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No stamps are necessary. TORONTO. er ! ! aishes a first- ork that even ne person can n twenty men 150.00. " On Monday afternoon a fire broke out in the cellar of the dry prooda store of Messrs. Darid White fi Co., Thames Street, and before the flames could be extinfj^uiuhed a considerable quantity of goods was damaged. The ' steamer ' wan soon in working order, but before it commenced working, Mr. C. V. Hall, with one of the 'Fire King Extinguishers' reached the spot, and put the fire out almost as quick as you could say 'Jack liobinson.' Mr. Hall deserves great credit for his thoughtfulness, as it is undoubtedly through his forethought that another great calamity was prevented. The damage to the building and goods amounts to about #2,000, which is fully covered by insurance." For further particulars, address the Secretary, Send for Circular, WM. MORRISON. The Public is hereby cautioned against buying other Chemical Engines, using Carbonic Acid Gas as the extinguishing agent, thereby rendering themselves liable for heavy royalties, as it is the intention of the owners of this Patent to deal rigorously with a ny encroachment on their rights. ¥-T Advertisements. PIANOS! PIANOS! THE " MATHUSHEK " \ Is endorsed by the most noted Artists of the day as the most musical and durable Piano made, and in their ditt'erent styles, from the little "Hummino Bird" to the "Orchestral" square grands, are suited to the Boudoir, Parlour or Concert HaU. THE "FISCHER" Is a most desirable Parlour Instniment. There are about 15,000 of them in use, giving eminent satisfaction, and we offer them, in all confidence, as better value than any other in the market. The Messrs. Fischer liave over thirty years' successful mantifacture of this Piano to refer to as a guarantee of its good qualities. No other Piano has gained the same favor in so short a time in Canada as the " Fischer " since lis introduction by us. PRINCE ORGANS— 53,000 now in use ;• no other reed instniment ever obtained the same popularity. We are sole Agents for the above instruments, and are in a position to supply Local Agents in every part of the Dominioa at manufacturers' lowest wholesale prices. ALL INSTRUMENTS WARRANTED FIVE YEARS. Wholesale and Retail, NORRIS & SOPER, No. 8 ADELAIDE ST, EAST, TORONTO. •'*v . » i > ) jidveriisements. Hatnitt oti i^pirullimal Wonfts* ESTABLISHED 1 88 e. L. D. SAWYER & CO.. JUani^faeturers of the follotmng First-class Machines, which have all been awarded First Prizes : — CHAMPION MOWER AND SELF-RAKE REAPER. With all Steel Shafting. JOHN8TOM IMPROVFD SINGLE REAPER. R"PT=?AOTT"R TROIST IVfO^WT^T^. WOOD'S JOINTED BAR MOWER, PITT'S THRESHING MACHINE, VIBRATOR THRESHING MACHINE, IMPBOVED CLOVES MILL AND HULLEB. TAYI.OR'S STEEL TOOTH SULKY RAKE If GOMBIN ATION GRAIN DRILL Oom Shellers, Cutting Boxes, &c. SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. L. D. SAW^YER & CO., HAMILTON, ONTARIO. OOPP HS&B HON. ALEX. MAC^ The Attention o perty is directed Ist. The Comi its policies. 2nd. It is the and confining its I Farm Properties w 3rd. It takes \ gives to its policy | 4th. It does li making up the losj 5th. Losses ai! For full parti( Company's Agents We Manufacture One PUmyhs, Field and Garden Ro ENAMELLED ANI Advertisements. lamilfoa i^pimtlttnal ilfoulis* '/ E8TABLI8EED 1886. L. D. SAWYER & CO.. Mani^fadurtrB of the follounng Firat-claaa Machines, which have all been awarded First Prizes : — CHAMPION MOWER AND SELF-RAKE REAPER, with all Steel Shafting. JOHN8TOM IMPROVED SIMPLE REAPgR. WOOD'S JOINTED BAR MOWER, PITT'S THRESHING MACHINE, VIBRATOR THRESHING MACHINE, IMPBOVED OLOVEB MILL A»D HULLEB. TAYI.OR'9 STEEL TODTH SULKY RAKE, OOMBIN ATION GRAIN DRILL. Oom Shellers. Cutting Boxes. &c. SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. L. D. SAVV^YER & CO., HAMILTON, ONTARIO. HON. ALE) The Aiiei pe7'ty is di 1st. Tl its policies. 2nd. II and confini Farm Prope 3rd. It gives to its 4th. It making up 5th. L< For fill Company's jb AINU I^AMIVI rnUt^LKl vvmi I ■ , M^m^jS^^ ^^•^^^15^^ fta^ara^©, HON. ALEX. MACKENZIE, M.P.. President. GEORGE GREIG, ESQ., Vice-President. JOHN MAUGHAN, Jr., JA?//,?ir/-. The Attention of Farmers and Proprietoi s or Occupiers of Isolated Pro- perty is directed to the following advantages offered by this Company : — 1st. The Company has a large cash capital giving undoubted security to all holding its policies. 2nd. It is the first Canadian Proprietary Company devoting its entire attention and confining its business strictly to Isolated Dwellings, Churches, School-houses, and Farm Properties with their Contents. 3rd. It takes risks at the very lowest rates, compatible with the absolute safety it gives to its policy holders. 4th'. It doen not impose on those whose properties are not hazardous the burden of making up the losses on hazardous properties. 5th. Losses are adjusted without delay, and paid in cash at once. For full particulars and lates for one or three yearly policies, appl}' to any of the Company's Agents, or at the Head Office, corner of King and Church Streets, Toronto. JOHN MAUGHAN, Jxinr., .Manager. BROTHERS, HAMILTON. Hundred and Seventy Varieties of Stoves! 4lers, Cultivators, Road Scrapers, Brick Machines, <§c., <%e. ) HOLLOW WARE OP EVERY DESCRIPTION. s. Advertisements. Just Pablishsd, 1 vol., Damy Bto., 600 pp. Toronto ofOld: COLLECTIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS ILMJHTBATIVE OF THB Early Settlement and Social Life of the Capital of Ontario. By REV. HENRY SOADDING, D.D, Embellished with Two Stkkl Portraits : one of the founder of the city and first Governor of the Province, Lieut.-Cren. Simcok ; the other, the first Chief Justice of Upper Canada, Hon. Wm. Osoooue ; also, with app.opriate woodcut head-pieces to the opening of ch%ptprs. FBIOE, in Oloth extra, $4.00; in Fall Leather, gilt edges, 85.00; Half Oalf or Half Moroooo, gilt edges, 86.00; Full Moroooo extra, gilt edges, 86,00. PRESS NOTICES. ' ' The volume is an exceedinH:ly handsome oue in every sense : typo^aphy, paper, workmanship, all ir.anifeHt great care, and a desire on the part of the enturprisinff publishers to niako the work worthy of the city whose early history it so iully and Bo particularly illastiates." — The Olohe (Torontu). "It is very fo,*tunate that the task has been undertaken by one who was in all respects so peculiarly fitted to fulfil it. . . He has given uh just such a happy picture of the tarly life of our city as we might have expected at his hands." — The Mail (Toronto) " Events in the new world move rapidly. Within the compass of a few decades we seem to have crowded the interest of a century's history of the old world. A new world has bee a opened up : nature has been wrestled with : races have been con- quered : tribef subdued : civilization has displaced the nule and primitive : savagery has given place to law : the discoverer has become the pioneer : the pioneer the col- onist : and from the colony we have now the nation. . . . Few memorials or reminiscences, which intimately link the prusent with the past, have been of so unique a character : and rarely has there been a more important contril)ution to our national literature." — The Canadian Monthly. "Dr. Scadding's 'Toronto of Old' contains a good deal of curious and interesting information regarding the early history and actual monuments of a piace wh'ch ^ks risen, within a century, from the rank of a J''rench trading post to that of a Pro- vincial Capital of the Canadian Dominion."— «Sararat<), it has h\>\\\\ hased upon no hobby of iny own, hut upon a nuituro consicleration of the Hovoral »r<^uinontM advancitl hy cniint'nt authoriticH, and gov- erned hy my own and my m i;^hl)ourH' piacticMil experionce. For instance, in the chaj)ter devoid to Barnyard Mnniirt', I have sot down tliu argumentM of the advocates of Raw or Rotten, Long or Short ; and tlio .subject being one on which I do not feel decided, I have refrained from the expres-sion of any dogmatical opinion. Whilst this is not a work of compilation, the reader will find scattered through its pages niiiny cpiotations, ii>. the citation of whi(!h I have endeavoured to give due creilit. These selections, appropriate to the several subiects, I have been careful to obtain in the majority of cases, from such authorities as I am aware are or have been engaged in actuid farming in Canada, or in those States of the Union in whicli tlie soils, climate, and systems of husbandry are generally of -f. nature similar to those of our Donnnion. The central object which this work is intended to keep in view, is the demonstration of how farming may be made to pay — by the general improvement of the soil, of seeds, and of methods of cultivation. With t!ieso few prefatory remarks, I leave " TilE Canadian Farmer's IHanual" in the hands of my brethren of the plough. That it may prove useful to them, and a welcome addition to the agriculturist's library, is the sincere wish of the author. C. E. W. TABLE OF CONTENTS ALPHA BRTICAI.LY AKUANOBO. A rAOE ACCOUNTS : Farm : AdvantdKos of keeping 620 Breedors' Calor.dar 520 " Statement 626 Calving Table 621 Dairy 527 Diary and Journal combined 525 Ledger 62!} Livestock 622 Produce 524 AGRICULTURAL ExHiBiTi(»NH : Undue encou- ragement of Trotters 385 Steamkrs 500 ALLUVIAL SOIL 70 ASHES 140 AXLES 481 B BARLEY : Cultivation; Shallow 180 Position in Rotation 180 On Wheat Stubble 180 Seed bed 181 Rollini,' 181 HARVESTINa 182 Seed and Sowing : Checks from Frost 182 Steeping 181 Time of Sowing 181 BEETS 230 BINS, Capacity of 508 BOILERS, Agricultural 500 BONES , 138 BREEDING 300 BREEDS of Cattle 304 BREEDERS : Our Canadian 347 Calendar 520 BROOM CORN 196 rAQB BUCKWHEAT : As a Manure 162 Cultivation 186 Flour, Value of 187 Harvestirif,' and Threshing... IH6 Seed and Sowing 186 Use as a Crop 186 Where to Grow , 186 BUILDINGS, FARM: Bakns, Height of 40 Plans for 41 Rooling for 45 Ventilators 21 Bahkmknth, Accommodation in 23 To excavate for 21 Cbllarh, Concrete for Walls... 26 To make Frost-proof 26 To keep dry 25 Flooks, Asphalt 26 Brick 29 Cement .. 29 Wooden 28 Granaries 21 LioHTNiNa Rods 48 Electricity; how it acts 48 Paint : Cheap V/ash 47 Crude Petroleum 47 How to apply 47 For Bricks 47 Roofs : To find No. of Shin- gles for 46 Shingles, Paint for 46 To prevent dec^y of 47 Stables : Feeding Troughs... 30 Mangers 39 Oat Boxes 39 Stalls 30 Topuri/y 39 To tie Horses in 39 Unclean, a iiource of disease 34 Stone 23 Ventilation, danger of bad.. 26 Table of Contents. «> II PAOB BURNT LAND, Treatment of.. 73 BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS.. 628 Account Books as Evidence. 633 Husband and Wife 531 I. 0 U o3l Landlord and Tenant 628 Luases 529 Pt:rchabing Properly 628 Stamps for PromisBury Notes 531 WUls 532 CABBAGES 238 CALVES : Aboi.inable batchery of.. ... 344 At Hohenheim 346 CostivenosB of 343 Fattening 345 Feeding 343 Raising 341 Secret of raising 344 Weight of at Ten Months.... 344 Youatt's Opinion 343 C* PITA L, How to Invest 18 CARE OF HORSES, Lies in a Nutshell 399 CARROTS AND PARSNIPS ... 230 Cultivation 234 Harvesting . 234 Seed Raising 235 Seed and Sowing 233 Soil 232 Sowing in the Fall 235 Value of 231 Varieties of 231 CATTLE 303 Breeds : Ayrshires 305 A Iderneys and Jerseys 305 Durham 304 Dutch or Holstein 305 Devon 304 Herefords 304 Milch Cows 326 Bkeedino : Co-operation to obtain Bulls. 307 Generous Feed for ' Blood'.. 307 Grade Bulls should never be used 307 Parents, Influence of 308 Pedigree 308 Selection by Character 308 Thoroughbred Males desir- able 306 Breesebs, Our Canadian 347 CATTLE : Diseases of : Abortion 433 Apt^a 434 Black Quarter 434 Bloated ("see Hoven). Brain 434 Bronchitis 434 Constipation 435 Choking 435 Colic (see Hoven). Cow-pox 436 Cud, Loss of 436 Diarrhoea 436 DiTim-Eelly (see Hoven). Eye 436 Fever 437 Flooding 437 Garget 437 Hidebound 438 Hoven 438 jaundice 438 Joint Felon (see Black Quar- ter). Lice (see Cow-Stables). Milk Fever .. 439 MuiTain 439 Pleuro-pneumonia 440 Quarter-evil (see Black Quar- ter). Red Water 442 Ringworm 442 Teats 442 Thrush (see Aptha). Warbles 443 Yellows (see Jaundice). Fatting : Buying for 314 Live and Dead Weight 317 Management in Stalls 316 Overfeeding 317 Rules for finding the Weight 319 Selecting for 315 When to stop 317 Fastenings : Cham 33 Stanchion 32 Feed : Clover, Analyses of 312 Comparative Equivalents of various kinds of Food 312 Cutting 321 Nutritive Value of various Foods 311 Quantities cr>ntained in an acre of various Crops 311 Steaming 321 Table of Contents. PAGE CATTLE : Feed — Continued . Soiling 324 Theory of 309 Indications of Quality : For Beef-producing 309 For Milking 309 For good Conatitutior and Early Maturity 309 Medicines 450 Lice and Mange 35 Kind Treatment OF 313 Milch Cows : Breeds 326 Breeding from 332 Management of 328 Managemer. in Winter Quar- ters 331 Milking 333 Milking Kickers 335 Milk : Cheese from Skim .... 341 Composition of 338 Properties of 338 Quality of 339 Taint, causes of 340 Overfeeding for Exhibition 348 Oxen 346 shorthorn.s 347 Store 313 CELLARS 25 CHEESE, Skim Milk 341 CHESS AND WHEAT 179 CISTERNS, Capacity of 507 CLAY SOILS 75 CLOVER 251 Alsike 209 As a Manure IGO For Pasture 263 COLTS : Management of 390 Breaking 392 First year's care 391 Shying 393 Teaching to Walk Fast 391 Weaning 390 Whip, when needed 393 CORN and Potatoes together.... 225 Broom 106 Care of Crop 193 Cost and profit from an acre of 198 Cribs 108 Culture 101 Fodder 104 Harvesting lOG Hills or Drills 192 PAOB COUJa— Continued. Husking 193 Planting 192 Shall we hill up 193 Shellers 498 Soiling 199 To keep Birds from 197 Varieties of 190 COUCH GRASS 284 CRUSHERS, Grain 498 CULTIVATION : Burnt Lanh, Treatment of ... 73 Ploughing C* Cross 63 Deep for Drainage 50 Deep or Shallow .. . 54 Fall 58 For permanent Pasture 52 On Clay Lands 53 On Hilly Lands 53 On Light Lands 52 Qiianti'y per Day 53 Subsoil 53 Width of Lands 52 Without Lands 52 Rotation of Crops 64 Sowing, Broadcast 63 Drilling 63 Summer Fallow 59 Operaticm of 61 Depth of 62 Thorough 50 CULTIVATORS, or Grubbers... 475 D DETERIORATION in Wheat Crop, Causes of 163 DEW, how formed 264 DISEASES : Common to Horses (see Horses). Common to Cattle (see Cattle). Common to Sheep (see Sheep). DITCHING MACHINE 503 DRAUGHT, Principles of 467 DRAINS 81 Depth of 85 Distances of, apart 90 Government should institute a private fund for drainage 92 Material for 85 Spade for 502 Time to Dig 84 To Level for 89 « Table of Contents. PAOK DRILLS, Grain 478 DRY EARTH SYSTEM 120 DUNG (see Manures). ELECTRICITY, how it acts 48 EMIGRANTS, A Few Words to 534 Advick TO 537 Beware of Whiskey 547 Hard Work necessary to Suc- cess 545 The Backwoods Settler 546 The Settler's Position in a new Land 547 The Settler's Duty in a new Land 548 When to go to the " Jiush". 547 Agricultuual Advantages of Canada 536 Average Wages paid to La- bourers, Mechanics, &c 538 Chances to become a Farmer 530 Climate OF Canada 537 Comparison between Produc- tions of Unite . States and Canada 543 Cost of Living in Canada ... 539 Educational System of Can- ada 543 Elbow-room in Canada 534 Equality, Fraternity and Liberty 535 Extent ok Canada 536 Extent of Canada, compared to England and VVales 536 Financial Aspect of Canada 542 Forest Produce, Exports.... 541 Imports and Exports of Can- ada 541 Labour is the Poor Man's Capital 534 Labour required in Canada 551 Prices of Land 549 The Nationalities from which the People are drawn 540 The Religious Denomina- tions IN Canada 540 To convert British Money into Canadian 537 To the Old Country Farmer AS AN Emigrant.. 548 United States compared So- cially with Canada 535 Ways of obtaining Land : 1. Free Grants 544 PAQB EMIGRANTS. Ways of obtaining Land — Conthmed. 2. Purchase of Wild Lands. 544 3. Purchase of Cultivated Farms 544 What is Grown in Canada.. 542 Younger Sons of English Gentlemen as Farmers in Canada 650 F FANNING MILLS 498 FASTENINGS, Cattle 32 FATTING CATTLE 314 FENCES, Board 290 Comparative Cost of various Kinds 295 Gates, Farm 300 Hedges, Live 295 Afterculture 297 And Mice 300 Arbor Vitae 300 Beech 298 Buckthorn 298 Deciduous Plants 298 Hemlock 300 Honey Locust 298 Norway Spruce 300 Pruning 297 Setting out Plants 296 Thickening neglected 297 To nrepare Bed for 296 Wild Plum 299 Hurdles, Movable 302 Rail 288 Stone 295 To Secure Posts 291 Wire 293 FERTILIZERS, Special 127 FLAX 199 FLOORS 26 FLOUR : Wheat 178 Buckwheat 187 FODDER, Indian Com for 194 Peas for 190 G GATES, Farm 300 GANG PLOUGHS 477 GOVERNMENT should insti- tute a Private Drainage Faud 92 Table of Contents. PAGE GRAIN CRUSHERS 408 GRANARIES 21 <}RASSES : Clover : Alsike 2G9 Analyses of 259, 312 ForiSced 202 Hay 257 Pasture 2Go Seed and Sowing 253 Soiling 2<)3 WhenloCut 2(11 Hungarian 27-4 June Grass 273 Lucerne 271 Seeds 2(>() GRAVELS 78 GRUBBER OR CULTIVATOR 475 GYPSUM 150 H HATR, as Manure. 14G HARROWS (see Implements). HAY TEDDERS 502 HEMP, Essay by H. G. Joly, Esq., M.P 201 HEN MANURE 126 HOE, Expanding Horse 478 HOPS 241 Baling 248 Cost and Profit of an Acre 248 Drying 247 Management : 1st year 244 2nd year 244 3rd year 240 Picking 240 Preparation for 243 Soil FOR 242 Time of Pla:.tino 244 Trellis Work 250 Varieties of 241 HORSE POWERS 400 HORSES 381 Breeds ; Thoroughbred Racer 384 Arab 384 Suffolk Punch 385 Clydesdale 385 N oi man or Percheron 385 French Canadian 385 Trotting Horses 385 Morgans, Blackhawks, Tem- pests, Royal Georges are all mongrels 385 PAOB HORSES— Ton^jnued. Brood Mares 389 Care of, lies in a nutshell .... 399 Colts (see Colts). Common Diseases of : A bscesH 406 Accidents 407 Apoplexy 407 Bite from Mad Dog 407 Bleeding 408 Bowels, Inflammation of .... 409 Broken Knees 410 Back Sinews, Strain of 410 Bots (see Worms) Chill 411 Cold 411 Colic Spasmodic, Belly-ache or Gripes 411 Constipation 411 Cough 412 Curb 412 Chest Founder 412 Cow-hocks 412 Diarrhoea 412 Distemper 413 Eye, Diseases of 414 Farcy 414 Feet 416 Fever 419 Fits 419 Gleet (nasal) 420 Glanders 420 Heaves 422 Hide-bound 422 Influenza (see Distemper). Lampas 423 Lung Fever 423 Pneumonia 423 Pleurisy 423 Mai^gota 424 Mt i^rims 424 Poll Evil 424 Polypi 424 Proud Flesh 424 Ringbone 424 Saddle Galls 424 Shoulder Lameness 425 Side Bones 426 Sitfasts 426 Soros 426 Spavins 426 Sprains 427 Staggers, Stomach 427 Staggers, Mad 428 Staked 429 Stiims 429 Bi 8 Table of Contents. i HORSES : Common Diseabks op — Conti- nued. Gtifled Strangles String Halt Sunstroke Swelled Legs Tiioroughpin Ulcers Warb'es (see Sitfasts). 'Viiidgalls Worms M'arts Washiness Wolf Teeth Unaoiindness Warranted Sound Farmers Foou And Water humaniiy Marks : Better than Geldings To breed from Medicine for (see Medicines). Points of a Good . . Stallions Of pure Blood To Drench Undue Encouragement at Agricultural Shows given TO Trotters Unsoundness Hereditary ... Vices Common to Bad to Shoe Balking Biting Crib-biting Hard Mouthed Interfering Kicking Overreaching Pawing Pulling on the Halter Hearing Rolling in Stall Runaway Shying Slipping the Halter Stumbling Getting bit in the Cheek HOT-BED, To Make a HOUSE SLOPS, Valuable as Manure HUNGARIAN GRASS PAGE 429 420 429 429 4:}0 430 4.30 431 431 431 431 431 432 431 386 396 398 393 386 387 381 389 386 403 385 387 400 404 400 403 406 402 405 400 40b 404 401 404 404 404 404 405 405 403 518 145 274 PAOK HURDLES 302 HDSBAND AND WIFE 631 I IMPLEMENTS 461 Broadcast Sower 480 Corn Shellers 498 Cultivator 476 Ditching Machine 503 Ditcher, Open ' 604 Drag Saw 498 Draining Spade 503 Fanning Mills 498 Gang Plough 477 Grain Crushers 498 Grain Drills 478 Grass Sped Sowers 481 Great Variety in 463 Grubbers . 475 Harrows 473 Chain 474 Rotary or Revolving 474 Brush 474 Horse Hoe 478 Horse Rakes and Tedders. 602 Mowing and Reaping Ma- chines 486 The First Invented 48C Qualifications of 487 Trials at Agricultural Shows 490 Must be Strong; 464 Ploughs : Anti-friction Wheel 470 Beam, Land-Side, Share, &c 467 Construction of 466 Gray's Double Furrow Plough 471 Gray's Triple Furrow Plough 473 Hill'sPatent 471 Jointers . 469 Line of Draught 467 Other Swing 472 Swing 468 Swivel or Side Hill 470 Trial of, at Paris, in 1871 ... 469 Poor Tools cannot Pay 465 Powers 496 Roller 477 Root Pulpers 50Q Saving of Labour effected by 462 Steamer and Boiler 500 Straw Cutter 499 Stump Pullers 601 Table of Contents. 9 PAOB IMPLEMENTS— Cont/nncd. Threshinq Machine3 ... 492 Separator 493 Little Giant 494 The Agitator 495 CloTer Threshers 490 ToRNiP Drills 479 Wi»OG()NS 481 Dishing of Wheels 483 Principle of resistance in Drauirht 483 Width of Wheels 483 Warkhouses in Toronto and London 465 Will not stand Exposure ... 464 INDICAT10^■S OF QUALITY IN CATTLE 309 J JUNE GRASS 273 L LAMBING 354 LAMBS, Management of 357 LANDLORD AND TENANT... 528 LEASES 529 LEAVES, for Manure 146 LICE, To cure, on Cattle 35 LIME, as a Manure 154 LIQUID MANURE 122 LOAM 79 LUCERNE 271 M MACHINES (see Implements). MANGE, To cure on Cattle 35 MANGEL WURZELS 236 MANURES : Amounts voided by differ- ent Animals 113 Application : On Grass Lands 113 On Heavy Lands Ill On Light Lands 112 Quantity per Acre 1 14 Repeated 115 Spreading 112 Surface 108 Ashes 146 Barn Yards 99 Compost Heaps 105 Evaporation of 100 How it acts on Land 101 PAOI MANURES . Barn Yards— Continued. JVIanauement of 100 Site of Dunghills 99 Straw for 98 Bones 138 Buckwheat, Ploughed down.. 162 Clover, Ploughed down 160 Fertilizers, Special 127 Guano 129 Nitrateof Soda 129 Sulphuric Acid 129 Superphosphate of Lime 129 Hair 146 Hfn 126 House Slops 145 Leaves 146 Lime 154 Liquid 122 Pump for 126 Tanks for 124 Management op 115 Night Soil 116 Compared with Guano 117 Dry Earth System 120 Table of amounts voided by Human Beings 119 Peat or Turf 145 idPLASTER OP Paris 150 ISALT 153 Sawdust 144 Seaweed 145 Swamp-Muck 143 Tables : Shewing amount of incom- bustible ingredients in va- rious Crops 132 Shewing Chemical Ingre- dients in various Manures 137 Tallow Chandlers' Refuse.. 145 Turnips Ploughed down 161 Wool Waste 145 MARES : Better than Geldings for Farm Purposes 386 Brood . 389 To Breed from 387 MEASUREMENTS (see Tables). MEADOWS, Pasturing 270 MEDICINES : Astringents 450 Alteratives 450 Antispasmodics 455 Blisters 453 Caustics 455 Clysters 454 10 Table of Contents. I' PAaB MEDICINES— C'on^inwed. Colic Kuinedies... 455 Cordiuls 454 Coughs and Colds 455 Disinfectants or Purifiers 45(5 Diuretics 45G Embrocations, Liniments, Lotions, &c 452 Febrifuges (Fever) 45(j Injections 454 Ointments 453 Poultices 458 Purging 457 Rheumatic Applications 458 Sedatives 458 Skin Diseases 45!> Tonics 45!> Vermifuges (Worms) 41J0 MILCH COWS 32G MILK 338 Cheese from Skim 341 Composition of 338 Properties of 338 Quality of 339 Tainted 340 MILKING : Qualities of Cows 301) Kickers 335 MILLET 2M MUSTARD, Wild 286 N NIGHT SOIL 116 0 OATS.. 183 Cut early 185 Rust in 184 Sowing, thick or thin 183 Value of Straw 183 Varieties of 184 Where they will gro\, 183 Wild 283 OBJECTIONS to Buckwheat as aCrop 187 OVERFEEDING for Exhibition 348 OXEN 346 P PARSNIPS 230 PASTURES : Clover for 263 How to Stock 269 PAOI PASTURES~Con|)or " Mnwor 650 •' Ayr Clippor " Hoapor 660 Johnson 8ulf- Hako 501 Kirby Comhinctl as a Self-Raking Reaper (Dodge Rake) 602 Improved Ten Horse Pitt's Separator 603 " Little Giant " Thresher and Separator 6(J4 •• The Agitator " Separating Threshing Machine 605 Ten-Horse Power 600 Totman's Farmer's Horse-Power 500 Totman Horse- Power applied to a Straw Cutter 607 Totman Drag Cross-cut Sawing Machine 507 Screw Stamp Machine 608 Sulkey Revolving Horse Rake 609 Lock-Lever Sulkey Hay Rake 600 THE CANADIAN FARMER'S MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE. CAPITAL. When the day arrives at which farniin<]j shall bo recognized as in every way a profession, requiring as thorough knowledge and as regular business habits as any other calling or trade, we may look for an advance in the agricultural progress of the country, commensurate to raise her to the highest position in the scale of nations. The man who, relying from the first upon credit, enters into the business of manufacturing or of 8torekcei)ing, cannot succeed. As well purchase a large factory or commodious store, and then, deficient of means to stock the same, sit down and think of the ways and means of establishing a trade, as to bu}' a farm and hope to work it profitably without a sufficient stock of horses, cattle, implements and seed. The man who enters upon a farm relying upon his credit for the purchase of the necessary stock, seldom, if ever, succeeds in his business. To-day an immense number of farms in Canada are mortgaged ; the first incumbrance upon the property was in many cases the means by which necessary capital wsvs secured, and only in the case of a few men of indomitable energy and untiring jierseverance has the farm been ever cleared from its first imposed debt, but rather that debt has accumulated until the day of forced sale has arrived. The man who has not sufficient capital to thoroughly stock one hundred acres should be content with a farm of half that size, for experience has shown that whilst, on the one hand, a large farm is more economically worked than a smaller, yet on the other a farm of say fifty acres, properly stocked and started, will yield one hundred per cent, more profit than a larger holding insutticiently stocked or hampered with incumbrances. 2 18 The Canadian Farmer's It has been too much the fashion in Canada for the farmer, when surplus produce has been sold, to rush to the purchase of more land, without staying to place all the capital upon the old land which was absolutely required, and, as a consequence, we can point to many of our " large " farmers who do not cell as much off their immense area, insufficiently stocked and imperfectly worked, as do " smaller" neighbours upon lands which carry a full Complement of necessary stock. HOW CAPITAL MAY BE INVESTED ON THE FARM TO BEAR GOOD INTEREST. By removing stones from the fields, by siuminng and cleaning, by squciring the fields so that all operations are performed in a rectangular manner, and great saving of time effected. The chief loss of time in the daily work of a team at ploughing, harrowing, or in any field opeia-tioii; is in turning; make the fields right- angled, and the turning will be reduced to a minimum. By good fencing. — It is as poor economy to have bad fences as to leave the till unlocked and invite the burglar to remove its contents. Good fences once put up are an economy in many ways. Not only is the cost of repairing and patching reduced, but cattle do not Uarn to breach. The animal that has once broken bounds into the rich clover field, or filled his belly in the ripe grain, will in future assuredly seek for and find out every weak spot in the protecting fence. We have seen as much damage done to a wheat crop in one season, in this manner, as would [lay for a hoard fence round the whole field. By buying the best of tools. — The carpenter cannot make a good job with blunt chisel or ill-set saw, neither can the farmer with inferior implement or poor seed. We have seen a hea\'y team struggling along before a short cast-iron plough with iron mould-board, sole and land plate ; while upon the opposite side of the road, in exactly similar soil, a light, active team would be drawing with perfect ease the light-made plough, in which all friction acts upon steel that shines like polished silver. By good accommodation for live stock and implements. — It is useless to attempt to keep animals in winter with insufiicient acconnnodation. Unless we provide shelter and warmth to every head of stock, we shall require to feed so much more to keep up the necessary animal heat. Each year, then, the extra amount of feed required to keep in the cow or pig, &;c., the requisite amount of animal heat, might be to far greater advantage expended on warm accommodation. The former plan, of supplying the heat requisite, must be repeated each year, while suitable buildings will last for very many seasons. Manual of Agriculture. 19 Avoiding the first accumulation of mechanics' and tradesmen's bills. — The first year upon a farm is invariably one of loss. An accumulation of extraneous accounts often throws a man so far back that it becomes a chance whether ho ever recover his lost ground. In entering on a farm, sufficient available capital should be kept over to pay all possible expenses for the first year. Never, if it be possible to avoid it, trust to a future return to pay current accounts. The perspective of tho return generally recedes towards a point, while the bulk of accounts usually exceeds all anticipation. Interest increases on the bills, while it is a constant drain upon the value of crops in prospective. Undfirdraining. — It has been demonstrated by the most ex- perienced and j)ractical farmers, both in England and in America, that the surplus produce upon well-drained land will pay for the expense of underdraining in three yea,rs\ or, in other words, that capital invested in this form will yield interest at tiie rate oHhirtjj- three and one-third per cent, per annum in actual returns, while the market value of the land is improved to the full amount of expenditure. On the purchase of improved stock. — While we do not advocate the raising of thorough-bred stock by the generality of farmers, it must be a self-evident fact, that the animal which produces the largest amount of meat, wool or milk for a given quantity of food must be the most valuable. It is demonstrated yearly at our Exhibitions, and by the written and spoken experience of practical men, that good grade cattle, sheep and hogs produce a greater amount of meat, wool or milk than the coarse, bony, ill-bred animal. The more capital, then, that can be retained for the purchase of stock, the greater the interest that will accrue. Safe speculation in live stock. — The sound principle of safety known as small profits and quick returns applies with as great force to the business of the farmer as to that of the merchant or tradesman. The value of live stock is constantly fluctuating. With a cash capital attainable at any day, the farmer may take advantage of the fluctuation of the market by buying cheaply and selling at a profit. It is not an uncommon thing for the price of pork, beef or mut- ton to rise one hundred per cent, in a very short time. The man who has always cash available is at any time prepared to buy cheaply, and can sell as soon as the advance will yield him a profit. It is this very want of ready cash amongst the farmers gene- rally that tends to bring about these sudden and rapid fluctua- tions. Produce being down in value is often the result of a neces- sity that drives the many producers to sell even at a sacrifice ; T7hilst in a short space of time the reaction in the market must 20 The Canadian Farmer's set in, and yield a profit to him who can keep over or who has bought in the decline of the market. An attempt to dictate the amount of capital requisite upon a given acreage would be futile in such a work as the present. There are so many circumstances — the condition of the land, the .state of improvements, or the style of husbandry required — that it would be impossible to uiy down any arbitrary rules based upon the size or locality of various farms. Most farmers are anxious for large occupations, and a great number thus fall into the error of attempting to work more land than they possess capital to manage properly ; some are seduced by delusive hopes of making up ali present deficiencies by future savings ; while others are led forward by the vanity of being greater landholders than their neighbours. From these causes arise a meagre stock, imperfect cultivation, and fonsequent scanty returns, and in their train follow debt, dis- tress and f^nal ruin. On the other hand, the man who is content to commence with as many acres as he has capital to properly work and cultivate, may look forward with certainty to a full return from his land, will not be ever running into debt, ai d will obtain in his daily occupations contentment of mind, w ili -v^^g the sui'e foundations of a future fortune. ON FARM BUILDINGS. Convenience and simplicity should never, in the arrangement of farm buildings, be sacrificed to symmetry. Neatness, compact- ness and warmth are the great points always to be carefully stu- died by the farmer in laying out or adding to his cattle-houses or barns. " Time is money," and any arrangement which will render the woi'k of feeding and attending on cattle easier, and to be per- formed in less time, should be carefully carried out, especially in Canada, where seasons are short and wages are high. Besides, if hired men perceive a neatness and compactness in the internal fittings of a building, evincing a desire to make their work less onerous, they will generally take a pride in the superiority of their employer's arrangements over those of the neighbours, and will attend more carefully to, and carry out more thoroughly, the operations of winter feeding, &c. Such buildings as are erected should be on the north, east and west sides of the yard, leaving the south open to the full benefit of tlie mid-day sun. In Canada, where warmth is so great a requisite, the bank bam is, undoubtedly, the most convenient, giving a great capacity in room on a comparatively small scale. Homesteads, however, must vary with farms, and it would be as inconsistent to dictate the plan of farm buildings as of the farms themselves. Manual of Agriculture 21 We will merely point out those general rules which should be carefully weighed ere the farmer engage in either new building accommodation, or additions to former barns and out-houses. Convenience and econo- y of space are here almost synonymous terms, and are points to be carefully kept in view. Good ventilation is as essential to the well-being of stock as of man. Cattle and pigs require plenty of warmth, while horses and sheep should be kept in cool, well-sheltered steadings, where thorough ventilation has been carefully secured. Ammonia and other noxious odours that emanate from animal manure are very injurious to health, and means should be em- ployed to carry off all such poisonous gases. Grain, hay and roots also require good ventilation, and for this reason there is great objection to the not uncommon system of close-battening barns. Ventilators should be provided for all barns and cellars, to carry the heated air caused by fermentation out at the roof of the building. Granaries should not be built in under the swing-beam of a barn, surrounded by solid masses of grain, hay or straw. We should advise, if possible, the building of a granary in the shape of a lean-to, or, better, as a detached building from the main barn, allowing the free play of air upon every side. We shall at a future page speak more particularly on the subject of granaries. Basement Barns. — Every barn should have a basement, wher- ever stone to build one is accessible. The sills are thoroughly protected from rot by being placed high and dry above the ground. The basement is well adapted to fatting cattle, hogs and milch cows, while a cellar for the storage of roots may be built at the back end. It is a great advantage to have roots stored upon the same level as the feeding stalls, as there is a great loss of time in carrying large quantities of roots up stairs or ladders. Where a site upon a hill side can be obtained, there is nothing but a simple excavation to be made, the labour becoming greater as the slope of the land approaches a dead level. The accompanying diagram shows the form of excavati » where DuaAAM L 22 The Canadian Farmer's the 8lo[)e is slight, the earth taken from the basement being thrown out on the upper side to form the road-way to the barn. Here x y shows natural slope of ground, making an angle of 5° with the horizon. By excavating three feet at the inside, and supposing the barn to be forty feet wide, sufficient earth is ob- tained to make a raised road to the top of a basement wall, D B, nine feet high. Raised road running out twenty feet from the barn tl(jor to the natural ground, and making an incline of three feet in twenty, uj) which to take waggons into the barn. If the site should be a dead level, earth must be obtained else- where to make a protection to those walls of the basement forming the outside of the cellar. OuaKAM 2. X y shows the natural slope of the ground, being say three feet in forty. By excavating three feet at the inside, and supposing the barn to be forty feet wide, earth sufficient is obtained from the excavation to make a raised road to the top of a nine-foot basement wall ; such raised road running forty feet out to meet the ground, has only an incline of three in forty, up which to draw on to the barn tioor. If the site should be a dead level, the cost becomes far greater, as the earth required to protect the outer walls of the cellar would have to be drawn to the spot, whilst if the basement be commenced on the crest of the elevation, as in Diagram 2, the labour of excavation is reduced to a minimum. A basement wall resting against a bank should be built of stone and first-class mortar, and should be at least 1^ feet thick. Masons generally slope such a wall upwards and outwards to the bank, giving as their reason that the slope overcomes the pressure of the contiguous earth. To keep the walls free from dampness, and to still further lessen any danger from the crowding of the bank, small stone or coarse gravel should be filled in for about twelve inches in width be- tween the wall and the bank, and this gravel rest over a drain below. In this manner all wet, especially in spring, escaping from the ground, will fiiier through the gravel, and, before reaching the cellar wall, will escape by the drain beneath. Manual cf Agriculture. 23 Accommodation in a Basement. — For the purpose of approxi- mation, it will be near enough to calculate that ten bushels of roots require fifteen cubic feet of space. On this basis the following Table will serve to measure the ne- »;essary size of a cellar to contain various quantities of roots : — 1,000 Busht'ln of roots will require 1.500 cubic feet, or j 20 X \ or, 20 X 8-4 X 9 high, 94 X 8 " 1,600 2,000 3,000 4,000 7.000 10,000 And 80 on. M «4 2,2-.0 3.000 4,r.00 6,000 10,500 15,000 20 X 12'G X 9 20 X 140 X 8 16-8 X 9 18-9 X 8 f 20 X \ or, 20 X f 20 X 2r.'0 X 9 \ or, 20 X 28-d x 8 f 20 X 3.J 4 X 9 lor, 20X37 0 X 8 ( 20 X 584 X 9 ( or, 20 X 65-7 X 8 4 20 X 83-4 X 9 \ or, 20 X 93 9 X 8 << inions on the best method amongst those now in practice are very varied. MOVABLE STANCHIONS. Plates 1 and 2 illustrate the stanchion princii)le I'LATB 1. Each cow IS fast- ened between two oak stanchions, 2i X 3 ; one, a, is fixed, being niorticed into the sill and the upper beam ; whilst b is movable, and works upon a pin m a loose mortice hole in the sill, and in a slot cut in the upper i'LATE / jr SIL '^ Manual of Agriculture. 33 beam. When thrown open, the movable stanchion has a slope, &8 shown by the dotted I'nes; when closed upon the neck of the beast, it is secured, at a distance of C^ to 7 inches, by means of an ircii, d, of a wedge, e, or a pin as at g. Of these three fastenings, the wedge is undoubtedly the safest, unless the pin be secured in its place by a key through the smaller end. The upper beam, which should be about 4 feet 6 inches from the floor, is also of great use in preventing animals raising theii heads when they are about to swallow an awkward sized piece of turnip ; if the animal be unable to raise his head he will very seldom choke. PUTI 8. Plate 8 shows a chain which passes round the neck, and is attached to an iron ring which slides upon a post. This fastening secures to the animal more freedom of head, but is not so secure as the former, whilst it has the dis- advantage of allowing a milch cow to move further back, and perhaps soil the udder by lying in manure. Plate 4 shows a modification of the former, and will readily explain itself ; the bar being of good iron and secured to the post by being passed through at the ends, and nutted upon the back side. Plate 5 represents a more secure plan of fastening by chain. This plan gives the advantage of the stanchion in keeping the beast forward, whilst allowing rather more freedom to the head. In all cases a beam or pole over the cow's neck, at a height of about four feet and a half from the floor, is a very useful adjunct to secure against choking by pieces of turnip or other roots. Plate 6 gives a side view of such a stable and stall as has been recommended. 3 ;i>i' 34 PtKTS I. The Canadian Farmer's Platb & ^i .VTK 5. Passage, four feet wide ; manger, 2 feet wide at the bottom ; stall, G feet from front to rear ; floor, 5 feet from manger to gutter ; gutter, IJ feet wide and 7 inches deep, with the stalls from 3 to 4 feet wide, and a beam over cows' necks 4^ feet from the floor. Light must be cai*efully secured in all stables for milch cattle or for young stock ; though it is usually considered that a dark place is better for fatting animals, as in- ducing a desire to lie down more frequently. GENERAL CLEANLINESS. It is imperative that at all times, and, as far as possible, under all cir- cumstances,general clean- liness be carefully secured — and rigidly enforced. DISEASE ARISING FROM UNCLEANLINESS. The most prevalent form of disease among cattle, arising from want of proper and sufficient cleanliness, is that of lice. When these appear upon any individual in a lot, the affection almost invariably spreads throughout the whole herd. It is impossible to keep up the condition of an animal, when once troubled with such parasites ; and as there is often much trouble in destroying the evil when it has once put in an appearance, and as all applications of tobacco water, carbolic acid, coal oil, sulphur or mercurial ointment are attended with more or less risk to the beast, we would ,»'•:;' Manual of AgYiculiure. \^h inipiess upon the farmer the importance of strikinjjj at the root of such diseases by taking preventive measures. The liest preven- tive to the spread of this evil is a thorough whitewashing of the stalls, ceilings and manger. Take your pail of whitewash, and drop into it about 3 tablespoonfuls of the commercial carbolic acid ; as the lime and water is renewed in the whitewash, also renew the carbolic ; take an old broom and thoroughly wash everything louiid and about the animal, not forgetting the floor overhead. Not only is the stable thus purified and these insects driven otf, l)ut a coat of whitewash with carbolic acid is a perfect disinfectant, is at all times conducive of health to animals, and makes every thing lighter, assimilating the light in the stables to that of the dazzling snow without. Whilst upon the subject of these parasites, we will give a few of the methods of cure n-,ost eiKciently recom- mended for their removal from the affected animal. TO CURE LICE AND MANGE IN CATTLE. As far as the cure is concerned, these two diseases may be classed under the same head. The cause oi' mange is the [)resence of a minute insect (or acarus) which buiTows its way from the surface, underneath the cuticle or outer skin. Though the acarus, in each case, may vary in size and foini, yet mange in the horse and ox and scab in the sheep are one and the same affection. Of the primary cause of the appearance of this in.sect we have no certain knowledge. Poverty of the animal and uncleanline.ss of stables are, however, most certainly causes, while a plethoric state of the system caused by blood-heating food is undoubtedly a predisposing agent. It is, hoAv.^ver, more common in poverty- stricken and debilitated animals than in those that are kept sleek and fat ; though the latter are not free from the disease, as may be seen by the very common appearance of a mange on animals to whom is fed a quantity of meal. The disease spreads rapidly by contagion. When an animal affected with mange or lice is introduced into a herd, the disease is sure to spread throughout, and it is, therefore, very important that affected animals be isolated without delay. The symptoms of mange are a constant rubbing and itchiness of the animal, and are usually first observed about the root of the tail and along the crest of the neck. On examination it will be found that the location of this irritation is bare, and covered with a dry scurf If this scurf be removed by the nail, small raw-look- ing pimples will be found beneath, discharging a yellow serous fluid. The acari beneath this scab may be plainly seen through a microscope. In chronic cases, or in those of long continu.iiice, the skin thickens and falls into wrinkles and folds. 36 The Canadian Farmer's \ I !i. To treat mange effectually, two things must be accomplished — primarily to remove the insect and all ova, and then to renew the healthy action of the skin. Nearly every poisonous compound known in the Pharmacopma has been used for this purpose, and all are more or less dangerous to the animal. Compounds containing a proportion of arsenic will assuredly kill the insect, but are very apt to be fatal also to the patient. These compounds should never be used by men unskilled in medicine. Mercurial Ointments are very effectual, but must be used with extreme caution, as mercury has a tendency to produce salivation or ptyalism ; if mercury be used in any form, the animal must be kept carefully from cold, and especially from getting wet If the case is bad enough to wan'ant the use of mercury, take: Soft-.soap one pound, and mercuiial ointment (blue ointment) four ounces. Let these two be thoroughly mixed ; rub small quan- tities well into the parts affected ; let it remain for a few days, and then wash ofl' with warm water and a brush. When the disease is not too strongly developed, oils of all kinds, especially animal oils, will destroy t'le insect, and are perfectly innocuous to the beast. Sulphur is an effectual remedy, but should also be used with the precaution of keeping the animal dry after application. The best form of employing sulphur is to take sulphuret of potassium (liver of sulphur) one ounce, water eight ounces ; and apply the lotion twice a day In very bad and long-standing cases take equal portions of oil of tar, oil of turpentine, aud linseed oil, and rub it well into the skin about every other day with a hard stiff brush. In using an)'' of these remedies, it must be borne in mind that no one agent can be considered as a certain specific After a nuHiber of applications, any one remedy, even the most potent, is apt to lose its effect. In this case a change of remedy even from severe to mild will often ensure success. In cases that will yield to no milder application, a solution of bichloride of mercury may be made, two drachms of the bichloride to a quart of soft water ; but this should not be used without the superintendence of or advice from a qualified veterinary surgeon. Amongst other remedies are : — An infusion of quassia (one pound to the gallon of boiling water) is very safe and often effec- tual. Miller's Tick Destroyer, carefully used in accordance with the patentee's printed directions, is in ordinary cases effectual. The following are peculiarly effective in the case of the large lice :— The Hceraatopinus Eurysternus, or Hcematopinus ani et vulgce (respectively those that appear on the neck and such as appear about the anus and thighs). mitffwmm Manual of Agriculture. 37 A decoction of tobacco — two drachms of tobacco to abo\it a pint of water. A f.'ife and effectual dressing is : Stavesaere seeds four ounces, white hellebore one ounce ; boil in a gallon of water down to two quarts, and apply with a brush to the affected parts. Again, when other methods fail, take red precipitate a teaspoonful (this is mer- curial, and the cautions given above with regard to the use of mer- curial compounds must here be adopted), and mix in a pound of hog's lard ; apply it with the finger to the parts most seriously affected, but not all over at once — say to five or six different spots at a time — and be sure and keep the animal warm and dry under this treatment. The following plan has been recommended by a practical farmer who is extensively engaged in cattle-raising, and, if effectual, is certainly perfectly safe : Dissolve about a pint of strong soft-soap in a pail of warm soft water ; saturate the whole surface of a lousy cow's body with it ; after about thirty minutes repeat the operation, and in another half hour take a pail of clean warm water, and quickly and thoroughly wash out all the soap water and dead lice, put her in a warm stable, and cover her with a dry blanket. Again, take flowers of sulphur a pound, common turpentine four ounces, mercurial ointment two ounces, and linseed oil a pint ; warm the oil, and melt the turpentine in it ; when the mixture begins to cool, add the sulphur, and stir the ingredients well together, and afterwards incorporate the blue ointment with the mass by rubbing them together on a marble slab, and apply to the infected spots. It is well, however, not to confine the treatment to local appli- cations. Give warm mashes, and if the animal be poor and weak endeavour to raise the system. It should be borne in mind that when mixtures are applied local- ly, a small quantity tuell rubbed in is more effectual than a greater mass smeared on. Horse Stables. — The most essential points to be considered in the fitting up of horse stables are, in addition to those appertaining to convenience of feeding, freedom from dust, cleanliness and abundance of light. The stable which has a loft over it should be at least twelve feet high, and perfect ventilation should be secured either by tubes carrying the foul air away at the roof or by gratings close to the ceiling. These gratings should be so arranged that, whilst effecting perfect ventilation, they may also be made the means of securing cool currents of air in spring and summer. It has too long been considered by the groom that a glossy coat can onlv be associated with a hot stable. To this we would ;^ 38 The Canadian Farmer's III it; :ii! reply that a thin glossy coat is not at all times desirable, for when cold weather approaches nature provides the animal with thick and warm clothing. Man in winter puts on additional clothing, and the horse in like manner requires additional cover- ing, and to the farm horse no blanketing can properly take the place of his natural winter coat. The coat, howevei, need not be so long as to be unsightly; warm clothing in a cool stable, with plenty of honest grooming, will keep the hair sufficiently glossy to please any but the most over- fastidious. The over-heated air in a close stable saves much of this groom- ing, and for this reason the unscrupulous attendant will sacrifice his horse's health. The air of the improperly close and heated stable becomes con- taminated by the urine and dung, which, rapidly fermenting, give out stimulating and unwholesome vapours. When a person first enters such an ill-managed stable, and especially in the early morning, he is annoyed not only by the muggy heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell resembling that of harts- horn. Can he then be surprised at the inflammation of the eyes, the chronic cough, and the disease of the lungs, by which the ani- mal, who has been all night shut up in this vitiated atmos])here, is often attacked, or when farcy and even glanders should break out in such a stable ? Chemistry shows us that urine contains a large amount of ammonia, and moreover that, influenced by the heat of a crowded stable, the ammoniacal vapour begins to be given off rapidly almost immediately after the urine has been voided. THE CEILING OVER HORSES SHOULD BE TIGHT. 1 (ill B.I 111 For this there are two especially important reasons: first, as a preventive against the ascension of the carbonized and foul air exhaled by the horse , and secondly, as against its circulation through the feed above ; thus injuring both its taste and whole- someness, and rendering it distasteful to the horse. The fact of the breath of one horse rendering food unpalatable to another is daily illustrated in our public stables in town. By close observa- tion, the reader may notice that his horse will often refuse the hay in the racks from which another horse has previously been eating, while if fresh hay of just the same quality be provided he will no longer leave it untouched. There should never be trap-doors directly over hay racks — for immediately the attendant commences to pass down hay, the horse will look upwards ; and, by this means, particles of dust or hay seeds are often dro})ped in his eyes, and may cause severe inflam- mation, and in many instances lasting injury. Manual of Agricullure 39 Fio. 7. STABLES SHOITLD BE ALWAYS KEPT WKLL PURIFIED. This is best effected by liberal whitewaslung and the occasional addition of disinfectants, chief among wliich ranks carbolic acid ; moreover, the whitewash keeps a stable light. Mangers should be made so that they may be cleaned from the front and tilled by the attendant without interference by the horse. Oat-boxes should be built deej), to prevent the horse casting out with his nose any feed. There is only one proper way by which to attach a horse's hal- ter to manger or stall, and that is by a roi»e or strap runniny through a ring and fastened to a block just large enough to pre- vent it coming through the ring. More horses have been injured by getting their fore leg over the halter-shank, and in consequence being cast, than in any other manner in the stable. In accompanying diagram, a shows the position of the tie- rope when the horse is standing back, holding his head up high, or lying down ; when the horse stands up, instead of the rope forming a loop over which he can get his foot, the weight at the end causes it to run through the ring, and keeps it straight, and at all times tightened. The feeding and management of horses, mares and colts will be treated of in a subsequent chap- ter. THE BARN. Building Timber. — Much more economy might by a little fore- sight be practised in the use of building timber than has been for- merly. For instance, in many cases the logs used for the sills, plates or beams of a barn are large enough to make two or even four pieces, had they been only sawn through the middle. Where a saw mill is not too far distant it will pay, at the present value of timber, to convey such large logs to the mill to be sawn in two. To carry a long stick, take an ordinary strong lumber waggon, attach a reach to both fore and hind parts, and lash the free ends of these reaches to the stick, while the same is securely chained It ' 111 40 The Canadian Farmer's m \'' ^ 1;! 'i . ' and boomed to both axles. Neither is there any unconquerable difficulty in sawing a stick through, even should it be twice as long as the saw mill carriage. Sticks sawn in this manner, from a large log, arc even better than ordinary squared timber for build- ing purposes. Where the heart is near the centre of a beam, the timber will often crack badly while drying, from the centre towards the outer surface. If a tree be, however, sawn through the centre, the heart being outside, these cracks will not appear. Economy. — In many buildings, where the framework rests upon solid masonry, sills one foot square are rested on the wall, and gains are cut in for each joist. In this case, the large stick of timber is reduced to the thickness of a plank beneath the joists, and the large amount of timber between these joists is useless for any prac- tical purpose. Much saving may be effected by replacing the large sill with a heavy plank, from two to four inches in thickness, and allowing the joists to extend clear across the top of the wall, and flush with its outer face. Buildings sometimes spread under the old system from the ends of the joists starting out of the gains. By the plan advocated above, where the joists are laid right .across the wall and secured by spikes, there is no possibility of any lateral pressure causing a spread, while the expense of material is reduced to one-half of the cost under the old-fashioned system. As a partial estimate of the solidity of various woods, we here quote the weight per cubic foot of various kinds of wood : Hickory, 52 lbs per cubic foot. Beech, 40 " " " Birch, 45 '* " " " Pine, Yellow, 38 lbs. per cubic foot. Cedar, 28 " " " " Pine, White, 25 " «* " " The Depth of Joists is dependent more upon the length over which they, unsupported, spread, than upon the superincumbent pressure. The rule in this case is, — The depth must increase as the square of the distance from the 'point of support on a ivall. Height of a Barn. — In building a barn for the storage of hay or grain, height should be considered as a general principle in economy of space. While adding a few feet in height to the frame of a barn is not a great extra expense, the additional room attained by extending the barn horizontally would cost very much more in material and work, for in the one case there is no extra roofing or flooring. Where it can be attained, it is a good plan to build a high barn, the inner frame being so constructed as to admit of two floors, one above the other, in such a manner that the loaded team can drive on to the upper floor and throw its load doivn for perhaps nine feet. Even where this costs the erection of a long briage, it will be found economical in saving much work at busy times, while we question if the material requisite for an increased area for the storing of hay and grain crops will not more than pay for any Manual of Agriculture. 41 bridge reauired. The accompanying diagram illustrates the prin- ciple by showing the gable view of a barn so constructed. Fie. 8. Fio. 9. Now that the use of the horse-fork is becoming very general, m the plan of a bam, the upper old-fashioned cross beams should be avoided. We shall presently, by plan, show a barn constructed on this principle. Among the many plans for barns that we have in view, we select one which appeared not a long time ago in the columns of the Country Oentleman as one that admirably suits the system of farming in, and the climate of Canada, and as one from which many valuable ideas may be gained by the intending builder, and which is susceptible of modification to suit almost any locality and site. The accompanying plan is for a barn of a size suitable for about 7o acres of land under cultivation on the system of mixed hus- bandry. The barn is 42 x 60 ft. Figure 1 shows the common or principal floor, and is so 'constructed that a loaded waggon is driven in at one end and when emptied is driven out at the other. The arrangement for this pur- pose, so as not to interfere with the cellar or basement, is shown in the perspective view, figure 2, an embank- ment being made at each end, which would be faci- litated if the building were placed between two slight knolls or in a moderate hoi- ^- Principal Floor. ^-■^-■■..■..■■■■. . -.Jiii'j.'.... .■A.jjjTTrr B>Y. Uk60 .M. FLOOH. 13X60. 1 ,l!li!i III :! 1. j' t'>, , 1/ ! ^ ! ! 1 ■■ ill ' 1 ' m • i 42 The Canadian Farmer's low, in which case ample (Iniiiis sluniM l)o piovidocl routul the whole. The [)iaii ti{^. I, mostly exj)Iaiiis itself; V V heiti;^ venti- lators or hay shutes ; A, trap door lor th!t»wiii<]j down ehatt' or straw ; O, gramiry ; and S, stairs. Tho bay ocnitains [)oO square feet, and will hold nearly 40 tons of eompact hay of about 500 cubic feet to tho ton when well settled. The sj)ace over the horse stables and platforms over the floor will hold at lea^it 20 tons more, making a complete available .space for GO tons of hay. By marking or graduating one of tho ventilators iti the large bay into feet, the owner cau see about how many tons of hay lie has on hand at any time. Fio, 10. yitt. iL ■33 — EZ3- — CL :vJ^!!^.v. Ruars. laxsi. i—mirSZ A \ 2. Perspective View. Figure 3 represents tho basements. The roots arc drawn in on the barn tloor and dum[)ed down the trap A ; fig. 1, A A A A, are calf pens or boxes for cows in calf. The 3000 square feet of roof will sup[)ly an annual average of about 2000 barrels of water — and cisterns may be made, say at C C, to contain from 400 to 500 barrels — /. e.,if they are to be depended on main- ly for watering the stock. The accompanying plan and view and ex- nssAoi:exsa - |-i|4i|'l4M'l' cow ST AH LE. ( 2 X QO SHCO 4r MANURE- ."?. Basement. Munual of Agrkulture, 43 ])lanation are from a fnMnuMit foneapoiuhMit of tli«' dtiutda For- nwr, who writes over tlie initial "C," atul are well worthy of coti- sidoration on the part of any rnruier about to huikl. He Hay^; " Anions the ad^mita^eH which this (U'sij^n einhraces, may he reckoned the oxedh'nt ventilation provided. By the ariangeinent indicated, the trap-iloms (I, 1,) on the main Moor answer the double purposes of tilling the root-house below and of aHoi'ding the mean., ot perfect ventilation to the; heaps of roots when recpiired by tlie ro!no\'al of the obstructing shutters at (4, 4,) under the root-house Hoor, and admitting a draut^ht of cold air to iiseend through the roots and to escape by the traps in the Hoor. The grave objection to the usual plan of allowing tlio breath and exhalations of animals to pass into the grain or hay above is also entirely avoided by providing tlu; spaces marked (2, 2). This construction secures an -jpening over each row of cattle. The arrangements also provide for an exceedingly convenient space through wliich to feed the (tattle with hay or straw from the barn Hoor. The barn has three Hoors : one of twelve feet in width at each end, and one of twenty feet ii\ the centre. There are ch)ors on these floors op|)osite each other, to admit (jf the free passtige t»f air in the summer. "On the lower side, \^'hich is not designed for the egress of wag- gons, the doors open outwards, and over the waggon slicd below. This shed will be found useful to drive undei', and also admits of loading from the barn Hoor through a small trap into the waggon whilst standing under the .shed. This is not shown in the draw- ing, as it would only I'eijuire a board on which tin; bags should be caused to slide down. "The two end Hoors are no loss of space, as they can 1)6 tilled with grain at harvest to be thnushed out Hrst in time for .stcning roots, and fis they aie only eight feet high the portion overhead may be occupied, as the other parts of the barn, with grain. When thrashing is done, they form a most convenient granary, storehouse for tools, &o. A hill-side is undoubtedly the best site on which to build such a barn, but it is by no means an absolute necessity. An ascent ma\- be formed as a substitute. " When we consider that all the product of the farm, after being once hauled in by horses, has again to be passed in detail to its destination, it will be at once manifest that there is great advan- tage in causing it to work down hill into racks and cribs, instead of all being carried out on a level by hand. "Again, the horse- power works to great advantage in such a barn as this, as all cut hay or straw made on the upper Hoor will readily be fed to cattle below , through the ventilators over their heads, and the pulped turnips below are readily mixed therewith." No provision for water is shown, as it is the writer's opinion that the exercise for the cattle of walking to water once a day is benettcial. 44 The Canadian Farmer's m. 11 LougltiiUinal Section. FiS. 18. tii; \. f: ID D □ 2 L'J iJ [J r a a 1 L 1 1 1 2 1 CI a. 2 1 1 1 IP' Second Floor Plan. Still, a cistern would be handy , for water is often recjuired to mix ground grain with chaff, for w.atering fatting cattle, sick beasts, and for many other purposes, irnniediately within the build- ing. Neither are racks shown, as the writer prefers feeding cut fodder. The large doors in the sheds at the end are designed, ainong other purposes, to allow of a team being driven in through the sheds to carry away the manure. We have not space, in a work of the proposed dimensions, to enter more fully into the various forms of barn buildings. We believe there are works to be obtained, specially devoted to this JAanual of Agriculture. 45 subject. nn«J tlio.se may be, with advantugo, pcruaeil by the farmer proposing to build ur iucicaHe. Kki. M. ."'•ww Wo should like to have given more })lans, for we consider thfit the saving of trouble and labour is, in a carefully schemed steading, of no small magnitude. We now proceed to some practical remarks on the various mate- rials brought into requisition in the construction of farm buildings. ROOFING MATERIALS. Our nine woods have so far inovided us with an abundance of material for the covering of our buildings, but the time cannot be far distant when this source will not be so readily at hand, and when we must look to some other and more lasting material for the purpose. Ttles, being made of burnt earth, are fireproof, and as such are valuable, but from their weight it is necessary that the woodwork be of sufficient strength. Moreover, to prevent the snow and rain beating under, it becomes necessary to lay them in mortar, and this again forms an additional weight upon the framework of the build- ings. Tiles must be laid on a steep roof, at least a quarter pitch; i.e., the rafters being at right angles with one another at the peak. The tiles are hung by means of one or more wooden pegs driven through the tile and hung upon the roof boards, which are com- posed of strong slats laid lengthways upon the rafters. The pegs through the tiles catch on the upper side of these slats. The pegs must be driven home on each tile, so as not to incommode the lay of the tile next above. I 46 The Canadian Farmer's 'J'ho tiles arc laid in mortar; i.e. the mortar is biid on that part of each tile tli'it is covered by the next above. It must, however, be borne in mind, that this , jof is very expen- sive, and that the tiles have to be burned from clay entirely free fiom limestime. For, unless the pottery be of the best, it is subject to be severely injured by Canadian frosts. There are various shapes of tiles, from the plain flat to the fluted tile. Slates also form an excellent roof, but are very expensive. ShinrjUs. — Extra shaved sliingles made from large sound pine timber are the most durable. Spruce, if large, and the sap all taken off, will make shingles to last for fifteen or twenty years. Some ash shingles last well, but they are very apt to warp and crack. T() FIND THE NUMBER OF SHINGLES ON A G-IVEN SIZED ROOF. ,i l! vi: J T ' I DiAOKAU & / ISiiiiiiiliiiiii'liiiliiilil'S, Rule. — Multiply thu breadth of one side of the roof in feet by its full length in feet; re- duce to inches ; and di- vide by 10, the result wUl be the number of shingles recpaired for one side of the roof E.Mmph's 3 i in breadth 20 The roof in the diagram measures in length 30 feet. U i( il ■ ' ' The breadth of one side " length 20 30 To reduce to inches by 144 600 feet. 144 86400 Divide by ten 8640 — the number of shingles required for one side. Therefore it would take 17,2'';0, or seventeen thousand shingles to cover this roof Paint for Sliingles. — Slake t:tone lime by putting into a tub and keeping in the steam. Wheii slaked, pass through a fine sieve, and to each six quarts add one quart of salt and one gallon of water ; boil and skim .^ff what rises to the surface. To each five gallons of tliis result add 'pulverized alum, one pound ; copperas, one hcilf-pou))d ; potaah, one half-pound ; hardwood ashts, sifted, 'ill Manual of yigriculture. 47 f(Mir pounds ; apply with a whitewash brush. This is a very cheap paint, and will last for many years. To prevent decajf in Shingles, the following has been well recommended : — Take a potash kettle or large tub, and put into it one barrel of lye of wood a.shes, five pounds of white vitriol, five pounds of alum, and as much salt as will dissolve in the liquor. Make the mixture, when all dissolved, warm ; soak in it the shingles. Then lay the shingles on the roof in the usual manner. After the roof is laid, take what licjuor is left, put lime enough in it to m.ake a whitewash, and if you desire colour, add some colouring matter, as ochre, Spanish brown, lampblack, &c., ;ind wash on the roof with an old broom or whitewash brush. Paint for Buildings. — A cheap wa&h may be made as follows : — Take a clean water-tight barrel, and put into it half a busliel of good lime ; slake it with boiling water ; cover it six or seven inches deep, and see that it be thoroughly slackened. Then dissolve the slackened lime in water, and add two pounds of sulphate of /inc and one pound common salt. This will harden the wash, and prevent its cracking after api)lication. Colour it with : For a cream colour add, in proportion to the above mixture, three pounds yellow ochre ; for lead colour, add a lump of iron black ; for fawn colour, add four pounds umber, one pound of Indian red, and one pound lampblack ; for stone colour, add two pounds of raw umber and two pounds lampblack. To render it still more durable, and to give a glossiness to the work, before application to woodwork add a pint of sweet milk to a gallon of the wash. Crude petroleum, or coal tar, as an applicai-on to woodwork, is of some value, although dangerous on accornt of fire. The proper method of applying coal or gas tar to woodwork is by heating it to the boiling point. Of course, this, v/hen subject to light, heat and rain, will come off in a year or two ; but when applied hot, it will soak into the pores of wood and render it im- pervious to damp. Petroleum is not affected as coal tar, and outside influences will not wash it off. In using paint, it must be borne in mind that the advantages of rendering damp proof arise chiefly from the use of oil. The natural pigments are not only the most durable, but the most economical to use in painting. For painting brick, about the best mixture is finely-ground French yellow ochre and American white zinc, equal quantities by weight. The resulting colour is a soft bufJ", pleasing and per- manent. The ordinary colours used are Venetian red, artificial ochres and red oxide of iron ; but these do not hold oil as well as the French yellow ochre. Brick should never be painted except in dry, wa>-m seasons, IM ) I ! 48 The Canadian Farmer's V! i : '. %\ ' after the moisture which brick absorbs in spring and winter has dried out. If painted too early, the paint is apt to scale off. Painting is too often executed rapidly, to the injury of its permanent results. Oil without any paint at all would be the best method of render- ring wood waterproof, but for the combined effects of economy and appearance it is desirable to mix with the oil various paints. The extra ingredients for drying, such as benzine, turpentine, Japan varnish, litharge, &c., should be used sparingly, for their effect is to prevent the oil in paint mixtures from saturating the wood ; and it is in this saturation of wood by the oil that the best results are attained. Where much of these drying materials are used, the oil con- tained in the paint is formed into a gloss, which is rapidly washed off by rain and peeled off by the sun. Of course this does not apply to inside painting, but only to that which is meant to render exposed wood impervious to damp. Oil must be boiled, to free it from impurities, before using in paint. Never use any but the purest oil. Moderately cold weather is the best time in which to paint buildings, fences, &c., and great haste in the application and drying is inadmissible. The very best plan to be adopted is, paint with pure boiled lin- seed oil and pigment, no drying material, and let it have sufficient time to dry and soak into the pores of the wood ; long intervals between the several coats of paint. Lightning Rods. — It has been asked by some, what benefit can be derived from the use of Lightning Rods ? We will explain in a very short manner the principle upon which these rods operate. Lightning, or electricity, is supposed by science, in lieu of a more definite theory, to be composed of two fluids, to which have been given the names Positive Electricity and Negative Electricity. It is also an accepted fact, that the natures of these two are such that like repels like and attracts unlike. In other words, a body surcharged with positive electricity, over which positive electricity preponderates, will attract to itself the electricity of a body surcharged with negative, and vice versa. As an instance, we shall take the two clouds. We shall say Fia. 16. l|ib- ■"■-*• 1 1 i;?;i Manual of Agriculture. 49 that the negative eloetricity of the one cloud a is gathered towards the point a, and the positive electricity of the cloud b is gathered towards the point b. Then when a and 6 come within a certain distance of one another, the attraction of the opposite poles of electricity, mutually the one to the other, becomes so great, that they rush to unitewith great rapidity through the intervening space. The union is attended with combustion, which is the Jidsk of lightning, while the sound of such combustion is the thunder. We will now take as one illustration the cloud and the barn, and before doing so, point out Fm. lo. another very important fact _ ,^ with regard to the escape of electricity from bodies : i.e., that electricity in any body will invariably gather to a point, and will escape first from that jjoint. This is very important, as upon it rests the entire principle of the use of the lightning rod. Supposing, as in the annexed diagram, there is a point a iu the cloud, to which is gather- ed the positive electricity of ihe cloud : the barn b charged with an opposite or negative elec- tricity : the affinity of the electricity respectively contained in the barn and in the cloud is so fio. 17. great that, should the cloud he driven within a certain distance of the barn, their severally contained electri- cities wi'' burst all bonds asunder, and, rushing with prodigious force to 1 eet one anotli r, w^ill evolve such heat as will, in all proba- bility, St the barn on fire. Weno\ consider the exact use and Ivantage of the lightning rod. A thunder cloud charged with, say po- sitive electricity, appears and is driven by the upper currents of air into the neighbourhood of our barn. The barn and the earth con- tiguous are surcharged with 4 50 The Canadian Farmer's \ mih; i J 6v I m. ^ lit' i .■if •I Pi ' tui electricity of an opjxisitc nature (or pole), say negative. There is then an attraction between the electricities contained in the cloud and in the earth. If a solid rod of iron be can'ied up from the earth towards the cloud, electricity will gather in force at its point, and rush from that point to meet the opposite electricity from the cloud. The currents, evolving immense heat, will combine in and above the rod, and if the rod be pro])erly isolated (by glass) from the building, the shock will take place directly between the earth and the cloud, and will not afi'ect the building. Brief as is this explanation, it is all for which we can afford space in this woik ; at least, from it may be deduced the safety to a building of a contiguous but yet isolated lightning rod. Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institute, gives the fol- lowing instructions for the erection of lightning rods : — 1. The rod should consist of round iron of about one inch in diameter; its parts, thi-oughout the whole length, should be in perfect metallic continuity, by being secured together with cou- pling ferrules. 2. To secure it from rust, the rod should be coated with black ])aint, itself a good conductor. 3. It should terminate in a single platinum point. 4. The shorter and more direct the course of the rod to the earth, the better ; bending should be rounded, and uot formed in acute a-gles. 5. It should be fastened to the building by iron eyes, and may be insulated from these by cylinders ot glass. (j. The rod should be connected with the earth in the most per- fect manner possible. Where practicable, let the rod be conveyed horizontally to the nearest well, and then turned vertically down- wards until the end enters the water as deep as its lowest level. The horizontal part of the rod may be buried in a stratum of pounded charcoal and ashes. The rod should be placed, in pre- ference, on the west side of a building. A rod of this kind may be put up by any ordinary blacksmith. The rod in question is in accordance with our latent knowledge of all the facts of electricity. Attempted improvements on it are worthless, and, as a gen- eral thing, are proposed by those who are but slightly acquainted with the subject (and we may add, who are interested in the sale and erection of rods). ON CULTIVATION. Thorough cultivation and liberal manuring are the two key- stones upon which are built the success of agriculture. It is Eerfectly useless to half- work our lands. If we would raise a fine oi'se, he must be generously fed, and moderately exercised from Manual of Agricullure. 61 a eolt : should we .starve him and put him to heavy work when young, he will assuredly turn out a stunted beast. And so it is in regard to our land ; we must feed generously and work moderately if we would have profitable returns. The land is the store-room to which the plant — be it grain, grass or root— must go to obtain the greater part of its daily sustenance, ft is for us to see that the store-room is well provided, and is at all times and in due seasons accessible to the tender rootlet. As man's life and growth is dependent upon a regular sup[)ly of food, which, entering into the body and being subjected to cer- tain chemical processes within, is divided into various portions, which portions are severally appropriated to the different wants of the body, some to blood, some to bone, some to tissue, &c., so the life and growth of the plant is equally dependent upon a constant and regular sup})ly of food, which, entering into its body by a thousand tiny mouths, is appropriated to the dif- ferent wants of the living plant, some to the formation of straw, some to grain, some to sugar, some to starch, &c. The operations of nature, on the control and subordination of which man's life is dependent, are almost analogous to those by which are regulated the life and growth of plants ; and the same urgency which calls for a generous su[)ply of food to man is neces- sary if we would have our plants to grow and thrive. The knowledge, to the perfection of which we as farmers should strive, is that of the best plan by which to supply food, and then to render such sup))ly available to our crops. The former of these is performed by gift of manure, the latter by cultivation of the soil. As a practical illustration of the effects of thorough culture, let us only point to the gardener's crops. In the rarden, thorough cultivation and generous manuring are faithfully performed, and the results are such that if the acre should yield in proportion to the yard, the crops upon a hundred-acre farm would be wondrous to behold. Now, whilst we cannot expect to cultivate our farm as thoroughly as does the gardener his plot, 3'et it should be the constant aim of the farmer to bring his land to a state of garden fertility. The nearer to that end that he attains, the greater his profit propoi- tionately to the expense of cultivation. If land is rich, and is kept rich, there is no more cost in the raising of forty bushels than in that of ten bushels of wheat to the acre. The foundation of farm cultivation must ever be good ploughing. The reader may say, "Why! almost any boy can plough." We respectfully answer, a very great number of farm men cannot plough. To plough well, a good implement is necessary. The style, shape and work of the plough vary according to the various natures of soil, and are greatly governed by taste. i' ' 1! ! = 62 The Canadian Farmer's M M i\ \ :=i I I I p I In a later portion of this work will be found n chapter devoted to ploughs and implements. Ploughing. — No amount of after-cultivation can retrieve bad ploughing ; if the field be once turned over badly, it will be the cause of extra trouble to the cultivator and injury to the crop throughout the whole season. We need not here dilate upon the necessity of economizing the work of horses ; suffice it to say, that it is a matter of vital impor- tance to use the plough which, with the minimum draught, will thorouf»hly perform the required work. There are various styles of ploughing, upon which we now pro- pose to dwell shortly. Permanent meadows or pastures. — Where it is intended that certain fields be used for a length of time in grass, they should be laid flat and well surface-drained by narrow grips in any direction necessary to carry away stagnant water. It must be remembered that whilst water lying upon and freezing in young clover meadows is almost always fatal to the })lant, yet, that the old and permanent meadows will stand a gi'eat deal of stagnant surface water, and require to hold all the water that falls throughout the spring, summer and fall seasons. Width of lands. — In ploughing for a seed bed there is a great variation, according to soil, in regard to the requisite width. Upon the heavy days a narrow land is required, so that there are plenty of furrows to act as surface drains, while the land is so rounded up that surface water cannot rest upon it. On the lighter lands, especially where the subsoil is of a gravelly nature, it were better if no furrow were made in the whole field ; but, at any rate, where the land system as now generally adopted prevails, they may be at least twenty-four paces wide from crown to crown. To do without lands there are two methods — one, the use of the turnwrest or swivel plough, and the other by ploughing round the field. To the latter there may be taken great objection on account of the one fact that the horses trample down the new turned seed bed at each corner. The turmvrest or swivel plough has of late years become more popular. The peculiar principle of this plough is, that by reversing the mould board at each end of the field the furrow slice can be thrown up first on the gte side, and then, on returning, on \h&haw side ; so that all loss of t me in taking the plough empty across the breadth of the land ai the headlands is done away with, and instead the plough returns each time in the same furrow in which it previously came down. The adoption of this plan will yet be general on our light lands. On sandy soils the furrow is utterly useless ; in its finishing, in the setting out of stakes for and the first slices of the land crown. i i J Manu'.il of Agriculture. 53 there is an amount of time taken up which might just as well be saved to the regular ploughing ; whilst the furrows are a constant source of annoyance in after cultivation, taking extra strokes from the drag harrows to fill them, compelling the roller to travel across them, jolting the mower and reaper, and also the loaded waggon, whilst, as a matter of fact, the grain in the furrow seldom does as well as that on the main land. On sandy land we should have our fields perfectly even on the surface ; if we adopt the no-land system we may cross-plough with impunity — we shall have no dead fur- rows to cause hollows and rises all over the surface of our fields. On lands of a clayey nature, and in which, owing to their tena- city, there is little chance for the escape of surface water by per- colation, it is expedient to plough in narrow lands and to round them well off, and it is here that the knowledge of a good plough- man is shown. The object must be to preserve a gradual descent from the crown to the furrow. Whilst sandy land may and indeed should be turned over flat, the clay furrow-slices require to be set up well on end, so that whilst each slice rests firmly against its neighbour, a provision is made between them for drainage. The accompanying diagram will show more plainly than language the shape in which clay lands and furrows should be ploughed. Fis. 18. Crosfi ploagliing is of gieat benefit on tenacious and dirty lands, but may be advantageously dispensed with upon our sandy and lighter soils. The advantage sought in cross-ploughing is to cut across, and break into squares the old ploughing, r^ ow upon the lighter soils this object may be better obtained by a free use of the cultivator. The quantity of land ploughed in a day depends upon the nature of the soil, tlie weather, and the lay of the land. It is generally considered that two acres of stubble or one and a half acres of sod is a good average day's work for an ordinary team. How shall ive plough our hills 1 — There is a great difference of practice on this point. Some plough round the hill, others plough 54 The Canadian Farmer's M ill ' ill \\\ noroas, and others up and down hills. Tho last plan is mdically wrong. By ploughing up and down a hill we form in each fur- row a shallow underdrain with a very steej) grade Every Htomi of rain that falls upon a hill so ploughed rushes down these innum- erable drains, carrying with it manure, mould, and even the plants themselves ; in fine, not only washing away the hill and its plants, but smothering with these very washings a large portion of the crop below ; whilst, on the other hand, by ploughing round and round the hill, or even straight across it, the land is laid solidly together, and through such the rains of spring and summer can only soak instead of rushing away in streams, and thus the soil on the hill-top receives a maximum amount of benefit from every rainfall. The turnwrest plough, of which we have before spoken, and which will be found described in a future chapter devoted to imj)lements, will be found very useful on a hilly farm, as by its use the team miy be started at the bottom of the hill, and every consecutive furrow thrown down hill, leaving a perfectly even sur- face, without ridge or fuiTow. On heavy land, where it may be thought advisable to let the rain from off the hill, it is better to plough diagonally up and down the hill, as by that means the velocity of the rushing water after n storm will not be so apt to wash away the surface soil. Front what has been stated, the reader must perceive that ploughing cannot be regulated by any given and invariable rule, but that the individual must use his own discretion, and, governed by the general knowledge that we have of the special character- istics of various soils, must adopt his own plans to the peculiar land upon which his lot has been cast. On strong lands, clays and loams, the plough should be set in deeply, whilst on the gravelly and sandy lands, the advantages to be obtained by deep ploughing are not by any means apparent ; while great harm may be done should we incautiously turn up a sterile, cold and poisonous subsoil. Of this we shall now treat more fully under the head of DEKI' AND SHALLOW PLOUGHING. i u^': \ The depth of ploughing must always be regulated by the na- ture of the soil and subsoil. While the efficacy of renewing the surface by new soil brought up gradually from below has been practically and fully established, no one would wish to plough down into a subsoil of very inferior quality. As an instance of the injurious effects that might result from an injudicious reversal of such soil, it has been found that in ca.ses, the subsoil is highly impregnated with oxide of ii-on, a substance exactly similar to ordinary iron rust. This substance is fatal to plant life, and it Manual of Agriculture 56 is t'ouiul extremely difficult to neutralize it when once mixed with a seed bed. Still, 08 a very general rule, shnllow ploughing is one of the most crying evils in agriculture all over the world, and from the evil Canada is far from free. It is computed that the average dejjth to which the farming soil in Canada is now worketl cannot be more than five or six inches. Now, when we consider that the tap root of wheat, our staple crop, has been found to reach down to a de|)th of 12 inches, antl that, under any circumstances, it will, if the soil be loose enough to permit it, sink eight and nine inches, it is apparent that, where the plan is pr.icticablo, a sufficient depth should be made loose. If the tap root of wheat comes, in its .search for deep hidden food, in contact with a pan so hard as to prevent its further pro- crress, it will again throw out its rootlets upwards, and there be- coming entangled, and struggling for food and life with a thousand other roots, its energy is wasted, its growth impeded, and the plant above must suffer. There are two modes of deep ploughing, which may be called deepploughing proper and subsoilinc/. Under the former plan, the subsoil is actually reversed and mixed with the surface mould ; while, under the latter plan, the subsoil is simply stirred up and Idosened. Of the latter this work will presently treat, under the caption Subsoiling. When we propose to turn up soil from below and to incorporate it with our already cultivated land, we must be sure that we are not about to do it at the risk of poisoning the surface. As we have already stated, there are some subsoils that must never he turned up. These may V)e discovered by submission to a compe- tent analytical chemist, but as farmers have not usually such men handy to them, the simplest plan is for the individual to institute a practical experiment for himself by taking a few spadefuls of surface and an inch or so of subsoil, mixing them together, under the same circumstances of season and management as he {)roposes to adopt in the field, and then try what effect these mixed soils will have upon some seed. If the .seed, be it wheat or of any other kind, grows healthily, he may be assured that he is .safe in car- rying his experiment to the field ; for, if the subsoil be not visibly injurious, he may be assured that the other benefits are so great, that the surface soil will be greatly advantaged by a renewal from below. Even in the best of subsoils, caution must be used before an attempt is made to utilize it by deep ploughing. Having been always in a state of darkness, and removed from immediate con- tact with the atmosphere, it is, when first brought to the surface, in a .state technically known as cold. Now to explain this term cold, or sour. A soil may be full of the neces.sary elements of 56 The Canadian Farmer s 1 m I plant life, yot those elements are ao held together that the tender rootlet is nnahle to extract any for its use ; siwh land, then, whilst rich in food, is yet useless to the |)lant, and is called cold, or sour To release those constituent elements and render them available to the i)lant, a chemical process is necessary, and that is performed without the help of man, by aeration, or exjiosure to the air, and especially to the alternate actions of freezing and thawinjj; For this reason, such deep ploughinj^ as will rip up and bring the subsoil to the surface must always be done in the fall, when, by lying exposed, it will receive the full effects of frost, snow, rain and thiiw, while after, or in spring, cultivation v/ill distribute it evenly through the old soil. Farmers have heard of the benetits of deep ploughing, have tried it and immediately sowed grain ; the crop was a failure, V)ecause the soil was sour, having had no chance of aeration ;and they, disgusted, have set d(twn deep ploughing as one of the humbugs of the book farmer. Ic is not then advisable to bring up more than two or three inches of subsoil at any one time. Neither is it necessary or advisable, after once ploughing deeply, to repeat the operation in each year — for if we should, we only again fall into the error of 'r eating another hard pan by the constant pa.ssage of horses, men and ploughs over the subsoil in the furrow. When once a tield has been broken up to a greater depth than usual, it may again be ploughed for several years oi sufficiently deep to give a good seed bed. This is one of the (iiief advantages in favour of mixed husbandry, that various crops re(iuire various deptlis of soil, from the short-rooted barley to the tap roots such as carrots oi' mangolds. If hill sides be deeply ploughed, the soil will not as readily wash off them as when in a shallow condition ; the rain falls in torrents, and rushes down, carrying soil and roots and manure along with it. Another very good opportunity occurs in rotation for the pur- pose of renewing land by bringing up a fresh supply of subsoil. When land is to be fall ploughed for roots, and it is proposed to apply farm-yard manure, there is an excellent time to turn up two inches of sour subsoil, and thoroughly incorporating with it barn-yard manure, leave them together exposed to the frosts and snows of winter. When the land is of a sandy nature, with perhaps a gravelly subsoil, and by the constant passage of the plough a hard pan has been formed at a reasonable 'lepth, the efficacy of deepening such may be in many cases very doubtful. The second kind of deep ploughing is that of subsoiling, and we consider this ])lan practical, and certain to be of advantage in land of almo.st any nature The action of the subsoil plough is not to bring .subsoil to the top, but to stir it below. Tfie advan- tages obtained by its use are : Drainage. — The average depth to which our fields have been Manual of Mg ncuUurr 67 heretofore ploughed is probacy about five inches Year after yea. and season after season, oui loughs, horses and men havo tnuiipod uf)on every inch of our field lU furrows, just tlic sauiv dej^th from the surface each time. Such constant trnnjpling lias left a solid sub-surface, baked down and compressed until it liii'- assumed more the nature of stone than that *)f soil Throu<»li this surface, or pan, no water can saturate, nor can any plant thrust in its ten- der fibrous rootlets. Every plant wliose roots partake of the na- ture of tap root — and in this cul'^Cfory may He found our mr)st va- luable cereal, heat — requires a ^uod anchorage s\ich tap roots strike strai^dit down in a vertical direction, and directly on meeting this hard pan are turned back again, and, extending in an unna- tural way along the Hiirface of the ground, become entangled in a labyrinth with hundreds of other roots, and in the struggle for food that commences between them all the weakei- ones must perish. This is the only reasonable way of accounting for the rapid decline in the health of a crop that we so often see, when almost at its prime. We want all spring and summer rains to soak through our lands, and not to rush off them. By breaking up this hard pan, we provide for the perfect soak- age or percolation of all water into our soils, and for its access to the very tiniest rootlet. To guard against drought, deep cultivation is effectual. This is apparent to the most casual observer, for the garden, under deep spade culture, never dries out as rapidly as the open field. The principle is what is known scientiically as cap'dlory attrac- tion. Deep in all soils, except those of a gi'avelly nature (and on such subsoiling is a waste of time and labour), is contained a large amount of moisture. When the earth upon the surfiire becomes dried Odt, it has a strong tendency to draw up moisture, by the process known as capillary attraction, from the soil beneath and it would in all dry seasons do so to advantage, were it not for the inteivening barrier or hard pan caused by the passage of horses and implements so often over the one level. The action of this hard pan, as an impediment to vegetable growth, is very a|»parent in the case of the long carrot. We know that to ^row cari'ots to perfection, it is necessary that the ground be stirred to a depth of at least twenty inches ; and the same principle applies to the necessities of othei' tap-rooted plants — for instance, wheat. A deep loose soil can only be had by subsoiling or trench ploughing. Trencii ploughing is fitted only for very rich and deep soil, in which the subsoil is equally fertile with the surface. Where there 58 The Canadian h'armer's *^:. w hilt a sliiili«)w •lojtth oi'iVitilo soil, the work of Nul)Moilin(j[ luunt ho perforinod before such can ho improved in depth. This iH j^cnerally done hy inciins of a Huhsoil plougli following in tlu' fmrow, untl nocesHitatos the use of iinothor team. " Thin iH iin obMtnelo which iH inHunnountahle on the p;reat ma- jority of farniH. To provide a mcann of acconipliahinjj the impor- tant work of loosoninjjf the sod below the bottom of the furrow, we have hit upon the expedient hero described ; K,u. i». " The nttnchment hc'c Hpurecrative for the peo[)le every seventh day, so .should the land require a like rest every seventh year — for it was laid down in the Jewi.sh law by Moses, who ordered that the tribes of Israel, when led out of Egyptian bondage, should, every seventh year, give to the land a jubilee : " And .six years shalt thou sow thy land, and gather the fiuits thereof, but the seventh year thou shalt let it rest and lie still." (RxoJus xxiii. 10,11.) The objects to be accomplished by means of the summer fallow are the destruction of weeds and the aeration of the soil. To ac- m 60 The Can.zdian Farmer's I! !^* complish these two objects, diftl'rent soils require different treat- ment ; and also, the destruction of v/eeds by some such certain process as that of summer fallow, may be of more or less frequent necessity on various kinds of lands. On the lighter soils our weeds can nearly always be destroyed by the working of the land by hoes, incidental to the raising of root or corn crops ; but upon the tenacious clays we find it very diffi- cult to raise roots to advantage, while weeds in such soils obtain so very strong a foothold, that it is a matter oftentimes of insuper- able difficulty to effect their destruction by means of hoeing. An argument very frequently used by the opponents of the summer fallow is, that it is the work of nature to reproduce in every year ; that nature knows no rest. Such an argument is correct, but not as against the system ; for our object being to destroy weeds, it must be borne in mind that in that universal law of yearly reproduction, nature makes no distinction between the wild weed, and the flower and cereals raised for the use and by the hand of man. Amongst the most eminent scientific men and chemists there is also, upon this point, no small difference of opinion. Sii- Humphrey Davy, than whom the world has known no more able anc\ clever practical chemist, says that " it is scarcely possible to imagine a single instance of a cultivated soil, which can be sup- posed to remain fallow for a single year with advantage to the farmer." " Land unemployed no profits grateful yield ; Man's blessings should abound in every field ; From industry our wealth and comforts ilow ; Comforts, alas ! which sloth can never know." Another learned Professor, James Rennie, Professor at King's College, London, England, says to the very reverse : that " the whole value of the system is due to the effects of solar light upon the soil." Let us now turn to the opinion of non-scientific but very prac- tical men. Such authorities as we have ^f this nature invariably agree that, as a matter of actual observation, it is found that upon heavy lands, no matter how careful the ordinary cultivation, cer- tain varieties of weeds obtain such a strong foothold, that they cannot be eradicated but by a steady fight, extending throughout a whole summer. The great question at issue, and the one which every individual farmer must solve for his own guidance, is : Can clays be kept constantly clean ; or, should they once become foul, can they then be cleaned by any other means than by the use of the summer fallow ? For our own part, and writing under a' thority of very many eminent, practical and successful farmers, we answer both these questions in the negative, and feel convinced that the recur- Manual of .Agriculture. 61 rence of the summer fallow at certain intervals is a matter of abso- lute necessity upon all tenacious soils. In support of this opinion, we again qviote from the words of an eminent farmer to the Board of Agriculture some years ago : — " Fallowing for wheat oii cold, wet, strong lands, and on all such as are untit for turnips, is absolutel}^ necessary, and he who attempts to manage such land without fallowing, will have reason to repent his mistake. Mixed soils, which are too wet for turnips, have a particular propensity to the production of root grasses. Summer fallow, therefore, becomes absolutely necessary, and every attemjjt to crop without it, for any length of time, on such land, has termi- nated to its injury and to the loss of the occupier." — Brown, oj Markle, vol. i. p. 209. The operation of summer falloivinf/. — As Marshall says, in his "Rural Economy of Yorkshire," " To begin a fallow without continuing it until its intction he f ally accomplished, is throw- ing away labour unprojitahly." Now, as to the propriety of fall ploughing for the summer fallow of the succeeding year, there is some difference of opinion. Some farmers contend that the heavier lands, v,^hcn })loughcd in the fall, and left exposed in an open condition to the fall and spring rains, become chilled, and do not dry off as rapidly as do those that are left in stubble, which, having a hard and more even surfiice, throw off the wet more readily. This is the only argu- ment that can be given against fall ploughing for a summer fallow, although, as a matter of expediency, it is better to do such fall [)loughing as is meant for a coming spring seed bed, first, because it is of more actual importance, and our short fall "^Jdom leaves us time to plough for summer fallow. But when, fortunately, we have the time, there are these ad- vantages in fall ploughing : many annual weeds are turned up to the surface, sprout and grow, when they are killed by frost, whereas if they lay in the ground as seeds, the cold would have 110 effect upon them, and they would grow in s[)ring. This is a slight advantage, inasmuch as it reduces the number of weeds to be destroyed in the summer. A far greater benefit is, however, gained by the exposure of the puppe (chrisalydse) of our most noxious beetles and insects to the severity ot winter, and the consequent destruction of them. Another benefit is derived from the exposure of the soil to the action of the frost. Frost, or alternate frost and thaw, is the best pulverizer of soil, and the greater surface of soil we expose to its action the more thorough will be its pulverizing effect. Again, frost has an effect in heaving up the subsoil, when the surface lies loosely. As a remarkable instance of the effect oi frost in this manner, we may note a well-known fact, which has been yearly observed by 62 The Canadian Farmer's 1^ > u : 1 i ! f! i I lr \''! !fl 11 i ';-:^" ihe tarmei's of stony land, notably in frhe Counties of Wellington und Waterloo, in Ontario. On some fields in these counties, and (loubtlejis elsewbcrc on soils of the same nature, stones are picked off, and the fields apparently cleared of the larger ones; yet, next year, when the land is ploughed no deeper, more large stones are af^ain brought to the surface. Now, theie is no way of accounting for the presence of these stones high enough to be turned up by the plough, except on the supposition that they have been thrown up by the frost. If the fiost thus acts as a heaver up of these stones, it must also lift and disintegrate the subsoil, thus forming an excellent natural drainage and subsoilcr. TJtc 'proper depth of ploughing a summer fallow. — It is urged by some that the first spring ploughing should be at the deepest intended; because they say, when the dry season sets in, if the hind has been ploughed shallow, it will be found a matter of almost insuperable difficulty to plough to a lower depth; while others con- tend that it is better to plough shallow at fi^'st, and thoroughl}' kill the weeds to this depth, and then at the second ploughing fetch up moi'c soil, and kill the weeds in that, thus, as it were, summov fallowing the soil by instalments. However, in Canada, where the summers are so well adapted to the destruction of weeds, and where the dry season has a great power in hardening the soil, the former ])lan of deepest ploughing at the first will be found the mosf pi'uctical to the farmer. As to the use of cultivators and harrows, the object of the summer fallow is not only to clean the land, but thoroughly to expose the soil to the a'?, from which it will gather much pUint food, especially aaimonia, and that of a nitrogenous nature. Let the first part of the sumrp. i fallowing be devoted to the destruc- tion of the weeds ; and in order to efiect this, let the land be as constantly cultivated as time will allow, and the weeds thrown out be raked to the top, by the use of harrows, and ihere left to wilt. If by this course al! weds can be destroyed, the last ploughing, or the one immediately before wheat, we should prefer to leave for •AS mony days as possible in a rough and cloddy state. It will be found that, provided the clods have been ploughed up dry, the heat of summer will have much the same efiect as frost- namely, to render them susceptible to pulverization by after culti- vation ; while mid.-iummer thunderstorms, succeeded by burning- sun, will not bake dow n such land as compacJy as when it has been left smooth upon the surface. If manure is to be ploughed into a summer fallow, we would not turn it under deeply, but would rather, if it be short enough, cultivate it in just before sowing, and thus thoroughly incor- porate it with the surface so:l or actual seed bed. Manure will not wash upwards; every shower carries its stjength into the 1 ^8 Manual oj Agriculture. 6;^ e, summoj ground. 11" it then be laid near the surface, its very essence will be carried to the root plant ; if it be plouorhed under dce})ly, the root must penetrate to the manure. If land is cold and sour, lime will be found an excellent addition. Applied early in summer, and thoroughly mixed uj) by cultivation with the land, it will also aid the extevmination of all classes of weeds. For the action and benefits of lime, see chapter on Mar.ures. ON SOWING — BROADCAST Oli DRILLING. In ancient times the general custom of sowing was by hand, although in China the drill has been known for ages, whilst in parts of Europe its use dates back as far as 1650. The father of drill husbandry in England was one Jethro Tell, of Berkshire, who commenced his experiments in 1731. Broadcast Solving. — The advocates of broadca.st sowing con- tend, and their o])inions are well worthy of consideration, especially as referring to heavy soils : 1. That the plants should not be crowded together in rows, but should spread evenly over the whole surface of the ground, and thus draw their nouri.shment from every portion of the soil. 2. That broadcast-sown crops are less apt to suffer from wind than such as have been drilled in ; for they say, drilled crops, not giving at their roots such mutual su])port by interlacing on every side, have their stems broken — a process known in Scotland as l,'Pee-sh((cMed. 3. That the effect of leaving rows unsown is such that they become filled with weeds, many of wliicli wcndd have been smothered by a broadcast croj). On the other "hand, the advocates of Drilling contend : 1. That the seed is deposited at a more even dej)th, and conse- (juently that its growth and ripening are even throughout the season. 2. That a saving of seed to the amount of at least twenty-five per cent. isefi"ected. 3. That the seed, being uniformly and entirely buried, is saved from tlie ravages of birds. 4. That the spaces between drills admit a greater amount of air and light to the growing plant than is obtained in a broadcast crop. •5. That drilled grain is less apt to lodge by storm. 6. That such weeds as pigeon weed (Ked-root) and cockle are more readily observed, and therefore more easily picked, amongst drilled than in broadcast crops. 7. That by the use of the sowers, as now attached to drills, grass seed may be sown along with the grain, and at the time, the wind notwithstanding, when soil is best fitted for its reception. The grass seed growers should be placed before the drills. Some have argued that, by so doing, the grass seed would be covered too ^: 11 ♦H The Canadian Farmer's ■4 ii 1^ r, 11 deep ; but this is not so, for the spouts of the (h'ill do not tuin over soil, but simj)ly stir it. On the other hand, when the seed sower follows the drill, not only does the field require rolling after to press in part of the seed, but the greater portion rolls into the trench formed by the drill spout, and is either covered so deeply that it canuot sprout, or if it should grow will be found to come up in rows, and amongst the roots of the grain crops. The qualifications of a good seed drill are : — 1. To be simple and easily operated. 2. To be strongly built. 3. To distinguish in its sowing arrangements between wheat or small grain, and oats and coarser grain. 4. To sow immediately upon being started. 5. To sow any required quantity from a peck upwards, and drop its seeds regularly. Fio. 20. Fi* «i. Drilled Wbeut Broadcast Wlieut. ROTATION OP CROPS. Ill the right and proper cultivation of a farm under the system of mixed husbandry, a recognized rotation of crops should take a very important position. Indeed, no farmer can expect to obtain the maximum yield from his farm unless he has so considered the various wants and capabilities of his various fields as to be able to adopt some systematic ulan or course of cropping. It has been well observed tnat " no branch of farming requires more sagacity and skill than a proper rotation of crops, so as to keep the ground always in good heart, and yet to draw from it the greatest possible profit." The main object to be attained by a systematic plan of rotation of crops is, not to allow the too frequent repetition of crops of an exhaustive nature. It is universally recognized, that in every soil thrr.: ;U! y,- :in Manual of Agriculture. 65 piuticle-s especially sulapted to the use of one kind of plant, while for others, other plants have an alfinity. For instance, the grains or cereals generally require a greater or less amount of silica, while other crops require less of silica and more of potash, or of some other mineral salt. A tickl which would not yield a second good crop of wheat, may, even without manuring, grow a passable c; >p of clover or return a large yield of roots. The important principles in the rotation of i-rops are, that although a given soil may contain all the mineral substances necessary for the u.se of every cultivable plant, yet there may lie only a limited sui)ply of that particular food essential to the well-being of some particular plant. Plants derive theirsustenance from different sources. The grains, to which few leaves are attached, depend almost entirely on the surface soil or seed bed for their sustenance ; tap-rooted plants, as carrots or beets, go very deeply into subsoil for a laige proportion of their food ; while the cruciferje, cbvei-, peas, &c., (le))end in great measure upon the amount of food that can be inhaled from the surrounding atmosphere by the action of their leaves There is not space in this work, which is intended more as a book of reference than aa a treatise upon scientitic agriculture, to deduce from the tables of the chemical analyst the propor- tions of food required by the various plants. Kxperience, however, show.s that land recjuires rest. At one time the Canadian farmer did not believe in such a re- quirement ; but trusting to the apjiarently inexhaustible nature of the virgin soil, he continued to grow wheat after wheat until the diminution in its yield, began to affect bis pocket, when he at last foumi to his cost that to receive a reuirn from his land at all oommen.surate with the yearly outlay of capital, he must turn to the lesting of laud from the constant reproduction of any one particular crop. The (question to set before our view is thim : How shall we raise the greatest amount of marketable produce in a given scries of years, with the least proportionate expenditure of capital and labor ? While drawing from our lands great production in the one season, we have to beware how we accomplish such exhaustive yields at the expense of the crops of future years. We must not kill the goose for the sake of the one golden egg. Let us remember the old Scotch saying: " He who sows wheat after bear (barley), Had need of muck'e gear." W i will now passingly allude to a fe^: of the rotations that bear sway amongst the farmers of Great Britain, merely as a means from which each individual tanner in Canada may draw his own conclusions as to the probable course that will suit his own soil and circumstances fi6 The Canadian Farmer's 1^ n ill We take first the old-fashioned three course rotation, or Trien- nial, which is ; First year, tallow ; second y ir, wheat; and third year, spring eiop (barley, oats and peas). This was formerly practised to a gieat extent over the whole ol .1 rope, where farms ccmtained a large proportion of pasture and meadow. A large amount of stock being in winter yarded, sufficient ma- nure was usually made, to go over the fallow, if not every time that It came round, at any rate in each sixth year. The following advantages may be chiimed in its favour, always allowing that the farm to which it attached was one a large proportion of which was devoted to pasture, and long laid down in low-lying mi^adow : Economy of work ; less constant attention than a fuller course. For Canada, the loss of a year's crop every tliird year, by a fallow, seems rather a serious matter ; but the advocates of the system have claimed that, especially on heavy lands, such loss is more than compensated by increased yield of wheat. Besides, on clay ground, the system is widely adopted on the deep sandy loams of Ea.st Kent, where, known as the Keyitish Round Tilth, it consists of barley, beans, wheat, — although clover is sometimes substituted for beans. We next come t(, more modern n)tationb, and such are better adapted to the general soils of this Dominion. We will take the Norfolk .system, whicli con.sists of;; four-year rotation: 1, turnips ; 2, barley ; 3, clover; 4, wheat ; and this course is adopted by many of the most successful farmers in that prince oi agricultural counties. Turnips (which are u.sually there fed off by folded .sheep) clean the ground. Barley does well after the rich manuring usually devoted to the turnips, and in the clean, well-tilled, .shallow seed bed that is the result of a turnip crop properly cultivated. The ground is also clean and in good heart for a good catch of clover; and a young clover sod ploughed down early forms an excellent bed for wheat. This course is often extended to a five or six years' shift by leaving the clover for two or even three years, and, where there might be objection to the putting of wheat upon a two or three year old sod, it would be quite feasible lo introduce some other crop, say peas, between the clover sod and wheat ; and in the inte- rest of the advocate of summer fallow, the rest might be intro- duced also, supposing that a dirty crop like oats was grown in the place we have assigned to peas, when the course would stand thus : Turnips. 6. 1 2. Barley. 0. Grass, 4. Graas. Pjisture. 6. Peas, or oats. 7. Summer fallow or wheat 8. Wlseat. Manual oj Agriculture. 67 uft by e there |r three other [e inte- intro- in the stand leat It is apparent, therefore, that, by taking any of these Old ('ountry rotations as a basis, we may so (change thi;ii order or make additions as to cut out for each one individually a systematic- rotation, in the carrying out of which one could so adjust liis work as never to lose an operation in the field by tli vvavering course of cropping so generally adopted. We take another ver^y different rotation, commonly ut>ed on cold thin clay and flinty chalk lands ; — 1. Fallow. 2. Wheat. 3. Peas. ■i. Turnips (fed oti"). 5. Oats or larle} . 0 and 7. Clover, &c., left for any number of years, as individually suitable. 8. Wheat. One of the favourite Scotiih courses on a soil strong, dry, and not too tenacious, uch as is found in the higher regions of the Carse of Cowrie, consists of — 1. Fallow 4. Barley. 2. Wheat. 5. Chucr. 3 Beans. 6. Oats or sometimes wheat. Amonring wheat .acceed, seeded down with grass ; this is followed by peas and summer ftUlow ; then oats and winter wheat, ending the rota- tion— the length of which depends upon how long the grass con- tinues to yield profitably. "In the five-course rotation roots and corn are not counted, as but a very few acres of either are grown, the manure not required for them being applied to the summer fallow, and these crops, w)»en 68 The Canadian Farmer's H I \ \m grown, foniiiiifj a portion of the land which would otherwi^io have gone into tallow." The following is the substance of a paper read by the author f)f this work before a Farmers' Club in Ontario : — "In no art are the prejudices of habit so strongly rooted or so diHiiult to surmount as in that of agriculture ; and although I consider it far from expedient to oppose such too suddenly, or to eradicate them, except by the jtrogi-cssive and enlightening efiect of practical experience, yet it behoves each one of us to discon- tinue customs that we have good reason to believe should be abandoned, or that are radically bad in themselves. "In the introduction of a |)r()per system of cropping by rotation we strike a blow at the very root of bad farming. " It is im{)ossible to drive in any direction in this our fair Do- minion, without being struck by the appearanee of an utter want of system among too many of our biothcr farmers. "We see fields so run out by continuous croj)ping as to show plain indications of deterioration in the very colour and consis- tency of the soil, whde others, which have been pampered, petted, and crowded with manure (because perchance they are handy to the l)arn-yard), are so strong and rich tliat no grain crop can stand upright upon them. "The reason which renders it im[)erative upon our part to con- sider and weigh well the benefits which will most assuredly accrue from the adoption of some regular .system of lotation in our crops, is that HO two plants of different kinds require for their nourish- ment the same substances in the same proportion. "For instance, the grains draw largely from the silica <'ontained in a .soil, and will therefore soon exhaust the supply of this in- gredient in ordinary land. I say oi'dinary land, for in the virgin soils so great is the proportion of the hunms or putrescent animal and vegetable matter — the most fertile portion of land —that wheat, or, indeed, almost any ubtedly followed by a good crop of wheat. "We now take a Five Years' Rotation, usually adopted upon the light lands of the east of England, a part of the kingdom famed as a great turnip-raising country : — "First yea )', roots, second, barley; third and fourth, clover; fifth, wheat. "It 1h not customary, nor indeed convenient, to grow such a large pro|>ortion of roots in Canada We may therefore ])ut part of this field in roots, peas, k,<'. , but should, when the rotation igain comes round to this field, reverse the division, sowing giain wliere we before planted roots, and roots where we grew giain "The advantages of this s\'stem are, that it is i»eculiarly suit- able to our lighter lands and loams; the loots get a thorough cleaning, and [)repare a mellow seed-bed for the barley; and a young sod IS held to bo, when broken up by a single ploughing, a good preparation foi- a sound seed-bed for the ensuing wheat crop. " I will close by laying down for (consideration a i-otation for such land as we li.ive generally throughout this township. "This extends over six years, and is as follows: — "First year, wheat; second, third and fourth, gra.ss ; fifth, hoed cri f); sixth, barley " By bringing in grass for three years — say one in pasture and one in hay — we have an excellent sod to plough down, and we also have plenty of opportunity to enrich thati land which may liave been put to barhiy, by a liberal dressing of dung before put- ting in fall wheal. "The advantages that I claim for this rotation are an even dis- tribution of cro})S over the land, a thorough enriching of the soil every sixth yeai-, and a good proportion of superior hay and of wheat, the two most valuable pi'oducts of a Canadian farm." A contributor of the Country Gentleman, hailing from Wes- tern New York, and signing himself " Observer," in a brief com- munication to that paper, gives the following pertinent remarks on this subject ; specially worthy of perusal by the farmer in Canada : — "So I soon worked into a rotation of: first year, coin ; second. Manual i/ AgricuUttre 71 loed and 1 we may put- i»ea/i, oats or hailoy se«»i I the secoiif good barn-yard manure. 1 tind in essential (rot)dition of this 'ourse is to sow clover often. Kf ) the land in «;lover half the time, if possible; to k( |) the m^ver mainly for mowing, so as to secure a large growth of clov^ roots, on which much of the impioveiiuMt by clover depends, and to ;d\vays plough up a clover sod whilst in full vigour, or at any rate bt tore the moie (!.xlriustinggra.s.scseome in and use up the fertilizers rendered available by the clover. Another important point is to feed plenty of rich feed, as clover — hay and coarse grain, in order to make rich ' lanuro, which also has no small influence upon the i.uioint or degree of improvement that may W- .secured. . . . , " Now, in view of these facts, I thin'> the ciau'se proposou by T ( first, clover; second, wheat; thira, corn [hoed crop]; fourth, wlieat) may be largely impioved in two jiaiticulai' . tir.st, in grow- ing le-,s wheat and more clover ; and second, in cuttuig and feeding- more clover-hay and making more manure. This rotation keeps the land in wheat one-half the time. In every four years thcie are two crop.s of wluiat, one of corn and one of clover; but the clover IS ploughed under, which only leaves three crops in four years to be gathered. This, I think, can be improved to the ad- vantage of the land and of the owner's pocket. The first object with me would be to save ploughing under the first and best crop of clover, so as to realize something every year from the land. If the small kind is sown and a good growth secured, the first crop may be cut early for hay, and the second crop make a good start to be ploughed under in August. Then the next spring, seed again to clover with the wheat, and grow clover one year between the wheat und corn. This clover may be cut early for hay, and then saved for seed ; and, if plastered and well managed, nuglit to turn as much money as a crop of grain. This is also a cheap crop; there is no ploughing or fitting the land for the seed ; there is % /2 ^ A-^, w IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■ 50 ^^^ Ifflli^H ^ M ^ ^ US, III 2.0 II 2.2 1.25 1.8 U ill -.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation ^/ A^^ •^^ ./^^'^A- ^ 5!*/ v. ^ m u^ % <«>■•<> 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (7)6) 872-4303 'a^* i^A "^ .1. 'I n ^ : 1 III! m I 72 77?^ Canadian Farmer's little <^o do besides gathering the two crops; and, where it is an object to save labour, it will be found one of the best crops for this purpose that is sown on the fann. The next spring the clover should not be pastured, but make as much growth as possible before it is ploughed under for corn. This allows of ploughing under a good clover sod for both the wheat and corn crops, and with the growth above ground, and the large amount of clover roots in the soil, will be better — furnish more fertdizers than any crop that can be ploughed under. Then there will be two crops of clover-hay and one crop of clover-seed; two crops of wheat, if wheat follows corn ; and one crop of corn, all grown in five years ; which, I think, will pay far better than the course proposed by T. Perhaps, to illustrate, the returns of each course may be calculated from one acre, as follows : — YIELDS. First yi^ar, clover 14 tons $10 00 perton Second year, wheat 20 bus. Third year, clover 14 tons. Third year, clover-seed 24 bus .. Fourth year, corn 40 " ... Fifth year, wheat 20 " ... PRICE. COMES TO 10 00 perton. $15 00 1 50 " bus 30 00 0 00 " ton 15 00 6 00 " bus 15 00 75 " " 30 00 1 50 " •• 30 00 According to this, one acre in five years would return " According to the other rotation, there would be- YIELDS. Firstyear,clover (ploughed down) 0 Second year, wheat 20 bus Third year, corn 40 " $135 00 Fourth year, wheat 20 " 1 50 " PRICE. COMES TO 0 0 50 per bus .130 00 75 " " 30 (JO 50 " " .30 00 Which comes to $90 00 Add one-fourth for fifth year 22 50 $112 50 " This tnken from the amount realized by the first course leaves a balance of $22 50c. in five years in favour of the first rotation. This on one hundred acres would make S2,2oO in five years, or $450 per year. And even this fails to show all the advantages of the first course, as by growing clover two years, and feeding the clover-hay, and making and applying more manure, the land will improve much faster than may be expected in the last rotation. An objection to both is getting corn out of the way in time to sow wheat in the fall, which is a heavy job (and can't be done in Canada). Hence I think a still better course is to plant corn ; then sow to barley, or oats with which clover is seeded, the next year — the first crop of clover cut for hay and the second turned under for wheat; the fourth year the wheat also seeded to clover, which may be allowed to lay one or two years." Manual of Agriculture. Ti His rotation (which is excellently adapted to the average aoil of Canada) then stands : First year, com or Any hoef the natural and injurious tendency of clay soils to run together a.id bake. This mechanical effect may also be attained by the incorpora- tion of such matters as ashes, coal or wood, chips from the wood- shed, etc. It may also be borne in mind, that lime being found in the ashes of every vegetable substance, in greater or less proportion, is re- quired as actual food to all growth. SAND. We next come to a consideration of sand as a soil for the use of the agriculturist. As a rule, we find our best farming sections in Canada to be those where sandy or gravelly soils predominate. This is, doubtless, owing to the general want of capital as applied to our farms, for, as it has been before mentioned, the clay farm, though capable of a heavier production of almost any crop, yet requires more expensive cultivation. As an instance of this, we may point to the farming operations of Alderman Mechi, in Eng- land. When Alderman Mechi first promulgated his various pecu- liar theories, he was laughed at as an enthusiastic scientist ; but when, by the aid of capital, he was enabled to bring his theories Manual of ^gn.iilture. 77 v'ork with I, while if will pro- 11 remain penditure but little )re (oxide one but a to bring , liming, ne, chalk lich may ays upon the acids which is as a de- y brings e soluble keeping ment for struction together icorpora- le wood- he ashes 1, is re- le use of ;tions in )minate. applied ly farm, :rop, yet this, we in Enor- s pecu- st ; but theories o actual practice, it was found tint no mm in Great Britain was able to approach him in the yields that he obtained from his farm of one hundred and seventy acres. His farm was stiff, blue clay, and required a large outlay of money in drainage and mechanical efforts to render it less subject to baking. This outlay he made, and, in his report (and we have no right or reason to dispute the truth of every statement, as his l)Ooks have been voluntarily thrown open at all timas to inspec- tion by proper authorities and competent critics), the aldernum .s.-.ys : " For the last six years my gain as landlord and tenant on my little farm of one hundred and seventy acres, has been nearly £700 (#3,500) per annum. Even this last year, with wheat at 42s. per (juarter (^lyVff per bushel), I have gained £G00 (i?"3,()00) after paying every expense." Sands are easily cleared of weeds, and do not so absolutely or often re(iuire the services of the summer fallow. Moreover, they atlniit of easier and certain cultivation of root crops and corn, and these being cleaning crops help to supeisede the summer fallow. They are not so subject to coldness or sourness as the clay, for less stagnant water will rest upon them, and for the same rea- : on the}' are not liable to run together or bake. We may work sand at almost any time, even in a moderately wet state, without fear of the mechanical injurious effects which will a.ssuredly accrue from meddling with heavier lands when moist. The natural drain- age is better, and, consequently, under-drainageandsub.soiling are not required to so great an extent as uj)on lands of a more compact nature. On .sands, our object will be the reverse of that upon the clay. On the latter we desire to loosen the soil, on the former our en- deavour is to compact it, and lime as an instrument for the compact- ing of sand is as effectual as for the disintegiation of clay. Sand does not contain in its natural state as large a supply of vegetable matter as clay, nor will it retain as long the benefits of manurial applications. Whilst then we require to devote more time and capital to the actual cultivation of clay, to sand we must apply larger doses of manure of all kinds. In Canada, one of the best plans and most practicable is the ploughing down of rank vegetable matter, rich in ammonia and nitrogenous matter. A correspondent of the Country Gentleman gives to that paper his experience in the fertilization of a thin sandy soil, and we com- mend its principles to our readers. He says : " About twenty-five years ago I came into possession of about nine acres of thin sandy land. There had been within, say, three or four years previous, two crops of corn taken from it that did not exceed ten bushels per acre. I had it ploughed deeply and Ill ■;;! '■^' ill 78 The Canadian Farmer's sowed heavily to oats. As soon as tliey began to ripen we 1)l()ughecl them in, and applied about serenty bushels of lime- kiln jiahes to the acre. We then sowed it with rye, and also sow- ed clover and timothy. We had a splendid cro| of rye, and for several years mowed a good swathe of grass; since which we have kept up a rotation of corn, then wheat or rye, followed by grass, which nas been either mown or pastured ; two of the years potatoes have taken the place of corn. " Tiie corn has averaged from fifty to sixty bushels per acre of .shelled corn, and the other cro['s have been above the average of the balance of a good larm. We have put but little if any manure upon it, except a moderate amount with potatoes. 1 may add, that a large portion of this lot is so sandy that it does well for building purposes." OHAVKLS. Physically, gi'avels and stands are of a similar nature, the drainage in both being good, and having no tendency to run to- gether. But gravels are very various ; while some are noted for their natural fertility, as instarice in the County of Wellington and parts adjoining thereto, others are of a cold, sour and barren nature. These barren gravels are usually known as hungry soils. They absorb all manure, and carry it beyond the reach of plant life, so that the application of manure to such soils in their natural state is like throwing gold to the bottom of the Atlantic. The better kinds of gravel are, however, especially adapted to the growth of all kinds of plant life, both cereals and roots — whilst winter wheat and grasses flourisli upon such. Whilst the gravel is hardly capable of producing as great a yield of grain as the clay, both having an equal cultivation, yet the grain on gravelly soils is usually .superior in brightness and more solid in body. This fertility in many of our gravelly soils is due to the pre- sence of a large proportion of [)hosphate of lime, potash, and sili- con, all essential elements for the nourishment of grain crops. The best of these soils, however, require a large amount of ma- nure in order to keep them up to a high standard in their produc- tiveness, and for this purpose we depend greatly upon the use of green manure, especially the ploughing down of green clover. By this process we not only supply a large amount of nitrogenous matter, but the decomposing vegetable matter renders the staple of the land firmer and more consistent. Of the barren gravels, the most stubborn to improve are those in which strata of clay and gravel lie alternately, and crop out on the sides of hills. This is one of the worst forms in which arable land is found, as it is invariably full of land springs, which render the soil cold, and Manual of Agriculture. 79 it also has a tendency, from the firm V)in(ling together of stones and gravel, t«) become imj)enetrable to the plough. These land springs also render any attempt at under-draining very difficuU of accomplishment. We have yet another soil, which, though of a gravelly nature, is not j)urely gravel. We find land in many parts of Canada, whose stai)le is clay, but in which is incorf)orated a considerable quan- tity of stones, of the nature of flint. This is usually very excellent soil for wheat, fully .su})i)lied with silica, and often containing a lartre amount of lime Wo now come to the consideration of LOAM. This is the prince of soils, and to the nature of a loam it should be the object of every farmer, by cultivation and care, to bring his land. The loam is the farmer's paradise. Loam is a soil compo.sed of an admixture of dift'erent soils, in various proportions. From the preponderance of heavy or light soil, we speak of clay, sandy orgravelly loams. Loam is exceedingly friable, readily admits air and rain, and fus readily discharges all su- perfluity of moisture, only retaining as much as is necessary to the wants of vegetation. It is deep, and is neither liable to be parched by the summer's drought nor chilled by the cold of spring and fall. The peculiar difference which exists between loam and pure clay or pure sand is caused by the presence of a large amount of V3getable humus, and for this reason it is fruitful as the virjjin soil of forest lands. We have said that to the nature of a loam every farmer should assimilate his land ; and as the es- sence of a loam is the vegetable humus contained, so almost any soil may be artificially brought to a loamy nature by the sup- ply of decaying and decayed vegetable matter, by the ploughing down of green manures such as clover. The loam is easily cultivated, and containing in itself all the elements of food known to the wants of vegetable life (because largely composed of putrescent vegetable matter), it is adapted to the growth of all crops, and can be brought under any system. It will grow cereals and grasses, roots and vegetables. That the superiority of loams is due to the presence of this de- cayed vegetable matter may be readily proved by the observation of two very practical facts. First, that newly cleared land, made rich by the shedding of the leaves yearly from deciduous trees, through many generations, is a perfect loam; while by neglect to supply to loams long cultivated the necessary vegetable matter to decay, they lose their richness and degenerate rapidly to the nature of a loose barren sand on the one hand, or to that of a worn- out, sour and tenacious clay upon the other. Alluvial soil i': a species of rich loani, which has been formed 80 The Canadian Farmer's ! i I f "^i i; . ■^- i in low Ifinds, from the wasting of the surface of liighor groun«is, from tlie (le|)()sit.s of streams |)(»urin<^ down in flood times, or the overHowiuffs of turbid rivers, wliich leave a deposit of mud richly charged with vegetable matter upon the surface. Such is the nature of the soil denosited at regular |)eriods on the banks of the Nile, \\\ Kgypt, about whose banks are cultivated probably the heaviest crops in the world. Not only do they contain much vegetable, but they are likewise rich in animal matter, and are almost incxliaustible. Still, as practical farmers, we should infinitely {)refer, for general husbandry, the rich upland loam to the deep fertile lowland allu- vial soil, for the pioclucts of the latter are very deceptive — thoy are usually great in (juantity, but not equal in nutriment to those grown on higher lands This is not only observable in our own Dominion upon such land, but in Spain — in V^alencia, one of the most highly cultivated districts in the world, and where the system of irrigation has been carried to an excess — its products have been found so deficient in nutriment as to have passed into a proverb, expressive of their inferiority m the power of imparting vigour : " In Valencia the grass in water. The fli'nh is grass, The nun are women, Ami the women — nothing." So in the lowland quarter of the great sugar-producing island of Martini([ue, called the Lament in, the richness of vegetation is extraordinary. The canes grow to a size unparalleled in any other part of the world; but the sugar, though as white and clear as pos- sible to please the eye, is found so scantily supplied with the crys- tals in which lie all the saccharine strength, that it decompo.ses when carried across the Atlantic, and is almost useless to the refiner. Peat is an inflammable soil, and may be said to rank with coal and bitumen. It is formed of successive layers of heath and close herbage, which spring up, grow, and die out. There being not sufficient natural heat, they only partially decompose, and thus are truly vegetable matter in a half rotten state. In peat, then, there is contained an immense supply of vegetable food, but it is in a state perfectly insoluble to the wants of cul- tivated crops. To use it to advantage, it must be subjected to intense heat, in order that, by chemical process, its vegetable matter may be brought into a state of practical utility to the farmer. This is best done by composting. As an addition and improve- ment to the manure pile, there is no substance more valuable than peat I'l i :• ; "i Manual of Agriculture, 81 r grounds, les, or the (lud richly Jch is the I banks of I probably tain nuich r, and arc or general land allu- ive — tlioy it to tho«e ipon such cultivated has been ficieiit in of their ig island station is my other ir as pos- bhe crys- oni poses s to the dth coal herbage, ufficieut re truly sgetable of eul- se heat, may be nprove- 3le than We conclude thir section by a short allusion to the retentive I>ower cf moisture m various earths and soils, based on the Report of Professor Johnson, F.R,.S, laid before the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In the expeiiments brought forward, the specimens were pre- viously dried in a temperature of 212°, and thetj exposed to air saturated with moisture at (iO*", for three hours, under w hich cir- cumstances, 1,U0(> parts of a clay soil gainod 29 parts. 1,000 '• coal ashes " 14 " 1,000 " lime " 11 *' 1,000 " gypsum " 9 " 1,000 " ohalk •' 4 " In the experiments of Professor Schubler, the amount of the moisture absorbed by the earths was ascertained at ditterent periods, viz., 12 and 72 hours. The temperature of the atmosphere in which they were exposed was between 59 and ♦15, and each .sample was spread over a surface of fifty squure inches. The amount absorbed is stated m grains : 12 Hours. 72 Hours. 1,000 grains of silicious sand 0 0 calcareous sand 2 3 gypsum (powdered) . .. I 1 sandy clay 21 28 loamy clay 23 35 stiff clay :iO 41 grey pure clay 37 49 tinu lime 2(5 35 Hue magnesia til) 82 garden mould 35 52 arable soil 16 23 slaty marl .. 24 33 It II It <« It li li It ti ' It is evident, then," says Professor Johnson, " that the powei of absorbing moisture is in a great degree the measure of the ferti- lity of the soil." ON PRAINAOE. Phis is a subject not only of great importance to the practical farmer, but one upon which a full work might with advantage be based. We shall, in this section, content ourselves with passing allusions to the general principles upon which the formation of lasting and useful drainage should be accomplished. Draining is very often looked ujjon by the farmer as an opera- tion entailing such a considerable outlay as to be beyond the pocket of an ordinary man Doubtless, to undertake in a short time to effectively under-drain a farm would require a very large expenditure, but the advan- tages are so great to the productive power of any land, that a con- stant improvement in this shape, on a small scale, and the opera- tions spread over a number of years, are hardly felt to the pocket ; 6 I' III! III 82 Tlu Canadian t-artmr's i wliilo it is marvollouH wlrit an uinuuiit may be accoin|)liMljcd at (>d !s ten years, stick to that field until its drain- age is thorough. Fini.sh as you go ; make good drains, if at the expense of extra time and labour, and till them in as you go along. A little extra care upon a drain will often add many years? to the .service it will render. The outfall or main open drain, namely, that into which your nuiin covered drains discharge, is the first to be attended to. When spring creeks of some depth of bank exist, this is often greatly expedited. As far as possible, fields should be so arranged that open drains may run along the fences, as thus we are saved from cutting in parts our fields for cultivation, and an open ditch by the side of a fence will eflectually, by draining the water from around the posts, prevent its heaving under the influence of frost and thaw. A great mi.stake is made by many ditchers in not giving the sides sufficient slope ; an angle of 45*^ is none too much at which to slope the side of a ditch from the horizontal. Steep banks become undermined by running water, and fall in, or are poached by cattle in search of drink, and are tumbled 84 The Canadian Farmer's ill in, and never last for any length of time without requiring to be cleaned out. The plough and scraper are very expeditious tools with which to dig an open ditch. The bottom of an open drain is none the worse for being as wide as a scraper ; whilst the horses can easily draw scrapersful of dirt up an incline of 45*^. Should the subsoil become too heavy and compact to use the plough with mould boards, then take off the mould board and stick in with landside share and coulter. The outfall ditch shouM be considerably deeper than the ends of main drains, so that when the former discharge they may be well above the bottom of the outfall. The time to diif drains is when the weather is dry : the best is in September, October and November ; though with some care in starting the top soil early, staking out the lines before winter, and with the blessing of deep snow, we have seen many a drain dug through mid-winter. As to the direction of main under-drains, there is much variet}'^ of Oj»inion; some are in favour of carrying main-drains across the slope of land (diagonally), thus, as they say, preventing the washing of drains by heavy storms flowing into and through them with great rapidity. For our part, we consider that if main- dniins be led directly down the slope and properly joined, there will be no feiir of washing. Again, that a given number of drains laid across the slope t *. hill would not effectively cIcpt *^ great a space of land of water, the accompanying diagram will show : — Fio. 22. Suppose the base upon which the drains 1, 2, 3 rest to be parallel to the surface of the slope in which they arc placed, and that they are laid 30 feet apart the one from the other, then — as water cannot flow upwards, either trom 3 to 2, or from 2 to 1 — all the water which is below 1 in the field must flow a distance of 30 feet ere it can enter the drain 2 ; similarly, all the moisture below 2 must Manual of jigriculture. 86 penetrate through the soil a distance of MO feet ere it can drain away by No. 3, and so on ad infinitum. Now, if the drains be 30 feet apart, and running directly down the slope, each drain would only require to draw water from 15 feet on each side of it, and thus the water would flow away faster than in the former case. Moreover, under the former plan, the pressure would act entirely upon one side of the drain. As the object of under-drainage is to carry away all superfluous water from the soil quickly, we are at a loss to understand whence .such a difference of opinion amongst authorities on drainage can have arisen. In a perfectly level field, or when the slope is not apparent to the eye, the main drain should be run down the centre of the field, and the lateral ones sliould empty into it at a right angle. Side drains should be always placed equidistant in such a field, so as to obtain the minimum average of distances from which to draw water. Depth of Dniins. — This is a very particular matter in field drainage. If too deep, the action will be slow and imjieded, while there is no fault so great as that of placing drains at too shallow a depth. If too shallow, the frost may get at them, and not only is there a risk of freezing and bursting, but they will draw off', along with the water, the manurial strength of cultivated fields. This may be readily tested by putting in a drain at, say, 1.5 inches, and another at 3 feet. While the latter would be ruaniu'' oft' clear water, the liquid in the former would be muddy, and, if submitted to analysis, would be found to contain much manure and valuable mineral matter ; iu fine, would be but partially fil- tered. But depth and di.stacce apart must be regulated by variety of soil. Experience tells us that the depth of 3 feet 6 inches below the surface of the ground, in all soils, is sutHcient, and that on heavy lands, be they tenacious clays or soft soils, the distance apart of side drains should be about 8 yards, while for the ordinary loamy soils, and porous sands or gravels, intervals of 10 yards will be found ample. To mark out for drains, it will be found very handy to stake and run a plough furrow down the line. Material. — There are, in Canada, three known materials in practical use. For neatness of work and durability upon any land but alluvial, none can compare with the burnt tile Tiles are, however, expensive, and their use may well be governed by locality. In some parts we have stone of a suitable kind in abundance. Stone uiains carefully put down will last for years, and are very effective. To lay stone there are several methods, three of whicli are : — m The Canadian Farmer's V.) Hi iM! ■to; i I; ' 1st. — Throw in loose stones of all shapes and of any size above a pebble, and below that of a boulder, to a depth of about 10 inches , cover with a little brush or inverted sods, and fill up with earth. Such drains in a stiffish subsoil will last for years, but their action is rather slow. 2nd. — Place two flat stones for sides on then edge, and cover them with a third ; above this cover again throw m a few inches of small stone ; or we have seen, where flat stones are abundant, as in many limestone ridges, the whole ditch bottom filled in, ))lacing flat stones on their edges for sides, a flat stone on top, a few inches of loose stones above that again, and the whole then filled in with earth, ridging up a little to allow of settling. 3rd. — Place one flat stone at the bottom, and two more, one on each side, forming a triangle ; cover with small stones and fill in the earth Where stones can be obtained at a reasonable distance, and laid alongside the open ditch or grip, these drains are the cheapest and most practicable, and, if care be exercised in so adjusting them that the stones cannot cave in on one another and form a dam, will last for a very long time. It would be well, however, to bear in mind that it will not answer to make drains of stones in deep alluvial soils, such as exist in some of our swamps even, as neither stones nor tiles will do in sand that is at all of the nature of quicksand. Wood. — In many parts of Canada, in the neighbourhood of low, wet-lying lands, there is abundance of wood suitable for drains — pines, ashes, hemlocks, kc. In stilty land, or such as is of the nature of quicksand or muck, as cheaj) a drain as can be made is formed thus : — Take scantlings, boards, or even pine slabs, and lay them as with the stones in the triangular shape ; fill in around them with small stones, or, if not available, with brush, to a depth of some inches. These stones or brush will catch the "silt," and prevent it choking up the drain. This is as effectual as we can find for such land. There is always trouble in drains in such kind of soil, but probably less need be anticipated from this style of drain ; moreover, they are easily raised and relaid. In all these drains it is an excellent plan to cover over the whole with one layor of inverted turf before the earth is filled in. Brush. — We have seen excellent drains made of simple brush. Thp brush being kept from the light will not decay. The layin ; of a brush drain requires very great care, but if properly put )wn will work for a very long time. They should never be used for main, but only for side drains. The limbs, cut a few feet in length, are placed with the butts Manual of Agriculture. 8; down, commencing at the u^ypei- end. The ditch should be filled at least one third full, or from twelve to fourteen inches thick ol brush when well trodden down, as the weight of superincumbent earth will afterwards further compact them The ditch must be made wider at the bottom than for tiles or stones. Resinous and durable wood, such as pine, cedar, &c., is the best for this purpose ; but if they be set deep enough, the hollow drain will remain long after the wood has decayed, while the brush itself will last for many years. Mr. Allan Macdougall, C E., of Toronto, in his papers on Practical Drainage, to the Canada Farmer, says • " The outfall drain is the first thing to be looked to. If a stream or ditch alongside of a road exists, it ought to be cleaned out to a depth of three feet nine inches or four feet. It is not necessary to have a great fall on it, as water acts more freely than solid substances. Each particle looks out for itself, and seeks the lowest place it can find ; and when confined in a drain, each particle, trying to get to the lowest place, pushes on the particle next to it, until the drain is emptied. For an open outfall three or four feet to a mile is sufficient fall to allow a drain to discharge water freely, as long as the bottom and sides are kept clean and free from weeds; and for drains from a field, one foot on four chains, or half an inch on ten feet, is considered quite enough. The outfall is usu- ally an open cut ditch, made down the side of two fields, which is used for draining the fields on both sides, as well as being an out- let for other drains coming down from other fields. It should be carried up in the lowest place, so as to drain as many fields as possible, and be made about three feet six inches to four feet deep, according to the fall it has, about eighteen inches broad at the bottom, and five feet wide at the top. Open cut outlet drains from other fields should be connected to it. They should be about one foot wide at bottom and four feet wide at top. " The trenches or grips in which the drains are to be laid ought to be commenced at the low end and carried up the field regu- larly— that is, after one has been cut fifty or eighty yards, the next must be brought up that distance ; then the third, then the fourth, and so on, as this enables a grip to let away some of the water from the low end of the field before the water from the top is let into it, and also lets the air get into the land. For tile drains it is not. necessary to cut them more than twelve or fifteen inches wide at the top, sloping downwards to six inches at the bottom. For stone or brushwood they would need to be cut nine or twelve inches broad at the bottom. Care should be taken in making these grips that the bottom has a regular slope ; for if it has not, the water will be certain to lodge in the hollow, and derange the working of the drains. This is more particularly the case where the ground is very flat. Side drains ought never to join a main H8 The Canadian Fartner's ' n i 151 jii 1 \-Wl drain at right angles. They ought to have a bend at the end for ten or tifteen feet, to run in the slope of the land, that the water coming from them may flow easily into the main drain. Were this not done, the two currents coming in contact would cause back-water in the weaker stream, which would be the side drain, and this would keep the drain from being properly discharged, or, as frequently happens after heavy floods, would cause the side drains to burst, " When drains come down the whole length of a field to the out- fall drain, or the ])rincipal drain that is to carry off the water, they ought to join at a little higher level, so that the two streams may unite together without any back-water. "When the main drain happens to be an open ditch, as is usually the case, it is a good and safe plan to place a large stone below the last pipe, and another on the top of it to keep it from being washed away by floods ; or in stone drains, to lay a large flat stone for the bed, and place two stones on edge, with a large one over them to cover them, which will protect the loose stones of which these drains are composed from bein^ washed away." Another practical writer, in giving instruction on the formation of rather more elaborate board drains than those above noted, says : " Our plan is to construct angular board drains, by putting together, in the form of an inverted \, two boards bevelled so as tofo.man angle more acute than a right angle. I have wit- nessed the action of great quatitities of this drain, and where laid in a subsoil that does not wash, nothing can do better, especially if kept nearly level. The drain box should be fornjed of a ten- inch board divided obliquely through the centre. This saves lum- ber, and makes a perfect drain, and the angle formed by putting both bevelled parts together offers great resistance to breaking in from the weight of earth above. About four nails in each twelve-foot length will keep all steady until the earth completes the security of the drain by its weight. This plan affords the largest drain, and of the best shape for the smallest quantity of lumber used." To render boards for draining perfectly rot-proof the following is effective, known as Robbins' process : " Strange as it may seem, after all our experimenting with wood and the tile-draining ma- terial, we are likely to come back again to wooden drains of some sort under peculiar circumstances. They are pronounced to be on good authority superior to, as they are far cheaper than, tile-drains, where the wood is subjected to the vapour of carbolic acid. But even without this preparation, wooden water pipes, made in the best manner, will last two or three generations under ground. But as it reg. 's the so-called Robbins' process, it is not applied to logs, but boards, so that the logs of any perishable woods sawed into boards, and the boards subiected to carbob* Manual of Agriculture. 89 Fl«. «3. acid, formed into square conductors and used as drains upon farms, will last, it is claimed, ' for ever,' at a cost of not over a fourth or a fifth of that for tile — a heavy article, and expensive to farmers living at a distance from a manufactory. Should this process turn out to be all that is claimed for it, the farmers of the country will find in it a means of rejuvenating their lands by draining, which, while it will cost but little, will nearly double their productive capacity." In undulating fields, the drains should not follow the exact ups and downs of the field, but should have a regular slope. This particularity is more necessary in the laying of stone or tile drains than in those of wood, as the long length of wood will give to the drain a regular shape. If tiles follow small undulations in the ground, the low spots will hold water, which, backing up, will form an impediment to the general flow throughout the whole length. Where the operation of tile draining is g(,>ie into on a Large scale a spirit level may be bought, but they are expensive ; or where they are undertaken by professional engineers, of course the regular levelling in- struments are available ; but any farmer can make a small instru- ment, as in accompanying dia- gram, which will answer every practical purpose. It is simply a plumb-bob attached to a perfect T. The operator places pegs in his hollows and on the little knobs, and by means of this T, which can be held perfectly erect by regarding the plumb-bob, drives his pegs down into the hills, so that their tops are in a regular slope with those pegs that are in the hollows, from end to end. He then measures the depth of his ditch, not from the surface of the earth, but from the tops of each of his pegs. In all drains, difficulties will be apt to arise by the work of rats, mice, and often from roots finding their way into inter- stices and damming back the flow of water. In an orchard, to avoid annoyance by roots of trees, drains should be set deep and equidistant from the rows of trees. II H, '! 90 The Canadian Farmer's m iim :l^ 'il One great advantage possessed by wooden drains over other kinds is, that from being of larger dimensions they do not require as great a fall ; but they are subject to infesting by rats. A plan is often adopted to overcome this danger, by keeping the end about half dammed up with a good heavy turf, or by some other mean». This always keeps the lower end of the drain half full of water, but only for a certain distance up, so that while rats cannot easily g(3t up the drain, neither is the flow of water impeded excei)t for a certain distance from the mouth. Others put grat- ings of wire at the end ; these must, however, be carefully looked after, for they are apt to become stopped with silt coming down with the water. Wood will also last better in naturally wet soiL than in those of a drier nature, for as long as the wood is kept constantly wet it will hardly rot ; it is dry rot that destroys a wooden drain. Tiles, when used, must be well burnt, and smooth within. Jf not well burnt, the wet is very apt to crack them. The bottom of a drain on which tiles are laid should be very carefully made — exactly the shape of the tile — so that the tile may, when placed in position, be supported on the sides closely by the bank, and lay touching the bottom at all points. To shape the bottom of the ditch aright, regular draining spades may be bought, and are required. Tiles should have a flow of from three to four inches when used as main drains ; when placed in lateral ditches a two-inch pipe IS sufficient. A side drain should not be longer than three hundred yards with a fair fall, or two hundred yards on a lesser grade. A sod should be carefully laid over every tile, and the earth compacted well just above the tiles. The horseshoe-shaped drain has been almost entirely discarded in the old country, from the difficulty that was experienced in getting the flat side to burn hard. In the selection of tiles, not only must care be exercised that they be well burnt, that there be no roughnesses inside them, and that they are straight; for, if crooked, the water has to rise to get over the obstacle thus afforded. Table showing the number of tiles necessary to drain one acre of land, when the drains are laid at certain regular distances from one another, supposing the pipes to be one foot long : FKET APART. 24 27 30 .36 46 ILES. 181.5 1613 1453 RODS OF DITCHING 108 rods. 96 " 88 " 1210 974 72 " 60 •' Manual of Agriculiure. 91 Mr D G. F. MacdoiiakI, C.E., give>s the followinji; experiment in favour of the advantages of under-ih-aining upon his own farm . PBODfjCR BEPOKK DRAINING. Wheat 24 buslielB per acre. Barley 40 " Oats 48 " PROPLfK An"EK DRAINING. Wheat ;{8 bushels j)*>r uure. Barley 58 Oats ()4 " •• " Oo'den Farm finds encouragement in the following passage in the Hon. George Goddes Essay on Wheat Culture : ' Undrained clay lands are never worn out, for the owner that lacks the energy to free thein from stagnant water, never has force enough to exhaust their fertility by cropping. Manure on such land is nearly thrown away. Draining is the tirst thing to be done ; next, thorough cultivation ; then manure. Whoever reverses this order throws away his money and his labour.' " This would be a good text for every farmer to keep constantly in mind. The 'pvojit of farming comes entirely from the surplus of production beyond the grand total of the cost of interest, labour, seed, manure, and wear and tear. These are nearly fixed quan- tities. They are at least as great, in the aggregate, with medium crops as with good ones. If thiity bushels of corn to the acre will barely return the outlay, sixty bushels may give a clear profit ec^ual to the value of thirty bushels. There are thousands of farms in the country, whose soil contains enough of the elements of fertility to produce fair crops with the aid of ordinaiy ma- nuring (if only these elements were come-atable), but which, by reason of their soggy and unpleasant condition, would do less in- jury to their owners if they were hopelessly barren. In the spring and early summer they are moist and cold— more like putty than like arable land ; in July and August they are baked to a crust ; and when the fall rains come they revert again to their weeping state. Any effort to make good land of such a form as this without draining is simply an efibrt wasted. Neither labour nor manure can do much to drive away the demon of bad luck by which every path of its owner is beset. I have scores of let- ters from the occupants of such farms, and I have had for j'ears. I began by advising this and that makeshift, where it was claimed that the expense of draining could not be borne ; but I have finally learned to say, point-blank, to any man who is trying to make his way on this kind of a farm : ' Either drain it or give it up ! You can make more money by working at days' work, on good land, than by fighting year in and year out against the established laws of nature. If you can't do better, sell ofl' your stock, and, if necessary, work for a neighbour enough of the time to earn your bare living. Spend the rest of your time and all the money you can raise in di'aining the best field you have got. Don't imagine that your case is to be an exception, but accept the fact, now that you cant aford to farm wet land 02 The Canadian Farmer's li 'i • ^i ■;!-i u ! i ! i! — either own up that 3*ou are only tit tor a day labourer, or buckle to and make your land worth cultivating. " There are two great obstacles to the advancement of under- draini!ig, viz. ; One is, the idea that land which suffers from drnnght does not need draining, when the fact is that land often suffers from droughtjustbecau.se it needs draining — take out the water and let in tlie air, so that the soil can be put in proper tilth, and it will be able to withstand drought. The other is, the not unnatural notion that the Hi*st land to be drained is that which is now the wettest. In my judgment the improvement should be first applied to those fields which are just dry enough to be considered arable, but which, two years out of three, disaj)point the farmer's ho})es, and produce barely enough to pay the cost of cultivation. If .such land as this is drained, it will pay a profit. If a back lot swamp is drained, it may be years before it will do more than pay the expenses of its management. Begin with the very best land that needs draining at all, and make it produce a profit, and then take the next best and bring that to a [nofitable state, and so on until the back swamp comes in its turn. What we want is not so much large crops as profitable crops. A hundred dollars' worth of corn that has cost a hundred dollars had better not have been grown. It don't [)ay to work over large areas for meagre produce. Pile on the steam ! Crowd the production to the most remunerative point ; and then extend your operations to the next best field, and make that pay a round profit. This isthe soundest principle of good farm- ing, and in carrying it out we shall have no more efficient aid than is rendered by thorough draining on the best lands that need draining. When this is accepted as the correct })rinciple, we .shall see draining extending in all directions. So long as the chief object of draining is to convert innocent waste lands into fields for unprofitable work, its progress will be but halting, and farmers will continue to cry out agamst its great co.st. Cost ? Why, suppose it costs as much to drain an acre of land as to buy an adjoining acre, this is no argument against it. The one acre drained would pay a handsome profit; the two acres undrained would pay no proHt at all, and had better be left to grow wood. What is wanted, a;^ the foundation of the best improvement, is }> conviction in the minds of the farming public that it is better to have good farms than to have large farms. That point being gained, all the rest will come as a matter of course. Let us con- fine ourselves to such areas as will give us the most money for our farming, and leave the rest of the land to take care of itself" In the columns of the Canada Farmer, the author expressed himself as follows on the subject of the institution of a Private Drainage Fund by the Government, and regrets that some of the surplus money was not, in the session of '73, invested in the same wav: — ¥J'\ t Manual of Agriculture. 93 " We have reason to l)elieve that thne are a great number of fanners who would giadly avail themselves of an opportunity of borrowing money at a modernte percentage upon long time, did they know of any fund from which such could be obtained. "Some years must elapse before drainage and similar permanent farm improvements can make a return to the farmer upon his capital invested, and for this reason it is seldom within his j)ower to borrow njoney at large inteiest for such a puipose "The first cost of the thorough drainage of a large area of land is very heavy, and is beyond the means of the greater number of our farmers. Of course no private individual will let out his money upon light interest for drainage purposes, when eight or ten per cent, is obtainable ujKm th(! very l)est of securities. "Wecannot but think that' ome of the surplus funds in the hand.s of our Government might ue apj)ropriated with great justice to the creation of a Loan Fund, from which private individuals (tould borrow on easy terms, giving as security mortgages upon their real estate. " The interest of Canada as a progressive country is entirely de- pendent upon her agricultural prosperity, and in no way would a larger average of yield be attained than by the adoption by her farmers of a thorough systeui of under-drainnge, and no greater incentive could possibly be conceived to an improved system of agriculture throughout the length and breadth of the Dominion than the power of borrowing public monej'^ for the sj)ecific purpose of land improvement by drainage. "The great influence of drainage, in an inciease of agricultural products, cannot be called in question by any who have seen the state to which agriculture has been brought in England within the last half century. The greater proportion of the present success of the farmer in England is due to a thorough system of drainage. Our farms in this climate stand, perhaps, more in need of under-drains than those of Great Britain, for oin- r.ain-fall is very light, and we require every drop of water to percolate our soil, and can afford to lose none of those heavy rain-falls which, few and far between, rush in torrents over the surface of our land, rather to the detriment than the benefit of the growing crop. " We believe that, on the one hand, if a fund were appropriated from which our farmers could borrow for the especial purpose of draining their several farm.s, a very large amount would be sought after, and, moreover, that such expenditure would benefit the country to a far greater extent than that which is invested in Government securities and Canadian debentures, even if the latter were producing their ten per cent. The whole of the capital sum would be invested in the country and for the country's benefit, and the most ignorant of farmers knows full well that the effect of thorough drainage is to increase the crop producing power of 04 The Canadian Farmer's \ % \\ ' 1^ bis land, in many casoH an nmcli »ih Kf'ty per cent Thus to the country woiikl hv addetl, without goinjjj into minute caU-uhitionti of inteioHt iiccruin*,' in collateral wayH, hy invuutment in drainage, a return commensurate with this estimate. "It would, of course, ho necessary that the Government shoidd assure itself of tlie investment of such fundsfor/>o/m^riraitii'nl a|)|iliiit- tion. Were it not for the discovery of Hci«!nco, and the widoHprcjid inHmnce of books, farnnn*,' would bo little farther advanced in method to-day than it was when our fathers used a woo»len |)h)u;;h and drew it through the soil by means of four or five horses, one yoked in front of the other. Agriculture nnist keep pace with other arts; or rather, the other professions of the worlfl cannot exist without a progressive advancement in the knowledge of the agriculturist. "The plough and the aicklo shall Hhine bright in ulory When the sword and the Hceptru shall urunilmi and nut, And the farmer shall live both in song and in story When warriors and kings are forgotten in dust. It has been well said : " It is an excellent lesson foi sticklers for good old routine to cast their eyes over the surface of the land, and to note in howmany cases districts the most unf)romising, and with the least tractable soils, have been made models of agri- culture, purely by the removal of the original obstacles to cultiva- tion." Turn to England, and look at the cold clay lands of Nor- folk, so improved by skill, energy and enterprise that the county hjus become conspicuous in the history of England's agriculture. Difficulties breed enterprise, and obstacles foster skill. Look at the more barren, sterile and inhospitable portions of Scotland, and find now there some of the most productive farms in the world. " Rough is her soil, yet blest in fruitful stores ; ■Strong are hor sons, though rocky are her shores ; And none, ah ! none so lovely to my sight. Of all the lands that Heaven o'ersproail with light. " The man who reads books on agriculture is too often met by those who pretend to despise book- farming with — " He who by the plough would thrive, Himself must either hold or drive." That apjilies in principle, but there is driving with the head as well as with the arm. " One head is worth two pair of hands," we find to be an adage worthy of consideration, whilst a para- phrase of the above is not inapt, that— " He who by the plough would gain, Himself must work by hand and brain." Far be it from us to advocate what is known as " high farming" to the general run of farmers. " High farming" is associated with ideas of immense expenditure on high and abstract theories. " High farming" requires a large amount of skilful expenditure of capital and deeply reasoned system of cultivation. 90 The Canadian Farmer's \ It would be HN UE'sloHN to tiX|)CL't to Nuo tho majority "high Chi'- iiiorH" lis to nee tho gieater part of tho worhl profound scholarN. But what wt» advocate in, Huc^h a general knowledge of other j»e«t- ploN ideas, real and idoalJHtie, iih .shall fokin a basis upon which to work out iMwtical iniproveniontH, and by which to ada{)t tlie cul- tivation of our hind more (;loHely to the ways of tuiturc an revealed by the researches of wise and Hcientifi<^ mv.u. In C^anada, where labour in expensive and very difficult to be obtained, if we wouhl find a profit in farndng it becomes CHpe- cially necessary that we raise larger aropn ver acre. This ent go to Mahomet, Mahomet had to go to the nioun- tain." The tender rootlet has little power to stretch far for its food, so that food must go to the root. This food is provided in three distinct and separate modes : 1, By 80 cultivating tho soil that the external atmosphere and food- laden rain shall [lenotrate downwards, and moisture shall, by the process known as capillary attraction, work upwards froni the subsoil ; 2, By providing all the elements of plant food, in the form of putrescent or decomposed animal matter ; and 3, By stimu- lation of the soi! itself. There are manures which act directly upon the plant, and there are those which act solely as stimulants. The object, then, of putrescent animal or vegetable manure.s, is to provide food directly, and in a soluble form, to the mouths of glowing plants. Some of these mouths are in the roots and othera in the leaf, and upon the various positions of these mouths in dif- ferent plants we base the several advantages of top-dressing and of ploughing under manure. All those various substances which appear in the category of vegetable and animal matter contain in their ordinary state all the different elements of plant food, but they have to go through a process of fermentation and decomposition ere losing their re- spective iixed conditions ; they become assimilated in one sapon- aceous mass, and are in such a state that the plant can seek out the peculiar food especially required for itself. In their or- dinary state, or under partial decomposition, the several chemical elements are held firmly together and fixed ; total decomposition unbinds these various elements, and each becomes eligible for the sustenance of plant life. BARN-YARD MANUItE. Manure ^ar excellence is that of the dunghill — for in the con- stituent parts of this manure may be found all the elements 98 The Canadian Farmer's I ./ji li: W' %. \ iiP: %i j'li ir "' i.i -i: f: ■■!< i?:i : iv which were originally required for the sustenance of the varioHs foods, and which, having passed through the animals, form now the manure pile. The dunghill is the best bank ii which the farmer can invest his money ; any investment that will tend to the increase of the fertility of his land is one of perfect security to the farmer. Na- ture becomes his banker, and she will never fail to give good interest. We would here call the attention of our farmeis to the absolute injury caused by the exposure of our manure piles to the sun and air, bv the following tabular statement, composed from actual ex- periment, which will convey some idea of the various changes "rought in a pile of farm-yard manure under the effects of expo- sure to sun and rain : — Weight of manure in lbs. Water Dry matters Soluble organic matters ... Soluble inorganic matters . . Insoluble organic matters. . . . Insoluble inorganic matlers. Total of nitrogen Equal to ammonia Put up Put up Put UP Nov. 3. April 30. Aug. 23. 2838-00 2026-00 1994-00 1877 '09 1336 01 1505 03 900 01 6S9-09 488-07 70*38 8C-.51 58-83 43-71 57 88 39-16 731-07 389-74 243-22 114 94 155-77 147-49 18-23 18-14 1314 22-14 22-02 15-96 Put up Nov. 15. 1974-00 1466-05 507-05 54-04 36-89 214-92 201-65 13-03 15-75 It will be observed that during the first or winter six months the loss was only in the insoluble organic matters — but in the six summer months the valuable portions, ammonia, nitrogen, dry matter and soluble matter, had undergone very considerable dimi- nution. The most valuable portion of anima? matter is the urine, and it IS the portion that we should put forth our most strenuous endea- vours to save from waste and loss. Though chiefly composed of water, urine contains the elements of vegetation in a peculiarly soluble form, and by the secretion of the vessels is combined with a large proportion of ammonia. The analysis of its composition has shown it to be most favour- able to vegetation when mixed with other excrements, and with straw and similar substances, because it occasions their better combinations, and moulds them :nto that form of manure of which we are now treating. Straw consists of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, with pome nitrogen and earthy or alkaline salts. The value of straw is chiefly as an absorbent of animal excreta and urine, though its mechanical effects are also beneficial, a» form- ing tubes through which air is carried into the body of the soil. %^\ Manual of JgricuUure. 99 p Pot up 3. Nov. 15. 10 1974 -OO 13 1466-05 1)7 507 05 R3 54-04 16 36-89 n 214-92 49 201-65 14 13-03 96 15-75 Stmiv yields, wlien burnt, about 5 per cent, of ashes, and so tar contains in itself actual fertilizing power. Chaff is very useful in the manure pile, because it contains a large amount of silica, the element that gives stiffness to the growing stalk. Yards and Sheds. — In our travels through Canada, we have not unfrequently seen the very essence of manure trickling from a barn- yard into the road, where it goes to the enrichment of all foul weeds instead of to th it of the former's crops. All yards should be formed more or less hollow, and have an im- pei'vious bottom. This may be rapidly done by the use of the plough and scraper. If tho soil is clayey, it is an easy matter to make the bottom water-tight. After having cleaned the yard out and thoroughly graded it, take advantage of the first wet day, and turning all the cattle i", drive them round and round until the mud is pud- dled to a depth of about eight inches. When that dries, the bot- tom of your yard is water-tight. This principle may be still further improved upon by the con- struction of reservoirs to receive all ley and manure ; the contents might be pumped up and distributed over horse manure when its too great dryness occsisions any danger of its becoming fire- fanged. Few barns or barn-yards are so arranged as to save the liquid manure. The loss resulting from such a WHnt of proper arrange- ment is a very serious one — more so than most farmers would imagine. In the first place, the quantity of liquid matter which might be saved from a pair of horses and half a dozen cows amounts to 80,000 pounds yearly. This is equal to about 10,000 gallons, which, diluted with an equal quantity of water, would furnish each year a dressing of 1,000 gallons per acre to twenty acres of land. Fermenting liquid manure needs thi.s addition of water for the purpose of retaining the arumonia, which would otherwise pass off and be lost. The solid matter contained in the above quantity of liquid is equal to nearly three tons, and is worth as much as the best guano. The money value would therefore be about $200 — an amount that is well worth saving. Much less than this amount would make the drains and tank required to save the manure, so that the outlay would be more than repaid the first year. Or, if proper absorbents were freely used, the whole of the liquids might be saved without any outlay at all. When dung is to be prese'<-ved for any time, the site of the dunghill is of great importance. In order to have it defended from the sun, it should be laid under a shed or on the north side of a wall. To make a complete dunghill repository, the floor should be paved with stones, a little inclination being made from each side towards the centre. In the centre there should be drains con- nected with a small well, furnished with a pump, by which any 100 The Canadian Farmer's ■I ! mil' degree of heat fluid matter ma}' be collected for the use of the land, for it too often happens that the diainings of the dunghill are entirely wasted. Were rooft constructed over dunghills to protect them from the rays of the sun, as well as from the rain, there can bo no doubt, that, if put up at little cost, they would be found to pay. There are thope who advocate the keeping separate all kinds o) dung, for, say they, each animal manure is especially adapted to various crops. While admitting the probable truth of this prin- ciple, there are other and great advantages which seem to point out the advisability of rather mixing the various dungs in one heap. Foremost among such reasons is the different found in various manures ; for instance, horse manure is very hot — and it will be founld some gaseous matter escape during fermentation, this undeniable fact remains untouched — that this fermented, pulpy, sappy mass of manure will go much farther in maintain- ing the fertility of land than the same hulk or weight of recent farm-yard raanuie. We have, however, on hand an actual experiment made by an intelligent practical farmer on three kinds of manure, and on a cultivated soil without manure, each plot of ground measuring 20 square rods. l8t Crop 2nd Crop 3rd Crop 4th Crop Turnips Barley per a. Clover " Oats " Freah stable dung In a slrawy state, 3 tons. 31^ bush. 30 bush. 2 pkt. 20 cwt. 88 bush. Bottan duns, 8 months old, 2 tons. 26 6-0 bush. 36 bush. 3 pks. 21 cwt. 40 bush. Dry barley straw burnt on the ground 5 cwt. NO manure. 14 3-20 bush. i bush. 30 bush. 1 pk. 14 bush. Spks. 18 cwt. 8 cwt. 18 bush. 32 oush. —Britiak Husbandry. As to the feed after the clover, it was about equal to the ex- pense of getting in each crop respectively, with a small surplus on the plot manured with rotten dung. The experiment is hardly as conclusive as it might have been, if the proportion of the weight which fresh stable dung would lose in eight months had been taken fairl}' into account ; for three tons, at the expiration of that time, would in practice not amount to more than one-half that quantity of rotted dung. Had the quantities been equal in weight, every crop would have been favoured by rotten dung. Before leaving the subject we again quote from Sir Humphry Davy, in his Treatise on Soils and Manures : — Manual of Agriculture. 103 Nomftnure. "That an immeasurable quantity of substance disposed for con- version into food for plants is suffered to escape in the forn» <>f drainings and vapour. During the violent fermentation which is necessary for reducing farm-yard manure to the state in which it is called 'short muck,' not only a large quantity of fluid, but likewise of gaseous matter, is lost ; so much so, that the dung is re- duced one-half, and from that to two-thirds or more in weight. Now, the principal elastic matter disengaged is carbonic acid, with some ammonia ; and both these, if attracted by the moisture of the soil and retained in combination with it, are capable of becoming nu- triment." And he goes on in another part to say : " Where farm- yard manure cannot be immediately applied, the destructive fer- mentation of it should be prevented as much as possible. For this purpose the dung should be kept dry and unexposed to the air, for the moisture and contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere tends to excite fermentation. To protect a heap from rain, a cov- ering of compact marl or of tenacious clay should be spread over the surface and sides of it. Watering dung-hills is sometimes re- commended for checking fermentation ; but this practice, although it may cool the dungfor a short time,is inconsistent with just views, for moisture is a principal agent in all processes of decomposition ; dry fibrous matter will never ferment. Water is as necessary as air to the process, and to supply it to fermenting dung is to supply an agent which will hasten its decay. If a thermometer plunged into the dung does not rise above 100° Fahrenheit, there is little danger of much aeriform matter flying off"; if the temperature is higher, the dung should be immediately spread abroad." From all whicn facts the practical farmer will learn, by the con- flicting opinions of these practical and scientific authorities, that there is a medium course in which to steer ; that dung loses much of its valuefrom leaking, and therefore that the bottom should be water- proof, and the dung protected from rain, and that too much heat should not be generated for a length of time in manure ; therefore, it should be turned and drawn to the field when in a modeiute state of decomposition — neither garden mould nor strawy dung. As to watering dung-hills, we, know that it is often of immense value, on the principle laid down by the great chemist, to equalize fermentation over the whole surface, and thus to prevent that white appearance of dung usually known as firefang. It must also be borne in mind that there is more to be accom- plished than the simple putrescence of farm-yard manure. All such contains a large amount of weed seeds. These should be germinated and destroyed after sprouting, by heat, if we would not have our fields befouled by every load of manure that is drawn from the barn-yard. Whether the piling shall go on in the yard or take place in heaps in the field is a matter to be determined by the peculiar sit- uation of each farmer. 104 The Canadian Farmer's i i\ ■"!' Y\P: £ B , |i; II' ! I i\ 1^1 I 4PI ill 'ii. I: 1 ' i ' 1 ■I 1.^ ,;1 : •■ 1 : 'J i i iS'ij, ^•i : ' 1 f ; i« ;f/ ki. W ! 'j 1 ■ i s-/'!? il m i 1 --* When manure is to be used in the field and immediately ui»on f-he crop, wc have always drawn to the field at odd times and in winter, and made our compost heap then and there, ready to en- ter into a state of fermentation as soon us warm weather sets in : l)ut where manure is to be spread on the winter fallow, rotting is not so necessary, for it has time to decompose on or in the ground, and weeds may then be sprouted and destroyed before ceeding or planting time. There is one certain fact to be borne in mind, that there is no loss by evaporation when there is no fermentation, and that ma- nure laid on the surface in winter, not being in a solid mass to heat, will lose none of its value by evaporation. Nor does it lose any essential qualities by lying exposed to the sun, provided that fermentation was not going on when so exposed. All that is lost in such a case is a certain amount of moisture ; and though it appeara at first sight as if dried-out ma- nure must be weakened, it is not so, and the next shower will restore all the water lost before by evaporation. To rot our manures when such is necessary, and to do so without fear of those great losses shadowed forth by our scientists, we must take some pains in the manufacture and manipulation of compost heaps. But before we proceed to this head, let us once more refer to the practical opinions of our American farmers. We find in the Canada Farmer : " Where the most immediate effect is desired on the crop to which the manure is applied, and where the soil has to be brought to a state of fine tilth, it will be found much more advisable to compost the manure, and make it as concentrated and finely di- visible as possible, in order that the roots of plants can assimilate it at once. John Johnston, of Geneva, who for many years raised the heaviest crops of wheat and grass in America, always com- posted his manure, and applied it as a top-dressing in the winter or early spring. A farmer near London, Ontario, puts the manure as a top-dressing on his fall wheat in spring, before the frost leaves the ground. As a general rule, the sooner manure is buried in the soil, provided the soil is suitable to its mechanical action, while underg(nng fermentation in it, the more organic material we add to the land ; but this enriches the soil rather for the crop of the second and after years than that grown immediately on the appli- cation of the manure. On roots, barley, and, in fact, any crop requiring to be stimulated into a quick and vigorous growth at the start, a manure well decomposed and capable of immediate action on the roots of the crop is necessary." John Johnston, of Geneva, New York, is a practical farmerof long experience, and one of the shrewdest of American agriculturists. " If the dung be rotten, the effects will be quickness of growth, succuleney, crispness and delicacy of flavour. T strongly suspect Manual of Agriculture. 106 that the application of ill-dige.>us food for the plants. It is very generally known that the principal value of manure consists in the amount of available ammonia it may con- tain. Dr. Voelcker, an English chemist, who has investigated this point at great length, says ' perfectly fresh barn-yard manure con- tains but a small proportion of free ammonia, and companitively but little nitrogen, and of course but little ammonia exists in fresh dung in a state in which it can be used by the growing plants.' Also, that ' most of the nitrogen is gradually liberated as the fermentation of the dung progresses — it being found that there is a regu''(.r increase of soluble organic matters, including nitrogen, which '.eeps pace with the progress of fermentation.' It also appears ohat ' in fresh manures (with abundant litter) the larger part of the insoluble organic matter consists of straw in an almost entirely undecomposed state. In rotting manure the straw is converted into humus, the compou.ids of which, with potash, soda and ammonia, are soluble, and ot a dark brown colour. The humus mostly fixes the ammonia that results from the decay of nitrogenous matters.' At the same time, other valuable matters are brought into a more soluble and available condition. " True, it is said that there is a loss of ammonia by fermenta- tion ; and this may be the case when manure is spread out in the yard, or Tvhere there is no straw or other absorbent mixture in the Manual of Agriculture. Ill pile ; but with nmmiro ivh made lior«». this \h not the case. r>r. Voclckor sayH, that 'during tho fernH'titiitii>n of ase the crop d the effects longer. In ween profit- 3 compost, if t per cord, or more in suc- be done under of fertilizers. )ur ap; - >' to mme.it .- ■■^^■ ion as to ^ e eral crops pef eat : — tons manure. .. " ti " i icvs of a fji I'ln ind it may be observed that, by composting with muck and other rough vegetable ^iubstances, as mentioned before, the quantity of manure may be largely increased. The usuiil produce of the vaiious straws per acre in Canada va- ries from 15 cwt. to 20c\vt Supposing this .straw to be moistened and rotted, it would thereby gain an additional weight equal to about its original weight, thus producing from 30 to 40 cwt., gross weight ; count- ing in then the oats, refuse of grain and chatf consumed, we can- not reckon Uie amount of putrescent manure resulting from an aero of such produce at more than four tons. Should we bring our land up to a productive capability of 28 bushels per acre, such as that on which the Scotchman's experi- ment was conducted, we might easily calculate on such an in- crease as would overrun his five tons per acre. Repetition of manurinfj. — "Assuming that the general course of crops consists : on light soils, of the alternate plan of cereals and green or hoed crops ; on clays, which do not admit of that system, of a proportionate quantity of grass land at intermediate distances of four or five years and in large areas. "Light .soils, in the common course of husbandry, rarely require the application of putrescent manures oftener than once in four years, and, in all cases where clover is allowed to stand during two seasons, it may be deferred without disadvantage for another year. Heavy soils may run without manure for six years, |)ro- vided that the land be laid one year in fallow, and that there be sufficient meadow to be reckoned at least as one crop in the course." We now recapitulate a summary of the chief points to be ever borne in mind in the manufacture and management of farm-yard manure. 1. To cover the bottom of the yard with muck or some other lasting absorbent. 2. To manage the feeding of outside cattle so that their dung may be dropped evenly over the whole yard. 3. To remove the dung from the yard at least once a year. 4. To turn and compost all dung until the fibrous and woody parts, and the roots and weeds contained, be thoroughly decom- posed ; at which time the greatest strength is attained in the manure. 5. To keep all dung in an even state of moisture, and thus to prevent partial arrest of fermentation or Jirefang — this to be done by wetting and treading down firmly. 6. To have dung more fermented when it is to be immediately applied to a growing crop, than when used in the fall of the year. 7. To use heavier dressings on cold soils than on the lighter ; because clays require to have their natural acidity neutralized by 1 116 The Canadian Farmer's '■il ! li y;! the warmth of dung, while too much hot dung is apt to burn up the roots of plants on dry, sandy or gravelly soils. Stiff land is also helped by the mechanical effects of the long fibres of uufer- mented dung. 8. To compost all dung for light soils with dry earth, peat, swamp muck, or other extraneous vegetable substances. 9. To spread manure with least possible delay in the field when carried out, and, if applied to arable land, to incorporate it with the surface soil as soon as possible. 10. To collect and preserve all stable drainage, urine and liquid manure, and, if not used directly on the land, to wet other manure constantly with it. 11 To experiment upon every possible occasion, and, being neither selfish nor sluggish, to give forth the benefit of the results to your brother farmers through the columns of the agricultural press, which are always open to practical experiences. Whatever may be the respective merits of the disputed worth of dung, fresh or fermented, long or short, we may be assured that land to produce full crops must be generously manured. Whether the farmer favours the one kind or the other, let him collect all he can, apply it diligently; then, trusting to events, let the laiid and tiie muck settle it between them. NIGHT SOIL. il ! i M \ "^; Not only does it often become a matter of serious thought how to get rid of the noxious odours emanating from our privy vaults, but the waste of the matter contained therein is a leak in the pockets of every cultivator of the soil. The saying is no less trite than true, that the stronger the food the stronger the manure ; and the ordure of ma,n contains in itself more of the fertilizing elements of plant food, weight by weight, than any other animal manure of which we have knowledge. Animal manure is always stronger than that obtained from di- gested and decomposed vegetable matter, and human ordure, composed of both animal and vegetable food, contains in itself all the elements of fertility for vegetation. Now, when agricultural communities are daily becoming more convinced of the necessity of saving and applying all the manure that can be possibly gathered together, it becomes us to think whether we are doing right in allowing to go to waste yearly thousands of dollars worth of the richest and most fertilizing of manures. In China, where the population is closely packed, and where very many mouths require to be fed, the agricultural average of the country is far ahead of that of Europe or America They are advocates of, and devotees to, the principle of heavy manuring. I ,:, 6 liii Manual oj Agriculture. 117 Where hand labour is so plentiful as in China, horses are seMom used in agriculture, while the art of stall feeding of cattle is not at all generally practised. All their crops are nourished by human excreta. Thousands ol ooolies arc constantly employed in the collection of the ordure of man, and it is as carefully gathered and regularly removed as the manure from our cattle stalls. Yearly, immense quantities of guano are imported into Europe and Ameiica, and yet at our very doors we have a substance of an equal value, that only requires a little knowledge to utilize as re.'ulily as the formei'. There is a natural repugnance to be overcome in the manipula- tion of night soil, and yet chemi.stry has shown us how it may be perfectly deodorized, when its smell is not perceptible, especially by the side of such foul-smelling stuff as Peruvian guano The following tabular statements, the one of an analysis of hu- man excrement by Berzelius. the other an analysis of guano by Voelcker, placed side by side, will give some idea of the relative values of the two as manures : — ANALYSIS OF IHTMAN EXCREMENT, BY BERZELIUS. Carbonate of soda 3"5 Muriate of soda 4 0 Sulphate of soda 20 Phosphate of magnesia 20 Phosphate of lime 40 Urine, 1,000 parts. Water 93300 Urea 30-10 Salts of ammonia, with some ani- mal matter 18"46 Sulphate of potash 3-71 Sulphate of soda 3-16 Phosphate of soda 294 " ammonia 1 -Go Muriate of soda (common salt) ... 4 -40 Muriate of ammonia 1 50 Earthy matter, line and silica, ... 1 03 1,000 00 ANALY.SIS OF GUANO, BY VOELCKER. Oxalate of lime 7'0 Phosphate of lime 14-3 Clay and sand 4'7 Animal matter, with small quantity of salts and water 32 S Sulphate of potash 60 Sulphate of soda 38 Phosphate of ammonia 60 " magnesia 2*6 Oxalate of ammonia 106 Urate " " 90 Muriate " •' 42 100 0 Professor Liebig says, in his " Chemistry of Agriculture : — " In respect to the quantity of nitrogen contained in excre- ments, 100 parts of the urine of a healthy man are equal to 1,300 parts of the fre.sh dung of a horse, and to 600 parts of that of a cow. Hence it i.s evident that it would be of much importance to i I i\ m -Mi m i> 118 The Canadian Farmer's U II -f H ' ! SSI ; i«il '' I ' I ! I agriculture if none of the human urine were lost. The powerful effect of urine, as a manure, is well known in Flanders ; but human excrements are considered invaluable by the Chinese, who are the oldest agricultural people we know. Indeed, so much value is at- tached to the influence of human excrements by this people, that the laws of the State forbid that any of them should be thrown away, and reserves are placed in every house, in wliich they are collected with the greatest care. No other kind of manure is used for their corn fields." It has been calculated that the excrement of a man used as manure, aided by what plants obtain from the atmosphere, will produce sufficient wheat to support him. How nearly then do guano and night soil resemble one another, each containing in great quantity those essential constituents of plant life which are most liable to be absent from our soils. Of what glaring inconsistency are we then guilty. We throw away that which josts us nothing, and is yet so valuable, and at the same time incur an immense expense in the importation of guano from countries some thousands of miles distant! The natural aversion to handling may be overcome by deodor- izing the manure; this may be effected by an admixture of ashes, dried peat, or dry earth of a clayey nature, or soot. Lime should, however, never be used, as it injures the strength of night soil by driving oft' its ammonia. About ten bushels of a compost will be a very liberal dressing to an acre. To compost it, it is recommended that there should be first laid down about two feet of fresh earth, to which the night soil may be drawn, after which another layer of earth to the same thick- ness, then another of night soil, and so on. It should then be regularly turned and thoroughly mixed, and may be used either for wheat or barley in the proportion of three loads of the mixture thinly spread abroad on an acre. It should be used more as a top-dressing. It is sometimes also mixed with the yard dung to excite fer- mentation ; this is not, however, advisable, for its effect is greatest when a[)plied in an unfermented state. The operation of deodorizing is, however, usually performed by the earth closet system, and this is well worthy of attention by all from a sanitary point of view. Manual of Agrictilture. 119 Ul as H (K 0 s » ^ s 1 35 t J "A < Cd W R t-l '<* H 33 C/J >5 3 o taH »^ U 25 &5 i-t >* u H n >'. H y > (K H O 33 >- u « «^ w W > bd Pt« o '/5 -J O O H ^ « O ■/) CU H O S5 ff! P^ < u U « n 'J H ;^ ^ Q Sfl b. ->5 0 1 »> 7^ H O '/; K-4 3 O 5 ^ Oh O H a^ > •^ o < < 75 tf « Q 93 T, 09 a •c «o o> eo o tft i'^ , lO *0 1|< 1-1 O iTi (4 rH O h- ip M< 1< ^ © o © b i © ?0 CO a •c t- O r-l ei t" in o i-H 50 OC rH © i-H CI M 1-4 i-H W iH a •c © M O © 8 © r-J © f o ■g' o fo t^ © 1-1 © © 1-< rH lH ■g o ■Si 5^ 1-1 o cj c' m: ^\ !'■ i Build the house in the usual manner ; under the seats set a drawer made of two-inch plank, well white-leaded at the joints, and made on a frame, ho that a hoi.se can draw it out from under at one end of the house. Cover the hottom with ahout three inches of dry earth. Clean out the drawer once a week, after covering the contents again with dry earth, and either place the contents by themselves or mix with the other manure (the former is the better plan). You may have your privy as near the house as you like under this arrangement ; there will be no fear of any disagreeably perceptible odour. It would be, however, more certain in its effect should the dr} earth be handy, so that at least once a day some might be thrown down and thus thorough l}: incorporated with the excreta. The following (contains the subject-matter of an able essay on the Dry Earth System, by Mr. Richard Postans, read before the Farmers' Club, at Ancaster, Ontario, on the 27th February, 1871 : "This system, which is destined to become a great boon to man- kind, was discovered a very few ye.ars since by a clergyman in England, m here it is rapidly coming into use. Perhaps it would be more correct to say rediscovered, for a similar system is com- manded and described in the book of Deuteronomy, chap, xxiii. verses 12-13. " The system, as applied to sewage purposes, consists in the in- troduction of a certain quantity of dry earth into the vault every time that the closet is used. This earth possesses both deodoriz- ing and disinfecting properties, and so thorough is the action of these properties that all noxious gases are at once absorbed ; and if the eaith be properly applied, the air in the closet seems always as pure as that in any other ordinary room. " The disinfectant qualities of dry earth are shown in a very marked degree by the remarkable cures effected in cases where severe wounds have become running sores, the clay having caused the discharge to cease, and the sore to take on a healthy appear- ance jn a very short space of time. Its healing qualities have also been shown in its successful application to severe fle.sh wounds and to bad burns. "The chea})est implemont for applying the dry earth is an ordi- nary scoop shovel ; but this is the most troublesome and the least effectual. A machine is now in use which has been patented by the Rev. Mr. Moule, the discoverer of this system, and no doubt other machines will shortly be introduced. " These machines may be attached to any existing closet, which would require very little alteration. " The best kind of soil to use for these closets is a pureor nearly pure clay ; any soil, however, except pure sand will answer. n Manual of Agriculture. 121 " Thus the entire rural, and the majority of the city jvpulation may obtain a thorough deodorizing material — dirt cheap ! " Tlie onrth requires very little preparation, and there is only one condition to bo carefully observed, viz., that the earth be en- tirely free from moisture before it is used ; and with our almost tropical summer, this can be easily done. " .^n one of the long dry spells that occur in the summer, as much of the thoroughly sun-dried earth as may be required fur one or even for two years' supply should be collected and placed under cover, so as to bo thoroughly protected from the wet. Two or three good waggon loads will last an ordinary family a year, allowing that it is to be used only once. The fine and dry earth from any but macadamized or very sandy roads would answer very well. " In stationary closets the vault may be made of such a size as to go for three, six, or even twelve months without emptying. Surface water should bo carefully kept out of the vault. A small door at the side or rear of the clo.set gives access to the vault for the removal of its contents. The contents of the receptacle of the portable, or of the vault of the stationary closet, may remain until full without transmitting the slightest impurity to the surround- ing atmosphere; and when they are removed the operation is attended with no more unpleasantness than if it were so much garden earth. " In places where it is difficult to obtain a supply of suitable earth, the contents of the vault, after being dried by the sun or by fire-heat, may be again used, being entirely inodoi nis, having the appearance of pure earth, and acting as effective. / as when first used. Tliis may be repeated as many as six or seven times without impairing the deodorizing qualities, and each time greatly increasing the value o^' the material as a fertilizer. After seven-fold use the material will have become about as strong in fertilizing qualities as guano. " Experiments have been tried with the earth by applying it to turnips ; one hundred pounds weight of earth that had been used seven times was applied to an acre with the most marked effect, not only upon the roots, but the beneiit of the top-dressing was very apj)arent on the succeeding crop, both crops being much in excess of the yield from an equal quantity of ground adjoining not thus manured ; while the earth was applied with as little difficulty and unpleasantness as would be found in using so much bone dust. " Every bushel of grain which is produced over and above the quantity necessary for home consumption, and which is in conse- quence sold out of the country, adds just so much to the wealth of that particular nation ; and if every available fertilizer was re- turned to the soil at such a, cost as to yield a handsome profit on fin t 'fi ytl ' urn \ i. 'I 'fa 122 The Canadian Farmer s the outlfty, the profits thu.s .secured would form tjuite hii item in the Hiiiiual exports of tiie coutitry that might purwue such a course. " It is estimated tliat the human manure wasted in the United States amounts to the annual value o{ fifty million dollars. This one fact is sulHcient to clearly illustrate and prove the importance of this subj( ct of afjriculture. " Farmers have been advocating through the various agricul- tural journals the advantages of co-oj)erative societies, and have made a practical move in that direction in the case of cheese factories. Here is a good opportunity for co-operation. Let a number of enter|)rising farmers, who happen to live near a town or city, form a company, rent a suitable building for a store-house and drying shed ; let each shareholder deliver annually a certain quantity of dry earth at the store-house, and receixe his share of fertilizing material ; let them employ men and horses to distribute dry earth to the closets and collect the waste earth again, and let them share the expenses thus incurred. If the size v)f the company and the extent of its operations be properly proportioned, the shareholders will thus secure an abundance of manure at a cost far below its actual value, and they will thus promote their own interests and the public welfare." Mr. Postans went on to show the immense advantages, in a sanitary point of view, which would assuredly accrue i'rom the adoption of this system, and thus do away with the thousands of festering pools of corruption, that like a many-throated monster send up their poisonous breath to pollute the sunounding atmos- phere. LIQUID MANURE. The value of liquid manure, as such, is also very highly regarded by the inhabitants of China and Japan, the best gardeners in the world. The national plan is thus : " Into a cask or jar put a coUection of putrid animal substances, consisting of flesh, fish, blood, &c., to which is added a certain quantity of urine, but the vessel is not completely filled. A mandarin, or officer of Government, then attends, who, upon the vessel being closed, affixes his seal, and in this state it must re- main for at least six months. When this or a longer period has elapsed, the mandarin removes his seal and grants his certificate as to the quality of the preparation, which is shown by the proprie- tor, who cries it through the streets as a manure for gardens, and it is sold in quantities as small as a pint. Before using, it is alwa3's diluted with four or five times its bulk of water, and it is extensively u.sed for garden crops, but universally in drills." The writer adds that he was informed by several intelligent Chinese that human urine, thus prepared, forms a fourth part of all the ma- nure employed in China, and is never used until it has reached a high state of putridity. . f\ ill. Manual of Agriculture. 123 Wo |)ri(lo ouiMclves upon being in the julvanoo of civilization, yob woof tl»o Wester?! honuspl»f)ro might vet learn many a prao- tical lesson of actual economy from tlio natives of the far ICuhI. An inuncnsc amount of money is annually expended in our largo cities of Canada in the removal of sewage, which is carried into rivers and lakes, there to destroy all lish life, and, at tlie best, is hut an imperfeiit way of getting! id of the noxious vap()U!-s a!>d eflluvia that emanate fiom the oiduro of !na!! in de!isely populated i of w}\eAt, maii;^<)lrl uiid other rrops lui vo ht!tJii s«wa^(Ml ; and I may add tlic rusultH of thin report. iiotwitliMtandiri}^ that wo cannot attaeli ho nmcli importance to them because of the Hinall scale on whicli thoy liaN'e been ohtamod- six hun(hed hush«dH of nianfjoM roots "-„,« wei<;hcd off lathei' more tJiari uno-thir«l of an acre (at the rate of 1, 7.SJ} liushels per a • liHtiibution in thin iiianiioi' buuoine a nucuNsary tt()i>uuduge tu •^very wiill-cultivHted farm. But, while wo think tluH niodo of a|»j)lyiiijjf manure to the soil, ospocially to ^rans crops, wouM be hij^hly atlvai)tji;^oouH, and repay mmy tin)cs over the cost of tankn, water-carts, ifec, wo imaj^ino that the construction of tankn or ciHtorns in the furm-yurd, in order to coUeirt tho liouid ihain- ing.H of tho staltles, cow hyres, and even the rain from the roofs of the farm huildiuj^s, in order afterwards to pump out the contents and spread them over tho manure heap, at intervals during the dry weather !>f summer, would prove oi si^'nal advantage to the cultivator of the soil. Ordinary farm-yard manure, as made in Canada, contains a largo admixture of vegetable matters, such as straw, corn stalks, &c., which, becoming dried out in sununcr, re- sist the decomposing powers upon tho small amount of oxcromonts incorporated with them; bo that by tho time the farmer wants to haul the maiun-e out on his fallow, or plough it in for root crops, he finds tho undocomposed vegetable matter greatly in the way of the etKcient incorporation of the manure with the soil. Dried- up manure heaps are also gioatly liable to become tirefanged, which destroys their value. ' In Belgium these manure tanks are usually (;on8tructed by brick- layers at a price proportioned to their capn(;ity — the linger they are, the less tho price in p >|)ortion : the usual si/e of a tank or cistern being of a capacity lo hold 88,000 gallons. In Switzerland they make scpiaro holes in tho ground, and line the sides with l)rick set in clay mortar. Where the soil is a tenacious clay, and there is no danger of the licpiid manure percolating out at the sides or bottom, it is only necessary to construct the tank in such a way as will keep the sides from falling in, either from the effects of tho action of frost or the tramplmg of animals near it. Where the .soil is porous, it becomes necessary to make the bottom of stone flags, with the joints cut square, set on a puddling of strong clay. The wall is then to be built from and on this bot- tom, and hydraulic cement used instead of common mortar. " The cost of a tank containing, say 2o square yards of brick- work, would be about S50." Fia. M. S:^ ¥¥^ w' Liquid Manure Pumps. — We find in the American Agricul- turist a pump, and instructions to make, particularly well adapted 120 The Canadian Farmer's % 3 li k I ;i il I ;:k III!! I ! V-' 1 '>: sS 1 for the use of liqui.l iiuuiurc tanks, the ordinary pumps being ap< to become choked in use by coarse particles of solid matter. This pump can be made with the simplest tools. The box must be fitted tight, so jis not to leak. The valves are of wood, covered with sole leather, which projects a (juarter of an inch over the edge, so as to ensuie a tight fit. They are hinged with a pair of common butt hinges to the pump rod, so that they will open the full width to permit any solid matter to pass up without choking. The pump rod is a strip three or four inches wide ; at the bot- tom of it is fastened a hemisphorically shaped piece of wood, which supjiorts the valves wlien working. Litpjid manure is i)etter in its diluted form for application to light lands. Jiut foi- heavy lands it may to more ailvantage be u.sed Vjy distribution over the solid manure pile. We may sum up the uses of licpiid manure thus . 1. If applied in summer or fall it will increase the aftermath on gniss land and keep it green through the winter. If used for pas- ture, apply in fall, as cattle dislike the smell when fresh put on. 2. Good to apply to clover .sod before breaking up. very soluble, and readily taken up by the roots of the clover for the use of the succeeding cro)). 3. Does we)! for wheat on light land, but its efiect on clay is imperceptible; should always be laid on when the land is dry. 4. Not .so good for barley, as it is apt to soften the straw and (vause the crop to lodge. 5. A|)t to make potatoes coarse, hollow a!id watery. Lastly, the very best place for it is on gi-ass, wliether for mea- dow or to be turned under. HEN MANURE. Hen manure is home-niade guano, and as such is of very great benefit to the farmei. We import an immense amount of guano, and mnny of our best farmers use it every year upon their roots Now, our home-made hen manure is almost as ffood as the best of guano, while we know, when using it, that we have an unadulterated article. In no article of commerce is there a greater amount of adulter- ation than in the manufacture and sale of artificial fertilizers such as guano, superphos))hate of lime and the nitiates, and it would be to the interest of the sellers were they to obtain certificates from qualified analytical chemists as to the purity of the article. There are few farmers who do not keep a sufficient number of hens from which to collect yearly some ten or fifteen hundred weight of hen manure, and guano would cost them at the rate of forty dollars per ton. Manual of Agriculture. vn To Collect Hen Manure. — The droppinfrs uTidcv the iierches Mhoiild be carefully covered from time to time with dry earth, •asho':. or plaster. These matters will have a powerful deodorizing ort'ect, and will by no means hurt the (luality, V)ut rather render it nearly of the proper strength for application. The drop])ings so treated should be from time to time drawn tof'ether in heaps kept under cover. If these heaps be watched, that undue fermentation does not set in, and from time to time turned with the scoop shovel, the hen dunj^, ashes, earth, &c., will work down to a powdery state, free h\>in all disagreeable ])un- «^ SPECT.AL MANURES. ■3(il These special fertilizers are t -ncentrated manures, (jr fertilizers of great strength in small bulk. They contain in a small compa.ss large quantities of special 128 The Canadian Farmer's k 'f • i tl! < 4.1 I'l if 11 rl > m «l plant food, and are very vigorous stimulants of plant life. Due caution is re([uired, therefore, to be exercised in their use. The cause of failure in the use of the concentrated fertilizers i.s often due to t' manner in which they are applied. It is difficult for those wli have been accustomed to use bulky manures to realize that the full fertilizing potency of a bushel of animal excre- ment may be held in a large-sized table-spoon, and that a handful of one adds to plant structures as decidedly as several shovelfuls of the other, A full dose of opium as given to patients furnishes quite a dark, bulky powder, or pill ; but if we separate the alka- loidal principle upon which its hyponotic power depends, we have only a little delicate white powder which a breath of wind will blow away. The one-eighth grain of powder will affect the human organism as powerfully as ten times the weight of opium. If we were so forgetful of " potencies" as to administer as much, or even one quarter as much, of the white concentrated powder as of the bulky dark one, we should destroy our patient's life, or at least do great injury to his health. So if, in the use of genuine super- phosphate, or guano, or ground bones and ashes, we forget their power, and apply too much, we endanger the life of our plants. An experiment made upon corn affords an illustrativecase in point. At the time of planting upon a field divided by a narrow strip of sward land, we dii-ected that on one side a tablespoonful of the mixed bone and ashes should be placed in each hill and well covered with soil; upon the other, four rows were to be treated similarly ; and upon the remainder, the hills should receive a double quantity. It is curious to observe the effects. The first field and the four rows were remarkably thrifty. The corn came uj) well, and manifested remarkable vigour from the start. On the other hand, the over- dosed corn appeared for a long while as if it had been paralyzed by some wasting disease. It could not bear up under so much of a good thing. More free ammonia was formed at the start than could be appropriated by the tender plants, and many of them perished from over-stimulation >vnd heat, produced by the fermen- tative changes of the active bodies in contact. Whether it pays for the Canadian farmer to make use of these expensive special manures we must allow each man to judge for himself We ourselves undoubtedly think it does when due regard is had to the proper mode of application, so as to receive full benefit to the crop. Although the price at which these special manures is held appears at first to stagger us, yet when we conslier the strength in rela- tion to bulk and weight, their value would appear to assimilate more closely to that of ordinary manure. At any rate, this chapter will indicate to the reader several of such manures, their method of action and mode of application. jiii.i1 iiJ ;i Manual of Agriculture. 129 , or even IS of the at least without attempting to lay down any certain profit to be derived when compared with exj)ense. It may be, however, well wortliy of observation, tliat the majority of our more enterprisjiiig farmers seem to patronize the concentrated manures, are satisfied with the results, and so year after year cause an annual increase in tlie amount that passes through the hands of city dealers. Guano. — This is simply and purely bird manure made in a country where little or no rain ever falls, and the deposits of countless generations of sea-going birds, which come to the islands every year to lay their eggs and hatch their young. These deposits are found in the islands scattered in the Pacitic Ocean and on the coasts of Peru. The fact that guano contains much more phos])horic acid than ordinary bird manure, is probably owing to the fact that the deposits are not only formed by the excrements of these fish- devouring birds, but also of their carcases and skeletons. There is great variation in the several guanos, the nitrogen varying in them from 5 to 15 per cent., and their phosphates running up the scale from 25 to 35 in the 100. Guano used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre is a most [towerful manure — its eflects are more readily felt in wet than dry seasons. The most powerful guano the analysis of which has been recorded was found to contain in one hundred ])nrts — water 2053, Organic matter and Ammoniacal salts 7'59, Phusphates 31'b9, Carbonate of lime 606, Alkaline salts 5 63. If water be drained through gunno we have a ver}-^ strong form of liquid manure — but for i.nmediate apjilication to plant life it requires to be very copiously <111uted. The same rules are to be oU^erved in the application of guano to turnips, corn, &c., as mentioned in regard to hen manure. Nitrate of Soda. — On the use of this manure the American Agriculturist sa3's : — " Nitrate of soda at 4 cents per pound is the cheapest source of nitrogeu in the market at the present time, and with wheat at S1.75 it might be used with fair profit. Sow 100 pounds per acre when the wheat is sown, and another 100 pounds if need be in the spring. On poor, sandy land, it would be better to sow 100 pounds of guano and 100 pounds nitrate of soda per acre in the fall." Sulphuric Acid is used chiefly as an agent in the decomposition of bones, and of any other matter containing phosphate of lime, Sujjerphosphate of Lime. — The mineral phosphate of lime is found in Canada in large quantities, and of late years no small amount has been exported to Europe. It is abundantly de- posited in the Counties of Leeds and Lanark, in Ontario, as 9 ftnl Il) ). i I i-'i I '95 .1 '3 ^ B I.., I' I V.'' 'II 'M '.lit 130 7*^5 Canadian Farmer's doubtless also in many other parts of the Dominion. It is a very valuable manure for the supply of the phosphates required by nearly all vegetable life ; but if we have bones about, we can manufacture a home-made article, and we may be assured that there is no adulteration in it when made under our own eyes. A ready way of manufacturing this important manure is to break up the bones as fine as possible, and then place them in a wooden box or barrel. Water, equal to about one-sixtli the weight of the bones, may next be added, well stirred in, and left for a day or two to heat and ferment. Boiling water would be best for this purpose. Then add sulphuric acid, mixing well with a wooden spade (no metal should come in contact with the mixture) in the proportion of about foity pounds of acid to one hundred pounds of bones. Let it stand for about two weeks, stirring daily. If the mass is not then dry, add some absorbent, such as sawdust, dry earth or peat, but on no account use lime or ashes. This compound will retain its strength for a long time, but must be kept under cover. Dr. Nichols, in his Boston Journal of Chemis- try, February, 1869, gives the following, which he recommends : Take a barrel of fine ground bone and a barrel of good wood ashes ; mix well together and add three pailsful of water ; mix the whole thoroughly, stirring daily ; the mass will be fit for use in a week. In the columns of the Country Gentleman we find : — " To make superphosphate of lime, I take 500 pounds of bone and 175 of vitriol. The bones I take to a pine block and cut them up small. (They don't fly so much when I use pine.) I put them in a pile and let them heat and dry. Then I take a large flag- stone and put a frame around it. Then get a boulder with a flat bottom, fasten a ring to it, have a rope and pole, and let them work like a well sweep. The frame around the flag keeps the bones from flying off when the stone strikes them. I put the bones into a large kettle with twelve pails of water, and boil them six hours. I have a large box made of [)lank and put the bones into it, and then the vitriol. I keep them well stirred. When they are hot, dry oflT with dry earth. I don't dry with ashes — they are not good to mix with phosphate. I sell 2,000 bushels a year. A glass company takes almost all my dried aehes at my place, paying 25 cents a bushel, rounding measure." Mr. Lyman Call, of East Durham, Ont., gives in the Canada Farmer the following account of experiments made with super- phosphate of lime on various crops. He applied this manure to piortions of a field of potatoes, leaving rows unmanured to note the differen.ce. The quantity used was about one barrel to an acre, and it was applied in the hills, about a tablespoonful to each hill. The manured portion exhibited a marked superiority over the other in vigour of stalk during the period of growth, and at Manual cf Agriculture. ini harvest yielded one-third more than the unmanured rows. In experimenting with the same fertilizer on meadows, he comes to the conclusion that a barrel of superphosphate will increase the hay crop by as much as a ton to the acre. On wheat he found less marked advantages, and believes that salt is preferable in this case, using about two and a half bushels of salt to the acre. English experimenters also agree with Mr. Call, in that the benefits of superphosphate are not so marked upon wheat or grain of any kind as upon potatoes, roots of any kind and grass. Before proceeding further with fertilizers, we would remind our readers that the cultivator requires to regard two essential matters for his guidance in the application of manures, special or ordinary. First, what proportion of particular ingredients of plant life his several crops require ; and secondly, what proportion of such particular ingredients are to be found in the various manures at his command. The two following tables will afford a basis of information on each of these two necessary points :— I 132 The Canadian Farmer's ;ii 1 '• u U Cm O O H CO M o (h Q 1-4 o t §1 Ah y o ^ , o OS "J w <** Q § g o o o W O HI w lftCI05fO«CC«OMNeOi-i "*?* •O '^ •*> r4l^ -♦* !^ ■c S s <8 O CO I o Ph O OW iH ■» 0> ^' W ■«' t- 'C W O" Oi CO' » r-" s ^r-lr"iH i-IiHiHrH ^00 e^O« 0Cr»rHOf-t«t»l0'!»<«0rH0000C>O00 o ^ f-4iHOOoe40'x •♦■^^t-iH oM J -< K f« < O 0*03 0 > ■•A u U « H I >5 C H :^ o u s H 0 u 0 > /. E4 0 Q B < 7J 0 ^ -1) 0 S5 H «^ V, o 'O 5j !?; O HH H c« > (0 o M o > H o < t— 1 H U 0 < H < »=a •^ y U PM o H y H f- b< «<) O fft tt /; U -tl 5^ in O I-) 0 < K ?; >j >^ ^ < H •Wf«A ia»a«ninntpco^oe>iFioe>eoiN *f 00 3 M>0 pa M O -^ ^ '•• ^ ^ ^ "2 'uuimnv ' r- » - i'- o '^ in r i> io ■ri X 1- i •» «5 i m ■" rt ^ so ^t3 00 * >0 IH (- ^ !0 "i jsoiuins lO oo o £23 ©•a eic»':it-. e4a(ppi>-irb>9AO)iopo>h-oc^F-ao» ?» 9 9*' eo CO to Co •"1U1A\ OTlr-«OM'N^^l»»l-<'^F-i010J'3JOU)il ° -c p I— ^ Ti b 6> o 31 i •♦ ■^ M to » i j-. •'(■. i 00 T' 50 qa 1-* (-* .-^ cp -N H 9>i O a J3il(n33aa i^'>t«it^i/)^i^e4Mriof*>ocDot^cococo 00 b o 00 1- ei b J3qUI9AO|{ •jaqopo r~ini-no^eo;i<^>)fi>ne> «ocoMn^ijmnwci>«4SSnns3cSiNS ^r)^h-o:a>'£eo'Nao»iu;iAa999«A — M r- a IT. i^ b r. b »■- CO b 2 "'^ b «o 2 '* 2 *»• t^ Iph- O h>9« cptp >rt 1- 5C j> 00 TO ») 50 CO 60 60 ^ CO h-tpr-t do b I- h- J3qni3)da8 » i t- b li r- i b "O b ■* b Oi Jo '^ O! c^ i'~ o iaviOtOV>OkOU3usvs>o£u;)tciAiCicmtA S'n r« ^50 t~ b ID o too lAkO lOOUSO •IsnSnv •iCinf b b o 'o o b I- r- >o b r b o b ;g yj io !- b O3!•»^-73lO»*»^a ^ r- o 'ff OS ■/) •» ej a 2 b b b -H ^ cj rococo to CO ;o;oo:o •ounf 'nQeo»«pap9a!t-7i' (71 1-- CI * I- b -«■ f CI r*- CO b '-r- f^ iz h* b «." b C£ <0 O «A ;o o tc lA tO •Xbk F- <0 "I O O /■ -f "TI -M *0 "M ?1 t- I-* *»• 'f 'I' ft 'O c-Jc*; ph r-M -^ocooo llJdv f. !OX)iO:£-l>«'MQOOO!tC — -•(Da■l~Ol7^ ; so n b fi ■» -» 3: >o « -JS ic b I(N01>I^C3C-IW(M(NW7^04 ■A C4 P ?^ a f1 00 CO U) CO -f !-• (T b go b b irt ^voo ooo!* eoeocooo a r» w 00 a f^f^'^tQi c -*< ^ T- ^ oo - ■'* b 'iCtcnjqoj ujo-X'ocr-i.otsootooooop-'Caio coi-eo "iioo i«.«>ft3t •Xaunuflf r: uo M o CO r~ ao >o T. 'O ■♦ a CO p- CO X » « e^ b 71 -^ b b ci <^ b -t» i-i n i-t »-H rH CI &i O^ fri o — •12 eJ - £ to »5 3 = « - « " .tJ a . o — "3 01 ;= V O 3 3 aso> c •CO r.i I If II 11' 'k Hi 134 The Canadian Farmer's %» f I l^fii ^ i r 1^ |:: 11 IS i I! '4! IB ( V ■ I I 1;; '■ 11' ' '. 'iir . ill! » U4 "1 >H to § a O C5 ^ H 04 o o •?, •<5 to o ^ i-t m » §1 H 2 . OS M O Eh CO 05 H a) to H [4 to r-, P ^ £:J 5 '^ f^ 6 ^ S ^ K -'• tfl 2 I-] to H t3 o CO ^ to I-} t-H Oh o o to 5^ to to H < W « H to t- flU«SIII l|»|l|M IIKU) HJTI.t.f ■jiKiuiaxiaa((MiH MvaA r- 91 lO iH 11 00 lO irt lO « p K «■! lO •-< Ii r- R3 ■lOfimaa-jQ (^tCMp^^^i-ioxi-i'^^M^r-o ^c4x ''Oo >«x^ I3qUI.}A0}{ •wqopo ' "fi F" o> •* X M 'io 'c •'« i 00 oo M i> o >o ■>! o- 1- a b (i) ii a o » ioqoiavlss xn»QoSxn^xoDxxoo»ooaoS ooxi-> t>t~ xt-t-t- tsnSny o »i M Ti (O to 9» ■!-, TO >o X -N »(i CO ip •♦ ^. r» xxxoooSaoao6xAxao>xo6« *0> Ol

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» »»p ^op'^n «SSm 5 5 « »5 * S * ««« 5 "Sm * * 5 ■♦ •* * Moonn •jC«k IIJJV ^inni-i^.npK-»^m9>i7ir.pi»p ini--^ <)•♦ T. «?1«S5mSmm«S«mSotc^-ii< neon «w e4C^i-li;i^64r^0^^f-ii-4r-lf-lrHIM>-ie4 C^C^fH Clr-( pi^i-tf-^rH 'ipiBK ''iNOOWO'^uacOpF^^'jji^^r. C->MJO Olt^OO rneo PCI>I'*« I T 1 I 7 I 7 I I CM I ' 7 ' ' ' Till 'iCivnjqaj ■jtHJluref ' '^ ' '777 ' V '777V7 777 ^7 '^7' 1'- i^ o o i3i y> r- o lO J fH '?» If! »H 91 T I »-• T a ■ a ■ »i4 V 8 -a 15 -2 .§ a c-g o 3 3 .1* Ills' aofin* M jl' I. ' 'h ' 136 H ^ tn o ■< H L> a cy M O Q u» 'A < a >> (H ^ ri a n o V5 S a 'A u < » t- S5 o 3 ^ t^ ^ tn o o a '/I H o 5i5 a, in O X o H -t -^1 o hJ 5 f^ > o Pi H V3 ta O H o Q S^. 'O o Uj o fTl s o z, u t— 1 ?< ^1 H H-4 5^ ri < 0. (A H !^ I-; ^< <1 H T/itf Canadian Farmer's •II tJI JO I X2S ?58 99 3;8?a9 3 iimninv joiauiiig »>awciiia'MiiB«(0t>aot<«a«r-a«e« « OOOt 91i i«s;2s M I- *l »> 2.' - <« «J * l^ I- Ob -:8u|Jd8 •••I'MM J3quia»»(] ee O O <^ ■>! O O O O "" O O F" — -< O O 1-" o c ■ OOixOC Olio Mix « * »i « J3qai9AOM 5Si53;:t:^5!22^SSa33;SSR $0^ MlNO '4>US ^« -J3q(y)30 «o CO ai ^1 CO 00 '^ •*? 5^ 't^ ?^ f* ^ *>' ^ »• to •» »o fr» lO JO « ■* ~« 10 to ^-o J3qni3}d9S e>«no9i-i^s4e4e>3n'«nnMMM03nM ^ftnSnv •iCinf 'jotoo^«0>->''>nioc9>^coocaac

n iNweocQ^'N^'t-iiUiMritN'NeoiMrHe^Qg >i ^^^■-< — C0;Cf-<3i«iOiOr3 "f ^ •Bunf O O X) Cl O 7" p A /J r^ 1^ 7-1 ^ ^ ^ -ri O O ^ CO«^?M50PJWeHNff*'>IPi*OWi-t^'NeOW 5p o '.i fl X ip com not CO 00 kCi Vl tp ^ CO ^ii US CO f^ CO CO iC»w ^ ■?! h- t^- rH 93 ^ CO 9J »n 9> 1^- iM (N ^ ip ^ rl «p niciv f-«rr~b»r»t0O(O««DM p »< M « to J J « (o w w 1 I 2r- o W ^ •r f -" I [^ i(t -ir CO CO o «^ « c :■» I "P o f5 CO OJ t » 35 -ri » * > o-" £ ■» o a S H O V5 O H u) >^ O 'A O o O I < A " is b Cm Cm O M Q O O a: I •c I a ^ 2 I D s o * t- ^ ?roat attention throir^hont the lon;,'th and broadth of <^lroat Britain, and is now in almost univ(!rsal us(» for raising tur- nips in all the greater turnip-growirig parts of that (Country. Of late years it lias been looked upon with favour amongst the bettor class of Oanadian fanners. Long I eforo the advantages to bo derived from the use of well- crushed bones were generally known, many persons were aware of tiieir fertilizing properties. At lirst they were reduced to ashes by lire, but in this process there was great waste, for the oil and nutritive matter were considerably diminirihed by calcina- tion. Bones contain niore than Hfty-three per cent, of phosphate of lime, some j)hosphate of magnesia, carbonate of soda, and over seven per cent, of nitrogen. To the (piantity of phosphates con- tained is duo their principal value, for those .salts are largely removed by feeding cattle and the exhaustion of successive crops. Another way of reducing bones to powder has been to partially break them with a hammer, and then decompose them by the ertect of urine at the bottom of the farn>-yard. Mills nniy now be obtained at a reasonable price, in which to reduce the bones directly to powder, and by this plan nuu;h waste may be avoided. When l)one dust is u.>red for the turnip crop it is usually sown in the drills with the seed, or it may be s|)read to advantage, es- pecially with ashes, along the drill when the young turnip puts forth its virgin leaves. With regard to the durability of this manure, it has been asserted that on a field, part of which was boned forty years ago, the crops were on that ])ortion, during lifteen or sixteen years, visibly better than on the remainder, although the land was all of the same (juality, and the part not boned was manured with barn- yard dung. In another ca.se reported to the committee of the Doncaster Agricultural Association, about three acres of light sandy land were dressed in ISH with loO bushels of bones j)er acre, since which time the land is said to have never forgotten it, but is nearly as good again as the other part, faimed precisely in the same way, with the exception of the one ap|)lication of bones. Upon the lighter and more calcareous soils the benefits of bono dust are more maikcd and more permanent. This manure should be laid upon grass as early m the spring a« the land becomes dry. That bone manure has little or no effect upon wet land is gene- rally conceded. It has been affirmed that broken bones have a mechanical effect in loosening heavy soils, but I think that a less costly application, say chip manure, would be equally beneficial. Upon thin sandy land, a liberal application of bone manure will be of great advantage, not only to the immediately succeeding crop, but in the improvement of the land for many years, and in ■;1 ' 11 ;* .« I; t I" 140 The Canadian Fanv.er s m \\ 'i f * fi ?;)' V I- t-U !i 1 i\ $ ■: the elHcioncy, in the succoen on the part of the manufacturers, or moro often by the eai trees, and for general garden use, it va^y be used at the rate of three to live hundred pounds per acre profitably. The method recommended by Mr. A. Gordon, of Fitzroy, in the Co. of C'arleton — a Canadian farmer, is : — " The bones to be used should be broken as sriiall .is possible , they cannot be too small, as the smaller the pieces tl.'e greater the surface presented to the ac- tion of the atid, and consequently the more rapid and perfect will be the solution. Having broken the bones into pieces from one to two inches in length, ])lace them in a large cask or sugar hogshead, add a quantity of water sufficient to moisten the bones, and allow them to soak in it for three or four hours before adding the acid , if tlie water be boiling, so much the better , then add the I la f Manual of Agriculture. 141 ty of bones »y the selves uvers, la tine home, ilizing 11, so it •e they menta- l other aushels ?. heap ;erize'ied first to the bones, afterwards the acid. The reason of this io, that when undiluted sulphuric acid is poured upon the bones, violent action ensues, but continues only for a shorL time, as a coating of gypsum, which is the first new compound formed, covers the suriace of the crushed bones with a crust, which prevents the acid from coming in con- tact with the unaltered portions, and con.se({uently i)revents a perfect solution. But by ap{)l^ing the water first, and afterwards adding the acid, the action is com|)lete. This is strictly super- phosphate of lime. Caustic lye may be also used to dissolve bones, its action being, however, slower than that of sulphuric acid To accomf»lish this, a rough but tight box, not over eighteen inches deep, is needed. Procure sound, unleachedwood-iushes, mix a peck of slaked Inne and a peck of sal-soda to every barrel of dry ashos. Pack the ashe.s, &c., with the bones in layers (a.shes first) until the box is filled. Saturate the mass wiUi water, and add from time to time more water to preserve a constant state of mois- ture In four or six wrecks the bones will have beconje so much sof- tened that they wdl crumble to {)0wder with a slight blow. The mass may then be mixed up and beaten tine with a shovel, and an equal quantity of tine soil added and thoroughly intermingled. This compost is too strong for direct application to the seed, and in using it for corn some earth necils to be mixed with it previous- ly, If the quantity of ashes is increased, the {jrocess is i)roportion- ately hastened A corres|K)ndent of the Courdry Gentleman says : " Take a water-tight box or cask of a suitable size, and in the bottom j)Ut a la\er of ashes, say three inches in depth, then on this a layer of bones, and so on alternately until the cask is nearly or quite full, the last layer of bones being well covered with ashe.s. I then have my family pour upon this all the urine from the house every day, and on washing days pour on a quantity of the strong soap-suds. In a few nKmths this can be taken out with a shovel all dis- 80 ved, except it may be the large enamelled joint bones, which may have to be broken and put through another sweat in the like man- 1 ,i t "f 1^^ 142 The Canadian Farmer's < J 1 n l\ '^l. ! '■ i I, A.I r "I If 4 r nor. It is understood that the ashes mast be good hardwood aishos, unleacked, or the undertaking will prove a failure. There is one great difference to be observed in the a[»plieation of bones simply broken up and ground, and when reduced by strong acids. Bducs may be applied directly on the plant without fear in touching the seed, whilst superphospliate should be incorporated in the soil witliout actually coming in contact with the seed — foi tlie action of the latter is stronger, in that it is more ra|)id than that of bones in a natural state That the turnip has a great affinity for the ingredients of food contained in bone, we have ourselves seen very frequently illus- trated by the growth of a turnip root through a solid piece of broken bone. The value of bones as manure may be generally summarized as follows : — That on dry sands, limestone, chalk, and light loams, bones are a very highly valuable manure. That they may be applied to grass with great good effect. That on arable lands they may be laid on fallow for turnips, or used for any of the subsequent crops. That the best method of using them, when broadcast, is previous- ly to mix them up in a compost with earth, dung or other manures, and let them he to ferment That if used alone, they may either be drilled with the seed or sown broadcast. That bones which hnve undergone the process of fermentation are decidedly superior, in their immediate effects, to those which have not. That the quantity should be about twenty bu.shels of dust, or forty bushels of large, increasmg the quantity if the land be im- poverished, and also if the bones have been manufactured. That upon clays and heavy loams it does not yet appear that bones have any marked effect. Farmers, do not waste bones, but collect all you can ' Soot is another valuable manure, thousands of bu.shels of which are annually wasted in Canada alone. Soot is made up of carbon m the purest state, and is full of volatile parts. The soot from bituminous coal is generally considered of more value, weight for weight, than that obtained from wood. "This is an excellent manure, but, as in many other cases, one must know how to use it. It is, first, good for all fruit trees, for meadows overrun with moss, and for clover In the kitchen garden, reserve it for the onions. For other vegetables it is more hurtful than useful. Use it with moderation, in small quantities, soot produces good results ; in Manual of Agriculture. 143 Iwood cation ed by large, it disorganizes the plants burns and cauterizes them, eats l)()th leaves and roots. On a rainy day, give your soil a weak dose ; prudence says, mingle eaith and mud with it, Above all, do not make use of it in hot and dry weatlier." — La Gazette des Cam- pagnes SWAMP MUCK AS MANURE BY ITSELF. fiff'i nips, or We have spoken of the use of swamp muck as an auxiliary to the composite heap oi barn-yard manure It may alst' often be used with advantage by itself. Originally most of our swamps were lakes or large ponds. The accumulation of decaying vegeta- ble matter, however, giadually raised them, until they became in the half-dry and periodically wet state in which we now find them. A great depth of soil on these is composed of alluvial deposits and pure decayed vegetable matter. This is rich in the elements of plant food, but as a. manure is in its natural state next to useless^ owing to its acidity and the consequent fixed state of its most val- uable ingredients. In order then to render chese ingredients soluble to plant life, the acidity in muck must be corrected, and no agent is so power- ful for this purpose as lime. As we have before said, if near enough, it will often pay to haul into the barn-j'ard and there draw out in the compost heap all the vegetable food ./hich has for generations been preserved from entire decay by perpetual moisture ; but to use it by itself on land, it may be mariufiictured into manure upon the edge of the .swamp. Throw it up in heaps on the adjacent dry spots, and mix liber- ally with it, as it is piled, lime. The action of the lime shovelled into the muck will be to set up the action of fermentation. Its raj)idity will depend greatly upon season, and upon the state of decomposition in which the muck may be found. If u^ d on the soil, it will be found a powerful and lasting fer- tilizer, though its iclion win be far slower than that of barn-yard manure. In soils destitute of lime and alkalies, this muck will act very ?lowl • for when these ingredients do not exist in the land, the benefit of rotten wood or vegetables are purely mechanical. Theit ')re, even on stiff clays, it would have the effect of mechanually loosening the soil, although for that purpose it would hardly pay to go to the expense of manufacturing, hauling and spreading, when other substances, such as chips, &c., far more sffective to open up heavy land, could be obtained. It is peculiarly adapted to the use of light land, giving to such a greater consistency. Like charcoal, it absorbs moisture and retains it for the use of the growing plant I: il. IT. I 'I •! } f ?J , '\^ 144 The Canadian Farmer's II '• i: Depend upon it that, as a rule, money and labour laid out m the use of such additions to the consistency of light lands will pay better than when expended on more acres. "In a discussion before the Little Falls Club, Mr A. L. Fish stated that twelve years ago he drew out three thousand loads of muck, and a))plied it at the rate of tifty loads to the acre, pulverizing and mixing it with the soil. 'J'he result was good crops without fur- ther cultivation Two years later he drew out four thousand loads, and applied it at the rate of one hundred loads to the acre, spread with a plank to which was attached a tongue to hitch the team The land was planted to corn. After taking two crops from the land, it was put down in meadow, and it has produced at the rate of two tons of hay per acre ever since, though before the ap[>lication it did not yield one ton per acre. It did not act so quickly as manure, but was more lasting." — Rural Home. A good com[)Ost may be made in the pro|)ortion of three bush- els of lime to a cord of muck. If a peck of salt be added it will greatly help to correct the acidity and hasten the action of the manure upon the crop Muck is a good top-dressing for grass. If drawn ovit in winter and laid on wheat, it will not only help the wheat through the alternate frosts and thaws of spring, but be of great benefit to the growth of grass seeds. If it bvj required to use it for spring crops, it should be drawn out by sleigh and spread on the winter fallow. In these ways we may find lots of profitable work for ceam horses tJiat would otherwise be " eating their heads off " in winter. SAWDUST. This has been too often called valueless. Its value is not great, but where handy will often pay the hauling. We once saw a very good crop of potatoes growing on a patch of old pine sawdust, hat it was well rotted It should be heaped and well rotted. If is injurious to the land to plough it under, in any quantity, in a fresh state. Better use it foi bedding, and allow it to undergo a process of fermentation before using 'J'hus it will be found a valuable ad- junct to the manure pile for there is no better absorbent obtain- able. Hardwood sawdust is more valuable than that made from pine, It IS also useful spread upon the surface in the neighbourhood of the roots of trees — prevents the surface of the earth from crusting and retains moisture in the soil. It.'* action in this case is not manurial, but purely mechanical. On heavy soils it will also help to keej) +hem open It might help grass as a mulch, retaining moisture and protect- ing the roots through winter. Manual of Agriculture. 145 u the 1 pay stated ntiuck, g and it fur- usand e acre, ch tVie ) crops educed before t act so s bush- it will of the winter ugh the t to the e drawn From pint 3Uihood oi n crusting case IS not SEAWEI'.D. This is a valuable manurial agent, and is largely Used in coun- tries adjacent to the ocean. It is used in two ways : either it is gathered, spread and ploughed under when fresh, or piled in heaps and burnt. The ashes are rich in fertilizing elements, containing twelve per cent, of potash, twelve per cent, of soda, twenty per cent, of salt, ten per cent, of lime, five per cent, of phosphates, and twenty-four per cent, of sulphuric acid, besides a trace of chlorine. It is used by the Lower Canadians in great quantities along the shores of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, and by them is ploughed under green, or burned to ashes and spread broadcast, or aeposited in the potato hills. PEAT OR TURF AS MANURE. This is not of great value except as a top-dressing for grass, for which purpose it must be reduced to a finely divided state by a similar process and by the use of lime, as already given under the heading of " Swamp Muck for Manure." It is, however,far more useful in the barn-yard manure compost heap. TALLOW-CHANDLERS* REFUSE. This consists of the muscular parts and membranes of fat after it has been tried for lard. There is much animal matter in the scraps, and they contain about thirteen per cent, of ammonia, with no inconsiderable quantity of sulphur and phosphorus. As manure, it is generally broken up fine and composted with good muck ; about a hundred pounds to a cord of muck ; after l)ecoming well heated, the heap requires to be turned over and well mixed. It may be applied with advantage to almost any crop. HOUSE-SLOPS Should never be wasted. Not only are they when thrown promiscuously out of doors a source of annoyance and a well- spring of noxious odours, but there is contained in them a large amount of good manure. Pour them daily on a compost heap, or, after free dilution with water, apply directly to garden crops, peach trees, &c. WOOL WASTE, Such as drops from the carding machines of woollen factories, is a rich fertilizer, being saturated with grease or oil, and is used to 10 I ?i ■icn 146 The Canadian Farmer's < i i fr^l)' {!:• I.!!" ' a great extent, mixed with ashes and lime, in England, by hop glowers. The mixture ifl worth, on most soils, more than ordi- nary ashes. HAIIl Contains a large amount of nitrogen, and is therefore a rich fer- tilizer. It decomposes in the soil very lowly, and so its results are not very marked, but they are lasting. It is several times more enriching than common barn-yard manure We see the farmer who does not believe in books, sneer when we advi.se him to save carefully all the combings from the teams. Such a little matter to look after ! We wish the farmer to try it ; he will be astonished at the amount collected from a few teams in a season's grooming. LEAVES Of particular vegetables are the best manures for those vegeta- bles, because they contain more or less of the special ingredients of food required by them individually. This is nature's law, and requires no special knowledge of chemistry to appreciate They are, when handy, well worth collecting. In the barn-yard they will be found valuable as absorbents of liquid manure, besides containing in themselves great manurial qualities. The value of the leaves from hardwood trees is greater than from pines. These matters when viewed singly are small, but in the aggre- gate an immense amount of addition of valual)le material may be made to the "farmer's bank" — the manure pile — by attention to these minor details " Monj^ a mickle maks a muckle," the Scotchman says. The ashes of leaves will be found largely composed of soluble salts, earthy phosphates and carbon, also a very large amount of silica, the straw-supporting requisite for cereals. ASHES. Amongst miieral manures there are few of greater im- portance to the farmer than ashes. All ashes may, in one man- ner or another, te made of great use upon the farm. The ashes of coais and cinders are of benefit in a mechanical way by loosening and making friable tenacious soils, whilst the}' render light soils more compact. In Canada, in the country, wood is the fuel ; farmers therefore have the means of collecting every year large quantities of wood ashes. By chemical analysis it is found that wood ashes contain Manual of Agriculture. 147 in large [)roportion most of the more essential elements necessary to plant life, with the exception of ammonia. On the European continent the value of a.shes and their power- ful oll'ect, especially upon young clover, are fully recogniztsti. In Germany, grass lands are kept in a high state of j)iuf i I 148 The Canadian Farmer's ( I H' H I ; ^ ! j i 1 1 1 , i ■ 1^ i 1 1 !i|l S •'■; -, ii :'h 1 thus we shall secure a more liberal application of each of these valu- able but differently constituted manures. Wood-anhes are so valuable to the farmer that it becomes a penny wise and pound foolish ])roceeding to sell them for the penny bars of inferior soap which are often received in exchange from the {)eddling ash-man. Let us rather keep our ashes for our own use ; it will in the long run pay far better. Good wood-ashes weigh about fifty pounds to the bushel---o' this Gf lbs. are soluV)le in warm water. We find in the Boston Journal of Chemistry, the edito! o' which is also a practical farmer in New p]ngland : " Of the soluble constituents of unleached wood-ashes there are little more than 4^ pounds of potash and soda, the remainder being the sulphuric, muriatic and carbonic acids, with which the alkalies are combined. Forty-three pounds are insoluble in water, and consist of . Carbonate of lime 32 pounds- Phosphate of lime. Carbonate of magnesia Silicate of lime Oxides of iron and manganese a 4 3 1 43 In leaching, the only change in ashes is in removing the soluble portions and adding about one pound of quicklime per bushel. There is not much change in bulk, but considerable addition to the weight from the quantity of water absorbed. As to the commercial value of the ashes before and after they are leached, it is said : In the dry state, 4ilb8. of potash and soda are worth G cents per lb 27 ct8. Other soluble constituents 3 32 lbs. Carbonate of lime 3 3 •' Phosphate of lime 6 3 " Silicate 0 Iron and manganese 0 This estimate gives the value per bushel of unleached ashes at thirty-nine cents. By leaching, thirty cents of the commercial value is removed ; this leaves a bushel of leached ashes worth nine cents for its fertilizing constituents, though there should be also added silicates, which, having no commercial value, are useful as plant food. A bushel of unleached ashes judiciously employed will return in most seasons sixty or seventy cents worth of produce. The leached ashes are also worth more to the farmer than nine cents per bushel. A good, honest bushel of moist leached ashes will give a return to product for the first year of fifteen or twenty cents. Manual of Agriculture. 149 -■■i. These estimates are only rough ones, but still atfortl some clue to the relative agricultural values of leached and unleached ashes. Something also depends upon the nature of the land upon which they arc applied, being peculiarly beneficial to the lighter soils, especially such as have been deprived of phosphates. Spread round trees they are of special beneht, not only as ma- nure, but also as destructive to insect life. One of the most efficient applications is found to be on potato hills. We find reported the following remarks from Mr. Quimby, at a meeting of the Rochester Farmers' Club, on the value of leached ashes ; they may well be read with care by those who are fond of speaking of the utter worthlessness of ashes after leach- ing : — " Leached ashes are good for all crops ; for corn in the hill, and especially valuable as top dressing for wheat and clover fields, and meadows generally. During the past three years he had drawn 10,000 bushels on his farm, which he spread on land at the rate of 200 to 300 bushels per acre. He had covered forty acres in this way, and meant to ash the entire farm. They had doubled his wheat crop and wonderfully increa.sed his crop of grasses, especially clover. Land which had been run down too much to seed with clover, produced heavy crops when ma- nured with leached ashes. He got a good catch of clover where he appiied leached ashes last year on his wheat and rye, while the balance was a failure. He could see a great difference in the growing wheat where the land was manured with ashes and where it was not." A successful orchardist being frequently asked how he made his apple trees grow so fast, replied, " I give them plenty of soap-suds and ashes ; so the potash manures them,renders them luxuriant and kills insects." The same says also : " From one-fourth of an acre of ground I raised last year (1869) sixty- five bushels of potatoes, which was a remarkable yield for an unfavourable season." The secret of this product was a liberal manuring with ashes and soap-suds. "A Subscriber" sends us the following as his experience in using wood ashes, viz., tliat in quantities of only eight bushels per acre they have a marked effect ; that they push the wheat forward several days, thus getting it ahead of that critical period when it is so apt to be attacked by rust ; that they strengthen the stem and increase its solidity. The very best time to spread ashes, regardless of season, is as soon as they can be procured ; they can be spread at once from the waggon or sleigh in which they are hauled as easily as at any other time, and one time is almost as good to apply them as another ~te. on grass lands — although we individually prefer fall and win- ter. " Having made this season some experiments with hardwood ■I m 1 1 k I vl^i 1 If ,1 'I M •H 1^ loO The Canadian Farmer's ashes and bone pliospliato, Hide hy sidn, on potatoes, f take tlio li- berty to send the results obtained toyoiirexeiilient rainiing journal. "The experiments were made on about half an acre of Karly Rose potHt(*es, in the tbliowini^ ni.iinicr : In two rows, wh«-n planted, I put ibout )ne ijjill of phosphate ; in n(!Xt two, the seed was planted w'thout any fertilizei in the hill , in two lows next to these, I put one gill of liardwood ashes in the hill, and thus this operation was repeated on the pieee. Tlu' rows that were served with phosj)hate came up first, and lool ed the be.st the fore pait of the season ; but the latter part, the rows containing ashes were ahead The rows that had to depend on nature alone were vi- sible for a long distance, owing to a smaller growth of tops The land was loamy, and bore })otatoes last season, c(»nsequently not in very lich condition to produce heavily. " I dug the potatoes -i few t and the most in (piantity ; the rows in which phosphate was put produced a fair (piantity, but they were not so smooth and large as the row i ontaming ashes , the rows that simply drew their nourishniunt from the soil alone, [iroduced quite a (piantity, but nearly one-half of the potatoes were too sinal' > cook. Planted two bushels .md one peck of seed ; dug twei. y-seven bushels of cooking p tatoes muJ seven bushels of small ones " J have used ashes, both leached and unleached, for several years, and find that unleached |)ay me pretty welloh corn, potato, wheat, &c. I can buy good hardwood aslie.-. for tw<'nty-tive cents per bushel, while phosphate costs from one dollar fifty to two dol- lars lifty i>ei' bushel showmg, if ashes will produce as heavy a crop as pliosphate, a large balance in their favour." — C(i'lo^,in Country Gentleniaii. PLASTER OF PARIS — GVPSUM, OR SULPHATE OF LIME. " Gypsum," ' Sulphate of Lime, or, as it is generally known, " Plaster of Paris," is used greatly, and with usually beneficial re- sults, by the majority of our Canadian farmers. Th<^ fertilizing powers of this nianure upon certain crops and on certain soils have been very favourably reported upon by many eminent Ameri- can and British agriculturists The name " Plaster of Paris" was given when gypsum first came into u,eneral notoriety, from the fact that large beds were found and worked in the hill of Montmartre, near Paris The analysis of gypsum shows it to contain, of Par' a. Pure calcareous earth or lime, about 80 or 3.3 Sulpliuric acid 82 " 43 Crystallized water 38 ' 24 100 100 art |||,:;:l Manual of J^ncuUure. 161 Its dirtiolution in watoi, owing to the piesctno of n largo propor- tion of .suli)Iiunc acid, is a rocessof siowafconipli.Mliment, reiiuir- ing from tour liiunln'd and Mfty to five hundred times its own wcij^ht of water, ll,'* [)urity varies in diti'erejit beds, and hence chemi.sts have not wt II agreed in their i- npoetive nnalytical re- ports. A ffoiul test of its purity is ohtained thus: Put the ground pow(kn' in nn iron pot ah)no, over the fire ; when it 'h»- conies heated it will give out a strong sulphurt'oiJs smell, accom- panied by a 'apid bubbling; if this ebullition is brisk, and the substance wni achnit of a straw in ing thi'Usi witheaso to the bot- tom, it may be considered pure. Tracjs of the di.seovery of gypsum art' discerned in the writings of the ancients; but not until the last centviries were i(s proper- ties generally known in Europe At that time some ox[)eriments of its use were reported on by eminent (Jerman agriculturists to the Economical Society of Berne, in Switzerland, when it rapidly s|)read over that country, France, and many othei- |)arts of Europe. It was, however, in America that its merits became most g.ner- ally recognized. Indeed, it was exported to Am* rica in iiw^G (juantities, ;ind from the Delaware; was convoyed us much as one hundred and fifty miles by hind carriage, until discovered in the State of New York. The stone, wlicn ground to powder, produces from twenty to twenty-five bushels per ton. Experiments were made in England of the relative values of [)laster simply ground and when (taleined. It was thought that by burning, much of the water conti. ned might be ex|)elled, and thus the propoitionate weight bo gt-atly reduced The watei' caiuiot, however be expelled from the ulphuric acid except by the most violent heat, and thus the attempt was found [>ractically useless, and was consecpiently abandoned ; al.so, experiments upon the use of plaster when calcined |)roved that there was an almowt imperceptille difference between its efiects when burned and when simply ground Upon our light and sandy soils the effect of gy[)sum seems to be most rapid and histing, and in Canada \s •• find thai the farmers on the lighter soils apply it more generally than tho.se on the clay lands. Upon wet land this manure has little or no effect. The growth of young clovei is very materially quickened by a good to]i-dressing of plaster, and its benefits are nn re particularly ob- servable in its application to all leguminous plants This manure, like lime, is a stimulant. We have seen it used on fall wheat with various results. No doubt, it stimulates and starts a young wheat crop, but it also gives the young plant an unnatural push, which weakens its strength, and thus materially reduces its power of standing a long and severe winter. Its apitlication in the spring on winter wheat i II i-\ '( I /, If 1 ! ■I II 162 The Canadian Farmer's we believe to be of great benefit. Not only does it push forward and revivify the young wlioat phmt after its long torpor, but it is upon the ground for the benefit of the clovisr crop. Its exact monns of action upon the growing plant yet remain.s clouded in much doubt and uncertainty. It is very generally supnosed that its effect is due to its power of attaching moisture to the plant upon which it rests. Sir Humphroy Davy, however, contradicts this, for he says that even allo^ving gypsum to have a fjreat attraction for water, yet the same substance, owing to the arge proportion of sulphuric acid, also totains its moisture most strongly, and therefore would give it off very slowly indeed to the leaves and roots of plants with which it may be brought into con- tact. Moreover, this great chemist denies the fact that gypsum has a strong attraction for water, and gives the following experi- ment in support of such denial : One and a half ounces of gyp- sum were exposed for three foggy nights to the air, and on the third night, being weighed carefully, it was found that the increase was not (juite half a grain. It has also been urged that, when applied to clover just before rain, its effects were not perceptible. No doubt this has been owing simply to the fact that the rain has washed it off the plants into the ground, where its effects upon the plant by the root would not be so observable, because not so rapid; and yet it is well known that that part of the field upon which it has been spread invaria- bly retains the dew for some time longer in the morning than those parts upon which gypsum has not been laid. Even with these contradictory reports and opinions before us, we may, at any rate, be certain that its benefits are great upon many crops — wheat, spring grain, corn, turnips, — but more especi- ally upon clover and the grasses. For our own part, we consider that in this very power of retaining moisture consists tiie great value of gypsum as a top-dressing in this country. When all other sources from which moisture may be drawn fail the plant, the gypsum is giving out its moisture, very slowly it is true, but in sufficient quantities to keep the plant supplied, and growing from dew to dew and from rain to rain. In England, where they do not often sufl'er from a too dry atmosphere, the opi- nions of farmers upon the use of gypsum are very varied, and it does not seem to have anything like as proportionate a value as it has upon this our drier continent. At one of the regular meetings of the Ancaster Fanners' Club, last winter, when speaking on -the subject of plaster, brought for- ward in an able essay by a gertleman of that locality, although some difference of opinion appeared to exist as to the time of application and the immediate action of this manure, yet the im- mense benefit to be derived from a generous use of gypsum on many crops, and more especially upon clover, was most cordially il Mi Manual of Agriculture. 163 ondoFHod, and proved by reports of diH'orciit iixperimbi. jj by tho majority of the njost succoHsful fiirinerH in tlmt locality. On tho fiint^ of application the Cdtiadd Farmer says: " There is irroat diversity of opinion in rej^ard to the best time to sow piaster. .Mu(!h will depend on the «tato of the weather during the sen .on. If the Hpnng is dry and warm, early wowing would be l>ost, say jih soon os the clover leaves are expanded. If wet, cold, or backward, it would l)0 best to defer sowing till dry, warm weather sets in." From one and a half to two bushels of plaster is a fair dressing for clover. Plaster, it is said by some practical farmers, is hard (»n land, (jlrowth is hard on land, and nothing can be said more truly in favour of tho use of plaster to iniirease growth tlum to assert that " it is hard on land." But the farmer should remember that he not only sows pla.ster to increase his crop of clover for ha}', but also to make a better growth to })lough down. That if he increases the growth of his corn fodder, hay, &c., he may thereby also increase the size of his heaps of bain-yard manure. Practical men tell us that they can sow plaster on a Held of clover in the shape of their written name, and the writing will be plainly marked by a rank dark growth, and we believe them. Our best Indian corn rai.sers always use |)laster, and it is found beneficial on trees, vines, vegetables, potatoes, turnips, &c., &c., and upon all grain. Salt, for the use of the land, has now for many years occupied the attention of leading agriculturists, and many and various have been the results deduced from fretpiont carefully conducted experi- ments in different parts of the world. These results have varied upon different soils, and under difi'orent conditions as to climate and modes of application. Owing to the several forms in which salt has V)een discovered, there has arisen a difficulty among scientific men as to calling it a mineral, but we shall not be far astray when we class this product among the mineral manures. Salt, as a stimulant, is various in its action, according to the mode and quantity of its application. If u.sed in great quantities, it has a tendency, like lime or any other energetic stimulant, to destroy and rapidly di.sorganize all vegetable matter with which it may come in contact. When, however, this substance is used moderately, or mixed with compost, its action is that of a gentle stimulant, giving incrofised vivacity to the vessels of the plant, even as it does to those of the human body, consequently promot- ing vegetation and acting as a useful manure. Upon a naked fallow it has been recommended in large quanti- 111 1 •}l 154 The Canadian Farmer's t ] ■ ;i ■ '. V- 1 3 '<' ' n , lU 4 I M ^'i i.r iii II ;l' ii 5 I.! \i ' ties, in order to hasten the decomposioion of any existing vegetable matter or putrescent manures. Its effect is in this case precisely siniilar to that of lime, and its quantity, when ap))lied to fallow thus, will have so far diminished by incoi-poration with the soil by the time that grains are sown, as to act u[)on the crop with moderate stimulating power. Salt is plei tiful in Canada, and it is a matter of regret that we have not more practical experiments on record as to its use for manure from our fariners, especially those in the neighbourhood of Goderich and salt-producing parts of the country. Salt supplies soda and chioi'ine to vegetation, and is capable of entile absorption by the growing f)lant. Tt also iml'ibes water very freoly, and retains it for the use of vegetation — keeping the soil with which it is brought in contact in a moist state. It renders soluble many of the earthy salts contained in the soil, and, as it is very penetrative, finds its way rapidly down to assir,t in the decomposition of deep-lying vegetable matter. It is also a corrector of acidity and dissolves silica , for the latter reason, it cannot but be of use to the stiffening of straw Its effects seem to be of little use on heavy lands. This, how- ever, reouircs more test from actual experiment ere it be made a positive a.ssertion. If added to dung, it, like lime, hastens fermentation, but docs not, as the latter, let fre:- ammonia and other volatile parts of barn-yard maruire. When in combination with Plaster of Paris, it forms and sets free soda and sulphuric acid. By the tables on pp 132 and 137 it will be found that both swedes and mangolds require a large amount of salt in their composition. And experiments made in England under Dr. Voelcker go to show an immense increase in these crops, as the result of bbenil ap))lications of salt When applied, the rate generally recommended is from five to ten bushels per acre — a wide variation, but opinions on the benefi cial iniluence of this article differ as widely It would appear that salt is particularly effective on wheat crops, when incorporated by cultivation with the seed bed. Lime. — All matters which, Avhen aj)plied to our soils, increase their fertility either by mechanical action or by the sui)})lying of certain elements of plant food, may be fairly considered under the head of " Manures." Lime may, then, be termed a " calcareous manure," and is often of great benefit to our soils. By the dis- coveries of science, and the experience of practical men in the ap- plication of those discoveries, we have iearne'^ the gi-eat usefulness of lime as a manure. Lime may Ite used in one of two states — quick or slaked. After limestones have been subjected for some time to the action of in- tense heat, they burn into a substance very caustic, and having Manual of Agriculture. 155 an immense efT&et in causing the rapid dccomj)osition of vegetable and animal bodies. This substance is quick time. If water be applied to this quick lime, or if it be simply exposed to the air, it loses with more or less rapidity, according to which [)rocess be adopted, much of its caustic or burning power, and becomes " slaked " or " effete." Now, the difference between quick and slaked lime is simply in rapidity of action upon substances with which they may be brought in contact — the former hastening deconii)osition much more rapidly than the latter. When the object of an appbcation of this manure is to destroy and hasten the rottmg of vegetable or animal matters, the quick lime has the best effect. The action of lime is almost entirely mechanical, although it does directly impart a certain element of food to plants, as is proved by chemical analyses, in that calcareous earth is found in the ashes of all vegetables, and ^n large quantities in those of wheat or clover in 100 parts ot wheat straw there are ibund 5 |)arts, and in wheat 3J3o parts, of phosphate of lime. On the other hand, seeds planted in a ])ot of carbonate of lime will gi-ow very feebly — in clear lime, will die Partly fill with garden mould and cover over with lime, and the plant will put down its roots through t^o lime to the mould, without throwing out branch rootlets until it arrive at the mould. Great care must be used in the application of this manni-e, for it has different effects upon diffei'ent soils and under different con- ditions. These conditions are so contrary, that while in many cases lime has been shown to have a most beneficial effect, in others its application has been fatal to all vegetable growth. Lime has a strong affinity for acids. Its .-..[.lit.ition to land, therefore, is beneficial in the following ways ; It either renders harmless or converts into usefulness substances lodge to my neighbours ; but as only a few had any turnips, and fewer slIU had lost them, they had not had an opportunity of witnessing the result produced by a turnip crop frozen in and used as a manure." Buckwheat may be used in certain cases as a ploughed down green manure to great advantage. The feitilizing power is not so great as that of clover, nor is the raising of buckwheat for a manure as practical or profitable on ordinary land as clover. But, owing to the coarseness of its stem, it may be often used in this way very effectually upon heavy clay lands ; such as, from want of careful cultivation, have run to- gether and become closely compacted. The big coarse straw keeps apart the atoms of soil, and thus admits air and thorough percolation of water ; while the slowness of its decomposition keeps the land thus opened for a long time, and gives every opportunity for making io friable by thorough cultivation. The ground, to be generally benefited by the application of green manures, should be capable of bringing them forth with such an abundance as to produce a complete shade to the surface during their growth, and a large enough mass of vegetable matter to cause rapid and constant fermentation when buried by the plough. By this means we secure two desirable results — an increased amount of fodder or pasture, and a great bulk of rich manure of a very fertilizing nature. Where the green manure system is adopted in Canada, the opera- tion should be repeated so often that at no time, in the course of a rotation, should the decaying vegetable mass be imperceptible in our soils. FIELD CROPS. " The autumn fields are fringed with gold. The autumn breeze is sighing ; The swallows flit to foreign climes, The summer flowers are dying ; " The lanes are strewn with falling leaves, The sky is overclouded ; The pattering rain falls ceaselessly, The lake with mist is shrouded ; — " All, all around us Nature seems To weave a web of sorrow, And winter comes with stealthy pace, To deeper shade the morrow ; Manual of Agriculiure. 163 'I "Yet Hhall the autumn's gloomy days, Aiul wintur'R ilceper aadness, Prepare the coming of the «prinjj, And summer'H brighter gladnetia." Wheat. — Wheatshouldover be thekeyatone of Canadian farming. To bring his land up to a condition Ht for the growth of hirge and abundant crops of wheat, should be the object of the agriculturist. The food of the world depends n\)on the growth of wheat ; and we find that when wheat is plentiful, all manufactures flourish, and nothing has the same power to affect general markets as have the ri.se and fall of the demand and supply of bread — the staple of life. Canada is essentially a wheat-producing country. Her climate and soil are well adapted to the growth of this cereal, and she hjis at command great facilities for placing hergi-ain upon the markets of the world. There was a time when wheat grew and flouri.shed in Canada without any uncertainty ; when crops were grc. I and diseases unknown. The rich virgin soil, formed by the decayed vegetable matter of countless years, appeared to be inexhaustible. The surface had " but to be tickled with the plough to laugh into a crop." But year by year the natural richness became exhausted. Nothing was returned to the land, and the soil in the older parts was taxed to that extent, that its productive power fell to a low ebb indeed. So debilitated at last became the farms, that their produce was weakened, disease and parasites stepped in, and com- pleted the downfall of wheat IVoui the category of successful and paying crops. Yet our soil is of that superior nature, and our climate so well suited to the wants of the wheat plant, that Canada is capable of producing as heavy crops of wheat, acre by acre, as the best culti- vated lands of the old countries or the vir'rin prairies of America. N(/t only has our soil, in the more civilized parts, been worn out, but the seed has also greatly degenerated — become {)rone to disease, and fallen a victim to the attacks of the parasite. The Canadian farmer, if he would see his land produce a paying crop of wheat, must look well to its cultivation and to the nature of the seed employed. We have just recovered from a fearful visitation by "the midge;" let it be awarning to the slovenly, for assuredly our crop was rendered more subject to its baneful influ- ences by weakness of the soil, deterioration of seed and the con- sequent inability of the plant to grow rapidly and stoutly in spite of " midgeJ' We regret to have seen, in more than one number of the English agricultural press, accounts in disparagement of the wheat grow- ing capabilities of Canada. Writers on the world's production of t. ■|: r-.jMi "^^1^ ^i W'' Mi up , .^1 J] -' ('. I 1'^ m it r si » :i i ^ ^! ■ ( 164 The Canadian Farmer's breadstutf have of late years, looking at our rcturn.s, had too much reason to assume that we cannot produce a supply adequate to our area and population. 'i'liis is not, however, the fault of the capahilities of our soil and climate, but of the carelessness of the cultivator. The soil is now gradually coming back to her primeval strength, and in the hands of many of our more intelligent practical farmers, crops are yearly increasing per acre. Hasten the day when we shall stand where we ought, at tl.e head of the wheat-producing nations of the world' None doubt the quality of our produce, May the time arrive qui(!kly when qunntity shall be cnmuionsurate with ({unlity! ^i I Canadian stands at the head of tiour brands in the Liver- pool maikets. Many an old farmer can tell us of the times when Canadinn soil has yielded thirty, forty, and even fifty bushels per acre. We arc afraid the average to-day is hardly up to twenty bushels per acre. We must raise more crop per acre, or our farms cannot pay a fair intisrest on capital invested. When we raise better crops per acre, the capitalist will think of investing in agriculture. In England, wheat has averaged for the last tifteen years about one dollar and a half per l)Ushel, with labour at, say, forty or fifty cents per day, while in Canada the j)rices have been, of wheat about one dollar, and of labour from eighty cents to a dollar per day. There will in the future be little fear of wheat falling below an average of one dollar and twenty-live cents per bushel, for the increa.sed cir ulation of money and the rapid multiplication of the population of the North American Continent will keep up the value of Canadian wheat, while increased facilities of cultivation and of exportation will cause an ever-increasing demand. Continental sunnner heat carries wheat and corn far north in America, while a winter of some severity seems to be demanded for the best class of wheat all over the world. Canada and parts surrounding them owe much to the beneficial effects of the great lakes, which equalize the naturally changeable climate of these portions of North America. These lakes absorb solar heat during the very hot months, and give it forth to the use of surrounding territory when there is a deficiency of warmth upon the land. Fall Wheat is divided into two general species — red and white. The red varieties are generally more hardy, and are less subject to the attacks of rust and insects than the white. The outer husk ir» of a coarse nature, varying in degree in proportion to the humidity of the soil. It is therefore less valuable to the miller, but of late years has been more productive, because more hardy, than the white sorts in Canada. Manual of JgricuHure. 166 It will bo found, attacks of midge and disease set nsidc, that the red or hard varieties o ^/. ^? ^e. 2 / Photographic Sciences Corporation i\ ■ )< ■,lHfi ':«'.: ?;•£ iKil fi idea that shrunk seed is as good as plump, fair seed, is very erro- neous. To plant the shrivelled corn from the unmatured ears would do as well. The absurd idea that wheat occasionally turns to chess has moet astonishingly gained credence among many far- mers. This is- physically impossible, and must have been a fabri- cation of some slovenly farmer, to excuse himself for his negligence in not procuring and sowing clean seed. Equally marvellous is it that some farmers attribute the cause of smut to its being sowed in the waning of the moon ; others to a cloudy day or a dewy morning ; others to a mealy bag, or pestilential hand from which it is thrown. These are idle whims ; idle as the transmutation of wheat to chess. Smut in wheat is natural to most climates and soils in North America, and I believe as far as the cultivation ol' wheat extends. This cereal has a strong inclination to smut in low vegetable soils. " To prevent the destructive effects of smut and the wheat in- sect, one process is a remedy for both. The application of a solu- tion of lime is too common to need explanation. A pickle of salt mixed with ashes is also applied in a similar manner, and answers the same valuable purpose. I think a still more convenient and sovereign remedy is lye from wood ashes, sufficiently strong to amalgamate with oil. Every farmer makes his own ashes, and in that respect it is not only a convenient, but an independent pro- cess. It may be drawn from the leach during seed time at plea- sure, and mixe(i in a tub or other convenient vessel, by pouring on the lye and Stirling it with a broad stick, or even the hand, till the grain is completely tinctured and turns yellow, and the husk will clean from it by rubbing it in the hands. It is then pre- pared for sowing, and five pecks to the acre, from the 1st to the 20th of September, are sufficient." Whatever may have been the nature of wheat forty years ago, the present experience of practical men is against the ul3 of old wheat for seed. Of the application of manure for wheat we have fully spoken in the chapters devoted thereto. The mulching of fall wheat may, however, be sometimes found advantageous as a protection to the roots and as against winter- killing. On tops of hills liable to kill by exposure to winter, we have found mulching to have an excel ent effect, but it 13 rather an ex- pensive operation over a whole field, unless, indeed, the mulching be used as the regular dressing of manure to the crop. Mr. Henry H. McAfee, farm superintendent of the University of Wisconsin, furnishes the Western Farmer with the results of his experiments on the university farm, which are as follows : "Experiment No. 1, Series 1871. — Twelve thousand one hundred and forty-one square feet of ground wore sown broadcast with Manual of Agriculture. twenty-nin^ pounds of White Touzelle winter wheat, on Septem- ber 10th, 1870, NoveiTiber 26th, coarse straw manure was spread over the wheat, pretty thoroughly covering it. July 8th, 1871, cut ; July 10th, bound and shocked ; July 14th, stored in barn ; gross weight, one thousand one hundred and ninety-one pounds; August 10th, threshed with flail ; clean grain, three hundred and ninety-two pounds ; weight per stricken bushel, fifty-nine and three-quarter pounds ; yield per acre, 2338 bushels. Tiie clean grain was thirty-two per cent, of the gross weight ; yield for each pound of seeu sown, 1351 pounds. Quality, No. 1, large grain, white. "Experiment No. 2, Series 1871. — Thirteen thousand one hundred and thirty-eight square feet of ground were sown with twenty-nine pounds Red Soisette winter wheat broadcast, same date as Experiment No. 1, and treated the same throughout. Gross weight, one thousand two hundred and eighty-seven pounds; clean grain, three hundred and ninety-nine pounds ; weight per stricken bushel, sixty-one and a quarter pounds ; yield per acre, 22'01 bushels. The clean grain was tv/enty-three per cent, of the gross weight. Yield for each pound of seed sown, 137t) pounds. Quality, No. 1, large grain, red. "The results of the experiments would have been more conclu- sive aad similar tracts been planted and left un mulched, to test the usefulness of a mulch for winter grain more fully and fairly; but the favourable results of these expeiiments, though not conclu- sive, are yet encouraging, and from former experiments with straw and long manure as a mulch for winter wheat, I feel sanguine that by this means a fair crop of grain may be raised, at least two years out of every three. I believe it fair to recommend to farmers generally, to try winter wheat in limited quantities with a reason- able winter protection. Care should be exercised not to get the mulch too thick in spots, as that cause killed out quite a lot of the young plants in the above experiments. " The variable character of our winters prevents uniform results with most experiments in winter mulching wheat fields, but the average benefit is so decided in all places exposed to severe winds, that it should be adopted as an uniform practice at such places. There are two remedies for the great drawback known as winter- killing : under-draining and mulching. The former is the cure on low, wet spots ; the latter on exposed knolls. Some years ago, when the Mediterranean was the variety of wheat most sown, we directed a tenant farmer to spread a thin dressing of the surplus straw ever a field of wheat, leaving one uncovered strip, by way of experiment and comparison. But he was negligent, and spread but tvvo strips with straw. This was done early in winter, after the ground had frozen hard, and before snow had fallen. The winter proved severe, with but little snow ; and the result with ri ■I ill m li'i Jk 172 The Canadian Farmer's )> aw i ! \ 1 \ i w 1 ■ i:! I; ft p( ll'JI' this field was, that the mulched portion yielded the following sum- mer at the rate of about twenty-five bushels per acre ; the rest ol the field, fully exposed, was not worth harvesting This, of course, was an unusual and extreme case ; but the frequent liability to severe injury from full exposure, which would be prevented by a covering enough to protect the baie ground from the sharp cutting winds, renders it wise to ensure the crop, when practicable, by a suitable covering, even with varieties of grain less likely to be winter-killed than the old Mediterranean. " A modification of the course here indicated consists in substi- tuting manure for straw. This is especially beneficial on the poorer portions of the field, or on knolls, which not only need pro- tection from winds, but which would be improved by the additional enriching thus received. The common practi{!e of top-dressing wheat fields with manure after ploughing the last time in autumn, and before the final harrowing, is especially beneficial by way of enriching the soil ; and it also affords a slight protection ars a mulch. But if the early autumn application has been omitted, or has been insufficient, a thin coating of manure early in winter imparts a double benefit, as already explained. The soluble por- tions of the manure soak into the ground ; and early the follow- ing spring, the fine pulverization of the lumps of manure and of the crusted soil, by means of a suitable harrow, together with one or two subsequent harrowings, we have found has increased the wheat five bushels and upwards per acre ; while the new bed of fresh earth has induced the best catch of the clover seed, even if sown a month later than usual." — Tiie Cultivator. Seed. — Much depends in the production of a good crop of wheat upon the seed sown. Imperfect seed may germinate , plants from such will appear to grow well at first, but they will have a sickly and imperfect growth, which will be especially observable when coming into flower, and the grain will be small in quantity and of inferior quality Under the same conditions of soil, climate and cultivation, it will be found an unchangeable law of nature that the most per- fect seeds will produce the best crop. No seed can produce a healthy plant unless it is the result of a strong and healthy plant itself, and unless it be so fresh that its power of germination is unimpaired Good seed may be recognised by its plumpness and size, its glossy surface and the absence of odour. Plumpness and weight will assure us that it is the produce of a healthy and vigorous plant ; glossiness of the surface shows it to be healthy ; and an absence of odour or mustiness proves that it is fresh, and its germinating power is unimpaired. A change of seed is m nearly all cases beneficial. The change Manual of Agriculture, 173 should, if possible, be invariably made from ott'a poorer to a richer soil, and from a light to a heavy soil. We have never in practice been in the habit of, nor would wo in print advise, the giving of extortionate jjrices for every new- fangled wheat which, under some tine name, and advertised in fancy-coloured circulars by enterprising seedsmen, is brought be- fore the notice of the farmer ; but good seed should always be obtained, and there are always men in the community who are especially noted for their painstaking care in the selection of seed for sale. It is as poor policy to sow bad seed as to feed musty oats to your horses, and thereby bring on a train of diseases, accompanicfl by long farriers' bills and many other resultant losses. The free use of the fanning mill will help us wonderfully with seed. We never yet used seed bought from the most reliable dealers without pttssing once more through the mill, and we have always succeeded in cleaning cut of such many inferior kernels. In a preceding page we gave our own opinion upon the use of old wheat for seed ; one of the most reliable seed firms in America thus corroborates our views : — " We drilled in old wheat last fall instead of new, for the rea- son that it was much better-looking gi'ain, the new being very much shrivelled. As a consequence, hardly two-thirds came up. A neighbour did the same, with as bare results. Another neigh- bour planted twenty-four grains each of new and old wheat before sowing, to test its vitality : all the new grains came up but two, while only seventeen of the old came up. Why did not we do the same ? The old wheat was run through the fanning mill once, and thrown from one bin to another during the hot weather, to prevent heating " In our own neighbourhood, two years ago, a neighbour sowed old wheat seed, notwitlntanding that he sought our advice, and we strongly opposed his plan. The result attained wsis that in the spring of the year he had to plough under his fall and re-sow with spring wheat. A very small amount of fermentation will destroy, or at any rate greatly weaken, the germinating power of wheat ; and it is almost impossible to know for certain whether wheat that has lain for a length of time in bin has been subjected to undue heating. If we sow old wheat, it may be safe, but we run a great risk. An excellent plan to secure a good and certain seed for the fu- ture is, to go over the fields before cutting and glean the earliest, largest and most perfect ears of wheat, as a stock from which to grow seed. A few quarts gathered in this way and sown will in two or three years yield enough seed for the farmer's own use. The tifiie of sowing fall wheat depends somewhat upon season rj ■k h'^ I "1 >l 1. ll ; 174 The Canadian Farmer's i :: ; k: and circumstances ; but, as wo have already laiil down, the ear- lier it is sown in September the better. Every season appears to recjuire earlier sowing, as the country is more thoroughly cleared up. Of late years we have not been able to place dependence upon the fall rains that used to come so regularly at that jieriod, wliile winter ajtpears determined to set in ibr good early in November. The only objection that can be advanced as against early sow- ing is the risk of too heavy a growth for winteiing ; but as this i.s a less objectionable feature than too little root, we feel that wo do not do wrong when we urge our farmers to put forth strenuous efforts to secure an early growth of wheat in the ft)' ^^f the year. Our fields are more often bared of snow in winter than they used to be, and a heavy growth of plants appears to be more ne- cessary than formerly in order to protect the i-oot. We have heard vague talk of too great top-smothering of the plant under heavy snow. Why then does our wheat always come out the best upon the sides of fences where snow lays for the greater part of winter from four to six feet deep, and is tightly packed by drifting ? Unfortunately, we have very few actual results on record in Canada as to the relative advantages of thick and thin sowing. The controversy has raged hot and heavy in the old country, but arguments used in that climate have little practical bearing on this point m Canada, Alderman Mechi's wonderful advocacy of the thin sowing sys- tem may apply in the humid climate of old England, but in our drier climate, and under the vicissitudes of a Canadian winter, we should be sorry to risk our crops by pinning our faith to any such theories. The great question at issue is, whether rich or poor land needs the most seed. Our view is, {is far as regards wheat, barley and oats, that the richer soil requires the less seed, for the plants will stool out far more. The principle is reversed in the case of Indian corn or any plant growing by a single blade, or in which it becomes necessary to reduce the number of stalks or suckeis by an arbitrary rule. Now, what do we understand by rich land ? On that, much of the pith of the controversy must rest. If bj' rich land is meant a soil in which the vegetable food is in a state immediately soluble to the plant, and in which there is more food, so available, than is actually required by the growing crop, — why then a small amount of seed is required, and the quantity should be regulated in a reverse ratio to the amount of excess of plant food contained in our soil. The fact is, that the true solution of this, as in most abstract .1 Manual of Agriculture. 175 13 is armiments, rests in this : that a medium (iimlity of lan float an egg , or, if sulphate of nopper (blue vitriol) is used, put one pound to about 10 gallons ot water. Put the pickle in a tub ; pour seed slowly i • it, so that all light grains will float — these may be skimmed c — let the seed soak for a few minutes, then spread it out to drain on the barn floor ; after draining, sprinkle it with thoi'outjhly slaked lime, or safer, plaster of Paris, until dry, and sow as soon as possible. The sul- phate of copper is a deadly poison ; care must be taken that none of the grain, if vitriol be used, is left within reach of pigs or poul- try. Smut is usually found worst under and in the neighbourhood of trees and dirty fence corners, after old sods and foul stubbles. Clean fallows are most free from smut. Of one thing we may be certain, sow smutty seed and the result wHl be a smutty harvest. Wheat Flour is of the best quality from grain that is cut before it has come to full maturity, being whiter and softer, and such flour carries a better figure in the market. A bushel of 60 lbs. of wheat should yield — Flour 48 lbs. Shorts 8 " Bran 4 " But it must be remembered that the coarse or thick-husked grain will yield more bran and less flour than the above. The best time in which to cut wheat is as soon as the berry if solid and the straw is yellow, but before the berry has hardened JS'jlt Manual of AgYiculiure. 179 The general use of reaping machines now makes it quite within the reach of the farmer to cut his wheat at exactly the right time. Cost of 'producing an acre of wheat : — Rent of one acre $3.50 Ploughing twice 3.00 Harrowing twice... IOC Seed li bushels, at $1.40 2 10 Sowing with drill 0.50 Reaping 1.00 Binding 1-50 Cnrrying, about 1.00 Thrashing, say 25 bush, at 8c 2.00 Cleaning up, &c 0.50 Teaming and cost of Belling 1.50 $17.60 If summer fallowed, add the extra cost and one year's rent to above. Wheat and Chess. — The author of this work has heard of chess actually growing out of the same stem and head as wheat. He has often desired to see such a phenomenon, but has never been satisfied by such a sight. By others, rewards have been offered to any man who could prove that such a thing ever existed; those rewards are, as far as we know, yet unclaimed. Until we see and examine for ourselves a plant showing dis- tinctly wheat and chess, the result of the same root, or a grain in ivhich the two are plainly intermingled, we shall refuse to acknow- ledge as proven the frequent claim that wheat degenerates into ihess. THE CULTIVATION OF BARLEY. Barley in Canada is confined to the one kind, namely, spring barley. In more moderate climates there is also a kind known as winter barley, or bere. There are again subdivisions of summer barley into two-rowed and six-rowed. It is termed " two-rowed " or " six-rowed,' according to the number of its fertile florets. In six-rowed barley, three rows on each side of the spike are fertile, and consequently three rows on each side are perfected. Sligbtly examined, indeed, six-rowed barley often presents the appearance of four-rowed, but this is really only in appearance, for such barley has always three rows on each side perfect, although in poor soil and under unfavourable circumstances two of the rows will run into one another, and thus the mistake may arise. Soil. — Barley requires a rich, mellow and friable seed-bed. Land may be heavy as long as it is free from wet, coldness and tenacity. It canuoL be grown upon a tenacious clay, except under such peculiar circumstances of cultivation and climate as shall render the land friable. It is a very tender plant, and will not Jwi > 180 The Canadian Farmer's i'i stand the slightest amount of coldness in the soil. For this rea- son barley soil should never be touched when wet, nor should barley be sown before warm rains have fallen upon the seed-bed. We may sow spring wheat early with comparative impunity, as the seed is very hardy, but when once barley has been com- mitted to the earth, it must either grow or rot ; if the soil be too cold to allow of its rapid germination and steady growth, then will it most assuredly rot in the ground. Land containing from fifty to sixty per cent, of sand and the balance of clay, provided that it lies dry, is the very best for barley ; after it may be ranked the lighter soils. It may also be grown successfully upon clay, pro- vided that such contains a sufficient proportion of mould to render it friable, while the presence of chalk is very beneficial as having a tendency to correct any natural acidity that may be present in the soil ; but the chief point upon which to depend for a success- ful crop of barley is thorough cultivation. Cultivation. — Ba^fley is probably the most shallow-rooted crop that we have. It does not, like wheat, send down a tap-root to- wards the subsoil, but its roots keep near the suiface and there seek for food. For this reason cultivation to the depth of three or four inches is ample. Again, its rootlets are very tender, and its growth rapid, so that the soil requires to be broken up into as fine a tilth as possible. A quick growing crop requires plenty of food, and food so applied that it is immediately available. The usual position of barley in all rotations is after hoed crops. The objects attained by this position are two-fold. The land under hoed crops usually then receives a heavy dressing of barn-yard manure. The roots or corn do not by any means exhaust this manure, and the large balance left in the ground, after their re- moval, has become thoroughly rotted, and in the processes of cul- tivation for barley will become distributed through and incorpo- rated with the surface soil. This manure, thus mixed up with the soil, is in a form the most available to the wants of the tender barley root. Also, the land is thoroughly cleaned and freed from weeds by the use of the hoes, and as such is especially adapted not only to the reception of barley, but also for seeding down with grass, which is usually done on barley. Barley is, however, not unfrequently grown upon a wheat stubble. When such is the course proposed, the stubble should be ploughed in the fall. The advantage thus attained is the beneficial effect of winter's frost upon the soil — the frost, by expansion and contraction, so breaks up the clods that vhen the cultivator and harrows are passed over the ground in the spring, the soil will be found to break up into the fine state of garden mould. In England the best barley ground is that upon which, when in turnips the preceding year, sheep have been folded. The sheep manure the ground and com- pact it by their treading. After ploughing shallow in winter, and Manual of Agriculture, Iftl exposure to frost and rain, the cultivators and harrows break it into a shallow, rich, mellow and friable seed bed. Under this plan, the crops of barley raised in Norfolk are immense. It is a matter for regret that the severity of our winter precludes us from the adoption of the same system in Canada. After fall ploughing, the land should be cross stirred, by means of a two-horse cultivator or gang plough, to a depth of about four inches ; this, when harrowed over, will leave the land in very fine tilth. Of course, when broadcast sowing is proposed, the land need not be harrowed be- fore sowing, but will, after sowing, require several strokes. When the drill is to be used, the finer the tilth can be brought down the better. The use of the roller is very effective on land under culti- vation for barley — the roller breaks the little lumps, whilst the harrows simply push them on one side. Before drilling we al- ways roll our beds. As to the use of the roller after sowing — If the seed has been broadcasted, the roller will doubtless help to cover it, and from the fine state of tilth into which the land should have been brought, will be better for the purpose than any after passage of harrows. If, however, barley has been drilled, it is a mistake to roll im- mediately. We desire to place no obstacles in the way of the rapid appear- ance of the blade above ground — but the roller compresses the soil, and makes it more difficult for the blade to pierce through to the light. This is particularly the case in land that verges upon the " strong " side , but after the blade has shot through it will be found advantageous to roll, compressing the earth firmly round the roots, and helping the soil in its retention of moisture for the use of the young plant. Seed and Sowing. — The colour of seed is immaterial if the ber- ries be plump and hard. It has been recommended to steep the seed in soft water for twenty-four hours. The advantage claimed is, that any seeds and light grains will come to the surface and may be removed, and that the seed will germinate more rapidly and evenly when covered in the ground. We leave this to the opinion of our readers ; for our own part, we consider the advan- tage very slight, and fully counterbalanced in the weakening of the germinating power of the grain. The usual time for sowing in Canada is in the latter part of April or commencement of May, but the point must perforce be always regulated by the peculi- arity of the season. No matter how fine the weather may be overhead, or how warm the sun may beat down on the new turned soil, the seed-bed of barley can never be in a fit state for reception of the seed until after a fall of warm spring rains. We have seen many a field of barley sown when the ground appeared warm, but there was no growth in the soil ; the barley sprouted, i f. ;' m % J i ii„ ill lat very much larger loads may be built from the cock than when taken from the ground in bundles, as left by the machine, or in swath by the scythe. Barley must be cut before it is dead ripe. Oatn. — Oats will flourish on almost any soil, and being of a far hardier nature than barley, are found very useful as a spring crop, to fill up a rotation in spots which are not well adapted for the cultivation of spring wheat or barley. The only soils upon which they appear to be a failure, are those of too dry a nature. They will grow well on a tough meadow sod or fresh -ploughed old pasture. As for a full crop, they do not seem to require that the sod should be thoroughly decomposed. For this reason we often sow oats on the same land for two years in succession, and where the seed-bed rests on an inverted old sod, the second crop has frequently proved a better one than the first. Oats are sometimes se ded down with grass, and we have our- selves had in this way excellent catches ; but there is considera- ble risk in the plan, for oats are apt to grow very rank, and often- times to lodge, and in either way the young grass stands a strong chance of being smothered. We have found oats a very useful crop to sow with vetches, as a green food for soiling purposes. Not only are green oats very excellent fodder, but growing among vetches they help to hold the latter up from the ground, thus allowing of the permeation of air, and light, and rain throughout the whole crop. They will do well in cold, moist places, and will grow rankly, and turn out a good yield in swampy spots utterly unfit for the growth of anv other cereal. Oat straw is a valuable fodder, and is generally more relished by cattle than that from wheat. It is not, however, actually as nutritious, but its superiority for feed doubtless arises from the fact that it is usually cut greener than wheat, and at a cooler sea- son of the year, in consequence of which the straw has retained all its saccharine juices and is moie of the nature of hay. As to the sowing of oats, there is no crop upon the thick or thin seeding of which there has been greater diversity of opinion. It is observed, that oats standing thinly are far more liable to rust than when the ground is well covered. At one season, when we were sowing a field of oats broadcast, the wind blew very hard, and we made, in consequence, a very irregular job. In one place we made too wide a cast, and across the whole field a strip of some inches in width was left upon which the seed was deposited not one-fourth as thickly as upon the land adjoining. At harvest this strip was green and very badly rusted, whilst the rest of the field was bright-coloured and fit for the cradle. »! If m I I 184 The Canadian Farmer's This liability to rust is the great objection to thin sowing. The best crop of oats that we ever grew was broadcasted, at the rate of three bushels per acre. Of course, some difference must be observed with different varie- ties of seed, as some stool out far more than other kinds. The new varieties of oats come fast and thick before the notice of the farmer. In a few years it is probable that all our present varieties will be known as oats of the past. We shall therefore only shortly review the oats now come and coming into general use ; and we cannot do better than to quote the report of experiments made by the noted nurserymen, Messrs. Hicks and Son, of New York State, in the season of 1871 : " Edj8. Country Oentleman — We drilled in seven varieties of oats, April 7th and 8 th. The previous crop was corn on inverted sod. "Mr. Newton, of Henrietta, N.Y., sent us the White Probsteier ; the (>ther varieties were procured of Mr. Fanning and the Depart- ment of Agriculture. The White Schonen did so well the season before, under very favourable circumstances, we desired to procure as much as possible from the seed ; having about five pecks, we drilled it on an acre. It stood very thin ; double the seed would probably have given over a third more yield. The other varieties were sown at the rate of seven to eight pecks, except Norway oats, when only six pecks were used. " Below is given their yield by weight, 32 lbs. to the bushel :— * Weight of Weight of Bushels, bushel. sheaves. Norway 39 32 lbs. 3,050 lbs. Surprise . 36 40 lbs. 3.000 lbs. "White Probsteier 38 30 lbs. 2,700 lbs. New Brunswick 31 31 lbs. 2,475 lbs. Excelsior 31 38 lbs. 2,3401bs. White Schonen 20 28 lbs. 1,220 lbs. Common 28 29 lbs. 1,980 lbs. "An acre of Norway, well manured and sown two weeks later, yielded forty-five bushels to the acre, and the sheaves weighed three thousand seven hundred pounds. 'Our common oats in 1869 yielded forty-one bushels to the acre ; this season twenty-eight bushels — we accordingly estimate the above yields to be two-thirds a good crop. "In examining the different varieties before reaping, the Norway stood the highest, three and a half feet ; and the Excelsiors the shortest, two and a half feet. To a casual observer, the Norways did not look as though they would yield near as much as the Surprise, growing side by side — we could see through the Nor- ways down to the ground so easily, and hardly at all through the Surprise ; the stalks of Surprise were smaller and more numerous. " Weasked our neighbour, who was extolling the Surprise, to pick 4' % Manual of jigriculture. 186 out a few of the best stalks and count the grains, while we would du the same with the Norways. The grains on a stalk of Surprise were out on the end of little branches from two to four inches long, leaning off in every direction from the main stalk ; consequently the surface was evenly spread with grains, preventing seeing through them. The grains on a stalk of Norway were all on one side.andnot overan inchfrom it, giving plenty of room to see through them, and making them appear to poor advantage. Our friend counted from thirty-five to fifty gi*ains on his stalks of Surprise ; while our Norway stalks, the double grains counting but one, gave us eighty-five to one hundred and one grains. The Excelsior, New Brunswick and Surprise were ripe July 14th ; White Schonen, Common and White Probsteier four days later ; and the Norway a week later. The Surprise were the most broken down, caused by weak straw and heavy grain. Having rolled the field, we were enabled to reap without waste or extra trouble. "The Excelsior, New Brunswick and Surprise are a short chunky grain, and in examining them a few days ago, found their hulls to be thicker and stiffer than the other sharp-pointed long grains." The result of experiments made at the Michigan State Agricul- tural College was : — " Excelsior oats, from England, yielded at the rate of sixty bushels to the acre ; Somerset oats, from England, ninety-four bushels to the acre ; White Schonen oats, from Ham- burg, sixty-two bushels to the acre ; Black Swedish, also from Hamburg, sixty-six bushels an acre ; Prince Edward Island oats, sixty-two bushels per acre ; Brooks' oats, from Michigan, sixty- eight bushels per acre; Norway oats (the seed from Jones and Clark, New York) yielded fifty bushels ; and the Surprise oats, at the rate of thirty-eight bushels to the acre. The weight ot the Norway oats was only twenty-eight pounds to the bushel, while the same measure of the last-named variety weighed forty -six and a half pounds." Oats must be cut early. If left to ripen on the ground, there is no crop that will shell out as badly. Moreover, the straw, being very valuable, makes excellent fodder when cut well on the green side. If oats be allowed to become dead ripe when standing, a large proportion of the saccharine matter contained in the growing stalk is lost for the purposes of fodder. BUCKWHEAT. This is a good crop to fill up blank places in a rotation. It is not very generally grown, but is by no means an invaluable crop. Land that has been allowed to run to waste has often produced an excellent yield of buckwheat, when no other cereal could, with any degree of certainty, have been raised. This is doubtless owing f; i ll .' I; ■.ii.iumF'' 186 The Canadian Farmer's M 1m\ to the fact that for a very larj^e j)rop()rtion of itrt sustenance it U depenJont upon the stores contained in the air. It is found a useful crop on a .summer fallow. From the denso luxuriance of its foliage and straw, it effectually smothers weeds, and where a heavy growth is secured, even the Canada thi.stle has 00 chance among it. So gioat is this faculty, that there would even appear to be something in its roots and stalks absolutely poisonous to plant life. It forms a fair green manure, and ploughed under stiff soils, is very beneficial ; for not only does it contain much nitrogenous plant food, but from its coarseness acts mechanically in opening out and ad- mitting air and moisture to such soils. It luxuriates in a dry, warm sand ; although it will often grow on ai)parently worn-out lands and without manure, yet there is no crop that responds to generous treatment more rapidly. It is not, however, advisable to have land too rich for buckwheat, because such soil is fitted for more profitable crops, and too great richness of land will cause it to grow altogether to straw. The time of sowing is usually from the last week in June through the first week of the succeeding month. This in our Canadian cli- mate may be considered an arbitrary rule, i.e. when the crop is grown for grain. If sown too early, it will, when in full flower, receive the very dry weather of the latter part of July, and such is injurious to the fornui ion of the berry. If, again, the crop mature too late, it may be caught by late frosts and utterly ruined ere it has come to maturity. The quantity of seed should be not less than one bushel per acre. Whatever be the nature of the land, it should be made mellow for a seed-bed. Buckwheat matures very rapidly ; nine to ten weeks being the usual length of time between germination and maturity. We have seen thirty bushels and more, and almost under any circumstances we may rely on at least fifteen bushels per acre. Harvested usually with the cradle, being laid in swathes, the follower of the cradle then rakes it up into fair-sized sheaves, and giving their heads a twist stands the bundles up on their butts to dry. Drying requires some time, not only because the stems are na- turally green and juicy, but the season of harvest is usually cool. The less handling that it receives when ripe the better, for it is a grain that shells with very little shaking. To thrash buckwheat the best plan is : — " Where it must be thrashed by hand, a floor may be pre- pared in the field, by scraping and sweeping a piece of ground or by laying down sheets. Lay over this a bed of rails an inch or two apart, raised from the ground sufficiently to make room for K^Li I' Manual of Agriculture. 187 the grain when it is thriwhcd On the rails throw the straw as it is brought from the stacks, and thrash out the jrrain, which falls through the openings between the rails. The straw can thus be removed and separated from the grain very quickly. When all is thrashed, remove the rails, and the grain may be cleaned on the ground if desired without removing it to the barn. It is abso- lutely necessary to clean buckwheat as soon as thrashed, or the chart being damp will heat and spoil the grain in a few days." If possible, it should not be stacked ; for it is exceedingly easily heated in the mow or stack. It is better to thrash straiglit from the field, either by the plan above, or by hauling on to the barn floor, stamping out with horses or thrashing with the flail. It slu dd be cleaned up inmie- diately after thrashing, spread and turned over to dry. Flour. — A bushel of good grain should yield about twenty-five pounds of fine buckwheat flour. The grain is a good feed for hens ; for horses it is not good except when chopped and well mixed with oats. It is a very heating feed, and will be found good for pigs preparatory to feeding for the butcher. It is satisfying, and will keep up the animal heat and growth, but will not make firm pork. For hens, from its heating quality, it is a great promoter of good laying. An objection taken to buckwheat is frequently, that the shell- ings of harvest lie dormant in winter, and sprouting the next spring become mixed with the then growing crops. If it precede a hoed crop, this will not matter, for cultivation will destroy it. If it is to be followed by a cereal, the better plan is: — As soon as it has been removed from the ground in autunm, put a pair of heavy harrows on and thoroughly scarify the stubble. Should we, aftei that operation, have but a few days of warm or wet weather, all the shed buckwheat will sprout, and, after the seed has once germi- nated, winter frosts will destroy it. PEAS. The faith of Canadian farmers has of late been sadly shaken in the cultivation of field peas as a profitable market crop ; and, were it not for the value of the giain for pork producing, and of the straw as fodder, we doubt not but that the crop would ere this have been almost entirely discarded. At the present day peas are raised chiefly as food for pigs, and as such are very valuable, for they produce hard and firm pork — such as delights the eye of the dealer. A loamy soil is the best for the cultivation of this crop, but sue- 188 The Canadian Farmer's »ifi ■■.' 1 jti ii».|: ^' \ 1 ; "^ ":■ 1 1 ■ 1^ MM cehft is generally attained on land of a heavier nature, and some varieties do passably well upon sands and gravels. VarieMea in common use are : — Crown. — A good sound pea, of whicli a farmer in the neigh- bourhood of Ingersoll, Ont., says : — " They are larger than the common pea, command a higher price, and will vield a third more. They arc especially suited to rich, strong soils, as they do not run to straw and lie down. They can be cut like hay. I cut mine with a mowing machine. The straw is much liked by stock, and they ripen earlier than most kinds. I have grown them for the last four or five years, sowing at the rate of three bushels of seed per acre." Oolden Vine. — One peculiarly aaapted to the lighter soils. Black-eyed Marrowfats are good heavy yielders, but mature slowly and ripen late. Daniel O'Uourke are a very superior large pea. They, however, require better cultivation than the common pea. They do not yield a heavy crop of straw, but are better bearers of grain. Smalt. Canada or Common Pea is a very hardy variety : a heavy yielder even under inferior cultivation, but is extremely subject to the attacks of the " bug," or pea weevil. We have an experiment before us of several new varieties of early peas : " Laxton's Alpha oame up in 12 days. Philadelphia Extra Early, in 14 " Kentish Invicta, in 16 " Carter's First Crop, in 17 " Laxton's Prolific, in 19 " My soil is gravelly, with subsoil of hard clay." Sowing. — Early and lute sowing have each their advantagi^s and disadvantages. Early-sown peas will usually bring a heavier yield, but are more subject to bugs. Moreover, early sowing frequently brings the field into harvest at about the same time as wheat and barley, which is often very awkward to the farmer. Late-sown peas are more free from the attacks of the weevil, but will not yield as well. Peas should be sown heavily, to cover the ground well and keep it damp, and to yield a nutritious straw. From 2 bushels with drill, to 2| bushels and 3 bushels with the hand, are the best quantities of seed. Cultivation. — The drill is the best instrument for the sowing of peas. They are thus deposited at an even depth, come up to- gether, and grow and ripen evenly. It is difficult to cover peas that have been sown broadcast , a heavy rain, shortly after sowing, will sometimes expose two-thirds of the seed. Manual of Agriculture. 189 When broadcast sowing is adopted, the only safe plan of covering is to plough the land first and level it down with one harrow stroke, tilling in the furrows well (if the ploughing has been per- formed in the previous fall, so much the better) ; then how the seed and cover it in by a shallow ploughing. This is most effectually done with the gang-plough or two-horse cultivator. This plan applies to stubble or root ground. In sod, we have seen the peas sown on the surface and ploughed under with a light cut furrow slice. The pea is a vigorous grower, and easily forces its way through the grass roots to the surface. The better way is, however, to plough the sod first, and then, levelling off well, use a drill ; or in ploughing set the sod well up on end, as recommended for heavy land on page 63 ; and the peas, even if sown by hand, will fall in between the furrow slices, and their crowns may then be dragged in to cover the seed, when the crop will come up in perfect drills, just as wide as the furrow slice has been cut. If possible, peas should bo covered to a depth of at least three inches. It is not advisable to apply fresh dung to the seed bed, for we look upon this crop as a land cleaner, and rank manure is apt to induce a coarse growth of haulm at the expense of the grain. As a Cleaning Crop, peas are by many highly approved of, and often form the preparation for fall wheat. By their luxuriant growth, they keep the ground shaded and moist through summer, smother weeds, and, gathering a largo amount of sustenance from air and dew, do not exhaust the land, but rather leave it clean, mellow and friable, well prepared for the reception of wheat seed. As a green manure they have been highly recommended. By some they have been thought equal in fertilizing elements to clover, whilst they exceed clover in quantity of matter. Though we do not agree to this proposition, we have no doubt that they contain, when decomposed, no mean amount of plant food. Green peas are, however, very difficult to cover with the plough, and are, therefore, when designed to be so treated, better mixed with oats, around which they twine and are prevented from trail- ing along the ground and lying in heavy bunches. The use of the chain on the plough will be found efficient in rolling the crop into each furrow before the mould board. The land should not be again ploughed until the mass of covered vegetation is well decomposed. As a green crop for hay, peas are valuable. They should be cut when the lower pods are well formed, and the upper blossoms in full flower ; it is well in this case also to mix oats with the seed, for the same reasons as above stated. In this case, two bushels of peas and two bushels of oats to the acre is not too heavy a seeding. 1% II 190 The Canadian Farmer's For fodder, the pouH and oatn may \w allowed to^ow iogetbor until rii)0 ; thoHO thiaHliod and ground make an exoollont feed, cspociKlly for horsoH and cattio, and the straw xh almost aH nntri- iiouH OH any timothy hay, and far more ho than much of the hay that wo have Hcon fed or taken to market. The ordinary mode of harvesting \h with the scythe, by which tlio peas are j)ulled out, breaking off close at the roots, and are tlion rolled into heaps ; this is slow, but clean. The revolving horse rake is Hometimos used, and the pea crop, torn up by the roots, is deposited in bunches laid in wind-rowa. This is, however, a dirty plan, f )r much dust and soil is gathered with the crop ; and as the fodder value of pea straw is very great, should not be resorted to except under special circumstances of haste or want of sufficient help. Peas usually lying in one way may often be cut on three sides by the mowing machine; and though we have thus seen very excellent and clean work done, it can only be accomplished for certain with such particular kinds as grow well up off the land. How Bugs get into Peas : " After the pea vines have flowered, and while the pods are young and tender, and the peas within them are just bej^inning to swell, the bugs gathor upon them, and deposit their tiny eggs singly in the punctures cr wounds which they make upon the surface of the pods. This is done mostly in the night or in cloudy weather. The grubs, as .soon as they are hatched, penetrate the pod and bury themselves in the o|»posite pens, and the holes through which they pass into the seeds are so fine as hardly to be perceived, and are soon closed." — Insects Injurious to Vegetation, 01/ Harris, p. G3. Strange to say, there are peculiar sections in Canada where the farmer is not troubled at all by the pea weevil ; and it is from these parts that reliable dealers obtain their seed. The bugs in peas may be destroyed by dipping the peas in scald- ing hot water ; but as it is quite possible to destroy the germina- tion of the pea by boiling, they should only be left for a very short time — about a minute — or the pea will be ruined as well as the weevil destroyed. Of course this plan applies in practice only to small quantities ; our only remedy as farmers is to obtain our seed from localities that are not infested, and to sow late. The latest season at which peas for a crop may be safely sown, may be computed from the fact that the growth of the pea from germination to maturity averages about ninety -seven days. CORN. The varieties of corn are usually divided into two general classes, — the yellow and the white, — and for general Canadian agriculture such classification is full enough. 'I' Manual of Agriculture, 101 There are in America an iininunso ntiinbor of variotioH of corn, l)\it a8 only a portion of these are Muitnhio to our nioro northern climate, it is notdoNigncd to (Iwull at length upon thotn in thin work. The Dent, the //an/« H^tWcru, and the Karbj Prolijia are the kindn in gcnt»ral use north of th« forty -necond paralhd. The Sandford, — a white variety, — haH betMi generally tried in vnriotm parts of the Dominion, but has hardly been found sufHtti- ently valuable, under our climate, to form u sUiplc kind for general cultivation. Our own experience of the Sandford hjw not })een practically favourable. It is in warm parts of America a very heavy yielder, and its kernels are of a superior nature, but the only value to us is in the profuse growth of its stalks and leaves, making it a desirable crop for fodder or for .soiling purposes, under which heads wo shall speaic of it again. With us, as a crop, we found it late, and liable to be caught by early fro.sts in the fall. It is possible tliat, when accli- matized, it might be brought more ra[)idly to maturity. We also found the ears very liable to become sujutty. The Dent Corn is a hardy variety, well suited to our climate, and early. The Early Prolific is a bright yellow eight-rowed com, with stalk of a moderate size, and a fair yielder. Culture. — The cultivation of corn is peculiar, partaking in its essential elements of the modes of culture both of roots and of cereals. Like roots, it draws nourishment largely by leaf from the atmosphere ; and like the cereal, it is a shallow-rooted plant. The roots of corn extend for a long distance upon every side along the ground, and ever seek to keep near the surface. For this reason it becomes necessary that the soil (as in barley) be mel- low and rich near the surface, and that all manurial food be sup- plied from near the top of the seed bed. It loves a loose, light and friable soil, and will not grow on compact lands, in cold soils, nor upon such as are retentive of sur- face water. It can only be grown on clays with any certainty when such have been thoroughly drained and worked to a mellow and friable condition. It does excellently well upon a clover ley or even upon an old sod ; but such should, when turned up in spring, be ploughed very shallow. If we would apply barn-yard manure, the fall of the year is the best season. A practical American farmer says that "he has no hesitation in saying, that twelve loads to the acre, spread in the early part of October, and allowed to lie until planting time before being turned under, are equal in the effect they produce to twenty loads applied and ploughed in, in the usual way, in the spring. " i mm i 1 'if" li^ jj . ■. , I! , ■ 8 5-",^ I lft2 The Canadian Farmer's We take this with a grain of salt, merely remarking that some- thing epends upon the state of the manure, whether long and unfermented, or short spit-dung. The better plan, when manure is fine and of tbo nature of mow Id, is to put a shovelful of such short manure in each hill and cover with dirt before planting the corn ; but as this is a long job, we prefar to spread our short raanux'e all over the surface, and work it m with cultivator and harrows. As we said above, the corn throws out roots to a great distance along the surface, and it will eome in the way of manure along each root. Doubtless the hill manuring will push on the crop faster at first, and that is a great matter; but the latter will give more lasting benefit all thi jugh growth, ajid the succeeding crop will find the land more generally and evenly rich. We prefer, with long mariure, to apply it to the previous grass before turning down the sod. On one point all practical men agree, that corn requires plenty of p\r and light, and, consequently, must not be sown too close or thick. Hills versus DHlls. — Sto'ady and far has raged the controversy among'«t corn growers on the respective advantages from planting in hills or in drills. At one time the advocfttes of the drill take the agriculturist's mind by storm, at others the hill men triumph. We believe in hills for a matured crop, and in drills for fodder. Opposed to our own practical observations we find the opinions of a number of worthy authorities. The Michigan AgricvJtural College has made experiments, and reports : " The plots for trial were forty-eight rods long and two rods wide. The rods were four feet apart ; the corn. Yellow Dent. The plants weie thinned, so as to leave the same number of stalks nn each plot. The soil and manuring, and the cultivation, were as nearly alike as practicable. Both were cut up at the same time, the com husked, and corn and stalks all weighed separately. The drilled portion produced 74^ bushels of shelled corn per acre, and that in the hills 62J bushels. The drilled plot yielded stalks at the rate of three tons per acre ; the other at the rate of two and two-thirds tons." In all published American works and period- icals, and in those of our own Dominion, we find strong advocacy of both sides of the question. Sowing, — The old saying is, plant eight kernels to a hill : " Two for the worm, two for the crow, and four will be left for the far- mer to grow." If we plant in hills, four kernels are ample to grow, and unless land be very rich, three will be found sufficient to thrive well. Of one thing we may be certain, deep sowing will not do; the T Manual of Agriculture. 193 corn must be planted shallow ; the nature of its roots demands that it shall grow near the surface. From one and a-half to two inches is deep enough ever to plant corn. Hills should be not less than three feet apart each way. In hills we have sun and air accessible to the plant from four sides, and we can cultivate the land both ways — a very important feature if the corn has been planted on p foul sod or dirty stubble. Weeds rising up most assuredly do the crop much harm, and we must acknowledge that " what the corn loses in its early growth is lost for ever ; the stunt goes with it to the end." After-culture. — Stirring of the surface soil is essential to the successful growuh of corn. Weeds must be kept out of sight, for the corn roots, being near the surface, are brought into direct competition for food with young weeds. Stirring of the .«ioil gives it more power to retain moisture, and allows the air to go down to the roots. Sliall we hill up or not ? — The practice of moulding up corn has been discarded by many practical men in Canada. There is something to be said for the retention of the pLin, and also as against the system. While the hilling helps to prevent the corn breaking down at the lower part of the stalk in windy weather, after the top gets heavy, the passage of the plough, in the old-fashioned way, cuts into the long spread roots and so weakens the anchorage of the plants. Our own experience is in favour of hilling up, provided the work is done in a reasonable manner. Instead of running a plough along the centre between the drills and cutting in three inches or more, we have now horse hoes that will mould up by gathering the soil from close to the stalks and at a depth of a little ovet an inch. A very excellent after-manure is a handful of ashes and plaster to each hill, when the plants have attained the height of five or six inches. Very marked effects are to be observed in corn fields thus treated. Cultivation with the horse lioe should be stopped as soon as the tassels appear upon the corn. Harvest. — Corn should be cut for a crop as soon as the cobs have become glazed and before they are dead ripe. Com will harden when standing out in shock, and, if cut early, all the saccharine juices are retained in the stalks, which then make a valuable ad- dition to the store of winter fodder. The process of cutting and shocking is too commonly known to need description in a Canadian work. Husking. — It is customary for a man to husk, on job work, for every tenth bushel. Supposing a man requires to make one dollar fifty cents per day, and corn is worth seventy-five cents per bushel, he would require to husk twenty bushels of shelled or forty bushels of cob com in a day ; and many a man has done it. 13 194 The Canadian Farmer's '(.If \'h It I' 1' Fodder corn. — Now that hay and all kinds of fodder have been for some time back very high priced, aud that appearances indi- cate a good price for these articles for many years, corn is beginning to be looked upon as a valuable crop for fodder. When we are late with our planting, rather than risk a crop after the last week in May, we should advise the farmer to sow for fodder. Immense crops of fodder have been raised from corn, and there is on record an instance of nine tons to the acre. The land upon which such a crop was raised must have heen gorged with manure ; but by generous treatment and careful husbandry we may, each one of us, produce a very heavy weight to the acre. Corn stalks contain an immense amount of sugar, and being far superior to straw, are little below the value of the best hay as cattle food. But when the corn is allowed to mature we lose much of the saccharine juices, and by so much, the value of the stalk and leaf is impaired as fodder. The best fodder is that which is thickly grown — being finer in texture, it is more relished by live stock. We should advocate cutting corn when it arrives at the blossom, were it not for the difficulty of storing it without danger of heating. No doubt, at this stage the crop will be at its best for food ; but, owing to the difficulty just mentioned, it is practically far more safe to wait until the leaves begin to have brown and yellow stripes upon them. The half-formed ears and nubbins are still valuable as food, mixed with the stems. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has issued a statement presenting a long line of testimony from various sources on the value of fodder corn as a supplementary feed or soiling crop for milch cows in summer. The conclusions deduced from the testi- mony given are : " 1. Green-corn fodder is neither worthless nor the poorest of all soiling material. " 2. It is the best when planted in drills or hills, not so thickly as to prevent normal growth and development ; cultivated to destroy weeds and grasses, and cut between tasselling and earing, when the elements elaborated for production of the ear are stored in readiness for immediate u.se. 3. It is probable, both from the rationale of the case and from facts presented above, that in the more northern latitudes a mis- take has often been made in sowing thickly southern corn which cannot mature, the fodder from which fed in August must be very nearly worthless. On the contrary, the fodder from northern corn, especially sweet corn, drilled and cultivated, and fed just before earing, is found to be very valuable. 11 Manual of Agriculture, 195 "4. Its value, compared with lucerne, millet, the best grasses, and other plants containing a larger percentage of nutriment, taking into consideration the quantity produced and the cost of its pro- duction, has not been determined fully, and should be decided by a series of thorough and exhaustive experiments. " It is evident from all that is conflicting in the opinion of differ- ent feeders, that the differences are mainly due to the degree of maturity or soundness of the corn. That from thick sowing, im- mature, colourless and watery, is unfit to place before the cows of any well-regulated dairy. It is probable that half that is fed is either improperly cultivated or in a state of growth not produc- tive of the highest results. If this should be the case, how stupid to condemn the maize for the ignorance of the cultivator. If it is found to contain too little nutriment for its bulk, or too small an amount of the flesh-forming element, the suggestion found in the prajitice of some, of giving a small amount of more highly con- centrated nutriment in connection with corn fodder, is eminently wise. This is a deficiency easily remedied. While corn is our national crop, less fastidious in the circumstances of its growth than almost any other, and capable of yielding so largely under the proverbial neglect which characterizes our culture, let not this fodder be discarded until something of greater practical value is found, the superiority of which has been actually demonstrated under local circumstances of soil, climate and cultivation." The drill husbandry is undoubtedly better for fodder than broad- casting, allowing more spread for roots laterally, providing more sun and air to the growing corn, and permitting cultivation by hoe. " Stalks were collected from a field where the seed was sown broadcast, and also stalks growing in drills upon the same field, and they were dried in a drying closet to expel the moisture. Both specimens were planted at the same time (the 6th of May), and it was found that the plants from the broadcast sowing contained ninety-two per cent, of water, those from drills eighty-three per cent, of watsr. Thus it was shown that the difference of solid matter in the two was relatively as eight to seventeen per cent. The solid matter was composed of starch, gum, sugar and woody fibre. There was almost an entire absence of sugar and gum in the stalks from the broadcast sowing, while the stalks that had grown under the influence of light and air held these nutrient principles in considerable quantities. The stalks were collected at the period of growth just before the ear begins to form, a period when most farmers commence to cut the fodder for their cows." — Boston Journal of Chemistry. In order to secure the greatest amount of benefit from the corn planted exclusively for fodder, experience has led us to adopt the following rules : 1st. To sow so thickly that cattle will eat the fine stalka i I i>l 196 The Canadian Farmer's 2nd. To sow in drills, 80 that horse-culture may be freely given. 3rd. To cut at the right time, as already designated. 4th, and last, but not least. To cure as perfectly as possible, inasmuch as sweet, green fodder is better than black, water-Goaked, half-fermented or mouldy fodder. The greatest difficulty in the manipulation of the crop in this form is that of properly drying before it is stowed away. One plan is : To start in the field and reach round a number of tops with both arms, and bind a hill or as much as can be reached in a dull ; let this stand fast ; then cut round and set up all round this shock, until it is just so big that it can be readily bound. The middle part, that stands fast, will remain dry, while the stalks piled around will dry perfectly. Before winter they may be all drawn in. No fear of heating from the small proportion of those in the middle, for they will have dried out standing. Neither will such shucks be blown down by fall winds. Broom Corn, though not general in Canada, has been grown successfully in parts of this Dominion. It requires much the same soil, cultivation and climate that are suitable to the large western corn, or to Sorghum. About five hundred pounds of broom per acre is a fair average yield, and from this will usually be cleaned about fifty bushels of seed. It must ripen early enough to escape fall frosts when in the ground. General cultivation similar to that of any other field com. If planted in hills, it should be thirty inches apart one way, and eighteen the other. About thirty seeds are planted to a hill ; thus taking seed at about the rate of three pecks per acre. It requires to grow thick to ensure fineness of the stalk, — a quality desired by the brushmaker. The seed should weigh forty pounds to the bushel. The Canada Fai^ier thus describes the securing of this crop : " As the seed as well as the brush is of value, and the first autumn frost kills ".e plants, the operation of harvesting should be performed as soon as the seed is ripening and before frosts come. The stalks are bent down at a height of two feet from the ground, laying those of two opposite rows across each other obliquely, leaving a clear passage between every other two rows for the convenience of passing through when it is ready for cutting. After it has been so bent over, the brush will cure sufficiently in from four to six days to be cut, which is then done with a sharp hook or sickle, leaving about one foot of the stalk, or even less, in the ground. After being cut, it is sometimes laid out to dry still more ; but if the weather has been ver}' favourable, and the brush is dry enough not to heat or get mouldy when packed away, it is 'f■^ Manual of Agriculture. 197 carried to the barn. If it is bound in small sheaves, there will be less trouble in getting off the seed. If not perfectly dry, the brush must be spread out on scaffolds in the barn till dry. The process of extracting the seed is called ' scraping the brush ;' this is done in a machine invented for the purpose. It is an upright ini])le- ment of elastic wood or steel, fastened to a bench of the requisite height for an operator to sit at. The brush is taken in hand, and the top part, as far as the seed extends, is brought down on the top of the machine, forced through between the teeth, and drawn outwards toward the operator. This separates the elastic portion of the brush, and when drawn out the seeds are scraped off in the process. If the stalks are cut before the seed is ripe, the brush is stronger, and more elastic and durable ; but the value of the seed then lost is a serious item, and unless the grower can make certain of obtaining as much higher price as will cover the loss of seed, he will not submit to the sacrifice. The seed weighs forty pounds per bushel, and is said to be valuable for feeding stock, though we have had no actual experience in that way to enable us to judge. " Sometimes the broom-makers will contract to take the whole crop on the ground, and attend to the cutting and curing them- selves, when they desire to take pains to have a particularly good article of brush." To keep birds froia com when first planted, the following plans are recommended : Put the corn, say half a bushel, into a tub, and pour in hot water enough to cover the seed ; let it stand a few minutes, then stiain ofi the water, and pour over the corn a little gas or coal tar, which has been previously warmed until it is thin ; with a stick stir it thoroughly, which will give every kernel a coating of tar ; then dust over it dry plaster to prevent the grains sticking to one another, and stir it up again. No birds will touch it after such a dressing, and though the seed will not sprout quite so soon, yet no injury has been done to it. The following is from Brown's " Book of Manures :" Saltpetre, one pound ; copperas, sul. of iron, three pounds ; dis- solve each in six quarts of water, in separate vessels (rain water is best). Put eight quarts of shelled corn into a tub, and over it pour the two liquids ; stir the whole well together, and allow it to remain twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Just before planting, drain it off. As soon as the corn is dry enough, coat it lightly with coal tar and dust it with plaster, and then plant. Seed pre- pared in this way is not liable to be attacked by birds or worms, will give the young plants an early start, a vigorous growth, and an early maturity. If crows or other birds attack it, they will not try more than a hill or two ; and if they eat what they have pulled, will be found on the ground dead or dying. But the surest way, and we have succeeded with the plan over and over again, is — J 198 The Canadian Farmer's i. IN •' String " the field with white cotton twine ; fasten it to short stakes, and cross it about every three rods. The crows are " scared" of a trap, and keep at a respectful distance. There is a use for corn-husks not generally adopted. Dried and torn into strips.they make excellent mattresses — clean, sweet, soft and elastic. Plaited into a rope, and wound round, they make good door niats. Corn-criba. — We extract the following from the Arnerican AgiHculturist: " Corn-cribs might be improved in a double way by a somewhat similar arrangement of the floor. Generally, if any mould occurs in a crib, it is on the floor, as here is found the first corn put in, which is generally dampest, and here the least venti- lation takes place. A floor raised " roof-shap- ed" (Fig. 25), and holes bored in it for ventila- tion, would effectually prevent dampness or mould in that part of the crib ; and if slide- improved Corn-crib. doors are put here and thereat the bottom, at convenient places, the crib may be emptied, or nearly so, without taking a shovel or scoop into it. We have found that rats may be excluded from the crib by a peculiar form of post, turned smoothly in the lathe. The shape is some- what like a mushroom, the stalk smallest at the bottom. The blocks (sunk in the ground) are of wood, with holes made to receive the posts, which enter four or five inches and fit tightly. This causes the crib to stand firmly. When the posts are made smooth with sandpaper, no rats or mice will mount them." Estimated cost and profit from an acre of corn ; Bent of land $3.00 Ploughing in fall 2.00 Hauling out manure 2.00 Cultivating in spring 60 Harrowing twice 60 Planting 50 Cost of seed 30 Cutting, busking and cribbing 5.00 $1400 Credit.— 40 bushbls shelled com, at 70c $28.00 v Manual of Agriculture, 109 Leaving a profit of $14.00 per acre, with the corn fodder thrown in, and the land in first-class order, Soilinr). — For this pur{)ose corn is one of the best fodders that can be grown. The best recommended kind for this purpose, on the continent, is Stowell or Evergreen Swc^t Corn. The Sanford is an excellent variety, as it puts forth a profu- sion of leaves, stalks and suckers, and is a very rapid grower when young. There are a great many varieties of early sorts, suitable for soil - ing purposes, amongst which we may mention — The Sioux, Button, Mandan, Sugar, Tuacarora, Adams, King Philip, and the Chinese Tree. The subject of soiling will be treated more fully in the pages devoted to cattle. FLAX AND HEMP. Flax. — " It is strange that so many professing to take a deep interest in agricultural matters neglect this valuable branch alto- gether. It only requires a visit to the Counties of Wellington and Waterloo to convince the most sceptical that the growth and manufacture of flax is one of our most important interests in the new Dominion. At St. Mary's will be found the produce of not less than five hundred acres ; at Woodstock, at the fine mills oi Mr. Brown, the produce of seven hundred acres, three hundred oi which. I am told, were grown by himself at Elora ; the produce of other five hundred acres at Baden, Conestoga, Stratford, Mary- boro', and several other places. The most active operations are being carried on. Employment is given to from twenty to thirty hands at each of those mills, and a much larger number during the grassing season, which continues several months. " While we are all most anxious to make the most of our lands, flax presents itself as another of the crops well worthy the atten- tion of the farmer, from the fact that it is bringing as high a price, when ready for market, as it did during the American war ; and it only fluctuates in price like all other products. " Farmers have often been urged through the press to sow this crop, each on at least a couple of acres on his farm. This would soon be the means of flax mills for scutching being established in every part of the country. " From the experience of every man that has tried flax in this country, it has been found to answer best when it is early sown, so that it may get a clear month before drought overtakes it. To those who have not made the trial before, I would say it is desira- ble to put flax in a piece of the cleanest and richest soil on the farm ; clay loam is preferable to any other when the soil is deep and friable. On such land you may safely sow two bushels of seed to the acre. J 200 The Canadian Farmer's !J! 1*1 -'i il^ SI " If you want to seed down, do so by all means with flax ; there need be no apprehension about the clover plant being removed on pulling the flax. On the contrary, it moulds the plant and causes it to spring up with more vigour and freshness. " Let not the pulling deter the farmers from growing flax any longer, as they can as readily obtain a machine for pulling pur- poses as they can a reaper for taking off" their grain, and at the small cost of seventy-flve dollars or eighty dollars each. " I should have said, while speaking of the proper kind of soil to sow flax on, that nothing can beat a piece of old ley, and if ploughed in the autumn, it may be sown in the spring with great certainty of a good crop. Let the ridges be made as wide as pos- sible, with as few furrows as you can get along with, aa the plant invariably grows more in length along the edges of the furrows, and it is most desirable to have it all as near one length as possible. " During the last two years the price of this article has been much reduced, owing to the great fall in cotton since the American war ; while barley, wheat, and indeed most other crops bringing high prices, several of the enterprising scutch millers have been induced to abandon the enterprise for a time. " What is most wanted at the present time is an established market at some convenient point for shipping, and I have little doubt some of our enterprising neighbours will soon fill up this want also, so that we shall not have to depend on the periodical visits of those buyers who only find their way here when the arti- cle is scarce in other countries. " There are now at work at least twenty scutch mills. Some will produce this year fifty tons of clean scutched flax. At Wood- stock, St. Mary's, Maryboro' and Elora, a much larger quantity will be produced, but in round numbers say each of those twenty mills will produce fifty tons. This would make one thousand tons. At current rates — three hundred dollars per ton, or fifteen cents per pound — this would net the handsome sum of three hun- dred thousand dollars, foreign capital brought into the country in a few months. The value of the seed also will amount to another large item, the price per bushel being from one dollar and a half to one dollar and sixty cents for every fifty-six pounds. " In looking over the map of the Dominion, I find there are over forty counties that have as yet to give the cultivation of flax a trial ; but if each of those counties would only produce an equal amount to that now produced in Wellington or Waterloo, we should have a handsome revenue coming into the country annu- ally of from eight to ten millions of dollars for fibre and seed, to say nothing of the increased employment it would create, and help in a great measure to bring an industrious, skilful class of immi- grants to our shores."— John A. Donaldson, G. I. Agent, in The Canada Farmer. Manual of Agriculture. 201 nemp. — The following is en Essay to the Canada Farmer for 1809, on the Cultivation and Preparation of Hoinp, by H. G. Joly, Esq., M. P. :— " It is necessary that I should begin by stating, for those who may not be acquainted with the fact, that the nmle, or fecundat- ing flower of tne hemp, and the female, or seed-bearing flower, gi-ow upon separate and distinct plants. So that hemp, unlike flax, whose every plant bears seed, is divided between female, or seed-bearing plants, and male plants, which do not bear seed, but are indispensable for the fecundation of the female plant. "I have never read nor heard that it was possible to distinguish the sex of the plant in the seed of hemp ; male and female must, therefore, be sown and grow up together. There is nearly an equal quantity of each ; if anything, the female slightly predomi- nates. The male ripens about three weeks sooner than the female. It is known to be ripe when its stem and leaves assume a yel- lowish hue. That colour makes it easily distinguishable from the female, which at that time is still perfectly green. " There are no two countries — scarcely two localities in the same country — where hemp is treated identically in the same way ; but I think all the various modes of treatment can be safely classified under one or another of the two following heads — the old-fashioned European, or the new-fashioned Kentucky mode. "The choice of the ground, the way to prepare it, the sowing of the seed, and the cultivation between seed-time and maturity, are the same in both these modes of treatment, which, in fact, differ but on one point, the harvesting of the crop. "Choice and Prepobration of the Ground. " I will quote some good authorities on that subject, whose words will carry much more weight than mine, merely stating that, from experience, I have found them to be perfectly correct. " Mr. Bradford, of Kentucky, says : — " ' The J oil for hemp must be a strong, calcareous, deep, warm loamy, and perfectly dry one, deeply and thoroughly prepared by I)loughing and cross-ploughing, according to its previous condition, until a fine state of tilth is produced.' " Henry Clay says : — " ' The lands which produce hemp best are those which are fresh, or which have lain some time in grass or clover. Manuring is not much practised yet (in Kentucky). Clover is used in lieu of it. Fall or winter ploughing is practised with advantage. It is indispensable in old meadows or old pasture grounds intended for producing hemp.' " Sebastian Delamer says : — " ' Hemp gives but a very unsatisfactory return on soils of too ; i ' \r~- ,.-M^\ f $ ' ♦202 V/tfi Canadian Farmer's W^ i:-- sandy or clayey a nature, on shallow soils, on those which are apt to be wcorchod by the sun, or are unable to receive thoir duo share of atmospheric influence. F'rcsh broken lamls, in the midst of woods and forests, are favourable to its growth.' " Sowing the Seed. " We sow hemp, in the district of Quebec, about the first week in May. You can safely sow yours, in Upper Canada, at least a fortnight sooner. Sow it broadcast, about one bushel to the acre (for hemp grown for rope-making, which is the only kind, I think, that can be advantageously raised for the present in Canada). Harrow before sowing, and harrow and cross-harrow lightly after sowing. " Never sow seed older than the preceiiiot)iiii|j; like a rcaninj^-liook, only (lio Itliide Is imich Htrori^or, in'mly .strai^lit, with the sliplitoHt inward curve, and about twenty inchoH long ; the liandio Ih Htraight, twu feet in length. " If tho iTop is to he cut with tlic hcinp-knifc, the operator is ro- (piircd to cut at once through a width correHponding to the length of tho heinf>, and as close to tlje ground aH poHwihlo, sprea of hemp yields, say, twelve to four- toon bushels of seed — and I think it will do that if carefully worked — that yield would be an itnportant item, well worth the farmer's consideration, where cheap labour can bo obtained. Tho oil is employed, in Europe, for painting. I got ours tried here by a reliable painter, and it gave much satisfaction. It apf)ears, how- ever, to change the colour of white lead a trifle more than flax oil does, but it is just as good for every other paint. The hemp cake is fcd a It is better always to plough for potatoes in the fall : where a 8od is turned, it has a chance to rot better ; and where a stubble is to be prepared, the winter frosts help to ameliorate the soil. Coarse manure should, if possible, be kept out of the field ; nor is it generally advisable to apply manure directly to the potato crop. Too great richness of barn-yard manure is apt to make the plant grow greatly to top, and to render the tubers hollow and stiingy. Where manure is to be used, it is best to make it in the yard, by piling as it is drawn from stalls and byres, then draw it out in winter on the sleighs, and spread it as early in the spring as frost will permit. Or, it is sometimes laid in the bottom of the drills, the potatoes laid on it, and the whole covered by splitting between the drills. In this latter case the manure should be thoroughly well rotted, and it is, at best, an inferior plan, especially upon the lighter soils. We have before us the experience of a Quebec farmer from Pon- tiac, on the raising of potatoes, which we commend to the atten- tion of our readers. Our authority says he has never failed to raise from four hundred to five hundred bushels to the acre : — " He selects the earliest and best potatoes of the variety he wishes to grow, in the fall, and lays them away for seed. He fall-ploughs the land eight inches deep, and cross-ploughs it in spring four inches deep, thus leaving the seeds of weeds, &c., at the bottom ol the seed bed. He plants about the 12th of May, cuts his seeds into from three to six pieces each, a week before planting time, and is careful not to have the eyes sprout before planting. He has the ground well harrowed and levelled, marks rows both ways two and a half feet apart each way, by means of a wooden rake with four large teeth in it, each the required distance apart to mark the rows. He drops three pieces of potato at each cross mark, and does all the afterwork by means of a plough, which he runs both ways between the rows ; and harvests his crop of potatoes fifteen to twenty days ahead of any of his neighbours. He grows potatoes on the same land for three years in succession, and then puts in wheat, of which he always gets a good crop after potatoes." The experience of another practical farmer is thus worded : — *' Experiments started to ascertain the comparative value of various fertilizers. — Those planted upon the barn-yard dressing are taken as a standard by which to measure the results of the others. Barn manure we will call one ; the ratio of yield of the other fer- tilizers will stand thus : Hen manure and plaster, one half pint per hill, gave an increase of one-fourth, or rates at one and one-fourth; leached ashes, one pint per hill, one-half less ; no dressing, two- thirds less. "Recapitulation. — Bam dressing, one; hen manure and plaster, one and one-fourth ; leached ashes, one-half; nothing, one-third. My !L f ■ H 1-^ m 212 The Canadian Farmer's potatoes werebut little affected by the rot— no observable difference upon different fertilizers — but where a low place occurred therot was particularly at home. I have been saving my fowls' droppings with zealous care for several years, and experimenting upon various crops with them. Plaster I find the best substance to mix with them, and wouldadvise its use freely, even to the 'half-and-half* point. I think this compound, home-made and easily handled, us the old codger observed of the cat race, 'a leetle ahead' of all other farm-produced fertilizers, all things considered. "J. W. Lang." Mode of planting. — Some difference of opinion has always ex- isted in regard to the relative advantages of planting in hills or drills. The hill system is recommended for the reason that cultivation with the horse hoe can be afterwards performed in both directions across the field ; whilst the advocates of the drill consider that a greater yield can be obtained from the acre under the same circum- stances of cultivation. One plan. — Where the ground is rich enough without manure, or the manure has been spread broadcast, the potato sets are drop- ped, either in hills or drills, in every third or fourth furrow, and by this method, when the ploughing is finished the potatoes are also sown. When the plants appear above ground, a light harrow is put on, and the surface of the soil mellowed around the tops ; this is also done to advantage under any system of f)lanting, as by means of the harrows the weeds on the surface are destroyed or thrown back, so that no more cultivation is needed until the tops are well out of the ground. As regards hills or drills, perhaps the better rule to lay down is, that when the land is rough and difficult to work, hills will be found the most advisable, while a better yield may be generally expected from drills where the land is free from stumps and the surface smooth. Drills should be twenty-eight inches apart. Time of planting must be regulated by circumstances. Frovi the day when the frost comes thoroughly out of the ground, plant- ing may go on at convenient intervals until the middle of June. If there be favourable weather, some one planting must get the full benefit. The most important time in the growth of a potato is its season of blossoming. It the weather is favourable at that time, the crop may be counted upon as secure. A common mode practised in Ireland, and in some parts -^f the north and west of England and Scotland, is that known as the lazy-hed fashion, which consists in planting the sets in beds of a few feet in width, covered from trenches formed with the spade. The manure is spread upon the land when ready for planting, and the beds are formed of various v/idths — ^from three to five and Manual of Agriculture, 213 seven feet — the trenches being dug to a width of eighteen inches to three feet, and to the depth of one foot to twenty inches, ac- cording to the nature of the soil. The sets are then placed in drills upon the dung, nine or ten inches apart, and at various dis- tances between the rows, and covered with soil from the trenches. About three weeks afterwards, as soon as the sprouts begin to ap- pear, the beds are covered equally with two or three inches of dirt, dugalso out of the trenches. This operation is not only beneficial to the plant by giving an addition of fresh mould, but has also a ten- dency to check the growth of, and indeed in a great measure to destroy, the couch and other weeds which make their appearance on the land ; and it is repeated, so far as earthing up the plants, without covering them after bloom. Seed. — There is probably no crop grown by the farmer that in yield and quality degenerates more rapidly than the potato. This is apparent when we consider the faded glories of those varieties that we were wont to consider the princes of the pot rome ten years ago. Where :re the Cups and the Messhanocks gone (the latter so rare that we hardly know that we have even spelt the name right) ? But as the crop degenerates quickly, so is it capable of very great and comparatively rapid improvement. Seed-bulb. — The manner in which new kinds of potatoes are raised is by the apple or seed bulb, which grows attached to the stalk and above ground. These apples require to be gathered in October and November, and planted out again by themselves in the succeeding spring. When they have grown two or three inches above ground, they require to be moulded up and afterwards treated as an ordinary potato crop. When the potatoes, thus raised from seeds (and which are seedlings from the variety on which the balls or apples grew), have come to maturity, careful selection should be made of those from which it is intended to propagate the new variety ; gathering from beneath the haulms that are most healthy and vigorous, and that have ripened early. It will take about three years to raise a variety to put upon the market. There is in this method very great risk ; for out of one hundred seedlings so raised, it is quite possible that but one or two will have any distinc- tive advantageous qualities over the parents. Whole or cut potatoes for seed. — The controversy on this point has waged rancorously for the last fifty years. No matter how old the book that the student may take up ; if there be any infor- mation on the cultivation of the potato, he will find the contro- versy taken up between the advocates of planting whole tubers and those of growing from cut seed. For our own part, we consider that the point, notwithstanding the flood of editorials and of correspondence that is constantly poured into the agricultural press, rests mainly upon the healthi- Ji la r ji f li! a m.'- '1: i n #1 !. It i-iiLii 1 11 ' ™ 51S I > 214 The Canadian Farmer's ness and variety of the seed, and the method of cultivation by the husbandman. Of one thing we must be careful, not to let sprouts grow too long on potatoes before planting ; they weaken the vitality of the seed. We will shortly touch upon the point at issue — whole or cut potatoes for seed. Dr. F. M. Hexaraer, who has devoted much time to the history and habits of the potato, and who is always looked upon as one of the best authorities on any subject connected with that plant in America, in a lecture delivered to the Cornell University, says upon this particular part of our subject: — " It makes no difference huw potatoes are cut for planting, The sprouts may be broken off, and they will grow again. If the piece has no eye, it will nevertheless nearly always grow ; and even if the eyes are all cut out and the potato planted, it will grow ; because the branches of the medulla, which end in the eyes, are still there, and, like the branches of a tree when the points are cut off. they sprout out anew and grow. The eyes may be cut out and planted, and the potato used for food, as is often done when they are scarce and dear. If a very choice variety is scarce, the eyes may be cut out and divided and subdivided, and they will grow and produce large potatoes.'* In this way the lecturer said he had raised $600 worth of potatoes from $10 worth of seed The chief objection to the planting of whole seed has ever been that such will throw up too many sprouts, in the same manner as would thick- sown corn ; and will, in consequence, yield too many small potatoes. The summing up of the very many experiments that we have seen recorded, and from the few that we have ourselves made, has led us to believe that sets cut from full-grown healthy tubers are as productive as the whole tuber ; and there is undoubtedly effected a saving of seed. Of one thing we are convinced, that it is a sad error to pick out the small potatoes and plant them for seed. " Like produces like" is the universal law, and as we require to grow a medium- sized potato of each sort, neither big and coarse nor small as a marble, so should we use seed of a medium size. From a great variety of experiments carried on for many years, it has been recorded that" the heaviest crop of potatoes, and those most profitable to the grower, wiU, in most soils and seasons, be obtained from tubers of considerable weight, and will be found least subject to decay in wet and cold seasons. It is, however, probable that, when the soil is very dry, so as to preclude all grounds of fear of the cuttings decaying, more regular and better rows of plants might be obtained from single eyes placed at Manual of Agriculture, 215 short distances, with a moderatelv largo portion of the r/i?tter of the tuber, than the whole tubers. ' This last opinion we cordially endorse from our own observation A neighbour grew the finest crop of Peerless 1 vst year from sets cut to a single eye out of good medium-sized seed, that it has ever been our lot to see taken up. Seed and tail end. — There is a difference in the nature of the eyes or beads which appear on the surface of the potato, those at one end being more prolific than at the other. A great difference of opinion exists as to the use of the seed end or of the tail end. The stems which spring from the nose of the potato arc more vigorous than such as spring from that end of the p' tato into which the fibre which connected it with the mother plant, and from which the potato itself is grown, germinate but feebly, and do not attain the size of those coming from the seed end. In every field of potatoes that we have seen, where the cuts were taken for seed from both ends indiscriminately, some of the stems grow with much more vigour than others, which undoubtedly proceeds, in the majority of cases, from planting weak sets cut from the tail end of the potato. Our own opinion halts midway between Dr. Hexamer's one-eye theory and those who throw away the seed end. And we have observed, invariably, that the most regular grow- ing and even-ripening crops of potatoes are those from sets that have been made by splitting the tuber from nose to tail. After-culture. — As we before observed, a stroke of *^he harrows immediately after the top comes through is as effectua as a hand hoeing, and breaks the mould round the young plant ; there is no fear of dragging off the plant with a light pair of harrows. The after-culture consists simply of the free use of the horse hoe and moulding up the potatoes, all of which should be done for the last time before the potatoes bloom. It has been asserted by Sir John Sinclair, that " the plucking of the flowers ensures a greater weight of crop." And another authority says it has been proved by many other persons, as well as by himself, that " if the blossoms of a potato plant be picked off as soon as they may become visible, the quantity of potatoes will be considerably increased." We should prefer to see the experiment tried on some other farm than our own. Digging. — We are adherents of the good old fashion of lifting with the fork, believing that by the time potatoes have been ploughed, picked from the ground and cultivated and har- rowed for a second and third picking, there is little saving effected over the old-fashioned plan ; whilst the work is most assuredly not as cleanly performed. We have ourselves had no opportunity of witnessing the opera- I 'fh !' >1 M 216 The Canadian Farmer's tions of the potato dipgers, hut wo know them to bo impractica- ble in any but well-clcHred fields. The accompanying is an en- graving of this implement. Vvi. 27. I'otatu Di|;gor. Storing. -^A\\ potatoes should be dug as soon as thoroughly ripe , that is, as soon as the tops can be detached by })ulling from the bulbs. They should be left upon the surface of the ground, if the weather be open, until the earth upon them is perfectly dry. Upon lighter lands, two hours will often suffice for this purpose. They should then be piled or pitted in small heaps containing from twenty to forty bushels, and left to sweat until there be danger of injury by frost. This sweating process has to be under- gone somewhere, and it is far better that it should take place in small heaps outside, than when stored in large quantities in a cellar. If potatoes are to be left out through our long Canadian winter in pits, such pits should be dug in a dry spot, from two and a half to three feet deep, and great care should be exercised in the for- mation and covering of the heaps. We are no advocates for large pits. We consider fifty bushels to be the best size, and our rea- sons for so thinking are, that our risk of loss by excess of heat or frost is thus reduced to a minimum ; that such is a handy-sized pit to open and pick over during the snatches of fine weather that we may have in winter or early spring , and that fifty bushels just about make a convenient waggon load. Lay the heap upon a very light bottom of straw, just sufficient to keep the root from contact with the earth. Pile up neatly ; cover with a foot of loose straw and six inches of earth firmly compacted with the spade. Build in a ventilator, and leave it until the very severe weather sets in. Long ere that time the potatoes will have been thoroughly sweated. Then take away the ventilator and make all snug. Manual cf Agriculture. 217 We would recommend every former to hang one or more ther- mometers in his root cellai". They can be bought at fifty cents apiece, and the cost is well repaid by the knowledge that our cel- lars are neither too hot nor letting in the frost. In entering a cellar from the outer air upon a cold winter's day, it is impossible to tell what is the temperature inside by the fed. An atmos- phere in which the temperature is at 26*^ will feel warm after leav- mg the (){)cn air, where the thermometer stands in the neighboui-- hood of zero. We have found it an excellent plan to keep potatoes in barrels, and any that we have intended to hold over for seed we have always so kept in the cellar DiHenMs. — The common disease of potatoes, although not so bad as in the old countries, is yet very prevalent in Canada, and is known as Rot. The disease arises from the existence of innumerable and infi- nitely small particles of moisture in the skin of the potato; and from this knowledge, it would appear a natural suggestion, that heat applied to the skin of a diseased potato would absorb such moisture, dispel it and prove a cure. The presence of rot is generally accompanied by mildew of the stalk ; indeed, experiments in proof of this have been tried and have resulted successfully. " The vines should be watched closely, and on the first appear- ance of the disease, plaster should be applied ; not merely sowing it broadcast, but dashing it over and under the vines, bringing it in contact with the stalks, using a handful to three or four hills. Plaster for this purpose should be very dry and powdery, and should be applied when the air is still. One application is seldom sufficient ; it should be renewed as often as circumstances require, Examine the vines about three days after a cold night, or about the same length of time after a heavy rain. If the leaves begin to curl and wither, apply plaster at once, and, in short, whenever the vines show any signs of drooping ; be the causes bites of insects, excessive humidity of the atmosphere, or sudden change of temperature — drooping from any cause whatever indicates the ap- proach of mildew, which should be promptly met with an applica- tion of plaster. " As before stated, plaster the vines as soon as they are up ; again after the ]ust ploughing and hoeing ; after that, one, two or three times, as circumstances indicate. By this method the vines are kept of a bright, lively green, and the tubers are kept swelling until growth is stopped by frost. Another point gained is, pota- toes so grown are so sound and free from disease as to be easily kept for spring market, without loss by rot." — Dr. H. Compton, in Utica Herald. The remedy as applied to the potato itself was effected by a <> tf > 1} i^ PI , -■.it.4 T h i i ' ;i'i; M 'I 218 The Canadian Farmer's HtiRsian physician, who took in a quantity of potatoes with the ob- ject of converting tiiem into nets for the following season, and, for want of other accoinniodation, thov were placed against the wall which separated the kitchen fire from the room adjoining (this was in England). A strong heat from this fire, which was daily lighted at an early hour, and kept well supplied with fuel until a late hour at night, was dillused amongst the potatoes, and produced the unlooked-for ettect of absorbing the moisture con- tained in the skin of the {)otato. Quite unaware of the process which the potatoes had undergone, the doctor had them cut into sets and |)lanted them, and when taken up for use, he was much astonished and highly delighted to find that he had not an unsound potjito in the entire crop, whilst the crops of his neighbours, on every side of him, were totally unfit for use. It has been suggested that by laying out the potatoes, either before or after cutting them, upon the drying-floor of a malt-kiln, or on the floor of a bakehouse, all the good effects above named may be obtained. Doubtless the action of covering the potato sets with plaster, as performed in Canada, has to a limited degree a precisely similar effect. Computation of Crop. — Taking up a three-ounce pot* . we should call it a fair tuber ; a five-ounce, we should call a f le ; and an eight-ounce, we should call an extra root. Probauiy the average will not be over three ounces for the ordinary seed potatoes. I^ow, suppose we grow our potatoes in ridges, twenty-eight inches apart from centre to centre, there will be eighteen thou- sand six hundred and seventy lineal feet of ridge in the acre. Let us put the sets nine inches apart the one from the other along the drills, and we shall have twenty-four thousand eight hundred and ninety-three sets to the acre, and if each set produced three pota- toes weighing three ounces apiece, or an aggregate weight of nine ounces to a set, the acre would produce fourteen thousand and two pounds, or two hundred and thirty-three bushels. We will now take smaller seed on inferior soil, and see what a vast difference a slight variation in the productive power of each seed will make in an acre's yield. Supposing one potato to only average two ounces ; we have, as before, twenty-four thousand eight hundred and ninety-three sets in an acre, and if each set produced only two potatoes of two ounces, or an aggregate weight of four ounces to a set, the acre would produce six thousand two hundred and twenty-six pounds, or one hundred bushels. From the reverse process it will readily appear that where a crop only yields one hundred bushels to the acre under the drill husbandry, twenty-eight inches between drills, and nine inches T Manual of Agriculture, 219 botw<»en setH, each aet pnuluooH an avoraj^o yiold of four ounces of potatoes ; whilst the result of two hun «« <« 12 " " 10 •« «« Cut into five Bets " ........'. 6 " " 1.') " «• <« <« g <« «« y) (• fri i [ i "^ M I im ''\m M„ TTTWT I < l\ I/'' 242 The Canadian Farmer's 1. 1. now cultivated in Canada was drawn, vfhQihcr Oouldings, Canter- bury Qrape, Mayjidd, or White Bine, wo have been unable to iind recorded. We rather think from its nature that the descent comes through the flemish Red Bine, which, although a coarse species, is hardy, and does better than the generality of other hops upon a bleak exposure. The nature of the hop. — It is a perennial plant, and its roots strike very deep into the ground. The stalk grows spirally, natur- ally upwards, but may also be trained horizontally. It is also a twining plant, and thus takes its own hold upon the pole or string. The plants have sexes, male and female ; and whilst the presence of the male is necessary to fructify the other plants, the female bines alone are serviceable to the brewer's use. The females produce their flowers in the form of a cone, in shape like that of tne fir, whilst the blossoms of the male are like those of the currant bush. It is quite possible to propagate hops by seed, but it is usual to growfrom nurseryplants raised inbeds, orfrom slips taken from the stem, or from old roots, the latter being the mode usually adopted in Canada. The object of the addition of hops to beer is not only to correct the insipid sweetness of the barley malt, but also as a preserva- tive. Many substitutes have been tried to attain these results, but none have proved equal to the hop. So gi-eat is the power of preservation of the hop, that it is not unconnnon for brewers to dry-hop summer beer, i.e., to put hops through the bung-hole into the cask after the beer is made, and when ready to send out. Soil and aspect. — The quality of the hops depends greatly upon the soil in which it is raised. As a rule, the stronger the land, the more bitter and strong the flavour and quality of the hop. From such land they are in great demand amongst brewers of porter. On lighter lands, although the hop may grow luxuriantly (when land is well enriched) and produce abundantly, they usually con- tain a less amount of farina and are of what is technically called a lesser " coiidition," and this quality of hop is also in demand by the brewers of the lighter kind of table-beer. The criterion of the strength of the hop is the amount of odour emitted and the degree of stickiness felt when moved together in the hand. A good free, friable and dry clay loam is the very best soil in Canada for hops. In the plant upon such land are comprised quantity, quality and duration. The duration of a hop-field depends in great part upon the na- ture of the subsoil ; that of a calcareous nature is capable of sup- porting a hop-field through the greatest number of seasons without u Manual of AgYiculiure. 243 renewal. The situation of the hop-garden is not so essential aa its care, but protection from the cold vrinds of winter and spring is an object to be sought after. A southern aspect is the best, for it is the cold spring easterly winds that are the most injurious. The hop takes three years to come to perfection, although a moderate crop is usually secured in Canada in the second autunm. Preparation. — The land must be clean, dry and rich — these are essentials. In a poor crop of hops a large amount of money may be sunk, while t^ ere is no crop from which such a handsome re- turn can be secured, given a fair yield and good price. The chances are that the price of hops will never again deterio- rate as it has done to the neighbourhood of five cents. Some years ago, in America, we overdid the thing. A hop-fever set in amongst farmers, not only in Canada but in the United States also, and the consequence was, that the market was, with a full crop in England and France, glutted ; down tumbled the price ; and many a grower who could not stand his losses ploughed up his gardens, never in all probability " to go into hops again." Those few who stuck to the growth realized well from last year's crop. Indeed, so careful must be the cultivation, and such is the tirst cost of a plantation, that there are but few men of means and energy sufficient to make the crop a succe.s.s. We .said above, land must be clean, dry and rich. For the first essential no preparation is equal to a thorough summer fallow ; although many growers prepare their hop-garden by a well-tilled and thoroughly -cleaned root crop. For the .second object — dryness — under-draining is neces.sary ; and for the third, the liberal application of manure in a well- rotted state, in the manner that will be presently explained. When manure is first applied on the summer fallow, from ten to twelve large two-horse waggon loads are required per acre — more would do no harm — and this manure should be lightly ploughed under and thoroughly incorporated with the soil. Let the land be well water- furrowed for the winter. If the ploughing and manuring have been put off to the spring {i.e., after a root crop), the land should then be very thoroughly water- furrowed, so that all surface water may be immediately removed. Marking out for plants. — 1'his may be done with a surveyor's chain, tying pieces of rag on the links at the required distances. Small white stakes are set in the ground, to mark the hills, at dis- tances respectively of seven feet the one way and eight feet the other. The object of this difference of distance each way we shall presently explain — or the distances may be carefully drawn out with the plough, and the intersections of the furrows marked with small wooden pegs. The latter plan is fax more rapid than by the use of the chain, but w \ ] If^' .,) I ' if m 1^ 244 The Canadian Farmer's w requires a thoroughly good ploughninn and a steady pair of horses. The man and team that can set out hinds xcell for ploughing sod, are capahlo of performing this operation also. The time, of planting is usually in the latter part of April or in the beginning of May ; in fact, about the same time as the seed- ing of spring grain. The sets used have been cut from the root of an old crop by the process of grubbing and pruning, which wo shall explain here- after. These cuttings should bo six inches long, and care vshould bo exercised that every cutting or set has eyes or buds upon it. The manner of planting is thus : — A hole is dug itt and around each stake, the hole to be about one foot deep and the same square. Into this hole is then thrown two good shovels-full of well-com- posted manure, earth is tilled in, and the whole wi 11 mixed together. The spade is then driven into the hill perpendicularly to its full depth, and worked forwards and backwards until a crack is formed of the same width and depth as the spade (before this lias been done, the hill should have been tramped pretty solid). Then take four of the six-inch sets, and carefully place them in this crack, one set at each extremity an'1 ^wo between, and at ccjual distances from one another. The set lUst be planted with the bvis np, and be put down full-spade depth, so that when earth is again com- pressed round them, they may be about an inch 1 kIow the surface. After setting, the small stake should be put back in the centre of the hill. It is necessary that a certain number of male plants be also set in the field. The custom is to make each tenth hill in e\ <. ly tenth row a male hill. Where roots are bought, dependence must be placed on the word of the seller as to which are male plants ; but in the field it is customary, in order to distinguish the males at pruning time, to leave the poles around them all winter — or a great many other methods of marking them may be adopted. The Jirst year's management depends entirely on keeping the field clean. This may be done by the free use of the horse hoe and it is not uncommon to grow a crop of Indian corn in the field this year. The corn is planted intermediately between the hop rows, and thus whilst a crop is secured the hoe may be worked constantly and the land kept from becoming foul. In the fall of this year the hills should be manured ; this is done by putting on the top of each hill a couple of shovels-full of well-rotted barn-yard manure, which not only acts as a protecting mulch for the crown of the plant, but enriches the .-lil around it. Second year's management. — As soon as ever the frost is out of the ground in the second year, the operation of root pruning or grubbing is performed. ill Manual oj Agricuuure. 246 A boy gocflfirHt nnd outs oft" 11 thnt rernaias of lust year's vineH above j^round, and puts theui off the hill ; then lollovvs a man with the grub hoe, who s|)iead.s the niarmre that was put on in the fall, and using his gxwh .ill round to draw ;way the earth from the hill, cuts off all side roots, drawing thorn out and cutting then\ as close to the main root as possihlo ; the earth is then drawn carefully around the root again. This pruning !» m very impor- tant operation, for if not done, thf^ roots would spread and lace over every inch f the hop-yard. Pollnif. — As soon as convenient tl>e poles may l>c' set, and judg- ment and care are both very necessary in this ojieration. Two poles are used in every hill, and are set exactly one toot apart, and across the eight foot width betwc-n stakes. Thus, after poling, the width to be cultivated between the hills will be re- turned; then one hor e must be used with short whip|iletrco wcH covered at the extremi- ties, so as to get the plough close to the hills. After this ploughing, the between rowa should bo again smoothed down level with the cultivator. A small crop is usually harvested this year, running from three to five hundred weight |)cr i(j and Ixdincf. — The crop ripens from the 1st to the loth of September, varying in different seasons. When the seed is fully formed, and the flower covered with pollen, we know that the vine is reaily to be stri])ped. The hops are picked usually by women and boys, into boxes or bags — the former are now almost entirely discarded. Strong frames of wood, like a skeleton box, called " bins," or " cribs," are placed in the field ; these frames are about nine feet long and four feet wide, standing about three feet and a-half from the ground. They are made largo, so that several can stand around them. In the centre of the frame is hooked a large coarse canvas bag, into which the hoj)s are picked. The particular part for the" bo.ss" to watch is that the women, and especially children, pick the hops clean, and throw nomore leaves than possibleinto the bags. The vine is cut off about three feet from the ground, any lower being considered injurious to the root from the [)rofuse bleeding which it occasions, and the pole is then wrenched from the ground and placed over the " crib" frame, when the vine is 8trip[)ed by the pickers. As the poles are often very fast in the ground, much difficulty is sometimes experienced in pulling them out, and a wrenching instrument is sometimes found necessary. The one made use of in Kent, England, is the best that we have ever seen for the purpose. It is constructed of a strong, tapering wooden handle, about three inches in diameter, and about five feet long, at a distance of 1*1/ Manual of Agriculture. 247 about twelve infhon from tl>e Iowcm' and larjjfer end of which n Hrnnll bar of iron a ftot lonj», is clenched ; and bein}; bent in the nuddle into ftn acute angle, the inside is roughened at the forge ijitoMonas- thing like tooth, which, when tixed u|>on the lower end of the hop pole bites, and holding fast, is used as a lever to wrench it hiose from its aiu^horago in the HoiL This instrument is technically known as a " hop-ilog." When smaller bags, baskets or boxes are used, it is rustomary for a woman to engage one or more for lu^rself and family. The weather considered most favourable for picking is when it is neither too hot nor moist, but as in CJatuida time always presses and hanls are scarce, wo cannot bo over-fastidious. Ihit it will not do to pick in rain. Hops must bo dried as soon as possible after picking, or they will heat and become di.scoloured. Otie day's jiickirig is theicforo always dried at the kiln before th(j ne.xt day's lot comes in. Dfi/itKj. — The operation of kiln drying is one of gnuit nicety, and re(piires experience — the hop grower should always super- intend it himself. It is the simplest thing in the world to reduce the value of a hundred of hops several dollars, by improper drying. Wo cannot hero enter into a full description of a hop kiln. Any man proposing to build one should go and examine personally those already constructed. There are, however, one or two impor- tant points worthy of H{)ecial consideration in the building of a ho{) kiln. The floor (slatted strong enough to hold men tramping) must bo high up in the heating room. This room should then be at least from fifteen to eighteen feet high. A room for storage of hops should be provided up stairs and alongside the drying-room, but it may bo at a lower level — and there must bo a room for baling in, below the store-room. As a general rule, it may be assumed that ahoj) kiln of 20 X 16, full ground plan, will be of capacity sufficient for from three to four acres of hops. Hops, when brought in, should not be spread too thickly upon the floor; about one foot is the medium thickness — if they lie heavier it becomes hard work to turn them. The temperature should never be over 170°, for fear of scorch- ing. Indeed, if we can accommodate next day's picking, or have time, it were better that the heat should be even very much less. When it is neces.sary to have one day's picking dried before the next comes in, and the heat to be kept between 150° and 170°, the time usually required is from 15 to 20 hours. When dry, the seed of the hop must be shrivelled ; this know- ledge cannot well bo imj)arted by reading, but must be learned from experience — for it is a knowledge on the accuracy of which !1 ! k' I '4 I Im ''^ ,14 248 The Canadian Farmer's the quality of the hop, when brought to market, in great measure depends. Sulphur is generally used in drying, to improve the colour, making a yellower sample. Baling. — It is better to leave the hops at least two or three weeks after drying before they arc compressed into bales. In thai time they imbibe a certain amount of moisture, which keeps the c-:>lour fresh and adds to the weight. The hops are then passed down through a pi[)e into canvas set in a press. The men that work the press below, also stamp the hops in with their feet and sew up the sides; the size of the bale is usually about 5 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. X by 2 ft., and contains from 150 lbs. to 250 lbs, of pressed hops. The usual yield of bops in full bearing in Canada is from 5 cwt. to 15 cwt. per acre. \Ve have heard of one ton to the acre, but have never had our eyes refreshed by the sight of such a crop. The attacks to which the hop crop is most exposed are, chiefly, of some of those numerous tribes of insects known as plant-lice, which are the hop-aphido}. They are, in certain weather, gene- rated in vast numbers, and, covering the plant, suck the leaves, and cause them to curl downwards, black, sickly and dying. Another very rapacious enemy is the wire worm, who acts be- low with such effect upon the roots, that sometimes one-third of them will be destroyed. Attempts have been made to destroy the aphidte by burning rubbish, sulphur, old tobacco, «Sjc., on the windward side of the garden, but such remedies are of little avail. Of one thing we may be certain, that the hop-grower has no friend equal to the " ladybird," whose black larvae feed upon the "fly" The " mildew," a common disease in England, we are glad to say has never been prevalent in Canada. We now come to a consideration of the cost and profit of the hop crop. Our estimate nmst necessarily be very rough, for there is such a variation in the cost of poles, of labour and of production, that it is impossible to come at closer estimates than the following ; COST AND PROFIT ON ONE ACRE OF HOPS. CULTIVATION. F%r$l Year — Rbnt of land (being under-drained).. ^ 00 Ploughing in fall 2 00 Ten loads of manure 6 ()0 Ploughing in spring 2 00 Marking out and staking 2 50 Sets, at $2 per bush . and 4 busli. per acre 8 00 Planting : Two men for three days 6 00 Twelve loads rotten manure 6 00 Cultivating twice 1 70 $38 20 Manual of Agriculture. 24d Contra. By 40 bush. Indian corn, at 60 cents 24 00 Second Ymv. — Fall manuring on billa, 12 loads $6 00 Rent 5 00 1,600 poles at 8 cents, extending this charge over 8 years, say 16 00 Sh'irpening poles 8 (X) ''^rimming, cubbing, pruning and poling, three men And one boy, for one day 3 50 Tying binc^ a man four days altogether 4 00 One ploughing between rows 2 SO Cultivating twice .. 1 70 $14 20 46 70 Third Year. — Same expense of cultivation as in the second year 46 70 Total expenses of cultivation for first three years $107 60 PICK V J, &C., COST OP. Say crop yields '2 cwt. in 3rd yuar, and 5 cwt. in 2nd year, or total yield of 17 cwt. to the acre in first three years : Picking. — At 3 cents per lb. (usual price) §51 00 Dryiwj.— At $1 per 100 lbs 17 00 Baling. — Two men and one boy can bale and sew GOO lbs. per day 7 50 Bent oj Kiln, costing $400, at 12 per cent 4 HO Total cost picking, drying, &c $80 30 Total expenses $187 90 Contra . 17 cwt. hops, at 20 cents 340 00 ' 'if • 3 '^m Profit from one acre 152 10 It thus becomes apparent that, given a fair crop and price, the growth of hops is very i)rofi table. We must also bear in mind, that in the estimate above set down every item is charged at its highest cash value. Not only labour but manure is charged at a far higher rate than would be proper when the farmer of a large holding simply devotes a small portion of his property to the cultivation of hops. Every year succeeding the third the profit beconjes very much greater, for, as will be perceived, the first year is one of outlay with no return, whilst the crop picked in the second year is of little value. Thus the third, or first year of perfect crop, is charged with no less than three years' cultivation, while the profit on every suc- ceeding crop will be only chargeable with the cultivation of one year. The hop crop is one that requires considerable capital in the commencement, careful culture, and patience to wait for some years ere the full interest be realized. The want of either or all 11 W-^ -, if: - «l«i f'l i260 '/"A^ Canadian Farmer's ' 1 ■■' *■*■: :i ■-:f of these requisites has ruined very many hop-growers both in England and in America. Like the generality of businesses in which profits are very great, there are immense risks to run, and, therefore, the man wlio is not provided with stamina enough to stand a year's dead loss, and to wait for future crops to make up any deficiency so caused, had better keep himself and his purse clear of the risky though profit- able culture of the hop. It has been well said, that " hop culture is one of the most hazardous investments connected with farming, and is indeed regarded by many persons as a species of gambling, only to be in- dulged in by those who have capital sufficiently large to withstand successive failures." Although this is rather strong language, yet we heartily endorse the meaning of the writer, that a man without capital may easily ruin himself by too extensive a rush into hop culture. Trellis-ii'ork instead of Poling. — Many of our hop-growers have given up the system of polin^', and have adopted trellises of string. The advantages claimed are: the plant obtains more sun and air, is more spread out, and therefore less liab.'e to f.y or lice. The poles are shorter, cost less, and stand better against high winds. The plant is more accessible, and can '.3 examined and trained more easily. The crop is picked without culting down, thus preventing all bleeding. The price of hops has varie^'' 'n the last few years through every gradation from G cents to 35 cents and yet higher per lb The cause of the sudden dacliiie in the prices some four and five years ago, was the rush made into hop-culture of which we have already casually spoken, and the consequent forcing upon the European market of a great quantity of American hops of inferior quality. English brewers must have good hops, for much of their beer is sent to hot countrie;*, ana to keep, must have bee'^ made from the very best of materials, ARTIFICIAL GRASSES, HAYING, &C., &C. We now come to a cr nsideration of the grasses grown for meadow and pastuiuge in Canada. These grasses, whether made into hay or fed upon the ground, form the most important forage for cattle, and also, by the manure made in their consumption, help to maintain more live stock upon an arable farm, exclusive of the product of grain, than upon an equal amount of land solely in pasture. Without the use of these artificial grasses, it would indeed Manna, of Agriciilture. 251 upon our light soils be im|)ossible to continue a mixed course oi" husbandry embracing a yearly proportion of wheat. We tind, on reference to botanical works, enumeration of a great number of varieties of [)ea-blossomed pliints under the names of "Trefoil " and " Melilot," but tliey all belong to the one class, and, cidtivated in Canada, are simply divided into red and white clover. These clovers are most of them indigenous to our climate, and indeed the oily seeds of white clover will remain dormant, espe- cially when covered in calcareous soil, for ages, and then appear to spring up spontaneously and naturally when least expected, or when, perhaps, particularly undesired. It is a perennial plant, lying so close to the ground that it is not unfrequently known by the name of "creeping clover," but the great luxuriance of its growth, its nutritive quality, and the sweetness of its Havour, give it rank as the most valuable for pasturage amongst all our natural grasses. The broad-leafed red clover is also to a certain extent indifje- nous, but it has been imported so generally, and so improved by cultivation, that it now may be fairly ranked amongst the arti- ficial grasses. No better step has been ever made in the general agriculture of this continent, than the general growth of this plant. As a green manure it is unsurpassed by any other crop, affording shade to and retaining moisture in the soil during its growth, and returning much plant food when ploughed down and in a state of decomposi- tion. It is a biennial phiut, not arriving at perfect maturity until the 3'ear after it is sown, and dying in the next season. Clover is not an exhaustive crop, and the reason is very concisely put in the following passage from the pen oi' Professor Liebig : — " Clover differs entirely from the cereals in this respect, that it sends its main roots perpendicularly downwards, when no obstacles stand in the way, to a depth which the fine tibrous roots of wheat and barley fail to reach ; the principal roots of clover branch off in creeping shoots, which again send fresh roots downwards. Thus clover, like the pea plant, derives its principal food from layers below the arable surfoce soil, and the difference between the two consists mainly in this, that the clover, from its larger and more extensive root surface, can still find a sufficiency of food in fields where peas will no longer thrive. The natural oonsequence is, that the subsoil is left proportionably much poorer by clover than by the pea. Clover seed, on account of its small size, can furnish from its own mass but a few formative elements for the young plant, and requires a rich arable surface for its development, but the plant takes comparatively but little food from the surface of the soil. When the roots have pierced ■I llji.l 'a m Hi '^flj ■\-, ^ M tjHu ■p 252 The Canadian Farmers \ :;■:';* I ,_; u through this, the up[)er parts are soon covered with a corky coating, and only the tine root-fibres, ramifying through the sub- soil, convey food to the [dant. " The value of the root is equal to that of the leaf and stalk to the farmer. As Dr. Voelcker's experiments clearly prove, there remains in the soil, after the removal of the crop, an enormous weight of clover roots, which on their decomposition supply, in an available form, a large amount of plant food that this vigorous feeder has collected largely from sources that would have been inaccessible to the finer tendrils of wheat roots. Furthermore, clover roots penetrate deeply into the subsoil, and when they decay they leave open a well-furnished and inviting channel by which the roots of more delicate plants can descend beyond the infiuence of droujrh*^.. This is in addition to the accumulation of nitrogen in the substance of the roots, and in the fallen leaves of the croj>. Whatever the reason may be, the fact is most obvious, whenever I have been able to observe its effect, that the growth of clover has mvariably added to the apparent fertility (the available fertility) of the soil. The good effect is much more obvious after two years' growth of the clover." Many American farmers believe so heartily in the efficacy of the clover plant as a renovator of land, that they are willing to lose one whole crop in order to ensure a thoroughly good crop of wheat in the succeeding year, thus going a step further with this subject than we have in Canada. We as yet have only gone to the extent of ploughing in the year's crop of clover, and generally trust to the infiuence of the decaying roots alone, after having taken off" either one or two cuts of grass or hay. American farmers take the bull by the horns at once. They seed down wheat with clover, do not allow the young clover to be fed off" on any account, then for the next season close up the field fences altogether, and neither feed nor cut the crop. The entire clover plant is allowed to grow, and is often over two feet high, a solid mass of flowers and seed, and is allowed to rot down on tiie ground, and lie all the winter. The next spring the "lover starts again, and is allowed to grow till in full flower. Th»^ whole of the result is then ploughed under as a preparation iir wheat, either with or without a fa)'ow. If spring wheat is to Ve grown, the ground is fallowed during the remainder of the season, after ploughing, and regularly prepared for spring wheat. If for fall wheat, the clover is ploughed under, the land heavily rolled, and cultivated so far as to keep down thistles and weeds, and the fall wheat sown. A noble crop may be expected, to be again seeded down to clover. By these means the ground becomes filled with clover seed, and the peculiar elements produced from rotten and decayed clover, and this ensures a thorough crop f * i. ■ e ^o often as it is used. The originator^ of this system ■ Ir.in tnai ic i" ManuaL of Agriculture. 253 =!0 one of groat economy. The outlay is very aniall, the cost of labour comparatively nothing, the smothering cfFcct of the clover kills all weeds, and the double crop so ploughed in is done by one ])loughing and a slight cultivation of the soil between the time of ploughing and wheat sowing. They say that you have the ground more cheaply and better manured than you can have it in any other way, and ensure a thorou^ dy good crop of grain. In case of growing spring wheat, the plan might be further supple- mented by a crop of buckwheat ploughed under after the clover, or a crop of green mustard. Either of these would be ploughed in, the last thing in the fall. Clover will grow upon almost any kind of soil, from the most sandy to the stiffest clay, but on the lighter lands it apfjears to be more at home. Indeed, it is generally considered that if a crop of clover can be secured upon a field very much worn out, the first step has been taken in the reinvigoration of such land. When soivn. — Generally along with spring wheat, barley or oats, and upon fall wheat in the spring of the year. Solving. — In the sowing of clover, the most important point to be considered is the condition of the seed. It must be borne in mind, that good red clover seed is dark-coloured when thoroughly ripe ; so that in proportion as there are present in the sample a great number of light-coloured seed, so there will be greater risk of a proportion not generating. To illustrate this point more fully : if the light-shaded seeds in a sample be picked out and planted, many will be found to fail, whilst all the dark- coloured will germinate. The quantity per acre is a subject on which there has been much difference of opinion. We have ourselves always favoured thick sowing, and we have yet seen no reason to change our opinion upon the subject. Something may, however, depend on the condition of the ."^eed bed, as in a mellow, rich, friable sur- face soil, doubtless the seed will have the best chance to grow quickly. The three objects to be attained in the sowing of clover are nutriticus fodder, a heavy growth to plough under, and the for- mation of dense shade for the ground. The practical experience of farmers is adverse to thin sowing of clover. The plants come up fi^r apart, and if, owing to a very favourable state of soil and season, we have a good crop, the stalk grows very coarsely, and is apt to become dry and brittle after curing, stacking and mowing away. Extra seed should not be gruaged if by its use a sweet, soft, fine .itemmed clover can be secured. It is passing strange that the practice of thin sowing should be so frequently carried out in Canada ; for even in Great Britain, where there is far greater humidity of climate, and where the ! i? H •' "' 'lH :li% 254 The Canadian Farmer's ?|i state of cultivation is very perfect, it is the gener practice to sow not only clover, but all grass seeds, much thic t than we do here. As we hit writing and cast our eyes into an adjoining field, which was last year a garden, there is a patch upon which clover seed was sown very thickly ; probably over twenty pounds to the acre. The spring has been excessively dry (1873), and the clover is generally very backward. Our patch is thick and luxuriant, springy to the tread of the foot, ana the ground beneath, notwith- standing there has been no rain for about tliroc weeks, is moist. It is quite evident that the early and vigorous growth of a mass of stem and leaves has covered the ground well, prevented the escape of moisture, and also, in all probability, of many fertilizing ga.ses. The sun is streaming down with intense heat ujion the head when walking upon this green carpet, but the feet feel mois- ture and coolness. Where the clover is thin in the tields, the ground is bared to the action of the sun, is scorching hot to the hand, the sjires of the plants are dried and the leaf shrunk. No after rain can ever cause such to make the growth that will be found in one thick-sown piece ere the blossoms are out and the crop fit for the scythe. In the one case, a crop of at least three tons per acre will be cut, and with the very best of weather we cmnot expect more than twenty hundred weight from the other. The hay from the one acre will be worth, at ten dollars per ton, thirty dollars ; while from the other it will be only ten dollars, under the best circumstances of weather that may supervene be- tween the present time and haying. The difference of seed used on the two portions was probably nearly ten pounds, or, at six dollars per bu.shel, only one dollar. Thus, for a saving of one dollar at one time, is lost hereafter twenty dollars. This may be callelan to sow as soon as iaiid is moderately dry, and the wheat has begun to put fcrth a growth for the sumnHir. Then harrow the wheat, a.s was recommended in the section de- voted to the culture ol' wheat, and the pa.ssage of the roller after this harrowing will help to cover in the seeds. Last season (1872), when a great number of farmers failed to seiuire a " catch" on fall wheat, we adopted this plan and were successful. A bush harrow, following sowing, will also be found a very ex- cellent im [dement for covering clover seed, for it should not be deep in the surface soil. The success of the clover crop depends in great measure upon the state of the weather, both when sown and afterwards when standing for a crop. It rtMpilim gentle rains to sprout it rapidly and to give it a good anchornge before the summer droiights '^et in, though in this climate we always run the risk of losing our clover by the burn- ing heats of summer, no matter how favourable to its early growth may have been the spring rains. The farmer too often, however, blames the weather for his lost crop ; but given soil clean and under good tilth, a liberal su|>ply of sound, fresh seed, and nature will, in the majority of cases, responl with a bountiful crop. It is useless to sow clover on foul land. Most of our noxious weeds are fast and stout growers, and in the tussle for life our do- mestic plant must go to the wall. Not only does a tine friable state of the bed give the clover a 266 The Canadian Farmer's chance to strike its tap root firmly and deeply down, but in such ground the temperature is always cooler. When sowing clover seed along witli spring grain, in drills, the clover sower should run in front of the implement. The teeth of the drill only stir the soil, and no just cover the grass seeds; while if the seed follows, it will fall and roll into the drills and be cov- ered nearly the same depth as the grain, which will be fatiil to a largo pro[)ortion of grass seeds. After clover seed is sown with s|)ring grain, the roller should always be used to cover in such seeds as may have remained on the surfar^e. The Americans have recorded instances of a successful " catch" of clover on corn ground. A. G. Kirk, Dickinson Co., Kansas, says he saw in Columbus County, Ohio, last April, a tine stand of clover in a corn stn.bble, and on inquiry found the owner of the land was in the habit of sowing clover seed when he worked the corn the last time, for the purpose of supplying manure for the crop of oats, or barley, or wheat, which was to follow. This farmer evidently was one of the progressive sort, who believes in putting all ho can on the land. We have done the same, pasturing the clover with sheep, and had a good crop of wheat after it. Sowlnff clover alow. — That grass seed will come toagood croj) when sown alone, is now a well-established fact. Indeed it was brought under our own observation in a very marked manner. We seeded down a field of oats ; the oats were drilled in, and the grass seed was dropped l>y a clover sower attached to the hind end (;f the two-horse drill ; the seed was covered with a bush harrow. For some renson the grain drill did not work well, and several of the spouts missed sowing in two or three places througli the whole length of the field. In one spot the whole drill missed for some yards. Upon these bare spots the grass seeds have, not- withstanding the extreme dryness of the season, far excelled in luxuriance of giowth those upon the land where the oats have grown regularly. This goes to prove that the clover and timothy will do well when sown by themselves. Whether the farmer would approve of losing one year's crop off his land, he may judge for himself ; but on low spots such grasses as timothy may be sown to advantage by themselves in the fall, and will come to a good crop in the succeeding year. We would, however, repeat our opinion that if the land be not in good heart and thoroughly clean, it will be worse than useless to sow timothy and clover alone. Should land, however, be in a fit state to receive the seed next year, let it be ploughed in the fall and left rough , cross- ploughed or thoroughly cultivated and harrowed down very finely Manual of Agriculture. 267 in the spring, and seeded down thickly with oi\\u\\ hulks of tim- othy and clover. If manure be used, it must be tine and thoroughly rotted, so that all weed seeds have been killed, and it should be incorporated with the soil by sj)reading on top, and working in with the culti- vator in the early spring. A top-dressing of ashes and })laster will be of great benefit at 'xlmost any period of its growth. Or let him plough early this fall and sow timothy seed alone, and in the spring drag with light harrov/s ; sow clover seed, harrow iignin, and top-dress with tine rotted manure, plaster and ashes. Of the two courses wo prefer the former as the more safe. The only advantage to be obtained from the latter course is that the tirst year's hay will have a good admixture of timothy in it. When clover is used with the intention of keeping the meadow for two or three years, it becomes neces.sary to use another kind of seed to take the j)lace of the clover, which, being a biennial plant, disappears in two year's. For this })urpose timotliy Is used in Canada. While we believe that there are other grasses of a sweeter flavour and more luxuriant growth than timothy for this purpose, and suited to the climate of Canada, yet experiments, as recorded, have been so meagre that we hardly feel (pialiliud in advising the supersedence of timothy by them. We shall sjjcak of these other grasses hereafter. It was customary at one time to sow clover by weight and timothy by bulk. The present and more practical phvn is to sow a given bulk pel wvvv, of the two, mi\(Ml in (U[ual (juantitios. Before leaving this subject, we may men lion the common prac- tice of (;utting cereal crops, amoiig.'^t which grasses have been sown, too close to the ground. Undoubtedly a larger amount of straw is thus obtained, but on the other hand a fair leuLrth of stubble affords considerable protection to the young plant, and breaking down in winter acts to some extent as a mulch. We now come to a consideration of the main principles to be observed in the securing of a superior article. 1 n 1 h H 1 4 1 ' . 1 , ii. ^ . ! \ ■ ; i' 1 1 '-•■iW 1.1 '''^ii '1 \ . i 1 ,> . fl 1: HAY. We will here condense from a treatise on haymaking, by Mr. Sib- son " Haymaking, though essentially merely a process of drying, by which the feeding princi|)les of the grass are brought to a condi- tion capable of being preserved, is accompanied by minor changes which materially influence the result. The chief of these is the production of the peculiar flavouring principles of hay, which pro- bably contribute much to the value of this produce as a choice article of food. Again, the grass in drying is exposed to certain sources of loss in nutriti\*e materials, so that the hay made from a 17 -I [if T ■~^mf^mmmimi^m''nm 258 T'/ie Canadian Farmer's Ml given weight of grass doc>( not contain so much nutritive mattei as the grass in a fresh state wouhl do. " This loss may be accounted for : 1. By thr seeds, Huwc rs and finer leaves, especially of the clovers, which become very brittle on drying, shaking out to some extent, during the making, even when carefully managed. " 2. By incipient fermentation, which proceeds in the moist grass as soon as cut, and proceeds while drying in the field as well as in the mow or stack. " 3. By the washing out of its soluble constituents by dew and rain while lying in the field, especially when arrived at the con- dition approaching to th.it of hay. The extent of this loss, of course, ('epends on the weather during the operation, being in wet seasons very considerable, and is the principal reason why fine weather is of so much value in haymaking. "The quality of hay as food, apart fr )ra that determined by the manner in which it has been i^it, dej)onds of course mainly on the character of the meadow which produces it, and also much upon condition as regatds the maturity of the grass when cut. Up to the period of flowering, the nutritive juices of the grasses continue to increase, especially in sugar ; in many species notable quantities of this valuable constituent of food are present. As the ])rocess of fructification proceeds, these bodies diminish, being drawn upon to supply the flowers, pollen, &c., much of which is thus lost, whilst the amount of woody fibre in the stems raj)idly increases, also at the expense of nutritive principles. For the,e reasons it is certainly better to cat () rasa for hay too early than too late ; for although by waiting longer a heavier crop may be obtained, beyond a certain period this increase in quantity will be greatly at the expense of quality." We give analyses of clover hay and ordinary mixed meadow hay :— MEADOW HAY. Per cent. Moixlure .. 1GG4 Fatti/ and umxjf m:{ttcrs . 5()1 Albuminous coin])()auds* 808 Gum, sugar, &o. &u 4486 VVootly fibre 17"G4 Mineral matters + 7 "77 100 00 Per ton. 33.S Iba. 72 1404 9654 355 134 2000 iiiiii Per cent. Per ton. • Containing Nitrogen r.'JO "2!) Iba. t " Pliospuoric Acid 043 94 " Potash 202 46 ii-.fl Manual of Agriculture. 259 CLOVBR UAV. Per cent. Per ton. Moiatnre IT 05 ;WI91br Flit ty and w»xy matt<'M ;< 74 438 Albumin iiB Compounds* 1434 2812 Kui{ar, gum, &c 30-76 C4'» 0 Woo.ly (ibro 2001 er.Cl Miueral matters -t 750 I'.'HO 100 00 2(HM)0 Boti meadow and clover hay cont ii a considerable proportion of fatty and waxy matters, all of which are probably available for animal wants. One-Mixth, however, of the wi-ight '^f hay, and a lii tie more iti clover hay, it must be observed, is wat^ ' It is doubtless owing to the greater amount of nitrogenous matter and phosphates that clover is a better fertilizer than mixed grass. It has been argu.-fl by some that slight heating in tin st.ick or mow does not injure the feeding qualities of luiy ; but • ,e smell emitted from hay in a state of fermentation Woiild l''ad us to con sider that there must be a loss in the process of no small amount of sugar. The practice of salting hay, when about to mow J'way, is un- doubtedly a good one, for it tends to amalgamate the soluble nitrogenous compounds, and these are, undoubtedly, the origin i- tors of that fermentation which, if allowed to proceed, will cause such evi ution of heat as to destroy the feeding properties of thf hay, and in some cases cavrse actual coinbintiori. Clover has, undoubtedly, a larger amc Miit of feeding quality when green than any other kind of artitieial grass ; but owing to its brittleness when drying, it becomes dusty, and for 'his reason is dangetous feed to an animal from whom speed, and raj)id action of the lungs and organs of breath are required. Signs of Rain. — Many of our farmers regulate not only the time of haying, but also the setting of posts and many other farm operations, by the phases of the moon. Now, whilst we t^an hardly perceive any analogy between the moon and a fence post, it is yet probable that the moon acts as a chronicle of certain times in the year in whi(^h rain is m^/ '>> -/^ % ^ o ^ / Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MA!N STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 1 ^i-u -^f-*.^ ^-^ 260 The Canadian Farmer's 111 ■ , :i. '■ i ■■ i We would call our farmers' notice to the fact that in nearly every year there is more rain in the first two weeks in July than in the latter part of June or of July. A natural barometer is noted in Macdonald's " Hints on Farm- ing," as discovered by a gentleman in England, being the snider's web. When it is about to rain and be windy, the spider shortens considerably the last thread to which his web is suspended, and leaves it in this state while the weather remains variable. If the insect lengthens its threads, it will be fine, and the fine- ness may be guessed by the length they attain. If the spider remains inactive, it is u sign of rain ; if, on the contrary, it begins to work whilst it rains, it betokens a speedy change for the bet- ter. The spider alters his web every twenty-four hours, and if these alterations are made a little before sunset, the night will be fine. The following quaint reasons, forty in number, are given by the late Dr. Jenner as sure signs that rain is near : — 1. The hollow winds begin to blow, 2. The clouds look black, the grass is low, 3. The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep, 4. And spiders from their cobwebs peep. 6. Last night the sun went pale to bed, 6. The moon in halves hid her head ; 7. The boding shepherd heaves a sigh, 8. For see a rainbow spans the sky. 9. The walls are damp, the ditches smell, 10. (closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel. 11. Hark! how the chairs and tables crack — 12. Old Betty's joints are on the rack. 13. Loud quack the ducks ; the peacocks cry, 14. The distant hills are seeming nigh. 15. How restless are the snorting swine ; 16. The busy flies disturb the kine. 17. Low o'er the grass the swallow wings— 18. The cricket, too, how sharp he sings. 19. Puss on the hearth, with velvet paws, 20. Cits wiping o'er her whisker'd jaws. 21. Through the clear stream the fishes rise, 22. And nimbly catch th' incautious flies ; 23. The glowworms, numerous and bright, 24. Illumed the dewy dell last night. 25. At dusk the squalid toad was seen, 26. Hopping and crawling o'er the green. 27. The whirling dust the wind obeys, 28. And in the rapid eddy plays. 29. The frog has changed his yellow vest, 30. And in a russet coat is dressed. 31. Though June, the air is cold and still, 32. The mellow blackbird's voice is sbrill. 33. My dog, ao altered in his taste, 34. Quits mutton bones on grass to feast. 35. And see yon crowa ! how odd their flight, 36. They imitate the gliding kite, 37. And seem precipitate to fall, 38. As if they felt the piercing ball. 39. 'Twill surely rain ; I see with sorrow 40. Our jaunt must be put off to-morrow. Manual of Agriculture. 261 The object in making hay from grass, as we have before observed, is to retain the maximum amount of sap, and this can only be done by allowing it to go through a slate of partial fer- mentation in cocks whilst undergoing the process of drying. This is best effected by first putting it into small cocks, then into larger ones, thus gradually curing in the shade ; this also prevents all liability of a second fermentation in the stack or mov7 Clover is ready for cutting at a far earlier period than usually practised by farmers. To preserve all the saccharine juices it must be cut when in full bloom, when but a very few of the heads have begun to brown — it is common to wait until the majority of the heads are wilted and dead. The heads should wilt in the cock, and not on the stem. Timothy, likewise, to secure a well-coloured and nutritious article, should be cut when the first joint above the root has turned yellow and become hard. K left to ripen its seed, the juices are turned into hard fibre, which is little better for feed tiian ground-up chips of wood. " A farmer says he wants to let his timothy grow until it is ripe enough to haul into the bam the same day it is cut. This sounds very nice, and looks practical. But on the other side there is a hor^e that, if he could speak, would say he will not eat such hay at all if he can get hay that has been cut before the seed was filled, and has been well cured by the process of sweating in the cock. We think that in most cases it is the imperfect curing of early cut hay that brings it into disrepute with city buyers. Some cut it too early, and allow it to lie in the swathe and burn up in the sun. Finding it does not dry, they leave it all night exposed to the dew in the swathe, or even for a day or two under the sun and passing showers, till it gets wilted, not cured. Such hay has lost all its aroma and sweetness. Had it been tedded, or shaken out twice within six hours after cutting, and then put up in cocks to stay till it had gone through a slight degree of fermentation, it would have been quite a different article." " The Couviry Gentleman hears of many farmers who could not get in any hay during the showery or ' catching' weather of this season ; and is told of one man who is not supposed to be much of a farmer, but put from three to six tons of hay in good order into his bam every day for a week. There is no secret in the process. He put up the hay in cocks and put canvas caps over them, thus shedding the rain. Then when the weather was clear again, off went the caps and the hay opened to the air and sunshine. The caps he used were made out of old bags, and cost about fifteen cents each. But much higher priced bags would pay well on the investment when wet weather continues." " It is held by some that clover, as soon as it begins to lodge, m \i^' i 'i |: >\:'t l\v I \ ii.!!.!il !i 262 The Canadian Farmer's should, as a general thing, be cut. This irrespective of its age or size. Hence, clover by these men is cut early avS a rule — in moist seasons always before it is in full blossom. When the crop is light (in a drought) it is cut later, but not much. The early cut- ting has convinced them of the superiority of the hay. Thus we have, Aug. 7th, the second cutting in process. There are a few heads, but half have not appeared. Tne crop has begun to lodge — of course it is of a good length to do this ordinarily ; the stems are eighteen to twenty inches long. It is a heavy mass of green fodder, surpassing in weight the tirst cutting, on account of the more favourable weather. "To cut thus early is to get all of the growth, as all can be cleanly cut off, not having lodged sufficiently to prevent this. There is a saving, therefore, in this respect, as well as in the better quality of the hay, no rotting of the lodged stalk taking place. This last, when much lodged, and a heavy growth, results in much loss." Of late years caps have been brought into general requisition in the States for the protection of hay in cock. For weighing hay in small lots, an American exchange describes a very simple contrivance, which saves the tying at least, aji'l is very cheap and easy to make. It consists of an upright standard, five or six feet in length, of 4 x 4 scantling ; a round pole will do as well. Near the bottom of this standard, two two-inch holes are bored at right angles to each other. Round straight poles are slipped through these holes, projecting some three or four feet on each side of the standard. On the ends of these poles are laid and fastened light narrow strips of boards or poles, forming a square, the sides of which are equally distant from the standard. A clevis is attached to the top end of the standard in which to hook the steelyard. The usual lever ar- rangement is used to raise the hay, which is simply pitched on to the platform. When not in use, the cross poles can be slipped out, and the whole stored in a small place. Clover for Seed. — Clover seed is at best a troublesome crop, and rarely yields more than three bushels to the acre. Still, as from the farmer's own field he can obtain seed which he knows is fresh and unadulterated, it may be a safe plan to cut and thrash ; but it must be borne in mind that the cutting of grass for seed is hard upon the land. The period when it may be considered ready to cut is one re- quiring judgment. "As the crop approaches to maturity, it changes its verdant appearance to a light brown;" the leaves begin to harden and shrivel and drop oflT, leaving a bare stem, with the withered flower nodding at the top. The best plan is to pluck the flowers and rub in the hand. When the seed separates with some difficulty, but yet will come away from the flower, the crop should be cut ; by the time it has dried it will thrash easily. In- ■:l|l!-i Manual of Agriculture. 263 deed, clover when ripe for seed is at all times a bad sheller, and should be secured with as little moving as possible. The reaping machine is the best implement for cutting clover for seed. The clover heads may be raked in windrows, and immediately pitched into a waggon rack which has been boarded up, so that as few shellings as possible may be lost in carrying. It is better to cut clover for seed in the mornings and evenings, and on cloudy days, for it becomes very dry and brittle under a hot sun. The crop must, however, be perfectly dry for thrashing, as if damp the seed is very hard to separate. But a wetting wi*h rain, and subsequent drying, will have a good effect in making it thrash more easily. Seed should be only taken from clover that has been grown on clean ground, or a plentiful crop of mulleins and other abominable weeds will be on hand for distribution over the farm. The chief points to be considered in stowing away hay in the barn are : — Mowing away in such a manner that it may be easily moved again ; sprinkling with salt, the beneficial effects of which have been already shown. In stacking hay, more caie should be exercised than is usual in securing the bottom from wet. We believe that a regular stand upon some stone pillars or wooden posts would pay well, for such would not only keep the stack perfectly dry, but would also allow of a current of fresh air passing constantly below the hay. When hay is very damp, a ventilator is most useful. This is simply made by keeping a bag filled with chaff, or some light but bulky substance, always standing in the centre, building round this bag, and then drawing it up each time that the layers of hay rise to the mouth of the bag. This plan of ventilation need not, however, be resorted to unless the hay be very damp, for a moderate sweating of the hay renders it far more palatable to the cattle. The grand principles of a well-built stack are that the centre be all the time kept higher than the sides, and that the whole be kept well trodden down. Pasture Land. — The management of pasture land in Canada is more difficult than in the moister climate of England. Droughts are of such frequent occurrence during the summer, that grass, once eaten down, sometimes takes several weeks to put forth again the slightest growth, and thus at certain seasons through the summer we find that our cattle do no better when they have the run of twenty acres than at other seasons in a far smaller field. It is the quickly renewed growth of grass after cropping that makes good pasturage, and this rapid revival will not take place if the land be allowed to get parched up. Soilin(j vs. Pasture. — Our own experience in this matter has ll Hd f «M' '■iii!'*" 'm f 1" h :i'if » I * 1 i ' 1 «i ■' . ■ 264 The Canadian Farmer's been that the less pasture land we have kept the better, and that for a climate almost tropical as is ours in the summer months, the soiling system is the correct one, if we would have our farms carry a heavy stock. Indeed, by the growth of plenty of green fodder (notably corn), twenty acres may be made to feed forty head of stock equally as well — aye, better than eighty acres, while the remaining sixty acres may be reserved for winter feed in the shape of hay. The whole question of Soiling vs. Pasturing resolves itself into this : Will the extra expense of cutting and carrying food to the stock throughout the summer be more than counterbalanced by the acreage of land thus saved for other purposes ? We submit as our opinion that it undoubtedly will, simply premising that a suffi- ciently heavy stock be kept to pay for the expense of one man's whole time. We shall enter more fully into reasons when we come to consider the principle of soiling cattle. At present our business is with pasturage. Now, to keep a pasture field in heart, we must not only have a rich and deep soil, but we require any kind of grasses that will thoroughly shade the ground. Timothy is a valuable grass for hay, and is in first demand amongst city buyers ; but it is a miserable species for a pasturage — not only itself a naturally dry plant, having few leaves by which to gather moisture at night, and partaking in this manner of the nature of a cereal, but it grows spindly, straight up, far apart, and permits the hot sun to strike down on to the very surface of the ground and to bake it for several inches in depth. It does not afford the same surface as other grasses from which to radiate the earth's heat at night, so that a maximum amount of dew may be condensed, and per- mits the hot scorching winds of summer to blow fairly through it, and dry and shrivel up its stalks. What we want upon our pas- ture ground is a luxuriant matted growth — one that will tho- roughly shade the ground, and will condense the greatest amount of moisture at nigl t during hot weather. Dew. — And whilst upon the subject, we would explain the for- mation of dew. It is incorrect to say that " the dew falls" or even to speak of the dew rising. Dew forms — i.e., it is simply a condensation of the atmosphere upon the surface of substances, varying in degree according to the amount of surface exposed to the atmosphere over a given area ; for which reason dew is always heavier upon the grasses than upon the bare ground, and heavier upon thick matted, many-leaved grasses than upon those which, like timothy, spindle into one almost leafless stalk. The action of the formation of dew may be seen every day. Gk) to the well or spring in hot weather and fill a glass* with cold water ; directly this glass, made cold by the water, is brought into contact with the warm atmosphere, moisture is formed on the out- Manual of Agriculture. 265 ay. Go bh cold ht into ihe out- side of the glass. This is dew. The wet docs not come through, for we know that water cannot penetrate glass ; but the glass, being colder than the air, condenses the moisture of the atmos- phere immediately round it into drops of water. The same thing may be observed in winter, in frosty weather. When we rise from our beds in the morning, we find the window covered with frost or frozen water. The pane of glass is made cold outside by low temperature of the air ; our breath being moist, and coming into contact with the crld glass, is condensed into drops of water, and frozen. When we breathe upon a pane of glass at any time, moisture is formed by the condensation of our warm breath in contact with the colder pane. In cold weather we can see our breath ; because immediately the warm air exhaled by us comes into contact with the very much lower temperature of the external atmosphere, it is con- densed into water or vapour, and as such is perceptible to the eye. All these illustrations show — and the glass of cold water is the most palpable — that the effect of bringing air at a high tempera- ture into contact with cold is to condense the air into water. Now, after a warm day the atmosphere and surface of the earth y ave both been heated. Immediately the sun goes down, the earth begins rapidly to lose its heat by radiation — that is, heat is passed away from every particle of the earth's surface, or of what grows on its surface, as grass, trees, &c., in radiating lines outwards towards the sky. This radiation we will shortly explain. Heat is transmitted in three ways — by conduction, reflection, and radiation. By conduc- tion, when you place one end of a piece of iron in the fire, and soon the other becomes too hot to hold ; by reflection, when to preserve your wall you place a piece of bright tin between it and the stove, by which, as soon as the heat strikes the tin, it is thrown back towards the stove ; and radiation is the process by which the heat leaves the stove and warms you as you stand some yards from it. The heat, then, leaves the earth as it leaves the stove, by radia- tion upwards into space. So that the earth cools far more rapidly than the atmosphere immediately around it. The earth then takes the place of the glass of cold water, and the air condenses upon it. We hear some reader say, " But why do we feel the evening air so cold if it is really warmer than the earth ? " Because heat radiates also from your body, and the air condenses upon you and gives you a chilly and moist feeling. Again, we hear, " Why is dew, then, never heavy under trees ? " Because the tree above does the radiation of heat, and the rays of H ;*»i m i''( >\ ;.M;'i 'If m t: Tt,-q.T /(^'l ""•p^sSSKaE fc*5 :! i > :.is i:: "I, 1 -i . 11' ; ; : i ^i^:. f: 266 T'/id Canadian Farmer's heat from the earth are stopped by the tree above, so that there the ground does not cool as rapidly as where unsheltered. If you climb the tree, you will see the dew heavy on the top. Again, for the same reason, radiation is prevented by clouds, and, therefore, there is no dew in cloudy weather. If you place a paper cover over a warm egg, but not in contact, the egg will not cool as rapidly as one that is not so covered, no matter how cool the surrounding atmosphere may be, because the paper prevents radiation of heat. The earth is the egg; if covered by a tree or by a cloud — aye, by a piece of paper, not in contact with it, radiation is prevented ; it does not cool much more rapidly than the lower air, and consequently there is little or no dew, ac- cording to the closeness and thickness of the clouds. We cannot afford space to enter more fully into the subject ; we ask our readers to take notice that the greater the surface ex- posed over a given area, the greater the amount of radiation, the more rapid the cooling process, and the heavier the condensation of air into water or dew. Thus a grass that throws out innumerable leaves will condense much air at night, and thus supply itself with much moisture to keep it damp through the coming hot hours. The dew is also so heavy on clover and such leafy grasses that it soaks at last through them and drops to the soil beneath ; it is then shaded from the hot sun by the dense growth of leaf, and the ground remains moist. In timothy, the sun gets at the ground, and if it has become wet in the night, will cause rapid evaporation, and leave it drier in a few hours than if there had been no formation of dew at all. We now give a list of grass seeds. In the first column will be found their prices as sold by Bliss & Co., seedsmen, of New York, and in the second column their prices as sold by Canadian seeds- men, the latter being taken from the catalogue of Messrs. Bruce, Hamilton. The pnces for 187S of the several imported varieties of grass seeds already tried in the United States and Canada : — Creeping Bent Grass, {Agrostis Stolonifera.)— A valuable variety for lawns, also highly suit- able for permanent pasture on account of its growing earlier and later than most others, es- pecially in moist situations Mkapow Foxtail, (Alopecurm Pratenais.) — This is one of the best and earliest of pasture grasses ; its root leaves are rather broad, and grows rapidly when cut or eaten down by live stock. It thrives best on meadow lands . SwKET Scented Vernal Grass, (Anthoxanihum Odoratum. ) — This variety yields but a moder- ate portion of herbage, yet permararit pastures New York Prices. Lb. Bus. Canada Prices. Lb. Bus. 45 $1 00 $0 00 $4 00 0 50 000 0 50 0 00 Si*! Manual of Agriculture. 267 )00 $4 00 ) 50 0 00 New York Pricei. C»n»d» I»ri^» Lb. Bus. Lb. Bus. ahould not be without it, as it is of good qual> ity and very early. Its pleasant scent, not only when cut for hay, but also when the seeds become nearly ripe, is also a strong re- commendation. It even deserves a place in the flower garden on account of its agreeable odour 0 CO 0 00 0 60 0 00 YKi.iiOwOATORAa.s, {Avena Flave»een$.)~Sho\xh\ be sown with other varieties, such as Crested Dogatail or Sweet Vernal, valuable for dry meadows and pastures 0 75 0 00 0 00 0 00 Rhode Lsland Bent, {AgroadH var.)—An excel- lent variety for lawns and pasturage 0 00 4 00 0 00 0 00 Schrardek'.s Brome Gras.s, (liromiM Schraederi.) — A new forage plant from Australia, particu- larly recommended for resisting the drought bet- ter than any other variety, and will thrive on any soil except where there is a superabun- dance of moisture ; yields two good crops in a season, and is much liked by cattle, who will walk over everything else to reach it, and will eat it down as close as they can bite 060 000 0 00 000 Crested Dogstail, (Cynosurus Cristatus.) — This grass, forming a close turf, and having rather fine foliage, may be advantageously sown on lawns and other places to be kept under by the scythe ; it is also useful in agriculture for very dry or gravelly soils. Cattle leave the seed stalk, but th"* foliage is always eaten down closely 060 000 0 50 000 Orciiar-j Grass, {Syn, Round Cochfoot) (Dacty- lis Olomerata.) — A valuable grass on account of the quantity of nutritious feed which it yields, and the rapidity with which it grows after being cut or grazed. It is well adapted for growing under trees, or in orchards, etc., and is especially valuable for grazing bullocks, which fatten rapidly upon it. If allowed to stand for hay it has rather a coarse appearance, but if grazed it always has a fresh green hue.. 0 30 3 50 0 00 4 00 Hard Fescue Grass, (Festuca Duriuscitla.) — Will thrive in a great variety of soils, and re- sist the effect of drought in a remarkable degree. From the fineness of its foliage, it is well adapted for lawns or a sheep pasture, and its habit of reproduction after sowing ia very great. It attains great perfection when combined with Festuca Pratensis and Poa Tri- vialis 030 0 00 000 400 Meadow Fescue, (Festuca Pratensis.) — This thrives in all soils, excellent for a permanent fasture, and is well liked by all kinds of stock, t makes excellent hay, the foliage being ten- der, succulent and highly nutritious 0 50 0 00 0 00 0 00 Tall Fescue, {Festuca Elatior.) — A robust va- riety of the Meadow Fescue ; succeeds admir- ably in moist soils or where the meadows are subject to floods 050 000 000 000 Sheep's Fescue, (Festuca Ovina.) — This grass forms a greater part cf the sheep pastures of i; I Mi m :infl|| :il| 'i^' '(«.( wM ;:!i! -X—'.^ I, 'IS ''I ' m^ ■Aj i ii ii.; ! i Ii it; «i 268 The Canadian Farmer^s New York i'rIcM. Lb. Bun. the Englith Sonthdownii. In quantity of grass it is not equal to other cultivated Fescues, but it should always enter into the composition of pastures in which sheep are to he pastured, as they are very fond of it, and mutton from such pasture is of the finest flavour 0 30 0 00 Purple Fksci-r, (Fen'tira Rubra.)— k sub-va- riety of the Ffftluca Duriuacula, and especially suitable for dry, loose soils 0 75 0 00 Uarnki.-.hpikbd Fkacur, (Featuca Loliacea.)— One of the most valuable grasses in cultivation either for permanent pasture or for lawns. It springs early, is very productive, very nutri* tious, and improves by age. It resembles the Rye Grass in its early growth, but excels it ia the quality and abundance of its aftergrowth. It thrives on all good soils, and increases in bulk if pastured for many years 0 80 0 00 Mbadow Soft Grass, {HoIcuh Lanatu8.)—C,To\ifB from one and a half to two fcot high ; thrives in almost any soil ; useful for orchards or pas- tures overhung with trees 0 75 0 00 Enolish Rye Grass, (Lolium Perenne.) — Very nutritious, and valuable for permanent pas- tures 0 00 3 50 Itaiian Ryk Grass, (Lolium Italkum.) — For al- ternate husbandry this is invaluablo, especially for early sheep feeding and soiling 0 00 4 00 Rkd Top Grass, (Agrostis Vulgaris.)— W&\yx&- ble for pasturage ; is well knor/n and exten- sively cultivated in the Northern and Middle States and in Canada 0 25 2 26 Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, (Poa Trivialis.) — Produces a constant supply of highly nutri- tious herbage, particularly on damp soils ; and the marked preference which oxen, horses and sheep have for it distinguishes it as one of the most valuable for laying down pastures and meadows on soils either moist, or moderately dry 060 0 00 Wild Meadow Grass, {Poa Nemorali8.)—Ita habit of growth is delicate, upright, close and regular. There is no grass better adapted for pleasure grounds, particularly under trees, as it will not only grow in such places, but forms a fine sward where few other grasses can exist ; produces a good deal of foliage early in spring. 0 60 0 00 Hungarian Grass, (Panicum Oermanicum. ) — One of the most valuable varieties for soiling ; will thrive in almost any soil ; is not affected by drought ; may be sown as late as the 4tb of July 0 00 3 00 Kentucky Blue Grass or Smooth Meadow Grass, (Poo Pratensis.) — This grass yields, at a very early period of the season, herbage of the most nutritious properties. Thrives in moderately dry soils ; extensively grown in many parts of the country 0 25 3 00 Kentucky Blue Grass. — Extra clean 0 35 3 50 Timothy or Herd's Grass, (Phleum Pratense. ) Canada PricM. Lb. Bus. 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 3 00 0 00 3 00 0 00 2 25 000 000 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 3 00 0 00 0 00 Manual of jigricuUure. Nrw York Prloe*. Lb. Bus. — Well known ftnd extonitively grown throuKh out the country ; very productive, and thrivot on almost anv aoil. For laying (lown atronK, tenacious and moist soils, it sliould form a con- ■idoral)ie portion of the mixture rotiuired for husbandry or permanent pasture. It is also very protitablo when grown alone. It has been found by careful analysis to contain a greater portion of nutritive matter than any other grass. I'rice according to market. RsRi) Canaky (Jrass, (/'haUtrif Arumlinacea.)— Grows well by streams or marshes 0 76 0 00 There are also several varieties of clovers : — 169 C*nails I'rieaa. Lb. Uiu. 0 00 0 00 Canadlki) l>rlces. Common Red, well knowi. variety Market price Large Rkd Uerhan, true, very superior " " Ybllow or TRKroiL, very valuable for pasture " " WniTK Dutch, highly esteemed for permanent purposes per lb. 20 cts LucKRNE or Frknch Clover, very valuable, vigorous grower " 40 cts Red Fkrkmnial, (Cow Grass,) very valuable for pasture " 40 uts Bokhara, (Melihtua Alba,) a very vigorouj growing variety ; may bo cut three times during the season ; blooms early in August ; for green fodder or hay, cut when young— about two feet high ; average yield throe to eight tons of hay per acre ; sow in spring ; the flowers are white and very sweet-scented, very valuable for bees '• 50 cts Alsike, the most productive and without doubt the most hardy variety yet introduced Market Price The Alsike Clover is valuable as a hay, and particularly of ad- vantage to pasture land, and can be used on land too stiff or wet for the common and larger kinds of clover. It is, indeed, by nature a triennial plant, but so readily seeds itself that it really becomes perennial in character. Having less tap-root than common clover, and more fibrous roots, it is not as liable to be thrown out by frost and thaw. We should advise its use on low lands, especially such as are meant to be chietiy used for pasturage. How to Stock Pastures. — Pastures require to be fully stocked, for if there are too few cattle, they will pick out food, taking the sweet fine grasses, and leaving all coarse tufts ; but the pasturage may be kept even by changing the stock upon it. Let the cows have the first ; they require a large quantity, and rich pasture, to keep up a flow of milk. Let horses and young cattle follow — they will do well on it. When shorter and less succulent, then sheep, which are very close grazers, and whilst they will readily follow other stock, neither horses nor cattle care to eat after them. When the last have grazed pretty close, it will proba- bly be time to use fall pasturage, when the summer pasture should be rested, so that enough top may be grown to protect the roots before the winter sets in. I ill I' ^mi ( , , , ^^. 1, a .. .m 'MM eaoHi if 270 The Canadian Farmer^s I" Wliere but one kind of stock is kept, sl h as on a dairy farm, the pastures should be well divided up, so that no field may be- come at any one time bared. Pasturing Meadoioa. — Great care should be exercised in turn- ing H^ock on meadows at any time of the year. For '.vrant of sutficient pasture, cattle and horses are often turned into the mown meadows, or stubbles that have been seeded with clover. This is, to say the least, injudicious. Generally, dry weather occurs after hnrvest, during which the clover and grass have a struggle to maintain their existence, the young clover plants especially suffering from the heat and drought. Possibly for some weeks the principaldependence of the meadows for moisture is the nightly dews. If the leaves are allowed to be oaten off, this mode of supply is arrested, by depriving the roots of the shade which they would have afforded. Only a weak growth can then be made ; many plants will be totally destroyed ; and when the fall rains occur, followed by nightly frosts, the unsheltered roots are thrown out by thousands. A promising piece of young clover may thus be completely ruined, and the next year's supply of hay be seriously curtailed. The small quantity of feed thusgained is dearly purchased. The life of the meadows is consumed and theic exist- ence threatened. We are aware of the great temptation there is to turn stock on to the aftermath and stubbles, but, unless in the very rare cases where the soil is rich and the growth is too heavy to be eaten nearly ba.e, it would be a great saving of money in the end to hire pasture, buy feed, or sell the surplus stock which cannot otherwise be fed at home. Rye for Early Pasturage. — " The shortness and inferior quality of the hay crop often makes it probable that, by the time spring comes, many farmers find themselves with less of it than is desir- able to carry through the stock in good condition till grass comes. The price also may rule so high as to be an inducement to sell hay, rather than consume it on the farm. " In order to provide for this contingency, it will be well for those who breed stock largelj', especially sheep, to grow some crop that will give them an extra early bite in spring, should the winter fodder not hold out. " For this purpose, nothing better adapted to the climate, or more certain to succeed, than winter rye can he found. It will grow on almost any soil with very little preparation, and if sown early enough, will acquire such a growth before hai'd frosts stop it, that when the snow melts in spring the sheep will find a very good bite, and it will start again so early that much feed can be had from a field of it before there is a bite of grass in any of the meadows. The seed required will cost but little, as from a bushel to a bushel and a half per acre will be sufficient seeding. Stubbles, and land intended for fallows or roots next year, may as well be ii i Manual of Agriculture, 271 le winter sown with this crop, if it is thought probablo that there will bo a deficiency of forage before grass comes again. But it is a very un- dosinible crop if allowed to go further and grow up to maturity, and those who bow it forthe purpose of obtaining late fall or early Hprin^f feed must not be temj)tcd ny the fine appearance of the growtn to nep' ct ploughing it up as soon as the stock can go to other pasturage. It is also better to be careful with stock when they are turned on such very early sr)ring feed, and allow thciu to get gradually accustomed to it, otherwise the sudden change from dry fodder to green food will prove prejudicial by rendering them liable to scouring, and giving them a distaste to what dry fodder can still bo spared to them. They should get out on the rye only for a short time each day, and in no case be allowed to live on it exclusively." — Canada Farmer. Lucerne. — This grass we do not see mentioned in our Canadian seedsmen's list; but it has been fairly tried in the eastern States, under a climate very similar to that of our own Dominion, whilst there are recorded facts as to its cultivation here. The editor of the Canada Farmer, in 1870, says, in answer to certain queries : — " Fromalimited experience with lucerne, we believe it will endure the Canadian winter. Many years ago wo saw this crop grown on sandy loam soil, and although neglected in its culture, tliero was an excellent yield the first year. It was sown about the 1st of May, and endured our winters, and yielded two cuttings each year for about five 'ars. It was then destroyed to r.iake room for a garden. The c;viier, a bricklayer, knew little of farming, and t«ok no care of the young plants, oven the first year. It was sow!' broadcast with barley. Many of the stalks were four foot hi^;' , and several horses were fed during the summer from it." The following, u^^on this crop, is of great value, as coming from the pen of a farner in New York State : — " Respecting the cultivation of lucerne, I will give you ray ex- perience with great pleasure, as I feel convinced that it is a soil- ing crop which has only to be tried to bo more generally grown. It is essentially a soiling crop, being ready to cut in the spring before red clover, and continuing to produce heavy cuttings all through the summer, no matter how hot or dry. Last season, though unusually dry, did hot appear to check its growth, as we were able to mow over one portion of a field five times, and another, only seeded last spring, was cut four. " There are crops that will yield a greater weight of feed per acre at one cutting — corn, for instance, and which is a crop that lucerne cannot supplant, as it yields a very heavy weight of green food at that season of the year when most of our dairy fanners are requiring such — but as a soiling crop proper, I know of none that can compare with lucerne, and one that few farmers can ^1' i! rrJ JtS vf f ' f» ii Bften as might be necessary, we could run through the horse . , to loosen the soil and destroy weeds, &c., and by these means the crop could be grown success- fully ten years. But here I have generally adopted the foiuer plan, sowing from twelve pounds to fifteen pounds of seed per acre, as early in the spring as the season will permit. " The soil should be thoroughly prepared in the fall by deep ploughing, and manuring with rich, well-rotted dung, or what would be, perhaps, better, thirty to forty bushels of bone dust pei- acre, there being less liability of having foul seeds introduced, as this is a crop that is easily choked or run out by weeds, &c. " In the spring the soil may be lightened with a two-horee cul- tivator, or scarifier, making a fine surface mould. The latter is essentially necessaiy to get a good plant. The seed being very small, will only require lightly brushing in. " The after cultivation will consist yearly of a good top dress- ing of well-rotted dung in the fall, and harrowing and rolling in the spring. " As I said before, weeds efvsily choke it ; it will therefore be advisable to select a rich piece of soil free of weeas, and sow after some hoed crop, such as roots or potatoes. " The first season will yield a fair crop, but the second, third and fourth will be the best." Tlie heat grassen for butter purposes. — X. A. Willard, the first 4iUthority on the dairy in America, says upon this point : — «(^i iliii li V Manual of Agricuditre. '" Fancy butter,' that will sell for a dollar per pound, cannot be made from bad material — from milk produced on weedy pastures, or upon the rank sour herbage of swamps, or upon land newly seeded with red clover. The experienced butter dairymen, there- fore, pay much attention to the feed of their cows, and prefer old pastures. " On the old pastures of the butter district there are several varieties of grasses that spring up spontaneously, and are much esteemed as affording sweet and nutritious feed, from which the best qualities of milk and butter are produced. These grasses form a dense solid turf, leaving no intervening spaces. They em- brace the June, or blue grass {Poa pratensis), the fowl meadow- grass {Poa aerotina), meadow fescue {Featuca pratensia), red top {Agroatia vulgaria), the wire grass {Poa compresaa), the sweet- scented vernal and vanilla grass, together with timothy {Phleum pratense), orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata), clover and other forage plants. " The June grass {Poa pratenais) is regarded as very valuable ; it throws out a dense mass of leaves, is highly relished by cattle, and produces milk from which a superior quality of butter is made. It is found growing throughout the butter districts of the country. The wire grass {Poa compresaa) is deemed one of the most nutritive of the grasses ; is very hardy, eagerly sought after by cattle, and is one of the best gi'asses for fattening. Cows feed- ing upon it yield milk of the richest quality, from which the nicest butter is made. It flourishes well upon gravelly knolls and in shaded places, and its stem is green after the seed has ripened. It is found growing in all parts of the country. " The meadow fescue is common in old grass lands where the sod is thick, and grasses of different varieties are mingled together. It stai is up early in the spring, is relished by stock, and furnishes gootJ early feed. The milk farmers hold it in high estimation as a reliable grass, tenacious of life, and not running out like timothy [Phleum pratenae) or clover. The white clover {Trifolium repeiia) springs up spontaneously in the old pastures, and is highly es- teemed as giving flavour and quality to butter. " The sweet-scented vernal grass grows best upon the moist soil of the old meadows. It starts very early, and gives off" an agree- able odour. "We have been particular in naming the grasses which are most esteemed for producing a high-priced butter, because a record of long and well-conducted experiments has proved their utility." Permanent paaturea can be kept up to a full growth only by careful attention. After the pasturage has once become permanently established, it can be kept up for many years by an occasional dressing of well- composted barn-yard manure, superphosphate, or even a mixture 18 '^1 1 (l 1 *. I ' vi ., i li 'M i-np" Ml f'" 274 The Canadian Farmer's 'lit %s X'^-h h ' !!! Y ' ^!' I IB >: !! '% : tf '^i of plaster and unleached ashes, giving at the same time a sprink- ling of fresh seeds on those spots that show signs of having run out. Particular care must be taken all along to carefully cut out, root and branch, all noxious weeds that may make their appear- ance, and not to allow stock to pasture it down too closely in the autumn, so as to have the roots unprotected during the winter. Hungarian Oraas. — " The trouble about Hungarian grass is, that it is not generally cut at the proper time. 1 have raised it for several years, an.l consider it the very best hay for horses. They will keep fat on it, where on timothy they will grow poor, I sow half a bushel per acre. It then makes fine hay, and on good land should yield from two to three tons to the acre. Cut it when in the blow, before any seed is formed ; wilt in the swarth the same as clover, and make in the cock. The stalk is nearly solid and the hay very heavy, and if made in this way will be as green as grass, and a horse will want little grain for ordinary farm work. I only feed grain in the spring when doing heavy plo'jghing. Give your horses all they will eat of it, and they will fat with decent usage. But if allowed to turn yellow and form seed it is the same as any other grain, and will, of course, injure a horse the same as if he were fed wheat in the bundle to excess. An over-feed of grain is bad. It is better to rake it by hand, but on a good soil you will tumble up a big cock in a small space. " If cut at the time I mention, it will sometimes sprout up again and make good fall feed or a green crop to turn under. In one case I cut it the second time for seed, but it was short." — Prairie Farmer. Millet. — " The Great or Indian millet (Holcus Sorghum L., Sor- ghum Vulgari) * * * * [cultivated the length and breadth of the continent] has a stem that rises five or six feet high, is strong, reedy, and like those of the maize, but smaller. The leaves are strong and broad, having a deep furrow through the centre, where the midrib is depressed in the upper surface, and is very prominent below. The leaves are two feet and a half long, and two inches broad in the middle, embracing the stalks with their base. The flowers come out in large panicles at the top of the stalks, resembling at first appearance the male spikes of the Turkey wheat ; these are succeeded by large, roundish seeds, which are wrapped round Avith the chaff. This grain is a native of In- dia, where it is much used to feed poultry, and is frequently sent to Europe for the same purpose. It is much cultivated in Arabia and most parts of Asia Minor, and has been introduced into Italy, Spa 1, Switzerland and some parts of Germany ; also into China, Coc in China and the West Indies, where it grows commonly five or bix feet high or more, and, being esteemed a hearty food for labourers, is called Negro Guinea Corn. Its long awns or bristles defend it from the birds. In England the autumns are seldom ■X>~. Manual of Agriculture. 275 dry and warm enough to ripen the seed well in the field. In Arabia it is called dora, or durra ; the flour is very white, and they make good bread of it, or rather cakes, about two inches in thickness. The bread rirhich they make of it in some parts of Italy is dark and coarse. In Tuscany it is used chiefly for feed- ing poultry and pigeons — sometimes for swine, kine and horses. Csesalpinus says that cattle fed on the green herb are apt to swell and die, but thrive on it when dried. They make brushes and brooms of its stalks in Italy, which Ray observed in the shops at Venice, and which are sent to this country. Of this species there are two distinct varieties, one distinguished by black and the other by red husked seeds, besides sub-varieties. " The only sorts of millet which can be cultivated in this country are the German, cultivated, and the Polish sorts. According to Professor Thaer, the cultivated is to be preferred, as having the largest grain. " The soil for the millet should be warm, sandy, rich and well pulverized to a good depth. The seed is sown in May, very thin, and not deeply covered. In the course of its growth, no plant, Professor Thaer observes, is more improved by stirring the soil, after which it grows astonishingly fast, and smothers all weeds. " In harvesting the millet, great care is required not to shed the seed, and as it ripens rather une([ually, it would be an advantage to cut off" the spikes as they ripen, as in reaping maize. No grain is easier to thrash, or to free from its husk by the mill. It is used instead of rice, and in Germany bears about the same price. It produces a great bulk of straw, which is much esteemed as fodder." — Loudon's (English) Encyclopcedia. An American says that " curing millet is done in the same manner as timothy and other grasses. Weather favourable and properly handled, it will be sufficiently cured for harvesting two days after cutting. Harvest when the seed is about swelling. If cut at a later period the nutritious qualities will be seriously diminished. Product, two to four tons per acre. The land ought to be thoroughly ploughed and harrowed. Sow four or five pecks of seed per acre, broadcast, and cover with a harrow, followed by a roller ; the land sandy or light loam, and made rich enough for corn. Millet for hay may be sown in the middle States as late as the 25th of July. The same mode of curing will apply as to the Hungarian grass. Our preference is the India or Grand millet, which produces a third more forage and seed than the common millet. Seed of the latter can be found at any prominent seed store. The India can scarcely be obtained till the new crop matures. Millet is very nutritious, and is eaten with avidity by horses and horned cattle." Sorghum. — We have found no difficulty in curing sorghum, so as to be fed to cattle late in autumn and during early winter. It 1^' 11 276 The Canadian Farmer's RU i Pi 1 1 ill n !' ■;P' I It , t M !!i m ^!|i' i!: ; was placed as soon as cut in large shocks, carefully made, so as to stand even and erect, and was allowed to remain several weeks to dry. When green and fresh, cattle eat the whole stalk greedily ; the only objection to it is that the animals, becoming accustomed to so sweet and delicious a food, neglect ordinary pasturage, and if they do not have enough sorghum will be apt to suffer. In early winter the stalks become too dry to be eaten in this way, and we therefore cut it short by horse-power, and feed it in boxes or man- gers. When thus cut, the cattle eat it readily, and it increases the milk of the cows. It is important, in order to succeed well, that it be kept in good condition, and the work well performed. For fodder, it should be cut rather early — a little before the aver- age time for cutting sorghum for manufacture, so that the stalks may not be too hard and horny when they dry. We would not recommend sowing broadcast ; it does much better in hills or drills, where it can be cultivated and kept clean. A peck or so will do for an acre, varying with soil and culture; on a fine, rich soil, in perfect condition, and covering the seed at ^ 'iniform depth of about three-fourths of an inch, four quarts would be better than thrice that quantity on hard cloddy ground, or buried carelessly at various depths. It may be well to say that sorghum cannot be sown so thick as corn, to advantage, as the stronger plants crowd and shade the smaller ones, and obtain the entire ascendency; while corn, if sown thickly, is dwarfed all alike. Vetches or Tares are very useful for soiling purposes. We have invariably made it a practice to grow a patch of tares near our stables for feeding horses when they come in from work. They are very nutritious, and agree well with all kinds of stock, while hogs will, in summer, eat them greedily. They should be allowed to wilt a little before feeding to horses. To do this, they may be cut in the morning and will be then ready for feed at noon. Like all such very succulent food, they should be given to cattle cau- tiously at first, or the animals may become " hoven," or bloated, by too greedy feeding. It is a good plan to sow oats along with the seed ; these help to support the vetch and keep them from becoming too tangled on the ground. We have usually succeeded in cutting two crops in the season— one through June, and again in the autumn. WEEDS. " If you've weeds in your garden, my good friend, I pray ; Do not stand looking over the fence ; To your ne' 'four's domains — just over the way — Your weevi' are the most consequence ; Uproot them while yet there is daylight to work ; Tear them up seed and branch from the soil ; They are sure to do mischief, so pray do not shirk j You'll be amply repaid for your toil." 1" Manual of Agriculture. Til Yearly, millions of dollars are lost to the agricultural community in the war against weeds. Not only have we to engage in actual hand-to-hand fight to exterminate them in our hoed crops and upon our summer fallow, but every weed that grows takes away from the abundance of the harvest. Nature does not distinguish between the weed and the farmer's crop — all are plants alike to her, and from her stores all gather food. Let us destroy the enemy, and we shall receive its share of natural provisions. Attempts have been made by the State to curtail the spread of noxious weeds by legal enactments. Could such laws be practi- cally carried out, they would indeed prove a boon to the agricul- turist and to the country, but all such laws have failed, and in all probability will ever fail. The farmers must be educated up to the point at which they will plainly perceive money for their pockets in the eradication of noxious weeds. A tidy farm"r who attempts to keep all his land clean for his cereals, grasses and roots, is very often annoyed by a neighbour whose farm is the receptacle of every weed to be found in the category of botanists. These weeds allowed to seed are wafted on to his farm by every blast of wind, and through no fault of his own his land keeps foul, fight he ever so hard against it. The travelling thrashing machines are prolific sources for the distribution of weeds. Indeed the farmer should see that separa- tors are carefully cleaned of all small seeds before entering on his premises. The roads are too often generous nurseries for the propagation of weeds ; and so great was the nuisance in England, that grand jurors agitated the matter so strongly that it was forced upon pub- lic attention, and the Irish Royal Agricultural Society a few years ago resolved : " That as great injury arises to the farming classes from the growth of weeds along the sides of public roads, whose seeds being allowed to ripen and shed are spread over the adjoining lands, a circular be addressed to the grand jurors of the several counties soliciting them to give directions to the county surveyors to make it imperative upon road contractors to cut down and re- move all weeds, more particularly thistles, docks and rag- weeds, before the 1st of June, and at such other periods in the year as may prevent their injurious effects to the farmer." The object of such a course is obvious to any one who reflects for a moment on the fact that the seeds of weeds will lie in the ground for years without germinating, but as soon as the earth is ploughed for a crop spring into existence. No matter how clean our fields are kept, if the corners of the fences are allowed to be nurseries from which are scattered seeds for an annual supply of weeds. Every thistle top has seeds enough to stock acres, and every burr of dock can furnish seed for a township. Hi I ;■ #^; 278 The Canadian Farmer's ']• ' I ■"I 11 ','' 1^, ^'^ 1 i;^ i f -i! j' 'i; W ' 1 f Y, Our own Legislatures have passed Thistle Bills, but in practice they are but a dead letter. The pathmaster is to see that all thistles, docks, &c., are cut on roads and in the fields in his section before they go to seed. In nine cases out of ten this person's farm is as well stocked as his neighbour's, and in many cases he is himself an untidy farmer, who " Ut8 things go" As far as the Canada thistle is concerned, we think that the law might step in and not only impose a fine on those that did not meet its requirements, but give to the Municipal Councils power to appoint an independent overseer to see to the enforcement of the law, and to be paid out of a public fine fund. No man can be called a good farmer who does not keep his land clean. He may be a strenuous advocate of liberal manuring, but much profit is lost if he allow weeds to overrun, choke out his crops, and luxuriate on the feed that he has generously supplied for the use of his crops. To ensure good crops, land must be cultivated in a superior manner, and when such is the case dirty land cannot be found. " Prevention is better than euro" in all cases, and the labour of constantly going about and destroying thistles, burr-docks, rag- weed and other noxious plants, out of fence corners and neglected spots, before they can come to seed and multiply themselves into hundreds and thousands, is not, nor ever can be, looked upon as lost time. Indeed there is no time put in during a whole season's operations as profitable to the farmer as that of destroying young weeds. In any badly neglected field, the botanist could probably point out to us over a hundred different kinds of weeds ; annuals, bien- nials or perennials, deep-rooted weeds or flowering weeds, such as propagate by the buds in their roots, and such as are disseminated by seeds carried by every changing wind and by the birds of tho air ; but we shall speak only of the pro- perties and methods of destruction of the moat commonly known and most noxious weeds to the Canadian farmer. And first of the Canada thistle. The Canada Thistle, for all that has been said, we believe to be indigenous to our soil and climate ; but why it should be dubbed the thistle "of Canada " par excellence we are at a loss to see, for it was well known in the British islands ere a stick of our primeval forests had been touched. The botanical name is Cirsium arvensis, and it is found in the cultivated fields and in the fence corners and highways of every part of Great Britain and the continent of Europe. It has indeed obtained such a foothold upon Canadian farms, that we blush to think that outsiders may be readily excused for the assumption that it is a Canadian pet. There is more than one way of effecting its destruction. We Manual of Agriculture, 279 clip the following extracts from amongst the heap of writing, pnictical and theoretical, sense and bosh, that has from time to time appeared in the columns of our agricultural press ; the two chief writers fiom whom we draw being those contributing over the signatures of " Vectis" and " C," from time to time, in the columns of the Canada Farmer. Destruction by Summer Fallow. — "This we believe to be the only thoroughly effectual mode by which to encompass the ultimate death of this pest, but the remedy must be searching, and carried on by no half measures. " The Canada thistle has two kinds of existence — the annual and the perennial life. As an annual it is as easily killed as the most delicate foreign exotic. The least movement or stirring of the soil and exposure to the sun for ever so short a time is fatal to it ; but the perennial requires a different course of treatment altogether ; no half measures will do with it. If you plough only half enough, you have, by cutting up the roots covered with eyes, from long pieces into short ones, made thousands instead of tens of plants ; each piece when severed and divided is ready to spring into a separate and individual existence. But if you plough (or move them in the soil) often enough, and the soil is dry, you make root and branch work with them, and (except on the deep, loose soil) you have got rid of them for the time altogether." " C." says, and this we believe to be the only effectual plan : — " Now, my plan is quite different. I never plough or disturb the fallow land infested with thistles until June, and then they are often three to four feet high in my rich clay land, and many of them forming seed ; in fact, their growth is about done, and they only seek to mature their seed. Now is the time to go at them. The land is comparatively hard, and ploughs up very rough — and the rougher the better ; and the larger the furrows turned, the rougher the land will lie. Much of the land so ploughed will lay up quite hollow, and expose a surface many times larger than the area of the land ; the sun gets into and under these lumps, and being much exposed to the action of the air, the soil becomes completely dried, and every thistle that remains in a clod so exposed and dried will die, and in fact is dead in a week. As soon as ploughed once, do not go and harrow all down smooth again, for that course is the very worst you can follow. You can easily perceive that by these means you cover up all thistles ex- posed, and so prevent their death being entirely completed, where there are some remains of life left. But instead of harrowing, put in the plough again, and move all the under soil to the top, and enable it to obtain more ammonia and nitrogen from the air. While in this state of rough surface, so much is exposed that the land is absorbing at every pore from the atmosphere, and on a surface exposed to the action of the air a great deal larger than av m 'ft If f 1 I'i !■ 1' jl -h -mm ;1 i , m ■! l|'i 'i I 1 ■fl.\'': il?ll 280 The Canadian Farmer's its flat area ; whereas, if the land was well harrowed down, the surface exposed for such absorption would be but little larger than its absolute area. Weeds, also, vegetate more freely in this case, and in direct ratio with the surface so exposed. Three such mov 'ngs, if the weather be dry, will entirely exterminate all thistles ; they are dead, root and branch ; they have for that year lost the natural and extreme tendency to surmount all difficulties and ma- ture seed, as they had nearly done so before being disturbed, and hence are much weakened, and five times as easily killed. This course particularly applies to clay land, and is the mode of work- ing fallows in England, so far as the rough surface is C(mcerned, amongst the more intelligent farmers, especially where steam cul- tivation is practised. They do not absolutely plough, but do what they call 'smash up' the land with powerful cultivators, whoso tines or teeth penetrate from twelve to fifteen inches, leaving the soil very rough, and the surface soil always on the top ; and in many sections where the land is clean, this is considerea the best mode of cultivating, unless where manure has to bo buried, or weeds or sod killed. Let those who are sceptical try this plan alongside a piece worked in the old way of fall ploughing, and again in June or early in July, and again for seeding, with inter- mediate harrowings. My piece will be clean and free from thistles and weeds, whilst the other will be as foul as ever. My three ploughings are applied just when the heat is greatest, and will be found most efficient in their action. " I entirely cleared twenty-seven acres of land, last summer but one, by this course, and as yet no thistles are to be seen, where, when I began, they could be counted by millions. Some were so high that I had to mow them before the horses could go into them." By Clover. — Smothering with a heavy crop of clover will keep down thistles for a time, but roots will lie dormant, and when cul- tivation is again effected, they spring up and flourish with renewed energy. On this point, " Vectis" practically remarks : — " I do not for a moment mean to deny that clover, in a great degree, smothers and keeps down thistles, but I very much doubt whether it kills the roots. The thistle is a perennial, and can live and remain in a quiescent state with very small help from its leaves, provided it remains undisturbed in the ground. It hyber- nates, so to speak, until the favourable moment arrives for it to put forth new leaves and flowers, and then bursts into full vigour, and produces seed within four months from the time of making its appearance. " The growth of the Canada thistle, when in a perennial state, is like that of the horse radish and other similar deep-rooted plants. It sends forth in the spring one of its long and rapidly growing Manual cf AgncuLtura. 281 underground branches ; this pushes ahead until it finds sufficient li<,'ht and air for the favourable growth of stem and Howcr. It comes to the surface, and if all is favourable there it at once devol- opes the seed stem, but it does not finally push forth until the fa- vourable place is reached. These stems thus grow with the clover until the crop is ready for the scythe, and are then mown with the crop, thus cutting the thistle just when it has made its great- est exertion to live, and when it can actually least bear the check. The stems being thus cut off just down to the ground, the thistle has to form a new series of buds and headings, but it ia generally too late for a second blooming ; then the plant seems to husband itself for another year. '* A bunch of short-leaved atems and corresponding leaves grow amongst the second grow i of clover, although they are not veiy observable, and the plant prepares itself for the next year's cam- paign against the farmer. " Now, except in the loosest kinds of soils, the thistle does not grow as deeply in Canada as it does in England ; for instead of going down to great depths, it simply grows to the extent of the plough gauge oi a little below, then runs out horizontally instead of vertically, and in some of the worst infested groimd, roots may be traced in the bottom of the furrow for ten feet or more. " All these roots are furnished with the regular complement of eyes for new shoots, all are within reach of the surface, and hence, when the circumstances are favourable, they all put forth at once, and form one of those mats of growth known as a 'patch of thistles.' " These can only be destroyed by plpughing below the roots, and thus bringing them into the loose soil, then continually moving them to the surface before they have had time to grow or form new shoots ; and in one season of summer fallow, if ploughed — or, what is equivalent to ploughmg, moved by the cultivator or grub- ber often enough — they are killed and thoroughly destroyed." American farmers also contend that the thorough summer fallow, commenced when the thistle is in blossom, is the most certain way of extermination. One of their most able writers says : — " On land not excessively stony, I can kill the thistles in four months, so that not one of them will ever peep again, for eight dollars an acre. The fine condition the soil will be left in will be worth about this sum additional Let the thistles grow till flowering time; then turn them all under by means of a log chain attached in the usual manner to the plough, for plough- ing under tall crops. Repeat the ploughing once a month until time to sow winter grain (or for any other crop), and the job will be completed. But remember — the work must not be done by halves! If you leave a thistle sticking up here and there, at any of the four ploughiugs, you wiU fail. Turn them under •■il m • '-mi rMi i, '»*■ ■ tit ( f % mi MM km- Si f[ Si i i'lf HI I' :■ :i| !.' h ! i II : if Iji! * I t: m \ 'ill' \' III ! Ijiiii' II!' i?l .il Si 282 The Canadian Farmer's deeply — thoroughly ; the roots will all die if they cannot breatiie for a whole summer." By Hoeing. — If this is done effectually, thistles may be greatly reduced in number ; but it must be done very effectually. First encourage the growth of the thistle as much as possible, and then destroy it as soon as it grows. Every thistle root has upon its lateral roots a number of buds ; these will lie in the ground for a long time without sprouting, and if not made to grow and the {)roduct destroyed, will take advantage of the fine culture of our and for some crop, as wheat, when we should be peculiarly glad if they did not put in an appearance. One object, then, in effecting their destruction by the hoe, must be to cause first every one of these buds or eyes to sprout. This can only be done by deep ploughing and deep cultivation. Say we would take off a crop of roots whilst we kill the thistle. Turnips will be found the best, because we may with impunity sow them late, say on the 10th of June. Previous to that date we have time to plough and deeply cultivate the land, so as to get a fine deep mellow seed bed down to the very root of the thistle, and thus by culture give that root every chance to grow. Many of the roots will, by such cultiva- tion, being thoroughly torn away from any hold upon the soil, and turned over and dried out, be destroyed before turnip-sowing time. Such roots as remain under ground will lie in a mellow seed bed, and will all grow. Now comes the work. Throughout the summer, whenever a plant from any eye of these roots appears on the surface, it must be immediately cut off. 'This can only be effected by a constant use of horse and hand hoe. If all the eyes of the root have sprouted, it has beon in point of fact turned from a perennial into an annual plant ; and if all the annuals have been prevented from coming to maturity, the thistle crop is destroyed. But if any of the deep roots have remained quiescent or dor- mant in the ground, there is yet left a perennial thistle root, and at some future time it will throw up its bunches, or " Thistle patches." If, however, another root crop is grown on .the same ground in the next year, and the same method of cultivation is adopted, the total destruction of all thistles in that field will be un fait accompli. If we can get a good catch of clover on a field that is badly infested with " thistles," cut one crop, and turn down the after- math, we shall have a preparation of the land which will grow two fair root crops in succession, upon the principle and for the purposes above mentioned. We still, however, hold to the position that when very large Manual of Agriculture, 283 s badly after- ill grow for the fiolds are overrun with the thistle, the summer fallow, deep and thorough, commenced when the weed is in blossom, and carried on continually through the hot months, is the most effectual and practical means of destruction. THE WILD OAT (Avena fatua) Is a wild winter oat It has been well known for a long time on the European continent and all over Great Britain, where it has boon justly regarded as a dangerous pest, and has been pretty well kept under. If, however, it should ever get the same hold upon our Canadian farms as has the Canada thistle, it will be found even moro difficult to eradicate. It is a weed, the seeds of which are possessed of the most extraordinary vitality. It will grow anywhere and r.ndev any climate. It will be found in any crop, and, coming very rapidly to maturity, it will re-seed the ground ere our cereals are ready for the cradle. A peculiar feature in the wild oat is that each seed haa hooks upon it, like those found in the seed of a burr-dock, by which they attach themselves to any object passing in contact with the ripe stems, such as cattle. So readily is thi^ accom- plished, that some farmers have persisted that they fly forward of their own accord to cling to external objects. The travelling separators and the habit of lending fanning mills are prevalent sources by which these weeds are spread from farm to farm. If fed to horses, they will pass through into the manure pile, and unless such is very thoroughly heated, will grow again when carried to the fields. The seeds will lie for a long time dormant in the soil, and even when buried to a great depth do not lose their germinating powers. The stem will throw out flower and ripen lis seed at any height from two inches to four feet, and if cut down close to the ground, will shoot out again and stool luxuriantly from the crown. When once the wild oat has obtained thorough possession of a field, summer fallowing, such as we have above described for the thistle, becomes the surest means of eradication. It has been asserted that the seeds of this noxious plant will lie for many years or for generations in the subsoil, and will spring into life on the first favourable opportunity. In support of this, " Vectis," to whose authority we have before alluded, records, that "his father owned a farm in England, on which wild oats were certainly known, for they are known all over England, but they were not plentiful, and from having been well kept 'i: m i:; ! ••4^ ' 'It : I . M "^' 284 The Canadian Farmer's \¥ i \ if-' = ' " p i ( it. Ik .If undor, were not even a niiiHnnce, heing duly weeded out of tho growing; \f\n,\x\ with the docks, thiHtles, &c., every Horing. Well, there was one field which it won HUpnosod would he greatly growing grftin with the docks, thiHtles, &c., every Horing. Well, ])noHod woula li henefited hy the bringing up of an incn or two of Hulwoil, and iluH WJ18 done in the fall, ho as to give it the benefit of tho winter's fro.st. Tho field was well manured, and sown to peas. In due time the peas came up, hut with them ho [)lentifu! a crop of wild oatH, that they would have Mmothered tho peas, but that peas like something to climb. The whole crop as green stuff amounted to more tons per acre than I should like to say ; it wjis all cut green and fed to cattle in the way of Hoiling, and destroyed in the farm-yard, and every exertion was used to eradicate the wild oats by immediate ploughing, and fallow, or rather hoed crops; but that field was many years thoroughly infested with the wild oats, and they certainly had all been brought up by that two inches of subsoil, which by its appearance might have remained till that time undisturbed since the Deluge." when not very bad, there is a simple mode of destruction which is practical to all forehanded farmers : it is fall ploughing. The spring crf)p, sown on second light ploughing, gang ploughing or cultivating, will so far obtain the start of the wild oats that when the crop is ready for harvesting the weed wiU not have gone to seed. But as this is only temporary, and only prevents the increase of the oat, tho field must be ploughed each fall. A better plan is to cultivate or harrow thoroughly the stubbles immediately after harvest. This will start the weeds into growth, when fall ploughing will destroy them. They will seldom come up through meadow or pasture land, but will lie dormant beneath the sod, ready to mature when cul- tivation shall have afforded them a satisfactory seed bed. Even after harvest, when cut off with the crop, tho stem that is left will throw up shoots, and seed befo:e winter. COUCH OR QUACK GRASS {Triticum repeTia). This plant is not as prevalent in Canada as in the Old Country, but it is one, if well established, even more difficult to get rid of than either the thistle or wild oat. Growing close to the ground, with a heavy broad blade, it will smother out almost any plant. It is of a perennial character, and increases by spreading under- ground its white jointed roots, from each joint of which a stem is thrown up. Cut these roots up as much as possible, and if any joint be left attached to the soil by a single fibre it will grow and become the centre from which springs forth a new store of plants. If the land is badly infested, nothing short of the expensive operation of fallowing, raking, and burning will be effectual. Manual of Agriculture. 285 Such a coHtly buHinuNM may frightun thu t'ainiur, hut it *nui)t be done. Wo know of fields in otir own noi^hlumrhood so filU'd with couch that whon |>Ioii^|ience, than one in which couch grass had hold undisputed sway for any length of time. In erery agricultural paper or book, and from every farmer to whom we apply on this subject, we obtain the same invariable answer — nothing will destroy couch grass but bringing the roots to the surface, gathering them and burning. And such has been our own experience. Never let a patch increase. Like other weeds of a similar nature, it first shows itself b}' the appearance of one or two j)atchos. Let the.se bo destroyed by the above process, for if its spread be not immediately retarded, it will soon cover acres. The weed will grow anywhere, and its root penetrate almost any substances ; it luxuriates on the heaviest of soils, and is yet at home in sand. Such is the forcing power of its root, that we have frequently found them growing completely through a potato ; and we once pk ughed up an old boot solo, probably drawn out in ma- nure, through the centre of which a root of couch grass had found its way. SORREL (Rumex Acetoaa). When the season is unpropitious and meadows are thin, sorrel holds supreme sway, as in the season of 1871 and 1872. If clover is thin on the ground, some other plant will take its place — that plant in Canada is usually what is called Horse Sorrel — there is then commenced a struggle for growth between the artificial grass and the natural weed. One of two results must come to pass — either the clover smothers out the sorrel, or the latter so destroys the clover. It is a common saying that land is sour when sorrel is preva- ^',i, hi .V: *'■ ...jilfSJil m '."V "H" " -' " - s Sti ? *f''' i 1 :' ill ,1 I ( K ' 1' ! i t I'l f i (5 -I mm mm 111 .' ii -J Iff!., i ■ 286 T/t^ Canadian Farmer's lent, and that the application of lime, ashes and plaster will cor- rect the acidity and make the soil uncongenial to the wants of sorrel ; but this is far from being the oase. Sorrel dearly loves a good warm soil, and will luxuriate in such like any other plant, be th J same a weed or not. But the application of these top dressings has the effect of pushing forward the growth of clover, which then gets the start and smothers the weed. On light lands, the application of manure will destroy sorrel ultimately. The first year the sorrel will grow equally well with the grasf , but in the second we have always found the clover make such rapid growth as effectually to destroy the weed. That lime of itself will not destroy sorrel we know, for we have seen it flourishing on the very et^^^ of a lime kiln. But lime the land, harrow the grass, top dress it with ashes and plaster, and nurse it, and you will get rid of sorrel by pushing for- ward your own crop. CHARLOCK, OR YELLOW MUSTARD {Siuapis Arvensis). It is seldom that this weed, which is an annual, becomas so thick that it cannot be hand picked. As it ripens before any grain, forming seeds at the bottom, when the top is in flower it must be picked out of the growing grain fields. Should it, however, have been allowed to overspread a large axea thickly, a succession of hoed crops for at least two years will be found effectual, killing the plants before they have time to ripen and cast seeds. The two hoed crops are generally necessary, because in very few seasons will all the seeds be sprouted ; some will lie dormant. But if we succeed in destroying the greater part in one hoed crop, any that may be left, and grow in succeeding spring crop, may be readily picked by hand. PIGEON WEED, OR RED ROOT, When not very thick, may be destroyed by hand picking. Mr. John Johnston, according to the author of" Walks and Talks," has studied the habits of red root, or " pigeon weed," as he calls it, and thus ascertained how best to attack it. He sowed some red root seed in flower-pots each month, commencing in February, and kept them well watered. The seed sown in February, March, April, May and June did not germinate any earlier than that sown in July ; that sown in August germinated more freely ; while that sown in September came up at once, and in great qua.itity Here he got an explanation of the fact that red root rarely proves of any damage to any crop except winter wheat. It shows, too, Manual of Agriculture. 287 that a summer fallow for wheat will not kill it. The seed mainly Hes dormant in the ground during the whole summer, and the thorough cultivation causes it to start up more freely in the wheat. But if you fallow the land and then do not sow it to wheat, the red root will spring up and can be easily killed. The red root seed gets into the manure from clover hay and wheat straw, and when the manure is applied to wheat it springs up, and there is no chance of killing the plants except by weeding ana hand Imeing. It was for this reason that Mr. Johnston adopted the plan of spreading the manure on grass land in September. The red root seed then germinates, and when the land is ploughed over the following .spring the plants are turned under and killed. It appears, from the nature of the growth of this weed, that it cannot be destroyed by hoe crop or by summer fallow ; the most effectual plan then is " to prepare the land for fall wheat, and then not sow it to wheat." Docks {Rnmex Acutus) do not seed until the second year. In the first year cut them off below the crown, or pull them up by the roots, and they will die. About the end of June is the best time. In the second year they form burrs, and thus become burr- docks. Then cut them after the seeds are partially formed, and when the stems are hollow. Don't pull them the second year, for there will be enough food stored up in the root to allow the seeds to ripen, even after they are out of the ground. It is better when the burr is fully formed to cut them off than to pull them up by the root. Plantains. — Dig them out with a knife, and if on grass land, encourage the growth of the grass, which will kill out the weeds. Smart Weed {Polygonum Amphibium) is not a noxious weed, but a valuable article of forage ; horses and sheep eat it greedily, whether green or cured. Its effect upon the animal system is very good, and promotes health and vigour through the summer. It is, in fact, an excellent tonic, and is often used by man for giving a tone to the appetite and stomach. Chickweed {Alsine Media). — Of this there are two kinds, one an annual and the other a biennial. Good culture and constant care in preventing the first from going to seed are the only neces- saries required to keep it under. For the biennial, it must in some way be smothered out. Heavy growths of clover will generally effect its destruction. Yarrow is a common perennial plant in Canada. It is very bitter in its nature, and so aromatic that it will impart a flavour to hay so strong that horses do not care to eat it. Good cultiva- tion and heavy crops will soon smother it out. 8 ' iiiii • §1 i, !l li.; MM % M '!-j 288 The Canadian Farmer's M.l [it-^» I i I ^ 1 1 til ' ^ W FENCES. Nothing contributes so much to the comfort, convenience, and successful prosecution of farming as neat and durable fences, di- viding the fields into suitable sizes for a satisfactory rotation of crops, and keeping cattle secured in their proper pasture fields. There is no index to the character of a farmer so suggestive as the state of his buildings and fences. Without good fences, no man who has engaged in a system of mixed husbandry, into which a certain amount of pasturage enters, can carry out his work successfully. At one time, when timber was in great abundance, and the difficulties in the way of carrying to market made it of little cash value, rails were undoubtedly the cheapest and most practical for fence purposes. These are, at the best, most unsightly, and mar to a very great extent the beautiful landscapes of this our fair Dominion ; whilst in their corners ars to be found nurseries of weeds and insects. Nowadays, timber has become a most valuable marketable pro- duce, and it laehoves us to use less wood in our fences, or to find a substitute altogether for such. It is not many years ago that the farmer split clear logs for rails, becau, e, foi'sooth, it was too great trouble to take such as were at all knotty or gnarled. To-day that same timber is worth twice as much per acre as cleared land standing by its side. The wholesale destroyers of the forests, in the more civilized parts, have been brought face to face with the contingency of a future shortness in the supply of wood, and it has become neces- sary to economize in this direction. We shall not, in this chapter, enter upon the innumerable pa- tent fences that are being hawked about the country, a great number of which look very fine in a small model, but are, when brought into actual requisition, found to be miserable humbugs. All the various kinds of fences that we shall here note have been tested and approved by practical farmers. Great diversity of opinion, as well as differences in access to various materials, exist amongst the farmers spread over such a vast extent of conn- try as is covered by the agricultural population amongst whom this work is intended to circulate. We shall then only indicate, by brief sketches, various forms of fencing now extant. Our readers may^ according to the materials to which they have access, rest their individual judgment upon our sketches. Rail Fences. — Splitting rails is best and most easily done in moderate weather, not on extremely cold days ; they split best on thawy days, and especially in the spring, when the sap is rising in the tree. Manual of Agriculture. 289 The best wood for rails is cedar ; then come chesnut, white oak, elm (but very hard to split), white ash, black ash, red oak, bass wood, &c. The large pine is too valuable for this use, and the small will not last at all well. The tree should be split as soon as possible after it has been felled, for the more the tree has been allowed to dry out, the harder will it be to split. Moreover, if rails are split from a tree full of sap, they will last longer than from a dried tree. It is far better for rails to dry without getting full of water. Therefore, they should always be carefully piled in the bush, to shed all rain that falls. In the older sections, we do not think that many more old- fashioned fences, wormed, ridered and staked, will be set up. They take up a great deal of ground, the plough cannot be got close to them without ripping out the stakes, and they take a great number of rails. This fence, with a two-feet six-inch at each corner, or five feet worm on the whole, and eight rails high, takes exactly a rail to a foot of straight measure from end to end. Next to this kind comes the straight rail fence, held by upright stakes driven in the ground, and drawn together by a wire at the top — a good fence, but easily moved by the wind, as any force exerted horizontally on the upper part of a panel has an immense leverage upon the stakes, which are, in consequence, very apt to brenk off a few inches from the ground. We would suggest an improvement ; we do not know that it is patented ; at any rate we have used it without the payment for a right. Pass short slanting stakes across one another under the second rail, and resting upon the third, and sink them in the ground. These prevent the plough passing quite as close to the fence as it otherwise would, but they are beneficial in two ways : they brace the fence against lateral pressure, such as is exerted by the wind, and they relieve the wires of some of the weight of the riders. We may obse^^ve a horse with his head through a fence, endea- vouring to reach the cabbages. A boy throws a stone, the head is withdrawn rapidly, and only the providential fact that the rail was smooth prevented a large piece of skin being knocked ofi'the animal's head. This is one of the great troubles in rail fences — ' make the gaps at the top so small that animals cannot instit their heads. It is said that if a man can insert his head, his whole body may be squeezed through any aperture ; and upon the strength of this statement (a statement we don't undertake to prove) may he founded another — that if an animal, from a pig to a bull, can put his head between the rails of a fence, he will find means to get the remainder of his body through. 19 t;'l '■■] !,.,V : J:.* I i< 1 1 m ' ' t''\ 290 The Canadian Farmer's if 'I- bi El ;;■ Iff il *:4' !liii;jj Moreover, if a horse or beast gets his head under the upper rider, he will soon learn to throw it off the fence. This may, however, be remedied by wooden caps, either bored and dropped on the stakes, or nailed across them, or wires bent round them above the top rail. -^.n American farmer writes of a fence that he made, and that will last until rust ishall eat through inch iron rods : — " Field boulders of about two feet deep were laid zigzag along the line of the fence, so as to occupy a space of about three feet wide ; holes were drilled, and inch iron rods inserted, and fastened with melted brimstone. Then cedar rails (which had been in fence for fifty years without perceptible wear) were bored and dropped on to the rods ; rails six inches through, three to a panel, making a fence five feet high. The fence was made crooked, that it might be stiffer than a straight fence. "It is not a sheep-tight fence, but by filling under the bottom rail with stones or dirt it is a sheep fence. If a higher fence is wanted, a longer rod and an extra rail can be used. It is an excellent fence for land subject to overflows from freshets, where ico and logs do not run. The top of mine has been three feet under water often, but has always been undisturbed when the water subsides." A fence made of cedar vails, twelve feet in length, split as flat as possible, and about four inches by two or three thick, makes the most durable kind of fence ; especially if, instead of the many kinds of straight fences we so often see, posts are mortised with five holes, 2 J by 4^ 'nches each, and cedar rails, tapered at each end to half their thickness, for about four or five inches in length, are inserted, passing each other in the mortise. They should be placed about four inches from the ground to the first rail, then allow four to five inches for the rail itself, and four inches of space for the following rails, and spaces of six inches al- ternately until six rails high are attained. Board Fences. — The construction of these are more or less familiar to all our farmers. The chief points to be considered are deep setting, ramming the earth well in at the bottom, and not allo'ving too great a space between the posts. All board fences should be capped, to shed the rain. Cedar and chesnut are the best and most durable woods out of which to make fence posts. There is an opinion very generally abroad, that changed timber will last longer in the ground than such as is not burned on the surface. We have never believed it, and are borne out in our opinion by the following excellent remarks in the Manufacturer and Builder : — " As charcoal will endure for ages in places where timber would decay speedily, the practice of charring the surface of fence posts and other timber has been repeatedly recommended in books and Manual of Agriculture, 291 I! .' ephemeral publications, as eminently worthy of universal adop- tion. " The theory on which such a recommendation is based would seem to warrant a confident expectation of satisfactory results in practice, but repeated experiments with charred timber have fur- nished conclusive assurance that this process will not promote its durability. Indeed, numerous experiments have shown that charring promotes premature decay. Two posts split from the same log may be set side by side in the ground, the surface of one being charred and that of the other not, and it will be seen that the charred post will perish before the other. "The same is true of railroad ties, and all such timber as may be exposed to the alternating influences of wet and heat. Could the entire timber bd changed from its perishable condition to one solid piece of charcoal, the durability would be promoted to a sur- prising length of time, but the strength of the material would be destroyed. When fence posts or other sticks of timber are ex- posed to the rapid action of wet and heat, the surface will decay first. One might suppose, therefore, that when timber is enveloped by a layer of charcoal, the durability of the entire piece would be greatly promoted. And such would be the case, were it not for the fact that the charcoal is not impervious to water ; and as water reaches the timber beneath the charred surface, decay will commence soon after the grain of the wood has been exposed to the influences of the weather. "When the change has once begun beneath the charred surface, the durable covering of coal will be of no service whatever in preserving any portion of the wood. Taking this practical view of the subject, it will be perceived that if only half an inch of the outside of a post be charred, the post will not endure so long as if the pame thickness of wood has been left uncharred, to waste away by slow decay." To secure fence posts from sagging and heaving, nail a strip of board on each side of the post at the lower end, even with the bottom and projecting a few inches. When the post is set down, let these strips below run at right angles to the line of the fence. The locust makes a very excellent wood for posts ; they last long and hold nails well ; if set out in a nursery, they would be fhr-for posts in about seven years. There has always existed much difference of opinion as to the manner of setting posts, whether in the same way as the tree grew, or reversed with the head downwards. We give two opposite opinions upon this point : — " Many years ago, by way of testing a certain principle, we set two gate posts, the one top and the other butt downwards. The latter was taken from the lower and what might be supposed the best end of the log, and all were entirely sound. We had, some I m nfffT^ I: ,!■: I 1:1:* if } Mi ':J WM} J' l!l:i iii ;i! , 1i r 1 ';i!i I' iiiiil!! i 1 1 ill iii *: .1111 m ift 292 T'Atf Canadian Farmer's years since, occasion to remove these posts ; the latter was entirely rotted off, and the former would have lasted some six, eight or more years longer. We tried two pieces of post fence with simi- lar results. " It is such experiments as these that have got into our head, and most men's heads, the notion that a post set top downwards will last longest. Such practical tests are of more importance in de- ciding such questions than all the philosophical reasons that could be produced. "Although we have heard of no philosophical reasons why a post set top downwards lasts longest, yet we have one of our own. It is moisture, for instance, that rots timber. Keep it dry, and it is exempt from decay. There are many kinds of vegetables that will propagate from the slip — for instance, the currant, grape, willow, &c. These, although separated from any connection with the root, continue to elevate the moisture from the earth, so as to cause their growth. Of course, the vessels of post timber, if placed in the ground according to the arrangements of nature, will ele- vate the moisture, and keep the timber damp; but if that order is reversed, it remains comparatively dry — hence the principal reason, no doubt, why a post lasts longest top downward." And again: "Some twenty-three or four years since, I set a fence, enclosing house and door-yard — a rail and bannister fence. The posts were sawn from good-sized, first growth, red chesnut logs. To saw them tapering, one-half of them must be sawn to set in the ground top down, and the other half bottom down. The posts were set promiscuously, and to this day there has been no distinguishable difference in their lasting quality, unless it be where some of them had more sap on than others, and these gave out first, without regard to which end was set down." When the doctors differ, who shall agree ? Comparative estimated cost of snake rail, straight rail, board and picket fences : — Snake rail fence : Twelve rails, at $25 per thousand 30 centa. Ground covered by fence, with total worm from stake to stake, in alternate panels of six feet, at $50 per acre 78 " Two stakes, at two cents apiece 4 " $1.12 per 12 ft. Straight rail fence ; Eight rails, at $25 per thousand 20 cents. Ground coveref^ by fence, two feet wide 26 " Two stakes 4 " Wire 2 " $0.52 per 12 ft. Board fence four feet six inches in height, cedar posts six feet apart, four boards, respectively six inches, six inches, nine inches, Manual of Agriculture. 293 and twelve inches wide, with a coping board and vertical boards covering joints against the posts : Two posts, at five cents 10 cents. Fifty-four feet inch lumber, at $16.00 per thousand feet 86 " Nails 6 •« Ground covered by fence, two feet wide 20 *' $1.27 per 12 ft. Picket fence four feet six inches in height, two scantlings two by three, pickets three inches wide, and spaces four inches wide, cedar posts six feet apart, and a bottom board a foot wide : Two posts 10 cents. Twenty pickets (throe feet six inches by three inches) making seven- teen feet, at $18 00 per thousand 30 Two scantlings (two in. by three in. by twelve feet), twelve feet of lumber, at $1600 per the xsand feet 18 Bottom board, one inch by twelve feet 16 Kails and spikes v 7 Ground covered by fence 26 t« Comparative cost is, including land taken up : $1.07 per 12 ft. Rail fence, with worm $1.12 per 12 feet straight 52 " Board fence 1.27 " " Picket fence 1.07 " " We have said nothing of cost of labour, because the posted fences, although requiring more work at first, do not require as much re- pairing from time to time as those made of rails. Wire fences. — For use along a lane which is apt to drift up in winter, there is no fence so useful as wire. Indeed, in view of the high price of lumber, and the destruction of board fences by sag- ging, we think that the wire fence will, in time, come into very general use in Canada. For a wire fence the posts should not be more than eight feet apart. Every other post may, however, be a stout stake, pointed and driven into the ground, the wires to be passed alternately on each side. This stake will keep the wires taut. It is well where small stock are running to put one board on the bottom, and in the case of fencinnj a lane, this would allow suffi- cient snow to drift in to make constant sleighing. A scantling is also sometimes used on the top to make the fence more visible to cattle, especially young colts. The fence is, however, often made with no woodwork besides the posts. Nos. 6, 7 and 8 are used ; we think, however, that 7 and 8 are rather light, and should ad- vise the use of No. 6. Animals will not readily jump at a wire fence, or should they do so once, will generally learn such a lesson as will deter them from making a second attempt. If we use a bottom board say from twelve inches to fifteen i (Ml h-s ! l-r !i ' (^i M. IN 1 1 iM ' I' t- iSi •! »! i.- 1' r I 294 7'/t« Canadian Farmer's inches wide, the lowest wire should be three inches above it ; then a space of four inches, thou a space of five inches. This will raise the fence two feet from the ground ; two more wires, at distances of twelve inches apart, would give us a four foot fence, which will be amply high enough should there be no scantling If a scant- ling is used, it may be nut on six inches above the top wire, by which means we shall ootain a fence four feet six inches in height, requiring one board, five wires, and a scantling. Should the object be only to turn large stock, a less number of wires will be found aniple. The wires have to be attached to the posts and stretched. Some bore small auger holes, and pass the wire through the posts ; whilst others have used staples to keep the wire close to the post. If staples are used on cedar posts, they may be made from the No. C wire, sharpened and driven in. If the posts are of hard- wood, then stouter iron is required for staples. We prefer the passing of the wire through the posts. Not more than fifty yards of wire should be used without stretching. The first post in the fence to which the wire is attached should be especially stout, and should be braced firmly, as the tension of the whole fifty yards of fence will come upon it. The wire must be coiled once round this post, and fastened tight by stout staples driven home. There are several ways of stretching — one with a handspike, or with a roller worked like a capstan in grooves on the post, or by the use of a screw. The latter is the most powerful. If staples are used, the wire should run in and out on alternate posts, so as to prevent the pushing out of the staples by stock rub- bing against the fence. As the cost of such fences will vary according to the number of wires used, the size of the wire, and the number of posts, &c., we give below a table showing the length of wire of each number that a given weight will make, from which may be exactly calcu- lated the cost of a wire fence. 63 lbs. of No. 6 runs 223 yards, and costs $3 45 or 84 cents per rod. 7 " 229 " ♦« 3.55 or 7i *' 8 " 322 " •• 3.65 or 6| " Cost of materials of a wire fence, posts eight feet apart, with a bottom board twelve inches wide, and a scantling three by four on top : li posts, at5 cents 7i cents. 12 feet of inch board, at $16.00 per thousand feet... 19 " Scantling, 12 feet, at $16.00 per thousand feet 19 " 6 wiie3=60 ft. of No. 6, at 84 cents per rod 30 " 764 cents per 12 ft. (I 1 Manual of Agriculture. 205 12 ft. Summary of coat of material of various fences per twelve feet : Rail fence (nnaknd) . .$0.;M or 40} cents por rod. (straigJit) 0.20 or 36| " Board fence (horizontal) 1. 01 or .$1.38 •• (picket) 0.81 or 1.11 " Wire fence, with Bcantling and board 0.75 or 1.03 " " with 7 wires, alone 0.50 or 08} •• Stone Fences. — In some portions of Canada the farmer cannot find use for the piles of stones that he yearly picks off his fields, except in the erection of dry stone walls. The buildinjr of a dry stone wall requires no small amount of dexterity. We will de- .scribe the process. The base should be at least 2 feet G inches wide ; the line of the wall is marked out and made level the oneway — that is, across the base. In laying up the stones, the largest end should always be out- side, so that any tendency of the small filling stones to roll will be inwards, and thus pressure upon the outside of tlie wall be avoided ; the inside is carefully filled in with smaller stones, and the whole tapered until at the height of about three feet the wall is from 12 inches to 18 inches wide. Coping stones are then laid on their edges all along the wall, and if lime, can be handily obtained, it will pay to make some coarse mortar and lay between the coping stones. If the wall be not considered high enough, long poles may be laid as riders, resting on crossed stakes at a height of a few inches above the top. These walls must not be built where there is the slightest chance of spring fresh'^ts, and if on a side hill, a number of chan- nels should be left in the bottom to admit surface water to flow through. Hedges require capital and patience to grow successfully as stock proof fences. They must be protected from cattle when young, and take time to grow to maturity. Like all cultivated plants and crops, they must receive constant attention on the part of the cultivate. But where a man has the means at his command, the sight of hedges upon his property will amply repay the outlay, and it must be borne in mind that a hedge once fairly established will last aa long as a tree. Many attempts have been made in Canada to introduce hedges. Near our cities we see them flourishing, but, as a rule, farmers will not give time and attention enough to render them a success, and in too many cases they have been allowed to struggle up neglected, when they are useless as stock fences, and for all prac- tical purposes are but incumbrances upon the land. 'Pi 1 : 1 li : 0 m u I;. '" 1* p 1 1 ^if; 296 The Canadian Farmer's And yet a neglected thorn may he utilized, by converting the trees into posts upon which to form a board fence. We copy the following excellent articles upon Hedge Culture from the columns of the two first numbers for 1870 of the Canada Farmer : — " As the forests gradually disappear from the face of the country, it becomes a more and more difhcult matter for the cultivator of the soil to provide the chief materials to keep up fences in the manner he and his fathers before him have been accustomed to, and it must soon come to the point that we must either adopt the long-tried and successful plan of older countries in forming per- manent live fences, called hedges, or else abolish all right of stock to freedom on the highway, and confine them at all times within narrow limits, feeding them in summer on the soiling system. That hedges can be grown here successfully admits of no reason- able doubt ; yet in the few cases where the ordinary farmer has attempted the work, he has often failed, and laid the blame of the failure on any and everything but the right one, which in nine cases out of ten is his own want of perseverance in well doing what cannot possibly succeed without being done well and thoroughly. " There are three cardinal points absolutely necessary to be attended to in order to make hedging successful : Ist, Proper pre- paration and cultivation of the soil. 2nd, A proper selection ol plants of the right sort. And 3rd, Proper care and pruning of the plants after the hedge is once established. " Preparation of the Soil. — The first requisite is prop* drainage, which can best be secured by first laying a tile drain at the depth of three or four feet from the surface along the centre of the line on which the hedge is to grow. At a distance on each side Oi this from 20 to 30 feet, according to the retentiveness of the sub- soil, another tile drain should be laid. The soil over the drain on which the hedge is set is first to be trench-ploughed or subsoiled for a distance of at least four feet on each side, or to the width of 8 feet altogether. Then the surface is to be thoroughly broken, pulverized, and left ridged up slightly. To prevent surface water from being retained and soaking in amongst the roots, there should be a slight surface drain About five feet from each sisle of the hedge, just about the depth of an ordinary furrow drain, to draw ofFsurface water from rains or melting snows and let it soak away to the tile drain without first getting among the main roots of the hedge. " Setting out the Plants. — Whatever kind of plants are to be used to form the hedge, it is requisite that they be selected of as nearly equal size and quality as can be ; as if strong and weak plants are intermixed, the strong ones will shoot ahead, while the weak ones will soon be outgrown and choked out, leaving the hedge full of small gaps that can never be successfully tilled. 'i: ffli! y,A Manual of Agriculture. 297 among tilled. The plants are to be cut back before planting to within three or four budH or branches of the collar, which will leave them about three inches high when planted out. The dJHtance apart at which the plants are to be set will vary with the kind of material used, but in any case must be uniform throughout. In assorting out plants as they come from the nursery or seed bed, it will generally be found that there are three sizes, which mny be classed as large, medium, and small. One strip of hedge may be planted with the best and strongest plants ; another with those of medium size, and the small ones either set out again in the seed- bed till they get strong, or, if they are thrifty, tliough slim, set out in a strip hy themselves. Every plant that has roots that are imperfect or deticient in fibres should be rejected, it being impor- tant that the roots, as well as the tops, should bo equal in strength and quality. The planting out may be expeditiously done with a trowel or small garden spade. Insert the implement into the soil, press the handle forward, while another hand places the roots into the crevice, and on withdrawing the blade the earth will fall back on the roots, and can be compressed slightly by a pat of the im- plement, or by the hand. After-culture. — Having planted out the hedge, the after-culture should consist in keeping the ground stirred with the hoe, and all weeds down, for a strip the full width between the water furrows on each side. Care should be taken to allow no animals to browse on the hedge at any time — a thing they are mostapt to do when it is young, and full of succulent wood. Any plants that fail to grow must have their places filled from the seed bed, or from the end of the hedge, as soon afterwards as possible. When the hedge has fairly started growing, it should be left undisturbed by any pruning process for two seasons, at the end of which the [)lants are to be cut back to within four inches of the ground, and there- after twice in each year, say in July and September, to within three or four inches of the previous cutting, the first time it is done, and as much higher with an inch more added at each time of cutting, till the hedge has reached a height of five or six feet. " Pruning into shape. — The most common error in pruning hedges, and one that results in making them thin at the bottom, is that they are cut from the top downwards, instead of the bot- tom upwards, thus leaving a fiat top. The hedge should be allowed to extend at the bottom to thicken it, and cut so as to form a triangle, the base of which rests on the ground, and the apex points upward to the sky. " Thickening neglected hedges. — When a hedge, even at six or eight feet high, has become scraggy and thin at the bottom, it may be restored to usefulness by cutting each stem half-way through, near the ground, with an upward stroke Oi a sharp hatchet or chisel, and bending the plant down to an angle oi 1 '1* m 1 l! 208 The Canadian Farmer's -.»'.; li- '. i ii( ■i{ 'i.W ^ li I i! [.I, *T^^rr »« ti: It f I ';''■ ubout 30°, coininono'm^ with tl. ♦irst stem at ono end and bending it, tlio next being bent to it, and «o on to the other end. Thin operation muHt be performed very early in the spring, before the buds begin to break. A now growth will start upward.s from near the eut, and at the end of a year the hedge ean be pruned into proper shape, which consists mainly in throwing back the growth towanls the bottom and side branches. " Deciduous lleih/a VlaiitH. — Those plants that are of a thorny nature are usually best adaj)ted for making a hedge, though good hedges can be nuide from some varieties of shrubby trees that pro- duite no thorns. One of the most popular hedge plants of Auieriea, and ono that is every way adapted to the purpose, whore it can be successfully grown, is the Osage Oiange. It is a rapid grower, makes a strong, thorny fence, and is easily propagated from seed. It doer, not, however, prove sufficiently hardy to withstand tho severe cold of our Canadian winters, until the plants have become <|uite large and strong. In an expernnent we tried with it some years ago, the plants were found very variable in their hardiness. Some of them were killed out entirely the first winter, some only paitially so, while others, were scarcely affected by the frost, and continued in after years to giow vigorously ; but the seeming im- possibility of filling up tlie gaps, after several trials, caused the attempts to make a hedge of Osage Orange to be abandoned. Three inches apart is the distance they find best to set the plants of Osage Orange in the western United States, where many hun- dred miles of hedges are made of it •' White Willow suckers so badly, it is quite worthless for hedg- ing. " Buckthorn makes a capital hedge, and proves quite hardy here, but is of slow growth and difficult propagation, and has one seri- ous drawback we have observed in those that have come under our notice, viz, it suffers greatly from summer drought when it has got well established, often to the extent of the destruction of so man}' plants as to leave large gaps in the hedge. It may be, however, that tl "t can be prevented by mulching the ground on both sides of th«^ lodge during summer time, with a layer of straw. Plants are set ^jj.; to eight inches apart They can be bought at most nurseries for six dollars per thousand. " Honey Locust makes a thick, strong, rapid-growing hedge, per- fectly impervious to any kind of stock The plants can only be raised from seed. It is somewhat liable to winter-kill when young, but not nearly so much so as the Osage Orange. Plants may be set out nine to twelve inches apart ; and it is absolutely necessary to keep it well cut back after the hedge is established, or it will get too strong and unmanageable. " Beech. — Some varieties that are inclined to be shrubby, espe- cially th^ purple beech, would make an excellent hedge, perfectly iv «« '. Manual of Agricxdiure. 299 T^ espe- rfectly hardy, and capable, when once ostablishod, of turning any kind of Htock. Such a hedge wouM, however, require to be protected from ehcpp and cattle in its early ntag«'H, aw tlicy are extremely fond of browsing on the yoijng Hhoots of beech in the winter and Hpring. Plants Hct eight inches apart Clan be ejusily grown from seed or young slants a few inches high, grown in the woods, may be tranH|)lantoa to a seed bed, and a year afterwards sot out in a hedge. " Wild Plum. — Some of the prickly varieties of our wild plum ought to yield a good material of which to make hedges, and plants could doubtless be easily obtained from seed. The wild crab would probably also make a good hedging plant under proper management, though as yet we do not think it lias been tried. "For merely ornamental hedges to the garden or lawn, or inside the fence in cities or towns, there is not]rnigc(pial to Privet, which is a quick-growing shrub, easily obtained at a cheap rate, in most nurseries, and quite hardy and reliable Sot the plants four to six inches apart Barberry also makes an excellent hedge for gardens, and is both useful and ornamental ; the beirios can bo made into tarts and preserves by tho.se who like their flavour. " For a low hedge bordering a garden walk, there is nothing more beautiful than the Japan Quince {Pyrun Japonlca), with its loads of bright scarlet blossoms in spring and early sunmier. Sot the jtlants eighteen inches apart, and trim the sides in, so as to incline them to throw out branches towards the top and centre, till the hedge is about three feet high, at which elevation it is to bo kept by regular pruning." A correspondent of the Praine Farmer, thus records a novel mode of trimming hedges, which appears to have the advantage of being exceedingly expeditious : — " Having heard a groat deal said about the mode of trimming hedges, I will give m}' mode of keeping hedges low trimmed, which for ease and expedition I think is the best 1 have yet tried. Take my waggon, with hayrack on, fill the space on off side of rack with an extra board, so aa to make a good and soft platform to stand on, then I hitch my most steady team to the waggon, and armed with a good, sharp scythe, am ready for the work, drive with off horse next the hedge, tie the linos to the standards in the front of rack, with right line a little tight, to keep team close up to the hedf^e, then start the team as often as the length of the rack. I am now speaking of cutting the top of the hedge, which is much easier cut than timothy grass, being young and tender, and with a little care can be trimmed as level as a house floor. " After trimming the top, I put out my team and walk back- wards along the side of the hedge, with my scythe still sharp, trim with an upward stroke, and if there is any uneven ness in the trimming you will immediately see it, having your faca constantly ,11 if ; ■. a '.«"■ ■f ■'" li ■ !■ I: X ■', fc i rr i tit(N •; ;r 800 The Canadian Farmer's towards the part trimmed. This is all very easily done, being nmch easier than mowing gi'ass. A man can trim in this manner from one-half to a mile of hedge per day. It should be done twice during the season, in June and August. This manner of trim- ming gives the hedge a beautiful appearance, with a slope on each side and flat on the top, giving it the appearance of a well-laid stone wall." Hedges and Mice. — These little pests are often found very des- tructive in hedges. The only practical plan to prevent their rav- ages is to be found in keeping the land at the bottom and along each side of the hedge clear of all grass. They will seldom move across bare land, nor take up their quarters except where gi'ass is thick, in winter. In the articles quoted above, no mention has been made of the English Hawthorn. We know of many hedges of this kind in Canada, but of none that have been kept properly cut down so as to be stock proof; but where they exist, although in a wild neg- lected state, they are hardy and thrifty. The Arbor Vitce, Norway Spruce and Hemlock make very nandsome hedges, and though not stock proof, will be found very valuable as windbreaks, on the exposed sides of private grounds, barn yards and orchards. Farm Gates. — Of these the number is legion, patented and un- patented— swing, slide, lift and self-acting gates. Some gates cannot be opened except by a man's strength, whilst others are so delicately engineered, that on the approach of the horse and buggy, open sesame and presto ! — the gate flies open of its own accord as if by magic. But as unfortunately, time and weather do not recognize the subtle mechanism of these patents, and lay upon them, equally with those of more humble preten- sions, the he.avy hand of inevitable decay, we prefer to leave them to be pufied by the patentees. As our work is devoted to the interest of the farmers themselves, we shall confine ourselves to a description of a few cheap gates that can be made by any handy man, with a few simple tools, and during the slack winter days. For a simple swing gate : — Take six pieces of stufl" twelve feet long, four inches wide, and one inch thick ; lay these down on a level piece of gi'ound, leaving the first bottom space two and three-quarter inches wide, the next three inches, the next three-and-a-half inches, the next five-and-a-half inches, and the next or top space, nine-and-a- half inches wide ; then take the same kind of material and nail across the ends with annealed nails; then nail on a cross brace from the upper to the lower corner, also with annealed nails, so that it will fit neatly inside of the end ])ieces. Now turn the gate over, and nail similar upright pieces across the ends, even Manual of Agriculture. 301 with the ones on the opposite side, and one upright piece midway between the ends. This latter is far preferable to putting on a diagonal brace on that side. In such a gate there is no mortising, and, for the weight of it, it is far stn^nger than any mortised gate that can be made. Annealed nails are better than wrought nails. Such gates look well, and are very quickly made. A good hand will make five of them in a day. In hanging, place the opening und at least one and a quarter inches above what you wish it to be, as any large gate, no matter on what kind of a hinge, will spring at least that much. This may be varied by mortising the bars into scantlings for uprights. A very good gate is made by forming a frame of scantlings, and letting pickets into the horizontals. Referring to a good sliding gate, W. H. Smith, in the Rural New Yorker, says : — " I have a gate which has been in use eight years, and works as well to-day as the first day it was put up. 1 now have nine of them on my farm. Not one of them has cost me a dollar since erected, nor any repairs, except two of them which have had new sills. They are constructed as follows ; "Four posts are set firmly in line, so that the fronts will be true. Measure fourteen feet, in line with those already set, and set the post the gate shuts against. Then place the sill for the gate to run on, fourteen or sixteen feet long, put down solid. The sill for the gate to run back on, can be made of any light material that will sustain the weight of the gate. The sill should have about one inch down grade toward the shutting post, and be spiked fast to the posts. The gate is made of any width lumber, and long enou;^h to lap four inches on the shutting post, and about two feet on the groove post, to keep it steady. At the bottom the gate must have two boards to support the bolts that the rollers turn on. These rollers should be six inches in diameter, an inch thick, to run on half-round iron, placed at the proper distance from the bottom board of the fence, so to let the gate pass with- out rubbing. The iron rod should have holes punched, so as to let twelve-penny nails through to nail to the sill about two feet apart. Nail down the rod, and it is ready for the gate. "The gate is put together with sixteen two and a-half inch bolts and eight three and a-half inch bolts ; the three and a-half inch bolts go through three boards at the bottom. The rollers go be- tween the bottom boards close under the brace, so as to get the bearing ; the bolts should fit the rollers as tight as possible. These rollers in their place, put up the gate on the rod, and run it back on the fence ; mark the four posts one inch above the top of the gate ; saw them off square in line ; place on top of the hi li nU>f I ,i ri — r^r ••j\\-^" v\T^jj:frair-A r-tj^i "^^liV/"." :<\\v 304 The Canadian Farmer's f ;i:',. . t;1 '1 t I f l.i .3 .i I i ■r ,* and freedom from disease are points in their favour. Let us retain those good inherent qualities, and by the use of a different class of bull, endeavour to break down such characteristics as may be found unprofitable in the common cow She is large in bone, and therefore is not profitable for beef ; she is a greedy feeder, and takes far more food to put on a given weight of beef than one of her own size, that has finer bones in her frame. The preservation of pure blood, uncontaminated by mixture lAJh different breeds is only required for breeding purposes, for the very best results have always been attained by crossing such thorough-breds with the common naturalized cow of the country. In these days, when the farmer is looking to beef as a source of profit even greater than such as is realized by the exhaustive process of continual grain raising, and when every kind of fodder is scarce and dear, it behoves him to look well to the kind of cattle to which he devotes his attention and his feed. The fine-boned, high-blooded animal will return a greater amount of beef, and that of a better quality, as the result of a given quantity of food, than will the coarse bred beast. The questions that each farmer must set before him to be an- swered are : "What produce do I require from my cattle, dairy or beef, or dairy and beef ? What kind of animal will give me, in re- turn for the care and food that I may devote, the greatest quantity of either or of both of these marketable products ?" But we have often been asked which is the best breed of cattle for the ordinary farmer ? Shorthorns, Devons, Ayrshires or Jerseys? Now this matter depends entirely upon what sort of a common farmer the querist is. If he wishes to devote his stock to butter, the Jersey is undoubtedly the best, if to the raising of cattle for work, the Devon ; if a milkman near the city, Ayrshire ; and if a beefmaker ; the Durham The Durham, though not giving a copious supply of milk, will be found a good butter cow, for her milk is exceedingly rich Indeed, Mr. Allen, in his work on Aiuerican cattle, affirms that they are as good milkers in quantity as any other breed ; and it should not be forgotten that the Teeswater cattle, from which our present improved Durham have sprung, were, one hundred years ago, noted in Great Britain for their feats at the pail. For this reason the Durham strain or good Durham grades will readily commend themselves to those farmers who desire to obtain profit both from milk and beef; and in this latter particular these grades are very superior, for should our cow at any time go barren for a year, we can immediately dispose of her to advantage by a short preparation for and sale to the butcher. The Devon and Hereford. — The latter have never taken well in America, and to our mind the reason has been, that though good beef cattle they are inferior as milkers. Manual of Agriculture. 305 es will obtain ir these harven tageby «V.Q^ well in though The Vevona are better milkers than usually supposed in Canada; the chief objection to them seems to have arisen from a prevalent idea that they were an ill-tempered breed. We believe there is .some ground for the idea, at least when we compare them with the kind and gentle Durham or Ayrshire. But in the southern parts of England, and especially in their native county, they are highly esteemed as generous milkers. There is no stock equal to them as oxen for work ; and the best yokes that we have seen in Canada were invariably Devons. The Ayrshirea have from time immemorial been bred in the west of Scotland as milkers. In that rocky country, against whose heights the moisture-laden clouds from the Atlantic are con- .stantly brought in contact and dispelled in rain, the natural pasture is superb, and in every way calculated to increase the milk producing qualities of any race of cattle. They are of undersize, hardy, kindly, and seem to do well under the Canadian climate. They require very little food to keep in good condition and gene- rous flow ; and for the farmer whose chief desideratum is milk or cheese, there is probably no better breed existing. But for beef- producing, not only is the frame small on which to lay meat, but the beef is inferior to that of the Devon or Shorthorn. It is a common practice, and one highly recommended by many of our best breeders, to put a grade Shorthorn to a thorough-bred Ayrshire bull. They assert that the result is preferable in the dairy to a thorough-bred Ayrshire cow, while the beef-producing qualities are doubtless very much better than those found in pure Ayrshire. The Alderney or Jersey come from the three little islands half- way between trance and England, and situated in the English Channel. Again, the humidity of these islands has favoured the development of a good milking race of cattle. These Alderneys are small in size, hardy and kindly — requiring but very little food to keep them in good flow. The richness of their milk is proverbial, being of a deep yellow creamy colour throughout ; they are consequently very superior as butter cows, and we are surprised that they are not more sought after by pri- vate families, who require for their daily use rich milk, plenty of butter,and at the same time a gentle, kind and docile animal about the house. For such families, in town or village, the Alderney or Jersey will be found the very best breed. The Dutch or Holstein Cattle, natives of Holland, have of late years attracted considerable attention at the hands of American dairymen, and we believe are yet destined to become an estab- Ushed breed on this continent. Holland is a purely dairy country, and the milking qualities of their native cattle are very excellent. They possess the gr^ai advantage of being largely built and capa- ble of making fair sized beeves 20 'B ■ i I. ' .'I ill • u i It- \': >. 'HI 1 ./?li-f 1 IS^:. , 9 1 iVV fi I t i ;i ( gi .:!■; ■ t; ^, ,11' I?: f 806 The Canadian Farmer's If nothing more would deter the ordinary fanner from going into thorough -breds, their high price forms a barrier ; and to our mind it is as well. Men of means and judgment have been found to take up breeding as a business. Let us be content with our grades, and look to Ihem for thorough-bred males, by which to keep up the good qualities of our grades. We go to the seedsman for new and improved varieties of seeds, and we pay him a high figure for them. We acknowledge the necessity of improvement in our cereals, and we are willing to pay those who have devoted time and money to starting such improve- ment. In like manner there are those who are devoting means, energy and education to the improvement of the several breeds of cattle ; before we partake of the benefits accruing from the devo- tion of these men, we must "pay our footing." " To a man who deals in scrub cattle worth fifty dollars a head, it seems an enormous price to pay two hundred dollars for a herd book animal, and six hundred is deemed a clear case of extortion. " But there is nothing in the breeding of choice animals to dis- turb the usual law of supply and demand. Like any other ani- mal in the market, they are worth just what they will bring. " The scrub cow is good for beef and milk, and it does not add a cent to her value that she can reproduce her kind. If she is a good milker she is worth sixty dollars as a new milch cow, if that is the market value of the article. If she will make five hundred pounds of beef, she is worth so many cents per pound, according to the market price. You can get as many as you like at that price ; but the thorough-bred is prized for different qualities alto- gether. If known to be a barren animal, she is worth no more than a scrub cow of the same weight. If she can reproduce her kind, every good quality in her is enhanced in value. " We are ready to pay for her pedigree, her beauty of form, her capacity to make beef economically, to produce a large flow of milk or to make rich butter or cheese. These extra qualities are the result of care in breeding ; they represent capital lavishly spent and skill in the breeder, acquired by long years of expe- rience. He has in the carcase of his thorough-bred animal a ma- chine for the production of certain economical results \7hich has cost him large sums of money. If he can show that he can pro- duce these results with a fair share of uniformity, he is entitled to an extra price for his thorough-bred animal. There is no doubt that the skilful breeder can do this. A shorthorn bull at a large price is cheaper for a farmer who wants to raise beef than a scrub bull at any price. It is the confidence which farmers have that tho- rough-breds will transmit their good qualities that leads to the steady demand for them. A. breeds them, it may be to sell to B. at a fancy price. But B. would not want them unless he could fiell to G. who is engaged in raising beef cattle ; and has found out i. Manual of Agriculture. 307 price ub bull lat tho- to the sell to e could uad out that grade shorthorns will save a whole year of feeding, and one year's interest on the large capital he has invested in stock. He wants only a thorough-bred bull, and thinks he can afford to pay any price which is necessary to get him. " The high prices for these animals will only continue as long as farmers find it to their own interest to buy them. The several breeds of cattle meet real wants among farmers who do.sire them for ordinary purposes. The demand will probably continue as long as beef, milk, butter and cheese are eaten ; as long as oxen are used on the farm It is the most thrifty and skilful farmers that i^^- vest in thorough-bred animals. " It is altogether probable t]iey understand their own interests." Now, a stock of good grade cattle may be rapidly gathered up by any farmer at an expense of from one to two hundred dollars. Many breeders will dispose of a thorough-bred bull for a moderate sum because his colour does not suit them, whilst his pedigree may be perfect and he may possess every useful quality. Co-operation in a neighbourhood where more than one farmer would purchase a thorough-bred bull, so that they might exchange and prevent too close breeding, would soon raise up a fine class of grades in a section. Of one thing we may be certain, the use of a grade bull should never be permitted. It takes but four or five years to raise up a herd, with little expense, to three-quarter and seven-eighth bred animals, and then it is that the good qualities show and high figures begin to be realized. Could a common steer be made up to a live weight of 2,600 lbs. at three years old ? We think not The old saying, " Blood will tell," true as it undoubtedly is, will be found no talisman against neglect, exposure and starvation. Many a man has tried improving his stock, but left them out in the weather and neglected them just as he used to do with his common stock ; and the natural consequence of such treatment was made a ground of complaint against breeding. If a man should buy some old worn-out watch for a dollar, and put it to steep in a basin of water, its functions would be, in all probability, somewhat retarded. Should he give a hundred dol- lars for a Walthara, and treat it in like manner, the fact of his article having been composed of the best material would not pre- vent its reduction to about the same state as the dollar watch when under the same course of treatment ; but his loss would be the greater. The reason why a grade bull is not a safe one to breed from is simply, we know nothing of his ancestry for any length of time back, and we cannot tell if those qualities which we particularly want to be developed in the progeny have been passed down to him through a sufficiently long ancestry to make it certain that they will also be stamped upon his calves. il n mi i] » (; i^^B i ) t;:'! ;i'^^ Iff _.-!lfll. wy '. '.•t' rtn: 308 TA^ Canadian Farmer's Breeding. — " Whatever the class or character of the dams, the contiuued use of sires of a distinct breed, capable of transmitting a family likeness, should constantly be persisted in ; the man who does so finding his stock of various breeds of animals yearly in- creasing in value, the receipts correspondingly raised, and the oc- cupants of his pastures, staules or stalls, wonderfully improved in appearance. " Whether they attend to it or not, we find most men admitting the influence of a well-bred sire on the character and quality of the future offspring; but, strange to say, comparatively little stress is laid upon the influence for good which is exerted by the dam on her young, when she herself is of good quality and well descended. When both parents are good, progress is rapid ; and by holding over for breeders only the young of the best animals much time is saved, and the required amount of perfection is reached in a very limited number of years. Once looked to, this point will ever after be considered one of the most vital import- ance, and will on no account whatever be neglected or overlooked. To any one conversant with stock in large numbers, the influence of the mother is strikingly apparent in certain members of each class, their produce year after year exceeding in value that of every otlier animal of the same kind, and, when sold, brings pro- portionately more money. Thus, for instance, a cow will sometimes breed calves for a succes,sion of years exactly the same colour, form and general character — no matter if the sire is changed each year ; and her progeny again will transmit to their own offspring the same characteristics, but in an improved degree, if the necessary measures have been attended to with this view. Families are thus founded, and men intelligent enough to profit by improving a good strain which has come in their way — it may be quite acci- dentally in the first instance— have gained for themselves a name and acquired fortunes. To breed fi'om females which have proved themselves indifferent nurses, and whose progeny, however handsome they themselves may be, are always amongst the culls of the flock or herd, is very short-sighted policy, and detracts very materially from the prosperity of those who will not take the trouble of marking all such animals, and getting rid of them on the first favourable opportunity. Hardiness, by which general term a great deal of meaning is expressed, should never be lost sight of by the breeder, but, on the contrary, carefully attended to, rxs it is a quality of the utmost consequence, enabling them to withstand the vicissitudes of the weather, to keep up condition at periods when the greatest foresight cannot prevent a scarcity of food, to be always in good health, and to be able to breed animals of sound, healthy and hardy constitutions." — Mark Lane Express. Animals should be selected for breeding purposes that have a character. If for the dairy, a character is wanted that they, and is- Fl' :!,: vim 1 ■ Manual of Agriculiurn. 309 if possible their dams and grand-dams, &c., have bec;i t?ood milkers before them. And the same is applicable whatever be the quali- ties that the breeder desires to develop in his stock. INDICATIONS OF QUALITY. These, as generally observable to the eye, are : For beef producing. — Moderate size, compactness and levelness of form, a straight broad back and fine tail, soft skin well covered with hair, short legs and well ribbed up. For milking. — A broad forehead, small muzzle, kind and bright expression ; the udders full, rounded and largely developed, but not fleshy ; the milk-veins showing out large, thighs well kept apart. For good constitution and early matuHty. — Broad, deep chest, and ribs well rounded in the barrel behind the shoulder. THE THEORY OF CATTLE FEEDING. Mr. Fletcher says : " A farmer has three things to consider and three distinct objects to attain in feeding cattle — first, to make hone ; second, to make fiesh ; and third, to make fat. Without bone he can have no flesh, and without flesh no fat. Thus they are dependent upon one another ; they are all necessary to the support of animal life, and to the full development of the animal. This being so, it is absolutely necessary that in fe'^ding an animal its food should contain all the elements of bone, flt h and fat ; the two former being plentifully supplied to the growing animal, and the latter when it is being made up for the market. Now, bone has for its elements phosphoric acid and lime ; those of flesh are gluten, fibrine, &c. ; and of fat, carbon. " These, therefore, it is necessary that food should contain in their proper proportions, in feeding the animal in its various stages. While young and in a growing state it requires the bone and flesh-forming constituents, and these are to be found in swedes, calbages, potatoes, &c., all of which contain a large percentage of phosphoric acid, the principal constituent of bones, and also a considerable quantity of gluten, caseine, &c., the principal consti- tuents of flesh ; but if fiesh is required to be laid on with a view to fattening, peas, lentils, and other leguminous food should be used ; and for fat you must have recourse to linseed and other seeds containing a large proportion of oil, starch, gum, sugar, &c., all fat-forming constituents. " The constituents the food ought to contain beinjj known, the next question is the quantity required as best adapted to pro- mote the growth and sustain the animal at different periods and under difterent conditions." i% '^i I I." I ■' ^f^. i 310 The Canadian Farmer's f { k i' 1 It is remarked by an eminent cattle feeder, Mr. Glyde, that " an ox requires two per cent, of his live weight of hay per day ; if ho works, 2 J per cent. ; a milch cow, 3 per cent. ; a fattening ox, 5 per cent, at first, and 4J per cent, when half fat, and 4 per cent, when fat ; grown sheep, 3^ per cent, to keon them in their store condition." An ox, to replace the daily loss of muscular fibre, requires from 20 to 24 ounces of dry gluten or vegetable albumen daily. This would be supplied by — 120 lbs. of turnips, or 17 lbs. clover hay, 115 " wheat Htraw. " 12 lbs. peas. 76 •• carrots. 12 lbs. barli y. 67 " potatocB, " 10 lbs. oatf. 20 •• meadow hay, " 6 lbs. beans. The closer the food approaches in its chemical constituency to the matter it is required to form, the sooner will the end be attained. From the following table may be gathered the amount of each chemical constituent that dried beef {i.e. beef divested of its 77 per cent, of water) contains, and the proportion of those consti- tuents found in hay, oats and peas : — I ' vl pill i'M i: :fti TABLE SHOWING CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OP DRIED BEEF, AND THE PROPORTION OF SAME CONSTITUENTS CONTAINED IN HAY, OATS, AND PEAS. Dried beef.. . Clover hay... Oati Peas Mutton fat . . Potato starch Oum Wool Horn Carbon. 61-82 33-47 41-67 38-24 Hydro- Nitro- Other Oxysen. Ashes. Water. gen. gen. Matter. 7.67 21-37 1-601 4-23 4-20 32 61 1-28 7-56 17-05 3-96 6-25 3010 1-80 3-28 18-00 6-84 8310 6-00 8-71 14-11 Total Partd. 100 100 100 ICO 78-996 11-700 9-304 44-260 6-674 49076 42-682 6-374 60-944 50-«53 7-029 24-608 17-710 61162 6-697 24-967 17-284 Thus the best fat-producer here is found to be potatoes, and next to it comes clover bay. It will be observed the chemical constitution of these articles of food approaches very closely that of animal substances, and we may deduce from the fact how rea- dily food acts on the system, and how essential to the well-being and the proper progress of bone, flesh and fat is a variety of food. We give another table showing in a different form the relative nutritive properties of various common articles of food : — Manual of Agriculture. 311 RELATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS ARTICLES OF FOOD. Fbod. 0»Ul BekDi PeM IndikP corn Barley Meadow hay Clover hay.. Peaitraw .. Oat itraw , . . Carruta Llnieed Brail Woody llbre, Starch, Uuiu Oluten, Fatty WatOT. or huaki. and SuKar. Albumen, &o 11 Matter. 16 20 46 0 14 8 to 11 40 SO 26 14 0 fiO 24 21 14 a 70 12 6 to ; IS 14 62 186 2 to 3 10 30 40 71 3 to 6 17 26 40 03 8 to 6 10 to 16 26 46 13-3 16 12 46 86 18 08 86 3 10 1'5 04 D-2 8 to 9 36'3 20-3 200 161 68 0 2 10-3 4-7 Saline Matter. 26 3 8 1-6 8 to 10 0 k to 6 0 I to 2 03 7-3 The most nutritious grasses are those which abound in sugar, starch and gluten. Sugar enters largely into the composition of milk. Hence it is that we find X. A. Willard, Esq., and our best authorities on the Dairy, recommending the sweet-scented grasses for permanent pastures. The essential difference between cattle kept over and tho.se that are intended for the shambles is, that in the former case a gener- ous varied diet is required to perfect the whole animal organiza- tion, whilst in the other our efforts are directed to the supply of fatty flesh-forming food. To reiterate, t\i& flesh-forming constituents are albumen, gluten, &c., and those that go to form fat are gum, saccharine matter, starch, &c. The next table shows how much for each of these purposes may be expected as an average yield for an acre of land. An acre of land should produce, of — Peas, (20 bushela) Oats, (40 bushels) Hay, (2 tons) Potatoes, (150 bushels) Carrots, (700 bushels) Turnips, (560 bushela) Wheat straw, (2,000 lbs.) Oat straw, (1,800 lbs.) Barley straw, (1,400 lbs.) In the U. S. Agricultural Report for 1865 we find the following very exhaustive tables, prepared from the best English, German, and American authorities. From this may be deduced, when taken in connection with the analysis of the animal system, the comparative value for nutrition of nearly every crop in general or partial cultivation in Canada : — Flesh-forming food. Fat-forming food 285 lbs. - 504 lbs. 232 lbs. - 935 lbs. 220 lbs. ■ 1,6G0 lbs. 400 lbs. • 2,220 lbs. 840 lbs. • 4,000 lbs. 400 lbs. - 3,350 lbs. 27 lbs. - 626 lbs. 24 lbs. - 646 lbs. 18 lbs. - 430 lbs. 812 The Canadian Farmer's TABLE OP COMPARATIVE EQUIVAIiENTS OF DIPPEKENT POODS. l! i i! n i\ n 2' v^ P»i i- I' ' 1' ' k 1 • i « 'OODS. Irith potatrtci* C»rroU ParNnipii Jcruiaiem artichoke HuK^r beet Turni|>ii («wede) Common white turnip MkiiKold wurznl Oreeii pc« utraw , Spurrev,{6rreeii) Oreuii buckwheat italics,.. Common vetch, (irreen).. . French Tctch, (green) .... QreenitalkHot white lupin Qreen Rtalki <>( white bean. Oreen oati, (fodder) Timothy Kras*. (|{reen) . . . Rod top 8u|>erl()r Engllnh hay Red clover, ^jrucn) White clover, (Kroen) Lucerne, (Kreeii) Rod clover, (hay) White clover, (hay) Lucerne, (huy) Wheat flour Indian corn Rye meal Barley meal Oatmeal Buckwheat meal Pea* Kidney beans White fleia beans Lentils English Unseed cake American Unseed cako 1.4 0.0 1.3 1.0 0.0 l.U 0.0 1.0 0.0 2.7 0.2' 1.0 0.7 1.8 1.0 1.0 4.0 8.3 13.5 2.0 1.6 1.0 32.6 18.7 12.7 14.7 11.0 14.3 13 0 180 00 38.1 23.0 24.0 26.7 22.1 22.2 18.0 6.0 7.0 18.8 18.0 6.8 88 13.0 7.0 8.8 4.7 2 0 4.7 2.8 2.7 8.6 07 8.7 86.3 8.0 2.7 8.0 18.7 40.0 38.0 06.4 06 7 66.8 62.0 61.1 62.1 41.0 80.3 80.7 88.0 61.0 43.0 30,8 7.2 8.2 10.8 14.6 0.3 4.2 13.0 8.8 6.0 4.0 4.6 6.4 4.1 8.7 0.6 18.7 12.0 40.8 6.0 4.2 6.5 41.3 68.7 80.7 81.1 77.7 70.1 05.0 60.1 61 1 66.0 63 2 63.7 64.0 73.1 70.8 ill a3« - 846 8 601. 0 007.8 261.5 880.6 803.3 1186.7 807.0 A6r>.0 060.0 1016.0 1100.0 022.2 1212 1 1846.0 624.2 H63.4 416.0 100.0 007.1 1186.7 00.'). 4 120.8 84.6 08.3 61.4 64.3 71.0 76.0 72.0 81.6 76.0 78.7 78.2 77.0 68.0 70.3 There is a variety in the various clovers. Einhof anci Groyne give the following analyses : Red Clover. •White Clover. Lucerne. Water 76.0 1.4 13.0 2.1 2.0 8.5 0.1 1.0 80.0 1.0 11.5 1.6 1.6 8.4 0.2 0.0 76 0 Sturch 2.2 Woody fibre 14.3 Sugar 0 8 Albumen 1 0 Extractive matter ol gum 4.4 Fattv matter 0 6 Phosphate ol lime 0.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 Excellent analyses have been put on record by Sir Humphry Davy and Mr. Herapath, showing the relative value, as food, of the generally cultivated roots : — Manual of Agriculturt, 818 QUANTITY or NUTRITIOUS AND FaT-PRODUCINO 0ONSTITUENT8 IN A THOUSAND PARTS. Hwml* turnip* WhiU turnliM MkDirold wurMi (lotiK red). . . . " " (onng«Ml<)b« SuKar bMt uc orHtwoh. 9 7 IS "I Sugtr. ISIuUnor Albunian. ftl 34 lilt KXII f 1 4 it Total. •1 &t 134 1401 Treat all Animals Kindhj — It is a pity everyone docs not treat animala kindly, for niudi more can oo done with them in all ways ; they will do as you wish them readily, and you become completely master of them, without knowledj^o on their part that they are subservient to your desires. There is not a more interest- ing sight than to see a first-rate herdsman or a thoroughly good Hhcplierd move a numerous lot of animals and draw them out into dift'erent yards, and then, perhaps, into pen.s — one here, two there, &c., but in every instance the right one going into the right place, and all this done without any bustle and in the most regularly (juiet manner imaginable. Man too is an animal, and how very much better it would be if any one having that sort of animal around him would treat t^cm kindly : he might, as stated with the lower animals, becomo complete master and have entire con- trol of them, without their feeling how really subordinate they wore. Overbearing manners beget dislike. Belittle a man by a foolish arrogance, and he is totally discouraged and becomes careless. In fact, there is generally a great want of sense in any one who tries to make others feel inferiority; and depend upon it^there is nothing better than kindly treatment towards all animals. Store Cattle. — The two chief points to ever bear in view in the treatment of store and growing cattle is shelter and generous variety of food ; and yet store cattle must be kept cheap, or they will "eat their heads off," as the saying is, ere they be ready to put up for the butcher or to come in as milkers. Well, comfort is half the battle, and costs very little. A warm shed in winter ; a liberal supply of straw, varied with roots, and a very little grain in winter; shade and access to water in summer, and plenty of moderate exercise, are all that is wanted to keep young cattle growing. The object to be sought with stores is to keep the frame enlarging and the constitution sound and healthy, so that when the time of feeding arrives we may have a large and fully developed frame and a healthy machine by which to convert the crops into beef. Depend upon it, for the ultimate benefit of the farm, the righi> and proper way of disposing of all straws, hays and coarse grains, is by making them " walk off" to market. The common object sought in keeping cattle in the barn-yard I n k m ' ■ !<> III' »'4 ft Mi I mi 314 The Canadian Farmer's flH 4i' through the winter is to keep the bf,asts at least in as good order as when they left the pasture, and to make manure. If cattle be once stinted in their growth, they will never after- wards be able to acquire flesh either so rapidly or so fully as if better kept. The different appearance of cattle kept well sheltered in winter and those that are allowed to run out in all sorts of weather, and unprotected, to grub their own food, is in the spring very apparent to the outsider ; and if the owners could be persuaded to produce a fair and square account, we have no doubt that the feeder would show a better balance sheet ere June grass had left, than he who winter starves his cattle. Fatting Cattle : — " Oh ! rare rosbif ! loved by mankind, If I were doomed to have thee, All dressed and garnished to my mind, And swimming in thy gravy, Not all the country's force combined Could from my fury save thee." Buying Cattle to Fat in Winter. — The liberal and constant ap- plication of manure is the grrnd basis upon which rests successful farming. Of manure there arp three kinds — the so-called artificial manures, green manures, and animal or barn-yard dung. Each in its place is necessary to a proper enrichment of the soil, and the obtaining of all is a matter of much importance. To make plenty of barn-yard manure, a number of stock must be kept, and such should be richly fed ; for as the fodder is rich, so will the manure be impregnated with a maximum amount of those rich elements which go to increase the growth of the plant. While endeavouring to fat a great number of head of cattle, the question of a profitable return for the food supplied has to be con- sidered as inseparably connected with the manufacture of rich ma- nure. We have seen beasts put up to fatten who have eaten more than they have made. A thin beast, put up in the cold weather, takes a great amount of his food for the purpose of supplying the necessary heat to the body ; while an animal in good order has a heat-producing store in his own fat, which allows all the extra food to be taken up in producing more meat. We may lay it down as an axiom that it will not pay to put up a thin beast to fatten upon stored or winter food. After August, the fall pasturage will be ready for cattle ; take them off this as soon as very cold nights set in, and stall feed. They wiU be the very best of beef by Christmas. In this way alone, as a rule, can winter feeding of stock for the butcher be made profitable. The animal is giowing from August to December without a day's check. We have bought steers in August for thirty-five dollars cash, and sold the same before order Manual of ji griculture. 316 Christmas for sixty-five dollars, only stall feeding for about six weeks. Money may be made in the current year by growing and selling a large breadth of grain, but it is made at the expense of our fu- ture income. Fattening of st^ck is the most profitable manner in which to apply our farm produce, for we have profit from the ani- mals and manure to boot. At the same time, there is such a thing as putting more feed into a beast than his increase in weight will pay for. If we adopt aa an axiom, that an animal should always be in good order -when put up for winter btall feeding, we cannot go far astray. Choosing a Beast to Fatten. — British Husbandry says : " In choosing a breed more especially adapted for fatting purposes, there are some points which should be closely regarded. Attention should be paid to compactness and symmetry of form ; deep fore quarters, wide coxcases, fine small bones, moderately thin hides, a protuberance of fat under the root of the tail, and large full eyes. A well-shaped steer should thus ha^e a small head, with a placid countenance, as indicative of docility and aptitude to get fat ; a fine muzzle and open nostrils ; the throat should be clean, long and thin in the neck, but wide and deep in the shoulders ; the back should be broad and straight near the setting on of the tail, with the rump-points fat and coming well up to it; the bar- rel should be round, wide across the loins, and the girth deep be- hind the shoulders, with the space between the hip boi»e and the short rib very small (this latter is most important to all easily kept animals) ; the fore legs should be short and wide apart, so as to pre- sent a broad appearance to +.he chest, and the thighs of the hind legs should be shut well in the twist — the seam in the middle of which should be well filled ; and the flanks should be heavy and full. A form such as this is not only the best for afibrding the greatest weight, but will be also generally found to lay the flesh upon the prime parts, to produce the least quantity of offal, with such a large quantity of tallow as, emphatically speaking, in the butchers' phrase, will cause the animal to ' die well.' These marks, however, are not the only indications of a propensity to fatten quickly. On the contrary, it has been found by experience that many coarse beasts, with large bones and gummy legs, have often proved superior in that respect to other animals of undoubted superiority in point of shape. The state of the hide and flesh is of the first importance, as the essential property of ' handling well:" An eminent breeder considers that " it is the nice touch or mel- low feel of the hand which constitutes, in a great measure, the judge of cattle." " The knowledge and the value of skill in touch can only be acquired by long practice, but when once obtained, it may be m f!i t 'I ii >4 '^l 316 The Canadian Farmer's \ a 1: ^;t: 4LLi K .: ' S I'M l %' m relied on as the best criterion in judging of the feeding qualities of a beast, for it is generally found to be accompanied by the other good properties of gentleness, purity of blood and consequent dis- position to ff'en. A thin, papery skin, covered with light silky hair, denote weakness, and is therefore as defective a test of su- periority as that of a coarse tough hide, covered with hard, short hair, which always indicates a bad feeder." This judgment of good feeders is most important to the cattle buyer, and we have the perfection of a skin indicative of disposi- tion to fatten, thus briefly summed by an eminent cattle dealer, "as consisting in a thick, loose skin, floating as it were on a layer of soft fat, yielding to the least pressure, springing back towards the fingers like a piece of chamois leather, and covered with thick, glossy soft hair." Early raaturity can be gained in no other manner than by the increase of the superiority of the breed, best effected by the use of thorough-bred male stock. Although it has been said that " a plain, coarse, ugly animal may pay more than a fine, well-made one, because the coai-se one is bought at a much less price in proportion," yet our readers who have had experience in fatting extensively for the market will endorse us when we strongly recommend the propriety of the purchase of those cattle for the stall which have the finest points in their form ; for these will not only carry beef of the best quality, but will consume less food in proportion, particularly as they attain age and fatness ; and will thus, generally, realize the largest profits on their fattening. Management in the Stalls, — The thrifty condition of a beast, and the saving of food from waste, are in a very great measure dependent upon their management when put up to stall feed. The first point is comfort of accommodation ; for on their easi- ness depends, in a great measure, the rapidity with which they will lay on fat. They should be perfectly secured from the weatJier, and a certain degree of warmth above and below — roofs rain-proof and floors dry. Neither should stalls be ill-ventilated or too warm ; for the first fault may affect the healthy state of the respiratory and digestive organs, whilst the latter may cause perspiration, and every sweating is so much food lost to fat. iv dry bed and plenty of litter inclines the beast to lie, and the oftener he is down, con- tentedly chewing the cud of perfect satisfaction, the more rapidly will he increase in size and weight. Strict regularity in times and (if any) gradual variations in quantity and quality of food are most important. Whatever periods for feeding are once adopted, they should be made a rule and acted up to within the minute. The beast soon, by instinct, will acquire a most accurate knowledge of his proper feeding time, and from that minute will be restless until he is sup- Manual of Agriculture. 317 plied, and every minute of restlessness is again so much food lost to fat. Stalls should he kept moderately dark, for by so doing the ani- mal is induced to take more rest. Cleanliness. — No point is of more importance, and probably there is none so generally neglected as this. Mangers should be cleaned out before every feed, that there may be no sourness found in the bottom. Water. — It is not uncommon to say that cattle fatting require no water — that such as is contained in the turnips is ample. Try the beast with a pail of clean water immediately after he has eaten his turnips, and in nine cases out of ten he will take a drink. Turnips, no doubt, contain over ninety per cent, of water, but it is not in a form by means of which the animal can wash down his feed. When to stop Feeding Cattle. — Nature has a law, that she will refuse to increase live weight of the animal world above a certain point. There is a period during the fatting of domestic animals beyond which feeding is no longer done at a profit. When the beast is well fattened, and loses his appetite for food, further fat- tening is only at a loss, and the sooner the animal is slaughtered the greater its profit to the feeder. Feeding may be continued just as long as the beeve appears healthful, and will take his regular feeds with a keen relish. Overfeeding. — There is such a thing as overfeeding, and the effect is that the appetite becomes cloyed, and it will take some time to bring back a healthful relish for food. To prevent this, careful watch must be set, and when a beast begins to play with his fodder, tossing it out of the box or rolling it into a ball, it should be immediately removed, and the amount of succeeding feeds be reduced. Large quantities of grain should never be fed at one time. The error is not uncommonly committed of feeding the animal too little at one time, and then endeavouring to make up for lost time by cramming. This may have answered for the Irishman's pig, when he wanted to " put on a streak of lean and then a streak of fat — sure ;" but the effect upon beasts is to cloy the apjietite, and the principle comes well under the old adage of " the more haste, the less speed." LIVE AND DEAD WEIGHT. The difficulty of judging correctly the difference between these weights has led to the adoption of calculations based on the measurement of the dimensions of the animal. One plan is : — The girth is taken by passing a tape-line round the body, just behind the shoulder blade and under the fore legs ; and the lerigth h I ' [i ' 1 If ~'"^^~ P in m '■'^ fli II |V" ■ 1 • ;/' y- f;u i'f'i I I'- ' ,; m I .M M If #!:t: I. t i 318 y/^e Canadian Farmer's is found by measurement along the back from the foremost corner of the shoulder blade-bone, in a straight line to the hindmost {)oint of the rump, or to that bone of the tail which plumbs the ine with the hinder part of the buttock. This mode of measurement is generally acknowledged as the most simple and the best, as applicable to all breeds of cattle. The weight is then found by any of the following rules : — RULES FOR FINDING DEAD WEIGHT. For example, we suppose a fat beast to be 6 feet in length and 7 feet in girth. Rule 1. Multiply the square of girth in inches by length in inches, and divide the result by 525, and the quotient is the weight required : — Ex. Square the girth in inches 84 84 7056 Multiply by length in inches 60 Divide by 525. 625)423360(806 Ans 806 lbs. Rule 2. Square the girth in feet, multiply the same by the length in feet, and multiply the double sum by 333, and the re- sult is the weight required : — Ex. 7 Square girth in feet 7 49 Multiply by length in feet 5 245 Multiply by 3-33 333 Ans 815-85 lbs. Rule 3. Multiply half the girth by itself in feet, and the pro- duct by fourteen times the length in feet. The result will give the desired weight. N.B. This rule is more simple, but not quite as accurate as Rules JNos. 1 and 2. 1 Manual of Agriculture. 31& S-5 Multiply half girth by itself in feet 3 5 1225 Multiply by length in feet 6 6125 Multiply by 14 14 Ans 857J Iba. liule 4. Multiply girth by itself in feet ; multiply product by live times the length in feet; and multiply result by the fraction |. 7 Multiply girth by itself. 7 49 Multiply by five times the Jength 25 1225 Multiply by fraction § Ans 816§ lbs. Rule 6. Obtain the live weight of an animal by actual weighing, and divide this by 8, and multiply the quotient by 6. Thus, if the animal weighs 1288 lbs. on the scales: — Divide by 8 8)1288 161 Multiply by 6 6 Ans 805 lbs. In other words, the live weight loses exactly three-eightha For 1288 — f (1288) = 1288 — 483 = 805 lbs. Ans. Or the mean amount of beef from a fat beast is about 025 of the live weight : — For, as above '625 of 1288 lbs. = 805 lbs. A number of experiments have been, within the last few years, made on this point at the public slaughter-houses of Paris and Brussels, and the result of these have been that — ! ^ M lirh f T ^^m u 320 The Canadian Farmer's As ox weighing 1322 lbs. yield* :— Meat 773-215 Skin 111-20 Grease 8800 Blood 5516 Feet and hoofs 2200 Head 1100 Tongue 680 Lungs and heart I6'33 Liver and spleen 2005 Intestines 66'15 Loss and evaporation 154 32 548-76 Total 132200 Ibe. In this experiment, the beef was only "58 of the live weight, but we believe that our former figure of -625, or |, is a better standard. Rule 6. — As there is a difference in the proportion of meat to offal in animals of different condition, the following accurate rules have been struck : — Multiply the girth into itself and multiply by the length ; if the beast is " Just killable," multiply product by 3-08 "Fair beef," " " 322 "Fat," « " 3-33 "Very fat," « « 350 "Extra fat," " « 3'64 Example : — Take girth as before, 7 feet, and length 5 feet. 7 Multiply girth by itself 7 49 Multiply by length 5 245 If " Just killable," multiplyby 308, gives 75470 lb& " Fair beef," " 322 " 788-90 " "Fat," " 3-33 " 815 85 " "Very fat," « 350 " 85750 " "Extra fat," " 364 " 89180 " In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture we find also a state- Manual of Agriculture. 321 ment of the live and dead weights; and proportion of offal of bullocks of different breeds, a summary of which is as follows : — Breod. Durham . . Devon .... Hereford . . lllKblnnd . Cross-brod Proportion of carcase to Proportion of offal to 700 lb. " 412i " 220 '* 880 " 282 " am " 282 " Thus establishing the Durham at the head of beef producers. Again, we have another tabular statement of four animals, which, though individually of equal weight when alive, yet sepa- rately displayed an extraordinary difference when killed, in their production of beef and tallow, exclusive of hide and offal. Live Weight. Dead Weight. Tallow. An Aberdeen ox 1859 lbs. 1848 " 1H»0 " 1081 " 1182 lbs. 12(51 " 10.H7 " 945 " 229 lbs. A Shorthorn ox 190 " A " heifer 210 " A " steer 208 " It is instructive to observe the large proportion of tallow from the young .stock as compared with that in the oxen. CUTTING AND STEAMING CATTLE FEED. We have been often asked what are the advantages to compen- sate for the trouble and expense of steaming our cattle food. Like all such farm operations, people have said it is all very fine for fancy stock, but it won't pay with our ordinary stock. The answer is ready. It will pay if only enough stock is kept. It will not pay to rig up apparatus at some expense, and then to expect the profits on two or three head of cattle to make it up to the farmer, but the aggregate saving of a few pounds per day, on a fair sized stock, will, in the course of a long Canadian winter, tell up to a very pretty sum total. By steaming, twenty-five per cent., or one-quarter, is saved over the ordinary plan of feeding long fodder. If 30 lbs. of hay be required per day to keep one cow in fair order, and, by means of steaming, it can be shown that 22 lbs., or three-quarters of the first amount, will answer the purpose equally well, we save 8 lbs. of hay per day, per cow. Suppo.>asture waste more feed tlian they consume. X, A. Willard, the first authority on the dairy in Amorion, is a strong advocate of the system, for he says that "stock |)ro- rided regularly with an abundance of food and a sufjply of pure water, and otherwise cared for, are seldom essentially ill, seldom miscarrj' (in the rase of cows), or meet with those accidents inci- dent to herds that are roaming over piisturos, often subjected to hunger and thirst, drinking muddy and impure water, driven and worried by dogs, breaking down and jumpiiif; over fences inquest of food, or otherwise gratifying their propensities for mischief. The soiling system does not necessarily confine the animals wholly to the stable. A yard is provided in which rubbing poHts are set and shade is provided. Into this inclo.sure they are turned for several hours in tne day, and where they can take all tlie ex- ercise neces.sary for their health." It has been estimated that Die. aviount of manure thus saved for use ujton the field crops of the farm ahjue pays for the time and trouble entailed under this practice. The, kinds of fodder grown for soiling f)urposes are chiefly clo- ver, oats, Indian corn, cabbages and rye. The last makos an ex- cellent early crop ; then clover from the 1st of June ; oats will be ready by July, and Indian corn may be made to come in by sowing at different intervals for all the hot month of August and the gi'cater part of Se[)tenibcr ; wliilo the cabbages, helped out by the second crop of clover and other root^^, will carry the soiled cattle into winter quarters. The cattle recpiire to be fed often, say five times a day, and to have access to plenty of pure water. One boy, devoting his whole time to it, will feed a great num- ber of cattle ; but it is work that requires the constant supervi- sion of the owner, for upon the regularity of feeding will entirely depend the thrift of the animals. It is recorded by the Hon. Mr. Quincy, an American, and is corroborative of experiments made by Sir John Sinclair, that 17 acres of land undor the soiling system will keep as many head of cattle as had previously required 50 acres of p;isturage. Thus has been effected a saving of 33 acres, which at a very moderate rent would be equivalent to one hundred dollars a year, to say nothing of the crops that may be raised on the 38 acres, the increased amount of manure made, and the superior thrift of the cattle. It has been urged that the abolition of pasturage on a farm would be hard on the land ; but it must be remembered that ,-t, l}t- i I II >it l! it JB . m :' H [i m^i H ii y,i:i: : 1 L > 320 The Canadian Farmer's none of tho crops used for Hoilinj]; are portnittcd to go to «co(l, and that a groat atiiuuiit of iiianuru xh made to ruturn to i\w tields. What it taken to Soil rods, and conunenced leeding it to seven cows and four liorses: it fed them liberally fifteen days. The two succeeding years wo tried tlie same experiment, the animals dilfcring somowhat, but with the same result. In each cjiso wo found forty H(|uaro rods eipial to the summer feeding of ono cow. These crops of clover were very hojivy, and could not always i>e ecpuilled ; yot, allowing for contingencies, we came to estimate one half aero of land in good condition in clover as adeijuato to the summering of a cow ; thus making soiling equal to from four to six times the space in pas- ture. We tried afterwards much larger experiments — Sdiling thirty-fivo cattle and horses, and using some land in much poorer culture ; but wo found the saving comparatively (piite as encour- aging. We selected ono hundred acres — barely sutlicient to have jtastured this number of animals — ton of it in clover, oats and sowed corn ; wo fed them from the 20th day of May to the 1st day of December. Wo had a Bur|)lus of sixty-five tons of hay, after feeuing those animals six months and ten days, which sold in the burn for S!)72.00. It required six hoiirs' labour per day to .si)il them, which amounted (in those cheap times) to S0'">.()(). One hundred loads of manure were saved in fine condition, worth at least ij.JO more than the droppings of these aniiruils at f>asture. The expense of cutting and housing the sixty-five tons of hay was !$1.50 ])er ton, or SI)7..J0, which, added to the labour of soiling, makes l$102.i5(), leaving $SoJ).o() as tho net gain of this soiling ex- periment."— Live tiloclc Journal. MILCH cows. Selection. — We make no apology to tho reader for quoting on this head somewhat lengthily from X. A. Willard's very excellent work, " Practical Dairy Husbandry." The work should be in the hands of every dairy farmer, and would, indeed, bo found a valu- able addition to any library in the country : — " Which is the best breed of Cows for the Dairy, and how is it to be obtained? — This question has been before the dairy public for the last quarter of a centuiy, and is to-daj'^ by no means set- tled among practical dairymen. If you go among the breeders of thorough-bred stock, you will get no end of argument, backed by a foi'tnidable pile of statistics, to show that this or that breed is the best. It is now Shorthorns, then Ayrshires, or Alderneys, or Devons, or Dutch cattle ; just as you happen to meet those in- teiested in one or other of these breeds. " Now, it may be presumed that none of these men mean to Manual of Agriculture, 827 and 0 of Oils, fed ri(-(l with |iial vcro lor >oJ 1118 pas- linj; mislend ; for tboy may havo Htronj^ convictions of the truth of what thoy advocate, and, undi>r certain conditions, I think that it niijifht bo |)rovc i t ;l- ! "F* H ' * ill I M iff 1 ^■1 828 The Canadian Farmer's constitute a large part of the udder, and ac:^ordingly, after milking, it shrinks much, and becomes soft, flabby, and very winkled. The teats should be set apart from each other as indicating that the milk vessels are large. Of all the marks for ascertaining good cows, the best are afforded by the blood vessels ; if the veins which surround the udder are large, winding and varicose, they show that the glands receive much blood, and consequently that their functions are active, and that milk is abundant. The veins on the lateral part of the belly are easily observed. These veins issue from the udder in front, and at the outer angle, where they form in good cows a considerable varicose swelling. They pro- ceed towards the front |)art of the body, forming angles more or less distinct, often divide towards their anterior extremity, and sink into the body by several 0(,'enings." Clnssijicatlon ofurdlkers. — We may classify milkers in a general way as follows : — Good milkers. — Veins large and of a varicose appearance, i.e., knotty. Milk veins well developed. Udder large, pliable, and shrinking much after milking, covered with thin skin and fine hair. Hind lags wide apart and teats far from one another, with an outward slope, broad chest, showing a good constitution, with a gentle and kindly disposition. Moderate inilki^rs. — Generally good shaped in udder and but- tocks, but without a first-class development of the milk and blood veins. Bad milkers. — Cows of bad constitution, or poor feeders. Fleshy thighs, so nanow that tuere is little room for the udder to hang, without being chafed ; skin of udder hard, and coarsely haired ; veins feebly developed. MANAGEMENT OF MILK COWS. Feeding in Spring and Summer. — We have already spoken at some length on pasturage and soiling in a foriaer chapter ; we now add a few remarks by A''. A. Willard. He says : — " There is a gre.\t difference of opinion amongst dairymen in reference to the kinds of grain best adapted to milch cows in spring. " Daiiymen generally suit their own convenience in the matter, without much regard to the opinion of others So widely do people differ on this question, that many prefer to feed in spring nothing but hay, if of good quality, claiming that the cows will be healthier when turned to grass, and that the net profits from the dairy will be greater than when grain is used in spring feeding. In other words, tl at the value of the grain fed in spring more than balances receipts from the extra quantity of butter and of cream produced ; and hence, that grain feeding in spring must be U' Manual of Agriculture. 329 poor econaii'.y. Another class of daivymon, who chiim to have looked pretty closely to profits to be realized from milch cows, and to have compared results one year with another, say that no- thing is gained by having cows ' come in milk' as early as Feb- ruary or March. They prefer the months of April and May, as not only more agreeable, but actually resulting in greater profits. " They argue that cows 'coming in milk' early in the season are more exposed to cold and storms, which must injure the health and weaken the constitution of the animal ; that it sooner wears out the cow, and yields no more net profit than when a later date is had for commencing the business of dairying. " Why, they say, should one do extra work in iriilking and nursing stock through the bad weather of Februar}' and March, when the result from stock calving thus early not only is no pecu- niary gain, but brings positive injury to the herd ? Others insist that greater profits are realized when cheese and butter making are commenced early in the season. But if we Jissume that cows are to come in milk as early as March, then some kind of food other than hay — at least hay as usually harvested — seems to be im])eratively demanded, in order to keep stock in decent con- dition as to health and strength, until it comes to grass " Now, the secretion of milk is in some respect a matter of habit or education, and should be promoted and kept up from its first flow. This cannot be accomplished upon hay alone, since the cow cannot be induced to consume the quantity necessary for her maintenance and a full yield of milk of good quality. This will be made evident by comparing the constituents of milk and those of ordinary meadow hay. Suppose the cow is yielding but eight quarts or twenty pounds of milk per day ; this will con- tain a little over two and a-half pounds of dry materials, as follows : — Of Casein 1-000 lbs. "Butter 0G25 " "Sugar 0-S75 " " Phosphate of lime 0045 " Other mineral ingredients 0055 " Total 2600 lbs. " Now, the same amount or twenty pounds of diy haj^ contain of albuminous matter, fibrine and casein, &c., say about 185 ; oil, butter, &c., say 5-36. " So it will be seen that this quantity of hay (considering that a part of the niitritive matter is not assimilated and passes off in the excrement) will be mostly needed for the manufacture oi the milk alone, while a like quantity, and more, must be used for hei maintenance. Experience, as well as science, amply demonstrates the fact that late-cut hay, when used as an exclusve food for milch *: i ^If m% 't^fmmm I • ',i , I' ^; 1 ' i ill ■ 330 The Canadian Farmer's ■I' U' cows, is insufficient to produce milk rich in quality and large in quantity. " The most natural and of course the healthiest food for cows in summer is green grass. When cows are giving an extra quantity of milk, and consequently are milking down thin and pour, it will be advisable to give concentrated food. " When cows are first turned to grass in spring, if feed is abun- dant, they should not be allowed in the pasture but a few hours each day, for several days. The change of food should be gradual." This is also to be guarded against when turning cattle in to aftergrass in the fall. Salthifj Milch Co it's. —They should have constant access to salt; they will take just enough to keep up their appetite and general health. The common practice of salting at certain intervals is a bad one, for the cattle are themselves the best judges of when they re- quire a lick at the salt, and if deprived of it at one time are apt to devour it too greedily when it is supplied. Salt is necessary to milch cows : it is an important element in the constitution not only of blood, but furnishes the soda neces- sary to hold the cheesy portion of milk in solution. Haidlin found, in the analysis of one thousand pounds of milk, nearly half a pound of free soda and over a third of a pound of chloi'ide of sodium (common salt), and also one and three-quat ter pounds of chloride of potassium. Pasture in the spring is deticient in saline matter. Salt should be certainly supplied at that season. X. A. Willard tells us that, from actual experiments made, it has been found that in May and June, when milch co\7s have been deprived of salt for several days, the milk shrunk from two to four per cent, in quality. Water for Cows. — No cow can keep up a good flow of milk without abundance of pure water. We have all observed the rapid decrease of milk when the weather has been hot or water scarce. Of milk no less than 87 parts in every 100 are water. It is held by many that the quantity of drink taken by a cow is an excellent test of her worth as a milker. It must also be no- ticed in this connection; that as water enters so largely into the composition, any taint in the water will affect the quality of the milk to a very great extent. M. Dancel, in his communications to the French Academy of Sci- ences, asserts that " by inciting cows to drink large quantities of water, the quantity of milk produceii by them can be im-reased several quarts per day without materially injuring its quality." Fall, Feeding. — There is no season of the jear when it is more essential that the feeding of milking cows be carefully attended to, esijecially of such as it m desired to continue in milk through the winter months. Manual of Agriculture. 331 Fall pastures are vGvy apt to become stringy, bitter and un- pleasant to the taste of cattle, and milk is sure to foil otf'if feed be not li'ierally given. Should the production of milk be allowed to fall off to any extent in the late autumn months, it will bo found impossible to raise the How again when once winter feeding lias fairly commenced. A little bran or meal should be given daily to cows at this season, or even a small quantity of whole grain, such as corn, peas or oats. They should also be sheltered at night, or at least sheds should be at hand into which they may go incdld rain or early snow storms ; and during the heavy white frosts that occur in the fall, or out of the cold north-easterly blasts which herald the ai)proaching winter. Milking cows are peculiarly susceptible to the bad effects of cold and wet, and such effects are invariabl}'^ first perceived in the decrease of the flow of niilk. The flow must be kept up if we would make our cows profitable machines. As well half feed a cow for no milk as run an engine with no paying freight behind it. Moreover, fall frosts very Materially injure the quality of grass. cows IN WINTER QUAllTEllS. CoivH should go into ivinter quarters in good thrifty condi- tion. If poor in order and in milk at that .season, they will re- main so througho'-t the winter. When put up in good order, it is a simple matter to keep them well through the winter, and the suj>ply of butter and niilk will then come in at a time when its market value is invariably high. Before leaving the subject of food we would say a word on /Vl 'lie use of Concentrated Foods. — Great care must be exercised in the feedinor of meal and such stron^ food, which is not a natu- ral diet to the animal ; but, on the other hand, if hay and natu- ral fodder is poor, the elements required must be made up by the use of St ong materials. Skelter is an important object to be ever kept in view in the management of aniiiials, and of none more especially than in the case cf such as are in milk. A certain amount of animal ho.at must b kept up in all living bodies. Any exposure to bleak winds or cold in and snow storms has a tendency to destroy animal heat, anil t must be restored by the application of extra feed. If by sheltei we can save the animal heat from lo.ss, then do we also .save the use of so much food, and food has a distinct money value. The usual estimation is that animals well and warmly housed in such a climate as ours will come out of winter in better condi- tion and on two-thirds of the food consumed by cattle remaining without shelter. Thus by "housing" we save 33^ per cent, of all the food stored in the biirn — a very large amount where many head of stock are wintered. (■• « * .^i. >.:»■ % ' 6 < ?! i 1 '' % §^< 332 7'/ze Canadian Farmer's Whilst attending to warmth, we must never neglect good ven- tilation, for a cow requires 956 cubic feet of fresh air daily. Exercise. — Milk cows do not require much exercise, nor in the summer time will they voluntarily take more than is necessary to gather their daily feed, but a certain amount is necessary to the general health of the animal. For this reason we have invariably made a rule of turning our cattle out every day in winter (unless may be upon some that were exceptionally stormy) for some hours, according as the day has been bright and sunny or otherwise. These are all matters of common sense, gained by a careful observation of the animal's own instinctive likings. That cows like to be let out on a winter's day, none can doubt who has ever loosed them from their fastenings; while no matter how short has been the time that they have, exercised, they are ready to come back to their stalls immediately the door is again opened. The Proper Age Jor Breeding. — This depends upon circum- stances ; but even with the Shorthorns, which mature very early, were they allowed to run until they were two and a-half to three years of age, they would become larger, finer, and more valuable, while their progeny would undoubtedly be larger and stronger. The custom, which at one time was very prevalent, and which we regret is not yet obsolete, of putting the heifer at one year old, is one fatal to the dev^elopment of superior stock. At an age when all the food is required for the formation and growth of the mother's frame, a sufficient nutrition cannot be afforded to the " foetus," and the result is injury to the young and to the mother as well. From two to two and a-half years old is the best age for put- ting to the bull. If the heifer is allowed to go over three years old, the animal gets in such high condition that there is often difficulty and uncertainty as to her becoming jn-egnant. If the first calf comes at too early an age, there will be danger from the mother not having attained her full growth ; if at too late a period, there will be risk of fever to the heifer. The same age applies to the use of the bull ; he should never be used before he is two years old. Treatment before Calving. — We must remember that the cow in calf has not only to yield milk for her master, but also to supply food to the " foetus " within her. Her food must therefore be plentiful and generous ; increasing in strength and quantity as she approaches her time of parturition. The chief point to be carefully kept in view in the treatment of cows in calf is, never to alloiv them to become costive, and this is best effected by liberal allowance of succulent food. A moderately open state of the bowels is most important at the time of parturition in the cow. During the whole time of preg- Manual of Agriculture. 333 nancy her enormous stomachs sufficiently press upon and confine the womb ; and that pressure may be productive of injurious or fatal consequences, if at this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritions food, or the many plus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally subject. We shall speak more fully on the subject of Parturition in a future chapter devoted to Diseases, &c., of Stock. Milking. — X. A. Willard says : — " Farmers generally have the impression that when milch cows have wintered well, and are fairly out to grass, there need be Httle care or attention given to the animals, and that then in their herds they have a fountain that is to supply good pure milk simply by drawing it, not much matter how or when. •' It is true, people understand that when cows are milked with great irregularity, or are subject to any extraordinarily brutal treatment, such as sundry kicks in the udder with a heavy boot, they will yield unprofitable results, since the consequence of such management forces itself almost immediately upon the attention. But it is not those things that come so plainly under the eye of the observer, concerning which I propose to speak. If an angry man kicks his cow in the udder, probably some of the blood-vessels of the part will be ruptured, and the bloody milk which flows from the teats will speak more forcibly than any words of mine ; but if he kicks her in the ribs or mauls her with the milking- stool upon the hips and back, the consequences may not be so immediately apparent, yet that damage has been done, and that loss will follow, are equally certain. " I am speaking of no exceptional cases, but of such as are of common occurrence wherever any considerable herd is kept, and where the eye of the master is not sharp enough to detect and punish these oflfences. " A rap upon the spine with the stool has ruined many a valu- able beast ; a stroke upon the udder has often produced unaccount- able cases of garget. " I wish it could be generally and thoroughly understood that nothing pays better in the dairy than kindness and gentleness to stock. Milch cows should be kept as quiet and comfortable as possible, and no person should be employed in milking that the animals fear. Any undue nervous excitement not only lessens the quantity but depreciates the quality of the milk. " The hours of milkinj; should be regular, and each cow should I'll- O' be milked in its regular order, "The milk should be drawn rapidly, and to the last drop; and all loud talking, singing and wrangling avoided. These are little things in themselves, and may seem to many to be ' over nice,' but repeated and well-conducted experiments have convinced me that they are important points to be attended to, and must be ob- served to obtain the best results. 334 The Canadian Farmer's ■'• tj V 1 1 -A i '\. , • ; :i.| f 1 ! i'> 1- II fi I : ; " In driving cattle from the pasture to the stable they should never be hurried faster than a walk. "Good cows have well-filled udders, which make it painful to move over the ground faster than at a walk. Besides, in warm weather, by hurrying the animal there is always danger of over- heating her blood and milk, and thus not only injuring ii, but all the other milk with which it comes in contact. " Dogs should never be allowed in a dairy. They are a source of infinite mischief In all my observations I have never yet met with a first-class dairy of cheese where the cows were dogged from the pasture to the stable. " Some people are in the habit, when first sitting down to milk, of drawing a little milk to wet their hands and the teat of the cow. It is not a cleanly habit, and should always be avoided. "Some persons have the imjiression that milk in some way pu- rifies itself, and that taints imparted to the mill: cannot be carried into the butter and cheese. Such ideas are very erroneous. " Cows do not mdh any easier tuitk wet than with dry hands. If the udder or teats are muddy or covered with filth, they should be washed with clean water and wiped dry. Then milk with dry hands, and it will be found easier and pleasanter, even with those who have been accustomed to wetting the hands and teats whilst milking." On this subject, Professor Dick, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, says : — " The operation of milking is performed differently in various parts of the country. In some the dairy-maid dips her hand into a little milk, and by successively stripping the teat between her fingers and thumb, unloads the udder. This plan, however, is at- tended with the disadvantage of irritating more or less the teat, and rendering it liable to cracks and chops, which are followed by inflammation extending to the rest of the quarter. This accounts for the disease occurring more frequently among the cows under the charge of one milker than it does in those under the charge of another ; and as this practice is more common in some [)arts of the country than in others, it also accounts for tlie disease be- ing more common in these parts. This plan of milking, where the irritation is not sufficii nt to excite the extent of infiammation to which I have alluded, frequently produces a horny thickening of the teat, a consequence of the cracks and chops, which renders it more difficuh to milk than when in its natural state, and at the same time predisposes to infiainmation when any cause oc- curs to set it up. " These effects may be, and ai'e, almost entirely avoided by the more scientific plan of milking adopted in other parts of the coun- try, where, instead of drawing down or stripping the teat between the thumb and fingers, as I have stated, the dairy-maid follows Manual of Agriculture. 385 more closely the principles which instinct has taught the calf. She tirst takes a slight hold of the teat with her hand, by which she merely encircles it, then lifts her hand up so as to press the body of the udder upwards, by which the milk escaj)cs into the teat ; or if, aa is generally the case when some hours have elapsed be- tween milking times, the teat is full, she grasps the teat close to its origin, with her thumb and forefinger, so as to prevent the milk which is in the teat from escaping upwards ; then, making the rest of the fingers to close from above downwards in succes- sion, forces out what milk maj' be contained in the teat through the opening of it. Tiie hand is again pressed up and closed as bo- fore, and the milk drawn easily and freely, without the tugging and wrenching inflicted by clumsy milkeis." The following instructions are the rules of a large dairy in Scot- land. We recommend our readers to establish the same upon their own farms : — 1. Every cow must be in her stall at the appointed time of milking. 2. Milkers are expected to be on hand at 5.45 A. M. and 5.45 p. M., Sundays excepted, when milking will commence at G.15 A. li. and (j.15 P. M. 3. Each milker will have charge of a definite number of stalls, and will be held responsible for the thorough milking of every cow occupying them. 4. Gentle words and kind treatment are enjoined. Striking cows with stools, clubs, heavy sticks, »Sic., wUl under no circum- stances be allowed. 5. In driving the cows to and from pasture, great pains must be taken not to hurry nor run them. C. When persons have any trouble with their cows, they are ex- pected to report the same to the herdsman. 7. It will be the duty of the herdsman to occasionally inspect the milking of all the cows, and to report the result of his inspec- tion to the superintendent. Cows Withholding their Milk. — When cows withhold their milk, they are connnonly in a dissatisfied state of mind, and therefore anything to draw their attention from this condition answers a good purpose. We have always succeeded by giving them a mess of food to amuse them while the milking is going on, — generally dry meal, so as to keep them long occupied. If they have suck- inor calves, let them suck at the time of milking. Drivinjj them in a position so that their fore legs will stand on much higher ground than the hind legs, or on lower ground, counteracts the animal's attention, and generally succeeds. It is said that a weight on the small of the animal's back, as a bag of grain, will answer, but we know nothing of its efficacy, nor how heavy it mijst be. Mil/cucg Kicking (Jowa. — Cows raised under gentle treatment, fl f ir i| ( I i' m < ni ! fl^i !'1 it « ■ m '1 f. 1 ^^ 1 ■ ij H ■» 336 y/itf Canadian Farmer's and well accustomcrl when young to handling, will seldom develop any propensity to kicking, i.e., to systematic and vicious kicking, when being milked. The first drawing of the milk from the udder of a heifer is always accompanied by more or less pain to the animal, and usually results in a few lunges and timid kicks. Gentle handling is all that is required in such a case, with suffi- cient firmness on the part of the milker to show that he is de- termined to empty the bag. Time and gentle handling will rapidly accustom the heifer to being milked, when, far from .showing an inclination to be obstreperous, she will find relief and pleasure in the operation. But as some heifers, perchance from carele.is iiandling on the part of the attendant, great soreness about the teats, or a habit formed, become bad kickers, it behoves us to u.se some strong remedy by which to master the animal. "Whip- ping will never be of any avail. When kindness fails, one plan is to strap up the fore leg ; this will often stop her, as .she thinks that she cannot kick without falling when standing on two legs. A more severe remedy, and one that we ourselves have always found effectual, is to pass a girth or rope round the body, just in front of the bag and over the hi[)s, and draw it tight. After a time the strap need not be tightened up, but only laid across her back, to make her cognizant of the fact that it is there. The setting of the head firmly against the flank, close up to the hind leg, will often, with a steady pressure into the flank, stop a cow from kicking. G. W. Jackson gives his experience with a kicking cow to the columns of the Country Gentleman. After trying all the ordinar}- plans with an inveterately vicious kicker, he says : — " Finally, I made a milking stall by putting up scantling two and a-half feet from the wall, the cellar wall answering for one side of the stall. I made the stall eifjht feet in length — if the cow is small, it should be shorter. Board up in front, so that the cow cannot get out ; put up three scantlings, and leave a place on the right side of the cow to milk, so that a person can milk with ease. Board up the side, drive in the cow, and put up a bar behind to keep her from backing out. Then drive a stake in the ground about two feet behind the cow, buckle a strap around her right hind leg just above the hoof, pull her foot back al)Out one foot, and tie it to the stake ; then you can milk without being kicked or hooked. If this will keep any person from getting a broken nose, I shall think myself well paid for writing it." Coivs Sucking Themselves. — Some cows have a very awkward habit of reaching the head round and sucking themselves. The following plans for prevention of this habit have been recommended : — "Put on the cow a good leather head-halter with several links of chain in the tie ring; and a web surcingle with some links hang- inks of hang- Manual of Jxgriculture. 337 Fia. 26. ing from the middle under the belly, ondit)g with a ring. Make a smooth ash pole ns thick as a hay-fork hnndle,liavinga little curve, with a snap at one end, which is secured to the bit of chain on the halter. The other end passes l)otween her fore legs and through the ring which is suspended from the surcingle. The l>olo should be long enough to allow her to extend her neck and liead without pulling it out of the ring; but as a further precau- tion, a strip of leather may be wound around the lower end, and nailed so as to form a slight knob too large to pass through the ring. The harness docs not interfere with grazing, lying down or getting up, but she cannot suck herself. " T. J. H." Another farmer says : — "Any one who has carefully noticed a calf while sucking has ob.served that the tongue is extended an inch more or less beyond the front teeth, to envelop the teat on the under side. Now, any device which will render it impossible for the cow thus to extend the tongue beyond the front teeth, it is obvious, will make it im- jio.ssible for the cow to take her own milk ; and this the bridle bit will do most effectually, if secured in the mouth by a small strap buckled over the head, back of the horns, as the back part of the tongue is so thick that the tongue cannot be extended under the bridle bit while the mouth is closed, which it must be nearly in the act of sucking. The bit does not in the least interfere with the operations of eating or chewing the cud, or of licking herself, as this act is performed with the mouth open sufficientlj^ wide to allow the tongue to be extended out of the mouth under the bit." A good, simple, and cheap arrangement to prevent cows from sucking themselves, or each other, may be made by making a halter as follows : Take two or three straps two inches wide, and long enough to reach around the cow's nose. Stitch the edges together, and the ends also, with sharp nails inserted every one and a-halt inches, so that the points will stand outward. The heads of the nails should be very large, and should be between the two straps when sewed together. Now fasten two side straps, with a buckle on one end of one, so that when the part with the nails is around the nose, the side straps may be buckled together over the head, back of the horns ; the part around the nose should be large enough to allow the animal to eat freely. 22 ; m m m %. \ f^ir^ i M.-! Il- Ifi! 338 The Canadian Farmer's , 1 f 'A- 1^ St; U m MILK — ITS PUOPKRTIES, BTO. Bo8»ingault found on analysing the first milk that it contained in one hundred parts, for the lir.-it eight or ten days after calving, about four times as much caseine as in ordinary milk, Voelcker's analyses of four samples of new milk show the pro- portionate constituents in one hundred parts to be — Water 83-00 parti Butter from 7-62 to TOO partt. Caseino " 3-00 to 2 94 " Milksugar " 4-4(> to 'iPi " Mineral matter " -(MrtollS " Making dry matters to vary from 1610 to 10 05 per one hundred parts. All analyses show an immense variation in all the constituent parts of various samples of milk, dependent not only upon the different breeds, but also upon food. The average quantities are stated to be, by X. A. Willard : — Water 8740 Butter 343 Caseine 3'12 Milksugar 512 Miueral mu '93 100 00 Professor Voelcker, in papers prepared a few ^e;irs ai;o for the Royal Agricultural Society, England, gives us the following com- positions of milk drawn from cows, and we subjoin his remarks immediately following : — "COMPOSITION OP NEW Mil K, No. 1. Milk Analysed October 21, am. No. 2. Milk Analy.sed Nov. 29, 1600. No. 8. Milk A-ialyaed bci.i. 18, ItiOO. No. 4. Milk Analysed Aucuit 7, 1800. No. 6. Milk Analysed Sept. 6, 1869. (Morning'8 milk.) N<>. 6. Milk Analysed Sept. 6, ISCO. (Evenn^-'g milk.) Water 83-90 7-62 831 4--l'-. •71 85-30 4-;»6 3-66 6 05 1-13 86'65 3 99 3-47 611 •78 87^40 8-43 812 5-12 -93 t90.) 1-99 2^94 ♦•4-i •fi4 90-70 Butter 179 Caseine 2-Sl Blilk suorar 4'(i4 Mineral matter (ash) ■68 Percentage of dry matters 100 00 laio lOOOO 14-80 lOO^OO 1335 10000 12-60 10000 lO^OS 100 00 U 30 "I have selected tliese analyses from a considerable number made in my laboratory. They strikincijly illustrate the great differ- ences that exist in the quality of new milk. It might readily be Manual of Agriculiura. 339 imagitied that milk such as that which 1 oxatninod on the tJth September, containintj !)0^ per cent, of wator, had either been dilutoi[> growth of grass tuioished hardly enough food to meet the daily waste to which the animiil frame is subject, and was thus not calculated to meet an extra demand of materials for the formation of butter and curd. The milk consequently became not merely deficient in quantity, but also poor in quality. " It is well, then, to bear in mind that an insuflicient quantity of food in the case before us caused the supply of milk to be small and unusually poor. This analysis illusfrates and contirms a principle generally recognized by good dairy farmers, that it is bad policy to keep more cows than can be liberally supplied with food. The evening's milk on the 6th of September, it will be noticed, contained about three-fourths per cent, more water and somewhat less caseine and butter than the morning's milk of the same cows on the same Hay. From this and other instances some may be disposed to infer that the morning's milk is gerieially richer than the evening's milk — a view which I myself was dis- posed to adopt until a larger range of experiments proved to me its inaccuracy. "The mineral matters of whic i we have made mention in all the above analyses are composed chietly of pho.sphatos of lime and maguesia, chlorides of potassium and of sodium and free soda." QUALITY OP MILK — HOW AFFECTED 1 In answer to this, Mr. Willard's statement is : — " By the age of the animal, as well as by the distance from the time of calving. " Now, as to the milk of aged cows, the i^eneral impression is that the milk of old cows is quite as good or even better than that of young cows. "Hence the almost universal practice amongdairyrneti is to retain o^i cows upon the farm, and if no accident occurs on account of which their milk fails, they are kept in the dairy until quite worn out with old age, and are then turned off— but little better than old skeletons of hides and bones — at from six to ten dollars a head. In England I found a very different practice prevailed. When milch cows have attained an age of from six to eight years, they are put in condition for the shambles and sold, A good profit is f I it ■; ; It .*j 'f ' ■i'*^ ft! ^ 'lift, li^ ^i\ 340 V'/itf Canadian Farmer's tliUH roali/.od on the aniinalH for inent, iiTo.spectivo of what thoy iniiy havi) iniulo in the (hiiry. They hoUl that the milk of old cowh Is inf(uior in (pjality to that of you nj^ cowh, and ch(r and sohl for ten dollars, the lo.ss on first cost of the aninuil is some sixty dollars, or fifteen dollars per year." What are the Strlpplnps? — .... "Now, cream being lighter than milk, tlie denser or heavier portions of the milk is drawn first from tlio ud«ler, wink- the lighter parts, rich in butter, remain back, and make up what is known among dairy- men as ' strippings.' It will be seen, then, how important it is that the last drop of milk in the udder should V)e drawn while milking, and that when particular attention is not given to this point the loss is much more serious tlian a waste of the same (juantity of first drawn milk, for the (me is thin cream, while the other is nothing more than plain milk. There is another loss ofcour.se in not milking clean, as it has a tendency to dry up the cow, or lessen the secretion of milk from day to day." MILK WILL HE TAINTED BY COWS INHALING BAD ODOURS. It has been fairly established that the milk is affected by taint when cows are at ])asture near where there is carrion or other Koii t Oonteliilnif cumniuii itaU ' Mo. 3. No. 4. ;iv:i» 43 87 'lAi\ I6M» V8.S7 «H»3 «H0 «147 3'.':i 4M 100 00 loo 00 4ft» 4fi3 •33 100 So litth, cheese is made at homo in Canada that wo do not feel justified in (kivotin^any of our pages to the inanufacfuro of eheo.so. It is a suhjcot to wliich justice cannot be done under very many [)aij;es, and we would rather, therefore, refer our readers to such works as that from which wo have already made copious extracts, for fuller information upon the subject. We conclude with an analysis of the composition of whey, from which our readers will perceive that its qualities as food are not by any means to bo despised. The analysis is made in the same terms as that of butter and cheese — from samples. WUcr Biittur (puro fatty matters) ' Nltri)uuii(iU!«Hiilistaiioes((asoiuo&nll)uiiiuii) t Milk HUKiir and lactic aoid Mineral iiiattur (ash) " Coiitaiiiiujf iiitroifon f CoutaUiini; (reo lactic acid . No. 1. 02 06 (J3 120 4 •.IS •f)5 lOOdO •19 -48 No. 2. 92 05 (18 •81 5'28 •58 No. 3. 02 00 ■b;> •0(1 508 •81 No. 4. 100 00 •13 ■41 100 00 •16 •30 9275 •.•i;» •87 513 •80 10000 •14 •41 Ridsiw) CalveH. — There are two distinct ways of raising a calf: we don't moan here, well orl)adly, but by hand or by the natural use of its mother's milk. There can be no doubt that the latter plan is the best for the calf, for it is nature's way, and in such mat- ters nature can never stultify herself; but whether for the fanner looking to the question of profit this i.s the better plan, is open to strong doubt, and yet oven doubtfulness on this point must be en- tirely governed by circumstances. If the reader is one who is raising thorough-bred and high- priced fancy .stock, the amount of butter or cheese lost in allowing the calf to suck its mother is as nothing in the balance with the value of any increase in the beauty, shape and size of the calf. i i ' i i ( , i; Si! !•< ii; I]. il I m Hi 5' 'It 1 m ill i ■- it 11^* §1 [S^W^ 842 The Canadian Farmer's 4 m§ri ■ -/<■■■. .-■-- f : 1 ■Ml j;> h '. t: But for the ordinary stock, such as are generally raised by the farmer for general purposes, we, having tried both [)lans, are of opinion that the cii\i should never see its inother, and our reasons are Vjriofly as follow : — 1st. Neither the calf nor its mother will fret much if they are separated immediately after birth. Science and nature tell us that the matter whif^h the cow licks from the body of the calf is medi- cinal, and beneiicial to her after parturition. This is undoubtedly true, yet by giving the cow a good warm gruel, we have found that she is as certain to do woU as after taking nature's medicine ; and if we permit the calf to remain for its mother to clean, or to obtain one draught from her teats, the worry and vexatious pining of the cow, when her young one is removed, is so much more keen as fully to compensate, in doing her harm, fur the medicinal benefits gained by her in the licking of the calf Calves that have sucked at the mother for say eight or ter, weeks, usually lose three or four weeks' growth in the process of weaning ; whilst the cow, in the worry and excitement of losing her calf after so long a knowledge of it, takes a very long time to become reconciled, loses much in flesh, while she is sure to go oH" very materially in her flow of milk. The punching of the calf is very apt to make sore teats on a cow, so that breaking her in to milk becomes a far more difficult process. Of course we must not be understood as laying down an universal rule, for there are cases when it becomes advisable to leave the calf a short time with its mother ; as, for instance, when the bag is very hard and baked after calving, nothing is so effectual for soft- ening it and promoting the ready flow of milk as this very punch- ing and chafing of the calf But to return. Calves brought up " by hand" are much more domesticated, less wild and timid, than those which have depended upon their mother for daily food. Rules that apply to domesti- cated animals undergo a change from such as rule in the case of wild beasts. Sucking is the natural and wild way in which calves are brought up, and applies well to all such cattle as those of Texas, which run almost wild in herds ; but for domesticated ani- mals we must form new rules, for we have already broken through nature's laws in their civilization. Heifers brought to milking without their calves, turn out more; gentle — less given to wildness, kicking, holding up their milk and other bad tricks. Oxen and cows that have been started " by hand " are more easily cari'ied through the first winter than those that have been allowed to suck. They do not then, require to be taught to eat corn meal, swill, &c., &c. Those were all fed to them in their babyhood, and Manual of Agriculture. 343 they " knew the ropes." Indeed it has been urged that bringing up a calf in the way it should go is as important as bringing up a child in like manner — we do not mean important to the world, but to the animal. With patience and determination a calf may be taught to drink out of the pail without the finger in two or three lessons. Although the calf is not only foolish but naturally stubborn, yet it will soon succumb to gentle determination on the part of the feeder. Indeed, it is about as easy in point of tinic and trouble to feed a calf by hand as to let him in to and remove him from his mother, at stated times, as is the propei* custom under the other plan. These customs, however, can never be regulated by rules ; each man will generally " gang his ain gait." Youatt is very averse to removing the calf at once, and puts it very strongly on a point of cruelty to animals when he says : " It is a cruel thinp^ to separate the mother from the young so soon. The cow will pine, and will be deprived of that medicine which nature desiOTed for her, in the moisture which hanijs about the calf, and the calf will lose that gentle friction and motion which helps to give it the immediate use of all its limbs, and which, in the language of Mr. Barry, increases the languid circula- tion of the blood, and produces a genial warmth in the half- exhausted and chilled little animal." He further says : " In what- ever manner the calf is afterwards to be reared, it should remain with the mother a few days after it is drop{)ed, and until the milk can be used in the dairy. The little animal will thus derive the benefit of the first milk, that to which nature has given an ape- rient property, in order that the black and glutinous foeces which had been accumulating in the intestines duri-ig the later months of the foetal state might be carried off ; moreover, the cow's udder becomes more soft and pliant than it would otherwise be, by the calf being allowed to suck for a time. In the case of young cows especially, the udders of which are generally hard, it is often ad- visable to allow the calf to suck for a couple of weeks." The calf should be fed for from ten days to four weeks (accord- ing as the farmer is willing to sacrifice butter to stock) on new milk, giving four quarts night and morning, or eight quarts a day. At about five weeks old, the calf will take another four quarts at noon, or twelve quarts per day (skimmed milk). In changing from new milk to skimmed milk, care should be taken that the milk is at first warm, and it will pay well to add to it some tine-ground oat or pea meal. Cold skimmed milk, immediately on stopping new milk, will assuredly scour a calf badly, and this scouring is very injurious. We should have mentioned, that calves are very apt to be cos- tive at birth ; this must be carefully watched, and relieved with a :.■ mm h -^l ': if m If 1^ 1 1 : ( im 344 The Canadian Farmer's dose of sweet oil. Calves are ready to eat grass at from six to eight weeks old ; but the skimmed milk and meal should be con- tinued for about three months, when they will thrive well on fodder and sour milk. A good calf should weigh four hundred pounds at ten months old. During the first winter, warmth smd generous food, with plenty of succulents, are essentials. A great mistake often made by farmers is the allowing of calves to i"un with lai'ger cattle, especially those that are six or ten months (yearlings) older than themselves. Not only do the little fellows get mauled about, but rather than allow them to obtain any food, the older cattle will spoil such fodder as they cannot themselves eat. In this selfishness, yearlings and all cattle are not unlike many of their superiors of the genus homo. The secret of raising stock is never to let them stop growing ; crowd them on, gently at first, but more fully as they advance in age. We have owned many two-year-old heifers which, fed cheaply but regularly, provided with warmth and shelter, tenderly handled at all times, and never interfered with by older stock, have been put to the bull, and before three years old have raised as fine calves and become as large and fully developed mothers as other cattle carelessly attended to have attainted with a year's additional growth. A good grade Durham titeer should, under this system, with very little fatting it,t the last, be worth hnn sixty to seventy-five dol- lars as a three-year-old. That the superiority of thorough good beef cattle is recognised by our butchers, we were convinced on a visit to the stables of Mi. Rennie, near Fergus, Ontario. There stood a picture — a white three-year-old Shorthorn grade steer. He weighed twenty six huuared pounds, was sold for ten cents a pound live weight, when common beef was worth only about five cents, and thus realized two hundred and sixty dollars to his proprietor. Unfortunately, we did not see Mr. Rennie himself, and were unable to get accurate particulars of the cost of raising, but are convinced, from \v^hat we learned from the young man who attended us, tl at the raising of that calf, from birth to maturity, did not cost one-half of what it will take to vaise four of the ordinary sixty d'^llar steers. Killing Hdfer Calves. — We look upon this butchery as an abomination, and respectfully ask our farmers to " spare the inno- cents." Indeed, why man cannot be content to live upon beef and mut- ton and pork and game, for meat, we know not. It seems a sinful waste of God's gifts to sacrifice the calf to suit the epicurean tastes of the diners of the world. We suppose it must, however, always be regulated by the knowledge on the part of farmer and butcher that under circumstances " there is money in it." m Manual of Agriculture. 345 Our duty, however, calls us, in the design of this book, to touch lightly upon all subjects, to speak shortly on the best foods by which to fatten a calf, and we quote an excellent article on this point from the Rural New Yorker : — " It has usually been thought impracticable to fatten a calf properly without giving it fresh milk from the cow. Milk is the best type of food for the young animal, because it possesses all the constituents necessary to build up every part of the system, and in the most soluble and digestible condition. Now, any food con- taining the requisite constituents, in a soluble condition, easily given in a liquid state, may be substituted for the new milk. Hay tea is somytiraes used to bring up a calf This is the soluble constituents of the hay, obtained by cooking. But the best fooil to fatten a calf, without whole milk, is oil meal, molasses, and skim milk for the first two weeks, after which a liitlc oat or bar- Icy meal may be added. We have often made calves weigh one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty pounds, at four weeks old, on this food. We have one now that weighs one hun- dred and twenty-live pounds at that age, never having had any new milk after the second day. Molasses may, perhaps, be con- sidered a new food for this purpose, but, when fully understood, must be regarded as an important one. It is very soluble, and easily assimilated by the young animal. Liebig is of opinion that starchy food is first converted into sugar before being assimilated by the animal. We all know how rapidly sugar enters into the circulation of the system. Sugar is found to take the place of animal fats in cold climates in keeping up the heat of the body. It may be considered as a substitute for the oil of the milk used m making butter. Oil meal is rich in muscle-form inji; food, and phosphates with some remaining oil. Its constituents are mostly soluble, and easily assimilated as food. Oil meal should be scalded, and allowed to form a thick mucilage before being mixed with the skimmed milk. The molasses may be added directly to the milk, and the whole should be blood-warm when given. The pro[)er quantity for a young calf is a table s})oonful of oil meal and the same of molasses, divided into three parts, for one day's feed, added to the refuse milk. At the end of the first week each may be increased, and at ten days a spoonful of molasses aiid the same of oil meal may be given at each feed. At the commencement of the third week a spoonful of oat or barley meal may be added to each feed, but this should be cooked. This food, together with the skimmed milk of the mother, will make an excellent calf for the butcher at five weeks old. Now, the whole expense of this extra food is not more than one-tenth of the value of the butter made from the milk saved. At present prices it will cost less than one dollar for five weeks; and an early calf of the weight mentioned will bring from ten to fourteen dollars. The molasses may be of : i ^t> ' ■I'; i! « T ww^ 346 The Canadian Farmer's !, i f I. ! the cheapest sort, but there is none better than sorghum for this purpose." Oil meal is better known as oil cake in Canada. How they raise Calves at Hoheiihe'im. — This is in Germany ; established in 1818 ; the fVither of agricultural colleges, and proba- bly the best conducted in the world. They raise calves entirely " by hand," and the daily allowance of food is a.s follows : — MILK. lbs. Ist week 12 .. 2nd " 16... 3rd '« 20.. 4th " 22.. OATMEAL. lbs. 0 0 0 0 FINE HA.Y. lbs. .... 0 .... 0 . .. 0 .... 0 5th, 6th, and 7th weeks 22 4 4 8th week 21 4 4 9th " 20 1 I 10th " 16 2 3 11th " 12 2 6 12th " 8 2 10 13th 10 In the ninth week the milk is first mixed with water, and a little fine oatmeal is stirred in. The meal is afterwards mixed with the dry fodder After three months the milk is withheld, and then the young animals receive daily, till two and one-half years old, from twenty to twenty-two pounds of hay or its equivalent. But the calves never after receive, even in summer, any dry food till they are nine months old. The average feeding is so divided that the younger portion receives less, the older more, till two and one- half years, when they begin to receive the regular rations of the older cattle, including the grain fodder as indicated abo^'e. The growth with this treatment is such that these animals (not Short- horns) attain the following weights at various ages • — HEIFERS. BULLS. Average weight of calves at three months 2.33 lbs. 353 lbs, six months 3.51 " 472 " twelve mouths 640 " 750 " " " " two years 1184 " 1300 " Daily increase of calves 15 " 18 " " " in second year 14 " 15 " Oxen. — The method of training steers lies ir, a nutshell, and can be accomplished by any man who is gentle, without fear of the animals, and, above all, posse.ssed of quiet determination suffi- cient to tire out the natural stubbornness of the ox : — " First train them to lead by a rope attached to the horns. Then procure a light yoke and bows, and teach them to stand with them on for a few days until they get used to them. Then take them out and exercise them gently, and with great ))atience, teaching chem the meaning of the terms ur -I 'r g-^ing to the Manual of Agriculture. 347 right or left and backing. If they get restive, quiet them with a little salt and some coaxing. Never unyoke them while they are excited ; cool them down tirst. Let the lessons gradually increase in length until they understand their business ; then attach a chain, and soon after a small log or other weight may be given them to draw. Working in this manner, they may soon be broken in to do light harrowing or other work not too heavy for tham. It would be well if jxen were broken in to the use of a line attached to the horn, and the shouting commonly made use of were abandoned." Our Shorthorns. — This favourite stock has obtained a strong foothold upon Canadian soil. It is the pride of the farm to show a beast with Durham in him, and the Canadian Shorthorns are becoming well known in Europe. A residence and acclimation in Canada appears to give hard- ness and generally improve the constitution and form of the de- scendants of the Bates, the Booths, the Wallarbys and a dozen other tribes of celebrated English Shorthorns, and of late years we have been selling thorough-hred Durhams to go to England. In the present year one of our most celebrated breeders, Mr. Coch- rane, of Compton, Quebec, has sold ten Duchess Shorthorns to Lord Dunmore, of Scotland, for no less a figure than fifty-one thousand dollars, or five thousand one hundred dollars apiece. We give below a list of some of our most celebrated Canadian breeders of thorough -breds : — BREEDERS OF SHORTHORN DURHAMS, Ash worth, Jno., Belmont Ottawa. Barker, W. B St. Thomas, O. Beattie, Simon Bangor, O. Bell, Jno. M Atha, P. O., O. B'-own, Hon. Geo., Bow Park Brantford, 0. Craig, J. R Edmonton, 0. Christie, Hon. David Paris, O. Cochrane, Hon. M. H., Hillhurst..., Compton, Q. Dunkin, Hon. C Ottawa. Greig, Major Beachville, 0. Haskett, T. R St. Thomas, O. Isaac, Geo Hal dimand Plains, 0. Kirby, Jos Milton, O. Miller, Geo., Riggfoot Markham, O. Miller, Jno. (Jr.) Markham, O. Miller, Jno Brougham, O. Mills. R. P St. Thomas, O. Snell, Messrs., Willow Lodge Edmonton, O. Stone, F. W., Moreton Lodge Guelph, O, ■f 'ft '. 1 m ^^a 348 The Canadian Farmer's Taylor, Col. J. B London, O. Thompson, W Mukham, O. Thompson, J. S \ litby, O. White, Jno., M.P M ^"n, O. Whitson, Jas Atha, P. O., O. Wood, Geo Stratford, O. BREEDERS OP DEVONS. Foley, R Bowmanville, O. Mann, Geo Peters, W. J London, 0. Pincombe, J Bowmanville, 0. Rudd, (ieo Guelph, O. Whetter, R London, 0. n- ':^ H BREEDER OF HEREFORDS. Stone, F. W., Moreton Lodge Guelph, O. BREErSRS OF AYRSHIRES. Abbott, Hon J. J C Montreal, Q. Giltbs, Jno. L., Sunny Brae^ Compton, Q. Lawrie, Jas Malvern, O. Logan, Jas Montreal, Q. Patton, J Scarborough, O Wallbridge, A. II Belleville, 0. Wheeler, Messrs Scarborough, O. Whitney, N. S Montreal, Q. BREEDERS OF GALLOWAYS. Hood, W Guelph, O. Kerr, Jno London, O. McNeil, A Vaughan, O. McRae, T Guelph, O. Nichol, Jno London, O. Overfeeding for Exhibition. — The chief aim of breeders seeni.s to be to outdo each other in so fatting up their thorough-breds as to hide the real points of breeding, by rendering the animals un- shapely in the extreme by superabundance of fat, no matter what the cost, thus overlooking the most important and profitable argu- ment advanced by the advocates of breed — the production of animals which give the maximum of meat at the smallest cost Manual of JgncuUure. 349 We would not rcHect upon the judges; tlioy have simply fallen in with a system, but this system has the most pernicious result. In the words of a well-known breeder wlio resides near Guelpli. " LeiceMrie 11828 " — "Does it not seem senseless in the vxtreme that after an experienced breeder has been to an enormous ex- pense in imi)orting first-class breeding animals, he should, by injudicious treatment of them, destroy their procreativeness, and thereby render them utterly useless for the very purpose for which they were imported ?" Many of our best breeders will not send their stock to our shows for this reason : — Inferior animals are exhibited, many of whose bad points are hidden in fat ; and again, our best men are determined not to destroy the constitution of their animals, and injure their power of procreation, by showing breeding stock dressed up in fat Ht to become Christmas beef Surely it would be better that cattle of ecjual age, fed and stalled at the same time, should be brought before comi)etent judges, to determine the best frame for putting meat and fat upon — the frame which would be most productive of profit to the j)rodueer and of eligible food for the consumer. It is the frame and eonstiintion that we wish to transmit to our herds when we pay fancy prices i\\\ thorough-brud animals. The fat-producing qualities — not the fat itself Prizes should be invariably awarded to the "best franuMl' ani- mals; and good frames do not show to advantage undt-r layers and rolls of fat. We have been glad to see at our late large faiis, both at home and across the line, a step has been ma(l<', towards discarding over- fed animals from the pens in which are shown breeding stock. May il prosper until judgment is given upon "frames" alone. SHEEP. The sheep is found in every part of the world. They are pro- viders of clothing and meat, and in many parts also of milk. The • iuling of the shepherd has from time immemorial been conspicuous, and not wanting in dignity and importance. Abel was a keeper of sheep ; as were Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs. Job pos.sessed fourteen thou.sand sheep. Rachel, the favoured mother of the Jewish race, " came with her father's sheo}), for .she kept them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian " came and drew water for their father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, " learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," busied himself in attending the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law. 1 I It! Flip: m 350 The Canadian Farmer's David, that sweet singer of Israel, and its destined monarch — the Jewish hero, poet and divine — was a keeper of sheep. To shepherds abiding in tlie field, keeping watch over their flocks by night, catne the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. The Hebrew term for sheep is significant of fruitfulness, abundance, plenty — indicative of the blessings which they were destined to confer upon the human faTuily. In the Holy Scriptures this animal is the chosen sj'^nihol of purity and of the gentler virtues — the victim of propitiatory sacri- fices, and the type of redemntion to fallen man. Among profane writers. Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theo- critus, introduce them in pastoral themes ; whilst their heroes and demigods, Hercules and Ulysses, iEneas and Nuraa, carefully perpetuate thera in their domains. In North America we have a nati've breed from the Rocky Mountains, called by our hunters the Bighorns. They are great climbers, hardy and active, and in their habits more resemble the goat. In summer they are found single, but when travelling in lower and wanner parts fur the winter months, they march in flocks. Tlie breeds cultivated on our Canadian homes are all imported European varieties. Amongst the short-wools we have the Spanish and Saxon Meri- nos and the Southdown ; and for long-wooled sheep we raise Lei- cesters, Ootswolds and Lincolns. The Spanish Merino. — The wool lies thick, short, and close to the body, Ijcing abundant in yolk or oil ; is matted closely together, and is covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. Legs long but small in bone, breast and back narrow, sides somewhat flat, fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and the ugliness of the ani- mal is caused by all the weight being carried on the coarser parts, and by the nature and appearance of the wool. Some are horned and some are not. They are smsdl sheep, and, when fatted, make from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter. The advantages of the merino consist in the fineness and felt- ing property of their wo(J ; also, the closeness of their fleece and the large amount of yolk enables them to support extremes of cold and heat, and they will feed and thrive upon very coarse pas- tures. Leicesters. — The old or unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy, coarse-wooled sheep, a habitant of the midland shires of England — a slow feeder, coarse in wool and in meat, but a heavy shearer. Its value in those days lay altogether in the quantity rather than the quality of its wool. Robert Brikewell, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, and after him many eminent bi-eeders, applied themselves to the impiovement of this breed by reducing the size of the bone and fining down the Manual of Agriculture. 361 texture of the wool. It is now at tho head of the long-wooled breeds, is valuable for the quantity of meat that it produces, but fur inferior to smaller breeds in the flavour and quality of its mutton. The Southdown is a native of the chalky hills all aloni; the south-western and west-southern coasts of England, extending northward to Norfolk and westward to Eastbourne. It is probable that originally the Downs were horned sheep, as occasionally a horned ram crops up among them, but they are now usually polled. Of black legs and medium size, the quality of the Southdown cannot be surpassed by any breed for mutton, and is only ecjualled by one, namely, the mountain sheep of Wales. Its wool, though ranked in the short, might, in point of length, well belong to a middle class. For mutton the Southdown is eminently adapted, maturing early, and possessing extreme aptitude to lay on fat; it is killed at two 3'ears of age, when, in England, it will run from twenty to twenty-five pounds to the quarter whilst thirty to forty pounds to the quarter have been often on record. It is a very hardy sheep, and loves high, dry and close pastu- rage, whilst it stands our Canadian climate better than any other kind of sheep. The Cotswolds, natives of and named after a range of hills in Gloucestershire, in the west of England, differ from the Leicester in their superior hardiness and better adaptability to our soil, food and climate. They are also very prolific and splendid mothers, being supplied with a great flow of milk. A cross of the old LVitswdlds with the Leicesters has produced the present breed of improved Cotswolds. The wethers may, in this climate, with ease be fattod to thirty and forty pounds to the quarter. The mutton is superior to that of the Leicester, having Ir.ss tallow, and with a better develop- ment of muscle and ttesh, but is far inferior to that of the Down. The Lincolns are another phase of modern improvement upon an old breed. The present Lincolns are robust in health, though somewhat coarse in wool and mutton; they are hardy, and yield a great amount of wool ; they are prolific and good mothers, generally capable of supplying plenty of milk to two lambs. Age of SJieep by their Teeth. — The age of sheep is commonly counted from the period of their first shearing, instead of the time at which the lamb was dropped, and may be known, like that of cattle, by the appearance of the teeth in the lower jaw, the upper jaw being without any in the front. Durini; the first vear they are all of small size, but when from fourteen to sixteen months old, they renew the first two (orcentie ones), and two more every year until the fourth shearing, at which time they have " a full mouth." (i m\ 352 The Canadian Farmer's \\ .$m If. t\ it'>A 'it*' The natural a fie of a slioop is about nine or ten ycnrs, but their teoth bogin to fjiil in thenixth unci Hevontli yours, and tliey become what is technically tennctl " broken-mouthed." As their power of umstication is from this date ^ireatly imi)aircd, it is usually poor economy to (it tliom for mutton later th.iii six years .»f a^'e. Sheei> were ori in the market as flrst-o that have not been alloweil to run to too many sheep, sure lainb-getters even when quite aged. A ram lamb sho\ild never be used ; the effect upon him will be to stunt his growth, injure his form, and in the majority of cases to seriously impair his usefulness and damp his courage. For a yearling ram thirty ewes are ami)le ; a two-year-old may serve from forty to fifty ; while a three-year-old will run satisfac- torily with from fifty to sixty; and, in exce[)tional cases, rams have been found strong and mature enough to serve from seventy to eighty ewes. An animal that is impoverished and overtasked cannot transmit faithfully those superior points for which he has been chosen as a sire. Aram should be carefully selected, not only on his general ex- cellence and blood, but with the distinct view of improving by transmission of some of his own characteristics to the progeny, and in which the ewes ; re generally deficient. 23 lii «k ^a> ."itu >, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) i.O I.I 1.25 1^ 1^ 1^ ■^ lis lis iio 1.4 III! 1.8 1.6 v^ <^ /] >> °> ■;? /^ '/ fliotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 1*580 (716) 872-4503 ^mm 5t 6d ^\ ^ 854 The Canadian Farmer's iflM g (t'ffl liliJ Iliay The general points of excellence in a good liock of sheep are, strong hone with a roomy frame, heavy fleeces of good quality and texture, natural disposition to lay on fat early and quickly, and prolific nature. Any of these characteristics deficient in a flock should be counteracted by the use of a ram with such very fully developed. One ram and his flock of ewes should always be kept separate to themselves. Two or more rams in a flock incite one another to extra and unnecessary activity, and are sure to fight. To Mark a Flock. — In order to show which individual ewe the ram has covered, smear his belly with a preparation of Venetian red and hog's lard. To tell when the ram is ready for work, examine his skin upon the flanks ; if red, the natural desire is upon him. A good ram should serve all his ewes within three weeks. It is better, how- ever, to leave him with them for a full month. To make a ram serve from one hundred and fifty to two hun- dred ewes. — Robert Jennings, V.S., says : " A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every hun- dred ewes, are aproned, their briskets rubbed with Venetian red and hog's lard, and let loose among the ewes. " Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking, broad enough to extend from the fore legs to the hind legs, loosely but strongly round the body. To prevent its slipping forwards or backwards, straps are carried round the breast and back of the breech. " It should be made perfectly secure, or all the labour of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days ; and it will be necessary to change the ' teasers,' as these aproned rams are called, about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural circumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought to yard in front of the hut. " Those marked on the rump by the teasers are brought into the hut. Each is admitted once to the ram, and then goes out at the opposite end from which she entered, into a field separate from that containing the flock from which she was taken. " Thus a powerful, vigorous ram, from three to seven years old, may be made to serve from 150 to 200 ewes in a season." Rams should he fed when on service with grain. The rutting season should be delayed until moderately cold weather in the fall, say November or December ; this will bring in the lambs in April and May. The ewe goes pregnant about five months, or from 145 days to 165 days. Lambing. — Pregnant ewes require a generous diet. Pea straw is even better than hay ; while the best division of fodder is pea \;\ ' Manual of jigricuUure. 355 straw (cut on the green side) twice a day, and good clover hay at one meal. A few succulent roots and a little grain will increase the secre- tion of milk. Too many turnips are injurious, as tending to sour the milk, to the injury of the lamb. Ewes must not be allowed to become excessively fat, as in such condition abortion is readily brought on. Abortion is likewise produced by frights from the appearance of dogs and strange objects, long and severe journeys, blows, &c., and more especially by the too prevalent practice of driving, with dogs not properly trained, ewes that are pregnant. Lambs are usually dropped in Canada during the months of March and April ; we think, however, that March is a very bad month in which to time the arrival of lambs. Given good shelter and accommodation, and we have been more successful with February lambs than with such as came in March. In February there are usually plenty of fine sunny days, and in such weather, if the ewes can be kept in a warm place, well sheltered, lambs will do very well, and be large and fat for the Easter market. Even when lambs are dropped in May, the ewes should be always put in at night, and during rain, or when there is a prevalence of windy and blustering weather. Should the weather be warm and bright, it is better that lamb- ing should take place in the pastures, since sheep will there get away by themselves, and be disposed to own and take kindly to their own lambs more certainly than when confined in a crowded inclosure. For ewes that are to lamb very eaiiy, or in winter quarters, the following is an excellent arrangement : — In the pen shown, protected and yet well ventilated, e/and g h are moveable divi- sions across the pen, and dividing it into three divisions, a, b, c. These divisions are moveable, and ef and gh run on wheels, so that the size of a, b, c may be altered at will. In each of e/ and g h there is a door. Now, before any ewes have lambed, the divisions gh and e/are pushed close to one end of the building, so that the pregnant ewes have the whole pen to run in. rio. 28. « 1 / c 0 1 - 1 'a ■*i mrf f 356 The Canadian Farmer's ilirp^i \ s As soon as lambing commences, the ewes are carefully watched, and as each ewe shows the usual signs of labour, the divisions are moved out, so as to make three pens — a, b, c. The ewe is placed in the middle pen, b, by herself, or with one or two others ready to lamb, as the case may be ; they are then by themselves when their lambs are dropped, and the lamb is neither separated from its mother, nor knocked about by the crowding of the flock. When the lamb is strong and able to suck fully, it and its mother are removed on to pen c. By this process the flocks are divided into three portions : pregnant ewes ; ewes having just lambed, or upon whom are the signs of labour ; and the ewes with their lambs. As the ewes continue to lamb, the pen a becomes smaller by the push- ing up of the divisions g h and ef, and the pen c becomes larger, until, when all the flock have lambed, the pen is brought back to its original size by the pushing of the divisions over from one side to the other. The jostling of sheep upon one another is very injurious to ewes in lamb, for which reason the shepherd must always teach his sheep docility, and by gentleness accustom them to his presence. Enclosures for yeaning must be kept clean ; for when the lamb is dropped it is covered with moisture, and to this in a dirty en- closure so much filth will stick, that the ewe will refuse to lick the body of her lamb, which is nature's method of warming and strengthening the newly-dropped lamb. Neither should too much straw be used for litter, as such may embarrass the young lamb in attempting to rise for the purpose of sucking its mother. The signs of lambing in the ewe are : enlargement and red- dening of the parts under the tail, and a dropping of the flanks. The ewe, immediately before the pains of labour are fully upon her, stretches herself frequently, exhibits great restlessness, sepa- rates herself from her companions, constantly lies down and rises up again, as if dissatisfied with her bed ; paws the ground, and bleats as if the lamb were already born and she were looking for it ; and appears very fond of other lambs. When these symptoms appear, if the sheep be yet in winter quarters, she should be isolated. When the expulsion of a bag of water takes place from the vagina, the pains of labour are fully upon the ewe. While it is well to watch her narrowly now, interference should be carefully avoided. Nature may take some time to eflfect a birth, but to sheep that have not been frightened or subjected to rough treat- ment, and have been well kept, mechanical assistance is very rarely needed. Uncalled-for interference with ewes when lambing, hasdestroyed more lambs than natural causes. Interference, when not absolutely necessary, just frightens the ewe, and she ceases hor effbrts to expel the lamb. ^'^ r, Manual of Agriculture. 367 lamb Should it be apparent that the fcxtus is presented wrong, that is, is not coming away in the natural position — the two fore legs with the head lying between them being presented at the mouth of the vagina — mechanical assistance becomes necessary. Let the shepherd oil well his finger and thumb, and whilst the ewe is gen- tly caught and carefully held, push back the lamb and turn it very gently until the nose and fore feet appear. Sometimes the ewe has not strength enough to expel the foetus ; in such a case aid may be given, hut very gently, and only to help the throes of the dam. Never take away a lamb by main strength, or, as such work is sometimes called, by the exercise of brute force and stupidity." The clearing, or placenta, which usually comes a few minutes after delivery, should always be taken from the lambing pen and not be allowed to lie there. Cabbages or kale are better food for ewes, just previous to lambing, than turnips, for the latter are fibrous and astringent in the spring, and for this reason are not beneficial to the secretion of sweet milk. A little oil-cake, meal or whole oats will be found very beneficial to ewes before and during lambing. Management of Lambs. — When the lamb is first dropped, it will be clumsy on its big unwieldy legs : be in no haste to help it to rise — it don't want milk immediately ; what it requires is nature's warmer, the licking of the ewe. If the attendant inter- feres too soon, he angers the ewe, and she may even refuse to recognize her lamb, or, as we have often seen, even stamp upon it in her rage. A lamb that gets at a teat and sucks for itself, will learn to take care of itself, and may generally be regarded as safe. If helped, it will continue to expect aid, and will not try for itself for several days. Never feed with a spoon, but from a bottle with a quill or tube in the cork, because the latter is more like nature. If a lamb is, however, so weak that assistance becomes neces- sary, don't throw the mother down, but make the lamb suck in the natural po.sition of the ewe, because instinct teaches the lamb in search of food to point its nose upwards. If taught to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe, the lamb, when strong enough, will be very awkward about finding the teat in its natural position. If lambs have to be fed by hand, the mothers having no milk, the food should be invariably taken from a new milch cow. Don't feed this in its full strength, but mix it half and half with water, and put in enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of the mother's first milk ; gently warm to a natural heat ; when feed- ing be careful to make the lamb suck from the bottle. Many a lamb has been choked by pouring mAlk down the throat, and the consequent passage of the •fluid into the lungs. ■ il: . m ^ti Mii if ?T;«*r"( m. 358 The Canadian Farmer's 'im- ¥ V'i !:!■! : ^ ! Tj^a lamb becomes chilled, wrap it in a woollen or flannel blan- ket, and place it in a warm room, giving it a little milk, with a tritie of pepper, as soon as it can drink. Don't keep the lamb from its mother longer than possible — a little gentle friction, espe- cially of the extremities, will be found very restorative. Sometimes, a ewe having a good bag of milk loses her lamb, when it may be required that she should be taught to suckle a strange lamb. Skin her dead lamb immediately, and sew the skin on the lamb that she is required to raise. Put her in a moderately dark room ; if she is suspicious of it, watch her carefully, and, if neces- sary, hold her for the lamb to suck. She will soon take to the young impostor, when the covering skin may be removed. When a ewe has a full bag, and, losing her lamb, no other one is placed to her, the milk must be drawn off by hand once or twice, or the affection known as garget will ensue. After milking, bathe with cold water, which has the effect (if checking the secretions of milk, and gradually decrease her sup- ply of succulent and milk-secreting food. When a young ewe ivill not stand for her lamb to suck, it is the effect of soreness or hardness of the bag. Let the ewe be caught and held until the lamb has emptied the bag, and there will seldom be any trouble afterwards. "Pinning." — Young lambs are frequently subject to this trouble. Their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of the anus becomes completely covered over, and subijequent evacuations prevented. Let the adhering matter be entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry earth (clay). We have seen very many lambs perish from a neglect of this precaution. Weaning should take place at from three and a-half to four months old. When first weaned, the lambs should be put in a field as far distant from the mothers as possible, that their respec- tive bleatings may not be heaid. It is an excellent plan to turn one or two tame old ewes in with the lambs ; these teach the young sheep to be docile, to come when called, to find salt when thrown out, and to eat from troughs, &c. Lambs require fresh and tender pasture when first weaned ; while the dams should be put for a week or so on short, dry, up- land pasture, to stop the flow of milk. The latter should be care- fully watched, as the bags of some may require emptying by hand. After once being thoroughly dried, they require to be well fed, to put them in condition for the rutting season. Castration and Docking. — The object of docking is to keep the sheep, especially ewes, clean behind ; since the animal, especially in Canada, being changed from dry fodder to pasture, and from grass to hay or straw, is very apt to purge. It is usually done when the mothers are washed in the latter ■ ! Manual of Agricii.ture. 359 Qg by be well p«»vfc of May, and that is about as good a time as any. It should, however, be carefully done, so that the skin may slip back over the wound. Let the skin bo drawn tight back towards the body, while with a chisel and mallet the tail is cut quickly and cleanly off between the bone joints, leaving it from one and a-half to two inches long. By drawing the skin back in this manner, it will, when released from the hand, slip back over the end of the stump, and the healing will soon take place. An ointment of lard and tor, mixed in the proportions of four pounds of lard to one quart of tar, should be smeared on the wound, in order to keep away Hies, and thus prevent the forma- tion of maggots. Castration. — Some authorities advocate this operation in a djiy or two after birth, while the majority approve of the age of at least six weeks, when the creature has attained strength and the parts have not yet become too fully developed. We favour the latter plan. Dry and cool weather should, if possible, be selected — a cool day if possible — and if warm, it should be performed early in the morning. It is a safe and simple operation. Let one man hold the lamb, with its back firmly pressed against his breast and stc mach, and all four legs gathered in front and held closely in his hands. The operator then, with a sharp knife, cuts off the bottom of the pouch, frees the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and draws it steadily out, when, if the cord does not s'lap off at the proper distance, he cuts it with his knife. It is well to drop a little salt into the pouch. The end should be lightly smeared with an ointment for the same purpose, and as above recommended for docking. Feeding. — Sheep purge very easily — for which reason they should not be turned suddenly from dry food to grass — which is best effected by housing them for the firet few nights and feeding hay. Water. — It is commonly thought that sheep require no water. They will, it is true, live without, but a free access to it is very advantageous, especially to ewes giving milk. Salt is indispensable to the perfect health of sheep. Although it does well to feed it at intervals of, say, once a week, yet it is better that the flock should have constant access to it ; they will not take too much ; but, rather, will lick just the amount that nature requires, instead of eating it voraciously, as they do when it is served out at stated intervals. Tar is supposed by breeders to be very healthful. Smeared on the nose it will be licked, and swallowed as thv^ natural heat of the flesh or weather causes it to trickle down over the lips. There is no doubt that, applied to the nose, it will repel the fly, and, to a great extent, prevent what is known as " grub in the head " J a*". :i: is il m iifjsi I ( ■. y\ p it li ■''!> 360 The Canadian Farmer's bry, .sweet pastures are best adapted for sheep runs. They will eat any kind of grass, [)asturing on what has been rejected by horse and cow ; they feed on many a weed that larger animals will not look a+, as wild mustard, burrdock, thistles, milkweed, marshmallow, and many other similar plants. Artificial Pasture. — Rye makes an excellent fall and early .spring feed for sheep. Corn sown broadcast, or white mustard — both make an excellent feed for sheep, not only as pasturage, but when cut early for fodder and used in winter quarters. That shade is very essential to sheep, none can doubt who have seen them panting in their heavy coats and crowding on tc the smallest piece of shade possible to find. In the absence of trees, whose entire removal from many of our farms is to be deeply deplored, shade should be provided by means of any roughly constructed open shed. Want of shade is loss of flesh to the animal, and loss of flesh is a drainage to the farmer's pocket. Fall Feed. — By the middle of November, grass has usually lost its nutrition in Canada, owing to the action of repeated frosts and thaws. It is time then that sheep should have some fodder in addition to their pasture. This may be provided in pens, by bringing them home at nights. Sheep that lose condition in the fall will seldom pick up again during winter. A few oats fed at this time, say a gill per head, will be well bestowed. Winter Feed and Management are very shortly summed up. Pea straw is valuable for sheep feed. Corn stalks, Hungarian grass, and hay of all descriptions form good fodder. We prefer bright pea straw to any fodder for ewes in lamb ; but as all ani- mals like a variety, so an occasional change from one kind to another of fodder is highly relished by sheep. The straws of cereals, as wheat, barley and oats, being very dry, aflford poor fod- der to sheep. Grain, in small quantities, is the cheapest fodder we can give. Oats, at a gill a head per day, will go further in keep- ing sheep thriving and in good healthy order than an equal value of any other kind of food. Indian corn is bad feed for sheep ; for pregnant ewes it is especially dangerous, as being very heating. Moots should be fed in moderation to sheep. Water in winter is very necessary, although very few farmers in Canada allow their sheep access to it. Sheep should be kept separate from other stock. How often have we seen the cattle in a yard with their horns ornamented by lumps of wool taken from the fleeces of the farmer's sheep. Cattle hook them and colts tease them, while neither cattle nor horses will touch what sheep have fed over. Sheep do not require warmth — Nature has provided them with tremendous coats — but they must have dryness and shelter. Un- der a bank barn is the worst place to keep sheep ; they should be Manual of Agriculture. 361 confined in sheds open upon the south side, so that, on the one hand, neither rain nor snow can drive in ; and on the other, theve may be a plentiful circulation of fresh air. One evil effect of wintering sheep in too warm a place is, that the wool comes otf them in spring long before shearing time. The utmost regularity in feeding should be preserved — regu- larity as to the times of feeding. Sheep do not, like cattle and horses, feed well in the dark ; they should therefore be provided with their evening meal early enough to allow them to consume it before night sets in. Regularity in amount is synonymous with a saving of fodder, and should therefore be carefully attended to. The Effects of Food. — An analysis of wool shows us that it con- tains : — Carbon .50-65 \ Hydrogen 70;w Nitrogen 17/1 ( '00 parts. Oxygen and sulphur 24G1 ) The large quantity of nitrogen here contained shows that its production is dependent, in great part, upon food in which that element predominates ; and all experiments have shown that amount of wool in every case depends upon amount of nitrogen- ous food. From this we may learn that the steady feeding of grain, such as peas and oats (especially the former), in such quan- tities as not to injure the health, will be most effectual in the pro- duction of an increased amount of wool. Moreover, grain helps the increase of the tis.sue, and is, therefore, beneficial in putting /es^ upon the stall-fed sheep, ; without it no fat could be produced. Yards. — It is well that yards be attached to all winter sheds, as sheep, especially pregnant ewes, require daily exercise. Washing. — The methods usually adopted for washing sheep de- pend upon the means at hand to the individual farmer. A thorough washing is, however, of great importance, for upon a proper performance of this operation depends greatly the value of our wool as a marketable commodity. It is often done in a very hasty and inefficient manner. We have seen a flock of sheep driven three or four miles along a dusty road, penned in on the banks of the Grand River, where the current is very strong, taken out one by one, shoved into the water, and after being turned over by a man standing in the river, and slightly rubbed, allowed to swim ashore and go off again along the dirty high road. A roomy pond of clear stagnant water is far preferable to a running stream. The water is usually softer, and the yolk or oil which is supposed to be formed through the wool by insensible perspiration, being of a very soapy nature, causes the wash to act more eflfectually. In running streams this soap is carried away with each sheep, and the water remains hard from first to last. n n M i ! '■ H 362 The Canadian Farmer's ^*. I i W B!» J' 1. 1.1 The sheep, owinn; to the weight of fleece upon its hack, is in its nonnal state hot at all times, and particularly so in the end of May. A sudden plunging into cold water is, therefore, a very severe shock. The water in a stagnant pond, or in one formed by draining a creek, has a chance of being well warmed before use, and this is another point in its favour. Perhaps the most ettectual plan is to combine these several ways. Let the sheep be seized by the fore legs, and passed to a man standing in the stagnant and warm water. Ho should turn the animal in every direction ; should squeeze out the wool well with his hand, and pass it on to one who is placed bf low, either in running water or under a shoot. After two or three have been washed, we have good soapy water, which will ftir more effectually soften the wool and loosen all impurities than will clear hard water ; and these impurities will be entirely removed by a final immersion in the running stream. Moreover, the stagnant water, being warm, will prepare the animal's body gi-adually for the colder, and wili do away with that shock to the system caused by a sudden immersion of the sheep, which has sweated under the combined influence of a May sun and its own struggles with its captor. All burrs and tenacious impurities should be carefully and thoroughly removed, and the oftensive matter collected round the anus may, when thus softened, be drawn from the wool, thus saving many pounds of wool in a fiock from the process of tagging, at shearing time. A clean pasture, and if possible a clean road to pasture, should be provided until after shearing. The former is most necessary ; for when the dews are heavy, if there be a patch of bare ground in the field, there will the sheep be found lying at night. So important, indeed, has the subject of thorough cleansing of the fleece before shearing been considered by large breeders, that some years ago the Farming Society of Ireland recommended the use of a large tub of water warmed to blood heat, in which to place the sheep till the wool be well softened, and then to river wash, on the ground that " the keeping the animal in cold water a sufticiently long time to wash thoroughly, endangers its health ; that fleeces of a close pile cannot be cleansed by the usual mode of washing ; and that the extra labour required to wash sheep in tubs of warm water would be amply repaid were the washings in these tubs carried out and applied as manure, the quantity of rich animal soap which they contain making it one of the most fertilizing applications which can possibly be used." It is better to allow a full week or ten days to elapse before shearing. The wool will then, if it has been fine, be thoroughly di ied, and some time is necessary for the oil or yolk to ascend from the body into the wool, by which the weight of the fleece is in- Manual of Agricullurs, 803 IS in- creased, and by which a ^reat deal of softness and elnsticity is imparted to tho markotablo wool. If the wool be f;ot clean and white, it *vill always sell for more than enoufjh extra to offset tho increased labour and the *J f life 364 The Canadian Farmer's l'>i 111 sj "iii i! : I ll I I: i ' I ■ m side, covered with a wooden j^rate. One ma. holds the Iamb by its liind legs, while another grasps the fore legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the liquid from entering them, and then the animal is entirely immorMcd. It is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, and the water squeezed out of the wool, when it is turned over and squeezed on the otlier side. The grate conducts the fluid back co the box If the lambs are regularly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble the Hock." Miller's fick Destroyer we have found to be an excellent and effootual preparation : full instructions for its use are conveyed with every box. Mdvldncj Pigments — Boil tar until, when cold, it has a glazed, hard consistency; stir in a little lampblack when boiling; apply when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and the mark will remain the whole year round. Paint made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpen- tine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil. may be used. The rump is the best place on which to mark sheep, as it is plainer seen when the flock aro together or moving away. Mm3- over, the wool on the rump is less valuabh than that on the flanics and shoulder. A distinction should be made in the mark between ewe.^ and wethers. Maggots. — To destroy those, boiled tar is an effectual remedy. Tlie Diseases of Slieep will be noticed in a subsequent chapter. PIGS. " Pork, both in its fresh and salted state, is an article of such universal consumption (not only in Canada and the United States, but over the whole world), and the hog is such a profitable con- sumer of every eatable species of ofFal, that pigs are reared by not only every farmer, but fio. 2«. every cottager who can And means to feed them ; for there is no animal which yields so great a quantity of flesh in return for the kind of food which it consumes ; and it has been not unjustly call- ed ' the poor man's stock.' This, together with the fecundity of the sow, which gener- -ajiiJFii -sps Manual 0/ AgricuLure. 365 rtlly produces from seven to ten younj? ones at n birth, and that not unfrequetjtiy twice within the year, tends, notwith -standing lije demand, to keep down the price at market to a figure which would leave but little proHt if reared upon purchased food. But as they will eat every refuse of animal and vorrotable substance, from the kitchen or the stable, even if Hj)oilcd or trodden under foot by other animals, they are thus fed at comparatively little expense during their growth. They are also tended with little trouble ; and tins, combined with their leaving nothing to be lost, and pro- ducing large quantities of dung, of a uuality only inferior to that of sheej), rentloi-s them so valualile to tne farmer, that if the sale of the meat repays the cost of production, i( is commonly thought sufficient. " Although thus apparently careless of the qualii^y, provided the quantity is sufficient to appease the appetite, and swallowing everything that comes in his way, yet, if allowed a choice of diet, the hog has the palate of a true gourmand, and always selects that which is the most nutritive ; if turnips and potatoes be offered, he will be sure to choose the latter, and he infinitely prefers beans or peas to either oats or barley." The animal, though unjustly considered filthy in his habits, is yet cleanly, if ho be only allowed a proper chance, and his flesh is of a delicacy equal to that of any other meat ; so that the pig is cultivated as a means of supplying food 10 the whole Christian world. ON BREEDS. I IJ The various breeds range through every size and shape, from the immense Yorkshire and modern Chester White to the small improved Berkshire and rough Highlander, the latter of which is described as an ugl} brindled monster, the very epitome of the wild boar, yet scajcely bigger than an English terrier. " His bristled back a trench impaled appears, Aud stands erected like a fiela of spears." We shall content ourselves with a succinct account of those now generally bred throughout Canada and the United States. The pig is not a native of North America, and we owe the origin of all our present species to Europe and Asia. Improved BerJcshires. — These were first imported to America in 1832, and have steadily, since that period, risen until they have now attained the apex of popularity. Harris says, in his excellent work, " Harris on the Pig," that " although the Berkshires were fully as valuable as the breeders claimed, yet a widespread dis- appointment soon manifested itself. For a time the supply was not equal to the demand, and, doubtless, hundreds of pigs were ;H : i> ■f ..„- i( > 11^^ \ Iff II ■1 m . ^;^ 1 1 S66 The Canadian Farmer's I. I sold as ' pure Btorkshires' that were nothing but grades. But the general complaint was that the Berksiiires were not large enough. The advocates of the breed met this complaint by statements of weights, giving manj' instances where Berkshires and their grades dressed four hundred pounds at a year old, and that at eighteen or t\/enty months old they could be made to weigh five hundred or five hundred and fifty pounds dressed. One of the prominent breeders stated that he had a thorough-bred Berkshire that gained four hundred and ninety-six pounds in one hundred and sixty- six days, and when killed, dressed six hundred and twenty-six pounds. The fact is, that whaj) the pork raiser requires is an animal that, having the least amount of offal, will mature rapidly and make a fine lump of pork at an early age. For the last few years there has been no demand for great coarse carcases, but buyers have preferred those that will dress from two hundred to two hundred and fifty pounds of pork. The winter is long and severe in Canada, and it will not pay to feed pigs over the winter months. What we require is a class of pigs that have the qualifications to mature rapidly, and born in the spring will be ready for the knife, making one hundred and fifty pounds and upwards, by the first month of winter. This tendency to early maturity is eminently characteristic of the fine improved Berkshires and P'ffolks. The value of these small breeds ;3 in their perfection of form, fineness of bone, and small proportion of offal ; whilst they put the greatest proportionate amount of meat upon the ham ana shoulder, the choice portions of the carcase. The essential points in a well-bred Berkshire are that the hair be long, thin and somewhat curly ; ears fine, and fri*^»ged with long hair round the outer edges ; the body thick, compact and well formed ; legs short and sides broad ; the back wide (showing a well-arched framework of ribs), on which to put fat; the head well set on; the snout short ; the jowl thick ; ears erect ; skin fine in texture ; flesh firm and well-flavoured. It is highly popular for pork feeding, on account of its smallness of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood and fecundity of the females, who are also good mothers. Improved Suffolks. — The old Suffolks were white, long-legged, long-bodied, and, in general, a type of the racers. The present improved breed owes its existence to crossing with the Chinese, and a notable herd of such may be found on Qie late Prince Con- sort's farm near Windsor. These improved Suffolks, many of which have been lately im- ported to Canada, and have deservedly become very popular, are wi ;rr ii< i I* 'I > E ''» ' f i Hi 370 y/t^ Canadian Farmer's the use of superior breeding animals, but also degenerate very rapidly by injudicious management. Raising Thorough-breds. — As in the kine or sheep, thorough- breds must be raised by some one to give us the benefit and use of blood-boars, but for the ordinary farm purposes a good grade pig will be found the most serviceable ; in order, however, to keep up a good stock of grades, thorough-bred males must be used. As Harris puts it : — " It cannot be denied that many farmers have purchased thorough-bred pigs, and after keeping them a few years have given them up in disgust. One cause of this result may be found in the erroneous ideas prevalent in regard to the object of keeping improved thorough-bred animals. No farmer could afford to keep a herd of high-bred Duchess Shorthorns simply for the purpose of raising beef for the butcher. Their value consists in their capa- city to convert a large amount of highly nutritious food into a large amount of valuable beef, and in the power they have of trans- mitting this quality to their offspring when crossed with ordinary cows. It is in this last respect that pedigree ic so important. But the former quality is due in a great degree to persistent high feeding for many geneidtions. Were they submitted to ordinary food and treatment, especially when young, they would rapidly deteriorate. But put one of these splendid Shorthorn bulls to a carefully selected ordinary cow, and we get a grade Shorthorn that, with ordinary good feed and treatment, will prove highly profit- able for the butcher. " The same is true of improved thorough-bred pigs. Their valuable qualities have been produced by persistent high feeding, and by selecting from their offspring those best adapted for high feeding. Pigs that grew slowly were rejected, while those that grew rapidly and matured early were reserved to breed from. In this way these qualities became established in the breed ; and these qualities cannot be maintained without good care and good feeding. " In the case of pigs, we could well afford to give the necessary food to fatten thorough-bred pigs for the butcher. But we cannot afford to raise the young thorough-breds for this purpose. This would be true, even if we could buy thorough-bred boars and sows to breed from at the price of ordinary pigs. The reason we can- not afford to raise highly refined, thorough-bred pigs for ordinary purposes is, that if we feed them as they must be fed to main- tain their qualities, they are apt to become too fat for breeding ; and if we feed and treat them as ordinary slow-growing pigs are treated and fed, they lose the qualities which it is the object of the breeder to perpetua*^- To raise highly improved thorough- bred pigs requires more Cfre, skill, judgment and experience than we can afford to bestow on animals designed to be sold in a few months to the butcher. Manual of Agriculture. 371 " The object of raising thorough-bred pigs is simply to improve our common stock. They should be raised for this purpose, and for this purpose alone. The farmer should buy a thorough-bred boar from some reliable breeder, and select the largest and best sow he has to cross him with. A thorough-bred boar at six weeks or two months old can usually be bought for $20 to S25. Such a boar in a neighbourhood is capable of adding a thousand dollars a year to the 'profits of farmers who use him." Fertility. — This is a quality that runs in families in sows, and one very important for the profits of the pig breeder. To keep up fertility in a stock, sows should be chosen for breeding whose an- cestors have been noted for the same quality. Also, sows should be at all times plentifully but not highly fed. Plentifully, that they may never be suffering from hunger; and not too highly, that all danger of over-fatness and fever be avoided. The influence of a first impregnation is very great upon the future breeding of a sow. We have many illustrations of this fact in daily experience, for we see the litter of a sow often taking for many years, even when a different boar has each time been used, after the first boar to which she had access. Breeding and Rearing. — A strong, vigorous sow, of good size, should be chosen from which to breed. If a farmer desires to let his pigs run over the first winter, and to make heavy eighteen months old pork, a sow from a big-bred sow had better be seleeted to put to a small thorough-bred. As we have said in a preceding page, we believe that for the farmers in Canada the most profitable kind of pig is one that will make from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds of pork in the first nine or ten months of its life ; and for this pur- pose there are none equal to the well-bred small kinds — Black Berkshires and Essex and White SufFolks and small Vorkshires. We take the following full and yet concise instructions from the pages of " Harris on the Pig :" — Store Pigs. — He begins by saying : " Better pay five dollars for the use of a thorough- bred than accept the services of a grade or common boar for nothing If the sow has had pigs in, say, the middle of March, they may be weaned in six weeks ; and if the sow has been properly fed, she will take the boar in a few days after the pigs are weaned. We should then get a litter of, say, grade Essex about the 1st of September. The sow, during the summer, should, if possible, have the run of a clover pasture ; and if she is not in good thriving condition with this, and the wash or milk from the house, throw her two or three ears of corn a day. She should not be too fat, but there is not one farmer in a thousand who ever falls into this error. Let her have plenty of exercise ; and if she is fully half fat by the time she comes in, all the better. If she is a good mother, nearly all her i i 1 I f i . % ! 1 I ii' m 11 m ! I m ' M 1 In-' l(l . .u R. t ' 372 The Canadian Farmer's accumulated fat will find its way to the little ones before they are six weeks old. " For two or three weeks before she is expected to farrow, let the sow be put in a pen by herself at nights, to accustom her to it. She may be allowed to run out during the day, but should always be fed separately in the ])en, and in this way she will soon come to regard the pen as her own, and will go in as soon as the door is open. Let no harsh word be spoken, nor a kick nor a blow be on any provocation resorted to. " The pen should have a rail round the side, about six inches from the floor, and eight or ten inches from the side of the pen, so that if she makes her bed near the side of the pen, as she almost invariably will, the rail will afford a space for the little ones to slip under, and thus prevent their being crushed against the sides of the pen. " As at this season the weather is warm, she will need but little straw. The better plan is to put in two or three times as much straw as is needed two or three weeks before she is expected to pig. By lying on it she will make it soft, and this is very de- sirable. If any of it becomes wet or dirty, remove it from time to time when the sow is out. As the time approaches she will select a particular spot and ' make a bed.' When she is eating, or out of the pen, examine the bed and see that the sides are not too hard, or compacted together too closely, and that they are not more than four or five inches high ; if so, remove a little of the straw. It is better to have too little than too much. After this, the sow should be left to herself With gentle thorough-breds that are accustomed to being petted, we keep a close watch during such an interesting event, rendering assistance if necessary ; but as a rule, and especially with common pigs, it is far better to trust to nature, and let things take their course. " At this season of the year, and especially if the sow has had the run of a pasture, and is in a thrifty condition, there will sel- dom be any trouble. The little pigs will come strong, and com- mence to suck a few minutes after they are born. On no account disturb the sow until all is over. This may be two hours, and sometimes longer. Do not be in any hurry to feed her. But when she gets up let her have all the slop or milk that she wiU drink. " It is better to watch her, and keep pouring it into the trough as fast as she will drink it up clean. Let her have all she can drink, but leave none in the trough. We are aware that these directions are not in accord with the general rules upon the sub- ject. There are those who think that the sow should be kept on short allowance, so that she may be wide awake, and quick to hear the scream of any little one she may be lying on. " This is all very well, but the chief danger occurs from the sow Manual of Agriciuiure. 373 getting up and lying down again ; and if «lio has a good meal, and eats it all up clean, she will be more likely to lie still during the night than if she is hungry. " After she has eaten, and when she goes back to her bed, you will be there to hear if she lies on any of her pigs, and can go to the rescue. When she has once lain down, there is little danger until she gets up again. If all goes well for the lirst two nights, there will rarely be any loss or trouble afterwards. " Give the sow all the milk or slops she will drink, but little or no grain for the first week or ten days. If the little pigs scour, chanjje the food of the sow. There is nothiuf; better for her than skimmed milk not too sour, and the next best thing is two quarts of tine middlings, scalded with two or three quarts of boiling water, and the pail afterwards filled up with water sufficient to cool it to the temperature of new milk. " When the pigs are two weeks old, a little shallow trough may be made for them. Nothing is better for this purpose than two or three feet of a tin eave trough, turned up at the ends. Nail it to the lioor so that the pigs will not upset it, and, if possible, put it where the sow cannot get at it. Tlien put in half a pint or so of sweet milk. " Let them drink and waste what they will of it, but always clean it out before fresh is put in. " Try to teach them early to eat their meals promptly and then lie down to sleep. Give them a small handful of oats, or, better still, three or four tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, increasing the quan- tity daily, but never giving more than they will eat up clean. " If fed too much at one time, and too little at others, it will pro- duce scours, and retard the growth of the pigs. At three weeks old a litter of eight or ten pigs will eat a quart of good oats four times a day. They seem particularly fond of cracking the oats and eating out the kernels. "After the first week or ten days, the sow should have richer food, say two quarts of fine middlings and a quart of oat or corn meal three times a day. Let her have all she will eat, and in a week or ten tlays later give richer food. Boiled barley is excellent, but it is better to vary the food so as to induce the sow to eat more. We often throw our sows an ear or two of corn after they have eaten their regular meal. The more food the sow can be induced to eat, the richer will be the milk and the more rapidly will the little pigs grow. " When about six weeks old, the pigs should be altered. Do not be tempted to reserve one of them for a boar. No matter how handsome and well-formed he may be, it is absolute folly to use him for breeding purposes. Select out one or two of the best sows, but alter all the boars. " The sow pigs will grow and fatten more rapidly if spayed, ''V:M tt-f iiiVt ill (1 Ml r p. fr- I f !. t 374 T'/t^ Canadian Farmer's a but it is not often that we cnn find men in this country who are able to perform the operation with safety. Where tliere are such, all the sow pigs not intended for breeding should be spayed week or ten days before weaning. Therein nothing better to apply to the wound than petroleum — not kerosene, but the crude oil. " The time of weaning will depend upon the time when it is required to have the next litter of pigs. " If the sow is in good condition, she will take the boar in a week or two after the pigs are weaned. And if the sow and j)igs are well fed, the pigs may bo allowed to remain with the sow until ten weeks or three months old. " It is better not to remove all the pigs at once ; let them return to the sow for a few minutes at the expiration of twelve hours, and again at the expiration of twenty-four hours. We prefer, however, to let one or two of the weaker pigs remain with the sow for a week or so after the others have been removed. " At the time of weaning, the pigs should have extra attention. Feed them five times a day, the first thing in the morning and the last at night. If they have all they can eat, they will not pine for the mother. Nothing is so good for them as milk. A little flaxseed tea, oatmeal gruel, or cornmeal gruel, mixed with the milk or given separately, will be good and acceptable. As the weather by this time is getting cold, it will be well to give warm food. But guard against giving it too hot : it should not be warmer than new milk. " There is perhaps nothing better for the pigs than corn pudding and milk. Put two quarts of com meal into a pail, and pour on two or three quarts of boiling water and stir it until all the meal is wet, then fill up the pail with milk. " We need hardly add that all pigs should be allowed a con- stant supply of fresh water. There are few things more important in the management of pigs. " Let the pens be warm, clean and well ventilated, but with no cracks for the wind to blow in on to the pigs. And, above all, let the bedding and pens be dry. There should always be litter enough for the pigs to bury themselves in. Warmth, to a certain extent, is equivalent to food, and, what is of more importance than the saving of food, it saves digestion. Let the pigs have all the exercise they wish, and then do not be afraid that warm, dry, and comfortable quarters, with abundance of wholesome food, will make them tender. " We are aware that this is a common idea, but it is an erroneous one. A cold wind or storm, that will send a half-starved and neglected pig squealing round the barn-yard with hair on end, head down and back up, will have no effect on pigs treated as we have recommended. And there is nothing more important than to have young pigs in a healthy, vigorous, and almost fat condi- tion before winter sets in. Manual of Agriculture. 376 the all dry, will " The pigs are now three months old, and should weigh 76 lbs. to 80 lbs. apiece. " During the winter, the pigs may be allowed to run in the barn-yard, to pick up what they can find. If the cattle are fed with grain and oil-cake, a certain number of pigs will keep in good condition on the leavings of the cattle, and on food which would otherwise be wasted. Let the young pigs, however, have a sepa- rate pen from the old ones, and see to it that they have enough food to keep them in condition. *' By throwing them an ear or two of corn in the pen, they will soon learn to be ready at the appointed time to enter the pen for the night without trouble. On no account let them go to bed hungry. " Let their stomachs be well filled, say at five o'clock in the evening, and they will sk p quietly until eight o'clock the next morning. In fact, a well-bred and well-fed pig will sleep three- fourths of his time during winter. If not disturbed, and tempted with fattening food, he will eat nothing and gain nothing. And sometimes, like other hibernating animals, he will live on his own fat. " As spring approaches, the young pigs will need more food, and fortunate is that farmer who has a liberal supply of parsnips, sugar-beets or mangold-wurzels for them. These roots, pulped or rasped in a cider mill, mixed with a little corn meal, are a cheap and excellent food for pigs in the spring. But, whatever the feed, let the pigs have all they need to keep them in a good thriv- ing condition. " As soon as the clover is fairly growing, the pigs should have the run of the clover pasture. They will get three-fourths of their food in the pasture, and we need hardly say that where clover grows abundantly, it is the cheapest food that can be fed to a pig ; with clover and the slops from the house and dairy, the pigs will keep in a thriving condition. But it is a v/^aste of time and food to depend on this alone with pigs intended for the butcher. If fed from a pint to a quart of corn or corn meal a day, they will eat just as much clover, and will gi'ow nearly as fast again. After harvest they will pick up considerable food on the grain stubbles ; but if as fat as they should be by this time, stub- ble gleanings can be more profitably left to the breeding stock and spring pigs. " By the 1st of November, such pigs as we have described, fed as here recommended, should be in prime order for the butcher, and can be sold at any time when the price is satisfactory. " They should average 400 lbs. dressed weight. The pork is of the highest quality, and the lard keeps firm and hard during the hottest weather in summer, and makes excellent pastry." Spring pigs, to be killed when nine or ten months old, should ■Kni l;( M m t 870 The Canadian Farmer's >♦.,' r v. bo l)r()Ujjht in as cnrly in spring as ponsiblo. As the weather in which they are born is apt to be cold and stormy, some care must bo exorcifiod in the protection oftho niotlicr and young. The pen must be warm and well sheltered. The treatment of the mother may bo similai- to that already explnined in the foregoing extract. There should be plenty of straw, but let it bo provided some days before pigling is expected to commence, so that the mother may bite it up short and innke a compact bed. In long straw, young pigs are apt, whoti first Imrn, to become en- tangled, and so are easily laid upon and crushed by the mother. It must be rememberotl that the pig when first born is very tender, is wet, and therefore very susceptible to cold. We have saved [)igs born in February, when the thermometer was below zero, by careful attention to the exclusion of every possible draught of wind from the pen. The same treatment of the mother, and sucking pigs the same time of weaning ; castrating should be adopted as was recom- mended in the preceding extract from " Harris on the Pig." Spring pigs, however, that are required to make choice pork before winter sets in, want careful attendance during the summer. They should have the run of a good clover field, and there, with all the milk and slops that can be spared them, and a very small but regular supply of grain, and constant access to water, they will thrive and grow during the hot months. As soon as ever the crops are off, let them be turned into the grain stubbles ; there they will fill out and grow fiit with amazing rapidity. As soon as ever the stubbles become pretty well gleaned, if the pigs be not taken up they will begin to lose fat by reason of the amount of exercise that they will take in wandering over the field in search of the shellings. This must be avoided by immediately penning, and ccmraencing to cram them with hard grain, corn or peas. The stubbles are generally cleared by the middle of October, when heavy pen feed- ing with sound grain, for about four or six weeks, will bring spring pigs into prime condition for the market, and of a quality for which there is and ever will be a large demand in Canada. Well-bred pigs of the improved breeds, such as Berkshire, Suffolk or small Yorkshires, will at ten months old, or by December, if well fed, in the manner above indicated, from the day of birth, dress from one hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds of prime pork. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert give the following table : — TAB&S SHOWINO THE WEIGHT OP DIFFERENT PAET3 OF A PIO WEIQHINO ALIVB 212| LB3. (AVEBAOK of 59 PIGS.) Parts. Actual Weight. Percentage. Stomach and contents 2 lbs. 10*4 oz. r28 Caul fat 1 " 2 3" M Manual of Agriculture. 377 Parta Actvial Wright. Peroentajje. Small into.:» anil wjuilpiiw I " Ul " 070. Blood 7 " lO-l " 3C.3. Liver 3 " 4.1 " I ft?. Oall bladder and contents 0 '* '_'• I •• 0 (»6. Pancrcaa (Hwcot-hrcdd) 0 " GO" O.ll). Miltorspleen 0 " 47" 014. Bladder 0 " 25 " 008. PeniB 0 " 7'1 " 0'2I. Tongue 1 " 0 2 " 048. Tots 0 '• 2'9 " 0-08. MiscoUnneous trininiin^s 0 " 8'8 •* 0-26. Total offal parts 35 " 46" 10 87. Carcase 17() " SS " 82 T)?. Lobs by evaporation, &c 1 " 2 1 *' 05C. Live weight after fasting 212 " P20 100 00. From tliesc and other experiments, Mr. Harris dcduce.s tlie fol- lowing : that A moderately fat heifer or steer will dress 50.^ per cent. meat. " "mutton sheep " " 69'] " *' " " " pig •• " 824 '• " " Showing that a pig turns out twenty-three per cent, more meat, in proportion to its actual live weight, than either the steer or sheep. Pigs, if properly attended to, and treated well and generously, are the most profitable stock that the farmer can raise. They realize the great commercial principle of profit, namely, " quick returns," and, added to this, they have the qualities of rapid mul- tiplication and early maturity. Feeding Peas or Corn. — Peas contain in 1,000 parts — 264 parts of gluten, and 496 of starch, gum and sugar. Com 123 " " 716 " " *• Barley 64 " " 684 " " " In our former chapter on the principles of feeding, we showed that food containing large amounts of gluten was tlesh-forming, while that into the composition of which enters largely starch and sugar was fat-forming. Hence, mixing peas and corn or peas and barley will be found better for the purpose of fattening pigs than the same weight or equivalent in money value of either of these grains f^d separately. Peas are the most valuable when the pig is first put up to fatten, by filling up the flesh on the bones ; but when once the bones have become well covered with flesh, corn will be found most efficient in the formation of fat. it; ii .1 U .i I 378 The Canadian Farmer's Sour Wheij for Pifjf^. — It 'h cali'ulatcrl that about one pig can be roared from wour wliev f'<>»' every two *t of fifty cowh ; three i)ree(ling hows, reckoning that each one would have eight young pigH, might be kept, giving them the run in any rough gra.s.s under orchard trecH not miu'n u.sed for other purpoNcs. These pig.s, receiving »u» much of the sour wh(!y aH tiioy will (hink, will make strong growing pigs. Tiie whoy is much better for pig food when old, or at lea«t some mixture of it should be so ; and if it be u.sed daily from the vat, wliich is as often getting rcplonishod from the dairy, it makes a very wholesomedrink for pigs, on wliich they will grow and do remarkably well. And as tlie pigs are small to begin upon it, and do not drink as much as afterwar«ls,astockcollectsfortheirlarge appetites; and this, with the wash whicli farm-houses must supply, with garden refu.se thrown in it in the summer in addition, is found enough to keep the num- ber of pigs mentioned, viz., about one of tlie ago and description given, to every two dairy cows in milk. — " Morton." TAULK OF DENTITION OF PIGS. At Dirth. One month. 4 4 4 central Throe nionthi* 4 4 8 ccntr;>l and laturul Nine , 'I'wolve months. 1 raonthg. Kluhtoun niunthi. Tein|H)rary InelHorK 4 4 8 onntral and lateral 4 lateral. Permanent inclBora •• • • •• 4 comers. 8 central and cor- nera. 12 central, lateral and comer. Permanent tuRk* .. • • ■ • 4 (cuttlnj;) 4 4 Total in both Jaws 8 13 16 le 19 16 rlji ! ri'U 8EVEKAL MODES OP CURING BACON, HAM AND PORK. Dry Salting. — Cut up into hams, shoulders and sides, and salt well ; lay up for a time, and in about six weeks salt again. When the salt has worked well through the pork, it may be hung up in the kitchen to dry, and before the flies become troublesome in spring, pack the salt in sifted woodashes or in oats. It will keep sweet all summer. In Brine. — Put a layer of salt at the bottom of the cask, at least one inch thick, and then pack tightly one layer of clear pork, each piece placed on its edge. Now put salt on again, to fill up the interstices between the pieces and to make another layer of salt over the layer of meat. Then add another layer of pork and another layer of salt successively, till the cask is nearly full, put- ting over the last layer two inches or so of salt. Now take cold water and make a brine as strong as salt will make it, and pour this brine over the meat, putting in enough to cover the upper layer of meat with the brine. M? Manual of Agriculture, 379 We have pork in our collar now tlmt wjw tlius put nway a year ag«), and wlitcli i.s an liaid an mamne heap, just JUS it is beini( hauled out to the held. Used in this way it will be worth to the farmer all tluit it cost him ; especially if ap])licd whore early corn or early potatoes are beinj( planted. Land that has been dresHod with salt manure haH boon put in j^rand prepaia- tion for u crop of turnij)S. Sugar Curincf. — Take fourteen pounds of good salt; one half [)0und of saltpetre ; two quarts of molasses, or four pounds of )rown sugar, with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the liquor to a scalding point, and skim oft' all tlio impurities which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the hams, whi(;h should be perfectly cool, and not frozen, and closely packed in a barrel ; if not suffici- ent to cover them make up with pure water. For a flavour, pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace or cloves may be added Let the hams remain six or eight weeks in this pickle ; then hang them up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoke for from ten to twenty days, according to quantity of smoke made. Keep the fire far enough away to escape all danger of hoatinff the hams. The Westphalia hams, a noted article in the world s market, are smoked in a cool, dry chamber, into which the smoke is carried from a cellar below by a Hue. Green maple makes the best chips for smoking, after which come, in the following order, hickory, birch, corn-cobs, white ash or beech. To Keep Flies out of Cured Pork. — Cover each piece with a can- vas bag thoroughly saturated with lime whitewash, or pack in sifted ashes, dry oats or baked sawdust. Another plan is to dip them in meat paint. This is made by stirring very fine ashes into warm (not hot) water until the mixture is as thick as paint, then dip in the meat pieces and hang up to dry. The flies will not molest it. ENGLISH MODES. Westmoreland Hams, which are famous, are tnus cured : They a:e rubbed hard with bay salt, after which they are left on a stone bench to drain off the brine. After four or five days the m 380 The Canadian Firmer's 1% )pM^- M 1 Iffe m rubbing is repeated, with an addition of an ounce of finely-pow- dered saltpetre to each ham, mixed witi. the salt. Then they are suffered to lie about a week, and are then hung in the chimney to smoke. Some hang them so that they may be dried solely by the heat of the fire, without being exposed to the smoke ; while others susnend them in the midst of the smoke, whether rising from wood or peat, and leave them there until the weather becomes warm, when they are packed up in oat chaff; though, to prevent them from being fly-blown, they ought to be covered with bags cf coarse linen or paper. In Hampshire, Berkshire, and some of the neighbouring dis- tricts, when the hog is killed the first process is to ' swale" him or singe off his bristles, which is done by laying the carcase on one side and covering it thinly with straw, to be lighted on the wind./ard side, and renewed as it burns away, taking care, how- ever, not to scorch the skin ; the other side is then turne«^, and when the process of sing'^ing is completed, the bristles are scraped off dry This is considered prtferable to the usual plan of scalding and scraping, which softens the rind, and is then thought to injure the firmness of the fat. He is next cut into tiitches, which are effectually rubbed with a mixture of saltpetre and common salt, and laid in a trough, where they continue for three weeks cr a month, according to their size, and are diiring that time frequently turned, and when completely dried and cured on the same plan as that of Westmorelaiul, noticed above, are either packed in oat chaff or deposited on the kitchen racks fov home consumption. They should be kept dry, and never be packed in cellars or damp places. On the European Continent it is common to strip off the skin, the hide being sold for saddles, and the bristles for brushmaking. These parts aflbrd some profit, and the flesh is said to take the salt better when skinned ; but if cured, it is said that the bacon is subject ix) become rusty, and to waste in boiling. Piggeries. — We have not room in the present work to go into the subject of piggeries, but we commend our readers to the excellent portions on this subject contained in " Harris on the Pig," a book written by a practical farmer and the son of a farmer, as he says in his preface, residing near Rochester, in the State of New York ; and we have no hesitancy in saying that it is a work that should be on the shelves of every enterprising farmer. Catching a Fig. — Of all the animals to catch, perhaps a pig is the most difficult, and the most provocative of constant loss of temper to the attendant. However, as the more the temper is lost, the more perverse and obstinate the animal becomes, we should advise as the fir*t essen- tial " to keep cool." Common method. — To drive him round till the attendant is out Manual of Agriculture. 381 of breath and the pig has done himself a gi*eat amount of damage and lost a day's good food ; knock him down with a stick ; get bit- ten, and frighten the animal so that he will not willingly apj)iOHeh man for a month or so. A better method is to fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let there be a running noose in the cord ; tie a piece of bread to the cord (it may also be done without any bait), and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper jaw in the mouth, run it tight, and back of the tusk, and the animal is fast. Tie the other end to a post, and you may approach and do anything to the pig without fear, even to slaugh- tering. A pig tied by a cord, behind the tusks, and attached to a stout post, will do nothing but s .eadily pull back with his whole weight on the cord ; he will never come forward. Another method. — Catch one foot in a running noose and draw it ofl" the ground, then throw a bag over the animal's head. HORSES. *' The fiery courser, when he hears from far The sprightly tnimnets and the shouts of war, Pricks up his ears, and, trembling with delight, Shifts place, and paws, and hopes the promised fight ; On his right shoulder his thick mane reclined, Ruffles at speed and dances in the wind. Eager he stands — then starting with a bound, He turns the turf, and shakes the solid ground j Fire from his eyes, clouds from his nostrils flow ; He bears his rider headlong on the foe !" m POINTS OF A GOOD HOBSE. We extract from " The Horse in the Stable and the Field," by Stonehenge : — " The Head. — Without a wide foreheud (which marks the seat of the brain) you cannot expect a full development of those faculties known as courage, tractability, good temper, &c. The size of the muzzle is partly regarded as an element of beauty, and partly as a sign of good breeding. " Hence, in the cart-horse a coarse jaw and thick muzzle are not regarded. A large and patent nostril cannot be dispensed with in horses intended for fast work, and should be desired even in the cart- horse, for in drawing heavy loads on a hot day his breathing may be rendered almost as laborious as that of the highly-tasked race-horse or hunter. So also with the jaw : if there is not ample width be- tween the two sides for the development and play of the larynx and windpipe, the wind is sure to be affected, and, in addition, the head cannot be nicely placed on the neck. * * * The eye is to be examined with a twofold purpose — first, as an index of tem- mi 382 The Canadian Farmer's \\i\ .. H; iJiii mn m iv ■ ' ,. per, the nature of which is marked by the expression of this organ ; and second, of its continuing healthy. A fulJ and clear eye, with soft, gazelle-like expression, is scarcely ever associated with a bad temper, and will most frequently continue sound if the management of the horse to which it belongs is proper in itself The ear should be of medium size, not too small nor too large ; nor should it be lopped, though many good lop-eared horses have been known, and some very superior breeds, like that of the celebrated Melbourne, are notorious for this defect. " The neck should be of moderate length, all beyond a certain dimension being waste, and even a moderate-sized hea(l at the end of an extremely long lever being too much for the muscles to sup- port. It should come out full and muscular, with a sweep between the bosom and the withers, and should gradually diminish till it runs into the head, with an elegant bend just behind the ear. A very narrow throat, suddenly bent at the upper part, known as the thropple, is apt to be connected with roaring, and on that account is objected to by horsemen. " In the fore quarters there are several points to be attentively examined, and among these the shoulder is regarded as of most consequence when the horse under consideration is intended for the saddle. It is evident that unless there is length of the blade, and also of the true arm, there cannot be a full surface for the attachment rnd play of the muscles, nor can there be the same amount of spring to take off the jar which follows each footfall. The straighter the angle formed by the long axis of each of these bones, the less spring there will be. So also, if the angle is not sufficient, the muscles of the shoulder-blade will not thrust for- ward the true arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently clothed with muscles (without being loaded) to act on the fore arm, commonly known by horsemen as the arm. Hence it is found that, with an upright shoulder, not only is the stride in all the paces short and the action stumpy, but there is not that elastic movement which enables the horse to carry his body along rapidly and evenly, without rising alternately behind and before, and thereby jarring himself or his rider. On the other hand, the upright shoulder, loaded with a thick mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-horse, and to a certain extent also in the carriage-horse, in both of which the pressure of the collar requires a steady and comparatively mo- tionless surface to bear it. * * * The point of the shoulder should be well developed, but not showing any rough protuber- ances, which are equally objectionable with a tiat or ill-developed point. The length of the true arm is mainly dependent upon that of the blade ; but sometimes, when this is oblique enough, the true arm is short and upright, and the elbow stands under, or only a little behind, the shoulder point. This is a very faulty conforma- tion, and is seldom attended with good action. The chief defect Manual of Agriculture. 383 rue ya ma- fect in the elbow is seen when it turns inwards, and rubs so closely against the ribs that the finger can hardly be insinuated between them and it. Here the elbow is said to be tied or confined, and the horse is very apt to turn his toes out ; while the opposite forma- tion is indicated by turned-in or ' pigeon toes,' and turn-out elbows, frequently accompanying long- standing rheumatism of the shoul- ders. A long and muscular fore arm is a sure accompaniment of strong and sweeping action, and should be carefully prized ; in other respects there is little to be noted here. Next comes the knee, which should be broad, and, when looked at from the front, should be much wider than the limb above and below. It should taper off backwards to a comparatively thin edge, and should have a good development of the pisiform bone, which projects back- wards at its upper part. The leg, immediately below the knee, should be as large as any other part, and not 'tied in' there, which indicates a weakness of this part. A bending of the knee back- wards is called a ' calf-knee,' and is not objected to in cart-horses, in which it is by no means uncommon ; but it is very apt to lead to strains of this joint in the race-horse or hunter. A knee natu- rally bending somewhat forward is much preferred by good judges, though when it is the result of overwork, it is almost equally to be avoided with the calf-knee. Flat, and at the same time large cannon bones, without gumminess, are of great importance; and if attended with a full-sized suspensory ligament, and with strong, clean, and free back sinews, the leg is to be considered faultless. The fetlock-joint should be of good size, and clean, whilst the pas- terns should form an angle with the ground of between forty-five and sixty degrees. Lastly, the foot should be well formed ; but the construction of this part being elsewhere more fully described, its consideration here is omitted. " In the middle-piece the withers come first under notice. It is usual to desire them high and thin, but they are very commonly too much developed, and if the bony processes stand up like the edge of a razor, without muscles in them, they are to be regarded as objectionable rather than otherwise. * * * The volume of the chest is the measure not only of the capacity of the lungs, but of that of the large organs of digestion. Hence, unless there is a middle-piece of proper size, the wind is seldom good, and the stamina of the individual will scarcely ever be sufficient to bear hard work. * * * The capacity of the lungs is marked by the size of the chest at the girth ; but the stamina will depend upon the depth of the back ribs, which should be especially attended to. " A short hack, with plenty of ground covered nevertheless, is the desideratum of every practical horseman. Unless the mea- surement from the shoulder point to the back of the quarters is somewhat greater than the height at the withers, the action is confined, especially in the gallop, for the hind legs cannot be I/O I \ i^! [■ill m ' 384 The Canadian Farmer's brouglit sufficiently forward on account of the interfeience of the fore-quiu'ter ; and, indeed, from the want of })lay in the back, tliey are generally too uiucli crippled in that respect. ♦ * ♦ jjgj^^ to thene points in the middle-piece itisimjwrtant to pay attention to the upper line of the back, which should btnd down a little behind the withers, and then swell out very gently to the junction with the loins, which can hardly be too wide and muscular. " 'n examining the kind-quarters, so much depends upon the breed, and the purposes to which the animal is to be put, that only a few general remarks can be given. *< * * Muscular quar- ters and gaskins are desirable in all breeds; for without strong propellers, no kind of work to which the horse is put can be duly performed. The judge of a horse generally likes to look at the quarters behind, so as to get a good view of their volume, and unless they come close together, and leave no hollow below the arms, he suspects that there is a want of constitution, and rejects the animal on that account. But not only are muscles of full size required, but there must be strong joints to bear the strain which these exert, and one of the most important of all the points of the horse is the hock. This should be of good size, but clean and flat, without any gumrainess or thoroughpins, and with a good clean point standing clear of the rest of the joint ; the 'curby place' and the situation of spavin should be free from enlarge- ment ; but to detect these diseases a considerable amount of prac- tice is required. Lastly, i.he hocks should be well let down, which depends upon the length of the thigh, and ensures a short cannon- bone. The pasterns and feet should be formed in correspondence with those of the fore extremity, to which I have already alluded." Breeds. — There are certain fixed types of horses which have the power to transmit their peculiar characteristics to their pro- geny when crossed to common mares. These are the thorough-bred Racer, Arab, Suffolk, Clydesdale, and Norman or Percheron. The Thorough-bred Racer. — We believe that a more liberal use of the genuine horses of this type would be productive of a great improvement in our present class of Canadian horses. The pecu- liar features and characteristics of these horses are splendid wind and great c.< rage. We have them typified to a certain extent in the descendants of " Lexington" in Kentucky and in " Scottish Chief." For general purposes there can be no breed so useful as the cross between the stout, square-built and heavy farm mare and a thorough-bred blood horse. From the one we obtain size of frame, weight for the collar ; while from the other are derived endurance, pluck and life. The Arab has been used to advantage to produce the same qualities as the type above spoken of. Manual of Agriculture, 385 Is the Ind a pame, fance, Isame The, Suffolk, usually called Punch, is a breed peculiarly adapted to farm purposes in Canada. They have strengtn, beauty, docility, are easily kept, and are fast walkers — good on the road oi on the farm. 7'Ae Clydesdale is heavy and unwieldy, excellently adapted for heavy pulling at a slow pace, but it is not favourable for farm uses ; a cross between a Clydesdale and a well-bred, fine-limbed horse, is productive of a superior farm and general beast. The Norman or Percheron is being fast introduced into the States, and has made some foothold in Canada. The breed possess great strength with stoutness, and is of moderate size and good action. Our French Canadian horse is from the pure Norman stock, crossed on the Indian ponies of the habitants of the Lower Pro- vince. For strength, toughness and sagacity, combined with smallness of size and easy feeding qualities, there is probably no superior breed in the world. Trotting Horses. — The raising of trotting horses is in itself an- tagonistic to the development of a good breed of general purpose horses. The trotter is of no breed, but owes his superiority in one par- ticular part to the diligent training of himself and perhaps of his ancestors in that particular gait. The Morgans and Black Hawks, Tempest and Royal George, are all mongrels, with an infusion of the blood of the racer, and in very few cases has a superior trotting horse been found capable of transmitting his qualities in that particular respect to his offspring. When a common mare is put to a trotting stallion, the chance of the colt turning out well on the track depends not so much upon the trotting capabilities of its sire as upon the intusion of blood inherited from his ancestors. On this point Stonehenge says : — " The pure blood stallion had no plebeian ancestors, and his colts, if not closely resembling him- self, will still be good, inheriting the qualities of some ancestor, while the colts of a trotting stallion are likely to take after some dunghill grandmt)ther." A good trotting mare to a blood horse is almost certain to produce a fast colt ; whilst a slow-gaited mare and a trotting stallion are equally certain (if the trotting stallion be not of good blood for several generations back) to produce an ordinary, and in many cases an inferior colt. An undue encouragement has been given to these trotting stallions and trotting horses at our agricultural shows of late. The ordinary farmer, who is the supporter of our agricultural societies, does not want weedy trotters for his uses, but good, ser- viceable, compact, easily fed and enduring horses. Let the farmer, then, take a stand, and see to it that in our 25 i tT :i{- ill !' t 386 The Canadian Farmer's horse rings prizes are not awarded to some loose, weedy and leggy trotter, that can "knock spots" out of better built and more useful animals, when speeding round the puny ring, to the admiration of outsiders and the ghouts and yells of appreciative boys. Employ only stallions of pure blood, and beware of using any of the classes of ill-bred trotting stallions now so numerous. The fact of so many of these trotters having obtained premiums, and having thus been advertised before the public, is due to the unjust and harmful practice on the part of the judges at our agricultural societies' shows, of awarding prizes to animals for an excellence in what they have been trained to do, rather than in those qualities which, inherent in the blood, they will without fail transmit to their progeny. Stallions should be obliged to show a pedigree at our exhibitions. This is just as important with reference to the horse, as it is to the bull that is entered as a thorough-bred. We are particular to know the exact descent of a bull, because we say blood is everything. Equally as rigid should be the rule as to the pedigree of the horse. An old writer has justly said : — " The worst scrub of a hack of pure-blooded lineage will pro- duce better colts than the handsomest mongrel that ever went on a shodden hoof can do." The Farmer's Horse is an animal of all work. He is required occasionally to take the saddle or to draw the light buggy to town ; to be lively enough, that the driver be not required to " work his passage ;" and to be light enough, that an occasional trot along the hard high road will not use up his feet or legs. As steady pulling is required from the farmer's horse, a thicker and lower- set shoulder must be looked for than on the road or purely carriage horse. He wants weight enough to tell before the plough, and "go" enough to drive with spirit before the light rig. Were the opera- tions of farming confined to heavy, steady ploughing and cultivat- ing, the heavy-built, all-weight horse might suit the farmer. But in Canada the seasons are short, and we have in all our operations to " hurry up." We want a horse, then, that will walk up with the reaper and mower ; fetch the empty hay rack and dung- waggon back from the barn at a rattling pace ; in fine, one who is capable of doing not only steady but fast work. For these general purposes, a moderate-sized, strong, clean- limbed and active horse will be found best suited, and to attain such a class the half-bred horse with some blood in him will be found necessary. Mares are, as a class, better suited for farm purposes than geld- ings. A mare, taking weight for weight and bulk for bulk, is usually stronger and more lasting than a gelding, and the farmer can at any time make her bring in a good income, not only from work but by breeding. There is a constantly increasing demand for stout, able Manual of Agriculture. y87 lorse. go" ipera- itivat- But itions ihthe Lggon ppable 3lean- ittain im be geld- 3ually Ittany it by able horses, clean in limbs and with blood in them, in Canada ; and we know of no kind of stock in the raising of which there is more profit at the present day, to the Canadian farmer, tlian that of a good class of agricultural horse. A good colt at three years old will fetch one hundred and fifty dollars, and will require little more attention and feed than a three-year-old steer, worth pro- bably from sixty to eighty dollars. If a farmer owns a good, sound farm mare, and can find a three- fourths or seven-eighths bred horse to which to put her, he need not fear but that he will raise a valuable and saleable colt. By judicious management, the time taken from work for a breeding mare need be very short ; for it has been proved over and over again, that the mare does best when moderately and steadily worked up to the very day of foaling. If a mare is put in May, the foal will bf dropped at a comparatively leisure season of the working year. The kind of mare from which to breed is very important; indeed we have observed that, as a matter of practical every-day obser- vation, the value of a foal depends, no doubt, greatly upon the sire, but far more upon the mare. So well aware are the Arabs of this fact, that it was for years a matter of very great difficulty, and is yet no easy task, to obtain a superior native Arab mare. They would part with their stallions, but nothing could induce them to permit a good mare to leave their country. The greatest evil has been done to the race of agricultural horses in Canada by the too common belief that " any mare will do to breed from," no matter how old, undersized, blemished, broken-winded or otherwise unsound. He says only that " a mare's a mare for a' that and a' that," and he looks to the stallion to counterbalance in the colt her in- herited imperfections. It cannot be too often or too deeply im- pressed upon the farmer that from the dam comes the majority of points and beauties in the colt. In the days when Greece was at the head of civilization, an Athenian youth had entered his horse for a race in the Olympian games : " What chance have I of winning ?" asked the youth. The answer made by an expe- rienced Greek who stood near was, " Ask the dam of your horse." We are too apt to think that the fact of a mare having curbs, spavins, contracted feet, roars, thick wind, heaves, blindness, &c., are purely the result of perhaps hard work, neglect or some local cause. In the great majority of cases, although these tokens of unsound- ness may have been developed in the mare by hard usage or other temporary causes, they are in her breed, and will be handed down as hereditary to her colts. It is not safe to breed from un- sound mares, unless such unsoundness be known as only resulting from purely accidental circumstances. " It is possible that cases may exist where it is safe to breed in 388 The Canadian Farmer's lisr M ■ ! ft. • i ' t ' ' iil from an old mare. Two of the finest horses that reins were ever drawn over were from a mare nearly thirty years of age, but she was perfect in limbs and spirits ; had always been owned by the same person, and fed with as much regularity as the owner's meals were served ; she w»us never raced at a ' military muster,' or over- loaded in any way, and at thirty-three years oi age she and her mate, of about the same age, were not only sound in wind and limb, but were a pair to be proud of when one held the reins over them. A pair of her colts, born after she was twenty-live, sold, under our eye, for twice as many hundred dollars as other fine horses about them brought ! A moderate old age should not, therefore, absolutely exclude the mare from breeding, if she is right in other particulars. " The common practice for many years past, and one which has become woven, as it were, into the habits of the people, so that it seems as natural as the breath of life, is to keep the old mare for breeding when she is unfitted for service on the road or on the farm. This is where the evil commences. She is a favourite animal, was handsome, spirited, and with a power of endurance almost beyond belief But now she is seventeen years of age, has a spavin, a slight touch of the heaves, and one or two other trifling matters which are a little inconvenient for a working animal, but she will make a good breeder, and about pay her keeping besides ! This is the conclusion arrived at, and thousands of such cases exist among us to-day. " So the old mare, crippled by too early labour and disabled by disease, is to become the progenitor of a race which is tooccupy a cer- tain locality, perhaps for a hundred years ! It is scarcely possible that her young will not be injured before they see the light ; and the strong probability is that each of them will bear the marks of her impertections ; some with ringbone, perhaps, or asthma, or spavin, or some lurking disease that had not developed itself in the over- worked and disordered mother. We have seen a yearling colt with a ringbone upon every foot ; well-formed otherwise, ap- parently healthy, eating and drinking well, but sufiering and ut- terly worthless." — New England Farmer. Proofs have been piled upon proofs, that blindness, roaring, heaves, thick wind, spavins, curbs, ringlDones and founder, have been bequeathed from dam to colt, sometimes escaping one gene- ration and being developed in the succeeding oflfspring. Hence the necessity of some knowledge of the ancestry of horses from which to breed. In breeding, it is well to remember — That peculiarities of form and constitution will be inherited from both parents ; equally as much, aye, more, from the mare ; and that out of a sorry mare, no matter how good the stallion may be, no perfect colt can come. Manual of Agriculture. 389 iring, have [gene- Tence from from and ly be, The parents, at the time of breeding, should be in full possession of their natural powers and strength. Strict confinement to one breed, or a system of breeding in and in, too long persisted in, will re ult in deterioration. Our stallions in Canada are not as good as they ought to be. There are not enough with good blood in them travelling the country. A few are owned by such men as Mr. Simon James, of Hamilton, and the late Mr. Sheddon,, but they are so few that their service is placed at a figure far beyond the pocket of the ordinary farmer. We want more thorough-red sires. We have too many of these prancing stallions, with a fine-sounding name, who have not a drop of blue blood in their veins, and who, fed up and pampered, are full of life and show, but whose fat hides all their points, and about whose ancestors — many of whom were, doubtless, broken -winded, spavined, curbed and what not — we know nothing. They catch the eye by their fat, and prancing motions, but for the purpose of irnpi'oving our stock few of them are at all efKcient. The brood mare is generally supposed to go with foal for eleven months, but there is a great irregularity. Some have been known to foal in less than ten months, whilst others will run nearly, aye and over, the full year. As we have before indicated, the end of May is the best time at which to put the farm mare in Canada ; thus she comes in, in the early part of June, when the work is slack and pasture plen- tiful and tender. It is better for the mare to work up to the day of foaling, though after the wax has appeared on her teats, which will be from one to two days before foaling, it may be as well to turn her into a nice quiet and dry paddock, and for the last two weeks of her pregnancy her work must be only steady draught, — no heavy driving nor working in deep soil, where she will have to strain in pulling out her feet. Abortion or Slinking of the Foal usually occurs when the mare is about half through her time of pregnancy, or in the sixth and seventh months ; they should in those months be carefully watched, well fed, the bowels kept open, and have regular exer- cise. Nothing is so apt to bring on abortion as standing idle in a stable ; a mare is better at that time, if there be no work for her, to be running out in the yard or in a large loose box. This will be treated of more fully in our chapter on Diseases of the Horse. Parturition in a mare is seldom accompanied with danger, if she has been well fed and cared for during winter and spring, and her bowels kept open (this is most important) at the expiration of her term of pregnancy. Where, however, great difficulty is mani- fest, or there is evidently a false presentation of the colt, a quali- fied veterinary practitioner should be called in, rather than risk the lives of mother and foal by interference on the part of those unskilled in such matters. ;-t~ ti|: "H 390 The Canadian Farmer's ! 'Hi !• ■' I iiH) ' As soon as the mare has foaled, let her have the run of a pad- dock, with shelter at hand, and feed her plentifully, but nof heavily. This is the most imi)ortant time in the life of the colt If stinted in the first few weeks he will never recover lost ground The mare should then be kept in a good How of milk. Remember that to suckle a colt without working, is quite as wearing, and more apt to pull the mare down in condition than tu work a mare without a colt to suckle. Let the colt learn to eat as soon as possible, by feeding the mare in a trough on the ground. Three weeks, or, when the work only consists of drawing hay, or other light work, two weeks after foaling, the mare may be again harnessed. The colt should not, however, be at first allowed to follow the mare all day, or it will thoroughly tire itself out, but should be confined in a stable, and each day allowed to run a little longer with the mare. It will soon get used to it, and become wise enough not to follow its mother all round the field, but to wait and lie about. We have seen colts not six weeks old allowed to run after their mothers along a hot, dustj^ and perchance stone road, to town and back. Now, fourteen or twenty miles a day is rather too much for a colt whose legs .tre not one quarter formed. Again, the farmer should bear in mind that the mare who works and suckles a colt at the same time is having the condition drawn down at double speed, and she must be fed grain and fodder in accordance. Between the third and fourth week after foaling, the mare will come in heat again, and she is more certain to " hold" the horse at this season than at any subsequent one. Weaning. — The colt should be weaned from five to six months old. The colt should be kept away, as far as practicable, from the mother, that they may not pine for one another ; she should be fed drier food, and her milk drawn from her, and so gradually dried ofi". Management of Colts. — The following remarks, from a corres- pondent of the Rural New Yorker, are very pertinent : — " We often, when travelling through the country in the fall, see colts with a rough, staring coat ; eyes nearly closed, and a watery matter exuding therefrom ; with a body shaped like a squash seed, which, but a few weeks before, while running with the mare, were possessed of a sleek, shining coat, eyes bright, and body as round as a barrel. Now the question arises, what is the cause of this ? I answer, in nine cases out of ten it is improper weaning. Nearly every colt in a farming community is allowed to run with its mother until about four or five months old, when, to suit the convenience of the owner, it is turned into some distant field out Pi ■: i I) . a pad- tut nof le colt ground lember ig, and work a ^le mare ng hay, may be allowed elf out, 0 run a it, and le field, er their io town >her too ire who )ndition i fodder are will horse at months om the >uld be [adually corres- Ifall, see 1 watery ish seed, mare, )ody as luse of teaning. tin with luit the leld out Manual of Agriculture. 391 of sight, and, if possible, out of hearing of its mother, there to run and whinnoy and worry, until it brings upon itself a fever, which weakens the constitution, closes the pores of its skin, and, in brief, the whole organs of digestion become more or less diseased. All of this can bo avoided by a little care in weaning. " My way of weaning is this : When my colt is four and a-half months old, I put a strong leather halter upon him and place him in a stall, and put his mother in an adjoining stall, with a par- tition between, so arranged that they can see each other, and, if possible, get their heads together. The first day I let the colt nurse twice ; the next day, once. I feed the mare upon dry hay and dry feed, and about half milk her two or three times a day until dry. The colt I feed upon new-mown grass or fine clover hay, and give him a pint of oats twice per day, and in about two weeks I nave my colt weaned and my mare dry, with my colt looking as well as ever. When he is one year old, he haa as much growth and development of muscle as one two years old weaned m the first described manner. When the mare becomes dry, colt and mare may be turned out together again in pasture." And — " Colts are very apt to be left to shift for themselves after weaning. This is wrong. A year's gain in the usefulness of a horse may easily be made by care and attention during the first few months of its life. Then care should be exercised to keep it growing. During the fall months some of the best early-cut hay should be given to it ; and when the horses are stabled, let it have a loose box or stall adjoining them, where it can see and become used to the discipline of the stable. Everything around it should be well secured, lest in rubbing itself it might get something loose. A habit of breaking things and getting loose is easily and invaria- bly formed at this time, and should be guarded against. During winter, feed your colts as you feed your horses. Give them a share of what is served out — -oats, corn, or ground feed as it may be. They cannot grow or fare well otherwise. ' Stinginess' don't pay in rearing young animals. An addition of twenty-five or forty dollars to its value may result in the winter's feeding and care of one colt. Generosity here (of course exercised with judgment) is only wise foresight, and will pay good interest on the investment. Colts are better kept up than allowed to run around. They will become more docile and tractable, and will learn fewer tricks. Take them out only for exercise, except when at pasture, and then be sure to have a secure fence, or they will inevitably learn to rub it down or jump over it. Train your colt to walk, and keep it walking. Farmers don't want fast-trotting horses as yet; we have need, so far, of fast- walking horses ; great need, we may say, for they are far too scarce. Therefore, train colts to walk at the rate of four miles an hour at least. The time will come when a horse that can walk his mile in twelve minutes will take a prize ;ii1 1 302 The Canadian Farmer'^ it* »it an agricultural fair, equal in value to the best trotter. A team of such horHes could ;>loujj[h an acre of ground, with a funow mx inchoH wide, in five hours, allowing time for turnings round. This is ahove the ({uantity phtughed on the avcrngo now in a day of ten hours. Horses of such capacity would be worth a large price, and it shoiUd be our endeavour to produce them. We have a breed that can transmit trotting canacity to its descendants ; why could we not raise up a breed ot walking horses ? Some one might make a name and fortune in this." — Amtrlcan Agricultur- ist. Breakmg Colts. — We would only endorse the above remarks, and to the importance of teaching agricultural horses io walk f ant, add the following summary : — When first bitted, a bit should be selected that wUl not hurt his mouth, and one smaller than in common use. Allow him to play with this bit, by champing it for a few days an hour at a time. Before putting him in with another horse, accustom him to portions of the harness, and let the straps dangle round his legs, gently at first ; and afterwards, let the tugs fall down and strike him about the heels ; accustom him to stop at the sound '* Whoa," without any bit in his mouth, and to understand and obey every word of command before he is put into harness at all. If this custom of thorougn training were more generally adopted before breaking to the waggon, we should have less " kicking scrapes" and fewer runaways. Put him to a very light load at first, ;'long8ide of a steady but on no account a slow or lazy mate. Before he pulls an ounce, let him understand what " Get up," a chirp or a whistle means. Directly he stops of his own accord, or when he is in the act of stopping, call " Whoa ;" he will soon learn that that word means stand. Drivers very frequently stop the horse by a pull on the reins, and then call "Whoa." This is wrong; the word of command should be always given before the manoeuvre is executed. In teaching a colt to back — one of the hardest tricks, for it is a trick — don't call " l^nck" unless he is able and willing to do it. It is unnatural to hv.u, und in this case the action of backing should be performed by gcutle pressure, not severe force, upon the bit, and should he simultaneous with the cry of "Back up." How many horses do we find that if the reins should break will not run away ; and yet it is as easy to tiain them to stop on the break of the line and the call of " Whoa," as to teach them to keep in the furrow or on the land when ploughing. Teach them when young to travel under a gentle strain of the line, and that the slacking of the line is meant to imply, equally with the word " Whoa," stop. Horses are not generally dear" ; on the contrar}', they have an ear f;" Manual of jigrictiUure, 3oa 'J exceedingly suscuptihlo to every wave of Mound. There ia, then, no necoM.sity to nhout at a horne »ia if ho was " hard of hearin;^." When a colt hhicH, he does it not generally from vice, but becauHe he sees something that ho never saw before. Don't beat him for that, as you simply increase his timidity. He associates the object, whatever it be, with a la.sh of the whi|), and becomes still more frightened of it. Reae organs. Pea meal, barley meal, corn meal, and wheat meal, are all, in an uncooked state, bad feed for horses, as they are apt to cake in the stomach, and often bring on feverish diseases. Barley is undoubt- edly more nutritious than oats, but there are required other quali- ties in food, besides a great proportion of nutritive matter, to render food for a horse wholesome, strengthening or fattening. Horses fed heavily on corn, peas, or barley are more subject to in- flammatory affections than such as are kept chiefly upon oats. This is in great measure shown by the practical observations of Manual of Agriculture. 397 many men, and we have ourselves frequently observed that there are far more cases of colic amongst stabled horses, on Sunday night or Monday morning, than on any other day of the week. Horses will do well on straw, if it has been cut on the green side ; but as it requires more digestion than hay, it should be only fed when horses are '.i.jderately worked, and have in consequence good appetites, or when turned out loose. \^ TABLE SHOWING AMOUNT OF VARIOUS FOODS GENERALLY SUFFI- CIENT FOR WORKING HORSES. ARTICLES OF FOOD. 1. Farinaceous substances, consisting of bruised or ground beans, peas, wheat, barle}? or oats. 2. Bran, fine oi coarse 3. Boiled or steamed potatoes, mashed 4. Fresh gr.iins (boiled barley) (. Hay (cut) 6. Straw (cut) With two ounces ol salt for each class, 'making iBt Class. 2nd Class. 3rd Class. lbs. 6 5 6 7 7 lbs. 5 6 8 10 lbs. 10 10 10 30 28 30 4th Class. lbs. 6 6 8 8 as It will thus be seen that from twenty-six to thirty pounds of food will be required for each horse per day to keep him in good working order. Of the four classes, we prefer, as conducive to the general health of the horses, Nos. 1 and 2. We again quote the excellent advice of Dr. McClure, under the head of " Hints on Horse Food :" — " 1. All horses must not be fed in the same proportions, without due regard to their ages, their constitutions and their work — he- cause such action is the basis of disease of every kind. " 2. Never use bad hay on account of its cheapness — because there is not proper nourishment in it. " 3. Damaged grain is exceedingly injurious — because it brings on inflammation of the bowels and skin diseases. " 4. Chaff is better for old horses than whole hay — because they can chew and digest it better. " 5. Mix chaff with corn or oats, and do not give th'^m alone — because it makes the horse chew his food more .»,.id digest it better. " 6. Hay or grass alone will not support a horse under hai-d work — because there is not sufficient nutritive body in either. " 7. When a horse is worked hard, the food should be chiefly oats and corn ; if not worked hard, his food should be chiefly hay — because oats and corn supply more nutriment and flesh-making material than any other kind of food ; hay, not so much. " 8. For a saddle or coach horse, half a peck of sound oats and I ■BE' i' if iU* ' li'*' 898 The Canadian Farmer's eighteen pounds of good hay per day are suflffcJ^fii ' If the hay is not good, add a quarter of a peck more oats. " 9. Rack feeding is wasteful. The better plan is to cut fodder and feed in manger — because the food is not then thrown about, and is more easily digested and chewed. " 10. Sprinkle the hay with water that has salt dissolved in it — because it is good for and pleasant to the animal's taste. "11. Oats and corn should be bruised for an old horse, but not for young one — because the former, throusfh a^e and defective a teeth, cannot chew them properly ; the young horse can do so, and they are thus properly mixed with the saliva, and turned into wholesome nutriment. " 12. Grass must always be cut for hay before the seed drops — because the juices that ripen the seed are the most valuable part of the hay. If they (the juices) are sucked out by its ripening and dropping, the grass will not turn into hay, but only wither and grow yellow. "13. Vetches and cut grass should always be given in the spring to horses that cannot be turned out into the fields — because they are cooling and refreshing, and almost medicinal in their effects ; but they must be supplied in moderation, as they are liable to fer- ment in the stomach if given largely. " 14. Water your horses from a pond or stream rather than from a spring or well — because the latter is generally hard and cold, while the former is soft and comparatively warm. The horse pre- fers soft muddy water to hard water though ever so clear. " 16. A horse should have at least a pail of water morning and evening (we think three times a day), or (still better) four half pails-full several times a day — because this assuages his thirst without bloating him. But he should never be made to work directly after he has had a full draught of water, for digestion and exertion can never go on together. " 16. Do not allow your horse to have warm water to drink — because if he has to drink cold water after getting used to warm, it will give him colic. " 17. When your horse refuses his food after drinking, go no further that dsiy— because the poor creature is thoroughly beaten." Water for the Horse. — " This is a part of stable management little regarded by the farmer. He lets his horses loose night and morning, and they go to the nearest pond or brook to drink their fill, and no harm results , for they obtain that kind of water which nature designed them to have, in a manner prepared for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures. The difference between hard and soft water is known to every one. In hard water soap will curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saccharine matter of the malt cannot be fully obtained in the process of mP Manual of Agriculture. 899 brewing. There is nothing in which the different effects of hard and soft water is so evident as in the stomach and digestive organs of the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh from the well, will assur- edly make the coat of the horse unaccustomed to it stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct or experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this, for he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft ; he will leave the most transparent and pure well water for a river, although the water may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool. He is injured, however, not so much by the hardness of the well water as by its coldness, particularly by its coldness in summer, and when it is many degrees lower than the temperature of the atmosphere. The water in the brook and the pond being warmed by long exposure to the air, as well as having become soft, the horse drinks freely of it without danger. "There is a prejudice in the minds of many persons against the horse being fairly supplied with water. They think that it injures his wind, and disables him for quick hard work. If he is galioped immediately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured ; but if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst, he would he happier and better. " It is a fact unsuspected by those who have not carefully watched the horse, that if he has frequent access to water he will not drink so much in the course of the day as another who, to cool his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not when to stop." We have already recorded our opinion in the agricultural press, that t}ie care ofliorses lies in a nutshell ; thus : — " Handle the colt from the time it is foaled. By not working the dam too hard, and by generous food, keep her in good flow of milk. Feed well from the day of foaling ; never let it stop grow- ing. Halter-break the first winter. " Begin to work him very lightly when two years old. Don't put him to heavy work until five years old. Feed him regularly, evenly and generously, whether at work or idle. Keep his stable clean, warm, well ventilated and light. Clean him every da}', morning and night. Take off harness when brought to the stable sweated from work. Don't let working hours encroach five minutes on feeding times. Always put a lighter load than that which you think the horse could pull at his best. Never check his head up before a load. Keep your fences good, and your colt will not learn to breach. Don't let shoes go until they fall off. Go ten miles to a good horse-shoer rather than one mile to a botch. If your horse is sick, and you are sure of the nature of the ail- ment, attend to him at once ; if the attack is beyond your know- ledge, send to an experienced surgeon. Never let a quack into your stable. Ninety-nine out of every hundred colds, colics. ii ir f ym Ipt 400 The Canadian Farmer's lieavGH, blindnesses, strains, spavins, curbs, and other diseases and accidents to a horse, are caused by gross neglect." A FEW COMMON VICES. ¥ n To Cure a Kicker. — The following plan has been found, though not always, yet in a majority of cases, to be effectual : — " With a strong harness, hitch to a stout whiffletree, which has a rope attached to it long enough toallow aman to hold therope with safety. Let oneman holda mareby the head, while another, holding the rope slack but firmly, moves the trace or whiffletree against the mare's legs, tempting her to kick. Allow the whiffletree to fly high when she kicks, but bring it back every time. Let her play with this arrangement until she is thoroughly tired of it and will not kick at it. Without harnessing her in any other way, try the same every day, until she will allow the A^hiffletree and traces, or anything, to brush and strike against her legs without showing any fright or dislike, even when fresh." Or simply fasten a short trace chain about two feet long by a strap to each hind foot, and let him do his own whipping if he cannot stand still without it. Give them a wider stall, or turn them loose in a box stall. If neither is convenient to do, or fails to cure, take a piece of trace chain about two feet long, and fasten one end of it with a strong strap to the foot with which they kick. Or put a surcingle loosely around the animal, and pass a cord from the kicking foot through the girth, around the head, in front of one ear and behind the other. Make the knots so that they will not slip tight, and give length for necessary motions. Balky Horses. — Horses know nothing about balking until they are brought into itby improper management ; and when a horse balks it is generally from some mismanagement, excitement, confu- sion, or from not knowing how to pull, but seldom from any unwil- lingness to perform his duty. High-spirited, free-going horses are the most subject to balking, and only so because drivers do not properly understand how to manage. This kind of free horse in a team may be so anxious to go that when he hear? the word he will start with a jump, which will not start the load, but give him such a severe jerk in the shoulders that he will fly back and stop the other horse ; the teamster will continue his driving without cessation, and by the time he has the slow horse started again, he will find the free horse has made another lunge and again flies back, and now he has them both badly balked, and so confused that neither of them knows what is the matter or how to start the load. Next will come the slashing ana cracking of the driver's whip, till something is broken, or he is through with this course of treatment. It takes a steady pressure against the collar . \ Manual of jigricuUure. 401 to move a load, and you cannot expect him to act with a steady, determined purpose while you are whipping him. Almost any team, when first balked, will start kindly if you let them stand five or ten minutes, as though there was nothing the matter, and then speak kindly to them, and turn them a little to the right or left so as to get them both in motion before they feel the pinch of the load. But if you want to start a team that you are not driving yourself, that has been balked, fooled and whipped for some time, go to them and hang the lines on their hames, or fasten them to the waggon so that they will be per- fectly loose ; make driver and spectators stand off some dista:?/^e, so as not to attract the attention of the horses, and unloose the check reins, so that they can get their heads down if they choose ; let them stand a few minutes in this condition, till you can see they are a little composed. When you have them ready to start, stand before them, and as you seldom have but one balky horse in a team, get as near in front of him as you can, and if he is too fast for the other horse, let bis nose come against your breast ; this will keep him steady, for he will go slow rather than run on you. Turn them gently to the right, without letting them pull on their traces, as far as the tongue will let them go ; stop them with a kind word, gentle them a little, and turn back to the left by the same process ; as you turn them again to the right, steady them in the collar, and you can take them where you please. If you want to break a horse that has long been in the habit of balking, you ought to set apart a half day for it. Put him by the side of a steady horse, have check lines on them, tie up all the traces and straps, so that there will be nothing to excite them. Do not rein them up, but let them have their heads loose ; walk them about as slow as possible ; stop often, and go to your balky horse and gentle him ; do not take any whips about him, or do anything to excite him, but keep him just as quiet as you can ; he will soon start off at the word, and stop whenever you tell him. As soon as he performs right, hitch him to an empty waggon and have it stand in a favourable place for starting. It would be well to shorten the stay chain behind the steady horse, so that if it is necessary he can take the weight of the waggon. The first time you start them do not drive more than two rods at first ; watch your balky horse closely, and if you see he is getting a little ex- cited, stop him before he stops of his own accord, caress him a little, and start again ; drive them over a small hill a few times, and then over a larger one, all the while adding a light load. This process will make any horse pull true. Pulling on the Halter. — A writer in the Rural New Yorker says that he breaks a horse from pulling by putting a rope or strap halter over the top of the manger, and back through a hole in or under the frame of the manger, and between the 26 I* '< l! . I iTirwBSS! 402 The Canadian Farmer's II ; !1 UM horse's Tore le^, through a surcingle, and back to the hind leg. Buckle a strap with a ring on it around the ankle ; tie the halter strap to this ring. Keep the horse tied in this way one week. A correspondent of the Cincinnati Gazette says : " Tie the horse with an inch rope in a stall with a floor in it ; have the floor about three inches lower behind than before, and make the floor wet, so that it will be slippery ; after tying the horse arounrl the neck with a knot that will not slip, get before the horse and take an old white hat and scare the horse by hitting hira on the nose with the hat. When he pulls back from fright he will fall down, his feet slipping from under him. He will not try it more than two or three times before he will become afraid to pull, for fear of fall- ing. Keep this up for a week or so, by making him pull until he will at last stand as quiet as a lamb. The writer says he broke two horses and two mules from pulling back in this way. He once tied a pulling-back horse with a running noose around the neck, and the horse pulled back and came very near choking to death. It broke him so, that he would stand if hitched with a string. Choking, in all cases, is not recommended, however," Hard-mouthed Horse. — " Take a small rope, about three-eighths of an inch in size, very strong, and about nine or ten feet long. Tie a loop in one end, just large enough to admit a large hand. The loop should be tiad by what is known as a " sailor's bowline knot," which cannotslip or tighten up. If you cannot tie the bowline knot, you must make a loop as best you can, and secure it from slip- ping by tying a cord around the knot to prevent any danger from the loop tightening. Now stand upon the near or right side of your horse, with the loop in your left hand ; place it well up into the mouth ; reach with your right hand over the neck, bringing the end over the neck towards you, pavssing it down through the loop which you have placed in the mouth, drawing up tightly upon the rope. Taking hold of the rope about three feet from the head, give your animal about one half dozen short pulls — first upon one side, then upon the other — in quick succession. "Do not be afraid of hurting him ; on the contrary, be very severe. Do not speak while you are using the rope, as your object is to make the mouth governable. After a few pulls, let the horse stand a few minutes. Then stepping off to the end of the rope to one side say, ' Come here,' and at the same time pull upon the rope quickly and decidedly ; then go upon the other side and repeat. As soon as your horse shows signs of yielding to the slightest touch, step up and caress him by way of encouragement. In the same way teach him to yield to the slight touch of the rope, whether you step either to the right or left, in front or behind, at the moment you straighten upon the rope, accompanied by the words, * Come here, sir.' " After two of the above lessons, given in one day, you will pro- Manual of Agriculture. 403 severe, t is to \ stand to one le rope repeat, ightest In the e rope, 1, at the words, ill pro- ceed to another adjustment of the rope, viz. : make a loop just the size of the ooUar your horse works in ; place it upon Ii's neck, well back, putting the other part of the rope into his mouth, and down through the loop which you just placed upon the neck ; draw up tightly, and proceed as described in the case of small loops. If the above directions are strictly followed, with determination and coolness, the worst and most unmanageable horse can be cured so that any woman or child can drive him with comfort and safety." — Cor. Western Rural. To Drench a Horse. — An ox's horn, the larger end being cut slantingly, is the best instrument for administering drink. The noose of a halter is introduced into the mouth, and then, by means of a stable fork passed through the noose, the head is raised up high. Introduce the horn (or bottle if used, though it is dangerous to put glass in the horse's mouth), and pour the liquid in gently, and over the tongue. In order to make the latter point sure, it will be as well always to draw out the tongue and hold it with the other hand ; quickly take out the horn and let the patient have the use of his tongue ; stroke the throat gently, and watch the gullet to see if he has gulped down what has been given. This may be repeated until the whole dose is taken. As the horse is sometimes very obstinate about swallowing, especially any bit- ter decoction like aloes, the head has often to be held up some time. A sharp slap on the muzzle with the open hand will often make him swallow. Don't put too much into his mouth at a time, for it only makes him splutter, and perhaps cough it up again. To make a twitch for the nose, take a piece of .^ mt lath about three feet long ; bore a hole one inch from the end ; take a strong cord, put it through this hole, and tie the ends ; put the lath in his mouth, with rope over the nose, well up above the nostrils, and this takes the place of the halter noose spoken of above. This is the principle of The Twitch ; and by turning the stick round, the horse may be caused such pain in the squeezing of his nose and mouth as' to have his attention fully taken up while any minor operation is being performed. Biting. — This habit is usually taught to the horse by the fool- ish teasing of his attendants. It is a very dangerous habit, and the tickling and pinching of a horse, looked upon as sport by some idle and mischievous boy, has often in after years turned out a vicious biter. In this case prevention is the only remedy. A horse that has once acquired the habit can never be cured of it. He may be muzzled when in town, or where he is likely to do mischief to strangers. Getting the Bit %n the Cheek. — This is a habit resulting from sheer mischief on the part of the hcrse, and may be remedied by having very large bit rings, or putting a stiff round leather on each side of the bit inside the cheeks. fl jjut»mjmmm il 404 The Canadian Farmer's -■I 'J I ; I li'T '■ I Rearing is often brought on by a too free use of the curb. A change from a Hcvere to a more gentle bit will often cure this habit. As to 'palling a horse backiuarda, Youatt says : — " The horsebreaicer's remedy — that of pulling the horse backwards on a soft piece of ground — is worthy of him, and would be practised only by reckless and brutal men. Many horses have been injured in the spine, and others have broken their necks, by being thus suddenly brought over ; while even the horsebreaker, who fears no danger, is not always able to extricate himself from the falling horse. If rearing proceeds from a vice, and is unprovoked by the bruising and laceration of the mouth, it fully partakes of the in- veteracy which attends the other divisions of restiveness." Runaway. — If this proceeds purely and simply from vice, there IS no cure. The horse has learned that he is stronger than the man, and he has learned " a stubborn fact." Very sharp, punish- ing bits will in many cases prevent their attaining a full know- ledge of man's incapacity to hold them, if determined to bolt. We have cured a young horse of this habit by t:^ving him all the running he desired, and a good deal more, by liberal use of whip and spur on a clean trail and over heavy ground. Bad to shoe arises from careless handling and often rough treat- ment when first shod. Nothing but kind and encouraging treat- ment will overcome the difficulty ; it is seldom a vice, but in most cases is the result of timidity. It is a very awkward form of timidity, full of danger to the smith ; and we can hardly blame the mechanic if he sometimes pricks the foot of a horse that refuses to stand still. If the fear becomes confirmed, the horse has gene- rally to be cast. Pawing is a bad habit, for the cure of which shades will be found the best remedy. Rolling in the stall. — The habit once acquired cannot be broken ; the only remedy is to tie him so short that he cannot lay his head on the floor, for a horse cannot roll without he gets his head quite down. Shying. — In colts this proceeds from timidity ; as we have en- deavoured to show above, gentle treatment and proving to the ani- mal that the object at which he is frightened will not hurt him, are the proper methods to be adopted. It may arise from defective sight, in which case, if the eyesight cannot be improved, the sooner the horse goes blind the better ; for a horse that is deprived of sight is a safer beast to ride behind than one who has only imperfect vision. Where the habit arises from skittishness and a " good feeling" on the part of the horse, the best plan is to take as little notice as possible of him ; perhaps speaking a little sharply to him, but never using the whip. In most cases it is a mere affectation — a pretence of being frightened — on the part of the horse, and, like Manual of Agriculture, 405 ing" on otice as im, but tion — a id, like affectation in man or woman, the best euro is to take no notice at all of it. John Lawrence, in hit, work on the Horse, gives the following instances of this phase of shying : '•I recollect," says he, "having, at different periods, three hacks, all very powerful ; the one made choice of a windmill for an object or butt, the other a tilted waggon, and the last a pig led by a string. " It so happened, however, that I rode the two fo» mer when they were anii-ss from a violent cold, and they then paid no more attention to either windmills or tilted waggons than to any other objects, convincing me that their shying when in health and spirits was pure affectation ; an affectation, however, which may be speed- ily united with obstinacy and vice. Let it be treated with marked displeasure, mingled with gentle but decided firmness, and the habit will be of short endurance." Slipping the Halter. — Some horses will get almost any halter off their heads at night. We once had a mare, upon whom, for the purpose of confining her to one stall at night, a halter was utterly useless. If you buckled the throat strap so tight that you could hardly get a finger between it and the windpipe, she would have that halter rubbed off before the middle of the night, and would go the rounds of the stable, sharing food with each horse in turn, and happy did she think herself if she could get at a bag or bin of oats. Being once at a strange house, and having put the halter, as we thought, very securely upon her, we found next morning that she had got at an oat-bin and devoured — we should be ashamed to put in print how many quarts of grain. Fortunately, we dis- covered the matter before any water was given her, and by a good dose and an injection, we managed to open a passage through her for the mass, which came away apparently as whole as when they lay in the grain- bin. The only plan is to discard the use of a head-stall halter, and fasten with a stout strap, buckled close around the neck, and attached to a tie-strap by a ring sewed in. Stumblers. — When this arises from inveterate laziness or ill- formed fore legs, it is useless to attempt to remedy the habit. Such a horse is only fit for slow work upon soft places. Interfering. — The remedy for this lies in the skill of the shoe- ing smith ; if he can make nothing of it, a leather sock must be worn. Overreaching. — With horses having high hind quarters and being low in front, it is often a physical difficulty to raise the fore foot from the ground in time for the hind foot to come down in its place, without touching the fore as it is raised. It is sometimes attended with disagreeable consequences. The abrasion of the foot, the pulling off of the fore shoe, and in some cases the hind II it II i ' i I' 4 ! 'I f^ ■ I i 1 *^i.' f 1 ' 1'* 4 MM i^ m t i ? : t ! ■ L.i'* » 400 The Canadian Farmer^s and front «hoo, may lock and throw tho animal when at spftftd. The rotnedy Ihto again lies with tho hhieksinith, who nhould Hhorton and round the toe of the liind shoo ns much a.s poHsihIe, while the fore Hhoe is made a little Hhort in tho heel. If it can ho done altogether on tho hind shoo it is bettor, for no fault in so in- jurious to tl>' Tout as any undue uhurteuing uf tho heels of the foro shoe. GHh-biting is one of the worst vices, or rather habits, that a horse can engage in. It consists of sucking wind into tho stomach by placing tho lips against a manger or any projecting woodwt)rk. In some horses tho habit has become so firmly implanted, that in lieu of a harder, bettor object, they will use their own forearm for this wind-sucking. The causes are standing too long in the stable without exercise, and, as many veterinarians also contend, indigestion. A peculiarity of this habit is, that horses will learn it from one another ; and if not checked in a horse, it will sometimes spread amongst the greater proportion of his stable mates. The remedies are plenty of exercise and regular feed. Also feed his hay upon the gi'ound, so that there are no projections in the stall over which he can place his lips. However, the habit becomes so deeply rooted in some horses, that they will crib-bite in the pasture tield. A strap must then be buckled closely round the neck in the smallest part; this prevents the swellir of the wind- pipe large enoiigh to admit of the passage of a la ^ody of wind into the stomach. THE COMMON DISEASES TO WHICH THE FARM HORSE IS LIABLE. The information contained in this chapter has been obtained from the best authors on the Horse, and is confined to the more general and commonly occurring diseases. Should our reader's horse be attacked by any of those complicated disorders not to be found in this work, he must call in the aid of a practitioner. Indeed, we do not wish these pages to take the place of the vet- erinary, but in them the farmer will find many hints of use to him in the case of simple disorders in the stable, and by reference the right early treatment may often be adopted without delay. Ahaceaa. — A formation of matter just beneath the skin, generaUy from inflammation, acute or chronic. Symptoms. — Pain, heat and swelling, from the head of which the hair falls off, showing a white, soft spot. Remedy. — Apply poultices and hasten the formation of matter, then open it, and take — Rainwater I ounce. Chloride of zino... 6 grains. Apply to wound twice a day. Manual of Agriculture, 407 Accidents. — Rtiles for puidanco of driver when hiH horse falls : 1. Hold the iiiiiinarH head down with your knee. 2. LooHen the ciiuck ruin and the partn of the hamosB attached tc the vehicle. 8. Back the vehiclo.so an to bo clear from the prostrate animal 4. Steady his head and call to him to rise. 6. Treat him kindly when he is up, and don't brutally whip him for an accident. Apoplexy, or Mcgrirm. — Symptoms. — The horse falls without a moment's warning, or runs round once or twice and then falls, perfectly insensible, breathing heavy and low (or ho may struggle violently for a time). In live or ten minutes he will rise and pro- ceed on his journey as if nothing had hapj)ened, except that he will be duller than before. It will happen always without warn- ing, and in severe cases the horse will die instantly. When a horse is bad enough for this last (or apoplexy proper), he will usually give warning in his general appearance. This warning will be — head low, supported on anvtliing near, like a manger ; staggers and appears unsafe on his legs ; sight and hearing are affected. The horse will continue thus from one to twelve hours ; he then falls ; grinds his teeth ; his eyes are open, protruded and fixed ; pupils dilated ; twitchings about the frame ; muzzle cold ; the vein of the nock s oiled; cannot swallow; the drink is re- turned by the mouth or nostril, and dung voided involuntarily ; twitchings increase to strong convulsions, and soon result in death. Causes. — Undue pressure of blood on the brain, or even rupture of blood-vessels leading thereto ; too smallacollar on a thick necked horse ; or sunstroke. Treatment. — Apply ice to the head, and warm the limbs by bandages and friction. Bleed, if it happens in the road, or where other remedies cannot be obtained. McClure recommends a blis- ter of — Spanish fly (Cantharides) ^ drachm. Hog'a lard 2 drachms. Mix them well together, and rub the salve well in by hand on the part just behind the ears. If yo»i want more medicine, get it from a qualified practitioner. Feed the horse generously. Bite from a Mad Dog. — If the bite is in the body, syringe out the part immediately with a strong syringe — a hydrant flow if at hand— so that the veiy bottom of the wound may be cleaned. If on a limb, put on a tourniquet between the wound and the heart, so that the flow of blood is stopped. Then wash out the parts thoroughly ; next, cut a portion of the flesh from the top, sides and bottom of the wound, and apply caustic — the best caustic is the " lunar caustic," or nitrate of silver ; or a few drops of nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid may be dropped in the wound. , If- J '• 'lift! ;i ■i-!):** T -.-'*■ 408 The Canadian Farmer's The reason that horses more seldom die from hydrophobia from bites, is simply that they know no danger. The imagination or thinking that one has been bitten by a mad dog, has alone brought on the disease in humfn beings in many authenticated cases. The fact of a dog going mad after biting a person need be no cause of fear. Unless the dog is rabid at the time, there is no danger ; yet, precaution should always be taken. Bleeding in the horse will never be entirely discarded. It is very well for veterinary surgeons to tell us that it is an exploded because erroneous system. Doubtless it is not necessary to have recourse to the lancet and fleam to as great an extent as was once the fashion ; but the horse is a different patient to the man. We cannot lay our injunction on the horse, in certain cases where rest is necessary, to keep quiet, but we must make him quiet by physical means. When inflammation consists of increased flow of blood to and through certain parts, the only practicable way, in many cases, to abate the inflammation, is to lessen the quantity of blood. " If we take away the fuel, the fire will go out." Blood taken from the jugular, or bleeding at the neck, will lessen the general quantity ; but where inflammation is local, more good will often arise from taking away blood at the part where inflamma- tion is developed. The medical practitioners, not only veterinarians, but those of man, appeav to have run into the opposite extreme froxn the old- fashioned constant bleeding, and now set their faces steadily against the use of this remedy at all. No man can, however, deny that blood-letting is a rapid way in which to allay inflam- mation, and, what yet is of more importance, that medicines are more rapidly absorbed into thfj system and their action has- tened after thorough bleeding. One quart of blood taken from the foot in cases of acute founder, or an ounce of blood obtained by scarifying the swelled vessels of an inflamed eye, will give more relief than a copious withdrawal from the main vein. A copious bleeding in the first stages of inflammation never yet did serious injury to a horse. The horse will bear, and with advan- tage, the loss of an incredible amount of blood. The Operation. — The fleam is the safest instrument in inexpe- rienced hands. A blood-stick, a piece of hardwood, is used to strike the fleam into the vein. This must not be done with too great violence, or the fleam may cut the opposite wall of the jugular vein. Blindfold the horse on the side on which he is to be bled, and turn his head away. Smooth the hair along the course of the vein by wetting it with the finger ; then with the third and little fingers of the left hand, which holds the fleam, press on the jugular so as to bring the vein well into view. Select a point about two Manual of Agriculture. 409 ia from tion or )rought iS. The 3ause of 3r; yet, . It is sploded to have ^as once n. We ere rest uiet by [ flow of way, in ntity of Blood isen the ood will flamma- those of the old- steadily owever, inflam- ines are on has- founder, essels of idrawal ever yet advan- inexpe- bo strike )o great jugular ed, and of the iid little jugular out two inches below the un'on of the two portions of the jugular, at the angle of the jaw. Place the fleam in a direct line with and exactly over the centre of the vein, as close as possible, but its point not absolutely touching, and strike a quick blow on the back with the blood-stick, xt. fleum with a large blade is best, as the blood requires to be drawn speedily. A slight pressure on the vein is all that is required to cause the blood to flow freely. Keeping the tongue in motion by introduc- ing the fingers will also hasten the flow of blood. When sufficient blood has been drawn, bring the lips of the wound together, pass a pin through them, wrapping round it some tow or a few hairs from the horse's mane or tail. When bleeding, as a test and relief for inflammation, let the blood flow into the centre of the pail, for if it be allowed to trickle down the sides it will not afterwards properly undergo those changes by which the experienced can tell the extent and nature of the inflammation. The pin may be removed twenty-four hours after the bleeding. Be careful to wipe fleams or lancets thoroughly immediately after use, so as to ensure their freedom from rust. For general inflammation or fever, the jugular is the better vein from which to draw blood. In affections of the shoulder, fore arm or foot, the flate vein, which comes from the inside of the arm, and runs upwards directly in tront of it towards the jugular. In affec ions of the hinder extremities, blood is sometimes taken from the saphoena or thigh vein, which runs across the inside of the thigh. In foot cases, from the coronet, or much more safely from the toe of the frog ; " not by cutting out, as the farrier does, a piece of the sole at the toe of the frog, which sometimes causes a wound difficult to heal, and followed by festering, and even by canker ; but cutting down with a fine drawing-knife, called a searcher, at the union between the crust and the sole at the very toe, until the blood flows, and, if neces.sary, encouraging its discharge by dipping the toe in warm water. The meshwork of both arteries will be here divided, and blood is generally obtained i any quan- tity that may be needed. The bleeding may be stopped with the greatest ease by placing a bit of tow in the little groove that has been cut, and tacking the shoe over it." Bowels, InfiamTnation of. — Symptoms. — Violent and continu- ous pain in the belly ; getting no intervals of rest from pain ; rolling, pawing, shifting about, sweating, and breathing fast, with great fever and excitement ; cold extremities. N.B. — The symptoms that are marked with italics are those that are not known in cohc, and by which inflammation of the bowels and spasmodic colic may be distinguished the one from the other, and respectively properly treated. (Further, see Colic.) .7 '■if? IP i Ai t I 1 ■ >i ■I M rfMMialM ■.: I, U 410 The Canadian Farmer's Causes. — Sudden exposure to cold, severe exertion on the part of an over-fed horse, and colic neglected or wrongfully treated. Remedies. — Bleed, taking away six quarts of blood ; we don't like giving niedicine .by the mouth — if any, however, is given, let it be abou* owenty-five drops of tincture of aconite. Blister the belly ; cantharides as hereafter given in list of medi- cines. Keep the extremities warm by bandaging and rubbing ; keep the horse well clothed, but in a cool place. During the run of the disease, bran mashes and green food should be given, and all water warmed and made into a thin gruel with oatmeal. Clysters or injections will be found very beneficial in allaying inflammation and making a passage — these are simplest made of warm soft water, soap and sweet oil, beaten up into a lather ; or where costiveness is known to exist, make a thin gruel, in which put half a pound of Epsom salts or half an ounce of dissolved aloes. Broken Knees, caused by falling on hard substances and cut- ting the skin over the knees. Treatraent. — Carefully wash and clean out all gravel and dirt. Should the joint not have been opened, a linseed poultice must be applied. If the joint has been opened, the orifice must be closed or the oil will escape and a stiff joint result. Place a smooth piece of hot iron (heated in boiling water) over the wound — this will cause the lips to swell — and close it. If a repetition of this does not prevent the flow of joint oil, the animal will be rendered useless. Use the following wash as soon as oil has stopped, or if it be only a simple surface wound : — Sulphate of zinc, half an ounce ; rain- water, eight ounces. Do not bandage. Back Sinews, Sprain of. — Causes. — Sudden and violent exertion acting on the tendons in the back part of the fore legs. Symptoms. — Inflammation of the part, excessive lameness, and pain to the horse at every motion of the fore leg. Remedy. — Foment the part well with warm water two or three times a day, and half an hour each time ; between fomentations enclose the leg in a linseed poultice. Vinegar makes a good addi- tion to the fomentation. When the horse gets better, and can bear his weight, take away poultice, stop fomentations, and put on a 'hin flannel bandage, kept wet with vinegar and spirits of wine (one pint of vinegar to a quarter of a pint of spirits of wine). This bandage should be tightened up every day. If there remains, after pain has gone, any enlargement, a blister may be applied. Blistering should never be applied to a part already inflamed. When the heat and tenderness have disappeared, by the use of cold lotions and fomentations, and the sprained part remains en- larged, or even bony matter threatens to be deposited, we may be justifled in exciting inflammation of the skin by blistering, in or- Jl' 'T he part ted. e don't let ven. f medi- ibbing ; the run 'en, and ,1. Eillaying made of bher ; or 1 which issolved and cut- .nd dirt, must be closed or ith piece this will does not 1 useless, be only J ; rain- exertion less, and or three mtations )od addi- ke away bandage, inegar to lould be las gone, Inflamed, le use of lains en- may be ig, in or- Manual of Agriculture. 411 der to rouae the deeper-seated absorbents to action, and enable them to take up this deposit. Chill. — A shiver, usually a sure sign that some disease or fever is imminent. The disease is sometimes arrested by stopping the chill. Give twenty drops of aconite root in a wineglassful of water, blanket the patient, rub the legs, and generally promote the circulation. Cold, or Catarrh. — Symptoms. — Discharge from nose and eyes, coat roughened, a loss of appetite, and cough. Treatment. — Warmth, bran mashes, a few gentle doses of aco- nite— and let him alone. If he gets worse, then give, three times a day, in cold water, two ounces each of powdered gentian root, powdered pimenta, powdered carbonate of ammonia. Mix this lot and make twelve powders of it. Green cut food, when available, is one of the best things for a cold. Colic. — Spasmodic Colic, or Gri'pc.8,ox Belly-ache. — Symptoms. — Comes on very suddenly, and continues in snasms, each succeed- ing spasm being more severe until relief is obtained. It is something like inflammation of the bowels, and in order to distinguish the two diseases, we give their respective symptoms below, and side by side : — COLIC. Sudden in its attack. Pulse not much quickened in the early period of the disease, and during the intervals of ease, but filler. Legs and ears of natural temperature. Relief obtained from rubbing belly. Relief obtained from motion. Intervals of rest. Strength scarcely affected. INTXAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. Gradual in its approach, with previous indications of fever. Pulse verymuch quickened, but small and scarcely to be felt. Legs and ears cold. Belly exceedingly tender, and painful to touch. Motion evidently increasing pain. Constant pain. Rapid and great weakness. oats Causes. — Drinking cold water, or feeding heavily with when overheated. Treatm'int. — Warm the stomach. Give a bottle of warm ale, and mix in it three ounces of spirits of turpentine and an ounce of laudanum. If relief be not obtained in half an hour, and it is clearly a case of colic, repeat half the first dose with an ounce of Barbadoes aloes dissolved in warm water. Rub the belly well with a brush or warm cloth. Walk the horse about — and throw up an injection of warm water, soap and sweet oil with a solution of aloes. When relief is obtained, clothe him warmly, and give him a bran mash for the next few days. Gin, pepper and such hot things may do good, but are danger- ous in gripes, as tending to turn it to inflammation of the bowels. The attack generally gives way to the turpentine and laudanum. Constipation, or the eft'ect of continued costiveness. — Horses P u M •.HI > f '! , 412 The Canadian Farmer's Ui : ; subject to such should be often supplied with mashes and soft food, and constantly watched. Cough. — Chronic. — The presence of an obstinate cough may be traced to a hundred causes. When the cause can be directly traced, as weakness of lungs, bronchial affections, worms, &lc., a plan to get rid of the cough is to remove its cause {causa suhlata tulitur effectus) — a good general remedy is : — Digitalis i'drachm, ) Nitre 4 drachm, > 1^ drachms to make Emetic tartar 4 drachm, ) two doses, and to be given once a day when very obstinate. A blister, extend- ing from the root of one ear to that of the other, taking in the whole cf the channel and reaching six or even eight inches down the windpipe, and even to the chest, will often prove effectual. As prevention is better than cure, keep your horses from dusty hay and musty oats. Crib-biting. — (See The Vices of Horses.) Curb. — A swelling immediately below the point of the hock joint, the result of a strain of the straight posterior ligament. Cow-hocks very susceptible to curbs. Treatment. — First foment with cooling lotions, equal parts spirits of wine, water and vinegar. If possible, keep a bandage soaked in this on the hock. Absolute and long-continued rest. Cut the hair off and blister with an ointment of red iodide of mercury, applied once a week, and keep the skin, well greased to prevent cracking. Catarrh. — (See Cold.) Cataract. — (See Eye.) Chest founder. — Often confused with Feet founder, but is nothing more than rheumatism in that part. Corded Veins, or Farcy Buds. — A sure sign that farcy is in the blood of the horse.r-(See Farcy.) Cow-hocks. — A bad shape for a horse's hind legs, always indicat- ing a tendency, on any extra exertion, to throw out curbs ; and liability to windgalls, fetlock sprains, thoroughpin, spavins, cut- ting and knuckling. Diarrhoea. — When it simply consists of a looseness of the bowels, unaccompanied by gripes or other pain, leave it alone ; but when the offensive passage continues, there will be some colic, and the discharge must be stopped. Treatment. — If there be any pain, give twenty-five drops of tincture of aconite in cold water ; then the following powder, every two hours, until there is a change for the better : — Prepared chalk, half an ounce ; catechu in powder, one drachm ; opium in Manual of Agriculture. 413 ft food, may be lungs, 3 cough a good extend- ; in the 3s down tual. oa dusty le hock gament. al parts bandage d blister a week, nothing is in the indicat- bs ; and ns, cut- bowels, it when and the rops of powder, 'repared ipium in powder, ten grains. Allow plenty of water to drink. Give bran mashes for a few days, with cake meal or ground flax-seed. DISTEMPER, EPIDEMIC CATARRH OR INFLUENZA. Symptoms. — Shivjring fits, to which succeed a hot mouth, greater heat of the skin than is natural, heaving of the flanks, and cough. The eyes are heavy and red, and the membrane of the nose red (but paler than in inflammation of the lungs). Discharge from the nose ; at first watery, but soon thickening. This soon becomes offensive and full of matter. The glands of the throat and under jaw become enlarged, the membranes of the nos- tril and throat inflamed and tender, and there is difficulty in swal- lowing water, particularly if it be cold. The horse coughs as he drinks ; the cough is painful, shown by the horse stamping his feet in the act ; soon he becomes very weak, staggers and almost falls, or supports himself by leaning against the side of his box or stall. Legs swell, and enlargements appear on the chest and belly. The pulse is quickened. It rises to sixty or seventy, but the vari- ation of the pulse depends entirely on the degree of fever that accompanies the disease. Cause obscure; the consequenceof a bad cold, or more frequently an epidemic in the district. D. McClure, V.S., recommends for the distemper, as it appears in America, as follows : — " Place the horse in a cool (not cold) and airy place, put a light covering on him, and give him twenty drops of the tincture of aconite root in a little cold water every four hours until five doses have been administered. Place plenty of cold water before the horse, so that he can drink as much as he wants. When the aconite has been all given, commence with fifteen-drop doses of the tincture of nux vomica, which repeat every four hours, con- tinuing it for a few days, and if the animal improves, and the ap- petite returns, nothing more in the way of medicine need be given. " Recovery being slow and the appetite poor, give the following powders morning, noon and night : — Powdered carbonate of am- monia, three ounces ; powdered gentian root, two ounces ; powdered pimenta berries, two ounces. Mix, and divide into twelve powders, and give them mixed in a little cold wa- ter ; and drench the horse out of a strong-mouthed bot- tle. The powders will have to be wrapped well, so as to keep them from the air and prevent the loss of their strength conse- quent on exposure. Twenty drops of commercial sulphuric acid may be given occasionally in half a bucket of cold water, which the horse will readily drink. Do not apply blisters or anything to the throat, as is too often done ; they can do no good, but po- (if vt? ! < ml f ■ ii m ■ -3: f ' ■ 1 ■ I; > iiii I 414 y/ie Canadian Farmer's sitively much harm." (In our own experience we have seen the glands of the throat much relieved by bUsterss. — The Author.) EYE — DISEASES OF. Floating spots. — Bathe with cold water. Warts on the eyelids may be cut off with a pair of scissors and the roots touched with caustic. The thickening of the haw can only be relieved by cooling lotions, and physic to improve the general health. Common Inflammation is generally sudden. Symptoms. — The lid swells, eye partly closed, with some weep- ing. The inside of the lid will be red, some red streaks visible on the white of the eye, and the cornea slightly dimmed. Treatment. — Look well to see that there is no object of irritation, such as hay seed, in the eye. Apply cool lotions to the eye; give mash diet and gentle physic. Ophthalmia, or Moon Blindness. — If the inflammation has not abated in several days, we may suspect periodical or specific blind- ness. This is a disease which may be relieved for a time, but never cured ; in greater or less time, eyesight will become obscured. For three or four weeks the inflammation will continue unabated, when suddenly, without warning, the eye will mend, and the sight be quite recovered. But before long the ophthalmia will come on again, and after a succession of intervals total blindness will ensue of one or both eyes. Cool lotions and fomentations will give temporary relief In examining the eye of a horse, when about to purchase, care must be exercised that there are no traces of the existence of this disease. They are a slight thickening of the lids, or pucker- ing towards the inner corner of the eye ; a difference in the apparent size of the eyes ; a cloudiness, although perhaps scarcely perceptible, of the surface of the cornea, or more dee|)ly seated, or a hazy circle round its edge ; a gloominess of the eye generally, and dulness of the iris; or a minute, faint, dusky spot in the centre, with or without little fibres or lines diverging from it. Causes. — Bad ventilation and darkness in stables are the chief predisposing causes to this disease. Farcy is not glanders, but is very closely connected with it ; their symptoms often mingle together, or the one disease will run into the other. While glanders is incurable, farcy in its milder and earlier stages may be successfully combated. It is a " scrofula" acting on the blood vessels, especially upon those infinite smaller ones that open upon the skin — thus it is known — or appears out- wardly as a skin disease. The valves of the blood vessels are Manual of Agriculture. 415 affected and get out of order ; hence the whole circulation being impaired, the blood must be cleansed. Symptoms. — An unhealthy coat, loss of flesh, impaired appetite and general dulness, followed by, generally, the swelling of a leg, hind or fore. The swelled leg is hot and painful, and soon breaks out in " farcy buds ;" these buds may be distinctly felt, like a lot of buttons on the leg, when the hand is passed down it ; gene- rally ft)und on the inside of the limb. It assumes all sorts of forms. Sometimes these " buds" break into ulcers, spread round and are difficult to cure ; or tumors are formed between the fore legs and about the groin, or upon the lips, which ulcerate and spread. When this stage is arrived at, watch carefully for glanders. C of the feet thin. Give plenty of cold water to drink. Feed on grass or soft mashes, but do not keep the horse too low. liemember, do not bleed, neither from the neck, nor foot, nor from any other place, in a disease of this kind. — D. McClure. Canker in the Foot. — Causes. — Injuries to the sensitive sole by nails, bruises, and other accidents, as a piece of sole being torn otf. Treatment. — Removal of any diseased or dead sole or proud flesh. If not all removable, or removed, reduce caustic potash quickly to a coarse powder, as it soon dissolves on exposure to air. Lay it upon the raw surface. Thisapply next day,if first application has not removed sufficient or all of it. After proud flesh has been entirely taken off, dress every day with Burba ^oes tar, one pound , sulphuric axiid, three drachms ; powdered sulphate of copper, half an ounce. Mix well, and spread a portion on the sore foot, and over this dressing a pad of tow or cotton, held firmly down on the padding, so as to produce pressure. This can be secured by thin splints from young wood placed across one another over the pad, and the ends pushed in beneath the shoe. — McClure. Contracted Feet. — An unnatural contraction of the back part of the hoof As the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, {)articularly the coffin bone and the heels of the coffin bone, diminish. 27 , I •J' if til i I 111 f>« MM!' I. I 1 418 The Canadian Farmer's Causes. — Want of proper knowledge, ontlie part of the owner and horHe-shoer, in injudiciou.sly paring all t'uet alike ; keeping shoes on too long; standing too long in dry places, and thun depriving the hoof of natural moisture (hence the benefit of stopping the shoe with cow dung in the stables); iniiamniation of the little plates covering the cottin-bone. Blood horses are particularly liable to contraction of the feet, whilst overfeeding and close confinement combine often to bring on many such local affections. Tredtment rests to a great extent with the shoer, and herein is the skill and knowledge of such a mechanic disjjlayed. When contraction causes lameness, the case should be put in the hands of a vet. Corns. — A red spot on the inner portion of the heel of the foot. Cause. — Pressure and bruising by shoe, when badly put on or left on too long. Treatment. — Let a skilful practitioner cut out the corns ; then apply a few drops of commercial sul])huric acid to the part. Shoe the horse sufHciently often to ensure even bearing to the shoe upon the wall only of the foot. — McClure. Pricks. — Treatment. — Pull the nail out and poultice the foot for twenty-four hours; then make an opening through the horn, over the place where the nail went in, so us to allow the pus to pass. After an opening has been made properly, dro})^yc drops of muri- atic acid into the hole, once a day for a day or two. Poultice every second night or day, and not oftener. — McClure. Sandcrack. — A crack in the hoof, into which sand or other grit has got. Causes. — Brittleness of hoof; want of natural moisture generally in the inner part of fore foot. Prevention. — Apply to brittle feet equal portions of oil of tar and cod liver oil, whale oil, or axiy fish oil, well rubbed in with a brush on the hoofs a few times a week. Treatment. — Considerably thin the edges of the crack ; wash out well ; and if any fungus shows through the crack, destroy it with chloride of antimo)iy. Make a piece of iron red hot, and then pass it rapidly across the hair just above the crack, so as to make a scab ; put a pledget of tow in the crack and bind it down. Navicular 2)isease.— Behind and beneath the lower pastern bone, and behind and above the heel of the coffin bone, is a small bone called the navicular or shuttle bone. There is a great deal of weight thrown on this bone, and its surface sometimes becomes ulcerated. Causes. — Constant work on hard roads, or inflammation neg- lected, and ending in ulceration. Symptoms. — Hard to discover; when there is lameness and great heat, and none of the other diseases of the foot can be found, we may generally conclude that the navicular bone is atiected. m )imd, we Manual of Agriculture. 419 Remedy — Tlie bone Ls so dcep-soatod that cure is impossible, though relief may be given by poultices and cooling applications. The old writers on the Horse reconuncrid blisters on the coronet, setons run through the frog ; but the farmer must here call in the surgeon. There is an operation called nckwotonoi, or the cutting out of a portion of the nerve, tliat has been found success- ful. Thrvfth. — A discharge of offensive matter from the cleft of the frog, caused by intlanuiiation. Cs, or streaks of abrasion, and (luite superficial, but small ulcers, usually approach- ing to a circular form ; deep, with the edges abrupt and promi- nent See thfit these ulcers, however, do actually exist, for spots of mu- cus adhering to the membrane have been often mistaken for them. There is a form of chronic glanders which will continue for years, the horse constantly discharging from the nose, but able to work well. In this state, however, it is generally considered that the horse is capable of propagating the malady. When these ulcers have fairly appeared, r>thcr symptoms show- ing an nffected constitution will rapidly supervene : as lo.ss of Hesh, tucked-up belly, unthrifty coat, cough, impaired appetite, failing strength ; the discharge from the no.se daily becomes more [mrulent, discoloured, bloody and stinking ; the ulcers will become arger and more numerous ; and the air passages being obstructed, a grating, choking noise will be heard at every breath. The lungs are now diseased ; they are filled with tubercles or ulcerations, and the horse soon dies, a worn-out loathsome object. Otandera has been confounded with Stranr/les and with Cold. IN STRAN(]LE.S, Which are peculiar to young horses, and resemble common cold in early stages, there is fiom the Hist some fever and sore throat, a distressing cough, or wheezing. The enlargement below the jaws is a swelling of the whole of the surface between the jaws, growing harder tow.irds the middle ; after a time ap- pears to contain a fluid in a tumor, which bursts, and fever begins to abate. The membrane of the nose is extremely red. The discharge is profuse and thick from the first. COMMON COLD Is accompanied by fever, loss of appetite and sore throat from the first. Glands of the jaw, if swelled, are move- able, with a thickening round them, and are hot and tender. Discharge thick and purulent. It is well, however, to bear in mind that cold, and every disease that has to a considerable and palpable degree undermined the IN OLANDRRS, No cough in early stages. The swelling below the jaws at tirst large, but sur- rounding enlargement soon goes off and one or two small distinct glands remain, and they are not in the cen- tre of the cliannel, hut adkere cloaelylo the jaw on the ajfecteil aide. Ulceration of membrane. The membrane a sickly hue — purple or lead colour. The discharge, commencing thin, trans- parent, sticky, is conalant, and in- creases to a purulent, bloody, stinking state. I- I ■!Br«K.'..!j;,i!«.'_*wr!*« |: ■ I. , I ' ,1. •f 1 \ I To prevent, us far hh pOHHible, tho sprwul of abortion by Hympa- thy ainongst the other cowh, h^t the ("tw-houso be well washed with .some \ Joint Felon, or Qaarter Evil — Pecidiar to young cattle, and occurring in tho spring. A hind legand thigh become congested and black with coagidated blood. It is sudden in attack and very fatal. (Piuses. — A plethoric condition and fulness of blood. Treatment. — Tho disease must be taken early. On its first ap- pearance give the whoi(! herd (if young ciutle a good brisk purge — say half a ])ound of Epsom salts in two bottles of water, sweet- ened with molasses, and add a teaspoon ful of ginger. Take the young cattle out of very ricli pasture and put them in high, dry land. Brain Diseases. — Phrenitis. — Tho same as mad staggers in the horse. Causes. — Overfeeding in long, wet grass. Symptoms. — The animal is dull ; quickened breathing ; excite- ment and delirium, with bloodshot eyes. Treatment. — Give an active purge : one pound of Epsom salts and one pound of table salt, dissolved in four (juarts of cold water, and sweetened with molasses. Apply ico to the forehead ; warm the extremities and clothe the body. Bronchitis. — An inflammation of the windpipe, sometimes ex- tending to the lungs. Generally comes in epizootic form, attacking a whole herd. Causes. — A peculiar state of the atmosphere, making it epidemic, Symjdoms. — A slight husky cough, with weeping from the eyes, and a watery discharge from the inner corner of the nose ; a slight rough and grating sound will be heard in the windpipe. It is the forerunner of pleuro-pnenm^onia. Treatment. — If the disease be discovered within forty-eight hours of the attack, take from four to five doses of the tincture of aconite root — twenty-five drops to a dose — and give one dose every four hours. If there be uncertainty as to whether the dis- ease has existed longer or shorter, to save time the aconite may be given along with the following powders three times a day: — Powdered sulphate of iron 3 drachms. Powdered gentian root 4 oiiiico. Mix, and iiiaka a drenuh. ThiH modi(Miio is to Ixs contimuMl (omittin}^ tlio ucouito after tho fifth 'lose) until tho uniiiial i.s well, or looks brighter and euts all it get.s. In uddition to tho above inodicines, ^ivo, oneo or twice daily, half an ouneo of coniinorcial sulphuric acid, largely diluted, or mixed in luilf a bucket of cold water. Ill feeding, care should bo taken not to give too much, so as to bring on dangerous indigestion. Uivo cold water and [denty of pure air. (hnstipatioyi- -Treatment. — When the costiveness is symptom- atic of some derangement, purges are unnect;ssa>y, but the tone of the health must be generally improved. Ah for example: sup- pose the animal constipated, the whole of tho eye tinged yellow, head drooping, and tho animal drowsy and ott" his feed, then give the following : — Powdered mandrake 1 U^ispoonful. Castile soap (shaved) ^ of an ounce. Beef 8 gall i a wino glass. Powdered capsicum J of a taWeapoon. Dissolve the soap in a small quantity of hot water, then mix the whole in three pints of thin gruel. If the bowels be oidy torpitl, say in tho case of iuHammation of the brain, we must combine relaxeuta with antisi)asmodic8, thus ; Extrpct of butternut .^ an ounce. Powdered skunk cabbage \ an ounce. Cream of tartar .J an ounce. Powdered lobelia 2 drachms. Choking. — Many cattle have been lost by a potato or portion of some root lodging in the upper or middle third of the gullet. Methods for dislodgliu/ it. — 1st. Hold the mouth open with a balling iron, or some other contrivance ; let a person with a small hand endeavour to pass a line with a loop round the obstruction and draw it up ; at the same time assisting the process by mani- pulations on the outside of tho throat. If this fails, — 2ndly. Pour small quantities of oil or melted lard down the throat. If this fails, — 3rdly. Use the probang, or in its stead a cane or rattan may be tried (never use a whip stock ; many a cow has been killed by the use of the latter) ; but let the end of the cane be well wrapped with linen, thick, and in a ball shape. See that the linen is tied on tight, 80 that it cannot be left in the throat. Introduce the cane very gently, and if coughing is set up, remember it has :: I A 'fi ^4ffi^ mm- II. 436 The Canadian Farmer's touclu!(l the air pa.sHn|;o,s, and remove it immediately, and see tliat it goes down the ri;^ht channel, (lenflij and HtcadUij work at the obstru'ition until it is pushed down. There are eases when the gullet nnist be opened to get at tlic obstruction. This should be done by an e.\perieneed practitioner. It' choking lasts long, the throat is apt to swidi and the gas accuuiulate in tin first stomach. This svill be treated of under the head of" Hoove," or " liloated." Colic will also be treated under the head of" Hoove." Coiv Pox. — This is a contagious eruption on the skin of the udder, which runs a fixed course and is attended by slight fever. Symptoms. — Teats j)ainful, slightly swollen; a faint blush upon the ud('er, and in a few days red, hard sj)ots are seen, succeeded by red patches, which, in from a few days to a week, form bladders containing the vaccine lymph. Tredtmrnt. — Warmth, nursing, and the ih'awing of the milk carefully from the u(ider. Ci(d, //O.s.s of tJw. — Tins is a sure symptom of disease. When apparent, look out for other diseases, such as bronchitis, plcuro- pneumoira, aptha, &ic. On the other hand, after illness the renewal of the j)roceso of chewing the cud is a sure sign of permanent im- piovement. Diarrhoia. — Simple diarrhwa seldom calls for treatment ; it may, however, be well sometimes to give a few powders composed of prepared chalk, two ounces ; ginger, half an ounce ; opium, one drachm ; mixed, and given as a drench in wheat Hour gruel, A change of pasture will often have the necessary effect. Acute or Chronic Diarrhuia. — Causes. — The abuse of purgatives, by their being administered in too active a form ; feeding on cer- tain poisonous plants ; sudden change of food from dry to green ; excess of food ; bad water ; or an unhealthy state of the atmo- sphere. Treatment. — Give generous diet, with linseed cake. McClure recommends commercial sulphuric acid, gentian, and sulphate of iron, as the medicines for this trouble. He also says : " I would advise weekly inhalations of sulphurous acid gas." Diarrhoea ht, Calves. — Treatment. — Give three drachms of car- bonate of soda in well-boiled wheat Hour gruel once a day ; or, give a tablespoon ful of common rennet after each feed of milk. Epizootic Aptha. — (See Murrain.) Eye. — Cancer in the eye is incurable. A pustular eruption on the edges of the eyelids must be dressed with the mild nitrated ointment of mei'cury, and the following alterative medicine may be given in a mash : One part of salt- petre, t^''0 of nitre, and four of sulphur. Warts on the eyelids may be removed with the scissors, and the roots cauterized with lunar caustic. 7> i! I Mamtal of Agricultufe. 437 Oenpral injVnnmaiion of the eye slionl'l ho treated by bathing with diluted tiiieturo of oiuuin, or Gouliird's wash. Or, if the liaw of tiie eyelid hwoIIh and a fungous growth .springs u[), use a zine lotion diligently, viz. : Two grains of wliite vitriol fsidphato of zinc) dissolved in one ounce of water, antl the vitriol gradually increased to four grains, the licjuid not being suffered to get into the sound part of t!io eye. Aih olmti'iictioii in the eye, as gravel, straw, barley beards, &c., sometimes leaves a thickened eyelid. Fotnentations should bo used to allay the enlargements, and an alterative given, for tiie swelling indicates a bad state of the blood. Fever sometinios lasts only a day, and will yield to gentle ])hysic and a mash. When fever does not yield to mild tieatment, it is apt to teiminate in hoove or murrain, or some othcj- diseases. The symptoms for these »; ust be carefully looked for, and as soon as they appear, be ti'cated. Flooiling (from tlie womb), though rare, may follow natural parturition. Treatment. — Apply cold cloths to the loins. Dissolve a pound of nitre in a gallon of water, and keep the cloths wetted with the solution ; or, if in summer, use ice cloths. Let her drink all the cold water she will take, and give large doses of opium (two drachms every hour). Elevate the hinder parts of the cow ; keep her perfectly quiet, and do not permit the cylf to suck. Anything but absolute rupture of the womb will yield to this treatment. Oarget. — Mammitis.or Infiammation of theUdder. — Causes. — The bag allowed to become too full and hard "^ter, or sometimes before, calving. Syynjitoms. — A teat or quarter becomes enlarged, hot and ten- der, and begins soon to feel hard and knotty ; and little distinct hardened tumors are felt inside the teat. This is apt to spread over the whole udder and to the other teats. Treatment. — In the early stage, let the calf be allowed to suck and knock about and soften the udder. This will generally re- lieve her, by promoting a flow of milk. If inflammation continues, or the udder is so sore that the mother will not allow her calf to suck, refuses to eat, or ceases to ruminate, becomes feverish, the milk is discoloured and mixed with matter and blood, the case is seriou.s. Then apply warm poultices to hasten suppuration. This may force the pus to evacuate itself. When pr^^perly discharged, use a healing ointment on the sores which will be left If the garget appears chronic, i.e., the heat and redness be not followed by swellings containing pus, use cold applications, if pos- sible ; if that is not effected, bring on suppuration by poultices, and treat as above. Whatever treatment be adopted, be sure to if 1 11 m \^ m ► i i! 11 ' W ■ im 438 The Canadian Farmer's milk the udder severely, and, if possible, put two strong calves to suck. Hidebound. — An indication of a bad state of the digestive or- ganri, and general " out of sorts." Treatment. — A dose of physic, say : Epsom salts, one pound ; ginger, half an ounce — in two bottles of cold water, and sweetened with molasses; or, .sul|)hur, eight ounces ; ginger, half an ounce — in a bran mash. After tlie j)hysic has acted, give the following pow- ders : — Powdered ginger 1 ounce. Fenugreek 1 ounce. Carraway seeds 4 ^n ounce. Mix, and give in one dose, daily, for a week. Hoven. — Tympanitis, Bloated orDrumBelly. — This is simply a mechanical ailment, and is caused by the generation of a large amovint of caj'bonic acid gas from a mass of pai-tially decomposed food in the stomach, which has oeen allowed there to accumulate. Tlie paunch is distended or bloated; the skin drawn as tight as a drum ; and if the gas be not evacuated, the internal organs are pressed ujion and death ensues. Treatment. — Must be rapid ; time is everything. First, try mild methods. Give half a pound of table mustard and an ounce of chloride of lime, mixed 'n a little i3old water ; or, if handy, give freshly powdered carbonate of ammonia, in cold water; or, dash cold water over the loins, and move the animal gently about. The best of all the milder remedies will be found in an injection of raw linseed oil, s^ap an J \*arra water. If the gas is not soon evacuated by the anus, an operation must be performed. Every farmer should own a trochar and canula, the proper instrument" to be here used. In default cf these, and where the case is urgent, at once plunge a dinner knife, well sharpened, into the side, or at equal distance from the hip bone, short rib and spine, and on the left side of the animal. Where the trouble has become chronic, i.e., a return of this complaint is constantly taking place, it shows a debilitated con- dition of the walls of the rumen, and the following powder should be given for a few days, morning and night, in a mash : — Powdered ginger .^ an ounce. Gentian 4 ^n ounce. Fenugreek ^ an ounce. Inflammation is not common in cattle, but when it occurs may be treated as described before for the horse. Jauiulicc, or the Yellows. — Cause. — An obstruction of the pas- sage of bile from the gall bladder, and its absorption in the stomach, from which it spreads throughout the whole system. Symptoms. — A yellow colour of the eyes, of the skin generally, j; t- i I ! ' 'I Manual of Agriculture. 439 and of the urine ; seen plainly in the lining of the mouth and nose. In bad cases, the general health is seriously affected, causing gen- eral irritation and fever, quickness and hardness of the ])ulse, heaving of the flanks, excessive thirst, and suspension of rumina- tion ; costiveness, with the dung of n whitish or straw-coloured look. If it be not bad, give plenty of soft food, slops, &c. If it assumes an acute kind, a good dose of purgative medicine may be given : — Epsom salts 1 pound. Table suit 4 pound. Ginger 4 ^^ ounce. Mix, and dissolve in four bottles of water, sweetened with mo- lasses. Lice. — (See chapter on Cow Stables.) Milk Fever occurs from the first to the third day after calving. It is inflammation of the womb, which sometimes extends to the bowels. Syvi'ptoims. — Loss of power over the hinder limbs, and conse- quent falling down of the animal; loss of appetite and suspension of rumination, resulting in the affection of the brain, and in a short time death. Causes. — Too high condition at time of calving ; overfeeding before or after calving. Treatment. — To lessen the probability of this trouble, give, a week or so before calving, the same medicine recommended above for jaundice, and feed plentifully with slop mashes, giving no meal, grain, or heating food. When the disease has set in, give, according to McClure, thirty drops of the tincture of aconite root, and half an ounce of the pure opium, in powder, in a bottle of thin gi-uel. The aconite must be re[)eated every four hours, without the opium, until four or five doses are given. Place chopped ice in a bag on the forehead, renewing it when wanted. At more leisure, give the Epsom salt purgative as above recommended. Keep the cow as quiet as pos- sible ; her legs and body warm. Give pui-e air, and as much cold water as the animal desires. All writers insist that the boivels must he opened ; clysters of warm water, soap and oil will help this greatly. MURRAIN — THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. McClure is very hard upon the cow leeches for calling any dis- ease Murrain, which name means to die; but although "by classical scholars, orators and poets, the use of the word murrain may be taken as an indication that they have read Virgil, Homer and Horace, yet when cow doctors talk about the muri-ain, it con- I ;f l-M v\\ ;■* ■PWJWil 440 The Canadian Farmer's nil- m veys the leverae idea to that entertained when used by the orator and poet." Yet we v/ould remind Dr. McClure tliat a very well- known and revered classical scholar and poet has handed down for universal quotation the couplet: — " What 'a in a name ? A rose by any othername would smell as sweet." The disease may be the consequence of " Epidemic catarrh, epi- zootic aptha {(le la fievre aptheura) in a malignant form, on account of the great vascularity of the system, and intensity of fcV)rile action, and consecjuent vital exhaustion,"&f.,&c.; but of one thing we are well assui'ed, that as murrain it was known to the old world, a.s recorded in the Book of Exodus (Chaj). ix.); to Homer, 900 years before Christ; to Hiiij)ocrates, who flourished 500 years yet before Homer ; to Plutarch, who speaks of it as occurring dur- ing the reign of Romulus; to Livy; to Virgil, in his pastoral " Ueorgics," about 50 years before the Christian era (see (Jeorg. lib. iii. V. 478, Szc); to the historian. Cardinal Baronius, who refers to it as murrain in the year A.D. 37G ; to the Emperor Charle- magne, the whole of the cattle in whose army was destroyed by murrain in A.D. 810 ; to the Venetian States, which were ravaged in 1514 and 1599 ; to the Journal des Savans, in 1G82 ; to Dal- matia and Italy, in 1711, whence it spread to Piedmont, thence to France, Germany and England. In 1743, the disease, still known as the murrain, again broke out devastating France, Holland and Germany, when in Holland alone, more than 200,000 cattle perished with it : and again came over to Britain, and for twelve years laid waste the herds of the islands. In the year 1747, as murrain, it destroyed 40,000 cattle in the two shires of Nottingham and Leicester ; and in Cheshire alone 30,000 cattle died in six months. As the murrain it is now known to farmers, veterinary prac- titioners, " intelligent persons" and " ignorant pretenders ;" and for such, when once fairly afloat, there is no remedy but extrmie measures to prevent its spread — total stamping out —and keeping herds carefully in good healthy condition. We trust we may never see the murrain in Canada. Pleuro-P neu/monia— Affection of the covering or pieura of the lungs and of the lungs themselves. At first, The symptoms are scarcely observable. When, however, the constitution is no longer strong enough to resist the ravages of the disease, there appears diminution or irregularity of appetite. Soon afterwards, a frequent and dry cough, which becomes feeble and painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portions of the spine become tender, and the animal flinches when that part is pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan or gri ij:. ir. ';c v"ve,to experienced ears, of an attection of the pleuva Soon fif t r the i Manual of Agriculture, 441 movements of the flanks become irregular and accelcMated, and the act of respiration seems to be sympatliised in by a mouion of the vdiole body. The sides of the chest and tlie loins become (juite tender ; the elbows are bent out from the chest ; the pulse becomes feebler ; the muzzle is hot and dry altcinately ; rumination is partially or entirely suspended. The faeces are harder thiin they «;hould be ; the mouth I) .;omes dry. . In most cases tlie disease j)ursues its course with little remission towards its fatal termina- tion, every symptom gradually increasing in intensity. The r('S|)i- ration l)ecomes more painful ; the head more extended ; the eyes are brilliant ; every expiration is accom )anied by a grunt and a kind of puckering of the angles of the ips ; the cough becomes smaller, more suppi'cssed, and yet mon; painful ; the tongue pro- trudes from the mouth, and a frothy nnicus is abundantly dis- charged; the breath becomes offensive; a pui-ulent fluid of a bloody colour escapes from the nosti'ils ; diarrluca, profuse and foetid, succeeds to constipation ; tlie animal bcc^omes weaker ; it is a complete skeleton, and at length dies of utter ])roHtration. Causes. — Atmospheric influences cause this disease to as,sume the nature of an epidemic ; sudden and severe changes of tempera- ture, easterly winds, &c., and many other such uncontrollal)le (!on- ditions of the times. Also a ])redisposing cause which resides in the individual patient. A very frviitful source of predisposing causes may be found in the imperfect ventilation of cow-houses and stables ; close contiguity to the smoking and fermenting dung- hill ; over-heated stables ; too stimulating feed, and tui'ning the cow suddenly from a heated temperature out into the cold. Treatment. — The disease is far more fatal in cows heavy with calf, and in animals who are in low condition. McClure says: — "If the disease has been observed within forty-eight hours from the time of attack, give the following powdei's every four hours, between six o'clock in the morning and ten at night, or at six, ten, two, six, and ten o'clock : — iil ) .^il Tincture of aconite root 2^ drachms. Powdered gentian root 3 ounces. Powdered ginger root 3 ounces. Sulpliate of iron 2 ounces. Mix well, and divide into five powders, to be given as above directed. After the five powders have been given, continue with the same powders, but wltkotd the aconite, and give them only three times a day. Half an ounce of the sulphite of soda may be added to each powder with advant.ige. The powders will have to be m.ixed in a large bottle of water and sweetened with molasses. Allow plenty of ])ure air, cold water and good strong feed, but not too much at a time. * * * In the early stages of the disease, the carbonate of ammonia given in three-drachm doses along with tfli'n 442 The Canadian Farmer's r the other powders, will do much good. Th' e are two points I liave ev(!r sought to ol»tnin in the ti'eatment u this di.sease : — Ist. To maintain tiie appetite ; 2nd., to resto. and maintain it, if lost. Red Water. — This disease usually occurs to cows a few days after calvinf]f. Cause. — l)urin(:^ the period of pregnancy there has been con- siderable determination of blood to the womb ; the conditif)n of the blood is then, first locally, and soon after genercally altered ; the red globules arc broken up, and the c()]ouv\ng mutter, or hematosin, escapes into and is passed out in the urine. Symptoms. — (jlonci-al disorder, shown by suspension of rumina- tion ; suffering ; diarrhu'a followed by con8ti))ation ; and the urine, with difhcvdty discharged, is highly tinged with blood-red, and in the last stages is of a black colour. Treatment. — First, a purgative: A pound of Epsom .salts, a pound of common salt, half an ounce of ginger dissolved in water, and sweetened. Give plenty of mashes. The simrmiXmust he purged if constipation has set in. When the purging has been effected, give no astring',ss. — For this give castor oil, two tablespoonsful every twelve hours until relieved ; or Epsom salts, one ounce. It will be well also to give an injection of sweet oil, warm water and soap suds . ,^,^11 Ch'mic Cough \u often noticeable m more or less ot the sheep in a rii)(;k. This is ncaily alwa} s cured by a complete change of pasture, accompanied by regular feeding with salt. If not so cured, it will Generally be found symptomatic of some worse disease. Eruptive Disense. — Sheep are subject to an eruption of the skin which gradually extends along the chine, and if permitted to be- come universal may prove dangerous. Treatment. — Give daily drinks of half a drachm of cream ot tar- tar, and one drachm of sulphur, in four ounces of camomile de- coction. Anoint also with mercurial ointment. Foot Rot. — Very prevalent amongst high-bred sheep, have a secretory outlet between the claws of the foot, whii the hoof erows too fast, is apt to be obstructed, or may I t I I ■ 1:1, VM ftf' it 5heep when ilosed M i r ?w 1 ** '*i 111 ■ ' ' i:1 ^ If' ^ 444 T'/i^ Canadian Farmer's up by Rand, gravel, &c;. Hence, inflammatoiy action is set up amonfj^st the laminu; of tlie foot, and there Ih a secretion of foetid matter. When a sheep is ohserved to go lame, examine tlie foot, dean out from it all sand, gravel and filthy matter ; cut off nil loose and ragged ))ortions of the horn of the hoof, and apply to the sore [)or- tions an ointment composed of two parts of tar and one of oil of tur])entine, which having mixed, add one part of muriatic acid, and afterwards add four {)arts of blue vitriol. Or, the ointment may be made thus (McClure) : — Oil of turpentine 2 ounces. Sulphuric acitl J ounce. Olive oil 1 ounce. Mix. Apply with a spon'^e or cloth ; where sores occur on the di- visions, touch them with nitric acid or a little of the butter of antimony (terchloride of antimony) by means of a fonther, Gi'uh in the Head, or Fro ) I tal Warmth. — (Jause. — This is the lar- vte of the (ip.stnis ovis, or gad-fly of the sheep It lays its eggs on the inner margin of the nose, which having become hatched, the larvjB or grubs creej> up into the frontal and maxillary sinuses to the torment of the sheep, and at times to their destruction. Sympfomff. — The fly, laying its eggs in July, August and Sep- tember, may be observed by the action of a flock of sheep, which collect in close clumps, with their iicads inwards, and their noses thrust towards and often into the ground. During the ascent of the larvfB, the sheep .sufl"ers great torment; stamps, tosses his head, and often runs wildly off' over the fleld. The larvtB, when once established, create no more trouble until in the succeeding spring, when thoy begin to crawl down again, causing more agony to the shee|) than when they ascended. Treatment. — Ah a preventive, smear the nose with tar, or take half a pound of Scotch snu/f, and two quarts of boiling water ; stir and let stand till cool, then scjuirt an injection of this up each nostril, two or three times betwe(!n October and January. N.B. — There is no actual danger from this grub, except in so far as the irritation makes the sheep liable to catarrh and other diseases of the head, and causes the poor animal considerable tor- ment. Injiainviatiori of the Bowels, knowii asBraxy. — Oauses—F/dtmg noxious vegetables ; being turned too long or suddenly on turnip fields or turnip tops half rotten ; expo.sure in cold weather. Symptoms. — Uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent drinking; carrying the head down ; drawing the back up ; swollen belly ; and avoidance of the flock. Prevention. — Warm, dry shelter and nutritious food. mg iting irnip Manual of Agriculture. 445 Treatment to be successful must be prompt. Give two ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in warm water, witli a handful of t-om- nnon salt. If unsucce.ssful, give a clyster, made with a ])i|)oful of tobacco boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Administer half, and if not effectual, follow with the rest. A.ssist the purga- tives with warm gruels and laxative feed. McClure says: "Give castor oil, two ounces; calomel, Hve grains ; laudanum, two drachms ; mola.s.se.s, two ounces. Heat up with an egg, in warm water, and give it as a drench ; repeating in half doses every six hours." Rot. — A fearful di.sease. Causes. — There have been no satisfactory causes given for this disease. SymjHoms. — Loss of flesh ; what remains is flabby and pale ; the animal loses idl vivacity ; the lips, tongue, and all mucous mem- branes are livid, and in the advanced stages are alternately hot and cold. The eyes look sad and glassy, tht; breath is faitid, the urine small in ([uantity and highly coloured ; the bowels are at one time costive, and at another afl'ected with a black purging ; the pelt will come off with the slightest pull. Treatment, never successful unless commenced very early, or when the di.sease is of a mild nature. 1st. There must be a total change of food, and to that of a dry and nutritious character ; all the farinte are good, as wheat, barley, oat or pea meal. Give .salt in water from the first. In the more advanced stages, give every morning — Watery tincture of aloes 4 ""'ice. Decoction of willow bark 4 (uuices. Nitric acid 25 drops. Scabs, or Scabies, or Psora. — This is not a common disease in Canada, but it occasionally runs through a flock. It is a cutane- ous or skin disease similar to the mange of other beasts. Some- times they appear in the form of erysipelatous eruptions, and at others as psoric or mangy ones. In the former instance they are universal and very red, and may be cured by nitre administered quickly, and a change of food. In the latter form, as scab, other remedies are required. Symptoms. — The sheep is very restless, rubs against trees, stones fences, &c. ; scratches itself with the feet, bites its sores, and tears off the wool with its teeth. The animal must be relieved, or under the torture it will pine away. Treatment. — Separate the affected sheep. Cut off the wool in the neighbourhood of the scabs ; wash them with soapsuds, rubbed hard in with a brush ; make a decoction of tobacco, to which is added one-third, by measure, of a strong lye from wood-ashes, hog's lard, and a little tar, and about one-eighth of the whole, by I' Hi 1^ I ! 449 The Canadian Farmer's ineastiiT, of Hpirits of tjir|)ontine ; rub this upon tht< soabs and around thorn, after they have boon broken and cleanKod with the HOiip suds. Or, Hrst wash with soaj) suds, and then dip in an infusion of arscnie, in the jiroportion of lialf a pound of arsenic to twelve gaUons of water. S(!e that tins does not get into the nostrils. Or, take (H>nunoti nierrurial ointment and mix with from five to ei<^ht tin>es its woij.?ht of lard ; ap|)ly the ointment all along the back, and in a few lines along the sides of the shci^p, Hist parting the wool carefidly where tin' ointment is to bo rubbed in. A lamb retpiires one-third a?s much as a full-grown sheep ; oi', two pounds of lard oil, half a pound of oil of tar, and one poun.sitiori to sit on the luiup, to ttirn to one side, and to ineliue lIio head 'o the same vvlicn at rt'st. The eyes glare and the pupils become i undiHi. As iness will now, by chix! examination, bo found upon some [art ot' the skull, generally on the opposite side to that on which t'le animal ban;.; the head. When no .softness is foun I, the h^aatidis in one of the ventricles, and death is near at hand. W lien a softnes'- of the skull is in any spot apparent, death may be a long time coming. Ti'cabiient. — This di.sease has been cured by practitioners by a removal of the hydatids ; but as such is, at the best, but an experi ment, the bi>ttei' plan is at once to make mutton of the subject. THE ORDINARY DISEASES OF THE VIC. ¥ Drench'mg. — Whenever possibl- let all medicines bo given in food; .sometimes, however, the pauent is off his feed, and dicnch- ing becomes necessary. Let a man got the head of the pig tirmly l)',twoen his knees, while auothf^r .secures the body ; then take hold of the head, raise it a little, and incline it to one side. Separate; the lips on the opposite side to form a hole, into which (jradtudb/ pour the drench. Directly the pig snorts or chokes, release his head for a few seconds before {)0uring more into his mouth. Remember, a pig has a small gullet and may easily be choked. Do all kindly; no hitting, shouting and wrenching becau.se the pig is ob.stinate. The man should show himself as obstinate, and he is but a poor man whose obstinacy takes the form of that of a pig rather than the quiet determination of a superior being en- dowed with reasoning faculties. The weapon of the lower animals is brute stupidity ; if we can only meet him with his own weapons — brutality and liad temper — then will he assuredly obtain the mastery. Catarrh or Cold. — Causes. — Exjiosure in a stye full of draughts. Symptoms. — An iriflammation of the lining of the nose, and general dulness. h.} . r ijit ^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) .V^fe 1.0 I.I 1.25 |45 150 1^ 1^ I ■- m U ||!|||.6 p^%. <^ ^ °a > "> % %/ J m '/ Photogrephic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEiiSTER.N Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 4- .fv ^ <\ o^ I<5 6^ 448 The Canadian Farmer's .1 . rl Mr yreapiy [ny) leep. in BLISTERS. (Old 0 1. A general one : Powdered Spanish fly, two ounces ; Venice turpentine, two ounces ; resin, two ounces ; lai'd, two pounds. Melt the latter together, and when warm stir in the cantharides. 2. A strong, cheap blister, but not to be used in fever or inflam- mations of bowels, lungs «Sz;c. : Euphorbium powdered, one ounce; oil of vitriol, two scruples ; Spanish fly, six ounces ; resin, one pound ; lard, one pound ; oil of turpentine, three ounces. Melt the resin with the lard. Having previously mixed the oil of vitriol with an ounce of water gradually, as gradually add this mixture to the melting mass, which again set on a very slow fire for ten minutes longer ; afterwards remove the whole, and when beginning to cool, add the powders, previously mixed, together. 3. A mercurial blister for splints, spavins, ringbones, &c. Add to four ounces of either of the above blisters, half a drachm of finely powdered corrosive sublimate. 4. A strong liquid blister : Powdered Spanish fly, one ounce ; oil of origanum, two drachms ; oil of turpentine, four ounces ; oli e oil, two ounces. Steep the cantharides in the turpentine for three weeks, strain off" and add the oil. 5. A mild liquid or sweating blister : Of the above No, 4, one ounce, with an addition of one and a-half ounces of olive oil or goose grease. (American :) Tartarized Antimony (Tartar Emetic). — As an ointment, to be used about the kidneys where Spanish fly blister must not be used. I I' iiii I ■n" 454 The Canadian Farmer's ■■ ■llli |j|j t 1 Iodide of Mercury. — For swelling of the neck glantls, for tumors, for splints, ringbones, spavins, windgalls, shoulder-joint lameness, thoroughpin, &e., &;c., and is a good general ordinary blister. The horse must be prevented from getting at it with his lips. Mustard Seed. — A good blister on the belly and over the loins ; for lumbago, sprains of the back and bowels, &;c , a mustard plas- ter is highly recommended. Savin, or Oil of Juniper. — One part to sixteen parts of lard ; good for keeping up the action of blisters. Spanish Fly, or Cantharides. — Ground up and mixed with oil or lard, thus : Spanish fly powdered, one drachm ; lard, six drachms. Also used for application to splints or soft tumors of the legs, thus : — Tincture of Spanish tly, one ounce ; croton oil, twenty drops. CLYSTERS OR INJECTIONS. (Old :) 1. Thin gruel, five quarts ; Epsom or common salt, six ounces. 2. For Gripes or Colic, — Mash two onions ; pour over them oil of turpentine, two ounces ; pepper, half an ounce ; thin gruel, four quarts. 3. Nutritious Clyster. — Thick gi'uel, three quarts ; strong sound ale, one quart. 4. Strong broth, two quarts ; thickened milk, two quarts. 6. Astringent Clyster, in Diarrhoea, &;c.) — Tripe liquor, or suet, boiled in milk, three pints ; thick starch, two pints ; laudanum, half an ounce. 6. Alum whey, one quart ; boiled starch, two quarts. A simple injection, useful in nearly all cases of colic or costiveness, is com- posed of warm water, soap and sweet oil, beaten up into a lather. CORDIAL BALLS. 1. Powdered gentian, four ounces ; powdered ginger, two ounces; coriander seeds powdered, four ounces ; powdered carraway seeds, four ounces ; oil of aniseed, a quarter of an ounce ; make in a mass with honey, molasses or lard, into balls of from one ounce to one and a-half ounce weight. STIMULANTS. I', '•!§ P J! Ammonia. — Two drachms to half an ounce in water, as an an- tispasmodic in cases of flatulent colic. Carbonate of Ammoriia. — Two drachms, given three times a day in thickish gruel ; good in cases of weak less and general pros- tration. i ^Mi^i*^. Manual of Agriculture. 455 Chloroform. — Good for chills or in case of colic. From one to two drachms in weak whiskey every two or three hours vmtil colic is relieved. Fenugreek. — In one ounce dcses, good for loss of appetite, &c. Juniper Berries. — Good also in loss of appetite. Magnesia. — Also in loss of appetite in young animals. Give about four drachms with a little ginger, to prevent the magnesia griping. Spirits of Wine (Alcohol). — A good stimulant; far better to give in colic than bad whiskey. Oil of Turpentine. — Very excellent to relieve spasms in colic. COUGHS AND COLDS. (Old :) Chronic Cough Balls. — 1, Calomel, one scruple ; gum am- moniacum, two drachms ; horse radish, two drachms ; balsam of tolu, one drachm ; squills, one drachm. Beat all together and make into a ball with honey, and give every morning, fsisting Drink for Chronic Cough. — 2. Tar water, half a pint ; lime water, half a pint ; tincture of squills, half an ounce. Powder for Chronic Cough. — 3. Tartar emetic, two drachms ; powdered foxglove, half a drachm ; powdered squills, half a drachm ; calomel, one scruple ; nitre, three drachms. Give every night in a mash. (American :) Elecampane. — Make a tea of this, and give it as a drink. Henbane. — A relief for cough or irritation of the throat or wind- pipe. One or two drachms of the extract of henbane forms a dose. CAUSTICS. (American:) Sulphate of Copper. — To destroy proud flesh — used in ciystals or in solution. Caustic Potash. — Very quick reducer of proud flesh. Lunar Caustic (or Nitrate of Silver). — A common caustic for unhealthy sores or ulcers. Also VerdigHs, or subacetate of copper — a mild caustic. COLIC REMEDIES OR ANTISPASMODICS. Ammonia. — (See under the head of Stimulants.) Calcium, or Quicklime. — For flatulent colic, where there is bloat present: For horses and cattle, from one to two drachms. When used in the form of lime-water, give five ounces. Chloroform. — (See Stimulants.) Ginger should enter every dose for gripes or colic. From one i rv 456 The Canadian Farmer's to two ounces for horses and cattle ; for shecf), two drachms ; fctr calves, one drachm and under. Laudanum given in conjunction with tuipentine, and in quan- tities not exceeding one oimce. Pepper given in combination with ammonia from throe to five drachms ; and of vuke cold, which must be guarded against. TONICS. , they To increase the general tone of the system. Muriatic Acid (Spirit of Salt). — Forty to sixty drops given, Lrgely diluted, three or tour times a day. Nitric Acid (Aquafortis). — Also very largely diluted. Arsenic. — A poison, but a splendid tonic ; two and a-halT grains per day are ample ; given well mixed, in a very large bulk of cut feed. Camomile. — A mild tonic. Coriander Seeds. — Especially good for calves; two drachms in their milk feed. Iodide of Iron. — One or two drachms in cut feed, twice a day. Sulphate of Iron.— Always combined with some vegetable tonic, as gentian or ginger root ; two or three drachms to the horse and cow, mixed with feed. * Strychnine. — Very dangerous poison. For horses, one grain once a day is ample, given in cut feed or in a gruel drench ; the dose may be gradually increased to three grains. Remember, twelve grains will kill a horse. r I 'I M ^■i » cj 460 The Canadian Farmer's i f ; Pariera Brava. — A root; one ounce to be sliced and l:)oiled in a pint of water; let cool and strain, and give on cut feed, half a pint at a time. Sassafras. — Given as a tea ; very excellent in the spring of the year. Snake Root.— Q'iven in the same manner. Willow Bark. — Dried, boiled down in water, and given in feed in the spring cf the year. VERMITUGES (for the Expulsion of Worms), Assafcetlda. — A gum resin. About two drachms, As-arabacca. — For worms in the nasal air passages. Blow a drachm up each nostril ; take care that the operator does not inhale it. For sheep, put them in a close pen and scatter it in the air, to make them sneeze. fern. — For horses and cattle, one pound of the root in powder ; for sheep, from three to five ounces. Puri^pkln Seeds. Savin. — For horses and cattle, three to four drachms. [ If ' Manual of Agriculture. 461 FARM IMPLEMENTS. % It is impossible in a work of tho present size to enter into a full description of the various implements and tools made use of in Canadian agriculture. Suffice it to say, that good tools and implements are necessary adjuncts of good farming. The carpenter cannot make neat and fast work with blunt chisel or ill-set saw ; neither can the hus- bandman till his fields neatly and thoroughly, nor ])erform his farm operations with speed, unless he has provided the best of implements. The power of the horse can only be used in one uniform direc- tion, viz., by draught in a nearly horizontal position. Our implements must be so adapted to this uniform " pull," as to perform themselves, under such influence, the varying operations which go to make up cultivation, harvesting and carrying. Man is endowed with but a very small amount of strength, and can adapt his physical exertion but in a very few directions. The head must be used to utilize forms and shapes, material, and the fundamental laws of nature, for the performance of the greatest amount of actual work with the minimum exertion and expendi- ture of his physical force. By the subjugation of natural laws to the use of man, he is en- abled to produce excessive motion and multiplied strength with an expenditure of but little original force. The grand principles to be ever kept in view by the farmer and the manufacturer, the user and the maker, must be to produce such implements as will, with the least exertion on the part of man or beast, produce the most perfect results in the shortest pos- sible space of time. We shall therefore, in this chapter, rest content with a passing indication of those principles which should be especially developed in the several tools and implements necessary to the use of the farmer in the pursuit of a course of mixed husbandry. The invention of agricultural implements must have been coeval with the early days of the world, and as far as history leads us back, their origination was due to the ancient Egyptians. Anti- quarians agree that the primeval instruments used in cultivating the soil must have been of the pick kind, and medals of great antiquity dug up at Syracuse, in Sicily, in Egypt and Arabia, all T i 462 The Canadian Farmer's ■W I M ' 1 1 1 !)' ! ' [3 J \ h i Hi point to this fact. From tlie days when the Israelites were under Kfryptian bondage, an improvement in implements of tillage has been gradually progressing, and yet in the present age — the \aunted nineteenth century — we are in this Jepai'tment, after so many centuries of invention and improvement, yet in our infancy. Tiiere is no field which affords so wide a scope for the genius of the mechanic of the present date as the improvement of agricul- tural implements and machinoy Every new tool for the use of the farm that can fairly stand the test of practical trial, and in that trial prove itself worthy of public confidence, is readily adopted by the farmer. D. G. F. Macdonald, an able English agricultural writer, calls attention to the ingenuity shown in America in the invention of agricultural machinery. "See," says he, "how the Yankee inge- nuity of the farmer of the Western States devises implements for the more economical and rai)id [)rosecution of labour." We are driven to exercise oui ingenuity by the want of hand labour. We have horses in abundance, and we must make them do all the labour possible, and thus are we driven to the use of horse machines even where the cost of such shows no great advantage over the old-fashioned plans of manual work. In the old countries, the economy of general agricultural machi- nery is very generally recognised ; how much more necessary does it appear to us in a land where seasons are short, farm hands scarce, and wages very high. Let us for a moment illustrate this point by one implement, seldom seen a few years ago, but now coming into very general use in Canada — the hay and straw cutter. The author had occa- sion to notice this point a few years ago in the volumes of the Canada Farmer, thus : — " On this subject the following pertinent remark was made to me a few days since by a farmer who generally feeds from twenty to thirty head of cattle every winter : ' I might as well have no barn in which to house my fodder as no machine to cut it up with. In the one case I should lose, perhaps, twenty per cent, by expo- sure to the weather ; and in the other case I should lose the same or more by the wastefulness of my men and the daintiness of my well-bred and highly-fed cattle.' " In Canada, owing to the length of the season in which we are compelled to supply dry food to our cattle, it is of the greatest importance that we utilize every particle of both hay and straw. Moreover, cattle feed ng is now fast becoming the most profitable part of husbandry t the Canadian farmer, and an increase in this branch of farming c . tainly exercises a great improving influence upon the heart of our lands, in that we thus return a greater pro- portion of the produce of the farm to the soil in the shape of ma- nure. Manual of Agriculture. 463 " Without going into the advantages of steaming cattle food, I propose to review the great saving of fodder effected by the use of the chaff-cutter. " When straw alone is not considered rich enough fodder for stock, it is often advantageous to mix it with hay. This mixture cannot be fed in its long state, for the cattle will pick out the hay and throw aside the straw ; but when the two are cut and tho- roughly mixed, they will be consumed together, and will thus answer the required purpose. Moreover, the beasts will digest the same proportion of fodder in less time, and thus cattle will be able more thoroughly to perform that process of chewing the cud so necessary to their perfect digestion. Again, when hay has been kept long in the barn, or has been cured in rainy weather, there is always a certain proportion of dried up and inferior stems; these when cut into chaff may be thoroughly mixed with the more juicy part of the hay, and will not then be set apart and wasted by the animal when feeding. " The saving in fodder thus effected has been variously estimated. My own experience leads me to consider that 15 cwt., when it has passed through the chaff-cutter, will fodder cattle thoroughly, where it would require a ton of long hay. Allowing the standard price of clover hay to be ten dollars per ton, we should thus effect a saving of ten dollai's in every four tons fed. The expense of cutting is very slight, for enough chaff can be worked up in one day by two teams and three hands to serve fifteen or twenty head of cattle for a full month. The cost of a good serviceable chaff-cutter, which can be worked by hand or horse-power, such as are made by Messrs. Maxwell & Whitelaw, of Paris, Ont, is about forty-five dollars. " Ten head of fatting cattle will consume about four tons of clover hay in a month. If these cattle are put up for two months, we shall have saved twenty dollars directly by economy in feed- ing, and more in that better fitness for the butcher which is the result of allowing them plenty of time to lie in their boxes." Canadian Tools, Implements, and Agricultural Machinery are many and varied, and show an immense amount of enterprise on the part of our manufacturers. The show of implements at our agricultural exhibitions would not disgrace a far more populous and richer country, but there is one want sadly felt by the farmer — a want of solidity and durability. Competition is keen, and the desire of manufacturing numbers, and the rapid demand upon new inventions, as soon as their practical merit is proved, have led too many of our makers to neglect the staple of their material, and turn out work from inferior iron and badly selected wood. This is more especially the case with Canadian reapers and mowers. As soon as the name of any particular patent has made itself felt, there ia a rush of demand. The reaper or mower is called upon to 'I i 464 The Canadian Farmer's f I i' 'i! I Hi do very heavy work. Put into rough fields and subjected to care- less handling, to stand for any length of time it must be of the very best material, both iron and wood. And yet we regret to say that too many of our manufacturers are not particular about the quality of wood, and in too many cases use old stoves and burnt up irons for the purposes of castings for their machines. Is it then any wonder that every season we see farmer after farmer flocking into towns, wasting the precious hours of harvest, to obtain new castings for their machinery ? The reaper and mower for which we pay one hundred and fifty dollars ought to be a first-class article, and should have no flaw in it, for at that price, allowing a generous commission to the agent, the manufacturer makes an immense profit. We want greater durability in our tools and implements. It is useless to disguise the fact, that too many of the farmers use their implements shamefullj^ exposing them to rain and sun ; but there is altogether too much inferior material in their construction, and too little care exercised in the several departments of manu- facture. The drawback to a greater expenditure on the part of the far- mer in improved implements arises not only from their first cost, but the subsequent expense entailed by wear and tear. If a farmer buys eight hundred dollars worth of agricultural implements and machinery, and they give out in eight years, it will readily be perceived that one hundred dollars per annum on eight hundred dollars is a very severe interest actually lost to the farmer's pocket. At the same time, a high-priced article, if really good, is cheaper at almost any price than one of inferior quality ; and we should be glad if the judges at shows would look more closely to the durability of the articles shown when awarding prizes, which are afterwards used as a widely circulated medium of advertisement, and by which the choice of the buyer is in no small degree influ- enced. A farm waggon, three-fourths worn out, at a cost of fifty dollars, is money almost thrown away, when one new from the shop can be obtained for one hundred dollars ; and so is it with many ma- chines. There are many farmers who seem to suppose that if they can buy a machine cheap they have done a good thing. Now, it is very true that one may easily lay out too much money on his mower or reaper, or rake or cultivator, or thresher, or any other implement he has to buy. The best of these may be dearly bought. But we speak of the pure, .se of cheap articles simply because they are cheap. Nearly alwaj's these are the dearest in the end. They seldom work well, get out of order easily, are of poor material, and soon break up or wear out. The best way is to work along and shift as you can until you are able to purchase Manual of Agriculture. 465 ma- lt if ling. )ney any fly it in re of ly is Ihase a first-class and reliable article, and when you have bought, use carefully, and house it when not in use. By such a course as this, a farmer will in a few years provide himself with excellent machinery and tools. With these he can do his work well and rapidly, and easily and with comfort. A poor tool with which one has much to do had better be thrown away than contirued in use. How a poor scythe or a poor axe worries the one who wields it ; and how it acts like a brake upon the wheels of labour ! So it is with every other implement of labour that is inferior or imperfect. Many a farmer is behind- hand and feels his labours to be drudgery who might see a chief cause of this in his failure to provide himself and his help with suitable tools. Let him carefully calculate the difference of ability to execute between good tools and poor ones, and he will no longer doubt that economy demands ' he use of the former. The loss of time and muscle, and the failure to do rapidly and well, charged to the account of poor tools, will show him that he who would thrive must secure implements of the best quality with which to do his work. We are happy to have hailed some years ago the establishment of an agricultural warehouse, in Canada, devoted entirely to the importation of and agency for the best and newest agricultural implements. This establishment, in the hands of Mr. Rennie, of Toronto, and under his able management, has, we believe, proved a pecuniary success to the proprietor, and is of value to the farmer. We object to no such middleman as he ; unlike the perambu- lating agents who make a commission by hawking some particu- lar invention, or puffing his own employer's machinery, Mr. Rennie admits all implements of an improved kind into his ware- house ; gives all a fair and honest description in his catalogues; and will give a straightforward explanation of the peculiar advan- tages, and will not fear to point out any of the disadvantages, of the various implements under his charge. There is also, under the management of Mr. Weld, of London, Ontario (a practical farmer, and an enthusiast in all matters appertaining to the farmer's calling), established an emporium which has already done good work in the dissemination of seeds and of agricultural implements and machinery. We have also heard of seven 1 depots of a similar character which have lately or are about to be established ; and we would beg our fanners, in their own interest, to extend their patronage in a free and liberal manner to all such as may be founded in the several parts of the Dominion. 30 rp 466 The Canadian Farmer's PLOUGHS. II fc I. I if ^1 Mr C' i Of ploughs there are two distinct kinds — those that are mounted on a wheel or wheels and are called wheel plougJis, and awing ploughs. With the ordinary class of ploughmen, and considering that we in Canada, in choosing our workmen, cannot be very particular as regards their qualifications as ploughmen, we may look upon the wheeled plough as an instrument by which a comparatively inex- perienced ploughman can make good work ; while the performance of the operation with the swing plough, except in the hands of a man of some experience, will prove a bungling job. On the other hand, the swing plough is capable of doing actually better work than that mounted on wheels, and the friction and draught are undoubtedly proportionately lighter. There is no wheeled plough in the world, not even excepting the " Howard," that can compete in the essential qualifications of neat furrow slices, control and easy draught, with the Improved Scotch swing plough in the hands of a good lowlander ; but we have ourselves seen better work done by means of the " Howard " in the hands of a greenhorn, than that by a superior Improved Scotch held by a man of mediocre ability as a ploughman. On the whole, take ploughmen as they are, and ploughs as they are generally constructed, it will be found in Canada that the work is generally neater in those districts where the wheel ploughs are in use ; whilst, on the contrary, in townships where the swing plough is common, the workmen will be foimd superior handlers of the plough. In the construction of a plough there are certain general prin- ciples that must be carefully regarded. These have reference to the laws of formation of the various parts as adapted to their special uses. First, the throat or breast, or that part which enters and per- forates the soil In this portion lie the greatest points of resist- ance, and the form must, in order to reduce such resistance to a minimum, be of a long, narrow, tapering, sharpened nature, while friction is greatly reduced by the amount of polish or smoothness of the material employed. The mould board, being that portion which regulates the posi- tion of the furrow slice, must be of that hoUowed-out and twisted form which not only tends to lessen resistance, but gives form and shape to the turned-up soil. The beam and muzzle require to be of that length, substance and shape which allows of the moving power being attached in the most advantageous line of draught. The stilts or handles are but levers ; and the mechanical princi- ples of leverage must be brought into action, in order to place the Manual of Agriculture, 467 posi- asted and stance led in krinci- Lce the power under full control of the driver, that he may, by the slight- est exertion of force, alter the direction, and that such force used by the holder may be applied to the instrument without unduly affecting the draught. The land side is of no less importance than the mould board, for here in many ploughs is to be found a useless friction. This portion is the fulcrum on which the leverage of the stilts is ex- erted, and all that is required is that it should, when necessary, afford a steady purchase on which to bear the handles in shifting the direction of the moving plough. Line of draught must be at right angles, in the case of horse- power, to the slant of the animal's shoulders. When the horse is pulling, the collar, pressing tightly upon the shoulder, is of a slightly circular form. The point of draught is then where the trace is attached by the hames to the collar. The direction of draught, starting from this point and at right angles with the slant of the shoulder (shown by a line drawn from top to bottom of collar), should pass directly through the plough-bridle, and cut a point in the coulter at half the depth of the furrow. Now, ploughs are to be seen any day in the right season in Ca- nada, in which such a line of draught from the collar would pass almost over the beam and to some part of the stilts; such a varia- tion must cause the plough to dip, and thus give a very great ex- tra amount of friction. In other cases the line of draught will be found to strike the earth before the coulter reaches the spot, and such entails a form of share which not only keeps the plough in the ground, but affords extra and useless resistance to the draught, which exerts a constant force to lift the plough out of the soil. The heam serves as a line of connection to which is attached the various parts of the plough — hence it is the basis of the whole construction, and its shape is of the utmost importance — and of whatever material it is made, it must be stoutly built. If we take the angle which the horse's shoulder makes with a perpendicular from the horizon, and continue another line at right angles to it, or in the line of draught, the length of the line from the horse's shoulder to where it meets the coulter at half the depth of the furrow will be about twelve feet for ordinary-sized horses. K the plough be properly made, this line of draught will pass through the middle of the lowering and heightening holes of the muzzle ; and the length of the heam, in accordance with these prin- ciples, should be from six feet six inches to seven feet, in order to give it a proper height for the bridle. Land side should be a perfect plane, and run exactly parallel to the line of draught. How often are ploughs made with a land side turned off two or three inches at the hind end and outwards. 468 The Canadian Farmer's ^.. I hi! Such a form is worse than useless, for it entails a considerable amount of unnecessary friction. The effect of suf^h a shape is, that the plough is thrown off towards the furrow, and the mould board pressing with undue force upon the slice breaks and crum- bles it, besides giving extra exertion to the horses or cattle. The coulter should be as nearly as possible at an angle of 45® with the surface of the ground — for if it is more oblique, it picks up stubble and grass roots which choke under the beam ; and if less oblique, it will be apt to drive stones and sods and other obstaclea before it, causing an increase to the amount of draught. The Mould Board. — This part of the plough must vary in shape according to the nature of the soil and the various kinds of ploughing. For working fallows and light lands, a slightly convex surface is most effectual. For clover leys, sods, pasture fields and clayey land, an almost even plane is better; and for stiff clays, a concave form is necessary in order that the surface may clear itself A land aide, if too short, renders the plough unsteady, being easily disturbed by any obstacles in the soil ; whilst too long a land plate affords a great friction when the leverage of the handles to turn the plough is put in force. The Handles. — Long handles are necessary to give power over his implement to the ploughman. They should at the end be of such a height that an average-sized man has neither to bend the arm when holding them, nor to stoop in order to lift upon them. The Share varies in form with the different sorts or styles of ploughing generally required ; but it should be of steel, that it may be always bright ; and it is as important to the horse that a share be sharp, as to the mower that his scythe blade be well whetted. Swing Ploughs. — Of these in Canadi\ there is an endless va- riety, and every township or section appears to take to its own special favourite. We shall here merely indicate a few of the newer kinds. gray's champion single furrow plough. This plough is made of wrought iron throughout with the ex- ception of mould boards, which are of steel or cast iron. Manual of Agriculture. 469 In the trial of ploughs at Paris, in 1871, under the auspices of the Provincial Agrictiltural Association of Ontario, it was awarded the first prize, tinder the dynamometer, tl)is plough, itself weighing 180 lbs., showed an average draught of 500 lbs., and it was observed that on ascending a hill this draught was only increased by about 25 lb.s. The same maker has also put out what he calls " Oraifs Light Canada Plough" of the same form as the above, but of lighter make. It is made of wrought iron, with a cast iron head, steel mould board and steel shares. i THE COMBINED CAST BEAM PLOUGH Does not make the work that such ploughs as above described are capable of, but is adapted to every style of ploughing. YANKEE NO. 22 JOINTER (TWO OR THREE HORSE). 16 ex- Of the Jointers, for deep ploughing, cross ploughing and break- ing up old tough sods, we select one manufactured by Mr. Wat- son, of Ayr, Ont., adapted for two or three horses, according to the depth required to be turned up and the nature of the soil. Jl i 470 The Canadian Farmer's m K IJI: R A \ 1 ' i 1 ifn, : :, . . ir :■. ■ . 1 1 t ' i ;: ', THE ANTI-FRICTION WHEEL PLOUGH. A new plough has lately been introduced by Mr. Rennie, known as the Anti-friction Wheel Plough. He says : "The 8U[)eriority of a rolling to a sliding motion in the construc- tion of ploughs is easily understood, as securing lightness of draught and ease of management. " The Anti-friction Wheel Plough is fully a third less draught than tlie ordinary single-furrow plough. "It can be worked in any soil with two horses the same depth as can be done with three horses, besides making more regular work. " This plough is easily adjusted to any required size of furrow or style of ploughing, and when so adjusted is self-acting, following the horses without the guidance of the ploughman. " When the ridges are struck out by a competent ploughman, the work can be carried on by a boy, the stilts or handles be '.ng us(id merely for turning at the ends and for passing obstructions in t/ne soil" THE SWIVEL OB SIDE-HILL PLOUGH. Is built in a series of several sizes, from a light one-horse to a heavy or four-horse plough. Manual of Agriculture, 471 to a They are ho conHtructod that the mould board can be instantly changed from one side to the other, enabling the operator to per- form the work horizontally upon side-hills, going oack and forth on the same side, and turning all the furrows downward. They are employed by many for level ploughing, as this leaves the field without any centre, dead or finishing furrows ; thereby allowing the mowing machine, horse rake and nay tedder to work to best advantage. HILLS PATENT PLOUGH Is one of the very best swing ploughs made in Canada, and we give it as such a place in this chapter. The advantage which it specially possesses is, that it is equally serviceable as a sod plough or as a jointer when the skim coulter is attached. gray's double furrow plough. As economizers of labour, both manual and horse, these ploughs have for several years been widely used in the old countries, and for the last two years a great number have been sold in Canada. Every farmer who has bought one has been well satisfied with his investment. They have become deservedly popular, owing to the saving effected in draught, manual labour, and wear and tear. ( 472 The Canadian Farmer's ,1'' !! ' '4 I r ^k 4\ This plou^'lj is imported from Mr. Gray, Scotland, but wo truHt before long our Canadian manufacturerH will turn out a similar implement. They are wholly carried on large angular rin)med whecils, which not only carry their weight, but also resist the pn^ssure exerted in lifting and turning the furrow. They have neither side nor solo plates, and hence are free from all friction caused by the rubbing action of the same ; the cutting part of the coulters and shares are so constructed and arrangecl tnat they nuiko room for tho rest of tho plough, and no part of it touches tho soil or mould board. By this arrangement the power required to work tho plough is re- duced fully a third. The double-furrf)W plough can bo drawn on heavy soil with ease by three horses, and on light soil by two. Among tho advantages these ploughs possess are tho following : — The work can bo accomplisheil by fewer horses. On moderately heavy land tho double-furrow plough drawn by throe horses, will plough throe acres per day of nine hours, thus securing to the fnrmer a saving of not less than 30 per cent, or affording him the oppor- tunity of having his ploughing done quicker when a suitable sea- son occurs. With one of those dcublo-furrow ploughs one man can do the work of two, if using tho ordinary [)lough, and with far more ease, as they guide themselves, ar.d only require attention in case of anything unusual in tho soil. The shares are made of steel, and are so cheaply constructed, and keep sharp so long, that tho whole cost of keeping them up does not exceed the cost of sharpening the old iron share. These ploughs raise and loosen tho land more thoroughly ; from their construction they turn a deeper and broader furrow, and press it more closely than the ordinary ploughs. The: e being no sole plate, the subsoil is not glazed and hardened as by the com- mon plough, the advantage thus gained being great in all cases, but especially in damp soils. It is suitable for all kinds of ploughing, and will also rib up to 18 inches in width. The two lifting levers afford additional facilities for throwing the plough over fast stones or other obstructions in the soil, and the adjusting screws on both right and left hand levers make it easily adjustable to any inequalities of the surface. On light land, or for ribbing, it can be worked by two horses, and on heavy and rocky land three horses can be used with safety. It is easily adjusted to plough any required width of furrow. This plough, when once adjusted, is self-acting, following the horses without any attention from the ploughman, and works well in any kind of land. L up "ses. Manual of Agriculture. oray's TRiPLE-puiiuow PLOUOII.— (See Appendix.) 473 This cxtraonlinary economizer of labour is sinular in construc- tion to the double- furrow plough, luiving the new governing steerage, and \h made ho that in heavy work it can be readily changed in a few minutes to a double-furrow plough. At a time when facility for getting through work in of such ur- gent necoHsity, farmers will readily observe and ap[)rcciato the importance ot this triple-furrow plough. In ploughing loose land for wheat, and in cross ploughing for root crops, it does the work of throe conunon ploughs in superior stylo, and saving two men and three horses. It hius also boon successfully used in making two drills at a time for root crops, by merely withdrawing the centre plough. The lightness of draught is, in the case of this triple-fuiTow plough, exhibited in a most marked manner, the dynamometrical tests having shown an average draught of one horse power per furrow, at the usual depths ; so that, except in stiff heavy lands, this plough can be worked by three horses. Amongst our other ploughs wo have " BarroiumaiL," " W'llkie* " Murray,"" MaSherry," " liritannUi," " Morley," " Model," " Gem of Ayr" (Watson), " Scotch Canadian," " HUjhland Mary" and very many others, varying in forms and prices. HARROWS. An instrument of nearly as much importance as the plough, and of quite equal value in cultivation. " Any man can make a set of harrows," is an expression not uncommonly heard. It is, however, very far from correct ; for, a^s a matter of fact, very many who professionally are engaged in their manufacture do not construct them properly. The shape of a harrow and the relative position of its teeth are governed by ar- bitrary mathematical laws, the slightest variation from which will result in an imperfect implement. The shape of the harrows commonly in use is either a V or rhomboidal, and the best angles for the rhomboid are a smaller angle of 75° and a larger angle of 105°. The object in making a harrow of this shape — i.e., on these an- gles— is to bring the furthest point of the rear as near as possible to the horses. The rectangular frame can only be brought not to track by allowing one corner to fall far behind the opposite angle, and thus so much of the harrow is at a great distance from the horses, and di'aught is increased ; for the nearer a horse is to his work, the easier the draught. (For Diagrams see Appendix.) It will thus be seen that there is a rhomboid, having the two 7 474 The Canadian Farmer's m hi' ■ I angles at one side respectively 76® and 105°, which will theoreti- cally cause the resistance of the earth to allow of the harrows riding parallel to the double tree, or at right angles to the line of draught ; whilst practically, the more closely the framework and the setting of the teeth approach this shape, the easier and lighter will the draught be upon the horses. In the before mentioned diagrams the one being a set of harrows in the form that we have recommended, and which ride squarely forward ; and the other being square-framed, and consequently having to be drawn as it were "askew" — it will be plainly perceived that whilst each harrow covers the same amount of ground, and the distances betv^een the tracks of each tooth are the same, the main portion c '"the square harrows is very much further from the horses, and consequently that the draught is proportionately greater than that of the first or rhomboid-shaped implement. In order to enable harrows to ride squarely forward, it then becomes necessary to build wooden frames on the above principle. The square body has, however, been adapted in the iron frame, to draw paiallel to the double and whiffletrees of the team, as shown in the plate. — (See Appendix.) TJte Chain Harrow is a form which will be found excessively useful ; being composed altogether of iron links, working loosely into each other, they clear themselves well. They will be found excellent tools for harrowing in grass seeds, following; the grain drill to smooth oflf the surface of a seed bed, and for spreading top dressings of any kind, whether barn-yard manure or other rough deposits ; and above all, thoy are very light on the horses. The Rotating or Revolving Harrow is an ingenious contriv- ance. They are to be had, we believe, from some American manu- facturers; the best that we have ever seen are two of English make, being GrosskilVs harrow and Ashby's harrow. By the use of this tool we obtain a rotary as well as forward motion. They have been found excellent devices for cleaning out couch grass and such weeds, and leaving them free of adhering soil when exposed to the hot summer suns. The Brush Harrow is also a good, simple and cheap contrivance for dispersing top dressings and covering grass seeds. Small branches (beech are the best) are interwoven in a rough frame, made of scantlings, using three or more cross pieces, into which the brush is twined in such a manner as to leave the lower part rough and bushy. This drawn over pulverized land will cover grass seeds better than any other kind of harrow ; and it has this arl vantage, that any farmer can go to his woods and make one in a very short time. Our practical experience iu the use of this ready home-made V Manual of JlgricuUure. 475 harrow, especially for covering grass seeds, has been always en- tirely satisfactory. GRUBBER OR CULTIVATOR. These implements, though known under very many names, as 8cuffler8, acarijiera, extirpators, &c., &c., have but one object, and may therefore be considered conjointly under the above caption. The introduction of cultivators as substitutes for the plough is of comparatively recent date. Previous to the nineteenth century they were little known, and by no means generally used. Their adoption has, however, brought about a revolution in the system of cultivation, and in the present day we probably do very much more work with the cultivator in the season than with the plough. The principles to be secured in the construction of these imple- ments are : play to secure an even grubbing of knolls and hol- lows, a tJiorough uprooting of every particle of soil in their pas- sage, the minimum amount of draught to the horses, and the formation which shall ensure a rooting up of weeds and grasses and sods without choking up the machine. To ensure play for hollows and knolls, and to allow of collected sods, weeds, &c., escaping from under the machine after being rooted up, the frame must be hung on the axle, that it may have swing. To ensure easy draught on the horses, the centre of resistance when at work must be known by the maker, and that point brought as near as possible to and in the natural line of the trace and collar. We have seen such grubbers as take too firm a grip on the soil, and entail extra exertion on the part of the team to keep them out of the land, whilst others again are so badly constructed that an extra hold must be taken of the soil to prevent the horses drawing them to the surface. These are two very important points which have been often overlooked by judges. It is a com- ^ 476 The Canadian Farmer's ■J ■ paratively easy matter to make an instrument that will clear itself well and grub thoroughly ; the skill of the inventor and mechanic is more severely tested in reducing the draught to a minimum, and in obtaining the proper direction of draught from the centre of re- sistance to the motive power. The old country cultivators are very effective, but are nearly all horse-killers. We choose for illustration the Scotch Grubber and a Canadian two-horse cultivator. The Grubber is a heavy draught implement, but will be found none too strong in land badly infested with couch grass ; while the other cultivator is better for summer fallow stirring and general cultivation. •Ml ■i '■ rm MORGAN S TWO-HORSE CULTIVATOR. PATENT FLEXIBLE IRON CULTIVATOR. Manual of Agriculture. 477 tself lanic , and f re- ally dian )und I the leral GANG PLOUGH. Tlie Oang Plough is the double or treble-furrow plough in min- iature; that is, it ploughs again perfectly to a depth of a few inches in loose soil, already ploughed, two or three furrows at a time. This implement is specially adapted for preparing fall- ploughed land for spring grain, or for covering peas or wheat that are to be sown on such land broadcast. With this, on any but very stiff clay, an ordinary team can turn over from four to six acres a day. It has wooden handles and a short beam, but a tongue may be put in instead of beam and handles ; it is with a tongue better under command, especially where the land is rolling. With steel mould boards and chilled shares this implement is easily worked by an ordinary team for the purposes of second ploughing. i ft FIELD liOLLER. ,1.' ) l', I f I • ! i V 478 The Canadian Farmer's The roller has been a much-neglected implement in Canada. It is indispensable to good cultivation. Dry land will mellow quicker under the roller than by the action of the harrows. Finely pulverized seed beds will retain their moisture longer after rolling than when left by the harrows. All grass land ought to be rolled in spring, to level meadows for the future passage of the mowing machine and to press into the ground such roots as have been " heaved " by spring frosts and thaws. Barley anu spring grains, a week or so after coming up, fre- quently suffer from hot air obtaining access through a loose sur- face soil to their roots. The pressure of the roPer is for this an effectual remedy. In fact, a farmer may as well discard his har- rows as his roller, and no cultivation can be thoroughly and properly completed without the aid of this implement of tillage. m EXPANDING HORSE HOE. In these implements there has been for several years past an ever-increasing improvement. Every section has now scattered through it many styles and patents, amongst which it would be invidious and indeed impossi- ble to distinguish. We give one illustration f the expanding horse hoe, which may be used for cleaning between rows of roots, earthing up potatoes, or simply stirring the soil. Expanding hoes of this nature are often supplied with a double mould board better suited to the earthing up of potatoes and com. MACHINES FOR SOWING. {' Qrain Drills. — In a former chapter the question of the respec- tive advantages of broadcast and drill sowing has been considered. The points to be secured in the construction of a perfect grain drill are — u; It'; ' \ \ Manual of Agriculture. 479 That every seed shall be distributed at the exact depth required, or that depth the most favourable to its germination and growth. That the seeds be evenly and regularly deposited, and that none be left on the surface. That the delivery of the seeds be uniform, and that the grain be not cut in passing through the feeding apparatus. (N.B. — These two points can be fully tested on a bam floor.) That the gearing apparatus be so constructed that the delivery may be immediately arrested, and that the delivery be i/mtantly again started on motion of the driving wheels. IMPROVED GRAIN DRILL. — (See Appendix.) Broadcast Sower of Plaster, Ouano and General Fertilizers. (See Appendix.) Drills for souring Turnips, Carrots, &e. There are but few important principles to be regarded in the turnip drill. These are, that the drill shall not flatten down too much the ridge of earth ; that the delivery be uniform and con- stant, and plainly visible to the operator ; that the delivery be in- stantly stopped when required, as at the headland in turning, and as instantly commenced again; and that the covering of the seed be perfect. Amongst the many excellent machines now turned out by our Canadian implement manufacturers, the undennentioned from the shops of Mr. John Watson, of Ayr, Ont., is very perfect in all these qualifications. The concave rollers in front shape the diill, and are moveable upon a rod, so that they readily adjust themselves to various widths ; they carry the sowing tooth along with them in such ad- justment, so that seed is always dropped in the centre of the drill. The two iron rollers that follow cover the seed and press the soil. The sowing apparatus consists of two tin canisters mounted on a shaft, and by regulating holes will deliver seed of various kinds and at different rates. IMPROVED TURNIP AND SEED SOWER. — (See Appendix.) Hand Drills for Root Seeds. — There are also several hand driUs, which, being cheaper, commend themselves to the use of those who work small areas. Amongst them are the Wethersfield Seed Drill, which marks its own row, drops, covers and lightly rolls the earth upon the seed. 480 The Canadian Farmer's WETHEUSFIELD SEED DRILL. A BROADCAST SOWER OF AMERICAN IN\ENTION. SIi I. i I ■ i' "• > 1 M \ This ingenious implement, known as Gaboon's Broadcast Sower, the author has himself used and, whilst unwilling to condeinn it for practical use, cannot take upon himself to recommend it. It is capable of sowing, in the hands of a stout man, a very large average per day. Our experience with it has been varied. One field we sowed came up with beautiful regularity, while another, sown in a wind, was a failure as far as even distribution was con- cerned. It doubtless requires some experience upon the part of the sower ; and while some farmers have entirely discarded it, others have been well pleased. It has taken a firmer foothold in the States than in Canada. CAHOON's BROADCAST SOWEE. M¥ Manual of Agriculture. 481 GRASS lEED SOWER. This long box is worked on a simple principle, and is attached to all the improved grain drills, by which the grass seed is sown with the grain and by the same power. A small lever handle works it : when used by itself, it is so regulated that by opening wider or closing the distributing holes, any desired quantity per acre may be sown. •'1 WAGGONS. There is no implement in more common use than the form wag- gon. It is an indispensable part of the farm stock. The waggon as used in America is a superior vehicle, from the fact that it can be adapted to a great variety of objects. The chief points of variation in the waggon are in the several axles used. Of these there are the iron, the arm, and the wooden axles. The wooden axle is the lightest runner, and when the waggon is kept entirely for farm use is probably moi"e generally serviceable than any other kind. It will not, however, stand much road work, and for this or for use upon the road and in the fields we must choose between the arm and the iron axle. The iron axle is solid iron throughout ; on the outer ends is a thread, on which a " burr" secures the wheel in its place. This undoubtedly makes the strongest waggon, but is very heavy. It is only adapted for constant use under heavy loads and on metalled or other hard but smooth roads. It is also very liable to break under the effect of frost in winter. For general purposes the " arm" " patent skein" axle is the best. This being wooden with iron extremities, on which the wheel runs and on which the skein for the nut to secure the wheel is made, is an easy runner, giving to the ground and not shaking itself to pieces, whilst the draught is light upon the horses. 31 1 482 The Canadian Farmer's A ♦^. r A: ..!■: ^ I. It is capable of carrying as heavy loads as the ordinary farmer requires to market, and, except for constant travel upon the hard high road, is in every way better adapted for general purposes than either of the other forms spoken of Good material, well seasoned, and true workmanship about the wheels and running gear, will ensvire very many years' last to such a waggon if fair usage is accorded it by the farmer. Such a waggon, not overloaded or too often " run," kept well painted and protected when not in use, will bust from ten to twenty years. The Size of Wheels. — As to the relative size of wheels, the Ame- rican waggon is practically perfect. An authority says : — " If the load be placed in the body of a waggon, on the fore and hind wheels, in the proportion that their diameters bear to one another, nearly all the advantages of having wheels of equal dia- meter (as in a trotting skeleton waggon) will be obtained. "This proportioning of the load cannot at all times bo obtained in waggons of the ordinary description, even if wished ; because the body of the waggon must be equally filled with goods, or a great loss of room would occur." As the load is usually distributed, the greater part is, especially in the case of a load of hay, on the hind axle. Should we distribute our load equally , the fore and hind axles would require to be far apart, and hence the point of resistance of the hind wheel being far removed from the horse, the draught would be increased. To overcome this, we increase the diameter of the hind wheel and thus admit of the heaviest of our load being placed aft of the centre of the waggon, " The ease with which logs, &c., may be removed on a pair of wheels of large dimensions has been long a well-established fact. In passing over a rough and uneven road, a small wheel sinks into every little hollow, and the axle, if noticed, will be|^found to de- scribe a line almost as curved and irregular as the surftice of the road. A large wheel on the same road partakes but slightly of its inequalities, and the line described by the axle will be found to deviate but little from a straight line ; indeed, with a wheel suf- ficiently large, the axle will describe a perfectly straight line. In the latter case the friction, and consequently vhe draught, will be little more than if the carriage should run upon a railroad ; the larger, therefore, we use the wheels, the nearer we approach this point of eflfect." In practical use, a certain limit of size has to be applied to the wheels of a waggon, on account of the difficulty which, in one mounted on very high wheels, would result to the process of loading. Manual of Agriculture. 483 the one Ks of Diahing of Wheels. — This absurd process is [)retty well exhausted now, and the only excuse given at the present ilay — and it Umks decidedly latne — is, that a certain " dish" outwards from axle to rim is necessary to prevent the tightening of the tire from dishing the wheel inwards. The use of wheels is to lessen the resistance to the draught by reducing the friction, or changing that friction from the nature of a grind or rub to that of a rolling motion, thus admitting of the smallest-sized point of resistance to be pressing on the ground at one time. That resistance is naturally least when the ground is hard and smooth, as on an iron rail or a board Hoor ; it increases when the ground is soft and rough, and still more in an ascent, because the power of draught is partly exhausted in an effort to lift the waggon in an opposite direction to the force that pulls downward — that of gravity. When the wheels are dished, they plough the soft ground and grind the hard ground, and thereby they increase the power of resistance, and require more power cf draught to overcome the resistance afforded simply by the absurdity of their own form. Narrow wheels are drawn more easily through loose stones, but upon every other kind of ground the broader wheel is drawn with less power, and acting as a roller benefits the roads. If a system of broader wheels were adopted in Canada for farm waggons, our roads would not be so terribly cut up as they are at times. High broad wheels do not sink as deeply into soft ground as do low wheels (it is nearly tvlways the fore wheel of the Canadian waggon that sticks the team in a mudhole) but if the low wheels be made broader, the benefit obtained will be in proportion to the additional breadth. High wheels turn seldomer round in a given distance than do small ones, which is an advantage. High wheels are heavier than low wheels which is a disadvantage. The happy practical medium will be found between extra height and too small diameter. High wheels are useful to carry great stones, or great logs slung under the axles, while loads of every kind ought to be hung as low as possible. The placing of loads upon springs (as in the city "lorries,") allows the carriage of them to be lighter; and the lower the weight be hung, so much the less chance that the line of gravity will fall out- side the base and the load tip over. Now, the principle upon which the force of resistance of the ■wheel works is very simple, and yet mathematically exact. Let us examine the theory : — Assuming the road to be level, the wheel being a circle, the centre will always remain at one height, and consequently will move parallel to the plane surface 484 The Canadian Farmer's in a perfectly regular line. If any woi.8, they were received with disdain by the farmer, who would cat his grain "as his fatlier did before him;" and yet in the present day there is not a farm of 100 acres in Canada, a new country, on which the occupant xeels secure of his harvest without the use of a reaping machine. We pride ourselves upon our ingenuity in the invention of ma- chines, yet the principles of the reaper have undergone no radical changes since the days when, at the commencement of the present century, the Rev. Patrick Bell put his new invention into practice. Our skill has been shown rather in modification or simplification. To Mr. Smith, of Poanston, who, in response to an offered pre- mium by the Dalkeith Farmers' Club, brought out a reaping ma- Manual of Agriculture. 487 of tlio of the lio viwt to iiiar- ivapiiior iiy lato iiiii aro f ma- adical resent ictiee. ation. i pre- % ma- chine in 1812 ; to Mr. Scott, of OriniHton, who nmdo an attoinpt in 181'); to Mr. Mann, of Raby, in Ciuuboiliind, Kughind ; to Ml. Ogle, of Rt^nnington.iioar Abiwick, Knghind; l>ut especially to the Rev. Mr. Boll, whoso nm(;liino, invontud in 1828, luis lM«cn in use ovor since, we owe tho first introduction of tho hor.so reaper. The priiKriples of this early and very coiiiploto nuu^hine are the same as thost; of tho present day, thou;;h tho form has been ma- terially altered. Wo find the driving wheels attached to tho axle, and motiitn communicated thereby to the reel for knocking down thegrain,the('uttcrbar,knifeaiid triangular sections; but the hor.ses walked behind tli.; maehine, and so propelled it in front of them. An estimate of the probable value of this early machine may l)0 formed from tho reports signed by numerous practical farmors, who were spectators to difterent trials made in 1H!2!) and l.S.SO. In 1821), the machine was tried at I'ovvrio, in FiJifarshirc, Scotland, before about fifty landed pro|)riet()rs and practical agriculturists, wlio signed a declaration declaring that " the machine cut down a breadth of five foot at once, was moved by a .single hor.se, and attended by from six to eight persons to bind up the corn ; and that the field was reaped by this force at the rate of an acre per hour." In September, 1830, the machine was again nubliely tried at Mor.ckio. in Forfarshire, in the presenco of a still greater nuiid)er of persons, who attested that it cut in half an hour nearly half an acre of a very heavy crop of oats, which were lodged, thrown about by the wind, and exceedingly difficult to harvest. Tho price of the machine was from .£30 to £35. it may be seen that, with the exception of tho self-rake and .self-binder, the present inventive age has neither improved upon capacity of cutting, nor upon price. Indeed, even our new inventions are not so very original, for in 1822 a machine for reaping and sheaving (laying in sheaves) corn was invented, but, owing to tlie apathy of the farmers, could not be put into general use. This machine operated satisfactorily, and would cut fourteen acres a day. The essential qualijicatloihs of these machines are — Speed o/mo^ 6071, communicated with the le.ast extra exertion on the part of the motive power. We know of only one machine in Canada — viz., that of the Messrs. Noxon, of lugersoll, Ontjirio — in which the speed of the cutting knife can be changed without increasing or diminishing that of the horses. This is very necessary. In all fields we sliall find spots where grain is badly lodged, or gieen, or where there is a rank growth of grass or even weeds ; in such places we re- quire an extra amount of speed to the knife, and unless we can obtain such by the multiplicaticm of the revolutions of the pinion on the machine itself, we must secure it by urging forward the t l-i ■■ \ I I' i-4 II* '1 ?! T 4' 488 T/je Canadian Farmer's team. Now, the ordinary farm team naturally gets into a certain gait whilst performing such an operation as that of reaping, and it is not always an easy matter to increase the speed of their walk at the proper time and place ; whilst, if we keep them at full speed all the time, we waste much power upon the higher parts of the field, where probably the resistance to the cutter is very much less. In cutting down hill, all steady teams exhibit a tendency, in holding back, to pick tlieir steps very slowly, and I have myself frequently had the motioa entirely stopped by this tendency on the part of my team to crawl down hill. Hence the advi.sability ot control over the speed of the cutter, independent of the horses. It is well known that the wear and tear is greater on a machine cutting at extra speed in light grain or grass, than where the re- sistance and the cutting power are about equally balanced. This is well illustrated by ihe case of a man who should hit out from the shoulder and his blow meet no resistance ; such an effort will hurt or strain the arm more than if he should meet with some soft object at the extremity of his stroke. Hence the importance of a power to change the rapidity of the cutting motion. Changing the Height of Gut. — This is a very important com- mand to be secured. In all fields there will be found lodged spots of grain ; it is very advisable that the cutting bar can be so lowered that it may pick such up. Again, the relative position of the horses to the machine, and the consequent altered direction of draught, will, in a hilly field, cause the machine at one time to pi )ugh the ground, and at another, in light grain, especially oats, to bend the crop before it and to pass it over uncut. Obstacles also occur on the surface of the land which would very greatly retard a day's work had the operator to remove each one. The raising of the heel of the reaper and mower has been brought well under control, but a better arrangement to raise the extreme point of the bar, without stopping the team or leaving the seat, has yet to be secured. The best we have seen is upon the " Kirby" as a mower. The same principle was applied to the reaper put out by Mr. Forsyth, of Dundas, in his reaper, on the Buckeye principle, but not prov- ing satisfactory in practice, it has been for the present withdrawn. The correct 'position for the cutting apparatus has been a sub- ject of hot discussion amongst manufacturers. We incline to side with those who claim the rear as the* proper position. The advo- cates of other positions rest their claim chiefly on the advantage that " when" the driver is thrown from his seat he runs less danger. Manual of Agriculture. 489 com- neen the the This we think a weak argument. They admit the liability of per- sons being thrown off in a forward cutting machine, and we think that there is more chance of being so pitched out in such on the same principle as that which throws the handle of the plough up and the person forward on to the stilts, when a stone or root is suddenly struck. For our own part, we would sooner be thrown in front of the knives than ou top of them, the latter being to our mind the proba- ble position into which the driver would be thrown in the forward cutting machine, by a very sudden and severe jar. We have worked a machine with the cutting apparatus to the rear, and also one where the bar was forward, and the above is our own practical opinion upon this subject. Again, obstacles may, in the rear position of the bar, be seen before the knife is upon them, and so avoided. It is, however, claimed that there is less side draught where the bar is in front. This is, doubtless, to some extent true, but by a judicious placing of the pole to the opposite side of the machine this side draught is reduced to a minimum. Now, we believe that, as a matter of fact, it requires less power to work a machine with the cutting apparatus to the rear, and that the application of a given amount of draught power exerts a greater force to drive the knives. Where this portion is in front, and resistance is met with, the effect of that resistance as against draught is to force the face of the bar downwards, and, if set very low (an important object in mowing), into the ground, and thus the traction of the wheels is weakened just when most needed, and the whole action reversed from that which is sought. Levers. — The machine requires two levers — one to raise the whole bar over obstacles, and another to simply change its angle, and, by depressing the points of the guards, allow them to pick up and press to the knife lodged hay or straw. The driving wheels of most of our machines are too small, and in reaping sink deeply into soft ground. Why manufacturers should heretofore have found it impracticable to make their driv- ing wheels larger, we have been at a loss to conceive. We are aware that the relative proportions of the several gearings require to be changed with any heightening of the axle, but no alteration of principles is involved. The materials used by too many of our makers are very infe- rior. We call upon the mower and reaper to sustain very severe shocks and strains, and none but the best material can give satis- faction to the farmer. Many a manufacturer has lost custom, in spite of the excellence of the principles upon which his machine works, by the use of in- ferior castings and bad steel. The farmer does not look much to mechanical principles. Give 490 The Canadian Farmer's h- w: J' IP''' m i- him a machine which will stand his work, and he does not care much for any other qualification. The harvest time is short in Canada. Let the report once be fairly credited in a section, that a certain manufacturer's im})le- ments are always " breaking," anri he may withdraw his agents, Give us castings, not made from old stoves, but from such ma- terial Jis that of the railroad car wheels ; give us good steel, well- seasoned wood, and firm at that, pnd we will excuse high painting, aye, and will not look too closely at the quality of the harvesting. What we desire — and the manufacturer who in this accoids with our wishes, will find it to his advantage — is a machine that will stick to its work day in and day out. We do not like the six-acre per day'cradlers, but steady men who stick to their work day by day ; neither do we care whether a machine does ten or twelve acres a day ; but we want one that will last to do its average everij day. It is not necessary to mention name or locality, but we know of a locality in which one machine, in one year, entirely cut another out, not for any superior qualities in principle or work — indeed, it. could not harvest as large an acreage per day, nor did it Uv, t)> gavels as well — but it was made of the best of materials, tho- roughly tested before sent out, and the farmers recognized the advantages of a machine thao was not in the weekly or daily habit of " breaking a casting." Simplicity we also require. Farmers are not mechanics, and must have a machine the principles and working of which are not difficult to comprehend. There are various machines in the field of competition in Cana- da. The following is a brief reswrne of the great trial held at Paris, Ont., in 1871, under the auspices of the Provincial Agricul- tural Association. Of twenty mowers that were entered, only eight came out for competition. The ground was hilly and rolling ; the crop, mixed clover and timothy, was light and over ripe. The competitors were : " The Cayuga Chief" Brown & Patterson Whitby, 0. '• Wood's Patent'' Massey Newcastle. " Ohio Buckeye" Noxon Bros Ingersoll. " The Humming Bird". ...J. Watson Ayr. " The Clipper" Do Do. " The Sprague,'^ .Maxwell & Whitelaw Paris. " Buckeye" Bell & Son St. George. " Wood'sPatent" L. D. Sawyer Hamilton. The first half acre was cut by Mr. Noxon 's " Ohio Buckeye" in eighteen minutes, but the others were not far behind in speed. This, however, depends in great part upon the horses and driver. )t care Manual of Agriculture. 491 SINGLE MOWER WITH FORWARD CUTTING BAR. (See AppcUilix.) nee be imple- ments, ich ma- il, well- linting, vesting, ds with tiat will ,dy men wrliether )ne that know of another ndeed, i*^' b k, '+.!'■ ials, thu- ized the or daily iiics, and 1 are not in Cana- held at Agricul- e out for )p, mixed SINGLE MOWER WITH CUTTINH BAR IN REAR. (See Appendix.) THE CAYUGA CHIEF. (See Appendix.) The test of draught which was very carefully performed resulted as follows : — Name of Machine. Width of Cut. I Draught. " Cayuga Chief!' 4 ft 180 lbs " Wood's Patent" {^Ati^^Qy^ 4 ft. 2 inches 190 " Do. do." (Sawyer) 3 ft. lOinches 233^ ''Ohio Buckeye" 4 ft 193^ "Humming Bird" ..4 ft 1(55 '* Clipper" 4 ft 6 inches 175 "The Sprague" 4ft 145 " Buckeye" 4 ft 2 inches 20O The prizes in this class were awarded thus : — 1st, to " The Cayuga Chief " 2Dd, to " Buckeye ;" 3rd, to " The Clipper." Combined Mowers and Reapers turned out in stronger force, there being 14 in the competition, and the test showed EvS follows : — AYR CLIPPER (mowing), — (See Appendix.) AYR CLIPPER (reaping), — (See Appendix.) TEST IN MOWING. hitby, 0. Newcastle. ngersoll. Do. aris. George, amilton. ckeye" in in speed. d driver. Oswald & Patterson Ohio Buckeye 4 ft. 3 in. .275 lbs J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 1.. 4 " .3 "...250 " J.Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 2 ... 4 " 3 "...251 " J. H. Grout Ohio 4" 3 "...240 " Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard 4" 6 "...230 " Noxon Bros Ohio Buckeye 4" 3 "...220 " J.Watson Ayr Clipper 4" 8 "...205 " Harris & Son Kirby 4 " 3 "..280 " L.D.Sawyer Ball's Ohio 4" 3 "...225 " J.Forsyth Ohio Buckeye 4" 4 "...225 ' J.Forsyth Ball's Ohio 4" 3 "..240 " H. A. Massey Hubbard 4" 6 "..275 " Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 1... 4 " 3 "...250 " Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 2... 4 " 2 "...250 " DraiiRlit per iiico ■ ' jt. .5^ lbs. ...4 9-10 " ...4 9-10 " ...4 7-1 0" ...4i ...34 ...5.i ...4 3-7 ...44 ...5V1I ...4 9-10 " ...4 9-10 " f1 if; s * 492 T'/i^ Canadian Farmer's The following is the result of the test in reaping Width Drauirht •>n»U8:ht P«r of Cut. "'^<^»SM. Inch of Cut. 5 ft. Gin. .225 lbs. 3 3-7 lbs 5 ft. ()in. .241 " 3 7-11 " 5 " 225 " 33 " 233 " 3 9-10 " z'2d 33 H. A. Massey Hubbard J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye, Dodge R., J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 2, Dodge R.. J. Forsyth Ohio Buckeye, Johnson Rake .. J. Forsyth Ball's Ohio, Johnson Rake Harris & Son Kirby, Dodge R., sing. dr. whl. L. D. Sawyer Ball's Ohio, Dodge Rake J. Watson Ayr Clipper, Johnson Rake, ... Noxon Bros Ohio Buckeye, Johnson Rake... Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard, Johnson R . J. H. Grout Ohio, Dodge Rake Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 1, Dodge R. Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 2, Dodge R. Oswald & Patterson... Ohio Buckeye, Dodge Rake The prizes were awarded thus : — IN MOWING. First prize J. Forsyth Ohio Buckeye. Second prize Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard. Third prize Harris &. Son The Kirby. " 208 " 4 6-10 " "6 in.. .250 " 4 6-10 " ' 233 " 3 9-10 " "6 in. .225 " 3 3-7 " "6 in. .2.33 " 3i •' 1.50 " " 222 " "... 225 ' ' " y.7....236 " 4 1-6 34 3S 4 IN REAPING. First prize J. Forsyth Buckeye, (Johnson rake). Second prize Noxon Bros " Standard " (John"- on rake). Third prize J. H. Grout Ohio (Dodge rake). It is observable that the Buckeye gearing and Johnson rake, received tirst favours. THE JOHNSON SELF-RAKE. — ( See Appendix.) THE KIRBY COMBINED AS A SELF-RAKING REAPER. — " Dodfje Rake" (See Appendix.) u:.- Thrashing Machines. — The origin of the threshing machine is due to Scotland, where a century ago the first attempt was made to construct one driven by a water-wheel, which put in motion a number of flails of a similar kind with those used in threshing by hand. It soon fell into disuse, and it is now about sixty years since the invention was brought nearly to its present perfection by an ingenious mechanic named Andrew Meikle. Manual of Agriculture. 493 lught per ;h of Cut. J 3-7 lbs 7-11 " 9-10 " 6-10 6-10 " 9-10 " 3-7 " i " 1-6 " 2 :: There are but two kinds of threshing machines now in general use in Canada ; they are the " Separator" and the "Vibratory The several qualifications of the first are : — The frame is solid and well braced, the very best iron or steel being used in the shafting. That it threshes cleanly, quickly and thoroughly — i.e., that the light grains and weed seeds are entirely sifted from amongst the plump grain ; that it will thresh at least 250 bushels of wheat per day, and that no grain goes over in the straw ; and that it responds easily to the revolution of the cylinder. The cylinder is no unimportant portion of a " Separator ; " the best material should be in the teeth and the cylinder itself should in all cases be bound with a centre head. ard. ake). n rake). ^ h\ IMPROVED THRESHER AND SEPARATOR. rake. e Rake^ ichine is made to notion a shing by ty years erfection The only difference of any moment between the several ma- chines of this class, is found between those that are run chiefly by belting and such as are geared all through. IMPROVED TEN-HORSE PITT'S SEPARATOR. (See Appendix.) We are indebted to Mr. Watson, of Ayr, for the following plate of his " Improved Ten-horse Pitt's Separator," which, as will be seen, is geared all through. — See Appendix. 2Vi6 Little Oiant Thresher and Separator, which has now been before the Canadian public for four or five years, is a very usefal implement. It will thresh over two hundred bushels of wheat, of a good fair crop, in a day, and we have seen it do its work as cleanly as any of the large ten-horse power separators. The straw and chaff" are taken from the cylinders by rakers ; the straw is then carried out of the machine by an ingenious contrivance worked by cranks, which serves to give the straw an additional shake, so that no grain is carried out. The chaff" and wheat are shaken down on % w 494 The Canadian Farmer's m \% W the gi-ooved and slatted shoe, by a rock roller, which also riddles through a comb when the blast from the fan strikes, the same as in other machines. The cylinder measures 2 feet 4 inches longitudinally, with a 13^-incli diameter ordinary open cylinder, with eight bars, teeth in every bar, and two centre heads. The length of the machine over all is, without tongue, 12 feet. It is made for a six-horse power, but two teams can drive it without distress. For this machine there is in use a new style of power, to which allusion will be made under the head of Motive Power. The Little Giant is a very handy machine for a farmer's private use. His own teams can run it. It is very compact, does excel- lent work, is very simple to manipulate, and is stowed away in small space. It is a great advantage to have a machine at hand at all times through the winter. When no other work presses we can thresh. Straw is better for feeding purposes when freshly threshed. There need not be a single pound of straw wasted through the winter. Its cost is one hundred dollars — little more than the price of a lumber waggon — and if the farmer will allow a sinking fund of the percentage per bushel that he pays to the hired thresher, he will in two or three years save enough to purchase this very use- ful little machine. We have no hesitancy in recommending this machine to any farmer growing on an average over fifty acres of grain a year. Being easily portable, two neighbours could very well buy one together and share its work. It is a great favourite already in some sections of the country. THE LITTLE GIANT THRESHER AND SEPARATOR. (See Appendix.) The Agitator. — For this machine the manufacturer claims the following advantages : — That it has facilities for separating and saving grain which it is impossible to apply to other styles of separators ; that while its capacity for threshing is equal to that of any other machine, it is simpler in its construction, more durable, easier managed, and lighter on the horses. The teeth of the cylinder are distributed equally over all the bars, causing it to run steadily, feed regularly, and retain its ba- lance equally. It is 31 inches longitudinally, 16J inches in diame- ter, and weighs 270 lbs., mounted and balanced on a steel shaft. There is also what is called an improved concave regulator. This consists of two concave ends, with a disc working in each ; a square iron rod passes through these two discs, and is operated by means of a handle at the feeder's hand, retained in place by a Manual of Agriculture. 405 iddles nae as (rith it teeth 2 feet, ithout which private excel- way in t hand jses we freshly wasted ce of a :und of sher, he !ry use- to any a year, uy one eady in jendix.) ims the ich it is hile its ne, it is ed, and all the its ba- diame- shaft. gulator. n each ; perated ice by a ratchet and pawl ; the iron being turned operates the discs and causes the concave to rise and fall as may be desired, both ends rising and falling together, keeping the concave always parallel to the cylinder. By this arrangement the feeder has complete con- trol over the concave ; so that should the grain be throwing over in the straw, he can set it closer to the cylinder, or in very dry sheaves can set it wider and feed faster, both which operations can be accomplished without stopping the machine, removing the feed board, or unscrewing nuts, as is the case in the ordinary machine. THE AGITATOR. (See Appendix.) Immediately on leaving the cylinder, the straw is received on a long box or trough, about six inches deep, with the bottom formed of slats set edgeways, in the manner of Venetian blinds, through which the grain passes. It is furnished with a succession of agi- tating finger bars, with long projecting fingers in each. The box or trough is moved with a vertical motion by means of a crank shaft; and by a simple arrangement on the ends of the finger bars, the vertical motion of the box communicates to them a motion very like that of a pitchfork in the hands of a person pitching straw after the old open cylinder, in order to separate the con- tained grain. Having passed over one set of these fingers, the straw is imme- diately received upon a second set, where it undergoes a similar process, and so on over the whole series of sets ; so that when it reaches the stacker every kernel of grain has been shaken out. The grain falls through the slatted bottom of the upper trough or section into a second one, with a close smooth bottom, reaching from under the concave to about the middle of the shoe, and with sufficient of a decline to carry the grain freely to the shoe. This second or lower section has likewise a vertical motion, and that part of it which overhangs the shoe is perforated with holes, through which the grain is delivered evenly and regularly over the riddles. The two sections move in opposite directions — one going for- ward while the other goes backwards. They thus counterbalance each other, so that no jar is caused to the machine. The shoe is much larger and more capacious than in the ordi- nary separator, and the grain is evenly distributed over it. There is plenty of blast and sufficient sieve room to take care of all the gi'ain that can be got through the machine, and the maker claims that there need be no " poking" or " scraping" to clear the shoe. There are but four belts on this machine, and only one of special moment — i.e., the main or cylinder belt, leading from the cylinder to the crank shaft and fan. This, in the machine that we have M'f 496 The Canadian Farmer's !i soon, is su[>plied with a tigliteniug pulloy, operated by a lover at the feeder's side, by moans of which he can tigliten it without stopping to unlaco. Ho can likewise stop the whole machine back from the cylinder. It is very much chiancr than the common separator in one way, for it leaves but little litter on the ground beneath and around it. It is likewise claimed that no dust is thrown out from the cylin- der, but is all carried through with the straw to the back end. Having a less number of pulleys, shafts and other working parts, the friction is naturally reduced, and therefore the •' Agitator" requires a less amount of motive power than the older-fashioned separator. " In the older kind (alluding to the ordinary style of separator) there are four shafts, one canvas belt, one picker, one slatted belt, twenty-six pulleys, and four belts required for merely separating the grain, apart from the fan, elevator and shoe ; while in the ' Agitator' the separation is much more effectively performed by means of the oscillating trough or box and lingers, driven by one crank, thus dispensing with all those shafts, pulleys, »Sjc." The " Agitator" is also so arranged that the carriers may be attached either above or below the shoe, and either save the chaff or carry it along with the straw. Clover Threshers. — The following is a simple plan, in the absence of a clover huUer, to thresh clover by means of a threshing ma- chine.-— Elevate the concave, or depress the cylinder so that there remains barely room for the ends of the cylinder teeth to pass clear of the concave ; then attach a board in front, on the left side of the cylinder, and half the width of the cylinder. Back of the cylinder, and opposite where the clover enters, a similar board. The clover passes through the oj)ening in front, strikes the back board, and rebounds back over the cylinder, strik- ing the front board and passing out ; thus each feed is struck or threshed twice, and thoroughly. When winnowing, if the screen is too-coarse, cover it with wrap- ping paper, secured to the sides of the screen with tacks. In the fan shoe attach an oats and a four or six mesh riddle. The seed will pass down the heads amongst the tailings, and the loose chaff will fly off. If not satisfactoril}'- threshed, pass the heads through the threshing machine a .second time. Threshing Grasses. — If the straw is long, remove the fenders; if short, on the contrary thresh and winnow as directed for clover, but the blast of wind will require to be reduced. MOTIVE POWERS. Horse Power, — The subject of motive powers has given rise to endless discussions amongst scientists, but to the farmer the real Manual of Agriculture. 497 rer at bhout chino I way, ind it. cylin- id. parts, tator" lioned irator) d belt, irating in the nod by ay one nay be le chaff ibsence ng ma- lt there to pass eft side nters, a n front, , strik- ruck or wrap- In the ne seed )su chaff through fenders ; sted for nrisc to the real question at issue is, what form of power will do his work best and most economically ; and this question can only bo answered by each individual for himself, according to his own special circum- stances. It will, then, be of moro value if this portion of the chapter be rather devoted to pointing out the horse powers, steam powei*s, and wind powers to be obtained, and the special advantages of such as are now upon the market. For heavy work, such as driving the threshing machine, there is no power in the Canadian market ecjual to the Improved Pitt's Horse Power. In some cases they have failed, but this has been simply owing to carelessness in their construction ; and on the other hand, where the principles of their operation have been carried out with mechanical precision, and good material has been employed, this patent has given universal satisfaction. In buying a hor.se-power, the purchaser should look closely to the following points : — That the castings are true, and that there is ample provision for overcoming any tendency to mash cogs which may appear in running : that the material employed is of the best, the castings not made from old stove plates, and the pins and journals of the best steel. Look well to the bevel wheels ; on them there is great strain. Whilst on the subject, no farmer should allow in his barn any tumbling rods that are not furnished with slip-knuckles and rings with riveted bolts, or some similar contrivance, to prevent the pro- tuberance of bolt ends and keys that have been so often the ause of fatal or serious accidents. (See Act of Parliament passed ii. 1874.) See that all boxing is lined with a good thick layer of Babbitt metal, and covered with dust covers ; that the frame is well braced, to prevent any chance of straining. The transverse and friction rollers should be faced. The newer kind of rollers are made much larger than formerly, and in consequence, revolving more slowly, they wear less. TEN-HORSE POWER. — (See Appendix.) A little power has been lately constructed which is invaluable to the farmer. It can be used with two, four or six horses. It is light, compact and substantial, and being accompanied by a jack, plenty of motion can be obtained from four horses to run straw- cutter, grinder, drag saw, &c., &c. farmer's horse-power. — (See Appendix.) The Totman Horse-power is also another form, of very great general use to the farmer. It is calculated for one or two horse and can be easily covered in or readily removed from place to 32 'II f M ^'' 498 The Canadian Farmer's J.l nlaco at any season of the year. By means of a shaft and pulley in place of the j)itnian, this power, which was orij^inaliy designed only for application to a draj^ saw, can be applied to a chatt'-cutter, grain crusher or any liglit machinery. There is also another pat- tern made on the same principle, to which four horses may be attached. — (See Appendix.) TOTM.\N powKK APPLIED TO A STRAW CUTTER. — (See Appendix.) TOTMAN DRAG 0ROS.S-CUT SAWING MACHINE. — (See Appendix.) The old Tread Power we hope is now discarded, as tit to be clas.sed only amongst those works which are brought within the scope of the Act for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. (See Appendix.) Fanning Mills. — The principles of a good fanning mill are, easy change of the shake, thorough control of the draft or blast, and a careful sizing of .sieves. The sieves and screen .should be made, if possible, to shake in- dependent of one another, and there should be a contrivance to regulate the angle at which the sieves dip. The less gearing the lighter will be the run. There should also be an ample area for screening. We hope the day is not far distant when our threshing ma- chines will be so improved as to dispense with the necessity for a second operation in the hand mill. Corn Shellera. — Of these there are several patents, American and Canadian. Tlie Canadian Chief Corn Sheller, it is claimed, will shell a bushel in two minutes, and can be run by hand or horse power. This machine in competition with American machines obtained the first prize at the Buffalo International Exhibition. Grain Crushers. — In these days when our coarse grains are readily sold for cash, and when economy of feed is the only way in which to make the fatting of stock profitable, every man, who winters cattle, should be possessed of one of these useful imple- ments. The amount paid in toll to the millei- will pay on most farms in one .season the first cost, and the farmer is assured that his feed is the pure article, which, made under his own eye, cannot be adul- terated without his knowledge. By the one item of bruising oats for horses there is a great sav- ing. Even with young horses a saving of 25 per cent, is effected by feeding them crushed oats, while in the case of old horses, whose powers of mastication are reduced, it becomes necessary that their feed be softened. Manual of Agriculiure, 409 PATENT WOOD FltAME GRAIN CRUSHER. These implements are made in various forms, some on wooden frames and otliers upon iron, varyin^if also in capacity of work and crushing power. STRAW-CUTTER — FOR TWO MEN OR HORSE-POWER. The. hay and straw cutter is an indispensable article in the list of farmer's stock. We, ourselves, bought one of the improved kind last year, and know that we saved thereby at least five tons of liay, which rul- ing at about $15 per ton in the barn was a gross saving of $75 in the one winter. We gave $40 for the implement and, adding 25 per cent, for wear and tear, we effected a net profit of $25 by our investment. Of late years, fodder has been scarce, and farmers have gener- ally become convinced of the utility of the straw cutter, which prepares coarse food in such a manner that ail animals will readily \"\ w i 1 600 The Canadian Farmer's r 4 H oat it, thus savinjy much wante. Nearly all our agricultural im- plement makorH are now engaj^ed in their manufacture, uml yearly many hundreds are sold throughout the Dominion. Some are made f,. iiand power, and others to be run with horse power. The fonner are Ht only for the use of private gentlemen who keep perhaps a single horse and cow, but to any farmer with a reasonable live stock, the straw-cutter will l)e found as profitable an implement as he can have in his shed. Root Pulpers. — Of root cutters there are a vast number, liut the principle of cutting roots is, in practical benefit, far behind that of pulping. It is well known that the best form of feed to fatting cattle, is that in which it has been reduced to a certain stage of fermenta- tion. To ett'(;ct this, the nuxst rapid and economical process is, to reduce the roots to a pulp and mix with cut fodder. The only root pul{)er we have at present in Canada is the Ben- thall, an English ])atent, and they are imported. Whilst on this subject, we pjiss to the Agricultural Steamer. — An opi- nion on tl advan- tages to 'erived from stei food will be found in a preceding chapter on Cattle Feeding. The accompany- ing Figure repre- sents a steamer well adapted for the pur- pose, sold by Mr. Rennie, of Toronto : This is used for cooking food, heat- ing water, &c., by steam, though useful on the farm and elsewhere for many other purposes. It is made in two sections, the lower one being the caul- dron, and the upper one the steam at- tachment, which has AGRICULTURAL STEAMER AND BOILER. a pipe that leads Manual of Agriculture. 601 ural im- d yearly th horse intloincn ner with trutiiable ', but the d that of cattle, ia brmenta- :ess is, to tlie Beii- on this 0 pass to [cultural -An opi- advan- erived food una in a chapter Feeding, company- re repre- amer well )r the pur- by Mr. Toronto : used for bod, heat- &c., by ugh useful farm and for many rposes. ide in two the lower f the caul- 1 the upper steam at- , which has that leads into a large barrel that stands near it. Both sections are des- igned to be used separately from or conjointly with the stove, or on an arch, as may bo preferred. For indoor work this steamer will bo found \\^xy valuable, as it is perfectly secured from all danger of communicating tiro, and, by an improved combined vacuum and pressure safoty-valvo, from danger of explosion. The furnace is made; of wrought and cjist-iron. Tlu! stove is of heavy boiler iron, and the base, (lues, &c., of cast iron. The cauldrons stand from three and a-half to fo\ir and a-half feet high, with a diameter somewhat less than the height. Three sizes are made, to steam from twenty to one hundred bushels of cut feed per day, and to hold from one to two and a-half barrels of water. There are also various implements of less common use, but all labour-savers. The. Stump- Puller. — Of these, the most powerful and probably the best for general use is that made ujjon the screw i)rincii)lo. The screw and the screw-box is the only part of the njaclune that cannot be nuide by any fanner. SCREW STUMP MACHINE. (See Appendix.) We find the following simph stump machine in the columns of the American Agriculturist: — A SIMPLE STUMP-PULLER. It is worked by a lever, moved preferably by a stout yoke of oxen. The end of the lever is supplied with a strong clevis, suffi- ciently long to pass around so as to be used on either side. The fulcrum of the lever consists of a chain which is to be fastened to the largest stump near (a) ; on each side of this is a clevis, with a h r 502 The Canadian Farmer's h:^f^\ ai}4< .1 V ij ■; ;, I short chain and hook attichod. To work the machine, fix a chain to the stnmp to be pulled, hook on to one of the sliort chains of the machine (/>), draw up the oxen until that chain is tight ; hook on the other chain (c), turn the team, and draw up as far as they can go ; hook the chain {b), turn and draw again, and so repeat until the stump is drawn out. Then fasten on to another, and repeat the process until all the stumps are out within reach of the one the machine is anchored to. The machine will then have to bo moved to another anchoring place, and so on until the field is cleared. The last stump left must be grubbed out. It will be necessary to remember that the power of this lever is very great, and stump pulling requii'es stout implements and chains. A breakage may not only cause delay, but a blow from a snapping chain may very easily be fatal ; it is therefore absolutely necessary for safety that the ciiains be made of the best iron, with the best workmanship, and strong enough to hold against all the resistance they may meet. The lever should be strengthened with iron plates in those parts where the holes are bored for the clevis bolts. Horse Rakes and Tedders. — For horse rakes, there is none equal in perfectness of execution to the American Revolving Rake, now in common use ; but it is a man-killer. The Sulkey steel- toothed rakes are coming into use, and are very generally liked in the older portions of Canada, or where the fields are well cleared of stumps, and are moderately smooth. We have seen an application of the Revolving rake to the Sulkey principle. It is manufactured by Mr. Forsyth, of Dundas. Ac- companying is an illustration. SULKEY REVOLVING HOHSE RAKE.— (^See Appendix.) LOCK-LEVER SULKEY HAY RAKE. — (See Appendix.) DICKS PATENT POTATO DIGGER. Manual of Agriculture. 603 DRAINING TOOLS. Drainiiifi Spade. — This is the proper shape for finishing off' the bottoms of dr.iins in whith tiles are to be laid. ■ jHSEoax CARTERS IMPROVED DITCHING MACHINE. ENGLISH DRAINING SPADE. This ditching machine was first introduced to the public in the summer of 1839. It has been awarded the highest premiums wherever exhibited, both in Canada and the United States. Indeed it has in every ^ instance, when brought into competition with others, prov- ed itself to be far superior to any other machine of the kind yet invented. Its principal parts are an iron wheel four feet in diameter and eight inches wide with two flanges of five inches projectinor from its edges. Between the flanges, on the circumference o^ the wheel, are cogs five inches long, arranged in rows of two at points twelve inches apart around the wheel. Immediately in the rear, and in close proximity to the bottom of che wheel, is a steel plough-shaped cutter, arranged in such a manner that the earth continues its up- ward progress to the top of the wheel, where the cogs pass through a comb, and the earth is discharged into a polished steel spout, and falls at a convenient distance from the trench. The whole is connected with a car upon which the operator stands, who has the power of regulating the cutter for the purpose of levelling the bottom of the ditch — quite a desideratam. The machine is drawn to and fro in the same track, c: .tting from two to five inches each time (at the will of the operator) until the ditch is the depth required. The machine is simple in construction, very strong, and not liable to get out of order. It will work satisfactorily in the hardest as well as the toughest and most adhesive clay soils ; will also work admirably in sandy or light soils. Two men and from two to foui- horses are required to work it, cutting from one hundred to two hundred rods (according to soil) of ditch, three feet deep, eleven inches wide at the top, and eight inches at the bottom, per day. r m f ! H M w I "ii 504 The Canadian Farmer's II ' . Kill » .1 h< ' ■! I'' Official authorities certify that it does the work of from twenty- five to thirty men per day, and saves fifty per cent, of the former cost of draining. CARTER S OPEN DITCHER, ROAD GRADER AND SUBSOILER. This machine is quite simple. The main fixture is that of a plough driven and used in the ordinary manner. Attached to this is a large wheel, which lies on its side, and revolves as the plough cuts a furrow, takes the earth from the plough, and, carry- ing it round the flange of the wheel, drops it in the middle of the road, a distance of seven feet from where it originally lay. Thus the machine cuts a ditch on each side of the road to any required depth, and throws the earth into the middle, not in large quantities, but equally distributed across and along the road. In this operation the two machines, which are usually employed on such work, are combined in one, and the work done in the same time as an ordinary plough would take to cut a ditch. It is an excellent niachine upon the farm for making open ditches, and may, indeed, be used in some cases for subsoiling. It is supposed to effectually gi-ade from three-quarters to one mile of road per day, and the same amount of open ditch. Manual of jlgriculture. 605 open TABLES, &a Measures of Length (Gunter's Chain) used in land surveying. 792, or nearly 8 inches = 1 link. 25 links, or 198 inches = 1 pole. 4 poles = 1 chain. 10 chains, or 7,920 inches =: 1 furlon I "I i i I i I' i i A • ^, . 614 The Canadian Farmer's FEEDINO. Wheat (Train liarlcy Krnlii BeaiiH Cotton-Kocd caku. LiiiNi'od liidlun com Oatx )(rnli> Rnpo cako liraii Bean meal LliiHcml ciikit Hay (iiicailow) . . , Hay (clover) Pea straw Oat Btraw Wheat Klraw Putatoca Otohh Barley straw . . . . Orc1) 77-H 766 7.V2 7;to «r>7 &o» 41-2 2:iH *22fi 22 0 i« ■^ lb 2 14 I 12-7 126 no I»9 l)-2 IM V)-4 7 1) 71 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 1'4 2 0 .'(■4 afi 37 1-4 4'r. 6H (14 fl-5 7 '4 8-2 HI) 80 H7 1(l'4 11 6 iir.4 1UH4 7-72 41 2.^ 24 44 1127 1IH4 80. -1 4 IIIHH 2;illO 2,sv:l MOH I4:i4 HMO 2-76 2 D.I •2--M) 2''5 4-4.1 270 2;).'i 810 l;-.4 1-28 Ol'.CI l.'.O « 13 1 'M ro4 nH74 (Hill 72 44 641K) 112 ;)0 67 M (111 30 fif.MO 6,'i-.')0 48 .'lO 4IC8T .14 ,'.(1 27 40 1V(;6 1.1 40 18 70 1 4 08 'if>7 lo(i2 H V.'3 7 (iO 8'.'')4 771 7 80 7-11!) 4 04 f. (»3 f.46 to II to 47 to 10 to 4'4 to 6tJ The fresh ashes of wheat conic i in 100 parts :• Phosphate of potash 3C'5l of soda 32 13 " oflime 335 " of maj,'nesia 19(51 Porphosphate of iron 3 04 Silit-a '15 Coal and sand 4-99 — Fresenius. Tlie ashes of rye contain in 100 parts: — Phosphate of potash fiQOl " of soda 9-29 " of lime f)'21 " of magnesia . 2691 Perphosphate of iron 188 Suljihato of potash and common salt 298 Silicate of potash -34 Sand -50 — FitESENItrS il « Manual of Agriculture, 515 1 to flO 1 to fi-3 1 to U4 1 to 13 1 to 4 5 I to 00 1 to fi3 1 to IS 1 to f.3 1 to '21 1 to 10 1 to (10 1 10 •2-i 1 to » 1 1 to 57 1 to r,'i 1 to Hi 1 to 0-2 1 ti> •2'i 1 to lift 1 to »-6 1 to 24 1 to r.-fi 1 to (10 1 to 1 1 8 1 tl 4 V 1 1. 1-6 1 1( 44 1 tc b-i tESENIUS The imhca of penn couiain in 100 parts :-^ Phocplmto of p«i»aiih B2'7S •• of Hdiiii r)(»7 •• of liiiKi Id 77 " of tniij^iii'((i» i:i7S •• of iritti '2M\ RiilplifttrMif |p(>tuah lMi9 Coiiiinon iiilt U DO - Will. Tlie ashes of barley contain in 100 parts : — PotRsh isno rii-ispliiite of liiiu! U'JfJ Cliloriilt' iif pot.'iMHiiitn '23 Suipiiiitc of pi)i:inii \ r> Eartliy iilioupliiUcB 32 5 Silii-a 3J'5 Mdiillio oxMcs -25 L088 2bO — Saussurb. The ashes of oats, 100 parts: — Potash r>00 iSo.la r. ()() Linn- .'{(10 Ma-no8ia 2r.() Alimiina '50 Silica 7() •"»() Kiilpluiric acid l.'iO Phosphoric acitl 3 (tO Cliloriuo -W) — Johnston. 2hc ashes of luheat straiv, 100 parts : — Potash 12*5 Phospliate of lime GO Clilniiilc of potassium 3'0 Sulphate of potash 2 0 Kartliy pliospliates 0'2 Earthy ouhonatea 10 Silica GI-5 Metallic oxides 10 Loss 7-8 — Saussure. The ashes of barley straw, 100 parts : — Potash IGO Chloride of potassium '5 Sulphate of soda 3'5 Earthy phosphates 7'75 Eartliy carbonates l'2-5 Silica 35-5 Metallic oxides '5 Loss 225 — Saussdre. m m i 'T • ' f^lj 516 The Canadian Farmer's The ashes of pea straw, 100 parti: — Carbonate of potash 4M6 Carbonate of soila 8''27 Sulphate of potaah 1075 Coni'uon salt 4fi3 Carbonate of limo 4"7'8l Magnesia 405 riiospliate of limo 5'15 Phosphate of magnesia 4!}7 Phosphate of iron and alum 210 Silica 7-81 The ashes of good meadow hay, 100 parts ; — Silica GO-l Phosphate of lime KM Phosphate of iron •').0 Lime 2 7 Magnesia 8'6 Gypsum 1 "2 Sulphate of potr ^h 2 '2 Chloride of potassium 1 '3 Carbonate of soda .. 2 0 Loss "8 , 1 " 1 - I 1 'I I 1 r I |l The ashes of clover, 100 ^mHs : — Silica 5 Sulphate of potash 3 Chloride of sodium 1 Carbonate of potash 12 Carbonate of soda 13 Carbonate of iime 38 ^Magnesia . 4 PluiEp''.atc of iron 1 Phosphate of lime 11 Phosphate of magnesia 6 Carbonaceous matter 0 438 080 070 728 528 216 1(50 240 970 ■790 •100 — LiBBIO. The ashes of the bran of wheat, 100 parts ;— Potash 14-0 Phosi)hate of lime 70 Chlorido of potassium '16 Earthy phosphates 46-5 Silica -5 Metallic oxiues ■2J Loss ^-59 — AUaSUEB. >< i Manual of Agriculture. 517 A nalyaes of several Icindf of farm produce, 100 parts of each, extremely dry : — Wheat Rye Oata Wheat straw llyu straw Oat straw Potatoes Beet Turiiiiis Peas Pea straw Ked clover stalk irbon. I [yJrogeu. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ashes 4G1 5-8 43 4 2 3 2 1 46 2 6C 42 2 1-7 23 50-7 64 36 7 2 2 4 0 48-4 5 3 38 9 0 4 7 0 49-9 5(5 40 (J 0 3 3G 50- 1 54 39 0 0-4 5 1 44 0 5-8 44-7 15 4 0 4-2 -8 5 '8 43 4 1-7 63 42 9 5-5 42 3 17 7-6 40 5 6 2 400 4 2 3 1 45-8 5 0 35 6 2 3 11 3 i 47 -4 5 0 37-8 21 7-7 Analyses of dry beef and ox blood, by ivliich their constituents appear to be the same: — Beef. Ox Blood, Carbon 5183 51-95 Hydrogen 7o7 717 Nitrogen 1501 1507 Oxygen 2i:)7 2139 Asiiea 4 23 4 42 — Playfair. TABLE OF SOILS AND THE TREES SUITABLE TO THEM. SURFACE SOIL. Heavy and gravelly loams Sandy loams Flinty strong loams Gravelly and sandy loams Flinty, dry, poor, grav- ) elly loams ) Black loam Grav'iUv loam TREES. Heavy loam. Ditto Ditto Gravelly loam , Ditto Dry sandy gravel .... Heavy and poor loam. Sandy gravel Gravelly loam ... Wet spongy land Drier than above Sand and gravel ... . . . Gravelly, stony loam .. Moist, boggy earth Ditto, more dry Oak, ash, chesnut, willow, lime, walnut. Elm, beech, pine, spruce. Willow, chesnut. Ash, beech, oak, hazel, chesnut. Beech, oak, larch, etc. Birch, elm, ash. Oak, ash, hazel, and beech. Pine, laicli, chesnut. Oak, chesnut. Alder, willow, osier, etc. Poplar, willow, black ash. 518 The Canadian Farmer's Table shoiving the number of plants vjJiich mcty be plavtcd on an acre = IGO rods = 4,840 square yards = i'3,o{j0 square feet. Feet Apart. No. of Planta. 1 4'^,l^m 14 i!),:?GO 2 10,800 2L 0,9(59 3 4,840 3i H.rwG 4 2,7-22 44 2,1.')1 5 1,742 6 1,210 7 889 8 C80 9 : 537 Feet Apart. No. of Plants. 10 435 11 300 12 302 13 2:i7 14 222 15 193 10 170 17 150 18 l;!4 19 120 20 108 25 09 30 48 Holu to make a hotbed. — " Sow in heat — Sow in a hotbeJ," are directions so commonly to be found in the notices of half hardy annuals, that we feel we shall be materially aiding tho.^e who are their own gardeners if we give a few simple directions on the subject of a hotbed, composed of stable manure, the most fre- quent and useful form in which it is to be found. The preparation of the dung is a matter of great importance, and if the bed be expected to retain its usefulness for any length of time, it should be well worked previous to being used. If ob- tained fresh from the stable-yard, and found to be too dry, it should be well watered and thrown lightly together to ferment; this will take place in the course of a few days, and three or four days afterwards it should be completely turned, well shaken and mixed, keeping the more littery })ortion to the interior of the heap ; a second turning and watering may be necessary, although one will be generally found to be sufficient ; when thus cleaned of its rankness tlie bed may be made. The situation for this should be dry underneath, sheltered from the north as much as possible and fully exposed to the sun ; it should be built up from two feet six inches to four feet high, and wider by six inches every way than the frame to be placed ui)on it. The dung should be well shaken and mixed while being put together, and firmly pressed by the feet. The fi'ame should be kept close until the heat rises, and three or four inches of sifted sand or ashes should be placed on the surface of the bed ; in a few days it wili be ready for use ; but air should be given night and day while there is any danger from the ;!1 Manual of Agriculture. 519 it rank steam, and if the s-and or ashes are drawn away from the side of the bed, they should be re])laced. When the hotbed is used for seeds only, nothing further is necessary; they are to he sown in pots or pans, phiced or phuiged in the bed, the heat of vvliich will soon eause them to germinate. As this will, after some time, decline, what are called linings should be added, that is, fresh, hot, fermenting (but not rank) dung applied about a foot in width all round the bed ; this renews its strength, and will greatly aid its successful management. A cold frame is formed by [)lacing the ordinary hotbed frame upon a bed of light, rich soil, in some place in the garden where it will be protected from cold winds. They should both be shaded from the sun by mats during the middle of the day. Hovj tltick the N()\ . 1 " 0 " 7 " 14 " 7 " 11 " 7 •' If) li 7 " 15 "14 " 21 " 14 " 18 " 14 " 22 T/id Canadian Farmer's i! fS c« d t* w 1—1 Q . < — - « O a w « w h^ t-H O H t) m ■ TJ 9 .1^ a> o 0* rt P H^ O cfl 13 rt E-! il^ • W o ^ o w I s ! c< i P 1 Manual of Jgriculiure. 523 o Q 1 • a Es 1 o 1 M • li 4-a 93 o -^ — --^---' -;--■-- . ; H a H D 0 i a> ■n eS 1 ^i hi ! t ft ■-, '^•'' V ^ 11 f 1 i^i^^^H i"^H t 1 ■ 43jp1S1'W \ . r ' i. ' ' : 1, I i ■ t ^ t I 1 I .V "Titiir 524 Eh O O o C t3 P O « (1h p H T'Ae Canadian Farmer's -i CI m o w O fc 3 O pq I I P &4 4 Manual of Agriculture, 526 l-H O D O 1-5 Q 00 :^ ^ 7J O O H w o .-3 I— I < ft O s 3 o cj •oTp '•f):y 'pong •BpUBf^ •spunji easaojj •i •ppij O 1/ i "I H ' il ; M ■t , 111 it ] f Vi- 520 The Canadian Farmer's y. < H K O w PQ •fe'HJIVWJIH w3 o W W ^ <) o o !/3 -.0 0. 3 c e 3 o w o c I i Manual of Jgrjcuhnre. DaIUY A' lUNT. 62: Date. Suiulay. Miiinliiy 4 'I'licKil.iy W'vd'y'.. '[ liiirs'y. I'ri.liiy.. 8at'day. i; 7 Weekly' I'otrtl Amount of Miil< DUTTEIl. Moru'K. Kv«nin{{ Snn '! i ' H Letting is performed by a proprietor of house, land, or house and land in three ways. By a tenancy-at-will, a yearly tenancy, or by lease. A tenancy-at-ivill may be created by word or by written agree- ment ; and as the tenant may be turned out when his hindlord pleases, so may he leave when he himself thinks proper. This is a very inconvenient arrangement and is seldom resorted to. Manual of Agriculture, 6*20 r a solici- iixl sales. ^lv(!H pro- is njiisou- ly a.s pos- onditions hy Olio of ni'cr, who njuiiction liiuiimer ieiiioiit to imsclf, in- vvliiclj lias cut repre- irrtioraiit, lyer coukl 2H that he n for (torn- fall upon nee is pro- f contract. is espcci- I, or house y tenancy, tten agree- is hind lord X. This is dto. Wlien ail annual rent is attached to a tenancy, a hsano without limit i.s, in the oyi's of the law, a lease from year to year. In sutrh at Ica.st .six monthn' clear notice nm.st he j^ivcn l)y the landlmd to ejtict the tenant, or hy the tenant to release himstdf from payiiuait of regular rental and from the hindinj^ covenants of the lease, and the six months must bo Ix'/ore the expirati()n of the current year, foi- it can only (crminate at tlu! end of ajiy whole yc.'ar fiom the time at which it he<,'an, so that a tenant entcMiii;,' say on the first of April, the notice nuist ho .served upon or hy hiiu, so tw to termi- nate on the first of April in the current year. Thus, if once in posstts.sion, tho tenant has a iiL,'ht to rmiiiin a whole year, and if ho I'cci'ive no notice at the end of the fir.^t half year of his teu.incy, he has a riijht to remain two year.i and so on for any iiuinber of years. It is usual to stipulate that the tenancy may he determined by three or six months' notice, lus the ca.so may be, to expire on either of the (piarterly or half yearly days appointed for payment of rent. Tenancy lnj mffrvdncc. — This is a form of tenancy that very frc((uently arises in practice. On the expiration of a leiuio or agreomen*;, if neither party take the initiative in a decided course for leavi'j^', the tenant, remain- ing thus in po.s.session becomes by sulferance, a tenant fi'om year to year, which can only then be terminated by one party or the other giving the necessary six months' notice to quit at a time corres- ponding with the original tenancy. LEASES. A lease is a writinr,' or instrument by which one person grants to another the use of certain lands or tenements for a certain term and in consideration of the receipt of certain considerations. The proprietor is known in law as the le.ssor and the tenant as the lessee. The lessor grants the lease, and the lessee accepts that lease with all its conditions. When leases are burdened with a covenant not to underlet without consent of the landlord, an underletting to mere inmates or lodgers is not included. A lease for any term beyond three years must be under seal and in triplicate ; but a verbal lease may be made for three years and under. All signatures to leases, deeds, and indeed to agreements, should be witnessed. The main agreements or covenants of a lease'are on the follow- ing points : — Rent, term, insuring and rebuilding in the event of fire, cultivation in a husbandlike manner (the manner generally 34 »i i ,-i r, II 530 The Canadian Farmer's being more specifically stated as to sellinrif straw, taking two wheat crops after one another, keeping up fences), &c. Noxious trades. — it is generally customary to introduce a clause against the carrying on of certain trades, or noxious trades in a house. The trades, that are to be tabooed, should be mentioned, for we remember a case in England, where it was held, that this cove- nant had been violai :d by the opening of a school, while an asylum vas found admissible. Fixtures. — The articles that may not be removed by a tenant are subject to considerable doubt, and are a fruitful source of dis- jiute. Removable articles have been defined as all articles " slightly connected with one another, and with the freehold, but cajjable of being separated without injury to the freehold. All goods and chattels, articles fixed to the freehold by nails and screws, bolts or pegs ; but when sunk in the soil or built on it, they are integral })arts of the freehold and cannot be removed." Thus a greenhouse or conservatory attached to a house by a tenant is not removable ; but the furnace and hot water ])ij)e3 by which it is heated may be ^-emoved. A brick fiue must remain. Window blinds, and every thing he has placed which can be re- moved without injury to the freehold, he may remove if they are separated from the tenemoiit during his term, and the place made good. But all fixtures of this nature must be removed before the termination of the lease. Notice to quit. — In the case of leasing for a specified term, no notice is required or if, by tacit consent he remains paying rent as heretofore, he becomes a tenant on sufferance or from year to year. A notice may be given verbally, if it can be proved that the no- tice was definite or given at the riglit time, but it is better tc give it in writing. Recovery of rent may be by action at law, distress on the premises, or on goods away from the premises which have been removed therefrom after rent was due, and within thirty days after their removal — or by action of ejectment, under various cir- cumstances. As, these are all 'serious matters in which to make a false step, the landlord should commit them to his lawyer. Of one thino- we should take notice that the law does not resfard the day as consisting of portions, and the popular notion tluit a notice to quit should be served before noon is an err^ir. The landlord may also remember that he is himseif responsible for the illegal acts of the agent whom he may employ, though he would have a remedy against that agent. Manual of Agriculture. 531 wo wheat 3 a clause trades in ^d, for we Jiis CO ve- il asylum a tenant ce of dis- " slightly aj)able of ;oods and , bolts or i integral use by a pipes by b remain. ^n be re- they are ice made ifove the term, no ing rent year to ; the no- r tc give on the IV e been ty days ious cir- Jse step. t regard . that a ponsible ougli he AN i.o.U. The law is not particular about spelling, indeed it distinctly re- fuses to be governed by stern rules of orth()gra[)hy. The law in most cases insists on having everything written, but its decisions go by reading. Therefore you may sue John Tichborne, by the name of Tickle- bun, anarty in default, the deci- sion will be awarded, whether you have spelt his name ill or well. Thus no stretch of orthography could convert " I owe you," into I.O.U, but the law allows this phonetic system to be bindincr. Thus the following, being au admission of debt is as binding as any longer document. 1 August, 1873. To Mr. Smith, 1. 0. U., S25.iiO Twenty-five tVtj clollars cash, JAMES WALKER. Should you however affix the time o^ payment, say a month, your memorandum is useless, for it is illegal, as it must be stamped if its value is Jg25.00 or more. It then becomes a promissory note, and if stamped to its proper value, may be sued on default of payment THE TABLE OF STAMP DUTIES (1873). On every promissory note, draft, bill of exchange, a ;t less than $25, one cent ; over $25 to $50, two cents ; over $50 to $100, three cents ; on every promissory note draft, bill of exchange executed singly, for the first $100, three cents ; for every addi- tional $100 or fraction of $100, three cents. These duties are to be ])aid by bill stamps (not po.stage stamps) to the requisite amount affixed to the note &c. And the person affixing the stamp must, at the time of affixing the same, write or stamp thereon the date at which it is affixed, and each stamp shall be held prima facie to have been affixed at the date stamped or written thereon, and, if no date be so stamped or written thereon, such adhesive stamp shall be of no avail. Penalty for neglecting to affix stamps, or for wilfully writing or stamping a false date thereon, $100. Stam[)ed ))aper for the purposes of this Act may be prepared by direction of the Governor in Council. HUSBAND AND WIFE. When married, a husband is liable for his wife's debts contracted . f ' 1 ffll ■▼^ i 532 The Canadian Farmer' i> before nuirriago. In such ^nd with- out it our vast resources cannot be brought to light. Manual of Agriculture. 535 Thus are we suffering for want of labour ; and we will give a high price to obtain it. This work may meet the eye of some who freshly landed in Canadji, and led away by specious promises and delusive hopes, are thinking of throwing up the younger country and proceeding onward to the States. We ask any such to pause before they do so. Canada is in possession of all the advantages of the United States, and in addition, she has many superior prospects. The United States, governed by a Republic, is cursed by the abuse of the elective franchise. The consequence is every day becoming more apparent that the " Almighty dollar" rules her, that corruption is rife in every de- partment, and in none more so than in courts of justice ; her judges, the executors of her law.s — have been over and over again convicted of i-eceiving bribes for which their judgments have been falsely given. In this Dominion, no such cases have ever been proven or sus- pected. Justice in Canada still wears her bandage, and her scales have no false balances. In Canada, our taxes ( ^'.mounting in most municipalities to two or three mills on the dollar) are as nothing compared to those of the United States. The money wages of the States are greater on their face value than in Canada. But when contrasted, as all wages should be, with the taxes and expenses of living, it will be found that Cana- dian wages are at least equally high. The States parade the principle of Equality, Fraternity and Li- berty. We have all three in the most p rfect and practical form. Our Liberty is only curtailed when we break the very laws that we have ourselves laid down for the guidance of the community. Our Fraternity is pure and genuine, grounded on a love for all that is Canadian, and supported by a respect for those, who, pos- sessing genuine talents, have by the destiny bf providence and their own pluck and perseverance, raised themselves to fill a high position in the social scale. The law is readily accessible to the poor as to the rich, and is administered without fear or favour, ungoverned by bribery, intimidation or corruption. As for Equality — we are as equal as God, in his all wise Provi- dence, intended his creatures to be, as equal as are the various animate and inanimate works of nature, or as are the intellectual powers of different individuals. "^he Emigrant naturally asks himself — Is there elbow-room for me in Canada ? Aye, indeed there is and ample in every line of life ; ranging from the parson to the crossing sweeper. ■ it ■i I- 636 The Canadian Farmer's SIZE OF f!ANADA. SIZE OK UN HD STATBS, Sq mileB. Sq. miles. Nova Scotia 18,(500 United States 2,0Xi,r>H8 New IJriinawick 27,500 Alaska 577, .VJO Quebec 377,045 Ontario 121,'2(;0 Manitoba I4,:{40 Nortii West Territory 2,750,000 Britisii Columbia 220,000 Dominion 3,528,806 Uiiited States (exclusive of Alaska) 2,933,588 Thus the Dominion is nearly six-hunrlred thousand square mUoH greater in area than the United States. ACRKAOK AND POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES COMPARED WITH THOSE OF CANADA. Population. England and Wales i. Acrearje. 1861 lM)54,44t 32,59o;397. Canada in 1871 3,570,656 2,258,4.35,200. NUMBRR OF INHABITANT.S TO EVERY SQUARE MILE. In England and Wales 3722. lu Canada One. The Canadian farmer must have labour and will give any wages in reason to the labourer. There is not at present an average of three able bodied men to every hundred acres under cultivation. Every acre additionally reclaimed from the fore^ib requires extra labour in the country. If you visit Canada and find our average crop below what you have been accustomed to at home, remember it is due to a want of sufficient labour, and not to any deficiency in quality of soil nor to bad climate. In one Province — Ontario — every farmer, on 20,000,000 acres of land, is crying for more labour, and will pay for it as soon as it can be obtained. Therefore in Canada, the working man, may be certain of work whenever he requires it, and of remuneration at a high rate. There is a constant demand for labourers to work on railways. What chance is there for a labourer becoming a farmer for himself? Out of 78 million acres of good farming land in one province, only about 20 millions are yet occupied. Tliere are j^et 50 millions BS. miluB. 77,r)00 square THOSE OP age. (»,'S97. 5,200. 3722. One. pve any men to res extra i^hat you want of soil nor )00 acres ^ soon as I of work ate. railways. rmer for province, ) millions Manual of Agriculture 537 of land to bo taken up })y the men who possess the capital of stout hearts and strong arms. There is no end to the absorption of labour. Every new Inbourcr helps to clear new land ; all that we can raise will find ready sale in the markets. Let the Emigrant observe carefully three points ere ho steps over the line to the south. Our average soil is better than the average soil oftlie States, such soil as is poor amongst us has been made so by imperfect tillage. We have abundance of water, and in this are far ahead of the Western States, the Australian Colony and New Zealand, all of whic^h countries are extremely subject to drouglits. Not oidy have we plenty of water, but we have no stagnant water; and henco there is little or no fever and ague, such as is prevalent in many ])ortions of tlie Western States. The lio of our whole land is a grailual slope from the Laurcntian ran<''e or watershed, north to Hudson's Bay and south to our five great lakes; from the Rocky Mountains, east to our lakes and west to the Piu-ific. That the climnto is very healthy may be readily seen by our registrations and the general appearnnci nl the people, which is very (liferent to that of the sallow westerner. Advice to Emigrants.— VI ovk hard. There is before any man in Canada a noble chance to obtiiiii for himself a respectable home, to educate his children and to lay by for his old o.ge. But the way of obtaining such lies through steady industry and strict sobriety. Be careful of what little .^tore of money you may bring. The Canadian dollar and the U, S. gold dollar are of equal value ; but U. S. paper is not equivalent in face value to gold or to Canadian paper. The W\ itish sovereign is equal in Canadian money to about four dolhus and eighty-six cents. There is a slight fluctuation, however in its value, but never more than a few cents. TlM'rei'oie lo bring slnling pounds into dollars, multiply by 73 anddividt' by 15; dollars are brought into pounds sterling by the reverse process. EXAMPLE. 50 X 73 £50 0 0 = = $243.33 And $243.33 15 $243-33 X 15 £ r= £50 0 0 73 Ml 538 The Canadian Farmer's ,'/! ■mm! TTndor this head, wo .show tlio Oovcrnmont Return of the averaj^o wag* a paid to labouiur.s, and the price of living: — Rktuhn of thk AvKUAdK Waoks paid to LAIlOURF.nS, Mkchanics, &c. Per Diem. By month, with P.oard. (h-ueral Trades. Bookliiiulcrs and PrinterH $ ets. 1 00 1 25 1 00 1 00 1 (K) •> 00 i 00 1 50 1 .0 1. 75 ] 00 1 00 1 00 15 to 20 F^liU'k.sniiths Hiiki'iH 20 to 25 15 to 20 Urt'wcrs 15 to 20 Butl^hlTH 15 to 20 HrickiiiiikiTH 25 to ;{0 Brick liiycrs or Mohous 25 to ;{0 C'arpi'nterH, IfoiiHc 20 to 25 Do, Carriiv^^o .... 20 to 25 ('al)iiii'tinakuiH 2(» to 20 CooptTH .. 15 to 20 Coachnien ami ( Jrooiii.s 15 to 20 CtirricrH Kii^'iiu'-r'rivcrH, per trip 15 to 20 Farm IjalKniriT.s, .skilltd 1 00 0 75 1 00 1 50 1 00 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 00 1 00 1 50 2 00 1 25 15 to 25 Farm Ijalioiirer.^, coii-.iiioii (lanli'iiors 10 to 15 15 to 20 Milhvi-i>,'lit.s 20 to 25 Milii-rs 15 to 20 Painters, House .. 20 to 25 l>o. Carriage 20 to 25 Plii.sterers PUmiber.'? 20 to 25 20 to 25 Shoeiiiakerii 15 to 20 Sawyers Slup\vriL;hts 15 to 20 20 to 25 StonicuttiTs 25 to 30 SarMler.s Ht'<].ers, Kailroad, i>i'r trill . 20 to 25 Tanners i 00 1 00 1 00 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 .50 1 75 1 50 1 .50 1 60 1 .50 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 OQ 1 00 1 00 1 00 15 to 20 Tailors Tinsmiths 15 to 20 15 to 20 Trimmers, Carriage . 20 to 25 Wheelwrights Whitesmiths 20 to 25 20 to 25 Fouiidriet and Machine Shops. Boilermakers Fitters 20 to 25 20 to 25 Moulders 20 to 25 Patternmakers 20 to 25 Rivetters .. . 20 to 25 Turners 20 to 25 Woollen Favtoriec. Carders 20 to 25 Designers 20 to 25 Dyers 15 to 20 Finishers 15 to 20 Fullers Spinners 15 to 20 15 to 20 Warpers Weavers 15 to 20 1 15 to 20 Woollen Assorters , 15 to 20 I to ;{0 t.) 25 ) to 20 ) to 25 > to 30 ) to 25 Manual of Agriculture. Return of Aveiuok Wagks, &o. — Continued. 639 Canl Hooin Hands DvcrlookiTM , Weavurs , Cotton Factoriei. F EM A I, EH. Cooks ... DairyiutiiilH DrcsHinakei-H and MillincrH H(/iiM('liold StTvantH I 12 0 8 tgr Take the first rea.sonuhle offer you get, until you become better acc^iuiirited with tlio wages of the country. Cost of Living. List of Retail Prices of ordinary articles of Food and Raiment required by the Working Classes : — ProvisioHt, Bacon, per lb Bread, best white, brown Butter, .salt Do. fresh ... Beef, Mutton, Veal, Pork Beer, per quart Candles Cheese Coffee Corn Meal, per 100 lbs Eg«.s Flour, per barrel, first quality .. Do do 2iid do Do Buckwheat, perlOOlba. .. Fish, drv or ^reen Cod, per uwt Firewood, per cord Ham, per Id Shoulders, per lb Herrings, per barrel Mustard, per lb Milk, ppri|uart Oatmeal, per 100 lbs Pepper, per lb Potatoes, per bushel Rice, per lb Soap, yellow, per lb Sugar, brown Salt, per bushel Tea, black $ cts. 0 14 0 14 0 20 0 25 0 12 0 10 0 20 0 15 0 25 3 00 0 25 0 to 7 00 5 to « 00 3 00 6 00 7 50 0 15 0 It 5 00 0 20 0 05 3 00 0 20 0 40 0 05 0 05 0 10 1 00 0 80 Tea, tTeen. 'i'obacco.... Chi king. Coats (under) Tweed Do (over) do Trousers, do Vests, do Shirts, Flannel Do Cotton Do (under) "wove" Drawers, Woollen, do Hats, Felt Socks, Worsted Do Cotton lUankets Rugs Flannel, per yard Cotton Shirting, per yard .... Sheeting do Canadian Cloth do Shoes, Men's Do Women's Boots, Men's Do Women's India Rubber Overshoes, Men's Do do do Women's $ cts. 0 80 0 30 to 1200 to 12 00 tofi to 4 00 00 1 to 2 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 .50 0 m 0 25 to« 00 to 4 00 0 30 0 20 25 00 0 1 3 00 00 00 00 00 0 75 ff I ' 1 540 The Canadian Farme/s llfiit.s i\Yv. mo(l(M;it(' and <:fooil Ixmrd mid l()d<^in<^ mny li.- ol)- tiiilK'd tor ahoiit iJ.S.OO pel week, (/lotliiii^r is al)()ut 2ii per cent (Icnrer tlmn in (Jreat I>iit,rin; but. <;{»()d clothing,', .smtul)l(! to tlie country, uuiy be ol/taiiied at reasdiialth^ prices. In sliort, living in (Canada is clicap, wlien ccinpared with Uroat Biitain or the United States. I i TlIK PHOI'OUTIONS (>V THK PlUNCII'AI, NaTFoNAIJTIKS FROM WlllCIl TIIK InIIAHITANTS OI' ('ANAI)A ark DUAWN AUK: — Afnc'iiii (>• Nt'KrooH l)iitcli EiiKlinh IriHli HcoU'h W.'IhU Frt-nch Giriiiiiu Iniliivn JewH Other Nationalities New Nova OiitiiHo. C^iiobec. Rniimwick. Hootia. 13,435 148 1,701 6,212 19,992 : ts O.IIIH 2,868 439,429 69,!S22 8:t.iV.l8 113,520 .55!».4(2 12;t,478 100.043 02,851 32S.SH!t 49,458 40,858 130,741 5,282 28.3 1,096 1,112 75,383 929,817 44,907 .32,8.13 158,008 7.903 4,478 31,942 12. '.(78 6,988 1,403 1,066 48 74 3 7,305 2.087 903 4,0.55 1 ,020,851 1,191,516 285,594 ;{87,800 Thk Proportions of the Principal Rkligious Denominations. Ontario. Quebec. New Bnin.swick. Nova Scotia. Church of En Catholics, llo .^limd 330,995 274,102 8,128 286,911 92,128 24,045 30,889 1,824 44 18,225 19 239 4,0.50 548,392 62,449 1,019,850 4,303 2(),7.37 1,274 48 1.546 13 15 104 1 43 37(! 74,097 45,481 9(;,016 3,4.39 20,212 83 1 .55,124 m.au 102,001 ' Mothodists 1,602 Wt'sleyan .. .. 38,083 K])i8copal 403 Methodists.. ■ Primitive New Connection.. British Episcopal. C'alvinists 27 1 1 .Bible Christians.. 121 94 Without Cree Other Denom J8..S Delists I No Religion., inations 55 76 114,110 72 44 189,688 1,620,851 1,191,516 285,,594 .387,800 ^ Manual i'lricuUttre, 541 l.MI'OUtH AND KXI'OKTS, Showivff the rapid pt'of/rcss of (UouuUt in 20 yeard. Yi'ivrs. im \m\. iH5r. 18:., Tot d 'IVu.l... «2".i,7(>:i,»'.>7 . :M,Ho:t, »i,| :»r>,.v.i4, !()() . rM.7H'.',;:i!i . (;:i,:)l.s,r.i:i 7."..i;:ti,i iM,8-'.» i;K),»Hy,!M« ♦ ♦ * M 17ll,'.'»if«,."i)^'.> 1 •.11,(170,1 '.to Tlio inciciisi^ alono in those tlirce years m almoHt an 'ari^'c aa tho total trade in 18.>(J. Exports in 1871-2. Pro'Z Animals atnl their Pnxlucts ^^'1Vii'-/l2 Produce of the FiHhta-ien 4,.i^8,:^OH Do do Mines i*'?-;'-*;!^^ MiinufactureB 2,.J8'J,4.J5 Showing the Value of the Foij'st Produck Exp )RT.-i. AHheH-Pot *'''^!!'*!.U Do Pearl ;:^-j;^ Timber Ash ^>>^-^^-^ K'---7.;:;:...:;::::;:::;:;;;::;.;::;::::::.:::;::::;;:;.:: 2SS Sr ;;::.;;;:;;;:;:;:,:::;.:::::;::::• i.28o:t?i! White Pine '^'ivT'oyi Red do 10 Standard Staves I'v^ Other Staves I':: a Battens f^'^;!{ Knees and Futtocks o-r tri Deal Ends ^ .f/iJ'lJ;^ Planks and Boards .•.•::;••:;;:.•.:;;::.•:;;::.•.■:;.•.•..•;:;: ''^:^ fc-::;::::::;:;:::::::::::::::::...:. i^w Handspikes |^^ Laths f)' |f(fl Lathwood Ar',\'-'ai Firewood 4bJ.8l Shingles 240,730 it I I Iff r- : IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4^ * *> 1.0 1^ 1 2b 1 2.5 I.I f."* ia 1.25 1.4 ill 1.6 6" m /a m <^» ^w ^,>.^ (? / Saences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-4503 #^^<^ 4- 642 The Canadian Farmer's dhingle Bolts 31,908 Stave Bolts 7,440 Oak Logs 8,028 Spruce Logs 27,559 Pine Logs 28,7G3 Sleepers and Railway Ties 194,G'J8 Qg^fg __ 2 451 other'wooda !!!!!!!!]!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49«li65 $23,685,381 THE FINAKCIAL ASPECT OF CANADA. 1 The net debt of the Dominion in 1871, deducting assets, was $77,706,517.05 ; the net interest $5,302,812.80 ; the average rate of interest 5-54 per cent. The net debt amounts to $21.72 per head of population, and the net interest to 1.20 i)er head. The whole debt has been incurred for the construction of prac- tical public works ; none by war. 1 i THE STATISTICS OF BANKS. Years. Paid up capital. Deposits. 18G8 $28,529,048. $30,168,536. 1869 29,651,674. 36,671,432. 1870 31,450,597. 50,229,788. 1871 36,415,210. 55,763,066. 1872 45,134,609. 64,720,489. The combined Government and Bank circulation at the end of the last Fiscal year 1871-72 amounted to $35,090,348. I'he Gliimate we will dwell but shortly on. The most southern part of Canada is on the same parallel as Rome, in Italy; Corsica in the Mediterranean, and the northern [)art of Spain. The Northern shores of Lake Huron are in the latitudes of Central France, and vast territories not yet surveyed, embracing many million acres of land of good quality lie south of the parallel of the northern shores of Lake Huron where the climates are favourable to the growth and ripening of all the staples of the temperate zones. But it is more practical to test the climate by what will grow under its influence. WHAT WILL GROW TO PERFECTION IN CANADA. Wheat — A. 1. Canadian Flour is equal to any, and superior to most samples in Liverpool market. Manual of Agriculture. 543 Barley. — Sown in spring, a certain crop ; and forms a regular crop in most rotations. Peas and oats grow and mature well ; the former much grown for the valge of its straw. IncVan corn or 7)iaize ripens with certainty and produces from 20 to 40 bushels per acre, according to cultivation. Flax, hemp, tobacco, huckivheat, Hungarian grass, millet, and artificial grasses ; also every kind of roots, jtotatoes, turnips carrots, sugar beets, mangolds i 1^; . JZ5 564 Appendix. m ill ij&f'V K* ' m i i H .1 EHOMBiJlD AND STRAIGHT-DRAWING HARROWS. (SfcG |). 47u.) CHAIN HAJUIOW. (See p. 474.) m Appendix. 655 be 01 o OS w H !z; H 03 « J1 e §-2 o w -5 * o -•J +> •*- 9 ® s 4) O e q >■ a a ^ 8« ^ ^ is i> II "Ik TOOTH OF EYEU'S PATENT HARROW. (See p. 474.) ; "5* I ''i 556 Appendix. m m \\ 1-9 1-9 I— < Q O I f I I I 02 O 3 O 0) u 9 u <3 a 3 I Appendix. 557 05 m o xn H o Q -< O PQ W w a o ■8 . •-' 13 '^ 2 ' 2 2 a &^ si ;3 a -si g u o pbCC ® o '^1 t i:f '^ 568 jippendix. m 1^ ■ li' ' i' t 4> O CO Q CO M a? & H Q o 5 J <^ 1 O -2 a o It Appendix. 559 SINGLE MOWER, WITH FORWARD CUTTING BAR. (See p. 491.) The Sprague Mower was introduced in Canada by Mr. William Rennie, Toronto, about four years ago, and which he continues to offer at Agricultural Warehouse and Seed Store, comer Adelaide and Jarvis Streets. ^1^ i &60 appendix. I i ! I J :i I v. % ■f, fa 63 o < o w w o 3 >. a ^ 2 o H IS .. >" aj -tJ O So? > 0 m u _^ Si 01 n II Is *- >^ :^^ =!> ^1 2 a> E-i . s Appendix. 561 AYR CLIPPER, MOWING. (See p. 491.) Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, and for sale by Mr. William Rennie, Toronto, Ont. !!l m ill. ^^ 662 Appendix. ml m Mi,. J AYR CLIPPER, REAPING.- (See p. 491. Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, and for sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont. ,U t ! m Appendix. 563 THE JOHNSON SELF-RAKE. (See p. 492.) Address orders to Mr. William Rennie, Toronto, Ont. 564 Appendix. \U ,t 1 Appendix, 565 l1 -« CO S ," g ■12 2 a OH EC's 22 ZS ^ (» p a ^ 500 Appendix. 'J i ^! THE I.ITTLE OIANT THRRSHEU AND Hl^PAUATOR. (Soo p. 494.) Mr. William Ronnie, Toronto, Ont., ^ives further information respecting this Machine on pages 56 an'J 50 of his Illustrated Catalogue (Fift!i Edition), H work to which our readers ani referred. 4.A ii- THE KIRBY AS A MOWER, WITH CUTTING BAR IN REAR. (See p. 491.) For sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont. m m m i% ^/'ptndiX. C«7 !•) I f ^ i I i!?V 668 Appendix. -'.*>. TEN HORSE POWER. (See p. 497.) ' Horse and Dog Powers of several stvles and numerous sizes are offered by Mr. Rennie, Agricultural Warehouse and Seed Store, Comer Adelaide and Jarvis Sti'eets, Toronto. , t- :% farmers' horse power. (See p. 497.) Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, for sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont. jippendix. 569 o 3 (3 O M o H *» o M 3 CQ -b $ y CO 30 TS Oi -* a a) X 00 9 0) o O) A ^ ^ iz; 1 53 -» U 3 *< .a S &> o " • (• i' ■s I Advertisements. JOHN A. BRUCE & CO., Impocta mi €t%mt% nl^tth. SEED WABEHOUSE, SEED FARM, - - - E8TARLI8HED 1860. Corner King and McNab Streets, Main Street East, HAMILTON, ONTARIO. 0 e. w M o en M O o CO 5 s p F he] I N |s i-. § P 2. O I— ( w w Cfl 1. 1 Brnoe's Selected East Lothian Swede Tnmip, " 5- d O p 3 I The following CATALOGUES are published (luring the year, and will lie forwnrdert jiont free to all applicant* :— No. 1.— Illustrated Seed Catalogue, pulilliibed 15th Jnnuaiy, a defcriiitlTe Hat of A){Ticultural Vegetable and Flow»r Seeds, Culinary Roots, Garden ImplenientB, SiiinK Floworinii liiilbs, Ac. ^". II.— Wholesale Catalogue of Seeds, 4o. (for the Trade only), published l.'itb Jaiiuary, Mo. III.— Bulb Catalogue, published September ist, containing a choice collection of Double and Single Rfaetntbi, Tullpt, Polyanthus Narcissus, Crocus, Snow Drops, Crown Imperials, Jonquils, Lilies, Ac, Ac. PLANTS AND SEEDS CAREFULLY PACKED FOR ALL CLIMArES. ^ % fc* *■ Advertisements. QAMABA COMPANY. ^G e CAPITAL, $1,000,000. OFFICE- 345 St. James Street, Montreal, i I' ->■'' President. ^ COL. A. C. DeLOTBINIERE-HARWOOD, D.A.G. Vice-President. WM. ANGUS, ESQ. Managing Director and Secretary. EDWARD H. GOFF, ESQ. ■'"■ " Directors. Col. A. C. D'L. HARWOOD, D.A^O., Montreal. Kev. P. LfeBLANC (Bishop's Palace), Montreal. A. DESJAKDINS, Est,., Montreal {Pntpri^tor Le Houveau Monde). WM. ANGUS, Esq., Montreal {Preitidtnt Canada Paper Co). J. B. POULIOT, Esq., M.P., RWiere du Loup. L. MOLLEIJR, Esq., M.PP , St. Johns (Preniderit 8t Johnt Bank). O. BABY, Esq., M.P., Joliette. EDWARD H. OOFF, Esq., Montreal. ARTHUR DANSEKEAU, Esq., Montreal (Editor La Mintrve). Col. A. A. STEVENSON, Montreal. THOS. LOGAN, Esq., Sherbrooke. T. H MAHl>HY, Esq., Quebec. L. B. CHARLEBOIS, Esq , Laprairle. CHS. FRS. PAINCHAUD, Esq., M.D .Varenne*. L. H. BLAIS, £8q., MontmaKny. THIS Company is organized for the express purpose of insuring Farm Property and Private Residences, and it is the determination of its Directors to confine its operations strictly to this class of business, thus avoiding heavy losserf from sweeping tires and hazardous risks. An arrangement has been completed by which this Company has the benefit of the renewals and business here of the "Agricultural of Watertown," which at once places the Company in possession of a large and profitable business. The Stockholders, at the general meeting, held at the Company's Office, March 12th, 1874, having decided to increase the capital stock to 91,000,000, the Stock books will be open at the office of the Company for the. next sixty days (unless sooner closed by the Executive Committee) for the subscription of the increase of Capital Stock. Capitalists and others desiring a safe and remunerative investment are respectfully invited to call at the Company's Office and enquire into the advantages offered. .^S9~ Farmers and others will consult their own interests by insuring in this Company. For furiiher information, please to address the Secretary. Advertisements. ic. e t?eal. lal. untreal La Mui*rveJ~ irie. .D ,VarennM. ring Farm tion of its inesB, thus the benefit ivn," which business, ly's Office, !1,000,000, next sixty bscription a safe and ompany's nsuring in cretary. C. & A. SHARPE. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL J GUELPH, ONTARIO. Importers and Dealers in all kinds of GARDEN, FLOWER AND AGRICULTURAL" SEEDS, Clover, Timothy, Hangfarian and all kinds of Grass Seeds for Permanent Pasture. TOP, DUTCH SETT, AND OTHER VARIETIES OF ONIONS. VEGETABLE PLANTS, of all varieties, inlseason. Growers of the Celebrated C. ^ A. SHARPE, Seed Merchants, Guelph. Advertisements. r m f I W. HEWITT & CO., CORNER YONGE AND ADELAIDE STREETS, TORONTO. PATENT TREE PRUNER, HIMPLB AND D17HABLE. More and better work can be done with it in one hour than by the old system in three. PATENT EXTENSION LADDBBS. An Eight feet step Ladder axtends to Fourteen feet. Other Sizes in proportion. PATENT BAG TIES. ^Horse Pokes. Sheep Shears. Wheelbarrows. Butter Bowls. Draining Spades. Plough Lines. Manure Forks. Horse Brushes. Hay Forks. Curry Combs. . ^ Spading Forks. Breast Chains. Scythes. Bill Hooks. Rakes. Hoes. \ :.-r ■^.A<■.^!^l Advertisements. les. , JOHN WATSON, Ayr AeRicuiiTURAL Works, -MANUFACTURE8- Reaping, Mowing and Threshing Machines, SULKY HAY RAKES, Drag g,nd Circular Saws, STRAW & ROOT CUTTERS, CHOPPING MILLS, AND ALL KINDS OF Agricultural Machines and Implements OP THE VERY BEST PATTERNS. Having taken FIRST FitlZES at every Provincial Exhibition for the last fifteen years, I, last year, gave up the idea of compet- ing, and entered for exhibition only. But, with the view of test- ing the merits of my machines, I entered my Straw and Root Cutters at the Buffalo International Exhibition, competing against the First Prize Canadian as well as the best American Machines, and was awarded the Medals and Diploma. Catalogues and all information sent by mail on application. JOHN ^WA.T&ON. Ayr, Ont., 24th April, 1874. .i^is^ Advertisements. i> ' \^' tmrnrnt to umm z. zmtntmm* The oldjaborious and tedious prooeu of Hand-milking superseded. , NEW IMPROVED SELF-ACTING COW MILKER, Price^Sl.60 upwards. No Faitner should be without them. Manufactured and Sold afc THE CANADA TRUSS FACTORY, 690 CRAIG STREET, MONTREAL. ' By'rtmUting amount, and 18«. for pottage, a complete tet uill be fonearded by parcel pott. SOHO FOUNDRY & AGRICULTURAL WORKS, ill' ^ap r "z f^/t/^'*^^ SAVE MONEY, and use the celebrated "Pabib Chaff Cuttkb,'' Manufactured by A. WHITELAW, I Proprietor, - Paris, Ont. Advertisements. (In connection with the Medical Faculty of McOlll Univenity). Under the PatrunaK" of the Council of A^oulture, P.Q. ESTABLISHED 1860. Lectures commence in October and terminate in Afarch. Veterinary Anatomy including Diiwection D. MoEachran, M.R.C.V.S. InstitiiteH (if Medicine (Phyaiulogy and Patholoify) Prof. I>rakr. (!h«miHtry Prof. Okaik. Rotan^ Prof. Dawhon. Veterinary Medicine and Surgery D. McKachbam, M.R.C.V.S. Veterinary Materia Medica O. Brunkau, V.S. For Pro8i)ectuii apply to Gio, Leolbre, Esq., M.D., Secretary, Council of Agricultura, Montreal; or to D. McEAOHRAN, .If«m6«r RmialCotUge Velerinaiy Surgeons, Kngland ; Oradttatt Edinburgh VeUrinary College, Ac , Ac. OFFICE AND INFIRMARY: 679 Oraig Street, near Bleury RESIDENCE: 676 Dorchester Street. ired by it. CHARLES TH^TN, MANUFACTURER Or 0 ANDERSON'S PATENT VIBRATING CULTIVATOR. Alto always on hand, a good teUetion of eommon Ploughs, Horse Hots, Chums, etc., etc., eto. The above articles wiU be fotind all Al. Fanneni In want of either can have all Information by calling, or addreulng a card to OHAS. THAIN, Agricultural Implement Manufacturer, Ouelph, Ont. jidvcrtiscmcnts. k K 1 % 1:1 T]IK iiNv of H|iritiK WvA* \m It^coniinK UllivrrNHl (III •tODUIlt uf oIlCRIXICM, CDiivcnirnc* Mid ounfort. 'Hm* oh«'U|>t«t niuat thiTtiforti niHiiitaiii th«> Riiitrciiiacjr lu view uf ill* vvfr-iiicrt'iuiiiiw il* iiiuiul. WHITESIDE'S PATENT, in uiM^ mImiuI iivti y<-ant, hax «>iita)iliiihi haiul, and the old cuubrouH ami i-x|>«nitiv« spring niattrww on the otlur. It indiiuoH HLiEKl*, UKBT, and Hli.AL.rilt Mid iM » luxury within the reiwh of the p all. HOLD IN EVERY (MTY AND TOWN TIIKOUGHOUT THK ItOMINlON. Manufaotory, "Old OoUege BnUdingf," St. Paul Stireet, (west of McOiU) MONTREAL. H. WHITEBipjE f — "■"I.' ■* , !•;•■ ? W \i dentroyi) iho TtckR, tirimioten tlio irrowtli of the Wool, an.| ImpruvuH thu con- dition of the Hiihniil. Evury day brink'x additional toritiinoiiy of Ita thorough offoct- IvuiiuMN. No Houkiuaater should be with- out It. Sold Kverywhert. In boxeH at Sfic. 70c. and il. A 3.'jc. Iiox will clean :.'0 Mheep or 36 lanibH. HUGH MILLER &, CO., AlRICULTt/RAIi (;nilMl8T8, - - TORONTO. YORKSHIRE CATTLE FEEDER I la highly reuonuucnilui .aved. Stixk fed with the YorkHhiro Cattle Feeder have in orery iniitance, wherever exhibited, ''i^en First Prizes. U hoH been awanloaH8od. FOM MILK CATTLE it Is well adapted, aa H contains a great am .unt of nutriment, which produces mure milk and butter tluin any other known remedy, and at the same time It improroe the health and condition of the animal. FOR FA TTENINO CA TTLE it haa no equal ; it purifies the blood, improves the appetite, and strengthens the whole svstom, fattening them in one-fourth the usual time. FOR FA TTENINO PIOS. The uufwralleled success it has met with in fattening these aiumals is surprising. We strongly recommend its use. Sold in Bdzes at 26 cent* and 11.00. Sold everywhere. A Dollar Box contains Two Hundred Feeds! Prepared in Canada only by HUGH MILLER & 00., AQRIOULTUBAL CHEMISTS, TORONTO. ill Advertisements. all. u\n of the uid in hold ^rcudorH of It is a of purely m. It i8 hag beun rapidly, liediT have orlieii and ire denved |en Wind, at, which I Imprftvoe appetite, ling these ! )NTO. (si ^3 « 2 H « c r ECONOMY We kepp cnnatantiT In stock Climax Emery Wheel Saw Cummer, Stone's Original and Eclipse Gummer, \ P U VU k Tl? D ATT Q Jt TH Ooddaril Emery Wheel. Gummer Bits, all sizes, Belt Studs, Beltinc FUes, Cant Hooks and seven differ- 1''. Il» W A 1 BilVuUO 06 V)U, mX styles of Saw Swages, Send for Illustrated Saw Purnlshing Circular, contrinuie raluable Infornia- tlon hnw to hang and run Circular San-s ; alio Iarg« Machinery Pamphlet, to Brantford,Ont yid^ertisemenis. i li.i.' ! •1 i Si"? '' m \ -{. i ■ i- a l'{ W. BELL & CO Received for 1873, as usual. THE FIRST PRIZES AT pRovmcmt mt central exhibitions» Besides innumerable County Shows throughout Canada. In addition to receiving the ONLY MEDAL EVER AWARDED Tor Reed Instruments at any PROVINCIAL EXHIBITION, our Organs have received InivtrisiAt (UDommenMioin in all ^s\t\% of #rat §ritain. For Price Lists of these celebrated Instruments, address — \V. BELL & CO., Griielpli, Ont. srs\ T,' "'''#vj^7' 'i'lr' ■■T"' ■T'Trr^'ift-' Advertisements. JOHN JACKSON & OO., ORGAN AND MELODEON MANUFACTURERS, 06 Sa No-fi-JO- .W.5ffl. ja.2^ /S'.!/..... AUTHOR ..lhl.toaiBhft,....O...K. TITLE .....Tha....o*nadljBua...i:anBox.,;A.. ■anual... •*•:■■-,:.■-, v\*;^ 03 'Al -2 1983 (i<3c C.-2J W E witht on our produ( factur thoroi first qi been \ media AU carefa We and c] aualit they 8 vi ■^t>#.?i ^rt;^;: Ouxf t?*' tn- on xrt he lu- «t he .ve m- •4 tty it. ine jid *e, I .j«ed npon the name board or key slip of all Organs mannfactured by us, and, having been registered for our sole use, all parties are eautioned not to infringe on the said Trade Mark. Every Instrument bearing the name of JOHN JACKSON & CO. is fully warranted to be of the very best material and workmanship, and to give satisfaction in every respect. Special Terms to DeaUrs, Clergymen and Teachers. CA TA LOOUES tent on application^ Established 1869. JOHN JACKSON & CO. OFFICE, WAREROOMS AND MANUFACTORY: - - - EAST MARKET SQUARE, CUELPH, ONT.. 'kiiit3i'k)}liii