flColiiiioiilea- — In these the rays arc obsD-
Ictc, and the skeleton becomes a case or box enclos-
ing the viscera, Avith spines articulated upon it, and
tube-feet projected through rows of ambulacral
pores. Sea-urchins or Sea-eggs. (Fig. 70.)

5. lloloUiiiridcii. — In these the body
becomes elongated and horizontal, and is covered
above with spines or irregular plates. Though
aberrant in form, some of these creatures are very
complex in organization, and are the only radiates
furnished with special respiratory tubes. Some of
the species simulate worms in their external form.
(Fig. 77.)

1. CriiKuicIca

In the absence of any known species of this
group in our waters, the rosy Feather-star (^Antedon
rosaceas) of the European seas, may be taken as a
type. In its earliest state it is an oval, gelatinous,
locomotive creature, moving by bands of cilia. It
then fixes itself and developes a jointed stem below,
and a series of jointed and pinnated rays above,
while the body becomes encased in delicate calca-
reous plates. After existing for some time in this
state, it becomes loosed from its attachment, and
appears as a locomotive Feather-star, with five
pairs of beautiful pinnate Jlrms, on which are borne
the reproductive organs in the form of small
brownish spots ; and which are also locomotive and
prehensile organs.

In the tropical seas there are a few larger spe-
cies belonging to the genus Pentacrinus, which are
attached when adult; and Sars has recently described
a small species of a different genus (Rhizocrinus)

PROVINCE RADIATA.

91

ili

from tlie coast of Norway (Fig. G8). Those aro
the only living representatives of vast numbers of
species of stalked crinoids, found abundantly as
fossils in the rocks of the earth's crust, and some-
times constituting a great part of tfie substance of
crinoidal limestones. Fig. 69, is a species of Glyp-
tocrinus, from the Lower Silurian. Fig. G9 a,
shows parts of the same enlarged.

Fiy. 68.

HHIZ0CRISU3 LoKOTENSis, (aft^r Sars,*.

92

PROVINCE RADIATA.

Fig. CS>.

ruj^ -Fig.Q^a.

«)pS7Jnrr^'^^^^^^«^'' Billings.-L. Silurian.

(a):

rr.ovixcE radiata.

9»

Beside the typical crinoids, there occur as fossils
two other groups, known to us only by their skel-
etons, but included in this order. They are :

1. Cystidece. — Not divided in a quinate manner,
but p.ac-likc. Oral opening with valves. Arms
few, and free or attached. The Cystideans are,
as a "whole, extinct, and belong to the Palaeozoic
rocks, (Fig. 70), but a living species from Torres
Strait has recently been described by Prof. Loven,
under the name of Ilyponome Sarsii.

3. Blastoideoe. — Body divided in a quinate
manner, but ^Yithout arms. Those are the Pentre-
mites. These creatures are all extinct, and are
especially characteristic of the Carboniferous rocks
in Western America. (Fig. 71.)

Fig. 70.

Fig. 71.

68. Pleuhoctstitks ELKOAifs, L. Silurian, (after Billingn.)

69. rENTRKMiTKS PYUiFORMS, cARBOWiFKaous, U. States, (after
Dana.)

i

^i!

!',*

!•

ii

94

PROVINCE RADIATA.

3. 0|>liigiriflea>

Fifj. 72.

OrijioraOLis ACULKATA, Lutken, Caspe— reduced.

This order is represented on our coasts by
several beautiful species. OpJdophoUs aculeata,
the Daisy Brittle-star, (Fig. 72), Ophiogli/pJia
robusta, and 0. jSarsil, may be obtained by
dredging in many parts of the Gulf and River St.
Lawrence, and the Astrophyton, of which two
species are found in Canadian waters, is one of our
finest Star-fishes, being sometimes eighteen inches
in diameter, and its eight arms subdividing into
many thousands of filaments, each consisting of a
series of curiously formed joints. This creature is
known as the Sea-basket. A. Agassizii is our
most common species.

Fig. 73 represents two of the calcareous joints
of Opldoglypha Sarsii, a species found living at
Gaspd and fossil in the Post-pliocene clays.

Fig. 73.

oiNTs OF Rat of OPHioaLTr^'A Sarbii, ro«t-pliocene.

laMW

PROVIXCE RADIATA.

95

; r

3. Ai§>tei*oiclen.

As tlie tjpc of this order may be taken Aster a-
canildon ( Uraster') Vulgaris. Fig. 74. It is the

Mm

AuTEKAcANTHiON vuLGARif, StinipHOTi, Atlantic Coast, reduced,
and section of a ray showing tube feet.

representative on our coasts of the European A.
Jiubens, if not merely a variety of it. It is the
common Star-fish, Sea-star, or Five-finger. Its upper
surface is covered with calcareous spines, around
the bases of which are little moveable pincers or
pedicellarioe, useful in cleaning and defending the
skin. On the upper surface of the disc, but a little
to one side, is a perforated plate, the madreporic
plate, acting as a filter for enabling pure sea-water
to enter the aquiferous system of the animal. At
the end of the rays are minute purple specks, sup-
posed to be organs of vision. On the under side,
the mouth is situated in the centre, and is furnished
with an extensile proboscis, which the creature usea

i

96

PROVINCE RADIATA.

to suck out the soft parts of the animals on which
it feeds. Extending outward from the mouth, along
the under sides of the rays, are the ambulacral
grooves, each containing four rows of tube-feet and
bordered by spines. In the interior, the centre of
the disc is occupied by the stomach, which sends
forth complicated ramifications into each ray. Be-
low these arc rows of sacks connected with the bases
of the tube-feet without, and with the aquiferous
system within. Around the mouth is the annular
nerve-cord, and also the arterial ring, the prin-
cipal organ of the circulation. The ovaries are
placed around the oral opening. The eggs are
hatched into oval ciliated swimming pro-embryos,
which become developed in the first instance into
bilateral gelatinous creatures with long ciliated
processes, and totally unlike the adult, which is
developed within the pro-embryo and subsequently
cs japes. The Star-fishes are slow in their move-
ments, and destitute of offensive weapons. They
are, however, carnivorous, and devour shell-fishes
and other animals which come within their reach.

Several species of Star-fishes occur in Canada.
The Aster acantliion polaris is the six-rayed Star-
fish of the Lower St. Lawrence and Labrador. The
Sun-star, Solaster j)(ipposa is a fine species, with
a large disc and twelve to fourteen short rays.
Solaster endeca has longer and less spinous rays,
from nine to twelve in number. Ilippaster phry-
giana and Ctenodiscus crispatus are two pentagonal
star-fishes found on the coast of Nova Scotia.
Another common species is the smooth red star-fish,
Crihrella ocidata, C. sanguinolenta of Muller.

A few species of fossil star-fishes occur in the

'Wi'.!

■■««

PROVINCE RADIATA.

m

fays.
ays,
hry-
onal
otia.
fish,

the

Silurian rocks of Canada. Fig. 75 represents one
of these.

Fig. 75|

PALiEASTER NIAaARENSIS, Hp.U-

Upper Silurian.

4. Kchiuoidea

The most common Sea-urchin of our coast is
Echinus ( Toxopneustes*} Drobachiensis, so called
from the port of Drobach in Norway, where it was
first observed. (Fig. 76.) A second species or well-
marked variety, U. granulatus of Lutken, is, how-
ever, also found on the coast of Nova Scotia. The first
mentioned presents externally the appearance of a
flattened sphere covered with sharp greenish spines,
beyond which it can extend rows of long thread-like
suckers or tube-feet, by means of which it drags itself
along. Every spine of the hundreds which clothe the
creature is articulated on a ball and socket joint,
and moved by muscles in every direction, and the
tube-feet are provided with complicated chains of
little hooked bones, and with plates to extend the

* Murtthinus of some authors.

..'•1

■'-■• i

H

r.!l

98

PROVINCE RADIATA.

Fig. 76.

Echinus DKOBAciiiHNSis.—Tadousac— reduced.
(«) Portion of Jaw.
(ft) Spine.

(c) Tube-foot, enlarged.

(d) Pedicellaria, enlarged.

suckers at their extremities. There are also inter-
mixed with the spines numerous three-pointed
pedicellarige. The mouth is at the base of the
sphere, and is furnished with a singular appa-
ratus of five jaws, each with a chisel-shaped
tooth, the whole meeting in a point and worked by
numerous muscles. The creature uses these teeth
in browsing on the small sea-weeds that clothe the
rocks and stones on the bottoms on which it feeds.
In the common European species this dental appa-
ratus is the so-called " Lantern of Aristotle," or
more correctly the " Cresset" of the great Greek
naturalist, who described it in his Zoology. In our
species it is smaller but of similar structure. The
anus, the five eye-specks, and the openings of the
ovaries, are situated at the upper pole. The shell
is composed of pentagonal plates which grow by

PROVINCE RADIATA.

99

our
The
the
Ishell

by

additions to their edges. In tic interior of the shell
the principal organs visible are the intestinal canal,
curved in a series of loops, and usually filled wi h
pellets of comminuted sea-weed ; and the five
large yellow ovaries, at certain seasons distended
with ova. The Oxily other species found on our
coast is the Cake-urchin, flat o • disc-like in form,
and with very small spines. It is the Echin-
arachnius parma.

5. Ilololhiiriflea.

One of the best known representatives of this
order on our coasts is the Psolus ( Ouvieria) Fa-
ir icii. (Fig. 75.) It is of a bright red coloar and

Fi(/. 77.

Psolus FABRicii,—Gasp6,— reduced.

oval form, and covered above with flat irregular
scales, and when aUve, can extend anteriorly q, large
proboscis divided into numerous processes. It creeps
along the bottom by tube-feet protruding from the
lower side, which is covered with a tough membrane.
Specimens, from three to five inches in length, may
be dredged in the Lower St. Lawrence and at
Gasp€. It is called " Sea Orange " by the fisher-
men.

Another representative of this order is the Sea-
cucumber {Pentactes frondosa). It has spines

''9

1 1

100

PROVINCE RADIATA.

instead of scales, and l^as five rows of tube-feet, so
that it may be compared to a rayless Star-fish
greatly lengthened out.

To this group belong the great Sea-slugs of the
Indian Ocean, eaten by the Malays under the name
of Trepang.

TABULAR VIEW OF ECHINODERMATA.

r

ECHINODERMATA.<(

i Cystideae.
Crinoidea. < Blastoideae.
( Crinoideae.

Ophiuridea. Ophiuridaj.

Asteroidea. Asteriadae.

i Echinidae.
Ecldnoidea^ Glypeasteridae .
( Spatangidae.

Holothuridea

{ Holothuridae.
I Synaptidae.

ani

<"»J.V.

n

CHAPTER IV.

DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY— Continued.

Province II.— ]Mollusca, or Saccata.

Parts Ulaterally arranged^ — often unsymmetri-
cal ; no Skeleton ; Nerve system heteroyangliatey
consisting of an oesophageal ring and ganglia^with
nerves unsymmetrically disposed. Heart compact ;
blood colourless or not red ; respiratory organs
opening laterally or posteriorly.

Class l.—HeterohrancUata* — Polyzoans, Brachi-

opods, Tunicates.
" 2. — Lamellihranchiata — Ordinary bivalve

shell-fish.
" ^.—Gasteropoda— \]mY2XNQ shell-fish and

Sea Snails.
" 4 C<?^/ia?opo(7a— Cuttle-fish, Nautih.

It is usual with Zoologists to regard the three
groups constituting the first class above mentioned,
as distinct classes. Without, however, denying
their great importance and distinctness, I be-
lieve that, if we understand the class in the sense
explained in chapter second, however 'extensive
and important the groups of Polyzoa, Brachiopods
and Tunicates, the differences between them are
those of orders rather than of classes ; and that

♦This term was applied by Blainville to the Tunicates;
and is, I think, a very aiipropriate name for the whole class.

iti

it
. I

102

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

they form a series parallel with the three orders of
Protozoa amoig the Radiates. The names ard
subdivisions, ho' ^ev r, remain the same under either
view. The Pteropods are also regarded by some
as a distinct class from Gasteropods, but they seem
more properly to constitute tlie lowest order of that
class, which without them would not be complete.

Class 1. — Heterobranciiiata.

Animals mostly attached^ a: d often aggregative
in communities ; destiiuteofo: ^ ins o^ special sense.
Heart simple or at once systemic and branchial.
No special respiratory organs. Food obtained by
ciliated tentacular organs.

A B C

Diagrams of Hetkrobranchiates.
(A) Polyzoon; (B) Tunicate; (C) ISrachiopod. (a) Mouth; (s)
Stomach; (o) Ovaries.

The simplest of these Molluscoids, the moss animals
or Bryozoa or Polyzoa, are as far removed in grade
of complexity from the more typical MoUusks as the
Rhizopods are from typical Radiates. Yet natura-
lists have long been convinced that they must be
reckoned as humble Mollusks. The other groups

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

103

of
ird
her
une
sem
;hat
te.

live
use.
lial.
Ihy

i; (8)

nals
rade
the
ura-
t be
oups

of this class, the Tunicatos and Brachiopods,
seem to connect the Bryozoans with the typical
Mollusks, but along two different hnes of develop-
ment. The Tunicates present the greatest deve-
lopment of the merely nuiritive organs, the Bra-
chiopods that of the mat^cular and circulating
systems ; but both, as the position of the class would
imply, are deficient in nervous and senLory ap-
paratus, though in the forn e; the Bnchiopods
appear to be decidedly superior. The orders of
Heterobranchiata may be defined as folio ^vs : —

Order 1. Polyzoa or Bryozoa. — Nutrition
by means of ciliated tentacles — animals oloen aggre-
gated and enclosed in a Polyzoary. These are the
Sea-mats and their allies ; creatures popularly con-
founded with Sea-weeds and with Sertularians, &c. .
They are principally marine, but some five in fresh
water. (Fig. 78 A.)

Order 2. Tiiiiieata. — Body unsymn etrical ;
inte gument an uncr'cified tur 'c having two open-
ings and lined by the mantle ; Ciha for prod jcing
currents of water disposed on an in ler tunic or
band representing the tentacles. These are the
Ascidians and their allies, sac-shaped or bottle
shaped Mollusks. The Tunicates are all marine.
(Fig. 78 B.)

Orders. Braeliiopoda. — Body symmetri-
cal ; shell dorso- ventral ; mantle in two lobes adher-
ing to the shell. Tentacles two, fringed, usually
spiral. Shell usually with supports for the arms
or tentacles. These are the Lamp-shells -and their
allies, curious little bivalves differing much from the
ordinary bivalve shell-fish, and few in species in the
modern seas, but very abundant as fossils. Their
name is derived from the two long ciliated arms

,!1
4/

m I

m

m I

i("_ k

hn

104

PllOVINClS MOLLUSOA.

attached to the sides of the mouth, and serring to
bring -within reach of the animal the minute organ-
isms on which it feeds. The Brachiopods are all
marine. (Fig. 78 C.)

1.— Polyzoa or Bryozoa.

Any one who has visited the sea-coast must
have observed, attached to sea-weeds, thin whitish
crusts, which, when carefully examined, are seen to
consist of little oval cells often with delicate
spines at their extremities. These are the skeletons
of Bryozoa of the genus Memhranipora. If taken
from the sea alive and kept in a glass of sea-water,
the microscope will show that each cell is inhabited
by a separate animal of somewhat complex structure.

Fuj. 79. .

Mjembbanipora eoLiDA, Packard, Gulf St. Lawrence. (Magnified.)

The cell is lined by a thin inner membrane.
Within this is seen a clear fluid having minute
granules floating in it, and in the centre is seen
tlie stomach, floating freely, except that it is
attached belu\Y to the bottom of the cavity by mus-
cular bands. The stomach is usually of a dark

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

105

m

ed.)

tie.

ite

jen

is

lus-

irk

brownish colour, and is bent upon itself; one arm, the
oesophagus, opening in the centre of a disc (lopho-
phore) surrounded by processes provided with
ciUa ; the other arm, the intestine, opening outside
the disc. In the upper part of the stomach is seen
a muscular gizzard for the trituration of the food.
Each of these little animals can extend its tentacles
and create brisk currents of water, or retract itself
wholly into its cell. The ovaries are contained
within, in the perigastric space, and the germs are
either ciliated or covered with a crust. In the
Membranipora they are hatched in a sort of hood
or ovicapsule attached to the cell. The animals
^mviltiply by gemmation so as to spread in a crust
over the surface, and there is a communication
between the perigastric spaces of the individuals,
so that nutriment may be conveyed from one to
another.

I'ig. 80. Fifj. 81.

79, Lepra LI A per r us a .lolinston— Gulf St. Lawrence,

80, L HYALiNA Lin— Gulf SI. LawreiivJ.

106

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

The Membranipora above referred to is only one
of many forms of Bryozoa found in our waters. On
stones and dead shells other encrusting forms,
(^Lepralia, HippotJioay Figs. 80 to 85) may be

luff. 82.

L, x'EODUCTA, Tacka/d— Gulf St. Lawrence.
Fig, 95. Fiff.M. Fifj.^.

8S. HippornoA cv 'enulata, Fleming.

84. H. DIVAKICATA, Lm.

85, TuBULiPouA FLABKLLAUis, Fabriciu8. (All mj^gnifiod.)

foimd ; other species build up their cells in slender
brarches or broad leaves, cither soft and flexible
(Figs. 86 and 87) or hard and stony; (Fig.
88.) Some of the latter have the aspect of
small corals. Oi;her s^ecie^ (Halo dacti/lus') are im-
bedded in a dense mucilaginous substance arranged
in thick branches, in which the coloured stomachs of

I if

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

107

mder
jxiblc

|(Fig.
;t of
re im-
mged
jlisof

Fig. 86.

Fig, 87.

86. Mentpea fuutioosa, Packard, Gulf St. Lawrence.

87. Halopuila bokkalis, Packard, Gulf St. Lawrence. (Both
magoifled. )

the animals are seen as little specks. In the fresh
water there are other species, several of which
have been described by Leidjr and Hyatt. In the
limestones of the Silurian, Devonian and Carbonifer-
ous periods, many species are found fossil, of the
genera Ptilodictya, Fenestella, &c,_&c. (Figs, 89

v. i\

it' I!

108

PllOVmCE MOLLUSCA.

and 90.) Several species are also fossil in the
Post-pliocene clays (Fig. 91.)

Fig. 88.

Myriozotim f •tRGRAciLB, D'Orbigny, Gulf St. Lawrence, Natural
size, (a) Cells of the same magnified.

The animals of this order, while minute in size and
very similar in the structure of the individuals,
present a vast number of specific and generic forms,
distinguishable from each other by the shapes and
arrangements of the cells, and are consequently
very curious objects of microscopic investigation.

The simplest mode of classification divides them
into sub-orders, in accordance with the forms of the
cells and the material of which they are composed,

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

109

)l

and^ with reference also to the habitat of the animal
and the structure of its disc or Lophophore.

Fig. 89,

rxiLODicTYA ACUTA, Hal],— L. Siluriaii.

Sub-order 1. Clieiloi^toinata, or those with
the mouth of the horny or calcareous cell in two
lips, includes a great number of marine species
belonging to the genera Lepralia, Hippothoa, Mem-
branipora, Flustra, Cellularia, &c.

Sub-order 2. Cyclo^tomatn, or those with
circular mouths, includes the marine genera
Tubulipora, Crisia, Idmonea, &c.

Sub-order 3. Ctciiostoinata contains species
with the mouth of the cell protected by a circle of
moveable spines. Example, Bowerbankia.

Sub-order 4 — Pcdicclliuca. In these the
cells are supported on a stalk or pedicel. Example,
Pedicellina.

Sub-order 5. liophopliea. — These are fresh-
water species having the disc or Lophophore divided

it I

1: ■

'!i

no

PROVINCE MOLIXSCC.

mg,w.

90. Fenbstella Lyklli, Dawson,- -Carboniferous, (b, c,) Parts
enlarged to shew the colls.

into two branches like a horse-shoe, and the invest-
ing substance gelatinous. Example, Fredericella,
Pectinatella, Cristatella.

Sub-order 6. Paludlcellea.— -These are fresh-
water species like the above, but with the disc cir-
cular. Example, Paludicella.

9],

V ill

m

'■< '8

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

Ill

Fi(/. !)1.

rart8

jst-
|lla,

fsh-
Icir-

91. Levralia quadric'ounuta, Dawson, Post-plioceue, Montreal.

The curious UrnafeUa gracilis of Leidy, is by
some regarded as tlie type of a separate gT'oiip. It
is a fresh-water species fouDd in the Schuylkil
River.

The first four groups are the PhylactolcBmata of
Allman, having an er)istome at the n outh. The two
last are Gymnol.jmata, having no epistome.

2. Tiiiiicata.

Exteiaally these creatures are among the most
unintc - iting of the Moll as^^s ; their whole bodies
being enclo ^ed in a uniform Sv\c-like coat. A species
of Bo^>nia, (i?. Bolteni, Lin,) presenting exter-
nally the appcj^ronce of a leathery sf'c, supported on
a sta'k, -s not uncommon on our coasts. (Fig. 92.)

rii

i

112

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

tig. 92.

BoLTENiA BOLTENI, Lia., GulfSt. Lawrenco—roduced.

The sac has two apertures, and when the animal is
aUve, the sea-water is drawn into one of these and
expelled from the other by the alternate contraction
and expansion of the sac. On dissecting the outer
tunic, this is found to be lined with a muscular sac,
which is the true mantle, and by the contraction of
which water is expelled from the interior, while it is
re-admitted by the elastic expansion of the o;iter
tunic. Within the muscular sac is a deUcate mem-
branous ciliated organ, the respiratory sac, along
the surface of which the water entering by the
entrant aperture is carried by the motion of the cilia,
and the nutritive matter which it contains wafted
toward the mouth which lies near the bottom of the
sac The intestine doubles round and empties at
the excurrent aperture, toward which also the open-
ing of the ovarian ducts is directed. The creature,
thus constituted, remains attached at the bottom of
the sea, and its actions are limited to the rhythmical
contraction and expansion of the tunic, by which
water is continually introduced, and brings with it
microscopic organisms on which the tunicate feeds.

PKOVINCE MOLLUSCA.

113

ted
the

at

m-

|re,

of
leal

ich
it

Ids.

The same action subserves the function of respira-
tion.

In addition to the Boltenia, we have several
species of Oi/nthia and Ascidia, one of which,
Cynthia echinafa, is rcaarkable for its covering of
stift' branching bristles. Another species, Didem.-
nium 7'oseum, exists in compound communities,
encrusting sponges and sea- weeds. Eackard hfs
dredged it at Ilopcdale, Labrador ; and at Eastport,
Maine ; and Whiteavcs has found it at Gaspd.

There are other species of smaller size, some of
them highly coloured, and others perfectly pellucid,
so that the internal organs are distinctly visible
through the tunic, but all may be distinguished by
the sac-like tunic and the two apertures.

All the species found on our coast belong to the
first sub-order of Tunicates, that of the Ascidiae,
which also includes the remarkable Fyrosomidae of
the warmer seas, freely moving forms in which the
animals are grouped in radiating series in the walls
of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, nnd said to
be impelled by the reaction of the water sent forth
from the excurrent apertures.

A second rsub-order, Biphora, includes the Sal-
pidce, also inhabitants of the warmer seas, and
floating in chain-like bands of individuals, which,
however, produce ova from which solitary indi-
viduals are hatched, and these in turn develope
within their bodies colonies of banded Salpae. The
Salpas and the Pyrosomas are gifted with that lumi-
nosity in the dark which is the property of so many
marine animals.

■nl

:.; ^^i

114

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

3. Brnc1iiopo4la. '

Of these curious and rare bivalve shell-fish,
only a few species are found on our coasts. The
most common is Rhjnconella psittacea, the parrot's-
bill Rhynconella. (Fig. 93.) It is a little horny

Fif/. 93,

RiiYAcoKELLA PSiXTACKA, Liu. Gulf St. Lawrouce.

bivalve shell, with one valve, the dorsal, smaller
than the other, the beak of which projects and has
a notch (foramen) below, through which passes a
stalk or pedicel for attachn^ent. The interior of
the shell is lined with the two va^ s^es of the mantle,
and is occupied principally with the two fringed
and ciliated arms coiled like cork-screws. (Fig.9i.)

Fig. 94.

Fhynconp.lla PWTTArKA" Intel ior of dorsal va'.vc, showing {n)
adductor mu8cles, and (h) spjip' arms; diawn ivom a specimen
dredged at Guspe— Nature I size.

I^i

PKOVmCE MOLLUSCA. -, . .

At the base of theso i*«! ih^^ ^i .

stomach and shortlnte, fne if^ ''"^'"^ '" « ^^^'I
cated nervous and cirr-nlifi "' ^ '"«'■« compli-

the Tunicates/rdTas 1 ° f'^''*'"' ^^'^'^ that of
placed near the ht 'e fo r'" ^'''' "^ """scles

^hell and regulati„glLlrC'&.^'°^''"« *»">
on Its peaicel. I'hS Rhvnl T • '''^ *'"' creature
to stones and dead shd f ?„°f' ^ " ^''"°'' arched
In addition toXs sleo " ''"f''''^^-^ deep water.
TerehatuUna ^TrntnTj'' ''"ve on ou>coasts
form than the ^hoVoZlZTt'' ■ °^ T''" "'ungated
. dinallj, ,vith a r^uTperK?' "^!""^ '""S''"-
instead of a notch anlwfw ■ °° "* ""e beak
Other species ^titZ Z^T' f^!'^ ^-p'

northern form found iifl. ^i"^^^^9en,U, a

theppst-plioecn:ta;"of S' d^V'^" ¥" '»
temj« cranmm has as yet bel f^°",P- ^«'*
thc coast of Nova Scotia hviTir'^"?'' ""'j on
ascertained that the youn^lf '^'"''- i' ''*« been
.^^ resemhie Po,,ia 1= iTL^t^:

lognes include nearly 100 sLi.f ^^'"'"8^'^ '^ta-
S. unan alone, in duZ-XX'T '^' ^°^''
Thesaun,s Siluricus, enumeratef 400^'*='*^ '" ■>'«
tho Silurian of America thl , 'P'"=«^s from

J-^.peciesarcC^-.^ri't,/:0

ab?&tiL^l[rL^-^r^^'fferc

d.fferent families. We can '^> '"!'* «■:« P'aced in

resemblance to the modem fo^T'I ^^''' ««°«'aJ

of the mantle and mSs "n^^ ,'"'P'"«'^'°»«

"iuscics on the valves. Fi"

116

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

95 represents the interior of the dorsal and ventral
valves of an Orthis, showing the muscular and
mantle impressions, teeth and foramen.

Fly. no.

Oi THIS sTniATui.A. aftor Woodward,

(A) Dorsal vnluo, sliowing tho muscular impressions at (d); alpo tno
vascular impressions of the mantle, and the notch, tooth and brachial
processes in the iiinge.

(B) Ventral valve, showing the impressions of the hinge and pedicel
muscles.

The families of Brachiopoda are the following ;
the greater part being now extinct :

1. Tercbratiilicin;. — Shell minutely punc-
tate ; ventral valve perforated and with^two curved

!. It!

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

in

hinge teeth, dorsal valve with a cardinal process
between the dental sockets and a shelly loop sup-
porting the arms. Recent and fossil. Examples,
— Terebratula, Waldheimia, Terebratella, Rensel-
laria. (Figs. 9G, 97.)

'H

l-iy. yt).

Teuebratula SACCULU9, Martin,— Caibouit'orous, with interior
showing the loop.

ileo tno
[rachial

[pedicel

ring;
Ipunc

irv

ed

Renskllaria ovalis, Hall,— Devonian.

2. Spirlferidn;. — Shell with two spiral shelly
supports in the interior. Dorsal valve with a

''»

118

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

notch. Illngc lino often 'ong and strai^lit. Fossil
Examples.— Spirifer, Athyris. (Ficrs. 08, 101.)

/-'».'/. 98.

Spirifeu mucronatus, Hall,— Dirronian,
Fifj 99.

Sptrifer varico?a, llali,— Devonian.
Fig. lOO.

Spiriper olaber, MBrtin,— Carboniferous.

.

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

119

ATirvnis siT.Tii.rTA, Hiill,— Cnrbonifornu-, witli interior (c) show-
ing spiral supports lor tiie iirnis.

3. Illi.yiL(*.oiic1iitlic — Sliell not punctate,
hinge line curved, Foramen under beak. Supports
short or rarely spiral. Recent and fossil. Exam-
ples.— Rhynconella, Atrypa, Pentamerus. (Figs.
102, to lOG, also Figs. 1)3, 94.)

rifi. 102.

.

RiiYXCONELLA iNcnEHUESOENs, Hall,— L. Silurian.

Rhvnconella ACADiENSra, Davidson,— Carboniferous.

'!'■ -u!

II I

120

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

J-iy. m.

KnvscoNELLA Dawuoniana. David-Oil, -t'nrboiiifcrou!'.

ATKYp.v uETicuLAiiis, Liii,— U. yiluriau.
Fi(j. 106.

1*ENTAMERUS GALEATUS, Dalmau,— U. SiluHan.

ii

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

121

4. Ortliidii*. — Shell usually punctate. Hinge
line wide and straight, with an area. Internal supports
small or wanthig. Fossil. Examples. — Orthis,
Strophomena, Leptaena. (Figs. 107 to 112.)

/'»//. 10".

Ffj. Ili8.

/■V//. lU'J.

1(H). ORT1II9 TESTUDiNAUiA, Dalmaii,— ],. Silurian.

101. O. LNYX, Eioh,— J.. .Silurian.

102. O, I'EC'TKNELLA, Cuiiravl,— L. Silurian.

Fifh 110,

Leptaena sjiUicEA, Sow,— L. Silurian.

Fig. HI.

CI

K

Orthis BiLLijfosi, Hartt— Primordial.

'■■m

H

122

TROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

Fig. 112.

. ♦

Strophomena filitexta, Hall, L. Silurian, interior and exterior,

5. Profluetidoc. — Shell concavo-convex.
Hinge line straight. Tubular spines on the surface.
I'ossil. Examples. — Productus, Chonetes. (Figs.
113, 116.)

V

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

/■v.'/. 113.

123

rRODU( rusPKMiRETicuLATUs, Martin,— Carboiiificrous.

Fifi. 114.

jnor

rex.
ice.

figs.

pROBrroTUS Cora, D'Orbigny,— Carbonifcroup.
Fiy. 115.

Chonetes Novascotica, Hall,— Up. Siluriau.

124

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.
Firf. 116. ■

CnoNKTES, Sp., showin;^ the spines.

6. Craiiiailte.— Shell rounded, hingeless,
usually attached by the ventral valve. Dorsal
valve shaped like a hmpet. Tvccent and fossil.
Example. — Crania. (Fig. 117.)

h'Uj 117.
0 ^Wi

Crania Acadiknsis, Hall,— U. Silurian, Ventral valve, nat. size
and mag.

7. nfsciuiclic. — Resembling Crania, but at-
tached by a peduncle passing through a foramen in
the ventral valve. Recent and fossil. Examples.
— Discina, Trematis. (Figs. 118, 119.)

Fhj. 118. Fig. ll'J.

Discina oiroe, Billings,— L. Silurian.
D. AcADiAE, Hartt,— Primordial.

8. liiiigiilidte. — Shell sub-equivalve with a
long peduncle passing between the valves. Texture
horny, minutely tubular. Material, phosphate of

MMMM

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

125

Sri

lime. Recent and fossil. Examples. — Lingula,
Obolus, Obolclla. (Figs. 120, 121.)

Fig. 120.

Fig. m.

gize

120. LiNOULA QUADUATA, Eicli.— L. .Silurian,

121. L. Mathewi, llarlt,— rrimordial.

Tabular view of Heteroeranciiiata.

f Cheilostoniata.
I Cyclostomata.
Polyzoa or \ Ctenostmata.
Bryozoa. ^ Pedicellinea.
Lophophea.
Paludicellea.

Heterobran-

CHIATA.

Tunicata.

<

j Ascidiae.
\ Biphora,

^Terebratulidse.
Spiriferidae.
Rhynconellidae.
r> 7 • J ) Orthidae.

Craniadae.
Discinidtie.

\

Lingulidao.

126

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

On Brachiopoda tlic student may consult Wood-
ward's Manual of Mollusca ; Davidson's Fossil
Brachiopoda in Pubs, of Palgeont. Society. For
Canadian Fossil Brachiopods, Billings, in Reports
of Canadian Survey ; Hall's Palaeontology of New
York ; Dawson's Acadian Geology.

The following figures represent additional species
of Fossil Brachiopoda from the Palaeozoic rocks of
Canada: (Figs. 122 to 128.)

Fi'j. 122.

Strophomena maokifica, Hall,— Dovomau, Interior.

Fig. lib.

L ErTocoELiA iNTiRMEDiA, Hall,— Up. Siluriau,

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

127

Fifj. 124.

Fig. 125.

Fifj. 126.

>"!• RuYNCONELLA I'LKisA, Hall,— L. Siluriiin.
125. C.\MARKLLA, HE.MirLiCATA, Hull, L.— Silurian.

12G. STllOrUOMKNA ALTKKWATA CON.— L. yilUliuU.

Fin. 127.

Strophomkna Analoga, rhil,— Carboniferous. '
Fifj. 128.

STRErroRUYNCUs CRENiSTRiA, Phillips,— Carbonifcfous.

128

PROVINCE MOLLITSCA.

Class ii. — Lamellibranciiiata.

i

Body with a dexiro-sinistral bivalve shell ;
mantle onore or less closed; tentacles four ; gills
lamelliform, in two pairs.

The Lamellibranchiates arc the ordinary Bivalve
Shell-fish, as the Oyster, Clam, Cockle, &c.
Their shells are not dorso- ventral, as in the Bra-
chiopods, but placed on the sides of the body.
Hence they are usually equi valve, and iiot equila-
teral ; though there are not ' a few exceptions to
this. They have no orifice at the beak for
attachment, and very rarely any internal pro-
cesses.

The animal has the two leaves of the mantle
more or less closed. The mouth is furnished with
four labial processes not ciliated. The gills are
arranged in four lamellae or plates, and not only
serve for respiration,but, by the currents of water
produced by their ciHa, to waft food to the mouth.
They also serve as a convenient hatching-place for
the ova. The heart consists either of one auricle
and one ventricle or of two auricles and one ven-
tricle, and is systemic, that is, it drives the blood
into the general circulation and receives it back
from the gills. The nervous system consists of
three pairs of ganglia — one pair at the sides of the
mouth, another at the base of the foot and a third
at the posterior adductor muscle. These are con-
nected by nervous fibres. The foot, above men-
tioned, is a fleshy or muscular organ capable of
being used for locomotion or for burrowing. In
some genera it is absent. The adductor muscles

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.'

129

len-
of
In

teles

are strong bands of muscular iibro serving to close
the shell, ^Yhicll is opened, not by muscular effort,
but by the elasticity of a pad or internal ligament
placed in the hinge. The general arrangement of
parts in a lamellibranchiate may be represented by
a diagram of the cross section. (Fig. 129.)

Fig. 129.

Section op a LAMELLiBRAwcniATE.
(a) Alimentary (Janal. (b) Iloart. (c) Mautle. (d) Gills, (e) Foot

The shell of animals of this class is composed of
three coats or layers. (1) The Epidermis, of a
horny consistency, and serving as an exiernal coat-
ing or varnish. (2) Prismatic shell, composed of six-
sided prisms of carbonate of lime, placed at right
angles to the plane of the shell, and cemented with
animal matter. (3) Lamellar shell, composed of
laminse of carbonate of lime and animal matter, and
lining the interior. This last kind of shell, when
the laminae are very thin, becomes pearly ; and the
lustre is sometimes enhanced by the corrugation of
the laminse. Pearls are concretions of lamellar
shell formed in the mantle in consequence of
injury or disease. The mantle not only lines the
interior of the shell but is.the organ by which it is

K

130

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

deposited. The Lamellibranchiatcs are sometimes
named Conchifera.

The parts recognised in the shell of a Lamelli-
branchiate, and the terms used in their description,
are indicated in the diagram. (Fig. 130.)

./

Interior of shell op mactra.
(a) Umbo. (6) Exterior Ligament, (c) Interior ligament, (rf) Hinge
tooth, (e) Lateral teeth. (/) Anterior adductor, {g) Posterior
adductor, (h) Pallial impression, with sinus between it and posterior
adductor. In this figure the hingo is somewhat exaggerated for the
sake of distinctness.

The Lamellibranchiates may be conveniently
divided into (1) Asiphonida, or those which have
no tubes or siphons. (2) Siphonida, or those which
have two tubes or siphons serving for the entrance
and emission of water. These last are the most
numerous, and usually burrow in sand or other
substances, using their siphons, which are some-
times very long, to admit water to the gills. Figs.
131, 132 show the appearance of a siphonide and
asiphonide species.

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

131

Fig. 132.

131. Mytilus EDtTLis, Liu. (a) Foot, {b) Byssus. (c) Margin of
mantle.

132. Tellina ouoenlandica, Beck, (a) Siphons, (rf) Foot.

The Lamellibrancliiates may be arranged in the
following families :

(^Siphonida, sinu-pallialia.')

Ml

^IgS.

and

Plioladidsc — ex. Pholas, Teredo. — The shells
of the genus Pholas are remarkable as burrowers in
stone and hard clay. Our species is P. crispata.
The species of Teredo burrow in sunken timber
and are very destructive to piles and shipping.
The animal is worm-like and the valves appear to be
constructed for boring rather than for protection.

GastrocliaciiidtB — ex. Gastrochaena. — Bur-
rowers, with the valves sometimes united into a
shelly tube. No Canadian species.

Aiiatiiiida; — ex. Anatina, Pandora. — Shell
thin, nacreous, often inequivalve, w^ith a small
free ossicle connected with the internal cartilage,
Pandora trilineata, P. glacialis, Tliracia. Con-
radiy Pandorina arenom, are Canadian speciea.

■ : 11

" t

■- ^-1

1 irt

132

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

Wyj'^idic — ex. Mya, Saxicava, Glycimeris.-—
Shell coarse and wrinkled, gaping posteriorly.
Animal with closed mantle, small foot and united
siphons. Mya arenarla is the common sand clam,
mya truncata is more rare and in deeper water,
Saxicava rugosa abounds on rocky coasts, and
burrows in limestone. Fig. 133 to 135.

Fig. m.

Fifj. 134.

Saxicava uugosa, Liu.

MVA TRUNCATA, Lill.

Nolciiidfc — ex. Solen, Machaera.— Shells elon"
gated, gaping at ])Oth ends. The common " razor"
fish." Solen cnsis, is a typical example.

Telliiiirtae — ex. Tellina, Sanguinolaria, Do-
nax. — Shell compressed, usually closed and equi-
valve. Animal with mantle widely open in front,
foot tongue-shaped, siphons long and separate.
(Fig. 132.) T. Groenlandiea and T. proxima
are common species. Fig. 136, 1 37.

MactriclJie — ex. Mactra, Gnathodon. — Shell
equivalve, triangular. Internal ligament in a
deep triangular pit. Two diverging cardinal teeth,
and two lateral. (Fig. 130). Mactra soUdmima,
the great clam, is the largest bivalve found on our
coasts.

a

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

133

MYA ^.BBNARiA, Lin. (a) procGSS for internal ligament.

; II 1

til!

Ml

134

PROVINCE MOLLUDA.

Fig. 130.

Fig, 187.

Tkllina puoxima (sabulosa, Sponijl.)r?*Vi' Guoem.andk a, Bock.

Vciieridac — ex. Vcnus,V Cytherea, Petri-
cola.— Shell regular, closed, sub-orbicular or oblong,
ligament external ; hinge with usually three diver-
ging teeth in each valve. The most common species
on the Atlantic coast is Venus [^l^Iercenarid] vio-
lacea, the Quahaug or Wampum shell. Venus
gemma abounds at Gaspd.

(^SipJionida, inferjro-pallialia.')

Cypriiiitlji'^ — ex. Cyprina, Astarte, Cardita. —
Shell regular tvalve, oval, solid ; epidermis

thick and ' ardinal teeth one to three, and

usually a ./lor lateral tooth, Cyprina Islandica
is our largest species ; and we have several species
of Astartef and Cardita horealis. [Figs. 138, 139.]

Fig. 188.

Fifj. 1£9.

AiTABT* iTKiATA, Leftch- A, Lacrintiana— Po«t-plioo«n«,

1 k

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

135

Cyclailiilac — ex. Cyclas, Cyrena, Pisidium. —
Fresh and brackish-water shells, sub-orbicular,
closed, with thick horny epidermis and cardinal
and lateral teeth. Several small shells of the
genera Sphcerium and Puidium arc found in our
streams and ponds. Fig. 140 to 146.

Fiy. 140.

Fig. 141.

iiii^!^

^^r

SPUAKttlUM RUOMUOIDEUM, Sny. S, SOUDULUM, TrlmQ.

* FUj. 142. Firf. 143.

S. Sulcatum, hAHACyclat simiin) Say. S. Tuansversum, Say
i'W. 144. Fig. 145.

ji

^

SruAKiuuM Skcuris, rrime. Pisidium Viroinicum, Brougt.

Fig.UQ.

P. ALTiLE, Anthony.

M'

I

136

niOVINCE MOLLUSCA.

l.iiciiii<lac — ex. Lucina, Corbis, Kellia. — Shell
orbicular, closed, interior dull, obliquely furrowed.
Thyadra Goiddii, a pretty little rounded shell
with a flexure on the margin, is our most common
species.

Cardiaclac — ex Cardium, Serripes. — Shell
regular, equivalve, cordate, with radiating ribs,
and peculiar sculpture on posterior side. Two
caidinal and two lateral teeth in each valve.
Cardium Islandicum is the common cockle of the
Gulf St. Lawrence, and Serripes Groenlandica is
also frequent. Fig. 117.

Fig. 147.

Cardium islandicum, Lin.

Triclacnicfiac — ex. Tridacna, Ilippopus. —
Shell regular, equivalve, truncated in front. Tri-
dacna gigas is the largest of bivalves. No species
occur in Canada.

Ilippiirititlae — ex. Hippurltes, Radiolites. —
Fossil in the Cretaceous rocks ; remarkable for the
great and abnormal thickness of the right valve.

Cliainidae — ex. Chama, Diceras.— Shell ine-
qui valve, attached, with spiral beaks. We have
one species.

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

13T

(^Asiplionida.')

Uiiionitiae — ex. Unio, Anodon, Alasmodon. —
Fresh-water shells, regular, equivalve, closed.
Epidermis thick, shell nacreous within, ligament
large, external. These arc the fresh-water mus-
sels, and are very abundant in our streams and
lakes. Unio complanatus is the most common
species, Alasmodon (^Margaritana) margaritifera
is the Pearl-mussel, and aflfords pearls sometimes of
considerable beauty and value. Fig. 148.

Fig. 148.

Alasmodon, (Margaiitana) MAnoAuiTiFKRA.

ri-

feies

bho

lie-
Ive

TrJ$;oiii4Sac — ex. Trigonia. — Shell equivalve,
trigonal, with urn jones directed backward ; liga-
ment external, with few diverging teeth, interior
pearly. No living species in Canada ; but the genus
Lyrodesma of the Silurian is supposed to belong to
this family.

Arcaclac — ex. Area, Cucullaea, Nucula,
Leda. — Shell regular, equivalve, with a long row

I

I ill

138

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

of teeth in each valve. Several species of iVw-
cula and Leda occur in v^ur seas. (Figs. 149, 150.)

Fif/. 149. Fig. 150.

LlDA MINUTA, Mull.

Leda (toldia) tuuncata,
rost-pliocene.

Mytilidac — ex. Mytilus, Modiola, Lithodo-
mus. — Shell equivalve, edentulous, oval or elon-
gated, closed, umbones anterior, epidermis thick,
attached by a byssus. The common mussel is
Mytilus edulis. (Fig. 151.) The horse mussel is
M. modiolus.

Fig. 151.

Mytilus edulis, Lin.

AvicialUlac— ex. Avicula, Meleagrina, Pinna. -
Shell inequi valve, very oblique, hinge-line straight
and eared or winged posteriorly ; attached by a
byssus. We have no modern species, but several
in the Palaeozoic rocks. (Figs. 152, 153.)

Ostrcadac — ex. Ostrea, Anomia, Pecten, Spon-
dylus, Plicatula.— Shell inequivalve, free or adhe-
rent, resting on one valve. Beaks central, straight,
ligament internal, adductor impression single, hinge
usually edentulous. The common oyster, 0»trea

•- ♦

la.-

a
jral

PROOVINCE MOLLUSCA. 139

Fig 152. Fig. 153.

152. AvicuLA FLABELLA, VanuxGiTi, Devouian.

153. A. IIONKYMANI, Uall, Up. Siluriau.

Virginica^ and the Pcctens or Scallops are well-
known examples. (Fig. 154.)

FUj. 164.

iM

%

TicTiN iBLANDicus, Cheninitj.

PI

140

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

The following figures represent fossil Lamelli-
branchiates found in Canadian rocks, but^which, for
the most part, can be only doubtfully referred to
any of the above families. (Figs. 155 to 166.)

Fig. 155.

Ambontchia 6UPERBA, Hall— M. Silurian.

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

141

lelli-
L,for
sd to

Fig. 166.

Fig. 157.

)

161. Cyrtodoni'A 8IOM0IDES, Billinp;8,— M. Silurian.
152. Cyutoponta ungulata, Billings,— M. Silurian.

Pig. 158.

Megambonia NiTiDA, Billings,— M. Silurian.
Fig. 159.

i

h\

Co^ocABDiuM AcADiANUM, Hartt.— Caibonlfef ju«.

I

142

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

Fig. 160.

Ctprtoardia insecta, Dawson.— Carboiiiferoui.
Fig. 161.

Edmoxdia IIautti, Dn.— Carboniferous.
Fig. 162.

I

ATicuLOPECTEN Lyelli, Du,— ((t, h) 8 sculpturc— Carbonilferous.
. Ft<7. 163, Fig. 164.

168. Naiadites Carbonarius, Dn.— Carboniferous.
164. N. EJL0MGATU8, Dn.— C»rb.

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

143

i r

Fig. 165.

N. LAEVI8, Dn,— Carb,
Fig. 166.

Macrodon Hardingi, Dn.— Carboniferous, (a) cast. (?>) exterior.

Tabular View of Lamellibranchiata,

^ Siplionida, i Veneridae.
Sinu- < Mactridae.
palUalia. ( Tellindse.
&c.

lerous.

Lamellibranchiata .

Siphonida,
Integro-
pallialia.

( Cardiadae.
< Lucinidse.
( Cyprinidae.

( Ostreadae.

Asiphonida. I Mytilidae.

( Unionidae.

^ , . &c.

The student will find the families of Lamelli-
branchiata admirably described in Woodward's

'if.!

144

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

Manual of the Mollusca. For Canadian species
reference may be made to Gould's Invertebrates of
Massachussets, and to Papers by Packard, Whit-
eaves, Bell, and others, published in the Canadian
Naturalist. Fossil species will be found in Memoirs
by Billings in Reports of Canadian Survey, and in
Dawson's Acadian Geology.

Class hi. — Gasteropoda.

Encephalous ; body symmetrical or spiral ; foot
along the ventral aspect of the body,

A typical Gasteropod, such as one of the whelks,
periwinkles or snails, has a manifest head, in which
are grouped its organs of sensation. Its locomotion
is performed by a muscular organ placed on the
ventral aspect of the l^ody, and termed its foot. The
body is usually elongau3d, and generally spiral, and
the most common covering is a univalve calcareous
shell. The nervous system and circulating appa-
ratus are more compact and highly developed than
in the last class, and the locomotive energies are
greater. Respiration is performed either by gills or
by a pulmonary sac. The mouth is destitute of
tentacles, but is furnished with a tongue or
lingual ribbon beset with teeth, which, in the her-
bivorous species, serves to rasp vegetable sub-
stances, and in those that are carnivorous, to abrade
holes in the shells of other mollusks. The following
figure shows the arrangement of the principal organs
in a fresh-water snail of the genus Paludina. (Fig.
167.)

The shell of the Gasteropods is constructed of
the same materials with that of the last class, and
is deposited by the mantle. It 'is never bivalve,

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA,

145

Fiff. 1G7.

/

/

Animal of Paludina, after Woodward.
(a) Mouth, [b) Tentacles and Eyes, (c) Foot, [d) Gills, (e) Intestine.
(/) Ovary.

but is often provided with a horny or calcareous
operculum or lid developed from the foot, and which
closes the shell when the animal is retracted. The
different parts of a univalve shell are indicated in
Figure J G8.

Fig. 168.
a

Univalve shell, (Buccinofusus) to show ita parts.
(a) Apex, (b) Spire, showing sutures at union of the turns, also
rib« or varices and revolving lines, (c) Outer lip and aportura
(^) Anterior canal, (e) Body whirl. (/) Inn«r lip or columella,.

L

i > ri

146

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A,

The Gastcropod3 present a greater variety of
organisation than the Lamellibrancliiata, and may
therefore be somewhat minutely divided inlo orders.

The following are the orders geneially received ;
but there are good grounds for considering that the
Dentalia or tooth-shells and the Chitons should bo
separated from order 5th to form separate orders.
A new classification has also been proposed on the
ground of the forms and arrangements of the teeth
on the lingual ribbon ; but this seems a ground too
limited to give a natural arrangement.

Order 1. Pterojioda — These are oceanic
and free-swimming, and are distinguished by two fins
or swimming organs developed from the sides of
the net;k or head. Some have shells, others are
naked. The latter only have distinct heads.

Order 2. Hcteropodo, or IVucleobraii-
chiata. — These are also pelagic animals, and
swimmers ; but their swimming organ is a fin-like
tail, furnished with a sucker for attachment, and
represents the foot of other Gasteropods. The greater
part have shells, which are, however, in many of the
typical forms, as Carinaria, too small to cover more
than a few of the more important organs.

Order 3. Opisthobraiieliiata Some of

these can swim, but all are furnished with an ample
foot for creeping.^ They derive their name from the
position of the gills, which are placed toward the
posterior part of the body, and are either covered
by the mantle (Tectibranchiata) or naked (Nudi-
branchiata.) A few of thw former have shells.

Order 4. Piilmonifera- — These are land
and fresh-water snails and slugs, and are distin-
guished by the possession of an internal pulmonary

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

147

chamber o" air-sac by wlilch tbcy breathe air. The
greater part h? /e spiral shells, and aU are c ccpers.
Order 5. Prosobraiiebiata. — These nre
sea-snails p -oper, tbouf2;h a few occur in fresh
water. Thoy brcf^the by gills which are placed
toward tne front of the body, ?nd within the
mantle. They arc the most numerous ard tyji-cal of
the Gastero' )ds, and are nearly all creepers^ by
means of a muscular foot.

Order 1.— Pteropoda.

On the coast of Labrador tl o tow-net sometimes
•secures great nura crs of the little cieature repre-
sented in Fig. 109, {^Clione limacina^ Phipps, C.

/-V'/.IGO.

C'LIONE LIMACINA^,

horealis of Brugiere.] It is aboa. an inch in length,
semi-transparent, and of a roseate hue ; moving
through the water by the flapping of its ample fins,
and preying on minute crustaceans and other
creatures by means of a formidable apparatus of
suckers and shear-like jaws, in front of its head.
This little creature is so abundant in some p?»'ts of
the Greenland seas that is said to form a consider-
able part of the food of the great whalebone whf'les.
Another still more beautiful Pteropod has been

148

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

procured by Mr. Packard on the same coasts. It is
the Limacina helicina, a little creature contained in
a small snail-like spiral shell of almost inconceivable
thinness, and extending from the front of its body
two deUcate and beautiful fins, which may almost
bo compared to the mu^s of an insect, with which
it moves gaily through tlic water. These are the
only Pteropods of which I have seen specimens
from Canadian waters. The genus Conularia of
our Carboniferous and Silurian limestones, and the
genera TJicca, Pterotheca and Salterella of the
Silurian, are supposed to belong to this order. Fig.
170.

Fiij- 170.

CoNULAniA PLANicosTATA, Dawsoii— Carbouifcrous.

Order 21.— Iletcropoda.

In the modern world, these are for the most part
inhabitants of the warmer seas ; and the only spe-
cies as yet known to us in Canada are those found
fossil in our limestones. Of these, the most cha-
racteristic are those of the genera Bellerophon and

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

149

Oijrtolltcs, species of wliicli are found from tlio
Lower Silurian to the Carboniferous inclusive. Figs.
171, 172. The curious and somewhat anomalous
shells of the genera Madurca and Fcculmnphalas,
are also supposed by some palaeontologists to belong
to this ordoi".

/•/V/. 171.

and

Belleeophon canadensis, Billings,— M. Silurian.

Th'3 lanthince or violet snails are regarded as
an aberrant family of this order. They have spiral

:i 1

150

PROVINCE MOLLIISCA.

shells and float by means of a modified cellular
operculum which buoys them up. They are mostly
tropic?^ ; but shells of lanthlna fragilis are some-
times cast on or • Atlantic coast.

Fhj. 172.

Bellerophou suLCATiNrs,— Billings, L. Silurian.

Order S.— Opistliobrstiicliiata.

The Nudibranchiate, or naked-gilled division of
this order, is represented on our coasts by many
species of sea-slugs with soft shmy bodies and desti-
tute of shells. Many of them are curious and
beautiful when alive, but they lose all their charms
when seen as museum specimens. I figure as an
illustration Doris planulata (Stimpson), from the
Bay of Fundy. It is a little creature about half an*
inch long, with a broad depressed body, covered
with minute tubercles, and white, with a row of
yellow spots along each side. Its gills, composed
of deUcate radiating plumes, are seen behind, and
its two screw-like tentacles in front. (Fig. 173).

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

151

Jh'iff. 173.

Doris planulata, Stimpson.

The most interesting of the Tectibranchiates are
the Bullae or bubble-shells and their allies. These
have, enclosed in the mantle, a delicate and beau-
tiful spiral shell. Several species, all of small size,
occur on our coasts. (Fig. 174.)

Fiff. 174.

m

i

Cylichna alba, Brown.

Order 4.— Piilinoiiifera.

Though, from the dryness of its summers and the
coldness of its winters, Canada is by no means
favourable to the land and fresh- water snails, yet ^e
have numerous species, some of which are very
common. They belong to the following famihes :

1. Aiiriciiliflae. — The shells of the genus
Auricula (sub-gener? Jlela'^ywus, Alexia) have the
aperture guarded by processes, and inhabit salt
marshes and similar places, thus connecting in their
habitat the fresh-water and sea snails.

152

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

Fig. 175.

Ltmnba STAGN'ALis, Lin, yiiell and Animal,— (b) Mass of Egga
magnifled.

2. liiiiinacaclac. — Here we Lave the Lim-
neas and Physas or spiral fresh-water snails, and
the discoid snails belonging to the genus PlanorUs.
Allied to the former is the curious genus Ancylus.
with a conical shell, like that of a limpet. Figs. 175
to 187 show some common species. All these crea-

liy. 176.

I

LiMNEA STAONALI9, LiH,

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

153

lij/. 177.

/»y. 178.

LlMNKA AMPLA, Migliel^'.

I^iMNKA ELonES, Say.

tures, tliougli living in water, breathe air ; and they
are especially interesting to students rcsidhi'g in
inland regions remote from the sea. Specimens

I r

Fig. 179.

l'LA]suniJis MACU08TOMU8, Wliilcavcs,

may be found in nearly all ponds and streams, and
if kept in an aquarium, afford a convenient oppor-
tunity of studying the forms and habits of gastero-
pods.

154

PROVINCE MOLLITSCA.

/•>■//. 180.

Fifj. 181.

1«0. Planorius tuivolvis, Say.
181. r. Lentus, Say.

Fi:j. 182.

/"/(/, 183.

h

182. Physa iiETKROSTRoiMiA. Say,

183. Ancylus kivularis, Say.

184. A. Fusru-s, Adams,

Fig. 185.

Fill. 186.

Fly. 184,

Fig. 187.

/

1*^5. Planoubis campakulatus, Say.

186. P. DKFLKCTU8, Say.

187. P. ARMIGERUS, Say.

3. I^imacitlae. — Our most common — gardeners
may suppose too common — representative of this
family, is the shmy garden slug, protected only by
its membranous mantle, though it has a concealed
rudimentary shell. Several species occur in this
country. The common one in gardens is Limax

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

155

ft

agrestis. These creatures are remarkable for the
large quantity of tenacious mucus secreted from
glands in the mantle, and which greatly contributes
to their protection.

4. Ileliciflae. — Here we have the- ordinary
land snails of the ^e as Helix, the Amber-snails
of the genus Succinea, and the long land snails of
the genera Pupa and Bidinius, and their allies.

Figs. 188 to 190.

Fi(/. 188.

I

I

Hemx albolauuis, ^py
FUj. 189.

Fig. 190

189. Helix altbrnata, Say.

190. ilELix MONODON, Kackett.

The oldest known Pulmonates are Pupa vetusta
and Comilus priscus from the Coal-formation of
Nova Scotia. Figs. 191, 192.

156

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

ruPA VKTUSTA. Dnv.Toji.— Carbouiforous. (a) nat size, (b) mag-
nified, (c) apex, (d) sculpture.

'/V//.£l!)2.

CoNri.cs PRLScup, Carpenter.— CiU'boniforous. (a) magnified, (b)
sculpture.

5. Siplioiinrias — These are marine snails,
breathing air and with limpet-like shells.

PROVIJVCE MOLLUSCA.

157

Order 5.~I*rosobraucliiata.

' M

lag-

(b)
l3.

These arc represented by very numerous species
in our salt and fresh waters. For convenience they
may be divided into two sections : — (1.) Jlolosto-
maia, or those which have the shell usually spiral
and univalve, sometimes tubular or conical or mul-
tivalve, and have the aperture of the shell entire.
They have no siphon, or the organ is very rudi-
mentary. They are mostly vegetable feeders,
though some arc carnivorous. (2.) Siplionosto-
mata, with the shell spiral and notched or produced
into a canal in front, to accommodate the respira-
tory tube or siphon.

In the first named of the above sections are the
following families :

Cliitoiiiclac. — Having the body covered with
a multivalve shell in eight pieceS; giving the creature
the aspect of an articulated animal, though truly a
mollusk. Chiton marmoreus^ the spotted or marbled
Chiton, is the most common species. (Fig. 193.

Fig. 193.

Chiton Emersonii, two of the valves.

l>eiil»liailne. — Long tubular shells, living in
deep water in m.uddy bottoms. Dentalhwi {Entails)
striatum is found on our coasts.

Patelliclae. — Shells conical, animals clinging
to or creeping on stones. Tectura testudinalis,
the common limpet of our coasts, is an example.
Lepeta oceca. (Fig. 194) is less common.

i:

158

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

Fvj. 19i.

Lepeta C'^oa, Mull,

Fl8Niirclli<hc. — The " Key-hole" or perfo-
rated limpets. One little species, Cemorla JVoa-
chinaj is found on our coasts.

Ilaliotiflic.— Glie Sea-ears are beautiful pearly
shells not represented in this country.

Turbiiiidac— These are the Top-shells ard
" silver willies." Their shells are turbirated, or
short, conical and pearly withir . Trochus occidentalis
is found in our seas, and several species of Ma.'-
ggirita.

The genus Platyscldsma of the carboniferous
limestone perhaps belongs to this family. Fig. 195.

Fiy. 195.

P ATYscHlPMA DUBiA, Dn.— Carboniferous.

IVcritiflaC' — The Neritcs arc not represented in
our seas. • •

C^al>'i>ti*«€«d«€. — The SHpper Limpets and the
" Cup and Saucer Limpets." Crepidula fornicata
is our common Shpper Limpet.

Tiii*rki.cllidac. — These, as their name imports,
are long turreted shells -with rounded aperture, and

'1

^f1

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

159

o^n of very graceful form. They are marine. —
Turritella erosa is not uncommon, and Scalar ia
Gro. dandlca, (Fig. 19G), though rare, is one of
ou . most beautiful shells.

Fig. 196.

>rfo-

^oa-

arly

ard
i, or
talis
la.'

'OUS

95.

i

iin

the
at a

rts,
rnd

ScALARiA Groenlandica, Tarry,

liittorinifia^ — These are the most common
little univalves of the sea-beach, swarming on stones,
and feeding on sea-weeds. Littorina rudis and L.
palUata are our most common species. The little
banded sea- snail, Lacuna vineta^ also belongs here,
as do the almost microscopic shells of the genus
Rissoa,

PaltKliiiiclae. — These are fresh-water shell-
fish, with conical or globular shells, having a
rounded entire aperture. Paludina deeisa is com-
mon in our larger rivers, as also are certain curious
little shells of the genus Valvata. (Figs. 198,
199.)

'11:1

160

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA,

Fig. 197.

Fifj. 198.

Fig. 199.

197. Ammcola i'ouata, Say.

198. Valvata Tuic'AuiNATA, Say.

199. V. PuroiUKA, Say.

Jflelaiiiaclac. — These, like the Paludinas, are
fresh- water shells, common m our rivers. They
differ from Paludina in their more elongated forms
and tendency to a channel or notch in the front
of the aperture. The most abundant species in the
St. Lawrence is 31elama depygis. The little shells
of the genus Ammcola belong to this family.
(Fig.197.)

Ceritliiado;. — These differ from other members
of this group in having a canal in front of the shell,
and when adult the lip is often expanded. Our
finest species is the Western " Spout-shell," Apor-
rliais occidentalis.

Pyrainitlelliclae- — These are long shells like
the Turritellas, with small aperture, and often plaits
on the Columella. Menestho albula is a very pretty
little species

Xaticiilac — These have globular few whirled
shells. The animal has a very large rounded foot.
Natica Jieros is one of our largest univalves, and
very common on sandy shores, where it deposits its
spawn in a fiat sandy ribbon moulded on the foot.

mOVINCE MOLLUSCA.

161

We have several smaller species oiNatica and two
of Velutina. (Figs. 200 to 202.)

Fifj.2<^. Ft fj. 201. Fig. 202.

like

3laits

|rctty

lirled
foot,
and
Us its
foot.

200. Natica iielu'oidks, Jolinston.

201. N. CLAUSA, Brod and Sow.

202. Vklutina zonata, Gould.

The second section (Siphonosiomata) includes the
following families :

Cyprneaila;. —The Cowrie shells are inhabitants
of the warmer seas and not represented with us.

Voliitidn;. — The Volutes are also tropical and
sub-tropical shells, often of great beauty.

€oiii€in\ — The proper Cone-shells belong to the
warmer latitudes ; but several beautiful little shells
of the genus Bda arc found in deep water on our
coasts. They have the aperture long and narrow,
with a notch in the back or upper end.

ISucciiii«la.\ — These are the whelks and their
allies, represented on our coast by the common
whelk, Biiccinum imdatum, (^undulatum, Stimp-
son,) and several other shells of this genus and of
the genera Nassct, Purpura^ &c. The masses of
tough leathery egg-cases of the Buccinum are
very common on our shores. (Fig. 203.)

Ifluricicla;. — These have a straight inferior
canal, often of considerable length. They are

M

162

PllOVINCE MOLLUSC A.

Fia. 203.

203. liu.oiNUM UNDATUM, lAu, Variety.

represented on our coast by species of Fusus,
Trophon, and Trtchoiropis, mostly deep Avater

shells. (Fi-s. 205, 20C .

Fit/ 205

Fiff. 206.

205. FUSUS TORKATUB, Oould. _ .

206. Admetb viRiouLA, O. Faoriciws.

PllOVINCE MOLLUSC A.

163

p Avater

200.

mtroinhidfv. — These arc tropical and sub-
tropical shells. The great Sfrombus gigas, or
conch of the West Indies, is ell known everywhere,
and is used in the manufacture of the commoner
kinds of cameos.

The eight families last mentioned are carnivorous
and have a retractile proboscis, often with a pre-
hensile spinous collar.

The fossils of the genera Murchuonia and
Pleurotomarla^ (^ioS- 207) arc abundant in our
Palaeozoic rocks, but are of uncertain affinities.
These shells may be distinguished by a notch in
front of the lip.

184. Fleukotomauia bybillina, IJilliiiRK,— M. Silurian.
(«) Sculpture ami notch.

The genera Loxonema and Euomphahu also in-
lude fossils of uncertain affinities. Y\ii3^ 208, 209.

Fir/. 209.

208. EuOMPHALUS EXouTivi-9, Dii,,— Carboniferou*.

209. LoiO>'BMA AcuTULA, Dn., Do.— Magnilied.

16-1

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

P'

\b

Tabular View or Gasteropods.

^ ^ , ( Hyalcidae.

„ ^"^"\ \ Limacinidcc.
Pteropoda. | ^^-^^^^^

Order i Firolidai.
I Ileteropoda I Atlantidae.
( laiitlimidae.

''Elysiadue.
Phillyrlioidse.
AcolidoQ.
^ , Ti'itoniadae.

^':^f , Doridse.
Opi^tlio- < pi^yiiidiadae.
hranchiata. --•

Gasteropoda <J

\

Plcurobranchidoe.
Aplysiadac.
Bullidaj.
TornatcUidac.

( Aciculidse.
Order \ Auriculidie.
Pulmonl- J Limnaeidse.
1 fera. ^ Oncidiadi».

V

Limacidae.
llelicidix).

Order

( Chitonid-cE.
Dentaliadoe-
PatelUdoe

Prosohran-i Fissurellidaj

' -r-w- 1 • 1*1

?Jiiata.

\

Ilaliotidye. .

Turbinidixj.

Neritidae.

- *

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

165

Tabular View of Gasteropods. — ConfinuetL

r

/

Onhr

Calyptraeadixj.

Turritellidne.

Littorinldce.

Paludiniflc^.

Melaniada).

Ceritliiadoi.

^ ) rt 1 ) Pyramidellidne.

Gasteropoda-^ From>ra)}-{ ^'^ .. • •,

chiata, r\ \'

(Jy prfealiTe.

Volutid e.

Cod id {ID.

Buccinidoe.

Muricidi\3.

^ Strombidie.

For the Gasteropods the student may be referred
to the works mentioned under the last class.

Class iv.- -Cephalopoda.

3nci>phaJons ; hody symmetrical ; locomotive and
prehensile organs attached to the head ; a rudiment
of a skeleton in some ; dioecious and ametaholian.

The Cephalopods occupy the highest place in the
Province MoUusca. The foot is brought to the
front of the body, and is divided into a number of
arms furnished with an apparatus of suckers, and
sometimes with hooks also. The mouth is provided
with a horny beak, and the organs of sense are
highly developed, whi^ ihe circulation and respi-
ration are very con te and vigorous. Loco-
motion is performed by the arms, or by the

16'^

Pr.OVrNCK MOLLUSC A.

III; jl

■ii?

1 : fSi

im

I

■i,i :

I

re-action of the water ejected from the respiratory
chamber through the " funnel," from which also
can be ejected in some species a pigment for dark-
ening the water, secreted in a glandular apparatus,
the " ink-bag." Some are protected by an external
shell. In others, the shell, or its rudimentary
representative, is hitcrnal. These creatures are
active and predaceous, and in the seas of warm
climates some of them attain to gigantic dimen-
sions and are formidable to man and to the larger
fishes.

They are divided into two orders.

1. Tetriiliraiieliiata. — In which there are
four gills, numerous arms, and an external cham-
bered shell, the inner chambers of which are empty,
and serve as a float to render the animal indepen-
dent of gravity, by accommodating its weight to
the specific gravity of the sea-water. These are
the Nautili and their allies.

3. llibraiicliiata. — In which there are two
gills, eight or ten arms, an ink-gland, and no
external shell, except in a few species. These are
the Cuttle-fishes and their allies.

Order 1.— TctraHtraiieliiata.

No living species of this order belongs to our
country. The modern Nautili inhabit warmer
regions, and are limited to a very few species, of
which the Pearly Nautilus, iV. pompiius, is the
most common. Its shell is distinguished by its
numerous partitions, dividing it into air chambers
through which passes a siphon or tube, communi-
cating with the body of the animal. But though
we have no modern shells of this order, numerous

PROVINCE MOLLrSCA

1G7

spocies arc found fossil in our limestones ; and it is
in the rocks of the earth that we must seek for the
greater numher of species of Tetrabranchiates,
wliich seem to have attained to their hi^^hest deve-
lopment in number, size and complexity, in former
geological periods. The species arc usually
arranged in three families, though from our igno-
rance of the animals of the fossil species, it is not
always possible to be certain that our arrangements
are natural.

are

LlTUITEB, (6), GYROCKRAS {i)\ NAUTILUS, (7.)

IVn IE till cite- — The type of this family is the
Nautilus poin'^ilius. In our Silurian and Devo-
nian rocks we have species of the alUed genera

JW^

168

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

Lituites and Clymenia^ and a fine Nauiilm occurs
in the Carboniierous. (Fig. 211.)

Fig.-m.

Nattttlus AVONEXfliR, Dawson,— Carbonilerouf. (b) Section ahoW'
inj^ position of yipliuncle.

Fig. 212.

(jlTROCErAS II. B"Ti, Dii.— Cavboiiiforous.

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

169

Orllioceraiidsc — These ore all extinct.
They differ from tlic Nautili in having the shell
often straight, or merely curved ; in the smallness of
the last chamber for containing the body of the
animal, and in the aperture being contracted. Many
of them have tjie siphuncle or tube leading through
the chambers singularly complicated. Some of the
species were of very great size, the shells being
several feet in length. Several genera of this
family are represented on the Palaeozoic rochs of
Canada. (Fig. 218.)

//.(/. 213.

n

n

ORIfiOCERAS (a). OOiMPHOrKRASil). Ai=COCER>e (2). CTRTOCERASia)

—Slier JJilhjigt*.

mm

f, ,,•,;.■

I ;

■>■ ■ ■■ ■ .i-

1

■ '-^ ''IBS Si

''^1ia|

i

'^''H

'''^-t4^H

i

j.P'7'

jf

170

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

/■■if/. 2U.

^

a

Orthookhas dolatu.m Dn.— Carboniferous.

O. VlNOOUONKNPK, do. (lo.

O. rKKSXUUTl'M, do. lU).

3. .4iniiioiiitifiie. — In these the body-chamber
is elongated and guarded by processes and closed
with an operculum or lid. Tlie partitions of the cham-
bers are waved or lobed, and the siphuncle is at
the back or outer curve of the shell. They are all
extinct ; but most of them belong to formations
less ancient than those of Canada. (Fig. 215.)
The genus Goniatttes is, however, represented in
the Devonian and Carboniferous.

Fi;/. 215.

Ammoxitks Jason, Rcihocko,— Oxford Clay, England.

Order S.— DlE>raiic'liiatii.

The common squids, of which two species occur
in our seas, are our only known Canadian repre-

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

171

sentativcs of tliis onlcr, if wc except the curious
little Spirilla fraylUs of ^vhicli the shells have
been found by Mr. Willis on Sable Island.

The Dibranchiates may be conveniently divided
into two groups or sub-orders, the Decapoda or
ten-armed, and the Octapoda or eight-armed. The
four first of the following families belong to the
first sub-order, the two last to the second.

Teiithi4ln^. — This family includes several
genera, two at least of which are found in our seas.
Loligo includestheCalamaries or pen-bearing squids,
so named from their having a rudimentary internal
shell of cartilaginous consistency and shaped like a
pen or feather. A species of Loligo is found in the

FUj. 216.

■¥

OMSfABTREPHES Bartkamii, LeSueur.

II

I'. '

1 •

*•

'

1 ,'

1^ ;

,.! I

172

PROVINCE MOLLUSCA.

Bay ol' Fundy. Oiinna^frcphcs includes those which
have an clon;^atc(l narrow ])en, ^vith a conical
hollow extremity. 0 Bnrfnniui ? occurs in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence and is known as the Squid.
(Fig. 21G.) Our Sfjuids are of small size and are
mucii used as halt hv fishermen ; l)ut some of the
largest and most formidable cephalopods of the
tropics belong to this family.

KcBciiiiiilifltc. — These are extinct Ce[)halo-
pods belonging to tlie jMesozoic ])eriod of geolog3\
They were allied to the last family, but possessed a
curious and complicated internal shell, in part
chambered. Fig. 217. No Canadian species are
known. y.v,/.2i7.

BELKM>':Trs, section, al'ter Phillips

PIIOVINCE MOLLUSC A.

173

l^i^pitulic — These are the Cuttle-fishes. They
have a more compact form than the squids, and
the internal shell (cuttle-bone) is hard and cal-
carous. No Canadian species are known.

Mpii'iiH<lsts — These are small cephalopods with
an internal spiral chambered shell. S.fra(j'iUs is
sometimes carried northward by the gulf stream,
and cast on our shores.

Oei<»iHHli«l»'. — The Octopus or Poulpe of the
Mediterranean is tlie type of this family, in which
the shell is entirely rudimentary, the arms eight in
number and connected by a web at the base, and
the body usually short and compact. We have no
known Canadian species, though there arc Northern
species which might occur on our coasts.

Ai*^oimiili<lsi>. — Tlit3sc are Octopods, of which
the females are protected by a dehcatc shell, not
divided into chambers, and enclosed in two of the
arms, which are flattened at the extremity. The
" Paper Nautilus," Argonauta argo, is the most
common representative of this family in collections.
These animals swim by ejecting water from the
funnel, and creep on the bottom by means of the
arms. The poetical fancy of their using their
shells as boats has no founda,tion in fact.

For the Cephalopoda the student may be referred
to the works already mentioned under the Lamelli-
branehiates. Many fossil Canadian species have
been described and figured by Mr. Billings in the
Reports of the Geological Survey.

174

PROVINCE MOLLUSC A.

11

Tabulah View of Cephalopods.

m , ^ 7 . < Ortlioceratidae.
Tdralmm-hata ^ Ammonitid^.

Cephalopoda. <;

<

^Tcutliidi«.
Bclcramtidic.
Scpiadae.

I

Order
DthrancJuata. ^ Spirulidaj.

OctopodidDe.

^ A.rgonautid^.

iViP

CIIA^rTER V.
DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY— ConUnucd,

Province Articilata.

. f

■I

Bilateral, symmetrical ; akeldon annulose, cxter-
7ial ; nervous system Jiomo(/ane/Uate, consistin(j of
an asopliafjeal rinu, and double abdominal ncrvc-
cord and ganglia. Heart dorsal, usually vasi-
form; blood not red except in some Anmdata ; res-
jjiratorg organs lateral ; jaivs move horizuntally.

Class 1. Anuulata — Worms.
" 2. Crustacea— ^oR Shcll-fisli.
" o. Insecta — Insects, and JMyriapods.
4. Arachnida — Mites, Spiders, Scorpions.

a

The plan embodied in the tskclcton of the Arti-
culata is that of a scries of rings, or somites as
they have been called, articulated to each other
and constituting a chain of segments. In the
"worms this structure is simple and nearly unifonn,
from front to rear of the animal. In the higher
forms it becomes more complex and varied. In the
cross section of the body, the alimentary canal
occupies the centre ; above it is the elongated heart
or dorsal vessel ; below V6 the principal nerve-cord.
The bilateral symmetry is perfect, and there is
sometimes also an indication of antero-posterior
symmetry. The respiration is performed in the
aerial species by air tubes (tracheae) opening by

<A

.^.^'-nOj-

3> ^. .^

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

//

%^

.<i' ^^ MP.

L<'/

/M/.

V.

1.0

I.I

1.25

If: 1^ IIIM

■^ li^ 1 2.2

:f lio 12.0

1.4

1.6

V]

^

/^

7

'^ >

V

>^

Si ,

1

o^

\W

176

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

pores or stigmata at the sides, or by air-sacs. In
the aquatic species it is eifectcd by gills, usually
placed at the sides of the body. In the smaller
species the skeleton is composed of a tough elastic
substance named chitine. In the larger species it
is often hardened by calcareous matter. The num-
ber of species of Articulates far exceeds that in
any other province.

Class I. — Annulata.

i !

Bodt/ soft, vermiform, anmdatcd ; with suckers,
setce or setl<jerous feet. In most an aUmentary
canal loith proper parieU's, a vascular system,
respiratory organ"^ and a double ganylionic 7ier-
vous cord.

In the typical Annelids, Hkc the sea-^vorms,
earth-worms, kc, we have a scries of nearly equal
rings, in each of which an upper and under
area and two side areas are distinguishable, and to
the latter, in the higher types, iSetoi or setigerous
feet are attached. The intestinal canal, the circu-
lating system and the nerve-cord, are arranged, as
above stated, with regard to articulates in general ;
but in all the members of this class the nutritive
fluid appears to be .contained in the general visceral
cavity, as well as in the vessels when these exist.

There are, however, a number of low forms of
Annulates, in which the typical characters become
obscure, and in some of which the organism descends
almost to the level of the Protozoa. Of this cha-
racter are the Entozoa or intestinal worms, the
liotifera or wheel animalcules, and the Turbellaria
or ciliated worms.

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

177

The link of connection between these low forms
and the ordinary worms, is established only through
the embryonic stages of the latter, which in the
absence or slight development of the rings, and
their movement by means of cilia at once recal
some of the lower forms above mentioned. It must,
however, be admitted that the group of Entozoa, as
at present held by naturalists, is rather one of con-
venience, depending on the peculiar habits of these
creatures, than of natural arrangement, since they
differ very much among themselves both in plan
and degree of complexity.

The above considerations lead us to divide the
Annulata into two sub-classes, in the manner sug-
gested by Prof. Huxley, — the one, including the
Entozoa, Rotifera and Ciliated Worms, to be named
Scoecida ; the other, the Worms properly so
called, or Atmclida.

(1. Scolecida.^

Under the first of these sub-classes, the orders
are ;

1. Ntcreliiiiiitlia, comprehending those worms
called by Cuvier parenchymatous, and by others
sterelminthous, that is, worms having cellular bodies
without distinct viscera. This will include the
cestoid worms or Tape-worms, the Flukes, Planarire
and other Turbellarians, and the Acanthocephala
or spiny-headed Entozoa.

2. €oelcliiiiiitlia. including those parasitic
worms having distinct viscera and parietes of
the body, and approaching in structure to the
ordinary worms. This order includes the Round
Intestinal Worms and the Hair-worms.

H

»!■

178

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

:i. Ilotil'ersi, including certain microscopic
worms, with ciliated organs at the head, and im-
perfectly annulated bodies ; and which, while in
some points resembhng embryonic worms, also in
some respects approach to the lower Crustacea.
These are the Wheel-animalcules and their allies.

1. Sterol mi II tlisi.

The internal worms belonging to this order may
be represented by the common tape worm, Tcenia
so/mm, of the human intestines. (Fig 2m8). This
creature in its adult state consists of a head ' or
JScolex, having four suckers on the sides and a
circle of sharp spines for attachment ; appended to
this are very numerous quadrate flat joints, each
containing an ovarian apparatus, so that these
creatures are chiefly remarkable for the great
development of their generative apparatus. Other-
wise their structures are very simple, and they
appear to feed by absorption into a series of tubes
excavated in the cellular substance of the body.
The eggs of the tape-worm, when discharged from
the intestine of its host, may be taken by other
animals along with their food. They are hatched
in the stomach into a microscopic scolex, which
penetrates into the tissues and is capable of
multiplying by fission. This scolex finally estab-
lishes itself as a pupa or resting scolex, and assumes
the form represented in Fig. 21Sa- in which state
it is the Kind of parasite termed Ot/sticercus,
and which causes the disease known as " measles "
in the domestic hog, an animal which, from its
habits of life, is pecuharly liable to become the
host of these parasites. The circle of change is

PROVINCE ARTICULATA,

179

oscopic
ind im-
hile in
also in
istacea.
allies.

ier may
Tcenia
). This
lead" or
1 and a
snded to
ts, each
it these
e great
Other-
.d they
if tubes
body,
led from
ly other
Ihatched
which
table of
estab-
,ssumes
ih state
icercus,
easles "
Tom its
ime the
ange is

Fiff. 21'^.

T/ENiA SOLIUM— lumtl or S.oli'X iiud tw) joi:»t-», witli Liiva or
Cysticercus (a).

completed when the Cysticcrcus is transferred in
the living state from the flesh of the hog into the
human stomacli. Many other species of tape-
worm exist, and pass through similar changes ; the
young inhabiting the flesh of various animals, and
the adults appearing in 'the intestines of carnivo-
rous species which may happen to feed on the
infected flesh.

A second group of Entozoa included in this
order is the genus Distoma and its allies. These
creatures are oval in form and have one or two
suckers for attachment. They have a mouth and
an alimentary canal, which bifurcates, and has no
posterior aperture. These are the " Flukes," two
species of which arc found in the human liver,
Ql> hepatlciwi and D. lanceu.itum), and they also
occur in domestic animals, more especially in the
sheep.

i ' '.'1

180

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

I i

A third group of these parasites, the Acan-
thocephalay may be represented by the Ecldno-
rhyncus gif/as of the intestines of the hog. Their
general structures do not seem very dissimilar
from those of tiic last mentioned group, but they
are of elongated form, and the anterior extremity
is armed with a formidable proboscis furnished
with hooked spines at the sides.

The last group of these worms may be repre-
sented by the Planaria', which are minute oval
worms occurring both in fresh water and in the
sea, resembling the Distomas in form, but having
a more complex internal system of nutritive
canals, and having the surface covered with cilia,
by means of which they swim. They are not
internal parasites.

The whole of these creatures may be grouped
in the following families :

1. Taciiiaihvt. — Head with suckers and spines;
body jointed. These are the Tape-worms and their
allies.

2. Trcinatoilrt.— Body depressed, but jointed,
with suckers but no spines. These are the Disto-
mas and their allies.

3. Acaiitlioce|>|ia7a. — Body saccular
cylindrical ; anterior end witli an uncinafed probo
cis. Echinorhyncus and its allies.

4. Turbcllau-ia.— Body flattened and provided
with external cilia. These are the Planarije and
their allies.

2. Coeleliiiiiitlia.

V

In these the alimentary canal is suspended in an
abdominal cavity, and the sexes are distinct, which

or

rUOVINCE AKTICULATA.

181

is not tlio case in the previous group. The common
round worms of the human intestines (^Ascaris)
belong to this order. A still more dangerous
though microscopic parasite is the Trichina spira-
lis (Fig. 219), which inhabits the muscles of the

Fif/.m.

If

in an
1 which

Trichina simualis, in its cyst, mogniHod; and specimen removed
from itB cyst, larther niagnilicd.

domestic hog, and when transferred from these to
the human stomach, multiplies rapidly, and penetrates
the tissues, causing great and sometimes fatal irri-
tation. It finally forms a sac or cyst, in which it
remains in a quiescent condition, unless transferred
into the alimentary canal of some new host, where
the same course is again pursued.

Another curious Avorm belonging to this group, is
the hair-worm (^Gordlu&.^ These creatures are
internal parasites in the larger aquatic insects,
from which, when mature, they come forth as ex-
tremely long and slender worms, of a whitish or
brown colour, which swim "rcely in the water of
pools and there deposit their eggs. From their
sudden appearance in great numbers in such places,
arises the popular superstition that they are ani-
mated hairs. Our common species is probably G,
facustris, Fabr.

I ll

182

PIIOVINCE ARTICULATA.

With reference to the relation of parasites to the
animals on which they prey, it may be stated that
these creatures are usually destructive only under
circumstances of unnatural or unsuitable habits of
life. In the human subject, their introduction is
due in most cases to the use of imperfectly cooked
food, of raw vegetables not properly cleansed, and
of stagnant impure water ; or to filthy habits in the
keeping and preparation of food.

The Caelclminths may bo divided into the follow-
ing sub-orders or families :

1. Gorcliaeea. — Body slender. Alimentary
canal without vent. Example, Gordius, Trichina.

2. Neiiiatoulcai. — Body elongated. Alimentary
canal with both mouth and vent. Example, Ascaris.

3. Oiicliopliora. — Body depressed, sub-arti-
culate, mouth with hooks, anus distinct. Example,
Linguatula.

«2. Rotifcra.

These arc microscopic animalcules, at one time
included with the Infusoria, but now known to be
of much more complex structure. They derive their
name from ciliated lobes placed on the head, and
which, in some species, from the motion of the cilia,
have the appearance of rotating wheels. These
ciliated lobes serve to create currents to bring food
to the mouth, and also for locomotion. The alimen-
tary canal has, in the better developed examples,
an interior stomach or crop, a gizzard with
apparatus for triturating the food, and a proper in-
testinal canal: There is also a vascular system, with
a pulsating sac. In the body wall there are dis-
tinct muscular fibres, and the posterior part is more

PROVINCE AKTICULATA.

183

'.it

or less articulated or jointed, and in many species
furnished with claspers for attachment, >Yhilc others
are protected within a case or cell of gelatinous con-
sistency. Though microscopic in size, the Rotifers
are more highly organized than any other members
of this sub-class ; they arc found in great numbers in
stagnant water, aquaria, &c. ; and form very inter-
esting subjects of microscopic study.

The Rotifera are bisexual, and the males are of
smaller size and more simple structure than the
females. The young are produced from proper
ova. Nervous ganglia have been observed in some
species, and eyes are also believed to have been
detected. The Rotifers are very tenacious of life,
specimens have been desiccated and moistened again,
several times in succession, without perishing ; and
after being kept dry for years, they have revived
on being put into water.

The following division of the Rotifers, though
probably not natural, is useful in distinguishing
these creatures under the microscope : —
F 1. Mouoiroclisi. — With a continuous single ring
of cilia. Example, Conochilus.

2. Ni'liixotrodia. — With the ciliary apparatus
notched or lobed. Example, Floscularia.

3. l»oI.y iroclia. — With several wheel-like or-
gans. Example, Hydatina.

4. Zygotroelisi.— With two wheel-like organs.
Example, Rotifer.

On intestinal worms the student may consult Von
Beneden, *' Vers Intestinaux," (Supplement to
Comptes Rendus) , and Cobbold on Entozoa ; and the
more common Rotifers will be found described and
figured in Pritchard's Infusoria,

hi

^m

m^

184

I

! i

PROVINCE AIITICULATA.

(2. Annelida.)

The second group of Annulata, the Annelids or
worms proper, includes a vast number of species,
the classification of many of Avhich is difficult or
uncertain. De Quatrefages divides the whole
assemblage into three groups, which he regards as
classes ; the Leeches, the Earthworms, and the
Sea-worms ; and the latter is subdivided into tAvo
groups or orders of vagrant worms (Errantes)
and sedentary worms [Sedcntaires]. For our
present purpsoc we may conform sufficiently to
this arrangement by adopting the older subdi-
vision into four orders as follows :

1. Niietoria. — Body destitute of setue or feet.
Locomotion by suckers at the extremities, alimen-
tary canal attached to the integument. These are
the leeches and their allies.

2. Terric'ola. — Body cylindrical, with setne or
bristle-like organs on the rings ; alimentary canal
attached by bands to the integument. Earth
worms and their allies.

3. Tubicola. — Body rings with tubular seti-
gerous feet, gills placed near the head. Marine
worms inhabiting tubes. These are the Serpulae
and their allies.

4. Krraiitisi. — Body with numerous setigerous
feet ; external gills in most. These are the Vagrant
Sea-worms or Sea-centipedes and their allies.

1. ^iiictoria.

T!.c ordinary medicinal leech, which is every-
where well known, is a typical worm of this
group. Its anterior sucker is furnished with three

PROVINCE AKTICULATA.

185

elids or
species,
ficult or
e whole
^ards as
;ind the
into two
rrantes)
For our
ently to
r subdi-

; or feet.
, aliracn-
'hcsc are

h setse or
ivy canal
Earth

ular seti-
Marine
Scrpulje

etigerous
Vagrant
lies.

IS every-
of this
nth three

saw-like teeth, with which it punctures the integu-
ment of the animal on which it is to feed. It lias
an immense sacculated stomach, a dorsal, abdo-
minal and two lateral circulating vessels, and a
complex nervous system of the homogangliatc
type, with ten minute eyes on the front margin of
the body. In each ring of the body there are
two apertures leading to mucous glands, and
serving also as openings for the discharge of the
ova. The Medicinal Leech is Ilirudo (SaiKjui-
sur/a) mcdieinalis.

The Tortoise Leech of our creeks and ponds,
(^Clepsine parantica) Say, is another example. It
is oval and flat in form, with the posterior sucker
very large and the body mottled with green and
black. The ova are hatched under the body of
the parent animal, and attach themselves to vessels
in the abdomen, apparently obtaining nutriment in

Fifj. 220.

Clepsink parasitica— Young ppccimon niapniliiHl, showinj?
internal orRans. (a) Anterior sucker and eves. (/<) Oesophagus and
Salivary Gland, (r) Stomach, (d) robterior Sucker.

180

PROVINCE ARTlCrLATA.

the first instance from the parent; but when still
very small they swim freely and begin to suck the
blood of other animals, sometimes of other species
of leechc. Fig. 220 represents a very young
tortoise leech, magnified, showing its sacculated
stomach as it appears when distended with food,
with its eyes and suckers, the anterior one in this
genus being little developed.

S. Tei'riooln.

The earth-worms of the genus Lumbricus arc
the most typical representatives of this order,
though it also includes some a({uatio worms [^Naia
and allied genera.] The common earth-worm,
L. Terrestris, breathes by pores in the sides, and
creeps and burrows by the aid of seta) or bristles
in the rings. It feeds on particles of organic
matter present in the soil, and swallows with its
food much fine earth, which it rejects in cylindrical
castings at the mouth of its burrow. The earth
worm is of value to the agriculturist in turning up
the soil, especially in pasture lands, and it has been
ascertained in some instances to have turned over
more than a foot of soil in 80 years. Ear ih- worms
also serve as food to many birds and other
animals.

a. Tiibieola.

These worms are inhabitants of the sea, forming
tubes of various material, from the opening of
which they exsert their gills, which are often beau-
tiful in form and colouring. The following may
vscrve as examples of our tubicolous worms. Fig. 221

en still
ick the
species

young
culated
:h food,

in this

;us arc
order,

i-\Yorm,
ies, and
bristles
organic
kvith its
indrical
c earth
ling up
as been
ed over
worms
other

onning
ling of
1 boau-

lig. 221

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

M.7.221.

187

<^

Vkkmili.v sKr.iurr.A, Stiinptjuu. (n) Natural sizo. ('>) Magnitlcd.
(c) Apcrtuio majjiiiliiHl.

represents the tube of Vcrmilia scrnila^ Stimpson,
which is frequent on shells and stones. The anterior
part, when complete, has two auriculate expansions
at the sides, apparently to accommodate the ova.
Serpula vermicidaris, which has a round tube of
similar size, is apparently less common. Several
species of Spirorbh occur on shells, stones and
sea-weeds, and are distinguished from the last
mentioned species by their regularly spiral forms.
>S'. spirillum is common on sea-weeds, and has a
round tube. S. sinistrorsa is smaller and coiled in
the opposite direction or reversed. S. vifrea, Fig.
224, is also a reversed species, of a semi-transparent

188

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fiy. 222.

i

Si'iRORBis viTUEA, natural size and niaguificd.

texture. S. granulata has three sharp ridges on
the upper side, and S. caneellata (Fig. 223) is our

Fig. 223.

(^

^— ^{tit^^T^^^

Si'iRORBiBCANCELLATA, Fabr,— («) natural size,( ft, c, d, ti,)magnifjOQ.

most ornate species. It was first described by
Fabricius, from Greenland, but is not uncommon on
the coast of Labrador and of Gaspd. aS'. porrecta is
loosely coiled and resembles a Serpula ; and our
largest species, S. glomerata^ also becomes some-
wha-t irregular in its coils at the end. *

* See a paper on these shells by the author, Canadian
Naturalist, >''ol, V.

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

189

id.

ridges on
23) is our

(^

t;,) magnified.

Icribed by

lomraon on

wrrecta is

and our

lines some-

Ir, Canadian

Another group of tube-dwellers, abundantly
represented on our coast, construct their tubes of
grains of sand neatly cemented together. Our
common species seems to be Fectlnaria Groen-
landicuy Grube. Lastly there are several species
which inhabit membranous tubes,); uried in or coated
with mud or fine sand. One of these dredged at
Murray Bay is represented in Fig. 22-1 as it ap-
peared when alive. It is a Sabella, probably S.
zonalisj Stimpson. It extends from the mouth of
its tube about sixteen beautifully pectinate fibres,
which are its gills, and which it can expand and
retract with a very graceful movement.

Fiff. 224.

Sabella zonalis, Stimpson,— Upper part, natural 8i/o;ai>tl bran-
chial procorts magmJiod.

4. £i'i*aiilia.

It is difficult to select from the numerous species
of naked sea-worms and sea-centipedes contained
in this group. Perhaps the most typical species
are those of the genus Nereis, in wliic!i the body
is greatly elongated, with very numerous joints,
haying setaceous feet on each joint, to which are

' IIJ

190

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

added flattened appendages for swimming. These
also appear to serve as gills. The mouth is armed
with a pair of strong mandibles. These worms
abound under stones on muddy shores, and in
similar places. iV. pelagia^ Lin., N. c/randis, St.,
and other species, are found on our coast.

A less typical but very curious species is Aphro-
dite aouleata^ an oval creature, sometimes five
inches in length, and more than two broad. Its
back is covered with wrinkled plates, which are its
respiratory organs, and clothed with felt-like hair ;
and on its sides are great numbers of bristles,
which shine with the colours of the rainbow. It is
the Sea-mouse of the fishermen. Another very
common worm of this group, Lepidonotas squa-
matus, Lin., may be recognized by its double row of
rounded scales on the back. '

The marine worms are of great geological anti-
quity ; impressions of their tracks, and shells of
tubicolous species, being found in very ancient
rocks. Figs. 225 to 227 represent species of
tubicolous worms from the Carboniferous of Nova
Scotia.

Fi(/. 225. Juy. 226. Fif/. 227.

225. Sehpulites ANNtTLATUf, Dn.— Carbonifofous.

226. S. llORTONEMSis, Dii.— Carbonilci'ous.

227. Spiuorbts cabbonarius.— Carboniferous. Natural
and magnitied.

size,

These
is armed

2 >Yorms
, and in
idiSy St.,

s Apliro-
mcs five
3ad. Its
ch are its
like hair ;
bristles,
ow. It is
;her very
tiis squa-
ble row of

cal anti-
shells of
ancient
pecies of

3 of Nova

PROVINCE ARTICULATA,

TABULAR VIEW OF ANNULATA.

191

Scolecida.

Annu-

LATA.

^ fToenioidea.

Sterel- J Trematoda.
mintha. j Acanthoeephala
i Turbellaria.

n^i 1 • ( Gordiacca.
, Coelclmui- ) ^j , . ,
< -1 < JNematoidea.

( Onchophora.

Rotifera. s^

f Monotrocha.
J Schizotrocha.
j Polytrocha.
I^ZygotrOcha.

<

^ ^ Hirudinidne.

Suctoria. <J Clepsinidoe.

&c.

Lumbricidaj.

Terricola.

Naiidne.

fSerpulidae.
Annelida. <( mi i • i } Terebellidae.

] rectniariada?.
l^ &c.

rSyllidaj.
Nereidoe.
Errantia. \ Nephthydte.
Aphroditidte.

latural size,

192

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Class ii. — Crustacea.

Body ivith articidaied Uinhs, and divisible info
cephalo-tliorax and abdomen. Respiratory organs
branchial. Head with jointed antenna'.

The crustaceans are the soft shell-fishes, of which
the CrabjLobstcr, Crayfish and Shrimpjmay be taken
as examples. They are characterized by the divi-
sion of the body into two portions, the cephalo-thorax
and abdomen, and by the possession of proper joint-
ed limbs, and gills as organs of respiration. By
these characters they may be distinguished from
the worms on the one hand and the insects and
arachnidans on the other. The front part of the
cephalo-thorax corresponds to the head, and is fur-
nished with jointed antennoe, eyes, and other organs
of sense, and organs of mastication, usually in
several pairs. The cephalo-thorax contains the
stomach, heart and gills, arranged as m the diagram,
(Fig 228.). To the cephalo-thorax are also attached

rU/. 228.

UiAORAM OF A Dkcapod Cuustaceax. (.<) Stoniacli. [h] Heart
(fj) Gills. («■) lutestiiip.

the proper feet. The abdomen is muscular, and
usually furnished with swimming apparatus. Most

PROVINCE AllTICULATA.

193

1 into .
rgans

wliicli
) taken
e divi-
-tliorax
r joint-
1. By
d from
cts and
: of the
I is fur-
L- organs
ally in
ms the
iagram,
ittached

(//) Heart

liar, and

5. Most

of the Crustacea are aquatic, and those that hvc on
land, nevertheless, breathe by means of gills.

The Crustacea may be divided primarily into
three sub-classes :

1. l!3litoiiioHtraoa, including a great number of
species, with various numbers of feet and without
swftnming feet on the abdomen. The integument in
these species is also composed of the substance
nnmed chitinc, whereas in the higher groups it is
often strengthened with calcareous matter. These
are the King-crabs, Cyprids, Trilobites, &c.

3. Teti*a<lceai>o<la, or those with the feet in
seven pairs, and appendages on the abdomen. These
are the Opossum-shrimps, Sand-fleas, Sow-bugs, &c.

3. l>ecapo(la, with five pairs of feet. These
are the Lobsters, Crabs, &c.

Sulj-Ciass, 1.— F.iUoiiioslraoa.

The orders in this group are the following : —

1. Xigiliosura. — The King-crabs or Ilorse-shoe
Crabs. Limulus jwli/phemus, the American King-
crab, is found as far north as the coast of Maine,
but does not extend into British America. These
creatures have the cephalo-thorax of semi-lunar
form, and the abdomen reduced to two pieces, one
of them being a sharp defensive appendage.

2. Trilol»at<\s. — These are extinct crustaceans
oharacteristic of the Pahxiozoic rocks. The anterior
segment of a trilobitc is the largest, and is known
as the butjJder. It is divided by two longitudinal
furrows into the side areas or cheeks, which bear
the eyes, and a central area, the (jlahclla. The
body segments arc usually numerous, and each

mi

104

PROVINCE AilTICULATA.
F 220.

I'Av.Avosnni^ Mhmac, Ihutt, ]'rimoidial.

divided into three lobes. The last seii;mcnt
which is usually similarly lobed, is named the
pygidium. The feet of Trilobites appear to have
been lamellar and adapted for SAvimming, but they
are not certainly known. The Taiarkings on rocks

rUOVINCK AllTICULATA.

195

known a? Eusic/mift'S, Profichnitcs, and Climac-
iichinites, arc supposed to be burrows and tracks of
Trilobites or similar animals. Many species of
Trilobites occur in Canadian rocks. {Vvrs. 220
to 233.]

Fif/. 230.

AsAi'iiU!^ N.)TANs, r.illiiig.s.— Middle Silurian.
Fiff. 231.

Palmania Logani, IJall— (Iload & Tygidiuui,)- Upper uriaii.

jp

iii

\\[ '

i '

ii 11 i

I; 1

196

PROVINCE AKTICULATA.
Ftff, 232,

IIOMALo iOTUS DELruiN00Et*nALU8, Grecn, Upper Silurian.

Fir/. 23S,

rniLLivsiA HowT, T5iUiiigs,—(l>Ki(lium),— Carboniferous.

8. Kurypterirta. — This order includes the
largest known Entomostraca. The species all be-
long to the Pahcozoic period of Geology, and are
known to us only as fossils. In Canada and Nova
Scotia, their remains are found in the Upper
Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous rocks. They
resemble the Trilobites and King-crabs in the form
of the short head or ccphalo-thorax, but differ in the
great development of the abdominal segments,
which some authors .regard as divisible into two
series, one thoracic and the other abdominal. There
are twelve of these segments with a telson or tail
piece an addition. There are five pairs of appen-
dages round the mouth, which appear to have
combined, as in Limulus, the functions of jaws and

J>ROVINCE ARTICULATA.

197

limbs. Fi;^. 234 represents a restoration, by Prof.
Hall, of Erypierua rernijH'S^ a species found in tlie
Upper Silurian of Western Canada. Otlier genera
of tins order are Pffvi/fjotus and Slimoma.

Fig. 204.

EuRTPTKRUS RBMIPK3, Dekay, (Restored),— Upper Silurian,

198

PUOVINCE AllTICULATA.

1. I*Ii.vIIo|mmIsi. — Those arc suiiill cru.sliiccun9
of shrimp-like form, with very numerous Icaf-liko
feet, and olonf^ated hodies. Some of the species
swarm in fresh-water ponds in sprin"; and summer.
(Fig. 2^35 h) represents a common species of Bran-

II <i. 2.sr..

Rntomostrata.

(a) Anomoloc'kiia, sp.— iiiii^'mlicil.

(/>) HUANCHIl'US VKKNAI.IH, Vcnill.

(c) C'Yi'uiii ACHLis, nuldtiiuan. — niagnilied.

cliipuSy found in Canada, B. vtrnalis^ Verrill. In
these creatures the eyes are sometimes consoli-
dated into one mass. The limbs serve for gills as
well as for locomotive organs. To this group or
the next arc also referred a number of cui'ious
bivalve crustaceans of the PaliTcozoic rocks, belong-
ing to the genera Lcpcrdlda, Bcf/richia, Esthcria,
S-c. (Figs. 23G, 237.)

J'^i(/. 230.

j^if/. 2.':

236. Bkyru'iiia Jonksii, Dn.— Carboniferous.
*<J37. li. PU8TUL0SA, IJ all, —Upper Siluriau.

PROVINCE ARTTOULATA,

VM)

5. 4ia<lo<'or:i. — In this order tlic body is
usually short, and the carapace or covering of the
ccphalo-thorax iR in two valves. The limbs arc
lamclliform and branchial, and the eyes usually
confluent. The water ileas of the genus DapJinla
belong to this order.

O. (IstracMMln. — In these the body is more
completely covered with a bivaUt; carapace, which
sometimes resembles the shell of a bivalve mollask.
The limbs arc suited for swimming and the eyes
are confluent. Fig. 235 c. represents a species of
Cijjms common in fresh-water pools and ditches,
and resembling, if not identical with, C. A(j'di»,
Ilaldeman. Fig. 288 represents Cythcrldca J'^iil-

Mg. 238.

CvTHKUTDEA MuLLEUi, Munst, (rt) Front, (h) Sido. (c) Nat. sizo

leri, one of several marine species found in the Gulf
of fct. Lawrence, and also in the Post-pliocene
clays. Several species of Ostracods are found in
the coal-formation rocks, and referred to genera
Cythere^ Cyflwrdla and Bairdia. (Fig. 239.)

7. €o|>e|>o<lsi. — In these the body is shrimp-
like though minute, and distinctly articulated, >ith

200

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

P'iil. 2.'50.

< 1

i 1

h ^

Kntomosthaca,— Carboiii'.i'rous.
('0 Baikdia,

(b) Cytiikkki,la inklata.

(c) Cytukuk.

many pairs of swimming limbs. The females arc
remarkable for their large pendent ovisacs. Species
of Cyclops are very common in tlio fresh-water,
and many other forms occur in the sea. The
species oi Anomaloa'ra represented in Fig. 235 a. is
remarkable for its luminosity at night, often causing
great breadths of the Gulf of St. Lawrence k) be
phosphorescent.

8. C'irripetlia. — These are the Barnacles and
Acorn-shells, creatures xvhich in their young stato
resemble ordinary entomostracans, but when adult
are included in peculiar shelly coverings, givir^
them a very anomalous appearance. The genus
Balanus contains the common beach acorn-shell,
B. crenatus, -which appears abundantly oh all
rocky coasts. The genus Coronula includes *iie
large whale-barnacJes, which grow parasitically on
the skins of whales. ■ 0. diadema is common on
■whales caught on the Labrador coast. The genus

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

201

I OS arc
species
-water,
The
35 a. is
laus'mtT

} k) be

es aiul

state

adult

giviDg

genus

i-shell,

OH all

s liie

11 V on

ion on

genus

II

Lt'pas includes stalked si)ecies, tlic barnacles
proper. Fig. 240 represents L. thndttd^ a species

J'iy. 240.

LUrAS DKNTATA, (loultl.

common on the Atlantic coast, and which may be
a variety of L. an at if era. The valves wliich cover
these creatures arc five in number ; the two larger
are the Scuta, the two smaller the Terga, and the
single piece along the back the Carina. The latter
is the only part corresponding to the conical case
of the acorn-shells. The scuta and terga cor-
respond to tlie " ojiercular valves " of the latter.
Fig. 241 represents portions of our largest acorn-
shcU.

9. FpSx»a. — The Epizoaare a group of depau-
perated and parasitic crustaceans, which in their
young state swim freely and resemble the young
of ordinary Entomostraca ; but when adult they
attach themselves, either by a suctorial mouth, by
mandibles furnished with hooks, or by suckers at-
tached to the limbs, to the skin, eyes or gills of
fishes, and other aquatic animals. The females
carry a pair of pendent ovisacs, and the males are
animals of much smaller size and of diiferent form.
The Epizoa are curious objects for examination

m

202

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fi;/.'m.

BAi-ANUi=i ITamert, Opercular »a'vcfi an I Body valvo.

under the microscope, owing to their singular
forms and the readiness with which their viscera
can be seen through their transparent bodies. They
have been divided into the following sub-orders or
families : — 1. Cephaluna^ or those attached directly
by the head — 2. Brdchiuna, or those attached by
suctorial arms — 3. Onchuna, or tho.sc attached by
hooks.

Niil>-i;iasH 2.— TctrartceaiMMla.

This group includes an immense number of
species of the smaller crustaceans, agreeing in
the number of thoracic limbs, though in some
cases these are merely rudimentary, but differing
very much amonij; themselves in details of structure.

PROVINCE ARTTCULATA.

203

11 some

The orders ol' Te trade eupoiUi lire lour, us i'ollows :
1. T^iviiioilipofla. — In thcbC the abdomen is
rudimentary, and the tliorax is elongate, with limbs
having hooks or claws, and others that are vesicular
and branchial. A common species in the Gulf of
St. Lawrence is Caprdla Scptentrionalis, the
Squilla fo6((^aof Fabricius, who describes it admir-
ably. It is a grotesque looking creature, half an
inch long, found on sea-weeds and zoophytes. It
walks by bending and lengthening its body like a
looper caterpillar, and when seeking for food at-
taches itself by its hind legs and bends and vibrates
its body and antennae with great agility, grappling
with its fore limbs anything that may come within
its reach.

3. iHopotla. — The Isopods have the abdomen
somewhat similar ^to the cephalothorax, and the
body usually flattened, the thoracic limbs subequal,
the abdominal branchial, and in the female plates
for sheltering the spawn on the abdomen. The
genus Aiiellas (A. Communis^ Say, Fig. 212) is

Fi;,

212,

\/ "

k

• ^c.

' '^^'^

-^-k^^Oip

■ Ccc-'..

'-4^,X

-..A." '

■ '"T

^■/V' '

. • ,( . ^* \

^ I

i^'' '" '

1

4

ASELLUS COMMUNIS, Sny

u

204

PROVINCE ARTICrLATA.

found in our fresh-Avatcr streams, .under stones and
cliips, and may be regarded as a typical isopod.
On tlie sea co'-sts species of Idotea and other
genera are found in sand and mud, and among sea
■weed. Species of Ci/mothca are found attached
to cod and otlier sea fishes, on ^vhich they are
parasitic, and tlie httle Limnoria tcrdivans is re-
markable for the rapidity witli which its ahuost
countless hosts burrow into and devour the wood-
work of bridges and wharves. A species of Lim-
noria has Ijcen foimd in (jiasjie by ^Ir. Whiteaves.
The genus 0;</.s'6*?/.s' includes the common sow-bug or
slater, a terrestrial species, living in cellars and
damp places, and is interesting as an example of a
crustacean capable of l)reathing in air, thougii by
means of »\\h. It feeds on (lecavinii: vegetable
matter, and is harmless to maif

•fi. AiiipSsaixMl^i. — These have the thoracic
limbs une(|ual, and witli vesicular branchial organs
at their bases. The abdomen is terminated by
appendages for swimming or leaping. The body is
usually compressed laterally and curved. The
Amphipods arc the " beach-fleas," ^' sand-
hoppers," &c., and arc very numerous on the bor-
ders of the sea and also in some fresh-water
streams. Gammarus locusta is found along the
coast almost everywhere, among sea-weeds ; and an
allied species, Gr. Minor (Fig. 2Ao b) is an inhabi-
tant of streams and ponds. The sand-fleas of the
genera Orahestia and Talitrus are also common
on sandy beaches. Dlplosf/jlus Bmusoni of the
coal-formation of Nova Scotia is supposed to be an
Amphiiml. (Fig. 214.)

PROVINCE Alll'ICULATA.

205

ones and
1 isopod.
nd other
nong sea
attached
tliey arc
IS is re-
ts ahuost
he wood-
5 of Lim-
hiteaves.
iW-bug or
liars and
nple of a
liougli by
i'e2;e table

tlioracic
al organs
lated by
body is
d. The
" sand-
thc bor-
sh-water
one; the
; and an
n inhabi-
ts of the
common
ii of the
to be an

DirL«>.',TYi"s Dawsoni, Salter— Carbonil'erouf. {a) Abdominal
st'gmeuts. {/>) Tail iiiagniliod,

1. Sloiiiapo<la. — In these the eyes arc borne
on stalks, the thoracic region is protected by a
carapace, the gills are free and exposed, and the
anterior feet arc turned toward the head. The tail
and abdominal feet are adapted for swimming. The
larger species of Stomapods are found in the waters
of the warmer regions of the world. Those of our
coasts are small, though often in great numbers.
Blijsis spimdosi/s (Fig. 29oa) is abundant along the

Fif/. 243.

MYSIS BPINULOSUS, (b) GAMMARUS MINOIl.

20G

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Atlantic coast, and has been called " opossum
shrimp," from a pouch under the thorax in which
the young are carried for a time. M. oculatus is
a second and more northern species, found on the
north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Fossil
crustaceans, supposed to be allied to Stomapods,
are found in the coal formation and Devonian of
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. One of these
is AjnpJdpcUis paradoxus, Salter.*

The Stomapods closely connect the Tctradecai ods
with the next sub-class.

SiilMJIas.'^ li, — llecaiMMlii.

This group includes the highest and most perfect
crustaceans, characterized by having feet in five
j)airs and the eyes mounted on stalks, with the
body definitely divided into cephalo-thoracic and
abdominal regions. The gills are lamellar, attached
to the sides of the thorax, and always enclosed in a
special branchial cavity. Fig. 228 p. 192, illustrates
the arrangement of the more important organs as
seen in the common lobster. The Decapods may be
divided into three groups, which are perhaps of
ordinal value.

1. JfljKToursi, or long-tailed crustaceans. These,
have the abdomen long, with lamellar swimming
feet, which also, in the female, serve to carry tlie
spawn. The abdomen is terminated by a swimming
organ, and is furnished with powerful muscles for
striking the water with the caudal fin. The most

• Acadian Geology, second edition,

PROVINCE AllTICULATA.

207

organs as

DWimming

important representative of this group is the com-
mon lobster, Ilomarus Americanus. The fresh-
water cray-iish, Astacus Bartoni^ also belongs to
it, as well as great numbers of shrimp-like crea-
tures found in the salt water. One of the most
abundant of these is that represented in Fig. 245,

Fi(j. 2ib.

Cranqon vulgaris, Fabr.

Crangon rnhjarls, a species very plentiful on both
sides of the Atlantic. Otlicr species, very abun-

208

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

dant in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and distinguished
by a dentatcd rostrum, belong to the genera IIlppo-
lijte and Paiidalus.

2. Aiioiiioiira. — This group is characterised
by a long abdomen destitute of natatory organs.
The most remarkable representatives on our coasts
are the hermit crabs, of which there appear to be
several species, not as yet very well distinguished
from each other. Our most common species
appears to be Uupagurus Bernhardiis. It has a
naked abdomen, furnished at the end with prehen-
sile hooks, and shelters itself in the cast-off shells
of univalve mollusks.

To this group belong also the " soldier crabs,"
of the intertropical regions, which arc capable of
living on land.

it. Brjieliyiirji. — In these the tail is rudimen-
tary and bent under the thorax, and the antennec
are short. These are the crabs proper. Cancer
horedlis is our common crab, which is very abun-
dant on all sandy and muddy shores. The smaller
" spider-crab," Uj/as aj^anea, is found in water a
little deeper ; and the great spider crab, which is
our largest species, sometimes measuring eighteen
inches in extreme breadth, occurs in still deeper
water. It is Ohioncctcs ojjillo of Fabricius.

The tropical Laad-crabs ( Gccarclnm^ and Tre«-
crabs {Bir(/us~) belong to this group. Their gills
are furnished with a special apparatus for coiit€ii*i-
ing water to keep them moist in the air : some of
these creatures are of large size, and of great
strength and SAviftness.

On the Crustacea the student may consult

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

209

Milnc Edwards' '' Crustaccs " in the " Suites a
Ijuffun," and Owen's Lectures on the Invertebrata ;
and for American species, Do Kay's Report on the
Crustacea of New York, and papers by Stimpson
and others in the proceedinp;s of American societies.
Canadian species of Trilobitcs and other fossil
Crustacea ^vill be found described by BiUings and
Jones in the Reports of the Geological sui'vey. See
also Hall's Palajontology of New York.

Class III. — Insecta.

Skeleton chitinouSy with articulated limbs ; and,
in the typical orders, a distinction into head,
thorax and ahdomen ; head with jointed antcnnce.
Respiration tracheal. Win(/s in most; limbs
normally in three pairs.

In the typical Insecta the ])ody is divided into three
great regions, the head, thorax and abdomen.
The rings of tli§ body in the insects are more
complex than in the previous classes, being each
divided into a tergum or back piece, two side
pieces and a sternum or head piece, and in the
thoracic part at least, these portions arc again
subdivided.

The head in the typical insects is regarded by-
most entomologists as composed of several rings or
segments eonsolidated together. Its appendages
may be divided into sensory and oral. The first
are the eyes, ears and tactile organs. The eyes
in adult insects are in two masses, or compound
eyes, consisting of numerous simple eyes, each

210

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

havin<^ a hexagonal or ciuadrangiilar cornea, a crys-
talline lens and a division of the optic nerve im-
bedded in pigment. Beside these there are
separate ocelli, usually three in number, on the top
of the head. Sonic uncertainty exists as to the
hearing in insects, but this sense is generally be-
lieved to reside in the antennre or jointed organs
attached to the front of the head, which are at
least very delicate organs of touch, much employed
by insects in directing their movements.

The oral organs are the labrum or upper lip,
which forms the roof of the mouth, the two man-
dibles, which arc often powerful hooks or jaws, the
two maxilhe or inner jaws, and the labium or lower
lip, which is furnished with palpi or feelers. In the
suctorial insects the oral organs are variously
modified into lancets or suckers, for obtaining
liquid food.

The appendages of the thorax arc, in the most
perfect forms, two pairs of wings above, and three
pairs of legs below. The thorax is divided into
three segments, the pro-meso- and meta- thorax.
Each has a pair of feet, and the wings, when
present, are attached to the mesoand meta-thorax.
The wings are each composed of a double mem-
brane, strengthened by tubular nervures. The
wings may be coriaceous or membranous, and
naked or covered with scales, and their venation
affords important characters for distinguishing the
rders, families and genera. The abdomen is
de&titutc of appendages, except the ovipositor,
sting or other apparatus which may be attached
to its extremity. Each thoracic leg consists of

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

211

a crys-
rvc im-
re are
the top
, to the
•ally he- '
I or-^ana
I arc at
mployocl

-)pcr Up,
vvo man-
jaws, the
I ov lower
. In the
variously
ohtaiuing

the most
nd three
itled mto
a- thorax.
irs, when
,a-thorax.

lie mem-
s. The
^ous, and

venation
thing the

omen is
|vipositor,

attached
lonsists of

five joints : — (1) tlio Coxa, consisting in some
orders of two pieces, (2) the Trochanter, (3)
the Femur, (4) the Ti))ia, (5) the Tarsus, usually
consisting of five suh-divisions, and terminated hy
a pair of claws, between whicli is a cushion-like
sucker Avhich aids the insect in walkinur on vertical
and overhanmnur surfaces.

The insects are rcmiu'kable, among Hiu inverte-
brates, for the perfect structure and arrangement
and great energy of the muscular system. The
muscles concerned in locomotion are chielly concen-
trated in the thorax and irs appendages. The
nervous system consists (jf a double abdominal cord,
with a ganglion at each segment, from which the
nerves of that seii;ment arc iiiven atf. The al)do-
minal cord consists of an up})er series of fi))res with-
out 2;an!2;lia, and an under series on which the
ganglia are [ilaced. In the head the nerve cord
expands into an ocso[)hageal ring, with a considerable
mass of nerve matter above the gullet, giving off
the nerves of sense. The digestive organs consist
of the oesophagus, crop, gizzard, true digestive
stomach and intestines. The heart is an elongated
dorsal vessel with a series of valves, and propelling
the blood from back to front. The respiration of
insects is carried on by trachcix; or air4ubes, kept
open by a delicate thread of chitine spirally coiled
in their walls, and opening ])y spiracles or breathing
pores in the thorax and abdomen. The tracheiie
penetrate through all parts of the body, and blood-
vessels are abundantly distributed on their surfaces.
The expulsion and admission of air are effected by
the alternate contraction and dilatation of the

n

■' ! !

212

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fir/. £40.

.

:"■ ■fet.:.....: ••

.S..._

j^^^^Y^ "^

V

t. ■

■ 'S^^^ --''''^

c>....

'^Ifjr

/d-....

■''^^l^'^^^

"-■,... *

•■■. -v ■'.'

■^^Bk^^^'- *^B \

-Wp-''

■ <'jf^^^/^'^

W"^ ■

Anatomy of spuinx LiousTui—allcr Newport,
(rt) Maxillae or Tongue.
(^) Labial Talpi.

(c) ttuper-a-sophagoal Ganglion or I'rain.
(m, i, j7.) Trincipal Kervo-cord and G.uigliii.
\d) Nerves ol' muscles of flight.
(»?, o, ^?.) Nerves of muscles of the legs.
\h) Crop. ((',/) Heart or Dortal vessel,
(i ) Pigestive Stomach.
(m) Intestine and urinary vessels.
(A', /) Generative organs

The numerals indicate the segments of
thoracic, and 11 to 20 abdominal.

the body, 8 to 10 Leng

PROVINCE AUTICIJLATA.

213

abdominal segments. In larvoc and pupoc inhabit-
ing water, the respiration is effected by gill-like
expansions of the crust of the body, containing air-
tubes and apparently absorbing the air mechani-
cally suspended in the water. (See Fig. 246.)

Insects are bisexual and reproductive by eggs,
and many of their most curious instincts are con-
nected with oviposition and provision for their
young. The egg in the higher insects developes
a worm-like Larva ^ and this passes into a torpid
Pupa, within which the parts of the Imago or
perfect insect are developed, until it emerges full
grown from the pupa case. In some insects, how-
ever, this metamorphosis is imperfect, the larva and
pupa resembling the perfect insect, except in the
absence or rudimentary state of the wings ; and in
some wingless insects there is no metamorphosis.
Insects arc thus 3Ietaholian, Ilemi-metaholian or
Ametaholian.

Several kinds of peculiar organs of secretion
arc observed in insects. Of this kind arc the silk-
glands for secreting that material, the odoriferous
glands secreting pungent odoriferous substances,
and poison glands connected with stings or lancets.

The above statements apply to the typical or
six-footed insects ; and only partially to an aberrant
group usually included in the class — the Myria-
pods, or centipedes and their allies. '

If we include the myriapoda with the insects, it
becomes necessary to divide the class into two
sub-classes, Myriapoda and Ilexapoda, the orders
in which arc as follows : —

ko 10 leng

214

PROVINCK ARTICULATA.

^fllb-CllIMN— J9I.VI*ill|MMlH.

Order l.C-liilo^iiallia.'^ — Head composod of
one segment, two pairs of feet on each segment of
the body. Tlicse are the Gallyworms, or Mille-
pedes.

Order 2. S.yii^;iialli».f — Head composed of
two segments, one pair of legs on each segment of
the body. These are the Centipedes,

These creatures differ so greatly from the typi-
cal insects that many naturalists regard them as a
separate class. In their general form of body,
and in their development by increase in the num-
ber of their segments, they resemble the worms ;
but in their internal structures and in the posses-
sion of limbs they approach to the insects, of which,
on the principles of classification followed in this
manual, they must necessarily form the lowest or
most degraded group, corresponding to the scolc-
cida among the worms. The chilognatha or gally-
worms are represented in this country by several
species, of which one of the most common is appar-
ently iw/«s yt?wu6-^ws. Wood. (Fig. 24:1.) It lives

Fif/. 247.

IrLUS VKNUrfTUS, VVood.

* Diplopoda, Blainville,
f Chilopoda, Latreillc.

PROVINCE AUTirULATA.

215

among dccayin;^ vr<^ctablo matter, on which it feeds,
and when disturbed curls itself up. Of the other
division one of our coumion representatives is
LUhohias Amerlcamis, (Fi^. 248). The ccnti-

Fif/. 248.

LiTxiuiuus AMjiuicANi's, Nowpoit,— Anterior .-^oj^mouts onlarjtcd.

pedes, of which this creature is an exam})le, are car-

n their

Fiff. 249.

nivorous and active in their habits, and furnished

CAunoNiFEROus Myriai'od.". (n) XYLonius pihillariab, Dn-
((•) roKferior Segments eiilarj^t'd. (I>) Arciiiulus xyloijkhdeb,
Scuddor.

216

PROVINCE AllTICULATA.

•with poisoned fangs. Some of the tropical spcci*es
attain to a great size and inflict formidable bites.

The Carboniferous period seems to have been
more favorable to the herbaceous myriapods than
the modern time. In the coal-formation of i^ova
Scotia, six species have been found. One of these
Xylohiu8 siglllariae. is represented in Fig. 249.
a and c, and another ArcJdidus xylohioides in
Fig. 249 b.

Siib-flass lIexapo<l:i.

Order 1. Altera. — These are destitute of
wings, and undergo no mctamaphosis, or are amcta-
holian. They arc the Lice and Spring-tails. By some
modern systcmatists this order is abandoned — the
Lice being placed Avith the order IIcmiptcra,and the
Spring-tails and their allies in the Ncuroptcra.

Order 3. Apbaiiiptera. — These have rudi-
mentg of "vvings, and undergo a complete metamor-
phosis, or are mctabolian. They are the Fleas and
their allies. In some modern systems this order is
united with the next.

Order l\. l>ii>tera. — The insects of this order
have only two wings, on the meso-thorax ; the second
or posterior pair being rudimentary and named
haltercs or poisers. They are mctabolian and their
larvae arc footless. These are the Flies and Gnats.

ti>r«der 4, liepidoptera. — These have four
wings, usually of ample dimensions, clothed with
coloi^red scales. They are mctabolian, and the
larvue have rudimentary limbs. Theso are the
Butterflies and Moths.

PllOVINCE AllTICULATA.

217

I species
3 bites,
ive been
ocls than
of i^ova
of these
?ig. 249.
ioides in

itute of
e amtta-
By some
icd — the
I, and the
era.

ve rudi-

letamor-

Icas and

order is

lis order
c second

named
nd their

Gnats,
re four
ed with
xnd the
are the

C]?r<ler 5. Ilyiiiciioptera. — These have four
wings, membranous and few veined, and the basal
joint of the abdomen united with the thorax. They
are the most perfectly metabohan of all insects.
These are the Bees, Wasps and Ants-

Or<ler O. Hciiiiptera.— These have four wings,
the first pair wholly or partly leathery or coriaceous.
They have an imperfect metamorphosis or arc hemi-
metabohan, the larvae having six feet and the thorax
and abdomen distinct. These arc the Bugs, Water-
boatmen, Plant-hce, &c.

Or<ler 7. Neuroptcra. — These have four mem-
branous veiny wings. They are hemi-metabolian,
the larvae being hexapod and often aquatic. They
are the Dragon-flies, May-flies, &c.

Ortler H. Orllioptera — These have four
wings, the front pair coriaceous but nerved, the
second pair folc'cd longitudinally in the manner of
a fan. They are hemi-metabolian, the larvse being
like the imago but without wings. These are the
Grasshoppers and Cockroaches.

Order ». C'olooptcra. — These have four Avings,
the first pair being hard elytra or covers to the un-
der pair, which are folded transversely. These are
intermediate between the hemi-metabolian and meta-
bohan insects, the larvae being worm-hke but six-
footed. They are the Beetles.

Of the above orders the first six have their mouth
organs for the most part adapted for suction (haus-
tellate) the last three have the mouth adapted for
biting (mandibulate).

The families and genera of insects are so numer-
ous that it will be necessary in this manual merely

218

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

to illustrate each order by a few typical species,
leaving the student to refer for further information
to more detailed works, to be mentioned in the
sequel.

1. Aptorn.

We figure as an illustration of this order the too
well-known Pediculus hiimanus(Fig. 250) an extcr-

Fig. 2o0. ,

TeDICULUS HITMANUS CAriTIS, Do GccT.— luiigniliud.

nal parasite on the human head, where it subsists by
sucking blood by means of its minute beak or haus-
tcllum. It deposits its eggs upon the hair. The
Poduroc or Spring-tails are remarkable for the pre-
sence of a moveable bifurcate organ at the extrem-
ity of the abdomcn,by means of which they can leap
with great agility. In the genus Lepisma the body
is Covered with shining scales which are interesting
microscopic objects. These creatures are often
found in damp lumber-rooms and similar places.

l1 species,
iformation
cd in the

er the too
) an cxtcr-

nilic'd.

ubsists by
or haus-
iir. The
the prc-
extrem-
can leap
the body
iteresting
ire often
laces.

TROVINCE ARTICULATA.

2 /ipliaiiiptera.

219

i

The Fleas, of the genus Pulex, are remarkable
for their leaping powers, and the highly irritating
nature of the poison which they appear to inject into
the wounds inflicted by their sharp lancet-like
mandibles. The eggs of the fleas are deposited in
dust and organic matters lying in dry places, and
are hatched into worm-like larvae. In some of the
species the larvae spin a silken cocoon in which they
pass the pupa state. The largest species known is
Pidex gi(jas^ described by Kirby, found in the
northern part of British America, in Lat. 65 '^ .
It is two lines in length.

».l>iptora

The principal families of the two-winged insects
arc : —

The Ilippohoscidce or Forest-flies, Sheep-ticks,
and Bird- ticks, some of which are wingless.

The Ot'stridiV or Bot-flies, whose larva) inhabit
the stomachs of horses and other animals. Oestrus^ &c.

The Mitscida' or ordinary House-flies, 3Iusca
domestica, &c.

The Tabanidai or biting Horse-flies, Ta6aw?/s, &c.

The Tlpulidoo or Ilarry-long-lcgs and Wheat-flies,
Tqyula, Cecidomyia, ko,.

The CuUcUlcv or Mosquitoes and Gnats, whose
larvae live in water, and the adult females are very
troublesome by their irritating bites. Culex pipiens
is the European species, and there are said to be
thirty species known in North America.

As an illustration of the Diptera we may take the
Cecidomyia trificiy Kirby, which under the name

220

PllOVINCE ARTICULATA.

of " -wheat midge " and ^* weevil " * has been so
destructive to the wheat crop in America. The
imago and larvae are shewn in (Fig. 251.) The

a

Fig. 251.

Ckcidomyia tritici, Kirby. {a) iMalo, maftiiiHcd. (?>) Female,
magnilied. (c) Larva, ma^uilicd. (d) Imago and Larva, natural size.
(e) Koruel of wheat with larva;.

animal deposits its eggs in the ears of the wheat
when in blossom. The minute yellow larvae hatched
from these eggs feed on the juices of the young
grain, and when mature drop to the ground, into
which they burrow and remain torpid during winter,

♦ The latter name is incorrect, the true weevils being
Coleoptera.

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

221

has been so
jrica. The
i51.) The

making their way to the surface in sprin;^ to assume

Hi. {b) FomalG,
I. natural size.

the wheat
•voe hatched

the young
;round, into
•ing'wintcr,

reovils being

the imaiio condition and to

their depredation

_ renew

The best remedy for their attacks is to cut ana
house the grain before the larvae have dropped,
and to destroy these when the grain is threshed.
The " Hessin Fly," an allied species ((7. des
tructor) deposits its eggs on the straw of wheat,
and the larvae suck the juices of the stem. Two
broods are produced in the year. This species is
represented in Fig. 252. A proper rotation of
crops is the surest remedy for the ravages of the
Hessian fly.

Cecidomyia DESTnucTOR, Say. (a) Male, niapviilicd. (b) Foma'R»
magnilied, (c) Laiva, maKuilicd. (a) Pupa, luaguiliod, (»-) Imago
natural size, (y) Joint of wheat witli larvie.

4. T^'picloptcra.

The Butterflies and Moths are the gayest of
insects in the ima«;o state, and their larvae or

caterpillars are among the most destructive of

222

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fiij, 25.'].

Papilio Tuunt^, Lin.

pests. ^ They are remarkable for the perfection of
the silken cocoons formed by some species, to which
we owe the beautiful and useful material silk. The

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

223

scales of the wings are among tlio most, interesting
of microscopic objects. The Lepidoptcra may con-
veniently be divided into three groups. (1) Butter-
flies, or diurnal species with knobbed antennnc
(rhophalocera) and carrying the wings erect when
at rest. (2) Hawk-moths, or sphinxes — crepus-
cular species, having the antenna) thickened in
the middle, and carrying the, often narrow, wings
flat when at rest. (8) Moths or nocturnal species
having the antcnnnc filiform or pectinated (hete-
rocera) and the wings carried flat when at rest.

One of our finest butterflies is Papillo Turnus
(Fig. 253) the Yellow Swallow-tail. The eggs are
deposited on cherry, plum, and other trees, on the
leaves of which the larva feeds. It is solitary.

TAriLio TDRNU9, Lurva and Pupa.

224

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

!

and remains by day on a silken platform spun by it-
self and stretched between the edges of a leaf. It
feeds at night. When ready to become a chrysalis,
it suspends itself by a button of silk at the tail, and
a loop supporting the back. (Fig. 254.) Another
common and beautiful species is the " Camber-
well Beauty" ( Vanrssa Antiopa') whose spiny ca-
terpillars feed on elm and other trees. (Fig. 255.)

Fig. 265.

Vanessa antiopa, Liu.

The " Clouded Sulphur" (^CoUas philodice) is one
of our most common butterflies by road-sides in
summer. The caterpillar is greenish, with yellow
and black markings, and feeds on clover. (Fig.
256.) The small white butterflies of the genus
Pieris are more troublesome, the caterpillar of P.
rapc^ being very destructive to cabbages and simi-
lar plants. This is an introduced species. A native
species (P. oleracea) has similar habits but is
less destructive.

Lin by it-
leaf. It
hrysalis,
tail, and
Another
Camber-
piny ca-
. 255.)

) is one
Tides in
yellow

(Fig.

genus

IrofP.

d simi-

native

but is

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fig. 266.

22:

\m

0

CoLiAP PHiLODicK, Godart,— malo and femaU,

Of the Sphingidae and their allies one of the
largest is the Sphinx quinquemaculatiis, the larvae
of which feed on the potato plant. Species of
smaller size, but of rich colouring, belong to the
genus Smerhithus.

The species of proper moths are exceedingly
numerous. The giants of the tribe are the great
Emperor Moths of the genus Attacus. A. {Pla-
tyiamiay cecropia is the largest specieS; and A^

Q

T 1

mm

■^

226

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

luna is remarkable for its singular form and delicate
green colour, as well as for its large size. Clisio-
campa Americana is the tent-weaving moth, whose
social caterpillars produce large silken webs in
trees, and are very destructive. Several of these
species arc capable of yielding valuable silk. Fig.
257 represents a pretty little Alypia^ described by

Fig. 2Jbl.

Alypia Lanotonii, Coopor.

Cooper in the " Canadian Naturalist,'* as a new
species, under the name of A. Langtonii.

fi

; !

! I

3. Ilyiuenoptera.

This order includes three principal groups or
sub-orders. (1) Seeurifera or the Horn-tails and
their allies. These are furnished with a borer or awl,
with which they makes holes in wood, in which their
larvae live, and on which they feed. Tremex co-
lumha is a large and common species very des-
tructive to timber trees. The sub-order (2) Pu-
pzvo^a, includes the Ichneumons and their allies,
which deposit their eggs in the bodies of Larvae,
and are thus of gveat service in checking the

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

227

Etjrytoma horbei, Harris, (a) Male, magniflGd. (6) Femala,
maenified. (c) Larva, magnified, {d) Pupa, magnified, (e) Injured
Btalk of grain.

the minute insects of the genera Platyga&tsr
and Macroglenes^ whose larvae prey upon those of
the wheat midges and similar insects. Figs. 259
and 260.

I

I

i

new

ravages of many herbivorous species. I figure as
an illustration a somewhat abnormal species, Eu-
rytomahordei^yiMiQhhQ^v^ the name of Joint- worm,
as it infests the stems of wheat '^nd barley, and is
supposed to cause much damage to the crop. (Fig.
258). More typical examples are furnished by

Fiq. 268.

■;■*
Viil

'" I

■J'll

228

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fig. 259.

rLA.TYGASTEn TiPULAK, Kiiby. (o) natural slzo.

Fig. 260.

Macroglenes pknetuans, Kirby,— male and female magnifier'.

Sub-order (3) Aculeaia. or those possessing
stings, of which the Bees (^Apiarice) and Wasps
( Vespiariae) are the typical examples. The Ants
\Formicanae) are an aberrant group. Fig. 261
represents one of the smaller species of Sand-wasps,
(^Pofn'piUdoe) which make burrows in the ground, in
which they deposit the bodies of spiders and cater-
pillars, as food for their young.

1]

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

229

Fif). 201.

Sand-wasp, Pompila?

f • Ileiiiiptorn.

The Hemiptera include two great groups or
sub-orders, the Heferoptera which have the wings
coriaceous at the base, and the IIomoj)tera which
have the wings membranous throughout. In the
former group are the Water-boatmen and Squash-
bugs and their alHcs, and in the latter the Cicadas
or singing locusts, and the Aphides or plant-lice.
The squash-bug (Cercus tristis,) De Geer, (Fig.
162) may be taken as an example of a large group
of these insects living on plants and sucking their
juices. Notonecta muhdata, Say, (Fig. 203) is an

U I

Fiy. 2G2.

Fig. SG3.

262, Cbbeus tristib, De Geer.

263. NoTONECTA UNPULATA, Say.

vaW ;

230

1>R0VINCE ARTICULATA.

example of the active water-boatmen, Avhich may
be seen swimming and diving in pools by means of
their oar-like hind feet. The beautiful little species
Urythroneura vitis (Fig. 264) is very destructive

Fig. 264.

Erythronkura VXTI8, Harris,— magnified.

to vine leaves. In winter they shelter themselves

under fallen leaves and in litter, and come forth in

spring to deposit their eggs on the leaves, the

juices of which they suck, both in the wingless

larval state and in that of the mature insect. In

this group are also placed the troublesome Aphidoe

or Plant-lice, and the Coccidoc or scale-insects of our

fruit trees. In these groups the females are

wingless.

7' IVeuroptera.

Among the most common insects of this order
are the Uphef/ieridaey "May-flies" or " Shad-
flies ;" the larvae of which live in water, and in
summer emerge in countless swarms on our lakes
and rivers, to fly for a few hours or days, and deposit
the eggs of a new brood in the water. Fig. 265.

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

231

Fig. 265.

order

Shad-
ind in

lakes
ieposit

265.

Ephemkrid (Baetis.)

represents one of our species. The larvae of these
creatures feed on vegetable matters in the bottom
of the water, and themselves furnish much food to
fresh-water fishes. To the same order belong the
Dragon-flies, {Lihellula, &c.) which are highly
carnivorous and predaceous, catching other insects
on the wing. Their larvae and pupae live in water.
The Corydalids or horned May-fliea are large broad-
winged insects, remarkable for their long jaws or
mandibles. To this order also belong the curious
Caddice-flies (^Phryganidoe) whose larvae construct
tubes in which they live in the bottom of pools
and streams. In the same family is the genus
Melicopsyche, whose larvae construct spiral cases
of sand, resembling small snail-shells.

Several insects found in the Devonian and Car-
boniferous of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
belong to this order. (Figs. 266 to 268.)

Fig, 266.

XR!<©NEn'RA AWTiQuoRtTM, Scuddcr,— Devonian,

232

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fig. 267*

, I'LATEPHEMEliA AXTIQUA, Sclldder,~DcV0111all.

Ft;/. 2(8.

► Haplophlkbii'm B.arnesi, Scudder.-Carbonilerou^ Wing in
ale, witii a fern leaf.

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

ail.

Wing in

233

8. Orthoptera.

The Locusts, Grasshoppers and Crickets are well-
known representatives of this order. One example
is the familiar red-legged grasshopper, Caloptenus
femur-ruhum of Harris (Fig. 269), but there are

Fig. 269.

268. Caloptenus FEMuu-nui?nuM

numerous species of these insects, belonging to dif-
ferent genera. One of the most curious and ano-
malous is the " Walking-stick," Diapheromera
femorata^ Say ; a sluggish creature, living in the
woods and altogether wingless, and depending for
its safety on its resemblance to a dead twig. The
noises produced by the insects of this order depend
on a membrane or drum on the wings, or on the
friction of the hind legs on the margin of the
wings.

To this family belong the cockroaches of the
genera Blatta and Ectobia, which infest houses ;
and species of the same group have been found
fossil in the coal formation. (Fig. 270.)

Fly. 270.

II

269. Archimulacris ACADICU8, Scuddcr,— Cftrbonlferous.

I

Hi;
I ill:

234

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

». €olcoptcra.

The beetles are the most numerous of insects in
regard to species, and very varied in their habits
of Hfe ; but with the exception of a few aberrant
types, they may all be recognized by the horny
upper wings or elytra, which give them a very dis-
tinct appearance from other insects. To the family
of the Cicindelidce belong the beautiful green and
spotted Tiger-beetles, so common in sandy places,
and so brilliant in colour and swift in motion. The
family of the Oarahidce includes hunter-beetles, of
which Oalosoma calidum (Fig. 271) is one of the
most common species, and very serviceable as a
destroyer of noxious insects. The Bytiscidce are
the water-beetles, one of which is, perhaps, our
largest species. The larvae of the species of
Dytiscus are very active and carnivorous, and are
known as '' Water-tigers." The black-and-yellow
carrion beetles belong to the family ISilphidce ; and
the bacon beetle of larders, which also devours speci-
mens of natural history, to the Dermestidce. The
Scarabaeidce are the " Shard-beetles" or ground
beetles, the larvae of many of which are injurious
to plants. The Lampyridce are the curious fire-flies,
so brilliant in summer evenings, emitting a phos-
phorescent light from the joints of the abdomen.
The Meloidce are the blistering beetles, including
the blue oil beetles of our woods, which are remark-
able for the rudimentary condition of the wings.
,The Curculionidce are a troublesome family, includ-
ing the Pea-weevil, Plum-weevil, and other species,
which commit depredations on cultivated plants.
The Cer amble idee, or capricorn-beetles, also include

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

235

<i;i!:'

insects in
leir habits
r aberrant
the horny
I very dis-
the family
green and
idy places,
3tion. The
'-beetles, of
one of the
eable as a
itiscidce are
3rhaps, our
species of
us, and are
-and-yellow
yhidce ; and
vours speci-
tidce. The
or ground
re injurious
(US fire-flies,
ing a phos-
abdomen.
s, including
are remark-
the wings,
nily, includ-
;her species,
ated plants,
also include

destructive species, one of which, the Saperda Can-
dida (Fig. 272) is, in its larval state, the " Apple-

270. Calasoma caltdum.

271. Saperda Candida, Fab. (1) Imago. (2) Larva.

tree-borer," and another Stenocorus viUosus, is the
" Oak-pruner," whose name indicates its work in
breaking oiF the twigs of trees by the boring action
of its larvae. Monohammus confusor* (¥\g. 273),
the Pine-boring Beetle, is also a very destructive
species ; its larvoe destroying great quantities of
pine timber. The Chrysomelidoi^ notwithstanding
the golden colour of some species, are also devour-
ers of our crops. The yellow-striped cucumber-
'beetle is a well-known example, and a similar spe-
cies is often injurious to potatoes. Lastly, the
Coceinellidoe ^ or " Lady-bugs," are not only pretty
little creatures, but very useful as devourers of
plant-lice, on which they subsist both in the larval
and perfect state.

* See a paper by Billings, Canadian Naturalist, vol. vii.

ti

236

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

Fig. 273.

MONOHAMMUS COMPUSOK.

Important catalogues of several orders of Ame-
rican insects have been published by the Smith-

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

237

sonian Institution ; Packard's Guide to the Study
of Insects, just published, is a valuable introduc-
tion to the subject of Entomology, and contains
notices of nearly all the common American species.
Harris' " Insects Injurious to Vegetation," and
Fitch's '^ Reports on the Insects of New York," are
also very valuable.

Tabular View of insecta.

/

Insecta.

Chilo^natha

Myriapoda. | gy^g^atha,

<

Hexapoda. ^

\

^Aptera.
Aphaniptcra.
Diptera.
Lepidoptera.
Hymenoptera.
Homoptera.
Neuroptera.
Orthoptera.
Coleoptera.

For the families of insects the student must refer
to special works on Entomology.

Class iv. — Arachnida. '

Head usually conflmnt with thorax; respira-
tion tracheal or pulmonary ; antennce rudimentary
or mandihuliform. No ivings ; legs in four pairs.
Ametaholian.

In the Arachnidans the body is divided into two
distinct regions, the one (cephalo-thoiax) corres-

I ,

<.M

238

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

ponding to the head and thorax in insects, the
other to the abdomen. The eyes are simple and
two to ei^ht in number, the tentacles are short and
often modified for prehension as well as fur tactile
uses. The nervous system and the dorsal vessel
are more condensed than in the insects, and in the
higher groups there is more varied adaptability and
instinct. None of the Arachnidans have wings,
and, like the cephalopods among the mollusks,
they undergo no metamorphosis. In the union of
the head and thorax, they resemble crustaceans, but
differ in their respiration, "which is never by gills.
They are at once separated from insects, not only
by the union of the head and thorax but also by
the possession of four pairs of limbs.

The Arachnidans may be divided into the follow-
ing orders, which, whether absolutely natural or not,
w'th reference to their limits of separation, no
doubt express pretty accurately the grades of
complexity of the group.

Ortler 1. l>criuop]iy.sa. — These are de-
graded or depauperated species, without distinct
respiratory organs, and with the limbs or abdomen
rudimentary.

Order S. Traeliearia- — These have the
cephalo-thorax in one or two joints, and respire by
tracheae. They are the Mites and Ticks.

Order ;i. Ptiliiio-traeliearia- — These have
the cephalo-thorax and abdomen unarticulated and
separate. They breathe by lamellatcd pulmonary
sacs, in some aided by trachese. They are the
Spiders. • • v?,

Order 4. Piiliuonaria. — ^These have the
abdomen and cephalo-thorax separate, and the

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

239

former articulated. They respire by pulmonary
sacs furiiised with lamcllyc. They are the Scorpions
and their allies.

1. l>ei*iiioph.yssi.

As an example of these creatures, we may take
the Demodex foUiculonwi, belonging to the family
Nulligrada, which burrows in the. hair follicles of the
skin of the human face. It is of elongated form
with eight very short legs. Its mouth is suctorial,
and it appears to subsist on the fatty and other mat-
ters secreted by the follicles in which it lives. Similar
creatures have been found in the skin of mangy
dogs. In the same group are placed a mumber of
other minute and rudimentary mites, living in
mosses and damp places, to which little attention
has yet been given in this country. They consti-
tute the family of the Tardigradu. In this order
are also" usually arranged certain marine species
resembling spiders, found among weeds on the
shores, and sometimes in moderately deep water.
A small species found in the River St. Lawrence
at Murray Bay, and also on the Labrador coast, is
appropriately called the " Sea Spider." It is the
Nympkon grossipes of Fabricius, and has a slender
body, sometimes half an inch in length, and very
long slender limbs. These marine species consti-
tute the family Levigrada of some authors. By
others they are regarded as crustaceans.

2. Tracliearia.

The animals of this order are very diverse in
form and habits, but the greater part of them be-

1 1

m

r"n

240

PROVIXCE ARTICULATA.

long to the group of Acarina or Mites proper, of
which the flour and cheese mites are examples, and
which have the cephalo-thorax and abdomen con-
densed into one mass. As an example of this
ordinary type of mite, the sugar mite, Acarus
saccharic may be taken (Fig. 27-1). It abounds

- Fifj. 274.

AcARi— after Puckarrl. (1) Ixodes bovis, Riley. (2) Acarus
(Tyroglyphus) 8 aochaui.— Magnified.

in the more impure varieties of raw sugar, on the
foreign organic matters present in which it feeds.
It is capable, like some other species, of burrowing
into the skin, and is supposed to produce the disease
known as grocers' itch in the skin of persons who
handle sugar containing these animals. A species
of the genus Sarcoptes (^S. galei) is the immediate
cause of the common itch. The mites of the
genus Ixodes are the ticks which infest the skin
of many animals. They are furnished with a pair
of serrated or hooked mandibles which they bury
firmly in the skin, and suck its juices by their

1

3pcr, of
lies, and
en con-
of this
Acai'us
abounds

!) ACARUS

on the
it feeds.
uTOwing

disease
)ns who

species
mediate

of the
he skin
1 a pair

;y bury
by their

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

241

serrated labrnni. Ixodas allnplcfuRy Packard, is a
species found on the moose, and a very similar
species is abundant on the American hare. Fig. 274
represents 2. bovis, which is the common cattle-
tick of the Western and Southern parts of North
America. Mites of the genus Hydrachna occur in
fresh-water ponds and attack tlie animals inhabiting
such places. The " red spiders " (Tetranychus^^
also belong to this order. The mites in their
larval state have only six legs, thus approaching to
the hcxapod insects.

Along with the mites we include in this order the
animals of the genus Phalangium, the long-legged
spiders or " harvest men" and the curious scorpion-
crabs of the genus Chelifer, found among books and
in dusty corners. They are carnivorous in their
habits and are useful as destroyers of vermin.

3. Piiliiio-traclioaria.

The true spiders differ from the mites in the
distinct separation of the thorax and abdomen, and
also in the possession of pulmonary sacs. They are
provided with strong fangs perforated at the point,
and secreting a highly poisonous fluid, which is
injected into the wound which they produce. The
fangs are regarded not as proper mandibles but as
modified antennae, being placed above the 'mouth.
The abdomen, in most of the species, has two breath-
ing pores or spiracles, leading to the pulmonary
sacs, and in some species there is a second pair of
spiracles leading to trachere. The pulmonary
sacs are opened and closed by the muscles of the
pericardium or membrane covering the dorsal

R

M

242

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

vessel. In the abdomen arc also the glands Avhicli
secrete the silken material of the >veb. This is
))Oured out in a li(iuid state through numerous pores
pierced in cylindrical or conical spinnerets, iit the
extremity of the abdomen. As an example of a
typical spider we figure Epeira vidi/ai-is, the common
geometrical spider of Eastern America, with some of
its organs. (Fig. 275). The spiders of this coun-

Fig. 2:6.

Epkika vulgaris, Ilentz— after Emorton. (!) Eyes and Man-
iliblos, m igiiitied— c First Joint of Mandible, a Point of do.

(2) Underside.— a Legs, b I'alpi, a Mandibles, e Spinnerets and
above these the Stigmata.

try have as yet been little studied ; but though not
generally liked, these animals present many of the

h ^\'\\\ch
This is
us pores
s, at the
pie of a
common
1 some of
lis coun-

nd Man-
hets and

gh not
of the

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

243

most curious traits of instinct and habit to bo ob-
served amonij: the lower anima''^, and their struc-

tures are very inter :ting objects of microscopic
investigation. With reference to their liabits the
spiders may be divided into three groups. 1. —
The water-spiders, which live in pools, carrying down
a bubble of air on the abdomen for respiration,
and constructing sub-a(juatic webs. 2, — The seden-
tary spiders, constructing webs and watching on
them for their prey. 3 — Tlic vagrant, leaping and
hunting spiders, which pursue or dart upon the
insects on which they feed. . It is at present, how-
ever, usual to arrange them primarily, according to
the number of the eyes, into Octinoculina or eight-
eyed ; Sexoculina or six-eyed, and BbiocuUna or
two-eyed, the greater number of spiders belonging
to the two former groups, and especially to the
first, which includes all the ordinary spiders. Those
of the second group are small spiders with elonga-
ted bodies, and most of them hunting their prey and
making little silken cells in crevices of rocks and the
bark of trees.

3. Puliiioiiarisi.

This group includes the Scorpions and the Phryni-
daj, a group resembling spiders in form, but having
chehcers or prehensile arms in front, like the scor-
pions. The chelicers are enlarged palps, and in the
scorpions they are strong and of formidable power.
In the scorpions the cephalo-thorax consists of seve-
ral joints, and graduates into the abdomen, which is
long and slender, and terminates in a sting —
^Yhich discharges a highly poisonous fluid. They use

9mm

Wl'

ih

244

PROVINCE ARTICULATA.

this weapon both for attack and defence ; and the
larger species inflict painful wounds, even on man.
Like the spiders, these animals are carnivorous and
prey on insects. They are not represented in the
fauna of Canada.

Tabular view of Araciinida.

iTardigrada.
NuUigrada.

Trachearia.

( Levigrada.

i Acarina.
< Phalangina.
( Pseudo Scorpii.

Arachnid A. <(

f Mygalidjc.
I Lycosidse.
I SalticidjE.
Pulmo-frachearia <^ Drassidse.

Epeiridae.

Agelenidoe.
I Dysderidoe,

\ Phrynidoe.
Pidmonarla. \ Scorpionidaj.

\

Black well's " British Spiders " gives a very full
account of this class ; and there is a very interesting
work on British spiders by Miss Stavely. The
onljr descriptions of American species known to me,
are those of Hentz in the Journal of the Boston

PROVINCE ARTICULATA,

245

and the
on man.
ous and
i in the

ida.
,da.
:1a.

;ina.
Scorpii.

ioc.

DC.
PC

e.

dge.
doe,

ludse.

Natural History Society. A very good summary
of American forras is given by Packard in the end
of his " Guide to the study oi Insects."

PAriLioASTEKiAs— male and larva.

ia

very

full

;ercsting

y

The
n to me,
Boston

I ■!!■■

- - APPENDIX A.

As the Vertebra ta cannot be included in this volume,
the following summary is given to represent this sub-
kingdom until the work can be completed.

Province IV— VERTEBRATA.

Bilateral, symmetrical ; skeleton internal, vertebrate ;
nerve system myelencephalous, and based on a
brain and dorsal nervous chord lodged in a special
vertebral cavity. Heart compact, muscular, with 2
or 4 chambers ; blood red ; respiratory organs con-
nected with pharynx. Extremities normally four
in number; jaws moving vertically.

Class 1. Pisces — Fishes.

'' 2. ReptiUa — Reptiles and Batrachians.
'' 3. Aves — Birds.
*' 4. Mammalia — Mammals.
Cliuss I. — Pisces. — Heart in two cavities : respiration by
■• gills ; locomotion by the movement of the vertebral
column, with the aid of fins ; body naked or covered
with scales or plates. Reproduction oviparous,
rarely ovc-viviparous. (Reference, Owen's Lectures
on the Vertebrata.)

Order 1. Dermopteri — ex. Amphioxus, Petromyzon.
"2. Malacopteri, or Physostomata.
(rt) Apodes.

Muramidce — ex. Muraena.
Gymnotida; — ex. Gymnotu?,
(J.)) Abdominales.

Clupeiado' — ex. Clupea.
Salmoniddi — ex. Salmo.
Cyprinidoc~ex. Cyprinus, Leuciscus,

Catastomus.
Esocidce — ex. Esox.
^iluridoi — ex. Pimelodus.
Order 3. Pharyngognathi.

iScomherescocidce — ex. iScomber-csox,

Exocetus.
Cteno-Labridce—QX. Ctc nolabru?, Tau-
toga.
I Cyclo-Labridce — ex. Labnts.

!!

248

APPENDIX.

I'll \

in ;

I

Order 4. Aiiacanthini.

Ophididoe — ex. Gphidium, Ammo-
dytes.

Gadidce — ex Morrhua, Merlangus.

Fleuronectidce — ex. Hypoglossus, Pla-
tessa.
Order 5. Acantlwpteri.

Percidce — ex. Perca, Lucio-Perca, Cen-
trarchus, Porno tis.

Sclerogenidce — ex. Ti-igla, Cottus,
Gasterosteus.

Scomberidw — ex. Scomber, Thynnus.

Labyrinthobi^aiichidce — ex. Anabas.

Bknniidce — ex. Anarrhicas.

Lophiidce- ex. Lophius, Malthea.
Order 6. Plectognaihi.

Balisiidce-^ex. Balistes.

OstradonidcG — ex. Ostracion.
Order 7. Lophohranchii.

Syngnathidce — ex. Sj^ignathus, Hip-
pocampus.
Order 8. Ganoidei.

Lejndodieidce—ex. Lepidesteus.

Polypteridcti — ex. Polypteruis.

Amiidce — ex. Amia.

Sturionidcc — ex. Accipenser.
Order 0. Frotopicri.

iSirenoidei — ex. Lepidosiren.
Order 10. Holocephall.

Chimaeroidce — ex. Chimaera.
Order 11. Plagiostomi.

Cestracionidcc — ex. Cestracion.

Carcharidcp^ ex. Carcharias.

Lamnidce — ex. Lamna. Selache.

Galcidoi—ex. Mustelus.

Spinacidcc—GX. Spinax.

Sn/m n ida'~ex. Scymn us .

Zijgacnidtii — ox. Zygaena

Prislidce — ex. Pristis.

Baiidce — ex Raia, Pastinaca, Cepba-
k • loptera.

APPENDIX.

249

The fishes may also be arranged in the following
manner, which is very useful for geological purposes :
(1.) Do'inopterij cartilaginous fishes without scales,
(Lampreys, &c.) (2.) Teliosis^ or ordinary Bony Fiahes,
having for the most part horny scales. (3.) Ganoids,
Fishes with bony plates or scales, often shining or
enamelled. The numerous fossil fishes of the Palaeo-
zoic rocks belong principally to this group, ancl may be
divided into Placo-ganoids or those covered with plates,
and Lepido-ganoids, or those covered with imbricated
scales. (4.) Selachians, or sharks, rays and their allies.
These have a cartilaginous skeleton, and usually have
Placoid scales, or rough bony points as a protection to
the skin.

Class II. — Reptilia. Heart ordinarily in three cavities
(two auricles and one ventricle) ; respiration by
lungs, or by gills and lungs ; limbs, when present,
usually adapted for motion on land. Skin pro-
tected by scales or plates, or naked. Eoproduction
oviparous or ovo-viviparous.
Sub-Class 1. Batyachia or AmYihihhi.
Order J. Jpoda — ex. Caecilia.

" "2. Amphipneusta — ex. Siren, Proteus, Meno-
branchus, Menopoma.

3. Urodela — ex. Salamandra, Triton.

4. Amira — ex. Rana, Bufo, Hyla.
Extinct Batrachians furnish two additional

groups, probably of ordinal value: —

Ganocephala, Lahyrinthodoniia,
Eepiilia, propei*.
Chelonia.

Chelonidce — ex, Chelonia.
Trionycidai'—ex. Aspidonecte.-.
Chehjdridce — ex. Chelydra.
Eimjdoi—ex. Chrysemys, Emys, Cistudo,

Glyptemys.
Tenfadiiddm—Gx. Icstudo.
Order -. Ophidiu.

Crotalidai—GX. Crotalus, Pelias.
Coluberida:—ex. Coluber, Tropidonotus,

Calamaria, Heterodon.
BoiidcB — ex. Boa, Wenona.
Typhlopidce—ex., Rena.

Sub-Class 2.
Order 1.

250

APPENDIX.

lU

Order 3. Sauria.

Scincidce — ex. Scincus, Anp^uis.
Laccrtinidce — ex. Lacerta, Zootoca.
Monitoridce — ex. Monitor.
Geckotidca — ex. Platydactylus.
Chameleonidcti — ex. Chameleon.
lijuamdcc—csL. Iguana, Phrynosoma, Am-

blyrhyncus.
A tjamidce — e x . Drac o .
Order 4. (Lon'rata) — ex. Gavialis, Crocodilus, AUi-
, gator.

Extinct genera. — T^eosaurus, Steno-
saurus.
Additiona 1 orders have boon proposed to include

extinct reptiles. These are,
Ord. Iclithyopteryrjia — ex. Ichthyosaurus.
Ord. Smiropteryiga — ex. Plesiosaurus.
Ord. Anomodontia — ex. Dicynodon.
Ord. rterosauria — ex. Ptcrodactylus.
Ord. Dinosauria — ex. Megalosaurus.
The animals of the last group were probably the
highest of Reptiles in point of rank.
Class III. — AvES. — Heart in four cavities; respiration
by lungs ; anterior limbs modified for Hight; cloth-
ing, feathers ; reproduction, oviparous.
Order 1. {Natatoves.)

Fam. Anatidm — ex. Mergus, Fuligula, Anas,
Anser.
Laridce — ex. Sterna, Larus.
Procdlaridce — ex. Thalassidroma
Pelemnidai— ex. Phalacracorax.
Cohjmhidce — ex. Colymbus.
Alcidce—eyi. Uria.
Fodocepidce—Gx. Podiceps, Fulica.
Order 2. (Grallaiores.)

Fam. r/icdaropidce — ex. Phalaropus.

Recurvirostridce — ex. H imantopus.
Charadriadcc — ex. Charadrius.
Rallidce — ex. Rallus, Gallinula.
Scolopacidce—ex. Numenius, Tringa

Scolopax.
Ardeidte — ex. Ardea.

u

a
((

li

APPENDIX.

251

•ca.

5oma, Am-

lilus, Alli-
s, Steno-
to include

)bjibly the

respiration
jht; cloth-

rula, Anas,

'oma
ax.

"ulica.

IS.

topus.

s.

ila.

:s, Tringa

Order 3. (Cursores.)

Fam. Struthlonidoi — ex. Struthio.
" Apteri/gid(u— ex. Ai>ievyx.
Extinct genera — Epiornis, Dinornis.

Order 4. (Rasores.)

Fam. Teimonidcu — ex. Tetrao, Ort3'x.
" Cracidw — ex. Crax, Penelope.
" Fhasicnidae—ex. Meleagris.
'' Cohunbidce — ex. Ectopistes, ColumV)a.

Order 5. (Tnsessorcs.)
(a) Conirostres.

CorvidcB—Qx. Corvus.

Fringillidce — ex. Fringilla, Embcriza.

Ampelidcc — ex. Bonibycilla.

(6) Dcntirostres.

Laniidce — ex. Lanius.

Mnscicapidce — ex. Muscicapa.

Mcrulidce — ex. Turdus.

Si/lviadce — ex. Sylvia, Syalia, Kegulus.

Vireonidce — ex. Vireo.

Certhiadce — ex. Ccrthia.

(c) Fmirosfres.

Hirund.inidtii — ex. Ilirundo, Cotyle.
CaprimulfjidcK — ex. Caprimulgus.
llalnjonidcii — ex. Alcedo.

(d) Scansores.

Ficidie — ex. Picus.
Cuculidce — ex. Coccyzus.
Psittacidce — ex. Conurus.

(e) Temdrostres.

Trochilidw — ex. Trochilus.
Order 6. (Rapiores.)

Vulturidoi — ex. Cathartes, Gypactos.
StrigidcB — ex. Bubo, Surnia.
Falconidce — ex. A(][uiia, Buteo, Falco.

Class IV. — Mammalia. — Heart in four cavities ; respi-
ration by lungs 5 limbs formed for walking or pre-
hension or both ; skin usually protected by hair.
Keproduction viviparous ; young nourished by
raiik.

4

252

APPENDIX.

I!

(Sub-Class LjjaiccpJiala.)
Order 1. Monotremata—ox. Ornithorhyncus, Echid-
na.
•' 2. Marsnpialia.
(a) {Phi/iojyhcif/ous) — ex. Phascolomys,Macropus,

Phascolarctos, Petaurus.
(6) {Sarcophrnjons) — ex. Didelphys, Chironectes,
Myrmecobius, Peracyon.
(Sub-Class Lissencephala.')
Order 3. Eodentia — ex. Mus, Arctomys, Arvicola,
tSciurus, Tamias, Jaculus, Le^ius, Hys-
tryx, Castor.
^' 4. Insectivora — ex. Sorex, Condylura.
" 5. Cheiroptera — ex. Vespertilio.
<' 6. Bruta — ex. Myrmccoi^haga, Dasypus, Ma-
nis, Bradypus.
Extinct Oencra — Megatherium, Mylodon.
(8ub-Cluss Gi/rcncephdla.)

( Order 7. Cclacea — ex. Bahona, Bahe-
I noptera, Physeter, Mono-

I

Ungulata. \

Mutiluta. s don. Beluga, Phoc-vna.

8. iiirenia — ex. Manatus.
0. Fachjdermaia.

(tt) Proboscidean — ex. Ele-
phas.

(Ij) Perissodactyla ex.

Rhinoceros^ Tapirus,
Equus.
{(■) Artiodactyla — ex. Sus,
Hippopotamus,
Extinct Pachyderms.
Palaeotherium, &c.
10. Buminaniia — ex. Bos, Ovis,
Capra, Camelus.
" 11. Carnivora — ex. Felis, IJrsus,

Mustela.
*' 12. Qnadrumana — ex. Lemur, Pi-
thecia, Hylobates, Simla,
Troglodytes.
(Sub-Class Archencephala.)

'Order 13. Bimana — ex. Homo.

a

Unguiculata.

lis, Echid-

klacropus,
ii'onectes,

Arvicola,
spus, Hys-

ra.

ypus, Ma-

^lodon.

la, BaLe-
jr, Mono-
ifona.
us.

-ex. Ele-

— ex.

Tapirus,

•ex. fSus,

3rms.

>s, Ovis,

TJrsus,

miir, Pi-
, Simla,

APPENDIX B.

DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND TRES FRYING
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

An excellent Manual for Collectors is <^ The Practical
Naturalist's Gnide,^^ by J. B. Davies, (Maclachan &
Stewart, |EdinV)urgh). The " Directions" published by
the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, are also very
valuable. The following hints have been compiled
chiefly from these works, to which the reader is referred
for further information on the subject.

The beginner in the study of Zoology, should collect
and study such animals as may be within his reach,
forming, at first, a miscellaneous collection. He may
subsequently direct his attention specially to some one
group of animals ; and, after making this decision, he
should provide himself with the special works necessary
to the prosecution of the particular branch selected.
General knowledge is necessary as a foundation, but the
animal kingdom is too extensive to permit any one to
attain to thoroughness in mure than one limited depart-
ment.

1. General directions for collecting Marine Animals.

" Where the retreat of the tide is sufficient, the sea-
shore always aftbrds the best field for the collector, and
the specimens generally increase in number and interest
in proportion as we approximate to low-water-mark.
Nevertheless the whole area should be ssarched, as each
species has its peculiar range, and many fdrms can live
only where they are exposed to the air for the greater
part of the time each day. The ground may be either
muddy, sandy, weedy, gravelly, stony or rocky, and the
animals inhabiting each kind of ground will be found
more or less peculiar to it, and rarely to occur on the

m

254

APPENDIX.

others. Sand and mud aro, however, so similar in cha-
racter that their deni/ens are nearly the same, though
some prefer the clearer waters which How over sand, to
the turbid tide which deposits mud. But few speci-
mens will be found on the surface of such ground,
although the little pools lying on it should be scooped
with the dip net for shrimps, etc., but it is only by the
spade that its true riches can be developed. By dig-
ging in spots indicated by small holes, a great number
of worms, boring crustaceans, and bivalves may always
be found. Weedy i/round is so called from the abund-
ance of eel-grass and sea-weed which covers it. These
weeds should be examined carefully -for small shells
and crustaceans : i)erhaps the best method of doing
this being to wash (quantities of the weed in a bucket
of water and examine the sediment. Gravelly ground
is not generally very rich in animal life, but will repay
an examination, as small crabs are fond of lurking
among the pebbles, litony (jround is by far the richest
of all. Wherever there arc stones, particularly Hat
ones, about large enough to afford a moderate degree
of exercise to a common sized man in turning them
over, there the zoologist can never fail to fill his basket
and bottles ; for beneath these stones myriads of rare
and beautiful species retire for moisture and protection
during the retreat of the tide. Rocky ground should
be searched chietly in the pools and crevices.

"Littoral or sea-shore investigations should be car-
ried on not only in the_bays, harbours, and creeks, but
on the ocean beach, in each locality, to get at a true
idea of its fauna, as the respective animals will be found
different." — Sniithsoalan Directions.

2. Dredging.

-' A large proportion of the marine invertebrates
never approach the shore closely enough to be left
by the tide, and these can only be obtained with cer-
tainty and facility by means of the d-'edge. This con-
sists of a rectangular frame of iron, the longer sides of
which are sharpened in front and beveled outward a
little. Along the bank of the frrne holes are perfo

X

APl'ENDIX.

255

ilar in cha-
ne, though
er sand, to
. tew speci-
jh ground,
be scooped
only by the
a. By dig-
^at number
may always
the abund-
it. These
mall shells
i of doing
in a bucket
elly (/round
: will repay
of lurking
the richest
3ularly flat
rate degree
rning them
. his basket
ads of rare
protection
uul phould

lid be car-

jreeks, but

at a true

1 be found

ertebrates

to be left
with cer-
Tbis con-

er sides of
utward a

ire perfo

rated for the attachmont of a fine nioshcd not, and to
the short sides handles are hinged, which may bo folded
down in i)Mcking. There should bo a ling at the end
of each handle, and thiough these rings the ropo may be
passed vvhon the handles are raised, which will be found
a simi)le and sutliciently safe method of fastening the
dredge for use. A weight should be attached to the
I'ope two or three feet in i'ront of the dredge, which is
useful in sinknig and keeping it in proj)er i)Osition
when operating in deep water. ( )n <>ach of the longer
sides of the frame there should be a leather flap
attached for the protection of the net. The following
are convenient dimensions loi' the apparatus : Frame,
rt, a, 20 inches long by 10 inches broad, of bar-iron, 1^
inches wide andjjone-tifth of an inch thick. Handles,
b, b, each IT inches long, of half inch rod-iron. Bag, e,
tln-ee feet long, of mesh as line as can be got, and
strong twine ; si/e of ai)erture rather larger than that
of the frame. li.oi)e, r, 20 to 200 fathoms to suit the
depth of water. Weight, rZ, 5 lbs.; an iron win<l()w-

256

APPENDIX.

woiglit answers tho purpose, antl in much cheaper than
lead.

"Tho dredge should bo oarofully cast mouth downward,
that tho tail of tho net may not foul the handles or
scythes. No precise directions can be given as to tho
amount of scope of warp to bo let out ; about twice the
depth of water is generally sufficient, but this should
be diminished or increased in proportion as the dredge
nips too liard or slides too easily over tho ground,
which may be readily determined by feeling the rope.
The dredge is liable to be caught on rocky bottoms.
When the check is felt, it is usually only necessary to
heave in a portion of the warp, but sometimes the boat
muht be put abc and run in an opposite direction.

" All bottoms should be searched with the dredge, but
gravelly and shelly ground will be found most produc-
tive. The boat may be propelled by sails if sufficient
care be taken to graduate the amount of canvas to the
strength of tho wind, in order that the dredge may
move slo'' over the bottom. Oars are safer, if the
force is at command ; and in a tide-way, the tide alone
may move the boat with sufficient power, the rope being
made fast amidships, or towards tlie bows, according to
the strength of the current." — Smiihson an Directions.

3. Foraminifera.

These occur in almost every specimen of mud or
sand, obtained by dredging or sounding in deep water,
and also in sponges and among hydroids, &c. Thf spe-
cimens of such materials should be wrapped in parcels
and labelled. When quite dry the earthy matter may
be thrown into a vessel of water and thoroughly stirred.
The lighter Foraminifera will float to the surface, a'-d
may be skimmed off or collected in a filter of fine
muslin. Larger species may be shaken up to the sur-
face of the sediment, and collected with a camel hair
pencil. They should be mounted for the microscope
either as opaque objects, or immersed in balsam as trans-
parent objects.

Liying Foraminifera can be obtained from recent
marine mud and attached to shells, sponges and Hy-
droids.

APrKNDIX.

257

leapcr th:m

downward,
handles or
m as to the
it twice the
this should
the dredge
0 ground,
; the rope.
Y bottoms,
icessary to
?s the boat
rection.
lredge,but
>st produc-
' sufficient
iras to the
edge may
f'er, if the
tide alone
ope being
wording to
Hrcciions.

mud or
ep water,

Thf spe-
n parcels
itter may
y stirred,
face, a'-d
of fine
) the sur-
mel hair
icroscope

as trans -

1 recent
and Hy-

• 4. tipoiujcif.

Those arc oahily prosorvod, by simple drying; but if
it is desired to ' yop them in tlioir natiual .state, they
should be irnnic...ed in spirits innnodiatoly alter l>oing
taken from the sea. The spicules may be obtained for
microscopic examination by boiling a fragment of the
sponge in nitric aciil until all the animal matter is
decomposed.

5. Tnfusori'i.

These may lie readily collected from stagnant pools,
iV^c, by means of a wide-mouthed bottle attached to a
stick. They occur in all waters in which living or dead
vegetable matters are present. Dilferent species may
bo found at the top and bottom of the water, or
attached to dilferent kinds of ac^uatic plants, liliizo-
pocls, Rotifers, minute Crustaceans and Worms, and one-
celled i)lants (Desmids and Diatoms) will generally bo
found in the sarao places with Infusoria.

6. Ilydrozoa and AntJiozoa.

''iSeapons, Alcyoniums, and other allied animals,
must be put up as wet preparations. This remark also
applies to Actiniie, though the means usually adopted,
— /. c, si)irit or saline solutions, — so destroy the colour
and appearance of the specimens, that it is hardly pos-
sible to distinguish one species from another when pro-
servoti. The writer, as the result of his own experi-
ments, proposes tho following method of preserving
something of the natural form and colour < f these ani-
mals : — The Actinia is allowed to remain xn sea- water
until nearly dead. While the tentacles are completely
distended with sea-water, tho animal is gently lifted
into a smaller vessel', and the end of a glass tube of
suitable size, and previously filled with glycerine, is
pushed in at tlie mouth, and the contents forced into
the body by blowing. The tube is again and again
filled and applied, until the fluid which exudes at tho
points of the tentacles has lost its saline taste: tho
surrounding fluid is then removed, and replaced with

S

1

258

APPENDIX.

glycerine. J.iugc specimens will require to liiive the
glycerine ngain changed before fiustening up the prepa-
ration, which may he done in a month,

"The ]ry(hoid Tolyps may all, with the exception
ol' the soitcr species, bo easily dried. They are pre-
served in exactly the same manner as Polyzoa, with
wliich they are often confounded, by drying tliem in
blotting paper, under slight pressure ; when it is desired
to preserve the animals as well aa the colls, they nmst
bo placed in spirit.

"Jelly-tislKS {Acnhpliai) are variable inform; but t}>o
most conspicuous kinds in this country resemble a liat-
tonod hemisphere, and are familiarly known as sea-
blubbers or sea-nettles, the lattcrname being conferred
on them from the stinging properties which somo of
tiiem possess. The term Medustn is also applied to
them. The more minute species occur plentifully in
sheltered places, and have either the form of tlie larger
kinds or are spherical or cylindrical.

"The larger species are frecjuently oast on shore, or
may be caught with a sieve held over the odgo of a small
boat. The smaller kinds are caught iu a towing net.
Being extremely fragile, they all require to bolumdled
with the greatest care.

" Medusa^, are preserved with dilKculty. Spirit, diluted
vinegar, and other preparations have been tried, but
with very little success ; until Mr. Goadby proposed a
modification of his solution. (Reduce a saturated solu-
tion of Bay Salt to the strength indicated by a bead
marked 1 148. Dilute to half stiength and add 2 oa
alum to the quart. Saak the specimens in this for 24
hours or more, according to size, changing the solution
daily. Then immerse in a solution of Bay Salt of
strength 1148.) This certainly surpasses anything
p I'cvio'vsly in use, although it is opon to the same
objections as rU other saline solutions. Where these
objections are not deemed important, the collector
cannot do bettor than use his method." — Pavies.

«

7. EvMnodermata.

^•' Kchini and star- fishes may be preserved dry. With
the former it is necessary to cut a slit in the membrane

APPENDIX.

259

Ikivc tlio
ilio i:)repa-

oxception
aro pre-
yzoa, with
g tlicm in

is desired
they must

1 ; but tl>e
ible a iiat-
m as sea-
conferred
h some of
ipplied to
ntifully in
tlie larger

I shore, or

of a small

Wing net.

JO liandled

'it, diluted
tried, but
reposed a
■ated eolu-
)y a bead
iadd 2oa
Ilia for 24
e solution
y 8alt of

anything
the same
lere these

collector

ly. With
aembrane

which surrounds tlio dental ajiparaiiis (where such
exists), on the lower part of tlio sphere, and thence
remove the viscera. In drying it is well to suspend in
a place where there is a thorough draught of air. Somo
collectors, with a view to keeping the spines erect,
fasten a hook in the soft skin at the mouth, and with-
out removing iho viscera, hang the Echinus to dry,
either exposed to the heat of the sun or to artiJioial
heat.

^'Tlio larger st^ir-fishes (Sola^'ter, Uraster, Ac), may
be either plunged in hot water, anti laid out to dry, or
may be iirst cleaned in the following manner : — A
hooked wire is passed in at the luoutli, on the under
surface, and into etich limb, from whicli so much jis
possible of the soft matter is removed ; the mouth is
then held close to a water-pipe, and the force of water
carries out what cannot be extracted with the wire. A
little of the corrosive sublimate solution in alcohol may
be poured in at the mouth with advantage.

Slender armed star- fishes (OpIu'^jCMna, Ophiura, &c.),
merely require to be steeped for a short time, say
twenty-four hours, in spirit, and laid in a situation
where they will dry rapidly. The same treatment will
answer e<:[ually well for the Medusa-head star fish. These
forms are all extremely brittle, but with tolerable care
need not be injured cither in capturing or preparing.

<* Sea-cucumbers {Holoihuroidu) being destitut.o of
the dense bony i)lates which cover the other orders of
Echinoderms, cannot be sucocssfully dried. The chitjf
thing to bo attended to in imtting up as wet prepara-
tions is to let them die in sea-water, so as to preserve
their branched tentacles in an extended condition." —
Davies.

8. MoUusca.

'* Like the true Polypi, many of the Polyzoa may be
preserved dry by washing in fresh-water, and pressing
between sheets of a])sorbont paper; but in this state
they are far less valuable than as wet preparations."
The tunicotes should be preserved in spirits; but some
of the uds may bo stullcd with cotton and dried.

f^p-'

260

APPENDIX.

^^ Fresh mili-r Molhisca mny bo gathoro<l with a liand
net, or, still bott':^. by using the shell-spnon. This
consists of a hemispherical cup of white iron, about
four inches in diameter, with a half lid soldered
on the top, and an oblique .socket for the insertion of
the point of a walking-stick. The whole cup is perfo-
rated with holes. When, say, a Limnams is obtained
from the pool, the cup Is raised until the stick is
nearly horizontal, and slightly turned over on the side
on which the covering is, so that the creature lodges
securely between the side of the cup and the partial
lid. Bivalves seldom float; therefore they must bo
sought for either by lifting some of the mud in the
spoon, and washing, or by pulling up the reeds and
other plants and examining the roots. Fresh-water
mussels stick in the mud at the bottom of ponds and
rivers : an iron rake is very useful in capturing them.
'' Land Mollusca must be hand-picked among leaves,
roots, or the decaying stones of old walls. For collecting
land-shells, a few wide mouthed bottles or pill-boxea
should be carried.

" By far the greater number of collectors content
themselves with ihe cleaned and dried shells of Mol-
lusca, without attempting to preserve their softer parts.
Indeed, a moderately- sized private cabinet will not
admit of anything more. It is extremely desirable,
however, tliat not only should the soft parts inhabiting
shells be preserved, but more especially the mollusks,
which either are destitute of a shell altogether, or have
only a small rudimentary one inside the mantle. This,
though applicable to the well-known species of our own
country, applies with far greater force to tliosoof littlo-
known regions.

" CephtUopods or cuttle-fishes should always bo pre-
served in fluid. Two genera — Spirula and Nautilus,
inhabiting the southern seaa — are much wanted in a
perfect condition in all public museums. In the case
of the latter, it will be well t make a small perforation
in the first chamber of the shell to allow the preserva-
tive fluid to enter.

'< Naked Mollusca should be allowed to die in sea- water
before l)eing placed in the spirit or other fluid. The

■

APPENDIX.

2G1

s:inio remark Mpplios to Rlioll-boaring Mollus^ca, ospo-
ciiiUy tho, univalved. Shells may be cleaned out either
hy pourmg hot water over tho living creatures, or allow-
ing them to die in tho water. A bent pin will be found
useful in extracting tho animal from the smaller shells.
Tho cliief thing to be attended to is to have tho shells
well cleaned and dried before being packed.

''The operculum, which covers tho opening in many
spiral shells, must be preserved, and if of a hard, cal-
careous substance, simply placed witiiin tho mouth of
tho shell : but if thin and horny, a little cotton should
be put into tho shell, and the ojiorculum fastened to
this with gum.

'•In cleaning bivalve shells care must bo taken not to
break the hinge, as otherwise the valves aro apt to bo
separated and lost. They should bo tied together while
yet the hinge is soft.

"No attempt should be made to remove tho adherent
shells of Worms, Crustacea, &c. It ought especially to
be kept in mind that tho application of acids will
injure the specimen far more than the presence of
scores of serpulro and barnacles.

" The epidermis which covers the shell is, so far as
colour is concerned, the most characteristic feature in
all species ; therefore it follows that this must bo care-
fully preserved. An application of oil has been often
recommended ; and, moro recently, Gen. Totten has
proposed the use of cloride of calcium for tho purpose of
keeping tho epidermis moist and clear. In tho m.ajo.
rity of instances no such application will bo necessary,
provided the shells are carefully dried and preserved."
— Daoies.

9. Worms and Crustacea.

"In the case of Wottus, tho first thing to be attended
to is killing. This is an easy matter with moderately-
sized worms, but with the more elongated genera, iis
Nemertis and Phyllodoce, it requires some nicety. Tho
plan which the writer pursues is as follows : — The worm
is allowed to remain in a jar with sea-water, until, by
the vitiation of the latter, the creature begins to lose

2G2

Ari'ENDlX.

its irritability. This can bo easily put to tho test by
touching it, and watcliing tho cifect. The water is then
to bo nearly all poured oil', and weak s})irit slowly
added. Tho Nemortis will endeavour to throw itsolf in
pieces by piMxlucing sudden bends in its body. When
these are observed, tho linger is gently pressed against
the outside of tho curve to rwluce it until tho worm
dies. By £uloi>ting this plan, any worm may be pre-
served without a single break. There is {inothcr advan-
Uxge gained by allowing tho worm to become enfeebled
in the sea-water, i. e., that it generally throws out its
proboscis, (ui organ of much value in distinguishing
genera. Serpuhe and other Bhell-inhabiting worms
should be preserved with the sliell attached, and, if
possible, another specimen removed from the shell
should be placed in the same jar. Flat marine worms
(Planaridre) cnnscjircely with safety be allowed to linger
in the water, owing to their extreme liability to decay,
but should at onoo be plunged into the preserving
iiuid.

*' Frr^sh water worms, as well as tape -worms, may bo
placed in spirits immediately after being caught."

" Crustaceans should be allowed to die in cold fresh
water. On no account whatever should hot w\ater bo
employed, as it immediately changes the colour. In
the ciiso of a crab the carapace or large shell should first
be removed, leaving tho limbs attached to the under
portion. ^*o much as possible of the flesh of the body
and claws is then to be taken out, in the latter case
employing a hooked wire. Except in large crabs it is
not advisable to disarticulato tho claws in order to clean
them ; but, when neocssai-y, it may be done witliout
matorially injuring tlio 8pecim<»i. Sometimes a piece
is removed from tlie shell of the claw to facilitate the
extraction of the muscle, and afterwards replaced and
fastened in with cement. 'I'he whole of the inside is
washed with corrosive sublimate, by means of a cjimel's
hair brush, the limbs put in the desired position, and
the shell is laid aside to dry, after which the parts are
united with cement. Should the specimen be a female,
the false limbs on which the eggs are borne re^iuire to
be preserved. Lobsters should have tho carapace

-4^

APPENDIX.

2G3

romovod. and tho limbs troato<i in tho same way as
crabrt ; trio abdomen is then romovod, and tho contents
of it extracted by means of a hooked wire. Cliemioal
preservative may then bo applied, and a littlo cotton
pushed into the abdomen. In drying, care must bo
taken to give a proper set to tho small limbs on tho
abdomon, and tho tail ; this will best bo accomplished
by laying it upside down on a board, and propping such
of the limbs tis re<j[Uiro it with pieces of cork.

'' Hermit crabs should have the soft abdomen slit
open, the contents extracted, and the spjicc lillod with
cotton. A little gum on the ox)tton will secure thu
c<lge3 of the slit. When dry they may bo replaood in
tho shells in whi -h they were found.

'♦All Crustaceans, but especially tho smaller species,
are better preserve<l in fluid than in any other way.
Nevertheless, it may be thought desirable to dry tho
smaller crabs, shrimps, sand-hoppers, and wood-lice.
When the carapace is not too hard, a pin is passed
through it into a flat piece of cork, and the Crustacean
is set in the same way as an insect, with this exception,
that slips of paper are not required, tho limbs and
feelers being kept in their places by pins bent obliquely
over them. Tho chief thing to bo attended to in set-
ting is symmetry of parts. Nothing look*} worse than
a shrimp or crab with its limbs twisted about in every
direction but tho right one. Cirripeds or barnacles may
be either dried or i)ut up as wet preparations. Thc^y
should bo kept attached to the piece of stone or wood
on which they are found." — Davics.

10. Insevis.

" The harder kinds may be put in licjuor, as above, but
the vessel or bottlo should not bo very largo. Butter-
flies, wasps, flies, &c., should be pinned in boxes, or
packed in layers with soft paper or cotton. Minute
species should be carefully sought under stones, bark,
dung, or flowers, or swoi)t with a small net from grass
or leaves. They may bo put in quills, small cones of
paper, or in gla^s vials. They an be readily killed by
immersing the bottles, Ac, in which they are collected,

!li

u ■ *

M

264

APPENDIX.

in liol wator, or exposing thorn to the vapour of other.
Lai'go beetles, however, can generally only bo killed by
piercing with some poisonous solution, as strychnine.

" It will frequently be found convenient to preserve
or transport insects pinned down in boxes. The bottoms
of these are best lined with cork or soft wood. Atten-
tion should bo paid to the particular pavt of dilforont
kinds of insects through which tho pin is to be thrust ;
beetles being pinned through the right wing cover or
elytron ; all others through tho middle of the thorax.

'' The traveller will find it very convenient to carry
about him a vial having a broad mouth, closed by a
tight cork. In this should be contained a piece of cam-
pJior, or, still better, of sponge soaked in ether, to kill
the insects collected. From this the specimens should
be transferred to other bottles. They may, if not hairy,
be killed by immersing directly in alcohol.

" A lump of camphor may be placed in a piece of
cotton cloth and pinned firmly in the corner of the box
containing dried insects, for the purpose of preventing
the ravages of larvro. A few drojis of kreosote occa-
sionally introduced will also answer the same purpose."
— Smithsonian Directions.

of ether,
killed by
chnine.
> i)resorvo
3 bottoms
Atton-
dilferont
e thrust J
cover or
thorax.
to carry
sod by II
Q of cam-
r, to kill
IS should
ot hairy,

piece of
' the box
eventing
te occa-
urpose."

il

I

T 11 IJ [' { i; M (' A T I O ^- 3

(> !• 1 II K

( m: u !. 0 a [ 0 A ]. s u ii \ i: v o v c a n a i > a .

lUV. UE1»0RT OF PIlonilE.SS FUOM TIIH C0,'\).Ali:X0EMi;:ST TO m?..
lllustratoil by r,!.S Woodoiits. One vt.l. L;ir;.T Svo, p;.. KUJ. >::>m.

AN ATLAS OK MAPS TO AL'CO.MIWXV THE llKPOliT OK Tllh'
I^UltVEY. rrii'c ?L'.")U.

TIIK Ill'^'.-'ORT OF rJlO<;KE.-!,S VUOM ISC.n TO W,('.. Ono v(.). Liiruc
8vo, i>i). •^■21. Trico !<2M.

" Tl>e ;;f.vlo in which tliis work hns boon y<<\ iip, the precision ol Iho dniw-
iii!r, jin.l lliii iteouni'-yof the wodiL-ufs. niiiv ulinost cliiilh'n^-c! l■(llll!);l^i^M)ll wiMi
f'lo t'Xtviiiioii el' siniilir i)nKlii('tions on ihis siilo (,t' tlic Arlnnlie." Tiicre liis
li.'i'n ji, Htriidy pei'^iistLMiee in tho cuuihict of this irniiirk.iblo survey. hoiioi,i -
;ihli' alike to tlic snci-essivo (iKveniuionts 'lt;il, havo en(!oiir.i.!-';c-.l it, itml to tin;
oiii.'crs who liavo (tun-icil out liio work. No othor Coloiii:il Sarvey iins nvcr
yet as.ainicii ih(!_s;ii!ie truly nitioniil ehjivinttor ; ;mh1 tlic day may ••omo— ii'
(■V(!r (ho •• IniiicM'iai Colony " sJiall chiiiii an i ol)'ain inihipondoniH' -whtai tlic
.Scicniiiio pobiu! ot' a jiruat nation, loi.kin'j,' ba^'k upon tlic oa,rli(M" il.iwniM v>' if
.s iioi cc in tludr land, .siiall ro^ai'd Iho iia':io ot' Jjoi^aii. n, native boiii. v>ilii th;;
iJ'inic ai't'ocLioiiato inicrc I ujth uhi.'h En;rli-h fceoio^rists iiov.' r(>;;;;rd !li<> iMiOi-s
of our f^ro: t Rcob ,'rical nnin-niakcrs, W ill! uii Suiilli avid D.; li Jj;;L'h".'"--

PAL.'l^^ZOIC FO,^SILS OF CAXADA, ponti-inin;? do:^mi!^tio'

and

• :A'i;ri\

»)f now or little kn(»wn .sj)ceio.s of Oriiniie J; oniains fi-oiii tho SihiriMi
Kockri, lS(n-()5. By E. Billini.v.s, F.OS. Iliu.- trated by ;;;M W. <)d<-!<t-'.
0(.c vol. Lai'tro Svo, pi>. A'li\. rrico .jL'.VJ.

FJGUllES AND DESCiUPTIONS OF CANADIAN OIKi ANIC REMAINS.

La,rso Svo. Docadi; t. — Fossils from tho base of the Trenton (J roup, by J.
U'. iSalior, Pabvontol igist t.o the (Jofji^rapliieal Survey of (Jreat liriltiiii.
Docnde II.— Uraptolitos of tlie (> ebcc (jlroap, l)y James Hall. Dccailo
11'. ^^stidc;o and A. teridoa', by E. Bil'inus. (Jonus Cyidocystoides, by
I J. \\ . Salter. ]'al;co/,oie iiivalve Fiitonioslraea, by 7'. K.

E. liilH

I's aiu

.iones. F.O.S. Doca'e IV.— Crinoide.o from the lov.'er Silurian, ))y i'J.
Lillinss.

Decades T., III. and IV. each contain ten full-pago Litlioffrap^\'^, executed
in tho very best stylo, besides nnmy Woodcuts. Decade II. contain;^, besides
\\'oodc:;t-', twenty-three full page Plates, of which twenty-one are en^^'nived

on

■:teol, and two are lithiwaphs. Ea.ch Decade is conipltte in i's If.

Oo-adcs I., III., and IV., price .^i.Ofl. Decade II.. price -i;2.'!0.

Till'] llEPOiri" OF PHOiJllESS FOll THE YEAR isr.s. Price 75 centR.
This is flieoidy one of this valuable series reniainin;r in jirint. Itc^ ntains
(IcSiMir.tioii;: of tile 1! nisay and Acton iMincs.

DAWSON BEOTiirRS,
Publishers.

^

CANADA

JKMKJST TO ]sr,;5.
. lUlJ. $5.01).

:poiiT OF Till':

One vol. Liiriie

i.-iion o( I ho ilr;nv-

0 (•(iiiii);irir-(»ii niili
limlie. TliiM-e li.'is
Ic .^idvcy. liuiioiir-
.i.sAC'l it, iJiid to lliu

1 Sdrvey inis owi-
il.'iy inny couic — if
niloncc -ulifni (lie

:l.lli(M- I'l.lWlli;! ;>' I i"

i\'u' ()')rii. v.ilii tihi

' V('jj;;!r(l '.h". lliUIK'S

L»0 1;| jj;;^h"."-

iinii tlio Sihiri''ii
)y .';;».) \\'i,<)il<'i;t--'.

NIC PtEMAIXS.

ton (Jroiip, by -i.
r Ore.-it ]]ri(;!iii.
llall. l)(.'c;i,lo
yclooyistoido-^. l.y
usIimp:!,, by I. K,

Sil!iri;in. by E.

.^ontaiiia, bcf^ulcs
iiic !iro eiiynivL'il
iicte in ['!■•■ ir.-

I'riiM' TA (^cntp.
■int. Itci ntriiii.s

W C> JE^ Xv B

I^ J. v. DAWSOX. !,L.|)., F.K.S.. I'.C.S.. Piiis-pa! of ^cCill

I lUViTsitV, i«I(>!ltl\'ill.

AC J

x:

!

-fi^E TO BORROWER

' ; !'':>) r: '\^

1 Vo]. M

j

It i;; !l!'o
it is no! lltO!
Ii.i't Hi ii:i'ii

I !|0 C"(>i

plivviiNil <.oii
: i'<,l(;<.vi'-iii .•■'tf

ii!l(,<tliULVl (B

ii'ii'.i of i,;i(' <

(,'-t. nil lies, Ac
ni:n>. itc. (T
!•(')!( iriiMl n_
illiis(i;itioiis,'
v.('!l-\vi-itt ni
(^'Aitiui:!. :

This card is to be kept in this
pocket and returned with
the book.

No book will be loaned without
presentation of the borrower's
card.

This book must be returned on
or before the last date stamped
on the card.

If not requested by another
borrower the loan may, on
application, be renewed.

This book must not be marked
or mutilated in any way.

In case of loss its value must be
paid to the Librarian. .

Any violation of these rules may
deprive the borrower of any
further privile-^es of the
Library.

Department oj Education^ Toronto.

)LM ('';',] Ma,!)

fy be p oiiil. lor
l>' :v ol'-V-.-ndi.!,
c .

»V'.

i' ii.ro, iilo ts
)«-ii(i!M;t (III iis
r;il i:u. lo;;y ;iri'
•c oi' I'oiil. (iio
n, lil'o in si'.i,-.
g"!il, iiiiinc\ jj
Bii-'tor, ii K' od

■_Sll)).ioct-, ill!, I

li.;- .'•:iti;!f':ictory,
gi ill rtvoiiiVL's

\

eic !.^ horo one
>, ^)^ 'liil.'joni.')-

iid (io.-'Tioii.iii,
i;t will ohfji'li
li.u: i.i'oviii' OS

A l)o.-orii>tive

* *

Jotil Formation

ft ri'tjnii'*
oC t!l« ino;-:t i^
bi^';i';ll l)()'i;>;;J

The t;'ona
iiinpliliod lV(jl

lioMl it il liiiF
ftlld Stniisllc;!

TilK Ali; I

Ac'ftoiiiit » f

<L' Noviit _^;, ■ '■ •'■_: ■ ,: ou I'licorics oi' tiio

Fonn;ilion of Conl, and of the oriinn of Spcoicp, i>]>. Svo, : 1. liliisti- ilod
by 7 riill-i)a,no Lithographs, confiiin'n'; over 1:00 Dniwinj's. Trioc ."/.l.oo.
A few cojtios have been i>ubli.-]K-d v, ith ;i Mioros^oii't! Plii»f(!,';ra;,li, o(jn-
tiiining W Illiistration-. r.'ico ^1.:">D.

AltCHAl A ; or F^Muli. s of the Cu8nK\sony and X.ji-r d Hi-^lory oftho (fobrcw
;Sc!riiit:ire.'\ 1-ino. pi). !(iS. .*! r.i).

DAW^l'ON BROTIIvmS,

•«r,.