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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seui clich6, il est film6 d partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 / A ^ 0 9 13^ L\i»i NDBOOK /':5:i-''Mo '^^ .5 OF ^■D'O LOGY WITH KXAMPLRS FROM CANADIAN SPECIES, RECENT AND FOSSIL, BV Sir J. William Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., ^-c. THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. ^ S9 ^' im^ MONTREAL : DAWSON BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. 1 886. D3 I "se^ Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-six, by Dawson Brotheks, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. PREFACE. ada, in the •y Dawson tiire. The object of this manual is to urnish to students, Icollectors, and summer tourists in Canada an outline of [the classification of the animal kingdom, with exami)les taken, as far as possible, from species found in this country. This method has the double advantage of combining a knowledge of local Zoology with general principles, and of enabling the reader to procure and study for himself, either in nature or in i)ublic or private collections accessible to him, specimens illustrative of the various groups. Fossil animals are included, as well as those which are recent, because many types not represented in our existing fauna occur as fossils in our rock formations ; and because one important use of the teaching of Zoology is that it may be made subsidiary to geological research. Directions for collecting and preparing specimens are appended, and references are given to some of the more important special works relating to the several classes of animals. PREFACE. While it is necessary, in the interest of the systematic student, to state and define technical terms, readers desirous to avoid these can do so, and may nevertheless be able to use the book with advantage as a popular guide to Canadian Zoology, in which they will find many facts derived from original observation and not otherwise accessible. For several of the illustrations I am indebted to the memoirs of Mr. Jiillings in the publications of the Geo- logical Survey, and also to the papers of Mr. D'Urban, Mr. Whiteaves and Dr. Packard in the " Canadian Naturalist." Such other illustrations as are not original are credited to their authors. July ist, 1886. ^^ CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PJIVSIOLOGICAL ZOOI.OCY: Preliminary Definition 1. (iencral Introduction . 3 2. Tissues of the Animal ^ 3- Functions of the Animal CHAPTER n. Zoological Classification : 1. General Principles 2. Leading Divisions of Animals 27 3. Division of Provinces into Classes, «Scc ^^ Chronology of the Animal Kingdom . . 36 CHAPTER HI. Descriptive Zoology— Protozoa. 3. Class I. Rhizopoda Class 2. Infusoria . . • 49 Class 3. Porifera . . . 52 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. D^^SCRIPTIVE ZoOT,()GY— CfELENTERATA. Class I. Hydrozoa Class 2. Anthozoa C^ass 3. Ctenophora 60 61 73 86 CHAPTER V. Descriptive Zoology— Echinodermata. Class I. Crinoidca Class 2. Ophiuridea Class 3. Asteroidca Class 4. Echinoidea Class 5. Holothuridca 89 90 95 96 99 102 CHAPTER VI. Descriptive Zoology — Mollusca. Class I. Molluscoidea Class 2. Lamellibranchiata . . . . Class 3. Ciastropoda Class 4. Cephalopoda 105 106 130 144 162 CHAPTER VII. Descriptive Zoology — Annulata or Vermes. Class I. Platyhelmintha Class 2. Coelelmintha Class 3. Rotifera Class 4. Annelida 172 173 176 178 179 4 I CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. Descriptivk Zoology— ARTHR01.0I.A. ,88 Class I. Crustacea ... o 189 Class 2. Myriai)oda 206 I Class 3. Insecta %> 209 Class 4. Arachnida . . 234 CHAPTER IX, Descriptive Zoology- Vertebr at a. 2^, Class I. Pisces . . . 242 Class 2. Amphibia . . '■ 251 Clsss 3. Reptilia Class 4. Aves . 259 Class 5. Mammalia ... 263 PLATES. Illustration of Structures (Plates I to 9).,.. 274 APPENDIX. Directions for Collecting and Preparing Specimens .... 293 i ZOOLOGY. pRKf.rMiN'ARY Definition. /oology is the name under whicli wc arrange our knowledge of animals, considered as objects of natural history stud)--t!Kit is, as objects of observation, com- parison, and classincation. 'I'he elements of the subject may be grouped under the following heads :— 1. The ^cficral nature of the animal— its constituent tissues and its functions. 2. The principles of classification as applied to the animal hingdom. 3. The detailed description of animals, in connection with their classification, and distril>ution in geological time. The first of these subjects may be named Physioloi^ical Zoology ; the second, Zoological Classification ; and the third, Descriptive and Pahcontvlogical Zoology, We shall consider these in their order, devoting, however, only a few pages to the first and second sub- jects, and entering at greater length into the third, or Descriptive Zoology, which necessarily includes the A larger part of Zoology proper. In this we shall employ, as far as possible, Canadian examples, and shall notice fossil as well as recent forms, so as to introduce the reader to Paheontology, or the study of fossil animals. The greater j)art of our space will thus be occupied with Descriptive Zoology, more especially with that of the lower forms of animal life, the knowledge of which is most important in the TalcTontology of Canada, and with reference to the systematic knowledge of the animal kingdom and the thorough understanding of its affinities and place in nature. ->K^ I J CHAPTER I. PHYSIOLOGICAL ZOOLOGY. I. General Introduction to the Subject. The Sciences which relate to Hving beings are now usually grouped under the name Biology.^ Under this general designation, ttiat science which relates to the classification and structures of plants is Botany or Phytology" ; that which relates to animals is Zoology. Living bodies are distinguished from others by the following properties : (1) Origination by reproduction from other living beings, no method of abiogenesis or spontaneous generation being yet known to science. (2) Composition principally of albuminoid, amylaceous, and oily substances. (3) Organization by cell structures and the possession of special organs for definite functions. (4) Nutrition, or the power of adding to and renewing the matter of the body. The distinction between animals and plants is easily recognized in their hij^i;her forms, though it becomes diffi. cult in the lower types, in consequence of their simplicity and minuteness and of the obscurity of their functions. The most general and important distinction is, that plants subsist on mineral or inorganic food, which by processes of deoxidation they convert into albuminous ^/9/oc — life, Xoyo,; — discourse. ''(ip£>70V— -plant, ^(J'coov— animal. I GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT. and amylaceous matters, while they emit free oxygen. Animals consume and oxidise amylaceous and albuminous substances, absorbing oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid. This difference implies the possession of certain higher functions by the animal, which it maintains by its con- sumption and oxidation of organic food. The plant thus accumulates organic food materials, the animal expends these or the energy stored in them. It is possible that in some of the lowest forms of life both vegetable and animal functions may be performed in different parts or at different stages. The animal in its more complete forms manifests four leading functions or capacities : 1. Sensation — carried on by means of a nervous system and special senses. 2. Voluntary motioti — by means of the muscular and nervous systems. 3. Nutrition — by means of a stomach and intestines, with absorptive, circulatory and resjiiratory apparatus. 4. Reproduction — by ova and sperm-cells. The first and second, with the organs concerned in j)erforming them, may be said to be confined to the animal. The third and fourth it possesses in common wuth the plant, but they are carried on in a different manner and by organs of somewhat different composition and structure. In'every animal, even the simplest, these functions are in greater or less perfection performed, though sometimes in a very elementary and imperfect manner ; and it is the presence of the aggregate of these functions or the organs proper to them that enables us to call any organism an ^ GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE SUHJFCT. i .. animal. It is imj)ortant to carry with us this definition of the animal : — first, as indicating the limits of the creatures which the zoologist has to classify ; and, secondly, as i)ointing out to us the nature of the characters on which we must rely in our classification. It is further to be observed that the two functions special to the animal, its sensation and voluntary motion, are, in connection with its habits and intelligence, those which fix its purpose or use in nature, and, therefore, those which must be most important in its rational study. It is well also to observe that though there are some creatures of low organisation, res])ecting which doubts may exist as to their animal or vegetable nature, we shall find that, in the humblest animals of which we have satisfactory knowledge, the powers of feeling and volun- tary moving are manifested with sufficient distinctness, and their nutrition and rcjiroduction are also akin to those of higher animals rather tlian to those of i)lants. The animal being thus defined, we may ask, what can be known of it within the department of /oology, and what portions of this we may most usefully take uj) in the elementary study of the subject. The leading divisions of Physiological Zoology in their relations to the other departments of the science, nnd to allied sciences, may be arranged as follows : 1. Microscopic Structure of Animal Tissues (His- tology),^ 2. Organs built up of the Tissues (Morphology).^ 3. Functions of Animals (Physiolog}' proper).-' ^ V^rroT— web, tissue. ' HOfUfYj—ioxra. ^v^r/c— nature. 6 TISSUKS OK THK ANI^TAI.. Of these suhjegts it will he neressar)' to notirc the first, ns ^,iving us the materials of which animals are built up. The sce.ont! and third we shall take up very generally in this chapter, :\\\(\ more in detail in the Descriptive ZiH^Iogy, in which we shall endeavor to illustrate every leading group of the auinial kingdom by some character- istic example. «4«. II. Tissu'^.s OF THK Animal. The animal tissues arc known to us principally by means of the microscope ; and Animal Histology, or the study of animal tissues, has, in modern times, grown to be an extensive and most important branch of investigation, affording to the microscopist some of the most interesting as well as intricate subjects of observation, and yielding the most important results with reference to the principles of Physiology.^ The essential material of the animal tissues is albumen, sometimes called protoi)lasm, a substance with which we are familiar as white of egg, and which, with slight modifications and aildition of mineral matter, is capable of furnishing the material of all the organs of animals. Albumen is a strictly organic substance, occurring only as a component of living beings, and produced in the first instance in the cells of plants. It is a compound of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with a minute proportion of sulphur. In consequence of the prevalence I The teacher should, if possible, illustrate the several tissues by specimens seen under the microscope. TISSUES OF rilK ANIMAL. of nlhiiiiicn and alhuininoid substances in the animal tissues, the animal may be ref^'arded, in a (hemieal point of view, as consisting principally of j)roto]>lasmic. matter. This may, however, occur in different slates, as })abulum or food matter, as actively living matter, as formed tissue, or as effete or dead matter. Under the present heading wc arc concerned chiefly with the living and formed tissues. I Figs. I to 7 represent Tissues highly magnified. Fi'f. 1. r'(-lliil;ir Tissue— Shnwiiii,' Niicloi and Nucleoli, Fiij. '2 VoMit^' 151. Mul-Ccll, (lifter Hciile). F) 7.) The above tissues exist in their full development only in the higher animals ; but, under various modifications and simplifications, they may be traced in all except the lowest forms of animal life. III. FUNCTIONS OF THE AnIMAL. In order to perform the functions of animal life, the tissues are built up into organs and systems of organs, to each of which certain functions are allotted. These functions may be roughly groui)ed under two heads. 1st. Those of the animal life proper, which are peculiar to the animal. 2nd. Those of the vegetative life, which are common to plants as well, though performed in these in a different way. The former are Sensation_and Voluntary Motion. The latter are Nutrition and Re- production. Of these functions we can give only a very general summary."^ I. Sensation. The organs of sensation are the Nervous System and Special Senses. T/ie Nervous System. The nervous system always consists of nervous centres or groups of cells, and nervous fibres or connecting cords. ♦These functions should be illustrated to the class, either hy actual specimens of the organs referred to, or by models or good figures : e.g. Marshall's \ Dep. vSci. & Art. England. FUNCTIONS or THE ANIMAL. 13 f 'I'liesc may be arranged in various ways, and iii;n- he of very tliffcrent degrees of complexity. 'I'here are princi- pally five types. 1. A true /inrifi and Sj>ina/ Cor J. — (Myelcnccphal- ous.) — This c()nsi^ts of a proper brain, placed over the gullet, with a dorsal spinal cortl, from which all the nerves of the extremities branch off. The brain iiu hides several Fi!,'. 8. Brain ok Opossum (after Owcn\ ia) Olfactory Lohos ; (A) Cerebral Ilenii- pheres ; (B) Uptic Lobes; (C; Cerebellum and oriuiii of Spinal Cord. pairs of lobes ; viz : the olfactory, presiding over the sense of smell, the oi)tic, relating to the sense of sight, the cerebral hemispheres, relating to the general sensation and intelligence, and a single posterior lobe, the cere- bellum, presiding over voluntary motion. The parts of the brain are connected below with the s[)inal cord by a mass of fibres and cells called the medulla oblongata. The spinal cord is divisible into four columns, two posterior, and two antero-lateral, the former devoted to sensation, and the latter to voluntary motion, and the u FUNCTIONS OF TIIIC ANIMAL. nerve fibres take their origin in part from each. The mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes have their nervous system constructed on this type (I'igs. 8 k 9.) Fig. 0.- l)ia;,n!iin of Hmin of IJird, (Myeliiioi'iilialmis )- (a) Olfactory Lol.'os ; (h) Ci'irhiiil Heiiiis))li('res ; (<•) Optir L(il«'is ; ((/) Ccrtbullum ; (e) Medulla Oblongata; (/) Aiuiltory iic-rves ; (y) Sjtiiial ("ord. I<'i(f. 10. — I>iaj,'ratii of tiervous system of a worm (IIonioyan{,'liatc) ; (a) a''soj)ha;,'eal rint,'; {h) Double abdominal cord witb uaii^'iu. Fitf. 11.— I>ia};ram of nervous system of a Mollusk (Hetero>,'aii) Pedal ganglia ; (f) Visceral >;anj;lii>n. Fiy. 12.— Diayrani of nerve sy.stem of a Star- fish ; (a) 1 i locomotion, and in its relation to protection is connected with the requirements of the plan of nervous system carried out in the animal. The skeleton may be either internal, relatively to the muscles that act upon it, or external, and connected with the cuticle or integument. Some animals are provided with both these kinds of skeleton, an endo-skeleton or internal skeleton for support and locomotion, and an exo-skeleton for defence ; but usually only either one or the other is present. 1. The most perfect kind of internal skeleton is that known as the Vertebrate, in which the body of the animal is supported by a series of bones (vertebrae), articulated together, and having the principal nerve cord above their centres or surfaces of attachment, and the viscera below. The limbs do not exceed four. The whole skeleton is internal, relatively to the muscles that act upon it. 13 a Fig. 13.— Section of Skeleton of a Fisli (Vertebrate) ; {a) Spinal cord. Fig. 14.— Section of Skeleton of a Crustacean (Annulose); (a) Abdominal nervous cord. Fig. 15.— Section of mantle of a Cuttle-fisb (Saccate or Molluscous) ; (o) Internal shell. Fig. 16.— Section of Skeleton of a Coral (Radiate). 20 FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL. The mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes have a skeleton of this kind, whicli in its relation to protection and defence, is adapted to the reciuirements of the myelen- cephalus nerve system, and to the highest kinds of muscular action. A less complex kind of internal skeleton, often com- posed of very numerous pieces, is found in some of the invertebrate animals, as in Cuttle-fishes and Star -fishes, but it has no close relation in point of plan with that of the vertebrates, (Fig. 15.) 2. The most perfect kind of external skeleton is that known as the Articulate or Annulose. In this, support and locomotion are provided for by a series of external rings, enclosing the body and limbs, and acted on by muscles placed within. This group coincides with animals having a homogangliate nervous system, and distinctly segmented bodies, and includes the spiders, insects, crustaceans and worms, (tig- 14.) 3. The shells of certain mollusks may be regarded as a species of external skeleton, but it differs in plan from that of the Annulates. Some of the higher mollusks huve also internal hard parts, cartilaginous or shelly. Even the hard parts of certain corals and the spicules of sponges constitute a kind of skeleton, either external or internal. (Figs. 15 and IG.) 4. A large number of animals, especially those of the lower aquatic types, are destitute of hard parts, or have shells and tests which are of less importance as not being connected so closely with the nervous and locomotive systems, and as being absent or present in animals closely ^- FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL. 21 ^' I related to each other. In the greater part of the im- portant group of niollu.sks or ordinary shell-fishes, the hard parts or shells, though largely developed and im- portant for protection, are not directly connected with the locomotive system ; and in other groups of invertebrates, the soft })arts are supported by si)icules, fibres, plates, tubes, cells, and other mechanical contrivances for supporting and protecting the soft parts, which must be described separately in the case of each group. 3. Nutrition. The processes connected with this function may be comprehended under the headings of Digestion, Circu- lation, Respiration, Nutrition Proper, and Excretion. > i Digestion. In the higher animals the process of digestion requires : (1 .) Organs of prehension and mastication, which are often of the highest importance as means of zoological distinction. In connection with these the salivary secretion affords the means of preparing the food for the processes to which it is subsequently subjected. (2.) Digestion proper, carried on in the stomach by the aid of the gastric juice, aided by the muscular motions of the stomach, dissolving the food and converting it into a grey semi-fluid mass known as -ghyme. The process is com- pleted in the small intestines by the action of the bile and pancreatic juice, which causes the separation of a milky liquid (-ehyle) containing all the nutritive material of the I I ■ 22 FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL. food. (3.) Absorption by the villi or processes of the intestine, by which the fluid nutritive matters, the results of digestion, are removed from the intestinal canal and con- veyed to the circulatory system by means of the lacteal vessels, being at the same time supplied with living proto- plasmic matter,secreted by the mesenteric and other glands. (4.) Rejection of the matters not available for nutrition. In animals lower in the scale these arrangements are variously simplified, until the whole of the apparatus and secreted fluids are concentrated in a simple sac ; and in the simplest animals digestive cavities appear to be temporarily excavated in the soft substance of the body. » Circulation. The process of circulation, whereby the blood, or corresponding fluid containing the products of digestion, is circulated throughout the body, is performed in the highest animals by a muscular heart of four cavities, with arteries for the outflowing, and veins for the inflowing, blood. In animals lower in rank the same purpose is served by a heart of three or two cavities, or even of one; and finally the blood is circulated without the action of a heart, by a network of vessels similar in function to those called capillaries in the higher animals. . Respiration. In all animals the vital fluid requires aeration, or exposure to the action of oxygen. This may take place directly in the air by means of lungs or similar contriv- ances, or indirectly in water containing free oxygen in FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL. 23 1 solution, by means of gills. In either case the essential condition is that the blood shall be carried by minute vessels along a moist membrane, separating it from the oxygen-bearing medium. In the higher animals there is a special circulation to the lungs or gills. In lower animals the respiration is often a mere incident in the general circulation, and in some of the lower forms of life, tlie general surface of the exterior or interior of the body is used as a means of respiration. Nutrition proper and Excretion. Nutrition proper is performed by the absorption of the materials required to form or repair the various tissues, from the blood or nutritive fluid ; and in all animals these tissues, chemically changed by use in the production of animal force, are removed from the body by excretory processes, to which, in the higher animals, complicated organs, as the kidneys and perspiratory glands of the skin^ are devoted. 4. Reproduction. In all animals new individuals arise from the formation of ovarian or embryo cells, the fertilization of these by the introduction of the matter of another kind of cell, the sperm cell, and the subsequent development within the ovum, and from its substance, of a cellular embryo capable of advancing to the mature condition of its species. In some of the lower animals, however, in addition to this process of true sexual reproduction, we observe : (I.) Reproduction by spontaneous fission, or separation of the (»,v"^' 24 FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL. I body of the animal into two distinct parts, each of which may become a complete animal. (2.) Rei)roduclion by gemmation or budding, in which a process developed from the body of the parent becomes a separate individual. These modes, however, are usually characteristic of the immature or embryonic stages of animals, but they include many of the most interesting and complicated phenomena in the reproductive and embryonic history of some of the more simple creatures. The various phen- omena of reproduction will be noticed in connection with the different groups of animals in the Descriptive Zoology. ^1 ^^ ' CHAPTER II. 1 ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. 1. General Principles. .(J No subject is at present more per[)lexing to the practical zoologist or geologist, and to the educator, tl;an that of zoological classification. The subject in itself is very intricate, in consecjuence of the vast number ot species to be arranged ; and the views given as to certain groups by the most eminent naturalists are so conllicting that the student is tempted to abandon it in despair, as incapable of being satisfactorily comprehended. These difficulties arise largely from the desire of specialists to claim pre-eminence for the particular objects of their study, and from the tendency to seize upon some one |)art, structure or function, as the basis of a system, instead of giving proportionate value to the whole. In recent times a new element of confusion has been introduced by the determination of evolutionists to make classification subordinate to their views of the derivation of animals, and, as these views are often discordant and changeable, classifications based on them are very fluc- tuating. In these circumstances it will be best to retain as far as possible the older divisions based on plan of structure, but to notice such of the more modern arrangements as appear to be natural. 2G LEAD1N(; DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. It may be premised here tliat any rntional classification of the Animal Kingdom must be based principally on l)lan of structure, or type as it has been called. Such resemblance of i)lan is called Ifomolo^^y^ and implies the persistence of the same principles of construction, even though the end to be served is different. Thus the arm of a man, the fore limb of a cpiadruped, the wing of a bat or of a bird, the paddle of a whale, though diverse in use, are constructed on the same general jolan, and are said to be homologous. Animals thus resembling each other in plan of stiucture are said to be homologous or to have affmity with each other, whereas those resembling each other merely in function and not in plan are said to be analogous. Thus, though birds and insects have wings and are adapted for flight they are not homologous. In forming subordinate groups, however, we consider gradation of rank or of complexity ; and similarity of embryonic development is justly regarded as a useful guide to the true affinities of animals. I It is evident that homology or affinity, if we can really detect it in nature, should be a primary ground in our arrangement ; because, if we regard nature as an orderly system, and still more if we regard it as the expression of an intelligent mind, this must be the aspect in which we can best comprehend its scheme or plan of construction. Experience has shown that those naturalists who discard the idea of inteUigent plan as embodied in nature, and who regard it as a mere chance product of conflicting forces and tendencies, necessarily arrive at irrational modes of classification. I r.KADINC. DIVISIONS OF ANIMAI,S. 27 In producing a classification it would bo well to begin with individual animals and [)rocecd from these to higher groups ; but in stating the conclusions arrived at, the reverse order is most convenient. 2. LrcADiNd Divisions oi' Animals. A primary and very important division of the Animal Kingdom and one still often used or referred to, is that of Lamarck into (1.) Vertebrates^ or those having a skull and backbone, (^.) Invertebrates, those destitute of these structures. It is to be observed that the vertebrate skeleton not only defines and specialises the locomotive apparatus, but provides a separate lodgement in the skull and spinal column for the principal parts of the Nervous System, which in these animals is more highly developed than in the invertebrates. The great range of structure observed in the second of these groups led to the fourfold division proposed by Cuvier into Vertebrates, Articulates, Afo//usl:s 3.nd Radiates^ which may still be regarded as of scientific value, though it has been variously modified in details. More especially it has been found useful to divide the Articulata of Cuvier into two groups and the Radiata into three or more. In this way, for practical purposes, and as at least a useful provisional arrangement, we arrive at the groups represented in the following table : — 28 LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. it ■r t/5 a, in w S S c rt u rt ■*-> /: U ri c/} Q o O H < 7i < H C/5 rt M r/3 ■»-' t" • — o rt C t/3 c/: t— ( Td vT ^ c a OT U rt x; TJ CA ^ U2 O t! u P ,-1 o V3 •/3 ■r *--. C/2 g U w Q O CJ H a! w H W ►J s w u < to o CI. o N o H O fin »-H (M CO •j ti S .S: < < 5» (A hJ PQ tD X h^ o ^ J^ W C < t* HH t— 1 < u en hJ o f>1 f— t < Q > LEATMNf; nrVISIOXS OF ANIM.M-S. 0() To these ])rovinces nearly all animals can readily be referred, 'i'hosc whose posit i(jii is doubtful we shall have to notice as we proceed. 'i'he seven primary groups above mentioned may be defmed as follows : — t 1. Vf.rtkhrata. including Mammals, IJirds, Rejjtiles, Amphibians and Fishes. All these animals are bilateral and symmetrical, have an internal vertebrate skeleton, a brain and a dorsal nerve-cord lodged in a special cavity of the skeleton. With reference to their general form, they may be termed doubly symmetrical animals ; with reference to their nervous system, Myelencephalous, (Fig. 17.) 2. Arthroimda. including Insects, Myriapods, Arachnida, or spiders and scorpions, and Crustaceans. These animals are bilateral and symmetrical, with the body divided into unequal segments, and provided with jointed limbs. They have an external annulose skeleton, and a nervous V* 30 LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. system consisting of a ring and ganglia around the gullet, connected with a double abdominal nerve-cord. (Figs. 18-19.) f\ 4 rVrv^ /^OL.^^!.*^ J Fig. 18.— Calymknk. Fig. 19.— Calosoma. 3. Annulata. including Worms, Entozoa and Rotifers. They have the body equally segmented or unsegmented, often supported by an annulate skeleton, but without jointed limbs. The nerve system in the more typical forms is homogangliate, with an oesophageal nervous ring and a double abdominal cord, and with ganglia corresponding to each segment. (Fig. 20.) Fig. 20.— Phvllodoce. 4. MOLLUSCA. including Cuttle-fish and their allies ; Gasiropods or I i ullet, Figs. LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. 31 univalve shell-fishes and their allies ; Lamellibranrhiate or bivalve shell-fishes, \c. ; JJrachiopods and their allies They are bilateral but not always symmetrical, have no skeleton, and an (esophageal nervous ring, with nerve- fibres and ganglia not symmetrically disposed. They are otherwise named Saccaia, or animals enclosed in mantles (Fig. 21.) lave ften ited IS is d a ing Fig. 21.— Lym.vea. The Brachiopods, Tunicates and Bryozoa may be regarded as Mollusks of low grade, and are usually placed in a subdivision of Molluscoidea. or \ 5. ECIIINODERMATA. including Sea-urchins, Star-fishes, Sea-cucumbers, .Vr. TThey have the parts usually arranged radially, and in L fives or multiples of five. The skin is hardened by calcareous deposits, and often bears spines. They have a distinct digestive canal and vascular and water vascular 32 LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. apjiaratus. Their nervous system is ncmatoneuroys. (Fig. 22.) Fig-. 22.— Pai,/kastek. 6. CaaENTERATA. including Coral-animals, Sea-mosses, Sea-jcilic3, &c. They have usually a radially symmetrical body composed of cells. They have a body cavity, which serves both for circulation jind_ digestion, and tentacles furnished with urticating organs. The nerve system is nematoneurous or indiscernible. (Figs. 23, 24) Fig. 23.— Heliophyllum. Fig. 24.— Actinia. LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. 33 )iis. :c. or th LIS 7. Protozoa. including Sponges, Infusoria, Rhizopods, &c. Body 'H£2J[2Hl.Qli!}}I^eifectly cellular, radiate or spiral, or amoiPilous. Motionj by cilia or pseuciopoaTr No distinct internal digestive cavity, no discernible nerve system ojr_external senses." (Figs. 25, 26) ' ■ >;:-,•■■■> ■« tiLfj Fig-. 25.— VOKTICKLLA. Fig. 26.— Amoeba. Note. -The Sponges are by many Zoologists placed in the previous group of Coelenterata, but the balance of their affinities seems to mcline to Protozoa. 3. Division of Provinces into Classes, &c. These divisions are used analytically in distinguishing species, which we refer first to their provinces, then to their classes, &:c. But in framing the classification we begin with individual specimens, group these in species, then in genera, and so on in a synthetical manner. Thev are the following :— ' B It 34 LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. 1. Class. In each province we may find certain subdivisions characterized by subordinate differences in plan of structure and of adaptation to external nature. These we call Classes. The familiar division of the Vertebrata into Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes is an example of the formation of classes. 2. Order. In the animals of any class we may recognize grada- tions of rank or of complexity connected with subordinate diversities of structure and adaptations to modes of life. These we call orders. In the birds, for example, the division into Birds of Prey, Perching Birds, Wading Birds and Swimming Birds is an example of ordinal di- vision. 4. Family. In certain orders we may recognize a further subdivi- sion into groups characterized by a general resemblance of form, and habit ; as in the Birds of Prey we have the Families of the Hawks, the Owls and the Vultures. 5. Genus. Genera are subdivisions of orders or families based on close relationship in plan of structure, as for instance among the Hawks we may separate the Eagles, the Fal- cons and the Buzzards as distinct genera.* *In recent times there has been a tendency to subdivide genera very much, or to establish sub-genera ; and large orders and families are often divided into sub-orders and sub-families. i> 4> LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. 35 ra es t 6. Species. SpcJcs is the smallest group furnished to us by nature ; every distinct kind of animal reproducing itself contin- uously, and consisting of individuals identical in all their essential characters, being a species. Thus among the Eagles, the Golden Eagle and the White-headed Eagle are distinct species,* not intermixing or passing into each other, though within each species there may be minor differences depending on age, sex, condition, or accident. There may always be more or less permanent Races or Varieties^ though these usually occur in domestication or other abnormal conditions, and tend when external pres- sure is removed, to return to the normal form, which in the species represents the state of stable equilibrium of all the organs and functions. In studying animals we study species, of which individ- uals are the embodiments in time. Individual specimens or such number of specimens as may serve to exhibit the peculiarities of age, sex and varietal forms, constitute for scientific purposes adequate representatives of the species. ^ I *The Eagles now constitute a sub-family, and the species above named are usually placed in distinct genera. 86 LEADING DIVISIONS OF ANIMALS. Chronology of the Animal Kingdom. As reference will be made in the following pages to the history of animal life in Geological time, the following table is given for reference : — Geological periods attd systems of formations, with their characteristic anivials, in ascending order or beginning with the oldest. Peiiiods. Eozoic .[ Palaeozoic . . - Mesozoic .. Kainozoic . . Systkms OF" Formations. Laurentian. Huronian. Cambrian. Siluro-Cambrian. Silurian. Erian or Devonian. Carboniferous. Permian. Triassic. Jurassic. Cretaceous. Eocene. Miocene. Pliocene. Pleistocene. Modern. Characteristic Animals. Age of Protozoa. Age of Inverte- brates. Age of Fishes and Batrachians. Age of Reptiles. Age of Mammals and of Man. Details as to the above systems of formations, their local dis- tribution and the fossil animals occurring in each, may be found in "Dana's Manual of Geology," The "Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada," and the Author's "Acadian Geology" and "Chain of Life." !l t CHAPTER III. DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY. Province I.— Protozoa. The Protozoa are the simplest in structure of all animals. Their bodies are composed of a thin apparently structureless protoplasm, often of a granular character, which has been named " Sarcode," and the only proper tissues associated with this are of a cellular nature. They possess a reproductive organ of thTliluI^r^n embryo cell, and called the Nucleus, and a circulating or excretory organ, styled the Pidsating Vesicle. Digestion takes place in Vacuolesox extemporised stomachs in the sarcode mass. The locomotive and prehensile apparatus m some consists of extensions of the sarcode substance known as Pseudo^odia. In others locomotion is per- formed, or currents of water produced by microscopic vibratile threads. Cilia. These organs are seen in Figs 25 and 26. Most of the Protozoa are of minute size, though some grow to large dimensions by indefinite multiplication of similar parts. Their reproduction takes place when immature by fission and gemmation when mature in so far as known by germ-cells or granules! developed from the nucleus. Simple though the Pro- tozoa are, they admit of subdivision into classes, difi-ering materially in structure, function and grade of complexity 38 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. The classes of the Protozoa are the following : — 1. Rhizopoda — Jelly animalcules, Foraminifera and their allies. 2. Infusoria — Infusorial Animalcules and their allies. 3. Port/era — Sponges and their allies. (The Gregarinida — Microscopic insect parasites, are also usually included with the Protozoa.) r \M\ Class I. — Rhizopoda. Sarcodic or protoplasmic animals^ destitute of a mouthy moving and feeding by means of extensiofis of the sarcode of the body ifi lobes or threads knoivn as pseudopodia. Some are naked ; others are provided with calcareous or silicious or arenaceous tests of one or several chambers. ^^ Opder 1. Amoebina or Lorosa. We may take as a type of this group the Amoeba, a microscopic creature frequently found in ponds con- taining vegetable matter. It occurs in Canada, and may readily be procured by the microscopist, by searching among the decaying vegetable matter or living water- weeds of stagnant waters. Different species have been described, but they are very similar to each other. When placed under a microscope, a living specimen appears as a flattened mass of transparent jelly ; the front part moving forward with a sort of flowing motion, and jutting forth into lobe-shaped or finger-like pseudo- podial prolongations ; the hinder part appearing to be draw^n after it, and presenting fewer irregularities. In its PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 39 r interior are seen a nucleus, minute granules which flow freely within its substance, and one or more vesicles which alternately expand and become filled with a clear fluid, and contract and disappear. Often also there are certain spaces or vacuoles, in which may be seen minute one-celled plants or other particles of food which the creature has devoured, and which are in process of digestion. The outer portion of the substance of the Amoeba (the Ectosarc) appears to be more^transparent and_dense than the central portion (Endosarc) which is grajnilar. So soft is the tissue that the creature seems to flow forward like a drop of some semi-fluid substance moving down an inclined surface ; but as the Amoeba can move forward on a horizontal plane or up an incline, it is obvious that its movement proceeds from a force acting from within, and probably of the nature of con- traction and relaxation of tiie protoplasmic substance. Kor are there wanting indications that these motions are voluntary and prompted by the appetites and sensations of the animal (Fig. 27). Nourishment is taken by means Fig. 27.— Amoeba protkus, Magnified. The outer clear portion is the Ectosarc, wh ich sends out processes or pseudopods, the inner granular portion the Endosarc. In the latter are seen the nucleus and two pulsating vesicles. 40 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. of the pseiidopodia which surround or press into the interior of the body minute one-celled plants, and other substances suitable for food. These are usually taken in at the anterior extremity of the body, and the undigested remains ejected posteriorly, but there is no alimentary canal, digestion taking place in temporary vacuole^. The adult Amoeba becomes encysted by the formation around it of a membranous sac, and within this the nucleus sub- divides, and the whole mass of the parent animal seems to be reduced into germs. Amoeba is the type of the order Affioebina^ in which, however, some of the genera have membranous or sandy cells for protection. (^Arcella^ Difflugia 6^^.) i' Descriptions and figures of many species of American fresh-water Rhizopods will be found in Leidy's Report on Fresh-water Rhizopoda, published by the United States Geological Survey of the Territories. In collecting these animals the fine flocculent surface matter of the bottom of ponds may be taken up with a dipper attached to a slick, or water-weeds and Sphagnum may be squeezed antl the water flowing from them gathered in a watch- glass and examined. r 1 Order 2. Heliozoa. \ In the same places with Amoeba may be found speci- mens of the genus Aciinophrys, in which the outer coat of the body often has a vacuolated or frothy structure, and the form is globular with radiating slenfjerj^seiuin- pods. There is a pulsa^^mg vesicje and nucleus. r PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 41 It is the type of the second order, Heliozoa. (Fig. 28.) Fig-. 2S.— AcTiN'oi'iiRYs SOL. Mayniflcd. The Ectosarc is thick and with minute cavities. The pulsating vesicle IS external. The pseudopods are slender and thread-like. ^ \ Order 3. Foraminifera. In the ocean we find other Rhizopods, distinguished by having pseudopodia threadlike and often reticulating with one another, and by the formation of calcareous or sandy tests, having one opening for the emission of pseudopods {Imperforata) or perforated with numerous minute pores {Perforata). Sometimes these shells are of one chamber only, but more frequently of several cham- bers arranged in a regularly spiral or alternate manner, so 42 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. as to form beautiful (hamhcred shells (Fig. 29). These Ml FiiT. 29.--NoNi(»MNA, a nifxkrti Foraniinifer, shosviiitf its chambered and puiH'tated test and nettled iiseudopodia — After Carpenter. constitute the order Foraiuifiifera^ the specif of which occur in immense abundance in the waters c ocean, and in its deeper parts their calcareous shells accumulate in extensive beds. According to Messrs. Parker and Jones, from 80 to 90 per cent, of the matter taken up by the sounding lead in deei)er parts of the Atlantic, is composed of their remains, and the dredgings of the Challenger expedition have shown that the bottom of the deeper parts of the ocean is largely composed of this " Globigerina ooze," as it has been called from the name of one of the more common forms found in it. In like manner, in the sea bottoms of former geological periods, were accumulated, by the growth and death of Forami- nifera, the great beds of chalk and of Nummulitic and Miliolite limestone. In the older formations also, these creatures are found to have attained to gigantic size I PROVINCE PROTOZOA 43 J as compared with living species. A foraminiforal or- ganism of dimensions uneriuallcd in the modern seas (Eozoon Canadcnse, Figs. 40, 41) occurs in tiic Lower Laurentian, and is the oldest form of animal life known to us. The forms figured (Figs. 30 to 39), are some of the most numerous in the Gulf of St. La\srence, and in the Pleistocene clays of the St. Lawrence Valley. They are all highly magnified. The Foraminifera are usually divided into two orders, in accordance with the character of their tests. These are Tmperforata (Fig. 30) ; Perforata (Figs. 31 to 39). Fig. 30.— Ql'lNQL-KLOCULiIXA SKMlNUIilM ((;;ih' Si. LawrcllCL.). ;e Fig. 31.— Entosolknia globosa Section (Gulf St. Lawrence) Fig. 32.— E.NTOHOLK.VIA CO.STATA (Gulf St. Lawrence). \. 44 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. The species represented in Figures 30 to 39 inclusive are found fossil in the Pleistocene clays of Canada, as li: ! H ' VvLAyVviVfll/^l 1 ^^HnPibt^ i 3^ 3 4^^^^^^^^^F'?Y i//?!'// \Ay^^^^^^^^B 1 g^ i JhU2^HW^^;^^^^H F\g. rs. — EXTOBOLBXiA sin'AMosA, three varieties (Gulf St. La\vrence)f and Sculpture of one variety. i Fig. 34.— PoLVMORniixA lactka (Gulf St. Lawrence). II M PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 45 ;ive , as well as living in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. FiK- S'l.— RiLiMiNA lUKSM, Scctioii and Kxterior Gulf St. Lawrence). Fiif. ;3C.— P>iLOCrMNA rinoi'.xh Section (Gulf St. Lawrence). FiiT. 37.— I'OIiTSTOMELL.V CRISPA (Gulf St. Lawrence). I ' W i: M 46 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. Fig. 38.— NoxiONiNA SCAPHA— Var Labradoeica (Gulf St. Lawrence). Fig. 39.— Truxcatllina LOBL'LATA (Gulf St. Lawreuce). A Sessile Species. The singular Laurentian form known as Eozoon Cana- dense presents in its succession of calcareous walls perforated with ramifying canals, (Figs. 40, 41) a close resemblance to the structure of modern Foraminifera, and especially to such sessile forms as the Polytrema,which occurs in patches on dead coral ; though in details it shows •many peculiarities, allying it with several modern groups. The Strojnatopone or layer-corals, or at least some of their forms, resemble large Foraminifera, and there are minute species found fossil from the Silurian upwards. 1 fig. 40.— Eozoon Canadbnsk— Dawson. Laurentian System, Canada. Section of a small specimen natural size. I ri 1 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 47 ce). la- ills »se ra, ch ws of e Fig. 41. — Section of Eozoox liif^hly magnified, showing the Canals. Foraminifera may be obtained from the mud taken up in dredging in deep water, and also from the Pleistocene clays containing marine shells. They are most easily collected by drying the deposit and then crumbling it and stirring it in water. The minute shells float to the surface, and may be skimmed off. Fossil Foraminifera occur in large quantities in certain cretaceous marls of the North- western Territories, in which the forms are similar to those of the English chalk. Reference — Carpenter on Foraminifera, Publications of Ray Society. Order 4. Radiolaria. Another oceanic group is that constituting the order Radiolaria^ in which the body is more complex than in Foraminifera, containing a central capsule holding vacu- oles and granules with oil globules and a nucleus or nuclei. The skeleton is silicious, and consists of little radiating spicules or a perforated glassy test, often of great beauty. Acanthometra of our seas, is an example of the spicular skeleton, and has a globular sarcodic body 48 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. i! ■*' ( tit ili I t .i supported and protected by fine silicious needles, or spicul?e radiating from the centre. The Polycistina have the skeleton in form of a test. The Polycistina are almost equally widely diffused in the sea, though less abundant than the Foraminifera, and their silicious skeletons are often of great beauty and symmetry. Fig. 42 represents two species obtained from a depth of 313 fathoms in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by Capt. Orlebar, R.N. Fig. 42.— CERAT(»spYni8 and Dictvociia aci:leata ? ; Silicious tests. (Gulf St Lawrence, 313 fathoms.) Acanthometrce may sometimes be taken in great numbers in a gauze or muslin tow-net, especially on the margin of the Gulf Stream on the Banks of Newfoundland. Polycistina occur in the deeper parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and fine preparations of their skeletons are made from a white silicious earth found in the Island of Barbadoes, and which is in great part composed of these organisms. Reference — Carpenter on the Microscope. (■?: P i III 1 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 49 or est. the ind ind cm by 1 f ^ a f e )f e e Class II. Infusoria. Protozoa having an oral and often an anal aperture^ and an integument of cellular tissue enclosing the sarcode mass^ and furnished ivith cilia^ flagella or suckers. Examples of those creatures may be found in stagnant water, or in any vegetable infusion which has been ex- posed to the air. Some are locomotive, and others fixed. As a type of the first, the genus Paramcecium may be taken (Fig. 43). The species of this genus are very Fig. 43.— PARAMoecir.M— Magnified, showing ciliated surface, ectosaro and endosarc, and pulsating vesi- cles in the former. The mouth is seen at one side. Fig. 44.— VoRTiCELLA, .Same parts as in Fig. 43, with nerve mass near mouth and contractile stalk. common in infusions. They are oval in form, with a minute slit or depression at one side, which is the mouth. The surface is covered with vibratile cilia, by the motion of which the animals can swim rapidly. Within the ciliated cuticle is a cortical layer of dense sarcode, with the pulsating vesicles, and the interior is occupied 50 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. with soft sarcode lifcf. ,h.. , be perceived a n Sus o. "" ^"'°''''' '" ^^'^^ n,ay "°'es or cavities mTZTT'''^' °^^^"' '"'"'^ " c genus Vorticella afford J '"'^ ^"""^''s of the InrusoWa. The/at colr;f ,°^, ^^^ ^ -'-hed *e upper surface alone ci Sed anH '™' '" '°™' '^"^ by a cord or stalk, in which ! ""''''^'^ ^' 'he base -•■'bling the aninU lu^de ItT" ^°"'-'"e -hread 'he approach of danger The V ""' "'^"^elves on ^-^"--ater, a,uari and"*::,!™'^ -/ound in The reproduction of the Inf • ^ ' ''^ '^-!i?2H!j£!ion^^^„', ^„'^^^°"''' '^kes place by^. embryos. This las' is probl?' "'"'^°" '"'° '"'nute ^ess, and i„ some soede, ^ ' '™' reproductive pro 'he formation Of e,.b^:r^\r"'r'°" '^"^^ P'-e Tv By 'hese various mefn " l",'; r'""''°"''=->-"-ng «e enabled to increase with ^ond";',''"" '"^ ^"^"^°"a ■no^' efficiently perform helnffi"' ''P''^"^' ^"^ thus P'-es where organic matterTare " °' "^^^"^^'^ '" Their embryos also are not on ^"''''' °^ <^ecay. ;.^'ers but are able to fl"! T L'"''°' '° ^" "^'"«' .no.; ■ °' 'pores of plants t,, """"''- o-" even =Pec.es m famife is, ^, ~ ^he grouping of the ascertained. >^"' ^y no means certainly KT V 1 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 61V *. The Infusoria may be divided into orders as follows : Order 1. Flagellata (Fig. 45), having one or more- whip like threads or flagellae at the extremity of the usually oval or rounded body. This order includes the ', Monads, among which are some of the smallest of ani- ^ mals, and which appear in vast abundance in organic ' matters decaying in water. Certain marine Infusoria, as les- of [en Ihe Fig. 45.— FiiAGRLLATA (highly magnified). (a) Monas termo, after Dallinger, showing two flagellae, two pulsating Vesicles and Nucleus. (6) Euglena ViridLs, after Claus, showing Flagelluni, pulsating Vesicle and Nucleus. 4. r Nociihica^ remarkable for its luminosity at night, are also included in this order. It seems difficult to distinguish from the flagellate Infusoria those minute organisms known as Bacteria and Microbes, which are con- nected with putrefaction and diseases of animals, and which are by many regarded as plants. They certainly have spontaneous iinotions which appear to be carried on by flagella. Their study has become of the utmost prac- tical importance in connection with the germ theory of diseases. I, ^c^ /- r ■" / ,i V C' >t,t «4. 52 PROVINCE PROTOZOA. u i \ ! Order 2. Ciliaia (Figs. 43, 44). These are more or less covered with cilia, by which they move, or when sessile form vortices to collect food. They have a mouth and arms, and not only an endosarc and ectosarc, but the latter is often cellular in structure. They have also a nucleus and contractile vesicle. Order 3. Siictoria, These are destitute of cilia, and have instead processes which act as suckers, and are used both for protection and absorbing food. They are com- paratively rare. Infusoria of various kinds may be found in most stagnant waters in which organic matters are going to decay. Water in which cut flowers have been kept or in which a few fragments of vegetable matter have been left for a few days, will afford several common species. Fragments of fish or flesh or almost any other organic matter placed in water and exposed to the air for a few days, usually swarm withthe smaller forms, especially the Flagellata. Reference ; Carpenter on the Microscope ; Griffith «& Henfrey's Micrographic Dictionary ; Kent, Manual of Infusoria. Class III. Porifera. Afiimals having the sarcode usually supported on a cor- neous^ silicous or calcareous skeleton of fibrous or spicular structure^ and traversed by canals through which water is drawn by cilia. This class is that of the Sponges^ sometimes named Polystoinata, on account of their numerous incurrent pores, which are not however true mouths. Of this group any of the sponges, whether those foreign ones used by us for washing purposes, or those occurring on our own coasts, rivers and lakes, may be taken as examples. PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 53 V i In some the skeleton or framework is wholly of corneous fibres ; in others partly corneous and partly of silicious h Fior. 4C.— Spicules of SroxoiLLA. (a b) Skeleton spicules of Spongilla stftf/nalia, Dn. (a A) Skeleton and Ovarian Spicules of Sp Ottaicai'nsi^i, Dn.. These speciee are closely allied to Sj>. jlamatilot and Sp. /raf/ilis, or may- be varieties. spicules or needles ; in others wholly silicious. In a few the spicules are calcareous. In the living condition this skeleton supports a soft or more dense mass of sarcode, similar to that found in the Amoeba, but perforated by numerous canals and cavities through which water freely percolates, and is kept in motion by cilia placed on cells or on minute bodies {Spongozoa), resembling flagellate infu- soria, on the sides of the canals. The currents thus pro- duced, entering by the smaller pores on the surface, and passing out by openings called Oscula, carry into the organism the microscopic organic matters on which it feeds, and subserve also the purpose of respiration. Of the numerous species of sponges found in our waters a few only can be noticed. A species of silicious sponge first dredged in deep water at Portland, has been I' * 54 I'ROVINCE PROTOZOA. named by Dr. Bowcrbank, Tethea Ilispida. A closely allied species from the Post-i)liocene clays, and probably still \\\\\Y^ in deei) water, has been named by the writer, T. Loi^iini, in honor of the late distinguished head of the (leological Survey of Canada (Fig. 50). Several species of fresli-water sponges of the genus Spoti^illa and its allies, arc found in the rivers and lakes of Canada, where they grow on stones, shells or sub-aquatic stems (Figs. 4G, 49). Two of the most common species on our shores are the beautiful funnel shaped or cup si)onge of the lower St. Lawrence {Isodiclya)^ Fig. 47, and the pal- i i r "J 1 1; i ' I! Fig. 47.— IsoDicTYA, iNFUNDiBULiFORMis, Bk., Murray Bay. Q)) general form, reduced ; (a) Spicules, highly magnified. mate sponge of the Atlantic coast, Chalina ocidata. Another very common species found attached to sea- weeds, is the close-grained and shapeless " crumb-of- bread sponge" {Halichondria) and less common are the 4 PROVINXi: PROTOZOA. 55 ♦ dense yellow sjionges of the genus Su/writes or sea-cork. Dead shells are often found to be burrowed by minute yellow sponges of the genus Cliona, which have the power of dissolving away the shell and forming cavities for themselves. Fiy. 48,- Si'icuLKS OK IlKX.U'TiXKMiiD Sponuk, after Zittol, .Magiiitied. The sponges are by some zoologists regarded as a humble group ofCoclenterata; but inasmuch as they all, as far as known, consist of amoeboid sarcode or ciliate cells united together and fed by currents of water produced by cilia, while the food is introduced into the general mass and not into any central cavity, they should be regarded as Protozoa. Nevertheless owing to their aggregative character the walls of a sponge consists of three parts, an ectosarc, mesosarc and endosarc. Of these the first and I t 56 PROVINCK PROTOZOA. last correspond to the cctosarc of the lower Protozoa, and the mesosarc to the endoK.TC. The ^crms of the sponges are ciliated and locomotive, and in many cases are produced in spicular or membranous ovaria or gemmules, which are esjjecially complete in some of the fresh-water sponges, the germs of which they serve to protect during winter. (I'igs. 40, 49.) * I !■ tl I I X B I B Fijjr. to.— Sl'OXaiLLA STACNALIS. (rt b) Skeleton Spicules, (/J) IMiotulatc Ovarian .Spicules, Mag. Sl'ONOILLA ASl'KimiMA. (a) Skeleton Sjticule, (li) Hirotuhite Spicules, Mag. May be a varietal form of .s';;. J'luciatiUs, Fresh-waler sponges may be collected in rivers and lakes when the water is low, and ihe marine species abound in many parts of the sea, and are not infrequently drifted on shore in storms. The silicious spicules may be obtained by treatint:j[ frajjments of the sponge with nitric acid, which destroys the animal matter, the spicules falling to the bottom. They may be collected, washed and mounted rUOVINCK I'KOTO/OA. 57 in balsam (Figs. 4G, 40). These spicules arc much more iniportant than the general form in determiiiing the genera and species. 1 4 r:^ Is ri^. r.O.— Tktiiea L(i(t.\Ni, I'leiHtocenc ; (") si)eciinen in clay ; ('', i\ il) Spicules. Fossil sponges {P/v^t>spo/ixf(J) occur in the Acadian group of the Cambrian in Southern New l]runs\vick. Others occur in the lower Silurian e.g. in the Utica shale formation, and globular and conical species, Asiylospoiigia., c\:c., in the Niagara limestone. All of these appear to have had silicious spicules, closely resembling in form and arrangement those r){ modern species of that grou|) with six-rayed silicious sjjicules, known as Hexactinellid sponges (l*'igs, 48, 58). The curious fossils of the genus Receptacidiies are also supposed to be the skeletons of Protozoa allied to the sponges (Figs. 51, 52). !? f ; Ml; V i 11 1m I m 58 PROVINCE I'ROTOZOA. The species TetJica Looani, wItosc spicules are some- <-imes abundant in the Pleistocene clays, has already been mentioned (Fig. 50). Fig-. "jI.— Rec'-.i'T.utmtks Occidkntali.s, Suiter. (ff) Portion of surface removed, showiii;;- interior structure. Flj?. 52.— Pi!;cKi'TAcui,iTi;s, restored -after IJilliii.n-s. a— Aperture. /j— Iinior inte;;uineiit. c~ Kxteriial intey;ument. »!— Nucleus. y— Internal cavity, PROVINCE PROTOZOA. 59 le- en The sponges may be classified as follows :, — Order 1. Myxosponguc, Soft gelatinous species without any skeleton. Ex. HalUarca. Order 2. Ceratospofigia:. Supported by a framework of horny or corneus fibres, Ex. Euspon^ia, a genus which includes the common washing sj^onges. Order 3. Haliclwndricc. Skeleton of simple silicious spicules with corneus matter. Ex. Isodictyia^ Chalinay Spongilla. Order 4. iyalos/)07ioi(c. Skeleton wholly silicious, Ex. Tethea, Euplectelia, HyaloJiema. The most perfect forms have six-rayed spicules often very beautifully ar- ranged, and are named Hexactinellida (Figs. 48, 53). Most of the species of our Silurian rocks belong to this group. Fig. 53.— AsTTLOsi'OxaiA rR.EMORS.v— Silurian. With Framework of Spicules Maj,'iiified. Order 5. Calcispongia^ with skeleton of calcareous spicules. Ex. Grantia. u I V fll CHAPTER IV. DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY— Continued. Province II. — Ccelenterata. These are the animals formerly called " Zoophytes,*' because so many of them by aggregation of individuals on a common stem or branches assume plant-like forms. Nothwithstauding this, however, and the fact that many of them are, in adult life, permanently fixed to the sea bottom, they present much higher structures than those of the Protozoa. Their bodies are composed of definite cellular tissues, and in some cases present muscular and nerve cells and fibres, and are hollow so as to constitute an internal digestive and circulating cavity. In very many of them distinct organs of external sense appear. They are generally furnished with hollow muscular tentacles, armed with poison-bearing " thread cells," (nematocysts), which are very characteristic of these animals. Their embryos resemble Protozoa in the presence of an internal protoplasmic mass, with an outer layer of ciliated cells ; but as they develope, a portion of the outer cellular membrane is turned inwards by a process of invagination, and becomes the lining of the internal cavity, while the internal sarcode becomes an intermediate layer or meso- derm. This is the so-called " gastrula " stage, in which the animal presents a cellular ectoderm with cilia, and a PROVINCE CCELENTERATA. 61 »> ' cellular endoderm lining an internal digestive cavity. The Ccelenterata often ibrm by budding and fission polyp stocks or polyparies, including numerous individ- uals, and in which are developed hard parts or coralla, either calcareous or corneous. The arrangement of parts in the individual animal is radiated, and in fours and sixes, and multiples of these numbers. The classes of Ccelenterata are as follows : — 1. AcalepJhv or Hydrozoa. — Hydrce and Sea-jellies. 2. Anthozoa. — Sea Anemones, Coral Animals, Sea fans, &c. 3. Ctenophora. — Cydippe, Beroe, &:c. To these are usually added, for certain fossil corals which cannot as yet be placed in the other classes : — 4. Rugosa. — Fossil Rugose Corals. 5. Tabulata. — Fossil Tabulate Corals. ■^j Class I. — Acaleph^ or Hydrozoa. Bcrlv naked or in an external tube or sJieatJi ; locomotive or fixed ; digestive cavity of an outer and inner cJiamber^ the latter communicating iciih a more or less complex vascu- lar system — tentacles hollow witJi dart or thread cells ; Reproductive organs exterfial. The Acalephas are by most naturalists regarded as of lower grade than the next class, in consequence of their apparently less complex internal structure, especially in the lower groups. But to counterbalance this, we have f i 02 PROVINCE CCELENTERATA. in the higher members of the present group a much greater development of locomotive and sensorial powers. In other words the Anthozoi excel in the complexity of the organs of vegetaiive life : the higher Acalephse, in those of locomotion and sensation. Hence, the same grounds which would in the vertebrates induce us to give the birds a higher place than the reptiles, should place the Acalephae higher than the Anthozoa. Still it must be admitted that the difference of rank, if any, is not great, and that the lower forms of Acalephae are of very simple structure in comparison with the higher members of the same group, and therefore make the transition from the previous sub-kingdom to this more easy. The Acalephae resemble the animals of the next class in having a polyp-like form ; but they have the digestive sac turned outward instead of being folded inward; so that there is an outer stomach or proboscis and an internal chamber or tube, in the higher forms communicating with a system of nutritive canals excavated in the wall of the body. Som^ of these animals are altogether soft, others have horny or calcareous skeletons, which are wholly sclerodermic, or belong to the ectoderm of the polyps. The lower Acalephae multiply freely by gem- mation and form complex communities. In the higher groups such multiplication takes place only in the im- mature states. This class contains three orders : — 1. Hydroida, or Hydroid Polyps. Individual animals polyp-like, and either solitary or in communities. Body naked or inserted in a cell (Hydrotheca). Reproductive I'RO V I N C E C(E L E NTER ATA. 63 organs attached externally to individual polyps, or devel- oped in separate capsules, and often attached to free bell-shaped individuals differing much in form from the ordinary Hydroids. These are the Hydroid Polyps of the fresh waters and of the sea, the Millepore corals, (S:c. (Figs. 54, 55). 2. Siphonopliora. — Free swimming hydra-stocks with flexible contractile stem or base, and furnished with swimming-bells (Nectocalyces or Floats). Polyps of three or four kinds on one stem or base. These are the Physaline or " Portuguese men of war " and their allies (Figs. 58, 59). 3. Discophora. — Individuals distinct and often of large size, free and oceanic, with the disc extending into a broad bell-shaped or umbrella-shaped swimminer orcan (Necto- calyx). Ova borne under the disc and developing into hydra-formed progeny. These are the Medusae or jelly- fishes and their allies (Fig. 60). Order 1.— IIvdroida. C^ Ml^ i»» I' I The fresh-water Hydra, which is one of the simplest of these organisms, presents the appearance of a sac com- posed of an outer and inner layer. At the base is an adhesive disc or foot. At the summit is the proboscis or external stomach, around the neck of w^hich are the ten- tacles, which, like those of Anthozoa, are furnished with urticating darts. The Hydra, though soft and gelatinous in texture, is carnivorous and very voracious ; and though it usually remains fixed, it can move at will. Its ova are 64 If ""«<:• »„„„,„ Sortie on the extern j ,f ii Polyps or Polypites ; PROVINCE CaXENTERATA. 65 re hatched ■ creatures ^le powers some being stomach-bearing, others tentacle-bearing, others ovarian. By such modifications are produced the families noticed below. lified. )able |iting the of on [es ; Fig. 55. IIydroida, Gulf St. Lawrence, Nat. size and magnified, showing forms of polyps expanded and modes of aggregation. (a) Sertularia (Dynamena) pumila. Lanix. ib) Tubularia (Parypha) crocea Ag. (f) CanipanuIaria(Laonicdea) amphora Ag. Another remarkable point in the history of these oceanic forms, connecting them with the next group, is that many of them develop, by a process of gemmation, individuals provided with a swimming disc and not attached, and it is in these locomotive individuals that the ova are produced. This locomotive progeny of the hydroids constitutes the group of Naked-eyed-Medus?e, D [l ' li ■ Mr 66 PROVINCE CfELENTERATA. at one time regarded as a distinct order. Fig. 50 shows Fig. 56. CORYNE MIRABILI8 (after Agfassiz) Magnified. (a) Young Medusoid, attached to polyp. (b) The same detached. these two forms as they exist in one of our American species. The following are the Families of Hydroids : — 1. Hydrid.tc. — Polyps independent, locomotive, naked. Ex- ample, Hydra viridis (Fig. 54). 2. CoRYNiD/Ti. — Polyps independent or in communities. Ten- tacles in several series. Animals enclosed in tubular corneous cells. Example, Coryne mirabilis (Fig. 56). 3. TuBULARiAP 'E. — Polyps solitary, in elongated corneous tubes and with two rows of tentacles. Example, Tubularia crocea (Fig. 55b). 4. EucoPiD^. — Polyps in corneous conical cells at the extremi- ties of the branches. Example, Laomedea amphora (Fig. 55c). ows incan I. Ex- Ten- is cells. PROVINCE OKLENTERATA. (57 t 6. Sertulariad.1v. — Polyps arranged in corneous cells on the sides of branching tubular stems. Example, Sertularia pumila (I'ig. 5Sa). 6. I'lumulariada:. — Polyps in single rows on one side of corneous branches Example, IMumularia falcata. V, IIydractiniada:. — Polyps sessile, with a spinous skeleton, attached to shells, ike, and of two sorts. Example, llydractinia echinata. 8. MiLLEPORiD/i:. — Polyps of different kinds, in cells of a sti)ny coral. The cells divided by transverse tabula'. E:;ample, Mille- pora. In or near this group may probably be placed some of the fossil tabulate corals referred to under the Anthozoa. To these may be added the fossil family of Grapto- litidae^ characteristic of some portions of the Siluro- cambrian rocks. They are regarded by Professor Hall as allied to Sertulariada). (Fig. 57.) a—(iiaj)t()lithus-. Vv^. 57 — Grai'tolitidae. b—Diplufjrapnus. il -Tctragraptms. e—Didyinuurapnug. 0 —P/i!/ll<>i/raj/sits. is tubes (Fig. [xtremi- 5c). Order 2. — Sii'noNoriiORA. These are oceanic and free swimming animals, living in communities which are attached either to a flexible thread or stalk, or to a float filled with air. The polyps, 68 PROVINCE c(i:lenterata. or zooids forming the community, are specialized into different kinds — feeding, repr:)ductive and tentacular or prehensile, all of these co-operating for the nutriment and reproduction of the common stock. In some of the forms there is a fourth kind of polyp, constituting swim- ming bells, which, by their contraction and expansion, row the community through the water. Halistemma carum (Fig. 58) is an American example. In others Fig. 58.— Halistemma C.\rpm, Aofassia. a— Pneumatophore or Oil-cell. 6— Nectocalyces or S;vimniin§:-bell9. c— I>i5J:estive polyps. (i— Common tentacles with thread-cells. PROVINCE Cion, mma :hers « 1 there is an inflated s\viniinin«i vesicle, to tlie base of which the polyjjs are attaciied. This is the case with the beautiful Physalia Anthusa, sometimes found on our coasts, and havinjz a ih^at resembling a i)uri)le bubble (Fig. 5H). In others the tloat is a flat disc, as in Fig. fi.» — PiiYHALiA Arkthisa, reduccd. a— Crest. i/— Pneuinutophore, f— Polyps. d Tentacles. Us. Porpiia ; and this is sometimes, as in J 'della, provided with a vertical membrane actinj^ as a sail. In accordance with these arrangements the Siphonophora may be divided into two families: (i) Calycophoridoe (Fig. 58), (2) PhysophoridaD (Fig. 59). ! i 70 PROVINCE C(i:m:nterata. Ordkr 3 — DiscoriiORA. One of the best representatives of this order on our coast is the great blue Jelly-fish, Cyanta ardica (Fig. 60)> Fig. f)0.— CvAXEA Arctica, Per. and Les. reduced. a- llydroid progt'Uiy. 6 — Strobilii. which is often found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, a foot or more in diameter, and is said sometimes to attain the enormous diameter of seven feet. The most conspicuous part of •1 PROVINCK OKU'NTKRATA. 71 1 our .60X 4 id on )re in mous irt of this creature, as it floats in the sea, is its great violet- coloured disc, the edges of which are moved slowly up and down as it swims along. In the centre of this disc below, projects the proboscis or external stomach, furnished with a profusion of filmy fringes hanging at the extremities of the four lateral i)rocesses into which its free end is divided. From tlie margins of the disc tloat back- ward innumerable long reddish tentacles armed with urti( ating thread cells, which paraly/e any little animal they may touch, and enable it to be drawn into the mouth. These tentacles are often several feet in length. Between the tentacles and the base of the proboscis, when the creature is mature, may be seen four great ovaries loaded with yellowish eggs. The eyes and ear- vesicles, each eight in number, arc placed in notches in the niargin of the disc, while circulation and respiration are provided for by a net-work of vessels ramifying through the disc. Though these animals are tenuous as jelly, and contain very little solid matter, their organs are of singular complexity, and the body consists of several layers of cellular and fibrous tissues. The reproduction of the Cyanea, as described by Agassiz, forms an interest- ing exam)")le of the changes through which animals of this type i)ass in attaining to maturity. The eggs are hatched into ciliated embryos which swim freely. These attach themselves to the bottom, and are developed into little hydroids, with tentacles in fours and multiples of four (Fig. 60 a), and which have the power of increas- ing by gemmation. From this stage the young animal passes by transverse fission into a sort of jointed form (the Strobila. Fig. GO b), and this, breaking up into 72 PROVINCE C(KM'.Nl"KRArA. I 'i 1 scjiaratc segments, produces free swinimiiig discigeroiis animals, formerly known by the name of J'4)Iiyra, and which are the young of the Cyanea. Thus each animal passes through four definite stages before attaining tiie j)erfect form, and one ovum may produce several adult Cyaneas. Another very common species on our coasts is the white or colourlesss Jelly-fish, Aurelia jlavidula. It has four white or milky sj)ots (the ovaries) seen consi)icuously thrt)ugh its transparent body, and has short marginal tentacles. The Discophora are divided into the following sub- orders or families : — 1. l\lil/.osT()MF,.i:, in vvliich the proboscis is divided into a series v>\ ramifying lubes, throuj^h which nutriment is absorbed. Some very large tropical Medusie l)elong to tiiis group, but none are known on our coasts. 2. Skmakostomk.i;, in which the proboscis is divided into hibial processes or oral tentacles. This group includes our com- moner species above mentioned. 3. IlAri.os'roME.K — Are simple-mouthed Medusrc, incliuling the curious animals known as Luccttiaria, a species of which is found in the Gulf of St Lawrence, adhering to sea-weeds or floating freely. It forms a curious link between the Polyp and Meilusa forms, having a stalk for attachment developed in the middle of the disk. The best descriptions and figures of the North American Acal- ephie are to be found in Agassiz' Contributions to the Natural History of America, vols, 3 and 4. There is a good summary of the species in the Illustrated Catalogue of the Harvard Museum, by A. Agassiz, and the student will find the general characters of |'K()\in(;k ( ii.i.kn ikra ia. ;{ this and llic followinf^ class well stated in (ircenc's Manii.d >>( Ccvlcntcrata, London. ('lass II. — An'i no/OA, or Achno/cm. 7)f> Corallum. Polyps usually independent, attached l)y a broad base, but locomotive at will. Examples, Actinia, Khodacti'Ma, Mctridium. 2. Ii.YANTiiiD^i:. — \() Corallum. Polyps independent, with rounded or tajierin^ base. Examples. Ilyanthes, Cerianthes. n. ZoANTiiiii.i;, — Corallum spiculate. Polyps attached to a horizontal cccnosarc or common .,oft basis. Example, Zoantlies. 4. An rirATniD.i:. — Corallum sclerobasic, havinfj Polyps with six tentacles. Example, Antipalhes. 5. FuN(;ii)/K. — Corallum iwlcareous, septiform. Individuals mostly distinct and large, with numerous tentacles. 6. AsTREAD.K. — Septa numerous, cells attached, without coen* enchyma. 7. PoKiTiD.i:. — Corallum reticulate, cell-walls not distinct from surrounding cicnenchyma. 8. OCULINID.I^:. — Cccnenchyma abundant, compact, calcareous. 9. Madreporid.-e. — Corallum compact but porous, septa distinct. The animals of the five last families are mainly instrumental in the accumulation of the great coral reefs of the intertropical seas. Only a few small species of these coral-producing Anthozoa, are found in the Northern seas. Fig. 68, taken from Dana, shews the appearance of one of the tropical species of Astna when alive. *-*jfsrv"^ Fig. 68.— ASTREA PURPUREA, with polyps expanded— after Dana. 82 PROVINCE CCPXENTERATA. Order 2. — Alcyonaria or Ai.cvonoids. As a native cxami)lc of this group, wc may take the Alcyunium rubiforjne (Fig. 69), which is sometimes cast H Fiy. 09.— Alcyoxii'm ki'hikorme, Dana (C.asp(5), (a) Polyp expanded, (b) Polyp contracted. Up in Storms on the shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and may be obtained ahve by dredging in deep water. It presents tuberculated yellowish or pinkish masses of a club-shaped form, from an inch to three inches in length, and of a spongy or firmly gelatinous structure. The sur- face is studded with round or star-shaped cells of small size, from which, when the creature is alive and undis- turbed, delicate semi-transparent polyps protrude them- selves and extend their tentacles. These little animals can be easily distinguished from those of the last group by their pinnate tentacles, eight in number. The coral- lum or skeleton is of a corneous and fibrous nature, and I PROVINCE CCKLKNTERATA. 83 the animals arc connected by numerous canals traversing its substance. The families of Alcyonaria arc ihe following: 1. Alcvonida:. — Tilt' Alcyonia, which have a sclerodermic CO rail urn, spiculous or fibrous, and when dry rfSfml)!*) Bpongt's. 2. TuHii'ORiD/E. — The Tube-corals. The corallum is com- posed of a number of distinct calcareous tubes connected by horizon- tal plates. 3. Pennatui.id.e, — The Sea-pens. In these the sclerobasic corallum is rod-like and free, or with its base immersed in mud at the bottom of the sea. The cells are placed on pinnate branches, and fortified with calcareous spicules. 4. GoKCONiD/E. — The Sea-fans and true red corals. In these the corallum is sclerobasic and cither corneous or calcareous, and th^ Hesliy matter enclosinf;; it and in wiiich the polyps are imbecUled, is fortified wilh calcareous spicules. Orders 3 anm) 4. — Rucosa and Tajjulata. H ence, r. It of a ngth, e sur- small mclis- them- limals group coral- s, and Figs. 70 to 77 and Figs. 62 and G3 represent Canadian Fig. 70 — HELIOrilYLLlM II.\LLI, Devonian. Fig. 71.— Pktraia profl-xd.\, Hull, biUiro-cambrian. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 II 1^ m 1 2.5 |5o *^* MSB ^ 1^ II 2.2 i lis lllllio 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" — ► VI <^ %.>:^ V A ^ /A ^ y PhotDgraphic Sciences Corporation ^ ijT V N> ^i; 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 i 84 PROVINCE CCELENTERATA. species of corals of the order Rugosa, and Figs. 74 to 77 Fig. 72. -CVSTII'llYliUM A.MKIUCAStM, E. ii H., Devonian. Fig. 73.- Strombodks Simplkx, Iliiil, Devonian. : Fig. 74.— Hbliolites spkciosus, Billings— Silurian. PROVINCE C"ni.ies, and appear lo^TZ T '"'^^'^^ '" '^°« ^-^ey have a deeded ^^Z^ZtZT^'^^''^'^- ^^eurobrachia .J,n^ v symmetry. '««" a.. ;;:'rt*„:tt '''*'''-' i^^oup. As ,t occurs on the Fig. 78.— Plbitrobr AcnuRuoDooACTTU (after Agassiz). PROVINCE CCELENTERATA. 87 tstially spher- ?■/// comb-like 're are eight ravify. The s anteriorly^ ' li'ith tenia- IS are placed '-swimming -d in com- morphosis. imetry. :• 78) may rs on the Atlantic coast of New England, it is thus described by Madame Agassiz : — "The body of the Pleurobrachia consists of a transparent sphere, varying, however, from the perfect .j,ht're in being somewhat oblong, and also by a slight compression on two opposite sides, so as to render its horizontal diameter longer in one direction than in the other. This divergence from the globular form, so slight in Pleurobrachia as to be hardly perceptible to the casual observer, establishing two diameters of different lengths at right angles with eaoh other, is equally true of the other genera. It is interesting and important, as showing the tendency in this highest group of Acalephs to assume a bilateral character. This bilaterality becomes still more marked in the highest class of Radiates, the Echinoderms. Such structural tendencies in the lower animals hinting at laws to be more developed in the higher forms, are always significant, as showing the intimate relation between all parts of the plan of creation. This inequality of the diameters is connected with the disposition of parts in the whole structure, the locomotive fringes and the vertical tubes connected with them being arranged in sets of four on either side of a plane passing through the longer diam- eter, shewing thus a tendency toward the establishment of a right and left side of the body, instead of the perfectly equal disposition of parts around a common centre, as in the lower Radiates. " The Pleurobrachioe are so transparent, that, v.ith some prepar- atory explanation of their structure, the most unscientific observer may trace the relation of parts in them. At one end of the sphere is the transverse slit that serves 'hem as a mouth ; at the opposite pole is a small circumscribed area, in the centre of which is a dark eye-speck. The eight rows of locomotive fringes run from pole to pole, dividing the whole surface of the body like the ribs on a melon. Hanging from either side of the body, a liitle aliove the area in which the eye-speck is placed, are two most extraonlinary appendages in the shape of long tentacles, possessing such wonder- ful power of extension and contraction that, while at one moment they may be knotted into a little compact mass no bigger than a pin's head, drawn up close against the side of the body, or hidden within it, the next instant they may be floating behind it in various 88 PROVINCE CaCLENTERATA. positions to a distance of half a yard and more, putting out at the same time soft plumy fringes along one side, like the beard of a feather. One who has never seen these animals may well be par- doned for doubting even the most literal and matter-of-fact account of these singular tentacles. There is no variety of curve or spiral that does not seem to be represented in their evolutions. Some- times they unfold gradually, creeping out softly and slowly from a state of contraction, or again the little ball, hardly perceptible against the side of the body, drops suddenly to the bottom of the tank in which the animal is floating, and one thinks for a moment, so slight is the thread-like attachme.it, that it has actually fallen from the body ; but watch a little longer, and all the filaments spread out along the side of the thread, it expands to its .'ull length and breadth, and resumes ail its graceful evolutions." Agassiz divides these animals into the following fam- ilies : — 1. EuRYSTOME/T^, — with large mouth, and no tentacles or lobes. Example, Idyia roseola Ag. 2. Saccat,^, — with body more or less globular and long pin- nate tentacles. Example, Pleurobrachia rhododactyla, Ag. (Fig. 78.) 3. Taeniat^, — with the body produced at the sides into two wide appendages. Example, Cestum Veneris. 4. Lobat^, — having the oral end of the body divided into two wide lobes. Example, Bolina alata, Ag. Agassiz' "Contributions," Milne Edwards* Coralliaires, in the ** Suites a Buffon," Greene's Manual of Coelenterata, and Verrill on American Polyps, (Memoirs of Boston Society of Natural History,) may be consulted with advantage on this Province. American fossil species will be found in the reports of the Palaeontology of New York and Canada, by Prof. Hall and Mr. Billings, and the general arrangement of the fossil forms in Nicholson's Palaeontology. t at the ird of a be par- account Dr spiral Some- ' from a rceptiblc n of the moment. ly fallen filaments 111 length ig fam- or lobes. long pin- g. (Fig. ; into two I into two es, in the Verrill on History,) ican fossil ry of New le general gy- CHAPTER V. DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY— Continued. Province III. — Echinodermata. These creatures are the highest in rank ot the old Cuvierian Radiata, and in their adult state and in their more typical forms, i)rcsent very admirable examples of radial arrangement, though in some of the groups there is a decided approach to bilateral symmetry. ^Vith the exception of the lowest group, these animals are all free- moving, but not swimmers like the higher Acalephs. They have a nervous system, consisting of an cesophageal ring and radiating fibres. Organs of sense exist in some of the species. The alimentary canal is contained in a proper visceral cavity, and in some is tubular and con- voluted. They have also a complex vascular system, including blood-vessels and acjuiferous canals. Distinct respiratory organs exist only in the highest group. Their organs of sense are scarcely advanced beyond those of the Coelenterata. All of these animals have a complex .skeleton, quite distinct in character from that of any other animals, and consisting of numerous calcareous pieces articulated together, and composed of carbonate of lime arranged in a loose cellular manner, so as to combine great strength with lightness. This skeleton is properly internal to the muscles, but there are often added to it 90 PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. external spines or plates. The organs of locomotion are erectile thread-like organs with suctorial discs at their extremities (tube feet), placed in grooves or lines called ambulacra. There are also in many species minute stalked pincers for cleaning the surface of the body (pedicellariai). The reproduction of Echinodermata, in many of the groups, takes place by means of a free-swimming larva or pro-embryo of bilateral form, within which the young animal is develoi)ed ; but in some species there is a direct development without metamorphosis, the eggs being protected in a marsupium. The classes of Echinodermata are : — 1. Cr/w/V/^^. — Feather-stars and Encrinitcs. 2. Ophiiiridea. — Serpent-stars, Sea 13askets. 3. Asteroidea. — Star- fishes. 4. Echinoidea. — Sea-u rch i n s. 5. Holothuridea. — Sea-cucumbers, (Sic. Class I. — Crinoidea. These hare a cetitral My or disc, with or without artic- ulated rays, aud covered with an i?tflexib!e shelly case. The arms or rays ivhcn present are furnished with pinnate processes. Some of the species are attached for hfe by an articulated stem. Others are attached when young, free when adult. In the absence of any known si)c\ ies of this group in our waters, the rosy Feather-star {Antedon rosaceus) of PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. 91 the European seas, may be taken as a type. In its earliest state it is an oval, gelatinous, locomotive creature, moving by bands of cilia. It then fixes itself and developes a jointed 5 cem below, and a series of jointed and pinnated rays above, while the body liecomes encased in delicate calcareous plates. After existing for some time in this state, it becomes loosed from its attachment, and appears as a locomotive Feather-star, with five pairs of beautiful Fig. TO.—RnizocRiNVS Lofotkssis (after Sars), I 92 PROVINCi; KCHINODERMATA. pinnate arms, on which arc borne the reproductive organs in the form of small brownish spots ; and which are also locomotive and i)rehensilc organs. Afitedon deniatus^ Verrill, the tootlicd fcathcr-star, is f( iind on the American coast, south of New England. In the tropical seas there are a few larger species be- longing to the genus Tentacrinus, which are attached when adult ; and Sars has recently described a small species of a different genus (Rhizocrinus) from the coast of Norway (Fig. 70). A few others have been obtained in the deep sea dredgings of recent expeditions. These are the only living representatives of vast num- bers of species of stalked crinoids, found abundantly Fig. 80.— Pentacrinus capitt-medusae. West Indian seas, reduced, with articulating surfaces of joints. as fossils in the rocks of the earth's crust, and sometimes constituting a great part of the substance of crinoidal J PROVINCE FXHINODERMATA. 98 limestones. Fig. 81 is a species of Glyptocrinus, from Fij,'. 81.— Glvptocrinjx dkc:.\dactyli-,s, Siluroeainbriai). Hofly wi liout arms or stalk. the Siluro-cambrian. Fig. 82 is another Sikiro-cambrian form. Fig. 8;?.— Heterocri.nus simplex, Meek, Siluro-cambrian. 94 PROVINCE F.CHINODERMATA. IJcsides the ty|)ical crinoitls, tlierc occur as fossils two other groups, known to us only by their skeletons, but included in this class, 'i'hey are : — CystiJi'tv. — Not divided in a (juinate manner, but sac- like. Oral o])ening with valves. Arms few, and free or attached. The C'ystideans are, as a whole, extinct, and belong to the Tahcozoic rocks (Fig. 83), but a living Fiy. S3.— PLBinocT.-iTiTRs ayrAMOHi's, Siluro-cuinbriaii (after r.illiiigs). species from Torres Strait has recently been described by Prof. Loven, under the name of Hyj)onome Sarsii. Fig. 84.— Pbntremitbs ptriformis, Carboniferous, U States (after Dana). PROVINCK ECniNODERMATA. 95 Blastoideir. — Hody divided in a (]iiinatc manner, but without arms. 'I'licsc arc the IVntrcmites. 'I'hese creatures are all extinct, and are especially characteristic of the Carboniferous rocks in \Veslern America (I'ig. 84). These groups are so distin( t that they may be regarded as of ordinal value, and we may thus divide the Crinoidea into three orders— (i) Jitachiattc, or ordinary Crinoids with fully developed arms ; (2) Cystidew ; (3) Biastoidt'ic Class II. — Oi'iiiuRiDEA. These Jime a central disc protected by plates and fur- fdshed witJi tube feet, llie rays are simple or forked^ and are supported internally by a series of articulated pieces^ and in many protected externally by plates or by plates and spines. l*'ig. 85. Fig. 85.— OriiidP.ioLis actleata, Lutkcii, Gtisp^,— rcdiict'ci. This order is represented on our coasts by several beautiful species. OphiopJiolis aculeata, the Daisy Briltle- star, Ophioglypha robusta, and O. Sarsii, may be obtained by dredging in many parts of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence, and the Astrophyton^ of which two species are *5i I \ 1 ' tl i If 96 PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. found in Canadian waters, is one of our finest Star-fishes, being sometimes eighteen inches in diameter, and its eight arms subdividing into many hundreds of filaments, each consistiug of a series of curiously-formed joints. This creature is known as the Sea-basket. A. Agassizii is our most common species. Fig. 86 represents two of the calcareous joints of Fig. 86.— Joints of Kay oF^Oi'mooLYPHA Sarsii, Post-pliocene, magnified. Ophioglypha Sarsii, a species found living at Oaspe and fossil in the Pleistocene clays. The Ophiuridea may be divided into two orders, that of the Ophiuridce proper with simple arms, and that of the Euryalidic with branching arms, without protective plates on their surfaces. Class III. — Asteroidea. These have the disc and rays cofijlucjif^ and the latter thick and traversed by ramifications of the digestive appar- atus and generative organs^ and furnished udtJi rows of tube feet along their lower sides. As the type of this order may be taken Asteracanthion I'ROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. 97 Itar-fishes, , and its filaments, 'd joints. Agassizii joints of iiagnificd. Lspe and ^rs, that t that of otective '€ latter appar- 'OWS of mthion (Astoias) vulgaris (Fig. 87). It is the representative on Fi- ST.-AinERFAs vulqaims, Stinipscn, Atlantic Coast, roWucecl. and section of a niv showinar tube-.'eet. our coasts of the ICuropean A. Rubens, if not merely a variety of it. It is the common Star-fish, Sea-star, or five-fmger. Its upper surface is covered with calcareous spmes, around the bases of which are little moveable pin- cers or pedicellariie, useful in cleaning and defending the skm On the upper surface of the disc, but a little to one side, is a perforated plate, the madreporic plate, actmg as a filter for enabling pure sea-water to enter the aciuiterous system of the animal. At the end of the rays are minute purple specks, supposed to be the organs of vision. On the under side the mouth is situated in the centre, and is furnished with an extensile proboscis, which the creature uses to suck out the soft parts of the animals on which It feeds. Extending outward from the mouth, 98 PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA along the under sides of the rays, are the anihulacral grooves, each containing four rows of tube-feet and l)or- dered by spines. In the interior, tlie centre of tlie disc is occupied by the stomach,which sends forth complicated ramifications into each ray. Ik^low these are rows of sacs connected with the bases of the tube-feet without, and with the acjuiferous system within. Around the mouth is the annular nerve-cord, and also the arterial ring, the ])rincipal organ of the circulation. The ovaries are |)laced around the oral oi)ening. The eggs are hatched into oval ciliated swimming pro embryos, which become developed in the first instance into bilateral gelatinous creatures with long ciliated processes, and totally unlike the adult, which is produced within the pro-embryo and subsecjuently escaj)es. The Star-fishes are slow in their movements, and destitute of offensive weapons, 'i'hey are, however, carnivorous, and devour shell-fishes and other animals which come within their reach. Several species of Star-fishes occur in Canada The Asterias polaris is the six-rayed Star-fish of the Lower St. Lawrence and Labrador. The Sun-star, Solaster papposa is a fine species, with a large disc and twelve to fourteen short rays. Solaster endeca has longer and less spinous rays, from nine to twelve in number. Uippaster phryciana and Ctenodiscus crispatus are two pentagonal Star-fishes found on the coast of Nova Scotia. Another common species is the smooth, red Star-fish, Cribrella sanguinolenta Lutken. A few species of fossil Star-fishes occur in the PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. 99 l)uUu:riil ind bor- llic disc, iplicated rows of without, )iind the erial ring, varies are I hatched 1 become gelatinous illy unlike iibryo and 3W in their ns. They fishes and ,ada ^rhe the Lower Lr, Solaster Id twelve to [er and less pentagonal . Another Ih, Cribrella Silurian rocks of Canada. Fig. 88 represents one of these. :ur in the Fig. 88.— rAL.KAMTKH .VIAUARK.NSIS, Hall -UpptT Siluriiiii The Star-fishes niav be divided into four orders : 1. Asteriadw or typical star-fishes, with four rows of tube-feet in each anil)ulacral groove. 2. Solastridcr, with two rows of tiilie-fcet in the ambulacral grooves. 3. Astropcctinidw, wiih conical and imperfect feet in two rows and no anus. 4. Brysitigida', with slender rays, having only a nar- now internal cavity in each. Class IV.- I^ahinoidea. Rays obsolete, the skeleton a ease or box enclosing the viscera^ with spines articulated upon it^ and tube-feet pro- jected through ro7i>s of ambulacral pores. The most common Sea-uichin of our coast is Echinus (Toxopneustes*) Drobachiensis^ so called from the port of * Kiirechinus of some authors. :0 / 100 l'K()VIN( 1', 1,( MINdDIKMATA. l)i()b;uh ill NorwMv, wIkmc it wns lirst obseivcd {I'i.^. ^'O. ) ^wm^.n. ■-~-'-,M.I,*,sW-'^ Kiji. SlV l'.«niM M |)i!«>iU(inKNHisi, TftilnnMUf, n'tlncDl. rt -Portion o( .law. /> Spine. I- Tiihofool, rnlivryvtl. i7 IVMlicrlluiiii. rnliirged. A sorond sj^ccics or well markcil variety, E. granulafus of lAitkcn, is, however, also found on the coast of Nova Scotia. 'I'he (irst mentioned jiresents externally the appearance o\ a llatlened sphere covered with sharp greenish spir.cs, beyond which it can extend rowsof lori}^ thread like suckers or tube feet, by nicajis of whi( h it drags itself along. I'very spine of the luuidreds which (Mothe the creature is articulated on a ball and socket jciint. antl moved by nuiscles in every direction, and the tube I'eet are provided with complicated < hains of little hcH'tked bones, and w'ith plates to extend the suckers at th eu' extrenuties. There are also intermixed with the spir.es numerous three-pointed jiedicellariie. The mouth is at the base of the sphere, and is funiishcd with a sin- gular apparatus of five jaws, cacli with a chisel-shaped tooth, the whole meeting in a point and worked by I'KUVINCK I,( IflNohl KMA I A. 101 iMg.H!).) ■X of Nova Tnally the with sharp ows of loni^ )f wIaicH it rods Nvbicli and socket i^\\ and the ins of little c suekcrs at :d with the The mouth \ with a sin- hisel-shaped worked by numerous muscles. The crcMtiirc uses these teeth in brow- sing on ihc sm;ill se.i weeds th;il tlothe the km ks ,'Mi(l stones on the hoihims on wlii( h il f( hites and mostly fossil. 2. Cidat'idea or ordinary sea-urchins, with central mouth and e(iual ambulacra. 3. Clypeastridea, with flattened shell, central mouth and very small tube-feet. 4. Spatangidea, lieart shape in form, mouth and arm.s not central and no teeth or jaws. li 102 PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. The Echinoidea first^ appear in the Upper Silurian, Pahcchinus cllipticus (McCoy), Fig. 90, is a carboniferous species. Fiif. fW.— PAL.KCiliNt'S kIjMptious, McCoy, Carboniferous. Class V. — Holotiiuridea. Body elongated and horizontal, sometimes bilateral, and covered above with spines or irregular plates. Though abberrant in form, some of these creatures are very cotnplex in organization, and arc furnished ivith special respiratory tubes. Some of the species resemble worms in their external form. One of the best known representatives of this order on our coasts is the Psolus (Cuvieria) Fabricii. (Fig. 91.) Fig. 91.— Psolus FABRicri, Gaspd,— reduced. ilurian. liferous 'eral^ and Though •y complex espiratory ir external this order (Fig. 91.) PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. 103 It is of a bright red colour and oval foim, and covered with flat irregular scales, and when alive, can extend an- teriorly a large proboscis divided into numerous processes. It creeps along the bottom by tube-feet protruding from the lower side, which is covered with a tough membrane. Specimens, from three to five inches in length, may be dredged in the Lower St. Lawrence and at (iaspe. It is called "Sea Orange" by the fishermen. Another representative of this order is the Sea-cucum- ber {Pentactes frondosa.) It has spines instead of scales, and has five rows of tube feet, so that it may be comj)ared to a rayless Star-fish greatly lengthened out. To this group belong the great Sea-slugs of the Indian Ocean, eaten by the Malays under the name of Trepang. The Holothurians are usually divided into two orders : 1. Apoda^ without ambulacral feet, and usually with- out distinct respiratory apparatus. 2. Pedata^ with numerous ambulacral feet. The Holothurians are not known as fossils, except in the more modern formations. Plates of a species of Psoitis are found in the Pleistocene of Canada. Note on Relations of the Three Lower Provinces of Animals. Though I have adopted the nev/ divisions of the old Cuvierian Radiata, it is certain that one great leading lOi PROVINCE ECHINODERMATA. . : type or plan of structure prevades the whole, and dis- tinguishes them from the other leading divisions. To illustrate this I reproduce four rough diagramatic figuies from the first edition, and which show the relative A— Prdtiizoaii. Diagrams ok Ii.vdiates. B — Hydroid C— Aiithozooii. I) — Echinoderm. II — Mouth. II Uvarv. positions of the prehensile, digestive and ovarian systems in the Protozoa, Hydroids, Anthozoa, and Echinoderms. It will be seen from these that, while there is a progressive advance in complexity, there is a general identity of plan. ->X<- ! j id dis- i. lo figines elative oderm. systems )dernis. jressive 3f plan. CllAIMHR \ 1. DESCR[PTIVK 'AOOLOGY— Continued. PrOVINCK IV. — MOLLUSCA. Tlic typic.il MoUusca, of which the ordinary bivalve shell-fishes like the oyster and cijckle, the univalve shell- fishes like the snails, whelks, Cvc, and the cuttle-fishes and their allies, may he taken as exanii)les, are un- jointed and unsegmented animals, having the body covered with a membranous and muscular sac called the mantle, and destitute of any true locomotive skeleton, though often protected with a calcareous shell or shelly valves. The greater part are like the animals of the previous provinces. a(|uatic ; but a few are adapted t(^ life in the air, and to aerial respiration. In addition to the more tyj)ical members of this province, there are three groups, the Polyzoa, the Brachiopoda^ and the Tunicata, which though wanting in some of the characteristics of Mollusca i)roper, have usually been placed in this division, and may be provisionally retained in it, constituting a low and imperfect group to which the name Molluscoidea^ or Mollusk-like animals has been applied. The classes of the Mollusca w-ill thus be four, as follows : — 1. Molluscoidea^ including Polyzoa, Bryozoa, or / Moss-animals ; Brachiopods or Lamp- shells and Tunicates. I. ■ 106 I'ROVIN'CL MOI.LUSCA. 2. Lamellibranchiata^ including the ordinary bivalve shell-fishes. 3. Gastropoda^ including the univalve shell-fishes and their allies. 4. Cephalopoda^ including the Cuttle-fishes, Nautili, and allied animals. Class I. — Mof-luscoidka. Animals mostly attached^ and of it n a^!i:;n'gatiTe in com- munities ; destitute of organs of special sense. Heart simple or at once systemic and brancliial. No special respiratory organs. Food obtained by ciliated tentacular organs. A B c Diagrams ok .N!oiiMrscoii>KA. Fi'jf. 92.— A— Polyzoon. H— Tiiniiato. C -IJrachiopod. a — Mouth. s — Stoma,;!!. o— Ovaries. The simplest of these MoUuscoids, the moss animals or Bryozoa or Polyzca, are scarcely above the ccelenterates in grade of complexity, yet are distinct from them in plan of structure, in which they rather resemble embryo or undeveloped mollusks, and are also connected with i ^ PROVING K MOLLUSCA. 107 ivalve ■fishes lautili, 7/ corn- simple iratory nimals iterates lem in imbryo :d with the other molliiscoids. The other groups of this class» the Tunicates and Brachiopods, seem to connect tlie Bryo/.oans with the tyi)ical Molkisks, but along two different linos of development. The Tunicates present the greatest development of the merely nutritive organs, the Brachiopods that of the muscular and circulating systems ; but both, as the position of the class would imply, are deficient in nervous and sensory apparatus, though in the former the Brachiopods appear to be decidedly superior. The orders of Molluscoidea may be defined as follows : — Order 1. Polyzoa or Bryozoa. — Nutrition by means of ciliated tentacles — animals often aggregated and enclosed in a Polyzoary. These are the Sea-mats and their allies ; creatures popularly confounded with Sea-weeds and with Sertularians, cSic. They are principally marine, but some live in fresh water. (Fig. 92 A.) Order 2. Tunicata. — Body unsymmetrical ; integument an uncalcified tunic having two openings and lined by the mantle. Cilia for producing currents of water disposed on an inner tunic or band representing the tentacles. These are the Ascidians and their allies, sac-shaped or bottle-shaj^ed MoUusks. The Tunicates are all marine. (Fig. 92 B.) Order 3. BracJiiopoda. — Body symmetrical ; shell dorso-ventral ; mantle in two lobes adhering to the shell. Tentacles two, fringed, usually spiral. Shell usually with supports for the arms or tentacles. These are the Lamp-shells and their allies, curious little bivalves differ- ing much from the ordinary bivalve shell-fish, and few in ■^rr ' LiJi f 108 I'ROVINCK MOI.I.USCA. si)ccics in the modern seas, but very abundant as fossils. Their name is derived from the two long ciliated arms attached to the sides of the mouth, and serving to bring within reach of the animal the minute organisms on which it feeds. The Hrachiopods are all marine. (Fig. 92 C.) Ordkr 1.— Polv/oa ou Buvo/oa. Any one who has visited the sea-coast must have ob- served, attached to sea-weeds, thin whitish crusts, which, when carefully examined, are seen to consist of little oval cells often with delicate spines at their extremities. These are the skeletons of Ikyozoa of the genus Membranipora. If taken from the sea alive and kept in a glass of sea- water, the microscope will show that each cell is inhabited by a separate animal of somewhat complex structure. Pig. 93.— Mbmbranu'ORA HOLiDA, I'lickard. Gulf St. Lawrence, (Pdajjfiiified.) The cell is lined by a thin inner membrane. Within this is seen a clear fluid having minute granules floating in it, and in the centre is seen the stomach, floating freely, I'UOVINXK Mol.LlSt A. lo:» except thai it is attached below to the hottoni of the (\ivity by iniisnilar l)ands. The stomach is usually of a dark brownisli colour, and is heiU upon itself, one arm, the (Lsophai^us, openini; in the centre of a dis( (l()phoj)hore) surrounded by processes j)rovi(led with cilii; the other arm, the intestine, ojjening oulMdt the disc. In the upj)er part of the stomach is seen a muscular i;i//artl for the trituration of the food. Mach of these little animals can extend its tentacles and create brisk currents of water, or retract itself wholly into its cell. 'I'he ovaries are contained within, in the jjerigastric si)ace, and the germs are free and ciliated in the marine forms. In the Mem- branipora they are hatched in a sort of hood or ovicapsulc f>4 !»5 'iiified.) Ki;.-, 04.— Lkpralia I'KKTirtA Joliiistoii— (iulf St. Lawrence. Fifj, 95.— L. IIYALIKA Lin-Ciulf St. Lawrence. 110 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. attaclied to the cell. The animals multiply by gemmation so as to sjjread in a crust over the surface, and there is a communication between the i)erigastric spaces of the in- dividuals, so that nutriment may be conveyed from one to another. The Mcmbranipoi^a above referred to is only one of many forms of Bryozoa found in our waters. On stones and dead shells other encrusting forms, {Lepraiia^ Jlippothoa^ Figs. 94 to 99) may be found ; other species Fijf. 96,— L. Producta, Packard,— Gulf St. Lawrence. 07 98 99 i I I • fl ' ! I ' Fig. or.-Hu'iwuoA CATENiiLATA, Fleming. Fiff. 98.— H. DiVARicATA, Lni. Fig. OO.-TirBULiTORA FLABB:.LARI8, Fabriciue. (All magiiifieil.) m % PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. Ill build (lieir cells in slender branches or broad leaves, cither soft or ilexible (Figs. 100 and 101) or hard and 100 101 KiK. 10(1. -Mkniika FiifTKd.xA, Piu-kunl, Gulf St. Lawrerict. F'tii. JOl.-llALoniiLA uoKKALis, Packard, Giilf St. Lawroice. (Both luatruificd ) .^M.- W I I t I 111 ^ 112 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. Stony (Fig. 102), Some of the latter have the aspect of Fijr. 102.— Myriozoi'M suBORAtiLE, D'Orbigiiy, Gulf St. Lawrence, natural size. a — Cells of the same magnified. small corals. Other species (^Halodactylus) are imbedded in a dense mucilaginous substance arranged in thick branches, in which the coloured stomachs of the animals are seen as little specks. In the fresh water there are many interesting forms which constitute gelatinous masses or are found in slender groups of membranous or cor- neous cells attached to aquatic plants and other bodies in streams, ponds and lakes. The fresh-water species PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 113 p-^ct of produce curious winter eggs (statoblasts), which perpetu- ate their existence through the winter months when the adults liave ])erished. In the limestones of the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous periods, many species are found fossil, of tlie genera Ptilodictya, Fenestella, ivx. (Figs. 103 and 104). Several species arc also fossil in the Post-pliocene clays (Fig. 105). The animals in this order, while minute in size and very r.imilar in the structure of the individuals, jjresent a vast number of specific and generic forms, distinguishable from each other by the shapes and arrangements of the cells, and are consequently very curious objects of microscopic investigation. The sim])]est mode of classification divides them into sub-orders, in accordance with the forms of the cells and the material of which they are composed, and with refer- ence also to the habitat of the animal and the structure of its disc or I-o])hophore. rcnce. imbedded in thick le animals : there are )us masses )us or cor- her bodies ;er species Fig. 10:5.— PriLODiCTVA ACTTA, Hall,— L. Silurian. G ■3? 1 H k fi ; { ! \ \ i} li PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. -.r those with the mouih of the S„b.orde,- 1. ^>'"r: To'tr nctaes a great nun.ber of Uan.po.. nu.ua, Ce.uaana,.c. ^^^^„,_^„„,„, i„elude. the n>av„>e genera ^^^ _^^^^^^_ of ihe cell ptotccteJ by ■> >•'«'-- Bowerbankia. {,. c -Parts enlarge'l to sUow u * I'ROVINCE MOLl.USCA. 115 Sub-order 4, Pkdicki.i.inea. In these the cells are supported on a stalk or pedicel. Exa;nple, Pedioellina. Sub-order 5. Loi'iioi'iii-.A. 'i'hese are fresh-water species havini; the disc or Lophophore divided into two branches like a horse-shoe, and the investing sul)stance gelatinous. Example, Fredericella, Pectinatella, Cristatella. Sub-order G. I'ai.i'oicellka. These are fresh-water species like the above, but with the disc circvdar. Example, Faludicella. The curious Uniatclla i^racili^ of Leidy, is by some regarded as the type of a separate group. It is a fresh-water species found ia the Schuylkill River. The first four groups are the PhylactoUxmata of Allman, having an epistome at the mouth. Tiie two last are Gymnolaniaia^ having no epistome. Fig. lO.O. -Lki'kalia QLAUKicoRNL'fA, Dawson, Po8t-|>ilocene, Montreal. i-ssjrsttw?- '■>».■ i.iii.i.rt»j Si ' ^1 ' I I ii m .\i ' F 1 '! I 1 i '. h 1 1 i 1 'I i i ■ i I 116 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. Order 2. — Tunicata. Externally these creatures are among the most un- interesting of the Mollusks, their whole bodies being enclosed in a uniform sac-like coat. A species of Boltenia^ {B. Bolteni, Lin.) presenting externally the appearance of a leathery sac, sup])orted on a stalk, is not uncommon on our coasts (Fig 100). The sac has two Fig. 106.— BoLTKNiA lloLTRNi, Lin. , Oulf St. Lawrenc*!. Youiiy specimen. apertures (incurrent and excurrent), and when the ani- mal is alive, the sea-water is drawn into one of these and expelled from the other by the alternate cor\traction and expansion of the sac. On dissecting the outer tunic, this is found to he lined with a muscular sac, which is the true mantle, and by the contraction of which water is expelled from the interior, while it is re -admitted l)y the elastic expansion of the outer tunic. Within the muscular sac is a delicate membranous ciliated organ, the respiratory sac, along the surface of which the water entering by the entrant aperture is carried by the motion of the cilia, and the nutritive matter which it contains wafted toward the mouth which lies near the bottom of 1 w^- PROVINCK MOLLUSCA. 117 un- leing IS of the IS not s two I the sac. 'Ihc intestine doubles round and empties at the excurrcnt aperture, toward which also the o|)ening of the ovarian ducts is directed. The creature, thus constituted, renir-ins attached at the bottom of the sea, and, its actions are hmiled to the rythmical contraction and e.\i)ansion of the tunic, by whicli water is continually introduced, and brings with it microsco[)ic organisms on which the tunicate feeds. The same action subserves the function of resjjiration. he ani- f these raction outer lar sac, if which dmitted thin the gan, the e water ; motion contains Dttom of I'iy. 107. — UuLTK.NiA, tliagrainniatk' section. a- Ineiirreiit upuitiire. i; - E.xcurrent aperture. c-- Respiratory sac. (i— Stomach, c— Ovary. /—Liver. 17— Nerve mass. /«— Tunic. fr— stem. In addition to the Boltenia, we have several species of Cynthia and Asci4ia^ one of which, Cynthia echinata^ \% ^i i 118 PROVINCE MOM.USCA. remarkable for its rovering of stiff branching bristles. Another sjjccies, Dtdetiwium rosetim exists in compound communities, encrusting sponges and sea-weeds. Packard has dredged it at Hopedale, Labrador ; and at Eastport, Maine ; and Whiteaves has found it at (laspe. There are other species of smaller size, some of them highly coloured, and others perfectly pellucid, so that the internal organs arc distinctly visii)]e through the tunic, but all may be distinguished by the sac-like tunic and the two apertures. All the species found on our coast bc-long to the first sub-order of 'i'unicates, that of the Asr.idiae, which also includes the remarkable Pryosomidae of the warmer seas, freely moving forms in which the animals arc grouped in radiating series in the walls of a hollow (-)linder closed at one end, and said to be im))ellcd by the reaction of the water sent forth from the ex("urrent apertures. A second sub-order, Biphora, includes the Saipida\ also inhabitants of the warmer seas, and floating in chain- like bands of individuals, which, however, produce ova from which solitary individuals are hatched, and these in turn clevelo})e within their bodies colonies of banded Salpae. The Salpas and the Pyrosomas are gifted with that luminosity in the dark which is the property of so many marine animals. The nervous system in Tunicates is re[)resented by a single ganglion usually j^laced in the vicinity of the aper- tures, or in the back of the respiratory sac, and giving off a number of minute nerves. There are pigment masses or eye-specks at the apertures, and in some there are auditory vesicles and olfactory pits. ( ll :! PROVINCE MOIJ.USCA. 110 'I'he younj;' of the Ascidians is provided with a swim- ing tail, having in it a gelatinous axis, and with a nerve fibre and muscles for locomotion. In this stage the larva resembles so closely the embryo of some fislu's that it has been considered as a link connecting the Tunicates with the X'ertebrates. It soon, however, loses the swim- ming tail, attaches itself by means of tuberc les at the opposite e\tremity of the sac, and becomes developed into a fixed Ascidian. Order 3.— Uraciiiopoda. Of these curious and rare bivalve shell-fish, only a few species are found on our coasts. The most common is Rhyncho?iella psiitacea^ the parrot's-bill Rhynchonella (Fig. 108). It is a little horny bivalve shell, with one I'i!;. 108.~UiiVNCiiONKi,i.A I'siTTACKA, Liii. (iulf St. Lawicmo. by a |aper- igoff lasses are valve, the dorsal, smaller than the other, the beak of which projects and has a notch (foramen) below, through which passes a stalk or pedicel for attach'.nent. The interior of the shell is lined with the two valves of the mantle, and is occupied principally with the two fringed and ciliated arms coiled like cork-screws (Fig. 109). At '' I \ I I ! 120 PRVOINCK MOl.LUSCA. the base of these is tlie moutli iL-ading to a small stomach Fiy. 109. — UiiYN( iroNKLLA I'snrvrKA. Interior of dorsal valv«;, shosviim' (a) luldiirt-or iiiuxlcs, and (/<) wpiral arms : drawn fruin a .s|n'LiM,i;i clrt'ducd at (iasjif, naliirid size. and short intestine, ll has a more < omitlicatcd nervous and circulating system than that of the Tiinicates, and has several ])airs of muscles placed near the hinge for opening and closing the shell and regulating the move- ments of the creature on its pedicel. 'I'iie Rhynchonelh. is found attached to stones and dead shells in moderatelv deep water. In addition to this species we ha\e on oui coasts Tcrcbratulina septentrional is^ of more elongated form than the above-named species, ribbed longitudinally, with a round i)erforation at the beak, instead of a notch, and with an internal shelly loop. Other species found on our coasts are IValdheimia cranium and Tef ebratella Spitd)ergensis^ a northern form found in Labrador, and also fossil in the post-))liocene clay of Riviere du Loup. IValdheimia cranium has as yet been found only on the coast of Nova Scotia, by Willis. It has been ascertained that the young of some Brachiopods much resemble Poly/oa in form and structure. (Morse.) ^■v.. 1>R0VINCE MOI.l.rsCA. 121 f- i Though recent Hracliioixxls arc iVw in .>|)c( ies, vast luunhLTs arc found fossil. Mr. DiMings" catalogues include nearly loo s|)ecies, from the lower Silurian alone, in Canada : and I )r. IJigsln m his Thesaurus Siluricus, enumerates 42(j si)ecies from the .Sihirian of America, whereas less than loo li\ing sj)er)iiifprmM, with iiit»'rii>r slinwiii^j tin* loop. 2. Si'iRrFKRiD 1 .— Slu'll with two spiral -hclly support*; in the interior. Dorsal valve with a notch. Hinge line often Ln'^ ind straight. Fossil Kxamplos : Spirifer, Athyris ( Kig';. 11:', 116). .if. I Fip. 11:!.— Atiiyris hi hi i lit a, Hiill, ('iirlioniitToiis, with intorior (<') showiny: s|»iriii i^ii|>|Hirt-. for tlif unii>. Fi^. 114. — Hi'iaJKKR Mr( KONATis, Hall, Pcrotiian, V'\e. U;"),— Si'iRiKKK VAUKOSA, Mull, Devonian. 124 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. |i < fi hi Fitr. 11(J. - Si'iKiKKK (,i.Ai!Ki!. ^laitiit, Carbonilerous. o. Rhynchonkli.id.k. -Shell not punctate, hinge line curved, Foramen under beak. Supports slioit or rarely spiral. Recent and fossil. Examples : Rhynchonella, Atrypa, I'entamerus. (Figs. 117 to 121, also Figs. 108, 109.) Fiji. 117.— RavMuoNKLLA IM HKiiuKisrKNs, Hall. — Siluro-caruhriiiii. Fly. 118.— RiiYNtiioNKLLA AiAniMNHis, Davidsoi),— Ciirboiiifcrous. /MijJ i Fijr. 119.— UiJYNi'HONKLLA DawsONUNa, DaviUto'^M, Carboniferous. PROVINCE MOLI.USCA. 125 ^^ li','. 120.— Atkvi'a KK/rrcuLARis, Lin.-Sihu-iaii. FiuV I--M. I'KNTAMKRIS li VI,KATI S, Dilllllid),— Siliiri.iii. 4. — OrthiU/E.— Shell usually punctate. Hinge line wide and straight, with an area. Interna! supports small or wanting. Fossil. Examples': Orthis, Strophomena, Leptccna. (Figs. 122 10 127.) ' 126 Fig. 122. PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. FiK. 123. Fiir. 124. 122. 0RTI1I8 TK8TID1NAR1A, DaliiiaD,— Siliiio-cambriiiu. 123. O, LNYx, Eidi,— SUuru-camhriau (with front vitw). 124. O. FKCTiSKLLA, Coiirad,— Siluro-ctuiibriau. .-, I Fij(. 12'!. - Lki'T-ENA SKRicKA, Sow,— Siiuro-cainbrian. Witli diagram of hiit^j; area and notcJi, and cross section showing the convex and concave sides. i Fig^. 126.— Ortiiis BiLiiisusi, Hartt, -Cambrian. t l'RO\ l\CK Mv)M,U.ScA. 127 1 Fitr. 1-7. SiKoriuiMKNA hi.iTKXTa, Hall. Siluio-camijiiiin, iiit«»'ior, shuwiui; luus^jiilar iiupro8i^iuiis, ami exteiior. y. l'k()i)uciii)/r:.— Shell concavo-convex. Hinge line strai^'lu. Tubular .spint.s on the .surface. Fossil. Examples : IVoducius, Choneles (Figs. 128, 131). Fiy'. 128. — I'KOULCTiis t•oR.^, DOrhij^ny, -Curboiiilei-uu>». 128 PROVINCl': MOLI.USCA. HI I' II F'ijj. 120.— PRODrcTPS SFMiRKTicriiAii s, Mart'U.— CiulioiiifovoiiN. Fiff. 130.— CiioxKTKS NOVASCOTICA, Hall, Silurian, with sculpture and spine magnified. Fig, 131.— CiioNKTES, Sp., showing the spines. 6. CRANlADi^. — Shell rounded, hingeless, usually attached by the ventral valve. Dorsal valve shaped like a limpet, Recent and fossil. Example : Crania (132). r e /fil r- Fiji-. 132.— Crania acadiensis, Hall, Silurian. Ventral valve, natural size and magnified. i mf^ :1 by and PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 129 dossil. Examples :'DiscCi:ertt^;r,^^^^^ ^-^ -^' Fig^lSa-DiHciNA cmcK. Bi]li„gs.-L. Silurian. FiV. 134.-Li.vg(;la q, vdrata. Ei- h -L Silnr!. F>S. iyo.-LF.NuuLBLLA MA ^^^ S>ilur,an. VTiiEwi, IIartt,~PrimordiaI. Fiff. 136.-LIXGLLA A.N- ATIN-A^moder,,, with fluxibJe>cU,Mc]o. H 130 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 8. LlNGULlD^. — Shell sub-equivalve with a long peduncle pas- sing between the valves. Texture horny, minutely tubular. Material, phosphate of lime. Recent and fossil. Examples : Lin- gula, Obolus, Obolella (Figs. 134, 135). On Brachiopoda the student may consult Woodward's Manual of MoUusca ; Davidson's Fossil Brachiopoda in Pubs, of Pal?eont Society. For Canadian Fossil Brachio- pods, Billings in Reports of Canadian Survey ; Hall's Palaeontology of New York ; Dawson's Acadian Geology. t Class II. — Lamellibranchiata. Body bilaterally symmetrical, with a dextro-shiistral bivalve shell ; mantle lining the shell, more or less closed ; mouth with tivo pairs of labial appendages ; heart of two or three cavities ; gills lamelliform, in two pairs. Embryo usually sic'imming by a ciliated velum ; adult creeping or burrowing by muscular foot or destitute of loco^notive organs. The Lamellibranchiates are the ordinary Bivalve Shell- fish, as the Oyster, Clam, Cockle, &c. Their shells are not dorso- ventral, as in the Brachiopods, but placed on the sides of the body. Hence they are usually equivalve, and not equilateral ; though there are not a few exceptions to this. They have no orifice at the beak for attachment, and very rarely any internal processes. The animal has the two leaves of the mantle more or less closed. The mouth is furnished with four labial processes not ciliated. The gills are arranged in four i PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 10 t hell- are on live, ions lent, or Ibial four •^ lamellce or plates, and not only serve for respiration, but, by the currents of water produced by their cilia, to waft food to the mouth. They also serve as a convenient hatching-place for the ova. The heart consists either of one auricle and one ventricle or of two auricles and one ventricle, and is systemic, that is, it drives the blood into the general circulation and receives it back from the gills. The nervous system consists of three pairs of ganglia — one pair at the sides of the mouth (cerebral), another at the base of the foot (pedal), and a third near the posterior adductor muscle (visceral). These are connected by nervous fibres. There are auditory vesicles near the pedal ganglia, and eye specks w-hich in some of the burrowing species are placed at the ends of the respiratory tubes, and in others are on the edge of the mantle. A few lamellibranchiates are viviparous and in the greater number the young, which have no proper metamorphosis, are nursed for a time in the gills of the parent. Most Lamellibranchiates are diecious. The foot, above men- tioned, is a fleshy or muscular organ capable of being used for locomotion or for burrowing. In some genera Fig. 137.— Section of a Lamellluanciiiate. - Exterior Ligiinicnt. c — Interior Ligament, r/— Hinjjrc tooth. ' — Lateral teeth, /—Anterior adductor. ,7 — Posterior adductor. A— Pallial impression, with sinus between it and posterior adductor. In this figure the hinge is somewhat exaggerated for the salie of distinctness. T PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 133 V corrugation of tlie laminiu. I'carls are concretions of lamellar shell formed in the mantle in conseciuence of injury or disease. Tiie mantle not only lines the interior of the shell but is the organ by which it is deposited. The Lamellibranchiates are sometimes named ComJiifcra. The i)arts recognised in the shell of a Lamcllibran- chiate, and. the terms used in their description are indi- cated in the diagram (l*'ig. 138). The l.amellibranchiates may be conveniently divided into (i) Asiphonida, or those which have no tubes or siphons. (2) Siphonida, or those which have two tubes or sij)hons serving for the entrance and emission of water. These last are the most numerous, and usually burrow in sand or other substances, using their siphons, which are sometimes very long, to admit water to the gills. I'igs. 139, 140 show the aj)pearance of an asiphonide and a siphonide species. |h. Fiy, 130.~Mytilus EDLLis, Lin.. «— Foot. ?>— Byssus. o — Margin of mantle. Fig. 140.— Tellina groknlandica, IJe^k. a— Siphons, (i— Foot. U :» R "f I 134 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. The Lamellibranchiatcs may be arranged in the fol- lowing families : — i^SipJionida^ sinupallialia.) riroLADiD/K — Example: Pholas, Teredo, The shells of the gcnu^ IMiolas are remarkable as l)urrowers in stone and hard clay. Our ..pccies is /'. crispata. The species of Teredo burrow in sunken timber, and are very destructive to piles and shippin;^. The animal is worm-like, and the valves appear to be constructed for borinfT rather than for protection. Gas'I'KOCHAEMIxi'. — Kxample : Oastroclinena. Burrowers, with the valves sometimes united into a shelly tube. No Canadian species. AnatiniD/K — Example : Anatina, Pandora. Shell thin, nac- reous, often inequivalve, with a small free ossicle connected with the internal cartilage, Pandora trilineata, P. g/aeia/is, Thracia Coftradi, Pandorina arenosa^ are Canadian species. Myacid.e Ex.: Mya, Saxicava, Glycimeris. Shell coarse and wrinkled, gaping posteriorly. Animal with closed mantle, small foot and united siphons. Mya arenaria is the common sand clam, Mya truncata is more rare and in deeper water, Saxicava rtigosa. w Fig. 141.— Saxicava rugosa, Lin. Fijr. 142.— Mya truxcata, Lin. PROVINXK MOLLUSCA. 135 abounds on rocky coasts, and burrows in limestone (Ki^j=. HI to 143). Fig:. 143.— MVA ARKNARIA, Liii. a— Proccfss for intenuil li^-umeiit. SOLEMD/K — Example : Solen, Machaera. Shells elongated, gapintj at both ends. The common "razor-fish" Solun c?isis, is a typical example. TELLlNlDiii — Examjjle : TcUina, Sanguinolaria, Dunax. Shell compressed, usually closed and equivalve. Animal with mantle widely open in front, foot tongue-shaped, siphons long and separate (Fig. 140). 7\ [Macoma) Groenlandica and T. (J/.) proxima are common species. Figs. 144, 145. Fiy. lit. TELI.INA PROXIMA (sahulosa, Speriffl.) Fij,'. 14:,. T. GroK.Ni ANDicA, Beck. I ! 136 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. MactriD/K — Example : Mactra, Gnathodon. Shell equivalve, triangular. Internal ligament in a deep triangular pit. Two di- verging cardinal teeth, and two lateral (Fig. 1:58). Mactra solUis- sima, the great clam, is the largest bivalve found on our coasts. Venkrid.^:. — Example: Venus, Cytherea, Petricola. Shell regular, closed, sub-orbicular or oblong, ligament external ; hinge with usually three diverging teeth in each valve. The most com- mon species on the Atlantic coast is / 'efins mcicinaria the Quahaug or Wampum shell. Vitius (Totknia) '^cmma abounds at Gaspe. ( Siphonida, iniegro-paiiiaiia . ) Cvi'RiNiDil*;. — Example : Cyprina, Astarte, Cardita. Shell regular, equivalve, oval, solid ; epidermis thick and dark, cardinal teeth one to three, and usually a posterior lateral tooth, Cyprina Jslandica is our largest species ; and we have several species of Astarte ^XiCii Cardita borealis. (Figs. 146 ar ' 147.) FiK. 140. ASTARTK STRIATA, Lcacll. Fiy H7. A. I.AURKXTIASA -Post-l>liocciie, Cycladii)/i:. — Example: Cyclas, Cyrena, Pisidium. Fresh and brackish-water shells, sul)-oibicular, closed, with thick hurny epidermis and cardinal and lateral teeth. Several small shells of ^^^ Fijr. 148. Spilerium RiioMBOinEiM, Say. Fig. 14f>. S. SoLiDLLi'M, Prime. ^ rROVlNCK MOLLUSCA. 137 the genera ^///,m//w an.l PisUium are found iu our streams and ponds. (Figs. 14H to 154.) ^M l-'ij-'. l.'O. «. Sluati-m, Lam, {CydnH .snniUx) Hay. KiK. l-.l. .*'. Tkansvkuhim, Suv, Fi- l-,2. .Sj'H.ermm Skcikis, Prime. ^^ Kifi'. lf)3. PisiDii'M N'moiNiri'vi, lk<)n,i,'t. O Hi'. I54,_P, ALTILK, AlitllOllJ-. LuciNmAi.;-ExampIe:Ludn,i,Corbis,Keliia.-Shellorl,icuIar c osed,,„.e™r duli obliquely furrowed. 7,,.s,-ra Go,,,,, , "; I.Ule rounded shell with a flexure on the margin, is our n,os. common species. CARDIADAE-Example : Cardium, Serripes. -Shell .. equivalve, cordate, with radiating ribs, and peculiar sculpt posterior side. Two cardinal and two lateral teeth in e.rh regular, ure on teeth in each valve. 138 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. Cardium Isiandicum is the common cockle of the Gulf St. Lawrence, and Serripes Grocnlandica is also frequent. Fig. Ii5r>, Fi;;-. I'l.'i.— C \lilMI M IHLANUIirM, Lill. T Tridacnidae. — Example : Tridnacna, Ilippopus. Shell regular, equivalve, truncated in front. Tridacna gigas is t. e largest of bivalves. No species occur in Canada. rilPPURlTiDAE. — Example: Ilippurites, Radiolites. Fossil in the Cretaceous rocks ; remark.^l)le for the great and abnormal thickness of the right valve. Chamidak. — Example: Chama, Diceras. — Shell inequivaJve, attached, with spiral beaks. Tropical seas and fossil, especially in the mesozoic. U^IONIDAE. — Example: Unio, Anodon, Alasmodon. Fresh- water shells, regular, erjuivalve, closed. Epidermis thick, shell nacreous within, ligament large, external. These are the fresh-water Fig. 156.— AiiAsMODOX, (Margaritana) maroaritifera. PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 130 ^ mussels, and are very abundant in our streams and lakes. Unio complanahis is the most common species, AIasuunion{Margariiana.) fnargaritifera is the Pearl-Mussel, and affc^rds pearls sometimes of considerable beauty and value. Y'\^. 150, Triconidae. — Fxample : Tricjonia. Shell cquivalve, trigonal, with umbones directed backward ; ligament external, with few diverging teeth, interior pearly. No living species in Canada ; but the genus Lyrodesma of the Silurian is supposed to belong to this family. AucADAE. — Example: Area, Cuculiaea, Nucula, Leda. Shell regular, equivalve, with a long row of teeth in each valve. Several species q{ Nucula and I.cda occur in our seas. (Fig"^. IS", l')8-) Fiyf. 157.— Lki)\ MiN'tTA, Mull. Fij,'. l.'iS.- Lkda (yolpia) trcncata. Pleistocene. Mytilid/E. — Example: Mytilus, .Nlodiola, Lithodomus. Shell equivalve, edentulous, oval or elongated, closed, umbones anterior, epidermis thick, attached by a byssus. The common mussel is Mytilus edulis. (Fig. 159.) The horse mussel is /!/. w^>'//^/«.f. Fijf. 159.— MVTILt'.S EDULIS, Uii. 140 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. I I ,i f i' / AvicuLiD/K — Example : Avicula, Meleagrin.i, Pinna. Shell incquivaive, very obli(jue, hinge-line straight and eared ov winged posteriorly ; attached by a byssus. We have no modern species, but several in the Palaeozoic rocks (100, 101). Fig-. 160.— AvKibA klahkli.a; Vamixeiii, t)ovoiiiaii. Fig. Kil.— A. HoNKYMANi, Hall, Silurian. '/ ^ ■•" \) m t' V ^ Fig. 1G'2.~Pecten islaxdicis, Chemnitz. PROVINCE MOLTATSCA. 141 OsTREAD/K — Example : Ostrea, Aroniia, Pecten, Spondylus, Plicatula. Shell inequivalve, free or adherent, resting on one valve. Beaks central, straight, ligament internal, adductor impression single, hinge usually edentulous. The common oyster, Ostrea Virginica, amd the Pectens or Scallops are well-known examples. (1G2). 'I'he following figures represent fossil T>amellibran(:iates found in Canadian rocks, but which, for the most part, can be only doubtfully referred to any of the above families. (Figs. 163 to 173.) Fi^'. l(i;}. — CVHTOnONTA SIGMOinKS, Hillings, — M. Silurian. Fig. lot. — CyKTODONTA tiNOfTi.VTA, Jiillin<;H,— M. Siiuriiui. Fig-. 105.— Meoamconia nitida, Rillinj^'s,— M. Silurian. 142 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. I Fig. 166.— CONOCARDIL'M AcADiANi'M, Haitt.— Caiboniferous. Fig. 167.— Cypricardia insecta, Dawson.— Carboniferous. Fig. 168.— Edmo.ndia Hartti, Dn.— Carboniferous. *4 Fig. 169.— AvicuLorucTEX Lyelli, Dn. -a, i*— sculpture— Carboniferoua. PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 143 Fig-. 170. Naiadites carboxarus, Dn.— Carb. Fig. 171. N. KLoxoATi's, Dn.— Carb. Fijf. 172.— N. LAEVis, Dn.— Carboniferous, n. Fig. 173.— Macrodox iiardixgi, Dn. —Carboniferous. «— Cast. 6— Exterior. The student will find the famihes of LameUibranchiata admirably described in Woodward's Manual of the Mol- lusca. For Canadian species reference may be made to Gould's Invertebrates of Massachu.ssets, and to the Papers by Packard, Whiteaves, Bell, and others, published m the Canadian Naturalist Fossil species will be found in Memoirs by Billings and Whiteaves in Reports of Canadian Survey, and in Dawson's Acadian Geology. 144 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. Class III. — Gastropoda. Encephalous ; body symvietrical or spiral with or with- out a shelly which is usually univalve and spiral ; mouth with teeth and a lingual ribbon ; nerve system with four pairs of ganglia^ those of the head large ; respiration by gills or an air sac ; foot along the ventral aspect of the body ; young iii aquatic species usually having a ciliated stage with velum, A typical Gastropod, such as one of the whelks, peri- winkles or snails, has a manifest head, in which are grouped its organs of sensation. Its locomotion is per- formed by a muscular organ placed on the ventral aspect of the body, and termed its foot. The body is usually elongated and generally spiral, and the most common covering is a univalve calcareous shell. The nervous system and circulating apparatus are more compact and highly developed than in the last class, and the loco- motive energies are greater. The eyes are probably sufficient for distinct vision, and are usually attached to the tentacles, which are important as organs of touch. There are two auditory sacs (otocysts) placed near the pedal ganglia, and in some olfactory organs have been recognised near the gills. The concentration of the eyes, principal nerve ganglia, and oral organs in one mass gives rise to a head, hence these animals are known as En- cephalous, as distinguished from the lower moUusks (Acephala). Respiration is performed either by gills or by a pulmonary sac. The mouth is destitute of tentacles. i c> 1 I PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 145 ^ but is furnished with a tongue or hngual ribbon beset with teeth, which, in the herbivorous species, serves to rasp vegetable substances, and in those that are carnivor- ous, to abrade holes in the shells of other mollusks. The embryo, in some cases, especially in the terrestrial species, is precisely like the adult ; but in most of the marine species it is a free-swimming larva, with two large ciliated lobes (the velum), by which it swims and which disappear when the abdominal foot becomes developed. Some of the C/astropods are dioecious, others are her- maphrodite. Fig. 174 shows the arrangement of the C> Fiy'. 174.— Animal of Pali'dina, after Woodward, a— Mouth. ^j— Tentacles and Eyes. c— Foot. r/— Gills. e -Intestine. /—Ovary. principal organs in a fresh-water snail of the genus Palu- dina. The shell of the ( lastropods is constructed of the same materials with that of the last class, and is deposited by the mantle. It is never bivalve, but is often provided with a horny or calcareous operculum or lid developed from the foot, and which closes the shell when the animal 140 I'KOVlNrK M. r\IVAI,VK SIlKMi (Siriio). (7 Aiv\. ?» Spiiv, sliowiwit; s\ituros M jinion >f the turns, also lilm or vurioos i\]\\\ ro\o\\\ni£ lines. (" -(>\il< r lip ami a|H>r(niv. t/ AiUoiitM- canal. ('—Hody whirl. /—Inner lip or oolunwlln. The CiiiStrojHxls piosont a grcalor variety of organisa- tion llian the l.amcUihrancliiata, and may therefore i)e somewhat nnnulely divided into orders. The following are the orders generally received : hnt there arc good grounds tor considering that the Uentalia or tooth- shells, and the (Intons should be separated from Order 4th to I'orm separate orders. A new classi- fication has also been proposed on the ground of the forms and arrangements of the teeth on the lingual ribbon; but this seems a character too limited to give a natural arrangement. rH(»VIN( K MOM.irsCA. U7 ^ Order 1. J'frtofn't/a.'VUcM': ,\rv ocranir ,'iiifl frie- swimmiu);, .nul arc (listirjj'jiishtd by two lins or swiiniiiiriL; origans (lrvi'l()|R(l from {\w sides ol \\\v. vvtk or hrad. Soiiir have shells, others arc naked. I'he latter only have (listin( t heads. ( )rder li. //rf/>(>f/fi or Nndcol>ranchiatn. 'I liese are also pelagic animals, and swimiiurs ; Imt their swimming orj^^an is a fm like tail, furnished with a sik ker for attat h- ment, and represents the foot ol (^tlx r ( iastropods. 'I'he f^reater part have shells, wliich are, however, in many »*/ the typical fortns, as (^arinaria, too small to (over more than a lew of the more important or^^ans. ( )rder '{. Opisthobramluata Some of these < an swim, l)iit are all furnished with an ample foot for ( ree|)in(^', 'I'hey derive their name from the position of the gills, which are placc, CutiNK i,i\iA(iN\. It is about an indi in leni;tli, senii-transparenl, and of a roseate luie ; moving tlirough the water by tlie llapi)ing of its anii)le fnis, and preying on minute crustaceans and other creatures l)y means of a formidable apparatus of suckers and shear-like jaws in front of its head. This little creatm-e is so abundant in some parts of the (Ireen- land seas that it is said to form a (H)nsideral)Ie part of the food of the great whalebone whales. Another still more beautit"ul I'teropod has been procured by Mr. Packard on the same coasts. It is the Liniaciiui Iiclicimu a little creature contained in a small snail-like si)iral shell of almost inconceivable thinness, and extending from the front of its body two delicate and beautiful fins, which may almost be compared to the wings of an insect, with which it moves gaily through the water. These are the only Pteropods of which I have seen specimens from Canadian waters. The genus Conularia of our Carbon- iferous and Silurian limestones, and the genera T/ura, ^ rUOVINCK iNKJLMJSCA. u:> *> Plerotlu'ca and Salterdla of tlu- Silurian jmd ("anihrian, arc supposed to l^'Ion^' to this order (I'ig. 177). riU'. 177. CoMI.AItlA I'l.ANKOHTATA, UllWSOIl, ('iirtHt||if»TOII8. ORDI.R 2. IIeI KROr-ODA. In the modern world these are for llie most |)art in- habitants of llie warmer seas ; and the only s])ecies as )et known to us in ( 'anada arr those found fossil in our Fig. 178.— r.KLLKROi'iK.'N SI Lt Ai INCH,- JJilliiigs, Siluro-taiiilirian. 150 I'KOVINC:!': MOIJ.USCA. linicsloiics. or iIk'sc, the most (•h:ira("tL'risti(: arc those ot the genera lifUcrophov .iiul Cwtolilcs^ species of which are foiiiid from the Lower Sihiriaii to tlie (larhoniferoiis inclusive (I'ig. 17S). 'I'he curious and somewhat anoma- lous shells of the genera Maclurea and F.ccnliowphalus^ are also sujiposcd hy some pahvjontologists to belong to this order. The lantlufuv or violet sjiails are regarded as an ahernnU family of this order. 'I'hey have spiral shells and lloat hy means of a modified cellular operculum which huovs them up. They are mostly tropical ; hut shells of liinthina frai:^tli. —I.VNTIIIN.V KUAOILI.S. /—Float. 'ntiim is found on our coasts. Dvjntalium agrees with the other (Gastropods in having a head, lingual ribbon, muscular foot, and univalve shell ; but is re- garded as a very rudimentary form- Patei.lid.e. Shells conical, animals clinging to or creeping on stones. Acrnaea testudinalis, the common limpet of our coasts, is an exampl.\ Lepda earn (Fig. 183) is less common. A Fig. l>^3.— LEPETA CiECA, Mull. PROVINCE MOLI.USCA. 1 53 a FissURKLLlD/E. — The " Key-hole'' or perforated limpets. One little species, Ct'mona Noachina, is found on our coasts. IIaliotidak. — Tlie oea-ears arc beautiful i)early shells not rc- pves-ented in this country, except on the I'acitic coast. TURlUMD/i;. — These are the Top-shells and " silver willies." Their shells are turbinated or short conical and pearly within. Trochus octidcntalis is found in our seas, and several species of AlaVi^arita. The genus Platychisma of the carboniferous lime'-itone perhaps belongs to this family (Fig. 184). Fiji'. 1S4.— PriATYsciii.sMA hiHiA, Dn.— Carboniferous. NERiriD.i:. — Tlie Nerites are not represented in our seas. Calyi'TRAKAI)/K. — The vSlipper Limpets and the "Cup and Saucer Limpets."' Crcpidula fornicata is our common Slipper Limpet. TuRRlTEi.i ii>.i . — These, as their name imports, are long turreted shells with rounded aperture, and often of very graceful Fig. 185.— ScAiAniA okoenlandica, Tarry. \r^\ PKOVINCK MOI.HTSCA. form. 'rh(>y nvo ni.iiinc. lurriLlhi rri-iui is ivil niu'omtnon, mid S,,-iJi}rta (if(V»i(in,iiiii (I'i^;. IHfi) tl)ouj;l> laio, is one i)( Oui most iK-aulifnl shells. Ln r(>RiNn>.i::--'l'Iu>sr iitc ilic jimst ciMumoii Utile univalves of the sea-hc.ich, swanniiif; on sion(>s, an.l leedin^ on sea-wccds. / jftofitti) r:4iits and /. /^nUinf,} ■^\^ mn most tonunon species, The little handed sea-snail, I ttiuui r :u,t,r, also Inlon^js here, a. do the alm<)st nuoroscopie shells oi the ^enns AVu.'.r Tvi rniNn>AK These ai<- hi'>h wmI.m sh.'ll-fish. with eonieal or j;lolndai shells, havinq; a rounded euliir apeituie. I\ilu,ii»,} acnsa is eoninion in our lar^e liveis, as ;ilso are eert lu) (MtiiouJittle shells ot tliej^inus X'alvata ( I*"ij;s. 187, ISS). S^ . Kiu'. 1S7. Kit;-. iSS. \MMeoi,A roRAi'A, Sa\ . V \i,\ atv ikuakin ma, Mi«\. \. rUPiUUKA, S;iy. Mkiamapak— These, like the Taludinas. are fresh-water shells, CiMnmon in our rivers. They ditTer from Taludina in their niore elonijatcd forms and tendenev li> a channel or notch in the; front of the aperture. The most alnuidanl species in (he St. I .awrence is Mi-lnni,7 tir/'v^'s, The little shells of the i^enus .}ffifii,v/,i heloui^to this family. (FiLr- ^''^'») CKRlTHlvn 1" — These dilVer from other members of tliis ijroup in 1. •"vini; a canal in front oi' the shell, and when adult the li]i is often expanded. Our linest species is the Western " S|)out-shell," .-//^r- Pyramidkli.idaf. — These are lonp; shells like the Turrilella-s, with small aperture, and often jdaits on the c'olumella. Mettcstho {libuLi is a very pretty little species. : I'ROVINC K M(M,l,irsCA. 1.').% NAlKiitAK — T: -sf hiivo [.H(il)ular few wliirlcil slu'lh. The animal has a very l;u|;r roundel dxit. Ndtiai {/.lifin/ia) ftcros \% one of oiir largest univalves, and very coiinii' n on sandy shores, where it (leposils its spawn in a ll.il ,;inily iil>l»'>n moulded on the fool. We have several smaller ;|)((;ic- of Xiriai and twoof V'rlutitin. (I''i(,'s, IH:i (o 1!H.) Kit:, l^lt. N \i i< V nKi.iroiDKM, .lollIHtoil, I'lristorclM! Kit,'. ISM'. N. i|,\fH\, linnl iiri'l Siiw. Kitf. KM. \'Ki,irriN\ /,(».%■ ATA, «» The second seel ion (Sifh'i(>ni>sf(i>n,i: -The Cowrie sli dh an: inhahitanl.H of the warmer seas and not reprc .ciited with u-, Voi.n'l'iD.r: -The Volutes are also tro|.icaI and :-,ul)-tr(;])ical shells, oflen of ^^reat beauty. CoNin.!*; — The jiropcr Conc-sl,ells belonj.'; to the warnner lati- tudes ; hut several beautiful liiile six lis of the f^cnus Btla are fo\ind in deep "water on our coasts. 'i"livii \(. liii , \iui('(\. KiR. l!U. l'MnVIN< |i, Mol I II ;( A. 157 S I !'• iM Itlltl Tllcm- IIM- l|M|ii(;iI Mild lllil r'>|ii( ;i| ';l|( II :. Ilir (McmI Sh i'»i''H\ /v,<;iM, m iiniili iil nrf 'if tin<»'rt.iiu Mllmili*"^. I \\rKi' ^ll^lh iiiMy lie (li^liii^iiisli' ij hy m ii'it» Ii in ffiti' '>( llii> lip. ^^ I'l^i. Ilir>. ri,i',i'Mni min,niii ;\\n\ I'.Hotn ( ;il-;'» inclu'lr fo.-iil.'.f inn ciliiin iillinilic'; ( I'ijfs. IIMI, l<»7). l''itr. l!Ml. Kl CMIMAIilH KMiKTIVIH. Dll. <'arlM)iiif('n»iiH. V'w. r.i7. I,'iX(iNKV1 \ .\( ( |( r,\, I»li. '■arlioiiifi roiu', ma,cfiifi"l. OKDKK r>. I'tH.MoMIIKA. 'I'liouf^Ii, frnii) tlic dryness of its stinmi^ rs nnrl the coldiu'ss of its vviiUcrs, Canada is hy no means favouraf)]e to the land and fresli-vvater snails, yel we have numerous ir>s PRnviNri MOM rscA. I IJ spot ios, soino o( \v)u« h mv vorv jonunon. Tlu^y hclon}; to the tollowinj; faniilios : inhabit snlt nu\«slios and siiuilnr )iln«rs, lluis connecting; in thru li;\lMti\t llio IrcsIi-NVrttci anil sci\ M\i\il'> 1 IMNM \t> 1. Hcvo wo hrtvo llu^ 1 inutcas ntul rhy^:"^ ors|iiial fiosh-Wiitcv sna>]s. ;\nf .'"/A". AUiod to the loiincr is the c\ivio\is jM>nns .-ht, \lus, with a conical shell, like that of a limpet. im^;s. H'H, lo 2\() show svinic -^ Kig. l;>8. — I.IMN.VA svAnNM.is. I, ill, Slu'll ;>mt AiiiJiial. ?;- Mass of l'.i:>;s niagnilU'd. Fig. lt>9. — LlMX.K.\ STAONALIS, Liu. i , * ) rK(»viN< r M(tf.i,i's( ^. ir.!) ntiumon i;|.r( irs. All llir^r « ir;iftirr«;, iIh'I|('Ii living ir» wat'T, jtrrnllir nil ; nnv foniil y\ti. "<"• I,imn;»-,a ami'I.a. Miirfirh 11^. ,'Ml. I/IMN/»a Ki,<»iir.««, Kiiy. V\K. 2U'i. ri.AVOIIIllH MAdlOSMlMI H. VVhif.<'!l VCH - FlK. '203. I'LANiJlllllH TKIVOIA'IK, SAY. Fijf. 204. I'. J-K.vri;«, Way. ICO PKOVIN( K MOI I rsiA. I , 1 in lUMily nil poiuls mikI stioams, niui il Kept in ;\ii a(|iiaiiiin), .ilToid a convrnn'ui opportumiy ..( snulyini^ llu- forms and liahils of i^a-'lropoiis. ^ Ci# ^ V\g. '2m. Ki«-. 'HMy l-'iu. '207 Ti'vsA iiKTKKosTiKMMiA, Siiy. An Yi.i s i(i\i I, VIMS. Suv. A. ithus, Aa vcltahi and Conulus Fii,'. "214 — Pri'A VKTiisTA, I )ii\v.son.— Carboniferous, a— natural size. <;— nKignilUnl. c— apex. (/ - .sciili>ture. K 1(^2 y »JO\ tM V' A\iM \ \ ( \ /'tV,"^/* A.'n\ ilic roul ^-n>^ ^di'M ol N i>\ ;< Scotir* 0' 'H". "Il,'"r*). I limiv-i liVf fiholls. Tl ASS l\ . V \'\\\ W OVO\^\. hr*)s^i/(- rr'vv^vv offa<'h<\i fi^ thf h<\id, tmot is bwMiglit to the Uoni ol the l\\i\. and IS dividvii into a nmnboi ol" arms luinishcd with an a]^|\\v.Uus ot" s\irkors, and sonictnnos with hooks als<^. The moiitli is ]M\nidod with a htMny beak, anvi llio orcans ol" sonso arc highly dovcU>}H\i, wlnlo tho iiroula- :ion iind ro^ipiration arc very ooiuplcto and vigv>roiis. I l'M\ irif I, M(iM,t".f ^. h;t \\\c It «>1 >oks the ul;i- .>us. I I I Ml ' iini ih' 111 I ; I K » l( If (IK 1 1 1 1 , ♦ lif I f (M ,, ;i ti'l in ,' iiii' I >/ i;ll|(|.il nj l;il(|:il (jii,, :i|| It,- Mm f«;i'lMifi ( MS of w.iriii ' liffiiM '. ';f(rf)'' nl llpiii :ill;iiii Im t'i|';irill' fJtMi'fi ''ifi'; ;iii'| ;if' f'lr ini«l;il •!< '< > in m ;i ik I Im l Im In |" r li ,lif , I Im '^ li i v' I .'"i St*\(";, iUI'l IIm '.'IIMlj'^ IIImIi f^'l IMl MM I.IMMir jiIm»',IS. TImv ;ii»' (li\M|<«l iiil'i IWM Mfrjrr'^ : OmIi I I l'itfit/>riiiii hhifii III \vli"li 'iMf .1" f'»Mr }>ill'^ HMMH iMii'. ;iii'i';, ;iimI ,iri ' -t-rri;!! ' Ii.iimIi' f /j .It'll, llii HUH I » li.iMil II I ■; m( wliM It ;iM ' Mi(ily, ;irMl ;' rjf- ;i ; i ||n;il Im iiimIii Mm .mhmiiI i m» I' | ii (M I* nl 'if lOi/it/, li/ Ml « MMiiiiMihil Ml)' il', wcii'lil Im iIm '.ii''!!!' ;';r;i7ity ';f t lif; s(\t \v:il( I I Im ';i ;if»> ill' NiiMlili ;iri'I III' ir ;illir>. ()Hl;.;'s to (>\\t rr^imtry. The iModciii Nautili inlialnf warrri'r rf'{/ion<;, Jiri'l ;jre limited to a very few s|)Cf:ics, of whif li the I'early xVautiius, JV. /'t)//t/'t7i/fs is tilt; most f (Miuiion. fts shf;ll r; distin- guisliL'cl by its iiumcr(;iis partitions, dividing it into air ! J U]\ PKOVIN( I'. MOl Il'SCA. clianihcrs ihrou^h which p.issi'Sii siphuiHk'or tube, com- nuiniciitin^; with the body ol tlu- animal. \\u[ though wc t Ti'iitaclos. Im;.'. 'JKV \ai TIMS roMcii.irs. h Dnrsfil fold of Muiitlc. r Hood. ,/ W^ / I'uiiiu'l. // Aircliamlu'iN. A -Siplimicli', I /'';.— ^/ .# ..^« Fig. 217.- LiTiiTKS-6. GVKOCKR.'S— 5. .\.uriLrs-7. SSBiHW I'kOVINCK MOI.I.USCA. 1 05 rnni- have no modern shells of this order, mimeroiis species are foiin • I ! Fig. 220.— 1— GOMPIIOCERA8. 2— AscocERAS. 3— Cyrtoceras. 4 -Orthoceras, after Bllirigs. PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. 167 ' I being several feet in length. Several genera of this family are represented in the Palaeozoic rocks of Canada. (Figs. 220, 221.) G^ Fig. 221.— Orthocekas dolatl-.m, Dii.— Carbonifovous. O. ViNDOlioNKXSK, do. (lo. (), Pkkstiucti. M, do. do. Am:-!ONITID.e — In these the body-chamber is elongated and guarded by processes and closed wiili an operculum or lid. The Pi.,-. •2->2 Ammonitks .iasu.n, lioinecko,— Oxford C'kiy, Eii'^liiud. Fig'. 2:23.— CK.RATirKS nodohi's, Schlot,- Triassic formation, sliowini; tlie waived partitions. 1 W \ I 1.1 I ! I 168 PROVINCE MOLLUSCA. partitions of the chambers are waved or lobed, and the sij:)huncle is at the back or outer curve of the shell. They are all extinct ; but numerous fme species occur in the cretaceous formation of Western Canada {Fig. 222). The genus Goniaittes is rei)resented in the Devonian and Carboniferous. Fi,u-. •2-24.— Am.moxitid.t: of the Cretaceous period, flf— Baculites. /^ — Ane\ioocra.s. c-Crioceras. (/— 'rarrilites. Order 2. Dibranchiata. The common squids, of which two species occur in our seas, are our only known Canadian representatives of this order, if we except the ctuiotis httle Spinila fragilis of which the shells have l)ecn found by Mr. Willis on Sal)le Island and the gigantic S(|uids of the ^Newfoundland Coast. 4 1 V/ 4 PROVINCE MOI.LUSCA. IG'J The Dil)rancliiales may i)e conveniently divided into two groups or sub orders, the Decapoda or ten-armed, and the Octapoda or cight-arnicd. 'Itie four first of the following families belong to the first sub-order, the two last to the second. Tkutuid.k — This family includes several genera, two at least of which are found in our seas. Loligo includes the Calamaries or pen-l)earing squids, so named from their havint^ a rudimentary internal shell of cartilaginous consistency and shaped like a ])en or feather. A species of Loligo is found in the Bay of Fundy. Fiu'. 2-2.'). — ().M.MASTiu;riii;s illkcihrosa, LeSueur. e Oiiniiastrcphcs includes those which have an elongated narrow pen, with a conical hollow extremity. O Illecibrosa occurs in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and is known as the squid. (Fig. 225.) Our squids are of small size and are much used as bait by fishermen ; but some !'l 170 PROVINCK MOI.LUSCA. (^f the i.iij^cst find most ft»niii(lal)le ceph:\lo|i()(ls of the tropics, hcIoiiLj to this family, as tlo also the j;iaiit Ccplialopods of the C(»ast of Ncwfinindlaiul, beloiij^int; to the penus Archaotculhis. Hki.kmnitih.i:— These are extinct ('ei)halopo(ls belont^iii}; to the Mcsozoic period of p;eoloj;y, Tlu-y were allied to the last family, hut possessed a curious and complicated internal shell, in part chambered (V\^. 2-*;). No Canadian species are known. ■n-c ■ Fig. -iiti.— Bblkmnites, :[C)I-LUSCA. 171 ropics, of the n^r to e last ell, in Oc'roi'Ol)H>/T. — The Octopus or Pouljic of tiu; Mediterranean is the type (»f this fa miy, in which the shell is entirely rudimentary, the arms eij^ht in .'vimlier and connected by a weh at tlie base, and the body usually short and compact. Some small species occur on the Atlantic coast, and larj^cr ones on the I'acilic coast in our latitudes. Arconai' rii)/i: — These are Octopods, of which the females arc protected by a delicate shell, not divi(le ■J' t j f CHAPTER VII. DESCKIPTIYE ZOOLOGY— Co7itinued. Province V.— Annui.aia or Vermes. i The plan embodied in tlie structure of the typical Annulata is that of a series of rings, or somites as they have been called, articulated to each other and con- stituting a chain of segments, in which in the higher form Ave recognize upper and under and side pieces, and to which bristles (Selaj) or setigerous feet are often attached. In the ordinary worms this structure is simple and nearly uniform, from front to rear of the animal. In the cross section of the body, the alimentary canal occupies the centre ; above it is the elongated heart or dorsal vessel ; below is the principal nerve-cord. 'I'he bilateral sym- metry is ])erfect ; luit in all the members of this group the nutritive fluid ap])ears to be contained in the general visceral cavit)-, as well as in tlie vessels when these exist. There are, however, a number of low forms of Annu- lates, in which the typical characters become obscure, and in some of which the orLranism descends almost to the level of the Protozoa. Of this character are the Entozoa or intestinal worms, and the TiirbtUaria or ciliated worms. PROVINCE ANNUI.ATA. 173 d. typical as they nd coo- ler form , and to ttached. d nearly lie cross 5ies the essel ; al sym- grou[) n the when Annu- 3scure, lost to re the I a or The link of connection between these low forms and the ordinary worms, i.; estal)lished only through the em- bryonic stages of tlie latter, which in the absence or slight development of the rings, aud their movement by means of cilia, at once recall some of the lower forms mentioned. It must, however, I)e admitted that the grouj) of Ento/oa, as at }jresent held by naturalists, is rather one of con- venience, dejiending upon the peculiar habits of these creatures, than of natural arrangement, since they differ very much among themselves l)oth in plan and degree of complexity. The above considerations lead us to divide the An- nulata into classes as follows : — 1. PlatyhchniutJia. ("iliated Worms, Flukes and Tape Worms, cS:c. 2. Ca'Ieimifitha — Round intestinal \\'orms,Trichinre, Hair-worms, &c. 3. Rotifcra. — Wheel- Animalcules. 4. Annelida. — Earth-worms, Eeeches, Sea-worms, &c. Class I. — Platvhllmintha. More or less flattened worms. The body often unse;^' men ted. Head or anterior sei^nient, often icith hooks or suckers or both. Alimentary canal absent, or forked or branched. N'erve system usually a single ^angliofi. Sofne forms remarkable for producing iiumerows reproductive joints. Alany arc internal parasites, and hence na?ned Entozoa. I 174 PROVINCE ANNULATA. 11 I The internal parasitic worms belonging to this class may be represented by the connnon tape worm, Tania solium^ of the human intestines (Fig. 227). This creature Fig. 227.— T.ENIA SOLUM— Head or Scolex ami two joints, with Larva or Cysticercus— o. in its adult state consists of a head or Scolex^ having four suckers on the sides and a circle of sharp spines for attachment ; appended to this are very numerous quad- rate flat joints, each containn an ovarian apparatus, so that these creatures are chiefly remarkable for the great development of their generative apparatus. Otherwise their structures are very simple, and they appear to feed by absorption into a series of tubes excavated in the cellular substance of the body. The eggs of the tape- worm, when discharged from the intestine of its host, may be taken by other animals along with their food. They are hatched in the stomach into a microscopic scolex, which penetrates into the tissues and is capable ill rUOVIN'CE AN LA'l'A. 175 this class m, Ticnia s creature h Larva Lving four [pines for »us quad- iratus, so the great •thcrvvise .r to feed !d in the the tape- its host, leir food. ;roscopic capable of nuiUi[)lying by fission. This scolex finally establishes itself as a pupa or resting scolex, and assumes the form represented in J'"ig. 227^7, in which state it is the kind of parasite termed Cystiarcus, and which causes the disease known as " measles " in the domestic hog, an animal which, from its habits of life, is jjcculiarly liable to be- come the host ol' these parasites. The circle of change IS com])leted when the ('yslicercus is transferred alive from the flesh of ihe hog into the human stomach Many other species of tajje worm exist, and pass through similar changes; the young inhabiting the flesh of various animals, and the adults aj^pearing in the intestines of carnivorous species which may haj)pcn to feed on the infected flesh. A second group of Entozoa included in this class is represented by the genus Distotna and its allies. These creatures are oval in form and have one or two suckers for attachment. They have a mouth and an alimentary canal, which bifurcates, and has no i)Osterior aperture. These are the " J'lukes," two species of which are found in the human liver {D. hepaticum and D. lanceolatuni), and they also occur in domestic animals, more especially in the sheep. 'J'he last group of these worms is that of the Planaria'^ which are minute oval worms occurring both in fresh water and in the sea, resembling the Distomas m form, but having a more complex internal system of nutritive canals, and having the surface covered w^ith cilia, by means of which they swim. They are not internal para- sites. The whole of these creatures may thus be grouped in the following orders : — 176 PROVINCE ANN U LATA. h < ) Hi lil .:* I Order 1. Planariic. — I'ree-living. flat, one-jointed cili- ated worms, found in both salt and fresh water. Order 2. Trcmatoda or Mukes. — Parasites, one- jointed, but with suckers for attachment. Order 3. Cestoda. — Tape-worms and their allies, elongated and segmented parasitic flat worms, without mouth or alimentary canal, and with sucker or suckers and hooks for attachment. Class II. — C hich is not ion round png to this opic para- ihabits the specimen jrred from )idly, and imes fatal which it [erred into the same i Another (nu'ious worm belonging to this ,i;rou[), is the hair-worm (Gon/t'i/s). 'I'lu c creatures are internal jnira- sites in the lari,^er a(iu;uic insects, from which, when mature, they come forth as extremely l(jng and slender worms, of a whitish or hrown colour, which swim freely in the water of pools and there dei)osit their eggs. From their sudden api)earance in great numbers in such places, arises the [)opular su[)erstition that they are animated hairs. Our common species is probably G. /iia/s/ris, Fabr. A humble group of parasites usually placed in this class is that of the Acanthocephala^ represented by the Echinorhyncus gigas of the intestines of the hog. They are of elongated form, and the anterior extremity is armed with a formidable proboscis furnished with hooked spines at the sides. They have no mouth or digestive canal. With reference to the relation of parasites to the ani- mals on which they prey, it may be stated that these creatures are usually destructive only under circumstan- ces of unnatural or unsuitable habits of life. In the human subject, their introduction is due in most cases to the use of imperfectly cooked food, of raw vegetables not properly cleansed, and of stagnant impure water ; or to filthy habits in the keeping and preparation of food. The Cojlelminths may be divided into the following orders : — Order 1. AcanthoccpJiala. — Parasitic worms without alimentary canal, and with spinous proboscis. Example : Echinorhynchus. 'Ui i* ^ ^^^3^ o^y.0. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3} Vi 1.0 I.I 1.25 21 !22.5 2.2 l< «, |2g 1.8 U il.6 % <^ //j. ^l. w 7 >«^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STnEET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 #>^' '^ \ \ Iv A V %. c^ t/. 5s 178 PROVINCE ANNULATA Order 2. Gordiacea. — L'ody slender. Alimentary canal without vent. Example : Gordius, Trichina. Order 3. Nematoidea. —Body elongated. Alimentary canal with i)oth mouth and vent. Example : Ascaris. The curious little marine worms with a well-marked head and fin-like expansions of the skin, giving them the aspect of fishes, and which belong to the genus Sagitta, are by some naturalists included in this group as one of its orders. Class. III. — Rotifera. These are microscopic animalcules, at one time included with the Infusoria, but now known to be of much more com[)lex structure. They derive their name from ciliated lobes placed on the head, and which, in some species, from the motion of the cilia, have the appearance of rotating wheels. These ciliated lobes serve to create currents to bring food to the mouth, and also for loco- motion. The alimentary canal has, in the better developed examples, an outer stomach or crop, a gizzard with apparatus for triturating the food, and a proper intestinal canal. There is also a vascular system, with a pulsating sac. In the body wall there are distinct muscular fibres, and the posterior part is more or less articulated or jointed, and in many species furnished with claspers for attachment, while others are protected within a case or cell of gelatinous consistency. Though micros- copic in size, the Rotifers are more highly organized than the members of the preceding classes ; they are found in great numbers in stagnant water, aquaria, &:c. ; and form very interesting subjects of microscopic study. "MBumMRMn PROVINCE ANNULATA. 179 n I The Rotifera are bisexual, and the males are of smaller size and more simple structure than the females. The young are produced from proper ova. Nervous ganglia have been ol)served in some species, and eyes are also believed to have been detected. The Rotifers are very tenacious of life, specimens have been desiccated and moistened again, several times in succession, without perishing ; and after being kept dry for years, they have revived on being put into water. The following division of the Rotifers, though probably not natural, is useful in distinguishing these creatures under the microscope : — Monotrocha. — With a continuous single ring of cilia. Example, Conochilus. Schizotrocha. — ^Vith the ciliary apparatus notched or lobed. Example, Floscularia. Polytroclia. — With several wheel-like organs. Example, Hydatina. Zygoirocha. — With two wheel-like organs. Exami)le, Rotifer. On intestinal worms the student may consult Von Beneden, " Vers Intestinaux," (Sui)i)lement to Comptes Rendus), and Cobbold on Entozoa ; and the more common Rotifers will be found described and figured in Griffith & Henfrey, Micrographic Dictionary. Class 4. — Annelida. The highest group of Annulata, the Annelids or worms proper, includes a vast number of species, the classification 180 PROVINXE ANNULATA. li of many of whicli is diffirult or uncertain. De Quatrcfajcs divides the whole assemblage into three groups, which he regards as classes ; the F.eeches, the Earthworms, and the Sea-worms ; and the latter is subdivided into two groups or orders of vagrant worms [Erranies) and sedentary worms {Sa/cfitaires). Others form two groups based on the presence or absence of Setae or bristles, which are wanting in the leeches, but present in the other groups. Wq. may however retain the older and more common subdivision into four orders, as follows : Order 1. Suctoria. — Body destitute of setne or feet. Locomotion by suckers at the extremities, alimentary canal attached to the integument. These are the leeches and their allies. Order 2. Terricola. — Body cylindrical, with setaj or bristle-like organs on the rings ; alimentary canal attached by bands to the integument. P^arth worms and their allies. Order 3. Tubicola. — Body rings with tubular setigerous feet, gills placed near the head. Marine worms inhabiting tubes. These are the SerpuUie and their allies. Order 4. Errantia, — P)ody with numerous setigerous feet ; external gills in most. These are the Vagrant Sea- worms or Sea-centii)edes and their allies. Ordf.r 1.— Suctoria. The ordinary medicinal leech, which is everywhere well known, is a typical worm of this group. Its anterior sucker is furnished with three saw-like teeth, with which i I mm PROVINCK ANNUL AIA. 181 •uatrcfa^.Ts ■ips, wliich orms, and 1 into two mtes) and wo groups )r bristles, 1 the other and more s : e or feet, limentary le leeches 1 setce or attached ind their etigerous ihabiting ?tigerous ant Sea- rywhere interior 1 which it punctures the integument of the animal on which it is to feed. It has an imm(;nse sacculated stomach, a dorsal, abdominal and two lateral circulating vessels, and a complex nervous syslem of the homogangliate type, with ten minute eyes on the front margin of the body. In each ring of the body there are two apertures leading to mucous glands, and serving also as o])enings for the discharge of the ova. The Medicinal Leech is llirudo {Sanguisuga) medicinalis. The Tortoise Leech of our creeks and ponds, {Clcpsine parasitica, Say) is another example. It is oval and flat in form, with the posterior sucker very large and the body mottled with green and black. The ova are hatched under the body of the parent animal, and attach them- selves to vessels in the abdomen, a^iparently obtaining Fijf. 229.- Clkphine rAH.\siTUA. Young specimen magnified, showing internal organs, «— Anterior sucker and eyes. h — Oesopliagus and Salivary Gland. c— Stomach. d— Posterior Sucker. 182 PROVINCE ANNULATA. I ■ '■ nutriment in the first instance froni the parent ; but when still very small they swim freely and begin to suck the blood of other animals, sometimes of other species of leech. l'\g. 220. re])resents a very young tortoise leech, magnified, showing its sacculated stomach as it ai)i)ears when distended with food, witli its eyes and suckers, the anterior one in this genus being little devel- oped. OuiJKR 2. — Terrioola. The earth-v.'orms of the genus lAmibricus are the most typical re])resentatives of this order, though it also includes some acjuatic worms (AV/zV and allied genera.) The common earth-worm, Z. Tcrresiris^ breathes by pores in the sides, and creeps and burrows by the aid of setos or bristles in the rings. It feeds on i)articles of organic matter present in the soil, and swallows with its food much fine earth, which it rejects in cylindrical castings at the mouth of its burrow. The earth worm is of value to the agriculturist in turning up the soil, esi)ecially in pasture lands, and it has been ascertained in some instances to have turned over more than a foot of soil in 8o years. Earth-worms also serve as food to many birds and other animals. Order 3.— Tubicola. These worms are inhabitants of the sea, forming tubes of various material, from the opening of which they exsert their gills, which are often beautiful in form and colouring. The following may serve as examples of our tubicolous ^— — ■ PROVINCE ANNULATA. 183 ^rent; but iin to suck ler species ig tortoise iiach as it eyes and ttle devcl- worms. Fig. 230 represents the tube of Vermilia sernila. ' the most 3 includes L.) The pores in f setoe or ■ organic its food castings of value cially in n some •f soil in ny birds g tubes ' exsert ::)uring. colons ^ Fiy. 230.- Vk.rmilia serim-la, Stimpson. «— Natural size. 6— Mauiiifiod. f— Aperture ma^unificil, showing ovarian pouclies. Stimpson, which is fretiuent on shells and stones. The anterior part, when complete, has two auriculate expansions at the sides, apparently to accommodate the ova. Serpida vermicularis, which has a round tube of similar size, is apparently less common. Several species of Spirorbis occur on shells, stones and sea-weeds, and are distinguished from the last mentioned species by their regularly spiral forms. 6". borealis is common on sea-weeds, and has a round tube. S. htcida is smaller and coiled in the I ! !.M 3i ' 'i I 184 PRO VI NXK AN N U F-A TA. opposite direction or reversed. .5. riirfa, Fig. 231, is Fijf. 231.— Si'iRORliis viTUK.A, natural size and niaynifled. also a reversed species, of a semi-transparent texture. S. granulata has three sharp ridges on tlie ui)per side, and S. cancellata (Fig. 2'i2) is our most ornate species. I I ^ 6 Fi^. '2;iJ.— Si'iKOKiiis lANi i:!,i,\r.\, l';il)r. O — Natural size. b, c, d, c— Magnified. It was first described by I'aloricius, from Greenland, but is'not uncommon on the coast of Labrador and of Gaspe. S. porreda is loosely coiled and resembles a Serpula, and may be the adult state of S. lucida ; and our largest rKOVINCK AN.\UI,A1A. 185 'g- ''i'^l, IS eil. It texture, pper side, e species. species, ^S". glomerata, also l)ccon-ies somewhat irregular in its coils at the end. '^ Anothergroupoftuhc-dwcllers, abundantly represented on our coast, construct their tubes of grains of sand neatly cemented together. Our common species seems to be Pectinaria annulata. I .astly there are several species which inhabit membranous tubes, buried in or coated with mud or fine sand. One of these dredged at Murray Bay is represented in Fig. 233 as it appeared when alive. Fij,'. J5.S.— S.MiEUiA ZDNAMS, Stiiiii^son. Upper par:, natural size ; and linuu-liial i)rocc.ss magnified. It is a Sabella, probably S. uvialis, Stimpson. It extends from the mouth of its tube about sixteen beautifully pectinate fibres, which are its gills, and which it can expand and retract with a very graceful movement. Order 4. — Krrantia. d, but -jaspe'. rpula, argest It is difficult to select from the numerous species of naked sea-worms and sea-centipedes contained in this group. Perhaps the most tyi)ical species are those * See a paper on these shells by the author, Canadian Naturalist Vol. V. 18G I'KOVINCK ANNUKA'IA. of the genus Nereis, in whicli the hody is greatly elongated, witii very numerous joints, having setaceous feet on each joint, to which are added llattened apjjendages for swimming. These also appear to serve as gills. The mouth is armed with a pair of strong mandibles. These worms abound under stones on muddy shores, and in similar jilaces. N. /^c/axiir, Lin., N. i^randis, St., and other si)ecies, are .ound on our coast. Phyllodocccaienula^ (Fig. 234) is one of the smaller species. 1^ Y'V*. 2;{4. — PlIYLLOIOCK (ATKNILA, VorriU. Anterior scynioiits enlarged. A less typical ])ut very curious species is Aphrodite aculeata, an oval creature, sometinies five inches in length, and more than two broad. Its back is covered with wrinkled plates, which are its resi)iratory organs, and clothed with felt-like hair ; and on its sides are great numbers of bristles, which shine with the colours of the rainbow. It is the Sea-mouse of the fisherman. Another very common worm of this group. Lepidonotus sqiiamatusy Lin., may be recognized by its double row of rounded scales on the back. The marine worms are of great geological antiquity ; impressions of their tracks, and shells of tubicolous PROVIN'CF- ANNUl.ATA. 187 ly elongated, 'ect on each enclagcs for ^'ilis. The les. These ^rcs, and in '■^f St., and 'oacaienula, species, being found in very ancient rocks. Figs, 2:}5 to 23G represent species of tuijicolous wornis from the Carboniferous of Nova Scotia. Flir. 2M7. Fit,' f'.'la. Tv' '230. Ki) 235.— SKRPi'iiiTKS ANNTi/ATr-s, Dii.— f'arhoiiiforoiis. 230.— S. UuKTo.VKNiSis, l)ii.~eurl)()iiift'roiis. 237.— Si'iRoKHis cAi!HOXAi!Hs,-('iiil)()i)ifcrniis. N'iitural size, attaclied to a fossil iiluiit, and iiiayiiiliud. aphrodite n length, *ed with ns, and ""e great 3 of the Vnother rmatus^ funded -^0^^f^ iquity ; colous CIIAl'Tl'.K \III. DESCIUPTIVK ZOOLOGY— Continued, TrOVINCE VI. — Ak'llIROl'ODA. The animals of this Province conform in general plan to those of the last, and this was the ground on which Cuvier placed them along with it in his sub- kingdom Articulata. 'i'hey differ in the inequality of the several somites of the body, and in the presence of jointed limbs. It is to be observed, however, that some of the Arthropods are in their immature condition scarcely distinguishable from worms, and that some as the Myria- pods have an ecjuality of the body somites and a minute- ness of the limbs, which gives them even in the adult state a worm-like as])e(t. There is thus a great natural principle embodied in the Cuvierian Province Articulata, •which should not be overlooked. The Arthropods may be divided into four classes, as follows : — 1. Crustacea. — Shrimps, l^obsters. Crabs, «S:c. 2. Myriapoda. — Centipedes and Gaily- worms. 3. Iiiscda. — Six-footed Insects. 4. AracJuiida. — Mites, Spiders, and Scorpions. \ "1 ^ — — -*»^ ■W9 I'KOVINXi: ARrilUOI'JDA. ISO It is to l)c ohscrved, however, with rcsj)cct to the rnnk of these classes, thai while the more i)erfe(t Ara( htiidu arc in some resperts hiL^her in niiik than the fnie insects, they also apjjroach in other re^peds more nearly lo ihe ('rustacea, and that while the lower Myriaixnls jiresent many resemblances to worms, tlu\ are ver\ mar to the Hcxapod Insects in the character of their respiration. Class I. — Crustacka. Body ivith articulated limbsy and divisUde into cephalo- thorax and abdomen. Respiratory ofgans branchial. Head li'ith jointed antenmc. The crustaceans are the soft shell-fishes, of which the Crab, Lobster, Crayfish and Shrimp, may be taken as examples. They are characterized by the division of the body into two portions, the cephalo-thoraxand abdomen, and by the possession of proper jointed limbs, raid j_ills as organs of respiration. By these characters they may be distinguished from the worms on the one iiand and Fig. 238.— Diagram of a Dkcapod cri-stacean. Stomach. ^— Heart. f/— Gills. /—Intestine. I "I il 1 190 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA the insects and araclinidans on tlie other. The front part of the ccphalo-thorax corresponds to the head, and is furnislicd with jointed antenna:, eyes and other organs of sense, and organs of mastication, usually in several pairs. The cephalo-thorax contains the stomach, heart and gills, arranged as in the diagram (Fig. 238). To the cephalo-thorax are also attached the proper feet. The abdomen is muscular, and usually furnished with swim- ming apparatus. Most of the Crustacea are aquatic, and those that live on land, nevertheless, breathe by means of gills. I'he Crustacea may be divided primarily into two sub-classes : — 1. Entomostraca, including a great number of spec'es, with various numbers of feet and without swimming feet on the abdomen. The integument in these species is also composed of the substance named chitine, whereas in the higher groups it is often strengthened with cal- careous matter. These are the Water-fleas, Barnacles, King-crabs, Cyprids, Trilobites, (S:c. The animals of this grouj) appear very early in geological time, and some of the fossil forms are so markedly distinct from those of later formations and modern times, that it has been pro- posed to divide the group into Neocarida or modern Entomostracans, and Pala^ocarida, or ancient Entomos- tracans. Without insisting on this sub-division, we shall arrange the orders in this manner, beginning with the Paiteocarida. 2. Malacostraca^ with seven or five pairs of legs and thoracic segments, and six abdominal segments. They PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 191 may be divided according to the number of limbs into (1) Teiradecapoda^ or those with the feet in seven pairs, and appendages on the abdomen. These are the Oppossum shrimps, Sand-fieas, Sow-bugs, i\:c. (2) Deca- poda, with five pairs of feet. I'hese are the Lobsters, Crabs, &c. SuR. Class 1 — Entomostkaca. The orders in the sub-division of Palacocarida are the following :— 1. Xtphosura. — The King-crabs or Horse-shoe Crabs. Limulus Polyphemus, the American King-crab, or Horse- shoe crab, is found as far north as the coast of Maine, but does not extend into Jkitish America. These Fig. 239.— Limulus roLvrnEMUs, or Ilorso-slioe Crab, reduced. ^ 102 PROVINCE ARTHROHODA. creatures have the cephalo-thorax of semi-lunar form, and the abdomen reduced to two ])ieces, one of them l)eing a sharp defensive appendage (Fig. 23U). 2. Trilobites — These are extinct crustaceans charac- teristic of tlie l*ala?ozoic rocks. The anterior segment of a trilol)ite is tlie largest, and is known as the buckler. It is divided by tv.o longitudinal furrows into the side areas or cheeks, which bear the eyes, and a central area, the glabella. The body segments are usually numerous, and each divided into three lobes. The last segment which is usually similarly lobed, is named the />'^/(£^//^w. The feet of Trilobites api^ear to have been small and probably soft, but they are not certainly known, except in a few species (Fig. 240). The markings on rocks known as li i i I \ \ Fig. 240.— Transverse section of Calymesk, after VVolcott. a— Dorsal shell. ?>— Visceral cavitj-. c— Legs. (i— Epipodite, gill cleaner or palp. e— Gills. Rusichnites, ProHchniU , and Clhnactichinites^ are supposed to be burrows and tracks of Trilobites or similar animals. PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 193 Many species of Trilobites occur in Canadian rocks. (Figs. 240 to 2-44.) Fig. •241.-AsAriii8 NorAXs, Billing?.— Middle .Silnriiui. Fifr. 242,— Dalmaxia logaxi, Hall (Head & Pygidiumj, Silurian Fiif. 243.— HoMAr.oxon-8 DELrnixocKi'iiALUs, Green.— Silurian. Fig. 244.— PiiiT.LiPsiA iiowi, Billings (Pygidium),-.Carboniferous. M 194 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. Fig. 245.— PuAcoi'8 LATiFROxs, Devonian. 3. Eurypterida. — This order includes the largest known Entomostraca. The species all belong to the Palaeozoic period of Geology, and are known to us only as fossils. In Canada and Nova Scotia, their remains are found in the Upper Silurian, Devonian and Carbon- iferous rocks. They resemble the Trilobites and King- crabs in the form of the short head or cephalo-thorax, but Fig. 246.— EuRTPTERUS RBMiPKS, Dekay, restored,— Upper Silurian. PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 195 differ in the great development of the abdominal segments, which some authors regard as divisible into two series, one thoracic and the other abdominal. There are twelve of these segments vnth a telson or tail piece in addition. There are five pairs of appendages round the mouth, which appear to have combined, as in Limulus, the functions of jaws and limbs. Fig. 246 represents a restoration, by Prof. Hall, of Eryptertis remipes^ a species found in the Upper Silurian of Western Canada. Other genera of this order are Fiery gotus and Slimonia. The orders in the sub-division of Neocarida are the following : — 1. Phyllopoda. — These are small crustaceans of shrimp- like form, with very numerous leaf-like feet and elongated bodies. Some of the species swarm in fresh-water ponds in spring and in summer. Fig. 247^ represents a corn- Fig. 247.— Entomostraca. a— Anomolocera, ap. —magnified. 6— Branciiipub vernalis, Verrill. c— Cypris aoilis, Haldeman, magnified. mon species of Branchipus^ found in Canada, B. vernalis^ Verrill. In these creatures the eyes are sometimes con- solidated into one mass. The limbs serve for gills as well as for locomotive organs. To this group or the I I f I i i I 196 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. next are also referred a number of curious bivalve crusta- ceans of the Palaeozoic rocks, belonging to the genera Leperditia, Beyrichia, Estheria, i^c. (Figs. 248, 249.) Fiy. 248. BeY!!1(I1IA .IONKSII, Dll. Ciirl)Oniferous. Fig. 249. B. ri-HTi'Lo.sA, Hall. Upper Silurian. 2. Ostracoda. — In these the body is more completely covered with a bivalve carapace, which sometimes resembles \\w. shell of a bivalve moUusk. The limbs are suited for swimming and the eyes are confluent. Fig. 247 c. represents a species of Cypris common in fresh- water pools and ditches, and resembling, if not identical with, C. agilis, Haldeman. Fig. 250 represents Cytheridea Y'v^. 250.— Cytiikiudea milleri, Munst. «— Front, i;— Side, c— Xat. size. Mtdkri^ one of several marine species found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and also in the Post-pliocene clays. Several species of Ostracods are found in the coal-formation i PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 197 rocks, and referred to genera Cytherc^ Cytherella and Bairdia. (Fig. 251.) Fig. -^'.I.—Kntomosir. VIA— Carboniferous. «— Bairdia. />— CVTIIKIIKLLA IXILATA. c"— CVTIIKUK. 3. Cladocera. — In this order tlie body is usually short, and the carapace or covering of the cephalo-thorax is in two valves. The limbs are lamelliform and branchial, and the eyes usually confluent. The water fleas of the genus Daplinia belong to this order. 4. Copepoda. — In these the body is shrimi)-like though minute, and distinctly articulated, with many })airsof swim- mincf limbs. The females are remarkable for their large ]Dendant ovisacs. Species of Cyclops are very common in the fresh water, and many other forms occur in the sea. The species of Aiwmalocera represented in Fig. 247^', is remarkable for its luminosity at night, often causing great breadths of the (lulf of St. Lawrence to be phos- phorescent. 5. Cirripedia. — These are the Barnacles and Acorn- shells, creatures which in their young state resemble ordinary entomostracans, but when adult are included in peculiar shelly coverings, giving them a very anomalous 198 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. I' i ' M appearance. The genus Balanus contains the common beacli acorn-shell, JJ. crena/us, which appears abundantly on all rocky coasts. The genus Coronula includes the large whalc-barnaclcs, which grow parasitically on the skins of whales. C. diadema is common on whales caught on the Labrador coast. The genus Lcpas includes stalked species, the barnacles proper. Fig. 252 repre- c -*^^ Fig. 2r)2.— T.;:rAs dkxtata, Could. sents Z. dcutafa, a species common on the Atlantic coast, and which may be a variety of Z. anatifera. The valves which cover these creatures are ^\sq in number : Fig. 253.— Balanus hameri, Opercular valves and Body valve. PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 199 imon antly s the 1 the hales ludes repre- lantic The liber ; the two larger are the Scuta, the two smaller the Terga, and the single piece along the back the Carina. The latter is the only part corresponding to the conical case of the acorn-shells. The scuta and terga correspond to the " opercular valves " of the latter. Fig. 253 represents portions of our largest acorn shell. 6. Epizoa. — The Epizoa are a group of depauperated and parasitic crustaceans, which in their 3 mng state swim freely and resemble the young of ordinary Entomostraca ; but when adult they attach themselves, either by a suc- torial mouth, by mandibles furnished with hooks, or by suckers attached to the limbs, to the skin, eyes or gills of fishes, and other acjuatic animals. The females carry a pair of pendant ovisacs, and the males are ani- mals of much smaller size and of different form. The Epizoa are curious objects for examination under the microscope, owing to their singular forms and the readi- ness with which their viscera can be seen through their transparent bodies. They have been divided into the following sub-orders or families : — 1. Cephaluna, or those attached directly by the head. 2. Brachiuna^ or those attached by suctorial arms. 3. Otichuna, or those attached by hooks. Sub-class 2. — Malacostraca. Division 1 . — Tetradecapoda. This group includes an immense number of species of the smaller crustaceans, agreeing in the number of thoracic limb?, though in some cases these are merely .•n.m <-iw 'mm 200 PROVINCK ARIHROPODA. t r I I It i; ; rudimentary, but differing very mucli among themselves in details of structure. The orders of Tetradecapoda are four, as follows : — 1. Lcemodipoda. — In these the abdomen is rudi- mentary, and the thorax is elongate, with limbs having hooks or claws, and others that arc vesicular and bran- chial. A common species in the (lulf of St. Lawrence is Caprdla septoifrionaiis, the Sical under stones and chips, and ni isopod. On the sea coasts species of Idotca and other genera are found in sand and mud, and among sea weed. Species of CymotJiea are found attached to cod and other sea fishes, on which tlicy are parasitic, and the little Limnoria terebrans is remarkable for the rapidity with which its almost countless hosts burrow into and devour the woodwork of bridges and wharves. A species of Limnoria has been found ai Ciasj)e by Mr. Whiteaves. 'I'he genus Oniscus includes the common sow-bug or slater, a terrestrial species, living in cellars and damp places ; and is interesting as an example of a crustacean capable of breathing in air, though by means of gills. It feeds on decaying vegetable matter, and is harmless to man. 3. Amphipoda. — These have the thoracic limbs un- equal, and with vesicular branchial organs at their bases. The abdomen is terminated by appendages for swimming or leai)ing. The body is usually compressed laterally and curved. The Amphipods are the " beach-fleas," *' sand-hopi)ers," vVc, and are very numerous on the Fig. 255.— Mysls si'iNULosie. 6— (Jammaris mixuk. « ..SI 202 PROVINCE ARTMROPODA. I I P I borders of the sea and also in some fresh-water streams, Gammarus locusta is found aloni; the coast almost every- where, among sea-weeds ; and an allied si)ecies, G. Minor (Fig. 255/;) is an inhabitant of streams and ponds. The sand-fleas of the genera Orclwstia and lalitnis are also common on sandy beaches. J^iplosfyluf legs s, the • feet, meso- d ofa rvures. naked ds iin- amiUes idages, ch may consists orders r;(4) ye sub- etween sect in ibrates, great icerned rax and double It, from The abdominal cord consists of an upper series of fibres with- out ganglia, and an under series on whicu the ganglia are placed. In the head the nerve cord expands into an (esophageal ring, with a considerable mass of nerve matter above the gullet, giving off the nerves of sense. The digestive organs consist of the ^.esophagus, crop, gizzard, true digestive stomach and intestines. The heart is an elongated dorsal vessel with a series of valves, and propelling the blood from back to front. The respiration of insects is carried on by tracheai or air- tubes, kept open by a delicate thread of chitine spirally coiled in their walls, and opening by spiracles or breathing pores in the thorax and abdomen. The tracheae penetrate through all parts of the body, and blood-vessels are abundantly distributed on their surfaces. The expulsion and admission of air are effected by the alte»-nate con- traction and dilatation of the abdominal segments. In larviX) and pupae inhabiting water, the respiration is effected by gill-like expansions of the crust of the body, containing air-tubes and apparently absorbing the air mechanically suspended in the water. (See Fig. 262.) Insects are bisexual and reproductive by eggs, and many of their most curious instincts are connected with oviposition and provision for their young. The egg in the higher insects developes a worm-like Lana^ and this passes into a torpid Pupa, within which the parts of the Imago or perfect insect are developed, until it emerges full grown from the pupa case. In some insects, however, this metamorphosis is imperfect, the larva and pupa resembling the perfect insect, except in the absence or rudimentary state of the wings ; and in some wingless ' i i 1.4 i'i 212 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. insects there is no metamorphosis. Insects are thus Metaboliajj^ Hemi-metaboliati or Ametabolian, c o I, bo o c Coo ?, » to y 4) o = H ._: -r X _ S 2 2 ^ c ^^ « ^ rn •/ _ "^ *; •;5 ^ « .« - ~ — i« 4> 4) >« SxTg rt P 3 Qi 7 2 :r 2- = ^ j« £ « ^2; 0 s S3 I' o .i .£ O m it o u 01 -»^ u C3 .£ a o 3 O 01 2 5 Several kinds of peculiar organs of secretion are observed in insects. Of this kind are the silk-glands for secreting that material, the odoriferous glands secreting pungent o loriferous substances, and poison glands con- nected with stings or lancets. .a o o r/) O J2 O 93 1= CJ if. _• 5 g u .r o en -^ - w )n are ids for :reting Is con- PROVINCE ARTMROPODA. SUH-CLASS IIkXATODA. 213 Order 1. Aptera. — These are destitute of wings, and undergo no metamorijhosis, or are anwtabolian. 'I'hey are the Lice and Spring-tails. By some modern system- atists this order is broken up — the Lice being placed with the order Hemiptera, and only the Spring-tails and their allies retained in this order. Order 2. Aphaniptera. — These have rudiments of wings, and undergo a complete metamorphosis, or are metabolian. They are the Fleas and their allies. In some modern systems this order is united with the next. Order 3. Diptcra. — The insects of this order have only two wings, on the meso-thorax ; the second or posterior pair being .udimentary and named halteres or poisers. They are metabolian and their larvaj are footless. These are the Flies and Gnats. Order 4. Ltpidoptcra. — These have four wings, usually of ample dimensions, clothed with coloured scales. They are metabolian, and the larvie have rudimentary limbs. They are the Butterflies and Moths. Order 5. Hymenoptera, — These have four wings, mem- branous and few veined, and the basal joint of the abdomen united with the thorax. They are the most perfectly metabolian of all insects. They are the Bees, Wasps and Ants. Order 6. Hemiptera. — These have four wings, the first pair wholly or partly leathery or coriaceous. They have an imperfect metamorphosis or are hemimetabolian, the r ! I li I I? I! 214 PROVINCE ARTHROrODA. larvrc having six feet and the thorax and abdomen distinct. They arc the Bugs, Water-boatmen, Flant- lice, ike. Order 7. Neuroptera. — 'I'hcse have four membraneous veiny wings. They are hemi-metabohan, the larva; being hexapod and often aquatic. They are the Dragon-flies, May-flies, (S:c. Order 8. Orthoptera. — These have four wings, the front pair coriaceous but nerved, the second pair folded longitudinally in the manner of a fan. They are hemi- metabolian, the larva) being like the imago but without wings. They are the (irasshoppers and Cockroaches. Order 9. Colcopiera. — These have four wings, the first pair being hard elytra or covers to the under pair, which are folded transversely. These are intermediate between the hemi-metabolian and metabolian insects, the larvae being worm-like but six-footed. They are the Beetles. Ot the above orders the first six have their mouth organs for the most part adapted for suction, (haustellate) the last three have the mouth adapted for biting (man- dibulate). The families and ^enera of insects are so numerous that it will be necessary in this manual merely to illustrate each order by a few typical species, leaving the student to refer for further information to more detailed works, to be mentioned in the sequel. I PROVINCE ARTFIPOPODA. 215 Order 1.— Aptera. We figure as an illustration of this order the too well- known Pediculus humanus (Fig. 2G3) an external parasite tllate) 'man- irons 5trate lident forks, Fig. 2G3.— PEDicciirs ih'Manms cmmtis, Dc Goer.— magnified. on the human head, where it subsists by sucking blood by means of its minute beak or haustellum. It deposits its eggs upon the hair. The Podurcc or Spring-tails are remarkable for the presence of a moveable bifurcate organ at the extremity of the abdomen, by means of which they can leap with great agility. In the genus Lepistna the body is covered with shining scales which are interesting microscopic oi)jects. These creatures are often found in damp lumber-rooms and similar places. Order 2.— Aphaniptera. The Fleas, of the genus Pidex, are remarkable for their leaping powers, and the highly irritating nature of the poison which they inject into the minute wounds 216 PROVINCE ARTIIROPODA. I I inflicted by their sharp lancet-like mandibles. The eggs of the fleas are deposited in dust and organic matters lying in dry places, and are hatched into worm like larvae. In some of the species the larvae spin a silken cocoon in which they pass the pupa state. The largest species known is Pulex ^igas, described by Kirby, found in the northern part of British America, in Lat. 65*^. It is two lines in length. Order 3 — Diptera. The principal families of the two-winged insects are : — The Jlippoboscidie or Forest-flies, Sheep-ticks and Bird- ticks, some of which are wingless. The Oestridic or Bot-flies, whose larvae inliabit the stomachs of horses and other animals, Oestrus^ *\:c. The Muscidae or ordinary House-flies, Miisca domesiica, &c. The Tahanidae or biting Horse-flies, Tabamis^ i^c. The Tipididae or Harry-long-legs and Wheat-flies, Tipida, Cecidomyia, &c. 'I'he Ciilicidae or Mosciuitoes anJ Gnats, whose larvae live in water, and the adult females are very troublesome by their irritating bites. Culex pipiens is the t^uropean species, and there are said to be thirty species known in North America. As an illustration of the Diptera we may take the Cecidomyia tritici, Kirby, which under the name of " wheat midge " and " weevil '' "* has been so destructive * The latter name is incorrect, the true weevils being Coleoptera. I'ROVINCE AKTIIROI'OUA. 217 to the wheat crop in America. The imago and larva: are shown , Ki,. 264. The animal deposit its cgs in 6 "^mM^ ¥ ''A^ Fi- 2fi4.-CEcipoMvr.\ tkitici. Ktrhy the ears of wheat when in blossom. The minute yellow larv^ hatched from these eggs feed on the juices of hi 3th"",' "' "''" ■"''""" '™P '" '''^ g--1, into whtch they burrow and remain torpid during the w nter iircond;:- ^"^ '; ''^ ^^'^^^ '" ^^^-^ •" --- best reZ T "^ '° ""'" '""^ depredations. The best remedy for their attacks is to cut and house the gram before the larv« have dropped, and to d toy these when the grain is threshed. The " Hessian Fly " 21S PKtU IN( 1' \U I IIKni'(tl> \. :ui ;illir«l spri ics {(\ ,/m/;//, /,); ) d^^posils its i\lm;s on the straw ot wIuMi, and tho Iarv;r suck tlu> jmVcs ol the slnn. I \V(i brot^tls avi' ptixInciMl in tlir VfMv. This s,:.'( it's is ivjMvstMilrd in I'lg. L'Or). A pvoprr rotation of crops is tlic smosl remedy for tho ravages of tlio Hessian lly. a V ,<^^^ it 'M /i^]\ (1 FiU'. W."' PFniMlMTti IIKSTKICTOK, Sil.V, 0— 'Mrtl«\ niasTtiilloil. h VVm;iU\ n\iii;iiili( m mg tor me rial ost Icra (0 Fijr. 2G(> — PAriMo ri UNTH, Lin. laSL. 220 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. the, often narrow, wings flat when at rest. (3) Moths, or nocturnal species, having the antennae fihform or pecti- nated (heterocera) and the wings carried flat when at rest. One of our finest butterflies is Papilio Turnus (Fig. 266), the Yellow Swallow-tail. The eggs are deposited on cherry, plum and other trees, on the leaves of which the larva feeds. It is solitary, and remains by day on a silken platform spun by itself and stretched between the edges of a leaf It feeds at night. When ready to be- come a chrysalis, it sus])ends itself by a button of silk at the tail, and a loop supporting the back (Fig. 267). K §1 Fijf. 267. — Papilio turni's, Larva and Pupa. Another common and beautiful species is the *' Camber- w^U Beauty " ( Vanessa Antiopa) whose spiny caterpillars PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 221 feed on elm and other trees (Fig. 268). The " Clouded )er- llars Fig. 268. —Vanessa antiopa, Lin. Fig. !>69.— Colias rniLODicB, Godart.— male and female. 222 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. I: Sulphur " ( Colias philodice) is one of our most common butterflies by road-sides in summer. The caterpillar is greenish, with yellow and black markings, and feeds on clover (Fig. 269). The small white butterflies of the genus Pieris are more troublesome, the caterpillar of P. rapce being very destructive to cabbages and similar plants. This is an introduced species. A native species i^P, cUraced) has similar habits but is less destructive. •''■^teT» Fig. 270.— Papilio astbrias,— male and larva. PROVINCE ARIHROPODA. 223 Of the Sphingida; and their alhes one of the largest is the Sphinx qtnnqiieniaailutus^ the larvce of which feed on the potato plant. Species of smaller size, but of rich colouring, belong to the genus Smerinthiis. The species of proper moths are exceedingly numerous. The giants of the tribe are the great Emperor Moths of the genus Attacus. A. (P/atysamia) cecropia is the largest species, and A. hum is remarkable for its singular form and delicate green colour, as well as for its large size. Clisiocampa Americana is the tent-weaving moth, whose social caterpillars produce large silke.i webs in trees, and are very destructive. Several of these species are capable of yielding valuable silk. Fig. 271 represents a pretty Fi 230 PROVINCE ARTMUOPODA. OkDKR 8.— ORTHOrTKRA. The Locusts, Cirasshc)i)i)crs and Crickets arc well- known representatives of this order. One example is tlie familiar red-lcgi^ed .uirasshojtper, Caloptcrius femur- rubinn of Harris (I*'ig. 283,) hut there are numerous l-'i;,'. 283.— C'ALOlTEXrS KKMlU-Kl'DrM. species of these insects, helonging to different genera. One of the most curious and anomalous is the *' Walking- stick," DiapJieromera femorata^ Say ; a sluggish creature, living in the woods and altogether wingless, and depend- ing for its safety on its resemblance to a dead twig. The noises produced by the insects of this order depend on a membrane or drum on the wings, or on the friction of the hind legs on the margin of the wings. To this family belong the cockroaches of the genera Blatia and Ectobia, which infest houses ; and species of the same group have been found fossil in the coal for- mation. (Fig. 284.) Fig-. 254.— ARcniMULAcitis ACADicis, Scuddcr,— Carboiiiferous. well- )lc is :mur- crous ;cncra. .Iking- latarc, ipend- The nd on ion of genera Icies of )al for- PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. Ordicr 9.— Coleoi'tera. 231 The l)cctlcsarc the most numerous of insects in rei^ard to species, and very varied in their hal)its of hfe ; but with the cxce[)tion of a few aberrant types, they may all be recognized by the horny upper wings or elytra, whicli give them a very distinct ap[)earanrc from other insects. To the family of the Cicinddidu' belong the beautiful green and spotted Tiger-beetles, so common in sandy places, and so brilliant in colour and swift in motion. The family of the CarabUic includes hunter-beetles, of which Calosoma calidiim (I'ig. 285) is one of the most common s[)ecies, and very serviceable as a destroyer of noxious insects. The Dytiscidn' are th water beetles, one (.^( which is, perhaps, our largest species. The larvae of the si)ecies of Dytiscus are very active and carniv- orous, and are known as " Water-tigers." The black-and- yellow carrion beetles belong to the f:imily Si7/>/ii(/u' ; and the bacon beetle of larders, which also devours specimens of natural history, to the Dermcstidic. The Scarabceidic are the " Shard-beetles'' or ground beetles, the larva; of many of which are injurious to plants. The Lampyridcc are the curious fire-flies, so brilliant in summer evenings, emitting a phosphorescent light from the joints of the abdomen. The Meloidte are the blistering beetles, including the blue oil beetles of our woods, which are remarkable for the rudimentary condition of the wings. The Curculionidcc are a troublesome family, including the Pea-weevil, Plum-weevil, and other species, which commit depredations on cultivated plants. The Cerambi- cidce, or capricorn-beetles, also include destructive species, one of which, the Saperda Candida (Fig. 286) is, in its li i ' .-4- I! 232 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. larval state, the " Appletree-borer, " and another Ste/io- wrusvillosus^ is the "Oak-pruner," whose name indicates Fi.cr. 285. Fi-. 2S6. Calasoma calidum. Saperda CANDIDA, Fab 1— Imago. 2— Larva. its work in breaking off the twigs of trees by the boring action of its larvne. Monohavifnus cotifusor* (Fig. 287), the Pine-boring Beetle is also a very destructive species ; its larvce destroying great quantities of pine timber. The C/irysojfielid(c, notwithstanding the golden colour of some species, are also devourers of our crops. The yellow- striped Squash-beetle is a well-known example, and an allied species is the Potato-beetle {Doryphora). 1 .astly, the Coccinellidce^ or ** Lady-bugs," are not only pretty little creatures, but very useful as devourers of plant-lice, on which they subsist both in the larval and perfect state. Important catalogues of several orders of American insects have been published by the Smithsonian Institution ; Packard's Guide to the Study of Insects, is a valuable introduction to the subject of *See a paper by Billings, Canadian Naturalist, vol. vii. >- >^ PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 233 very valuable. 'njunoas to \ egetation " are also Fig. 2S7.— AJoNoriAMMi-s covFi- sou. ■«M*tiHWAiMMhwlM I'l r 234 PROVINCE ARTHROrODA. Class IV. — Arachnida. Jlead usually conflue7it with thorax ; respiration tracheal or puhnonary ; antcrmcc rudimeutary or mandilmliform. No wings ; legs in four pairs. Amctabolian. In the Arachnidans the body is divided into two distinct regions, the one (cephalo-thorax) corresponding to the head and thorax in insects, the other to the abdomen. The eyes are simple and two to eight in number, the tenacles are short and often modified for prehension as well as for tactile uses. I'he nervous system and the dorsal vessel are more condensed than in the insects, and in the higher groups there is more varied adaptability and instinct. None of the Arachnidans have wings, and, like the ccphalopods among the mollusks, they undergo no metamorphosis. In the union of the head and thorax, they resemble crustaceans, but differ in their respiration, which is never by gills. They are at once separated from insects, not only by the union of the head and thorax but also by the possession of four pairs of limbs. The Arachnidans may be divided into the following orders, which whether absolutely natural or not, with reference to their limits of separation, no doubt express prettv accurately the grades of complexity of the group. Order 1. Dcrmophysa, — These are degraded or depau- perated species, without distinct respiratory organs, and with the limbs or abdomen rudimentary. Order 2. Acarina. — These have the cephalo-thorax in one or two joints, and respire by trachea3. They are the !Mites and Ticks. PROVINXE ARTHROrODA. 235 heal ornu ;tinct ) the men. •, the :)n as i the 3, and y and , hke £50 no lorax, ation, ,1 from horax )\ving with cpress 5roup. [epau- and lax in :e the Order 3. Araneida. — These have the cephalo-thorax and abdomen unarticulated and separate. They breathe by lamellated puhnonary sacs, in some aided by tracheae. They are the Spiders. Order 4. Scorpionidea, — These have the abdomen and cephalo-thorax separate, and the former articulated. They respire by pulmonary sacs furnished with lamella;. They are the Scorpions and their allies. Order 1. — Df.rmopiiysa. As an example of these creatures, we may take the Danodex follicidonim^ belonging to the family Nulli- grada, which burrows in the hair follicles of the skin of the human face. It is of elongated form with eight very short legs. Its mouth is suctorial, and it appears to subsist on the fatty and other matters secreted by the follicles in which it lives. Simil.ir creatures have been found in the skin of mangy dogs. In the same group are placed a number of other minute and rudimentary mites, living in- mosses and damp places, to which little attention has yet been given in this country. They constitute the family of the Tardigrada. In this order are also usually arranged certain marine species resembling spiders, found among weeds on the shores, and sometimes in moderately deep water. A small species found in the River St. Lawrence at Murray Bay, and also on the Labrador coast, is appropriately called the " Sea Spider." It is the Nymp/ion grossipes of Fabricius, and has a slender body, sometimes half an inch in length, and very long slender limbs. These marine 236 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA species constitute the family Levigrada of some authors. By others they are regarded as crustaceans. I ' •' f ji.i p: i Order 2. Acarina. 7^he animals of this order are very diverse in form and habits, but the greater part of them belong to the group of Mites proper, of which the flour and cheese mites are examples, and which have the cephalo-thorax and abdo- men condensed into one mass. As an example of this ordinary type of mite, the sugar mite, Acarus sacchari, may be taken (Fig. 288). It abounds in the more impure Fig. 2S8.— ACARi, after Packard. 1— Ixodes bovis, Rilej-. 2— Acarus (Tyroylyphus) sacciiari. - Magnified. varieties of raw sugar, on the foreign organic matters present in which it feeds. It is capable, like some other species, of burrowing into the skin, and is supposed to produce the disease known as grocers' itch in the skin of persons who handle sugar containing these animals. A species of the genus Sarcoptes {S. galei) is the immediate cause of the common itch. The mites of the genus Ixodes lors. 1 and ^roup is are abdo- »f this ccharU mpure PROVINCE ARTHROPOD A. 237 are the ticks which infest the skin of many animals. They are furnished with a pair of serrated or hooked mandibles which they bury firmly in the skin, and suck its juices by their serrated labrum. Ixodes albipu^us^ Packard, is a species found on the moose, and a very similar species- is abundant on the American hare. Fig. 288 represents / bovis which is the common cattle-tick of the Western and Southern parts of North America. Mites of the genus Hydrachna occur in fresh-water ponds and attack the animals inhabiting such places. The " red spiders " {Tetranychus,) also belong to this order. The mites in their larval state have only six legs, thus approaching to the hexapod insects. Along with the mites we include in this order the animals of the genus Phalangium, the long-legged spiders or "harvest men" and the curious scorpion-crabs of the genus Chelifer, found among books and in dusty corne. . They are carnivorous in their habits and are useful as destroyers of vermin. Order 3. Araneida. Ignified. batters other )sed to le skin lals. A Mediate Ixodes The true spiders differ from the mites in thedistinct separation of the thorax and abdomen, and also in the pres- ence of pulmonary sacs. They are provided with strong fangs perforated at the point, and secreting a highly poisonous fluid, which is injected into the wound which they produce. The fangs are regarded not as proper mandibles but as modified antennae, being plhced above the mouth. The abdomen, in most of the species, has two breathing pores or spiracles, leading to the pulmonary 238 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. sacs, and in some species there is a second pair of spiracles leading to tracheai. The puhiionary sacs are opened and closed by the muscles of the pericardium or membrane covering the dorsal vessel. In the abdomen are also the glands which secrete the silken material of the web. This is poured out in a liquid state through numerous pores pierced in cylindrical or conical spinnerets, at the extrem- ity of the abdomen. As an example of a ty})ical spider we figure Epcira vulgaris^ the common geometrical sjjider of Eastern America, with some of its organs. (Fig. 289). 6, g '■■ 11 ii Fiy.— 2j9. Epeiiia vulgaris, Heiitz, after Emerton. 1 — Eyes and Man'libles, magnified, c First Joint of Mandible, a — Point of if andible. 2— Underside, a — Legs, b — Palpi, c— Mandibles, e— Spinnerets and above these the Stigmata TROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 239 jve these The s[)iders of this country have as yet been httle studied; but though not generally liked, these animals present many of the most curious traits of instinct and habit to be observed among the lower animals, and their structures are very interesting objects of microscopic investigation. With reference to their habits the spiders may be divided into three groups. 1. — The water-spiders, which live in l)Ools, carrying down a bubble of air on the abdomen for respiration, and constructing sub-aquatic webs. 2. — The sedentary s})iders, constructing webs and watching on them for their prey. 3 — The vagrant, leaping and hunting spiders, which i)ursue or dart upon the insects on which they feed. It is at present, however, usual to arrange them, primarily, according to the number of the eyes, into Octinoailina or eight-eyed ; Sexoculina or six-eyed, and Binoculina or two-eyed, the greater nunber of spiders belonging to the two former groups, and especiall)^to the first, which includes all the ordinary spiders. Those of the second group are small spiders with elongated bodies, and most of them hunting their prey and making little silken cells in crevices of rocks and the bark of trees. Order 4. ScoKnoNiDEA. This group includes the Scorpions and the Phrynidce, a group resembling spiders in form, but having chelicers or prehensile arms in front, like the scorpions. The chelicers are enlarged palps, and in the scorpions they are strong and of formidable power. In the scorpions the cephalo-thorax consists of several joints, and graduates 240 PROVINCE ARTHROPODA. 4i'\ K i into the abdomen, which is long and slender, and termin- ates in a sting — which discharges a highly poisonous fluid. They use this weapon both for attack and defence, and the larger species inflict painful wounds, even on man. Like the spiders, these animals are carnivorous and prey on insects. They are not represented in the fauna of Canada except as fossils. Remains of Scorpions occur in the Carboniferous of Nova Scotia and of Illinois (Fig. 290) and species referable to this group have been Fig. 290. -EoscoRrirs cAnnoxAuii'S Mekk, A Sccrinon from the carboniferous of Illinois found both in Europe and America '.n the Silurian. Black well's *' British Spiders " gives a very full account of this class ; and there is a very interesting work on British Spiders by Miss Stavely. The only descriptions of American species known to me, are those of Hentz in the Journal of the Boston Natural History Society. A very good summary of American forms is given by Packard in the end of his "Guide to the study of Insects." ous ice, on :ous the lions inois been It of ll^is by Miss In to tne, Hisiory kiven by CHAPTER IX. DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY— (7on^i««e(7. Province VII. — Vertebrata. The Vertebrates are distinguished from other animals by having a central cartilaginous cord (notochord) or .eries of bony vertebral joints, dividing the body into an upper and lower region. The former (neural) contains the brain and spinal cord. The latter (haemal or enteric) contains the heart and alimentary canal. The vertebrae when developed consist of bodies or centra, by which they are attached to each other, with processes above forming an arch for the protection of the nerve system, and often lateral or inferior processes for protecting the viscera. The vertebral column also forms the basis of support and for attachment of the limbs, which when present are usually in two pairs. The nervous system in all Vertebrates is myelenceph- alous, or consists of a brain and dorsal nerve cord. The heart is compact and muscular, with two, three or five chambers. The blood is red. The respiratory organs are connected with the pharynx. The jaws move vertically. The classes of Vertebrates are the following : — 1. Pisces — The Fishes. 2. Amphibia or Batrachia — Frogs, Newts and their allies. p I: laKaa 242 PROVINX'E VKRTE15RATA. 3. Reptilia — Lizards, Serpents, Tortoises and their allies. 4. Aves — The Birds. 5. Mammalia — The Mammals or ordinary (iiiadrii- peds and their allies, including man. The Vcrtebrata, though regarded as one of the Provinces of the animal kingdom, are relatively so im- portant and so closely related to man, that they merit a more full treatment than the other Provinces. We shall, however, have to confine ourselves to definitions, classification, and Canadian exami)les, referring to special works for the details of the orders, families, genera and species. Jordan's Manual of the Vertebrata of the United States will Ijc found useful for reference, and an extended list of books useful for rpecial groups is given in Kingsley's Naturalists' ^^ssistant. Class I. — Pisces. II ! !! ! i ! i Heart of two cavities ; respiration by giiis ; locomotion by the movemcjit of the vertebral column^ with the aid of fins ; body fiaked or covered with scales or plates. Repro- duction oviparous, rarely ovo-viviparous. We may take as the type of this class an ordinary fish, as the Cod, the Perch, or the Herring, having in mind, however, that the range of structure included under the general name Fish, within the Vertebrate Province, is very large. The general form of the body is elongated and tapering to either extremity, on lines fitted to allow PROVINCE VERTEHRATA. 243 leir dru- the 3 im- iiierit Wc lions, pecial a and will be ieful for wiotion aid of Repro- ry fish, mind, der the ince, is Ion gated Ito allow the easiest possible passage through the water. The head is articulated directly to the body without the interven- tion of a neck. The limbs are represented l)y the pectoral and ventral fins, which are in pairs, and are supported by bones named rays. IJesides these, there are median fins, the dorsal above and the anal below, and the caudal or tail fin, which is tlie most important otail in i)ropelling the fish forward by its sculling motion. Th'' caudal fin is in general ecpially two-lobed ( liomocercal), but in many fossil fishes and some recent species the upper lobe is larger (heterocercal). l'"ig. 21>1. Fig. 201.— Parr or Yofxo Salmon. a — Gill cover ^—Pectoral fin. c— Vontnil fin. (//,(/,'— First and second dorsals. t— Anal fin. /—Caudal fin. The skeleton of fishes is either bony or cartilaginous. When bony llie skull is composed of a great number of easily separable pieces. Tlie vertebrae are biconcave, with spines above (neural spines) protecting the spinal cord and haemal spines or ribs below. There are also interspinous bones fixed in the llesh to su[)port the median fins. Besides the prope*" internal skeleton, fishes have usually an outer or dermal covering of scales or i)lates. 244 PROVINCE VERTEIJRATA. Ill \\\ In the ordinary fishes the scales are horny and imbricated or overlapping, and are either circular in form (cycloid) or divided into tooth-like processes (ctenoid). In c ther fishes there are hard bony i)oints set in the skin (placoid) or flat bony plates or scales, often shining or enamelled at the surface (ganoid). The brain of fishes is smaller than that of other Verte- brates, and with its parts arranged lengthwise and not condensed into a rounded mass. The eyes are well- develoi)ed, with a dense globular lens, fitted for vision in water, and without external lids. The ears are wholly internal and provided with hard stony otolites to con- dense and intensify vibrations. The nostrils are exca- vated in the front of the head, and are not connected with respiration, but subserve the olfactory function only. The senses of taste and touch are less perfect than in most other Vertebrates, The circulation of the blood is performed by a heart of one auricle and one ventricle. The auricle receives the blood from the general circulation rrd transmits it to the ventricle, by which it is driven through the gills, and then finds its way to the general circulation without re- turning to the heart. The gills are placed on the sides of the head, and are supported on cartilaginous arches, covered by the operculum or gill-cover, and so arranged that they are constantly bathed with the water entering by the mouth and passing out under the gill-covers. In most fishes there is an air-sac or swimming-bladder under the backbone, which serves to balance the body ated loid) ther :oid) elled /erte- i not well- ion in vhoUy 3 con- j exca- nected n only, ban in \eart of ves the ,s it to Is, and out re- Q sides larches, rranged [ntering )ladder le body rUOVINCK VKRTKl'.RATA. 243 in the water, and, in some fishes, aids as a rudimentary lung in the a3eration of the blood. 'I'hc viscera in fishes arc placed on the anterior i)art of the body, so as to leave space behind for the great nuiscies which bend the tail in the process of swimming. Fishes are dioecious and oviparous, producing great numbers of ova or spawn. The ovary of the cod is said to contain more than a million of eggs. Fijf. 292.~Dbvblopmrxt ok Salmon. 1— Ovum. 2— Embryo, with yolk attached. 3— Embryo, after absorption of yolk. 4— Young Parr. The class Pisces, in its widest sense, includes the following orders : — Order 1.— Pharyngohranchii. This order includes only two known species, the Amphioxus or Lancelet (Fig. 29.3), and an Australian fish {Epigonichihys). The Amphioxus is of the greatest possible interest as illustrating the simplest condition of Vertebrate life. Some zoologists are disposed to put this animal into a mmmmmm 246 '»; '9r^ r""' I PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. separate class or even to create a special Province for it ; but as its plan is essen- tially that of a fish, this seems quite un- necessary. The Aviphioxus is destitute of scales, and its only fin, the caudal, is simply membranous without rays. The mouth has no jaws, but is a slit or opening l)rovided with cirri. The gills are repre- sented by a wide branchial sac, which opens posteriorly by a pore in the abdomen. The backbone consists only of a cylindrical cartilaginous cord (notochord). There is no skull, and the spinal nerve-cord is scarcely dilated in the biain. The heart is of a single cavity. There are four eyes, and a groove in front which is probably an organ of smell. The Lancelet is an oceanic fish, found on both sides of the Atlantic, and in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Order 2.— Marsipobranchii. r 1! 'ii ?•« i Nl /.■ 1^ 7r This order includes the Lampreys, Lam- perns and Hags, which occur both in fresh waters and in the sea. They are destitute of true fins and scales, have, a circular or oval mouth without jaws, and have the gills in little pouches opening by lateral slits. Their skeleton is wholly cartilaginous. Ichthyomyzon argejiteus, the PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. 247 )ecial sssen- te un- ute of dal, is The pening repre- which iomen. ndrical 1-iere is :ord is e heart ur eyes, robably ;t is an of the Indian silver) Lamprey or Lampern, is found in our lakes and streams. Order 3. — Teleostei. ♦ This order includes the typical or ordinary fishes, with well-developed bony skeleton, and the other characters already referred to as l)elonging to the fish proper. It is usually divided into sub-orders, based on the structure of the fins and other peculiarities. The greater part of our common fishes belong to two of the sub-orders, the Malacopteri Qx soft-finned, and the Acanthopteri or spiny- finned. In the first, all the fins are supported by flexible jointed rays. In the second, some of them have stiff spinous supports. The Cod, the Salmon and the Herring are examples of the first of these groups, the Perch and the Bass of the second. The curious Pipe- fishes {Syngnathus) remarkable for their elongated snouts and attenuated bodies, and for their tufted gills, belong to the sub-order Lophobranchii. The File-fishes {Baiistes) are examples of another grou[) named Plectognathi, from the fact that the teeth are united into two or four masses. •s, I.am- Iboth in |hey are have , a [ws, and )pening wholly \eus^ the Order 4 — Ganoidei. The fishes of this order have the body protected by bony scales, and have the swimming bladder largely developed and aiding in respiration. The bony Pike or Gar-fish of the St. Lawrence (Lepidosteus) the Sturgeon {Accipenser), and the Mud fish (Amia) are living Canadian examples of this order, and of types characterized by somewhat different arrangement of the scales. A few 248 •M^pMWMfMM PROVINCE VERTE15RATA. Other species exist in other parts of the world, but they are much less numerous than the ordinary fishes (Fig. 294), c "Z ■I i s 5 tfi HO = « .2 50 .2 "3 0) a. 0) 3 bo b 2 ^ o .2 3 I 2 ^ O o « o — liljli The Ganoids culminated in the later Paleozoic Period of Geolog}', and many species are found fossil in our r ROVINCE VEKTEllRATA. 249 Erian and Carboniferous rocks (Fig 295 to 297). One od 'en lin our ^ Fi". 295.— PAL.KONiscr.s ali!Krti, a Ganoid of Uie lower Carboniferous Fiir. 296.— RinzoDUS lanxikkr, a large Ganoid of the coal-formation period. a- tooth, <>— bony scale. Fii,'. 297.— Erian placooanoids. The upper Cfpha'apiit Lyelii ; the lower Phrichty.: cornutus. =s= Wt 250 PROVINCE VERTEI5RATA. remarkable group characteristic of the Erian Period, is that of the Placoganoicls, in which the body is boxed up in hard bony plates (Fig. 296). Some of the Ganoids, as Lepidosteus, have well-ossified skeletons. Others, as the Sturgeon, have the skeleton cartilaginous. Ordkr 5,— Elasmohranchii. These are the Sharks, Dog-fishes and Rays or Skate- fish. The Sharks are the largest and most formidable of fishes. One species found on our coasts, the basking Shark, sometimes attains a length of thirty feet. The skeleton is cartilaginous or very imperfectly ossified, but the teeth are hard and trenchant in most of the species, though in some they are flattened into pavement-like surfaces for crushing. The skin is protected by small l)lacoid bony scales. This group of fishes, while well represented in the modern seas, extends back as far as the Silurian period. 1 I ( ' Order 6.— Dipnoi. This is in the modern world a small group occurring only in the streams and lakes of South America, Africa and Australia (Fig. 21)8), and we have no Canadian examples ; but species referable to this group are found fossil in our Palaeozoic rocks. Some of those found in the Erian formation of the United States, were very large and formidable fishes. Others furnished with flat teeth 1 PROVINXK VERTEBRATA. 251 riod, oxed sified ileton Skate- able of )asking , The ed, but species, ent-like y small le well s far as xurnng I, Africa lanadian re found found in iry large lat teeth probably, like the modern Ceratodus or Baramunda of Australia, fed on aquatic plants. Fi,<>:. 298.— FisiiKs ok tiik ordrh Dipnoi. a — Cvraf(idi('< of Australia. b — Lcpidonin-n of Afri(!ii. Fijf. 299.— Tooth of Couchodius pUcatus', a fi.sh allied to the Ceratodus of Australia. —Coal formation of Xova Scotia. For Canadian fishes see Richardson's Fauna Boreali Americano ; Jordan's Catalogue of fresh-water fishes, Gill, Catalogue of fishes of East coast of North America. Class II. — Amphibia. Ve?^i€brates breathing by gills when youngs but acquiri?ig lutigs li'hen adult, and having a heart of three cavities; SHTiimnm 252 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. Bii '!•' limbs 7vhen prese?it in hvo pairs^ and not of the nature of fins ; skin naked in the modern species : skull articulated to neck by a double condyle. The Amphibians connect the fishes with the true reptiles, being fish-hke and having gills and a two- chambered heart in the immature state, but acquiring lungs and a three-chambered heart, and usually well- developed limbs when mature. The modern Amphibians occupy a very humble position, but in former geological periods they were large and abundant, and some of the extinct forms were ol higher rank than their modern successors. Order 1. — Oi'hiomorpha. This includes species having a snake-like body destitute of limbs. They are the Cecilians or blind-worms. They are not as yet known in our fauna. Order 2.— Urgdela. These are the tailed or lizard-like Batrachians, the Newts or water-lizards. They are usually divided into two groups, those with permanent gills remaining through life, and those which lose their gills when mature (perenni- branchiate and caducibranchiate forms). Some species, however, seem capable of retaining or parting with their gills according to the circumstances in which they are placed. Necturus {Menobranchus) lateralis the water- lizard or mud puppy, is a common representative of the permanently gilled type, and is found in many lakes and 1 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. 253 re of lated true two- airing well- ibians ogical of the lodern stitute They IS, the ito two igh life, lerenni- Ipecies, Ih their ley are water- of the :es and streams. Diemyctylus viridescens^ the spotted newt of our ponds, and the Salamanders {Plethodon^ &*c.) are examples of the forms which part with their gills when adult. In this country these animals are usually called lizards, but do not really belong to that group, which is truly reptilian. Order 3.— Anura. These are the tailess Batrachians, which are destitute of swimming-tails, and have large and well-developed limbs. They are represented in Canada by three generic groups, the ordinary frogs (Rana), the tree-frogs {Hyla), living in woods and having suctorial discs on the toes to aid them in climbing, and the toads {Bu/o) a terrestrial group, nocturnal in habit and destitute of teeth. Fiji". 300.— Skelktox of a Frog. In the Carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia, the remains of several species of Batrachians are found, some of them PROVINCE VERTEHRATA. of large size. The larger belong to the group of Lal>y rinthodoniia^ the smaller to that of Microsaiiria. I Fi•,^ 301.— IJai'iiktks I'liAXicKrs, Owen, a Labyrinthodont from the (,'oal-fonnatloii of Nova Scotia. a— Anterior portion of the skull reducoil. ?>— Tooth, natural size. m •' Class III. — Reptilia. Heart ordinarily in three cavities {t7vo auricles and one ventricle); respiration by lungs; limbs, ivhen present, tisiially adapted for motion oji land ; skin protected by scales or plates ; reproductioti oviparous or ovo-viviparous. The reptiles differ from the Amphibians in not under- going any metamorphosis, but are produced from the egg at once as air-breathing animals. In connection with this, their eggs are of larger size than those of fishes or batrachians, and the embryo is provided with special structures suited to the requiremt.its of hatching in the air (Amnion or water-sac, and Allantois or urinary-sac). In this respect the reproduction of the reptile resembles that of the bird. The reptiles have scaly skins and a single occipital condyle, and like the birds have the lower jaw i!li PROVINCE VERTE15RATA. 255 Lah-- not directly articulated to the skull, hut by an inter- mediate quadrate bone. The reptiles are at present for the most part inhabitants of the warmer climates, and are few and poorly developed in comparison with their pre- decessors in the middle portion of the earth's geological history, which was emphatically the *' Age of Reptiles." Of nine orders into which the reptiles are usually divided, five are extinct, and only two are represented in the modern fauna of Canada. Order 1. — Chelonia. the I size. and one present, by scales )t under- IB the egg Lion ^vith fishes or sp ling in ecial inary the ■sac), [resembles id a single lower jaw The turtles and tortoises constitute this order. The former are marine species, with fin-like feet adapted to swimming rather than to walking. The latter have walking feet. There are, however, intermediate forms, usually inhabiting fresh water. The sculi)tured tortoise Chelopus msculptus, the painted i)ond torto'se Chrysemys picta, and the snapping turtle Cliely Ira serpentina are Canadian examples. Chelone midas, a marine species found in the West Indies, is the epicure's turtle, and Chelone inibricata the tortoise-shell turtle. In the Chelonia the skeleton is remarkably modified, so that the ribs and backbone unitt^ above to form a carapace, and the breast-bone is enlarged to form a plas- tron, while the whole is covered with a more or less dense horny coating, either continuous or in separate scales. Order 2.— Opiiidia. These are the Serpents and Snakes, distinguished by the enormous length^of the vertebral column and the great PROVINXE VERTEIJRATA. nurii. r of ribs, and by the absence of limbs. In this country we have two families, the Coluberidae cr harm- less snakes, and the Crotalidae, with erectile poison fangs. To the former belong all our ordinary snakes, as the water-snakes ( Tropidonotus), the garter-snakes {Eutenia) and the milk-snakes {Ophibolus). To the latter belongs the venomous x^ii\Q-^m\kQ{Crotaliis horridits), found only in the southern or western borders of Canada. Order 3. — Lackrtilia. This includes the Tizards pro])erly so called, which constitute a numerous and varied group in the warmer regions of the world, but are not represented in the fauna of Canada, except perhaps in the treme south-west, where the so-called " horned tor.ds " {Phrynosomd) or the Northern Skink {Eumeces) may occur locally. Order 4. — Crocodilia. The Crocodiles and the Alligators are the largest and most formidable of modern reptiles, and the most ad- vanced in the character of their circulation, but are not found in the temperate latitudes. The following orders are extinct, and occur chiefly m the Mesozoic rocks. Examples of some of them are found in the Cretaceoas rocks of our Western Territoiies : — Ichthyopterygia . — Fish-lizards, Ichthyosaurus^ &:c. Ma- rine saurians of great size, with paddles and elongated siouts and tails. PROVINCE VFRTEr.RATA. 257 In iViis f haruv a fangs- as the Eiitenia) ■ belongs ,und only led, Nv^^^ch the warmer ^n the fauna south-^vest, soma) or the e largest and the most ad- L but are not chieay m found Iccur Ihem are irritoi'ies •.^- <. Urxi^/a. — Also a group of marine reptiles, with smaller heads, larger paddles, and shorter and more compact body (l-'ig. 302). Fijj. 302.— Pliosauu' .s, Jurassic of Englaiul. Pterosauria. — Winged Lizards, a.> Pterodactyles and their allies (Fig. 30'\>. Fiy. 303. — RiiAMPUORHYNCurs, a Pterosaur from liic Jurassic, reduced, with a tooth natural size. Anomodontia. — Beaked reptiles. Theriodofitia, — Reptiles with several orders of teeth like the carnivorous mammals. Dinosauria, — Reptiles often of gigantic size, and in some respects approaching to the structures of birds, and often bipeds. Dinosattrus, Hadrosaurus^ &c. (Pigs. 304, 305.) Q 258 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. Fiij. 304.— IIadrosaurus, a Dinosaur of the Cretaceous. Skeleton, much reduced. \h '■ Fig. 305.— Bath YGNATiius borealis, Leidy. A Dinosaur from the Trias of Prince Edward Island. Part of lower jaw reduced, and tooth naturftl size. PROVINCE VERTEHRATA. 259 Class IV.— Aves. U9. Part ol Heart in four cavities ; respiration by lungs ; anterior limbs modified for flight ; clothin^^ feathers ; reproduction, oviparous. The birds represent the special modification of the vertebrate type for life in the air. The head is small and light, with a horny beak and well-developed brain and organs of sense ; the neck long and flexible. The trunk is compact, with the sternum or breast-bone large, and usually provided with a keel for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles which move the wings. The fore- limb is so modified that it serves as a support for the pinions which provide for flight. The bones are thin- walled and hollow. The circulating and respiratory organs are of a high degree of perfection, the heart being strong and muscular, and of four cavities, and the lungs attached to the back of the chest and communi- cating with accessory air-cavities. The clothing of feathers admirably combines warmth, resistance to external agencies, and adaptation for flight. The voice of birds is of great force and compass, and is provided for by a cavity or syrynx at the base of the windpipe, and fur- nished with vocal cords. The birds present the highest type of oviparous reproduction, accompanied with many curious instincts as to nidification, which are rendered necessary in connection with the hatching of a warm- blooded animal. The following figure (Fig. 306) shows the external parts most important in the description of birds, in the sub-science of Ornithology. 260 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. if fy i ' '^U I " i mi H '■' f Fig. 30G.— ExTKRNAL parts: of a Bird, II i 1— Ear Coverts. 2— Greuter Wing Coverts. 3— Median Coverts. 4— Bastard Wing (alula). 5— Prinuiries. H— Secondaries. 7— Tertiaries. 8— Soajmlars. 9— Tail Coverts. 10— Under Tail Coverts. 11— Lore. I'l — Fori lead. 13 -Crown. 14— Hind-head. 15.— Lesser Coverts and angle of wing. 16— Tarsus. 17— Tibia. Birds may be primarily divided into the sub-classes of FatiicB (Ostriches and othei birds with rudimentary wings) and Carinatae (birds with keeled sternum and developed \ 16 PROVINCE VERTEI5RATA. 261 wings). All the birds of Canada belong to the latter group, and may be arranged in the following orders : — Order 1. — Natatores. Swimming birds with palmated or lobed feet, set far back ; examples of these are the f^imilies of the Ducks and Geese {Anatidae), Gulls {L<^ridae)^ Cormorants {Pelecanidae) Grebes {PodoceJ)tdae). Order 2. — Grallatores. Long-legged wading birds, including the Herons {Ardeidae)^ Plovers and Sandpipers ( Charadriadae) Phal- aropes (^Phalaropidae)^ &€. Order 3. — Rasores. •ts. Scraping birds, with well-developed walking feet, and usually moderate powers of flight. They are represented in our fauna by the families of the Grouse {Tetraonidae) and the Pigeons {Columbidae). Ld angle ib-classes of itary Wii developed Order 4 — Insessores. These are the perching birds, a very numerous and varied group, including most of our small birds. Ex- amples are, the Crows and Jays ( Corvidae), the Sparrows and Finches {Frm^illidae)^ the Thrushes {Turdidae)^ the I I ' i i PROVINCE VERTEllR \TA. Flycatchers {Muscicapida^^ Swallows {Hiriuidinidae)^ and Woodpeckers {Picidae). Fig. 307.— The Waxwixo (AmyelU), a typical insessorial bird. Order 5.— Raptores. m This order includes the Birds of Prey, of which there are three principal family groups, the Eagles and Hawks PROVINCE VERTEHRATA. 263 {Falconi(lac)y the Owls {Strigidae)^ and the Vultures ( Vulturidac). For the classification and determination of birds, reference may be made to Coues' Key to American Birds, or to Haird's I'irds of America. bird. /hich there md Hawks Class V. — Mammalia. Heart in four cavities ; respiration by htnt^s ; limbs formed for luaiking or prehension or botJi ; skin usually protected by hair ; reproduction viviparous ; young nourisJied by milk. The distinguishing characteristic of this class, is the production of the young alive, and their nourishment by milk furnished by lacteal glands. The usual covering is hair, and the normal condition of the limbs adapted to walking or prehension, though in some, as the Bats, they are modified for flight, and in others, as the Whales, they become paddles for swimming. The skull is large, with a capacious brain-case, and the brain larger than in other animals, and in the higher types convoluted at its surface, so as to give a greater expansion to the cortical brain matter (Figs. 308, 309). Except in a few species, the neck consists of seven vertebrce, the back is divided into dorsal and lumbar regions, and certain of the vertebrae are united to form a sacrum or support for the pelvis. The limbs present the typical vertebrate parts. In the fore-limb, beginning from above, these are the Scapula or shoulder blade, the Humerus or arm bone, the Radius and Ulna, the f I u^ ^ fit r ■ 4 'fill f H 264 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. Fi^-. 308.— NON-coxvon'TKi) Braix ok Beavf.r. a— Olfactory lobes. c— ::!orebelliiii. r^— Cerebral lobes. Fig. 300.— CoNvoiATKD Brain of Cin.\irAXZEE. A, C— Ctrebral lobes. PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. 205 Carpal or wrist, Metacarpal or hand, and Phalangeal or finger bones. In the hind limb, next to the pelvis, is theFemui or thigh bone, then the Tibia and Fibula, then the Tarsal, Metatarsal, and Phalangeal bcnes (Fig. 310). Fi<,'. 310.— Pal/eotherium, Eocene. One of the most ancient types of mammalian skeleton. The teeth are more complex than in other animals, often presenting complicated associations of enamel, I n I I Fig. 311.— Skull of the Otter, sliowinj,' carnivorous dentition, a— Incidors. b — Canines. c— Pre-molars am' .Vioi.irs. 266 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA ivory and bone ; and they are arranged in different set^ viz. : incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars. The diverse modifications of these relate to the food and habits of the animal, and are, therefore of great impor- tance in classification. The heart of the mammal is of four chambers, the lungs remarkable for their iine division into air-cells, and the chest is separated from the abdomen by a diaphragm or midriff. The mammals may be divided into non-placental and placental, the latter having the more perfect arrangements for viviparous reproduction. The non-placentals are at present confined to the Australian Islands, and to the warmer parts of America, but in the mesozoic and tertiary periods they were much more widely distribute ''. The orders of Mammals may be arranged as follows : ill U lit llJIt r {Non-Place?ital^ Order 1. — Monotremata. This order includes the duck-billed animal {Platypus) and the Echidna or spiny Ant-eater, both Australian animals, and in regard to their reproduction, exceptional in the fact that they produce eggs, though the young are nourished with milk. Order 2.— Marsupialia. The Marsupials are so named from the fact that the young after birth are nourished for a time in a marsu- pium or pouch attached to the body of the mother. The PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. 267 sets, The and ipor- iungs d the 5m or il and ments are at to the c and ibute^. lows : atypus) stralian optional uns are Ihat the marsu- r. The Kangaroos and other Australian mammals, and the Opossums of America, are examples of this order. Fig. 312.— Myrmkcobius fasciatus, a small Australian Marsupial. {Placental.) Order 3.— Edentata. These are the Sloths, Armadillos, Anteaters, &c., at present limited to South America and Africa. They have either no teeth or molars only. Order 4.— Rodentia. These have incisors and molars only, and the former are large and chisel-shaped for gnawing. This order is well represented in Canada by the Beaver, Porcupine, Musk-rat, Squirrels, Gophers, Hares, etc. Order 5. — Insectivora. These are small animals with sharp canines and trifid ll 268 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. molars. They are the Moles, Shrews, isic. Though re- sembling the last order in size and form, they are quite different in dentition and habits. '/"MM-j ^,!^il^itmmi:. Fig. 313.— CoxDVLiRA CRIST ATA, tho Star-iiosed Mulo. Order 6.— Cheiroitera. These are closely allied to the last order, except that the anterior limb is converted into a wing by the curious elongation of the fingers, which are connected with each other and with the body by a delicate membrane. This is the order of the Bats. Order 7.— Cetacea. if This includes the Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises, &c. They have smooth fish-like bodies with a horizontal caudal fin, and the anterior limbs, which alone are present, in the form of paddles. The nostrils are turned back, so as to appear as blow-holes on the top of the head. The teeth are either uniform and conical or are replaced by lamince of w'hale-bone, which collect food as in a net. Thev may thus be divided into toothed whales and whale-bone re- aite )t that urious each This I caudal I, in the lo as to le teeth laminte ley may le-bone T PROVINCK VFRTEllRATA. 2o. ■ whales. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence the great Rorqual or Finner whale and the Humpback whale represent the whalebone whales. The Black-fish, White Whale, Beluga and Por[)oi.se are toothed cetaceans. The Sirenia or Dugongs constitute another order allied to the whales, but are not represented in our fauna. Order 8. — Ungulata. These are the hoofed animals. They are divided into odd-hoofed {Pcrissodactyle) and even-hoofed {Artiodac- tyle). To the former belong the Horse, Rhinoceros and Tapir, as well as some extinct animals of our Tertiary rocks. Fig. 314.— Skull of Brontotiikrii'M, an extinct Ungulate of the Miocene Period. To the latter belong the Bison, Deer, Antelopes, Musk-ox and other ruminants, which have well-developed molars, and incisors in the lower jaw only, and have the complicated structure of stomach connected with chewing 270 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. I' ''■' ■| • r 1 I ■ i. ■* ^11 ; ■ Urt the" cud. These animals are also remarkable for the developement of horns or antlers as weapons of defence. ^.^ Fig. 315.— Head and Antlers of Barren Ground Caribou. Tarandtis arcticus. Order 9.— Puoboscide^. The Elephants are not now represented in our fauna, but in the Pliocene and Post-glacial periods there were elephants of the two genera Elephas and Masiodoji^ in Canada, and their bones and tusks are not infrequently found in peat bogs and beds of gravel. I PROVINCE VERTKHRATA. 271 the nee. Order 10,— Carmvora. The flesh eating mammals, or wild beasts properly so called, belong to this order. The Lynxes and the Puma {Felidae)^ the Dogs, Wolves and Foxes {Canidae), the Bears and Racoon ( Ursidae)^ the Weasels, Martens and Otters {Alustc/idcu), and the Seals {P/iocidae) belong to our fauna. k^>^ i^^r^^-^-fv ^, Fig. 316.— MU8TELA MARTK8, the Sable. Order U. — Quadrumana. fauna, Ire were jdon, in Iquently In this order the fore and hind feet both serve as hands, fitting for prehension. They are frugivorous animals, not found in our fauna, being restricted to the warmer climates. The order includes the Apes, Monkeys and Lemurs. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A /^ .S^^4p. %// ' ^^V^'' ,<^ ^ t/i <<3 I A 1^ 1^ i I.I 2.5 2.2 1^ M L25 1 1.4 1.6 4 6" ► <^ /a .''^' '/a ^^.> y ) Divisions of digestive cavity; (c) Stomach; (d) Ampullae; (e) Anus; (/) Exterior muscle of Ray ; (ji) Madreporic plate and tube ; (//) Polian vesicles or muscular water-sacs; (J) Repro- ductive glands ; (k) Ambulacral ossicles and arches. ri.AiE //. n). of the ibercles [tension '•-), the lie Sacs ive been articula- iigestive is; (/) id tube ; I Repro- ties. Structure of ax Echinoder: .M. 278 PROVINCE VERTEBRATA. PLATE in. Fresh-water Mussel — Anadonta fluviatilis, (After Simpson.) The Uj)per figure shows the mantle (m) and gills (i g, og) thrown back, showing the foot (f), mouth (mo), one of the labial j)alpi (1 p), the visceral mass (b), branchial cavity (b c), and siphon with tentacles. The lower figure shows the two adductor muscles and the intestinal canal with the nervous system, (c g) Central ganglia ; (cc) Commissural cord ; (pg) Posterior ganglia and (psc) Commissural cord ; (p g) Pedal ganglia and (pec) Commissural cord; (amn) Anterior mantle nerve ; (gn) Nerves of the gills. PLATE III, :s, is (i g, i), one .nchial t:- Ic.-- -— -•- P' mrj. ;s and (eg) Isterior [anglia mantle ^.p.s.c. p.m.n Diagrams of a Lamelli branchiate. 280 I'KOVINXE VERTKHRATA. PLATE IV. Crav-I'Ish — AsTACUs FLuviA'iiLis (aftcr Rollcston). a — Oesophagus. b — Cardiac portion of stomach. c — Pyloric portion of stomach. d — Hepatic lobes. c — Orifice of do. /—Intestine. g — Anus. // — Heart. /', y, k — Arteries /, w, 11 — (Generative organs. 0 — Super-cesophageal ganglia. / — First pectoral ganglion, sui)plying oral organs. q — Connecting nerves of head, r — Canglia on abdominal cord. J, t — Antennae. 71 — Foot-jaw. v^ to i'' — Five pairs of feet. 7i!^ to w' — Five pairs of abdominal feet. lif' — Telson and lateral ai)pendages. X — Flexor muscles of the tail. y — Extensor muscles of the tail. s 282 PROVINXE VERTEHRATA. J rLATE V. Skeleton of Perch — Perca flavescens (after Owen). (;//) Mandible ; {im) Intermaxillary ; (b) Gill arches ; (/) Interspinous bones ; {d^^ d'-) First and second dorsals ; {p) Pectoral fins; (z') Ventral fins ; {a) Anal fin ; {c) Caudal fin ; {r) Ribs ; {s h) Spinal column. 5; •ri O H -J 284 PROVINCE VKRTEIJRATA. 7J 'I I lit PLATE I'l. Brook SricKLEiiACK — Oasierostkus (Apeltes) GYMNETES, DawSOll. (Canadian Naturalist, Vol. iv, ist series, 1859) This species inhabits brooks, and constructs nests of aquatic plants to contain its ova. A full description of the species and account of its habits will be found in the paper above cited. Fig. 1. — Adult male, natural size, drawn by R. J. Fowler. Fig. 2. — Ovum magnified, with the embryo nearly ready to be hatched, showing position of embryo on the yolk. Fig. 3. — Recently hatched embryo, with yolk-sac at- tached, showing the eyes, the two-chambered heart, the vessels distributed over the yolk-sac, the pectoral fin, and in the body the cartilaginous notochord and principal vessels. Pigment-cells are seen on the yolk-sac and sides of the body. I PLATE IT. O ^'"^ i^i (iiiiiiii Development of a Fish. 286 PROVINCE VERTEHRATA. I f1 PLATE VIL The Axolotl — Siredox pisciforme (after Gervais and van Beneden.) H — Heart, a — Ascending aorta, b — Branchial veins and arches, v — Vena cava, p — Limgs and Puhiionary artery, i — Intestine. 1 — Liver. \i.':. PLATE VIT. rvais veins lonary Structure of a B ATRACHIAN. 288 PROVINXE VERTEbRATA. rf PLATE VIII. Skeleton of Tortoise — Testudo gr.eca. Showing the Vertebrae and Ribs expanded to form the Carapace, and with the Shoulder-bones and Pelvis placed in the interior. w PLATE VTII. Skeleton of a C.lonun (After Owen). s ' » F H r 290 PKOVINCK VKRTEimATA. PLATE IX, Skulls of Man and Gorilla, Showing the great difference in tlie proportions of the brain-case and facial bones, and the diflerent positions of the Foramen magnum, (a) I i s of the lositions si o -I O O Q < IS %^ DIKrx'TIONS I'OK COM.I.C TI NC AND rKICSKKVlNC; ANIMALS. An excellent Miinii;il for CuIU-ctors is " ///<• rrm liml NaltiralisCx irections" piiMislic. I»y the Sinillisoiiiaii Institution, Wasliin^lon, are also very valualdc. The follovvinj^ hints have been conjpiled chielly front these works, to which the reader is referred for further information on the subject. The hej^inner in the study of /oology, sho\dd collect and study such animals as may be within his reach, forminj^, at hrst, a mis- cellaneous collection. He may sul»sef|uently direct his attention specially to some one K''"^M' "'^ animals ; and, after making this decision, he should provide himself with the special works necessary to the jirosecution of the particular branch selected, (leneral knowledf^e is necessary as a foundation, but the animal kin^flom is too extensive to permit any one to attain to thoroughness in more than one limited department. GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS. "Where the retreat of the tide is sufficient, the sea-shf)re always affords the best field for the collector, and the specimens ^'enerally increase in number and interest in proportion as we ajjproximate to low-water-mark. Nevertheless the whole area sh(juld be searched, as each species has its peculiar ran^e, and many forms can live only where they are exposed to the air for the greater part of the time each day. The ground may be either muddy, sandy, weedy, gravelly, stony or rocky, and the animals inhabiting each kind of ground will be found more or less peculiar to it, and rarely to occur on the others, Sand and mud are, however, so similar in character that their denizens are nearly the same, though some prefer the clearer 294 APPENDIX. waters which flow over sand, to the turbid tide wliich deposits mud, liut few specimens will he found on the surface of such ground, although the little pools lying on it should he scooped with the dip net for shrimps, etc., but it is only by the sj)ade that its true riches can be developed, liy digging in spots indicated by small holes, a great number of worms, lioring crustaceans, and bivalves may always be found. llWdy f^ronmi is so called from the abundance of eelgrass and sea-weed which covers it. These weeds should ])e examined carefully for small shells and crustaceans; perhaps the best method of doing this being to wash cpiantities of the weed in a bucket of water and examine the sediment. (JraTi-I/y ^n-onnf a small \)o:\\ R The smaller kinds are caugnt in a towing net. Being extremely fragile, they all require to be handled with, the greatest care. "Medusa; are jireseived with difticulty. Spirit, diluted vinegar, and other preparations lia\e been tried, but with very little success ; until Mr. Goadby proposed a modilication of his solution. (Reduce a saturated solution of Bay Salt to the strength indicated by a bead marked 1148, Dilute to lialf strength and add 2 oz. alum to the quart. Soak the specimens in this for 24 hours or more, according to size, changing the solution daily. Then immerse in a solution of Bay Salt of strength 1148.) This certainly surpasses anything previously in use, although it is open to the same objections as all other saline solutions. Where these objections are not deemed impor- tant, the collector cannot do better than use his method." — Dai'ies' ECHINODERMATA. " Echini and star-fishes may be preserved dry. With the former it is necessary to cut a slit in the membrane which surrounds the dental apparatus (where such exists), on the lower part of the sphere, and thence remove the viscera. In drying it is well to suspend in a place where there is a thorough draught of air. Some collectors, with a view to keeping the spines erect, fasten a hook in the soft skin at the mouth, and without removing tbe viscera, hang the Echinus to dry, either exposed to the heat of the sun or to artificial heat. "The larger star-fishes {Soltxster^ Uraster^ &c.), may be either plunged ia hot water, and laid out to dry, or may be first cleaned APPENDIX. 291> in the following manner: — A hooked wire is passed in at the mouth, or on the under surface, and into each limb, from which so much as possible of the soft matter is removed; the mouth is then held close to a water-i)ipe, and the force of water carries out what cannot l)e extracted with the wire. A little of the corrosive sublimate solution in alcohol may be poured in at the mouth with advantage. Slender-armed star-lishes {Ophiororna, Ophinra, &c.). merely re- quire to be steeped for a short time, say twenty-four hours, in spirit, and laid in a situation where they will dry rapidly. The same treatment will answer equally well for the Medusa-head star-fish. These forms are all extremely brittle, but with tolerable care need not be injured either in capturing or preparing. "Sea- cucumbers {llolothuroida) being destitute of the dense bony plates which cover the other orders of Echinoderms, cannot be suc- cessfully dried. The chief thing to be attended to in putting up as wet preparations is to let them die in sea-water, so as to preserve their branched tentacles is an extended condition." — Davus. MOLLUSCA. all lor- >ies' n a rs, ;oft ler led i "Like the true Polypi, many of the Polyzoa may be preserved dry by washing in fresh-water, and pressing between sheets of ab- sorbent paper ; but in this state they are far less valuable than as wet preparations." The tunicates should be preserved in spirits, but some of the kinds may be stuflfed with cotton and dried. *^ Fresh-7iujjh it into a Hal piece of cork, and the Crustacean is set in liie same way ns an insect, with liiisexception, that slips of paperarenot required, the limbs and feelers beinj; kept in their places by |)ins bent t)l)liqiiely over tliem. 'Ihe chief thinj; to be attended to in setting is symmetry of parts. Nothing looks worse than a shrimp or crab with its l)nd)s twisted about in every clirection but the right one. Cirripeds or barnacles may be either dried or put u|) as wet jirepar- ations. They should be kept attached to a piece of stone or wood on which they are found." — J)(U>ies. INSECTS. nts the be ler )e \ "Ti c harder kinds may be put in li(|uor, as above, but the vessel or bottle should ncjt be very large. Hutter-llies, wasps, Hies, &c., should be pinned in boxes, or packed in layers with soft paper or cotton. Minute species should be carefully s(night under stones, bark, dung, or flowers, or swept with a small net from grass or leaves, They may be put in quills, small cones of paper, or in glass vials. They can be readily killed l)y immersing the bottles, &c., in which they are collected, in hot water, or ex])osing them to the vapour of ether. Large beetles, liowever, can generally only be killed by piercing with some poisonous solution, as strychnine. " It will frocjuently be found convenient to preserve or transport insects pinned down in boxes. The bottoms of these are best lined with cork or soft wood. Attention shonld be paid to the particular part of ditferenl kinds of insects through which the pin is to be thrust ; beetles being pinned through the right wing-cover or elytron ; all others through the middle of the thorax. *' The traveller will .♦ind it very convenient to carry about him a vial having a broad mouth, closed by a tight cork. In this should be contained a piece of camphor, or, still better, of sponge soaked in ether, to kill the insects collected. From this the specimens should be transferred to other bottles. They may, if not hairy, be killed by immersing directly in alcohol. !f « 'I f! u il 304 APPENDIX. "A lump of camphor niav ho ni,- i • -c" pinned fi™,y i/,he cZr of e 1 '" " "''"^ °' "«°" ^Ich '"Z 'he purpose of prevenun, . he r , ?"'°''""e ""^^ '"«c, Ofcreosoee occasion,,,, i„,„dtd„nr " ^ '''"■ "™P -W/„<,„,-„„ /,,>,,„.,,^_ "'""'^"''"^'''"'hesamepurpose/' ^^e ti^X t™ot r- ':r t"^ '"•' ^^"-- of -e. K.ngs,ey's Na.uralist's As,k ! "' '° ""''<^*' Guide • or L published by Cnssi o ts : •p-''!"^"""'^ ^^'uraiis., G d" -"lyinK .ypica, a„i^„ "X 3, -*'«'-"; as .0 dissecting and ''-oology, Cassino, Boslon "''*"oks s Handbook of Inver.ebra. s e ^^ f cotton cloth cJ''>ed insects, A few drops ame purpose." tons of verte- iuide; or to list's Guide, 'ssecting and ^ Packard's Invertebrate i Works m- SIR U'lLUAAt DAUSON, LL.„, p.R.g., F.G S., &c, &c. Principal of McGill University. Acadian Geoloav ru.^ r' i • , larged ; with a Geological Mr Koyal Svo., Cloth. $3.00 ion ; revised and en- I'-^P and numerous illustrations. The Air-Bref.thers of the Coal Period v w criptive account of the remains nf T . T\ ■^®^^°^- "^ ^^^'•^• Ton I 17 • r '^^^"^"1^ ot Land Animals found in the Goal Formation of Nova Scofii u-wk 1 Fossil Men and their Modern Representa of^rHistHcT^-^ T"'"^"^' ''' ^^— ^^^^otSt^^ ot Fre-Historic Men in Europe by those of the American Races • wuh Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 356 pp. $2,00 ' The Origin of the World and Science. Second Edition, Cro According to Revelation wn Svo., Cloth. $2.00