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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction retios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure ara filmad beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames aa required. The following diagrams illustrate the mettiod: Lea cartes, planches, tabieaux, etc., peuvent Atre fiimAa A dea taux de rMuction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit ei. un seul clich6, il est filmA A partir de I'angio supAriaur gauche, de gauche A droite. at da haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'imagas nAcessaira. Las diagrammas su!vants illustrent la mAthoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 r B»»" COMPARATIVE VIE¥ OF TBI CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA, CONSIBERSD IN RELATION TO ITS INFLUENCE rpojf K, ^gncttUtta^ BY HENRY YOULE HIND, MATHEMATICAL MASTER AND LECTURER IN CHEMISTRY AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, AT THE PROVINCIAL NORMAL SCHOOL, TORONTO. TORONTO PRINTED BY BREWER, McPHAIL, & CO,, 1861. ■te.:-!^^ ' ."ifr .^,>ii^i.i4-.ii.j:-, 4„ ■ ;;i^v ?■'«; ;;;^.f lo^ ; - ''■^!.i '' ■' ;-R • ^^rl'MT*'- ♦ ^^ ~ -.Wi^ ■i .' \ ! ' '< r* ''•';', ^ ' ;> •"■; i - » , 1 PREFACE. fH' f-*i My object) in submitting the following pages to the Canadian Public, is to draw attention to the characteristics of the Climate of Western Canada in its bearings upon Agriculture, with a view to the dissemination of correct views on that important subject. The usefulness of possessing information, based upon reliable meteoro* logical data, is enhanced by consideraticms of a national character. Notwithstanding the enjoyment of a dbil eminently fertile, and of a climate distinguished by remarkable salubrity ; notwithstanding a decided superiority for agricultural purposes over the state of New York, the northern part of Ohio and Illinois, the states of Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, the Far West, and the whole of New England ; in a word, over the wheat growing states generally ; yet the impression undoubtedly prevails among multitudes, who are desi* rous of emigrating from Qreat Britain and Ireland, that the climate of Western Canada is distinguished by the characteristics of intense and almost unendurable winter cold, together with a hot and fleeting summer, which scarcely affords the agriculturist time to secure his harvest. The European emigrant, who is still deterred from seeking a home in Western Canada, by traditionary tales of the severity of the climate of the remote Eastern portion of the United Provinces, is ignorant of the fact, that in preferring any part of the United States, to which allusion has been made, he is actually selecting for himself a climate of greater winter cold and summer heat, and not only more unhealthy, but also far more hazardous to the agriculturist than that which it obtains in the Cana* dian Peninsula. ir. I i Our acquaintance with the climate of Western Canada, in its true relation to agriculture, is, as yet, necessarily imperfect and elementary. What we do know, however, is strongly confirmatory of the supposition, that, from the peculiar situation of the Province among the Great Lakes, it presents adaptations to the purposes of rgriculture, which are not surpassed in any other portion of North America. That this is not a statement thought- lessly advanced in a romantic spirit of patriotism, or in idolatrous acknowledgment of the sentiment, that " there is no place like home :" but that it is one which is reasonable and susceptible of demonstration, I shall endeavour to show in the following pages. The most important points in which the climate of Western Canada differs from those of the United States, which lie north of the forty-first parallel of latitude, may be briefly enumerated, pre- paratory to further elucidation, as follow : 1st. In mildness, as exhibited by comparatively high winter and low summer temperatures, and in the absence of great extremes of temperature. 2nd. In adaptation to the growth of certain cereals and forage crops. 3rd. In the uniformity of the distribution of rain over the agri- cultural months. 4th. In the humidity of the atmosphere, which, although con- siderably less than that of a truly maritime climate, is greater than that of localities situated at a distance from the Lakes. 5th. In comparative immunity from spring frosts and summer droughts. -^ n ,, 6th. In a very favourable distribution of clear and cloudy days, for the purposes of agriculture ; and in the distribution of rain over many days. ^ 7th. In its salubrity. The points in which the climate of Western Canada differs favourably from that of Great Britain and Ireland, are^ 1st. In high summer means of temperature. 2nd. In its comparative dryness. 3rd. In the serenity of the sky. The meteilrological data introduced, are chiefly derived from the admirable and extensive series of observations which have been made at her Majesty's Observatory at Toronto, under the direction of Capt. Lefroy, R. A., F.R.S. ; the Reports of the Regents of the University of the State of Now York ; Forrey's Climate of the United States ; the American Almanac ; and Dr. Drake's work on the Diseases of the Valley of North America. I am conscious of having very feebly set forth the advantages which the climate of Western Canada offers to the enterprising agriculturist. The Province, however, is yet in its youth — and so also is its agriculture, and all matters relating to it, compared with what they will become, under a proper process of development, even ten years hence. In the meantime, I trust that these pages, in the absence of other connected representations of the climate of the Western Province, may tend to remove impressions which have hitherto proved very prejudicial to the progress of settlement. Illustrations of the prevalence of these impressions might be ad- vanced without number ; they are, however, sufficiently numerous and common, as probably to have met the eye of all who may peruse these pages. They occur in almost every descriptive work of the country, written by a foreigner, which I have met with. They have lately been reiterated in some of the admirable descrip- tions which the English papers have given of Canadian excellence in the Industrial Arts ; — and why not ? when sleighs, bear skins, stoves, and blankets figurevi largely and prominently among our contributions. They are lO be found in scientific works — for few distinguish between Canada EAST and Canada WEST — between the almost maratime climate of the one, and the truly continental climate of the other. And " Canada" is associated with Scandina- via and Siberia, being characterized as a " bleak clime ;" ( Ameri- can Journal of Geology,) or with Russia and Sweden, (Stephen's Farmer's Guide,) and imaginary difficulties with respect to most important agricultural improvements, suggested in consequence. With our American neighbours, the Snows of Canada form the subject of a more fertile theme than our Wheat ; although the former, in the Western Province, are slowly diminishing, and not now sufficient for the purposes of communication, while the latter is rapidly increasing at the average rate of two millions op BUSHELS EYEET YEAR. TI fk If this little pamphlet succeed in awakening a better aoknowledg. ment of the true characteristics of the climate of the Western Province, I propose shortly, endeavouring to develop more fully the circumstances under which husbandry in all its branches is, and may be prosecuted, in especial relation to the Geology and Physical Geography of the Province ; for it is my conviction, that the properties and powers of her soil, due to its peculiar geological formation, in connection with a most favourable climate and well- directed popular industry, will soon enable the Western Province to become one of the great graneries of the world. Toronto, August Ut, 1851. H.Y. HIND. ' >.h ■'■'' ►(• ',*^. .ij"''*! ' k t. C' > "■' v^ii^ •*■• •{;-fi^*W!S ' -(.♦. fw(t.: i,;.,*: <^;ri^':(J^^ M>.:' 1.1 ^^r'-.i^ n-;^,^' f * ^ Council Bluffs 41-26 22-5 5 h o Fort Crawford 43-3 19-89 2 [ 20-6 Fort Howard 44-40 18-8 4 Toronto 43-39 25-61 10 5«1 Lewiston Rochester 43.15 43-8 3002 27-5 10 "2 s 1 Utica 43-7 24-8 14 E.ist of the Lakes. Albany Concord 42-39 4312 26-6 22-5 17 10 •24*4 It is shown in the following tables, that the intensity of oc- casional low temperatures is also greater at localities situated r i tiome distance to tlic cast or T>*st of the lakes, than within a few miles of their shores ; and also, that a difTerenco of one, two, or oven three degrees of lulitudo to the south, docs not aifect this general law. It must, howevor, bu botno in mind, that the same causes (winds sweeping over a frozen soil) which produce very low temperatures at Ulica, Albany, Muscalino, 6ic., exist to a small extent in Westorii Canada, at a distance of twenty to thirty miles from the lakes ; but, since the distance of the most inland portion of tiio country is not moro than (if*}' miles from Lakes Huron, Erie, or Ontario, their warmiiig induence will still be foil there, though in a less degree than on their shores. . ■> Table of minimum jointer letnpcratiircs, observed at various places, east, west, and on the sJwrcs of th3 Lakis, (1849.) Names of Places. Latitude. Jan. Fed. Dec. o . r Rochester -SJl < Lewiston <§5 tToronto .... 43-07 43-09 43-39 —9 2 —4 —7 —4 —9 2 . 6 — G . ^ (-Albany, N.Y. . . :ii \ Lambertville, N.J. . 1 J I Biddeford, Me. k L I^rovidence, R.I. 42-39 40-23 43-31 41-49 —10 — () —8 —4 —7 3 —19 —1 6 18 —7 7 / 5 ■-' "• ■ -t , -t ■■ ■'■ !.i' ,,- .,.!.. ' "' l: . ■■',.' a.3 1 Muscatine, la. '.' .' . 41-30 —24 -22 —12 1^ L ' ^M'l r- ' . , ■ i; ,■ y 'i V- 'V, ■ -r '* It is well known that the temperature of Rochester, and of places about the same latitude a;? Western New York, is never so low by many degrees, as are many places on nearly the same par- allel of latitude at the east." — Fi. R. Year 1844. I g C Toronto . ^1 < Rochester o»3 f lewiston o Albany Z%-{ Utica Mean Temp. Jan. Mean I'cnip. Feb. 20-67 o 27-72 20-90 28-61 22-81 30.09 16-63 24.34 14-98 24-06 > m 10 Occasional minimum temperatures at Toronto, and at placet east of the Lakes, in the State of New York, (164&.) I •\y, Yeas 1848. January. February. Makcb. 5*1 Toronto —11 —16 —18 —30 —15 —24 —17 —27 0 —3 —10 —14 —6 —12 —4 —16 0 |i Albany g^ J Fairfield V J Granville —1 —8 —8 ll Utica. Lowville (lat. 43-17) .... Plattsburc: (lat. 44-42) . . . St. Lawrence (lat. 44-40) . . —2 —3 0 —6 " At Council Bluffs, in the interior of the Mississipi and Missouri basin, we find an excessive, or true continental climate ; a winter cold, on single days of -32=^ and -37^ ; followed by mean summer temperatures of 69® and 71®-4."— Humboldt. It would be an easy matter to select localities to the east and west of the lakes, and in the same latitude as Toronto, or even two or three degrees to the south of that city, where the occurrence of intense degrees of cold is not unfrequent. I have, however, endeavoured to select stations which are not aflfected by aspect, or altitude aboie the level of the sea. The following table exhibits the occurrence of some of these terrible visitations of low tempera- ture at the stations named below : Minimum Tempemtore. St. Louis, Missouri, ^ . . . • -25 Fort Crawford, Wisconsin, v .'• . -32 Cuba, New York -26 Lowville, New York, -35 Fort Howard, Wisconsin -32 Fort Soelling, Minnesota, . . . . » < ,^4l>< . -40 Subjoined is a comparative view of the extent, elevation, and depth of the Great Lakes : w 11 M Names of Lakes. Lake Superior Green Bay Lake Michigan Lake Huron Lake St. Clair Lake Erie Lake Ontario , . Total area, An* la Square Miles, 32,000 3,000 22,400 19,200 360 9,600 6,300 91,860 BlSTStlon aboreC'eSea. 696 678 678 678 670 666 232 Mmb Depth. 900 600 1000 lOOO 20 84 600 The greatest known depth of Lake Ontario is 780 feet; in Lake Superior, however, a line 1200 feet long has, in some parts, failed in reaching the bottom. Whenever vesterly winds, having a temperature less than 22®, sweep over the surface waters of Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they will not only receive accessions of heat, but be also in some measure diverted from their courses. The mean temperature of the air at Toronto, during the three winter months, December, January, and February^ is 25®'51 ; while that of the surface water of the open lakes, never less than 32°, and generally ibout 33«-5; in other words, 7° or 8® above the mean at Toronto. The effect of this difference is occasionally manifest in the high temperatures of the southern shores of kkes Erie and Ontario, and especially on the Niagara River, where the mean winter tempei%- ture does not fall 2 degrees below the freezing point of water. A similar effect is produced upon the northern shor<^s of lakes Erie and Ontario, although in a less degree ; while the Wurming influ- ence of Lake Huron is felt over the whole western peninsula during the winter months. At Detroit, in latitude 42^*24, the mean of three years* observations, gives 27° for the winter temper- ature , whereas, the corresponding temperature at Lewiston, in latitude 43*'-09, or nearly three-quarters of a degree farther north, is 80°. The influence of the State of Michigan (frozen during the winter season) on the temperature at Detroit, is sufficient to reduce it 10 that of Rochester, a degree further to the north. The dura- lion of snow upon the ground, the average fall of rain, the T 10 serenity of the sky, and the humidity of the atmosphere, are alt affected, on the shores of the Lakes, by the. great depth and expanse of tlieir waters. Subjoined is a Table of the mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures, together with the range, of the different months of the year, as observed at Toronto, in her Majesty's Observatory ; being the mean of eleven years, viz., from 1840 to 1850, both inclusive : — January, . February, . March, . . April, , . . May, . . . June, . . . July, . . . August, . . September, October,. . November, December, Mean. Maxiiiiuin. Minimum. o o o 24.67 46.33 —4.41 24.14 46.35 —4.37 30.83 63.31 7.69 42.17 71.44 17.96 "61.84 76.76 28.82 61.42 76.44 35.72 66.54 88.11 44.06 66.76 83.98 46.02 67.11 80.19 32.0*7 44.60 66.10 22.17 36.67 67.03 13.33 27.18 46.26 3.62 Kange. o 49.74 60.72 46.92 63.48 47.94 40.72 44.06 38.96 48.12 44.30 43.60 46.27 Annual Mean, 44^.39 From the foregoing table of temperatures we glean the following facts : — 1st. The hottest month in the year is July : the coldest Feb- ruary. 2nd. There are four months in the year during which the aver- age temperature is Jess than the freezing point of water. These months are January, February, March, and Decen^ber, These constitute the winter months. 3rd. There are three months, April, October, and November, during which the temperature is above the freezing point of water, and below the mean temperature of the year. 4th. There are five months in the year during which the mean temperature is above the annual mean. These are May, June, July, August, and September. These months, with October, con- stitute the agricultural, or growing months of Western Canada. 5th. The mean highest temperature of the hottest month (July) is double of the mean annual temperature. 6th. The mean minimum temperature of the hottest month is the same as the qaean annual temperature. 7th. The temperature is most uniform in August, and most fluctuating in April. Compare the temperatures of the year 1849 (a very cold winter) at Toronto, in latitude 43^ 39', with those of Muscatine, latitude 41'' 80', Iowa, on the banks of the Mississippi :— Toronto. Mean Temperature, o 18.49 19.99 33.24 38.74 48.30 63.01 G7.82 65.08 67.04 44.94 41.87 26.56 January, . Feb- aary, March,. . April, , . May. . . June, . . July, Au^st, . . September, October, . . November . December, . . • . MuscHtlne. Mean Temperature. o 12.6 18.1 37.3 44.3 54.8 67.6 66.4 65.2 61.7 48.9 42.8 18.3 Toronto. Higher Temp. than Muscatine o 5.89 1.89 1.42 8.26 Muscatine. Highor Temp, thitn Toronto. 4.06 5.56 6.50 3.59 0.12 4.66 3.96 0.93 Compare the monthly means of temperature at Toronto and Montreal ; — the capital of Lower Canada being subject to the same influences as Muscadne, and the Far West generally : — > January, . Februwy, March, . . April, . . May, . . . June, , . ; July, . . . August, . September, October, . November, December, Monthly Means of Temperature. Toronto. Mean of 10 years. o 24.67 24.14 30.83 42.17 51.84 61.42, 66.54 65.76 67.11 44.50 36.57 27.18 Toronto, Warmer Win- ter Means of temp. Montreal, Hotter Sum- mer means of temp. Toronto. Warmer Winter Means of Temp. Monthly Means of Temperature. Montreal. 3Iean of 5 yearf.i o 13.98 16.08 27.60 40.02 53.38 65.97 69.67 66.21 68.60 46.10 32.70 18.69 It will be remarked that the climate of Montreal is of a true continental or excessive character, when compared with that of (I Toronto ; and is similar in many respects, as regards tempwa« turo, to thai of Muscatine, in Iowa. The intensity of cold at Muscatine, notwithstanding it is so much nearer the equator than Toronto, will appear upon inspection of the following table, which furnishes an illustration of the occa- sional winter cold in the Western States : — - 1840. 1843. 1844. 1846. 1848. 1849. ® . » . o . 9 O O II January, —17 —16 —6 6 12 —24 February, —26 —19 6 6 —8 —22 March, 12 —10 6 8 20 10 April, 27 5 30 16 28 22 October, 25 12 16 16 16 28 November, 18 10 7 —11 2 20 December, 2 8 —6 —12 6 —12 Misaiuippi Frozen and Closed. In No. oi Year. 1840 1841 18h2 1843 1844 1845 1849 Days. 46 60 56 133 31 78 62 At St. Louis, Missouri, latitude 38^ 37', or five degrees south of Toronto, the subjoined minimum temperatures were registered :— January, . ■Pebruary, . March, . . October, , November, December, St. Louis — (1841 ) 9 —6 4 26 18 16 12 Toronto.— (1841.) 9 -6-4 -1-3 —6-7 20-6 8-6 31 (Thirty-eight thunder showers at St. LdKis in 1841.) The subjoined table exhibits a comparison between the minimum and maximum temperatures, and the range, at Toronto and Mus- catine : — ■ -^ ■ ^ ■ 1^ I ^— * Musea- tlne Baage. . 9 Year 1849. January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September October, November, December, Toronto. Muscatine. Toronto. Muscatine. Minimum Minimum Maximum Maximum Toronto Temp. Temp. Temp. Temp. Bange. 9 9 0 9 9 —14-2 —24 39-6 46 63-7 -98 —22 40-6 48 50-4 161 10 63 0 68 37-9 166 22 720 74 66-6 27-9 30 722 80 44-3 35-2 44 84-4 86 49-2 47-3 42 88-6 89 41-3 45-2 36 790 86 33-8 32-7 37 801 84 47-4 26-2 28 618 70 37-3 24'2 20 56-4 72 32-2 —6-6 —12 40-8 44 47-3 70 70 58 52 50 42 47 50 47 43 52 56 n^ W« observe the eflfect of a prolonged northerly wind at Blaica- tine in August. The temperature is reduced to within four di^grees of the freezing point. The climate of Muscatine affords a fair type of the climates of the North. Western States, beyond the influence of the Lakes, «nd as far south as latitude 40®, or three degrees thirty*nine minutes nearer to the equator than Toronto. The characteristics of those climates are*— •^. V-' At— 1st. Intense winter cold, 2nd. intense summer heat. drd. A rapid change from high to low temperatures. And, as will be shown in the sequel, 5th. A comparatively cloudless sky. 6th. The distribution of rain over a very few days; and sudden, violent, and destructive in its precipitation. 7th. A great and sudden range in the degree of humidity of the atmosphere. MILDNESS OF THE CLIMATE OF THE CANADIAN PENINSULA. The difference between the mean summer and mean winter temperatures of various localities is given in the subjoined tables, and is well worthy of attention, for the purpose of illustrating the mildness of the climate of Western Canada, when compared with the excessive climates of the Western States : — Difference between the Summer and Winter Mettis of Temperature. 3900 4500 4905 60-89 61-34 66-60 lAutttde. 43-39 41-30 41-28 43-3 41*46 44-63 Toronto, ........*.... Muscatine, Iowa, Fort Armstrong, Illinois, Fort Crawford, Wisconsin, . . . Council Blufis, Missouri Territory Fort Snelling, Minnesota, .... Contrast the mean monthly tempefeitures of Fort Preble, on the Atlantic coast, in latitude 48^*36, and Fort Armstrong, Illinois, in I« IIP ■|! latitude 41<='-28, with thoM of Toronto, subject to the ameliorating influences of the Greot Lakes : — Latitude 43*38 deg. Latitude 43*39 deg. Lat. 41*28 deg. Fort Preble, Toronto, Fort Armstrong, East of the Lakes. On the Lakes. 0 West of Lakes. January, . 21-82 24-67 23*78 February, . 24*94 24* 14 26*28 March, . . 33*41 30-83 37*47 fi'- April,. . . 45*44 42-17 61*26 May, . . . fi4*49 61-84 63*83 , June, . . . 64*29 61-42 73*69 July, . . . 697i 66-64 77*92 August, . 67*19 66-76 76*21 Jeptember, 6900 6711 63*67 '^' October, . 49*28 44.60 64-68 B November, 38*46 36-67 39-82 December, 31*32 27-1- 30*63 Mean, . 46*67 44*39 61*64 :l Fort Armstrong is more than two degrees south of Toronto, and yet the mean temperature of January is nearly a degree lower than at Toronto, while the njean temperature of the hottest month is upwards of eleven degrees higher than at the last-named place, situated on the Lakes. Fort Preble, to the East, in the same lati- tude as Toronto, has a mean temperature for January nearly three degrees lower than Toronto, and for July upwards of three degrees higher. '^'iC'Xi INFLUENCE OF COMPA?vATIVELY HIGH SUMMER MEANS OP TEMPERATURE. It is impossible to form a correct judgment respecting the influ- ence of climate on agriculture from annual means of temperature alone. The distribution of heat and light over the agricultural months, and' the humidity of the atmosphere, afford the best crite- ria for opinion in such matters. A serene sky in the s .miner months is not only accompanied by increase of temperature during the day time, but also by a corresponding increase in the intensity of light. The vigorous and rapid growth of vegetables in Western Canada, is due to the serenity f f the summer sky, and the uniform distribution of rain over the agricultural months. The effect, It however, of too great serenity of the sky is detrimental to agricuU ture. In Iowa, Wisconsin, and the Westein States generally, the extraordinary duration of the clearness of summer skies, and the unequal distribution of rain over the months of the year, render the cultivation of v^eat, the grasses, and the root crops far more hazardous than in Western Canada. The mean annual number of clear days on the Lakes is about 120 Remote from the Lakes 210 Cloudy days on the Lakes 140 Remote from the Lakes 75 In illustration of the importance of direct light, or solar radiation, in place of the diffused light which falls upon vegetables when the sky is clouded, we may instance the climate of Cherbourg, in lat- itude 49® '29, where the mean annual temperature is 52®'l, and that of Heidelberg, in latitude 49* -24, where the mean annual temperature is 49® '5, or 2® '6 below that of Cherbourg. The wine of Heidelberg is celebrated throughout the world, yet Cher- bourg produces no drinkable wine. Cherbourg is situated on the sea coast, under a sky frequently obscured by clouds; while Hei- delberg is situated in the interior of the continent, and enjoys a clear and sunny sky. ^ Barley ripens in the Feroe Islands, (lat. 62^ dog.); but all attempts to introduce it into Iceland (lat. 63^ deg.) have completely failed. It succeeds, nevertheless, at Alton, in Lapland, wh^re the monthly means of temperature are lower than those of the Feroe Islands or Iceland. In analyzing the causes of the failure, it rs found to depend upon the circumstance, that a clordy sky opposes all endeavours to introduce the cereals into Iceland. — Martins. Humboldt says, that in no part of the world did he see such magnificent fruit, especially grapes, as in Astrachan, in latitude 48®*21 : the mean annual temperature being 48 deg. The mean summer temperature rises to 70 deg., and in winter the ther- mometer falls from 45 to 54 deg. below the freezing point of water. High summer temperatures are the chief causes of the geographi- cal distribution of plants over the surface of the earth. Tiiey necessarily influence, to a very great extent, the agriculture of any particular country. The yellow horse chestnut disappears on the Atlantic coast in latitude 36^, while it is found west of the 2 ::^ 19 i! ii ir AHtghaniM in Utitude 43«. So with the black walnut, whiolir ' un the JLtlantio coast oeaaea to grow in latitude 41^, yet is . found west of the Alleghanies in the lake country as far as latitude 44^. The Canada shore of Lake Erie abounds in magnificent .ipecimens-of this valuable tree. Numerous individuals may be met within the woods which measure upwards of five feet in diameter. In nearly every part of England and Ireland, the mean annual temperatures varies from two to five degrees higher than at Toronto. The mean summer tempereture is four or five degrees lower than . at the last mentioned place. Hence, Indian corn will rarely ripen, or melons, squashes, and pumpkins grow to any size in the open air in the British Isles, while every one knows that these vegetables attain remarkable dimensions in Western Canada. The high lat" itude and insular position of the islands, favouring a cloudy sky, diminish the intensity of solar light and heat, although other cir- oumstances concur to elevate the mean annual temperature far above that of the Province. The mean summer temperature of 57*2 deg. appears to be the minimum requisite for the successful cultivation of wheat. It is shown in a subsequent table that the mean summer temperature at Toronto is 64-51 deg.; and if the means of the whole of the Province were taken, it would probably be found to reacln36 deg. Table cf the mean temperature of the ntmmer monthSf {June, July, and August,) at Toronto, during the years 1840 to 1850, both inclusive ; also Table of the mean maximum temperature during the same periods. Yeab. MKAK SUMMER TEM- PERATURE. MEAN MAXIMUM SUMMER TEMPERATURE. 1840 o 63-90 65-8 62-33 63-33 62-55 65*30 6616 63-26 65-41 65*30 66-ai * Q ai-5 1841 . 88-9 1842 . . 1843 . . 82-9 83-7 1844 , 1845 85-6 88*1 1846 1847 1848 . . 88-4 82-6 87-1 1849 . . 18(H) . . 840 86-3 ■ 4 Mean, 64'6r 85-26 * 11 To the Mwt and west of the lakes, (especially in th^ lattac dirae* tioni.) high summer means of temperature are invariably associated- with low winter means ; in other words, great, and often injurious extremes of temperature occur, particularly in the Western States. Compare the subjoined mean temperatures of the seasons at the - stations named* J.*\ WlKTIR gPRINO SVMMIR AOTVMH PLACM. Latitudk . Mian. Mbar. Mkan. Mrar. Q 0 o o o Toronto^.': .'..'. . 4339 26-33 41-61 64-61 47-41 Hudson 4115 26-70 48-20 6920 46-40 Muscatine 41-26 26-80 49-90 69 00 49'iiO Council Bluffg . . . . 41-28 24-28 61-60 76-81 62-46 Fort Crawford .... 43-03 20-69 48-25 72-38 4809 Fort Winnebago . . . 43-31 20-81 44-67 67-97 46*10 Fort Dearborn .... 41-60 24-31 45-39 67-80 47-09 Detroit 42-62 27-62 4516 67-33 47-76 Tabie of the mean summer temperatures at various localities in Europe^ compared with those at Toronto. ' ' lieMi Bammer Temp. Toronto 64-61 »va Berlin, (Europe) 63-3 Cherbourg •• . . . . • . . 61-9 Penzance " . . , . . 61-8 Greenwich «♦ 60-88 Cheltenham " 6004 ; , . , ; „.■ V Mean Temp, of tha Hottest Montlu. Toronto 66-64 Paris . . - 66-02 Frankfort on the Maine .... 66-00 Berlin 64-4 Iiond(Mi ....... 64-1 Cherbourg . , ■ »i/^ ......■.., . . 632 The efiects of high summer means of temperature, when asso> eiated with a uniform distribution of rain, are of the utnDost im- portance, ia their bearings upon the cultivation and growth oS^ I, u so 11 I ^iflferent kinds of vegetables, and also upon many practical opem* tions of husbandry; first among which ranks that great modern improvement, subsoil draining. It will bo sufficient fur present purposes, to show that the intensity of solar radiation exercises such wfk influence upon the soil, as to remove at once the objection urged against subsoil draining in the Canadas, on account of win- ter frost, and the supposed congealution of the water at the mouths of the drains, or in the drain and soil itself. Stephens says, in " The Farmer's Guide," " The only practicable way I can there- ibre see, of retaining the water in a liquid state in such climates (Canada, Russia, Sweden), as it issues from the outlet, is to place the outlet at such a depth as to bo beyond the reach of frost, and to convey the water in a deep and long covered drain. Much foresight is thus required, and much expense must be incurred, in making drains in countries where frost penetrates the ground to a great depth." It is much to be regretted that so little is known on the other side of the Atlantic respecting the climate of the Canadas, and especially of the Western Province, as to permit the introduction, into a standard work on agriculture, of so potent an objection to the most important physical improvement of soils, as above quoted. In presenting the actual influence exerted by frost, in its true bearings upon subsoil draining, it will be well to exhi- bit, as far as they aro known, the effects of solar radiation ; first, as relates to the actual temperature it is capable of imparting to absorbing surfaces, and especially to soils ; and, secondly, the depth and degree to which those temperatures are susceptable of being propagated downwards. Table of the intensity of Sohr Radiation, during the year 1840, at Toronto. {Mean summer temperature helow the average.) 1840. Mean maximum temperature, .... Solar Radiation above 100 degrees in number of ^ys, Solw radiation above 90 degrees in number of days May. June. July. Aug. 76-4 79-9 • 82-3 82-4 7 10 16 14 12 19 27 28 The temperature of the surface of a dark-coloured soil, in the ■eiflit(ourhood of Toronto, frequently rises to ISO degrees ;— ^in- 91 Aug. 82-4 14 28 ■Uaeai have been recorded when the temperature rose lo 14ft degrees. The effect of the intensity of lolar radiation upon the aoilf during the months of the year, is shown in a remarkable manner, in the following — Table of the Temperature of the Soil, at the depths of three feet aud six feet, during the years ' 1840, 1841, and 1842. Temperature at a depth of three feet. Temperature at a depth of dlx feet. r aieei ,>-■ , 1840. 1841. 1842. 1840. 1841. 1842. o 0 9 V 9 9 o January, . . 342 366 38-2 40-6 36-3 February, . . 33-8 34-6 37-2 38-5 34- 1 March, . . . 35 33- 35-6 38- 36' 38'6 34-6 April, .... May, .... 42 36-2 43-6 40- 376 41-5 40-6 55 52-8 61-6 48- 46-2 48- 611 June, .... 59-2 60- 66- 63-2 62* 6 61-6 681 July, .... 63-5 64- 63- 67-5 576 66-6 63-5 August, . . . 660 63- 64-5 60- 596 61- 64-2 September, . 68-6 62-6 69-4 58-8 60-6 69- 60-2 October, . . 52-8 61-6 63- 63-6 660 65- 52-6 November, . 42-5 436 42-8 47-2 49- 47-4 42-9 December, . 38-2 6118 39-6 47-8 37-5 4806 40-4 47-67 44- 47-76 41- 618 38'4 49-02 Mean, . . Moan Mean at at 39-3 37-8 37-4 39-7 47-4 52-4 670 60- 69-8 64 3 47-8 41-8 49-73 ( Toronto Meteorological Report.) The above table, considered in relation to the change which is likely to be produced in the clinrmto of the country by the process of clearing the land of its forest growth, and exposing it to the rays of the sun, possesses peculiar intorest. The tendency of a soil, warmed to the depth of some feet, is to diminish the duration of frost and snow in the spring months, and to retard ita advent in the autumnal months. It tends also to diminish the amount of rain in the summer months, as will be shown in the sequel. It will be remarked, that the mean temperature of an exposed or cleared soil in August, at the depth of three feet, is about the same as the mean summer temperature. High summer temperatures of the subsoil, in their relation to the effects of subsoil draining upon the proper, ties of soils and the growth of vegetables, can not be estimated too highly. In Western Canada, subsoil draining draws put th^ pro. perties of the 9]iay soila whtph abound in the country^ in > a maiiimr 9« traly remarkable ; and the artifice may bo proscottted without thk adopftion of any precautions w4intover aguinst winter frosts. It is equivalent, as far as rcltttes to tlio working of the soil, to an addition of three weeks or a month to the agricultural season for out-door operations. Tiio writer had opportunities of observing tho effect of winter frost upon tho water issuing from the mouths of two long ■ubsoil drains during the last winter. One of tho drains in ques- tion was constructed in a clay sub.soil, situated in tho neighbour, hood of the City of Toronto. Tho soil was first dug out to the depth of two feet ; tho opening being about l.'j inches in breadth at the top, and 12 inclies at tho bottom. Tho drain was then madu by digging a narrow water course, about 10 inches deep and from 3 to 4 wide, in the retentive clay. On the shoulders thus formed, rough pine slabs were laid, and clay jirmly stamped upon them. The remaining open portion was filled with tho soil. Tho length of the drain was a third of a mile, and its depth varied from two feet ten inches to three feet six inches, owing to inequalities in the surface of tho soil. Drainago water (nearly soft) issued from it copiously throughout the winter. The mouth was left quite ex- posed, and was roughly formed of two side slabs, with the upper shoulder slab resting upon them. The temperature of the water was tested frequently, und when a thermometer exposed to the air «ank to zero, yet it never fell below thirty-four degrees when intro- duced into the water issuing from the drain, and was commonly about thirty-eight. The exposed water in tho water course, at the mouth of the drain, was never frozen within fifteen or eighteen inches of the covered extremity. Another drain, constructed of road metal, in a rich vegetable mould, and having a depth of two feet six inches, and a length of two hundred and fifty yards, ran during the winter with precisely similar results. PREJUDICIAL INFLUENCE OF A SERENE SKY. — SPRING FROSTS. I! i i On calm and cloudless summer nights, the leaves of vegetables radiate the heat they may have received from the sun during the day time, into the clear expanse above them. Their temperature thus becomes many degrees lower than that of the surrounding «ir. This difTerence frequently amounts to 10 or 12 deg. of Farett- h«it. It therefor* often happeni, that vhen the minimum tempera- ture of the air ia not more than 80 o' 30 deg., tender plants are frozen by their own radiation, and hoar front dopoMted upon the surfaces of all radiating bodies. The mean miniinui ^ temperature of June is about 30 deg ; we need not therefore bo surprised, that a clear night, promoting radiation, should occasionally reduce thi* temperature of vegetobles below the freezing point of waier, and thus chock, if not injure tho growth of the more tender species. The same circumstances which induce grout heat in tho spring months during tho day timo, namely, a soreno sky and low latitudes (within certain linjits), lead t(f night frosts ; casualties which are occasionally terrible scourges to tho east and west of tho Lakes, where tho serenity of the sky is inoro constant during tho spring months than in the Canadian Peninsula. Tho faintest cloud or haze in tho heavens, or the lightest covering of straw, suffices to arrest nocturnal radiation, and to prevent tho temperature of vegetable surfaces thus protected, from sinking below that of thp atmosphere. In tho latitude of Toronto, frosts have been known to occur as Into as Juno nth in Western Canada. In districts remote from the Lakes, and ono or two degrees to the soutii of their lati- tude, spring frosts operate very injuriously upon tho labours of the husbandman. The subjoined tables and notices, furnish illustra- tions of the frequency with which spring frosts occur in various Ittcalities in the United States :— Middletown, Connecticut. Latitude 41®'33. 1838 . . . May 4th 1843 . . . Juno 2nd 1839 ..." 11th 1846 . . . May 31st 1841 ..." 4th 1846 . . . " 22nd 1842 ..." 2l8t ., < '■■ Lambertvillet New Jersey, (the garden of the Eastern States.) Latitade 40^' 23. 1841 . . . May 4th 1845 ." . . May 31st 1842 . . . June 12th 1846 . . . " 20th 1848 • . . June 2nd 1847 . . . " 18th 1844 . . . Mi^ 13th In tlie year 1849, the peach in general was destroyed by frost. At Marietta, in the State of Ohio, lat. 39^*25, or more than. 4 deg. south of Toronto, a frost on the 18th of April, 1847, de- I ii I'' " •troytMl thd bloom o^ the apples and peaches. ** June 2nd a smart frost."— A. A. 1848. In 1840, frosts occurred tintilMay; and about the I6th and 17th of April, the thermometer fell to 28 deg., or 9 deg. below the freezing point. Nearly all pear, peach, and plum blossoms were destroyed. " FrostSy mort or less intensSf are expected token the peach and apple are tn blossom along (Ae immediate wicinUy of the Ohio River." — Regent's Report. North Salem, New York. Latitude 41'20<». Latest Frosts in Spring. 1840 1842 184^ 1844 AA 'Jl} . Jane 9th 1846 . . . May Slat May 31st • 1846 . . . « 22nd June Ist 1847 . . . " 28lh May 23rd 1848 . , . June 1st 1849 . . , . May 16th Mean annual temperature at North Salem 47®*40 . Do. do. Toronto 44<>-45 — Regent*s Report. North Salem, 1843.— .«Juae 2nd. — A heavy frost on the 2«d, injured vegetation. Many forest trees were stripped of their leaves on their lower branches.^* "June was below the average temperature, and was especially distinguished by a heavy frost on the 11th (1842), which cutoff corn and other vegetables very generally. Oaks and sycamores were also stripped of their leaves to the height of twenty feet j the foliage above that being uninjured." — Regent's Report. Most of the Academies in the north and west of the State of New York, mention the snow and fro.t at this time. (June 11th, 1842). Minimum temperature at Toronto, 28*1 deg. " The 1st of June^ 1843, will be long remembered. Snow fell in Buffalo and Rochester. In this vicinity, (Albany, lat. 42*'39,) ice was formed. ^ On Long Island, greens were frozen stiff. Strawberries, tomatoes, (fee, are cut off. Corn, the most tender of plants, must be nipped off throughout the State. Not a blade could bear the severe frosts of MonJay and Thursday nights." — Albany Argus, quoted in R. R. Minimum temperature at TorontOi 28:2, deg. . May .22nd, 1844 — "A heavy frost, which destroyed most of the fruit in this region. Franklinj Prattsburg, Ithaca, and thus ex- ^m a smart ly; and 28 deg., ach, and enset are fitnediate Spring. 31st 22nd 28th 1st 16th O'40 '•45 •t. the 2ad, ir leaves pecially I cut off camores iei; the State of QO 11th, Inow fell 12'»39,) 3n stiff. It tender a blade hts."— Foronto, tended throughout the State" — R. R. If ioimum temperature at Toronto, 88*2 deg. 1845.— "A frost on May 31st, injured eoro at North Saltm." -.R.R. One would suppose that St. Louis, on the Missouri River, in lat. 38®'37, or upwards of 5 degrees south of Toronto, would not be liable to the occurrence of very low degrees of temperature ; yet during sixteen years observation, it was found that the thermometer sank below zero, or 32 degrees below the freezing point, no less than on thirty-three days : the lowest temperature it indicated was — 24*4, or 55*4 deg. below the freezing point. The temperature in the shade rose, in summer montiis, to or above 100 degrees on twenty-two days, during the same period of time. It of tha thus ex* INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON TEMPERATUBfi. — EFFECTS OF - CLEARING. The extensive forests with which the greater part of Western Canada is still clothed, tend, by their nocturnal radiation, to dimin- ish the temperature of the nights during the summer season. Humboldt has clearly shown, that by the reason of the vast multi- plicity of leaves, a tree, the crown of which does not present a hor- izontal section of more than l^O or 130 feet, actually influences the cooling of the atmosphere by an extent of surface several thousand times more extensive than this section. The upper sur- faces of the leaves first become cool by nocturnal radiation ; these again receive heat from the next lower stratum of leaves, which is, in turn, /jiven off into space. The cooling is thus propagated from above downwards, until the temperature of the whole tree is lower- er., and, as a necessary result, the air enveloping it. As the forests of Western Canada disappear before the rapid enoro^timenti of the sipttler, we may look for a rise in the minimum tempe««|^^ of the spiing, summer, and autumnal nights. Late spring and early autumn frosts will probably become rarer, as the country becomes more oleanid. m\v." ill ""ni ;,.,„. NotwitbttftDding the ^Id produced by the radiation of heat ffom the leavea of forest trees during summer nights, there is no reason tomppose that the destruotion of forests elevates the mean tem- perature of the year. From observations extended over thirty years, at Saitm in Masssaohusetts, it appears that the annual mean teippetature of the year oscillates in that neighbourhood within a d^ree about the mean of the whole number of years. The win- ters in Salem, instead of having become milder during the last 33 .years, &p supposed from the destruction of forests, have become colder by 4 deg. Fahrenheit. — (Ferry, quoted by Humboldt.) The .tendency of the destruction of forests is, cateris paribus j 1. To elevate the mean temperature of the summer months. 2. To lower the mean temperature of thu winter montl <, but to sliorten their duration. 3. To accelerate the advent of spring. 4. To dry up swamps, shallow springs, and to diminish the sup- ply of water in creeks. 5. To hasten the disappearance of snow from exposed districts. The comparatively gradual approa<"h of Spring, in the Canadian Peninsula, is a great advantage to the husbandry of the country. High maximum means of temperature, at that season of the year, with low minimum means, are treacherous, and often, indeed, ruinous to the agriculturist. Their influence on health is also very detrimental. Compare Toronto with Muscatine, Iowa, to the west of the Lakes, in these respects. (See page 14, for the range of temperature at Muscatine.) : — II 1845, 1846, 1849. Mean, Toronto. March. Mean. 9 35-68 36-25 39-24 31 -72 Mill. 9 6-6 6-4 161 9. April. Mean. Min. e 4213 3906 38-74 39-97 Q 16-5 9.3 15-5 Muscatine. March. Mean. 40-3 40-5 37-3 13*4 I 39-3 Min. o 8- 20- 10- 12-6 April. Mean. Min. 55-1 52-7 44*3 50-7 sb: S3 16- 28- 28- 32- aaz T Hence, April, with a mean temperature at Muscatine of 50^*7, flufiicient to force on vegetation, suffers occasional mean mtni- mum temperatures often degrees below the frteKitig point ; whereas the mean April temperature at Toronto is nearly It deg. below that of Muscatine, and effectually arrests the progress of vegeta- tion until the danger arising from killing frosts' is greatly dimin- ished. These are important considerations in estimating the ad- aptation of a climate to the purposes of agriculture . The destruction of forests seems to have a marked effect upon swamps, springs, and running streams. In all parts of the cotihtry neglected saw mills may be seen, having been abandoned by their proprietors owing to the " want of water." It is indeed a constant and yearly increasing complaint, that springs and rivers arr Jrying up, and that the supply of water in mill creeks is year by year diminishing. This decrease may reasonably be ascribed to the de- struction of forests, whereby extensive swamps are exposed to solar radiation, and that supply of moisture which they received in the summer months from the condensation of the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, by the leaves of the trees overshadowing them, being altogether cut off. The frequency of extensive swamps is one acknowledged cause of the retardation in the advent of spring, and the production of early spring frosts; it is evident) that wi|h the progress of the settlement of forest covered tracts, these causes will gradually exert less influence in producing '^ ' of the most objectionable features in the climate of this country. Hill lli'l I I fill ill!!! De RAIN AND HUMIDITY. SAIN-FALL IN WESTERN CANADA. The absolute quantity of rain which falls during one year in any district i!s not of so much importance in its bearings upon agriculture as is its monthly distribution. The terms " rainy season" and " dry season" are unknown in Canadian Climatology. The distribution of rain over the months of the year is in general re- markably uniform. If I: 1 i!"' IMliI i 111 II ll I i! PI I' UlH J ill ! Illiim! JiiiiPIl I II i< ll m mm Table showing the quantity of Rain which fell each year in the neighbourhood of Toronto, from 1840 — 1850, both inclusive. Also Table cf its average distribution over the months of the year during the same period. Year. Annual Fall in inches. Mean Monthly Fall in inches. 1840, 9 29-675 Jan. 2*216 i Mean of 10 1841, 36-670 Feb. 0-880 > years. 1842, 42-790 Mar. 1-636 ) 1845 imperfect. 1843, 43-665 April, 2-601 . 1844, 20-916 (10 months) May, 2-901 f Mean of 1846, 23-336 (9 months) June, 3-066 i 11 years. 1846, 32-345 July, 3-901 ^ 1847, 31-960 Aug. 3-226 MeanoflOyrs. 1844 impf. 1848, 22-205 Sept. 4-064 Mean of 11 years. 1849, 32-216 Oct. 3-033 1R50 Nov. 3-160 Dec. 1-709 Mean Fall, 33-914 (8 years) It would appear, from the foregoing table, that the wettest month of theyeiir is September, and the dryest February, as regards raini\ The subjoined tabl^ shows, however, that the precipitation in February takes plac^ in the form of snow :— >.r^ ;.. .- e year m [igs upon yr season" ry. The »neral re- ar in the inclusive, hs of the hes. 844 impf. Tabki ahoieing the quantity of Snow which fell at Toronto, during the years 1843 to 1849, both inclusive. AlsOy Table of Mean Monthly Distribution, (Nine inches of snow are equivalent to one of rain.) , . . Annual Fall of Snow, Mean Montniy Fall of Year. in inches. Month. Snow, -in inches. 1843, 66-2 January, 12-7 1844, 78-1 , February, 27-2 1846, 65-7 " March, 8-4 1846, 621 April, 1-4 1847, 49-8 October, 1% 2ir 1848, 460 November, 1849, 430 December, 10-8 Mean, 67-2 . Upon inspection of the table of the mean monthly fall of rain, we observe great uniformity in the increase of the rain-fall during the agricultural months, corresponding with the increase of tem- perature; up to August. In September, the most rainy month, we discover an admirable adaptation to the growth of root crops, the mean maximum temperature being 80*19 deg. and the mean tem- perature 57*11. The greatest difference which has occurred during the last ten years, in the yearly rain-fall, amounts to 21 inches ; at Muscatine, Iowa, it has exceeded 25 inches. The maximum difference in summer rain-fall, is 11*325 inches at Toronto ; in Iowa it has been 19*8 inches. St month } regards 3ipitatioa The suddenness and copiousness with which rain falls, in dis- trictfi to the West of the Lakes, is very remarkable, and coot - MonaUy proves destructive to the standbg crops. Compare the ! li tifi ! t I, mm rtin fall at Muscatine, on the Miatiasippi, with that of Toronto, in the year 1840 : — Muscatine. Rain in inches. Toronto. Rain is inches. January, .'. . ... February, March X'. ::::::: Jiiae, July. August, Hoptember, .... October, November, December, ..... 36 1-0 2-4 4-7 4-7 isa 1-4 12-2 60 4-8 6*6 •4 117 0-24 1-62 2*65 611 202 3-41 4-97 1-48 6-96 2-81 0-84 Total Rdn Fall, . 67*9 inches. 32*18 inches. Twelve inches of rain in August, at Muscatine, or about three-eighths of the quantity which fell at Toronto during the whole year, could scarcely fail to prove destructive to the crops, and highly injurious to the surface soil. Tahk, showing the average number of days on vMch Ram or Snow falls at Toronto, during the different months of the year. ( The average is that of ten years.) Months. Januaiy, !....,. February, ...... March, ........ AprH, . M.ay, ........ June, July, August, September^ October, November, ....... Deoeniber, . . . . . Annual Mean, . Number of dayi^ Snow. 9-9 10.8 3-2 1-9 4-8 10*2 4T-4 ronto, ia ■» . V shea. HBAN NUMBER OF RAINT AMD SNOWV 0AY8, In the Lake Country, Remote from the Lakes, Average for all England, . « • • • • • • • • 120 90 ,.ji- 152 ■ ' '•»■ •1 • >'■ , or about tring the \e crops, or Smw ar. J !'» . '. -it i i Tuble of the Annual Fall of Rain in various Countries of the Old and New World. AlsOf a Table of the average number of Rainy Days in several Districts, Countries. British Islands, (Plains) Do.do. Mountain Ranges Middled NorthGermany Middle Rhine Valley, South of France, ^ . Burlington, (Vermont) East Port, (Maine) New York, (State) Toronto, .... Rochester, .... Utica, Albany, Mean Annual Fall of Rain, in inches. 24-61 40-59 20-36 25-62 23-64 39-44 36-28 36-28 332 30-16 40-67 40-76 Countries. South of France, . Plains of Lombaidy Toronto, .... Netherlands, . . East Coast of Ire> land, Southern Europe, Central Europe, . Northern Europe, Average for Eng- land, ..... Mean No. 6f Rainy Days. 76 96 96 170 208 120 146 180 152 =^;' ' ■'■' Ii: '|i^':|i i'|i i! If \\\ !■■ ' i;.' li;., ii nOMIDITT OP THB ATM08PHUB IN THB OARADIAIV PBKIN80LA. The importance of a moderately humid atmosphere, considered in relation to Agriculture, can scarcely hi estimated too highly. The most interesting, and perhaps the most advantageous form in which atmospheric humidity exhibits itself, is that of Dew. The quantity of this revivifying agent condensed on the leaves of rege- tables in the Canadian Peninsula, is very great, and furnishes one important reason why Western Canada is less liable to suffer from those destructive droughts which are common to the West of the Lakes, and not unfrequcnt towards the East and South. If we suppose that only one-thirtieth of an inch of dew is form- ed in one night, and that that small quantity represents the average deposition during one hundred nights, we shall still have upwards of HOO tons of water precipitated on every acre of grass land, by the agency of dew alone. This quantity falls far short of the real precipitation. " On every acre of the sandy heaths of England fall annually from 2,000 to 4,000 tons of rain, and about 500 tons of dew." The cooling produced by the nocturnal radiation of forest trees has been already mentioned. We may safely infer, that under the comparatively serene summer sky of Canada West, in connection with a humid atmosphere, the annual deposition of dew on fore^; lands amounts to aI)out 600 tons per acre, which, dripping from the trees, and being sheltered from solar radiation by the dense shade they produce, furnishes a steady supply to swamps and shallow springs. The table subjoined, exhibits the difierence between the mean monthly humidity of the atmosphere at Toronto and at Greenwich (England.) When air oontains no aqueous vapour, its degr«e of ft ' lidnudity is represented by 0* ; when it id Maturated by moisture, by 100® :— Toronto. "tit lifJD J- tn.iS iji^n'-i i; >i . i Dfgrfie of Orerrwich. Deerea of Humidity, January .^':;it',%-> itw-iyi 'n'^i }'i" tains to the north branch of the Saskatchawan, and are bounded on the west by the Rocky Mountains, and on the east by a line variably distant from the v/est bank of the Mississippi, between thirty and three hundred miles. The existence of this extensive arid region must oppose the westward progress of agricultural set- tlement, except along the immediate banks of its great rivers. For the same aridity and unequal distribution of rain over the months of the year, which is singularly effective in preventing the growth of forests, similar to those which extend between. the east bank of the Mississippi and the Appalachian chain, will necessarily render agriculture a hazardous undertaking. In another quarter of a oen- tury, there will probably exist a comparatively dense population to the limits of the prairie country, on the east of the Rocky Moun- tains, and a rapid settlement of the humid region west of that great mountain range in Oregon and Upper California ; but between thoae two widely separated tracts of country, a vast uninhabited dsMft, upwards of a tbouMnd milM in brtadth, will probably imarvene, and materially afibet their politioal relations. >*4 ^*'"'a '"' The oirounrmtarfce that dew is rarely deposited in the regions of the prairies, affords of itself sufficient evidence of the extraordinary dryhess which prevails in the atmosph^e of the Fftr West. The iftiluenoe of such prolonged aridity is exerted upon the north-west and west winds, which have theit- origin in those widely extended was^s. Hence, we find, the number of dear, and, at the same time, fcorcbing days, so much greater to the north-east, east, south-east, and west of the Lalces, than in the Canadian Peninsula, where the evaporation from the Lakes supplies moisture to temper the hot breath of the summer westerly winds, as in winter they exert their genial influence in subduing their harshness, during tliat inclement season of the year. CONCLUSION. The Agricultural productions of Western Canada are too gene- rally known to require an extended notice. They include wheat, oats, rye, barley, Indian corn, buckwheat, pease, potatoes, beans, (to a small extent), mangel wurtzel, turnips, beet-roots, tobacco, flax, hemp, hops, clovers, and various grasses. The root crops are, as yet, but sparingly cultivated ; for as long as the land will pro> duce wheat, as a general rule, wheat is grown. Within five and twenty, or thirty miles of Toronto, the better elaai of farmers consider thirty bushels of wheat to the acre an average crop ; and this return is obtained in spite of all the imper- fections of a comparatively primitive system of husbandry. If liaif the care were bestowed upon the preparation of land for wheat, #hich i« devoted to that operation in Great Britain, fifty instead of thirty inishels to the acre, would be the average yield on first class farms. It must be borne in mind, that subsoil draining isimknown {'•' 'I'll ''■■iii' II If iiiif 1: %rnpDg our (mrm»tn ; that lop-dMiMing in tlte ThU with Ipog dung !■ never pr^Mtited ; a proper rotnUoo of crops soaroely ever adopted ; frequent repetition* of the same orop general ; farm*yard manure applied without any previous preparation : and yat, under •11 these dieadvantoges of ART. NATURE, with her fertile soil and admirable agricultural climate, produces most abundant crops when she is not too grossly abused. ^j.,j,j^, . ^,1,, , ^^.'.^ t,uo Hew different a state of things to the^nst of the Lalces. Pro- fessor Norton, in his Appendix to Stephen's Furmers* Guide, says, that " in many of the Eastern States, where wheat was oncd largely grown, its culture has greatly decreased j and In some dis- tricts scarcely any is to bo found, excepting an occasional small patch of spring wheat. It is comnlon to ascribe this to the Hessian fly, to the prevalence of rust, &c. ; but after we have made all due allowance for these causes of uncertain produce, the principal reason, in mv judgment, is to bo founri in the deterioration of the land." The climatic adaptation of the Western Province to certain forage and root crops, is well deserving of notice. When ordinary care and attention is devoted to their cultivation, intiie way of mere surface draining, and in the application of funn-yard manure, gypsum, or lime, they grow with remarkable luxuriance, White clover springs up wherever the virgin soil is stirred with the plough, or even exposed to the sun's rays, after the process of clearing the land of its forest growth. The red clover flourishes year after year, without diminution in yield, if sparingly top-dressed with gypsum or leached wood ashes. Certain varieties of beons, (not the common horse bean), such as tlie dwarf, French, and kidney beans, come to maturity with renr-arkable rapidity, and are at the same, time very prolific. Some of the dwarf varieties are espe. cially adapted for forage crops, or even for food, as in Germany and France. They may be sown in this country broadcast, as late as the middle of July ; they produce most abun^onitly, , tand are well adapted to serve as a green manure, on light Jdoils deficient, i^ vegetable matter. Indian corn, as a fov^g'6 orop> 80>vn broadcast, has yet, > to be introduced, Jerusalem mU^ chokes will bear mowing at least three times in the ye^r ; they, w^ grow upon any kind of soil, and retain possession of the land .with sly over ^rm-ytrd st, und«r trtile toil tot. crop* ide, aaySf ras oncd some dis- tml small i Hessian made all principal on of the ) certain ordinary r of mere manure, White e plough, iring the ear aAer sed with ans, (not d kidney re at the are espe-> Germany >t, as late ly, .and ;ht 4oil8 foV4g« lem M(i^ hey wiU ind .with nuoh singular tenuity, that ft patoh iiiUHt be dt^voted to them alone. They derive natrlyalltheir nourishment iVom the attnosphere, and re« quire no care whatever in their cultivation. In the event of a dry ftatumn, when other fbrAge is scarce, they aro always to be fbund in vigorous healthij '»M<' < / 'h lirml** .a.uii liniti Vetches, which succeed most admirably upon the comj^ratlvely heavy soils some few milae north\>f Toronto, are very rarely to be seen. Lucerne is also well adapted to the Laoustrine olimate of Western Canada : it attains dimensions far exceeding its average size in Prance and Italy, uji »iiJ an«iw o . i wjau Dye Plants aro unknown among our agricultural productions, and yet the SaiDower (Carthamus tinctorius)— to instance one only — attains dimensions which are rarely equalled even in Turkey, where it is largely grown. " It is the flowers of the plants which are used for dyeing. The dye is of two kinds, a yellow and red. The yellow is separated by maceration in running water. The remaining dye is a delicate rod, more beautiful even than cochineal, but it is little permanent. When ground with pure talc, it forms the kind of rouge termed by the French rouge vegeiale. The seeds yield an oil which is used in medicine and painting. The plant is cultivated in various parts of Europe, and extensively in Egypt and the Levant, where great quantitiet; .iie imported into England for painting and dyeing." — Low. In relation ^to the cultivation of oil plants, very little, as yet, has been done by our farmers. It is true we have a few oil-mills, but the complaint appears to be wfell founded, that the mills are rarely adequately supplied with mate- rials. The sunflower is a native of America, and in Europe it is grown lor the purpose of extracting the oil from its seeds. Every one knows with what singular luxuriance the sunflower flourishes in Western Canada. Like the Jerusalem artichoke, it derives hs nourishment almost altogether from the atmosphere, and requires but little care in its cultivation. . • • / J»n» Among cultivated root crops in the Western Provinoe, the pars- nep does not appear to have attained a place, except on a very small scale, in gardens. This vegetable possesses the admirable characteristic of being able to resist the influehce of winter frosts, and may remain in the soil throughout the most inclement season of the year, without thai slightest injury. It is a great desideratum 98 !! lii r for fanners to have a pleatiful supply of tcund roots ta give their cattle io.the early fipriog n.onthe. U ,ty not cultivate the parsnep, as in the Netherlands ? *' All animals are ibndi of it. To miloh oows it is etninently favourable living a flavour and richoess to their milk, which no other winter vegetable bot the carrol can give."— Low. „ ^ntoV it would be beyond the scope of this pamphlet, to consider the question of climatic adaptation r^ore minutely. Indeed, ntoterials^ as derived from really practical experiments, are very scarce and imperfect; and ev^^ were the question satisfactorily answered, that both climp*" J soil svi'icJ he cultivation of any particular species of vegetables, other important considerations in relation to labour, machinery, markets, &c., present themselves in multitudi- nous array. One fact, however, appears to be certain, that in 9. very few yeprs the farmers in the f/ont townships of Western Canada, will be compelled to pay more attention than hitherto to the cultivalion of a variety of crops. Independently of that dete- rioration of, the &oil, which, as a general vu'*^, mubt result from a frequent repetition of thu same kind of crop, and the absence of cheap special fertilizers, the aspect of coming years induces the belief that the price of Canadas' staple agricultural production — wheat, wdl not maintain even its present diminished range. It is, in &ct, «t the present time, a matter not only of individual, but also of na- tional importance, that farmers should turu a careful attention to ihe agricultural productions of other countries, and endeavour to see how far the/, by their introduction • into this Province, may l»e made to assist and develope its husbandry. It is equally a matter •of individual and national importance, that every earnest well- wisher of Western Canada should contr uute his mit« to elevate the industry of the country, and extend the knov/ledge of her capabili- ties ilo the tens of thousands across the seas, who would willingly, «nd even joyfully, make this fertile British Province their home* lb«4 they confidence in its climate' and soil. j §.^ 40A ' .xL^ ^mm. Ive their ptrsnefv 'o miioh shoewto riot can lider the lateriaiii^ tree aod isweredf Birtictilar lation to lultitud;. that in a Western herto to lat dete* t from a sence of he belief —wheat, ) in &ct, ;o of na- ention to lavourto may l»e a matter St well- ivate the liapabili. illiiigly, ir home, m '■■ I (j C^bocrttsement. (Second Edltior now in the Preas.) f' Hti«o**Hf-^! LECTUBES ON AGUICULTURAL CHEMISTRI; 0R| ELEMENTS OF THE SCIENCE OF ^grimltuw* BY HENRY YOULE HIND, '/.(■> rid Mathematical Matter and Lecturer in Chemistry and Natural .'/''/, Philosophy, at the Provincial Normal School. . .M>|^'i').'f? Tms Work is the Second Emti >x of Two Lectures on Agricultural Cheni' istry, published by tht Author in December last. It h&i, however, been so greatly enlarged and extended, that it has been found necessary to divide the contents into Eight instead of Two Lectures, as in the first edition. The Lee* tUicB are divided into Sections, numbered 1, 3, 3, &., as far as 200 ; an^ at the termii.atior. of each Lecture, a condensed recapitulation of its contents is attached. Subjoined is a synopsis of the matter of each Lecture :— ^ PARTI. On the Relation of Veqetablks to the Air and Soil in which THEY OROW. LECTURE L '{pi Hpw*'*ii Tntroduetion — Object of Agricultural Chemistry — Conditions of Vegetable Life — The Atmosphere — I't Composition and Properties — Atmospheric Food of Vegetables — Carbonic Acid— Influence of Light — Water — Its Relations to Solids aad Gases— Its Composition — Ammonia — Nitrogen— Organic and In- organic Elements of Plants Composition of Vegetables — Recapitulation. i Jtl imit ADVERTISEMENT. LECTURE II. General Structure of Vegetables — Transmission of Water through Vegetables ■>->The Soil — Substances coiniaon<|o Soil$an;of Crops— Rotation Courses -—The Sap — Ascent atid descent of the Sap — Recapitulation. LECTURE IV. M|ni^B-4-Farra-yaird Manure— Urine— Green Manurihg-rMlneral Maj|i»iren — .Ofpstirt— iLime — Marl— Leached Wodd Ashes— Actioti ot Soils on Mahilrea -^Surface Action — Recapitulation. .^, .•;.""■ P4,RTii. .^ * ' Oh THB Relation OF Ve^^^tAbles to Animais. ^ LECTURE V. M^<«! ;/:•;!' Division of Vegetable Compounds — Compounds containing Nitrogen — Com* pounds not containing Nitrogen — Woody Fibre — Starch-^Sugar—Jsomeric Bodies — Oils and Fats — Nitrogen Compounds — Relation to Animal Life — • Recapitulation. ;':',■ o"'''''/' LECTURE VI. Composition of Crops — Nutritious Compounds — Relative value of different kinds of Vegetables for the purposes of Nutrition — Rations for Working Cattle —Milch Kine— The Calf— Cheese— Feeding of Cattle— Conditions of Fatten- lijg — Recapitulation. •> rurtctfori of Digestion — Function of Re«)iratioh^Animal' Heat — PiTrpoMs served by Food — Opposite Functions of Plants and Aninlals — Production of Manure — Relative Values of Animal Mantire — Recapitulation. !!l !'H LECTURE VIH. ^rfT-^W'V') Parasitical Vegetables and Insects — Rust— Mildew — Smut — Potato Disease —The Hessian Fly— The Wheat Fly— The Wire Worm— The Turnip Fly- Weeds of Agriculture — Chess — Canada Thistle, dtc. — Climatic adaption of Canada West to the Cultivation of certain Vegetable»-^Qoncl>j8io»-T-Rfic»pi* Zr: ^'Vi M **t. ■it- » Vegetables Water on lah, Soda, lash Plants Bible Mut' , Drnliiitii;, }n Courses 1 Alajlmrftt n MahiircB J M jn — Com* — Jsomeric lal Life — ■ 'f different ing Cattle of Fatten- - PurpoiseB juction of i*f*'3 > i 1 :' J tJ > Disease •nip Fly — aption of ;^|l«capi- ^rt*^- ,»„,i:^4 ^-f2 't'l»^