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r^

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(^ A

^

\

J'

jM A N TJ A L

!> I '!.//■

OF THE

ViV'k

NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGY, ANT) rilYSTCS

OF

GREENLAND

AND THE NEIGHBOURING REGIONS;

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF THE ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF 1875, UNDER THE
DIRECTION OF THE ARCTIC COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,

AND KDITED BV

Professor T. RUPERT JONES, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., &c., &c.,

TOGETHER WITH

INSTRUCTIONS

If )

.J

V

Sl'GOESTED HY THE ARCTIC: COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY

I'OK TllK USE OF THE EXPEDITION, i

PUBTJSllEl) in AUTIIOUITV OV THE LORDS COMMISSIONERS OP THE ADMIR.VLTV.

/'f/^

O <

LONDON:

LIBRARY
ATIONAL MUSEI
OF CANADA

PRINTED FOR HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.

AM> KOI.U HY

John Miiuhay, AIIk'iiuuU' Street ; Longmans, Giiken, & C^c, rateinoster Row ;
TuOhnkk & Co., Ludtrati' Hill ; Ekwaku Stankoud, Charltif-; Cross, S.W. ;

J. I). roTTKit. :U, Poultry, and 11, Kiiij^ Street. Tower Hill:
Also by (JiuFKiN Si Co., The Hani, Tortsea ; A. .'t^>4TrA^i, jfc^«lvaj[^««i' ;
ALEJt. TiiuM, Abhey Street, and IC. I'onsomjj

1875.

3.3 1 ^

048([S(J

'hilt cell Shillimfs a

4

INSTRUCTIONS

FOR Tin: ISK OF

THE SCIEMJFIC EXPEDITION

TO

THE ARCTIC REGIONS^

1875.

SUGOESTED IJY THE AUCTIC COMMITTEE OF THE HOYAL SOCIETY.

a 2

f

V R E F A C E.

i

J

Tmk President and ( ■oimcil of tlio Royal Society wore
informed by a lett«'r from the Secretary of the Admiralty
dated 4tli December 1.S74, that it was their Lordsliips'
intention to despatch an exjjcdition, in the spring of 1S7.">,
to endeavour to reach the Nortli Pole, and to explort^ the
coast of Greenland an<l adjacent lands ; and were invited
to offer any suggestions which " might appear to them de-
" sirable in regard to canying out the scientific conduct
" of the voyage."

This letter was referred to a C'onunittee consisting of tho
President and Officers, Prof. J. C. Adams, Dr. Carpentei",
Capt. Evans, Mr. J. Evans, Mr. F. Galton, Dr. Giiuthei,
l^-of Ramsay, Sir H. Rawlinson, and Mr. Scott, wit'i
j)Ower to add to their number. The Committee decideu
that it was desirable to prepa»'o (1) a Manual of Scientific
Results already obtained in Arctic Expeditions, (2) Instruc-
tions for future observations.

To prepare the instructions, the Committee divided the
branches of science which were to 1)0 represented among
several sul)-connuittees, consisting partly of its own mem-
])ers, partly of otlier scientific persons who were specially
conversant with the respective branches. It has been
thought best that the several portions into which the in-
structions are divided should appear with the names of
those by whom they were individually drawn up in the first
instance, and who, after consultation with their colleagues,
are held responsible for their final form.

In a few instances it will be found that the same subject
has been mentioned by more than one of those concerned in

IV

PREFACE.

tlio j)ropnration of the instructions. In such cases it lias
Ik-cm tliongl»tl>cst not to incorporate tlic instructions rdatini^
to the same subject, Imt to leave tlioni under the names of
those who drew them U]> ; partly to maintain the principle
of indivi<lual responsibility, partly hecause the observers
woidd more readily enter into the spirit of the instructions
if the diHerent points of view from M-hich tlu! same subject
was regarded were separately ])resented to their minds.

I

The preparation of the Manual of Scientific Residts
wjis entrusted to the care of Prof. Ruj)ert Jones, F.ll.S., as
Kditor in chief, who also undertook himself to compile the
part relating to Zoology, Botany, Geology, and Mineralogy.
The Committee appointed Prof. W. G. Adams, F.ll.S., Sub-
editor, to assist Prof. Rupert Jones by compiling the part
relating to Phv-sics. The Manual will be found at the end
of the Instructions.

3.
4.

• ,*

1.

N it lias

>'«'Iatin<'

names of

>jincij>lo

Itservors

ructions

«ul»ject

ids.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR TTTK USK OF TIIL: ARCTIC
KXrKDiTlON, IHT.-J.

C 0 N T K N T S.

FART I.— PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Results
H.JS., as
»I)ile tlie
eialo-j'.
S., Sul)-
lic j>ait
ho CM id

I. — ASTKONOMV.

'M !• Astronomical Data. (Kclipsi-s of the Sun and Oeciiltations.) IJy

J. 1{. llintl, F.K.S., Supi'riiitt'iult'iit of tliu Nautical Almanac

'2. Sii^'p'stioiiH for ( >hscrvatio!is of the Titles, ilv the Itcv. Trof.

Ilaufrhton, .M.l)., F.U.S. - . " . . .

3. I'lnduliim Observations. Ih Trof. (I. (J. Stokes, M.A., Sec. Iv.S. -

•I. On the Detection of Meteoric (t'osmiral) Dust in the Snow of Arctic
liegions. IJy I'rof. II. K. Uoscoe, IJ.A., VMS.

II. — Ti;iM{i:sTi:iAr< iMacm.tism.

J. On r)«'termiiiation of EU'nunts and u>e of Maf:;netical iti>^truments.
IJv I'rof. .J. C. Adams, M.A., F.K.S. ; and Capt. h\ J. O. Kvan>,
K.N., C.IJ., F.U.S.

ill. — Mi:ti:<U{ol(m;v.

1. Meteorolof^ieal Instructions. V,y h'ohirt II. Scott, F.H.S., Direttor
of the Meteorological OfHee - - . _ _ .

2. Note on Auroral Observations. 15v I'rof. Stokes, M.A., Sec. K.S.

Pftge

8
10

II

14
1'.)

IV. — Atmosi'Ukuic Klkctkicity.

1. Inslructions for the ( H)>>ervatioii oi' Atnu)S|iherie I'llectrieity.
I'rof. Sir William Thomson, LL.D., F.K.S. -

»y

liO

V. — Ol'TU'S.

1. spectroscopic Observations. Observations of the Spectrnni of the
Sun and of the Aurora. IJy I'rof. G. Ci. Stokes, M.A., Sec. K.S.

2. rolarisution of Light. By W. Spottiswoodc, M.A., Treas, K.S.

3. Instructions in the use of tlie Sj>ectroseopcs. By J. Norman
Lockyer, F.K.S. ......

VI.— INIlSCKLLANEOU.s Oh^KRVATIOXS.

1. On Saline Matter in Ice. By Dr. Kae, F.K.li.S.

2. Hints towanls Observations in the Arctic Kegions. My I'rof.
Tyudall, D.C.L., F.K.S.

24
2G

28

;J2
34

VI

CONTKNTS.

I

PA&T II.— BIOLOOT.

I. — /OOLOOY,

1. On coUoctiiip Spooiiuons of tin- Miimmalin of (iroonland, ami inakiiiu
( )hs«Tvatioiis thrri'oii. I?_v l)r. Albert CidiitluT, K.U.S.

'J. On i'oll«'ctiii>: S|H'ciim'iis of the (.'i-taot-a of tin- Arcfii' Sias, and
niiikiiij^ Olwrrvatioiis thereon. \\y I'rof. W. H. KlowtT, F.K.S.

y. (In coUci tirijj; anil oliscrvinj; the Minis ol" ( Iniiilaiul. Hv 1'. I..
Sclater. M.A..K.K.S. - - . . ." .

•J. ( )n eoUeeliiif; Sjn'ciMhU"' of the Fishes of Greenland, iitid niakin^i
t ihservations thereon. Ily Dr. Albert Giinther, K. U.S.

5. On eolhetin^' the Mollu«*ea of the Aretie Hejrions, and making
( »l>ser\ationH thereon. H} .J. (Jwyn .letlrejs, F.1{.S. - - -

f). ( )n the r*)lleetion and IVe-ervntion of llvdroids and Tolyzoa. My
(i. .1. Allinan. M.I)., I'.L.S.. F.IJ.S. - " -

7. ( 'n the Constriietion ami M( thod df I'sin^' the 'I'owinfi Net, and NoteK
on the Animnl.s wliieh mav be obtained thereby. My (J. J. Allnnui,
M.l).. I'.L.S., F.K.S. * - - ■ -

8. Supplenientar} Instrnetionx. My I'rof. Huxley, LL. 1)., Sec. li.S.

II. — IJOTANY.
I . In^tructioub iu Uuluny. liy J. Dultou Ilooktr, M.l)., C.H., Tres. li.S.

III. — Gk()i.o(;v and Mim'.i{ai.O(;y.

1. (ieneral Inntrnetions for Observations in '.ieolojry. Hy I'rof.
v\. ('. Kiui.^ay, M-.D., F.W S.. Direi-tor (ieneral of the (ieol();.M(al
Snrve\,and .lohn K\ans, F.W.S., rr(>-. (ieol. Sor. . - .

'J. till ('olU'i'tin^r .Minerahtgii al Spreiniens, and nuikin^ < Hiservations
tlicn'on: (/ Mint-nils and KocUs ; A. Meteorites. Hy I'rof. N.Story
Mask.hne. M.A.. F.K.S. - . . . .

.'5. (Ill the ( )i>>ervations whieh should Im- uimU- in ca.se Vtdeanots or
K\idenees of Voleanio Action should l>e met with. Hy .1. W. .Indd,
r.o.s. - - - - - - " -

^

i

i^e

1

;jn

1

;»•.»

1

1.".

1

^(>

1

■IS
.M

1

(id

1

(i'J

r,M

8.«

«

TNSTlMKJTrONS.

PART I.—PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS.

imkiiii;

Pll^r,.

-

;i»',

s, and

.

.•»;»

1'. I..

-

4:.

lakiii^r

-

-t(i

liikiii^'

-

■iH

• 'b

-

:.i

Notl'K

liiiaii,

-

.V2

S. .

CM

I.— ASTIIONOMY.

. U.S.

I'rof.
tioiKs
s or

Ufld.

r.ii

V,H

8.«

* <

1. AsTit()\<>Mi(\r, Data. ( Kclipsrs ..f tlir Smi and
Occultations.) Hv .1. II. lliM>. KIJ.S.

K(Mi'si; of till" Si;\, 1S7(), Maivli '2.',.

In loiifritndo <>() ' West niid iMfilihlc H'2\ this eclipse* roinnicnccs
Mnrch *_'.') nt 4'' 12 1'" local iiu .-m lime, I'Mi' from (lie Sou's
imrdi point towartls llio wesf, ami cutis at (J** K"'. Magiiifiide of
eclipse, ()*()7.

Koi' any position not far fi'om the aKove, the loiirritntle of which
is A (taken /n;/afln/i/)niu\ ;.;eocen(iic laliluile/, the ( 1 leenwich
lime /, oC c(»mmeiicemenl of the ecliji<e, may be foiiml ihnn the
l"ollo\vin<; I'ormnhe : —

Cob w=:i r 1 1'-T).!- [(>• l<»:)l»r»] .sin /+ ['J-O.'*.')!!!] .cos l.cos(\ + :U] 1!C4')

r=:gi' .T" :>()'- [.'{-.^Ttcm] .sill a- ^ [;j-r)2;jM3] .sin /

- [.•t-rflO'.Hl] .cos/. COS (A- l.-,0 -"O'),

ami applying tlie longitmle expressed in lime to /, tluis fouml,
the local mean time of fii'sl contact is olitainetl. 'i'he (|nantities
within sipiare hrackcts are h>jrarilhms.

The distance ot' the pointof contact tm the Smi's limb I'rom his
north point reckoning towards the w'e.st = a'-f -•' '^'>''

Kci.ii'sr, of the Sirs, 1S7T, Angn.st S.

In loiigitnde (iO VV(»st, and lalilnde ^2 , tliis eclipse commences
AngMst H ut 12'' 17 "IV" local mean time, Hf from the Snn's
north point i(»wards tho wesl, and «'iids al l.'}** 21'". Magni-
tude of eclipse, ()-21.

Kor any position not far from the above, the CirecMiwieh lime /

of commencement will be found from thi' formnhe : —

Co»w-='2y2\:>\ -[0'i>2120] sin/f [U-;»;i7ia] .cos /.ros (\ + '2^[t M • I')
/rcri;!' '2'2'" •):-- [3-4!>ot;4] sin «-[:<•. 'JcilUS J sin/

-[;3-7;5:>i7J .c(>s/.c..s (A-'ir. -.m-d').

Tho distance oi' the point of contact on the Sun's limb fi-om
his north j)oint reckoning towards the west = a- — 21 ' 'MV.

Note. — Tlu' i/orfh poi/if is here to be rhstinguished iVom the
Sun's upper point or vei'tev.

As an example oi' the ap|)lication of the above formulae of
reduction of time (»f commonccMnent, i1m> calculation may bo mad(^
for the position assumed in the original calculation ujion -which
the ctpiations an- founded, vi/., longitude ()() or 4'' West, and
latitu(h' (geogiJn>hical ) S2^. To ivibice the geographical to the
geo<'eiitric latitude (/), a correction is to bo applied which may
bo taken from tlie Table at p. 57 of " Appendices to various
"Nautical Almanacs Itotweou the years ls;}4 and lSo4;"with
argument K2, this correction is irrtobo subtracted from the
geographical latitude, and hence /=Mr oO'O'.

2

Tl TXD.— ASTKONOMTCAL DATA.

In i1h" cmso of (lie I'clipso of 1S7(>. Miuxli 2.'), ilu' coinpuluUon
i.s (licii iis lollows : —

(.'(iii>l;nit -()• 1 '.•,')•».■)
sin / • '.f'.tli.'iTo

-(I- llUCi.")

Ni>. - 1 ■•i;)4:-.>

(\)ii-t;int . '.I'Hri.'ilo
(•(». / 4 '.fl4f,M;{
cos A •!'•'.'<•' IM

+ '.t-(i(;.ii.*4

('(Mi^tant +11 li»:)3

-i-:):.4 72

,.,,^a' — ((•.'J-_'«.">2
<»r Icjr. cos a.' — ;»• ."il.Ud

w t lO'.t .*•,")

( (iiistiiiit —.'?•:. 7ii.';i I Coii^timt t .'r.^UM.'i.'J

«I1I U'

No

■ .••)■.■. 4. ".s -J

sill / T •f'.ty:)7(t

A — Go ()•(»

Constant > .■{<; 11) -4

A - !'•« 4(»-(;

A _ r>0 (»Mt

Constant -ITjO *-»•(»
IJ -2U> 2M»

Constant — M- 7«>C.<>(t

cos/ t ;>• i4C>a;)

cosll -<)-;t;{738

^ 2-8:.or)i
No. f 70S •'.»■•

+ 4(»I2-S
- .■?;.l4-2

f 4'.tS-(i

cc - Km 4
(■|»n-.tant 2Ii 4".

Ai\.ii ti.'iii N. r.'Mit ) i..kj Ml

,it lir t ...!.l..il. / ~ ^'^'^ '^

II. M. S.

or t s 1J»
Constant S ;{ ."lO

S 12 '.»

Snlitract I.onjr. 4 o o

T/ocal time of <-onuncnciiiK'iit 4 12 '.(
wliirli UL'tfis >vit!i the diiiet calcolatioii.

o

Dut

181

Sct>t.
Oct.

I)

t'C.

OcCfl.l ATIONS.

Tlio list nppondcd iiiclrnh's tlioso sttirs id' tlio Xantirdl AIdkhhh-
t'titalo^mc Avliicli inav possilily lie occiilli'd in Si> of iioflli lati-
ludo ; 1 \\\ ill (tfilcr Id ax'crtaiii A\iih ci'i'.aiiil y wlicllicr any .'-lar
is occulted, ;in<i llir ;'irciiii;>t ai:cc> ol' llic occiillat ion. snpposin-^
tlio p(t-iii(in <il' lie ]>iiiiil wlii'i'c ilir oliscr\ atioii is to In' made
aiipro\inial( !v known, llo' foiinnia' !^iMn at p. lo 4 of . l/>yu7/r//rr,v,
Ac., cited alioNc. may l-e employed. An exaiiipic of the aj>|)Iica-
tion oi" these Coiinnhe i'or ( ifeeiiwicdi i- «>ivcii at p. 1 lo ; hnl to
rui'lhei- ilhisirale the method ot' conipn ta I Iwi;. t he occnhatioii (d'
the phinei Maf.- l''7'». dannai'y .'>1. i- liere cahadaled lot- hiniri-
ln(h' 1" West, hitilu(U> si! .

Tile l'oih»wiii_:!r aic the ciiiaiinslaiic's I'oi" tliis po>iiion of the
principal occnitations ^isilll(• in 1S7() and 1^77.

IinnH'rsidii. Kmorsiun.

II. M. II. M.

.Mai> - I s7t;.,i.iii. .'.o-.'n '■2.\ .ai; si; o l's ;{,•{;{

\ .1111- - ., Oil. II 4 4 12 I In 2'.) I

1 .".7 .""o 2 17 2('2

;» :>•! 70 10 If. 2:0
21 22 14 1 21 ;?.') It;;)

irvnlll- ,. 1 '( c. '1
1877, .Ian. 2
., .Ian. 2!l

Kcl'. 2ti

S lo '.».■)

214

'i'\\v ainiNC ai'e local ine;in liiius, and lln' anodes iVoiii N. point
arc ]•(•( k(»ned a- iisiial in the \<iutinil ^Unininic.

Naniieal .\Iinanac Oliicc. '^ • ^^' ^^''"'■"•

1^70, J'\'lirnai-v 10.

HIND.— ASTllOKOMICAL DATA.

coinpulafloii

- Go O'O
» .'{('. 11) -4

- 2.S 40- »i

- (;o ((•()

- ITiO 2-0
-210 2-0

-.'{•7r>(;<.»o

;»• I4r.;i;3

-l>'!t;J738

2-8:.0(;i

708 -ir

.•{;jo;5-<»

■J0I2S

■ .'?r)i4-2

4'.>H-i;

II. M. S.

N ;i .•)(»
8 12 :»

1 O ()
4 12 >J

AlttKHKU-
Oil It l;ili-
■ ••lliy .still-

•U|)lM)sill<r

'k' lii.'iflc
jH'ii(/i<t s^

;t I •plica-
' : l>Ml Id
liiliiiii of
"!" loiiiri-

1 of (III'

OccuLTATiONs of Stnrs to tlic olli ningiiihulo inclusive that inny be
visible ill or ncjir S2° N. L:it. and fiO"" AV. Lonj,'.

'*?. poiui

IlM).

!/•<•

1

ll Mi'MU

ji

FiOcnl Monii

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iu 11. A. of i

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St

ir's Name

Tinio of (-jf
iu U. A. of

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and .;f.. ■

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187

5.

1

ll.

111. s.

187

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Occi-i.TAiioN ^ 1S7(}, Jam AKV .'51.

Loii;r. 1'' W. Lat. N. 82 ('» i>

('(vrrootion — .'! 7

/ 81 ,•)(•. .•■)3

l> 9-99800

oos / 9-1403.3

<p ' 9- 14493

cot / 9- i:.O03

f/) - 9 •994.30

9-14493
const. 9-41910

(p •* 8-:)t;io;»

11. :m. .s.
^r> U.A. O 38 41-1
::;'s K'.A. 0 39 2') -8

tiuio —

44'

arc- 11' 10-.")'

HIND. — ASTRONOMICAL DATA.

II.

M.

IjiViil sidcival time at
(Jri-t'iiwicii mxm i

Mars K.A.

}i

f) 1(1 14-8
0 39 25*8

-7 S'.i iro

II. M.

- 7 :.'.* iru

i

tiiiu

aro

1 rA'2

4 2 D i('s Die +5 13 .')()• 8

39-8 5 *'sDoc. +4 10 13-3

- 3 nfi 31-2

1)_S +1 3 3:

D,

f 14 r)6-8

23-0'' f .1 • nat'.'.i-

3-.'i3(;'.l4

+ a-;VUi94

ip ■ + 9 • '.»94;W» I'os A + 9 • 7 Ut 1 1» >in A - 9 • 93;w;r)

I'OS

{

* ;»-:);ii:i4

-r 9-99SSr)
■4 3 •,'),•<( )(l>.l
+ 5r. 29 2

-(-.•i-24:i3

-in 5 +8-8f>ir,r)

+ 2- 1(IS7<»

'^ ' t '.»• 14 J 93

+ 1 •25372

— 3-47<>r)n
sin 5 + s-H«;ir)»;

-2-3322«)
(/) •' +S-.')«;4()9

+ •)♦; 11-3

1)-S r fi3 37-.')

.r + 7 2t'.'2

la -11 lo-.j

1 -2SiJr)4(>
(.'(IS 5 ' 9 • 99>^.*i

r -2-82.'i2.'>
I -11 H-7
r sin /i -3-47nf.o
</>:' +9-14493
r -2t;i.^).").i
T -»> .'iJC,

r V - 4 1 r, • 1

I -2-4(1841

{:

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1)

9

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f a, 4- 27 4S-(>

1 +3-2222l>
1-08 5 +9-99S8:)

r +3-22 10.5

1+27 43r)

r 3-.">3ti94 r c-or.// +3-24 713

const. ;»-43f,77 +S- ir)4(t9

!,■) 39 -S
."» 7 17-7

A' 2-97371

f + 1-81122

L + I 4-7

{■■"

V o

.[-(S,0]

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^v

n

A'

C(»s a-

S - 29 T) 1 • 2
I : •_".! .-til- 1

(S 4 1) t <• 21 ■ 1

T +2-f)4!t.")3

fan S — 9-7:)^.^s
• 9-'.*3S17

r 2-71 lif,
+ 9-99999
+ 2-71 13.-.

2-97371

. 9-737(14

t 3-2»"..")S9

sin a —9-921 19

-3- isTnS

/, — 0 2r) -(','"

4 2

"" 3 .-it; -4
Long. 4 n-o W
Iimii. .Fan. 30'' 23 3«i-4 ( I.of. MtaiiT. ) Km. .Ian. 3 I'

a' ' .')•"> .")2 - 1
(I -at; 31 0
.".7 13-2

A

+ 2(; 38-9

+ 3-2(13^2
.7-, + 2 • 9.'ir):.()

cot ( + ft -24732

•■o- * t 9 ■939(')'.»

W +2-711 3t;

3 -.'.a 630

f C. ^uT.'t.")

' 3-(>o;{:,.-{

♦ 9-737«)4

i .3 - L'fi.'jSK

t 9-924f,7

r :\- 19(l,")0

+ 0 2.') -9'"
4 2

11

IIS (t)

r
-ill /(

4 0-0 W

o 27-9

w + .')«; - 9

-8C.-4

(-0

(I)

-29-,")
+ 5(i • 9

4 27 -r

.\iilr. — Tn tlii- particular fxannilc. T (4'' 2'") wa- taken fVoin a jm-vions
calculation, hnt it may l)c ohtaincil wiili a siiHici»-iit <lci;rcc of a|i|>roximatioii,
\)y the iDi tliod «i«-scril»c(l at p. 129 of Aj>p<'mli<'cs to tin* Nautical Almanac.

If the aiiijli - IVdui tlic Sun's vertex are re<|uirc(l, the |iarallaclic angles
nin-t )y'.' coii'putc'l and apjilicd to the ahovc.

I

5

f) I • 2

■tS-O"

+ .'» IM :>()-8

+ 4 10 13-3

+ 1 3 37^5

+ 14 ^~ii

■ It • OM.'icr,

■347(»r)U

ST)ti40<>

<• 7!l
14 ACS
1 .". 4-7
l'7 4S0

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27 43 f)
3 • IM 7 1 3

1-81122
I 4-7

jrr38-9
(• 2(t;{s2
'■■'.>'>(•,:,{)

••-'4732
■i*3im;;»
•7)i;wJ
•.');j63(»
■i'M73.'i
•<i(i;{-,3
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• -'6:)H'.»

!t24(;7

i!»i):,r,

2.J-1V"
2

27-;t

2. Si'fKJESTToNS for OnsKUVATidNS of tlio TiDKS to l»e made
l>y the NoilTH PoLK EXPEDITION, l)y the Ki:V. hJAMUEI.
liAUdiiTuN, M.D., F.R.S.

il [inVKMIS

oxitnatidii,
liiiiiiiac.

■lie illl^'Us

«

I. SlMMAKV OK AUCTIC TlOAL Ol'.SKKVA TIONS AI.UKADY MAI V.

The tidal Wiivt' enters tlic Antic Polar IJasiii hy three distinct
channels : —

1. hy Behrinj:'s Strait.

2. Hy Davis' Strait.

3. By the Greenland Sea and IJarentz Sea.

As to the liist two of these tidal wavt's, I can olfer some nsel'ul
observations, lint 1 know little of the third wave, l)eyt)nd the fact,
recorded by Cajttain Markiiain, that tin- tide wave No. 2, entering;
Smith Sonnd and Koiuu'dy Chainu'l, meets at Cape Frazer (( Jriiuiell
Laml), Lat. (Sl)° N. with a titlal wave coniiiij; from the north,
which 1 licHeve to be the wave No. 3, which has travelled lound
the north coast of Greenland, thus proving' it to be an island.

1. Ii(/iriii(/ Straif T'nhd Wdcc.

Observations o\\ this tidal wave have bi-en made at —

1. Port Clarence - - Captain Moore.

2. Point Barrow - - Captain Kochlbrt ^hignire.

3. Walker Bay - - Captain Collinson.

4. Cambridp- Bay - Captain Collinson.

All thepe oliservations lead to the resnll that this tidal wave is
a simple Intiar semi-dinnial tide, withont any complication of
solar or of dinrnal title, which seem, iVom some nnknown canse,
nnable to enter the Arctic Jiasin thron;;h lUdn-inu's Strait, althontih
the diurnal tide is well (.levelojied in many [)arts of the North
I'acilic Ocean. 'I'liis tide has been trace«l eastwards as far as
Victoria Strait, where it me»'ts the l)avi>' Strait tide No. 2, enter-
in^ Victoria Strait, IVom the noith, thron^h Bellot Strait and
Fraidvlin Strait.

[Till.' Fraid<lin exjiedition jti-rished at the meeting of these two
tides, which forms a line of .still water and immoveable pack ice.
In fact the " Krebns " and ** Terror," having- become beset in
Septendier 184(), were abandoned in April 1848, havinj:,' moved
only lo miles during the IH months.]

It is extremely probable that the Behring Strait tidal wave
enters Banks' or Maelure Strait and passes as far eastward as the
Bay of Mercy, where Machire's Expedition was abandoned, in
IHo.'}, after two years ineffectual attempts to enter ]\Ielville Sonnd
from the West. 1 am persuaded that this failure was due to tl;;'
nieetinj; of the Behiing Strait and Davis* Strait tidal waves a(
tla- western outlet from Meh ille Sound. Unfortunately this im-
])ortant fact cannot be determined with certainty in conseiiuence
of the apj»arent loss of the tidal oliserNations made V)y Macdniv in
the Bay of Mercy in lNol-.')2-.);} ; and by Kelleit in Bridi»orl
Jnlet in iS,;2-.");}. H' these tidal obser\ations could be discovered
they would thiow iiuich lij^ht on the theory of the tidal motion of
this [)ari of the American Arctic Archi[)elap).

J

0

II vrOTTTON. — TIDES.

2. Davis' Strait Tidal Wart,
This tid.il wave is much hctlcr kiKnvn than that of nrhiiiijr

Strait.

01

>s»'rvali(>iis tjpoM It liavo Ijocm mac

1.

(1«* at-

1. Frrth'ricksdal

'2. (uulthM.il. -

.■). Ilolstc'iiihoru

.'). Fri'dciii'kshaalt

(). 1*011 lit'Opolll

7. r»fll(»t Strait

S. Urcc'lu'V Island

[). (Irillilh Mind

10. lu't'n-o (ovc

11. Northiiuit'Cllaiid

Stniiid.

Missionary Ashoo.
Dr. Kink.
Diivctor HUmv^j:.
Assistant Bulbroo,

Sir flames Kuss.

Sii- Lropold McClintock.

•• Rosoluic" and "Assistance'

" North Star."
" Kt'soliito " and ''Assistance
Sir K. Bchd.cr.
Sir !•:. r.rlch.T.

Thi-s tidal wave, in |ta>>inu:, Calif Fartwill has a lnni-ti<lal
interval of (? 22'". Avhich is incivascd f ln,i:lilicld) to llMV'at
UjuTnaxik. and to 1 T' .',()"' ;it \'aii Rcnnsdacr Harbour (Kane).
The diurnal element is well <h'vch)i)ed alouir the (ircenland coast.
On reafdiinu" the head of UalVin's llay. the tithd wave nieve-; north-
waiil thiouiih SiuilhV Sound, and (aeotu'diiiij to Captain .Mark-

lani ) meets another tnu'

It ("

ii»f

!•

v.v/.vv

The tidal wave lu>ws

al-o

thrcumh Lancaster Sound to ihe wotward to Poll Leopitld,

Avheie it ilivides into three hrauidies, throu'di-

(I.

1

iarrow Strait Iwe-tward).

//. Wollinjiton Channel, (^Juecn's Channel, and Penny Strait

(northward ).
c. Prince Keirent Inlet (southward).
The progress of the tidal waves may he thus estimated l>y tl

je

luni-tidal inter\ai- : —
(a ). Port Leopold

II. M.

- 11 44

(ivillith Nland ( .Vdmiralty Tide 'I'al.les) - 0 1 . >

Dealy Mand (

1

Jav o

f M

»i'('v. not :zi\en

Ad

niira

ItvT

) -

ime

I IS

Talde>).

(Tl

le )'ani:e 1- mven a

11

'y

>av oi

M

ercv, an(

t '2 it. in the
I III 4 ft. at Dealv

I-land ; this circumstance, and the pre-
-nnied dillicully of li\inji the time o(
hi;:h water i^ in fa\(tur of the tith" .at
Mercy Day lieini: the ih'hriiit: Strait
tide.)

(A), port Le<ipol(l
Penny Strait

(r.) I'ort Leopold
Uellot Strait

11 14

0 lo

11 (4

11 IS

* ('ai>tain Mar'.vluiin's n marks 4i<»v, lliat tln' diurnal .Iriiicnt i. vo 11 ile-
vi-1(Hhm1 ill lb.- till! va\. ►eiith et'Caje I'ra/.< r.

nrlninjr

k.
stnnoo."

lnni-ti(l:il
11'' ()'" «t

ir (K:mo).
iii'l coiisl.
^•(■s Morth-
iiiii M;irk-
,;ivo flows
I Lect|K»l<l,

my Strait

1

1

1

llAUdllTON. — TIDES.

7

All llioso tidal wnvos niv coninlcx, and oonsist ol i'oiir

well

ninrkcd waves.

1. Lunar HCinidiin-nal.

2. Solar soMiidiurnal.

3. Lunar diurnal.

4. vSoliir diurnal.

This tidal wave cannot, tlierofbrc, for a moment be eonfomidcd
with the Uehriuti Strait wave, whieli is n simple lunar semi-
diuriud wave.

'J'hc western hranch moves (as 1 believe) across MuKilie Sound,
and meets tlie l»ehrin<;' Stiail tidal wave in Maclui-e Strait. The
nortliern luaiich proceeds re^iularly through I'enny Strait to
hit. T() , showiuir no si<in of moetiug an opposini:- tide althou;:;h it
would prol>al)ly meet tlu' liehriiiu' .Strait tide somewhere about
H(f. The southern Ijranidi, as 1 have proved meets the Pacific tide
at the noilh entrance of \'ietoriii Channc-1, where the Franklin
expedition was abandoned. If the statement of the meitinji; of
two tidal waves in Keeneily ("hann( 1 be contirmed, it will diminish
the ehaiuH' of reaehiui: the Noilh I'ole by that route, even thoiiuh
the northern tidal \va\(' be u(/t the liehriiiLi; Strait wave winch is
highly improbable.

it is not at all uulii<ely that the lichiinu- Strait tidal wave may
nu'ct the unite<l Atlantic wa\es (o the north ol' ( ireeidand, and at
this side of tiic I'ole ; in which ca>e it is piobabh,' that sledges
will do more work than >hips.

As it may be of u>e to ili'iermine (piiekly the character of the
tidal wave, I now uive a method of doinu' so.

::d by the

M.

44
l.">

IS

44

44
4S

i, -^.II (b-

11. — Mi/riioit OF i»r.i i:i;minin(; tjuit ki.v tiii; existi:.\ck of a

DiLijNAi. Tiin:.

Hourly obser\ations of the heijj:lil of the tide made for 4S
sticeessive hours, will deteiinine accuiately the diurnal tide for
e\civ hoiu- of the middle 21 hours. Let //j, //^, //.j, be three
hei'dits of tide separated IVom each other bv intt-ivals of 12 hours,
then thi" diurnal title, at the period coii'espon(lin«i' to the middle
observation //> is uiven l>y the formula : —

4 '

The time >elecied for niakiuj;' the 4!S lionrs observations should
be when the Moon's (lecliiiatiou is Ltitat (either n»)rth or south)
be«au>e the diurnal tide \ani-hes ^\it!l the declination of the Moon
or Sun respect i\ely. 'I'lie e\pres>ion for the diurnal tide is ol'the
I'orm, —

1)=:M sin 2y. c(»s (/ii)-\ S sin 2t cos (S) (2.)
Where /x= Moon's ileclination.
o-^=Sun's declination.
y//=An aiiiile thai goes through all its ciian;j,es in a

IniKU' day.
.v=:An allude that ,i:oes through all I:- chan :es in .-»
solai' dav.

8 sTOKKS. — PKXDrr.rM orsehvattons.

At tilt' tinn" ot'ofniiiiox o- = 0, nii«l lu'iict' tlir 4H-lu)ur observation,
it" in.idf ;it this tiuu', !iii»l aUo Avhcii ju=:(), woiiM >liow the noii-
('x:>liMK'(.' ••i'ji tliiuii.il titlr, iilthoujj;l\ tliore ini;;lit l»t' ii'iilly ii Inr^jjc
diu'. 'I'lif t"ornu>t" ((lUiitioii (2.) shows thf itiisom lor »liii'ctin«; llio
(.)l»t'r\atitnis to bo iiiado when tlio Mihim's (Iccliiialioii is "^icat.

A> a I ulo tho tlinnial titU' is ol" i'()iisithTabh' amount both limaf
aiul ^olar, in all llu' biaiK'hos oi" tiic Davis' Strait tidal wave; and
in souu- cases thu solar diuinal tide is actually ^i cater than the
hniar diurnal tide

III. — (il.NKKAI. Kl l.l.S H»K TlUAl, ( )ii55l K V.MInNS.

]SIiu'h \aluablc liuic has btn-n oltcn niis.-pcnt ou tidal obxcrva-
tious of little \alne, and i;i'eat disappnintnu-nt Celt at the small
results pi'oduoi'd by ni<»st lab<)ri(»ns and careruilv conducted
ol'Mivations ; whereas at other stations, a sinii)le month's ol)sei--
\ations jH'operly made ha\e ::iven results of threat value, altlmu^h
the ob-ervation- tln'iuseUt's did not cost one-tenth part ol' the
laliour nf other (ilisi-rvatioiiv; which ;:ave but little re>ult,

1 i)tVer tlu' Inllowin'f suir;:cstions for tidal ob'^ervations made for
a lcnij:thened period.

1. llonrly ob>ervation> oi liei;^ht >huuld be nuule for one nM)nt!i
at the times of solstice and e<[uinox.

2. At the iiiteixeniuLT I'criod-, in older to save the Jaboui' of
the observers a^ nnich as jxtssible, it is I'ecomnicnded ( in-lead of
iioliiit: the time and heiixht of hiixh and low water eatdi <lay) that
the hciixht ol the tide should l>e rcji-itered evei'\' //'/// hoiu's
ol iiKu II siilin tiiiK. This would c<irri'>|iond with the times of
strikini: bt-lis. which would ensiu'c jiunctuality and accm-acy as \^^
the time of oli.-er\.ilion, and the observation itself could be made
in one minutt'. I -houhl jtrel'er obst'r\ations made e\i'ry J'nur
hours, for this rea-on iimoiii.r others, that the diurnal and semi-
diurnal tides could I'c at once se])aratcd, and discussed indepen-
(hntly of each other.

.'5. The times of obs«.'r\ation mn>t l)e carefully kept to, but
■whethtr the exact hour.-, oi- a fixed number of minuti-s after the
exact hours, maN lie decid»"d according; to the con\enience of the
obser\er-.

\. Kriuark carel'ully that the times of observation must be ac-
cordiiiir to nuan solur t'nnr, not according to apparent solar time.

.*). Pendulum Ohseuvations. By Prof. Stokes, M.A.,

Sec. H.S.

It must be ri'inembered that pendulum ol»servatioiis are ol' little
value unle.-s very ac( urately made.

The jxiKliilum station will of course be adjacent to the ship's
winter (piarteis. It inu-t if imssihh be on laud, «'hielly bcc^uiae
the clock's late at ihc time of obser\atioii mii'-l be deiermided by
transits, ami we ha\ c no guarantee that ice euNeriiig the sea, how-

,'*

STOKKS. — PKNDIM M or.SKKVATlONS.

senatioti,
the noii-
ly a liir;j;i'
•etiiiji the
peat.

)ot)i liiiiav
,avt' ; ami
• than the

NS.

il (ihxiM'va-
thc small
(•(Hi»luc'l<«l
h's oltscr-
■, alllinntih
art ul' the

s uiaih- lor

one month

• liiboiir of

(instead of

I (lay ) that

t'Diii hours

i- tinus of

iiracv as to

(I he ma(h^

cvi'iy four

ami srmi-

d indrpi'ii-

(■|»t It), hul
s al'trr tho
•mv of tlu'

mist be ac-
iolar time.

:s, M.A.,

an- ol' littU'

II the ship's

■lly hco^iuse

(•rmiru'd hy

a.' sua, how-

('\i'r apparently liiin, may not he snltjccl to small motions in
azinmlli, which would vitiate the tran-^ils.

Clear weaihec shonhl he chosen for the observations, that
1 1 anvils may be obserxt'd.

The observeis are assumed to bo already aeipniinted with the
modf ol" makiuL'^ pendulum (•bsei\alions, and therelore it will only
1)0 neeet-sary to mention some precautions.

It is I'ocommended that jfi'eat care be taken as to the mode of
ilhnninatin^ the briiiht jjaleh on the elock-pondulnm. Sir Geoi';j;(f
Aiiw found a p>ld-leaf surl'ace of an obli(|ue section (»f a cylinder
]iinjceiino from the bob towards the observer to be bust. Tin;
liulit is then to be latei'al, and may be distant.

.\s oven an astronomical clock cannot be trusted to 20 for
short intervals of time with a rat(^ ('([ual to its mean i-ato for
24 hours, it is desirable to take a series of consocaitive swinijs
extendinji' over 24 hour.'', which would have the further advanta.ue
that thenu'an temperature of the pendulum wouUl more accurately
coii'esjiond to the mean indication of the thermometers. The
time chosen Ibr conimencement should be about the middle oi' tht;
lime niDst fa\ ourable for transits. As a swing may be expected
to last about four hours, and it is sullicient to obsi'rve two or three
coiia-idences at the bcLrinninjj^ and end of each swing, the observer
would have tinu'cnouuh to take transits and to rest in the intervals
Itetween (»bser\ing coincidences. The observer must remember,
liowe\c-., that he is responsible for the number of coincidences
(Iiat have taken place, ami therefore hi- would do well to take at
lirst, or in picliminary trials, one or two intermediate coincidences,
merely as counters not inteniled for icduetion, and not leave otl"
this pi\ietice till he l:a^ convinced himsell' that it may be safi'Iy
dispensed with.

In ol)ser\ing coinci<lenee> I he obseiver nnist, of coui'Se, register
l)oth the disa|)pearanee ami the leappearanee of the mark, lint
as it i> somewhat perplexing to observi and register four events
which •succeed on(! another at intervals of a few seconds, namely,
the two disappearances (llio<e of the right and left edges oi" the
mark) and the two reappearances, the observer ( mdess he can
thoronghlv <lepend upon hini>eir to iccord the four evi-nls without
conl"n»ion ) is a<^l\ ised to l>e <ai»4id in the adiu<tment oi" the mark
and diaphragm, so as to >eeure tin' two disappearances or the
tW(t reappearances taking j>!ace on consecutive seconds even Avhen
the pendulum is swinging in the smallest are that will be ol)served
with, in which case it will, oi* course, suirn-e to observe one
di.-appea ranee and one reap|»earanee f(»i' each coincidence.

'I'iie l)arometcT and the thermometers hung near the pendulum
should lie read at the beginning ami end of each swing. Should
tlieie 1)1' nni( h \ariaiion of leniperatuic, the thernuimeters should
al>o lie read at noted times once or oftener during the swing. Jt
is to be rememiiered that what we want to know is, not the exact
temperature at the moment of coincidence, but the mean tempera-
ture duiinij the swinir.

In one ol' the swings, or, if more convenient, in a preliminary o

'Ulisetpicnt -jieeial swing taken ior tliH sole object, aiid \n wlncli

a;!L>L'.

I,

10

Kosroh:. — MF/n.oinc hist in snow.

<'itini'i<l«Mi('es uccmI not l»o nttcndtMl to, thr arc shoultl bo earcfiilly
obM'ivctl livi' or six times distributed ovi'r the .swin<j;, or, whifh
^voiild probably Itc found more atcurato, the clock times slumld bu
noted when the arc attains th-tinite values, be^^inning with an arc
slif^htly •greater than the <freatest used ibr coincidences, and ijoiiig
on till it is reduced to about one-third of its initial value. Tlie
Viaroineter and thermometer shouKl be read at the same tinu'.
The object of this is to tleteiinine the law of tlecitase of the ai'c,
and thereby render it possible, in the snbseipient reduction ol' the
observations for time, to correct for the arc without assuming that
it decreiises strictli/ in geometric progression.

The gi'ugraphical positioi\, latitude I'specially, of the peiiduluiu
station must be ibunil, and the h»ight ai>ove the sea k'vel. The
g«'ologii'al character of the formation on which the pendulum
observatory is built should be.stjited. Should it be found im|)raeti-
cable to erect the ol>ser\atory ojj land, it niav be luiilt on the ice,
pi'oN ided there be no sensiblf change of level of the ice, and
no motion of any kind, the alteration ol' which is not extremely
grjidual, and provitled also, that means can be cniployed lor <'heck-
ing the cloi-k's rati' by a>tron(»mical t>l»servations. Should the
pendulum be swung on ice, the depth oithe sea at the place must
be measured.

Twenty-four hotirs' observation with eacli pen«lulum would
give an excellent result, provided the weather permit of a trust-
worthy det<'rmination of the clock's rate. The days on which the
two [)endulums are swung need not be consecutivi'.

4. On tlie Dktectiox of Mktkouic (Cosmical) Dust in the
Snow of AiUTic Rkgions. By Prof. H. K. Roscok,
F.R.S.

It has been shown by Nordenskiold* that |)ure snow colle<'ted in
the nctrthern rej^ions i'ar <listant from any soun.'e ni" dust, contains
small black particles left behind when clean snow is melted, 'i'hese
black particles consist mainly of ir<ui. but contain distinct quan-
tities of cobalt, thus ])ro\ing their non-terrestrial ebaraeter. It
Would be very interesting to confirm these observations ol' the
widr-.-pri'jid depositions of fnie cosmical dust by a reject iti(»n of
the process adopted by Nordenskiiild, which consist«'d in collecting
a laige (juantity of apparently pine snow, and allowing the saua-
to n»elt, placing it, lor this purpose <»n a clean sheet, spread
out, aial luraJiged so that the water should diain away, leaving
the bhiek particles on the sheet. These should then be ean'fully
collected, when the greater ))art of the snow was melted, by |)lacing
the remaining snow in a bottle or ghiss, and allowing it to melt
completelv, when the black particles will sink to the bottom and
the clear water can be pouicd otl". Or the bhick particles can

foggcndoilTs Aiumleu, l.')l, p. lo4.

ADAMS AND KVANS. — TKI{IM«>TUIAI. MA(JNKTISM. 11

!)«• Itruslicd oil" the slu'<i l.y iihjiii.s i.f u reullur ns .soon its all
the snow has melted. They must then be ean-rully preserved in
a tube or stoppeivtl bottle and ,ln\>n^dit liome for analysis.

The same observer notieed that the blaek ma<,'netie parlieles
were IVeiinently seen in the " lirn " or <;ranular old snow above
whieh several layers of n-eent sm)W had aeeumnlated; it would
therefore be well to look out, for the blaek <auins below the snow.

II.— TERRESTRIAL MACJNETISM.

1. Mkmouandum on Dkteiiminatiox of KlkmentsuikI use of

MAGNETrCAL INSTRUMENTS, by PROFESSOIl ,1. C AdAMS,

M.A., F.R.S., and Cai'TAIn Evans, (Ml, F.R.S.

The determination anywhere in the Aretie rej^ions of the
elements, by means of whieh the eai'th's mairnetie force is usually
expressed ( l)n lindtidH, linluKitiiui an<l I/itc/tslft/) will lu' valu-
able:— if nuide within the limits of former voyages, by a Hording
the means of determiiiin*:^ the approximate amount of the >eeidar
changes by comparison with earlier observations; — if made beyond
the limits of former explorations, by materially adding to our
knowledge of the distribution of the magnetic force over the eaith's
suilace, and thereby contributing towards the [perfection of the
theory of Terresti'ial magnet irm.

The mulli|)lieation of the observations to bo made in the Arctic
lOxpedilion being so much dependent on circumstances and
climate, no definite suggestions can be offered on this head ; it
may, however, be 1)orne in mind that the several elements above
mentioned must be considered as possessing an equal importance,
and that the value of each new station is proportional to its
distance from those where observations have already been nuule.

The Article on Terrestrial Magnetism in the Admiralty Manual
of Scientific Encpiiry, by Sir Edward Sabine, K.C'.B., with its
appendie(!s on the use of the piincipal instruments furnished to
the Ex|>edition, will l)e found an excellenl guiile for observers,
and should be carefully consulted. In lieu of the maps therein
referred to, provisional maps of the Magnetic l-^lements suitable
to the rc(iuirements of the Expedition are appended to this memo-
randum.*

The instrmnents furnished comprise —

1. Portable nnifilar magnetometers (in duplicate) for determin-
ing the absolute horizontal intensity at a fixed station.

t^ Rarrow's Circles (in duplicate) for determining the inclination.
These circles are further provided with additional needles for the

* Magiu'tloal iiistriu-tions (in (luplicati-) for tlu' nsi- of portable instruments
adaptt'il for niajriiotical surveys and portable observatorios, cS;c. hy Lieut.
C. J. U. Kiddcll, li.A., F.l{.S.,"l844, are also luniislied.

A 2

12

ADAMS AM) KVANS. — TKKKKSTIM AI, MAIJNETISM.

pnrposo of •li'tt'rminin<» tin- t»»tnl i'owv hy Dr. Lloyd's iiM'tliotl,
which is iiith'|u'inh'iit of any ('han;;«'s in the iimjiiictic nioinonts
of the lut'dU's ('m|)h)y«'<l. It shoiihl be ohscrviMl that lh»' poh'S of
the at/t/ifiono/ nctMlles m) furnished arc mrcr to he n vosul or
tlisttirfn'd*

3. Azimuth coin()as?.rs (in tliiplicatr), fitted with Achniralty
Standard cireh', special needles, and lcvel)in;^ loot screws, fur
determining the ahsolntt^ declination. 'I'he declination as determined
by this instrnnit'nt at a lixed station is to he eonsich'ied as the zero
to which the observations nnule with the ditlerenlial de<'linonu'ler
(mentioned in tlu* followiii;; paragraph) are to be iffeired.

4. Portable declination nia^netomi-tor, for ditleiential observa-
tions only at a tixed station.

5. Mr. Fox's apparatus for observing; the inclination and force
(in triplicate) fornsein sledge or travelling parties. [This instru-
ment is e;t'nerally known as Fox's Ciicle].

6. Tliree-ineh jjrismatic compas>es (nine in iinnd)er) for observ-
ing the declination (variation of the compass), to be iised l»ysledg«!
or tra\ellini.' parties.

At winter (piartcrs, and in nn observatory established at

a

distance I'rom the ship, so as to lie free frc>m the distml)ance of lier
iron, it is assumed that the di'clination magnetometer will be firmly
geenred on its pedestal; and pedestals oi- stands arran<:ed for the
reception of the iinifilar majrnetometi'r and liairow's cinrle, at
suitable distances apart, to avoid inter-disfnrbanee anion*; the
niMLTnets of the S4'vt'ral instruments. The lu'cessary observations
should, if possible, tlien be made as follows : —

It nuiy 1m' expedient freipiently to determine the absolute declina-
tion with the azinnith compass specially furnished for tin' purpose
Ix'fore winter darkness sets in, so that a reliable zero mav be

obtained for th»' «litlerential observations of deelinatii

»n.

I<

rom

() to \) a.m., and from 4 to (> |».m., will |)robably l)e found the best
times for observin<:, on the assumption that the tleelination is then
nt or near the mean daily vabie.

The line of detorsion of the declination mairnetometor slntuld
be carefully adjusted at the outset.

The inclination by Harrow's circle, and alst) the total (relative)
foice by means of Lloyd's needles to be ol)served on«'e n wet-k.
Occasionally, it is desirable that the obser\iitioiis with Lloyd's
needles should be rejM-ated .several times in the day, in order to
find the ai»i)roximate amount of the diurnal changes.

The absolute horizontal intensity to be determined once a month,
avoidin<; days of unusual disturbance as denoted by the declination

ma<rnet<jmeter

At tl

le sam»! time, or neai

■ly

so, ol>servations

.•should be made with Lloyil's needles employed as deflectors at
ditieivnt disUinces, in order to obtain absolute nsults.f

* See Admiralty Manual, App«'rulix 2 M., p. 103.
t See Lloyd's Treatise on Magnetism, Art. 97, p. 'JO.

ISM.

ADAMS AM) KVANS. — TKItlJllsriaA I, IM ACJNKTISM.

m

H llU'tllotl,

iiioincnts
u' poles ot
rv(i'S<(l or

Admiiiilty

crews, I'nr

lefeniiiiie«l

us the /.en)

cliiiniiu'ler

e«l.

1 ((bserva-

aiul roiro
'his iiistiu-

for ohscrv-
(1 liy sledge

lislied Jit Ji
mce of" her
U be tiiiuly
f«'il lor the
eiicle, ut
iiiiionj^ the
bseivations

Jl

itn

edeelina-
e |)in'l)»>se
() may he
From
1 the best
»ii is tht'ii

tor shoul<l

relative)
n week.
Lloyd's
n onU'i' to

('(

ii month,
leeliuation
)servatioiis
iflectors at

I-'cdlowiii;; the roinse pursued at Point Harrow, in II.M.S. Plover
in [H.')2-4, Mild nt I'ort Kennedy in iIh' Fox, Sir Leopold
Me('linto«'k IS.')S-!). it is iiiitiei|»aled that hourly observations
of the deeliiiiitictii ciiii In- eontinuoiisly made, and if so, the ob,'<«'r-
valions shoidd be made at the eomiiieiu'emenl oi" each hour local
nieau lime.

On all occasions ol" marked dislnrliance of the ma<^net and
espi'cially diirin^i the occurrence of an aurora, extraordinary obser-
vati«)iKS should be made. If the changes are rapid and irregular,
instead of recording the oliservatioiis at stated intervals of time,
obxei-ve the extreme leadings of the scale and the limes at which
the magnet eoinnienc<>s its return movement lowai'ds an opposite
extreme, so as to determine the extent and duration of the move-
ments in opposite directions.

At stations where the stay of the ship is only of a few days
• liiratioii, the same observations for the alisolnte declination, in-
clination, and intensity, should be made, omitting the difU'reiitial
obsci'vations of deelinaliou.

Ohscrviitiiins to he niailr hif Shultfc. or Tr(n'( ll'nxj /'(trfics.

The apparatus devised Ity Mr. Ii. \V. l''ox, l''.K.S., for observing
inclination and force [l-'ox'scircde] |)roved of such great value under
exceptional conditions in the Antarctic Magnetic Survey, perlbrmi'd
in IL.NL ship Frebiis and Terror (ISK)-,'}) under Sir »Iames Hoss,
that it has been deemed expedient to i'nniish it to the present
Arctic I'^xpedition. The instrument from its construction, will, it
is considered, be found invaluable to travelling parties as it can
be carried safely (and manij)ulate(l) under ciicumstaiices whitdi
would be fatal to more delicate instruuients.

I'reparatory to travelling p.artios siMfing out from winter cpuirters

(or I

rom

a fixe<l statit>n when absolute di'terminatioiis have been

made) comparative ohservations for inclination and I'orce, should
be ma(h' with the Vox circles which accompany them, and the
same repeated on return.

'J'he (;omparati\e observations for inclination are recjuisitc to
di'termine the index errors ol' the Fox needles as they are ?to/
rcrrrsi/i/c. The ob-eivati(Mis made with the deflectors and the
we.ight^ shouhl lie sulliciently extended to embrace the circum-
stances of all pos-iiije observations whilst travelling, so as to
ensure that no trasi'lling observation be lost for want of eompai'a-
tive ol)servations. lvx|ierieiice will soon determine when travelling
the extent to which delleetors and weights may i)e conx cnieiitly
used.

The small prismatic com])asses furnished for the use of travelling-
part ics are cxelusi\i'ly intended for observing the declination (or
variation of the compass). On account of the large changes in
declination, consequent on a small change of geographical position
in the regions of high latitudes which will be explored, the.sc
oli.servations will, as a inatttu- of necessity, be fre([uently required.*

* At the iii;i<,'nc'tic pnlo, the horizontal force vanishes and
tiio tUreetiou of the nui'Mietic nieridiau is iiuletermiiiuto. At the

consequently
geographical

I!

SCOTT. — MKTKOWor.iMJTCM, I NSTKITTK >\S.

HofonMioo to th«« innpH ol" tin- lUH^npti*' rhMiirnts ncroinpnnying
this iinniorniidimi will >\\o\\ tliiit tlu'sr rlmiij^i'S of WrfliiiMtion «1«)
not nris«' t'roin lua^'iu'tii'iil (auist's, nn llu- <liit'clion of tlu' noctllo
wiih rcloi't'iicc to tli<' north nin^notic poh' rciuniiis th<> same iiiid
the in« liiiiiti«>ii aiitt lorcf vnln»'s it'inain <'onipiirativrIy uiialtrnMh
'rht'>-(' ('onipa.>>M's ^lioiiltl l»r prcsrrvnl with ('ari', to nisiirr accnnioy
in the ohM'iNations, and in aid thcrrof, .'*inall cxtni travollin;; roni-
passrs (tittrd so as to Ik' i'onoottMl foi- thrdt'clination if noccHsary),
nn* furnisht'd to |H'rfonn the ion<;hoi' work of the .sto*'!^!!;; cotnpas*
for sh'dtjo pnrtit'H or travtdlors.

The sovtMal constants, index ami tonijM'ratnrc corr«»('tions of
tho variiins instrnnunts have Itrm deUiininMl at Krw nnd the
AtJiniralty I'ompa.ss ohservatories, and will ho furnitihed to the
Kxptdition.

Ill— METKOROLOOY.

MKTEOR()LO(;lfAL TnsTHUC TIONS. By HonKUT H. ScOTT

F.K.S., Director of the MeteorolofricMl Oilice.

r

m

I

riir nicteorolofiical obseivatit)ns to be nindo dnrinj; the Arctic
Kxpeditioii will, in the main, he siiuilar to those nnulc on any
voyage, and aceordinj^My the instrnetions for the manaj^cinent of
the in-tniinciils ;m<l foi' taking tlu' read inijs will in <;reat ineasnr{!
he identical with those furnisluMl to ohs»'rveis at sea under (»rdi-
nary cirennistnnees. The latest copy of these instructions is con-
t^dned in the Ki'port of the Conference on Maritime Metcoroloirv
in 1S74, of which copies are furnished to the Kxpedition.

There are, however, ceitain points which requiiv spt^cial notice,
an<l particularly so as it is hope<l that for a i'onsiderahle period
of time ohservHtions will be taken rcf^ularly at fixecl stations or even
on shore.

Iluiirs of' Ohsrrvation. — In Sir »I. ('. lioss's exjieditiiui to the
Antaiclic regions the ol)servatituis were taken hoiiily, Imt the
expediti<»n wa.s Jilways at nea, so that the ntnnher of uvailal>le
observers was ne\cr reduced by sledjrinjx expeditions, &x\

It is certain that observations will Ix' taken as freipientlv as
practicable on the presi-nt occasion, 1)nt it must be remembered
that in all vii^i< (jiff/ /i/// of ohs(rr<iti(nis is of miivli ffrtntcr iniiior-
ta/trr iIkiii ipinntitif^ 80 that it" it !»<• impossilde to give; correct

pole, till' direction of the iiingm-tic meridian is deteniiinafe, Imt that of the
freoj^Tiiphical meridian is indeferminate, every different meridian, a.s defined
hy its longitude from Greenwich, having its corresponding variation of the
compass. At ail points near the geograpliical pole the .statementf of the
variation of the compass should be accompanied hy a statement of the longi-
tude of the meridian to which the variation is referred.

T^*^^^ipP1

'T^

pnnying
tion do
nocdlo
itnr mikI
lalttTiMl.
locnnicy
11^ coiu-
(•^*sary),

L'OlUpUH*

tiotis (if

nn*l the

to the

Scott,

D Arctic
on luiy
inciit oi
measure
cr oi'di-
ia con-
ioroloirv

1 iiotic*',
(• |tcti<)(l
■; or even

I In (lie

ImiI IIic

ivuihiblc

iciitly lis

mlu'i'cd

inijioi-

ionrvt

laf of the
IS (lefiiud
on «)ftln'
ilf of the
the lonj^i-

1. I'dl^C

'1

oqraphic Office
frintend'ence o

Malby k Sons Litb.

MXKS OV KOUAL liOHlZONTAL FORCE IN ABSOL

130'

uo°

11 U"

100"

90"

80°

N

GO"

bO*

40''

\

\

\

oO°

8b°

/

s '>^

^v

>^

,/

/'

^-7

k

^'

.^

\ \

o

i

f

X

/

80

/

\

\.

/^

\

\

\

.^

V

^'^ /

'^i-'v

f.

I

-^C

y

\

y^'^

AL FORCE IN ABSOLUTK MKASURE. (Approximatr 1875J

250°
Staff CoimnaTider Creak R.N

Prefored at tJie Hydrographic OfRce. Admu-alty, for the use
under the Siiperinleneierice of Captain Evans (' B.

340"

330°

3?.C"

290°

300"

310°

'ographic OfRce. Admuultv, for the use of' the Arctic ExpeditJLorul875,
erirUendencf of Captain Evans CB. FRS.tiydi-oqrapher.

Malby* Sons iit'h.

i

II

Office, A

■H

, IN CLIN.

>fh\r, Adjniralt\
R <-nce of' Captui

Malby le Goiifl,l/ith

LINES OF EQUAL INCLINATION.!

gUAL INCLINATION. (Approximate 1875.)

Staff C-rr.maiider Cr--;al< R.N.

Pr'epared at the Hydroqrapkic Ofh'i'f, Adrniralfy, /orth/' iise of the A
under the Superintendencv of Captain Evans C.B. F.R.S. 1

Jice, Admiralty, ^rthf use of the Area c Expedition, 1875,
ive of Captain Evans C.B. F.R.S. Hydrograpker .

Malby*Soiis,Lilh

i|

SS ) .\])|)»'(>xi

uv AdrriLrulty. for i

>nx\' of I apt a in h\

Malbv X- liOiis.Lith

IINKSOK EgUAl. DKCLINATION (VARIATION OF i'OMl'ASS) Ai.pn.ximatr

100* 90"

COMTASS ) Approximali- 18:'). N„1,> ' '7""' >■•"' ^ '"/J'!' lol.'.thc arrows jiive

'\ •lie (InoclHMi 111 ilic Miiviictic MiM-uliati.

^/"

^

U^ v^x

/

260''
Staff Comrr.anderCreaJcR.'N

iiVO"

280°

290°

Prepared, at the U^'drographic OfTuv Admiralfy' , for the use of t
under t/w S!iperi>iterui^>nce of Captazn Evans C.B. Eh

L/ '>A.

\

X

hie Office Admiralty, for the use of the Arctic Expediiion 1815,
'ntendt>nce c/' Captain Evans C.B. FR.S. Hydro^rapher.

MaibvX-Sous.Lii.K

(■■

SCOTT. — METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUCTTONS.

1")

/ "^

hourly observatioiiH, two-hourly, or in dofnult of theso four-hourly
readings may be registered. They should always he at equidistant
intervals of time.

The logs supplied are ruled for two-hourly observations.

Barometers. — The barometers suj)plied are of two kinds, marine
barometers and aneroids. The latter are supplied for use on
sledge expeditions and for determination of heights.

The mercurial barometers .u"e the only barometers to be used
for tlio regular observations. Tlu^y should be suspended in
some place where they will bo shielded from sudden ebanges of
temperature.

'J'he aneroids must be carefully protected from blows <n- falls,
which might seriously affect their action. Whenever opportunity
offers, especially before and after their employment on any ser-
vice, e, g., an exploring expedition, the aneroids used shouM
be most carefully compared with the mercurial barometers, giving
the temperatures at each comparison, and the results of such com-
parisons most carefully noted in the log.

It may, perhaps, not be out of place to remark that the omission
to make such entries in the logs of comparison of barometers, &c.,
and of i\\v: distinguishing marks and numbers on the instruments
actually used, &c., will most seriously depreciate the scientific value
of the registers though otherwise most carefully kept.

Temperature. — The thermometers sho\ild be suspended in some
position where they will show the true temperature of the open
air, and will be affected as little as possible by the warmth of the
ship. For thi.s reason, while the Expedition is in winter
quarters, they should if possible be placed in an observatory at
some distance from the ship.

Two thermometer screens are supplied for these observations,
besides the ordinary small screens for use on board ship. They
should be erected on posts, so that the bottom of the screen should
be at a level of 4 feet above the surface of the snow ; but, of
course, experience will alone show whether a height of 4 feet above
the snow is sufficient.

The screens are furnished with doors at the back as well as in
fiont, so as to allow of the reception of several thermomelers,
Avhich may thus be placed back to back.

If any rime is deposited on the instruments it should be care-
fully removed some time (if feasible about half an hour), before the
observation.

The maximum and minimum thermometers should be placed in
the screen and read regularly at the latest observing hour "in the
evening, if not at midnight.

In addition other thermometers, both ordinary and registering,
arc supplied for various experiments.

As regards the pocket thermometers, it will be found a very
good plan, in order to ascertain speedily the true temperature of
the air, to pass a strong string through the hole at the top of the
mounting and swing the thermometer round the head for about
half a minute.

16 SCUTT. — MKTKOIIUI-OUICAI, INHTUL'CTIONS.

IJy this hu'IIkmI, even ill lull suiisliiiM.', n very dose n[>i)r<)ximti-
tion to tlu> true tcinpcratiirc ol'tlic aii* iiiny he made.

IhuVuttinn. — The radiation tlKTiuomctcrsshoidd be placed in IIh;
clips sent with them, and attachtul to an nprij^ht post at the
lieight of 4 feet above the {rronnd. Alonj^side of the blaek bnlb
thermoinetcr itt vaviio should bt; placed a biifiht bulb thi'inioineler
nlso in rtieuoy which should be read at the same time, so as to
obtain a measure of the radiation by the diU'erence between the
simultjineouH readings of the two instruments.

It will further be interesting to erect a black board, say 2
feet squan;, at a levid of 4 feet from the ground, ;ind to place
it black bnlb in ntcfw n few inches above this board, which will
thus intercept all heat radiated

For terrestrial rftdiation, a

yr

from the ground.

board about 2 feet s(|unre should

be placed upon the groinid, its upper siu-faee l)eing fully exposed

A slight groove in the board should mark the plaeo

to th(^ sky.

wliere the bulb of the thermometer, a minimum thermometer,

fihould be jdaced.

llyyromvtrii. — Two hair hygrometers are su[)plied, which
(should be erected in the thermometer screen. They should be
read ut the same hour as the ordiiuu'y instiunients.

The principle of these instruments is as follows, the hygrome-
tricnl condition of the uir is given by the elongation or contructiou
of u hair, according as the air is moist or dry.

They bear two scales on the same arc.

The lower scale (Saussunt's) divided into cipial parts 0 — 100
gives the so-called scale of absolute humidity ranging from per-
fect dryness to saturation. The upper scale, divided into nnefpinl
parts, 0 — 100 gives the relative humidity in per-centages. The
upper scale is that ichich is alone to be used.

The following is the mode of setting the instrument; inasmuch
as it easily gets out of adjustment in carriage, the following rules
are to be observed : On a day of heavy rain or thick fog, when the
air is perfectly saturated with moisture, the screw at the top is to
Ix! turned gently until the index conies to stand at 100 on the
scale. If perfect saturation does not occur, the index should be
brought by turning the screw to the point on the scale which gives
the per-centage of relative humidity shown by careful observation
of the wet and dry bulb liygrometcr.

The instrument is to be suspended at some little distance, say
4 inches, in front of the upright to Avhlch it is attached. When
the instrument has been originally set to be correct at 100 or at any
definite degree of relative humidity, its indications should be
carefully checked for a few days, and the position of the index
corrected by means of the screw, when it will soon attain the
requisite degree of consistency in its behaviour.

The regulations for observing the instrument, as in force at the
Russian stations, where hair hygrometers are generally in use in
winter, are as follows : Whenever the temperature is above 32%
the hygrometrical observations entered in the register, are to be
recorded by means of the wet and dry ])ulb hygrometer exclusivclf/,
and the degree of humidify given in the Tables (Glaisher's 5th

<»

T

It

i\

my
bo
ox
ho

lie
in

to

7/,
th

V

8COTT. — METKOUOI.nUICAI- INSTIM ( TIONS.

17

^1^

t

i

m

I'lilitioii) lor riioh oli-'crvntlon is to Itc coiiiniii'cd with the reading
(»l the hair hyjiromcttr takt'n at the sumjc time which slioulil ho
onterctl in the " Uoniarks" space. Th«' mean of the.so ohHervalioiiH
for a few we(!k8when the temperature is above ',\2 is to be takeri,
and thereby tlio correetion for the readinj^s of the liaii' liyj^ro-
meter, from time to time, is to be ascertained.
The following is an instance : —

Mean degree of Iliiinitlity liy Wut
an<l Dry Bulb Hygrometer.
73.

Mean Heading of Hair
Ilvgronieter.

77.

correction to all readings of the hair hygrometer is accordingly
—4.

Every possible opportunity must be taken at first to determine
tliese C()rrcctl(ms for the hair hygrometer, inasnuich as it is not
to be expected that during the severe weather many such oppor-
tunities will occur. Whenever the Hair Hygrometer is readjusted,
a not(! to that clfect should lu^ inserted in tlie register. It will bo
seen from the above that the object of leading the two difVennt
classes of instruments above 32', is to determine a correetion for
the hair hygrometer while the Avet and dry bulb themometer is
acting properly. For readings beh)w 32% the hair hygrometer
may be supj)Osed to be a more trustworthy instrument than the
wet and dry bulb hygrometer, but both instruments shouhl be read
together, and their indications entered in the register, as thereby
very valuable experience of the comparative utility of the two
instruments in the Arctic regions may be gained.

In addition a pair of mercurial thermom(!tcrs are to be mounted as
a dry and wet bulb hygrometer. The greatest care will be requisite
to ensure that these observations are correct when the tempera-
ture is below 32°. Inasmuch as it is to bo expected that for a
long period the moisture on the wet bulb will be frozen, it will be
necessniy to see that the muslin covering of the bulb is always
provided with a vcrf/ thin coating of ice. This is effected by
moistening it with pure Avater at least once a day, and not less
than half nn hour before an observation. The moisture on the
bulb will freeze at once, and the film of ice so formed will
in most cases last for 24 hours, inasmuch as at the very low
temperatures which will probably prevail the evaporation from ico
is very slight.

Care should be taken that the water employed is always fnssh
water ; no addition of spirit or of salt, in order to lower its freezing
point, is on any account to be admitted.

In case of severe cold setting in, i.e., of temperatures below
— 20° F., it will be best to take in the mercurial thermometers jind
make all the observations with spirit thermometers, but it should
never be forgotten that spirit thermometers are very deceptive,
unless great care is taken to keep them in order. They should
not be used if the spirit column bo broken in any part by bubbles
or shortened by condensation of spirit at the top of the tube.

Wind. — In addition to the ordinary observations of the estimated
direction and force of the wind, an electrical anemometer is

18

SCOTT. — METEOllOLOCrlCAL INSTRUCTIONS.

supplied, which should ho. erected on a high pole, or on the mast-
head when the ship is in winter quarters. The description of this
instrument and its management and registration will be supplied
with it.

Two small anemometers are also supplied ; these must be read
at least once daily.

Clouds. — The directions for observing clouds are contained
in the ordinary Instructions for Observers at Sea, but there are
certain observations of much interest which may be made on clouds
as indicating the motior; of upper currents in the atmosphere.

It is therefore of importance that, whenever possible, the direc-
tion and apparent rate of motion of the different strata of clouds

should be recorded, whether these

agree

with the wind at the

surface of the earth or not.

There is especial interest in the question of the motion of the
upper clouds near the region of greatest cold, as it is believed by
most meteorologists that these upper currents flow towards the
districts of great cold, where the air descends to the surface of the
earth.

Hydrometcors or Weather Ohservatwns. — These should be re-
corded as directed in the "Instructions in the Use of Meteorological
Instruments," of which copies are supplied to the Expedition.

As regards the Aurora, Prof. Stokes has furnished certain notes
which are appended to these instructions. The greatest care
should be taken to note and register the most striking particulars
as to its appearance and modifications, especially as to its manifes-
tations in any quarter as regards the existence of open water, &c.,
in that direction. The subject of magnetic observations or of
spectroscopic examination of the Aurora does not fall within the
scope of meteorological observations.

As regards Halos, Parhelia, and Paraselense, &c., the variety in
these appearances is so great that no definite rules can be laid
down for observing them. The phenomena observed should be
ou^efully sketched, and wherever povssible measurements should Ijc
tiiken by sextant.

In conclusion, the attention of the observers should be specially
directed to the fact that niiiny of the storms which pass over the
extreme north of Europe are connected with areas of bjiromctiical
depression AvhichfolloAv tracks lying within the Arctic Circle ; they
have been traced almost wherever the whaling and sealing ships
ha\e advanced between Spitzbergen and Greenland, and there is
reason to believe that they will be observed at the head of Smith
Sound also.

Ii will therefore be a matter of the greatest interest to notice^
whether or not these areas of barometrical depression appear (o
be formed near the spot Avhere the Expedition is in winter
quarters.

At all times of sudden barometrical oscillations the observations
should be made as frequently as possible, as by this means it may
be rendered possible <^o ascertain whether the eenrre of the disturb-
ance has passed north or south of the ship.

'^1

%

t>

r

STOKES. — AURORAL OB!=^ERVATIONS.

19

iiilly
tiio

iciil

ley

lips

is

nilh

^fv

A copy of Capt. Hoftmeyev's weather charts is supplied, and it
will be evident from an inspection of these charts of what im-
portance accurate observations in liigh latitudes will bo for the
subsequent study of the weather of Eui'ope during the period
embraced by the stay of the Expedition in the Arctic seas.

2. Note on Auroral Observations. By Prof. Stokes,

Soc. E.S.

r

The frequency of the Auroi-a in Arctic regions {xffords ])eculiar
facilities for the study of the general features of the pheno-
menon, as in case the observer thinks he lias perceived any
law, he will probably soon and repeatedly have opportunities of
confronting it with observation. The following points are worthy
of attention.

Streamers. — It is well known that, at least as a rule, the
streamers are parallel to the dipping-needle, as is inferred from the
observation that they form arcs of great circles passing through
the magnetic zenith. It has been stated, however, that they have
sometimes l)een seen curved. Should anything of this kind bo
noticed, the observer ought to note the circumstances most care-
fully. He should notice particularly whether it is one and the
same streamer that is curved, or whether the curvature is apparent
only, and arises from the circumstance that a number of short,
straight streamers start from bases so ai'ranged that the luminosity
as a Avhoh.' presents tlu; form of a cur^■ed band.

Have the streamers any lateral motion, and if so, is it from
right to left or left to right, or sometimes one and sometimes the
other, according to the quarter of the heavens in wliicii the
streamer is seen, or other circumst.ances ? Again, if there be
lateral motion, is it that the individual streamers move sideways,
or that fresh streamers arise to one side of the former, or partly
the one and partly the other ? Do streamers, or does some [)or-
tion of .1 system of streamers, appear to have any uniform relation
to clouds, as if they sprang from them ? Can stars be seen imme-
diately undm' the base of streamers ? Do streamers appear to have
any definite relation to mountains ? Are they ever seem between
the observer and a mountain, so as to appear to be [)rojeeted
on it ? This or any othei- indication of a low origin ought to bo
most carefully described.

Wlien streamers form a corona, the character of it should be
described.

Auroral arches. — Ai'o arches always perpendicular to tlie
magnetic meridian ? If incomplete, do they grow laterally,
and if so, in what manner, and towards Avhich side? Do lli(>y
always move from north (magnetic) to south, niid if so, is it
by a southerly motion of the individual streamers, or by new
streamers springing up to the south of the old ones? What (by
estimation, or by reference to known stars) may be the breadth of
tin? arch in different positions in its progress ? D() arches appear
to be nothing but congeries of streamers, or to have an indepen-

.«if«w«Ka!erasi^;]Pwwt«H!»a=fflHW!^

20

THOMSON. — ATMOSrHEUlC I^LECTIIICITY.

dent existence ? What relation, if any, have they to cloutls ; ami
if related, to what kind of clouds are they related ?

Pulsations. — Do pulsations travel in any invariable direction?
What time do tiicy take to get from one ])art of tlio heavens to
another? Are they running sheets of continuous light, or fixed
patches which become luminous, or more luminous, in rapid suc-
cession ; and if patches, do those appesir to be foreshortened
streamers ? Are the same patches luminous in successive pulsa-
tions ?

Sounds (?) — As some have suspected the Aurora to be accom-
panied by sound, the observer's attention should be di ected to
this question when an Aurora is seen during a calm. If sound be
suspected, the observer should endeavour by changing his posi-
tion, brushing off spicules of ice from the neighbourhood of his
cars, his whiskers, &q., to ascertain whether it can be referred to
the action of such wind as there is on some part of his dress or
person. If it should clearly appear that it is not referable to the
wind, then the circumstiuices of its occurrence, its character, ils
relation (if any) to bursts of light, should l)e most carefully
noted.

These questions arc proposed merely to lead the observer to
direct his attention to various features of the jdienomcnon.
Answers are not demanded, excei)t in such cases as definite
answers can be given ; and the observer should keep his attention
alive to observe and regard any other features which may appear
to be of interest. It is desirable that drawings should be made of
remarkable displays.

Observations with Sir William Thomson's electrometer would
be very interesting in connexion with the Aurora, especially a-
comparison of the rcjidings before, duririg, and after a passage of
the Aurora across the zenith.

t

1f>

IV.— ATMOSPHERIC ELECTEICITY.

1. Instructions for tlio Observation of Atmospheric;
ELiiCTRiciTY. By Professor Sir William Thomson,
LL.D, F.R.S.

The instrument to bo used is the portable electrometer described
in Sir Wm. Thomson's reprint of " Papers on Electrostatics and
Magnetism," §§ 368-378.* Full directions for keeping tiie instru-
ment in order, preparing it for use, and using it to make obser\ a-
tions of atmospheric electricity, are to be found in sections 372-
376 ; these are summarized in the following short practical
rules : —

I. The instrument having been received from the maker with
the inner surface of the glass, and all the metallic surfaces within,

* A copy of this book has been sent by tlie autlior tor tlic use of the officer
or officers to wliom the observations of atmospheric electricity are conmiitted.

t>

THOMSON. — ATMOSPITETITC FLECTRICITY.

21

ami

5ON,

bed
:ui(l
[rii-

•Vil-

/2-
iciil

•ill.
liii,

icei-
led.

I

n

clean and free from dust or fibres, and the pumice dry. To pre-
l^are it for use :

(1.) Remove from the top the cover carryings the pumice.
Drop upon the pumice a small quantity of the prepared sulphuric
acid supplied with the instrument, distributing it as well as may
be over the whole surface of the stone. There ought not to be
so much acid as to show almost any visible appearance of moisture
when once it has soaked into the pumice. Replace the cover
without delay, and screw it firmly in its proper position, and
then leave the instrument for half an hour or an hour, or any
longer time that may be convenient to allow the inner surface of
the glass to be well dried through the drying effect of the acidu-
lated pumice on the air within.

(2.) Turn the micrometer screw till the reading is 2,000.
(Tliere are 100 divisions on the circle which turns with the screw
on the top outside, and the numbers on the vertical scale inside
show full turns of the screw. Thus each division on the vertical
scale inside corresponds to 100 divisions on the circle ; and 20
on the vertical scale is read " 2,000.") Introduce the charging rod
and give a charge of negative electricity by means of the small
electrophorus which accompanies the instrument. When enough
has been given to bring the hair a little below the middle of the
space between the black dots, give no more charge ; but remove
the charging rod and close the aperture immediately. If now the
hair is still seen a little below the middle of the space between the
black dots, turn the screw head in such a direction as to raise the
attracting disc, and so diminish the attraction till the hair is exactly
midway between the dots. Watch the instrument for a few minutes,
and if the hair is seen to rise, as it generally will (because of the
electricity which has been given, spreading oxer the inner surface
of the glass), turn the micrometer screv/ in the direction to lower
th(^ attracting plate, so as to keep the hair midway between the
dots.

(3.) The insulation will generally improve for several hours, and
sometimes for several days, after the instrument is first ciiarged.
The instrument may be considered to be in a satisfactory state if
tJie earth reading does not diminish by more than 30 divisions per
24 hours. If the maker has been fortunate uith respect to the
quality of the substance of the glass jar, the earth reading may not
sink by more than 30 divisions per week, when the i)umice is
sufficiently moistened with strong and pure su][>liuric acid. Re-
charge with negative electricity occasionally so as to keep the
earth reading between 1,000 and 2,000.

II. To keep the instrument in order. Watch the i)umiee care-
fully, looking at It every day. If it begins to look moist, remove
the cover, take out the screws holding the lead cup, remove the
pumice and dry it on a shovel over the galley fire. When cool put
prepared sulphuric acid on it, replace it in the instrument, and re-
eleetrii'y according to No. I.

Never leave the pinniee nmvdtehed, in the insfrnment, for as
long as a weeh. Wiikn thk instuumknt is to hk out of usk

FOU A. WEKIC OU LOXCiliU TAKE TIIK PUxMICE OUT OK IT.

22

THOMSON.— ATMOSPnERIC ELECTRICITY.

III. To use tlio portable electrometer for observing atmospheric
electricity :

(1.) The place of observation, if on board ship, must be as far
removed from spars and rigging as possible. In a sailing ship or
rigged steamer the best position for the electrometer generally is
over the weather quarter when under Avay, or anywhere a few feet
above the tafFerel when at anchor. On shore or ou the ice a
position not less than 20 yards from any prominent object (such
as a hut or a rock or mass of ice or shii^), standing up to any
considerable height above the general level, should be chosen.
Whether on board shi]) or in an o[)en boat or on shore or on the
ice, the electrometer may be held by the observer in his left hand
while ho is making an observation ; but a fixed stand, when con-
veniently to be had, is to be preferred, unless iu the case of making
observations from an open boat.

(2.) To make an observation in ordinary circumstances the
observer stands upright and holds or places the electrometer in a
position about five feet above the ground (or place on which he
stands), so as to bring the hair and two black dots about level with
his eye. The umbrelhi of the principal electrotlo being doiot to Ix'gin
with (and so keeping metallic connection between the principal
electrode and the metallic case of the instrument), the observer
commences by taking an " earth reading." * The steel wire, Avith
a match stuck on its point, being in position on the principal elec-
trode, the match is then lighted, the umbrella lifted, and the
micrometer screw turned so as to keep the hair in the middle
between the black dots. After the umbrella has been up and the
match lighted for 20 seconds or half a minute, a reading may be
taken and recorded, called an " air reading." A ^.ingle such read-
ing constitutes a valuable observation. But a series of readings
taken at intervals of a quarter of a minute, or half a minute, or at
moments of maximum or minimum electrificatiou during the course
of two or three miuutes, the match burning all the time, is prefer-
able. In conclusion, remove the match if it is not all burned
away, lower the umbrella home, and take an earth reading.

(3.) The electric potential of the air at the point of the; burning
match is found by subtracting the earth reading from the air read-
ing at any instant. When the air reading is less than the earth
reading the air potential is negative, and is to be recorded as the
difference between the earth reading and the air reading with the
sign — prefixed. The earth reading may be generally taken as
the mean between the initial and final earth readings. But the
actual earth n.'adings and air readings ought all to l)e recorded
carefully, and tla? full record kept.

(4.) Note and record the wind at the time of each observation,
also the character of the weather.

IV. Observations to be made :

(1.) At the commencement of the Expedition, in the course
of the northward voyage, observations of atmospheric electricity

* Electrostatics uucl Maguetism, ij '^'^^-

itmosplieric

;t bo as fai-
ling sliip 01-
generally is
■e a i'ew feet
1 the ice a
•bject (such
y up to any
'oe chosen,
ire or on the
is left hand
I, when con-
ic of making

istances the
ometer in a
jn Avhich he
3Ut level with
Zow/i to liegin
the principal
the observer
3el wire, with
>riucipal elec-
ted, and the
n the middle .
in up and the
iding may he
>ie such read-
is of readings
minute, or at
ng the eoiu'se
me, is prefer-
)t all burned
iiding.
the burning
the air read-
lan tlie earth
orded as the
ding with the
idly taken as
lugs. But the
be recorded

1 observation,

in the course
ric electricity

THOMSON. — ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.

23

ought to be taken regularly three or four times n day ; also
occasionally during the night to give the observer some practice in
the use of a lantern for reading the divisions on the circle and of
the vertical scale.

(2.) When stationary in winter quarters observations should be
made three times a day at intervals of six hours ; for exami)le, at
8 a.m., 2 p.m., and 8 p.m., or at 7.30 a.m., 1.30 p.m., and 7.30 p.m.
Whatever times are most convenient may be chosen provided they
1)0 separated by intervals of six hours.

(3.) It is very desirable that hourly observations should be
made, if only for a few days, in winter and in summer. If possible
arrangements to do so at least for six consecutive days in winter,
and for six consecutive days in summer should be made. The re-
sults will be very interesting as showing whether there is a diurnal
or semi-diurnal period in either the Arctic winter or sunnner,
as we know there is at every time of year in places outside the
Arctic circle.

(4.) Make occasionally special observations when there is any-
thing peculiar in the weather, especially with reference to wind.

V. Special precautions :

(1.) In the Arctic climate moi'e care may be necessary than in
ordinary climates as to earth connections. Therefore put a piece
of metal on the stand on which the electrometer is placed during
an observation on board ship, and keep this in metallic comnmui-
cation with the ship's coppers or lightning conductors. If the
electrometer is held in the hand with or without a glove, a fine
wire ought to be tied round the brass projection which carries the
lens, or otherwise attached to the outer case of the electrometer,
and by this wire sufficient connection maintained with the earth
during an observation. The connection will probably be sufficient
if a short length of the wire is laid on the ice and the observtu-
stands on it. Enough, however, is not yet known as to electric
conductivity of ice : and to make sure it mui/ be necessary to have
a wire or chain let down to the water through a hole in the ice,
and metallic connection kept up by a fine wire Ix 'tween this and
the electrometer case during an observation.

(2.) The observer's cap (particularly if of fur) and his woollen
clothing, and even his hair if not completely covered by his cap,
will be apt in the Arctic climate to become electrified by the slightest
friction, and so to give false results when the object to be observed
s atmospheric electricity. A tin foil cover for cap and arms,
kept in metallic communication by a fine wire with the hand or
hands applied to the case of the electrometer or to the micrometer
screw head, should therefore be used by the observer (sind assis-
tant, if he has an assistant to carry lanthorn, or for any other
purpose), unless he has made sure that there is no sensible dis-
turbance from those causes, without the precaution.

VI. Instruments, stores, and appliances for observation of atmo-
spheric electricity sent with the Expedition :

1. Two portable electrometers, Nos. 35 and 36, each with one
steel wire lor carrying match, one charging rod, and one electro-
phorus for charging the jar.

STOK ES. — Sr KCTUOSCOriC on^K IIV AT rONS.

2. Six spare steel wires (tlircc to <to witli eaeli instrument).

3. Supply of niiitelies rciuly nuule. (The slower the match
burns, the belter. IC those supplied burn too fast, steep them in
water and dry them upiin.)

4. While blotting; paper and nitrate of'lead to make more matches
when wiiiileii. (Moistt'n the paper Avitli weak soluti(m of nitrate
of lead, and roll into matehe;) with thin paste made with a very
little nitrate of Icml in the water.)

5. Six spare pumices (three for each electrometer); India rubber
bands to secure pumice in lead case.

6. Eight small stoppered bottles of prepared sulphuric acid
(four for each electrometer).

7. Tin foil and fine wire.

hf

f

v.— OPTICS.

1. Spectroscopic Observations. By Prof. G. G. Stoices,

Sec. RS.

(1.) Observations of the Spkctrum of the Sun with a view to

Terrestrial Absorption.

It has long been known that when the Sun is near the horizon
additional lines and bands are seen in its spectrum, which are
either not observed when the Sun is high, or are found to bo
much narrower. These are referrible to terrestrial absorption,
and maps have been made of them by Brewster and Gladstone,

o

by Angstrom, and by Hennessey, which are sent with the Expedi-
tion. Recent researcljes appear to show that the greater part at
any rate of these additional lines are due to watery vapour, but it
is still a «,"°''tion whether some of them may not be (lue to some
other constituent of the earth's atmosphere, to some sul)stance
present in the atmosphere in such minute quantity as to elude
chemical tc! ;

In the . : u.^me cold of the Arctic regions the quantity of
water present in the elastic state in the atmosphei'e must be com-
paratively small, and c(msequently the absorption due to acpieouH
vapour at a given small altitude of the Sun, might be expected to
be considerably reduced as compared with what is observed in
warmer, and especially in tropical countries ; and, as we have no
reason to suppose that the other absorbing constituent or con-
stituents of the atmosphere, if such there be, would be similarly
aflfectcd by cold, the comparison of the absorption- spectrum
obtained in Arctic countries with that observed in more temperule
climates might afford means of detecting bands of absorption, if
such there be, of other than aqueous origin, and theivby perhaps,
by siibsequent I'esearches at home, of leading to the discovery of
some other constituent of the atmosphere present in quantity loo
minute to admil of direct detection, liesides, the length of time thar

«*>

r
f

I

I

tp

r

STOKES. — SPECTUO.'COnC OIISEIIVATIONS. 2.')

the Sun remains at a low altitude every day shortly after he makes
his first appearance in the sprinji; alfonls time for more deliberate
observations than can be made during the few minutes he remains
at a low altitude in places in comparatively low latitudes.

The Expedition will be furnished with a spectroscope of hinfh
dispersion, and with ma[)s of the spectrum showing the additional
l)ands seen Avhen tlu? Sun is low.

The best time for observation will be in the spring, shortly
after the first appearance of th(> Sun, or, if circumstances should
allow, in theaultimn, shortly before he disappears for the winter,
inasmuch as in either case the Sun will remain for a comparatively
long time at a very low altitude.

As the appearance of the si)ectrum changes a good deal with
the degree of detail in which it is seen, the spectrum should, in a
preliminary trial. In; compared with the maps, and that map more
especially worked with which best matches the object. The
})ower of the spectroscope might even be reduced by the remo\al
of one or two of the prisms, if a better match as to degree of
detail can thus be obtained.

For the actual observations, days should be chosen when the
Sun is clear down to the horizon. The object is to be com-
pared with the map or maps selected, going regularly through a
portion of the spectrum each day as time permits, and making
menioranda of the accordance or otherwise of the object with the
null). Measurements need not in general be taken, except when
the identiiication of a line is doubtful. Should the relative
strength of any terrestrial line as compared with its fellows appear
distinctly different in the object from what it is in the map, such
line should be marked for re-examination.

The lines so marked should subsequently be re-examined at
various low altitudes of the Sun. It is to be remembered that
the various lines or bands of absorption as seen under otherwise
given conditions and at a given place, do not all increase in the
same proportion us the Sun approaches the horizon ; so that the
apparent abnormal strength of any particular line as compared
with its fellows which had been noted in the first instance mif/hi
be due to its having been seen at a different altitude of the Sun
from that to which the map relates.

The probability of the discrepancy between the object and
the map being thus explicable is to be judged of by the result of
the re-examination. Should it apjjcar at all probable that the
result is not thus to be explained, the line should be noted by
reference to the map, or if its identification should be at all
doubtful, its distances from two neighbouring easily identifiable
lines right and left of it should be measured, and its breadth
Pleasured or estinwited witli reference to some other line, the
api)earance of which agrees with its representation in the map.

Should any of the lines, even after the re-examination remain
apparently discrepant from the ma|), it would be well, if leisure
periuit, to examine them again further on in the season under
different conditions of temperature, diniction of wind, &c., and
note whether any change is observed.

26 STOKES. — SrECTTlOSCOPTC OBSETlVATTONff.

(2.) Spectrum of the Aurora.

The spectrum of the aurora contains a well-knowu conspicuous
bright line in the yellowish-green, which has been accurately
observed. There are also other bright lines of greater refrangi-
bility, the determination of the positions of which is more difficult
account of their faintuess, and there are also one or more lines in
the red in red auroras.

Advantage should be taken of an unusually bright display to
determine the position of the fainter lines. That of the briglitest
line, though well known, should be measured at the same time to
control the observations. The character of the lines (i.e.j Avhether
they are strictly lines, showing images of the apparent breadth
of the slit, or narrow bands, sharply defined or shaded off) should
also be stated.

Sometimes a faint gleam of light is seen at night in the sky,
the origin of which (supposed from the presence of clouds) is
doubtful. A spectroscope of the roughest description may in
such cases be usefully employed to determine whether the light
is auroral or not, as in the former case, the auroral origin Is
detected by the chief bright line. The observer may thus be led
to be on the look out for a display which otherwise might have
been missed.

It has been said, however, that the auroral light does not in all
cases exhibit bright lines, but sometimes, at least in the eastern
and western arch of the aurora, shows a continuous spectrum.
This statement should be confronted with observation, special
care being taken that the auroral light be not confounded with
light which, though seen in the same direction, is of a dill'erent
origin, such, for example, as light from a bank of haze illuminated
by the moon.

Sir Edward Sabine once observed an aiu-oral arch to one side
(say north) of the ship, which was in darkness. Presently the
arch could no longer be seen, but there was a general diffuse
light so that a man at the mast head could be seen. Later still
the ship was again in darkness, and an auroral arch was se(!n to
the south.

Should anything of the kind be observed, the whole oi' the
circumstances ought to be carefully noted, and the spectroscope
applied to the diffuse light.

T

f

1^.1

•f>

2. Polarisation of Light. By W. Spottiswoode, M.A.,

LL.D., Treas. R.S.

t^

The fact of atmospheric polarisation, and the laws which regulate
it, are already well known. And it is therefore not probable that
observations upon it, although made under somewhat unusual
eifcumstaucc's, will add ninterially to our knowledge. At tlio same
time, as the instruments are oxtremely portable, and the observa-

<P<)TTISWOODE. — POLAllISATIOX OF LKillT.

27

le side
tly the
diftuse
r still
e(!U to

lol' the
•oseope

M.A.,

Igulate
le that
iiusual
same
Iserva-

1^.1

.^>

tions readily made, it Jip[)eHis quite worth while to repeat some ol'
them.

The main features of polarisation in li<;ht from the sky are de-
scribejl in the book which aeoompanies the instruments ; iind tlioy
may bo observed with a Nicol's prism and biquartz, with a Savart's
poiariscope, or oven better with ii Nieol, or a (ioublc-irnnjjfo ]irism,
alone. The statemeut that the polarisation is due to the scattering
of light from small globules of water suspended in the atmosi)here
in the shape of mist must be regarded perhaps rather as a sugges-
tion than as an established fact ; and any observations made under
different atmospheric conditions capable ol' being brought to l»ear
on this question will be valuable.

It is known that the light coming from a rainbow is polarised.
It will be worth while to examine whether the same is the ease
with that from A«/o5, &c. If this bo so, observe the positions of
the Nicol, or double-image prism, in which the light is extinguished
(oi- most enfeebled) at diHerent parts of the phenomenon.

It has been suggested that the Aurora, inasmuch as it presents
a structural character, may afford traces of polarisation. Having
reference to the fact that the strite of the electric discharge in
vacuum tubes presents no such feature, the probability of the sug-
gestion may be doubted. But it will still be worth while to put
the question to an experimental test.

If ti'aces of polarisation be detected, it must not at once be
concluded that the light of the Aurora is polarised ; for the
Aurora may be seen on the background of a sky illuminated by
the moon, or by the sun, if not too far below the horizon, and
the light from either of these sources is, in general, more or less
polarised ; therefore, if the light of the Aurora be suspected to
be polarised, the poiariscope should be directed to an adjacent
portion of clear sky, free from Aurora, but illuminated by the
moon or sun as nearly as possible similar, and similarly situated,
to the former portion ; and the observer must then judge whether
the polarisation first observed be merely due to the illumination
of the sky.

The light from the Ice blink should be also examined for traces
of polarisatioUc

The presence of polarisation is to be determined :
(I.) With a Nicol's prism, by observing the light through it,
by turning the p-ism round on its axis, and by examining
whether the light, appears brightest in some positions and least
bright in others. If ,>uch be the case, the positions will be found
to be at right angles to one another. The direction of " the plane
" of polarisation " will be determined by that of the Isieol at
either of these critical positions. The plane of polarisation of
the light transmitted by a Nicol is parallel to the longer diagonal
of the face ; and, accordingly, the plane of polarisation, or [)artial
polarisation, of the observed light is ))arallel to the longer diameter
of the Nicol when the transmitted light is a1 its greatest intensity,
or to the shorter when it is at its least.

c 2

28

Sl'OTTlSWOODE. — POLAUISATION OF LIGHT.

(2.) Tlio observation witli a doublc-imn^i^ priwm is similar to
tliat with a Nicol. This instrument, uh its name implies, <;ives the
ima<^es which would he seen throu^jfh the Nicol in two reetan«;nlar
positions, l)oth at once, so that they can be directly compared ; and
when in observing polarised li«fht the instrument is turned so
that one ima<^e is at a maxinmm. the other is simultaneously at
a minimum. Both these methods of observation, (1) and (2), are
espeeially suitable for faint li<;ht ; because in such a case the eye
is better able to appreciate differences of intensity than ditfercnccs
of colour.

(3.) The observation with a bici'inrtz tlift'ers from (1) only by
holdini^^ a biquai'tz (a ri^ht-handed and a hift-handed quartz
cemenled side by .side) at a convenient distance beyond tla; Ni(!oI,
mid by observing whether colour is or is not produced. If the
Nicol be so turned that the two parts of the biquartz j^ive the same
colour (choose the neutral tint, +e:nt de ])assa<>;e, rather than the
yellow), we can detect a change in the position of the plane of
polarisation by a change in colour, one half verging towards red,
the other towards blue. This observation is obviously applicable
to a change in the i)lane, either at tlitferent parts of the pheno-
menon at the same time, or at the same parts at different times,

(4.) We may use a Savart's polariscope, which shows a series
of coloured bands in the field of view. For two positions at
right angles to one another, corresponding to the two critical
positions of a Nicol, these bands are most strongly developed ;
for two positions midway between the former the bands vanish.
In the instruments here furnished the plane of polarisation of
the observed light will be parallel to the bands when the central
one is light, perpendicular to them when the central band is dark.

The instruments supplied will enable the officer charged with
them to repeat all the principal experiments in the polarisation of
light. After ii little practice the ob. "rver will be able to make
his own selection of apparatus, and to apply the method of obser-
vation best suited to the particular circumstances in which he finds
himself placed.

«J»

3. Instructions in the use of the Spectroscopes supplied
to the Arctic Expedition. By J. Norman Lockyer,
F.R.S.

The instruments supplied are as follows : —

A. — An automatic 6-prism spectroscope of large dispersion

for observations of the Sun.
B.— A direct-vision spectroscope by Merz for observations of

the sun and of the aurora.
C. — A direct-vision spectroscope by Browning for observations

of the aurora.
D. — A miniature spectroscope for observations of the aurora.

^

Mjcivviou. -isK or Tin: siMxrruocicorK,

2!)

imilav to
rives tb«'
;taii^uliir
red ; aiitl
irned so
cously at
[ (2), lire
the eye
tiercuccs

I only by
I qimitz
i(> Ni(!oI,
If the
the siunc
than tlie
phine of
irds red,
[ipliciible
3 pheno-

times,

a series
itions ut
) critical
yeloped ;

s vanish.

ation of
central

is dark.
;ed with
gation of
to make
of obfeer-

he finds

iipplied
)CKYER,

spersion
itions of
rvations
aurora.

n

Instructions for use of Instrutnciif \.

The stand, witli its train of prisms, should 1)0 taken owl <»!' (lie
box and phiecd on a firm sup|)ort. Tlie prisms if (bisty shoidd
then be wiped with a soft brush or Icathei-, cMrc beiii<; taken, if the
leather be used, to move it in one direction as little ax po<<sible,
to prevent seratehes. The tube furnished with a fbeussin^j^ screw
should, after tlu; adjustment referred to in the next para;;riipli, be
screwed into the rin^ which nu)ves aIon<; thc! ai'c. The «)thi'rtul)e
should 1)(! fix<Ml into the other fixed rinj;.

To focus the observing; telescope insert the ey<'-pie<.'e to be
used, and obtain an ima^^e of a distant objeel, usiii;;- n \nvvv of
;;lass, of the colour of that [)arl of the spectrum t(» be observed,
between the ey(!-piece and the eye. VVM;en this iuis bee n done and
both telesc()i)0 and collimator lixe<l in position, (he hnu^^,. of ih,'
slit should l)e 1)rou<;]it into focus by usiu^ tiie slidinjr tube; of
the colliiuator.

The slit plat(.' and slippinjjf piece should be so inserted into the
collimator tube that the adjusting; screw of the slit will be on the
side nearest the observer.

The whol(! train of prisms should be cuven^d with Idack velvet.
This may be supported by a piece of thick cardboard (blackened)
restinjy on the two telescopes, and train of prisms in order to
prevent it from interccptin'^ any of the li<rht.

Coloured glasses are suj)plied in order to prevent the observa^
tions of each part of the spectrum bein*; interfered with by the
presence of stray lifjht of any other colour than that under obscr-
^■ation ; these should be placed in front of the slit.

It will be well to commence all series of observations of the
rcfjion B — A at the more refranf^ible side of IJ, noting; micrometer
reading, both nund)er of revolutions and ,,\„ths, iu each case. H
will then servo as a zero. It will be found that the slit will beai"
o|)ening Avithout much loss of defiintion as the less refrangible
region between a and A is ai)proached.

The less refrangible line of D and b, and F and C themselves,
may be used in the same manner for observations in the regions
of the spectrum near these lines.

To render the light more intense lenses arc su[)plied to throw an
image of the sun or an intense parallel beam through the slit:
the sun can be followed by the tangent screw movement fixed to
the support. The height of the sun should be recorded against,
each observation, and this can be facilitated by keeping the colli-
mator carefully levelled, marking degrees on the slit [)late and
observing where the image of the sun falls.

o

It Avill be observed that in Angstrom's maps the gradations of
the effect of absorption from maximum (above) to mininunu
(below) are shown. In Mr. Hennessey's maps these gradations ai-e
absent. It will be well to pn^pare a wide spectrum, on a scale
about equal to that employed by Mr. Hennessey, showing the
gradations and the variations, if any, from those observed by

o

Angstrom.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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Photographic

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Corporation

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23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

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30

LUCKYKU. — USE OF Tlii: SrECTKUJ^COrE.

J

Instructions for use of Instrument B.

Three sets of direct-vision prisms are supplied with this spectro-
scope. When all three sets are used the dispersion will be suffi-
cient to enable it to be used for the Sun in the same manner as
instrument A (except for the least refi-augible portion), when some
of the forepfoing instructions will apply.

It has been, however, provided chiefly for observations of the
Aurora, and when used for this purpose only one set of prisms (as
packc<l in the box two sets are mounted) and the lower power eye-
piece should be employed.

One method of measurement which can be employed by this
instrument is as follows : — The adjusting screw with scale nearest
the eye, for reference called the " reading screw," is set to the cen-
tral division marked 10 on the paper scale. The other similar
adjusting screw furthest from the eye, for reference called the
" bending screw," should be adjusted so that the needle point visible
in the field of view is coincident with some definite line in the
green, say the green lino in the aurora.

Measures of auroral lines right and left of this line can then be
made and recorded, and these measures can be compared Avith
those of the lines of other sjiectra, either simultaneously by means
of the reference prism, or afterwards.

A variation of this method will be to set the reading screw to
10, and the bending screw so that the solar line b is adjusted to
the need4e point. Solar positions can then be read off before the
auroral observations are made, and a map prepared on which the
positions of auroral lines can be at once recorded.

Spectroscopic Work.

Scales prepared on Mr. Capron's plan, together with forms for
recording positions, also accompany the instrument. In using
these carefully insert the principal solar lines in their places on
the forms, as taken with a fine slit, and keep copies of this scale
for use. If the slit opens only on one side, note on scale in Avhich
direction the lines widen out, whether towards red or violet.
AJso iill up some of these forms with gas and other spectra, as
taken at leisure toith the same instrument and scale.

When observing close the slit (after first wide opening it), as
much as light will permit, and then with pen or pencil record the
lines us seen upon the micrometer scale on the corresponding part
of the form, and note at once relative intensities with Greek
letters, a, j3, &c. (or numbers).

Reduce at leisure line-places on scale to wave lengths, and note
as to each line the probable limits of iiistrumental error.

In case the auroral spectrum is so faint that the needle point or
micromet(}r scale is invisible, half of the field of view may be
covered with tinfoil, with a perfectly straight smooth edge running
along the diameter of the field, in perfect focus, and parallel to
the lines of the spectra. The reading screw being set to 10, the

n

J

tM

LOOK YER. —USE OF XriK HPKCTIIOSCOIM:.

;n

bending screw should then be adjusted so that the greon line of
the aurora is just eclipsed behind the blackened edge of the tinfoil.
A similar eclipse of other lines will give their positions.

In this instrument the reference prism is brought into action
by turning the slipping piece to which is fixed the two terminals.
Care should be taken that the prism itself is adjusted before com-
mencing observations, as it may be shaken out of position on the
voyage. The tubes provided for the reference spectra may be
either fastened to the terminals or arranged in some other manner.
The air spectrum may also be used as a reference spectrum. To
get this two wires should be screwed into the insulators, their
ends being at such a distance apart and in such a position that
the spectrum is well seen.

Instruments C and D.

These being of the well-known forms require no special
instructions.

J

n

General Observations regarding the Spectrum of the Aurora.*

Note appearance, colour, &c. of arc^ streamers, corona, and
patches of light.

Get compass positions of principal features, and note any change
of magnetic intensity. If corona forms, take its position and
apparent height.

Look out for phosphorescence of aurora and adjacent clouds.
Listen for reported sounds. Note any peculiarity of cloud scenery
prior to or pending the aurora.

Sketch principal features of the display, and indicate on this
sketch the parts spectroscopically examined.

Examine line in red specially in reference to its assumed con-
nexion with telluric lines (little a group), and note us to its
brightening in sympathy with any of the other lines.

Examine lino in yellow-green (Angstrom's) as to brightness,
width, and sharpness {or nebulosity) at the edges. Notice as
to a peculiar Jlickering in this line sometimes seen ; note also
whether this line is brighter (or the reverse) with a fall of tem-
perature. Note ozone papers at the time of aurora.

Note whether the uurorai can by their spectra be classed into
distinct types or forms, and examine for different spectra as
under —

a. The auroral glmo, pure and simple.
/3. The white arc.
y. The streamers and corona.

8. Any phosphorescent or other patches of light or light-
cloud in or near the aurorae.

* In these observations some suggestions made by Mr. Capron have heen
incorporated,

a2

LUCKYEK. — LXE OF THE 8PECTUOSCOPE.

M I

TJie information collected together in the " Manual " shoiiUl be
carefully consulted, and the line of observations suggested by Ang-
strom's later work followed out. To do this, not only record the
positions of any features you may observe in the spectrum, but
endeavour to determine if any, and if so which, of the features
vary together. Compare, for instance, the two spectra of nitrogen
in the Geissler tube supplied, by observing first the narrow and
then the wider parts of the tube. It will be seen that the dif-
ference in colour and spectrum results simply from an addition
to the spectrum in the shape of a series of channelled spaces in the
more refrangible end in the case of the spectrum of the narrow
portion.

Try to determine whether the difference between red and green
auroras may arise from such a cause as this, and which class has
the simpler spectrum.

See whether indications of great auroral activity are associated
with the widening or increased brilliancy of any of the auroral
lines.

Remember that if auroral displays are due to gaseous particles
thrown into vibration by electric disturbance, increased electric
tension may either ( 1 ) dissociate those particles and thus give rise
to a new spectrum, the one previously observed becoming dimmer ;
or (2) throw the particles into more intense vibration without
dissociation, and thus give rise to new lines, those previously
observed becoming brighter.

Careful records of auroral phenomena from both ships may
enable the height of some observed from both to be determined.
It will be very important that those the heights of which are deter-
mined by such means should be carefully observed by the spectro-
scope, in order to observe whether certain characteristics of the
spectrum can be associated with the height of the aurora.

4

VI.-MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.

1. On Saline Matter in Ice. By Dr. Rae, F.R.G.S.

I find in the note-book of my visit to Repulse Bay in 1853-4 :-
Bay frozen over for some miles on 22nd September 1853.

ft. in.

20th December 1853, i ?^ ^^^^ ^^'^^^ ] ice thick

' I bay froze over j

24th January 1 854, 35 days' interval

25th February „ 32

25th April „ 59

25tli May ,. 30

>»

5>

»

»

4 7

RAE. — SALINE MATT Ell IN ICE,

33

may

r.S.

9

0

M

*

In t\ui iivtit three (December, Jauuuiy, jind Febiujiiy) of the
tibove examinations, carefully made by cutting holes in the ice,
the ice was tough (what Weyprecht calls leathery), opaque, that
is translucent, certainly not transparent like fresh-water ice, and
always so salt that the water from it was not fit to drink.

In March 1 find no examination was made, my sevon men and
myself being either away or very busy that month, but the men who
measured the ice in April and May assured me that in cutting
the holes they found the ice in the same state (tough and opaque)
as it had been on the three previous occasions. Being absent in
April and May on a long sledge journey, 1 could not test the ice
personally,

I am told that the " rough^ old, wasted ice " mentioned by me
as almost always giving good drinking water when thawed, has
been confounded with what is called " rotten ice." Now the
two are quite distinct and different. Rotten ice, means ice that
is worn away whilst lying " in situ," generally early in spring, by
certain currents of the sea (usually where there is shallower
water between two deeper places) acting on its under surface,
whilst the temperature of the air is still much too low to have any
effect on the upper part.

This "rotten ice" becomes spongy and dangerous to travel
over. It is very common in Smith's Sound, according to Kane
and Hayes.

The wasted old ice I spoke of, generally breaks up into detached
floes when quite solid and several feet thick, and is gradually
worn away, sometimes into all sorts of curious shapes, by the
combined action of the sea and atmosphere.

In the very excellent scientific report of the Austro-Hungarian
Arctic Expedition given in *' Nature " of the 11th March, Wey-
precht tells us, " that in 24 hours ice a foot thick was formed on
" the sea by a temperature of minus 37°'5 to 50° C, and that the
" salt of the sea water had not time to be displaced entirely, as
'' the formation of the ice went on too quickly," «fec.

I found that ice formed on the sea by the gradually lowering
temperature of early winter did not eliminate the salt any more
than in the case of quick freezing given above.

To quote again from Weyprecht, " The melted water (from sea
" ice) at the end of summer is therefore almost free from salt,
" and has a specific gravity of 1*005."

This distinguished officer may be quite right, but I do not go
so far as he does.

My idea is that at the end of summer the portion of the floe
that floats above water will be found fresh or nearly so in most
cases, but that the submerged part will be decidedly briny. I am
not, however, certain of this.

il

34

RAE. — SALINE MATTER IN ICE.

The following are th(j mean temperatures of the months in
which the ico was measured, corrected as nearly as practicable for
error of thermometer ascertained by freezing mercury : —

Below zero.

em

jerature of December 1853

-

- 25-5 F.

»'

»>

January 1854

-

- 32-4 „

»>

»

February „

m

- 38-4 „

»

»

March „

-

- 20-5 „

»>

»

April

"

- 1-7 „

Hints towards Observations in the Arctic Regions.
By Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

J

1 beg to recommend the following subjects for observation : —

1. The formation of snow crystals ; their shapes, sizes, and
the atmospheric conditions under which they occur. In connexion
with this point it will be useful to consult Scoresby's Arctic
Regions, Vol. 1.

2. In water contained in vessels surrounded by cold brine, I
once observed the formation of small hexagonal, and stellar
crystals. They were formed at some depth below the surface,
and rose to the surface. Water in the Arctic regions could l)o
rapidly exposed so as to render a verification and extension
of this observation possible.

3. By permitting a thermometer to be frozen in water, and
exposed to a varying temperature, a rough notion of the rapidity
of the conduction of heat through ice might be obtained. The
experiment would be more valuable if a prism of ice, at a
very low temperature, were warmed at one end, and the flux of
heat determined by the observation of thermometers, sunk in the
ice at different distances from that end. Only, however, when
there is plenty of time at the observer's disposal should this
observation be made.

4. The rate at which the ends of some of the Arctic glaciers
advance into the sea ought to be determined by a theodolite.

5. If possible, it would be desirable to compare this terminal
motion with the motion at some distance from the sea.

6. The question whether the glaciers break off to form icebergs
through being lifted by the water underneath their snouts, or
through the gravity of their overhanging ends would be worthy
of decision. In ih'i former case the surface of the glacier would
be in a state of longitudinal compression, and no crevasses would
be formed ; in the latter case the surface would be in a state of
longitudinal strain, and crevasses might be expected.

7. The height of some of the tallest icebergs ought to be
accurately determined.

8. The moraine matter carried down by the glaciers and trans-
ported by icebergs, would be worthy of observation.

J

oonths in
icable for

(low zero.
Si5-5 F.
32-4
38-4
20-5 „
1-7

»

ElEGIONS.

tion : —
izes, and
onnexion
'8 Arctic

i brine, J

id stellai"

surface,

could l)c

X tension

ce

itei', and

apidi ty

The

at a

flux of

c in the

3r, when

uld this

glaciers

;e.

terminal

icebergs

outs, or

worthy

would

would

state of

to be

r\i

TYNDALL. — OHSKRVATIO^!S IN AUCl'IC UEGIONS. 3o

9. The condition of the rocks and hills adjacent to existing
glaciers ought to bo examined, with a view to decide whether the
glaciers, in former times, extended beyond their present limits.

10. The veining of the ice, at the ends of the glaciers, ought to
bo sketched and (lescribed.

11. Observations might be made on the colour of the ice. It
would also bo interesting to determine the colour of the sky on
different days by a cyanometer ; and how the colour varies with
the zenith distance. Various cyanometers are described by
Dr. Hermann Schlagintwcit in the Philosophical Magazine for
1852, vol. iii. p. 92.

12. The polarization of the sky, and the determination of the
neutral points in the Arctic firmament, might also be made an
interesting subject cf observation.

13. The presence or absence of germs in the Arctic air might
be ascertained by experiments similar to those of Pasteur iipon
the Mer do glace.

14. The range of a sound of a. definite character on different
days, and at different hours of the same day, ought to be deter-
mined. I have myself derived much instruction from experiments
made —

1. With a dog- whistle.

2. With an open organ-pipe producing from 300 to 400
waves a second ; a pistol fired with a definite charge would
also be useful. It would also be easy to fit up a bell with
a hammer to deliver upon it a stroke of constant strength.
Mr. Tisley would prepare such a bell immediately. In
all ctises the state of the weather, when experiments on
sound are made, ought to be noted.

1 5. The aerial echoes ought to be observed ; here the sound
of a cannon will be necessary. The echoes of a cannon, fired to
windward, ought to be compared with those of the same, or of a
similar cannon, fired to leeward.

16. The range of two sounds differing in pitch, say an octave
apart, ought to be determined; the experiments ought to bo
repeated on different days, with the view of determining whether
the same sound has, at all times, the greatest range.

I beg to enclose with these suggestions : — •

1. A copy of a paper on the Physical Properties of Ice ;*

2. A copy of i\ paper on the Atmosphere as a Vehicle of
Sound ;

3. A copy of a book entitled "Forms of Water ;"
from which vario\is hints and suggestions may be derived.

* The interual stnicture of the Arctic ice ought to he explored by con-
centrated sunbeams, in the manner indicated in this paper.

trans-

36
INSTRUCTIONS

FOR

THE NATURALISTS ENGAGED IN THE ARCTIC

EXPEDITION.

PART II.— BIOLOGY.

I.— ZOOLOGY.

S

I •■

1. Instructions for making Observations on, and Col-
lecting Specimens of, the Mammalia* of Greenland.
By Dr. Albert Gunther, F.R.S.

To obtain information on the present state of our knowledge
of the Mammalian Fauna of Greenland, the Naturalists ought
to acquaint themselves with, and if possible to tivke with them
copies of, the following publications : —

1. Richardson, " Fauna Boreali- Americana." (Part containing
the Mammals.) 1829. 4to.

2. Brown, R. " On the Mammalian Fauna of Greenland," in
the " Proceed. JJool. Soc." 1868, pp. 330-362.

3. Brown, R. "Notes on the history and Geographical relations
" of the Pinnipedia frequenting the Spitzbergen and Greenland
" Seas," in the "Proceed. Zool. Soc." 1868, pp. 405-440.

4. Boyd Dawkins, W. " The British Pleistocene Mammalia."
Part V. Ovihos moschatus. Lond. 1872.

5. " Die zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jahren 1869
** und 1870," under Karl Koldewey. Leipzig, 1874. Containing
numerous observations on Mammals scattered in the body of the
work, chapter 13 being entirely devoted to zoology.

The number of Greenland Mammalia is so small that most of
the desiderata can be specified under the heads of the several
species ; the following general remarks, however, may be given
for the guidance of the naturalists : —

1. One of their most important tasks is to ascertain all ftxcts
bearing upon the distribution or possibly gradual disappearance of
Mammalian life in the direction towards the Pole.

2. For this purpose attention is to be paid not merely to such
animals as may be met with in a living state, but also to any
osseous remains or fragments which may be found on the shore ;
and such remains are to be brought home, if practicable.

* Not including Cetacea.

OUNTIlEn. — MAMMALIA OF GREENLAND.

37

.RCTIC

id COL-
ENLAND.

tiowledge
Its ought
dth them

)ntrtining

land," in

relations
rcenlanil

mmalia."

i-en 1869
nttiining
y of the

most of
several
)e given

all fticts
ranee of

to such
o to any
e shore ;

3. Specimens of every species met with north of 80" should
bo preserved, if found in any way to vary from more southern
races.

4. No opportunity should be neglected of exjvminiug the uterus
of femaUf animals, partly to ascertiiin the period of procreatio!J,
partly to obtain foetal specimens for future examination.

5. To enable future inquirers to institute com[)arisons as re-
gards the numerical increase or decrease of certain Mammals,
within the Arctic circle, registers ought to be kept in which the
numbers of individuals of every species seen during the voyage,
are entered from day to day : this refers more especially to the
bear, musk-ox, reindeer, and walrus.

With regard to the single species the following points deserve
particular attention : —

1. Polar Bear. — Ascertain the i)roportion of the number of
males to females, noting the age (whether full or not lull grown)
and the time of the year at which the individuals have been observed.
The accounts of a partial hybernation of this animal appear to refer
to the females only, which probably at somci time in the winter
retire into secluded spots to give birth to the young. Gather in-
formation respecting the condition of the cubs before they are able
to follow the mother, and preserve the skins and skulls of such
young examples.

2. Wolverine. — Occurs, according to Fabricius, in South Green-
land ; but if Fabricius was not mistaken in his determination, it
must be limited to parts of the interior where reindeer can subsist.
Obtain if possible a skin or other positive evidence of the exis-
tence of this animal by offering a reward to the natives.

3. Weasel and Stoat have hitherto not been found in Greenland,
but if the Lemming, which has been met with in East Greenland
onl}', shoidd reappear further north or on the Crest coast, it is
jjossibly accompanied by some species of Mustela which feeds on
the Lemming. Specimens (skins and skeletons) or even mere
fragments of them should be carefully preserved.

4. The Arctic Fox. — The blue and white varieties are said to
occur promiscuously at certain localities (one or the other being
predominant, and to be found even in the same litter.) Accu-
rate observations should be made upon this subject. Is the
colour permanent in the same individual all the year round ? Are
any cases known of an individual having changed the colour of its
coat ? Is the diversity of colour at all in connexion with their
food and the mode of obtaining it ? It might be surmisetl that
the white-coloured variety is better able to approach hares or
ptarmigan than the blue which would obtain its food chiefly from
the nests of birds, any animal offal, shells, crustaceans, and from the
caches they have been observed to prepare for the dearth of winter.
Is the sense of smelling as well developed as in its European

congener

Skins and skeletons of both varieties to be preserved.
5. The Eskimo Dog. — If unfortunately opportunity should
occur, the phenomena connected with the Arctic Dog-madness

;]8

OUNTIIER. — MAMMALIA OF ORKENLAND.

I I

.should be a mutter for Hrrious observation. Tbo subject bus
been tronted by Dr. W. L. Lindsay in the *' British and Fonij^n
" Modico-chlnir<?ieal Keviow " for January 1870 and July 1871.
The points roquirinj; special attention are : 1. The probable eaus»'s
(generally believed to be c(d<l and darkness). Docs the disease
show itself first in do«js of the pure Eskimo-breed, or in crosses
between native and European dogs? 2. The symptoms and
cotirse of the disease (are they identiad in both races?). 3. The
means by which the contagion is conveyed.

The time of gest^ition of the pure nulive hrccd (said to be a
dir«'Ct descendant of the American Wolf, Canis occidentalis) ought
to be ascert^iined ; further information collected as regards the state-
m(>nts, according to which it readily reverts into the wild state ;
and a number of skulls and skeletons and some skins obtained.

6. Domestic Cat. — In localities where no recent importation of
the cat has taken place, it will be of interest to ascert^un whether,
in the coiu'se of some generations, any change in th<( closeness and
colour of tlu^ fur and in the fertility of the species has been ob-
served.

7. Hare. — A series of good skins obtained at different seasons
of the year (with the skulls) as well as some skeletons are re-
quired.

8. Mnsk Ox. — Every fact adding to our knowledge of its actual
geographical range, as well as of the changes that have taken place in
its distribution in time, is of great interest. It seems that evidences
of its former existence on the West coast art* not scarce ; and the
skulls and other pirts of the skeleton which may be found, ought
to be preserved, with careful observations on the conditions of the
locality. As many skins, skulls, and skeletons of animals of both
sexes and of all ages, as can be conveniently procuretl, prepareil,
and packed, should be preserved.

A careful dissection of the soft parts ought to be made, antl
some of them, such as the brain, a gravid uterus (if not too far
advanced in pregnancy), and the intestinal tract preserved,
the first two in spirits, the last in strong brine. Finally, it would
be most desirable to make an attempt to bring young animals to
Europe ; and as it cannot be expected that the transport could be
effected on board the exploring vessels, the co-operation of whalers
or European residents might be secured by holding out the pro-
spect of a fair pecuniary reward.

9. Reindeer. — Obtain a series of skulls of adiUt animals, with
and without horns, and if possible one or two skeletons, the Green-
land Reindeer being considered to be a distinct variety. Any
differences in size and colour, and in the shape of the horns ob-
served in animals from different localities shoidd be noted.

10. Walrus. — Although perfect skins and skeletons of adult
individuals are great desiderata in our museums, they can be ac-
quired from whaling vessels ; and the naturalists of an exploring
expedition will be satisfied to preserve skulls of extraordinary size
or the exceptionally tuskless skulls of females, and particularly the
heads of newly -born or foetal animals, which are to l)e preserved in

1

.'Ct bus

y 1S71.

1» cuuxcs
disease
crosses

XiH and
3. The

to bo a
>) ought
ic state-
state ;
led.

ation of •
;rhether,
less and
KHMi ob-

seasons
are re-
ts actual
pbice iu
vidences
and the
ought
of the
of both
'pared,

ide, and
too far
sserved,
would
imals to
on Id be
whalers
le pro-

s, with
Green-
Any
rns ob-

adult

be ac-

ploring

iry size

rly the

irved in

}

(}i NTIIER. — MAMMALIA OF GREENLAND.

39

strong spirit. It will be also useful to obtain faithful sketches of
the heads of adult animals (iu different views) and of the attitudes
assumed by them during life.

II. Seals. — So much remains to bo done towards elucidating
the life-history of the Seals (of which six species have hitherto
been found oft' the coasts of Greenland), that th^naturalists should
never neglect an opportunity of collecting further materials on any
point referring to the occurrence, habits, propagation, migration,
variation, &c., and note their observations, be they confirmatory
of, or at variance with, the statements of previous observers.
All perfect skins, skeletons, or skulls which can be spared for
scientific purposes, should be preserved ; and in obtaining these
specimens the collector ought to be particularly anxious (1.) to
obtain skin and skeleton (or at least skull) of the same individual ;
(2.) to obtain specimens out of the same flock or family and to mark
distinctly the examples thus related to each other ; (3.) to secure
and prepare the mother with the young.

2. Instructions for making Observations on and Col-
lecting Specimens of the Cetacea of the Arctic
Seas. By Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.

The study of the habits and structure of the Cetacea is beset by so
many diflBculties that every accurately observed and carefully re-
corded fact relating to them will be of value to science. For-
tunately the work of the numerous naturalists who have devoted
themselves to this group, during the last few years, has done
much to clear away the main sources of confusion and error in all
the earlier accounts of their anatomical characters, habits, and
geographical distribution, and at length, at least as regards the
Northern species, we have been able to ariive at a tolerably satis-
factory knowledge of the principal distinctive characteristics of all
the common species, and of their relations to each other. The
ground having been so far cleared, and a definite framework
based on solid fact having been raised, future observers will be
in a far better position, than was possible till very recently, to fill
in all the required details for completing our knowledge of this
interesting order of Mammals.

A list is appended of the species which may be met with in the
seas to be traversed by the Expedition, with their principal dis-
tinctive characters, an outline of what is now known of their
geographical distribution, and notes on the chief points in their
history still requiring elucidation. It is probable that many of
these are not truly Arctic, but in the absence of satisfactory
information as to the limits of their range in that direction,
it seems best to include all species known to inhabit the North
Atlantic. It may, however, be mentioned generally that the
appearance in the sea of every Cetacean should be noted, the
correct specific designation being, if it can possibly be made

40

FLOW I'Al — AUCTIC CKTACKA.

I'

> li

out, nrt8i«;iu'<l to it, the vaguo «U'si^imtionrt of hciiiiumi, «ucli an
" wliah'S," " hottli'iioseH," "porpoises," See, boiii^ iivoidcd. 11' in
** scIiooIh," (ho number of iiidividimls, as nearly as ilu-y can ln»
(■stinialeil, llio direction in which they arc Hwininiin;;, the cha-
rftcter of tho " hlowinj^," (he average (hiration of the intervals
between eacih expfration, ^ec., will also be subjects I'or observation.

li' any animal is actually captured, or found dead, abundant
op|)ortunity for observation will bo at!bnlod, as our knowledge of
most of the species is dc-rivcd chietly from skeletons, badly j)re-
served portions of the soft parts, an<l imperfect descriptions of
their cxtornal form. (Jood drawinj^s, nuuleto 8(!alo and accurately
coloiui'd, of the cxtornal appearance of nearly all tlui species an»
still desiderata. Careful measurements, devoid of the (often un-
conscious) exaggeration which vitiates so many of those already
given l)y voyager?, are idso required, (^specially of the larger
species. The extreme length shouhl always be given, if possible,
in a straight Vuw from the tip of the nose to the notch between
the llukes of the tail, as measurements following the curves of the
body give a very erroneous idea of the actual size. Any i)arasites
which may be found attached to the external surface or contained
within the animal should be carefully described, and, if [iracticablc,
pr(!served.* The contents of the stomach should always be noted,
with a view to ascertain the natural food of the animal.

Collecting will probably be limitiMl to smaller or rarer specimens,
as it will not be possible to occupy valuable space by such bulky
objects as arc tlu; skeletons of most of the Northern Cetaceans.
If, however, whole skeletons cannot be preserved, certain portions
of them might be removed and brought home without <lifficulty,
especially the i)elvic bones and rudiments of the hinder extremity,
which are nearly always wanting in the skeletons in museums ;
next to these, the skull, the cervical veitebraj, the hyoid bones,
the sternum, and the fore limb or paddles are the most charac-
teristic parts. Brains of any of the larger species are much
wanted, if they can be obtained in a tolerably fresh condition and
carefully preserved in spirit. If any foetuses are met with in
dissecting, they should, if possible, be preser\cd entire, with the
uterus and membranes, in spirit or strong brine.

fJst of Cetacca of the Noi'th Atlantic.

I. — Whalebone Whales. {Mystacoccti.) — Easily recognised
by the baleen or *' whalebone " with which the palate is fur-
nishetl, and by the double openings of the blow-holes on the top
of the head.

Genus BalcBiia. The one species inhabiting the Arctic regions
is B. mysticetus^ Linn., the Greenland Right-Whale, distin-
guished from the other Whalebone Whales of the same seas by
the very large size of tlje head (one-third, or even more, of tlic
entire length), by the great length of the baleen, the absence of
longitudinal furrows in the skin of the throat, and the absence of

* On this subject see Van Beucdeii, " Les Citaces, leur Coinmcnsanx ot
leur Parasites," Bull, de I'Acad. rovalc de Bclgique, 2""' sCric, tome XXIX.,
No. 4, p. 347, 1870.

Vl.OWRil. — AllCTir rF.TACF.A.

41

iich as
If in
Clin bo
lie v.\\i\-
ittTviils
I'viitiou.
3Uii(lunt

illy l>io-
tioiiH ol'
cuiately
'cius an'
llTon un-
til n'luly
■ Uir«;cr
posHible,
between
H of tht'
piimsitos

oiitiiint'il
ictieable,
)G noted,

)cciuiens,
ch bulky
etaceniiH.
portions
lifUcuUy,
xtremity,
luseunis ;
id bonos,

charac-
re much
tion and

with in
with the

'cognised
is lur-
the top

c regions
, distin-

scas by
e, of the
)sence of

sence of

icusaux ft
lie XXIX.,

♦

a (iorsal (in. Tliis is by fur t\w most important of the Northern
(-Vtacca to iinin, Ixiii;; tlie nriinnil wliieh yields tniin oil and wluile-
bono in greatest quantity and finest (|nality. It app<>ars to hiivo
a regnlar seasonal niignition, wintering in the southern portions of
Davis Straits, Hudson Strait, and the coast of Labrador, though
never coming farther south, but tliu extent of its northern range
ill the summer yet remains to l)e aseertaiiUHl. For full accounts of
its habits and geographieal distribution, srr the works of Martens,
/orgdrajer, and Scoresby ; U. lirowii, " Notes on the History and
'' (leograi)hieal Relations of the Cetaeea freiinenting Davis Strait
" ami iJalHn's Hay," Pro*-. Zo(d. Soe., 1868, |). iiXi ; and especially
the elaborate monograph by Eschricdit and Reinhanlt *' On the
" (ireenland liight-Whalo {liahrud mt/sticetus),'* translated
fr<mi the Dani.sh in '* Recent Memoirs on the Cetaeea," Ray
Society, 1866.

A really good drawing of an adult Greenland Whale is still a
desideratum, also accurate atatemeuts as to the size it attains.
There 18 no evidence from sjjecimens in any of the European
museums that it excee<ls 5o feet in length (in a straight line), but
voyag«!rs generally give much larger dimensions.

A Right Whale, with a smaller head and shorter whalebone
( lidlfcna biscayensis), was formerly abundant in the temperate
portions of the North Atlantic, but is now nearly extinct. Any
information about the si)ecies would bo extremely valuable. Is it
identical with the American IJlack Whale {B. cisairticft, Co\m') ?

Sec Eschricht and Reinhardt, op.cit. Van IJeneden and Gervais,
" Osteographie des Cetaces." Fischer, " Documents pour servir
" u I'histoire de la lialeine des Basques {lial(cna discat/ensis),"
Anjiales des Sciences Nat., 1871.

All the remaining Whalebone Whales of the Northern seas have
a small dorsal fin, and the skin of the throat and breast marked
with deep longitudinal furrows.

Mcffoplera hoops ((). Fabricius) = il/. loiujimaim (Rudolphi).
Ihunp-haeked \^\\\\\q^ Kvporkak or Kripokah of the (ireenlanders,
German ]ii(vh<'hv<tll. Knt)wn externally from the true Rorquals by
the low and obtuse dorsal fin, and especially by the great size of
the pectoral fins, which are more than one-fourth of the entire
length of the animal (from 45 to 50 feet). Colour black above,
and black and white below in streaks and patches; the pectoral
fins wholly white, bah'cn black. As far as is known at present
there is but one species of Megaptera in the Northern seas, which
has a far more extensive range than the Greenland Right- Whale,
passing in the winter as far south as Bermuda, and in the
summer up to the Greenland coast (66° North). For the fullest
account of this s})ecies, see D. F. Eschricht, " Untersuchungen
" ilber die Nordischen Wallthiere" (1849), which extremely valu •
able work contains an exhaustive Inbliogi'aphy of the Northern
Cetaeea up to date of publication.

Genus Balatnoptera. The Rorquals, or Fin Whales, are known
from the last by the pectoral fin not exceeding one-sixth of the
length of the animal, and by tlic falcate form of the dorsal fin.
Four Northern species are now generally recognised.

3G122. d

42

FLOWER. — ARCTIC CETACEA.

IT

I >!

B. musculusy Companyo = Physalus antiquorum, Gray. The
Common Rorqual or Razor-back, Keporkarnak of the Green-
landers. Black above, white below ; flippers black ; baleen slate-
colour on the outer edges, streaked longitudinally with yellow,
and yellowish-white on the inner fibrous edges. Length of adult
b'O to 70 feet. This is the commonest of the Rorquals of the
temperate Atlantic and MediteiTanean. Its Northern range has
not been well ascertained, as it has till lately been confounded
with the next species. For external characters and figure, see
W. H. Flower, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1869, p. 604, and pi. xlvii., with
refei-ences to previous figures.

B. Sibbaldii, Gray. Sibbald's Rorqual, Tonnolik of the Green-
landers, Steypireythr of the Icelanders. Black above, shading
into slate-grey below, more or less varied with dashes or spots of
white; flippers black above and whitish below; baleen uniform
deep black. Is of larger size (70 to 80 feet) and has a more
Northern range than the last. See W. Turner, '* An Account of
" the Great Finner Whale {Baltenopfera Sibbaldii) stranded at
" Longniddry," Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxvi. A. W.
Malm, " Monographe illustree du Baleinoptere," Stockholm, 1867.
B. laticeps (Gray). Rudolphi's Rorqual.
Only four of five specimens of this species, which is chiefly dis-
tinguished by its osteological characters, have hitherto been met
with, and but little is known of its external appearance or
geographical distribution. It does not appear to exceed 40 feet in
length. All the specimens referred with certainty to this species
have occurred in the North Sea, between the North Cape and
the Dutch coast.

Balcenoptera rostrata (O. Fabricius). The Lesser Rorqual,
Tikagulik of the Greenlanders, Vaagevhal of the Norwegians.
Black above, white below ; flippers black, with a broad white
band across the middle ; baleen yellowish-white. Length not
exceeding 30 feet. This is the smallest and perhaps the best
known of all the Rorquals, having an extensive range in the
North Atlantic.

The genus Agaphclus (Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. I'hila-
delphia, 1868, p. 221) is founded on the imperfect romnins of a
Whale cast ashore on the coast of New Jersey, indicating the
existence of a species in the North Atlantic resembling Bahena
in the absence of pectoral cutaneous furrows and of dorsal fin, but
having the elongated form of body, tetradactylous hand, and
general osteological characters of Baleenoptera. Further indi-
cations of this animal are much needed.

II. Toothed Whalv^s {Odontnceti). No baleen. Nostrils (in
nearly all) united to form a single median crescentic opening or
" blow-hole."

Physeter macroecphalus, Linn. The Cachalot or Sperm Whale.
An inhabitant of the tropical and warmer temperate seas, and
only met with as an accidental straggler in the North Atlantic.

Hypcroodon ros/ntfns (Chcinnitjc). The Common Beaked
Whale or Bottlenose. No teeth in the upper jaw; one or two pairs
in the front (;nd of tlic lower niw, small an«l concealed in the

J

•fr

FLOWER. — ARCTIC! CETACRA.

43

J. The
Gieen-
jn slate-
yellow,
of adult
Is of the
nge has
founded
ruve, see
rii., with

3 Green-
shading
spots of
uniform
1 a more
count of
mded at
A. W.
Im, 1867.

liefly dis-
been met
ranee or
40 feet in
is species
Cape and

Jorqual,
■wegians.
ad white
iigth not

the best
|e in the

c.

rhila-
uus of a
ating the
Bal(Pna
I lin, but
md, and
ler indi-

)strils (in
ening or

^

two pan's
bd in the

gnm. Nearly black, paler on the belly. Dorsal iin small and
falcate. Length 20 to 26 feet. A rather common and well-
known species, ranging, according to season, from the mid
Atlantic to Davis Straits.

Skeletons of larger size and with greatly developed crests on
the maxillary bone are assigned to a second species, //. latifrons,
Gray, though some zoologists think these are only very adult
males of the former. This is an important point to cletermine.

Allied to Hyperoodou are two very important species, Ziphitts
cavirostris, Cuv., and Mesoplodon Sowrrbinisis, lilainv., about
which there is still much to be learned. They have both been
found in the North seas, the former near Shetland, and the latter
on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, though not at present known
to range farther north. The Cetaceans of this group (the Ziphioids)
are known by the absence of teeth in the upper jaw, and their small
number, (two to four), in the lower jaw, and by the small rounded
form of the pectoral fins.

The remaining Northern Cetaceans belong to the family of
true Dolphins (^DelphinidfR).

The Narwhal, Monodon monoceros, Linn., distinguished by the
absence of dorsal fin and the well-known and peculiar dentition.
A truly Arctic animal. The function of the projecting tusk is not
satisfactorily ascertained. Every attempted solution of the problem
must bear reference to its being present only in the male sex.

Delphinaptertis leueas (Pallas). The Beluga or White Whale,
Kellclliiak of the Greenlanders, also a genuine Arctic species. It
closely resembles the Narwhal in external characters (absence of
dorsal fin, &c.), and in its skeleton, but differs in dentition, having
8 to 10 teeth above and below on each side. Length 12 to 14 feet.
All the Northern Belugas are generally considered to belong to
one species, but Cope, from the examination of skeletons, has dis-
tinguished and named four or five. The subject requires further
investigation. .

Genus Orca, Gray. The Killer or Grampus, Ardhik of the
Greenlanders. Easily known from all other Cetaceans, even
when swimming in the water, by the high narrow dorsal fin, and
on closer inspection by the broad rounded pectoral Hn or flipper,
and the large, strong conical pointed teeth, 11 or 12 on each side
above and below. Black above and white below, the colours
being sharply defined and arranged in a definite pattern. Length
20 to 25 feet. Whether all the Killers of the Northern seas belong
to one species (0. ^/«rfmtor, Lacep.)or to several, is still a problem
which can only be solved by a large collection of skeletons, accom-
panied by careful descriptions or draAvings of the external cha-
racters of the same individuals. See D. F. Eschricht, " On the
Northern Species of Orca," Recent Memoirs on the Cetacea, Kay
Society, 1866 ; J. E. Gray, " Supplement to the Catalogue of the
" Seals and Whales in the British Museum, 1871."

Pseudorca crassideiis (Owen). Teeth very like those of Orca,
hut it is distinguished from tlu' true' Killer by its smaller size,
narrower flipper, shorter dorsal fin, and more uniform dark colora-
tion. Hitherto only met with in a subfossil state in Lincolnshire, and

d 2

i-iiJWM

44

FLOWER.— ARCTIC CETACEA.

■ !

M

■jr:

i?-

on several occasions in small herds near the entrance of the
Baltic. Its true habitat is still an interesting subject for ob-
servation. Sec J. Rcinhardt, " Recent Memoirs on ihe Cetacea,"
Ray Soc. 1866.

Globicephalus melas (Trail), the Ca'ing Whale or Pilot Whale,
Grindval of the Faroese, characterised by the round form of the
head, very long and pointed flippers, moderate-sized dorsal fin,
and small and often deciduous teeth, is one of the most numerous
and best-known of all the Northern Cetaceans, swimming in very
large herds or 5' schools." It attains the length of 20 feet, and
is black all over with the exception of a whitish stripe along the
belly.

Grampus griscus (Cuvier), Risso's Grampus, is a Mediterranean
and Atlantic species, allied to the last, but distinguished by its grey
or variegated colour, smaller flipper, and fewer teeth. It has
hitherto not been met with farther north than the entrance to the
Baltic.

The Porpoise, Phocfena communis, F. Cuvier, Nisa of the Green-
landers, is the smallest of the Northern Cetaceans, not exceeding
5 feet in length, and the most common on the English coasts. The
Phoecena found on the Atlantic coast of America has been
described as distinct from the Eui'opean species. If this be the
case, to which does the Porpoise found in Davis Straits belong ?

The remaining species, constituting the true Dolphins, are
known by the more or less elongated and pointed "beak," with
numerous small teeth, rather high falcate dorsal fin and pointed
pectorals. There are four well-known species in the Northern
seas, distinctly characterised by their skeleton as well as by their
external features, which only need be mentioned here.

Delphinus delphis, Linn. The common Dolphin, Ardluursak
of the Greenlanders. Teeth 44 to oO
below. Length of adult 7 to 8 feet,
brilliant white below.

Deljjhinus tursio, Fabricius. The Bottle-nosed Dolphin. Teeth
20 to 25 on each side above and below ; truncated in old animals.
Length 10 to 12 feet. Black above, sides dusky, white below.

Delphinus acutus. Gray. The White-sided Dolphin. Teeth 28
to 36 on each side above and below. Length 6 to 8 feet.
Black above, white below ; a large white stripe on each flank.

Delphinus albirostris, Gray. White-beaked Dolpliin. Teeth
22 to 27 on each side above and below. Length 7 to 9 feet. Deep
purple- black above ; beak, lips, and belly creamy- white ; the
colours sharply defined.

Besides the Avorks referred to above, the following may be
consulted with reference to the Northern Cetacea : —

A. J. Malmgren : " Beobachtungen und Anzeichnungen iiber die
" Siiugethier-Fauna Finmarkens und Spitzbergens."
Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Fcirhaud 1864, 11. p. 127.
Arch. Natursch., 1864, p. 63.

Llndemann : " Eine Geshichto der Arktischen Fischerei der
" Deutschen Seestadte, :620 1868," in Petermann's Mittheil, 1869,
No. 26.

on each side above and
BJack above, shaded to

Overs. Kong.
Wiegm.

V LOW K R. — A UCT I C C KT AC 1] A .

of the

for ob-

Btacea,"

Whale,
Q of the
'sal fin,
imerous
in very
eet, and
ong the

jrranean

its grey

It has

CO to the

e Green-
xceeding
,ts. Tlie
las been
is be the
belong ?
tiins, are
k," with

pointed
J^orthcrn

by their

dluarsak
ove and
laded to

In. Teeth

animals.

^low.

'eeth 28

8 feet.

lank.

I. Teeth

|t. 13eop

[ite ; the

may be

iiber die

's. Kong.

Wiegm.

^»

:'

W. Lilljeborg : " Sveriges och Norges Ryggradsjur. I. Daggd-
" juren," contains a full bibliography of Northern Cotacea to 1873.

Bell's "British Quadrupeds," 2nd edition (1874), the portion
relating to Cetaeea, by Mr. E. R. Alston. A popular but accurate
account of the species inhabiting the British Seas.

o.

Instructions for collecting and observing the Birds
of Greenland. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., F.R.S.

Iierei der
eil. 18()9,

The " Manual " supplied to the scientific observers of the
Expedition contains an article on the Birds of Greenland by
Professor Newton, F.R.S., drawn up specially for the work in
question. This will be found to contain a complete summary of
the present state of our knowledge of the Ornithology of Green-
land, and indications of the principal desiderata as regards our
acquaintance with the Birds known to occur there.

For the determination of the European species, the following
works should be consulted : — Yarrell's " History of British Birds "
(London, 1843), or MacGilli^Tay^s "British Bii-ds" (London,
1839) : for the American species, Baird's " Birds of North Ame-
" rica" (Philadelphia, 1860), or Cone's " Key to North American
" Birds " (Salem, Mass., 1872).

The princi])al objects of the observers Avho direct their attention
to Birds should be —

1. To supplement the present catalogue of the Birds of Green-
land by ascertaining the occurrence of additiouiil species.

2. To render our present knowledge of the species that occur
there more perfect by additional observations on them.

To this end, specimens should be preserved of all the species
of Bir<ls met with during the expedition. In the case of all except,
the very commonest species, examples of both sexes in their
various plumages, as also of the eggs, nestling, and immature form
of such as breed in the country, should be preserved. Every
specimen collected should be carefully labelled with a small paper
or parchment ticket attached to the foot, on which the exact
locality, date, and collector's name, as likewise the sex as ascer-
tained by dissection, should be stated. Additional particulars
concerning each specimen (such as the colour of the iris, bill, and
legs) may be recorded in the collector's note-book.

The observations of the Bird -collector should be sitccially di-
rected towards the following points : —

(I.) The alteration in the general character of the Avi-fauna as
the Expedition proceeds north.

(2.) A complete record of the species observed and obtained in
the north after Smith's Sound is entered, and the extreme northern
limit of the occurrence of each of them.

(3.) The exact times of arrival of the migrants from the south
after the Arctic winter, as likewise of their departure southwards
in the autumn »

jg^gglgSSSSSBmam

46

HOLATEIJ. — BIRDS OF GRBKXLAND.

,p.

(4.) The habits of the species that are found nesting, that is, as
regards the date and the mode of their nesting, and its continuance.
Species specially requiring attention are —

1. The Rncfi-ptarmi(/an (Manual, p. 100), in order to ascertain
its specific distinctness from Lagopus mutus.

2. The Grey Plover (1. c, p. 101), of which the eggs are
scarcely known to collectors.

3. The Sanderlhiff (1. c, p. 102), of which " authentic eggs "
are " very rare."

4. The Grey Phalarope (1. c, p. 102), of which '" the breeding
" habits are little known."

5. The Knot (1. c, p. 103), of which the nidification is *' not
" known with any certainty."

6. The Sabine's Gull (1. c, p. 105), of which the eggs are
" extremely rare."

7. The Cufiente or Ross's Gull, of the breeding-habits of which
" nothing whatever is known," and of which specimens are ex-
tremely scarce in collections.

8. The Puffin of Greenland (1. c, p. 108), iu order to ascer-
tain to which form, Fratereula glocialis or F. aretica, it really
belongs.

For the further information as regards desiderata. Professor
Newton's concluding observations in his above-mentioned article
should be attended to.

^h

ll

4. Instructions for making Observations on, and
Collecting Specimens of, the Fishes of Greenland.
By Dr. Albert Gunther, F.R.S.

The information on the Fishes of Greenland is scattered through-
out the zoological literature; and the treatises in which an attempt
at giving a general account of this fauna has l)een made, are very
imperfect and antiquated. Yet the following publications mi'y be
consulted Avith advantage : —

1. Richardson, J. "FaunaBoreali-Americana." Part containing
the Fishes. 4to., 1829.

2. Richardson, J. Account of the Fish, In Belcher's "The Last
of Arctic Voyages." Vol. ii.

3. Reinhardt, J. " Ichthyologiske Bidrag til den Gronlandske
Fauna." in Danskc Videnskabs Selsk. naturvid. og matlicm.
Afhan'dl." Vol. vii.

4. Gaimard, P. " Voyage en Islande et an Gronland, execute
pendant les annees 183.5 et 1836 sur la corvette ' La Recherche.' "
Paris, 1851. 8vo. Atlas in folio.

5. Gaimard, P. "Voyage en Scandinavie, en Laponie, au
Spitzberg et aux Faroe, pendant les annees 1838, 1839, and 1840,
sur la corvette * La Recherche.' " Atlas fol., Paris.

Thus, the Naturalists cannot fail to add considerably tti our
scanty knowledge of this fauna, and to the still more imperfect
materials iu British collections.

OUNTHEK. — FISHES OF <}KKENLAN1).

47

>i

not

Lust

i

1. Collect specimens of every species, with the exception of* the
common Wolf-fish {Anarrhiehas lupus'*), the species of the genus
Gadus, viz., Cod-fish, Whiting, Pollack, Coal-fish, Ling, and
Torsk, the Halibut and the Capelin.'j' Beyond lat. 71° N. collect
all fishes without exception ; generally three or four specimens
of each kind ^vill be sufficient.

2. The smaller kinds, that is, specimens which can be packed
in tin boxes 2 J feet long, preserve in spirits 20<* over proof; the
larger specimens can be skinned and preserved dry ; skins of
sharks are best preserved in very strong brine.

3. To judge from the collections brought home by previous
travtllers there must be, at suitable localities, an abundance and a
great variety of small shore-fish, such as Father-lashers (Cottoids),
Stickleliacks, Blennies, etc., which may be obtained by the usual
means or by employing natives or resiilents.

4. The absence of Fish life at or near the surface is no proof
that fishes are not abundant at a greater depth ; and whenever
circumstances permit, long hand-lines should be tried. These
hand-lines should differ from the ordinary cod-line in being much
longer, upwards of 80 fathoms, and (in the fashion of a pater-
noster) provided Avith hooks for about 20 fathoms from the
sinker. In order to allow the lines to be in the water for several
hours, the hooks ought to be fastened to the snood by a number of
open strands of soft twine about three inches long, so that the fish
cannot bite through the line. I have no doubt that in this manner
those extraordinary Arctic forms which we know from isolated
examples only, can be obtained ; nearly all of them are evidently
very voracious fishes.

5. Although the Sharks are Avell represented in the Arctic Seas,
our knowledge of them is extremely incomplete. Scarcely the
outlines of their specific characters are known, and absolutely no-
thing of their life-history. No instance is on record of a young
Basking Shark (a species by no means uncommon) having ever
been seen. Therefore, all observations regarding them ought to
be collected ; and specimens of a manageable size preserved.
Should the Naturalists have an opportunity of examining veiy
large examples, an exact outline drawing of the entire animal
showing the exact position of the eyes, nostrils and blow-holes
(spiracula) should be made, and the jaws cut out and preserved.
The species of Sharks which are regularly killed for the sake of
the oil extracted from their liver, ought to be determined ; and
some of the European residents on the coast be induced to pre-
pare the skins of full grown examples (from 25 to 35 feet in
length) for sale to the Museums in Europe.

6. We know of but one family of fishes inhabiting fresh waters
of the Ai'ctic region, viz., Salmonoids. Trout were caught during

* There is a second species in Greenland, Anarrhiehas (icnticulatus, with
much smaller teeth and an unspotted blackish-hrowu body ; this species is
a desideratum.

t Greenlandic: Angmaksak ; Sennersulik (male with villous excres-
cences), Sennersuitsut (male without). Eskimo: Angmaggeuck,

-vmmmm

4H

OVSTllVAl. — FISllKS OF GUEENLAND.

the voyage of the " Fox " in 72° (Bellot Strait), and in Spitz-
l)ergen they occur several degrees further north ; so that it is
probable that fishes of this family live in still higher latitudes. It
is of the highest interest to ascertain the extreme limits at which
fresh-water species can exist ; their existence being dependent on
the presence of food and on the conditions necessary for the de-
velopment of the spawn. Charr can live in Alpine pools which
are free from ice for a few weeks only in favourable seasons.

«. In collecting specimens of this family take large individuals
in preference to small ones, as young examples of less than 8
inches long, are but rarely suitable for specific determination, if
the specimens cannot be brought away, ascertain whether they
have or have not teeth along the body of the vomer, that is,
whether they are Charr or Trout.

b. Has the locality in which they are found, u communication
with the sea ? and is there any reason to believe the fish to be
migratory ?

c. If possible ascertain the depth of lakes inhabited by fish, ami
whether the water is likely to freeze to the bottom. As some fish
of temperate regions {Cyprinoids) can endure for a considerable
period complete enclosure in ice, it would be of interest to prove;
experimentally that certain Arctic fish (marine or freshwater)
are endowed with a similar tenacity of life, and to sec for what
period they can survive.

d. Examine the stomachs of all Salmonoids, and note their
contents, some of which may be worth preserving.

(

5. Instructions for making Observations oh, and Col-
lecting the MoLLuscA of, the A.rctic Regions. By
J. GwYN Jeffreys, F.R.S.

Exactly two centuries ago Frederic Martens, of Hamburg, first
noticed the Mollusca which he met with in his voyage to Spitz-
bergen and Greenland. These were the Clione papiliotiacea of
Pallas and Limacina arctica of Fabricius ; the former a naked or
shell-less mollusk, and the latter a smaller shell-bearing species,
both being of the Pteropod order, which inhabit the surface of
the Arctic ocean in countless numbers, and are usually (but
questionably) supposed to constitute the food of whales. Since
that time Linne, Miiller, Fabricius, Chemnitz, Leach, Gray,
Broderip and Sowerby, MoUer, Torell, Morch, Loven, Forbes,
Reeve, Albany Hancock, Davidson, and several others, have
described or noticed species from high northern latitudes ; besides
Sars and his Scandinavian fellow-workers, who have so carefully
and laboriously investigaied the Mollusca of the Norwegian Coasts
within the Arctic circle. No nation has done, especially of late,
so much as Sweden to advance our knowledge of the Arctic Mol-
lusca. In 1857 and 1858, Professor Torell, aided and encouraged

H

%^

JEFFREYS. — ARCTIC MOLLUSCA.

49

^l.

\ty tlic Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, explored by dredging
the seas of Spitzbergen and Iceland ; the greatest depth reached
by him was 280 fathoms. In 1861 a second Swedish expedition
was made to Spitzbergen, when a species of Cf/lychna was re-
corded by Professor Loven as having been dredged at a depth of
over 1,000 fathoms. A third Swedish expedition in the same
direction was made in 1868 ; and by the kindness of Professor
Loven I was favoured with an opportunity of examining at Stock-
holm some of the results. The dredgings and soundings appear
to have extended from 5 to 2,600 fathoms ; and, at the Inst-
named depth, in N. lat. 78° a living Crustacean {Cuma), and a
valve of a MoUusk {Astarte compressd) were obtained. Again,
in 1871, the Swedish frigate " Eugenia," was dispatched on a
scientific voyage to Greenland ; when Mr. Josua Lindahl, who
had assisted us in the " Porcupine " expedition of the previous year,
was the naturalist in charge. The results of this last expedition,
as regards the MoUusca, have not yet been published ; but I was
informed by Mr. Lindahl, that in Davis's Straits he dredged a
species of Pecchiotia (or Vertieordia), apparently acutecostata ;*
and Professor Loven told me that a Marginella (which is a
southern form) and a Limopsis were dredged also in Davis's
Straits at a depth of 900 fathoms.

The importance of such investigations cannot be too highly
estimated, especially in a geological point of view. The pala3on-
tological basis of the glacial epoch consists mainly in the identi-
fication of certain species of MoUusca, which inhabit the Polar
seas and are fossil in Great Britian and even as far south as Sicily.
But such species may owe their present habitat and position to
other than climatal causes, viz., to the action of marine currents.
Certain small Spitzbergen species {e.g. Legafrigida, and L. ahijs-
sicola), have been lately found everywhere in the depths of the
North Atlantic as well as in the Mediterranean ; and the question
naturally arises what is the home of these species, or where did
they originate ? That question cannot be answered for want of
sufficient information. It is likewise quite premature to assume
that Arctic MoUusca comprise very few species, although they
may abound in individuals. We know very little about them,
because of the difficulty of investigation. The researches of Pro-
fessors Torell and Sars induce us to believe that these MoUusca
arc not less varied than numerous.

It is hoped that each of the vessels to be fitted out for the
Polar expedition will have a donkey engine, by which the dredges
can be lifted ; and that a sufficient supply of necessary apparatus
Avill be provided, regard being of course had to the limited space
allowed for such a secondary object. The great experience of
Capt. Nares renders any suggeftions as to dredging quite super-
fluous.

* This species is fossil in the Coralline Crag of Suffolk, and the Zanclean
formation of Sicily ; and I dredged it at considerable depths in the Bay of
Biscay. It has been also dredged by Mr. Arthur Adams in the seas of Japan,
and by Count Pourtales in the Gulf of Mexico.

oO

JEFFREYS. — ARCTIC MOLLU8CA.

•i^

Ono ditticulty will be the preservation of any soft or sliell-loHS
Mollusca in high latitudes, where spirit of wine would freeze ; but
this may be obviate<l by having accurate drawings of the animals
made on the spot. Perhaps one of the medical staff in each
vessel could do this. In lower latitudes such Mollusca might
be kept in methylated spirit in thick glass jars, space being
allowed for expansion by subsequent freezing.

The larger shell-bearing Mollusca may be wrapped up in wool
or paper and placed in wooden covered trays, such as were used in
the " Porcupine " and " Challenger " expeditions ; and the smaller
shells could be kept in wooden boxes or stout pill boxes. Tho
rest of the dredged material should be carefully kept in canvass
bags.

In every case, it is of the greatest consequence that the latitude
and longitude of the place of capture, as well as the depth,
should be recorded by means of linen labels, prepared so as to
make the print and writing ineffaceabre by sea water.

Where the ground or sea-bottom is muddy, a fine sieve nuiy be
ust'd in a large tub of water to get rid of the impalpable mud ;
or the " globe sieve " may be worked overboard for the same
})urpose. A descriptive account of these contrivances will be
found in the preliminary report of the" Porcupine" exploration in
1869, in No. 121 of the proceedings of the Royal Society, p. 415.
I would strongly recommend also the " scoop-sieve " (loc. cit.) tor
catching Pteropods, Cuttle-fishes, and other animals on the surface
of the sea. Towing-nets of muslin or fine gauze may be used
for the capture of small Pteropods and Oceanic Crustacea ; and
the stomachs of fishes and star-fishes should be examined for shells.
See " Hints for Collecting " in " British Conchology," vol. v. The
crops of sea-birds occasionally contain shells ; but • these shells
would be of littoral species and therefore not of much scientific
value.

The rocks and seaweeds on the coast should be diligently
searched for species of Littorina, Lacuna, Purpura^ Buccimttn,
and other littoral shells. And it should be borne in mind that
too many specimens of ditferent ages cannot be collected. The
mischievous practice of species-making would not have been
carried to such an extent if naturalists had before them a suite of
specimens to show the range of variation, instead of being ro
stricted to two or three specimens, and sometimes only to what is
called a " unique " specimen.

Land and fresh-water shells, when procurable, would be ex-
tremely interesting, and would serve to elucidate one of the difficult
problems of geographical distribution. The former may be looked
for under loose stones and among mosses ; and the latter in pools
of water, during the summer and autumn. Moller described several
species from Greenland.

1 may add that all fossil shells should be collected, and their
position accurately noted, especially the height above the present
level of the sea. The former conditions and climate of the Polar
region may be thus ascertained, and a new chapter opened in the
history of our globe.

1!»

51

d their

)rescnt

Polar

in the

6. Insthuctioxs on the Collection uiid Pukseuvation of
Hydroids and Polyzoa. By O. J. Allman, M.D.,
P.L.S., F.R.S.

IIVDROIDA.

In the notes on the towing net reference \h made to the
Hydroid Medusai as among the objects most frequently captured in
the net ; and it is stated that these almost always originate as
buds from rooted plant-like zoophytes. Tliese hydroid zoophytes
grow like sea-weeds beneath the sea; the buds, which when ma-
ture detach themselves and spend the remainder of their lives as
free-swimmers in the open sea, are the sexual portion of the hydroid

colony, and are destined to

give

origin

to

generative

elements,

male and female, by whicli the species is perpetuated, wliile the
rooted plant-like portion consists for the most part of a multitude
of little hydranths or polypites destined not for generation but for
nutrition. These are minute flower-like bodies, each with a mouth
occu))ying th(» central point in the flower, and surrounded by con-
tractile tentacles which are mostly so disposed as to resemble the
petals and other verticils of a regular flower ; the whole of the
hydranths are organically united into a composite rooted colony.
In many cases, however, the generative buds tlo not detach them-
selves at any period of their existence, and then they form, like the
hydranths, a permanent plant of the common colony. The rooted or
nutritive portion of the colony is the trophosome ; the assemblage
of generative buds Avhether permanently fixed or destined to be-
come free is the gonosome. When these buds become free, as in
the case of the medusa) above referred to, they may be named
planoblasts. A few words on the modes of collecting the tropho-
somes may here be added to what has already been said regarding
the planoblasts.

While the planoblasts must be sought for by the towing net, the
rooted trophosomes are obtained by means of the dredge or by
examining the rocks left exposed by -.he retiring tide. There is
scarcely any depth at which these beautiful organisnifi may not be
cneountered by the dredge, but they are most abundant in moderately
deep Avater. They here fix themselves to masses of rock or to
old shells, or to sea- weeds or other bodies aifording a sufficient
surface for attachment, and in some rare cases they root themselves
in the sandy sea bottom. The region between tide ma^ks will tit
low water often aftbrd a rich harvest to the collector. Here the
hydroids will be found rooted to the sides of rock pools or fixed in
the clefts or under the projections of the rocks, or spreading ovc r
the surface of exposed sea-weeds. Large loose stones lying be-
tween tide marks ought to be turned over, and the under surfiu e
examined for hydroid trophosomes many of which are chiefly found
in such situations, especially on stones which lie near the extreme
limit of low water. If any portion of the stones or rocks on whieli
they grow can be broken off and carried away with them so much
the better ; if not, they are to be detached by means of a broad
knife blade passed under their point of attachment. When growing
on shells they ought not to be separated from these. If the shells
be too large these may be broken and the fragments preserved with

62

ALLMAN. — IIYUKOinS AND POLYZOA.

fhc hydroids nttnchod to them. When growing ov(M' Iho sMrfiH'c
of Hea-wocds the portion of the plant to wliich the hy(h'oidH havo
attached themselvifs onglit also to he retained. Wh<'n liins seemed
no time should be lost in placing the speeimeii.s in s[)irit, for when
exposed to the air tlu^y very soon dry up nn<l lose some of their
most important characters.

POLYZOA.

The Polyzoa often n^semblo the hydroid trophosomes so closely
that the inexperienced collector can scarcely bo ex^pccted to dis-
tinguish them, and indeed on this point he need not trouble himself,
for the determination of their distinguishing characters may well
be loft to future careful examination. Like the hydroids they form
for the most part plant-like colonies, sometimes giving rise to
branching colonies like tufts of sr>ii-weed, and sometimes 8i)i-eadin

like lichens over the surface of stones, shells, and alga>. The cir-
cumstances under which they occur are almost entirely the same as
in the case of the hydroid trophosomes, and they are to l)e collected
and preserved in the same way.

V

^

I

Instructions on the Construction and Method of
Using the Towing Net, and Notes on the Animals
which may be obtained by its employment. By
G. J. Allman, M.D., P.L.S., F.R.S.

CONSTKUCTION OF THE TOWTNG NeT.

The towing net is n small bag made of some material open
enough in its textui'e to allow of the water easily passing thiough
it, and yet sufficiently close to retain within it such miiuite bodies
us it may encounter in its passage through the sea. Its mouth is
kept open by a strong ring, and it is towed behind the vessel by
means of a line fastened to the ring.

The bag may be made of fine straining-linen or of new bunt-
ing; and in the size which will be found most generally useful it
may have a depth of about 18 inches, and a width across its
mouth of about a foot. The ring which surrounds the mouth
may be a wooden ho(>p ; or it may be made of brass rod strong
enough to resist the tendency to become bent when the net is
being drawn through the water."

Three pieces of strong line about two feet in length arc to be
fastened at equal intervals to the ring, and tied together securely
at their opposite ends. To the point of their union the towing
line is to be attached. With a net of the size here suggested, a reel
of strong " hake-line " will make the best towing line for all the
ordinary velocities at which towing may be most advantageously
practised.

Mode of Using the Net. '

When thus rigged the net may be used from a row boat, oi-
from a sailing vessel or steamer under moderate way. It may be
thrown out from the stern ; and in surface -towing sufKcient way
must be given to keep the mouth of the bag close to the surface
of the water. Many of the small objects which may be tioating

^

s

ALLMAN. — USE OP THE TOWING NET.

58

:. surfin'c
)i(ls Imvc
■< s«'c'ur(Ml
for when
of thoir

0 closely
(l to (11s-

hiinscir,
nay well
ley form
; rine to
preadlii;;
The cii-

1 same as
eoUeclecl

HOD of
NFMALS
It. By

lul open
lirongh

bodies
loiitli is

ssel by

bunt-

isef'ul it

:oss its

mouth

stronj^

t net is

to be
[eurely
lowing

a reel

ill tlu!

3ou.sly

kat, ov

I ay be

way

Irface

lating

on or near the surface of the sea in the way of the net as it is thus
towed behind the vessel, will necessarily pass into it ; and after
it has been allowed to remain out for a period varying with the
abundance of surface life in the sea at the time, it is to be hauled
in and examined.

Though the richest results are usually obtained by using the
towing net close to the surface of the sea, it will frequently bo
found important to employ it at various depths, in order to obtain
information regarding the organisms which either habitually or
temporarily iidiabit /ones other than the most superficial one.

For this purpose the net is to be weighted ; the weight attached
to it depending on the depth to which it is desired to sink it, and
on the velocity of the ship. Care should be taken that while the
net is out the motion of the vessel be not interrupted, and that
sufficient way be given to keep the net constantly distended in its
passage through the water.

It will generally be advisable to employ Jwo nets at the same
time, one working close to the surface, and tlu; other sunk to
some determined depth below it.*

In the directions now given, the towing net is supposed to be
towed behind the vessel in open water; but the Arcti(; explorer
should be reminded that some of his richest fields will be found
in places where the iee is for short distances discontinuous, and
where small portions of unfrozen water will be thus exposed.
Here oceanic forms will congregate in rich profusion attracted by
the light and air. In the smaller spaces so exposed we may use
with most advantage a towing net similar to that hero described,
but, instead of being provided Avith a towing line, it should be
fixed to the end of a pole, and worked with the hand.

Another mode of using the towing net,
Avliieh is often attended with the best re-
sults, consists in leaving it suspended
from the ship while at rest in the tideway
or in the course of currents. It may be so
left for several hours, and then hauled in
for examination. A net used in this way,
however, will be found most effective if it
be constructed somewhat differently from
the ordinary one. A piece of the same
material as that of which the rest of the
net is composed should be sewed within
its mouth so as to form a sort of diaphragm
in the shape of an inverted cone with an
open apex, as shown in the annexed
figure. This serves to retain whatever
has once made its way into the net. The
fundus of the bag is closed by simply
tying a cord round it, and its contents are
to be examined from the bottom by un-
tying the cord and washing out the bag
in the way to be presently described.

* T am informed by Captain Narcs that this plan wa.s commonly adopted
during tlio voyage oi" IT. M.S. " Challenger."

54

ALLMAN. — UHK OF TIIK TOWIN(» NKT.

IH

Tho chief difficulty which the colloctor will here Imve to coiiteiul
apuitiHt will I»(^ I'oinul in the prusciico of floating refuse matter
wliich irt hoin;,' conMtantly dischiirj^ed from Ihc ship, un<l which
whon the vesMol is iiiidor way is gcMU'rally ciirricd elour t)f the net
hy the force of the water thrown off from the ship's sides. In
order to avoid as much as possible this source of annoyance, the
towing lino may Im) attached to tln5 extremity of a lon^j; pole lixed
at riglit unifies to the side of the ship.

Frkkino TIIK Nkt of its Contents.

The ordinary towing not immediately on being hauled on hoard
is to be carefully turned insidcf out into a vessel containing some
sea-water in which it is to he moved about in order to wash otf
such minute organisms as may l>e adhering to its surfac«^ The
kind of ves8cl best suited for this purpose will be found to be
a white glazed earthenware pan j)rovided with a lip, such as are
used in dairies for holding milk.

From the washings of the net the larger objects are now to
bo removed, and (piickly transferred to clear glass jars of nea-
water for further examination ; while the water with the remain-
ing organisms should be i)ouj'od from the pan into one or moie
such jars, each capable of holding about half a pint.

These smaller organisms are frequently so colourless and trans-
parent that it is at first difficult to see them in tho jars ; a little
practice, however, will enable the observer to recognise them,
and h«! must now transfer to other jars, containing sea-water,
such as he wishes to keep and observe further in a living state,
for if left crowded together, even for a few hours, the wat(M" will
become vitiated, and the delicate, frequently gelatinous organisms
become decomposed and worthless for observation.

This separation and transference is best effected by glass dip
tubes.

Results onTAiNicD.

The objects captured in the towing net are very numerous and
various, and are among the most beautiful and interesting of
the more simply organised inhabitants of the sea. The towing
net has been hitherto used almost exclusively in the temperate and
equatorial latitudes, and we, as yet, know very little of what may
be obtained by it in the Arctic Seas. The following account of
its results applies, therefore, directly only to those seas where the
naturalist has used it, but it will nevertheless serve as a guide
to the Arctic explorer, and suggest to him what lie ought to
keep in view.

Plants.

The members of the vegetable kingdom which will find their
way into the towing net will chiefly consist of the very low groups
constituting the orders Diaf.nmavpa> and Oseiffofnrifr, the former
provided with siliceous cases and retaining indefinitely their external
form ; the latter destitute of any iirin support, and speedily
decomposing and losing all their important characters. Ju ^:oni(»

ALLMAN. — USE OF TIIK TOWINO NKT.

55

dip

of

ng

te und

limy

lit of

e the

i£uide

t to

tlioir
oups
mer
n'lial
jdily
;oin(^

«*eas these low fornirt of voj^otHblc lifo ubound to such an oxtent
jis to dis<.'oh)ur tho water over veiy wide areas, and they not
uiifreqiieiitly seiiously interfere with the wt>rk of the towing
not hy rendering the washings of the net so turbid as to hiil«> the
small animals taken at the same time, while the rapid decom-
position of their soft parts speedily vitiates the water and destroys
sueh animals as liave been allowed to remain with them.

To preserve them the washings of the net should lie thrown on
u niter in order to get rid of tins suptatluous water, and the matter
which remains should while still moist In; transferred to glass
tubes containing spirit. •

Protmnn.

Among this lowest group of the animal kingdom (he collector
should be on the h)ok-()nt for lit/tfio/oriu- and Iu>rnnn/tif'r/(f:
Though the hard siliceous eases and fianu'work of the Uadiolariie
and the calcareous shells of tlie Foraminifene will usually retain
their forms after the destruction of the soft parts, it is far better
t») transfer to the spii'it the whole organism at once by means
of the dip tube. Other microscopic Protozoa, sueh as NoctUticu
and Pvridinium, as well as tlie true rilktte LiJ'usorut, ought also
to be watched for. Among these last are the Dictyovustntfi',
a group of pelagic Infusoria having a close reseml)|juice to
certain Radiolariio by their elegant siliceous bell-shaped shells
perforated in the manner of lattice-work. In most cases, how-
ever, these microscopic organisms are so minute as to lender
impracticable the s(^paration and transference to spirit of any
great quantities of them. We must then l)e <!ontcnted with
putting up such as can be obtained, on microscope slides or in
cells, a process, however, which takes time and labour, and needs
some piactiee in the art of microscopic mounting.

Ctielrnterata.

It is in this group that some of the most abundant and im-
portant results follow the use of the towing net.

Among the most striking and interesting inhabitants of the
surface zone of the sea in all latitudes are the Ihidroid Mcihiscp,
clear gelatinous, more or less bell-shaped or umbrella-shaped
organisms, which mostly originating as buds from [)lunt-likc
hydroids (or zoophytes) Hxed to the sea bottom, free thenisolves
after a time from their supporting stems, and spend the rest of
their lives in a state of activity at the surface, where they swim
by the expansion and contraction of their gelatinous bells. When
possible, drawings ought to be made of these beautiful animals,
for no means have yet been discovered of preserving their forms
after death with anything like satisfactory results. Many, how-
ever, may be fairly preserved by jjlacing them in methylated
spirit ; and as this seems to be the best method we possess
of preserving their zoological characters, it should never be
neglected.

Nearly allied to the Hydroid ^Nledusa^ and with very similar
habits, are the Siphonophora. These usually form long gailand-

56

ALLMAN. — USK OF THE TOWING NET.

like series of transpai-ent, gelatinous, variously shaped bodies,
frequently ornamented with spots of bright colour, scarlet or
orange. They may be easily detected swimming with a rhythmical
repetition of impulses near the surface of the sea. They require
great care in their capture, being formed of numerous zooids or
more or less independent buds, which by rough handling are
easily separated from one another. Though less easily L»roken to
pieces than some other groups of associated zooids, such as the
chains of Salpa;, to be presently referred to, those taken in the
towing net will often be found injurt^d, and a perforated or brass
wire gauze ladle slipt under them while swimming will generally
be found the best way of removing them from the sea. Hero
again drawings ought to be made when possible, as no known
method of preservation will satisfactorily retain their characters.
The best is that above recommended for the Hydroid Medusfe.
Other forms of Siphonophora, such as Phi/salia (Portuguese Man
of Wiir), Vckila and Poi'pita, obtained abundantly in the more
equatorial latitudes, have firm supports of the soft parts, and are
therefore much more easily preserved. None of these have yet
been taken in Arctic seas. They are best preserved by being
placed in methylated spirit.

The Discophorous McduscB present a general resemblance to
the Ilydroid Medusaj in their gelatinous imibrella-shaped swim-
ming disc, by the rhythmical contraction of Avhica they impel
themselves through the sea. They attain, however, for the most
pai't a much larger size. The smaller forms may be treated as
has been recomn^ended for the presei'vation of the Ilydroid
Medusae and Siphonophora ; but we should scarcely recommend
any attempt to preserve the larger ones, which frequently attain a
diameter of one or more feet, and which would need (to obtain at
best very unsatisfactory results) more preserving liquid and space
than could be afforded them. Here again the aid of the draughts-
man is indispensaljle.

Both Hydroid and Discophorous Medusa; are commonly known
by the name of "jelly fish." The observations of Seoresby and
of the naturalists attached to Kotzebue's voyages have proved
that both forms abound in high latitudes.

The Ctenophora (licroc, Cydippc, &c.) form a large part of the
surface life of the sea. They are often of considerabl(» si/e, ure
constant producls of th(^ towing net, and ouglit to be i)reserved in
the way indicated for the Medusa; and Siphonophora.

The other divisioii of tlu; Coelenterata, exemplified by Sea
Anemones and Corals, have few free-swimming representatives.
One of these, however, Araclmactis, may be expected to occur in
the Arctic seas.

Eehinodcrmuta.

The larval forms of most of the Echinodermnia (Sea Urchins
Stai'-fishes, &c.) consist of minute free-swinuning oi'ganisms which
are among the most freipient captures of the towing net. They
should be removed by the dip tube iVom the washings of the net
and transferred to spirit.

^f

?

ALLMAN. — USE OF TIIR TOWIXG NET.

57

am a

ain at

ipaoe

of the
', are
■('(1 in

'cliini^
vhicli
They
net

m

i^i

Vermes.

Auiong the Vermes (Sea Worms, Slc), we have some remark-
nhU' pela<>ic fre('-s\viminiii<>^ forms which frequent the uppermost
zou(^ of the sea.

Th(^ eurious Sru/itfa, a little clear crystalline stylette-like body
from half an inch to an inch in k-ngth with a delicate quadrilateral
tail-fin, and moving by a succession of rapid ji'rks, is sometivies very
abundant in the British seas, and \Yoi''d probably be found further
north. So also the beautiful Tomoptcris, a little animal of the
purest transparency, attaining a length of about an inch and pro-
vided Avitli a series of transparent double i)addle-lik(' fins which
run down each side of the body, is another pelagic form of the
Worms which ought to be met with in high latitudes. Both these
animals will be best preserved in spirit.

A great many of the Sea Worms, however sedentary they may
bo in their atlult stages, are in their larval condition free-swimming
pelagic forms. They are full of interest in the light they throw
upon the phenomena of development, and on the atfinities of dis-
tant groups of the animal kingdom. They should, therefore, Ix^
always carefully noted, removed l)y the aid of the dip tube from
the Wc'ishings of the net, and preserved as far as possible by
innnersion in spirit.

Arthrojwda.

Among the invertebi-ate life which abounds in Arctic seas, and
which from the concurrent testimony of Arctic voyagers constitute
a characteristic feature of their fauna will be found the Aniphipo-
(loHs Cn/stacca. These are small active animals, most familiarly
known to us by the " sand hoppers " of our own shores. In Arctic
regions they arc often attracted in countless multitudes by frag-
ments of otfal thrown into the sea. To such an extent do they
abound there that the carcass of a seal has been in a few hours
reduced by them to the condition of a clean skeleton. They frequent
various depths from the surface downwards, and may be all well
preserved in spirit.

Among the Isopod Crmtucca {Idoka, &c.), we also find active
free-swimming species which frequent the surface zone of the sea
and are constantly captured in the towing net. They may be pre-
served like the amphipoda in spirit.

Minute Entomostracons Crustacea, especially those belonging to
the group of the Copepndd, iire often captured in amazing quanti-
ties in the towing net. As with other microscopic forms the
attempt to separate them from the washings of the net with the
view of preserving them is troublesome and difficult. If hoAV-
ever the coilectov has an abundant stock of patience he may hero
use his dip tube and pluals of spirit with advantage. At all
events other animals which it may be desirable to preserve for
any length of time in a living state should never be left along
with these little Crustacea when they are contained in the jars in
any considerable quantity, for the Entomostraca rapidly decom-
pose and render the water unfit for other forms of life.

3G122. C

58

ALLMAN. — I'SE OF THE TOWING NET.

t?

«i:

The Crustacea are also rich in larval forms which abound in
the most superficial zone of the sea, where their development is
favoured by the more intensified conditions of light and aeration
to which they are there exposed. Among those larval forms are
the free-swimming young of the higher Crustacea, especially those
known to the older observers under the name of Zoea, at a time
when these immature organisms were regarded as completely
developed and independent forms. Also the larvne of the Bar-
7iacles^ a low section of the Crustacea, which, though absolutely
fixed in their adult state, spend the early period of their lives as
free-swimmers in the open sea. These are all active creatiu'es
of singular, and often grotesque aspect, and are among the most
frequent captives of the towing net. Many of them are of great
interest in their bearing on the laws of development and on the
aflfinlties of groups. They admit of being well preserved in spirit.

Mollusca,

Among the most abundant and striking pelagic forms ai-e the
Salpas belonging to the low molluscoid group of the Tnnicuta.
They are of a somewhat oval or prismatic shape, attaining a length
of from half an inch to two or even three inches ; they are of crystjil-
lino transparency, with usually a largo brown, reddish, or purple
globular body visible within them near one end, and caused by the
location at this spot of some of their more important viscera. They
swim in jerks near the sui'face of the sea, either singly or united into
long chain-like gi'oups. Being of considerable consistence notwith-
standing their clear gelatinous appearance, they can generally be
very well preserved in spirit ; but great care must be taken not
to separate the components of the chain-like series which are very
easily detached from one another. Indeed when taken in the
towing net these are very often found to be broken up, and the
safest way of capturing them is by gliding under them as they
swim past the vessel a perforated ladle, as has been recommended
in the case of the Siphonophora, and then carefully transferring
the whole chain to spirit.

Appendicularia is another tunicate also frequently taken in the
towing net. It is a minute clear oviform creature, of about the
size of a millet seed, and easily recognized by a rapidly vibrating
transparent ribbon-shaped swimming organ, somewhat resembling
the tail of a tadpole, and springing from a point near one end of
the body. It maybe transferred to spirit by means of the dip tube.

Holding a much higher position among the Mollusca arc the
Ptcropoda. These are free-swimming animals provided with a
pair of wing-like appendages by the aid of which they flit through
the superficial zone of the sea. They are usually clear-bodied,
and either colourless or tinged with some shade of purple, and
generally attain a length of from half to three quarters of an inch.
Some of them are said to be diurnal in their habits, sinking into
the deeper regions during the night, while others are believed to
be nocturnal and to withdraw themselves from observation during
the day. These statements, however, require confirmation. Some

i

M

m

i

I

ALLIMAN. — USE OF THE TOWTXG NICT.

59

"p)

O

r

of them nre provided with a delicate transparent shell, others are
quite naked. Some of the naked forms (Clio) have long been
associated in the accounts of Arctic voyage with the fauna of high
northern seas, where they occur in immense numbers, and are be-
lieved by the whale fishers to form the principal food of the whale.
They are easily taken in the towing net, are of considerable
consistence, and can be Avell preserved in spirit.

The Hcterojwda {Carinaria, Atlanta^ Firola, &c.), another free-
swimming form of the higher Molhisca, are also either naked or
provided with an external shell, which may be large enough to
enclose the entire animal, or be only sutHcient for the protection
of the respiratory and reproductive organs. Thoy swim by means
of a vertical fin, which projects from the voutrul surface. They
are abundant in the warmer temperate, and (Hjuatorial seas.
Their habits resemble those of the Pteropodn, and they may be
captured and preserved in the same way.

Some of the Nudihranchiatc Gasteropodous Molhisca also possess
pelagic habits. It is rare, however, to find among them free-
swimming species, and they are mostly indebted for their pelagic life
to floating sea weed (Gulf weed, &c.) on the fronds of which they
habitually live, and by which they are carried about from place to
place in the open sea. Floating sea-weed, indeed, ought always
to be carefully examined. It frequently affords a rich storehouse
of rare animals, which are for the most part easily preserved in
spirit.

Among the MoUusca are also many free-swimming larval forms.
These are all minute animals, generally furnished with a pair of
conspicuous wing-like swimming organs, and with a little nautilus-
like shell. Though proceeding from more or less sedentary
parents, their life in this stage is entirely that of the free-swim-
ming Pteropods, and they become easy captives of the towing net.
They must be removed by the dip tube, and preserved in spirit.

Vertebrata.

We can hardly expect to meet with vertebrate animals among
the contents of the towing net. Occasionally, however, small fishes
(Syngnathidffi, &c.) frequent the most superficial zone, and will
be captured in the net. Small fishes of pelagic habit are not
unfrequently taken among floating sea weed. All these should
be preserved in spirit. The occurrence of floating fish-eggs should
be noted, and specimens reserved.

PnOSrHORESCENCE.

It is now well ascertained that the Phosphorescence of the sea
is mainly due to living animals which frequent by night the more
superficial zones ; and no opportunity of carefully observing this
phenomenon ought to be neglected. It is of importance to know
the various species to which the light-giving function nuist be
assigned, and to determini^ the eonilitions whicli mny i'.ld the
luminosity or interfere with it. The collector should always make
a note of the possession of this property by any aninisils in v.hicli

c 2

60

ALLMAN.— USE OF THE TOWING NET.

Il'i

Ff^

* P;

he may have observed it. Ou occasions when the luminosity of
the sea may be exceptionally intense, or when on the other hand
this phenomenon may be exceptionally feeble, the temperature of
the sea and the meteoroloj^ical conditions present should be care-
fully noted.

Times of using tup: Towing Net.

The hours during which the towing net may be employed with
the best results are various. In the temperate and equatorial seas
some of the surface-dwellers remain habituully in the deeper
regions during the day, and come to the surface only in the
evening and during the night, while others will be found near the
surface only in the daytime. In such latitudes the surface-life of
the sea is usually found most abundant about sun rise, and again
shortly after sunset. In Arctic regions, however, with the very
different distribution of light and darkness, the habits of marine
animals may be something quite diiFerent. These can be learned
only by careful observation, and we as yet know little or nothing
of them.

Preserving Liquids.

In the above directions the only preserving liquid mentioned is
alcohol. This is certainly the most generally useful one, and will
probably be found the only one practically available in high polar
latitudes. It may be used in the form of methylated spirit of the
ordinary commercial strength.

Schulze recommends for the pi-eservntion of very small Medusae
and other small delicate organisms, that they be placed, while alive,
in a watch-glass with sea water, and then rapidly killed by drop-
ping into the water a 1 per cent, solution of osmic acid. After
lying some minutes in the osmic acid they are to be immersed iu
jiure water, and from this transferred to spirit.

8. Supplementary Instkuctions. By Professor Huxley,

Sec. R.S.

The authors of the preceding pages have so fully covered the
ground of zoological instruction, that I have but few observa-
tions to offer.

It is desirable that no opportunity of seeking for Insecta, Arach-
nida, Myriapoda, and Annelida, on land or in fresh water, should
be neglected. As in the Swiss glaciers, insects mr y occur in pools
on land ice. Considering how few such specimens are likely to
be obtained, it will be well to preserve any that may be found in
spirits. The contents of the crops of birds will be worth exami-
nation on the chance of finding remains of such animals. Minute
fresh-water entomostracous Crustacea and Infusoria are particu-
larly worthy of notice and preservation. The latter may be pre
served in spivjt if previously treated with osmic acid.

T

r

;

T

f

HUXLEY. — ZOOLOGY ; SUITLEMENTAUY INSTULCTIONS. Gl

The external and internal parasites of mammals, bii'ds, and
fishes should be sought for and preserved in spirit, the organs of
the animal from which they arc obtained being carefully noted.
It would be interesting to know if the Arctic Canida> arc liable to
be infested with Pcntastomum, a large-sized vermiform parasilo
which occurs in the frontal sinuses of the dog. The abdominal
cavity of fishes of the cod tril)e and other deep-water fishes may
yield specimens of the worm-like Myxioid fishes, of which only
very few forms are at present known.

The experience of previous voyag<.'rs shows that amphipod and
isopod Crustacea may be captured in great numbers by letting
down a pieiie of meat into an ice-hole ; and the exploration of th<j
contents of the stomachs of fishes, and especially of any of the
whalebone whales, will probably yield a harvest of pelagic Crus-
tacea and Molluscs.

It is needless to remark ')n the importance of dredging when-
ever opportunity offers, and on the value of all specimens of
stalked Crinoids that may be obtained. The rare and singular
Ascidian Cheli/osomo, the test of which is covered with polygonal
plates, may possibly be met with, and, if so, should be carefully
preserved in spii'it.

One of the most interesting points to which the naturalists can
direct their nttention, however, is the obtaining of materials for
the determination of the nature of tlui microscopic surface Fauna
and Flora, and the comparison of it with the sea bottom in the
same localities. The latter Avill, of course, be obtained by sound-
ing. The former may be secured and preserved in the manner
adopted by Dr, Hooker in the Antnrctic expedition. This method
consists simply in filtering a certain quantity of sea- water, taken
fit the surface and free fi'om obvious impurities, through fine filter
l)aper. After a suflicient filtrate has been obtained, tlie square of
filtering i)aper may eithei' be folded u|) with the filtrate inside,
the latitude and longitude being written with a dark black pencil
on the outside, and simply dried ; or better still, it may be ])ut,
while still damp, into strong spirit. Perhaps even water, strongly
impregnated Avith cri^osote, might sulfice to preserve such collec-
tions; but it Avill l)e desirable not to ti'ust to this without fh'st
trying the effect of maceration in such a fluid on the paper.

Salpre are excellent collectors of snrfiiee organisms, .mikI when-
ever they arc met Avitii in numbers it will be wortlj whil(^ to [)re-
S(>rve a good many for tlie sake of the microscopic organisms
'.'ontained in the alimcntaiy canal. In the ease of the larger
Salpcp, the end, usually coloured, which contains the stomach may
be cut oft^ from a lunnber of specimens, and [)reserved for the
same purpose.

The stomachs of Lamcllihranchs obtained by the dredge will
give equally valuable information res[»ecting the minute organisms
at the bottom.

62

II.— BOTANY.

U

f

'-\

1. Instructions in Botany. By Dr. J. Dalton Hooker,
C.B., President of the Koyal Society.

There are many observations to be made ou the habits and dis-
tribution of Arctic phints, and important collections to be formed
illustrative of tht; local conditions of the climate and j^eological
character of the regions they iidiabit. A reference to the account
of the Greenland Flora, republished in the Manual prepared for
the use of the Expedition, shows how comi)licated is the problem
of the migration of Arctic plants, and how much there is still to
be learned from mere -collections of specimens, provided these be
complete for each locality, well preserved, and carefully ticketed.
Quite as much also is to be learned of the life-history of Arctic
plants ; a field of researcli in which nothing has been observed, and
one so wide that but a fcAV indications as to what may be done can
hero be given. In this particular branch of inquiry the observa-
tions must for the most part be suggested by the observer himself;
and an original and inquiring mind may find many paths to dis-
covery even in the study of the poorest flora under its most un-
promising aspects.

Flowering Plants.

Tiiere is reason to suppose that .certain of the species of Arctic
genera freely hybridise, especially those of Draba, Saxifraga, and
Salix. I can account in no other way for the number of inter-
mediate forms that are found in all extensive collections, and this
between plants so distinct in other countries as the white ami
yellow-flowered Drabas. Hybridisation may tdso account in some
degree for various supposed species rarely fruiting, though this is
more probably due to the sudden accession of snow or other meteo-
rological (;auses at the period of fei'tilization.

In connexion with the above subject, the pollen of the various
species should be carefully examined, and observations nuide as to
whether it is carried by the wind or by insects from flower to
flower ; and whether the surface of the stigma is viscid, or papil-
lose, or clothed with hairs; and whether the fl; rr.'s secrete honey
on the petals, disk, or elsewhere. All association of insects with
plants should be carefully noted, and their effects watched. It is
doubtful if any annual flowering plant attains a very high latitude ;
the haunts of land animals, as the musk ox, &c. should be searched
for such. Specimens of flowering plants should be abundantly
collected both in flower and fruit, and this in all localities, keeping
a very careful look out to secure all the species of such Families as

r

4*

IIOOKEll. — nOTANICAL INSTUUCTIOXS.

fia

-?►•

4*

grasses aud sedges which resemble one another so much, and to
secure both sexes of the willows.

Selected specimens of extreme forms and varieties of species
should be sedulously collected, in order to show the limits of
variation in a given urea, anil all circumstances that seem to
influence variation should be noted.

Any niodilication of the faclcs of the vegetation in the
various localities should be noted, as also the relative abundance
and variety of the ubiquitous as well as of the scarcer species,
their luxuriance of growth, &c.

Soil collected on icebergs, or on transported masses of ice,
should be searched for seeds, roots, and remains of plants, aud if
practicable spread out and kept moist, till any seeds it may contain
should have germinated. The number of kinds that germinate
under such circumstances should l)e noted.

Mosses and Hepatic^e.

These have never been collected with the care they deserve in
the Arctic regions. They are much more numerous than a casual
observer, or one who attends to flowering plants only, would sup-
pose, and can only be satisfactorily collected by close attention.
Not unfrequently several species grow together in one tuft, and
the hepaticce especially are often found threading the tufts of
mosses as solitary individuals. When collected, the tufts, if they
have to be carried far, should be wrapped singly in paper, as their
leaves and organs of fructification are liable to be injured. To
preserve them the tufts should be broken up by the hand into
fan-shaped specimens and pressed ; such specimens indicate the
habit of growth ; one tuft will thus supply many instructive
specimens. In the case of mosses in fruit, the calyptra and oper-
culum should be carefully sought for, and if fugacious put in a
little fold of white paper by the specimen. The male organs
ar(^ ofte,n minute and obscure, and should be diligently sought for,
using the pocket lens in the field if necesstvry. Many species
have the sexes in different tufts ; and in the Arctic regions the
male plants are probably more frequent than the female. Of som(?
species indeed the male inflorescence is only known.

Lichens.

These have not been collected with any method in the Polar
American Islands or in the high latitudes of Greenland. Many
of the larger species that grow on rocks or on the earth have
indeed been brought home, especially by Lyall and Walker, but of
the minute kinds that inhabit the bark of shrubs, and possibly the
leaves of various plants in those regions little is known ; nor of
the crustaceous kinds that adhere to stones, and which cannot be
removed without pieces of the rock or stone on which they grow.
To remove them a hammer and a chisel are necessary, and the
specimens should be trimmed so as to take as little bulk as possible,

()!•

IIOOKICIJ. IJOTAMCAL JNSTKl CTIoNS.

H

consi.stciilly with inescrviiiy iho whole specimen. Ilcsides dryin^j;
between papers the bninclu'd and h'ai'y kinds, l)a«j;s of them shouhl
be brought home in a rough state for chemical analysis.

Fungi.

This family of plants is rare in th(f Polar regions, and a few
Agarics and Veziza^ are the forms most frecpiently to he met with.
Search should be made for the minute species which are parasitic
on the branches and leaves of woody plants. In the case of
Agarics the spores should be collected on white paper and their
colour noted, and the \Ai\nl itself preserved in sjjirits. Jn all
cases the colours should be noted, or, better still, the plants shouhl
be draAvn. It is well also to note of Agarics, &c. whether the
stalk is solid or hollow, and the top dry or viscid,

AlAiJE.

Marine Alga^ may be found between tide-marks attached to
rocks and stones, or rooting in sand, &c. ; those in deeper water
are got by dredging, and many are cast up after storms ; small
kinds grow on the larger, and some forming Jleshy crusts on
stones, shells, &c. must be pared otF by moans of a knife.

The more delicate kinds, after gentle washing, may be floated in
a vessel of fresh water, upon thick and smooth writing or drawing
paper ; then gently lift out paper and plant together ; allow somo
time to drip ; then place on the sea- weed clean linen or cotton
cloth, and on it a sheet of absorbent paper, and submit to mode-
rate pressure. Many adhere to paper but not to cloth ; then
change the cloth and absorbent paper till the specimens are dry.
Large coarser kinds may be dried in the same way as land plants ;
or are to be spread out in the shade, taking care to prevent con-
tact of rain or fresh water of any kind ; when suflBciently dry, tie
them loosely in any kind of wrapping paper. Those preserved in
this rough way may be expanded and floated out in water at any
time afterwards. A few specimens of each of the more delicate
Alga) ought to be dried on mica or glass. A note of date and
locality ought to bo attached to every species.

Delicate slimy Algos are best prepared by floating out on smooth-
surfaced p.aper (known as *' sketching paper ") ; then allow to
drip and dry by simple exposure to currents of air without
pressure.

Very little information exists regarding the range of depth of
marine plants. It Avill be very desirable that observations should
be made upon this subject, as opportunity from time to time
presents itself.

Professor Dickie remarks, and the caution should be borne in
mind: — " When the dredge ceases to scrape the bottom, it becomes
" in its progress to the surface much the same as a towing net,
" capturing bodies which are being carried along by currents,
" and therefore great caution is necessary in reference to any

^

'i^

nOOKKK. — r.OTANICAL INPTUICTK »NS.

(15

'■i^

*' iiuuinc plants loiiiul in it. Seu-wceds aw uiiion;j; the most
" common of nil Itodics carried by currents near tlu! surface! or
" at various depths below, and from their nature are very likely
♦* to be entangled and brought up."

Carefully note and preserve Algro brought \\[} in the dredge at
moderate depths, under 100 fiithoms, or deeper. Preserve speci-
mens attached to shells, corals, &c., which would indicate their
being actually in situ.

The following observations in the methods of collecting Diato-
maceai are extracted from the Flora Antarctica, vol. ii., p. o04,
and apply to llhizopods and many other minute oceanic organisms :

" The various means em{)loyed for selecting the species varied
according to circumstances, as the following enumeration of the pro-
cesses pursued will show. I. Sea-water was filtered through closely
woven bibulous paper (filter paper), which latter was fohled, dried,
aud carefully put away. If a certain measure of water be always
thus treated, an approximate knowledge of the abundance and
scarcity of tlic various species and genera occurring at difterent
positions may be gained. II. The scum of the ocean almost
invarialdy contains many species entangled in its mass ; it was
preserved in small phials well secured. III. A tow-net of fine
muslin used when the vessel's rate does not exceed two or three
knots secures many kinds, which may be washed off the muslin
and collected on filter paper. IV. The stomachs of Salpoe and other
(especially of the naked) MoUusca, invariably contain Diatomaceae,
sometimes several species. These Salpicwere washed up in masses
on the pack ice, and in decay they left the snow covered with
animal mattter impregnated, as it were, with Diatomacea? ; the
rcliquite Avere preserved in spirits. V. The dirt and soil of the
Penguin rookeries, and es[)e(!ially their guano abound in Diato-
macea*, perhaps originally swallowed by the Salpa? and Cuttle-fish,
which themselves become the prey of the Penguins. VI. Ice
encloses Diatomaceai ; they are deposited on the already formed
ice by the waves, or fro^^en into its substance during calm weather
v.'hen the upper stratum of water rapidly congeals. Ice so formed
generally breaks up by the swell of the sea into thin angular masses
which become oi'bicular by attrition, whence the name pancfike-ice.
The pancake-ice Avas often seen a few hours after a calm, covering
leajTues of ocean, and uniformlv stained brown from the abundance
of these plants. It Avas taken in buckets, and when removed from
the water appeared perfectly pure and colourless. On melting,
howeviH', it deposited a pale red cloudy precipitate, excessively
light, consisting wholly of Diatomaceio. This precipitate Avas
bottled on the spot, and i)roved more rich in species than any of
the other collections. The specimens Avere also the best preserved,
for Professor Ehrenberg observes that some thus obtained appeared
as if still alive, though collected three years previous to his exami-
nation, and subjected to many A'lcissitudes of clinmte. The suoav
sometimes falls on the surface of the still ocean-water and does
not freeze, but floats a honey-like substance, often called brash-ice ;

60

HOOKEU. — UOTANICAL IN^iTKUCTIONS.

M

treated in the same way as the pancako-ico it yielded an abundaat
harvest. "VII. The mud and other soundings from the bottom of
the ocean, when brought up on the arming of the deop-wa lead,
or the ehlam or dredge, generally contain the siliceous skeletons
or coatings of many species, with the markings of their surface
retained. VIII. The fresh and salt waters and muddy estuaries
of the P'alkland Islands, an<l similar localities present us with
species, occurring under circumstances altogether similar to what
accompany their allies in Eui'ope, and are caught by the dredge as
it comes up."

Note Algae on ships, &c., with the submerged parts in a fonl
condition ; also preserve scrapings of coloured crusts or slimy
mattei", green, brown, &c.

Observe AlgaB floating, collect specimens, noting latitude and
longitude, currents, &c.

Examine loose floating objects, drift-wood, &c., for Algaj, if
no prominent species presents itself, preserve scrapings of any
coloured crusts, note as above.

It might bo useful to have a few moderate sized pieces of
wood, oak, &c., quite clean at first, attached ^^ some part of the
vessel under water to be examined, say, month; y. The larger or
shorter prominent Algae should be kept and noted, and crusts on
such examined and preserved, with notes of the vessel's course.

Various instances have been mentioned ly travellers of the
coloration of the sea by minute Algae, as in the Straits of Malacca
by Harvey ; and cases of this kind would be worth special attention.

The calcareous Alga) {Mclohesia, &e.) are comparatively
little known and are apt to be o\ ^'-looked, they probably do not
inhabit the Polar area, but their nerthern distribution is undeter-
mined.

Fresh-water Algae should be collected as occasion presents.
Prof. Dickie states that they may be either dried like the marine
kinds, or preserved in a fluid composed of three parts alcohol, two
parts water, one part glycerine, well mixed.

Cases are recorded of the presence of Algas in hot springs.
If such are met with the temperature should be noted and specimens
preserved.

Mr. William Archer, of Dublin, has supplied the following notes
on collecting Diatoms, &c. in Ireland, and which probably apply
equally to various Polar localities where water stagnates.

" In these lands the nicest Algae are those found in peaty ilis-
tricts, not in peat-bogs, but in uncultivated spots with a peaty
bottom, on the edges of springs, and this in spring and summer
when the species are found in conjugation or in fruit. Desmidieae
are met with far more abundantly in such spots either mixed with
conferv89 or crowded into cloudy masses on dead leaves, or (the
larger kinds) forming a mucous stratum. The collecting a
little of such material from many sites oflTers the best means of

IIOOKKK. — BOTANICAL INSTUVC^TIONS.

07

•»

.1'

obtaining niuuy anil rare species. To obttiiu fruiting specimens
choose inmost cases the least green or attractive looking specimens,
and even brown and dead looking patches afford the best chance
of obtaining fruiting Hjx'cimens of the conjugatjo. This follows
fi'om the fact that the cells empty in conjugation, and the patches
hence consist for the most part of empty silieeous coats. Scyto-
nematous and riihnellaceouH Algiu grow ujmn wet rocks ; the
former keep well enougli folded in pa})er and left to dry, after
which they can be re-moistened, but the latter shouhl bo bottled."

The Arctic Expedition attbrds excellent opportunities to the
naturalist for making observations on the power of seeds to resist
cold whilst retaining their vitality. To this end samples of
various seeds will bo supi)lied for conducting the experiment, which
is of the simplest description. Certain fixed numbers of any one
kind of seed sliould be exposed to a low temperjituro, and sown,
side by side with us nuiny that have not been so exposed, in pans
of earth kept moist, and the time required for the germination of
every seed noted. Such kinds as survive the degree of cold to
which they have been exj)osed should then be referred to succes-
sivi'ly longer periods of cold and to greater cold till the power of
germination is lost. Valuations of this experiment will suggest
themselves to the naturalists ; e(iual numbers of small and light
seeds, and larger and heavy may be compared, which may be
selected by weight or by measurement. The germinated plants also
may be exposed to successively greater degrees of cold and the
results noted. Seeds may be immersed in fresh and in salt water
of different temperature artilicially raised, with a view of testing
their power of resisting their influence, as may also roots of Polar
plants, the hybernacula or buds of such plants as Saxifraga
ccntua. The seeds supplied are mustard, cress, radish, turnip,
pea, bean, sweet i)ea, wheat, barley, oats, maize.

Observations ai*e wanting of the temperature to which Arctic
plants are exposed during the winter when covered with snow.
This can be approximately ascertained by sinking a tube of wood
or other non-conducting material containing a thermometer
attiiched to the base of a rod of wood through the snow into the
soil in which the plants grow. The base of the tube should bo
made of a conducting material which would take the tem-
perature of the soil, and the bulb of the thermometer sliould be;
covered Avith avooI, so that it may retain the temperature durinj^
witlidi'awal for reading off.

^^

r

08

111.— GEOLOGY AND MINEKALOGV.

I. OkNKRAL iNSTRUCJTrONS for OnSKRVATIONS in OKOLOfJV.

By Prof. A.O. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., Dircctor-Ck'm^riil
of tl»u Geological Survey, &c., and John Evans,
F.R.S., President of the Geological Society.

"

H

I*

The iiiHtruments and other iipplinncos necessary for chiily or
occasional work are few.

1. A hammer blunt at one end for break inj^ locks, and
flattened and somewhat sharp on the eflj^e at the opposite end
for splitting purposes when in sc^arch of fossils, &.c. It is well
to be provided with a spare hammer or two in ease of loss, and
one or two of smaller size for trimnn'ng specimens. The most
convenient way of carrying a hammer is to sling it in a flat
piece of leather through which the handle is passed to a belt
buckled round the waist.

2. Two or three small steel chisels.

3. A measju'ing tape is sometimes useful.

4. A pocket compass, in which there may be a clinometer.

5. A larger pendulum clinometer, which is also a foot-rule.

6. A common ivory protractor.

7. A leather satchel slung across the shoulder in which to
carry specimens, fossils, &c.

8. Gummed labels with printed numbers to stick on rock
specimens and fossils collected.

9. Some cotton to pack delicate specimens in.

10. A supply of packing paper, and small canvas bags Jbr
special specimens.

11. Note-books, which may also serve for sketch-books.

12. A box of colours and some drawing i)aper.

13. An aneroid barometer for the measurement of heigbts.

14. For the purpose of refreshing the memory in case it
should be at fault, a late manual of geology should be provide<l,
such as Jukes' Student's Manual, and Lowry's Figures of Fossils
stratigraphically arranged. This gives {in excellent idea in a
compendious form of the different forms of fossils which nuiy Itc
expected in the various formations. Also Ranisaj's Pliysical
Geology and Geography of Great Britain, which explains tlu;
connexion of Geology with Physical Geography in a somewhat
condensed manner, and is more or less applicable to many
countries besides Great Britain.

Stratified and Igneous Rocks.

The following are the chief preliminary points to which the
attention of the observer should be drawn, assuming him not

IIAMSAY AND EVANS. — OHSERVATTONS IN (tEOLOOY. 09

#

V

to luvvo liiul iniu'-li cxporii'iict' in j^foloj^ical work in tlui liold, but
to 1)0 iilready ac(|uiiintt'(l with the clcmentury principlt'H of the
Htnitificiition of sediinrntH by water ; if not, it will 1)0 nt'cessary
for him to conHult a niannal, like that of »)iikes and (ieikie.

On a voyag*' audi ns tliat contoniiihited it is prohahlo that
sections, whotlierof solid rocks or of looser snpertieial detritus, will
chiefly he seen on lines of coast cliffs, or indicated by the out-
cropping of strata on occasional tint spaces between high and low
water mark.

a. Do tlu' rocks lie in horizontal laycis or beds, and are they all

FIk. I.

^J^1^,.,^^^^^--X-.L^LA . - JL;i-., *

of the same lithological character, such as of Conglomerate,
Sandstone, Limestone, or Shale ; or do they vary, such as 1 Con-
glomerate, 2 Shale, 3 Limestone, 4 Sandstone mixed with [lebbles,
o Shale again, and 6 Sandstone ; or are they of mixed character
partaking of two or more kinds of materud. If Conglomerate,
are the included stones rounded and water-worn, or angular ; of
what kind or kinds of material do the fragments consist ; of ^yhat
size are the largest stones ; and the site of the parent rock from
which they were derived should be noted when it can be ascer-
tained.

Do all, or any, of the beds contain fossil shells, or other kinds
of organic remains. If so of what genera, and if possible try
by genera and species to determine to what part of the scale
of the geological formations they belong, such as Silurian, Car-
boniferous, Oolitic, and so on. The fossils from each separate
bed should also be numbered when collected.

h. Are the strata inclined («, /^, fig. 2) or vertical (<•., fig. 2.)
If inclined, at what angles do they dip. This is ascertained by
the use of the clinometer. The point of the compass towards
which the strata dip should also be accurately registered.

Fig. 3.

70 RAMSAY AND EVAN8. — OBSERVATIONS IN GEOLOGY.

c. It may happen that the strata do not
dip I'egularly in any given direction but are
bent and contorted, and this should be noted.
In all cases observations of their fossil and
other contents should be registered similar to
those mentioned with regard to the supposed
horizontal strata, that is to say, in serial
order.

d. It is of great importance to notice if all
the strata in a given section lie conformably
on each other as they do in the preceding
diagrams, or if unconformable stratification
is obvious, or may be inferred ; cases of which
are shown in the diagrams. Figs. 4, a, />, c, d.

If so then it is probable that the strata
numbered 1 will be found to belong to a much
earlier period of geological time than those
numbered 2, and if the strata are fossiliferous
that some of the genera and most or all of the
species will be distinct in the fonnations that
lie unconformably to each other.

e. Interstratified with common sedimentary
strata there are often beds of coal, lignite,
gypsum, rock salt or other minerals to be
found, and they sometimes contain pseudo-
morphous crystals of rock salt in marly, shaley,
or sandy bases, for these often remain where
no solid beds of salt are found. These cir-
cumstances are of importance as indicating
terrestrial surfaces where the plants, the fos-
silized remains of which form coal and lignite,
grew, and in the case of gypsum and salt, to
the probable existence of inland lagoons and
salt lakes in which gypsum and salt were
deposited.

Note and collect any other minerals in the
rocks that seem to be of scientific importance.

It is also very important to note the colour
of the rocks, grey, green, brown, blue, or red,
&c., as the case may be, and also the effect
of weathering on the surface of the rocks.

Igneous Rocks.

f. Are any of the ordinary stratified formations associated with
igneous rocks such as bosses of granites, syenites, quartz-por-

C C 0 o

RAMSAY AND KVANS. — OBSERVATIONS IN GEOLOGY. 71

phyries, diorites, &c. Are .they pierced by trap dykes, passing
more or less across the planes of stratification as in Fig. 5, and
if so of what kinds.

Fig. 5.

1 Cll'-

•W

Are common sedimentary strata ever associated with interbcdded
lavas and volcanic ashes and tufias, in such a way as to show that
they were poured and spread out under water at intervals during
the accumulation of the strata, and what is the mineral character
of the igneous rocks. In the case of lavas that have been poured
out over ancient sea bottoms, it may often be noted that the
sedimentary stratum underneath has been altered or baked by
the overlying melted mass of lava, while the sedimentary bed
that overlies the lava remains unaltered by heat, the underlying
lava having cooled before the deposition of the sediment that
succeeds it in the section exposed. This is one way to distinguish
between such lava beds, and sheets of melted matter that have
been forcibly injected between ordinary sedimentary strata. Beds
of coal, or of lignite, underlying sheets of igneous rocks, should be
examined to see whether any portion has become altered, possibly
into graphite.

Fig. 6.

Do igneous rocks, such as lavas and volcanic ashes, show
signs of having accumulated on land in successive layers. If so,
are there any signs of soils and plant-bearing beds between them,
or of other strata that may have been formed in fresh water,
bearing bivalve Crustacea, such asCypris, &c.,or any other kinds
of organic remains, such as fish, terrestrial mammalia, &c. &c.

g. Besides strata that have merely been hardened into rocks
and show all the signs of ordinary stratification, it is probable
that tracts of metamorphic rocks may be met with, such as slaty
beds merely altered by slaty cleavage, also gneiss of various
kinds, mica schist, chlorite schist, hornblende schist, serpentines,
«&c. For the theory of those alterations of common formations
that resulted in the production of metamorphic rocks still show-
ing traces of stratification, the observer must refer to any good
manual of geology. It is sufficient now that he should be able to
distinguish their leading varieties.

It must be understood that gneiss and other metamorphic
rocks are not necessarily of the greatest geological antiquity.

72 RAMSAY AND EVAN8. — OBSEIIVATIONS iN GEOLOGY.

Ill Europe, America, and Asia there arc metamorphic rocks of
all geological ages ranging between the Laurentian and the
Eocene formations. It is, therefore, important to discover or
surmise to what formation or set of formations any metamorphic
series of rocks may belong, should any data be available for (hat
purpose. In the absence of this, the observer must be content
to register the character of the rocks and their modes of
occurrence.

MoiiE Special Oi'.servations.

//. With regard to ordinary stratified rocks, it is important to
discover whether tlie organic remains they contain are marine,
estuarine, or freshwater moUusca, fishes, reptilia, &c.

Also whether terrestrial mammalia, insects, and land plants
occur, and if so to what genera and species they belong ; and, if
possible, to collect a sufficient quantity of all kinds of fossil
remains to be examined and described by the best authorities on
the return of the voyagers.

i. In connexion with this they should endeavour to determine
in any given section, or in sections of rocks more or less apart,
whether more than one geological formation or set of formations
is present, as, for example, strata that lithologically or palajonto-
logically can be compared to the European or American Silurian
and Carboniferous rocks, or to the Liassic and Oolitic series, or
to the Cretaceous series, or to the Wealden, Eocene, or to the
Miocene strata, &c. &c.

Shouhl this be practicable, it is important to endeavour to show
in drawn sections their order of succession and superposition in
the manner given in ordinary geological sections, and also the
way in which they are affected by faults or dislocations, either
visible, or that may reasonably be inferred, as for example, by later
deposits. No. 1 in Fig. 7, seeming to dip under older strata 2,
in what may be called an unnatural manner without the visible

Fig. 7.

t4»

V

i^

intervention of a fault or faults, or of partial inversion of the
strata by contortion of the masses as in Fig. 8.

1, Secondary strata ; 2, Palaeozoic strata ; f, Fault.

Fig. 8.

inverted strata.

RAMSAY AND EVANS. — OBSERVATIONS IN GEOLOGY. 73

no

»r

In connexion with fractures, faults, and wide joints in the rooks,
mineral lodes may be looked for, such as lead, copper, tin, gold.
Cryolite, phosphate of lime, and other minerals; and, if the
observer is in d^ubt as to their nature, if possible, let him bring
away specimens.

There are also some special points that ought to be attended to
which may occur in these northern regions, such as : —

To gather additional information respecting the Oolitic fauna
in any newly discovered area similar to those already known at
Cook's Inlet in latitude 60° N. (M'Clintock), and of the Liassic
fauna found by Sir Edward Belcher, and in another by the
Swedish Expedition in latitude 78° 30'. Also to ascertain if the
Carboniferous flora occurs in any continental lands or islands
resembling that found in Bear Island, lat. 70° 30', or possibly in
Discoe Island, where loose blocks were found containing Sigillaria
and Stigmaria, or again similar to the Carboniferous strata of
Melville Island.

Also special attention should be paid to new areas containing
a Miocene flora, such as has been collected by Nordenskiold,
Sir R. M'Clintock, Sir R. Maclure, Colomb, Inglefield, Dr. Brown,
and Whymper at Atanakerdluk in the Waigat, and at other places
near and in the island of Disco, in Greenland. A similar flora is
also known in the Miocene rocks of Spitzbergen.

In connexion with this latter subject, the explorers in the late
Austrian Expedition mention that many great sheets of basaltic
lavas were seen, in the new archipelago which they discovered, to
overlie, unconformably, masses of gneiss, in a manner that conveys
the idea that the overlying igneous rocks consist of vast masses
of horizontal sheets of lava. The description reminds the writer
of the manner of occurrence of the Miocene igneous rocks in and
near Disco in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and of some of the Inner
Hebrides. Should these or other islands be visited which are
more or less composed of such like sheets of lava, it is important
to notice if terrestrial surfaces occasionally occur between them,
showing signs of terrestrial soils and the remains of land plants,
or if freshwater beds occur between the igneous rocks bearing
relics of land plants and of freshwater or terrestrial animals, such
as Crustacea of the genus Cypris (found in Mull along with leaves
of land plants by the Duke of Argyll), Insects, and Mammalia,
and, if so, specimens should if possible be preserved. Any notes
of this kind will be of great value, as throwing much light, not
only on changes of climate, but also on the subject of a great
continental extension of land during the Miocene epoch into far
northern regions, as suggested by Dr. Robert Brown, much of
which still remains — as is also indicated by Iceland, the Faroe
Islands, the Inner Hebrides, the North of Ireland, the Madeira
Islands, and other Atlantic isles — as surmised by Mr. Judd.

As, in some places, it may be impossible to obtain access to rocks

ill situ, it will be well to examine any pebbles on the beach, and

any moraine boulders for organic remains, noting in each case the

direction from which the pebbles or boulders appear to have

3G122. /'

74 RAMSAY AND EVANS. — OBSERVATIONS IN GEOLOGY.

'!»

travelled. In searching for fossils the rocks should be broken
along the planes of stratification rather than across them.

Glacial Observations.

The observer must be supposed to be ah-eady acquainted with
the phenomena of ordinary European glaciers such as those of
the Alps, and, by reading, with those of Greenland, and with the
subject, generally, of the ordinary glacial boulder clay and occa-
sional marine deposits holding shells, &c., so widely spread over
the North of Europe and America. In Greenland and any other
land he may visit it is important to notice : —

a. Are linear surface moraines corresponding in direction with
what may be called the trend of the flow of the existing glacier
streams common or occasional, and are they similar to those on
the Alpine glaciers. If so, are any cliffs or bare slopes observ-
able from which the debris could have fallen from which such
moraines were derived. If cliffs bordering the glaciers are not
visible, the existence of such moraines would indicate their ex-
istence further inland.

h. Are there any glaciers in high northern latitudes that do
not descend to the level of the sea, and, if so, what are the forms,
extent, and height of the terminal moraines that accumulate at
their ends.

c. Observations, if possible, to be made on moraine matter
under the glacier ice, that is to say, between the glacier and the ■
rocky floor over which it flows {mm^aines profondes) ; the possible
extent and thickness of such moraine matter, and its coai'seness,
fineness, other general characters, and mode of occurrence. Are
the ordinary phenomena of scratched stones common' under such
circumstances, and especially are large boulders found there. Are
they ice-scratched.

d. Can the thickness of the ice of certain glaciers be ascer-
tained which pass seaward beyond the shore or lines of sea-cliff', and
which at their ends may be supposed to grate along the sea-
bottom. This may be done by soundings at the ends of such
glaciers, in conjunction with estimates of the height of the surface
of the glaciers above the level of the sea.

e. Where glaciers protrude out to sea and there expand after
the manner of the Rhone glacier, where at its lower end it
protrudes and expands in a wide valley, is it possible to form an
idea of the shape of the ground on either side of the valley
through which the thicker mass of the glacier ice descends to
the sea. Is it likely to be merely undulating ground somewhat
higher than the valley, or hilly or even mountainous, the whole
region being more or less smothered in ice. In connexion with
this it may be asked, is the so-called continental ice of western
Greenland to a great extent an ice sheet formed independently of
mountains that bound deep valleys, the slopes of the bottoms of
these valleys being westward or in -the far north, is it an exaggera-
tion of a system of confluent glaciers generated by high mountains
on the east side of the continent or elsewhere.

^

^

TfJ»

RAMSAY AND EVANS. — OBSERVATIONS IN GEOLO(.Y. 75

with

t>

^

w

f. What is the appearance of the surface of such jjlaciers.
Are they crevassed in the interior of the countiy, that is, traversed
by fissures, large and small, like the Alpine glaciers. Are there
any crevasses traversing the surface of the ice in cases where
it passes out far seaward.

g. To make, if possible, observations on the temperature of the
ice at the surface, and at various depths below the surface, for
the purpose of discovering to what depth the ice is affected by the
external temperature of the air. It is usually stated that all
glacier ice below a shallow variable depth is just about the
temperature of 32° Fahr., and therefore in part always passing
into the state of fluid water. This by some has l>eeu doubted
with regard to the Swiss glaciers in winter. It is stated that
streams of water flow all the year round from underneath the ends
of Greenland glaciers, which are charged with glacier mud, and
so to speak, boil up with the freshwater from the ends of glaciers
that pass out to sea all the year. If so, does the quantity of
freshwater and mud seem to decrease in winter.

h. It has been stated by Dr. Sutherland that the surface ice of
the Greenland glaciers of Melville Bay, «&c., for a depth of 8 or
10 feet is more solidly frozen than the underlying strata of ice,
because of the influence at the surface of the cold air ; and that
the underlying ice, having the temperature of ordinary deep glacier
ice (about 32°), flows faster than the overlying thoroughly frozen
stratum, and that this upper stratum, adhering to and being
dragged unwillingly onward by the underlying more rapidly
moving ice, decrepitates and is shattered because of its solidity
and power of resistance to the onward motion of the underlying
more rapidly moving body of melting ice. '

Further observations on this point are desirable.

i. Measurements actual or approximate of the size of boulders
on glaciers are desirable, and notes of the various kinds of rocks
that form surface moraines. Sketches of such boulders would be
sometimes of value.

k. It has been stated that the solid Greenland rocks which form
the surface of the country are not grooved and striated like the
rocks affected by old and modern Alpine glaciers, or like the rocks
of Scotland, the North of England, and Wales,which, like much of
modern Greenland, are believed to have once been buried under
universal thick sheets of glacier ice of what is called the Glacial
Epoch. The reason given for this is that the whole or most of
Greenland, being or having been entirely covered by glacier ice,
no moraine matter fiom bare cliffs fell on the surface of the glaciers,
and that therefore no stones and other glaciei"s debris found its
way from the sides of glaciers and through crevasses to the
bottom of the ice, by means of which their rocky floors could be
grooved and scratched because of the great superincumbent pres-
sure of the moving ice-flow. The more nortIi(n-n rock surfaces
of Greenland have therefoie been said to be ice-])olishod and
motitounec, but not grooved and scratched. Is this the case.

/2

70 RAMSAY AND EVANS.— OBSERVATIONS IN GEOLOGY.

/. What is the state of the bare rocky cliffs described by Kane
in the far north of Greenland as regards ice-markings.

m. Should new islands be discovered further to the north, what
are their physical characters as regards height and form. If
mountainous ordinary glaciers may be expected. If so, have they
any special characteristics, and of what kinds.

If low or flat, is true glacier ice formed on them, and if so of
what thickness, and what is its general behaviour. If in such
cases the rocks are sometimes bare of ice, are they smoothed,
polished, grooved, and scratched as if by the action of glacier ice
that once was there, and if so in what direction do the striations
run, and if in more than one direction, which appears to have
been the prevailing one.

n. Specially to observe the ice-foot or flat fringe of ice that
adheres to the shore for a time after the main masses of the ice-
floes have become detached from it. Note the quantity of detritus
that falls on its surface from the adjoining clifls, and its subsequent
flotation seaward into deeper water, and the scattering of boulders
thereby over the sea bottom as the ice melts.

a. Observe all icebergs of importance. Note if possible their
length, breadth, and probable circumference. Observe their
shapes, whether tabular, or serrated and peaky. If tabular
endeavour to determine their heights above the level of the sea,
for this may serve to indicate the thickness of the glaciers from
which they broke, since in tabular masses of ice, the mass above
the water bears a definite proportion to the mass submerged.

Note if possible whether or not they are aground, and if so, in
what depth of water.

Observe if any icebergs are laden with mosses of moraine
rubbish, and if so, try to estimate its amount after the manner of
Scoresby. Are boulders ever seen encased in the ice far below the
surface. Is it probable that grounding icebergs are capable of
attaching submarine boulders, gi'avel, sand, and mud, and carry-
ing them on as they float and melt in other areas. Is it likely
that grounding icebergs polish, round, groove, and striate the
rocks over which they grate, both on the side on which they
first impinge, and on the opposite side as they are forced over the
opposing mass of rock.

p. In connexion with floating ice generally, endeavour to indi-
cate the direction of the flow of marine currents. Does floating
coast ice uproot and transport boulders, &c., and does it smooth
and striate rocks, and help to produce rochrs moutounees. Are
grounding icebergs, and other kinds of floating ice likely to con-
tort the soft strata of the sea bottoms on which they impinge.

q. It is stated by Dr. Rae that " in the Arctic regions ice is
" sometimes by great pressure forced up on shore many feet above
'• high-water mark, and carries with it or pushes before it stones ;
" and these are left in such varied forms as to cause the belief that
" the work has been done by human hands. If the shores of the
" Arctic Sea are gradually rising, stones thus pushed up by ice may

be found at a very considerable height above the sea." Such ob-

1

^

((

RAMSAY AND EVANS. — OBSERVATIONS IN GEOLOGY. 77

1

servations are valuable, and note ought to be taken as to mounds of
shore gravel having been pushed landward by the pressure of sea
ice packed and forced up above high-water mark. It is possible
that sucli observations may throw some light on the ridges known
as Eskers in Ireland and Kames in Scotland. These are long
mounds of gravel believed to be intimately connected with the
Glacial Epoch, and by some supposed to have been formed on the
shores of the icy sea of that period.

r. In connexion with the subject of sea coasts it is of importance
to observe if there are traces or lines of raised sea-beaches running
in a terrace or in lines of terraces at different heights more or
less parallel to the present sea-shores. Also whether or not they
contain sea-shells and other marine remains. Also at what height
above the present sea-level each individual beach or terrace lies.
Note also, if possible, the direction from which shore pebbles may
have come and larger boulders, and if they have any relation to
prevalent winds and marine currents.

s. A good deal has been written about the occurrence of
meteorites (meteoric iron) in Greenland. Should such be observed,
(heir position and size should be noted, and if possible, specimens
collected.

m

2. Instkuctions for making Observations on, and
Collecting Mineralogical Specimens. By Prof.
N. Story Maskelyne, F.R S.

indi-

A. — Minerals and Rocks.

In offering advice as to the mode of setting about collecting
minerals and mineralogical facts in a land that is peculiarly rich
in rare and curious piineral species, while it is clad in an iron-
mail of ice, one cannot lose sight of the fact that the special
experience which the Arctic voyager must soon acquire will fit
him better than any instructions for the tasks of exploration and
collecting. Nevertheless some notice of the sort of localities that
may repay research, and of the observations that it would bo
worth recording, may not be out of place, while a short summary
of the mineral objects that are to be looked for, and of the modes
of determining something about their characters are of the first
importance. The instructions on the subject of geology will
certainly impress on the scientific observer the great importance
of carefully noting and laying down in profile, and where possible,
in plan, all important lines of mountain chain or proti-uding rock,
and of collecting specimens of every distinct kind of rock, and
fm'ther, of fastening to or carefully enrolling with all specimens,
labels that can hardly err in the fulness with which they state
the circumstances and the .position of the spot at which they are
obtained. To the mineralogist rock specimens have a special

7cS

MASKKLYNIO. — MINKUALOOICAL .SPECIMENS.

\r

interest as being aggregates of minerals and often containing
crystals in cavities or otherwise distributed through them, from
the presence of which the history and associations of the rock
itself may be gathered. Hence a judiciously made collection of
rocks has the character of an index to the petrology of a whole
country.

It is among igneous rocks that the Arctic mineralogist will
probably find his chief occupation. The important minerals that
occur under other conditions, such as where they are found lining
the fissures which carry mineral lodes, may indeed be accidentally
mot with — perhaps among the weathered masses at the foot of a
clUf on the section of which the mineral vein may bo recognised
from wliich they came ; and any minerals so found that from their
metallic lustre, their weight, or some other striking character may
appear peculiar should be preserved in specimens, so that their
characters may be determined at leisure. But the rocks fruitful
of minerals for the Expedition, north of Upernavik, will in all
probaljility be of a different kind. It is among the minerals that
belong to or are associated with the occurrence of igneous rocks
developed on a large scale that the Expedition will be able
probably most effectively to deal. For the conditions of Arctic
Travel are hardly consistent with the close and careful search
needed for the discovery of the rarer kinds of minerals ; nor arc
the characters of the country and climate such as to expose such
minerals to view under favourable conditions for finding them, as
for instance in the beds of torrents. However uncertain may be
the early accounts that recorded the existence of an active vol-
cano and furaerole action in the south of Greenland, it is quite
possible that volcanic forces may still be in action in the regions
of a remoter north. Shoidd this be found to be the case there
will be an ample field provided for all that enterprise .and obser-
vation can do in collecting materials for the description of such
a district. Some notes drawn up by an experienced observer,
Mr. J. W. Judd, are appended to these instructions, and they deal
with the more important petrological questions that arise in such
a neighbourhood.*

In the case of rocks of the plutonic class being met with, it
i% less easy to offer as precise injunctions as in the former case
in regard to the methods of observation. A collection of well
selected specimens of the rocks themselves is in all cases the first
requisite ; and next, it is important to gather illustrations of any
special peculiarity in mineral associations that these rocks furnish.
In cases where plutonic rocks have intruded into other formations
it is desirable that specimens of the adjacent rock should, where
practicable, be collected from points at different distances from the
intruding mass. And in the case of rocks of the granitic class it
may be that irregular cavities may be met with in which the
crystals of the minerals forming the rock are distinctly developed ;
and these are sometimes associated with other minerals of interest
such as beryl, topaz, tourmaline, &c.

Among the rocks of the volcanic class the trachytes will often
be found rich in interest for the mineralogist, as well from the

^

\

MASKELYNE. — MINEUALOHICAL SrE(;iMEN8.

79

ions

lere
the

3S it
the
ed ;

rest

■ten
the

1

f^

varied forms which they assume, including a porphyritie structure
on the one hand and a glassy structure on the other, as from the
various minerals that they include. And the doluritic class on
the other hand, including basalt, presents a special interest in the
amygdaloidal cavities with which such rocks teem, and which
are so often found to be the home of minerals of great variety
and interest, well repaying a careful search.

While passing near a coast, as, for instance, along the stwip of
ice- foot, the rocky clilfs and bluffs should be carefully scrutinised
where these form the coast-liu*.' ; while the talus that conceals
their feet may yield specimens weathere<l out from the rest of the
mass which it would be well to search for where any peculiarity
is j>rcs('nted by the face of the rock itself. In collecting speci-

it would bo well

at all delicate,

tissue paper and then to cover

cotton wool before finally

it would be better to

like

mens carrying crystals that are
to place them first in a fold of
them with some soft material
packing them in an outer paper ; and
insert the label next to the tissue paper.

Where delicate crystals present salient points it is best to
secure them by packing them in chip boxes, into which they
should be wedged by plugs of cotton, and, when opportunity
offers, by subsequently fastening them to the box by a little glue
on their under side.

It would seem to be preferable to an attempt to condense into a
few pages descriptions of the more important minerals (which to
a person familiar with mineralogy will have little value) that, for
the use of collectors not well versed in the science, a very small
series of such minerals carefully selected as representing their
more important characteristics should form part of the equipment
of the Expedition. By reference to such a small cabinet com-
prising perhaps some 50 specimens, the collector will not only
familiarise his eye with their aspect, but may compare with them
on his return to the ship the specimens which he has collected
during a temporary expedition. Thus, the large number of
minerals referable generally to the group of augites or those
of which hornblende is a type, or again those forming the group
of garnets, though widely differing in the case of each group in
respect of colour and even of habit, yet present such general
mineralogical resemblances that with the aid of a treatise on dis-
criminative mineralogy and a few implements, the collector might
go far towards identifying many of the minerals he has collected,
should he not be content with merely storing them for investiga-
tion at home. And with this view, it will be Avell to mention two
or three handy books by the use of which, and by the aid of a
few experiments he may find for himself and practically apply all
the information which he immediately requires. Such books are
either Dana's smaller Manual or his larger treatise on mineralogy,
preferably the latter, Frazer's translation of Weisbach's Tables
for the Determination of Minerals (Philadelphia, 1875) ; to which
may be advantageously added, for the details of results with the
blowpipe. Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy (New
York, 1875), and a Treatise on Rocks, by Cotta. translated by

8U

MASKKLYNE. — MINEKALOOICAL SrECIMENS.

j

Lawronco (Longinun & Co., 1866). And includwl with tho small
series of inineiaU above recommended, a few samples of the more
important igneous roeks sliould be taken for tho purpose of
comparison.

With regard to tools and instruments icquisite for obtaining
mineral specimens and for recognising thom when obtained, b(!-
sides the personal companionship of a small portable hammer of tho
best steel and of not too hard a temper, nt least one more massive
hammer, and two or three large chisels and wedges should form a
part of the equipment that accompanies an exploring party ; and
doubtless means of blasting masses of rock in special cases, by me-
thods involving comparatively little labour Avill not be wanting to
the Expedition. Tools of large size are requisite in order to obtain
good pieces even of small magnitude of tough igneous rocks. Tho
specimens of rock themselves need not be larger than four inches
by three, and one inch thick ; but, where many have to be carried,
in the case of ordinary-looking rocks a size of about 3 in. x 2 in.
must be deemed sufficient.

But it is before all important that, where possible, the specimens
secured should not be merely the weathered outside of a protruding
rock, but a piece of the rock with fresh fracture from the interior
of such a mass.

The instruments of observation requisite for determining the
direction and inclination of ridges and of the faces of rock-
masses belong rather to instructions in geology than to those "or
collecting minerals, and will doubtless be provided for the Expe-
dition. For the actual scrutiny of the minerals themselves the
following apj)aratus should be provided for each collector. An
ordinary pocket lens (and one or two in reserve in case of loss),
with a moderately high and. a low power ; a small strong stoppered
bottle for containing dilute hydrochloric acid ; a not too elaborate
set of blow-pipe apparatus, including a lamp for colza oil, or a
supply of large sized stearine candles; two or three small line
three-cornered steel files ; a small collection of ten mineral speci-
mens representing the degrees of hardness ; a magnetized needle,
and a small hammer and two or three little steel chisels for trimming
specimens.

B. — Meteorites.

There is no spot in the world around which so much interest
has gathered in connexion with the subject of meteorites as that
to the N.W. of Disco Fjord in the island of Disco, from which
Prof. Nordenskiold first brought to Europe large masses of iron,
which he announced as having been embedded in Miocene times
in the basaltic rocks that there overlie to a vast thickness the
gneissoid formations of the island. This spot is Ofivak, and from
it an expedition in 1871, a year after Prof. Nordenskiold's return,
brought to Stockholm a mass of iron weighing nearly 20 tons, and
others only inferior to it in size.

The great interest of the discovery lay, however, not even in
the acquisition of these masses of apparently meteoric iron, but in
the fact that they were found in close proximity to a ridge of

'%

>

it

M..

j

.MASKELYNE. — MINERALOOICAL Sl'ECIMEXS.

81

3 obtiiin
?. The

]

hi

4(^

basalt, cntungled in which other Hpccimons of imtivo iron similar
in character and associated with a kind of pyrites (Troiiite, Fc. S.),
only met with in meteorites, were found.

Such an ingredient could only have found its way into the
basaltic dyke in one of two ways: it might have fallen into the
basalt in the very remote epoch when that rock was yet in a
plastic condition, or thei'e is the possibility that it might have
been terrestrial iron borne upwards with the melted rock mass
from the interior of the globe.

It is, therefore, a matter of much interest that this place should
be again thoroughly explored, and the point in question settled.
The best means for this end will be to ascertain by careful inspec-
tion of the site how far the basaltic ridge from which Nauckhoif in
the Swedish expedition separated the specimens of iron and
troiiite extends, and whether iron can be found in it in other
places than that immediately investigated.

Experiments with a dip-magnet in the neighbourhood may lead
to the discovery of such masses.

Under any circumstances it is important that portions of the
basaltic rock itself and of the so-called basalt wack^ (or decom-
posed basalt) on either side of it, should be blasted from the mass
and brought home.

And it will be of much interest in connexion with the subject
of meteorites, that any specimens of iron in use by the Esquimaux,
indicating rude hammering or workmanship, should be secured
and all possible information obtained as to the sources whence the
metal is obtained. There is good reason for believing that meteoric
iron has been habitually used by these people.

Thus, Sir John Ross records at p. 104 of his narrative that
the natives in the neighbourhood of Cape Melville and Prince
Regent's Bay obtained their iron for their implements from masses
of iron that occun'ed in the Sowallick or Iron Mountains that
rise at the back of that bay. And he mentions that they reported
" that one of the iron masses, harder than the rest, was a part of
" the mountain ; that the others were in large pieces above ground
" and not of so hard a nature ; that they cut it off with a hard
" stone and then beat it flat into pieces of the size of a sixpence,
*' but of an oval shape."

The locality was stated to be some 25 miles distant from the
place in Prince Regent's Bay where the interview with the natives
was held.

The masses of iron from Ofivak have a great tendency to undergo
a sort of spontaneous corrosion, due to the presence of soluble
chlorides enclosed within them.

The only available way of arresting or retarding this action
seems to be to keep the meteoric masses either in completely dry
air, or in a liquid that is closed as much as possible from the air.
Probably putting them in a closed cask filled with fresh water
would be the best means of effecting it.

There is another point of no small interest to which the atten-
tion of the observer in snowy latitudes should be drawn, in

82

MABKELYM-:. — MINEUALOOICAL SPECIMENS.

J

I"

connexion with tho meteoric innttt^r thiit rcAches tlio oarfli from
space. It hoH been uHHurted that Hnow when colluuteU un<ler
conditions that Boemed, by the remoteness of the locality from
htiman habitations, to be secure from contaminations due to tlu^
agency of man, has, when melted, yielded among other products
metallic, and therefore, probably, meteoric iron. Nonloiiskiold
collected the dust thus distributed through snow in Spitzbcrgen,
and proved its meteoric character by finding iron and cobalt in it.
The circulation ol" the winds no doubt carries other forms of dust,
including volcanic and desert sands, to enormous distances, but
meteoric iron can be distinguished amidst these without difficulty.
And meteoric iron is not the only — it, in fact, must be but a single
ingredient among several constituting the meteoric dust falling
through the atmosphere from the regions of space. Any dis-
colouration of the snow that has not an evident cause in neigh-
bouring sources of contamination should be at once suspected of
having an origin thus foreign ; and any steps feasible at the time
should be taken for preserving as much as possible of the dis-
colouring or otherwise foreign material. Some cubic yards of
such snow will yield, probably, barely enough material for a
satisfactory examination ; and the melting of this quantity an<l
the collecting, drying (at not too high a temperature), and pre-
serving the small amount of residue mixed with it, without
contamination from utensils employed in the process, involve care
and precautions that will suggest themselves to the observer
who may find himself in a position to avail himself of such an
opportunity of aiding science.

Favourable places in which the residue from the melting of
snows during summer months might have collected without con-
tamination from impurities of local origin may, however, in all
probability be found by the observant traveller, and this residuary
material may so, perhaps, be secured in appreciable amount.

The icelike snow underlying the more recent or the melted snow
may be found in some cases more richly charged by accumulation
with the foreign dust in question. The matter is one of such
great interest that it is well worth some trouble to endeavour to
collect appreciable amounts of this cosmical dust.

I'

if

J

88

3.

Instrttctions on the Ouservations which slionhl bo
made in case Volcanoes ov Evidkncks of Volcanic
Action bhould be met with. By J. W. Judo, F.G.S.

ShmiM any volcanic rocks bo mot with, fho following snfjjjefl-
tionrt may aid tho ohHcrver in diroctinf* his attention to tho moft
nnpoi'tant polntn in connexion with them.

I. 1/ the rocks have a fresh nppeara/ive, and are of com-
jKirntivehj recent oru/in, the followinjj; circuniHtauceH concerning
them Hhonld be particularly noted : —

A. Lava Stukams. Concerning these .should be recordctl, —
a. DintensioHS. Distance from point of origin ; breadth at
various ptuts of course ; thickness, so far as it can be determined,
and especially as affected by the accidents which tho current
meets with in its flow.

h. Slope over which they flow. This should be measured at
various points with a clinometer if possible, and, at points where
the inclination suddenly changes, any variations in the dimensions
or other characters of the current should be carefully noted.

c. Surfaces of lavas. Attention should bo paid to the featines
presented by these, whether smooth and " ropy," or bristling and
scoriaceous.

d. Texture. Note especially if the rock of the current be
porphyritic, compact, globular, concretionary, pumiceous, giassy,
sphajrulitic, or coarsely crystalline. If the rock presents nbboned
or banded structures, observe, if possible, the relations of these to
tho direction of flow of the stream. When the rock exhibits
transitions from one texture to another, collect series of specimens,
illustrating the gradation. Note especially changes between the
surface and interior of current, or those taking place at different
points of its course.

c. Structure. All peculiarities of jointed, and especially of
columnar, structures are worthy of being recorded. Note the
features presented by the upper and lower part of the cuirent,
and any changes in its course ; also if columns be divided by
transverse joints, and the features presented by these, &c.

f. Chemical and mineralogical constitution. If the appearance
of the rock does not suggest at once the class to which it belongs,
and the component minerals cannot be detected with a lens,
recourse may sometimes be had to a determination (even roughly)
of its specific gravity.

g. Sometimes lavas contain large masses of included minerals.
These are very interesting, and should be carefully collected.

h. Cavities, or air bubbles, in comparatively recent lavas, are
frequently found coated with beautifully crystaUised minerals.
And when the rocks are of older date, the similar cavities may
be lined or filled with crystals of zeolites and other minerals.

84

JUDD. — VOLCANOES.

B. Nature of Bedji Lying between Lava Currents.

These are of the utmost interest and value to the geologist, but
unfortunately the ordmary mode of weathering of volcanic rocks
is such as greatly to obscure the interbedded deposits by a talus
of fallen fragments. The best opportunities for their study are
afforded by sea-cliffs, and deep ravines or river-gorges, which should
therefore be carefully examined. In such situations we may
expect to find —

a. Burnt soils (Laterites of Lyell), usually of a brick-red
colour, and affording various evidences of their modes of origin.

b. Coal or Lignite seams. These are very frequently observed.
Note if they rest upon an " underclay " (an old soil with roots),
and if they contain wood, leaves, or other plant remains, with
recognisable structure.

c. Ash-beds. These are sometimes composed of such impal-
pable dust as to constitute a matrix in which delicate leaves,
shellp, and even insect remains are exquisitely preserved.

d. Stratified tuffs. Note especially the degrees and nature of
their stratification ; also whether they are loose or indurated.
They may contain shells and plants of terrestrial or marine origin.
Record the elevations at which the latter are found.

€. Gi'avels or other deposits. Note their characters and
materials, and, if possible, define their mode of origin.

j'i

^1

C. Cones, (/RATers, &c. Wherever the lavas present a fresh
appearance, an attempt should be made to trace them up to their
points of origin.

a. If any great volcanic mountain be met with, all details
concerning the lava streams, fragmentary matters, and dykes of
which it is built up will be of gi'eat interest. Failing these,
however, sketches of the mountain, and of specially interesting
portions of it, accompanied by such rock specimens as can be
obtained, will be of service to geologists.

b. Cinder-cones on the flanks of a volcano, or scattered around
it, should be examined and sketched. Note if they originate
streams of lava.

c. The craters, both of volcanic mountjiins and of cinder-cones,
should be examined. Note if they are breached by lava streams,
or contain bosses of lava in their interiors, or buttress-like masses
adhering to their sides.

d. Note especially the arrangement of the smaller and larger
cones in respect to one another. Furnish, if possible, plans lo
illustrate this point, or failing these, as many general outline
sketches as possible.

e. In and around the craters look for fumaroles, and, if possible,
record the nature of the gases evolved from them. Collect the
interesting minerals found in the crusts which are deposited
round the vents, and in the rocks traversed by the vapours and
gases.

/. Hot spj'ings, get/sers, S^c, often occur in the vicinity of
active or recently extinct volcanoes. These the observer should be

k

JUDD. — VOLCANOES.

85

NTS.

3gist, but
nic rocks
jy u talus
study are
ch should
we may

jrick-red
origin.
)bserved.
1 roots),
ns, with

^ impal-
! leaves,

lature of
durated.
B origin.

3rs and

a fresh
to their

details
ykes of
these,
resting
can be

around
ginate

■cones,
*eanis,
masses

.-ii-ger
ins to
utline

sible,
t the
3sited
J and

■y of

Id be

on the look-out for (their vapours often render them conspicuous
at great distances), and their phenomena should be carefully re-
corded. Specimens of hot and mineral water should be sealed up
in bottles, and brought home for examination and analysis.

g. Deposits of siliceous sinter, travertine, Sfc. These, besides
yielding interesting varieties of minerals and illustrations of their
mode of formation, often contain incrusted or mineralised remains
of plants or animals which may be of great interest.

(In the event of the observer being so fortunate as actually to
witness an eruption of a volcano, every detail that he can supply
may be of scientific value. Especially should he note the appear-
ances presented by the ascending column of vapour and fragmen-
tary materials issuing from the crater, the height to which this
rises, the nature, sequence, and rate of the explosions to which it
is due, and the sounds which accompany them. All earthquake
shocks and tremblings of the ground should of course be recorded.
If lava streams are seen flowing, their rate of motion and attendant
phenomena should be carefully noted.)

II. If the volcanic rocks have evidently been subjected to great
denudation, the following points should be more particularly
attended to : —

A. The composition, textures, and various structures of the
different lavas should be carefully observed, and all zeolites or other
minerals in their included cavities collected.

B. If the igneous rocks be found alternating with sedimentary
ones, all fossil remains which can be obtained from the latter will
have a double value, as throwing light on the age both of the
aqueous and the volcanic rocks. But it will be especially necessary
to notice whether the igneous masses be interbedded and contem-
poi'aneous with the aqueous deposits, or intrusive and subsequent
to them. In seeking to determine this point, it must be borne in
mind that, —

Lava streams have slaggy or scoriaceous upper and under sur-
faces, and that they only alter the rocks upon which they rest.

Intrusive sheets, on the other hand, are seldom scoriaceous, and
alter the rocks both below and also above them. They moreover
occasionally cross the lines of bedding of the stratsi, and send off
dykes or veins into them.

C. If possible, the lavas of the district should be traced up to
central masses of intrusive rocks. The forms assumed by these in
weathering should be sketched, and specimens illustrating the
different characters which they assume and the minerals they con
tain be collected.

D. All the phenomena of metaraorphism exhibited by the strati-
fied rocks in the vicinity of intrusive masses, whether dykes, sheets,
or bosses, should be looked for, and their nature and extent re-
coided. In connexion with this subject, it should be remembered
that very many interesting minerals are developed near the junc-
tion of igneous rocks with those which they traverse. Series of

■■•^-■HFy "'.'.iCrHSPv--

86

JUDD. — VOLCANOES.

,4.

, *

rock specimens illustrative of a gradual change in characters will
be very valuable.

E. If masses of tuffs and volcanic agglomerates be met with,
they will frequently be found to contain crystals (more or less
perfect) of various volcanic minerals. Not unfrequently they also
yield fragments of rock which have been ejected from a volcanic
vent. These, if of aqueous origin, may be searched for fossils ; in
all cases, however, they frequently exhibit signs of having under-
gone changes by the action of heat, acid vapours, &c. upon them.
Such masses should be broken up and carefully examined, for they
frequently enclose in their cavities some of the most beautifully
crystallised varieties known to the mineralogist.

The general instructions as to the instruments best adapted for
the purpose of the geological observer, and of the tools used for
obtaining rock specimens and minerals, are of course equally appli-
cable to the student of vulcanology. But as igneous rocks are in
many cases especially liable to change by weathering, the greatest
efforts should be made to obtain specimens as fresh and little
altered as possible. In those cases, however, where the rock
assumes any peculiar features in consequence of meteoric actions
upon it, specimens both of the unaltered and of the altered rock
are desirable.

The work of reference which will be found most serviceable to
the traveller who may come across volcanic districts is Mr. G.
Poulett Scrope's " Volcanos " (second edition, revised and enlarged,
1872), published by Longman and Co. In this work detailed
descriptions of the interesting phenomena of volcanic action are
given, and ample illustrations of most of the points adverted to in
these notes will be found.

I

1^

i

MANUAL

OP

THE NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGY, AND

PHYSIOS

OP

GREENLAND

AND THE NEIGHBOURING REGIONS.

.1

d

i

The Zoology, Botany, Geology, and Mineralogy compiled by

T. Rupert Jones, p.r.s., f.g.s.,
Professor of Geology, Royal Military and Staff Colleges, Sandhurst :

The Physics compiled by W. G. Adams, m.a., p.r.s., p.g.s., f.c.p.s.,

Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy

in King's College, London.

EDITED BY

Professor T. RUPERT JONES, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., &c., &c.,

UNDGR THE DIRECTION OF THE ARCTIC COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

, ,J

1

i

1' '

■

: ;

i

\l'

i J- J /..A i,'

v.'i:;-L ,;j.._

..'iT (i.,. /,

' ■ . ■-■■.I

PREFACE.

1 ,\. I.

The subject-matter of this " Manual " is arranged under
the two headings of — Part I. Biology and Zoology, and
Part II. Physics. The former is subdivided geographically
into — § I. Davis Strait, Baffin's Bay, and the coasts con-
tinuing northwards, under the general term of "West
Greenland." § II. The great Ai'ctic- American Archipelago,
including the Parry Islands. § III. East Greenland, with
Spitzbergen and Franz- Joseph Land.

The short time allowed for preparation limited more
especially the treatment of the last section, and has caused
also an irregularity in the arrangement of some earlier
articles, such as Nos. X., LIX., LXXI., LXXVI., and CVIII.

Part II. (Physics), having had a still shoi-ter time of
preparation, is without an Index, the Table of Contents
serving that pui-pose. Indeed § III. of Part I. is not fully
represented in the Index.

This " Manual " consists mainly of Reprints and Excerpts
from Transactions, Proceedings, Journals, Magazines, and
Foreign Books, and from English "Voyages," and their
" Appendices " when the treatment of a subject required
correlative matter to be brought forward.

Perfect uniformity in the printing of geogTaphical and
natural-history names has not been attempted. The plans
and systems of different authors, the fashions of their day,
the inaccuracies of some, the peculiarities of others, and
the pressure of circumstances, have affected the style of
reproduction in the several articles.

It has not been practicable in many cases to refer direct
to the authors of the reprinted papers, even of late date, or
to submit proofs for their inspection; several, however,
have had the advantage of revision by their authors.

a 2

iv

PREFACE.

Thanks arc duo especially to Dr. Liitken and Dr. Morch,
of Copenhagen, for revisions of their previously published
Catalogues of Arctic Animals, and to Dr. Lutken for new
catalogues of several groups of animals living in Greenland
and tlie neighbouring seas. The Editor has received much
information about Greenland from Dr. R. Brown, of Camp-
ster, some of whose Greenland Memoirs are reprinted in the
" Manual." Among others also, who have aided him with
information and books, are R. H. Scott, Esq., E. Whymper,
Esq., C. E. De Ranee, Esq., and Count Marschall. Lieut.
C. Cooper King, R. M. Art., F.G.S., has materially aided him
in his work; andW. S. Dallas, Esq., F.L.S., has kindly re-
vised a few of the lists. The officers of the Royal Geogra-
phical and other Societies in London have helped him in
their Libraries ; and the Secretaries of the Royal Dublin, the
Edinburgh Botanical, and the Glasgow Geological Societies
have courteously conveyed permission to reprint papers,
and in some cases have jnesented the memoirs wanted.

Capt. F. J. Evans, C. B., has also most obligingly aided
the Editor.

In the Index, geographical names have not been made
a prominent feature, but natural -history terms, and the
names of writers and explorers, have been chosen as the
most convenient and useful keys to the many subjects of
the " Manual." As time and space were limited, the name
or term alone is usually given, and its various relations
und associations are indicated by the often numerous
references to pages that follow it.

T. R. J.
May 7, 1875.

T

<►

^

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

^

<¥

ISIANUAL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY, &c. OF
GREENLAND AND NEIGHBOURING LANDS.

PART I.— BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY.

§1. — West Greenland, ixcluding Davis' Stijait, Baffin's
Bay, Smith Sound, and Kennedv Channel.

rage

I. On the Mammalian Fauua of Greenland. By Dr. 1?. Brown,
F.L.S., &c. 1868 -

II. Note on Additional INIaramals of Greenland. By Trof. J. lieinhardt.
1875 ---------

III. On the History and Geographical Relations of the Pinnipedia fre-
quenting the Spitzbergen and Greenland Sons. By Dr. li. Brown,
F.L.S., &c. 18C8 -

IV. On the History and Geographical Relations of the Cctacea fre-
quenting Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay, By Dr. R. Brown, F.L.S.,&c.
1868 -.--.-.--

v. On some Cetacea of Greenland. By Dr. E. D. Cope and Dr. 1. 1.
Hayes. 1866

VI. Notes on Birds Avhich have been found in Greenland. ByProfessor
Alfred Newton, F.R.S. 1875 . . - . .

VII. A Revised Catalogue of the Fishes of Greenland. By Dr. Chr.
Liitken. 1875 ,-_---_

VIII. On the Straining Appendages, or Branchial Fringes, of the
Basking Shark. By Professor J. Steenstrup. 1873-

IX. Prodromus Fauna; Molluscorum Grcenlandiaj. With Api t^ndix: —
Notes on Shells. By Dr. O. L. A. Morch, 1875 -

X. Marine Invertebrata collected by the Arctic Expedition under Dr.
I. I. Hayes. By Dr. W. Stimpson. 1863 -

XI. Shells, &c. from the Hunde Islands, Davis' Strait ; dredged by Dr.
P. C. Sutherland, and named by Dr. S. P. Woodward. 1 865

XII. A Revised Catalogue of the Tunicata of Greenland. By Dr. Chr.
Liitken. 1875

XIII. The Polyzoa of Greenland. By Dr. Chr. Liitken. 1875

XIV. Insects and Spiders of Greenland. By J. C. Schiodte. 1857 -

XV. The Crustacea of Greenland. By Dr. Chr. Liitken. 1875

XVI. Ostracoda from Greenland, &c. By G. S. Brady, Esq., C.M.Z.S.
1875

XVII. A Revised Catalogue of the Annelida and other (not Entozoic)
Worms of Greenland. By Dr. Chr. Liitken. 1875-

XVIII. A Revised Catalogue of the Entozoa of Greenland. By Dr. Chr.
Liitken. 1875 .-._-__

XIX. A Revised Catalogue of the Echinodermata of Greenland. By
Dr. Chr. Liitken. 1875 -.-.-.

XX. A Revised Catalogue of the Anthozoa and Calcycozoa of Green-
land. By Dr. Chr. Lutken. 1875 .....

XXI. A Revised List of the AcalepUse and Hydrozoa of Greenland. By
Dr. Chr. Liitken. 1875

1
34

35

69

93

94

115

123

124

135

137

138
139
141
146

166
167
179
184
186
187

\m

■' iii^g.T'y* f^ii'ya.?ru^: ■T^.yff;"

t

▼I

CONTENTS.

i^ii

Page

XXII. A Revised Catalogue of the Spongozon of Greenland. By Dr.
Chr. Liitken. 1875 - - - - - - - 190

XXIII. roraniiuifora from the Hiiude Islands, Davis' Strait. By Pro-
fessors W. K. Parker, F.K.S., and T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S. 1865 - 192

XXIV. Foraminifera from Baffin's Bay. By Professors W. K. Parker,
F.K.S., and T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S. 1805 - - - 193

XXV. Foraminifera, Polycystina, &c. from Davis* Strait. By Dr. Ch.
G.Ehrenborg. 1873- - - - - - - 194

XXVI. On the Existence of - Marine Animals at various Depths in
Arctic Seas. By Sir C. Lyell and Professor TorcU. 1863 - - 195

XXVII. On the Distribution of Arctic Plants. By Dr. J. D. Hooker,
C.B.,F.R.S. 1861 197

XXVIII. Cryptogamic Plants from Baffin's Bay. By Robert Brown.
1819 ...-.---. 238

XXIX. Flowering Plants and Algas of Greenland, Davis' Strait, and
Baffin's Bay, collected by Dr. P. C. Sutherland, and determined by Sir

W. J. Ilookor and Dr. Dickie. 1853 - - - - 239

XXX. Plants from West Greenland and Smith Sound, collected by Dr.

E. K. Kane, and determined by E. Durant and T. B. Jiimes. 1856 - 241

XXXI. Notice of Flowering Plants and Ferns, collected on both sides

of Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay. By Mr. James Taylor. 1862 - 242

XXXII. Arctic Cryptogamic and otherTlants, collecte(l in the Islands
of Greenland by Dr. R. Brown, and determined by J. Sadler, Esq.
1862 --------- 253

XXXIII. Plnnts from Smith's Sound, collected by Dr. Hayes, and named

by E. Durand, T. P. James, aod S. Ashmead. 1863 - - 254

XXXIV. Florula Discoana, by Dr. R. Brown, F.L.S., &c. 1868 - 256

XXXV. The Lichen-flora of Greenland. By Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay,
F.L.S., &c. 1869 - - - - - - - 284

XXXVI. On the Nature of the Discoloration of the Arctic Seas. By

Dr. R. Brown, F.L.S., &c. 1867 - - - - - 311

Prof. Nordenskiold's Note on the same Subject. 1872 - - 318

XXXVII. Diatomacea; from Danish Greenland, collected by Dr. Brown ;
determined by Dr. Dickie. 18C9 ----- 319

XXXVIII. Note on some Plants from Smith Sound collected by Dr.
Bessels. By. Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B., F.R.S. 1873 - - - 321

XXXIX. Notes on the Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Voyage
of the " Polaris " to Kennedy and Robeson Channels. From " Nature,"
1873; "Nature," 1874; A. H. Markham's "Cruise," 1874; and

CI. R.Markham's" Threshold," 1873 - - - - 321

XL. Geological Notes on Baffin's Bay. By J. Ross and J. MaccuUoch,

1819 --------- 324

XLI. Notes on Meteoric Iron of the Arctic Highlands. By Sir Ed-

Avard Sabine, F.H.S. 1819 - - - - - - 325

XLII. The Mincralogical Geology of South Greenland. By Sir C. L.

Giesecke. 1816 - - - - - - - 327

XLIII. On the Mineralogy of Disko Island. By Sir C. L. Giesecke.

1821 --------- 335

XLIV. On the Cryolite of W. Greenland. By Sir C. L. Giesecke. 1821 341
XLV. On the Cryolite of Evigtok, Greenland. By J. \V. Tayler, Esq.

1856 --------- 344

XLVI. On the Views of Tin- ore at Evigtok, near Arksut, Greenland.

By J. W. Tayler, Esq. 1859 - - . - - 348

XLVII. Catalogue of a Geological and Geographical Collection of

Minerals from South Greenland. By Sir C. L. Giesecke. 1861 - 349
XLVIII. On the Geological and Glacial Phenomena of the Coasts of

Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay. By Dr. P. Q. Sutherland. 1853 - 352
XLIX. Fossils from the West Coast of Kennedy Channel. By Prof.

F. B. Meek. 1865 - - - - - - - 368

t

H

CONTENTS.

Vll

197

238

Page
L. On the Miocene Flora of North Greenland. By Prof. Oswald Heer.

Translated by R. H. Scott, Esq. 1867 - - - - 368

With Appendix : Liat of Memoirs and Kcports on the Fossil
Plants of Greenland, &c. - - - - - 372

LI. Notice of the Flora fossilis nrctica : Carboniferous, Cretaceous,

and Tertiary Plants. By Prof. Hecr. Communicated by K. II.

Scott, Esq., F.R.S. 1872 374

Lll. The Miocene Flora and Fauna of the Arctic Regions. By Prof.

Oswald Ileer, F.M.G.S., &c. 1875 378

LIII. The Cretaceous Flora and Fauna of Greenland. By Prof. O.

Heer, F.M.G.S., &c. 1874 386

LIV. Account of an Expedition to Greenland. By Prof. A. E.

Nordenskiold. 1872 - - . - . . . ggg

LV. On Meteoric Irons found in Gieuiland. By Dr. Walter Flight,

F.G.S., F.C.S., &c. 1875 447

LVI. Geological Notes on Noursoak and Disco, Greenland. By Dr.

R. Brown, F.L.S., &c, 1875 - - - - - 467

With Appendix on Nordenskiold and Brown's Maps - - 481

LVII. On the Gradual Sinking of S.W. Greenland. By Dr. Pingel.

1835 . - - - .... 482

LVni. Recent Elevations in the Circumpolar Regions. By H. II.

Howorth. 1873 - - - - - - - 483

lilX. Rocks and Minerals of Greenland. By Dr. H. Rink. 1 857 • 496

§ II. — Parry Islands and East- Arctic America, /cc.

327

344
348
349
352
368

9

LX. Note on Animal Life in the N.W. Parry Islands. By Capt

McClintock. 1857 -
LXI. Mammalia of the Parry Islands and neighbouring coasts, from

Parry's and Ross's Voyages. By Sabine, Richardson, J. C. Ross, and

R.Owen. 1824,25,26,35 ------

LXII. Fishes of the Parry Island, &c. By Sabine, Ross, and Richard-
son. 1824, 26, 35 -
LXIII. Insects and Arachnides from Greenland, Parry Islands, &c. By

Kirby, J. C. Ross, and J. Curtis. 1825, 26, 35 -

LXIV. Marine Invertebrata of the Parry Islands, &c. By Sabine,

Kirbv, J. C. Ross, Fleming, Leach, and R. Owen. 1824,25,26;

1819'; 1835 -------.

LXV. Fishes from Port Kennedy, Boothia. By Dr. Walker. 1860 -
LXVI. Arctic Mollusca, obtained during the Voyage of the " Fox."

By Dr. Walker. 1860 ----..

LXVII. Insects and Arachnides from Port Kennedy. By Dr. Walker.

1860 -.-.-....
LXVIII. Arctic Crustacea and Pycnogonida, collected by the English

Expeditions. By Dr. Walker. 1860
LXIX. Echinodermata, Cirripedia, and Actinia;, of the Voyage of the

"Fox." By Dr. Walker. 1860 -
LXX. Mollusca of W. Greenland and the Parry Islands. By Dr. P. C.

Sutherland. 1852 -
LXXI. Dredgings at Goodhaab, W. Greenland. By Dr. G. C. Wallich.

1862 ------...

LXXII. Some Arctic Ascidians and Echinoderms, collected by Dr.

Sutherland. By Professors E. Forbes and T. H. Huxley. 1852^
LXXIII, Some Arctic Insects, &c., collected by Dr. Sutherland. By

Adam White, F.L.S. 1852

LXXIV. Plants collected by Dr. Sutherland in Barrow and Davis

Straits. By Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. 1852

- 498

499
500
501

503
.505

505

507

508

510

511

512

513

514

514

^iL.

• t t
VIH

CONTENTS.

Page
LXXV. Algas collected by Dr.* Sutherland in Dayio Strait, Baffin's
Bay, Barrow Strait, and Wellington Channel. By Dr. G. Dickie.

1852 ......... am

LXXVI. Alga) collected by J. Taylor in Cumberland Sound. By Dr.
G. Dickie. 186G - - - - - - - .519

LXXVII. Lichens collected by Dr. Sutherland in Barrow and Davis

Straits. By He v. Churchill Babiugton, M.A. 1852 - - . 522

LXXVIII. I'lants collected by Dr. Walker in Greenland and Arctic
America. By Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. 18G2
With Appendix by Dr. Walker on the Temperature at Port Ken
uedy ---.-._
LXXIX. On some Arctic Diatoraaceo). By the Rev. Eugene O'Meara.
► 18G0 --.-.-...
LXXX. Some plants from the Arctic American Archipelago. By
Capt. A. H. Markham. 1874 - ...

LXXXI. Arctic Silurian Fossils. By .J. W. Salter, Esq., F.G.S. 1853
LXXXII. On the occurrence of Fir Wood in the Arctic Archipelago and
on Rock specimens from that Region. By Sir R. I. Murchison. 1855
LXXXIII. Notes on some Rock-specimens from the Arctic American

Archipelago. By R. P:theridge, Esq., F.R.S. 1874
LXXXIV. Geology of the Parry Islands and Neighbouring Lands. By

the Rev. Prof. Dr. S. Haughton, F.R.S. 1857 and 1860 -
LXXXV. Geology of the Parry Islands. By Belcher, Salter, and Owen.
1855 ..-----.-

LXXXVI. Notes on Polaris Bay. By Dr. Besscls. 1875 -

Note. — E. C. Do Rauce, Esq., F.G.S., on Ai-ctic Geology. 1875 -

523

- 528

529

531
531

536

541

542

551
553

553

§111,— .East Greenland, Spitzberoen, Franz-Joseph

Land, &c.

LXXXVII. The Mammals and Fishes of East Greenland. By Dr. W.

Peters. 1874 - - - - - - - 554

LXXXVIII. Remarks on Skulls of Esquimaux Dogs. By H. von

Nathusius. 1874 - - - - - - - 555

LXXXIX. The Tunicata of E. Greenland. By Dr. C. Kupffer. 1874 556
XC. The Molluscs, Worms, Echiuodenns, and Ccelenterates of E. Green-
land. By Dr. K. Mobius. 1874 - - - - - 556

XCI. The Crustacea of E. Greenland. By Dr. R. Buchholz. 1874. - 561
XCII. The Arachnides of E. Greenland. By Dr. L. Koch. 1874 - 566
XCIII. The Hymenoptera and Diptera of E. Greenland. By Dr. A.

Gerstiieker ; with Notes by Dr. A Pansch. 1874 - - - 566

XCIV. The Lepidoptera of E. Greenland by Captain A. von Homeyer;

with Notes by Herrich-Schaffer and Dr. Wocke. 1874 - - 667

XCV. The Hydroida and Polyzoa of E. Greenland. By Dr. G. H.

Kircheupauer. 1874 - - - - - - 568

XCVI. The Siliceous Sponges of E. Greenland. By Dr. 0. Schmidt.

1874 _.------- 670

XCVII. The Calcareous and Soft Sponges of E. Greenland. By Dr.

E. Hiickel. 1874 570

XCVIII. Microscopic Organisms of the North-Polar Zone, Land and

Sea. By Prof. Dr. Ch. G. Ehrenberg. 1874 - - - 570

XCIX. Plants from East Greenland, collected by Captain Graah. By

Prof. Ilornemann. 1832 - - - - ■ - 572

C. Botany of the East Coast of Arctic Greenland : —

1. Phanerogams, by Dr. Bvichenau and Dr. Focke. 1874 - 573

2. List of Plants collected in S. Greenland by the Crew of the
"Hansa." Dr. Bucheuau. 1874 - - - - 579

3. Remarks on the Flora of East Greenland. Dr. Bucheuau.
1874 - - - - - - - 680

#>

CONTENTS.

'^\.

. 51S

• 519

S22

523

528

529

531
531

536

541

542

551
553
553

554

t

CVIII.

land.

CI. The Mosses of E. Greenland. By Dr. Kr. Miiller. 1874 -

CJF. The Lichens of K. Greenland. By Dr. G. W. Kiirbor. 1874 -

Clir. Tbo Algoj of E. Greenland. By Dr. Heer G. Zeller. 1874

CIV. The l?\:Mj?i of E. Greenland. By Dr. Bonordun. 1874-

CV. The Parasiil" Fiinpi of E. Greenland. By Heer Fuckel. 1874 -

CVI. The Drift-wood f-^und in E. Greenland. By Dr. Gr. Kraus. 1874

CVII. The Geology of East Greenland: —

1. The General Geology. By Dr. Fr. Toula. 1872 -

2. The Mesozoic Foss^ils. By Dr. Fr. Toula. 1874 -

3. Analyses. By Ilerr Stingl. 1874 _ . -

4. [Miocene Plants. By Prof. O. Heer. 1874
On the Nature and Composition of Hocks from Sonth Green-
By Dr. K. Vrba. 1874

CIX. Notes on Spitzhcrgen : —

1. P. Gaimard's Voyages - . . - -

2. Th. Von Ileuglin's Voyages . - - -

3. Newton ; Eaton ; Morch ; Torell - - . -

4. Richardson's •* Polar Regions " -

5. J. Lamont -------

A, E. Nordenskiold (Geology, 18G7)

Ch. Martins __._..

J. C. Wells' Resume of O. Hecr's Account of the Miocene

Plants, &c. 1873 -
ex. Notes on Franz- Joseph Land : —

1. Julius Payer ; R. Geogr. Soc. Proc. 1874

2. Julius Payer ; Proc. Imp. Acad. Vienna. 1874

CXI. On the Glacial Conditions of the Poles, Past and Present. By
Henry Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. 1875 -

6.

7.
8.

Page
582

583
584
585
585
586

586
589
589
589

590

591
592
592
592
592
593
594

594

596
598

600

FART II.— PHYSICS.

Introthtction - - - . . - -

Summary of various ExrEDixioxa noticed in this Part -

I. — Meteorology.

1. Meteorological Records of MeClintock's Expedition in the "Fox."
Fourth number of Meteorological Papers of the Board of Trade,
1860. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. XIII., and
Voyage of the «' Fox ------

2. Record of Dr. Kane's Meteorological Observations. Smithsonian
Contributions, vol. XL Temperature, Discussion of Winds, and
Barometric Observations _ _ _ - -

3. Meteorological Observations in the Arctic Seas. By Dr. Hayes.
Smithsonian Contributions, vol. XV. Temperature, Discussion of
Winds, and Barometric Observations -

Relative range of Temperature in West Greenland

4. Meteorological Observations at Boothia Felix. By Sir John Ross,
1829-33. (Sir John Ross' North-west Passage)

5. Meteorological Observations. By Sir Edward Belcher (Last of the
Arctic Voyages, 1855) ____--

Temperature and Winds. Freezing of Mercury - - -

6. Observations of Air and Sea-temperatures in Baffin's Bay. By
Captain Markham _-.__--

7. Meteorological Records of the Second German Expedition. Die
zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, vol. II. Temperature, Winds, and
Barometric Observations in East Greenland - - - •

36122. ^- b

606
610

- 613

- 615

618
619

620

621
622

623

624

■-mrT3Tfrvt'.-^r

CONTENTS.

6. Discussion of TempcrntiireH of tho Polur Regions in the Cliumto

logischo Bcitrilgf. By Dove. 1857 - - - - ■

Compai'iHon of mean tcmperuturus made at different placeo during

tlie same year -_.-..-

Tables of mean temperatures and of greatest cold - . -

Pago

. 62ft

626
628

II. — Tempkhature op the Sea, &c.

1. Tables of Temperature of the Sea at various depths. By Professor
Prestwich, F.K.S. - - - - - - -631

2. On the Specific Gravity of Sea-water. By J. Y. Buchanan. (I'roc.
Roy. Soc, vol. xxiii., No. ICO) - . . - . 632-

3. Researches on Sea-water and Currents. By Forchhammor - - 632

4. The Surface temperature of Seu-water ut Van Rpnsselaer - - 633
.'j. Determination of the Specific Gravity of Sea-water. By M. Koldcwey 633
6. The Specific Gravity of Sea-water. (McCliutock) - - - 635

III. — ^Physical Properties op Ice.

1. On tho Forms of Ice. By Dr. Kane - - . - •

Remarks on llcf^elation of Ico - _ - - -

2. On the Formation of Floe-icc. By Sir Edward Belcher

3. On the Composition of Sea-water and of Sea-water Ice. By Sir
Edward Belcher __-__--

4. Ice Observations. By Dr. Walker. (Journal of the Royal Dublin
Society. Jan. 1860) -..--.-

5. Physical Properties of Ice. By Dr. Rao. (Proceedings of tho Phy-
sical Society). Transposition of Boulders from below to above the
Ice. (Dr. Rae)

6. Some Experiments on Sea-water Ice. By Dr. Guthrie, F.R.S. (Pro-
ceedings of the Physical Society) - . - - -

7. Observations on Sea-water Ice. By J. Y. Buchanan, on board
H.M.S. " Challenger," in the Antarctic Regions. (Proc. Roy. Soc,
vol. xxii., No. 154) -------

8. Tho Temperature of Ico and Snow. By Sir John Ross. (North-
west Passage) --------

9. The Temperature and Thickness of Ico on the East of Greenland.
By M. Koldewey. (Die zweite dcutsche Nordpolarfahit, vol. ii.,
p. 565)

IV. — Tides and Currents.

I. Observations at Melville Island. (Parry's First Voyage, &c.)
(1819-20) --------

a. Observations at Winter Island and Igloolik. (Parry's Second Voyage,

&c.) -

8. Observations at Port Bowen. (Pan-y's Third Voyage, &c.)

4. Observations in Wellington Channel. (Belcher) - - -

5. Tidal Observations at Port Kennedy (McClintock) - - -

Discussion by Professor Haughton -----

6. Tidal Observations at Van Rensselaer. By Dr. Kane

7. Tidal Observations at Port Foulke. By Dr. Hayes - - -

8. Theory of Tides. Half-Monthly Inequality - - - -

9. Observations in Polaris Bay. By Dr. Bessels _ - -

10. Currents ou the East Coast of Greenland. By M. Koldewe y

II. Observations on Tides and Currents in East Greealand. By M.
Koldewey --------

Comparison between East and West Greenland Tides
13, Average Depth of Baffin's Bay as deduced from the Tides -
14* Voyage of the " Polaris." Captain Markham - > -

15. Remarks on the Tides of the Arctic Regions - - -

' An Account of the Scientific Work of the Austro-Hungarian Ex-
pedition. By Lieutenant Weyprecht - - - -

635
636
637

638

640

649
651

652
652

653

654

655
655
656
659
659
660
661
662
663
664

664
665
666
668
671

674

%f

m

-»*

CONTENTS.

xi

626
C28

631

632
632
633
633
63S

635
636
637

638

640

649
651

652
652

653

654

655
655
656
639
659
660
661
662
663
664

664
665
666
668
671

674

\9

^f

v.— Geodesy and Pendulum ExrERiMicNTS,
Measuring the Motion of Gi-acieus,

1. Pendulum Observations in Melville Island. (Parry) - • 681

2. Pendulum Observations in Spit/bergcn. (Sabinu) - •> 683
.T. Pendulum Observations at Port Bowen. (Parry) ... C82

4. Pendulum Observations at Port Foulke. By Dr. Hayes - - 683

5. Measurement of a Base Line, and System of Triangulatiou. By M.
Kolduwey ...---.. 683

G. Afeasurement of the Advance of Glacier in Franz-Joseph-Fiord, Fast

Greenland. By U. Copcland . . - _ . G84

7. Measurement of Glacier near Port Foulke. By Dr. Ilaye.s - - 684

VI. — Observations on Refraction and on Air.
Observations and Experiments on Sound.

1. Observations andKemarks on Extraordinary Befraction. By Sir John
Ross .--------

2. Observations at Port Bowen. By Parry . - . -

3. Observations on Fog-bows, &c., near Spitzbergen. By Parry

4. Observations on llefraction. By Scoresby. (Greenland Voyage) -
6. Observations on Mock Moons, &c. By Sir Edward Belcher

6. Observations of Ilalos, and Remarks on Twilight. (McClintock) -

7. Remarks on Twilight at Melville Island. (Parry) - - _

8. Analysis and Expansion of Air. (Parry) - - _ -

9. Remarks on the Distance to which Sounds could be heard. (Parry's
First Voyage) -----..

10. Observations on the Velocity of Sound. By Lieutenant Kendall on
Sir John Franklin's Expedition, 1825-27 - _ . .

11. Experiments on Sound at Winter Island. (Parry)

12. Experiments on Sound at Port Bowen. (Parry) - - .

13. Experiments on the Velocity of Sound. (M. Koldewey) -

VII. — Terrestral Magnetism.

1. Magnetic Observations in Davis Strait and Baffin's Buy. By Sir
James Ross and Captain Sabine. (Phil. Trans., 1819, and Voyage of
Sir John Ross in 1818) - - - - . .

2. Magnetic Observations at Melville Island. By Captain Sabine.
(Pany's First Voyage, 1819-20) - - - . .

3. Magnetic Observations at Winter Island and Igloolik, By Parry.
(Second Voyage) - - - - - _ .

4. Magnetic Observations at Port Bowen. By Captain Parry and
Lieutenant Foster. 1824-25 ----..

5. Magnetic Observations at Felix Harbour. By Sir John Ross.
Discovery of the Magnetic Pole. By Sir James Ross

6. Magnetic Observations at Van Rensselaer. By Dr. Kane -

7. Magnetic Observations at Port Foulke. By Dr. Hayes

8. Comparison of Dip and Horizontal Force at Points in West Green-
land -------_.

9. Hourly Observations of Magnetic Declination at Point Barrow. By
Captain Maguire. (Phil. Trans., 1857) - - . .

10. Hourly Observations of Magnetic Declination at Port Kennedy
(Phil. Trans., 1863) ----_-.

11. Magnetic Observations at Sabine Island and other East Greenland
Stations. By Captain Koldewey, 1869-70 - - . .

12. Methods of determining the Magnetic Elements in the Arctic
Regions ------_.

13. Magnetic Observations made during the Austro-Hungarian North
Polar Expedition to Franz-Joseph-Land. By Lieut. Weyprecht

14. Magnetic Survey of the North Polar Regions. By Sir Edward
Sabine. (Phil. Trans., 1872)

684
684
685
686
686
687
687
687

688
688
689

689
690

691

692

693

694

G96
697
C98

699

700

702

703

705

709

711

Xll

CONTENTS.

J'-'ta

VIII. — Aurora Boreali3.

Page

1. Observations of Aurora at Melville Island. By Parry. (1819-20)- 712

2. Conclusions on the Aurora. Sir John Franklin. Franklin's Second
Expedition. 1825-27 - - - - - - 713

3. Observations at Port Bowen. (Parry's Third Voyage) - - 714

4. Observations of Aurora during Ross' Second Voyage of Discovery - 715

5. Observations of Aurora at Port Kennedy. By Sir L. McClintock

and Dr. Walker - - - - - - - 716

Observation on Aurora. By W. R. Grove . . _ 717

6. Observations on Aurora. By Sir Edward Belcher - - - 718

7. Observations of Auroras. By Dr. Hayes - - - - 718

8. Observations at Point Barrow. By Captain Maguire - - 719

9. Remarks by Dr. Borgen on Auroras seen in East Greenland - 719

10. Observations made during the Austro-IIungarian Expedition to the
East of Spitzbergen. By Lieut. Weyprecht - - - - 720

11. Comparison of Auroras, Magnetic Disturbances, and Sun Spots.
(Professor Loomis) -------

12. Geographical Distribution of Auroras. (M. Petermann's Mittheil-
ungcn. Vol. 20, IX., 1874) -

18. On a definite Arrangement, and Order of Appearance, and Progress
of the Aurora, and on its Height above the Surface of the Earth.
Rev. James Farquharson. (Phil. Trans., 1829) _ - -

14. On the Origin of Atmospheric Electricity. By M. Becquerel, sen.,
and M. de la Rive. (Archiv. Sc. Phys,, &c., vol. xli.)

15. Observations on Aurora m Italy. ByM. Denza. (Archiv. Sc. Phys.,
&c., vol. xli.) _______

Remarks on brilliant Auroras of 1870 _ - _ .

16. The Spectrum of the Aurora Borealis. By Professor Angstrom
(Nature, vol. 10, No. 246) ------

17. The Spectrum of the Aurora and Reviev of Angstrom's Discoveries.
By Professor A. S. Herschel. (Phil. Mag., No. 322)

18. Comparison of other Spectra with the Spectrum of the Aurora. By
J. R. Capron. (Phil. Mag., No. 325, April 1875) - - -

19. Observations on the Spectrum of the Aurora. By M. Lemstrom.
(First Swedish Expedition). (Archiv. Sc. Phys., &c., vol. 1.)

20. On the Electrical State of the Air. By M. Lemstrom. (First
Swedish Expedition in 1868). (Archiv. Sc. Phys., &c., vol. xli.)

21. The Spectrum of the Aurora. By M. Wijkander. (Second Swedish
Expedition) (Archiv. Sc. Phys., &c., vol. li.) . _ -

22. Observations on the Electrical State of th* Air. By M. Wijkander.
(Second Swedish Expedition). (Archiv. St. Phys., &c., vol. li.)

721
722

723

726

727
727

728

731

737

737

789

742

745

ArPKxnix. The chief modern Works on Greenland, the Franklin
Archipelago, Spitzbergen, &c. - _ . . - 750

Index

755

EuRATA ET Corrigenda

783

Additional Errata.

Page iv., line 3, for Zoology read Geology.

,, vi., line 8 from bottom, for Views read Veins.
„ 732, line 4, for Zonolrichia read Zonotrlchia.

Page

20)-

712

3cond

m

713

-

714

ry -

715

Qtock

716

-

717

-

718

m

718

.

719

-

719

to the

.

720

Spots.

i-Ti^i;!

721

tneii-

722

Sarth.

-

723

, sen.,

ril,_.c.

726

L hys.,

727

-

727

Strom

728

series.

«

731

By

737

trom.

-

737

First

)

789

edish

.

742

nder.

-

745

iklln

-

750

-

755

.

783

MANUAL, &c.

PART I.— BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY.

§1.
West Greenland; including Davis Strait, Baffin's
Bay, Smith Sound, and Kennedy Channel.

I. — On the Mammalian Fauna of Greenland. By Dr.
Robert Brown, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., &lg.

[Reprintod by Permission from the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society of London, 28 May 1868. With Corrections and
Annotations by the Author, March 1875.]

Contents.

1. History of the Subject, p. 1.

2. Systematic Distribution, p. 4.

3. Geograpliical Distribution, p. 7.

the

4. Synonymy and Habits of

Terrestrial Species, p. 14.

5. Doubtful and Mythical Species, p. 28

1. History of the Subject.

In entering upon a review of the Greenlaudic species of
Mammalia, it may be a matter of surprise to some that anything
remains to be said concerning the larger animals of a country so
comparatively near home, and regarding which so much has been
written, where Egede, Fabricius, Vahl, and Rink lived, and
regarding Avhich we possess the remarks of such excellent natu-
ralists as the acute authors of the " Fauna Groenlandica " and
" Gronland geograph. og statist, beskr." Between the dates of the
publication of these two works an interval of upwards of seventy
years extends, so that one might suppose that any errors of the
ilrst Avork might have been fully discovered in the interval and
corrected in the second. All surprise vanishes, however, when
we find that the contrary holds true, and that to-day we know
almost as little about the Mammals of Greenland as Ave did Avhen
Fabricius gaA'e us the first, systematic account of them. The fact
is that naturalists avIio have visited Greenland have bet- n too much
iiiterested in other departments of natural history to pay atten-
tion to the larger members of the fauna, or have supposed that
there was nothing Avorth adding to, or (Avhat is just as impor-
tant) subtracting from it. Accordingly, Ave find all authors on
arctic animals merely contenting themselves with giving a list of
Fabricius's species, and at the same time perpetuating the errors
which he fell into through ignorance or credulity, independently
of the fact that he only Avrote of that limited portion of the country
then inhabited by the natiA'cs over Avhich his authority as a
" Gronlandske Missionair " extended. Can we therefore be
3C122. A

a I

n'

^^r^^i%*Tiilirr'

2 R. IIROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF ClUEEXLAND.

astonished if we find the fauna of Greenland, in the class Mam-
malia, burdened with species which have no existence save in the
vivid imagination of the Eskimo or the overlearned acutcuess of
zoologists, and bereft of others which ought to take their place —
their history poisoned with fables only worthy of the belief of
the last century, and their geographical range in the country over
which they are distributed scarcely touched on, or wrongly de-
scribed. The accounts of the older writers on Greenland (Egede,
Saabye, Cranz, &c.) were very unsatisfactory ; but a new era in
the history of northern zoology dawned when Otho l\.bricius, who
had passed several years in Greenland as a missionary, published
his " Fauna Grcenlandica."* This Avork, far in twlvance of its age,
and Avhich for the conciseness and accuracy of its descriptions has
rarely been surpassed, has most deservedly retained its place as
our standard authority on the zoology of Danish Greenland.f
Herein are enumerated thirty-one species of Mammalia indigenous
to the country, exclusive of man and those which have been
introduced by man's agency. Four of these species I have shown
in this memoir to have been entered upon imperfect grounds, one
was mistaken for another ( Ovibos mosehatus for Bos (jnmuiens),
and several are now known to be only synonyms of other species.
The species of Cetacea are, as might be expected, the most
obscurely described of all, antl have occasioned much controversy ;
and the superabundance of literary acumen which has been spent
on these descriptions is more than the nature^ of them will allow of.
Subsequently the elder Reinhardt gave some notes on the
Greenland Mammalia in the ''• Isis " for 1848, wliich, in the main,
are only a reproduction of the earlier account of Fabricius ; and
in 1857, the present Professor Keinhardt, of Copenhagen, in the
Appendix to Rink's " Gronlaud "J furnished a list of the species,
also following Fabricius. He has, however, entered the only species
then added to the list, viz. Miis yrainlancUcus oi Traiil,§ discovered
by Scoresby on the east coast in 1822, under the name of Hypvcl<cus
gruinlandicus,\ and attempts to disentangle the specific history of
the uniarok of the older authors, Fabricius's GiUo licscns, the
Phoca ursina, which Fabricius enters as a member of the Green-
land fauna, the Trichcchus muiiutus, &c., and with some success,
though, not having visited Greenland himself, he is not so success-
ful as he otherwise might have been. This list, as all the others,
solely relates to Danish Greenland, extending from Cape Farewell

* Hafniae ct Lipsise, 1780.

t In 1867, whilst staying at Clausliuvn, I occupied as my studji a little room
in the pastor's old house, now deserted and used to acconnnodate any stray
wayfaring men like myself. This was said to be the " dark closet " where
Fabricius wrought at his Fauna, Lexicon, and other works. It was afterwards
the residence of Saabye the grandson of Egede, who also wrote on Greenland.

X Gronland geographisk og statistisk beskrevet, &c., Baud ii. Tillaeg
Nr. i. (Pattedyr, &c.). This appendix was also published separately, " Natur-
historiske Bidrag til en Beskrivelse af Gronland."

§ Scoresby, " Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery, &c."
Appendix, p. 459.

|] I'rof. Keinhardt obligingly informs nic (AFarch 1868) that ho is now
quite convinced that this is a Mitodcs, though he only knows it from
description.

X^

♦*

^•»

H. BUOWK ON TIIK MAMMALS OF GUEENLANl).

O

iveeu-

ICCCSS,

iccess-

]thers,

'ewell

room

stray

I where

nvards

Inland.

?iilacg

ifatur-

&c."

now
I'roia

^J

m

(lat. 59° 49' N., long. 43° 54' W.) to Upeniavik (lat. 72° 48' N..
long. 55° 54' W.), and is valuable as expressing the state of
knowledge regarding the Mammalia of Greenland, in Denmark,
represented by a naturalist who has paid much attention to the
arctic fauna, in the elucidation of some of the marine Mammalia of
which he has so highly distinguished himself. This, as far as I
am aware, is all that immediately relates to the Mammals of Danish
Greenland. Various other writings have thrown much light on
their general history ; but it is with their special history and
geographical distribution in Greenland that I have to deal.
Among these memoirs, 1 ought not to omit mentioning the
excellent paper on the Mammalia of the northern countries by
Professor Malmgren,* who accompanied the Swedish expedition
of Otto Torell to Spitzbei^en.f He has added, incidentally, not
a little to our knowledge ; but his treatise is mostly a compilation,
and, not looking upon the arctic fauna in a comprehensive view,
he has fallen into many errors in zoo-goography. For instance,
I cannot understand Avhy he has excluded BalcBiioptera glyas,
Eschr., and B. rostiata, Fab., from the Spitzbergeu fauna, nor
still less why Balcena uiysticetus^ Linn., is not classed among the
Mammals of the seas around. This last is assuredly found there.
In Sraeerenberg Bay the Dutch used to catch it iu abundance,
and even erected boiling-houses on shore to " try " out its oil ;
and the two former are also found there. Indeed nearly all of
the Greenland marine Mammalia are also found in Spitsbergen ;
and certainly Dr. Malmgi'en's stay was much too short to allow
him to come to a decision on the matter.J

Eschricht and J. T. Reinhardt's memoirs on the Greenland
Whale § have added directly to our knowledge ; while the numerous
papers and catalogues of Gray || and Lilljeborg ^ on the British
and Scandinavian Cetacea (most of which are also found in Green-

* " Beobacbi..ngeu und Anzeichnungeu iiber die Siiugethierfauna Fin-
markens und Spitzbergens," in Wiegmann's Archiv fiir Nuturgeschicbte
(Berlin), 1864, pp. 63-97, translated from Ofversigt af Kong. Svensk> Akad.,
&c. (1863), ii. pp. 127-155.

f Svenska Expeditionen till Spetsbergen Sr 1861, under Ledning af Otto
Torell : ur detagarnes Anteckniugar och andra Handlingar skildrad at" K.
Cheydenius (Stockholm, 1865). Sec the account of tlie Walrus in that
work, pp. 168-183 (with plate and woodcut), and excellent figures of Hy-
peroi')do7i butzkopf, Lacep., facing p. 480, &c.

;|: It is stated that this Whale has been of late years unknown within many
miles of Spitzbergen. The walrus hunters say that the sea is getting too
shallow for it. Sec Lamont, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, xvi. pp. 152 and 4:);j.

§ Kay Society's Recent Memoirs on ihc Cetacea, by Professors Kschricht,
Reinhardt, and Lilljeborg, edited by W. If. Flower. 4to. Lonilou, 1860.
With plates. 1. On the Greenland Right-Whale (^UaUena ini/sticctus). Ry
D. F. Eschricht and J. Reinhardt. 1. Tlie (jcograjjliical Range of the
Greenland Whale, in former times and at present. 2. Tlie Kxtcnial and
Internal Characters of the Greenland Wliale ; Fxternal Conformation ;
Cavity of the Mouth; Skeleton; Appendix (by the Kditor). II. On the
Species of Orcu inhabiting the Northern Seas. By D. F. Eschricht. III. On
Pscudorca crassidens. By J. Reinhardt. IV. Synopsis of the Cetaceous
Mammalia of Scandinavia (Sweden and Norway). 15y W. Lilljeborg.

II Catalogue of Seals and Whales in the Hritisli Mnsemn, 18(U> ; and Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society, and Annals of Nat. Hist., passiiiK

^ liay Society's Memoirs on tlic ('etaciM. siipra.

A 2

^ass.

Jgj^jggjgjggj

M

4 IJ. liKOWN ON TIIK MAMMALS OF CJREENLAND.

land) have liolpcd us to a right understanding of that order.
Nilsson has disentangled tlie northern Pinnipedia in his History
of Scandinavian Mammals*; and so has Gray (libb. citt.) and, more
closely relating to Greenland, Fabricins,f in a supplementary
paper to his Fauna, and Dr. Wallace in the short abstract of one
read before the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh,^ on those
killed by the northern seal-hunters. But nearly all of these
papers ar(3 only local, or relate merely to questions of specific
distinctions and synonyms, and touch but lightly upon the Seals
either as animals of Greenland, or on their migrations from one
part of the arctic regions to another. Our own arctic expeditions
halting little, if at all, on the Greenland coast, and many of
them unprovided with competent naturalists, have added almost
nothing to our knowledge of the arctic or Greenland Mammals ;
but the American expeditions to Smith's Sound, under Drs.
Kane § and Hayes, || have supplied us with many interesting
notes on the range and habits of species. I wish I could sjiy
the same for all the describers of their collections. Professor
Cope^ has attempted to establish two " new " species of Beluga
from Hayes's collection ; but none of them (in my opinion) have
the slightest claims to specific distinction,** the supposed dif-
ferences being merely such as age or the ordinary variations
between one individual and another would produce. Lastly, in
the Scientific Section of the Narrative of the Second (^rerman
Expedition will be found some notes by Dr. Peters on the Mam-
mals collected on the East Coast.

Other contributions to arctic mammalogy I shall have occasion
to notice as I proceed.

2. Si/stematic Distribution of the Greenland Mammalian Fauna.

As might be expected, the character of the Greenland mam-
malian fauna partakes of a sarcophagous type, the phyto])hagous
species proper being only three, and the marine species far ex-
ceeding in number the terrestrial sp(!cii,'S> In the nomenclature
of the Mammalia, though only a secondary matter, in a paper of
this nature, so long as they are coiK^ctly named, I have followed
some standard authority, without iu(iuiring too strictly into the
soundness or priority of the specific names applied, or the value of
the tribal or generic divisions under wliich the writers have
classed them.

This subject I may return lo more critically at another time ;
but in this memoir 1 have aPowed convenience of reference to

* Skandinavisk Fauna, forsta Delen, Di jgadj uren, pp. 2C8-326 (1847),
also translated in AViegmann's Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, Bd. vii., &c.

f Natuihistorisk Selskabets Skrivter, Bd. i.

X rroceedings of the Royal Physical Society of Edinb. 1862-63.

§ Arctic Explorations, 2 vols. 1855,

II Voyage towards the open I'olar Sea (made in 1860), 1867.

^ Proceodings of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, 1865, p. 278 ;
1869, pp. 2'5-;H.

** Prof lleinhardt, who, as Inspector of the Zoological Museum of Copen-
hagen, has every means of arriving at a determination from an examination
of a iiirge number of skulls, writes to me that he has arrived at the same
opinion.

'•>

^^

^■i

m

t

%*

«:.'l

m

R. BROWN OX THE MAxMMALS OF OREfiNLAND. 0

overrule otlier considerations, considering tlwat the eminence of
tlic zoologists followed will be a suilicicnt safeguard that no great
error lias been committed. Accordingly the nomenelature of
liaird's *' General Report on the Mammalia of North America "
is chiefly followed, as far as relates to the Grecidaiid terrcsiria]
species, and the late Dr. Gray's Britisli-Muscum Catalogue (18()(>)
for the marine species, Avith oidy a few trifling excejjtions,
having a view to certain points of the synonymy of Fabricius's
species of Cetacea, to be afterwards discussed. ] have, however,
ventured to differ fiom Dr. Gray as to the relative rank of the
group of Seals, believing, with Illiger,* that they are entitled to
ordinal rank, and have accordingly designated them P'm7iij)C(lia
(lUig.) — forming Gray's tribes Phochia^ TricJuchina^ and Cysto-
])liorhKt, for the sake of uniformity, into families under the titles
of PhocuIfT, Triclu'chidfc, i'ystuphoriila', comprising the same
species as the former tribes, without, however, committing myself
to an opinion regarding the advisability of so many generic and
other subdivisions of so natural a group, or of the good taste
displayed by ]M. Frederic Cuvier in the formation of some of
his genera. Thus, with I'rofessor Nilsson,t I cannot sec why,
in the formation of the genus Callocephale J {Callocephalus),
Linne's Phoca vitulina should have been chosen as the typo of
the genus, while Phoca harhata, Fab., should have been retained
as the type of the genus Phoca.^

Dr. Gray's nomenclature and classification of the Cetacea I
have followed almost literally, though some of his species, such
as Lagcnorhynchus nllnrostris, L. leiicoph'nrns, Delphinus
ctiphi'osyne {D. IIolb<t'llu, Eschr.), and Jlypcroodon {Lagcnoccttis)
hitifrons, are only knoAvn from skulls or skeletons. The localities
are also very vaguely known ; so that in the absence of all details
in reference to their habits and distribution, and from the fact,
moreover, of their spccilic (and still more their generic) claims
not being in every case universally conceded, the physical geo-
grapher or naturalist (strictly speaking) can have little to say
regarding them. I have, however, entered them as members of
the Greenland fauna, in deference to the opinion of their founder,
who, after the death of the lamented Eschricht stood alone in
his knowledge of the syslemaiic history of the marine Mannnalia.
The following table will show the general arrangement, the tribal
and numerical distribntion of tiie Mammalia of Greeidand, ex-
clusive of all introduced species and others which have been
erroneously included in former lists, and of the first with whom

Fabrieius heads his fauna, " Homo sapicvs : sine J)co,

sine Domiito, rcyuntur consuetudine ;" —

* Proclomus, p. 1 S 8 ( 1 8 1 1 ).

f Skaiid. raun. i., j). 275.

;J: F. Cuvior, Ak'iiioirt's dii ^Musoum, xi. p. 182.

^ Even iS'ilsson's «ronus f '//s/oy/'o'"* tb<)iigh faultU'ss in aptitude, is liable
to the objection that it has also been applied to a genus of Ale* by J. Agardli.
This awkward confusion, however, is so coumou that it is only just to criticise
the fault in the abstract.

: ^tMW'.-c /^■vy.wvjlKri,

■,^,,. .w..,;,, : ..-v<,riM,&ii»Vaf>.j<fftfa;a.T«fa»WiKp-^-/ -r-

G

II. lUlOWN ON THE MAMRFALS OF (HIEENLAND.

^

MAMMALIA GKCENLANDICA.
Order Camivora.

Family Uisidas.

Genus Ursus (Thalarctos).
U. maritiniuSf Linn.
Family Canidoo.
Genus Vulpos.

F. laxjopus (Linn.), liicb.
Genus Canis.

C familiaris, Linn., var. horealis.
Genus Mustela.

Mustela crminea, Linn.

Order Xbodentia.

Family Arvicolinae.
Genus Myodes.

31. torquatus (Pall.), Keys. & Bias.
Family Lcporida).
Genus Lcjms.

L. glacialisy Leach.

Order Buminantia.

Family Bovida}.
Genus Ovibos.

O. moschatus (Gni.), Blainv.
Family Cervida9.

Genus Rangifer.

R. tarandus (Jj.\ Baird,
Order Finnipedia.

Family PLocidsB.

Genus Callocephalus.

C. vitulinus (L.), F. Cuv.
Genus Pagomys.

P.fcetidns (Miill.), Gray.
Genus Pagophilns.

P. grcenlandicus (Mvill.), Gray.
Genus Phoca.

P. barhata, O. Fab.
Family Triebochida}.
Genus Tricbecbus.

T. rosmarus, Linn.
Genus Halicboerus.

//. gryphus (O. Fab.), Nilss.
Family Cystopborida;.
Genus Cystopbora.

C. cristata (Erxl.), Nilss.
Order Cetacea.

Family Balfenidae.
Genus Baltena.

B. mysticetus, Linn.
Family Balajnopterida;.
Genus Pbysalus.

P. antiquorum, Gray.

^

<!9

-tf9'^ ,

m

v>

R. BROWN ON THE MAM3IALS 01' GREENLAND.

t;

Genus Balaenoptera.
B. gigas, Eschr.*

B. rostrnta (Mull.), Gray.
Germs Megaptera.

M. longimanay Gray.
Family Catodontida).
Genus Catodon.

C. macrocephulus (Linii.), Lacep.
Family Delphinidaj.

Genus Delpliinus.

D. cuphrosync, Gray.
Genus Lagenorhyuclius.

L. alhh'ostris, Gray.

L. leucopleurus (Rascli), Gray.
Genus Orca.

O. gladiator (Bonn.), Sund.
Genus Phocajna.

P. communis, Brookes.
Gcmis Beluga.

B. catodon (Linn.), Gray.
Genus Monodon.

M. monoceros, Linn.
Genus Globiocephalus,

G. svineval (Lacep.), Gray.f
Family Ziphiidfe.

Genus Hyperoodon.

//. hutzkopf (Bonn.), Lacep.

H. latifrons, Gray.

r/-

3. Geographical Distrihntion of Greenlandic Mammalia.

Siiiiilarity of physical contour, and a general uniformity of
climate, varying no doubt in degree, but still sufficiently inhos-
intablc throughout, with an abundance of the food on which all of
them subsist throughout the habitable tracks and in the sea wash-
ing the shores of Greenland, have failed, contrary to Avhat might
ha\ ; been expected, to produce a geographical distribution of the
Mammalia in a like universal manner, or at all corresponding to
the physical uniformity hinted at. It is only in the sea and on a
narrow strip of land skirting the shores of Greenland that animal
life has yet been found. The Avhole interior of the country appears
to be merely a frozen Avaste, overlain to a depth of many feet by a
huge mer de glace, extending, so far as yet known, over its entire
extent (with the exception of the strip named) from north to south
■ — a sea of freshwater ice whereon no creature lives, a death-like
desert with nought to relieve the eye, its silence enlivened by the
sound or sight of no breathing thing. This is the Inlands lis of the
Danish colonists ; the outer stnp, with its mossy valleys and ice-
planed hills, is the well-remembered Fastland. Dreary, doubtless

* Sibbaldius horealis (Less.), Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, p. 223.

t Ddphhius tursio,0. Fab. {Tursio truncatus, Gray) ; Greenl. Nescrnak.

SA5«a3^-:

8

K. lillOWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

Nature (if

General distribution.

distribution

inOreouliind

i

•c

i

p

s

>-

Nume of Spucius.

1

H

^N

i

•g

C

u

o

O

M

•<

IS

.a
1

't

1

1

1

i

1
1

2d

.§

.§

g

M

S

S

M'

12

1

u

u

b

o

H

H

HH

S

1-^

[Jrsiis maritimus ...

#

*

*

*

j

*

Vulpes lagopiis - - - .

*

*

*

*

—

_

—

—

*

Canis faniiliaris, var. borealis -

*

*

_

*

_

_

_

_

*

Miistcla orininea - . .

*

*

*

*

*

*

_

_

*

[Fclis domestica] ...

-

-

-

-

-

-

♦

-

-

•

Vfyodcs torquatus ...
Mus decuraanus]

-

■•>

-

*

-

-

♦

-

?

' mnsculus] ...

-

-

—

—

—

-

*

—

-

]

^epus glacialis ....

*

x>

■K

*

-

—

-

-

*

Siis scrofal ....

—

—

—

_

—

—

>i<

—

—

Ovibos moschatus ...

*

*

-

-

-

-

-

-

*

liangifer tiiraudus ...

*

*

*

»>

^

^

«.

^

*

Ovis arit's] - . - .

—

_

^

^

—

—

*

—

—

J?os taiirus] - - . .

_

_

»

M

_

_

*

_

_

Capra hircus] - . - .

—

_

_

—

—

—

*

—

—

1 Jallocephalus vitulinus -

—

>«

*

_

*

*

—

—

>i<

Pagoniys fujtidus ...

»<

*

*

—

*

>K

—

—

*

Pagophiliis giujnlaiidiciis

*

>i<

*

—

!«

*

—

>K

—

IMioca barbata ....

♦

*

*

_

*

>l<

_

*

..

Triehechus rosniarus ...

*

*

*

*

_

..

—

*

*

IIulicliaTus gryphiis ...

—

*

*

—

>K

—

_•

*

_

{^ystophora cristata ...

*

*

♦

—

*

*

—

*

_

Balicna mysticetus ...

?

*

*

—

—

-

»

*

—

I'liysalus aiitiquorum

—

*

*

—

*

*

—

*

_

lJ»lajnoi)tera gigas ...

-

*

*

-

If

*

_

*

—

rostrata - - - .

—

*

*

—

*

*

^

*

_

Megaptora longimana . - .

—

*

!<<

_

*

*

—

*

_

Catodon microcephalus

—

*

*

_

*

*

_

*

J)e]phiuus cuphrosyne ...

—

_

_

—

_

_

»

*

»

Lagenorhynchus albirostris

-

—

—

—

—

—

^

*

_

leucopleunis - - .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

_

Orca gladiator - - . .

-

>i>

*

—

»<

*

—

*

_

PhocsDna comimmis ...

—

*

*

?

*

*

_

*

_

Beluga catodon - - .

*

»<

*

>l>

_

*

_

^

♦

Monodon monoceros ...

*

*

*

>l<

^

_

~.

__

*

Globioccphalus svincval

—

*

*

^

*

^.

_

>K

_

HyperoOdon butzkopf ...

-

*

*

-

*

*

-

41

-

— — latifVons . - - .

-

-

-

-

-

-

7

*

19

12

Numerical summary of distribution

14

27

24

10

16

15

^^

^f

n

NoTK. — This Table, mauifejitly imperfect, gives the approximate or

R. BROWN ON TIIK MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

9

-52

*

*
*

^«

fkf

Lonil distribution in 0
to iatitudo ai

rociilaml
ul const.

accord inn

0

4-1

fi

L

s ^

2-S

is

>>

1
1

O

i
11

0 .t:

TO ^

t-

5
if

6

5

0

1
1

i
^.

0

to

•c

0
!<5

^-1

%

0
.-<

0

1

11

Hcmarks.

*
*
*

*
♦

*
*
*

*

_

10

*

*

*
*

*
*
*
*

*
9

*

*
2

*
1

*

1

*

*
2

_
*

*
3

*
*

_
2

?
?
?

*

1

*

1

Only to most northerly out [tost
0? llpcrnavik.

Jiiniits of Danish (ireenhind ?
Do. do.

Not south of Wolstcnhohne
Sound. Also on the East
Coast, N, of Scorc'sby's Sound.

Not uorth of llolstcc'usborg.

I'ossihly not nortli of MuhilU'
Hay.

l{an;,rc rather douhtfid.
Hare north of 70".
Very rarely seen N. of 73" and
S. of G5°.

Kan<;e douhtful.
'Ivunge unknown.

'Those species of Cetucea marked
as extending nortii only to
iMelvillu Buy, prohahiy oeea-
sionally reach a higlier lati-
tude ; but this hay is the
usual limit, and north of this
the si»eeies is rarely seen.

l{angc unknown, hut prohahiy
the same as JI. [mtzkopf.

\-'\

provisional limits of species. (Jaiiis lupus, var. ulOu, may he added.

1

^' ' '"■*^-'

HI

10 n. nnowN on tttk mammals of ot^eenland.

1 f

it is to eyes only sclioolod in tlio sconory of moro soutliorn Innds ;
but, with its covios of |)tanni<:;)ins flyii)<,f up iit your I'cot, with their
tv/th'f, the m'eti(! fox hnrkin<x its /ntr, /lur, on the rocks, und the
reindeer l)n)\vsinf; in tlie gh^iis covered with tlie creeping birch
{lictiihi nana, L.), the nrcti(! willows {Saliv hcrhncco, L., S. arctiea
l*all., «V. (flmica, L., &c.), the crow-]>erry {Emprtruni), the Vacci-
iiiunis, and the yellow poj)pi(>s {Papaver vHdlvanlc, L.), it is a
])lace of life compared with tlie cheerless waste lyin<; beyond. It
is with it, therefore, an<l the sea circlin<i; around, that we have to
<leal.*

Many of the animals constituting the mammalian fauna, influenced
by no apparent physical cause, have but a limited geographical <lis-
tribulion, not extending south of a certain latitude, or north of
another, while other species have a range over the shores of the
fro/.en sea skirting lhree-quart(n's of the world. Some species of
Seals are migratory, while others are not ; and the same is true of
various s])ecies of Cetac(!a. All of the terrestrial species proper are
indigenous all the year round, confined to the country by its
insularity. 1 liavc drawn up a tabic* (})p. 8, 9) expressing at
u glanc(> the <legree and natun; of their geographical distribution,
local and general. In this table I have divided the distribution
under three main heads: — (1) g(Mieral distribution over th*^ range
of the species, (2) nature of its distril)ution in Greenland, and (8)
its local distribution in Greenland. I have, for the sake of con-
venience, divided the general range of Greenland species into six
subdivisions, viz. ; — (a) Circumpolar, compiThcnding the regions
around the most northern limits yet reached by man, the particular
locality within that legion for each s|)ecics being limited by the
nature of its habitnt ; thus the IJear occupies the shores or frequents
the ice-fields and the sea, the Seals the sea and the shore, or the
ice-fields, the Dog the vicinity of man's dwellings, and the Hare the
land generally, while the Fox kei^ps more by th(> shore, but not in
the sea, and rarely ventures out on the ice fields ; {(i) Circuniarctic
America and (7) Cireumarclic Europe comprehend all the region
about Greenland and south of the head of Uatlin's Bay, <h»wn
Davis's Strait, and other i)laces south of the former limits, lludson's
Bay, Labrador, &c., on the one hand, and on the other the Icelandic
seas und shores, the regions of Euroi)c generally within or about
the arctic circle. It may be called also subpolar, and has been
formed to take in the distribution of sonic species of Seals and
Cetucea. The two regions are about the same in zoo-geography.

(S) Circuniarctic Asia comprehends similar limits on the Asiatic
continent, and is made to take in the i-ange of the Fox, Lemming,
and a few other animals, which extend their range so far east and
west. I have not thought fit to create in this table an Arctic

* For a further doscription of the character of tlio inland ice, &c., the
reader is referred to the followin<>: papers l)y the Avriter of these notes: —

"Das Innerc von Gr<)iiland," reterniaim's Geographische Mittlieihingen,
1871 ; "Tlie riiysics of Arctic Ice," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1871 ; "Geo-
logy of the Novu'soak Peninsula, etc.," Trans. Geol. Soc, Glasg., vol. v. ;
"Disco Bay," The Geographical Magazine, Feb. 187.'), and in my section of
Tlie Arctic Manual of Tlie Hoyal Geographical Society, now in preparation.

^

"^'^

^

B. nnOWN ON THE MAMMAT.a OP GREENLAND. 11

[•(•lie

)\vn
soil's
iidic
bout
)eon

und

y-.

ialic

aii<l
'ctic

the

gen,

Jeo-

V.;

of

1.

^y

\f

n'

division proper, limiting it by tho nrbitrnry divisions or«j;oof?niphy,
divisions which, though nooossivry onoiigh for tho astronomicid
description of tho earth, yet serve no purpose to the physical
geographer in tracing tlie distribution of plants and animnlsover it.
This division is comprehended under my rirrnmpnlar range, which
ends on the seas adjoining (Jreenlnnd about the head of Hadin's
IJay. T have given its general limits there, as many species do not
go beyond that barri; r, and others do not come south of it. I am
W(;ll aware that this may appear a somewhat loose way of expressing
tho limits of regions; ])ut at the same tim(-> the species the range
of which these divisions are made to express arc most wonderfully
oarclcsH of th(! degrees, minutes, and seconds which the geographer
may erect as their limits, and we can lliercfore only express their
divisional boundaries in an e(iually elastic manner. I trust, how-
ever, that they are sulfieicntly intelligible.

(«) To give the southern range of certain species of Seals and
Cetacea, I have erected a division for tcmpvrnte Europe, eompre-
Jiending tho British and Scandinavian seas ; and in the range of
the same latitudes on the shores of the British provinces and the
United States of America a (5) temperate Ameriean divmott. I
have not, as in the circumarctic range, erected a division for
temperate Asia, as I do not think there is a single species of Seal
or Cetacea, found in the seas (and certainly no Mammals on the
land) of temperate Asia, fonnd in the corresponding seas of
Europe and America, thotigh, as several of the species are connnon
to the circumarctic and circumpolar divisions of all three, some
may yet be fonnd. In preparing this table I have endeavoured to
give the natural range of the species, and have not entered a
species in any division because it has been, as an evident strarfgler,
seen within that division. For instance, liaUena mt/st'>eetns, Be-
luga eatodon, Monodon mnnoeeros^ and Trieheehns rosnuirus have
all of them more than once fonnd their way to the British seas,
yet no zoo-geographer would ever think of rej)resenting the Right
Whale, the White Whale, the Narwhal, or tlu^ Walrus as regular
membei's of the British fauna. On the other hand, I need scarcely
say that when I put an animal into any division I do not thereby
say that it is limited to that division (for, as shown on the table,
many extend through several of these divisions), nor that they an*
found over all that division or series of divisions or regions. I
have already explained that the range of each is limited accor(h'ng
to its habitat and habits.

I have mad(> these explanations because, as all rul(>s are liable to
exceptions, so are systems and systematic divisions. Nature abhors
being confined between ])arallel lines.

Under the division of " Nature of its Distribution in Greetdand "
I have divided them into (a) Introduced species, (/3) Migratory
species, and (y) Species indigenous all the year round.

(a) In Fabricius's d.ay the following Mammals had been intro-
duced into tho country, but chiefly into South Greenland : — Canis
famiUaris (European breeds), Felis domestiea, Oris arics, Capra
hircus, Bos taurus, Sns serofa, Mus decuiiumtiii, and Mus mnsenlus.
All of these species are yet at times living in the country, but none

?<tsiesi.

li

12

K. HHOWN ON TIIK MAMMALS OF OUEENLAND.

of tlicni can ho Hiiid to bc'accliiimti/od. The llort^i' {jYersasod/i)
\\nH once introdiicril into (inu'iilaml, but o\\\y rnnniiicd lor a .short
time. A« far as 1 can discover, its iin|)ortatioii wa^ for the }nir[josc
of Major Osftaii and Capt. LaiuU)rn', who in 172H proposed thu
mad-cap scheme of "ridinj^ across (jireetdand ! "

(,3) As the winter approaclies, most of the Birds h'ave the country
and do not return again until spiing. The terrestrial Mannnais are
prohiliited, hy the insularity of the country, from resorting to this
method of escaping the rigours of the climate, or the scarcity of
food. The iJear to some extent hyhernates, though, as 1 shall
afterwards thow, this hybernation is not so complete as is usually
sui)posed. The migratory Mammals are therefore limited to thu
marine species.

All of the Seals, with the oxoopti'on of Trlchcchns rosmartts,
C<illo(('l)lniliis vitft/hiHS, and J*af/omys J'atidas, leave the coast
during a portion of the winter, and ev(>u of the sununer. Tla^
migration of the Seals is too complicated a subject to be discussed
in a general review; under my notes on each species I shall have
occasion to r«»cur to it. In like maimer all the Cetacea leave the
seas in the winter, with the exception o{ Monodon moiioccros and
JicliKja vdtndon, which can be seen at open places in the ice all the
winter through. Why these species should be winter denizens in
preferene<^ to the otlvTs it is difficult to decide. Seveml species
have what may be called a load miyration, moving from onu
portion of the coast to another, north and south, during the sunnner,
according to the state of the ice, &c., — all of which will be noticed
in another place.

(y) The species indigenous all the year round are then^ore the
terrestrial Mammals and the remainder of the miu'ine species not
already mentioned as nn'gratory, viz., i'rsus marithtnis, Cants
fannliaris, var. honalis, Jnlj)i's laynpvs, Mustvla rrmiiica, Lc-
])us glacialis, Myodcs torqtiutus^ Oinbos moschatus, liau<f\fvr
tarandiis, Trichcchus ros/fiartis, Collovcphalvs vitnlinns, Piifjonii/s
fatidus, Monodon monoccrns, and Bdwja c(dodon.

In a<ldition to these well established species there arc others
Irequently entered among the Greenland Mammalia, some of
which have but scant right to a i)lace, and others arc entirely
mythical, as I will show in a section on tliese animals. Among
these I class Gido horculis {Ursus luseus), Phoca urslnn {Callo-
rhinus nrsinus), and Trichcchus manatus (^Rhytina (/igas) as
animals with little or no claim to be admitted members of the
arctic fauna.

The columns for the "Local distribution in Greeidand " are
arranged solely with reference to our present knowledge of the
range of the species in the country, and, being only temporary and
to a great extent artificial, an^ subject to changes as our knowledge
of the species cXiCnds. At the same time I think it only right to
say that they have been very carefully compiled, after considerable
study of the natural range of the si)ccies, and u])on princii)l(.'s
akin to those for the general distribution of the species.

The column headed " East coast only " I have erected for the
reception of Mnstcla erminca solely, all the species of the east

J

'i

1

the
not
Cn/iis

otliors

nno of

itircly

Linopg

arc
|)f the
y and
letl<j;o
jht to
Table
eii)les

r the
east

J

i

n. imOWN ON THE MAMMALS OF OUKRNLANH. 13

couHt, SO far as wo know, hcitig, witli this exception, aNo coininmi
lo the west. The east coast has, however, been very little ex-
plored, and no doubt soniethin<^ renniiiis to be added to our know-
li'dire of the ranire of siu'cies on (liat eoast.

Ou a eonii)arison ol' the Greenland fauna witii that of other
portions of the aretie re<;ions, wo ean see no reason for lookinj^
U})on it, in common with the flora and the avi- and iehthy-faunas,
as other than essentially Arctic-European, all of the species of
Mammalia, with the exception of Orihos mosrhatHs, beini^ lonnd
in either Spitzl)ergen or Nova Zembla, while many of the Arctic-
American species are not found in Cireeidand. The only true
American mammal found in (Jreeidand is the Musk-ox, which
mii^Jit have crossed from the western shores of Smith's Sound
(where Eskimo tradition ilescribes it as once abundant) on the ice*
to the eastern shore, where alone in VV^est (Ircenlnnd it seems to
be now found, the ^rcat glaciers and ice-floes al)()ut Melville liny
Hceining to act as a barrier to the southern and northern nii^jfra-
tions of the animals on either side of them, and of Man <'(piully
with the lower animals.

Lookinj^ at the fauna of Spilzberj^en,''* if wi' take exception lo
the very dubious omission which Malmgren has made, wv find tli.it
there is no species of nuunmal found in these islands not found
in (Jreenland; and the same is true of the niannnals of Nova
Zembla, if we take Von llaer's listf as representing the [)resent
state of our knowledge, though published more than thirty years
ago. In this the excej)iion is a doubtful one ("a little whit(;
aninud, species uncertain"), but probably an lu-mine. I there-
fore think that we are justified in looking u[)on the mannnalian
fauna of Greenland as Arctic-European, and not Arctic-American,
though I am aware that opposite views an; entertained by
naturalists of high eminence.

The mammalian fauna of Iceland has no connexion with that
of Greenland, that island possessing only a single species of Mam-
mal indigenous to it {Mns s]/lvaticns) ; all others have been intro-
duced by man, or, like the Ursus maritimus and Viilpcs lagnpus^
have drifted from Greenland on ice-llocs.

My friend Mr Andrew Murray^ seems to take exception to the
^Mouse which is said to bo found in Iceland, and regarding which
wonderful tales are told ;§ and, contrary to the opinion of Povel-
sen, who considers it Mus sylvaticns, L., and of the intelligent
Icelanders, who, as represented by Sir W. J. Hooker, do not
believe in its existence, thinks that it is Myodes torqnatus {/ind-
sonius, Yorst.^f/rd'nla/idicuSf Tr.). If such is the (;ase, it might
have been brought over on ice from the east coast of Greenland ;
but the probability is, according to Steenstru[), who has carefully

* Malmgren, luc. cit. ; Scoresby, " Arctic Regions ;" Phipj's's " Voyage ;"
I'arry's " Attempt ;" Laiug's " Voyage to Spitzbergen," Sec., Sec.

f k. 10. von IJaer, Wiegmanu's Archiv i'iir Naturgeschichte (18;5D), \it. vii.
(fide Murray, " Geogr. Distrib. Mamni.," p. atjo).

X Geographical Distribution of JManunals (18GG), p. 2G7.

§ Tennant, " Arctic Zoulogy," Introduction, p. Ixx. ; Hooker's " Tour ii
Iceland," i. pp. 51, b'2.

■■vii I 'iiiitg »gw>fc-n-~r 11X3

14 II. liROWN ON THE MAMMALS OP GREENLAND.

examined the questiou, that no Lemming exists in Iceland, and
that the only indigenous Mammal is the Mus sylvaticm, showing
that the fauna is essentially European, and not American as
Murray seemed to suppose.*

From these facts I believe that the island of Iceland is of a
newer date than any portion of Scandinavia or Greenland, and,
being of a volcanic nature, was formed posterior to the date of
the present distribution of land and water in the North Sea ; if
indeed it, and other detached islands in the North Sea, are not
fragments of a more or less continuous land communication,
AViiich, when the Miocene flora flourished in the Arctic regions,
united Greenland with Europe. f

^

4. Notes on the Hahifs, Distribution, and S'jnonomi/ of the
Terrestrial Mammalia of Greenland.

The following notes on certain of the terrestrial species of
Mammalia are not intended as cither a complete or systematic
history of the species, but merely as stray notes on some points
in their history hitherto passed over, and on the species as a
Greenland animal. I have delayed entering upon the history
of the mnriue jNIannualia until another time, my observations on
these species being too extensive to be included within the limits
of one paper ; and, as I shall treat of them on a more ccmpre-
hcnsive plan than as mere Greenland specie.j, they do not proi)erly
come within the scope of a paper on Greenland Mammals.

These notes conipreheml my own observations during voyages
to the Spitzbergeii, Iceland, and Jan Maycn seas, and along the
eastern and western shores of Davis's Strait and Baffin's liay,
to near the mouth of Smith's Sound, in 1861. During the past
snnnner (1867) I have again (in company with Messrs. E.
AVliympcr and Tegner) visited Danish Greenland for scientific
purposes, but have added little or nothing to my former notes,
having seen few Mammalin, except some of the species of Pin-
nipedia and a Cetacean or tAvo in the sea; and, our travels ex-
tending over but a limited portion of the vicinity of Disco Bay,
we had but few opportunities of adding to our knowledge of their
habits.

I was fortunate enough, however, to obtain the assistance of
my friends Dhrr. Knud Gelnieyden Fleischer, Carl Bolbroe,
and Octavius Neilsen, whose long acquaintance with the Eskimo
lanixuiiy-e enabkd me to discover some of the errors Avhich Fab-
rieius I'ell into in deoii)hering the mythical species ; and our
intelligent travelling companion Hr. Anthon V, Tegner kindly

* tSioeu.stnip, *• Don (i[i:i.oiul:i islauds^ke Landputtedyr-fauims KaruktiT,''
&c. Vidcusk. ^leddel. Xiitiirliist. Foruuiiig i Kjiibi'iih., 18i)7, \). oi ; An-
nals Nat. Hist., sol". 4, vol. iii., j). 44d.

f Sec. J, I). Hooker, Liiin. Trans., vol. xxiii., p. 2')\ ; Asa Gray, '' Anicr.
Jonrn. Scic..>:e," ]S(J:i; .F. W. Dawson, " Canadian Naturalist and ljoolo<>ist,"'
ISC.-J, pj). .'$;34-l544 ; uid Murray, '* Gcogr. Di.st. Mannn.," p. ,",7, lor the pliyt;)-
;;■( (t^rapliieal views of tlic oriixin of the Greenland llora and fauna at presfut
reeeived.

R. lUlOWN ON THE MAAIMALS OF OUEENLAND.

15

^

gave me the benefit of his experience. These notes I have in-
corporated in the body of this paper at the proper place.

I have also examined, through the kindness of the curators, the
Greenland Mammals in the Copenhagen Museums, and those in
the Museum of Science and Art in Edinburgli, comprising many
of the typical specimens of Scoresby, Richardson, &c. For this
latter favour my thanks are especially due to Professors Archer
and Alhnan, and to the lute Mr. J. B. Davies, then Zoological
Assistant in the Museum.

1. Uiisus MARrriMus, Linn.

Greenl. Nennok (o guttural).

The well-known " Polar " or " Ice Bear " is found alon*; the
whole coast of Greenland from north to south, but not neai-ly so
numerous as in former times, or as is po[)ularIy supposed. 1'liere
are more in the northern than in the southern portion of the
counti'y ; and it is very seldom seen in mid-Greenland, i.e., between
about 69° and 66° N. lat. There are yearly killed from thirty to
sixty of them. 'Jlic l?oyal Board of Trade in Greenland give
the natives al)out five rigsdalcr (ILv. '3d.) for a skin. 0(;ca-
sionally there arc a number killed near Cape Farewell wliich
have come round on the S[)itzbergen ice-stream. Here a curious
custom prevnils, viz., that whosoever sights the Bear first, man,
woman, or child, is entitled to the skin, and the person who has
shot it only to the blubber and llesh,* It is of light creamy
colour, rarely pure v/hite, except when young; hence the Scotch
whalers call it the " brounic " or •' brownie," and sometimes the
" farmer," from its very agricultural appearance as it stalks
leisurely over the furrowed fields of ice. Its principal Ibod
consists of Seals, Avhich it pcn'secutes most indefatigably ; Init it
is somewhat omniverous in its diet, and will often clear an islet
of Eider-duck egsirs in .the course of a few hours. I have seen
it watch a Seal for half a day, tlie Seal continually escaping just
as the Bear was about putting its paw on it, at the "atlick" (or
escape hole) in the Ice. Finally, it tried to circumvent its prey
in another manner. It swam oft' to a dij>tance, and when the
Scjd was again half asleej) at its atluli, the Bear swam under the
ice, with a \ ievv to cut off its retreat. It I'ailed, however, and
the Seal finally escaped. The rage of the animal was boundless;
it roared hideously, tossing the snow in the air, and trotted otf in
a most indignant state of mind !

During the sealing-scasou, both in Greenland and in the Spitz-
bergen seas, the Beur is a constant attendant on the sealer for
the sake of the carcasses, in the pursuit of wliich*it is sometimes
" more free than welcome." I liave often also seen it feeilimc on
Whales of diiierent s[.ecies, which are I'uund fioaling tiead. In
1861 I saw upwards of twenty all bu^^ily devouring the huge
infiated carcass of a Bala'iia iiiijsllcctuj iu Pond's Bay, on the
western shores of Davis's Strait. We were foolish enough to

* 'V\w Ik'sli. mi'l esMc'oiiilly tln' liver, is said to ofte;! jji'dvc jjoisonciis wlicii
OiiU'ii. 'I'lic Ilskiiu.* on llii' wi'-lcrii shore-; et' Davis'--, Strait caret'uliy pmiiiliit
llu'ir dogs I'rom devouring any jH)itiou oi' it.

10 11. nilOWN ON Tni3 mammals of GREENLAND.

fire a few shots among them, when the Bears sprang furiously
from the carcass iiiul made for our boat. One succeeded in getting
its paws on to the gunwale ; and it was only by the vigorous
application of an axe that we succeeded in relieving ourselves
of so unwt^lcome an addition to our crew.

On the whole, I do not think that the Polar Boar is a very
fierce animal, when not enraged ; and 1 cannot help thinking
that a great deal of the impressions Avhich avo ha^e imbibed re-
garding its ferocity are more due to old notions i. what it ought
to be, rather than what it is, and that the tales related by Barentz,
Edward Pellham, and other old navigators regarding its blood-
thirstiness during the time they wintered in Spitzbergen were a
good deal exaggerated. When enraged, oi" emboldened by hiniger,
I can, however, quite well understand that, like all wild and
even domesticated animals, it iray be dangerous to man. On the
East Coast of Greenland, where they know little of man, they
are very bold. The members of tlie German Expedition, when
making out-door observations, had to be continually on their
guard against them. I have chased it over the floos of Pond's
Bay, and the Bear's only thought seemcid to b(^ how best to
escape from its pursuers. I should have hesitated a good <loal
before making so free with the Grizzly Bear of the Californian
wilds ( Ursus ferox), which is, perhaps, the most ferocious animal
on the American continent. Though seemingly so unwieldy,
the ncnnok runs Avith great speed ; and being almost marine in
its habits, it swims well. 1 have chased it with a picked crew
of eiirht whalemen, and vet the B(!ar has managed to distnnce
lis in the race for the ice-fields. It would every now and again,
when its two cubs were getting left in ihe rear, stop and (literally)
push them up l)ehind; and on reaching the steep edge of the
ice-floe, finding that we Avcre fast reaching them, it liftcnl each of
them np on the ice with its teeth, seizing the loose skin at the
back of the neck. Once on the ice, they Avere safe.

It is often found SAvimming at great distances from land {vide
the statements in arctic voyages, and the Avorks of Richardson,
Parry, &c., passim). The stories of its nuiking ice-houses, and
of their gambols therein, as related by Fabrieius, as Avell as of its
combats Avith the Walrus, are still prevalent in Greenland.

It is curious that the ohl Eskimo stories about the Polar Bear
having no evacuations during the season of hybernation, and
being itself the means of preventing them by stoi)ping sill the
natural passages Avith moss, grass, or earth (Richardson's " Fauna
Bor.-Am." i. 34), prevail also among the North-Avestern Aniericiin
Indians on the other side of the continent, in refercMiee to (he
Brown Bear {Ursus anicriciinus), the substance used in stop[)ing
the passages varying according to the tribe among whom the
myth is prevalent, from a ball of eliiy to one of pine-rcsln!

I do not think that it hybernates during the whole Avinter,
as usually supposed ; at all events they are oft(Mi seen during
the Aviuter, though these are probably old males. It is probable
that the females, when not [)regnant, roam all winter like the
males. Unlike its congeners, it does not //?/i7, but bites; and it

4'

T,. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

17

r.ear

and

tlie

iiuna

o (ho

i

4
u

1

will not cat its prey until it is dead, playing with it like a cat
with a mouse. I have known several men who, while sitting
watching or skinning Seals, have had its rougli hand laid on
their shoulder. Their only chance has been then to feign being
dead, and manage to shoot it while the Bear was sitting at a
distance Avatching its intended victim. Thoujrh Eskimo are
often seen who have been scarred by it, yet I repeat that, unless
attacked, or rendered fierce by hunger, it rarely attacks man.
During our last trip to Greenland none of our party saw one ;
indeed they are only killed in the vicinity of Disco Day during
the winter or spring, when they have either come or drifted south
Oil the ice-floes. Six were killed in the vicinity of Onienak
during the winter of 1866-67.

2. VuLPES LAGOPUS (Linn.) ; Rich. F. B. A. i. 83.

GrccnL Terienniak, Kaka.

The Arctic Fox is very numerous in south- and mid-Greenland,
rarer in the northern parts of the Danish possessions, but quite
plentiful again north of Upernavik to high up in Smith's Sound.*

There are two varieties, the blue and the white. This colour is
not dependent on the season. The white variety is also more
numerous and much less valued than the blue; but again the
blue and the white varieties interbreed, and often, the Eskimo
say, there is a white mother with blue young, and vice versa.
The blue Fox is very valuable, the price for the best kind of skin
being from six to seven times as much as for that of the white.
Some have been sold at the annual auction of the Greenland furs in
Copenhagen at over twenty rigsdaler (nine rigsdaler= 1/. sterling).
There are yearly killed from 1,000 to 3,000 of the white and
blue Foxes, two-thirds being blue and one- third Aviiite. In
Greenland the Avhite is traded for three marks (I*, l^d.), and
the blue for two rigsdaler {-is. 6d.). It is not killed by the
Greenlanders in summer, aa its summer coat is not valuable.
At this time it is found in the mountains preying on the young
Ptarmigan ( Tttrao reinhardti. Brehm). In winter it comes down
to prey on shellfish or other marine produce, at the open
places near the shore when the tide breaks the ice. About this
period it can often be seen barking most impudently at the
solitary hunter.

3. Canis familiaris, Linn.

a. var. borealis,

Grccnl. Kemmek or Krenimek.

(a) ^ The Dog of the Eskimo is the same species all over the
American continent ; at least I have seen Dogs from Kamschatka,

* The Fox
season in

Fox is often seen hundreds of miles from land during the Jsealing
the Greenland J<ea, when it feeds on the dead Seals. In pursuit of
the wandering Lemming it sometimes loses its way, and has been taken far
from Its natural haunt. Kalm mentions one being taken in West Gothland,
and Pennant (Suppl. Arot. Zool., p. 52) one killed near Lund, Sweden,
lat. 55° 42' N., on Oct. 27, 178G. Sec also Von Baer on the Distribution of
the Arctic Fox, Bull. Acad., St.-Petersb., t. ix. p. 89.

36122. ^

18 R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

Sitka, the western shores of Davis's Strait, and from Greenland
which it was impossible to deny were of one species.

(13) Besides this there is, in Danish Greenland, another breed of
Dogs of mixed native and European descent, the latter being im-
ported by the whites. These are called by the natives " Meeke."
I have not the slightest doubt that the original breed of the Arctic
Dog was the Wolf (Catiis occidentalis, var. griseo-alba, Baird). In
its every disposition it agrees with that animal, and there is no
point which has been supposed to separate the one from the other
which is not common to both of them. I have seen skins of the
Wolf which have hair for hair agreed with the typical Arctic Dog.
The Wolf is not, however, found in Greenland, unless, as I shall
afterwards discuss, the " amorok," which Fa1:>ricius erroneously
described in his fauna as Ursus luscus, be merely a Dog run wild
and returned to its original type. The Dog is found as far north
as man lives, but is not used by the Eskimo south of Holsteens-
borg, the sea not being sufficiently frozen over during the winter
to permit of sledging. The use of the Dog as a sledge-animal has
been so often described * that I may pass it over here without
further reference. Being only required during the winter, they
lead during the summer and autumn months an idle life, hanging
round the setaements, sleeping on the top of the flat earth-huts of
their masters, snarling at every one's heels, but running at the
first appearance of a stick or stone, snatching up every bit of
edible garbage round a village, and, in fact, becoming such a pest
to the women when dressing a Seal on the rocks, or when drying
meat for winter use, that they are often left to look out for them-
selves on some barren uninhabited islet. During the summer they
are never fed ; and often you may pass old Eskimo encampments
where the only inhabitants are a few hungry dogs howling from
the rock, disconsolate until their lords return. The appearance
of a stone is enough to send them howling far and near. It is
rarely that they bark, generally preferring, with their wolfish
instinct, to sit and howl monotonously on some elevated point, and
regularly " making night horrible " with their " long cry." The
ringing of the workmen's morning and evening bell at the Danish
settlements used to be the signal for the commencement of this
hyperborean music. This dog can only be kept in subjection
by the most unmerciful lashing ; for its savage nature will
out. When at Clyde River in 1861 I heard of a most horrible
tragedy which had been enacted there a few years before. A
man, a boy, and a little girl landed from an omiak (or open skin
boat) on an island where, as is usual, some dogs were confined.
Before the poor people could escape to their boat, the animals,
infuriated by hunger, sprang upon them. The man and the boy,
though much lacerated, managed to regain the omiak ; but the poor
girl was torn to pieces.

When the Greenland dogs die uif, the Greenlander must become
extinct, more certainly even than must the " Plain " Indian when

* Vide particularly Kane, "Arctio Explorations j" and Hayes, "Voyage
towards the open Polar Sea."

«^i

R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAXD.

10

»'i

euland

;eed of
iig im-
eeke."
Arctic
I). Ill
s is no
3 other
of the
ic Dog.
I shall
icously
in wild
c north
steens-
winter
nal has
rtrithout
3r, they
langing
-huts of
at the
■ bit of
ii a pest
drying
r theni-
ler they
ipmcnts
ig from
earance
It is
Avolfish
int, and
The
Danish
of this
jjection
re will
lorrible
Dre. A
icn skin
oufincd.
luimals,
le boy,
he poor

become
,n when

Voyage

the last buffalo is shot. It is impossible for him to drag home the
seals, sharks, Avhite whales, or narwhals which he may have shot
in the winter at the " strom-holes " in the ice Avithout his dogs
—or for the wild native in the far north to make his long mi-
grations, with his family and household goods, from one hunting-
ground to another without these domestic animals of his. Yet
that sad event seems to be not far distant. About fifteen years
ago, a curious disease, the nature of which has puzzled veteri-
narians, appeared among the Arctic dogs, from high up in Smith's
Sound down the whole coast of Greenland to Jakobshavn (69° 13'
N. lat,), where the ice-fjord stops it from going further south ;
and the government uses every endeavour to stop its spread
beyond that barrier, by preventing the native dogs north and
south from commingling. Kane and Hayes lost most of their
dogs through this disease ;* and at every settlement in Danish
Grreenland the native are impoverished through the death of their
teams. It is noticed that whenever a native loses his dogs he
goes very rapidly downhiU in the sliding scale of Arctic re-
spectability, becoming a sort of hanger-on of the fortunate possessor
of a sledge-team.

During the latter portion of our stay in Jakobshavn, sccrcely a
day elapsed during which some of the dogs were not ordered to
be killed, on account of their having caught this fatal epidemic.

The dog is seized with madness, bites at all other dogs, and even
at human beings. It is soon unable to swallow its food, and con-
stipation ensues. It howls loudly during the continuance of the
disease, but generally dies in the course of a day, with its teeth
firmly transfixing its tongue. It has thus something of the nature
of hydrophobia, but diifers from that disease in not being com-
municable by bite, though otherwise contagious among dogs. The
government sent out a veterinary surgeon to investigate the nature
of the distemper; but he failed to suggest any remedy, and it is
now being " stamped out" by killing the dogs whenever seized —
an heroic mode of treatment, Avliich Avill oidy be successful when
the last dog l)ecomes extinct in Greenland.

Strange to say, the dogs in Kamschatka are also being decimated
by a very similar disease ;f and, in a recent communication received
from that region, it is said that so scarce have dogs become, that
the natives do not care to sell them, and that 100 roubles have
been refused for a team of six. Fortunately for the Kamschatkans,
they have the reindeer as an ulterior beast of draught and burden.
Prof. Otto Torell brought several dogs from Greenland for the use
of his expedition to Spitzbergen in 1861; but finding them useless
(on account of open Avater) ho set them free, I was informed,
on Spitzbergen, where they are now rapidly increasing, and will,
doubtless, soon return to the original Avolf type.

*■ ivane's " Arctic Explorations," vol. i. p. 157.

t ^ov all that is known about the Dog-disease in Greenland, see Pleming,
" Geograph. Mag.," Feb. 1875. \_See also notes by Dr. W. L. Lindsay, m
the Brit, and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review, January 1870, pp. 212, 216;
and July 1871, pp. 10, 15, 28.— Editor.]

B 2

20 R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

\i

Their use in Greenland is almost wholly as sle(lp;c-animals.
Among the Eskimo on the western shores of Davis's Strait, a
loose dog usually precedes the sledge, and, by carefully avoiding
broken places in the ice, acts as a guide to the sledge-team, which
carefully follows his load. Eti passant I may remark that dog-
driving is by no means an easily acquired or a light labour. In
North Greenland and among the wild Arctic highlanders of Cape
York and Smith's Sound, dogs are also valuable assistants, by
attacking the polar bear while the hunter plants his spears in the
animal.* They are also used a little in seal-hunting. Their flesh
is also highly appreciated, but rather too valuable for anything
except an occasional dainty. The skin is highly valued for socks,
and that of the pups for winter clothing ; but so scarce have they
become, that it is now very hard to raise enough for an anarak
(jumper), and one of our party paid 18 rigsdaler (2/.) for enough
to make an overcoat. No longer, as in Giesecke's day,t is it rejected
as an article of ti'ade on account of its disagreeable odour.

[4. Felis domestica, Briss.
Grccrd. Kitsungoak.

The domestic Cat has been kept in Greenland ever since the
Danish women came, .and it follows them in all their sojournings
north and south. In Fabricius's day it was already not uncommon.
At present there are many in Julianeshaab district, Avhere mice
are quite abundant and troublesome.]

5. Myodes T0RQUATU3 (Pall.), Keys. & Bias.

This Lemming Avas found by Capt. Scoresby, in the year 1822,
neur Scoresby's Sound, on the east coast of Greenland, hit. 69°,
and was described by the late Professor Traill, in the appendix
to Scoresby's " Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-
" fishery, &c.," p. 417, as a new species under the name of 3Ius
grcenlandicus. From a careful examination of the original and
only specimen, now in the Edinburgh Museum of Science and
Art, I am inclined to believe, with MiddendorfF,j that it is
not distinct from those already described, and that the Myodes
hudsouius of Forster {Mas hudsofiius, Forster in Phil. Trans.
Ixii. p. 379 ; Lenunus hudsouius, Sab., Parry's Voyage, p. clxxxv)
and the 3Iifs c/rccnlandictis, Tr. {Myodes gnvnlandicus, Wag.
and J. E. Gray§, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, xvi. 1848, p. 43,
and Id. in Rae's Narrative, 1850), are identical with the Siberian
Myodes torquatus (Pall.), Keys. & Bias.

It can only be classed as a very rare and local ( possibly accidental)
member of the fauna of Greenland, as it has never since been found

* Sec an interesting account in Kane's " Arctic Explorations,"

t Giesecke, article " Greenland," in Brewster's " Edinburgh Eucyclopsedia
(1830)," vol. X., p. 481.

X Sib. Reise, II. ii. 1853, p. 87, pis. 4-7 and 10.

§ Arvhola (/nvnlandice, Rich. /. c. 134 ; vide also Schreber, *•' Saugethiere,"
iii., p. 604; Giebel, "Die Saugethiere," &c. (1859), p. 605.

"f^

1

K. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

21

mats,
ait, a
iding
vhich

dog-
•. Ill

Cape
ts, by
in the
L* flesh
^rthing
socks,
e they
marak
iuougb
ejected

ice the
irnings
mmon.
e mice

I- 1822,

at. 69°,

pendix

Wliale-

of Mus

!>1 and

ice and

at it is

Myodes

Trans,
clxxxv)
Wag.

p. 43,
Siberian

;idental)
\\\ found

yclopscdia
etbiere,"

"^^

in the country ; Graah* did not see it in his two years' journey,
nor even hear of its existence. No doubt the east coast of Green-
land is almost unapproachable for ice, and has never been visited
since Graah's day, except for a little way round Cape Farewell.
Whalers, however, have been known to have landed near Scoresby's
►Sound ; but they saw nothing of it, and it may be safely said not
to be an inhabitant of the west coast, either within or outside of
the Danish possessions.

From Upernavik southward, the Danes have been on the coast,
either settled or trading, for at least 120 years, and during that
time not a few collectors have visited the country ; but, notwith-
standing all their exertions and those of tlie stationary officers of
the government there, no specimen of this Mouse has as yet been
obtained, nor do the Eskimo know of the existence of such.
Murray has therefore taken too wide a generalization, when he
portrays, on map Ixxxv. of his laborious and generally accurate
work the " Geographical Distribution of Mammals " (1866), p. 267,
the distribution of the Lemming as extending right along the east
and western shores of Greenland to the head of Baffin's Bay, on
the supposition that it is a regular member of the Greenland fauna.
I am inclined to look upon it as representing the extreme eastern
limit of the Myodes torquatus, as the Myodes hudsonius is a climatic
species rei)resenting the extreme icestern range of the former
species. It is almost unnecessary to note, after what I have said,
that Fabricius makes no mention of it in his " Fauna Groenlandica ;"
and if it had been found, he, ever anxious as he was to add anything
to the Greenland Mammals, would have been sure to have heard
of it from the natives, credence in whose mythical zoology forms
one of the few disligurations of his work. Neither did Inglefield,
Sutherland, Kane, or Hayes see anything of it in Smith's Sound,
or southward to the northern limits of the Danish possessions.'!'

In 1861, the natives at Pond's Bay, on the western shore of
Davis's Strait, brought me many skins of this species, which I
nscertained to belong to the hudsonius form. For the sake of
reference, the Arctic species may be classed as follows : —

Myodes torquatus, Pall.

Var. hudsonius, Forst.
Var. grcenlandicus, Tr.

6. [Mus DECUMANUS, Pall. (1778).

Mus norvegicus, Erxleben (1776).
Gree7il. Teriak.

The Brown Rat was introduced as far back as the days of Fabri-
cius by the Danish ships in the summer, and seemed likely to

* Narrative of an expedition to the East Coast of Greenhiud, Engl, transl.
(1837); the original Danish edition is in 4to. Undersogelses-Eeise til Ost-
kysten af CJronland, 1832.

t These remarks (^vritten in 1868) now (1875) require considerable modi-
tication. The German Expedition got it on the east coast, on Sabine's Island,
in 1869-70. The American Expedition under Hall met with it in Smith's
Sound.

22

R. BROWX ON THE MA^IMALS OF GllEENLAND.

prove dangerous in houses ; but they gradually and periodically
died out, ns they could not stand the cold of the winter. Some
years ago they were again introduced, and still occasionally one is
seen in the summer months in some of the warehouses from
Upcrnavik to near Cape Farewell.]

7. [Mus MUSCULus, Linn.

Grecnl. Teriangoak ("the small rat ").

Its history as a colonist [animal in Greenland is about the same
as the Kat's. At some of the more southern settlements they can
occasionally survive the winter and beget abundantly. Both the
Mouse and Rat were introduced as far north ns Kane's, Hayes's,
and Hall's ships wintered, but I cannot learn that they got
naturalized.]

8. Lepus glacialis. Leach.

L. arcticus, ibid.
Grecnl. Ukalek.

The Hare is a common animal over the whole coast, from north
to south, east and west. It is, however, seen more seldom in the
north of the Danish trading limits, and there are only a few hun-
dreds shot annually. They are said to be rather rare on the east
coast. I cannot see why its beautiful white skin is not more used.
At one time the Danes used to send quantities home, but they
could get no market for it. From the Hare the natives spin a
kind of yarn which they occasionally knit into caps, for a summer
head-dress, for the men and children. It is difficult (indeed,
almost impossible) to give characters whereby this species can be
separated from the Lcpus variabilis of Europe when the former is
in its summei' dress ; and the skull presents equal ditficulties.

I have, hoAvever, preferred to look upon it as nominally distinct,
though I really believe that it is only a climatic variety of L.
variabilis, Pallas.

9. [Sus SCROFA, Linn.

Greenl. Polike.

It is kept at some of the southern settlements.]

10. OviBOS MOSCHATLJ (Gmel.), Blainv.

Grecnl. and Eskimo generally. Umimak.

In the *' Fauna Grcjcnlandica," p. 28. No. 17, Fabricius has classed
Bos gruimicns, L., as one of the animals of Greenland, because he
thought that he had found (on a piece of drift ice) some remains
of it, consisting of the greater portion of the skull of an animal
" very like an ox." He was of opinion tliat this was a portion of
the Yak. He did not, however, consider it to be a native of
Greenland, but rather to have been drifted from northern Asia on
the ice, the flesh having been eaten by polar bears. Any one can
see, by examining the figure which Fabricius afterwards gave of
this specimen (Bid. Selsk. Skriv. N. Saml. iii. 82), that it was the
Musk-ox ; and indeed, he afterwards acknowledged so himself
(Bid. Selsk. Skr. 3. N., vi.). It is therefore, after this, somewhat

R. BROWN OX THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

23

surprising to find a zoologist so well acquainted with the Greenland
fauna as the elder Reinhardt stating that the Musk-ox, which, like
Fabricius, he called Bos grunniens, rarely comes from Melville
Island to Greenland.* Mr. Murray seems to doubt on which side
of Greenland Fabricius met with his specimen ; but there need be
no doubt on that matter, as it must have been on the west side.
The east was even more unknown in his day than now, and he
was certainly never round Cape Farewell. The Musk-ox has,
therefore, no right to a j)lace in the fauna of Danish Greenland,
nor do I believe that at any time it was an inhabitant of that
portion of the continent.

Recent discoveries have, however, shown it to be, with the
strongest probability, an inhabitant of the shores of Greenland
north of the glaciers of Melville Bay. Dr. Kane met with
numerous traces of it in Smith's Sound ; and his successor, Dr.
Hayes, found at Chester valley in the same inlet, among Eskimo
kjokkenmoddings, the skull of a Musk-ox. Eskimo tradition
describes the animal as at one time common along the whole coast,
and they affirm that it is yet occasionally to be met with. No longer
ago than in the winter of 1859 a hunter of Wolstenholme Sound,
near a place called Oomiak, came upon two animals, and killed
one of them.f

I think, therefore, that we may with some authority assume that
the Musk-ox is not yet extinct in Greenland. |

11. Rangifer tarandus (Linn.), Baird.

Var. grcenlandicnSf Kerr (Linn. 1792, p, 297).
Greenl. Tukto (tootoo) ; ^ , Pangnek ; 9 j KoUauak.

I will not here enter into any discussion of the vexed question of
the identity of the European and American Reindeers, or whether
the Greenland Reindeer is specifically distinct from the American
species ; suffice it to say that the heading of this note sufficiently
expresses my views on the subject, after very excellent oppor-
tunities of comparison and study, and that I consider the Greenland
Reindeer only a climatic variety of the European species. I have,
moreover, seen specimens of reindeer horns from Greenland which
could not be distinguished from European, and vice versa. On
the whole, however, there is a slight variation, which may be
expressed by the trivial name to which I have referred at the
commencement of these remarks.^

It is fourd over the whole country, from north to south,|| but
not nearly so plentiful as it used to be. Indeed it is fast on the de-

* "Tsis," 1848, \). 248; Schinarda's '' Geograph. Verbreitimg " (1853),
p. 370 ; fide Murray's "Geogr. Dist. of tlie Mammals," p. 140.

f Hayes's Voyage towards the North I'ole (18G6), p. 390.

X The German I'ohu' Expodhion, 1869-70, found it in abundance on the
east coast, on Sabine Island ; and Ilall's Expedition found it in numbers on
the shores of the northern reaches of Smith's Sound.

§ Vide Murray, Edinb. New Philosophical Journal, Jan. and April, 1859 ;
Newton in Proc. Zool. Soc, 1864; Murray, Geog. Distrib. of Mammals,
p. 150 et scq.; Baird, North Am. ^lammals ; id. U.S. Put, OflBce Eep.
(Agric.) 1851 (1852), p. 105.

II Rarer on the east coast (apparently).

wwmwwi

S4

II. BllOWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

cronso, on nccount of the unmorciful way in which it is slau<;htcred
by thu nntives for the skin alone, ns is the buflalo in Amcricn.
"J'he skins arc a j^vat article of eonuncrco ; sometimes tliey sell in
Coi)('uba«ii;en at from 3 to 7 ri«:js<laler {6s. iUl. to l.lv. 9(1.) each,
nccordin;^ to the quality. (The natives j^ot in (ireenland only
72 skill in<j;s (l.v. Gd.) for them). The yearly proiluetion used to
be in the summer time from 10,000 to 20,000, but it is now on
the decrease.

Dr. Hayes fed his party luxuriously on them all winter at Port
Foulke in Smith's Sound, not many miles from where Kane's
parly starved a few years before. Behind Holsteen3boi'<^ are
valleys full of Reindeer ; and I have heard tales of peo])le climbing
the hills in that vicinity, and looking down into glens where the
Reindeer were so numerous that they might be supi)osc(l to be the
herds of a wealthy Laplander. Ten thousand skins were shipped
from that post some years ago. They are slaughtered iiuliscrimi-
nately by the natives — these improvident people, in nine cases out
of ten, leaving the hides and flesh, and only taking the tongues.
They are bad enough shots ; and the Danish traders supply thera
with powder at less than prime cost (viz. «36 skillings, or 9f/.
per lb.), with a view to'jncrease the produce of the hunt ; but this
ammunition is wasted in a most reckless manner.

On the way to and from these hunts up the fjords (" the in-
terior country," though really the natives know of no place off
the coast more than the Europeans do), with that savage desire
to /«■// every living thing, ducks are shot and left lying, or, if
tliey feel hungry, they will tear oft* the titbits ; a ptarmigan will
be sliot sitting on its eggs, and the ball cut out of its body to be
again used in this nuirderous sport. There is no necessity for it,
for at this time they are abundantly supplied with food, even to
excess. It is, however, the seasc»i of sport and fun, looked forward
to by the natives much in the same light as we do to our grouse-
shooting or deer-stalking, and is about as profitable to all parties
concerned. In order to pursue this they leave the more lucrative
seal-fishery, and neglect to lay in a winter's supply of food ; so
that when the " banyan " days come they bitterly regret their
folly, and weary for the bleached carcases up the frozen fjords.
Notwithstanding this, regulai'ly as the season comes round, they
are off again to the shooting from far and near, and repeat the
same improvident course ; nor, if they like it, has anybody a right
to complain. In all verity, enjoyments few enough fall to the lot
of these hyperborean hunters.

However, the effect of this indiscriminate slaughter is now being
felt in the decrease of the Reindeer in many parts where they
■were once common. They are no longer found on Disco Island,
as in the days of Cranz and Fabricius. Indeed there are now
very few shot in mid-Greenland, and many of the natives are
giving up the hunt for them altogether. During the summer
of 1867 only five Reindeers were killed in the district of Riten-
benk (lat. 69^ 45' N.). The yearly average had been about 20 or
30 ; but the Governor informs me that in his opinion reindeer-
hunting days are nearly over in that section of the country

4

K. nUOWN ON THE MAMMALS OF OIIEENLAND.

25

right

i

In the districts of Jakobithavn) Clnvshtvvn, aii«l Christiunshaiih
I (lid not U'ani that one had been kilhvl. At Clnvshavn a few
natives went out hnnting, hnt mot with bud weatlier, and re-
turned for good, having only seen two animals altogether, and
shot nothing.

In the southern portion of the country more are seen, not so
much on the coast as up the valleys by the fjords. It is in May
or Juno that most of the natives leave th(;ir winter houses and go
reindeer-hunting. When they do dry any meat, they cover it u^j
in caches. The dogs are not taken along with them. In old times,
even nuiking every allowance for exaggeration, the Relndei'r
seems to have been very numerous. In the Icelandic " Sagas "
they are spoken of as having been very numerous in the CEster
Bygd.

Four hundred years ago the natives seem by these accounts to
have hunted the Keindeer much in that section generally sup-
posed to be the site of the CEster IJygd (viz., Julianeshaab dis-
trict). At the present day they have left that district and it is
now nearly sixty years since any have been shot there. Latterly
the hunting has been better in Greenland (south). From 1810
to 1845 many were got ; and within the last few years they seem
(if we might judge by the produce of the hunt) to bo on the
increase. This, however, is, doubtless, owing a good deal to the
use of the rifle ; but it is very questionable whether this will not
again decrease their numbers as it seems to have done elsewhere.
Necessarily wc have no better data to go upon than that so many
skins have been traded ; but, if this is to be received as evidence,
more have been traded of late years.

When the hunting Avas at its best it was at the positions where
the country was broadest, or where the great mcr dc glace of the
interior was most distant from the coast viz. Holsteensborg,
Sukkertoppen, Godthaab, and Fiskernaajsset. Now there are
very few killed at the last-named place. Godthaab also yields
few ; but the Holsteensborg and Sukkertoppen natives have taken
a good many of late. At Holsteensborg (formerly mentioned as
a I'avourite lacality) the hunting-ground is behind the large inlets,
where the ice lies far back, and where land most free from ice has
been found. The Reindeer, living in very large herds, require
always to be on the look-out for an extensive feeding-range ; and
it has been observed that they are going south, in the direction of
Julianeshaab, and individuals have been annually shot not far
from Fredrikshaab. In order to hunt the Reindeer, the natives
go every year, in the month of June, from the southern districts
to the two northern districts in the Southern Inspectorate, and
return in September. A good number are also shot in the winter
time ; and not unfrequently, in very snowy winters, they have
been known to come down close to the settlements, and the natives
have shot them standing in their doorways. The story of the
Reinde.er going into the interior in the winter is founded on erro-
neous notions of what the interior is. They no doubt go a little
way into the valleys ; but as for going into the interior, that is a
physical impossibility, for the interior is merely one wide frozen

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26

R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

waste, surrounded by a circlet of islands. It is to the valleys of
these islands that the Reindeer undoubtedly retire ; but nobody
travels very far afield in Greenland during the winter season, so
that we have no means of arriving at a very accurate confirmation
of this supposition. Dr. Hayes's people finding them in such
abundance at their winter-quarters goes further to prove this.
One of his men described to me the party as going over a little
ridge, and finding the deer as if in a preserve, like the cattle
in the pastures of his native Jutland ; " we just shot them as
we wanted them." (See also Hayes's " Open Polar Sea, " passim.)

Their food in Greenland consists chiefly of various species of
Empetrum, Vaccinium, Betula, &c. ; and I can hardly think that
the traditional " reindeer-moss " ( Cladonia of various species)
forms any great portion of its subsistence, as that Lichen is no-
where found in Greenland in such quantity as to afford food for
any animal.*

The Greenlanders have no idea of taming the animal ; indeed
its use to them would be trifling, as it cannot travel well on ice,
and the difficulties of transporting supplies of food for it on their
long ice-journeys would be great. The Eskimo's sledge-travelling
is almost wholly confined to the frozen surface of the sea in
winter; and for this purpose dogs answers much better. The
meat is very good ; and the natives eat the half-digested vegetable
contents of the stomach along with blubber as a choice delicacy.
They prefer to eat the flesh in a putrid state. It is, with the
exception of the breast, for the most part lean. Clothes and
thread are made from the skin and sinews. The latter is much
sought after in districts where there are no reindeer. From the
horn are made all sorts of native implements ; but commercially
it is of no value in Copenhagen. However, I think its importa-
tion ought to answer, if brought to England, though to Denmark
it will not pay the freight.

A calculation has been made that from 1840-45 there were
about 2,500 persons living in the principal reindeer district.
Every family of five persons, it was calculated, would use two
skins, &c., which would make 5,000 for themselves ; and they
sent away 11,500; the total hunt was therefore calculated to be
about 16,000 annually. This sum has been taken for a minimum ;
for every hunter, besides using the skins for clothes, not only for
himself and family, also used them for tents, partitions in houses,
and for socks, «fec., so that the number killed was>n all likelihood
much greater. Of late years the skins traded by the natives have
decreased one half. Between 1851 and 1855 there were annually
shot 8,500 deer. It is difficult to say how much meat has been
consumed in that period ; but every deer miiy be put down at
80 lbs. of meat alone. This makes the meat, beween 1840 and
1845, amount to 1,280,000 lbs. annually, and between 1851 and
1855 to 680,000 lbs.

%

i

♦ On the -weBterii shores of Duvis's Strait I have known them to come
down to feed upon the Fuci exposed at low water, as do the cattle and red

deer in some places in the north of Scotland.

R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

27

The Reindeer is often shot in situations where it is impossible
for the hunter to carry the meat down, when it becomes a prey
to wild beasts and birds. The quantity of meat thus lost is
enormous, independently of much more wastefuUy destroyed, as
described in the first portion of these notes. It is so great that
during the period first referred to, fully one half was thrown
away, and during the last period a quarter. The tallow in a
large deer will weigh from 8 to 12 lbs. The tongues are first cut
out, after the reindeer is killed. About 3,000 to 4,000 lbs. of
reindeer-horn must be used by the natives in South Greenlana.
The trader at Holsteensborg has (or at least had a few years
ago) more than 60,000 lbs. of it lying on the ground in a heap.*

I have gone into the histoiy of the Reindeer in Greenland at
some length, because I found that though the Reindeer in Lapland
is familiar to many, yet the animal in its wild state is much less
known, and I have seen most erroneous statements regarding its
distribution in Greenland.

12. [Ovis AEiES, Linn.

Greenl. Saua.

At present it is only known in the district of Julianeshaab, to
the number of between 20 and 30. It was already introduced
in Fabricius's day. In the summer they feed in the valleys, and
in the winter are kept under shelter. They cannot, therefore
(nor, indeed, can any of the colonist fauna), be said to be accli-
matized.]

13. [Bos TAURUS, Linn.

Greenl. Umimak.

There are 30 or 40 Cattle gi-azing about in the southern
valleys during the summer, and kept at stall in the winter. Some
of the more enterprising natives also keep a few cows. I was
told by the Danish residents that, though there was quite enough
grass occasionally found round the settlements in the summer,
even further north, they could not be kept on account of the dogs.
The old Icelandic sagas describe the Norsemen as keeping herds'
of cattle in the valleys of Greenland up to the middle ages j and
that the dairy produce was so highly valued that it was sent
to Norway for the use of the Royal table. The place where
they prosper best now is just on the site of one of these ancient
colonies. If any were behind when the colonies were exter-
minated by the Eskimo, who about this period make their
appearance in South Greenland, they must have died out, or,
mere likely, were slaughtered by the natives (if a people who,
to all appearance, were only wandering hordes who had now for
the first time crossed Melville Bay from the north, can be so
styled) ; for when Greenland was again visited by the Europeans

* For many of the foregoing statements I am indebted to my friend Dr.
Rink, fonrerly Royal Inspector of South Greenland, and at present Director
of the Greenland Board of Trade, and whose -work (Gronland geographisk og

statistiek, fc

c.) is the standard on all subjects connected with that country.

R

28 I?. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

^1

I I;

no cattle wore found. It is somewhat curious that the Green-
landers apply the Eskimo namo of the Musk-ox to the domestic
Ox, showing a recollection of the existence of the former in the
land they came from, though it is no longer a native of Greenland
to the south of Cape York.]

14. [CArRA iiiRCUs, Linn.

Grecnl. Sauarsuk.

As far back as the days of Fabrieius, the Goat had been intro-
duced into the southern settlements of Greenland, and was found
profitable ; they feed on the grass which springs about the old
Eskimo camping-places in the summer, and arc housed in the
winter. I am told that they will eat dried Arctic salmon, if
nothing better is forthcoming. It is not kept north of Hol-
steensborg, as it is found impossible to keep it where there are
troops of savage dogs ; and it is accordingly only found about the
settlements south of that, to the number of about 100.]

15. \^Addit.'] MusTELA ermine a, Linn. The Ermine was
found by the Germans on the east coast ; see Peters in " Die
zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahit," vol. ii. p. 157. It is entirely
unknown in West Greenland.

5. On some of the doubtful or mythical Animals of Greenland.

Otto Fabrieius used to spend his summers roaming about with
the Eskimo, until he had learned to manage a kayak and strike a
^eal with a skill which few Europeans can ever acquire. On one
of these excursions he found in " Sildefjord, north of the colony of
Fredrikshaab," a piece of a skull, about which the native told him
something ; and from what they related to him, and v/hat he
thought himself, he entered no less than two species in the Green-
land fauna, " Trichechus manatus " (Jihytina gigas) and ** Plioca
ursina" {Callorhinus ursinus,) being, apparently, not certain to
which it belonged. The Greenlanders called this animal Auvekoi'
jakj or Auikfpjakf and said it was like a Walrus and broke things
easily to pieces. He v/as sure that the i)iece of skull belonged to
the first of these animals ; and again he repeats the same under the
head of Phoca ursina ; so that it is now difficult to arrive at any
conclusion regarding the species of animal to which it belonged.
However, I think there can be but one opinion, that neither the
Sea-bear nor the Rhytina can be enteretl in the Greenland fauna
on such fragmentary evidence. The confused stories of the Green-
landers can give the critic no great hold.

This piece of cranium is not now to be found in Fabricius's
Museum. In a posthumous zoological manuscript, en title<l " Zoolo-
giske Samlinger," written in Copenhagen during the period between
1808 and 1814, and now preserved in the Royal Library, he has
again spoken about the Aiiveka-jak (Bd. ii. p. 298, No. 286), and
has thus written about the skull he found in Greenland :

" The head which I found was full of holes, and looked like that
of a Walrus (No. 82), without tusks."

There Avere many long small teeth in the head (Reinhardt, op.
cit.f p. 6.) ; and if such was the case, we cannot be wrong in

R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OP GREENLAND.

29

Grreen-
unestic
in the
seulaiul

intro-
s found
the old

in the
mon, if
)f Hol-
icrc are
out the

ne was
a "Die
entirely

>enland.

)ut with
strike a
[On one
jlony of
old him
/hat he
Green -

Plioca
rtain to
uvekcc-

things
inged to
ider the
! at any
elonged.
ther the
d fauna
! Green-

jricius s
« Zoolo-
)etween
h6 has
6), and

ike that

rdt, op.
:ong iu

jsaying that the animal was not a iSIammal. We have, however,
no right, when we remember the clear cominvhcnsive style in
which Frabicius wrote regarding the Greenland fauna, however
much we may he inclined, to^ say that the whole was erroneous.

It is unfortunate that when Fabricius referred his Auvckajak to
the Sea-cow of Steller, he was not acquainted with that animal,
and did not know of the horn-plates ; for, if he had, it is impos-
sible that he could have found a resemblance to it in the Auve-
kaejak. His words regarding it are clear enough, so far as they go —
" Rarissimum animal in mari Groenlandico, cujus solum cranium
ex parte conservatum commime cum soquenti sjKJcie ab incolis
dictum nomine Auvekayak, vidi, inque hoc denies spurios tales
confertim congestos quales Steller" {vid. op. «7. Adel.* § 189).
Agiiiii, immediately under the head of " Phoca ursina" he says : —
*' Groenl. Auvek^jak. — Illam esse animal quo<l sub nomine hoc
mcmorant incolo; non est dubitandum. Dicunt illud in Australiori
Grojnlandia, licet raro, dari quadinipes pilosiim, ferociter omne
occurrens dilacerare, et si visum consumere : ursi maritimi more
terra marique degere, impetuosissime natare, venatores valide
infe£;tarc. Dentes ut amuleta contra ulcera, ncc non quodammodo
ad instrumenta venatoria mlhibentur." There is an evident un-
certainty iu Fabricius's mind ; and he has listened too much to
the idle fables of the natives (who have, as I shall presently show,
many of that nature) ; whatever it is, there can, I think, be
scarcely a doubt as to the exclusion of Tiichcchus maiiatus and
Phoca ursina from the Greenland fauna ; nor can their place as
yet be supplied by any other species. Prof. Steenstrup thinks that
it was a portion of the skull of a Sea-wolf (Anarrhichas). The
situation of the teeth and the nature of this fish's cellular skull
well agi-ee with his description of the skull as " full of holes " (" for-
hulret," Reinhardt, op. cit., p. 8). Ilr. Bolbroe, who understands
the Eskimo language intimately, tells me that the word means a
" little walrus," and that in all probal)iiity it Avas only tJie skull of
a young walrus, an animal not at all familiar to Fabricius, as they
are chiefly confined to one spot, and the natives fear to go near
that locality. Fabricius may have only written the description from
recollection ; and memory, assisted by preconceived notions, may
have led him into error in the description of the long teeth, which
after all might, without great trouble, be made to refer to the
dentition of the young walrus as described by Macgillivray f and
Riippcll.J

This opinion is strengthened by a passage in Fabricius's account
of the Walrus, when he again is in doubt whether a certain
animal is the young of the walrus or the dugong, " De varietate

* Adeluug: " Gescliichte der Schiffiabrtcn und Versuche zur Entdeckung
des iiordostlichen Weges nach Japan und China" (Halle, 1768) is the book
Fabricius refers to. There is a ■wrong reference iu the F. G. to Adelung,
viz., 189 for 148.

t Naturalists' Library (Mammalia), vol. vii. (vol. xiii. of series), p. 220.
M'GilUvray's Edin. Joum. of Nat. Hist, and Physical Scieuces, Aug. 1838,
p. 153 ; Hamilton in Nat. Lib., vol. viii. p. 102. ,

X Bulletin Scien. Nat., vol. xvii. p. 280.

80

R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

U

dentibus exertis bicvioribus loquuntiir incolao, quam minus recte
(ut vidctur) ad Phocas referunt, si non pulliis rosmari, an animal
Dugong " (Buff. 205, 245. tab. Ivi). So that, after all, perhaps
the Auvekivjak was only the young of the Walrus ; and this
opinion I am on the whole inclined to acquiesce in.

Fabricius enters in his "Fauna Groenlandica," under the
name of " Mustcla gulo, L." {Gttlo horetilis, Retz.), an animal
which the natives talked about under the name of Kcippih.
It was said to bo found in south Greenland, among high moun-
tains, particularly beside streams, and was especially fond of
the hearts of reindeer. He considered it to bo the well-known
Wolverine, the Jerf of Scandanavia (Norse Arv, Erv, and J<erv ;
Swedish Jcrf, Gerf; Finnish Kamppi and Kamppi'Karhu).
If so, it must be exceedingly rare, for since his time no one has
been able to obtain or hear of a specimen. We more than sus-
pect, however, that here, as elsewhere, he was only reproducing
in a zoological dress the stories of the natives. So httle was then
known of the zoology of the Arctic regions, that he might well
be excused for entering such animals in his fauna, there existing
no reason why they should not be found in Greenland. If Fa-
bricius could have lived to this day, he would have been the first
to erase these from his list. The reason why I think so is this : —
Under the head of " Ursus luscus " he has inserted a very doubtful
and problematical animal, talked of long before his day, and equally
so now, under the name of " Amarok " (" Ui'sus luscus, Eg., ' De-
scription of Greenland,' Eng. transl., 33, Cr., * History of Green-
land,* Eng. transl., 99, ex descriptione pellis ejus. Cf. ' Continuation,'
287, ubi dicitur subfusca, forsitan etiam veterum Hyaena, Torf.,
' Groenlandia Antiqua, 82 "). This animal seems the same as that
which he indicated in his fauna under the name of ^^ Mustela
gulo." He describes it as very fierce, corresponding in this
respect with the character of the Wolverine. Depending upon
the natives being in the habit of distinguishing animals by
different names very clearly, he considered that Amarok and Kap-
pik were different animals. Neither of them he appears to know
anything about. I found the Greenlanders talking to this day
about the Amarok all over Greenland ; and wonderful stories
they tell of its ferocity. It is the terror of the Greenlanders, as
Fabricius truly enough remarks ; everybody knew about it ; but
I could find nobody who had ever seen it.* Graah {Lib. cit. p. 90.)
found the natives of the east coast equally familiar with the name
of the Amarok ; the name Kappik, however, was unknown in
north Greenland.

Finally, I discovered a man in Claushavn who declared he had
seen the Amarok ; it hunted in packs, he said ; and this man made no
secret of his belief that it was only native dogs which had escaped
and returned to their wild state. In proof of this he told me that,
as frequently happens during the annual reindeer-hunting-season,

A

* Mr. Tegner informs me that one of the natives declares that in July 1867
he saw the marks of the foot of an Amarok at the head of the Tessiursak,
an inlet near Claushavn.

>.

R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND. 31

US recte
i animal
perhaps
nd this

ler the
animal
Kappik.
li moun-
fond of
1-known
d Jferv ;
Karhu).
) one has
han sus-
roducing
was then
ight well
existing
If Fa-
i the first
s this : —
' doubtful
id equally
Eg., ' De-
•f Green-
inuation,'
aa, Torf.,
le as that
' Mustela
; in this
ing upon
imals by
md Kap-
s to know
this day
il stories
mders, as
t it ; but
^t. p. 90.)
the name
cnown in

d he had
made no

d escaped
me that,

ig-season,

July 1867
Tessiursak,

one of his dogs escaped and could not be captured again. Three
years after, one severe winter, when " looking " his fox-traps, he
found the identical dog captured, much subdued by hunger, but
still very fierce after living for so long a period out of the reach
of the merciless lash. It served its master for many a day after in
harness. This man described the " Aniarok " as all grey. It
has been supposed to be the Wolf ( Cmiis lupus, var. alba) * and
to have crossed over the ico in Smith's Sound ; but from what
I have said about the Eskimo Dog, it will be apparent that to
distinguish between a wild dog and a wolf is a matter of some
difficulty. I think, therefore, that the Wolverine has no place
in the Greenland fauna, and that the Kappik f and Amarok must
be regarded as synonyms of Canis fatniliaris, var. borealis, tinc-
tured with a deep hue of fable : Murray portrays the distri-
bution of the Glutton ( Gulo borealis) on both the east and west
coasts of Greenland up to nearly 67° N. lat. {(^. cit. Map xxiv.) ;
but if I am right in excluding this animal from the Greenland
fauna, this distribution is erroneous.

Here I may remark, what must by this time be self-evident,
that the Grcenlanders cannot be relied upon (independently of
the principle in the abstract) for the uames of animals. They are
not the excellent cetologists we have always been led to suppose,
confounding as they do several animals under one name, as I shall
have occasion to notice in a future page when discussing the errors
which Fabricius was led into by trusting too much to their no-
menclature, and which to this time have entangled the history of
the northern Cetacea in an almost inextricable knot. Fabricius has
notified in his Fauna many species of supposed Seals, &c. under
various Eskimo names, but which he was unable to decipher.f
Hr. Fleischer, Colonibestyrer of Jacobshavn, has aided me in
resolving these : —

1. Siguktok, "having a long snout and a body similar to Pfwca
grcenlandica perhaps P, ursina.'* This is apparently some Eskimo
perversion, if interpreted properly ; for I am assured that it is
only the name of the Eider Duck {Somateria mollissima).

2. Imab-ukullia, a Seal with a snow-white coat, " the eye pre-
senting a red iris, probably P. leporina," is a rare albino of the
Netsik {Pagomys foetidus). The meaning of the word is the
Sea-hare.

3. Atarpiak or atarpeh, "the smallest species of Seal, not ex-
ceeding the size of the hand, of a whitish colour, and a blackish

* In the winter of 1868-9 a true Wolf was killed at Omenak, and was sup-
posed to have crossed from the western shores of Davis' Strait, where during
the same winter they were very abimdant.

t Jansen in his " Elementarbog i Eskimoernes Sprog til Brug for Euro-
pseme ved Colonieme i Gronland" (Kjobenhavn, 1862), p. 55, translates
" Kappik " as " en Grffivling," a badger.

J See also Giesecke in his " Greenland," in Brewster's Edinburgh Ency-
clopaedia. This article, which is the only original one, as far as I know, ever
written upon Greenland in the English language, is a most trustworthy
account, for the time it was written. The author, however, copies Fabricius
in his errors as well as escelleucies.

M

,1

I

32

R. BROWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

Bpot of the form of a linlf-moon on each sido of the body." This
description does not correspond to the meaning of the word, which
is " the Brown Seal." Ilr. Fleischer thinks that it is only a myth,
as is—

4. Konffcsteriuk, which has, " according to the description given
by the natives, sonic resemblance to the Sea-ape described by
Mr. Ileller."* This is one of the northern myths. Tht; natives
say it is a Bear which is so covered with an ice-coat that it never
comes on land, bnt is always in the watei*, <S:e. 'JMiese myths,
both in the pseudo- Mammalia and in other groups, are endless ;
but I have given enough to show that no dependence can be placed
on their idle superstitious tales.

I may as well close these notes on supposititious or non-existent
animals by some remarks on other species, which though not Mam-
mals, yet come fairly under the headings I have given to this
section of my paper. The Great Auk {Alca impcnnis, Linn.)
once so common in Greenland, in the days of Egede, Cranz, and
Fabricius, as, indeed, it was in many other parts of the northern
portion of Europe and America, there can be little doubt is now
quite extinct in Greenland. I made every inquiry regarding it,
but could learn little or nothing about it. The natives about
Disco Bay do not now even recollect it by name, though when
the old Eskimo name of it (Isarokitsoc) was mentioned they imme-
diately repeated it, and said, " Ah ! that means little wings ! "
Though the Royal Museum in Copenhagen has oifered large re-
wards for a specimen, hitherto the efforts have been in vain.
One of the stories I was told at Godhavn, on Disco Island, if true,
would afford some hope of its yet being found : — Eight years ago
(1859), on one of the little islets just outside of the harbour, in
the winter time, a half-breed named Johannes Propert (a nephew,
by the way, of the well-known interpreter Carl Petersen) shot a
bird which he had never seen before, but which, from description,
could be no other than the Great Auk. He and his companions
ate it, and the dogs in his sledge got the refuse ; so that only one
feather could afterwards be found. I know the man well. He is
rather an intelligent fellow, and was not likely to destroy a bird of
such rarity that he had never seen it before, when he knew that it
would command a price from the Governor. Moreover Johannes
bears the reputation of telling wonderful talcs now and then. He
says that he saw two, bxit that one escaped among the rocks.
Mr. Frederick Hansen, then Colonibestyrer (Governor) of God-
havn, has offered a reward for it, and is very sanguine that he
will yet obtain a specimen of the Gdrfugl.^

Depending on the native stories of a jumping animal found in
the southern part of Greenland, on Grassy meadows, and called

* I suppose Giesecke means Stdlers account of the " Sea-ape," vide Pen-
nant, Qiiadr., ii. p. 301 (TVjVAecAus hydropitfiecus, Shaw, Zool., i. p. 247 ;

Manatus simia, Illig. ; M. ? hydropithecxis, Fischer, &€.)•

t Swedish Garfogel, Norse and Icelandic Geirfuyl and Goiful.
called in Norse Stor-Ommer.

It is also

I

I

>.

IJ. BUOWN ON THE MAMMALS OF GREENLAND.

33

' This
, wliich
II myth,

Ml given
ibt'd by
! natives
it never
; myths,
endless ;
le placed

-existent
lot Mam-
1 to this
J, Linn.)
L'anz, and
northern
)t is now
trding it,
es about
ijjh when
ley imme-
wings I
large re-
in vain,
id, if true,
years ago
irbour, in
X nephew,
ni) shot a
ascription,
(inpanions
h only one
He is
a bird of
ew that it
Johannes
len. He
;he rocks,
of God-
! that he

found in
ind called

vide Pen-
, i. p. 247 ;

It is also

V?'

by them Piglertok (** the springer "), Frabricius thought that ho
recognized the Common Frog, and has accordingly entered the
Rana temporuria as a nieml)er of the Greenland fauna. H.',
however, saw no specimens, nor is such an animal known in GretMi-
land, where there are. no sjiiecies of Keptiles or liatrachians found.
About the southern portion of Disco Bay, the natives use the nami?
as A sort of slnngixiV' to the Nisa {Phocirna co/w/wf/ww, Brookes),
the Mursviin of the Danes in Greenland,* from its tumbling or
springing movements wliile disporting itself. Jansen {lib. cit.
p. 59) gives the word in the south Greenland dialect ixh pisigsartut
or pigdlcrtut, and translat* • it "grasshopper " {grasshopper).

I will not stop to inquire into their grosser myths, which, though
relating to animals, are yet only remotely connected with zoolo-
gical science, and wander aAvay into the domains of mythology,
interesting enongh, no doubt, but with which we, as zoologists,
have but little to do. For instance, as far back as the <lays of
Fabricius, they u:ied to talk about men living away in the glens
off from the coast. " They tell tales" (fabulantur), he says, " of
other people living away among the mountains, rarely seen by
them, never by the Europeans, whom they call Torngit (sing.
Tunnek) or Tunncrsoity and even say that they have the ap-
pearance, stature, and clothing of Europeans If

they speak truly, which I am not in a position to deny, per-
haps they are the remnants of the former Icelandic colonists,
who have fled in among the mountains."t About Jakobs-
liavn they still talk of these people, and I collected many such
stories. Some of these superstitions describe the Torngit as
little men ; and I know a man who says he saw one of these
little men " pop out of a hole and in again " most agilely,
and he tells a long stoiy about it. Others describe them as tall
men; so that these are undoubtedly only traditions of the old
Norsemen. During the Norse possession of the country, the
population appears to have got much amalg.imated (as indeed we
know, because when Hans Egede came, there were many traces
of the white stock; and to this day there come from the east
coast natives with blue eyes, and fairer hair than is usual in
Greenland^) with the Icelandic adventurers Avho came with red-
haired Erik, and subsequently imbibed much of their superstition.
Indeed most of the best Eskimo traditions (as related by Rink in
his " Eskimoiske Eventyr og Sagn ") are of Scandinavian parent-
age. Accordingly we find the old Norse tale of that fearful

* Called in Sweden Marsvin and Tunilare, in Finnish Merisika, and in
Norse Ise and Nise, from which, apparently, the Eskimo name Nisa is
derived, as are not a few of the Greenland words, from their intercourse with
the old Norsemen prior to the Middle Ages. I suspect Piylertok, now the
vulgar term, was originally the native one.

t Fauna Grcenl., p. 4.

X A Moravian Missionary at Pamiadluk, near Cape Farewell, told Captaia
Carl W. Neilsen (who told me) that, in 1850, a party of natives came to that
settlement from the east coast, and declared that it was two years since they
had left their homes. They were described as tall and fair-haired. Almost
every year some come and periusineutly sut'le in the Danish colonies.

36122. r

34 REINTIAKDT ON THE MAMMALS OF GllEENLAND.

Kraken * wbicli drew stout ships down to the bottom of the sen,
in a Gropnlamlic version, still terrifying the squat scul-hnnters
who gather round the blazing Kotlup during the long winter
nights ; but I need say nothing further about it. It is one of
the old trots of Scandinavia, familiar enough to all of us.

Still more would it bo an idle task to inquire regarding that
" sea monster " which good Hans Egede saw, and Pastor Bing
sketched *' off our colony in 64° north latitude."!

I have said enough to show that, though there is yet much to
be done to the legitimate zoology of Greenland proper, there is
still more to be done in what may bo called the illegitimate
zoology — the history of zoological myths and errors.

'. f

II. — Note on additional Mammals of Greenland. In a
letter to Prof. A. Newton, from Prof J. Reinhardt,
University Museum, Copenhagen, dated Feb. 2, 1875.

{See List of Mammals in the Appendix to H. Kink's " Gronland," by J. Rein«
liardt, 1857. See also the foregoing Article.)

" As to what relates to the Mammals there are two very in-
teresting additions made by the German Arctic Expedition, viz.,
the Ovibos moschatus and Putorius crmincus. I believe, however,
that both are restricted to the east coast. An animal of the
size of the Ovibos, at least, could scarcely have escaped being
observed during the long period of the Danish colonization, if
it really lived along the western coast, where the Danish settle-
ments are. One must also keep in mind that the interior of
Greenland is most likely all covered with ice, in fact, one im-
mense glacier. It would be very strange if any Mammal should
be able to cross it from east to west. Even the Myodes torquatus
{Mus groenhindicus) has never been observed at the Danish
Settlements.

" But even the list of the Mammals of West Greenland has
received an addition during late years. A magnificent white Wolf
(Canis lupus, var. alba) was killed at Omenak during the winter
1868-69. The skin is beautifully stuffed in the Museum. I have
been told that there were two individuals in company, but one of
them escaped ; and afterwards footmarks of an old Wolf and of its
whelps seem to have been observed." Sec above, p. 31.

* Kraken, Kraxen, Krahben, and Horven, see Pontopiddan, Nat. Hist, of
Norway, vol. ii. p. 211 ; Ancker-Trold, Olau;^, Wormius, Torfseus, &c.
f Lib, cit.y p. 86.

f

ID.

the sen,
-hnntertt
r winter
i one of

ling that
tor Bing

; much to
, there is
legitimate

D. In a
[NHARDT,

2, 1875.
by J. Rein-

0 very in-
lition, viz.,
I, however,
,al of the
ped being
lization, if
ish settle-
nterior of
t, one im-
al should
torquatus
[he Danish

lenland has
^hiteWolf
the winter

In. I have
)ut one of

If and of its

Tat. Hist, of

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

35

III. — On the History and Geographical Rklations of
the Pinnipedia frequenting the Spitzueugen and,
Greenland Seas. By Dr. Robert Brown, F.L.S.
F.R.G.S.

[Reprinted by Permission fiom the Proo. Zool. See, 1868, No.
XXVII., PI). 405-440, with corrections nnd annotations by the
Author, March 1875.]

CONTKNTS.

1. Introduction, p. 35.

2. Physiological Remarks on the

Ilnbits of Seals, p, 36.

3. Habits and Instincts of Seals in

general, p. 38.

4. Notes on the Species of Finui-

pedia, p. 4L
.5. The Commercial Importance of

the " Seal Fisheries," p. 67.

1. Introthu'tion.

In the introduction to the preceding paper I had occasion to
refer to the uncertainty Avhich surrounds the history of many of
the Arctic Mammalia ; pre-eminently is this true of the Cetacea,
but scarcely less so of the order Pinnipedia. Though the specific
determinntion of tlie species in this group is more easily managed,
and has to a great extent been accomplished, yet the end to
which these determinations are made, — the history of the life
and geographical distribution and migrations of the animals
themselves, are yet almost unknown, or accepted on the autho-
rity of the old Greenland naturalists, many of whose observations,
made in a day when the specific characters were less known, and
but a limited portion of the Arctic Ocean explored, have been
proved to be far beside the truth. Again, these observations
were made on the coast of Greenland where none of our sealers
go, while in the Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen seas (the " Old
Greenland " or " Greenland Sea " of the whalers) the vast portion
of the sealing of commerce is carried on for a few weeks each
spring; but regarding the history of the Seals which form the
prey of these hunters, the extent, commercial importance of the
trade, and the migrations of these animals from one portion of the
Arctic Sea to another we absolutely know nothing

In the spring of 1861, with a view to acquire a knowledge of
the northern Seals of commerce, I accompanied a sealer into the
seas between Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen ; that year, however,
proved a partial failure, and we returned to England by the end
of April, leaving immediately for Baffin's Bay. Dr. John Wallace
also made a similar voyage, and was fortunate enough to enjoy
better opportunities of observing the habits of Seals than I did,
for at the period when I left for Davis's Strait he remained behind,
and passed the whole summer in the sea between Spitzbergen,
Jan Mayen, and the east coast of Greenland. On my arrived in
England he put into my hands an excellent series of notes on

C2

n

36

U. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

^

}

y

f,"

llipse nnimnlH, pnrt of which I oommunicatoil to the Royal

PhyHical Society of £iliiibur;;h in 1862 ; luul nn ubstmct was

Ijtiblishcd in thcii " ProcccdiiigH " for that year (p. 312). Havlnpj

^omo intention of preparinj? a more extensive work, I reserved

my own observations and a preat portion of Dr. Wallace's until

fiuch time ns this mi;;ht be matured ; besides, there were Innn-

mcrable points in the history of the Seals which I was desirous of

investigatinjif before putting any of our observations before the

world. However, shortly after this I left on a very long scientific

journey, far from the scene of our former studies, and for raoro

than four years the whole subject was laid aside. In the summor

of 1867 I again found myself u sojourner as far north as 70° N. lat.,

in Danish Greenland. During this time I made a very extensive

collection of the skeletons, skulls, &c. of these and other animals,

besides adding to and correcting some of my former observations.

That osteological collection has not yet been examined ; but this

is the less important, because, so far as I was able to judge

during the hasty examination it was possible to give them during

the process of preservation, there are no new species among them.

Moreover the craniological characteristics of the northern Pinni-

pedin, thanks to the labours of Nilsson, George and Frederick

Cuvier, Blainville, Gray, Gaimard, Lilljeborg, Stecnstrup, Murie,

and others, are now very satisfactorily determined ; and what

points are still sub judice can easily be settled by an appeal to

the collections already in our museums, and to the one formed by

me when it is made accessible to science.

.... In the following notes are combined most of my own
observations with selections from those of Dr. Wallace (distin-
guished by his name within parentheses when I have been unable

to confirm the observation) The remarks on the species

are prefaced by some general observations on the group. For
the reasons already stated, I have purposely omitted giving any
osteological distinctions, except in a few cases, limiting what
descriptive remarks I may have to make to some disputed points
regarding the very fallacious distinctive marks derived from the
skin. Gray's " Catalogue of Seals in the British Museum," or
Bell's "British Quadrupeds" (ed. 2, by Tomes and Alston), will
supply all that is necessary on these points. As in the previous
paper, I have not attempted a complete history of their habits,
geographical distribution, &c., chiefly limiting my remarks to

what has fallen within my own observation or knowledge

The list of popular names attached to each species is the result
of not a little work and extensive acquaintance among the seal-
hunters and fishermen of the northern coasts. The scientific
synonyms are only given when no doubt existed of their appli-
cability, and are not intended to be a complete list.

I

2. Physiological Remarks on the Habits of Seals.

The Seal is, to a considerable extent, fitted for terrestrial pro-
gression, which it performs chiefly by the muscles of the trunk,
aided by those of the extremities. The result is a rolling,

M

K. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

37

Royal

lavinf?
igcrviHl
'a until
iunn-
rous of
ore the
lientilic
Dt more
jummm-
N. Int.,
:teu3ivo
[inimals,
vations.
but this

0 judge

1 during
ig them,
n Pinni-
'redcrick
I, Murie,
nd "what
appeal to
armed by

my own
(distin-
m vinable
le species
up. For
A'ing any
ing what
ed points
from the
seum," or
ton), will
previous
ir habits,
■marks to

;c

he result
the seal-
scientific
eir appli-

is.

trial pro-
the trunk,
a rolling,

waddling, or slmflling kuid of motion — the animnl loaning over
on one anterior oxtromity, and then rolling back on the other
to make a similar use of it, using them thuti alteriuitely and tho
muHcles of the Hpinc continuously, chiefly tho8u of tho lumbar
region and crcctorvs sjnufr.* In carnivorous animals the intestinal
cnnal is shorter than in graminivorous species, yet there are
exceptions, for tho Sloth has a very short intestine, and tho Seal
a very long one. I have measured the length of tho intestine
of Pagophilus granlutulictts, and found it to vary between 50
and 56 feet in length.

It is said that tho livers of the Seals at Novai Sendiij and in the
southern seas possess poisonous properties ; this is not the case
with tho livers of any of the Greenlantl Seals, for they are often
eaten, and I never knew of any bad etlect ensuing. Tho lym-
phatic glands are well developed, these glands being of great
size, though not numerous, it being common to find only one in
each axilla and groin. In tho young Seals tho lymphatics of tho
neck are subject to disease, which appears to be analogous to, if
not indeed true scrofula : the glands swell, suppurate, and pour
out a purulent discharge, and tho animals subject to this disease
do not increase in size.

Many theories have been adduced to account for tho Seal's
capability of remaining with impunity so long below water. That
ofBuffon and the physiologists of his time was long celebrated:
from their finding the foramen ovale open in a few instances,
they twisted an exception into a rule, and accounted for it by this
foetal peculiarity. Dr. Wallace considers that this theory is
erroneous, and from numerous observations he is satisfied that
the open foramen must be very rare, for in only one of the Seals
which he examined did he find tho foramen ovale unenclosed to
within a line of the aorta. That of Blumenbach and Houston
has been also brought forward, viz., that venous sinuses are to be
found in the liver and surrounding parts, and that the large veins
have been observed to be enlarged and tortuous ; these have been
supposed to act as reservoirs for the returning venous blood while
the animal is diving under the water. But this theory carries
inconsistency in itself. The venous system on the whole, and
not in any particular part, unless in the vena cava, from the
pressure excited on its walls, is greatly enlarged ; but this arises
from the great quantity of blood these animals possess. But, even
supposing the existence of these venous sinuses, and that the
animal will remain below the surface for twenty or twenty-five
minutes (though I never saw them remain longer below the
surface than fifteen minutes, and from five to eight is the common
time), are these sinuses large enough to contain the full quantity
of blood that may return in that period from the capillary system ?
The reply is certainly in the negative. Does the heart's action
diminish in rapidity, or come to a full stop ? In that case there
would be no need of these sinuses. What, then, are their uses ?

* For a fuller account of the mccliacism of motion in Seals, see Tettigrew,
Trans. Liun. Soc, vol. xxvi. ; and Murie, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1670.

,*■

n.-,i

38

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

After a very careful examination, Dr. Wallace informs me that
he could not find them in all the Seals which he examined.
He certainly remarked the dilated condition of the veins, but
referred this to a physiological cause, viz., the pressure of the
superincumbent column of blood. He beheves that their power
of remaining so long below the surface of the water is to be
refeiTed to a cause physiological, and not structural. Their
expertness in swimming is not possessed from birth, but only
develoi^ed from an innate instinct. We have often watched young
Seals taking the water at first in smooth pools among the ice,
and then swimming slowly and quietly about in^thc still floe-water,
—then gradually taking the water, staying below the water at
first but a short time, gradually lengthening their stay until they
had acquired the faculty of remaining the usual time beneath
the surface. Dr. Wallace, then, thinks that this faculty is
owing to a cause more physiological than anatomical, and that
the explanation he has given, coupled with the enormous quantity
of blood which the Seal contains, will account for their power of
remaining beneath the water. As I have not examined the
anatomy of the Pinnipedia with this object iu view, I cannot
presume to give an opinion on the matter ; in the Narwhal and
other Cetacea which I examined, the extensive venous plexus
a'jout the vertebral column seemed to explain the possession of
this power of temporary subaquatic existence. The flesh of the
Seal is quite black, from the enormous quantity of venous blood
it is impregnated with ; but if exposed to the air or steeped iu
water, it acquires the usual arterial rosy hue. The flesh of young
Seals which have not yet taken the water is, on the contrary,
quite red.

3. Habits and Instincts of Seals in general.

They spend a considerable part of their time in feeding, but they
pass by far the greater part in basking in the sunshine and sleep-
ing on the ice.* It has been remarked that the Seal sleeps and
wakes alternately about every 180 seconds. Seals are, however,
often killed in considerable numbers when asleep on the ice ; and
this happens most commonly on a day of warm sunshine. We
had a Seal on board about a month old, which I watched atten-
tively for some time, and it certainly seemed to wake and sleep
alternately, with the interval mentioned ( Wallace) : when dis-
turbed it made attempts to defend itself ; and if left alone for a
few seconds, it drew its flippers close to its sides, and gradually
it began to look drowsy, then closed its eyes, and, from the
long deep breathing, it was evidently asleep for a minute or two
(the time varied) ; and then, without being disturbed in any
way, it would suddenly open its large black glassy eyes, stretch
out its head, and look about, and, as if satisfied that all was right,
would again relapse to sleep, and so on. When asleep they
always leave several sentinels on the watch, which, strange to

* " Stemuut se somno divers* in littore Phocse " (Virgil, Georgics, lib. 4),

•Si

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

39

nc that
imined.
as, but
of the
• power
3 to be
Their
ut only
i young
the ice,
e-water,
irater at
itil they
beneath
iculty is
md that
quantity
power of
ned the
[ cannot
vha\ and
s plexus
session of
3h of the
ous blood
teeped in
of young
contrary,

but they
md sleep -
eeps and
lowever,
ice ; and
ine. We
led atten-
and sleep
^rhen dis-
one for a
gradually
from the
tc or two
in any
3s, stretch
svas right,
leep they
trange to

ics, lib.4).

iS

say, are, for the most part, female Seals. These sentinels, how-
ever, conduct themselves in the same manner as I have described
the individual Seal we had on shipboard. I have been assured
by old seal -hunters that Seals can sleep on their back while float-
ing in the sea ; and this statement corroborates that of Fabricius
and other naturalists. In 1861, in Davis's Strait, the steamer
on which I was aboard of ran against a Seal sleeping in this
manner. The hloiv-holes, or escape-holes, of the Seals are evi-
dently formed by them when the ice is making, the animal always
rising to breathe again at the same place, thus preventing the
coagulation of the ice, or breaking it as soon as formed. It has
been supposed that tlie Seal could make such an opening by force
or by keeping its' warm nose for a time at one place for the
purpose of melting the ice; but these conjectures are not founded
on truth, the following reasons being my grounds for that state-
ment : — It could not break the ice by force, and, moreover, it
could not even dare to run its nose against such an obstacle; for
the nose of the Seal is a tender point ; this was known even to
the ancients, and is referred to by Oppian.* This is taken
advantage of by the sealers, who secure as many as possible when
they are hastening to the water from the ice, by striking them on
the nose, and then killing them at their leisure when the others
have escaped. Even suppose the muzzle capable of melting the
ice (which it certainly is not), where could the animal rise to
breathe during the process ? The preceding explanation of the
formation of the breathing or blow-XxoXas, was derived from inde-
pendent observation of the habits of the Seal, but is identical with
that given me by the natives of the Arctic regions. It is at such
holes that the Eskimo and the Bear watch patiently for their prey.

The voice of the Seal is a peculiar cry, somewhat midway
between that of a young child and the bleating of a lamb or kid.

They are very fond of music, which was well known to the
ancients ; and this fondness is often taken advantage of by the
' -nters at the present day.f I have often seen them raising their
heads inquiringly out of the water listening to the sea-songs of
the sailors as they wrought at the pumps or tracked the ship to
the ice-floe ; therefore it seems as if the fabled spell of Orpheus,
which was powerless on the Dolphin, takes effect upon the Seals.
In moving from one place to another they swim rapidly, some-
times on their backs and often on their sides, occasionally whirl-
ing about as if to amuse themselves, and sometimes leaping out of
the water altogether.

* " Non hami penetrant phocas, ssBvique trideutes

In caput iucutiuut, et circum tempora pulsant.
Nam subito pereunt capitis per vulnera morte."
t It is often alluded to by the ancient poets (thus, " gaudebaut carmine
phocse," Apol. Rhod., lib. 1 ; Val. Flacc, lib. .5, lin. 440, &c.) ; and all
ancient historians especially note that the Seal is " perstudiosa musicae." The
well-known passage in Sir Walter Scott's " Lord of the Isles " (p. 140) als«
refers to this, —

" Rude Heiskars seals through surges dark
Will long pursue the minstrel's bark."

40

R. BROWN OX THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

I, i'

Their parental love is so great that they will sometimes remain
nrd share the fate of their hapless young. Their instinctive
knowledge of danger is very keen ; they have been known to
seize their young with their flippers and carry them into the
water with them when they saw the hunter approaching ! I did
not see this myself.

Seals are very tenacious of life, and difficult to kill, unless by a
bullet through the brain or heart. They are so quickly jlcnsed^*
that after having been deprived of their skin they have been seen
to strike out in the water j so that the sympathies of the rough
hunters have been so excited that they will pierce the heart
several times with their knives before throwing away the carcass.
These movements, however, are apparently reflex or diastaltic, as
I have often seen a Seal lying skinned on the deck for an hour,
exposed to a lemperatnre of 12° below zero (Fahr.), and yet the
muscles of the loins and back retain their contractility to such an
extent as to be able to rotate the pelvis on the spine, on those on
each side being alternately iriitated.

With the exception of the Bladdernose, the other Seals in the
Greenland seas appear to have little or no combativeness in their
nature, but are a harmless, persecuted, sportive race of graceful
athletes making merry the solitary waters of polar lands.

On the other hand, the male Bladdernose is, in truth, the lion of
the sea, dividing the empire of the polar waters with its huge ally
the Walrus. Instead of flying at the ajiproach of the hunter, he
will quite calmly await the approach of danger, preparing for de-
fence by betaking himself to the centre of the piece of ice he is on,
and blowing up the air-bladder on his forehead, while he rears his
head and snuft's the air like an enraged bull, and often gives battle
successfully, making the clubs fly from the hands of his assail-
ants with his flippers, his head being protected as with a helmet
by the air-bladder. He will then in turn act on the offensive,
and put his opponents to flight, pursuing them with a shuffling,
serpent-like motion over the ice, the result often proving some-
what dangerous to the panic-stricken hunter if the boat has left
that piece of ice, as the Seal will use his tusks rather ferociously
when thus enraged. However, he is not inclined to give battle unless
provoked, and looks a dull stupid-looking sort of epicurean as he
lolls on the surfjice of the ice and gazes about with his large
black eyes, in an apparently meaningless stare. The " Ground-
Seal " and " the Floe-Rat " {Pagomys hispidus) in the far north
are quite harmless and inoftensive ; they apparently delight to SAvim
about in the calm smooth floe-waters, or bask asleep in the sun-
shine on the surface of the ice. Their greatest enemy is the
Polar Bear, who is continually on the alert to take them by
sui'prise, forming, as they do, his chief prey.

Nearly all of the Seals live on the same description of food,
Auryiug this at different times of the year and according to the

* A convenient -whaler's word (ot^ Dutch origin) to express the operation
of taking off the blubber and skin. It is generally pronounced Jlinched by
the sealers and whalers.

remain
itinctive
loyrn to
nto the
! I did

ess by a
flensed,*
een seen
le rough
le heart
I carcass,
taltic, as
in hour,
yet the
► such an
those on

s in the
in their
graceful

lie lion of
huge ally
lunter, he
ig for de-
! he is on,
rears his
es battle
lis assail-
helniet
offensive,
shuffling,
mg sorae-
at has left
erociously
tie unless
ean as he
hip large
" Ground-
far north
it to swim
the sun-
my is the
them by

n

of food,
ng to the

R. BROWN OK THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

41

he operation
Jlinched by

relative abundance or otherwise of that article in different portions
of the Arctic seas. The great staple of food, however, consists of
various species of Crustacea which swarm in the northern seas.
During the sealing-season in the Spitzbergen sea I have in-
variably taken out of their stomachs various species of Gammarus
(G. sahini, Leach, G.loncatus, Sab., G. pinguis, Kr., G. dentatus,
Kr., G. mutatus, Lilljeb., &c.), collectively known to the whalers
under the name of " Mountebank Shrimps," deriving the name
from their peculiar agility in the Avater. This " seals' food '* is
found more plentiful in some latitudes than in others, but in all
parts of the Greenland sea from Iceland to Spitzbergen ; I have
seen the sea at some places literally swarming with them. Again,
in the summer in Davis's Strait I have found in their stomach
remains of whatever species of small Fish happened to be just then
abundant on the coast, such as the Mallotus arcticiis,* Salmo
(various species), &c. I have even known them to draw down
«mall Birds swimming on the surface ; but their chief food is
Crustacea and Fish, They also feed on Medusae and Cuttlefish
(Squids),

4, Notes on the Species of Pinnipedia.

(1,) Callocephalus viTULiNUS (Linn.), F. Cuv.
Phoca vitulina, Linn. Phoca variegata, Nilss.

Phoca communis, Linn. (Mus. Phoca litincci, Less.

Ad. Frid., i., 5). Phoca littorea, Thienem.

Phoca cawiwa, Pall, (ad partem).

Popular names. — Sea-dog, Sea-calf, Sea-cat (English sailors
and fishermen generally) ; Sclkie, Selach,\ and Tangjish (north of
Scotland) ; Rawn (western islands of Scotland) ; Spidklig Skdl
(Swedish) ; in other parts of Scandinavia, and according to age,
&c., it is variously designated JVilkare Skdl, Kuhhscel, Fjordnacke ,
den spdtiede Sal (the Spotted Seal), Algar, Laggar, Kutar, and
Skdltokar ; Kobhe, Stenkobbe (Norse) ; llyljc (Finnish) ; Nuorjo
(Lapp.) ; Seehund (German) ; Veau Marin and Phoque (French) ;
Kassigiak (Greenland) ; Spraglet Sfclhuiid (Danes in Greenland),

The Eskimo in Pond's Bay, on being shown a good figure of
this Seal, called it Supalo ; but whether this is their name for the
animal and is to be received for a proof that the C. vitulinus
is found there, I cannot take upon myself to decide. The
Greenlanders also call it, according to age, Kassigiectsak and
Kassiginak; but when it attains the age of three years, it is
called Kassiarsoak (" the big Kassigiak "). It is also, though
more rarely, called, according to its age, Ermik, Ermitsah^ Aku-
thcenakfUnd Akunneklok. Prof. Newton ("Notes on the Zoology
of Spitsbergen," Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, and Ann. Nat. Hist.,
Vol. XVI., 3rd Series, p. 423), says that Pagomys fatidus is
called Steen Kobbe (Stone-Seal) by the Spitzbergen hunters. I

* For some account of the Capelin, see Pennant's Arctic Zool. Suppl.,
p. 141.

"I The word " Seal " is from the Anglo-Saxon Selc, Seolc.

M

42

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

lii^

I '

suspect that he has erred through his iuformauts mistaking this
for Calloccpluilus vitulinus. No doubt Dr. Malmgren seems to
think that the latter species is not got in Spitzbergeu — an opinion
I have ventured to contest in a former paper.

It is also sometimes called ** the Freshwater Seal," on account
of its following the Salmon high up rivers.*

Remarks, S)-c. — Any laboured account of a Seal so long and so
familiarly known would obviously be out of place in these short
notes ; I question, however, if all the accounts we posses regard-
ing the Seal under the designation of " Phoca vitulina " really
refer to this species, and not to Pagomys fustidus and others, f
It will, I think, be found that in the western and northern islands
of Scotland several species, not hitherto supposed to be regular
members of the British fauna, exist, known under the popular
names of Sclkic, Selach, Sea-cat, &c.J I do not think I can
say anything in regard to its habits further than what is
already contained in various works on Mammalia, &c., viz. : —
Bingley, British Quadrupeds, p. 57 ; Bell, History of British
Quadrupeds^, 2nd od., p. 240; Hamilton, Amphibious Carnivora
(Nat. Lib.), p. 127 ; James Wilson, in Mag. Zool. and Bot., Vol. I.,
p. 239 ; Edmonston, View of Zetland, Vol. II., p. 293, and Mem.
Wern. Soc, Vol. VII. ; Martin, Western Islands, p. 62 ; M'Gil-
livray, British Quadrupeds (Nat. Lib.), Vol. XIIL, p. 199; Nils-
son, Skaudinaviske Fauna, I., p. 276 ; Fabricius, Naturhistoriske
Selskabets Skrifter, I., Band II., p. 98 ; Q^dmann, Vet. Akad.
Handl., 1784, p. 84 ; Kosted, Norske Vidensk. Nye Skrivter, IL,
p. 185 (good description); Cnciff, "Beriittelse om Skalfiinget i
OiJsterbotten," in Vet. Akad. Handl., 1759, p. 179, r. 8 (on the
hunt) ; Holmers, Anteckuingar om siittet att skjuta och fanga
Skalar, &c. (Stockholm, 1828), (hunt, &c., Jide Nilss.) ; Ball,
Transactions of the lloyal Irish Academy, VIII., and Sketches
of British Seals; Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1871, p. 701 (where,
through an error of identification, it is called Ph. faetida) ;
Gaimard, Voyage en Islande, &c.

Procreation and Young. — On the coast of Greenland it is said
to produce its young in the month of June, but the time seems
to vary according to season and place. In the Western Isles of
Scotland at least it is born pure white, with curly hair, like the
young of Pagomys fvetidus, but within three days of its birth it
begins to take dark colour on the snout and the tips of the flippers
{fide Capt. McDonald).

* I have known a Seal (probably Halicyon richardsi, Gray) to be killed at
the Dalles of the Columbia River in Oregon, upwards of 200 miles from the
Pacific. It was doubtless in pursuit of Salmou. Dog River, a tributary of
the Columbia, takes its name from a dog-like animal, probably a Seal, being
seen in the lake whence the stream rises.

t In the Appendix to Parry's " "Voyage," is a notice of a Seal said to be
" Phoca vitulina.^' It is the young (in second coat) of Pagophilus gromlan-
dicus, which has often been mistaken for this Seal. It can be known by its
having the second too of the fore flippers the longest, while, independently of
other characters, C. vitulina has the first toe the longest

t "On the Seals of the Outer Hebrides," Fergusson, in McGillivray's
" Edin. Journ. Nat. and Pbys. Sc," ii., p. 58.

Jl. BROWN ON THE SE.VLS OP GREENLAND.

43

ag this
ems to
)piuion

iccount

and so
ie short
regard-
' really
)thers.t
islands
regular
popular
I can
vhat is
viz. : —
British
arnivora
Vo?. I.,
id Mem.
; M'Gil-
9; Nils-
istoriske
t. Akad.
ter, II.,
fiinget i
(on the
|h fdnga
); Ball,
ketches
(where,
(letidd) ;

lit is said

seems

L Isles o£

like the

birth it

) flippers

killed at

from the

Ibutary of

leal, being

Isald to be

grafilan-

|»wn by its

idently of

iillivray'8

Geographical Distribution. — This is a Seal peculiar to the
coasts of the regions which it aiFocts, but has also a wide range,
being found over nearly all the northern coasts of Europe and
the colder portions of America. It is even said to be found in
the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal. It does not seem, from its
littoral habits, to be found in the Spitzbergen sea, or to form a
portion of the commerce of the sealer ; it is however found on the
coasts of Spitzbergen, tolerably abundant on the eastern shores
of Greenland, and in Davis's Strait. It is to be found all the year
round all along the coast of Greenland up inlets,* but not to any
such extent as Pagomys foitidus and Pagophilus grcenlandicus.
In Scandinavia it is sometimes called the Fjardskiil on account
of its frequenting inlets or fjords.

Economic Value and Hunting. — We have no data to decide as
to what extent it is killed in Danish Greenland, its record being
united with that of Pagomys ftctidus. The skins are highly
valued as articles of dress, more especially as material for the
women's breeches ; and no more acceptable present can be given
to a Greenland damsel than a skin of the Kassigiak. ....
In the Danish Settlements they are valued at from three to four rigs-
daler. The priucipal reason which induced the late Admiral Graah's
boat-women to accompany him on his memorable voyage along the
east coast of Greenland was the hope of obtaining some Kassigiak
skins from that region, the natives of which value them at even
less than the more serviceable hides of the other species, which
are sold by the west coast natives for a mere trifle. According
to Hr. Cneiff" (/. c.) a C. vitulinus will yield about 6f Swedish
lispunds of blubber, and according to Holmers, even 8 lispunds.
Professor Nilsson says that a Seal of this species killed on the
coast near Malmo in Sweden yielded over 90 Swedish " potts ^
of oil, each <'pott" being worth 36 skillings, = 67 rigsdaler
24 skillings Rigsmont (Swedish) for the oil of one C. vitu-
linus. In August, when the Seals are poorer, another yielded
75 potts, equal in value to 56 rigsdaler 12 skillings (Swedish).
In some of the northern and western islands of Scotland, and at
the estuaiy of the Tay, &c., they are still occasionally hunted
for their skins and oil. The skin makes excellent leather ; and
waistcoats made of it are much valued by fishermen.

No separate returns of the catch of this Seal have been kept ;
but it is estimated that of Pagomys fwtidus and Calloccphalus
vitulinus the yearly capture in Danish Gieenland must amount
to 70,000 (Rink, op. cil.) or more. The flesh is looked upon in
Greenland as the most palatable of all " seal-beef."

(2.) Pagomys fcetidus (Fab.), Gray.

Phoca foitida^ Fab. (Midler's Phoca bothnica^ Gm.

Prod. Zool. Dan., j). 8.)
Phoca hispida, O. Fab. Nat.

Selskab. Skrifter, vol. i. 2.,

p. 74.

__ ' — - --

Phoca fasciata^ Shaw.
Phoca annellata^ Nilss.
Phoca discolor^ Gray.
Phoca frcderici, Less.

Ji

* The " Colonie " of Christianshaab in Disco Bay is called Kassigian-
wiichz, or the place of the Kassiyiak.

m

m^

il

^1

44

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

"tl

V i

Popular names. — Ringlad Skdl (Nilsson) ; Morunge (CEdmann
Vet. Akad. Handl., 1784, p. 84) ; Hringanor (Mohr, Isl. Natur-
liistoriske, p. 5) ; Kuma (Tungdses near Baikal) ; ? Nerpa
(Russ.) ; Neitsiak (young) and Neitsik (old, pronounced Ncsik,
Greenlanders and Danes in Greenland, Neiturk, North Green-
land), also called the "Fjord Seal," because mostly found up
:Qords or inlets; Floe-rat or Flaarrat* (of Northern English and
Scotch sealers). It has been so often confounded with other
Seals that, even on the coasts where ii is not uncommon, it has
not received many popular names ; however, in different parts of
the Scandinavian seaboard it is variously called Inskdrsskdl or
Skarfvinff, and Svart nolled-sd/, or simply the Nollede. This
is, in all probability, the Seal known in the Hebrides as the
bodach or old man.

It is doubtful if this is the Phoca equestris of Pallas ; but I
cannot think that there is any serious room for doubt that it is
identical with Dekay's Phoca concolor. I do not think that
anyone now entertains any doubt about its being identical with
the Phoca fnetida of Fabricius (/. c. and in F. Groenl., p. 13, no. 8),
or the Phoca hisjnda described by the same author in the " Natur-
historiske Selskabets Skrifter," /. c, though Nilsson seemed in
1847 to have been doubtful (Skand. Fauna, i., p. 283).

DescHptive Remarks, S^c. — This is the smallest of the Greenland
Seals ; it is chiefly looked upon and taken as a curiosity by the
whalers, who consider it of very little commercial imix)rtance,
and call it the " Floe-rat," as it is always either found on floes or
quietly swimming about in the smooth floe-waters.

The young is white, of the yellowish tint of the Polar Bear.
The hair is curly.

Habit, ^c. — ^Thoy delight to live in retired bays in the neigh-
bourhood of the ice of the coasts, and seldom frequent the open
sea. In the Greenland and Spitzbcrgen seas they chiefly live
upon the floes in retired situations at a considerable distance from
the margin of tlie ice. Dr. Wallace observed them for a consider-
able time in the months of June and July, between N. lat. 76°
and 77°,t in possession of a large floe, part of which was formed
of bay ice, where they had their "blow-holes" (the dtluk of
the Danes) ; his ship lay ice-bound for nearly three weeks, at
about three miles from this large floe, and hence he had con-
siderable opportunity of observing them. They passed the
greater portion of their time apparently asleep beside their
holes ; and he never sjiw them all at one time off the ice, unless
alarmed by parties from the ship or by the Polar Bear. When
the ice slackened away and the sheets of open water formed
around the ships, the Seals used to swim near them ; and occasion-
ally at these times a few were killed. In the water they are
very cautious, swimming near the hunter, gazing on him as if

* I have heard the English sailors call them Dorrities, but this term is
also used for the Bluebacks (P. (jroenlandicua).
t Parry met with it in lat. 82° N.

i

Idmann
Natur-

Nerpa

Nesik,
Green-
jud up
ish and
li other
1, it has
:)arts of
skdl or
This

as the

; but I
lat it is
nk that
cal with
i, no. 8),
' Natur-
emed in

•eenland

y by the

)ortance,

floes or

ir Bear.

e neigh-
he open
efly live
lice from
onsider-
iat. 76°
s formed
dtluk of
eeks, at
lad con-
ised the
de their
;e, unless
When
• formed
occasion-
thoy arc
lim as if

lis term is

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND. 45

with feelings of curiosity and wonder; but on the ice beside their
blow-hole it is almost impossible for the hunter to approach them,
80 much are they on the alert and so easily alarmed. In Davis'a
Strait they especially feed about the base of icebergs and up the
ice-Qords. The great ice-Qord at Jakobshavn is a favourite
haunt of theirs ; the reason for this predilection is apparently
that their food is found in such localities in greater abundance.
The bergs, even when aground, have a slight motion, stirring
up from the bottom the Crustacea and other animals on which
the Seals feed ;* the native, knowing this, frequently endangers
his life by venturing too near the icebergs, which not uofrequently
topple over upon the eager Seal-hunter.

The old males have a most disgusting smell, which has suggested
the name fcetida. Even the callous Eskimo is not insensible to it.f

Geographical Distribution, S^c. — In the Spitzbergen sea they
appear to be confined to high latitudes, and especially to the
parallels of 76° and 77° N. ; and it is in these latitudes that the
whalers chiefly find them. In Davis's Strait they are to be found all
the year round, but particularly up the ice-Qords. Their capture
constitutes the most important feature of the Seal-hunt in North
Greenland ; but many are also killed in South Greenland, the
Neitsik figuring largely in the trade-returns of that Inspectorate.
In Jakobshavn Bay, I am told, they are quite numerous about the
middle of August.

Economic Value. — They are extensively captured for food and
clothing. Notwithstanding the nauseous smell of the old ones,
the flesh of all of them (but especially the younger individuals)
is sufficiently palatable to an educated taste. During the latter
end of summer and autumn it forms the principal article of food
in the Danish settlements, and on it the wi'iter of these notes
and his companions diued many a time ; we even learned to like
it and to become quite epicurean connoisseurs in all the qualities,
titbits, and dishes of the well-beloved Neitsik ! The skin forms
the chief material of clothing in North Greenland. All of the
ol mXkoi dress in Neitsik breeches and jumpers ; and we sojourners
from a far country soon encased ourselves in the somewhat hispid
but most comfortable Neitsik nether garments. It is only high
dignitaries like " Herr Inspektor " that can afford such extrava-
gance as a Kassigiak ( Calloccphalus vitulinus) wardrobe ! The
Arctic belles monopolise them all.

(3.) Pagophilus grcenlandicus (Miill.), Gray.

Phoca grcenlandica, Miill. Calloccphalus oceanicus, Less.
JP. oceanica, Lepech. Phoca semilunaris, Bodd.

* Hr. Distrikts-Lajge Pfaff, who has resided at Jakobshavn for many years
as district medical officer of North Greenland, suggests this to me ; and the
idea recommends itself as being that of a very intelligent naturalist.

f "Mares veteres foetidissimis ad nauseam usque etiam Grcenlandis " (Fab.
F. G.). Homer refers to this in another species (probably Monachus albi-
venter) :

" Web-footed seals forsake the stormy swell,
And sleep in herbs exhaling nauseous smell."

*l

irt-==^

1

46

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

|.:

Callocephalus lagurtis, F.

Cuv.
Phoca albicaudny Desm.
P. dcsmarestii, Less.
P. pilayif Less.

' P. dorsata, Pallas.
P. muelleri, Less.
Callocephalus grrenlandicus,

F. Cuv.
Young. Phoca lagnra, Cuv.

Popular names. — Saddleback (English northern sealers) ;
Ifliitecoats and Bed Lampiers (Newfoundland sealers) (young) ;
Harp Seal (English authors); Svartsida (Norse); D(clja^ Dcevohy
Aine (Lapp.) ; Svartsidcn (Danish, hence Egede, Green., p. 62) ;
Blaudruselur (Icelandic) ; Karoleek and Neitke (Eskimo at
Pond's Bay, Davis's Strait) ; AtaJt (Greenlanders). The same
people, according to the age of the Seal, call it Atai-ah, Aglektok,
or Uklektok, and Atarsoak (hence Cranz, Greenl., i., p. 163),
meaning respectively the little Seal (white), the blueside, and
the large Seal, while Atak means merely the Seal (blackside)
without reference to age. A variety having the belly dark also
is called by the Danes in Greenland Svart-svart-sidcn. The
Uklektok of the natives is also called by the Avhites Blaa-siden
(the blueside). I shall afterwards refer to some of its other
names.

There seems little doubt that the Phoca oceanica, Lepech.,
is identical with this species ; indeed Lepechin's description is
one of the best we have of the Pagophilus grcenlandicus. Lepe-
chin seems to have confounded with this the young of another
species, and to have erred by trusting wholly to the deceptive
characters of colouring, instead of relying for its distinctive
character on the more stable distinction of teeth and skull.
What he says about the changes of coat in P. oceanica exactly
agrees with what I have said regarding the present species.

Remarks. — It seems to be almost unknown to most writers on
this group that the male and female of the Saddleback are of dif-
ferent colours ; this, however, has long been known to the Seal-
hunters. Male. — The length of the male Saddleback rarely
reaches 6 feet, and the most common length is 5 feet ; while the
female in general rarely attains that length. The colour of the
male is of a tawny grey, of a lighter or darker shade in different
individuals, on a slightly straw-coloured or tawny-yellowish ground,
having sometimes a tendency to a reddish-brown tint, which
latter colour is often seen in both males and females, but especially
in the latter, in oval spots on the dorsal aspect. The pectoral
and abdominal regions have a dingy or tarnished silvery hue,
and are not white, as generally described. But the chief charac-
teristic, at least that which has attracted the most notice, so much
as to have been the reason for giving it several names, from the
peculiar appearance it was thought to present {c.g. " Harp Seal,"
"Saddleback," &c.), is the dark marking or band on its dorsal
and lateral aspects. This " saddle-shaped " band commences at
the root of the neck posteriorly, and curves downwards and back-
wards at each side superior to the anterior flippers,* reaches

* I use this very convenient sealers' vernacular term to express the " paws,"
" hands," &c., of systematic authors.

n. BROWN ox THE 8EAL8 OF GREENLAND.

47

irtts, F.

Desra.

ss.

icalers) ;
young) ;

, DiBVOky

, p. 62) ;
kimo at
he same
iglektok,
p. 163),
Ide, and
lackside)
dark also
n. The
laa-siden
its other

Lepech.,
i-iption is
s. Lepe-
f another
deceptive
listinctivo
,nd skull.
\a exactly
ies.

[vriters on
ire of dif-
the Seal-
,ck rarely
while the
lur of the
different
ill ground,
lit, which
especially
pectoral
[very hue,
if charac-
so much
from the
xp Seal,"
its dorsal
Ineiices at
,nd back-
I* reaches

le "paws,"

downwards to the abdominal region, whence it curves backwards
anteriorly to the posterior fllppors, whore it gradually disappears,
reaching further in some individuals than in others. In some this
band is broader than in others and more clearly impressed, while
in many the markings only present an approximation, in the form
of an aggregation of spots more or less isolated. The grey colour
verges into a dark hue, almost a black tint, on the muzzle and
flippers ; but I have never seen it white on the forehead as men-
tioned by Fabricius. The muzzle is more prominent than in any
other northern Seal.

Female. — The female is very different in appearance from the
male ; she is not nearly so large, rarely reaching 5 feet in length,
and when fully mature her colour is a dull white or yellowish
straw-colour, of a tawny hue on the back, but similar to the male
on the pectoral and abdominal regions, only perhaps somewhat*
lighter. In some females 1 have seen the colour totally different ;
it presented a bluish or dark grey appearance on the back, with
peculiar oval markings of a dark colour apparently impressed on
a yellowish or reddish-brown ground. These spots are more or
less numerous in different individuals. Some Seal-hunters are
inclined to think this is a different species of Seal from the Saddle-
back, because the appearance of the skin is often so very different
and so extremely beautiful when taken out of the water, yet as
the females are always found among the immense flocks of the
Saddleback, and as hardly two of the latter females are alike, but
varying in all stages to the mature female, and on account of
their being no males to mate with them, I am inclined to believe
with Dr. Wallace that these are only younger female Saddle-
hacks. The muzzle and flippers of the female present the same
dark-chestnut appeaiTvnce as in the male.

. Procreation, and Changes of Coats in the Young. — I have already
spoken of the young as being different from the male ; and in my
remarks upon their geographical distribution and migrations
reference will be made generally to their period and place of pro-
creation, more theoretically, however, than from actual knowledge
or observation. I now supply this from a study of this subject in
the Spitzbergen sea. The period at which the Saddlebacks take
to the ice to bring forth their young may bo stated generally at
between the middle of March and the middle of April according
to the state of the season, &c., the most common time being about
the end of March. At this time they may be seen literally
covering the frozen waste as far as the eye can reach with the aid
of a telescope from the " crow's nest " at the main-royal mast-
head, and have on such occasions been calculated to number
upwards of half a million of males and females. After the females
have procured suitable ice on which they may bring forth their
young, the males leave them and pursue their course to the
margin of the ice ; there the Seal-hunters lose them, and are at a
loss as to what course they take, the common opinion being
that they leave for feeding-banks ; but where is unknown. They
most probably direct their course along the " cant " of the ice,

^51

'-■- . (c\

'5 'f^l

48

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

» f

or among the ico where it is loose nnd scattered ; for in the
montli of May seulers fall in with the old Seals (male ond
female) in nbout from N. hit. 73° to 75°, and in the following
month still further north, by which period the young ones have
also joined them. The females commonly produce one at a birth,
frequently two ; and there is good reason for supposing that there
are occasionally three, as most sealers can tell that they have
often seen three young ones on a piece of ice floating about which
wore apparently attended by only one female. Yet it is only
proper to remark that, of the several ships I have heard of finding
the Seals when taking the ice, none of the hunters have been able
to tell me that they took more than two from the uterus of tlio
mother.* In contradiction to the opinion of some experienced
sealers, I think that it is more than probable that they produce
. but once a year,

(a) The colour after birth is a pure woolly white, which gra-
dually assumes a beautiful yellowish tint when contrasted with
the stainless purity of the Arctic snow j they are then called by
the sealers " white-coats " or " whitey-coats "f ; and they retain
this colour until they are able to take the water (when about 14
or 20 days old). They sleep most of this time on the surface of
the snow-covered pack-ice and grow remarkably fast. At this
stage they can hardly be distinguished among the icy hummocks
and the snow — their colour thus acting as a protection to them ;
for in this state they are perfectly helpless, and the sealer kills
them with a blow of the sharp-pointed club, or a kick over the
nose with his heavy boot. The mother will hold by her young
until the last moment, and will even defend it to her own destruc-
tion. I have known them seize the hunter when flaying the
young one, and inflict severe wounds upon him. In 1862, during
a severe gale of Avind many of the young Seals were blown off
the ice and drowned. Sometimes the sealing-ships have acci-
dentally fiillcn among them during the long dark nights of the
end of March or beginning of April, and were aware of their
good luck only from hearing the cries of the young Seals. The
white-coat changes very quickly. In 1862 the late Capt. George
Deuchars, to whom science is indebted for so many specimens,
hrought mo two alive from near Jan Mayen ; they Avere white
Avhen brought on board, but they changed this coat to a dark
one completely on the passage of a week or ten days. They ate
fi-esh beef, and recognised different persons quite readily. The
young *' white-coat " represented on the plate of Phoca barbata
by Dr. Hamilton ("Amphibious Carnivora," Naturalist's Library,

* Fabricius says that two at a birth is an exceedingly rare occurrence.
Perhaps, after all, Pliny has struck the truth in regard to the order -when he
says, " Parit nunquam geminis plures " (Hist. Nat., lib. 9, sec. 13).

f These are rarely seen in Danish Greenland, and then are called "Isblink"
by the Danes from their colour, at least so Fabricius says. He, moreovei',
informs us that the third year they are called Aylehtok (as mentioned above),
the fourth Millaktok, and after a winter Kinrifjiit, vhen they are beginning to
assume the harp-shaped markings of the male (Nat. Selsk. Skrift., i., p. 92).
I never heard these names in North Greenland.

!n the
lo and
[owing
I have
birtlt,
t there
r have
which
3 only
finding
DH vX)\q
of the
rienced
)roduco

jh gra-
id with
,lled by
y retain
bout 14
irface of
At this
mmocka
o them ;
lev kills
aver the
r young
destruc-
ing the
, during
own otF

A

R. BUOWN ON THE SEALS OF GUEENLAND;

49

Icurrence.
•when he

'Isblink"

loreover.

Id above),

finning to

p. 92).

vol. viii., pi. .1), from a spncimcn in the Edinburgh Museum, is not
the young of that species, but of Pnf/ojthiltis f/ranlnndictts. The
young white -coat, however, is much pluiui)er than tht^ s|)ocitnen
figured ; indeed, in proportion to its size, it has nuich juoro blubber
between the skin and the flesh than the adult animal.

()3) Tlioy take the water under the guidance of the old females.
At the same time the colour of the skin bi-^jins to chanjje to that
of a dark speckled and then spotted hue; these are denominated
" hares " by the sealers.*

(y) This colour gradually changes to a dark bluish colour on
the back, while on the breast and belly it is of a dark silvery
hue. Young Seals retain this ai)pearance throughout the summer
and are termed " Bluebacks " by the sealers of Spitzbergen,
"Aglektok" by the Greenlauders, Blaasiden by the Danes.!

(8) The next stage is called Millaktok by the Greenlanders.
The Seal is then approaching to its mature coat, getting moro
spotted &c., and the saddle-shaped band begins to form.

(e) The last stage (in the male to which these changes refer) is
the assumption of the halfmoon-shaped mark on either side, or tho
"saddle" as it is called by the northern sealers.

I consider that about three years are sulficient to complete these
changes. This is also the opinion held in Newfoundland, though
tho Greenland people consider that five years are necessary. I
wish, however, to say that these changes do not proceed so re-
gularly ns is usually described, some of them not lasting a year,
others longer, while, again, several of the changes are gone through
in one year; in fact, the coats are always gradually changing,
though some of the more prominent ones may be retained a longer
and others a shorter time. It would require a very careful and
extended study of this animal to decide on this point, which,
owing to their migrations, it is impossible to give. After all,
these changes and their rapidity vary according to the season and
the individual, and really will not admit of other than a general
description.

Habits. — It has few other characteristic Iiabits beyond what i-»
mentioned regarding the order generally, or in other sections of
this paper on its migrations, &c. It is looked upon by tho Green-
landers as rather a careless, stupid Seal, easily caught by a very
ordinary kayaker. Its food consists of any small Fish {Mallotus
arcticus, Coitus scorpitis, &c.), Crustacea, and even Mollusca. In
this its habits agree with those of other species.

Geographical Range and Migrations. — The Saddleback has a
wide range, being found at certain seasons of the year in almost
all parts of the Arctic Ocean, from the American coast to Nova
Zembla, and perhaps even further ; it appears that the Phoca
oceanica (Lepechin, Acta Petropolitana, 1775, t. i., pp. 1, 259,

* In this state it is not unlike Halichccrus ffrt/phus, but can be distinguished

by the characters given by Nilsson, Skand. Fauna, i., p. 301.

f The dental formula of a Seal in this stage killed by me in Davis's Strait,

« , . . 6 . 1—1 , 5—5

September 1861, was, — mcisors , ; canines i_r; molars r^-

36122. D

. v--"*prarwn"-

li

50

«. BUOWN OX TIIK SEALS OF UUEENLAND.

i ^

t. 6, 7) iH ult'iilicul with it. Stragglers even find their way into
tcmpernte regions; and this is m Irequenfly tlio ease that thi.s
Seal may now be elussed in the I'annu of nearly all (»!' the northern
Bhores of Kuropc and Anieriea. The period of tlu^ year inlln-
cnces its position in the Spitzhergen sea (the " Greenland Sea"ol"
the Dutch, the " Old Greenland " of the English whalers). Early
in March it is found by the sealing-ships in innnense numbers in
the proximity of the «lreary Island of Jan Mayen,* off the east
coast of Greenhmd, not far from the 72nd parallel of north lati-
tude ; but, of course, the longitude varies with the extent which
the ice stretches out to the eastward, though the common meridian
is between 0° and S° west of Greenwich. They are never found
far inwards on the fixed ice, but on the margin of the icebelt
which extends along the whole of the eastern shores of Greenland,
Btrctching as fur as tlic longitude of Iceland, and sometimes even
for a hundred miles to the eastward of that island and of Jan
Mayen island into the ocean. The general direction of its sea-
margin is towards the north-east, stretching most commonly as
far as Spitzbergen, to N. lat. 80°, but occasionally only to about
75° N. Int., where it joins at an angle another belt of ice which lies
in a southern and eastern direction along the coast of Spitzbergen
to Cherrie Island. This easterly belt of ice is what the whalerti
call a " south-east pack " ; and at the angle where the two belts
join, a passage can generally be accomplished through to the
Spitzbergen waters. The nature of the ice, which can eiusily be
perceived by the experienced sealer, determines whether the Seals
will be found far from the margin of the ice. Thus, if there is
much new light ice, it is probable that the Seals will have taken
the ice at a considerable distance from the seaboard margin of
the pack, as it is well known that instinctively they select ice
of a strong consistence for the safety of their young when in that
helpless condition in which they are unable to take to the water.
Again, they often take the ice where it stretches out to sea in the
form of a long, broad promontory, with apparently this end in
view, that tlieir young may easily get to sen when able to do so ;
this is the great clue Avhicli guides the sealer in the choice of the
ice where he may find his prey. This was very well exhibited in
1859. Dr. Wallace tells me that there was very little ice that
year, and the island of Jan Mayen wns altogether free from it ;
indeed the nearest ice lay away nearly 70 miles or more to the
north-west of it. The " Victor," the " Intrepid," and a fleet of
other ships met with indications of Seals in 72° N. Int., about
eighty miles in a north-westerly direction from Jan Mayen, in
the early part of the month of April ; they had sailed in nn
easterly direction through a very loose pack of very heavy icBi
The prospects were so good that Capt. Martin, Sen., of the "In-
trepid," perhaps the most successful sealer who ever sailed in the

t

II- I

i

* Hence the Norse sealers often call it the Jan Mat/en Kobhe (the Jan
Mayen Seal), but more often the Springer, from its gambolling motions in
the whale (Newton, /. c).

a

U. DUOWN ON TUE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

51

ly into

It this

»rtlu'iii

intlu-

Early
icra in
lie euHt
th lati-
t yvXnch
neritli»»>
jr fonnA
5 icebelt
eonland,
les even
I of Jail
its seu-
monly as
to about
irhich lies
itzbergen
wlialei's
two belts
rh to the
easily be
I the Seals
f there is
IV e taken
iiargin of
select ice
}n in that
the water,
sea in the
is end in
to do so ;
lice of the
chibited in
ice that
c from it ;
ore to the
a fleet of
lat., about
Mayen, in
iled in an
heavy ice.
)t' the « In-
liled in the

hbe (the Jan
ig motions in

\

r

I

Groonlaml sea, and Cnpt. Anderson, of the *' Victor " (my old fellow
voyngeur both in the North Atlantic and North VaoiHc OcoanH),
were congratulating each other on the almost certain jiros|H^ct of
filling their ships (for, indued, the old Seals hud taken the ice,
and some had already brought forth their young), when sud-
denly there was a change of wind to the eastward, and before
many hours it blow a hard gale from that cliroetion. The roHults
were that the ice was driven together into a firm pack atid frozen
into solid floes, and the " Victor " and many of tlio best ships of
the fleet got ice-bound. The Seals shifte<l their position towards
the edge of the ice to bo nearer the sea, and for seven weeks the
*' Victor " was beset among ice and drifted southwards as far as
N. lat. 67° lo', liaving described a course of nearly 400 milcN.
Though r have stated the parullel of 72" N. lat. as being the
peculiar whereabouts of the Seals in March, yet they Imve often
been found at a considerable distance from it, as well from Jan
Mayen. Thus in 1859 they were found in considerable numbers
not fur from Iceland, the most northerly point of which is in N.
lat. 66' 44' ; this leads me to remark that the Seals are often
divided into several bodies or flocks, and may be at a considerable
distance from each other, although it is most common to find
these smaller flocks on the skirts or at no great distance from the
main body. After the young have begun to take the water in the
Spitzbei'gen sea, they gradually direct their course to the outside
streams, where they are often taken in considerable numbers on
warm sunny days. When able to provide for themselves, the
females gradually leave them and join the males in the north,
where they are hunted by the sealers in the months of May and
June ; and it is especially during the latter month that the females
are seen to have joined the males ; for at the " old-sealing " (as
this is called) in May, it has often been remarked that few or no
males are seen in company Avith the females. Later in the year,
in July, there are seen, between the parallels of 76° and 77° N.,
these flocks of Seals, termed by Scoresby " Seals' weddings"; and
I have found that they were composed of the old males and
females and the bluebacks, which must have followed the old ones
in the north and formed a junction Avith them some time in June.
There is another opinion, that the old females remain and bring
their young with them north j but all our facts are against such a
theory ( Wallace).

These migrations may vary with the temperature of the season,
and are influenced by it ; it is possible that in the Spitzbergen
sea as the winter approaches they keep in advance of it and retreat
southward to the limit of perpetual ice, off the coast of Greenland,
somewhere near Iceland, where they spend the winter. We are,
however, at a loss regarding the winter habits of these Seals in
that region ; here no one winters, and there are no inhabitants to
note their migrations and ways of life. Dift'erent is it, however,
on the Greenland shores of Davis's Strait, where in the Danish
settlements the Seals form, both with the whites and Eskimo, the
staple article of food and commerce, and accordingly their habits

d2

■■4

52

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

and ari'ivai are well known and eagerly watched. The Atarsoak,
as it is commonly called by the Eskimo, the " Svartsidale Sc^l-
hund " (Black-sided Sealhound) of the Danes, is the most common
Seal in all South Greenland. It is equally by this Seal that the
Eskimo lives, and the " Kongl. Gronlandske Handel " r lakes its
commerce. In South Greenland when the Seal generally is talked
of, or a good or bad year spoken about, everybody thinks of this
Seal ; on the other hand, in North Greenland Pagomys JKtidus
and Calloccphalus vitulinus* arc the most common. These last
two species are the only Seals which can be properly said to have
their home in Greenland, affecting ice-Qords and rarely going far
from the coast. This is not the case with P, grcenlandicus ; at
certain times of the year they completely leave the coast ; there-
fore the Seal-hunting in South Greenland is more dependent upon
contingencies than in North Greenland. This Seal arrives re-
gularly in September in companies travelling from the south to
north, keeping among the islands ; occasionally at this time indi-
viduals detach themselves from the drove and go up the inlets.
The Seal at this period is fatter, and continues so until the winter
time. In October and November is the great catching, lessening
in December. Very few are seen in January, and in February
almost none ; but regularly towards the end of May they return
to the south of Greenland, and in June further north. The Seal
is at this time in very poor condition, and remains for the most
part in the fjoros. For the secoid time they disappear in July,
again to return regularly in September.f It is therefore seen
that this Seal regularly comes and goes twice a year. Every one
knows when it commences its migration from the south to the
north, but nobody knows where the Seal goes to when it dis-
appears off the coast. Between the time they leave the coast in
the spring and return in the summer they beget their young ; and
this seems to be accomplished on the pack-ice a great distance
from land, J viz., in the Spitzbergen sea. It is at this period that
the seal-ships come after them, as referred to already. Of course
a few stragglers occasionally do not leave the coast, and produce
their young close to the land ; but such exceptions do not at all
affect the rule laid down. It is a very familiar fact that round
the Spitzbergen seas in April the sealers get the best catch. At
this season the Seals accumulate in immense numbers on the pack
and can be killed en masse ; but Dr. Rink cannot believe that in
this time they could migrate from the west coast of Greenland to
Spitzbex'gen, the distance being too great. In support of this
argument, it is pointed out that in the winter the Seal goes in the

* I was always under the impression that this Seal was rather rare ; but, as
the return of its capture is not given separately from the former, it is impos-
sible to say accurately.

t This varies a little Trith latitude, &c. ; e.g., this Seal leaves the vicinity of
Jakobshavn ice-fjord about the middle of July or beginning of August, and
comes back in October very fat. In August and September there are none
on that part of the coast.

X Rink, lib. city et O. Fabricius in Nat. Selsk. Skrift., /. c.

p. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

53

opposite direction to that of Spitzborgen, and cannot be seen in
the northern parts of Davis's Strait or Baffin's Bay ; it is ix>ssible
therefore, he thinks, that the Seals of Baffin's Bay go in the spring
down the west side of Davis's Strait to Newfoundland and Labra-
dor, and supply the bulk of those killed there at that season, that
in the winter they cross Davis's Strait and beget their y^ung in
that region, and after tliis cross again +0 the southern portion of
Greenland. One would think that if the Seals came from Spitz-
bergf^n there would at this season be great numbers met on the
passage round Cape Farewell. At other seasons of the year it is
certainly the abundance or otherwise of their food which deter-
mines which way the Seal will tiike. In June the Seals go to feed
on Fish up the fjords ; but what way they go in July, and where
they may be in August, is still a matter of doubt. It is often
argued in Greenland that in the " old times " Seals were more
numerous than now, and that the great slaughter by the European
sealers in Spitzbergcn and Newfoundland has lessened their num-
bers on the shores of Greenland. The worthy Director of Green-
land Commerce therefore rejoices that the recent failures of the
Seal-hunting in the former localities will have a tendency to again
increase their numbers in Davis';^ Strait and Baffin's Bay, and
thereby bring an increase of prosperity to his hyperborean
subjects.

Economic Value and Hunting. — To the Greonlandcr this Seal is
of vast importance for its oil, flesh, and hide. One full-grown
animal will weigh on an average about 230 lbs., of which the skin
and blubber weigh 100 lbs., and the meat 93 lbs., the remainder
being the head, blood, and entz'ails. The edible parts may there-
fore be said to reach the amount of 100 lbs. ; but this weight also
includes the bones. The blubber of one at the latter part of the
year would probably fill about one-third of a cask, but would not
yield over a fourth part of tliat quantity when the animals return
in the spring after procreating. The yearly catch in the Danish
settlements is estimated at 36,000. ( Vide Rink, /. c).

(4.) Phoca b areata, O. Fab.

Callocephalus barbatus, F. Cuv.
Phoca leporina, Lepech. ?
Callocephalus leporinus, F. Cuv.
Popular names. — Hafert skdl (Swedish)* ; Ajne (Lapp) ; Ursuk
(so written by Fab., but in North Greenland always pronounced
oo-sook)\ (Greenland). It is also called Takamugak^ and the
young Terkigluk ; but I never heard these terms applied, so they
must be rarely used.

What the " great Seals " of Pennant and other authors are has
yet to be investigated ; they were originally all set down to be
this species, but are now generally supposed to belong to the Grey

* Newton (/. c.) says that this is the Seal known to the Norse hurters ahout
Spitzbergen as the Stor-kobbe (Great Seal), and more frequently as Blaa-kobbe
(the Blue Seal).

f Oo-sook also means blubber. The name may possibly refer to the size or
fatness of the animal, and mean " the big, fat Seal."

-^Mi

54

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

w\

%.

*

i|:|l«

w

Seal {Halichcertis gryphus). The Tapvaist of the western islands
of Scotland appears also to belong to that species, H. gryphus
being a common Seal among the Hebrides.

Descriptive Remarks, S^c. — Next to the Walrus this is the largest
species of the order found in the northern seas. Perhaps, however,
H. gryphus may occasionally be found to equal it in size.

Geographical Distribution, Sfc, — ^This species has been so often
confounded with the Grey Seal (//. gryphus) and the Saddleback
(^P. grcenlandicus) in different stages and coats, that it is really
very difficult to arrive at anything like a true knowledge of its
distribution. At the end of the notice of this species I shall
have something to say regarding the probability of its identity
with the Ground- Seal of the English Seal-hunters of the Spitz-
bergen sea. On the coast of Danish Greenland it is principally
caught in the district of Julianshaab a little time before the
Klapmyds. It is not, however, confined to South Greenland, but
is found at the very head of Baffin's Bay, and up the sounds of
Lancaster, Eclipse, &c. branching off from the latter sea. The
Seals seen by the earlier navigators being nearly always referred
in their accounts to either Fhoca, vitulina or P. grcenlandicuSf
it is at present almost impossible to trace its western range ;
it is, however, much rarer in the north than in the south of
Davis's Strait. Accordingly the natives of the former region are
obliged to buy the skin from the natives of the more south of
settlements, as it is of the utmost value to them. This Seal comes
with the pack-ice round Cape Farewell, and is only found on the
coast in the spring. Unlike the other Seals, it has no atluk, but
depends on broken jJaces in the ice ; it is generally found among
loose broken ice and breaking-up floes.

Economic Value, S)C. — This animal is of great importance to the
Eskimo ; they cut the skin into long strips for harpoon lines — a sine
qua non of every kayak. Out of every hide can be got four or
five lines, and these are cut in a circular form off the animal before
it is skinned ; after this the lines are dried. These allunaks are
very strong, and are applied to all sorts of purposes in Greenland
travelling. The blubber is more delicate in taste than any other,
and is accordingly more prized as a culinary dainty, when such
can be afforded. There are only from 400 to 600 caught annually
(Mink, I. c).

For long I was puzzled as to what was the " Ground Seal " of
the Spitzbergen sealers, but skulls brought me from Spitzbergen
in 1 869 by Mr. Chas. EdAvard Smith, surgeon of Mr. Lament's
Expedition, leave no doubt as to their being Phoca barbata.

(5.) Halichcercs GKiTHUs, O. Fab.

Phoca gryphus (den krumsnudede ssel), O. Fab.
Halichixrus griseusy Nilss.

Halichcerus gryphus, Nilss. ~ ;

Phoca gryphus, Licht.
Phoca halichcerus, Thienem.
- Phoca thienemanni, Less, (young).

Phoca scopidicola, Thieuem. (young, /?cte Gray).

X

K^

I

E. BEOWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAN.l>,

55

^7

i

»?>

^

Popular namcM. — Grey Seal (English naturalists) ; Graskdl (or
Grey Seal of tlie Scundinavian naturalists) ; Stdtskdl (CEdm. /. c.) ;
Grfls^a/ (Swedish) ; Sjoskdl, Utskdrsskdl, and Krumnos (various
Scandanaviau local names) ; Gronfalg ? (Lapps) ; Tapvaist ?
(western islands of Scotland) ; Haaf-Jish (northern islands of
Scotland).

General Remarks. — The Grey Seal has no doubt been frequently
confounded with other species, particularly Phoca barbata and
the female of Pagophilus grcetilandicus.

It does not seem to frequent the high seas, though possibly this
species may be confounded with the " Ground Seal " and some
forms of the " Saddleback." It is said to produce on the coast of
Sweden in February, and to have one prp at a birth, of a white
colour, which attains the dark grey colour of the adult species
in about fourteen days.* In 1861, a little south of Disco Island,
we killed a Seal the skull of which proved it to be of this species ;
and again this summer I saw a number of skins in Egedesminde
and other settlements about Disco Bay Avhich appeared to be of
this species. Though the natives do not seem to have any name
for it, the Danish traders with Avhom I talked were of opinion
that the Graskdl, with which they were acquainted as an inha-
bitant of the Cattegat, occasionally visited south and the more
southerly northern portions of Greenland with the herds of Atak
(P. grfsnlandicus).

The skull to which I refer, though carefully examined at the
time, was afterwards accidentally destroyed by a young Polar
Bear which formed one of our ship's company on that northern
voyage ; therefore, though perfectly convinced of its being entitled
to be classed as a member of the Greenland fauna, I am not in a
position to assert this with more confidence than as being a very
strong probability. It should be carefully looked for among the
herds of P. grcenlandicus when they arrive on the coast. Its
hunting forms nowhere an important branch of industry ; it is,
however, killed on the Scandanavian coasts, at various places,
where it is most abundant. A large Grey Seal about eight feet
in length will yield (the Swedes say) about 12 lispunds of blubber,
equal in value to 36 rigsdaler banco (Swedish); and the hide,
which is as large as an ox-hide, will bring the value of such a
Seal up to the sum of 60 rigsdaler banco ( Swedish). f I have
seen and extimined this Seal in various collections, and have seen
it alive on the coasts of the Cattegat, &c., and among the northern
islands of Scotland, but can add nothing of value to the excellent
account of Nilsson] in his " Skandinavisk Fauna" (Forsta Delen,
Diiggdjuren, 1847), pp. 298-310.

* Capt. McDonald has specimens of a beautiful yellowish-white. It begins
to get dark on the snout and flippers within a day or two of birth. It is so
abundant in the Hebrides that in one voyage he has killed 70. It is rather
rarer on the mainland. (Turner, Journ. Anat. & Phys., 1870; Elwes, Ibis,
1869, p. 25, &c.)

t In the kjokkenmodding of Denmark, in company with remains of
Castor fiber and Bos primigeniua are found those of Halichoerus gryphus,
showing it to have been at one time sufficiently abundant to form part of tho
food of the primitive inhabitants of Scandinavia.

:m

,«'l

56

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

,|f

i:|

(6.) Trichechus rosmarus, Linn.

Trichechus rosmarus, Linn.
Rosmarus arcticus, Pall.

Trichechus obesus (et T. divergcns, \\\.,Jide Gray).
Odohamis rosmarus (L.), Sundevjil, Uebers. der Vcr-
liandl. der Akad. der Wiss., 1859, p. 441. ]

Popular names. — Sca-horsc ( Engl ish sailors) ; Walrus and Morse
(Russ., English naturalists and authors) ; Hvalross (Swedish and
Danish); Aavhest (Sea-horse) and Kosmar (Norse); Morsk
(Lapp) ; Awuk or Buvck (Grcenlanders and Eskimo generally) :
this word is pronounced aook and (like many savage names of
animals) is derived from the peculiar sound it utters, a guttural
aook 1 aook !

General descriptive Remarks. — The general form of the Walrus
is familiar enough. However, specimens in museums and the
miserably Avoebegone cubs which have been already twice brought
to this country but poorly represent the Walrus in its native haunts.
The skin of the forehead (in stuffied specimens) is generally dried
to the skull ; while in the live animal it is full, and the cheeks
tumid. The skin of old animals is generally wrinkled and gnarled.
I have seen an old Walrus quite spotted with leprous-looking
marks consisting of irregular tubercular-looking white cartilaginous
hairless blotches ; they appeared to be the cicatrices of wounds
inflicted at different times by ice, the claws of the Polar Bear, or
met with in the wear and tear of the rough-and-tumble life a Sea-
horse must lead in N. lat. 74°. The very circumstantial account
of the number of mystacial bristles given in some accounts is
most erroneous ; they vary in the number of rows and in the
number in each row in almost every si)ecimen. They are elevated
on minute tubercles, and the spaces between these bristles are
covered with downy whitish hair. I have seen several young
Walruses in all stages, from birth until approaching the adult
stage, and never yet saw them of a black colour, and should have
been inclined to look upon the statement that they are so as un-
founded, had it not been for the high authority of its author.* All
I saw were of the oixlinai'y brown colour, though, like most
animals, they get lighter as they grow old. Neither are the
muffle, palm, and soles " hairy when young " ; in one which I
examined before it was able to take the water I saw no difference
between it and its mother in this respect. The Walrus api)ears to
cast its nails ; for in several which I examined about the same
lime (viz., in August) most of the nails which had been developed
were gone, and young ones beginning to appear. The dentition has
been examined by McGillivray (o/>. c?V.)f, Rapp, Owen,J Flower,
Peters,§ and others. In an aged male which I examined at Scott's
Inlet, Davis's Strait, August 3, 1861, the small fifth molar on the

* Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus., 2nd ed., p. 3C.
t Bull. Sc. Nat., xvii., p. 280.
i Proc. ZoJ. Soc , 1853, p. 103.

§ Monatsber. der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, Dec. 1864, p. 685; transl.
Annals Nat. Hist, xv. (3rd series), p. 355.

O

?

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

57

Ver-

adult

*rf

^)

transl.

I

right side of the upper jaw still remained, but loose ; on tho
other side the corresponding alveolus was not yet absorbed.*

Shaw (Gen. Zool., i., p. 234) has figured two species of this
animal, and inferred their existence principally from the differences
in the representations given by Johnston and Cook. Curiously
enough, Pontopiddan tells us that the Norwegian fishermen in his
day had an idea that there were two species. The whalers declare
that the female Walrus is without tusks ; I have certainly seen
females without them, but again, others with both well developed.
In this respect it may be similar to the female Narwhal, Avhich has
occasionally no " horn " developed ; I do not think, however, that
there is more than one species of Walrus in the Arctic regions or
elsewhere.

Habits afid Food. — On the floca, lying over soundings and shoals,
the Walruses often accumulate in immense numbers, and lie
huddled upon the ice. More frequently, in Davis's Strait and
Baffin's Bay, they are found floating about on pieces of drift ice,
in small family parties of six or seven ; and I have even seen only
one lying asleep on the ice. Whether in large or small parties,
one is always on the watch, as was long ago observed by the
sflgacious Cook ; the watch, on the approach of danger, will rouse
those next to them ; and the alarm being spread, presently the
whole herd will be on the qui vivc. When attacked, unlike the
other Seals (unless it be the Cystophora), it will not retreat, but
boldly meet its enemies. I was one of a party in a boat which
harpooned a solitary Walrus asleep on a piece of ice. It imme-
diately dived, but presently arose, and, notwithstanding all our
exertions with lance, axe, and rifle, stove in the bows of the boat;
indeed, we were only too glad to cut the line adrift and save our-
selves on the floe which the Walrus had left, until assistance could
reach us. Luckily for us the enraged Morse was magnanimous
enough not to attack its chopfallen enemies, but made off grunting
indignantly, with a gun-harpoon and new whale-line dangling
from its bleeding flanks. Its atluk or breathing-hole is cleanly
finished, like that of the Seals, but in much thicker ice, and the
radiating lines of fracture much more niarked.f The food of the
Walrus has long been a matter of dispute, some writers, such as
Schreber, Fisher, and others, going so far as to deny its being
carnivorous at all, because Fisher saw in the stomach of one
" long branches of seaweed, Fucus digitatus "; and Prof. Bell
seems even to doubt whether the small number of grinding-teeth,
and more especially their extreme shortness and rounded form,
are not rather calculated to bruise the half-pulpy mass of marine

* The anatomy of the Walrus has bflcn described iu a beautiful and exhaus-
tive memoir (Traus. Zool. Soc, 1870) by Dr. Murie, F.L.S., F.G.S., au eminent
anatomist and zoologist, who has added much to our knowledge of the marine
Mammalia.

t There are many interesting details of the habits of the Walrus in Kane's
" Arctic Explorations " and " First Grinnel Expedition," in Hayes's " Boat
Journey " and " Open Polar Sea," and in Belcher's *' Last of the Arctic
Voyages."

«

'm^

111

58

R. BROWN ON TH£ SEALS OF GREENLAND.

vegetables than to hold and pierce the Fish's scaly cuirass. I have
generally found in its stomach various species of Crustacea, shelled
MoUusca, chiefly Mya truncata and Saxicava ruffosa, bivalves
very common in the Arctic regions on banks and shoals, and a
quantity of green slimy matter which I took to be decomposed Algse
which had accidentally found their way into its stomach through
being attached to the shells of the Mollusca of which the food
of the Walrus chiefly consists.* I cannot say that I ever saw
any vegetable matter in its stomach which could be decided to
have been taken in as food, or which could bo distinguished
as such. As for its not being carnivorous, if further proof
were necessai-y I have only to add that whenever it was killed
near where a Whale's carcass had been let adrift its stomach
was invariably found crammed full of the krang or flesh of
that Cetacean. As for its not being able to hold the slippery cui-
rass of a Fish, I fear the distinguished author of " The British
" Quadrupeds " (1st ed., p. 287) is in error. The Narwhal, which
is even less fitted in its want of dentition for an ichthyophagous
existence, lives almost entirely upon Fishes and Cephalopoda.
Finally, the expcrimcntum crncis has been performed, in the
fact that Fish have been taken out of its stomach ; and a
most trustworthy man, the captain of a Norwegian sealer, has
assured me (without possessing any theory on the subject) that
he has seen one rise out of the water with a Fish iu its mouth.
In its stomach I have often seen small stones or gravel ; and
round its atluk considerable quantities are always seen ; this is
a habit which it possesses in common with Phoca hurbata and
even Beluga catodon. These stones may be taken in accidentally,
but still they may serve some purpose in its digestive economy.

Next to man, its cliief enemy is the Polar Bear. The Eskimo
used to tell many tales of their battles ; and though I have never
been fortunate enough to see any of these scenes, yet I have
heard the whalers give most circumstantial accounts of the Wah'us
drowning the Bear, &c. These accounts may be taken merely
for what they are worth ; but still this shows that they are not
wholly confined to Eskimo fable, and ought therefore not to
be hastily thrown aside. There is no doubt, however, that the
Bear and the Walrus (like all the Pinnepedia) are but indifferent
friends. Another pest I believe I discovered upon this animal
for the first time, in 1861, in the shape of two undescribed species
of Hcematopinus, one invariably infesting the base of the raysta-
chial bristles, and the other its body. I also found the Seals of
Davis's Strait much troubled with another species {Hcematopinus
plwccB^ Lucas). t I have seen the Walrus aw^^^^'g loudly on the
ice, tumbling about, and rushing back from iiio water to the ice,
and from the ice to the water, and then swimming off to another

* In Spitz bergen Crenella lavigata constitutes a great portion of its food ;
the tasks being used to dig it out of the clayey bottom. Torell, in R. S. E.
Trans., xxiv., p. 629 ; and in *« Spitzberg. Mollusk.," i., p. 19 ; also Malmgren,
in Wiegmann's Archiv, 1864.

t Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Ediu., 1863.

J

^^

^

i

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

59

jcies
rsta-
of
tnus
the
lice,
Iher

lod;
I.E.

ren,

J

fi

*t

I

piece, and repeating the same operation as if in pain. A few
hours afterwards I saw a flock of Saxicola tenant he (it was on
a land-floe, close to the Fru Islands) alight on the spot. On going
over, I found the ice speckled with one of these species of Heemato-
pinus, on which the birds had been feeding ; and the unfor-
tunate Walrus seems to have been in the throes of clearing itself
of these troublesome friends after the approved fanhion. Sub-
sequently I have seen these and other small birds alight on the
back of the Walrus to peck at these insects, just as crows may
be seen sitting on the backs of cattle in our fields. Its tusks it
apparently uses to dig up the molluscous food on which it chiefly
subsists ; and I have seen it also use them to drag up its huge
body on to the ice. In moving on shore it aids its clumsy pro-
gression by their means.

The Walrus, being an animal of considerable cerebral develop-
ment, is capable of being readily domesticated. For many years
past the Norwegians have frequently brought specimens to dif-
ferent Scandinavian ports ; and two have reached England, and
survived a short time. More than a century ago one of these
animals reached England. De Laet,* quoting from Edward Worst,
who saw one of them alive in England which was three months
old and had been brought from Novai Sernlaj, says : — ^" Every day
it was put into water for a short time, but it always seemed happy
to return to dry ground. It was about the size of a calf, and
could open and shut its nostrils at pleasure. It grunted like a
wild Boar, and sometimes cried with a strong deep voice. It was
fed with oats and millet, which it rather sucked in than masticated.
It was not without difficulty that it approached its master ; but it
attempted to follow him, especially when it had the pi'ospect of
receiving nourishment at his hand." Its naturalisation in our
Zoological Gardens having therefore become a subject of con-
siderable interest, I cannot better conclude these notes on the
habits of the Walrus than by describing a young one I saw on
board a ship in Davis's Strait, in 1861, and which, had it survived,
was intended for the Zoological Society.

It was caught near the Duck Islands oft' the coast of North
Greenland, and at the same time its mother was killed ; it was
then sucking, and too young to take the water, so that it fell an
easy prey to its captors. It could only have been pupped a very
few hours. It was then 3 feet in length, but already the canine
tusks were beginning to cut the gums. When I first saw it, it
was grunting about the deck, sucking a piece of its mother's
blubber, or sucking the skin, which lay on deck, at the place where
the teats were. It was subsequently fed on oatmeal and water
and pea-soup, and seemed to thrive upon this outre nourishment.
No fish could be got for it ; and the only animal food which it
obtained was a little freshened beef or pork, or Bear's flesh, which
it readily ate. It had its likes and disUkes, and its favourites on
board, whom it instantly recognised. It became exceedingly

<* Description des Indes Occidentales," apud Boffon.

41

i

m^

GO

J{. BROWN ON THE SEALS OP OIIEENLAND.

m

irritated if a newspaper was shaken in its face, when it would
run open-mouthed all over the deck after the perpetrator of this
literary outrage. When a " fall "* was called it would imme-
diately run at a clumsy rate (aibout one and a half or two miles an
liour), first into the surgeon's cabin, then into the captain's (being
on a level with the quarterdeck), apparently to see if they were
up, and then out again, grunting all about the deck in a most
excited manner " awuk ! atcuk ! '* When the men were " sally-
ing,"t it would imitate the operation, though clumsily, rarely
managing to get more than its own length before it required to
turn again. It lay during the day bsisking in the sun, lazily
tossing its flippers in the air, and appeared perfectly at home and
not at all inclined to change its condition. One day the captain
tried it in the water for the first time; but it was quite awkward
and got under the floe, whence it Avas unable to extricjite itself,
until, guided by its piteous " awukingy^ its master went out on the
ice and called it by name, when it immediately came out from
under the ice, and was, to its great joy, safely assisted on board
figain, apparently heartily sick of its mother element. After
surviving for more than three months, it died, just before the
vessel left for England. As 1 was not near at the time, I was
unable to make a dissection in order to learn the cause of death.

Regarding the debated subject of the attitude of the NValrusJ I
am not in a position to say more than my own notes taken at the
time will allow of; I saw none last summer, and I am afraid to
trust to a treacherous memory on such a matter. The entries in
my diary, however, are explicit enough on the point so far as
relates to this young individual ; and 1 presume that its habits are
to be taken as a criterion of those of the old one. When asleep
in the cask which served it for a kennel, it lay with both
fore and hind flipijers extended. When walking it moved like
any other quadruped, but with its hitid flippers heel flrst, ihefore
flippers moving in the ordinary way, toes flrst. I am aware thsjt
this is in contradiction to the observations of an eminent zoologist ;
I, however, merely copy what was expressly noted down at the
time. It ought also to be mentioned that, in the excellent figures
of the Walrus taken by the artist of the Swedish Expedition to
Spitzbergen,§ under the direction of such well-informed naturalists
as Torell, Malmgren, Smitt, Goes, Blomstrand, &c., the fore
flipi^)ers are represented as rather doubled back, and the hind
flippers extended.

Geographical Distribution. — The Walrus is an animal essentially
of the coast, and not of the high seas. Whenever it is found at

* When a boat gets " fast " to a Whale, all the rest of the crew run shouting
about the decks, as they get the other bouts out, " a fall ! a full !" It is
apparently derived from the Dutch word " Val," a Whale.

f When a ship gets impeded by loose ice gathering around it, the crew
rush in a body from side to side so as to loosen it, by swaying the vessel from
beam to beam. This is called " sallying the ship."

X Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1853, p. 112.

§ Lib. cit., facing p. 169 (chromo-lithograph), and head, p. 308, both drawn
by Herr von Yhlen.

U. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GUEENLAND.

61

ig

It the

1*03

Ion to

ralists

fore

hind

[tially
id at

^uting

lit is

crew
I from

rawa

any distance from land it is almost always on shoals, where it
can obtain the MoUusca which form the bulk of its food. The
Seal-hunters never see it, nor is it found among the flocks of
Seals on the Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen piick-icc. It is found
all along the circumpolar shores of Asia, America, and Europe,
sometimes extending into the subpolar, and even stragglers
find their way into the temperate, regions of America, Asia,
and Europe. It is not unlikely that it may even be found
in the Antartic regions. On the north-west coast of America I
have known it to come as far south as 50^ N. lat. Tlie Indians
along the shores of Alaska (lately Ilussian America) carve the
teeth into many fanciful ornaments ; * but wo should be liable to
fall into an eri'or from seeing these teeth among the natives so
far south, if we did not know that they are bartered from the
more northern tribes. On the American Atlantic seaboard the
Walrus comes as far south as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and
stragglers even further. In Lord Shuldham's day they assembled
on the Magdalene Islands in that gulf to the number of 7,000 or
8,000 ; and sometimes as many as 1,600 were killed (or rather
slaughtered) at one onset by the hunters who pursued them.f It
has been killed several times on the British coast ; and I suspect
that it is not an unfrequent visitor to our less-frequented shores.
Perhaps not a few of the "Sea-horses" and 'Seu-cows" which
every now and again terrify the fishermen on the shores of tho
wild western Scottish lochs, and get embalmed among their
folklore, may be the Walrus. In addition to those already re-
corded I know of one which was seen in Orkney in 1857, and
another the Shetland fishermen told me had been seen in the
Nor' Isles about the same time. One was killed on East Heiskar,
Hebrides, by Capt McDonald, R.N., in April 1841 ; and
another in the River Severn in 1839 (" Edin. Journ. Nat. Phys.
" Sciences," 1839-40). There is, however, some ground for
believing that at one time it was, if not a regular member of
our fauna, at least a very frequent visitor. Hector Boece (or
Boethius, as his name has been Latinised), in his quaint " Cronikles
" of Scotland," mentions it towards the end of the fifteenth century
as one of the regular inhabitants of our shores ; and old Roman
historians describe the horse-gear and arms of the ancient Britons
as ornamented with bright polished ivory. It is difficult to
suppose that this could have been anything else but the carved
tusks of the Walrus. It is not, however, without the bounds of
possibility that this might have been some of the African Ele-
phants' ivory which the Phoenician traders bartered for tin with
the natives of the Cassiterides. Except for its occasional move-
ments from one portion of its feeding-ground to the other, the
Walrus cannot be classed among the migratory animals. In

* My friend Mr. A. G. Dallas, late Governor-General of the Hudson's Bay
Company's territories, has a bust of himself beautifully carved out of a Walrus-
tooth, by a Tsimpsheau Indian at Fort Simpson, B.(/.

t Phil. Trans., Ixv., pi. 1, p. 249, &c. Apttd Pennant, "Arctic Zoology,"
p. 148-50.

It'

■iMapMati

ti;-

69

1

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

Greenland it is found nil the yenr round, but not south of Rifkol,
in lat. 65°. In nn inlet called Irsortok it collects in considerable
numbers, to the terror of the natives who have to pass that way ;
and not unfrequently kayakers who have gone " express " have
to return a«]fain, being afraid of the threatening aspect of " Awuk."
A voyager lias well remarked that " Atvuk " is the lion of the
Danish Eskimo ; they always speak of him with the most pro-
found resi)ect! It has been found as far north as the Eskimo
live or explorers have gone. On the western shores of Davis's
Strait, it is not uncommon about Pond's, Scott's, and Home Bays,
and is killed in considerable numbers by the natives. It is not
now found in such numbers as it once was ; and no reasonable
man who sees the slaughter to which it is subject in Spitzbergen
and elsewhere can doubt that its days are numbered. It has
already become extinct in several places where it was once
common. Its utter extinction is a foregone conclusion. Von
Baer has studied its distribution in the Arctic sea; and, so far as
they go, his memoir and map may be relied on j both, however,
require considerable modifications.*

Economic Value and Hunting. — The ivory tusks of the Walrus
always command a good price in the market ; and the hides are
held in high value as an article of commerce j they are used as
material for defending the yards and rigging of ships from
chafing. It is also occasionally used for strong bands in various
machinery, carriage-making, &c. The flesh tastes something like
coarse beef. The whalers rarely or ever use it, having a strong
prejudice against it in commotj with that of Seals and Whales.
The Walrus-hunters in Spitzborgen almost exist upon it; and
the Eskimo high up in Smith's Sound look upon it as their staple
article of food. The American explorers who wintered there
soon acquired a liking for it. Accordingly the *' Morsk " has
been hunted in northern regions from a very early period. The
Icelandic Sagas (such as the Speculum regahy &c.) speak of it as
Rostungur ; and there is said to be a letter in the library of the
Vatican proving that the old Icelandic colonists in Greenland
paid their "Peter's Pence" in the shape of Walrus-tusks and
hides. However, in 890, as far back as the days of King
Alfred of England, QEthei'e, " the old sea-captain who dwelt

in Helegoland," gave a most circumstantial account to that
monarch (who wrote it down in his edition of the Hormista of
Paulus Orosiusf) of slaying, he and his six companions, no less
than "three score Horse-whales " in three days. J At the present
period it is principally captured in Spitzbergen by Russian and

«

•?

* Memoires de 1' Academic de St.-Petersbourg, t. iv., p. 97, t. 4 (1836).

f See Dailies Barrington's Translation (1775), p. 9 ; and other editions.

% This statement need not be doubted when we read how, in 1852, 16 men
with lances killed in a few hours 900 out of a herd of 3,000 or 4,000 lying on
an island off Spitzbergen : Lamont, Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc.,' xvi., p. 483.
Martens' " Spitzbergen," p. 182, tells us that in 1608 Wah^ses were huddled
together in such nmnbers on Cherry Island, south of Spitzbergen, that a
ship's crew killed above 900 in seven hours.

n. imOWN ON THE SEALS OF OUEENLANl).

63

ping on
p. 483.
luddled
that a

Norwegian hunters, who visit that island for the purpose. In
Danish Greenland, thougli it wiis once so abundant that tho
principal article of trade Avith Europe, in the iliiys of Erik
Raude's colonivSts, wan the tusks of this animal, it may bo said
nowadays, so far as its hunting or commercial value is con-
cerned, to bo extinct. There arc never more than a few killed
yejffly, and it frequently happens that a year pusses without any
at all being killed within the limits of the Danish trading-posts.
It is more than probable that they never were abundant in South
Greenland, but that the old colonists went north in pursuit of
them. From tho Runic column found on the 'island of King-
atarsoak in 73° N. lat., wo know that these enterprising rovers
did sail far north ; and it is more than reasonable to suppose that
it was on one of these Walrus-hunting expeditions that this
momunent was erected. Indeed so few are now killed in Danish
Greenland (whether through degeneracy of the hunters or scarcity
of the Walrus it is scarcely worth inquiring too closely) that as,
notwithstanding all the appliances of European civilisation now
accessible to the natives, ivory cannot be dispensed with in the
manufacture of Eskimo implements of the chase, its tusks have
sometimes to be reimported from Europe into Greenland. North
of the glaciers of Melville Bay, the hardy Arctic highlanders, aided
by no hayah or rifle, but with a manly self-reliance, enfeebled by
no bastard civilisation engrafted upon their pristine savagedom,
with their harpoon and allunaks still boldly attack the Walrus as
he lies huddled upon the ico-foot ; and thereby the native supplies
to his family the food and light which make tolerable the darkness
of the long Arctic night of Smith's Sound. The whalers kill a
few annually, striking them, as they do the Whale, with the gun-
harpoon, and killing them with steel lances* ; but even then it is
dangerous work, and not unfrequently brings tho hunter to grief.
I have been one of a party who have killed several in this manner,
and have also seen them captured by the wild Eskimo at Pond's
Bay, on the western shores of Davis's Strait, after the aboriginal
fashion ; but as this has been excellently described by Kanef and
HaycsJ in their different narratives, I will not trouble you with
any details. The Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen,§ and Lord
DufFerin|| and Mr. Lament,^ have given many particulars of its
capture by the Spitzbergen liunters. Baron Wrangell** has
supplied an account of its chase on different portions of the
Siberian coasts ; and Nilssou,f f Keilhau,^ and Malmgren §§

* The ordinary rifle is of comparatively little use in hunting this monster
Seal. Musket balls will scarcely affect their pachydermatous sides ; and I
have often seen leaden balls flattened on their skulls. I have more than once
seen it snap a steel lance in two with its powerful molars.

f " Arctic Explorations."

X '< The Open Polar Sea," and " An Arctic Boat Voyage."

§ " Svenska Expeditionen til Spetsbergen fir 1861," &c., pp. 168-182.

II "Letters from High Latitudes."

^ " Seasons with the Sea-horses."

** Nordkiiste von Sibirien, 11., pp. 319, 320.

+f Lib. cit., 1., pp, 320-325.

XX " Kelse 1 Oet-og Vest-Finnmarken, &c., pp. 146-149."

§§ Wiegmann's Archiv, v., 1864.

i

m

64

R. UUOWN ON THE SEALS OP OUEENI.AND.

complete the list of the principal writers regarding its hunting and
commcrciid importance generally.

(7.) CYSToriiouA cuiSTATA (Erxlcb.). Nili^s.

Phoca rrisfafft, Erxleb.
Phoca lcoHina,0. Fab. (non

Linn.).
Phoca mil rata, Milbcrt

(Cuv.).
Plioca hvvopla, Thiencni.
Phoca cucullata, Uodd.
Phoca (Iitinf/i(t(ay Cretzscli,

(^(le Riipp.).

IVioca isidorei, Less.
Jfiroutif/a cristaia, Gray.
Ci/stophora cristata, Nilss.
Cjfstophora horealis, Niiss.
Stcmmatopns cristatHS, F.

Cuv.
Stcmmatopus mitratus,

Gray.

Popular names. — ^* Bladder nose" or, shortly, "Bladder" (of
northern scalers, Spitzbergen sea) ; Klajtpnn/sta (Swedish) ; Klak-
kekal, KabhiUsholihc (Northern Norse) ; Kikncbh (Finnish) ; Arjor,
Fattc-Nnorjo, and Oaado (Lapp); Klapmyds (Danish; hence
Egedo, Grcenl.,p. 40: the word Klapnn/sscu,\\»ci[ l)yhim on page
62 of the same work, Engl, trans., and supposed by some commen-
tators to be another name, means only the Khipmyds, according to
the Danish orthography) : Klapmutze (German ; hence Cranz,
Greenl., i., p. 12.> : 1 have also occasionally heard the English
sealers call it by this name, apparently learnt from the Dutch and
German sailors). All of these words mean the " Seal with a cap
on," and arc derived from the Dutch, Avho t-tyle the frontal appen-
dage of this species a mutz or cap, hence the Scotch mutch. This
prominent characteristic of the Seal is also commemorated in
various popular names certain writers have applied to it, such as
Blas-Skiil (Bladder- Seal) by Nilssou (Skand. Faun., i., p. 312),
Hooded Sealhy Pennant (Synopsis, p. 342), Seal with a caul by
Ellis (Hudson Bay, p. 134), in the French vernacular Phoque a
cajmchon, and in the sealers' name o? Bladdernosc,^ Ncitersoak^
9 Nesaursalik (Greenland), and Kahortak (when two years old).

Descriptive Remarks. — This is one of the largest Seals in Green-
land, and in its adult state is at once distinguished by the curious
bladder-like appendage to its forehead, which is connected with
the nostrils and can be blown up at will.* This has been well
described by Dr. Dekay in the " Annals of the Lyceum of Natural
**History of New York," vol. i. ; and with his observations I per-
fectly agree. The eye of this Seal is large, and of a glassy black
colour with a dark-brown iris. It has, like all the family, no
external auricle ; and the orifice of the ear is very small. The
body is long and robust ; its colour on the upper or dorsal aspect
is dark chestnut or black, with a greater or less number of round
or oval markings of a still deeper hue. The hair is long and
somewhat erect, and the thick fur-like coating next the skin is
often tinged with a reddish coppery colour. The head and flippers
are of the same dark chestnut-colour. The pectoral and ventral

♦ It is often asserted by the sealers that this " bladder " is a sexual mark,
and is not found on the female. I do not think there is any just ground for
this belief.

1

1

surions
with
in well
atural
I per-
black
ily, no
The
aspect
round
G^ and
ikin is
Uppers
rentral

ll mark,
lund for

i

\\. lUtOWN' 0\ TIIK SF^wVI.H OK OIIKKNLAND.

().")

regions aio of the sunn' darlv-j»n»y oi' taniii^heiNsilvery hue which
has he(Mi described in the V*. f/m n/anUirus.

//fi/iifs, iV' — 'I'he HhuhU'inoHO is not only oni; <>('tho hirgcst, but
the fiercest of the northern Seals; and, as its capture requires sonie
.skill, it is only the most expert hat/ct/ur that can jnocuro any.
It will chase a man an<l bile him, busides uiakinj* a j^reat com-
motion in the water. Therefore the luint is very dangerous to n
man in such a frail craft as the fircenland luit/ah ; but as long ns
the memory of tin; oldest iiduibitant ol' Soutli CJreenland exten»ls,
only one man in the district of Julianshaub (when; they are chiefly
captured) has been killed l)y the bile of the Klapniyds, though
not unfrecjuenlly tlu; harpoon and line have been broken. The
limiting is not so dangerous, howevei", wiUiin late years, as it has
been eJTected by the rillo from the ice; but when the; Seal has
not been killed outright, the hunlev gocvs out in his kayak and
d(»spatclies it with the lance. Lik(! all St-als, during the rutting-
tinie, there are great battles on llie ice between the males; and the
roaring is said to be sometimes so loud that it can be heard four
nul(>s off. The skin is ofien full oi' scralches from these lights.

Wifh regard to the favourite localities of this species of Seal,
C'raii/ and the much more accurate! Fabriciua disagree — the former
allirming that they are found mostly on great iciMslands whore they
sleep in an unguarded manner, while the latter states that they
delight in the high seas, visiting the land in April, May, and June.
This appears contradictory and confusing ; but in reality both
authors are right, though not in an exclusive sense. The liood
api)ears to be an organ of defence from any stunning blow on the
nose, the most vulneralde part in a Seal. It only inflates this
bladder when irritated. The sailors look upon it as a reservoir of
air when under the water.* The story which Fabricius relates
about its " shedding tears abundantly " when surprised by tho
hunter is, I suspect, only an Eskimo tale of wonder. 1 could lind
no one credulou.^ enough to believe it ; nor during the wliole time
I passed among the Seal-hunters of the far north did 1 find anyone
esteem my credulity great enough to venture any such story on
me.

It is aifirmed, curiously enough, that the liluddcrnosc an«l tlu;
Saddleback are rarely or ever found together ; they are said to
disagree. At all events the hitter is gencrall}'' found on the inside
ol" the pack, while the former is on the outside. The latter is also
unich more common than the liladdernose,

Procreation and Young, — At first the young Bladdernose is pure
white: during the first year, as it grows older and increases in
size, a grey tinge appears, and gradually it assumes a deeper and

* Mr. J. Walker, then master of the screw-steamer " Wildfire " (now of
the " Erik "), and one of the most intelligent of the whaling captains, assured
me (June 1861), from his own observation, that this Seal lies frequently on
the top of elevated pieces of ice, and that the use of th.is hood, or " bladder,"
appears to be to raise it up with sufficient momentum to the surface (by filling
it with air) so as to spring again on to the ice.

.36122. E

66

R. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF GREENLAND.

deeper hue of the same colour

The majority of the " Bladdernoses " which I have seen were about
two or three years old, and were apparently, by a slow and gradual
change, becoming similar to the old and mature Seals, by turning
darker and darker in their colours, and assuming the roundish oval
markings, while at the same time they were increasing in size.
This species seems to produce its young earlier than P. grvenlaii'
dicus.

Geographical Distribution and Migrations. — The Bladdernose
is found all over the Greenland seas, from Iceland to Greenland
and Spitzbergen, but chiefly in the more southern parts. The
first Seals which we saw and killed on making the ice early
in March 1861, were chiefly young "Bladders" which had not
yet got the hood-like appendage. It even finds its way to the
temperate shores of Europe and America, and rare stragglers now
and then land on the shores of Britain, though it is by no means
a member of our fauna proper. This Seal is not common any-
where. On the shores of Greenland it is chiefly found beside
large fields of ice, and comes to the coast, as was remarked by
Fabricius long ago, at certain times of the year. They are chiefly
found in South Greenland, though it is eri'oneous to say that they
are exclusively confined to that section. I have seen them not un-
commonly about Disco Bay, and have killed them in Melville Bay,
in the most northerly portion of Baffin's Bay. They are princi-
pally killed in the district of Juliaushaab, and then almost solely
in the most southern part, on the outermost islands, from about
the 20th of May to the last of June ; but in this short time they
supply a, great portion of the food of the natives and form a third
of the colony's yearly production. In the beginning of July the
Klapmyds leaves, but returns in August, when it is much emaciated.
Then begins what the Danes in Greenland call the maigre Klaj)-
mydse fangst, or the '* Ican-Klapmyds-catching," which lasts from
three to four weeks. Very seldom is a Klapmyds to be got at other
places, and especially at other times. The natives call a Klapmyds
found single up a Ijord by the name of Ncrimartont, the meaning
of which is " gone after food." They regularly frequent some small
islands not far from Juliaushaab, when a good number are caught.
After this they go further north, but are lost sight of, and it is
not known where they go to (Rink, /. c). Those seen in North
Greenland are mere stragglei's, wandering from the herd, and arc
not a continuation of the migrating flocks. Johannes (a very
knowing man of Jakobshavn) informed me that generally about
the 12th of July a few are killed in Jakobshavn Bay (lat. 69"^
13' N.) It is more pelagic in its habits than the other Seals, with
the exception of the Saddleback.

Economic Value and Hunt.— The, Klapmyds yields, on the
average, half a cask of blubber, and the dried meat of every
Seal weighs about 24 Danish lbs. ; but this is not the whole
Seal, which weighs about 200 lbs. The yearly catch in Green-
land (Danish) is about 2,000 or 3,000 (Rink, /. c).

■•A

J,

I

K. BROWN ON THE SEALS OF OllEENLAND.

67

about
radual
urning
3I1 oval
11 size.
venlaii'

iernose
jenlantl
;. The
} early
lad not
y to the
Bi'S now
means
on any-
[ beside
rked by
B chiefly

I at they
not un-

ille Bay,
3 priuei-
•st solely
rn about
ime they

II a third
July the

aciatcd.
re Klop-
.si 3 from
at other
lapmyds
meaning
Ime small
caught,
pid it is
in North
and arc
(a very
hly about
](lat. 69''
|als, with

on the

)f every

[e whole

Green-

5. Commercial Importance of the " Seal Fisheries."

The Greenland {i.e. Spitzbergen) sealing fleet from the British
ports meets about the end of February in Bressa Sound off Lerwick,
in Zetland ; it leaves for the north about the first week in March,
and generally arrives at the ice in the early part of that month.
The vessels then begin to make observations for the purpose of
finding the locus of the Seals, and tliis they do by crawling along
the edge of the ice, and occasionally penetrating as far as possible
between 70° and 73° N. lat. ; then continue saiUng about until
they find them, which they generally do about the first week of
April. If they do not get access to them, they remain until
early in May, when, if they intend to pursue the whaling in the
Spitzbergen sea that sunnnor, they go north to about 74° N. lat.
to the "old sealing," or further still (even to 81° N.) to the
whaling. Most of them however, if not .successful by the middle
of April, leave for home to complete their supplies in order to
be off by the first of May to the Davis's Strait Whale fishery.
During the month of March and the early part of April, the
sealers are subject to all vicissitudes of weather, calm and storm
suddenly alternating, while the thermometer Avill stand for weeks
at zero, or even many degrees below it.

The number of Seals taken yearly by the British and Conti-
nental ships (principally Norse, Dutch and German) in the Green-
land sea, when they get among them, will average upwards of
200,000, the great bulk of which are young " Saddlebacks," or,
in the language of the sealer, " white-coats." When they have
arrived at their maximum quality, 80 generally yield a tun of
oil, otherwise the general average is about 100 to the tun. In
1859 good oil sold for about 33/. per tun ; add to this the value
of 100 skins at 5s. each, and the whole will amount to 58/. sterling.
From this simple calculation a very good estimate may be formed
of the antmal commercial value of the Greenland " Seal fishery,"
for, supposing 2,000 tuns of oil to be about the annual produce,
and assuming 58/. as the value per tun, inclusive of the skins,
the wholi! produce of the fishing will amount to the }early vahu;
of 116,000/. sterling {Wallace). This, of course, docs not take
into calculation the produce the Danish Government derive from
their colonies on the west coast of Greenland (v,rhich I nolic(!
under the head of each Seal), nor what the Russians derive from
the coast of Spitzbergen and from the White Sea. The " fishery,"
however, is very prccaiious. Some years little or nothing is got,
the ic(^ being too thick for the ships to " get in to them." In
one year it may happen that the fishery in the Spitzbergen sea
proves a failure, while the Newfoundland one is successful. For
some years past it has proved in the former sea almost a failure.*

* It has been rather more successful ia Newfoundlaud. This year (1868),
up to the 28th of April, 25,000 Seals had arrived at St. Johu and Harbour
Grace. -SVc a good account of the sealing by the continental vessels in Peter-
mann's " Geograph. Mitthcil.," Feb. 1868. In 18€6 the steamer "Camper-
down " obtained the enormous number of 22,000 Seals in nine days. It is
nothing uncommon for a ship's crew to club or shoot in one day us uuuiy as
from 500 to 800 old Seals, with 2,000 young ones.

E 2

jt^

68

11. liROWN ON TflK SEALS OF (lUKENLANP.

ftH!

Tlieic seems indeed little doubt that the fi.slieiy must fail in

course of time, as have the Seal and Whale fisheries in some

other parts of the world, and if Seal-hunting is pursued with the

energy it is at present, that day cannot be far distant. Some of

the sealers laugh at this idea; but where is the enormous produce

the South Seas used to yield, superior to anything ever he.ird of

in the North ? No doubt the South Sea hunters said the same

thing, and doubtless when the inhabitants of Smeercnberg, that

strangest of all strange villages, saw the Whales sporting by

thousands in their bays, and the oil-boilers steaming above the

peaks of Spitzbergen, they laughed at the idea of their ever

becoming scarce ! Yet how true that idea has proved ! For in

our day the waters of those high northern seas are rarely troubled,

even by a wandering Mysticete, that perchance may have missed

its way in making a passage from one secure retreat to another.

So will it ultimately be with the Seals. Indeed, some are even

now of opinion that they are diminishing in numbers ; at least,

they have evidently reached their zenith, as shown by statistics ;

and, taking into consideration the appearance the young Seals

presented on the ice in 1861, they did not approach the numbers

I'eportcd to have been seen by sealers in many previous years.

The South Sea "fisheries" became extinct in 15 years, and,

making all allowance for the protection afforded to the Greenland

Seals by the ice, and supposing the sealing prosecuted with the

same vigour as at present, 1 have little hesitation in stating my

opinion that before 30 years shall have passed away the Seal

llshery, as a source of commercial revenue, will have come to a

close, and the pi'ogeny of the immense number of Seals now

swimming about in the Greenland waters will number but com-

})aratively few. This event will then form another era in the

northern fisheries."*

•r

* History of the Uuudee scalers : —

1865

-

4

vessels

-

63,000 Seals.

186G

-

1

>>

-

58,000 „

18G7

-

11

)>

-

56,000 „

1868

-

12

5>

-

16,670 „

186a

-

11

»

-

45,600 „

1870

-

y

»

-

90,450 „

18V I

-

9

»

-

62,000 „ up to tlie lltb of A\\\

The "Arctic" had 15,000, and the " Esquimaux" 14,:j;J0. The St. John's
Ncwfoundhuid sealers had at ahout the same time 231,000 Seals, making an
average of 21,000 each, the largest for many seascnis. Most of llicm inade
two trips. From tlie first trip the average profit of eaeli man was 3()0/.

Svc also Mr. Yeaman's Notes on the Dundee Seal and Wliale Fishery,
IJeport Brit. Assoc, 1867, Trans, of Sect., p. 148.

\ ill

11. BROWN OX THE CETACEA OF OUKEXLAXl).

69

IP

IV. — On the History and Geogeai'iiicalIIelations of tl.e
Cetacea frequentino- Davis Strait and JJaiiin's Bay.
By Dr. Robert Brown, F.L.S., KU.G.S.

[Reprinted, by rermission, from the Proc. Zool. Soc, 18()8,
No. XXXV., pp. 533-5o(), with corrections and annotations by
the Author, March 1875.]

I conehide these papers on the Mammalia of Greeidand and ad-
joining seas by a few notes on the order more intimately associated
in popidar imagination Avitli the Arctic regions than any other,
viz. the Cetacea. Though much more imperfectly known than
any other group, yet my observations on them will be more brief
than on the other Mammals, and for the same reason which has
conduced to the present state of Cetology, viz. the want of oppor-
tunities of examining the species. These remarks will thei*elbro
necessarily consist of a statement of the geographical range and
migrations, and a description of the habits of the better known,
and a list of the species, and whatever information can be col-
lected on these points regarding the others only knoAvn by
skeletons or remains in museums. These I have examined care-
I'ldly ; and the synonymy given is the result of that study, coupled
Avith investigations made in Gi'eeidand. With the exception of
a few of the more common, such as Phocccna communis^ Bdv(f(i.
cutodon, &c., I have not had an opportunity of examining, othcr^
wise than in the maimer indicated, most of the species. 1 have,
however, examined at diflerent times above thirty specimens of
Balfena wysticctuSy and many of Monodon inonoccros ; and to
these descriptions 1 have appended various observations derived
from my own examination and without reference to other pub-
lished descriptions, which have in nearly every case been derived
from the examination of fcjctal specimens or isolated individuals,
conveying but an imperfect idea of the species. What 1 said
in another memoir e(jiially applies here, viz. that the descrij>tions
arc not given as conipk^to, but merely as fragments of a nic-
iiioirc pour scrv'ir. Tliose who have attempted the examination
of any member of the group Cetacea, and still more tlioso whoso
lot has been to examine with frozen fingers (plunged every now
and again into the warm bh)od of his aubject) such an unwieldy
object on a swaying ice-floe, will appreciate the difficulty of
drawing up such descriptions ; and to them no apology is neces-
sary for their imperfection. The absolute necessity of recording
every description of the members of this order however, apj)arLntly
well known, must be my excuse for presenting these notes in such
a disjointed state. In the original draft I had mentioned various
])artioulars now omitted — the recent reproduction by the Ray
tSociely of the admirable memoirs of Professors Eschricht, R(!in-
hardt, and Lilljeborg rendering their publication unnecessary.

•f..-."-!

70

K. IIROWX ON TIIF CFTACEA OF GREENLAND.

k

1. Bal/t:na mysticftus, Linn.

(a) Popular names. — Greenland JVlialc, Right Whale, Com-
moil fF//r</r (Englisb authors); Whale, Whale-fish, iwvS.'-'' Fish"
(KujEflish Avlialors). The young arc denomiuatecl AV^rAo**, and arc
also sometime?* knoAvn l)y the foUowhig names : — Shoi-theads (as
lon<^ jis they continue suckling) ; Stunts (two years) ; Skull-fish
(after this stngc or until they become Size-fish, when the longest
splint of wlialebone reaches the length of six feet) ; Tue qval ?
(Norse); Ilheteal (Danish); Arhek, Argveh, Arhavik, Sokalik
(Greenland) ; Akbek, Akbeelik pi. (Eskimo of western shores of
Davis Strait) ; I have also heard both tlio Grcsenlanders and
western Eskimo call Mpunia, but I cannot learn what is the origin of
this word, and suspect it to be whaler, — a corrupted jargon of
Scotch, English, Danish, and Eskimo, joined with some words
which seem to belong to no language at all, but to have originated
in a misconception on either side, and to have retained their
place under the notion that each party was speaking the other's
language, something of the natui'C of the Lingua Franca of the
Mediterranean, the Pigeon English of China, and the Chinook
jargon of North-west America.

(/3) Descriptive Remarks. — The lower surface of the head is
of a cream-colour, with about half a foot of blackish or ash-colour
at the tip (or what corresponds in the higher orders of Mammals
to the symphysis) of the lower jaw ; further back the colour shades
into the general dark blue colour of the body. This coloiu* is
generally almost black in adults, but in yoimg ones (or " suckers ")
it is lightish blue; hence the Avhalers sometimes call these "blue-
skins." The whiskers consist of nine or ten short rows of bristles,
the longest bristles anteriorly. There are also a few bristles on
the apices of both jaws, and a few hairs stretching all along the
side of the head for a few f(>ct backwards. On the tip of the nose
are two or three rows of very sliort white hairs, with fewer hairs
in the anterior rows, more in the posterior. I have reason to
believe that some of these hairs are deciduous, as I hav(* often
found them wanting in old individuals. In oldei- Whales the darker
colour of the body imj)inges on the under surface of the head,
leaving the ordinary white of the suckers merely in the form of
several irrc^'ular blotcheS; but with two (regular ?) spots, one on
each si(U^ of the jaw immediately ])osterior to the eye, (composed
of a hard cartilaginous material. There is also a little white on
the eyelids, and some irregular white markings on the root of the
tail. There is likewise a white colour all around the vulva and
mammje. Some individuals may be found quite white on the
belly, others piebald, and others with white spots on various por-
tions of the body not mentioned. The presence or absence of
a particular white marking on a specimen of a Cetacean under
examination ought by no means to be received (as has been done)
as a proof that the species is different, or that because such is
mentioned in a former description such description is erroneous,
because this is one of the most varying characters possessed by

I

i

I

\

IJ. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

1

le nose
hairs
sou to
often
linker
head,
oi in ol'
)ne on
iiposed
lite on
of the
va and
on the
IS por-
nee of
under
done)
ueh is
>ueous,
sed by

the order.* The inside of the month inferiorly, where the tongue
is not attached, is of a pale blue colour. The tongue is broader
posteriorly, and narrowed anteriorly, paler blue than the rest of
the mouth, and pah? blue all round the edges and where not
carnation, which colour prevails in the form of a streak down the
mouth of a deep sulcus on the middle and anterior portion of the
tongue, terminating irregularly about two feet from the root of
the tongue. The contour of the tongue is entire throughout.
The substance of th(^ tongue is a fibrous blubber containing very
little oil. There are numerous small linear muscles intersjiersed
through the lower part. The roof of the mouth, on each side of
the gmn, is a continuous curve, broadest anteriorly, pale blue,
sides pale blue and carnation mixed. The upper lip is very much
smaller than the under. The lips are furrowed immediately behind
the edge and bevilled, and are all deep black and speckled. No
traces exist of either eyebrows or eyelashes. The eye is very small
and hollow, measuring from canthus to canthus 3^ inches (in
adult), and 1^ inch deep, with a deep furrow superiorly and
inf<niorly immediately above and below the eye. The inside of
the eyelid is red. The aiierture of the auricular canal is difficult
to find, and is not larger than the diameter of a goose-quill. The
lamina) or " splits " of whalebone are longest in the middle, but
grow much shorter posteriorly to this " size-split." The number
of laminfc is about 3(30 on each side. The whalers have a notion
that there is a lamina for each day in the year ; but this, like the
idea that Jonah's face can be seen on the nose of the Whale, is,
I am afraid, a rather hasty generalization. Each lamina ends in
a tuft of hair, this tuft being continuous with the hair on the
inside of the bone, this " hair " again being composed of iden-
tically the same substance as the whalebone itself. The outside
of the bono is smooth, pale blue-coloured, with the edges over-
lap]iing, the free edges pointing posteriorly, but with an interval
(varying according to the age of the animal) between the laminas
of so very regular a character that each lamina can be seen and
even counted from the outside. Where the bone is pl.aced in the
gum it is of a greyish-white colour, and on exposure to air
becomes black ; all of the portions of the bone most exposed .arc
of a blackish colour. On the outside of the laminae, a few inches
from the end, is a transverse wave or ridge, continuous in a
slightly elevated ridge across the whole of the laminae; and in
old Whales there are several of these wavy transverse ridges,
which are apparently in some way connected with its growth.
The best whalebone has several of these ridges. Interiorly in
front of the place wliere (>ach lamina is inserted into the gum,
are several rows of short stumps of whalebone terminated by a tuft,

short white hair lamina? m-aduatino; into

and before these agam

* The colour also varies with the age, the back of some being black, of
others black and white, and some are all white. Some old Whales are said to
have a broad white stripe over their back down to the belly (Laing's "Voyage
to Spitzbergen," p. 126; 1815). I cannot confirm this from my own obser-
vation.

72

K. iniOWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

a volvet-likn substance in the month. It is said that the laminjr,
alter once being jn'odneed, do not increase in number, but thp*^
the interspaces of the hmiini© increase in width. Tliis interspace
in adult Whales is from about half an inch to one inch in width.
Occasionally two sjilits arc; fomid growing together in the gum,
but separate below. The length of the whalebone dei)en(ls, it is
said, on the size on the head, and bears no ratio to the hsngth of
the body. Occasionally a long Whale lias small and short whale-
bone, whilst a short <hnnpy individual (for there are indivi<lual
differences in these as in all other animals, not referabh^ to spe-
cific difference) may have much longer. The longest lamina of
whah^bone which I have heard of being obtained was 14 feet.
I have personally known of another 13 feet 3 inches long; l)nt
the average length is 12 feet and under. This is the mid<ll(!
split already spoken of, known to the whalers as the " size-si)lit ; "
but in the measurcnnent of this the tuft of " hair," wJiich some-
times reaches six or seven inches in length, is not included — a
very important matter, as much depends upon the size of this si»lit.
The breadth and thickness of the laminaa depend npon the age of
the animal. It is a common belief that the lamina? of whalebone
in the female Whale are l)roader but shorter than in the male.
The colour of the whalebone likewise v.aries; in the young the
lamina) are frequently striped green and black, but in the old
animal they are frequently altogether black ; often some of the
lamina) are striped in alternate streaks of black and Avhit(>, whilst
others want this variegation. Whalebone is said to be occasionally
found white, without the animsd ditfering in the slightest degree.
That bought from the western Eskimo in the spring is often
Avhitish, because they have kept it lying about or st(U'})ed in water
all the winter. It also does not necessarily follow that because
one Avhalebone brings a ditferent pi'iee from another, the animals
that produce them are of ditforent species. For instance, th(^
whalebone brought by the American whalers from Kemisoak
(Cumberland Sound, or Hogarth's Sound of Penny) used to bring
a less i)rice in the market than that of the English whalers from
Davis Strait, Baffin's Bay, and Spitzbergcn, because it had lain
ex])osed during the winter and was accordingly worse prepared ;
therefore, without at all underrating the ini))ortance of pressing
every point into our service in discriminating the different species
of Balfenidfp, as the whalebone is subjtK't to so much variation,
and undergoes so many artificial changes l)efore coming into the
hands of the zoologist, I think that we must i^roceed Avith the
utmost caution in forming species on the mere (lin'crences presented
by isolated lamina? of whalebone.*

* Of late years whale1)one has been bringing a better price than formerly,
new uses for it having been discovered. A large amount is now used to
stiffen silks by being woven into the fabric. By an old feudal law the tail of
all Whales belonged to the Queen, as a perquisite to furnish Her Mujosty's
wardrobe with whalebone (Blacks tone's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 233, ed,
1783). In commercial parlance Avhalebonc is called " whale-fins."

'2'*fl

D.

R. BROWN ON TTtK CKTACK.V OF GREENLAND.

73

' laininm,
but tlip*
iterspace
in width.

tllO JifUIU,

'lids, it is
l(;n<jfth ol'
I't wliivlo-
iidividunl
io to spc-
iiniiiii ol"
14 feet,
onj; ; I)ut
e inid<ll(!
,o-si)lit ; "
ch some-
ludod — !i
this s[»lit.
ic a^o of
diidobono
the malo.
oung Th(j
I tho oUl
ic of th(!
tc, whilst
asioiiiilly
t degree.
is oi'tvn
in water
because
animals
nice, the
ieinisoak
to bring
er.s from
lad lain
iropared ;
)ressing
t s[)CC'io«
ariation,
into the
with the
resented

foniicrly,
' used to
he tail ol"
Vtijosty's
233, ed.

The pectoral fills (or, more prop 'rly, swimming-paws*) are of
a darkish grey at the axiMa, rounded snj)eriorIy and bevelled oil*
inferiorily. 'riic upper edge is areutito in form, with u slight
angularity medially; the inferior edge with the outline in u gentle
sigmoid curve, with tlio greater convexity of the curve anteriorly.
Tho caudal cxtrcmiti/, if not tli(3 honiologue, is undoubtedly the
analogue of tho |)Osterior extremities in other Mammals. It is
almost unnecessary to say that the sulhstance of the tail is non-
muscular, though it has Ixsen described as such in various puldica-
tions, tho only power which it possesses being derived from the
attachment of some of the lumbar and other muscles in tho
extremity of the vertebral column. A transverse section of th(i
root of the tail shows : — 1, the epidermis ; 2j the soft skin ; 3, the
blubber, or a cellular substance containing fat-cells ; 4, cartilage^
enveloping the tendinous cells ; t5, strong muscular fascia^ through
which tho tendons play; 6, spinal canal and vessels; 7, spinal
cartilages ; 8, blood-vessels ; and, 9, synovial glands. A trans-
vei'se section of the tail shows skin, blubber, tendinous envelope,
blood-vessels, and a central cartilaginous massf . 'I'hough, per se,
the tail has no power, yet as the instrument through which tho
lumbar muscles (the tendinous attachments of which seem to be
prolonged into the cartilaginous substance of the tail) work it
exerts enormous force. The figure usually engraved in boys'
books of sea adventures, and copied from Scoresby's " Account of
the Arctic llegions," of a Whale tossing a boat and its crew up
into the air, is generally looked upon by all tho whalers to whom
1 have shown it tus an artistic exaggeration. Accidents of this
nature are very rare, and never proceed to such an extent ; and
1 have no doubt that Dr. Scoresby's artist has taken liberties
Avith his descrijition, that worthy navigator being himself above
any suspicion of exaggeration for the sake of effect. Capt. Alex-
ander Deuchars, who has now made upwards of fifty voyages into
the Arctic regions, informed me that he had known a Whale toss a
boat nearly 3 feet into the air, and itself rise so high out of tho
water that you could see beiKnith it, but that, if Scoresby's figure
was correct, the Whale must have tossed the boat very many feet
into the air — a feat which he did not think was Avithin the bounds
of, if not possibly, yet of probability.

The teats are hardly the size of a coav's, are placed about the
middle, and one inch from the cdgt; of the sulcus, but in the dead
animal are almost universally retracted Avithin the Avhite-coloured
or spotted sulcus, in the middle of Avhich they are situated. The
milk is thick, rich, and rather sweet tasted. Tho frecal evacua-
tions of the Whale ar'i red-coloured, most probably due to the red
Cctochilt and other animals which form the bulk of its food. The
skin (including the cuticle) is about 1^ inch in thickness all over

m

i';^

km

* Fleming, " Philosophy of Zoology."

t A tolerably good account of those and other points in the economy of the
Cetacea, mixed up with a heterogeneous mass of errors, is to lie found in the
(deservedly?) neglected "Natural History of the Cetacea," &c., by II. W.
Dowhurst (1834).

74

n. BTIOWN ON THE OETACEA OF GREENLAND.

M

the body, but is rather thicker on the tail, on which organ, however,
it is of a uniform thickness. The bltthber varies from about a foot
to cififlitccn inches in thickness, tolerably uniformly throu«j;hout,
except on the head, &c. ; the colour is like lard or pork fat in
younp; animals, but in the older ones rosy-coloured, from the
quantity of nutrient blood-vessels in it. '^\\o flesh is dark and
coarse-fibred, but when properly cooked tastes not unlike tough beef.
When the French had Avhalers in Davis Strait, the sailors, with
the usual aptitudo of their nation for cuisine, made dainty dishes
of it; but our seamen, imbued with the virulent dietetic con-
servatism of the Saxon, prefer to grow scurvy-riddled rather than
partake of this coarse though perfectly Avholesome food.

The best figure of the Right Whale is that of Scoresby ; but in
Ilan'is's " Collection of Voyages " there is a very good figure of
the animal (almost as good as Scoresby's), accompanied by a very
tolerable description. 1 think Scoresby's figure is erroneous, in so
far as I have never been able to see the prominence behind the
head which he figures ; and the notch shown in the outline figure
of the genus in the first edition of the " British Museum Catalogue
of Whales " does not exist in nature ; but as Br. Gray does not
mention it in his description, I presume that it is placed there
through an error of the draughtsman or lithographer.

The size of the Greenland Whale has, 1 think, been a little
under-rated. The late Dr. Scoresby, from .ibundant data, con-
sidered that we have no record of the Whale to be relied upon
which gives a greater length than 60 feet. While agreeing with
him so far that I believe that to be generally the extreme, I am
very doubtful whether thoy did not at one time, before they
were so ruthlessly slaughtered, attain a greater size, or that
individuals are not even now found of a greater size. The position
in which a Whale is measured alongside the ship, when slightly
doubled, is apt to introduce an error into the measurement and
make it smaller than it really is. The late Chevalier Charles
Louis Giesecke mentions one which was killed at Godhavn in
Greenland in 1813 which measured 67 feet, and I shall presently
give the measurements of one equally large. The largest one,
however, which is knoAvn to have been killed in the Arctic seas
was one which the late Capt. Alexander Dcuchars (whom T havo
already had occasion to mention as a most trustworthy and ex-
perienced whaler, and personally acquainted Avith the killing of
upwards of 500 Whales) obtained in Davis Strait in the year 1 849.
It measured 80 feet in length : the breadth of the tail, from tip
to tip, was 29 feet ; the longest lamina of whalebone measured
14 feet; the amount of whalebone in its mouth was large; but
the blubber was only about 6 inches in thickness, and only yielded
27 tuns of oil.* The Whales killed in the Spitzbergen sea are
said, as a rule, to 1)o generally loss and " lighter-boned" {i.e. with
less Avhalebone) than those of Davis Strait, which may possibly

* The tun of oil is 252 gallons Avine-tnoasure ; at a temperature of 60°Fahr.
it Aveighs 1,933 lbs. 12 oz, 14 dr. avoirdupois.

,,

rD.

R. BROWN ON THE CETAOEA OF OREENLANTl.

75

3ut a foot
•ouji^hout,
rk fat in
from tli(3
dark and
)ngh beef,
ors, with
ty dishes
;etic con-
ther than

7 ; but in
figure of
jy a very
3US, in 80
hind the
ine figure
!^atalogue
does not
;ed there

1 a little
ata, con-
lied upon
ing with
ne, I am
)ro thev
or that
position
slightly
ent and
Charles
lavn in
[resently
st one,
tic seas
I have
nd ex-
iling of
ir 1849.
|rom tip
Dasured
je; but
aelded
feea are
\c. with
lossil)ly

'Fahr.

account for the less size of those seen by Scoresby, whoso
whaling-experience was almost wholly confined to the former
region. The females are larger and fatter than the males. 1
append the measurements of one of the largest Whales recently
killed in Davis Strait, for which we are indebted to Dr. liobort
Goodsir.

Measurements of a specimen fj/'Balainamysticolns/e/Z/cc///* PomVs

Bay, Davis Strait ( $ ).

ft. in.
Length from the fork of the tail, along (ho abdomen, to

tip of lower jaw . . . - _

Girth behind swimming-paws - - - .

Breadth of tail, from tip to tip - - - .

Greatest breadth between lower jaws - - _

Length of head, measured in a line from articulation oi"

lower jaw -_.-_-

Length of vulva ------

From posterior end of vulva to anus - - _

From anterior end of vulva to umbilicus - - -

Mammai placed opposite the anterior third of vulva, and

6 inches from tip of it.
Length of sulcus of mamma? - _ - _

Breadth of sulcus, on each side of it - -

From tuberosity of humerus to point of pectoral fin
Greatest bi'cadth of fin -

Depth of lip (interior of lower) - - - -

From the inner canthus of eye to extreme angle of fold of

mouth- -_---.

From inner to outer canthus - - _ _

Length of block of lamina; of baleen, measuring round the

curve of the gum, after being removed from the head -
Length of longest lamina on each side - - _

Distance betAvecn the lamina at the gum - - -

Breadth of ])ulp-cavity of largest lamina - - -

Average length of pulp when extracted from some of the

largest laminaj- . - - . .

Number of laminaj on either side, about 360.

The length along the curve of the back and other measure-
ments desirable to have been taken could not be made out, owiu"-
to the position of the Whale, as it was suspended in the Avater
alongside.

(7) Habits, 8fc. — The Right Whale is a gregarious animal, beinn-
generally found in small " schools " of three and four, but when
travelling from one part of the ocean to another they will sometimes
collect in large parties. I am informed by Dr. James M'Bain
R.N., that about thirty years ago he witnessed an extraordinarv
migration of this nature a little to the south of Pond's Bay. The
Whales to the number of several hundreds passed north in a
continuous fiock, and a few days afterwards were succeeded by an
even still more numerous herd of Walruses. The numbers of the

fi")

0

30

0

24

0

10

0

21

0

1

2

0

6

8

0

0

3

0

2

8

0

3

11

4

7

1

0

0

6

16

6

10

6

0

H

1

0

0

o

*^l

^•=^1

76 II. intOWN ON THE CETACKA of OnEENLAND.

n

Inllor were beyond nil coniputntion ; hour nflcr hour did they
travel to the northward, never pausing to feed, hut all seeniinjily
intent on reachinjj the op«'ninj; of Lnneaster Sound. A feAV days
sub&ecpiently not one was to ho seen, ns previously there had been
no sijius of their prescnee. This was undoubtedly a very rare
seene ; and the question whieh must sufi^gcst itself is, where eould
such u niunber of these Imge animals have come from ? The
Whale is capable of travelling at a very fast rate when irritated
by wounds or impelled by fear of its enemies. 1 was told by the
|jit(! Cai)l. Graville, of the screw whaler " J)iana," a proverbially
eNjK'rieneed and tiuthful man, that a Whale was struck near the
jiitriinec of Heoresby's Sonn<l, on the east coast of Greenland, by
tlie father of the late Dr. Scoresby (with Avhom Mr. Graville was
a frllow n])i)rentice) ; but, being lost, it was killed next day near
the entrance of Omenak Fjord, on the west coast, with the
harpoons freshly imbedded in its body. This was adduced in
proof of the existence of an inlet in former times (as, indeed,
rei)rescnled on the old maps) across Greenland between these two
])oinls. Unless the Avhole story was founded on a misconception
(an event less likely from the searching investigation Avhieh
took place at the time), wo c;\n scarcely believe that the Whale
could have reached the west coast by any other means ; for, even
allowing the greatest credible speed, it comes scarcely withiu the
limits of possibility that it eould have doubled Capo Farewell and
reached 70° N. latitude within the interval mentioned. 1'he rate
at which a Whale travels from place to place Avhilst feeding, or
under other ordinary circumstances, may be stated as being al»ont
four miles an hour. Like most of tlie Cetacea, it generally travels
in a course contrary to that of the wind. Itafood consists, for
the most part, of Entomostraca and Pteropoda, i)ut chiefly of the
former, and especially of Cctockilus arcticus, Baird,and Cctochilus
scptentrionalis, lI.Goodsir, Arjiacticus h-onii, Kroy., &c., which are
chiefly found in those portions of the sea of the olive-green
colour described by Scoresby. This appearance had seen shown*
to bo produced by vast qimnt'ities of JJiatomaccrr, chiefly Mctosira
arcdca, on which the "Whales' food" subsists. It is not, I am
of opinion, compatible with facts to suppose that the Kight
Whale's food is eomi)Of^ed in any part of Fishes proper, exc(!])t,
])erhaps, a minute inclividual Avhich may now and thenaecidentally
find its way into its stomach with the mass of maidrc (as the
AViiale's food is called). Many of the old whalers contend othei-
wise, and will adduce measurements of the diameter of the gullet
in proof that much larger animals than Acalephse, Pteropochij or
Entomostraca could be received in the stomach. I have never
measured the orifice of any oesophagus which exceeded 2^ inches
in diameter, though as these observations were generally made on

* On the Nature of the Discoloration of the Arctic Seas, see Seennum's
Journ. Botany, Feb. 1868 ; Trans. Lot. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. ix. ; Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sci., Oct. 1868; Das Ausland, Feb. 27th, 1868; retermann's Geogr.
Mittheil., 1869 ; and a reprint in this "Manual."

X

Jl).

did fhcy
scominply

L few diiys

liiid been

very rare

here eouM

iin? The

ri irritated

old by tb(!

ovcrbinily

nenr the

niland, by

iville was

t day near

with the

Iduced ill

s, indeed,

these two

onceptiou

on whieli

lie Whale

flor, even

vithin the

cwell and

I'he rate

!edin<^, or

ing about

ly travels

isists, for

ly of the

<i'tochilus

ivhieh are

ve-green

shown*

IMclosira

ot, I am

ic Ivight

exe(!|)t,

klentally

(as the

d other-

le oullot

pochi, or

e never

-^ inehes

made on

>eeniann\s
rt. Journ.
s Gcogr.

1

It. nnowx ov thf, rr.TACFwV or (irrf.vlaxi).

77

yonng Whales, it is not improbable that this si/o ni;iv be exeeeded
in some individuals. Most of the sliinydookiniij siil>stanee.i found
float inf? in the Arctic seas are generally masses of Diatomaeea;
eombined with Protozoa, 8cc. ; but in some eases it is the miujons
lininj» of the bronchial pa'^sajjes which has been discharged when
th(( animal was " blowing." This " blowing," so familiar a feature
of the Cetacca, but especially of the Mysticetc, is (niitc analogous
to the breathing of the higher Mammals, and the " blow-holes "
are the perfect homologucs of the nostrils. It is most erroneously
stated that the Whale ejects water from the " blow holes." I have
been many times only a few feet from the Whah; when "blowing,"
and, though purposely observing it, could never see that it t\jeeted
from its nostrils anything but the ordinary breath — i;, fact which
might almost have been deduced from analogy. In the cold
Arctic air this breath is generally condensed, and falls upon those
close at hand in the form of a dense spray, which may have led
seamen to suppose that this vajmur was oiiginally ejected in the
form of water. Occasionally when the Whale blows just as it is
rising out of or sinking in the sea, a little of the superineninbent
water may l)e ejected upward by the column of bieatli. When
the Whale is wounded in the lungs, or in any of the blood-vessels
immediately supj)lying them, blood, as might be expeeti'd, is
ejected in the death-throes along with the breath. NV'hen the
whaleman sees his prey "spouting red," ho concludes that its end
is not far distant ; it is then mortally woundcjd. The Whale
carries its young nine or ten months, and produces in March or
April. In the latter month a Hull ship obtained a sucker with
the mnbilical cord still attached. It rarely produces more than
one at a birth, though it is said that in a few instances two have
been seen following the female. It couples during the months of
June, July, or August, and, as in most, if not all of the Cetacca,
this operation is performed in an upright and not in a recumbent
position, as stated in some works, the authors of which might be
supposed to speak from personal observation.* Equally erroneous,
as far as I can learn, is the idea that it only produces once in two
years ; but on this subject, as on many others concerning the
Cetacea, it would be diflicult to pronounce an opinion founded on
any decided knowledge. In the month of August I have seen
them in the position described, with the pectoral tins adpresscd
against each other's body, and the male lashing the water with
his tail. The young suckles to a considerable age (probably one
year), and in order to allow of its getting convenient access to the
mannuai the mother lies on its side for a time. Their love of
their offspring is so strong, that though the cubs arc of very little
value, yet the Avhalers often make a i)oint of killing them in order
to render the mother more accessible. During the period of pro-
creation the mother is much fiercer and more dangerous to
approach than at other seasons, when it is a timid, harmless
animal. I once saw a Whale, when the boats were approaching

* Dfcwhurst, "Natural History of the Cetacea," p. 20.

■!*•

^-^jy^^ppr^^f- ^f^

t

;h'

r

j.

m

V i'

78 n. iniowN on thk cetaoka of grrknlanj).

it, take the younjij under ouo pectoral ami swim off by ai«l of tlio
otlier. WJicn tho mother was killed, the cub could not be made
to leave tho dead body of its mother, thouj^h lances were con-
tinually run into it by the Heamen who were flensing tho animal.
When the carcaHS was let j^o, tho young one instantly dived down
after it, nor did we see it again. The si(//tf, hcariiif/, and smell
of the Whalo are all very acute in the water, but are very dull
out of it. Tho power of tho Cetaeea for renniining beneath tho
surface of the sea seems to bear a direct ratio to their size. Under
ordinary clrcuniHtances, tho Right Whalo will generally remain
no longer than half an hour without rising again to breathe ; the
cubs are, how(!ver, moro stubborn, and will often remain more
than three- quarters of an hour. Whalers and Eskimo have nnuiy
stories of Whales lying torpid at the bottom of shallow inlets and
bays for several days iit ii lime; though I haw heard these tales
repeated by most credible men, yet I am inclined (o iiesitate at
receiving ns facts anything so contrary to i)hysiologicnl Im'A's, and
so incapable of receiving any explanation of a reasonable nature.*
I have frequently known Whales dive and not come up for hours ;
but, unfortuniitcly for the acceptance of these wonderful tales of
subacpiatic being, these universally came up dead ! In nearly
every case it appt-ars that, diving with trtunendous impetus under
the tortures of the harpoon, they had struck their heads on the
bottom with such force as to stun them for the time being, and
before they recovered were drowned; the Whale's nose was in
nearly every instance covered Avith the mud of the bottom. This
diving to the bottom is a favourite feat of young Whales ; and
accordingly these frisky individuals are moro difRcult to capture
than the adult ones of a more staid temperament. All species of
Cetacea seem to pass a considerable portion of their time asleep
on the surface of the water, and in this position they are often
struck. The Right Whale always keeps near the land-tloes of
ice ; and its migrations north and west seem to be due to this
habit, t

After man, the cliief enemy of the Whale is Orca f/lrtdiotor,
the most savage of all the Cetacea, and the only one which feeds
;ipon other animals belonging to the order. The Thresher Shark
{Corcharias vulpcs), the very existence of which Scoresby seemed
to doubt, but which is now so comparatively well-known to
naturalists and seamen, is also an enemy of the Whale. It is
doubtful, however, whether it attacks it in life, or only preys upon
it after death. The " Advice " (Capt. A. Deuehars) once took a
dead Whale alongside which this Shark Avas attacking in dozens,
the belly being perfectly riddled by theni.|

* Vide also Dew hurst, /. c. p. 36.

f Capt. Wells, iu the Dundee whaling stonmer "Arctic," is reported to
have run, in the summer of 1867, up into Smith's Sound in search of Whales,
He found open water and no Whales— a case of cause and ett'ect (Sherard
Osborn, Proc. Key. Geogr. Soc, vol. xii., p. 103, Feb. 10th 18G8).

X The sailors have a notion that the Shark does not bite out the pieces, hut
cuts them by means of its curved dorsal fin, and seizes them as they drop into
the water. This belief is widely and firmly received.

;^

).

Tl. imOWV OS THE (IKTACKA OF CHIERNLAXI).

7!)

id of tlio
he nmdu
VlT*! cou-
o lUiiniul.
vi'd down
ind smell
very *lull
neath tho
'. IJiiiK'i'
ly rcimiiii
lithe ; the
iiaiii nioie
lavo niJiny
inlctH and
hese tak's
lesitate at
[ hr.vH, and
lo nature*
for hours ;
il tales of
In nearly
ctus under
,ds on the
beinjr, and
3S<5 was in
om. Thin
lales ; and
to captnrt!
species of
Inio asleep
' arc often
uid-tloes of
due to this

f//aflioior,
hieh feeds
aher Shark
iby seemed
known to
[('. It is
leys upon
nee took a
in dozens,

rc'porti'd to
1 of Wliales.
jct (Sherard

e pieces, hut
ley drop into

I

The (Jreeidand Shark (Svt/miuis [^Lfrmarf/u.i\ Itoiralis, I''l.),
thou«i;h it ;xor<;eM its(>lf with tin; dcatl Whale, «1(k's not a|»pear to
trouWe it «hnin;j; life. ISIartt'iis' u\o<\ fircninstantial aeeount of fhe
fi^ht iM'twecn tlu; VVhali! and Swt)rdfish seems to have oii;;inated in
u nuse()nee|)tion, this name heinj^ ap[)lied by seunien not only to the
Scombroid fish (A'//>/«V/.v), but also to the Oirt/, which, as is well
known, lij^hts furiously with the Kight Whale. The Whale nuist
attain a great age, nor does it seem to be tronltled with numy
diseases. Whales which are found lloaling ilead are jilmost
always found to have been wounded. They are often killed with
harpoon-blades imbedded ilee[> in tlm blubber ; and some of thi!
marks on them have been pi'oved to be the remains of lights of
u very ancient date in which the Whale has come olf victor.

(8) Gc'0(/i'(iphic(il distrUjHtion and tn'ujniliims. — The gco-
gra])hieal distribution and migration of the Whale on the coast of
Danish (jliDenland has been fidly discussed by Kschricht and
Kt.'inhardt,* and in the Si)itzbergen sea by Scoresby ;f so that 1
confme what few remarks I have to nudio on this subject to its
range along llu! northern shores of Greenland and the western
shores of Davis Strait and IJallln's Bay, where the whalers chase
it. They api)ear on the coast of Danish Greeidaiul early in May,
l)ut are not nearly so i)lentiful as formerly, when the Davis-Strait
whaler generally j)ursued his business on this portion of the
coast ; but they are now so few that they have generally gone
north before the arrival of those ships which have lirsi [)roceeded
to the S[)itz;bergcn si-aliug. It is rarely found on the Greenland
coast south of 65°, or north of 73*^ ; indeed I have oidy heard of
one instance in v/hich it has be(Mi seen as I'ar north as tlu; Duck
Islands near the entrance of Melville J)ay,and even for a consider-
able (Ustancc south of that it can only be looked upon as an occa-
sional straggler. However, after crossing to the western shores
of Davis Strait, it occasionally wanders as far north as the upper
reaches of Ballin's Bay. The great body, however, leave the
coast of Greenland in June, crossing by tho " middle ice," in the
latitude of Svartc link (Black Hook), in about lat. 71° 30' N.
The whaler presses with all speed uortli through Melville Bay to
the upper waters of Balhn's Bay, and across to the vicinity of
Lancaster Sound. If there is land-ice in Ballin's Bay at the time
they arrive (about the end of July), there are generally some
Whales up that Sound and Barrow's Inlet ; but they accumuhite
in greatest numbers in tin; neighbourhood of Pond's Bay, and
even up Eclipse Sound, the contimiation of the so-called Pond's
Bay, which is in reality an extensive unexplored sound opening
away into the intricacies of the Arctic archipelago. The Whales
contimio "running " here until the end of June, and remain until
about the end of August or beginning of September. The
whalers think that if they can reach Pond's Bay by the beginning

* Itay 8(ie. Mem. (,'et.

f "Arctic Regions," " Voyage to Greenland," and " .Memoirs of the Wer-
neriau Society of Edinburgh " (1811), vol. i. p. 57S.

" -iaa-ear^ liTi.i

80

11. BROWN ON THE CETACKA OF GREENLAND.

k

of August lluy are .sure of a '* full " ship. Tlie Wlialcs now
soiitli, and the whalers continue to pursue
austral nii<;ration, halting for that purpose in

oouig

com mo nee
them on their

Home Bay, Scott's Inlet, Clyde Kiver, &c. As the season gets
more tempestuous and the nights dark, most of them towards the
end of September, to avoid tiie icebergs dashing about in this
region at that time of the year, anchor in a snug cove, or cul dc
sac, lying off an extensive nncxplored sound, not laitl dowii on
any map, in the vicinity of Cape Hooper ; others go into a place
known by the euphonious name of "Hangman's Cove;"* whilst
others go south to Kcmisoak (Hogarth's Sound of Penny),
North lunberland Inlet, or other places in the vicinity of Cnnd)er-
land Sound and the Meta Incognita of Frobisher, — locidilics inti-
mately known to many of these hardy seamen, but by name only
to geographers. Whilst the good ship lies secure in these nn-
surveyed and imauthorised harbours (each master mariner accord-
ing to his predilection), the boats go outside to Avatch for Whales.
If they succeed in capturing one, frequently, if porisil)le, the
vessel goes out and assists in securing it. Though they iire sup-
posed to return to the ship every night, yet at this time the men
are often subjected to great hardship and dang(u'. This is known
as the *' autumn" or " fall fishing," and this method of pursuing
it as " rock-nosing."

M. Guerin, the surgeon of a Avhaler, has dcscribedf what he
considers n marked variety of the liiglit Whale* under th(> name
of the "Rock-nosed Wliale." The characters which he gives
(such as the head being considerably more than one-third tlu; size
of the animal, or as IG to ol) vary in almost every individual.
The size of the head, for instance, differs a little in almost all
individuals; and Scoresby merely gave one-third the size of the
body as the average, not as the unvarying proportion. Whales of
different ages keep a good deal together ; hence young Whales
frequent the bays ; the old ones roam in the vicinity of the
" middle ice" of Davis Strait, and afterwards come into the bays ;
and those killed early in the year at Pond's Bay are chiefly young
animals. Hence the whaler uses the terms " middle-icers," " rock-
nosers," and " Pond!s-Bay fish," to designate not a separate species
or even variety, but to express a geogtai)hical fact and a zoological
habit. According to the sfate of their cargo, the industry oi" the
captain, or the state of the weather, the whalers leave for home
from the 1st to the 20th of October, but rarely delay their
departure beyond the latter date.

Where the Whale goes to in the winter is still unknown. It "is
said that it leaves Davis Strait about the month of November, and
produces young in the St. Lawrence River, between Quebec and
Camaroa, returning again in the spring to Davis Strait. At all
events, early in the year Ihey are found on the coast of Labrador,
where the English whalers occasionally attack them ; l)ut the

* From an Eskimo being found here hun<,' liy nn allunah over a cliff.
t Edinb. New. riiil. Journ., 1845, p. 207.

D.

R. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

81

lales now

0 piusiie
Lirpose in
'asou gets
iwmds the
lit in this

or cul de

1 down on
\to Ji phice
;"* whilst
: Penny),
if Cnnibir-
Uitics inti-
namo only
these ini-

ler accoid-
01- Whales.
)S3il)le, the
ty are snp-
le the men
? is known
•f pursning

i-j- what he
the name
h he jiives
linl tho size
iiulividnal.
almost all
si/c of the
Whales of
mg Whah'S
ity of the
the hays ;
iefly yonn Jo-
in's," " I'ock-
Irate spceies
]i /oolo<j!;ieal
istry ol' the
for lionu'
llelay their

lown. It is

^emher, and

bncbee and

lit. At all

|f Labrador,

; hnt tho

ler a cliff.

ships arrive generally too late, and tho weather at that season is
too tempestuous to render the "South-west Fishing" very
attractive. Later in the year the ships enter Cumberland Sound
in great numbers ; and many of them (especially American and
Peterhead vessels) now make a regular practice of wintering there
in order to attack the Whales in early spring. It is said that
early in September they enter Cumberland (Hogiirth's) Sound in
great numbers and remain until it is completely frozen up, which,
according to Eskimo account, is not until the month of January.
It is also affirmed by the natives that when they undertake long
journeys over the ice in spring, Avhen hunting for young Seals,
they see Whales in great numbers at the edge of the ice-floe.
They enter the Sound again in che spring and remain until tho
heat of summer has entirely melted olF the land-floes in these
comparatively southern latitudes. It thus appears that they winter
(and produce their young) all along the broken water off the
coast of the southern portions of Davis Strait, Hudson's Strait,
and Labrador. The ice remaining longer on the western than on
the eastern shore of Davis Strait, and thus impeding their northern
progress, they cross to the Greenland coast ; but, as at that season
there is little land-ice south of 65°, they are rarely found south of
that latitude. They then remain here until the land-floes have
broken up, when they cross to the western shores of the Strait,
where we find them in July. I am strongly of belief that the
Whales of the Spitzbergen sea never, as a body, visit Davis Strait,
but winter somcAvhere in the open water at the southern edge of
the northern ice-fields. The Whales are being gradually driven
further north, and are now rarely found, even by their traces,* so
far south as the Island of Jan Mayen (71° N. hit.), round which
they were so numerous in tho palmy days of the Dutch whaling
trade. I am not quite sure, after all that has been said on this
subject, that the Whale is getting extinct, and am beginning to
entertain convictions that its supposed scarcity in recent times is
a great deal owing to its escaping to remote, less known, and less

visited localities. It is said to be coming back

again

to the coast

of Greenland, now that the hot pursuit of it has slackened in that
portion of Davis Strait. The varying success of the trade is
owing not so much to the want of Whales as to the ill luck of the
vessels in coming across their haunts. Every now and again
cargoes equal to anything that was obtained in the best days of
the trade arc obtained. Fourteen years ago I came home to
England " shipmates " (as the phrase goes) with no less than
thirty Eight Whales, in addition to a miscellaneous menagerie of
Arctic animals dead and alive, and a motley human crew — a
company so outre that I question if ever naturalist, or even whaler,
sailed with the like before.

* The recent visit of Whales to a particular locality can frequently be
-known by a peculiar oiliness floating ou the water, and (the whalers Bay,
though I confess I was never sensible of it) an unmistakeable odour charac-
teristic of this Cetacean.

36122. v

mmttm

U I i

82

R. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

(«) Economic value. — After the very excellent account of
Seoresby, it would be mere pleonasm on my part to say one word
regarding the commercial importance of the Whale. The intro-
duction of steam, the almost universal use of the gun-harpoon, and
the discoveries of Ross and Parry on the western shores of Davis
Strait have greatly altered the nature of the " Strait fishery "
since Scoresby's time. For this reason I have given the outline
of a whaler's summer cruise, more especially as it illustrates,
according to my observation, the range and migrations of the
Right Whale.*

(5) Varieties o/'Balaena mysticetus. — The whalers do not recog-
nize any varieties of the Right Whale by specific names, nor
do I of my own knowledge know of any entitled to that rank.
Professors Eschricht and Reinhardt"!" consider that there is a second
species of Right Whale found in the Greenland and northern seas,
the "Nordcaper" (Balcena noi'dcapcr, Bonnat.; Baltsna islandica,
Briss., &c.), the " Sletbag " of the Icelanders, and that the following
facts have been ascertained regarding it : — 1st, that it is much
more active than the Greenland Whale, much quicker and more
violent in its movements, and accordingly both more difficult and
dangerous to capture ; 2nd, that it is smaller (it being, however,
impossible to give an exact statement of its length) and has much
less blubber ; 3rd, that its head is shorter, and that its whalebone is
comparatively small and scarcely more than half the length of that of
the B. mysticetus ; 4th, that it is regularly infested with a Cirriped
belonging to the genus Coronula; andj (5th) that it belongs to
the Temperate North Atlantic as exclusively as the B. mysticetus
belongs to the icy sea, so that it must be considered exceptional
when either of them strays into the range of the other. Moreover
they consider that in its native seas it is to be found further
towards the south in the winter (viz. in the Bay of Biscay, and
near the coast of North America down to Cape Cod), while in the
summer it roves about in the sea around Iceland and between this
island and the most northerly part of Norway. Dr. Eschricht
considers that this was the Whale captured by the Basque
whalers in the seventeenth century ; hence he has called it Balcena
hiscayensis. A considerable portion of this description corre-
sponds with what I have said regarding the Spitzbergen Whales
as a race. I have heard that " barnacles " have been

got on

Whales ; but these were looked upon as a sign of age in the Whale.

It is now a question to what species the Right Whales now and

then stranded on the European coasts are to be referred. What the

" Scrag Whale " of DudleyJ {BalcBna gibbosa, Erxl.) is I cannot

* For an elaborate analysis of the German Arctic whale-fishery see Linde-
mann in the Appendix to Petermann's " Geograph. Mittheil.", 1867 ; and
for that by the Dundee fleet see Yeatmau, Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1867. I have
given a fuller outline of a Baffin's Bay Whaler's Cruise in " Ocean Highways,"
1871. A still better account will be found iu Capt. A. H. Markham's
" Whaling Cruise," 1872.

t Loc. cit,

\ Phil. Trans, vol. xxxiii,, p. 259,

[D.

E. BllOWN OX THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

83

[jcount of
one word
Che intro-
•poon, and
s of Davis
t fishery"
he outline
illustrates,
)ns of the

not recog-
lames, nor
that rank,
is a second
'them seas,
a islandicttf
le following
it is much
sr and more
lifficult and
g, however,
d has much
rhalebone is
rthofthatof
1 a Cirriped
belongs to
'. mysticctus
exceptional
Moreover
md further
Biscay, and
while in the
)etween this
r. Eschricht
he Basque
d it Balana
tion corre-
'gen Whales
leen got on
the Whale,
lies now and
[l. What the
is I cannot

lery see Linde-
1867 ; and
L867. I have
111 Highways,"
|l. Markhain'a

imagine. It is not now known to the whalers ; and as neither of the
species referred to have as yet been found in Davis Strait or
Baffin's Bay,* they do not come within the limits which I have
assigned to myself.

2. Physalus antiquorum, Gray.

Balcenoptcra musculus, Flem. Brit. An, p. 30.
Rorqualus musculus^ F. Cuv. Cetaces, p. 334.
Balana physalus, Fab. Fauna. Groeul. p. 35.

Popular names. — Big Fitiner, 7?«20»'^ac^, (English whalers);
Sillhval (Swedish) ; Sildror, Roren (Norse) ; Sildreki (Icelandic) ;
Tunnolik, Tekkirsok (Greenlanders).

This species, in common with most of the family Baleenopteridce,
does not go far north as a rule, but keeps about the Cod-banks
of Rifkol, Holsteensborg, and other localities in South Greenland.f
They feed upon Cod and other fish, which they devour in immense
quantities. Desmoulins;): mentions 600 being taken out of the
stomach of one ; I know an instance in which 800 were foimd.
They often, in common with Balcen&ptera Sibbaldii and B. rostrata,
wander into the European seas in pursuit of Cod and Herrings,
and are quite abundant in the vicinity of Rockal. A few years
ago much excitement Avas got up about the number of " Whales "
found in that locality, and companies were started to kill them,
supposing them to be the Right Whale of commerce. As might
have been expected, they proved only to be '* Finners," which
prey on the immense quantities of Cod which are found there.
This Whale is accounted almost worthless by the whalers ; and,
on account of the small quantity of oil which it yields and the
difficulty of capture, it is never attacked unless by mistake or
through ignorance. I remember seeing one floating dead in Davis
Strait, to which the men rowed, taking it for a Right Whale;
but on discovering their mistake they immediately abandoned it.
They had not been the first ; for on its sides were cut the names
of several vessels which had paid it a visit and did not consider
it worth the carriage and fire to try out the oil. The blubber
is hard and cartilaginous, not unlike soft glue. Its "blowing"
can be distinguished at a distance, by being wliiter and lower than
that of BalfEna mysticetiis.

3. Bal^noptera SiBiiALDii, Gray.

Sihbaldins borealis, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales, p. 175.

Popular names. — This is popularly confounded with the last, and
the same names are applied to it by the whalers and Eskimo. It

* Cranz's description of the Knoieujiach, or Knobbclfisch (Greenland,
vol. i. p. 146), is not derived from his own knowledge, but, like most of his
descriptions, is copied from pi'evious authors.

f I am aware that this statement is somewhat at variance with Dr.
Eschricht's, as contained in his paper on the " Geographical Distribution of
some of the Northern Whales" (Forh. Skaud. Naturf. Kjob., 1847, p. 103) ;
nevertheless I think that it will be found to be substantially correct.

% Hamilton on Whales (Jardine's Naturalist's Library).

F 2

I'T-

■mms

84

R. BllOWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

is probably also the Kcpokarnak of the Greenlandere, and the
Stcypireythr of the Icelanders.*

It visits the coast of Greenland only in the summer months,
from March to November ; and its range may be given as the same
as the last. Like the former, it is rarely killed by the natives.

4. Bal^noptera kostkata, O. Fab.

Popular names. — Little Finncr, Pike Whale (English whalers
and authors) ; PVangchval (Norse) ; Tikagulik (Greenlanders) ;
Tschikagleuch (Kamschatkdales) ; Seigval or Seival (Finns).

This Whale only comes in the summer months to Davis Strait
and Baffin's Bay, or very seldom during the winter to the southern
portion of Greenland. It is not killed by the natives ; and its
range is that of its congeners. The natives of the western shores
of Davis Strait seldom recognize the figure of this and allied
species of Whales, though the Greenlanders instantly did so.t

5. Megaptera longimana, Gray.

BalcE}wptcra boops, O. Fab. Faun. Grocnl. p. 36 (non Linn.?).

Popular names. — Humpback (English whalers) ; llorqval. Star
Rorhval (Norse) ; Puckelhval (Swedes) ; Keporkak (Greei>-
landers and Danes in Greenland).

This Whale is only found on the Greenland coast in the summer
months. For many yeai's it has been regularly caught at the
Settlement of Frederikshaab, in South Greenland. l\\ North
Greenland it is not much troubled. Whilst dredging in the har-
bour of Egedesminde one snowy June day, I saw a large Keporkak
swim into the bay ; but though there were plenty of boats at the
Settlement, and the natives were very short of food, yet they stood
on the shore staring at it without attempting to kill it. The
natives of this Settlement are no doubt the poorest hunters and
fishers in all North Greenland (if we except Godhavn, the next
most civilized place) ; but there were at that time at the Settle-
ment natives from outlying places. Capt. John AValkcr, in the
*' Jane " of Bo'ness, one year in default of better game, killed
fifteen Humpbacks in Disco Bay. He got blubber from them
sufficient, according to ordinary calculation, to yield seventy tuns
of oil ; but on coming home it only yielded eighteen. The " bone"
is short and of little value. Though one of the most com. non
Whales on the Greenland coast, yet, on this account and being
difficult to capture, it is rarely troubled.

6. Catodon macrocephalus, Laccp.

Physctcr macrocepkaluSf liinn. Syst. N. i. p. 107 ; O. Fab.
Fauna Grocnl. p. 41.

■¥

* Flower, Proc.
xxvi.

Zool. Soc, 1804 J Turner, Trans. Koy. Soc. £din., vol.

f In a Greenland skeleton at Copenhagen, the lateral processes of the fifth
and sixth cervical vertebraj are united, which is not the case with one from
Norway. We cannot be too cautious in separating species on such distinctions.

ND.

R. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND. 85

, and the

r months,
s the same
itives.

h whalers
nlanclers) ;
rhins).
)avi9 Strait
le southern
IS ; and its
tern shores
and allied
id so.t

a Linn.?).

\rqval, Star
k (Gree»-

the summer
ught at the
In North
in the har-
0 Keporhah
boats at the
t they stood
lill it. The
[mnters and
In, the next
|t the Settle-
,lkcr, in the
:ame, killed
from them
eventy tuns
[he "bone"
ist com.non
and beinjj

; O. Fab.

Ic. Edin., vol.

les of the fifth
Vth one from
, distinctions.

Popular names. — Spcrm-Whale (English) ; Kcgntilik or Kignte-
Urksoak (Greenlanders). It is probably also the Potvisch (Norse),
and Tweld-Hval (Icelandic).

Though currently reported in all compilations as one of thr;
most common animals of the Arctic seas, and especially of Davis
Strait and Baffin's Bay, it can only be ranked as a very rare, and
possibly accidental, straggler. Whatever it was formerly^ it is
now only known to Davis Strait whalers by name ; many will even
ridicule the notion of its being an inhabitant of those seas. I
found very few Eskimo who knew it even by tradition ; and I
could only hear of one recent instance of its being killed on the
coast of Greenland, viz. near Proven (72° N. lat.) in 1857. Ac-
cording to Fabricius, however, it is generally found in the more
southern parts of Davis Strait.

7. Delphinus euphuosyne. Gray.

Delphhms holdfellii, Eschricht, Skand. Naturf. Mode i Kjoben-
havn, 1847, p. 611.

This species is only known as a member of the Greenland faunii
by a skeleton from South Greenland. It is apparently unknown
to the natives, for they have no popular names for it.

8. Lagenoriiynchus ALmROSxRis, Gray.

Delphinus ibseniiy Eschricht, Unders. over Hvald. 5*® Afh. i
Vid. Selsk. Nat. Math. Afh. xii. 297.

This is only known as a Cetacean of Davis Strait by a skeleton
from Greenland in the Copenhagen Museum. It is found also in
the Faroe Islands, and in various portions of the North Sea.

9. Lagenouhynciius leucopleurus (Rasch), Gray.

Dr. Gray* has referred a skeleton from Greenland in Mr.
Brandt's collection to this species, and on his authority solely I
claim it as a member of the Greenland fauna. We possess no
particulars of its history as an Arctic animal. The Norwegians
know it as the Qwitskja'ving.

10. Orca gladiator (Bonn.), Sund.

Delj)hi)ius orca (L.) ; 0. Fab. Fauna Groenl. p. 46 ; Reinhardt,
Naturh. Tilloeg til Rink's geog. og stat. Breskrev. af Gronl. p. 12.
Physeter microps. Fab. F. G. no. 27.

Popular names. — Grampus, Killer, Swordfish (English sea-
men) ; Spdchhiiggare, Sviirdjisk, (Swedes) ; Stourvagn, Staur-
hyning (Norse) ; Ardluik or Ardluk ?, Ardlurhsoak ^, (Green-
landers). In all probability the " Pcrnak,^^ or Parnak {Physeter
eatodon, O. Fab.), is also to be referred to Orca gladiator. Hr.
Fleischer assurred me that it was an Orca, but only known to him
by name. Curiously enough, the Kamschatdaies and Aleutians

* Zool. Erebus and Terror, p. 34, t. 3 ; Cat. Seals and WhiUes (1866),
p. 273.

r,

86

p. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

have very similar names (Af/htck, fide Pallas, Zool. Rosao-Asiat.
p. 305 ; and Aguluck, fide Chamisso, Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.
vol. xii. p. 262) for animals closely allied to, if not identical with,
this species.

The Ardluk is only seen in the summer time along the whole
coast of Greenland. Wherever the White Whale, the Right
Whale, or the Seals arc found, there is also their ruthless enemy
the Killer. The White Whale and Seals often run ashore in
terror of this Cetacean ; and I have seen Seals spring out of the
water when pursued by it. The whalers hate to see it, for its
arrival is the signal for every Whale to leave that portion of the
sea. It is said that it ^vill not go among ice, and that the Right
Whale, when attacked by it, keeps among ice to escape its perse-
cution. Occasionally the ends of the laminae of whalebone are
found bitten off, apparently by the Killer ; and probably this is
the origin of the story that it preys on the tongue of the whale.
Linne* very hapi)ily styles it " Balfenarum phocarumque tyi'annusf
*' quas turniiitim iiggreditnr." Though subsisting chiefly on large
fishes, they will not hesitate to attack the largest Whalebone
Whales, and are able to swallow whole large Porpoises and Seals.
Dr. Eschricht took out of the stomach of one thirteen Porpoises
and fourteen Seals, the voracious animal having been choked by
the skin of a fifteenth. It has been known to swallow four Seals
at least immediately one after the other, and in the course of a few
days as many as twenty-seven individuals.! I know of a case in
which they attacked a white-painted herring boat in the Western
Islands, probably mistaking it for a Beluga I Holboll once wit-
nessed a herd of White Whales, driven into a bay near Godhavn,
literally torn to pieces by these voracious sea-wolves.

1 1. Phocjena communis, Brookes.

Popular names. — Purpess, Sea-pig (English seamen) ; Mar-
suin,^ Herring-hogs, Pelloch, Bucker, Pnffy-dunter, Neesoch.\
(fishermen of Northern Islands and coasts of Scotland) ; Nesa or
Nisa and, more rarely, Piglcrtok (Greenlanders).

The Porpoise arrives in the spring in Davis Strait, and stops
there until November, but does not go further north than from

--4-
1

* Mant. Plant., vol, ii., p. 523.

f Gunnerus (Trondh. Selsk. Skriv. iv. p. 99) styles it Kobbeherrc — Lord
of the seals.

X Nilsson, Skand. Fauna (Diiggdjurcn), p. 607.
. § The old Norsemen as they poured forth from Scandinavia on their pre-
datory or colonizing expeditions leaven<.'d not only the habits but the language
of the conquered. Marsvin is the Swedish word for the Porpoise, hence the
French Marsouin and the same Shetland word. Nise (meaning sprite or
goblin) is the Norse term for it, hence we have Nisa in Greenland and
Neesock in Shetland (the och being used there, as in many other words, as
a diminutive). Porpoise is only a corruption of the French pore poisson,
wTiieTi we have almost literally translated into Sea-pig. So is the German
Meerschwein identical in origin with the Norse Marsouin, also meaning
"Sea-pig."

[D.

R. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

87

iso-Asiat.
Nftt. Cur.
ical with,

the "whole
lie Right
isB enemy
[ishore in
ut of the
it, for its
ion of the
the Right

its perse-
ebone are
bly this is
the whale.

tyrannusj
ly on large
t\''halehone

and Seals.

Porpoises
choked by

four Seals
se of a few
■ a case in
le Western
once wit-
• Godhavn,

en); Mar-
Neesoch\
Nesa or

and stops
than from

leherre — Lord

lat. 67° to lat. 69° N. They are now and then caught off the
coast during this period. Through the kindness of Hr. Bolbroe,
Colonibestyrer of Egedesminde, we obtained the skeleton of a
JVisa, which had been procured in this vicinity some years ago by
his predecessor Hr. Zimmer ; but I could see no difference in it, so
far as it could be examined in the roughly prepared state, from
the one usually found on the British coast. That the PhoceBua
tttberculifera, Gray,* is different from the ordinary Porpoise, I am
inclined to doubt. I have examined several Porpoises caught on
the British coast, and have invariably found these tubercles on the
anterior edge of the dorsal fin more or less developed. Indepen-
dently of this, it is questionable whether such variable characters
(and we know that there are many such characters in Cetacea
which give no specific distinction) warrant the separation of
PhocfBna tuberculifera from P. communis. The flesh of the
Porpoise is far from contemptible as an article of food, and is much
relished by sailors. t

Nowhere in the Arctic regions is it hunted, but in Pennant's
day, at least, vast numbers were taken in the River St. Lav.rence,
near Petite Reviere, from the end of September to the beginning
of November, when they were in quest of eels. Pennant, Suppl.
Arctic Zool., p. 62. , '.'■'. ^

12. Beluga catodon (L.), Gray.

Beluga I'hinodon, Coipe, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1865, p. 278;
1869, p. 23.

B. declivis, Cope, op. cit., 1865, p. 278; 1869, p. 27.

Popular names. — White Whale (English whalers) ; Hvitfisk,
Hvidftsk (white fish) (Scandinavian seamen, and Danish colonists
in Greenland) ; Kelelluak (Greenlanders and Eskimo generally).
To distinguish it from the Narwhal, it is called also Kelelltiak-
Knkortak, or simply Kahortak. The young is known as Uiak
(Pabricius).

This is, beyond all comparison, so far as its importance to the
Greenlanders sind Eskimo is concerned, the Whale of Greenland.
Like the Narwhal it is indigenous, but is only seen on the coast
of Danish Greenland during the winter months, leaving the
coast south of 72° N. lat. in June, and roaming about at the head
of Bafl&n's Bay and the western shores of Davis Strait during
the summer. In October it is seen to go west, not south, but in
winter can be seen, in company with the Narwhal, at the broken

on their pre-
the language
ise, hence the
ing sprite or
ireenland and
her words, as
liorc poisson,
i the German
also meaning

* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1865, p. 320.

t The flesh of the Porpoise and Grampus was eaten in the 14th century
in Lent time as fish ; and it is lamentable to think how much sin was com-
mitted until they were discovered to be Mammals. I have heard of the monks
of a Carthusian convent roasting an Otter under a similar zoologico-theological
error. A MS. in the British Museum (Harl. MSS., No. 279) contains a
receipt for making " puddynge of porpoise ;" and we find it served at table as
late as the time of Henry VIII., and in Scotland even still later. In the
accounts of Ilolyrood Palace we find frequent entries of moneys paid for
** Porpess " for the royal table.

88

B. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND,

places in the ice. Its range may be said to be the same as the
Narwhal's, and dtiring the summer months corresponds with that
of the Right Whale, of which it is looked upon as the precursor.
It wanders, however, further south than the Narwhal, being
found as a regular denizen as far south as 63° N. lal., though on
the opposite coast it reaches much further south, being quite
common in the St. Lawrence River. The Grecnlanders during
the summer kill great numbers of them, and preserve their oil,
and dry their flesh for winter use. Of this animal and the Nar-
whal, about 500 are yearly caught ; but the majority of this num-
ber consists of the White Whale. It feeds on Crustacea, Fish,
and Cephalopoda ; but in the stomach is generally found some
sand. The Greenlanders often jocularly remark, in reference to
this, that the Kelelluak takes in ballast. Great numbers are
caught by means of nets at the entrance of fjords and inlets, or
in the sounds between islands. The young are darker -coloured
than the adult, and can at once bo distinguished among the herds
of the ordinary waxy white colour. It is said to be rarely seen
far from land. The males and females are together in the drove,
and not separate, as has been stated. Their blast is not unmusi-
cal ; and when under the water they emit a peculiar whistling
sound which might be mistaken for tiie whistle of a bird, and on
this account the seamen often call them sea-canaries ! It is rarely
that the whalers kill a White Whale, their swiftness and activity
giving them more trouble than the oil is worth.* They are some-
times also called " Sea-pigs," from their resemblance to that
animal when tumbling about in the water.

13. MoNODONf MONOCEROS, Liun.

(a) Popular names. — JVarichal, Unicorn, Unic (English
whalers); Narhval (Scandinavians); Tugalik, Kelelluak- Ker-
nektok, or Kernektak (Greenlanders) ; Kelelluak-tuak (Es!amo at
Pond's Bay). The word Narwhal is derived from the Gothic, and
means the " beaked whale," the prefix nar signifying beak or snout.

(/9) Descriptive remarks. — The female Narwhal is more spotted
than the male. The young is again much darker ; and I have
seen individuals which were almost Avhite, like the one Anderson
describes as having come ashore at the mouth of the Elbe. In a
female killed in Pond's Bay. in August 1861, the stomach Avas
corrugated in complicated folds, as were also the sniall intestines.
It contained Crustaceans, bones of Fish, and an immense quantity
of the horny mandibles of some species of Cephalopod (probably
Sepia loligo) firmly packed one within the other. In its stomach
was a Icng Lumbricus-WViQ worm ; and the cavities behind the
palate were filled with froth and an innumerable number of little
worms, such as Scoresby describes in his account of the animal.

* One of the whalers, a few summers ago, killed several hundreds, but this
is an almost isolated case.

f Lamarck subsequently usurped this name for a genus of Pectinobranchiate
Mollusca.

R. BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

89

3 as the
'ith that
ecursor.
1, being
ough on
ig quite
\ durinn;
heir oil,
the Nar-
lis niim-
ea, Fish,
iicl some
rence to
ibers are
iulets, or
■coloured
lie herds
rely seen
lie drove,
unmusi-
whistling
(J, and on
; is rarely
[ activity
are some-
to that

(English
uak-Ker'

s!amo at
)thic, and

or snout.

spotted

d I have

A.nderson

be. In a

ach was

ntestines.

quantity

probably

stomach

;hind the

of little

animal.

is, but this
branchiate

Tn some animals which I examined the bono was quite eaten
away by them, and that portion of the lining membrane which
remained was red or inflamed. There is a curious anastomosis of
reticulating venous blood-vessels inside the lining membrane of
the thorax and abdomen and around the spinal cord, which has
doubtless a relation to its amphibious life. The blow-holes are
placed directly on the top of the head, large, semilunar, opening
on either side into two sacs lined with a dark mucous membrane ;
these openings, again, leading to the bronchia) and the lungs. The
blow-hole has but ono opening externally, but about an inch
down is divided into two by a cartilaginous septum, continuous a
little further down with the bony partition seen in the skull. The
rima glottidis is exactly described by the late Prof. Fleming, in
the " Wernerlan Trans." (vol. i. p. 146). The female (except
in very exceptional cases) has no " horns "; but inside the inter-
maxillary bone are two undeveloped tusks, each about 10 inches
long, rough, and with no inclination to a spiral. On the other
hand, the undeveloped tusk (the right) in the male is smooth
and tapering, and "wrinkled" longitudinally. Double-tusked
ones are not uncommon ; I have seen them swimming about
among the herd, and several such skulls have been preserved.
Among others, there is a specimen presented by Capt. Graville, in
the Trinity House, Hull,* another in the University Museum,
Cambridge ; and, according to Mr. Clarke, nine others in Conti-
nental museums. Of course there is no whalebone in its jaw ;
but it is interesting to notice the laws of homology of structure
(as I think) kept up. On the sides of each gum are transverse
markings, either corresponding to the alveoli of the teeth or to
the position of the larainaj of the whalebone in the Baltenidfe.
The under jaws are very light and quite hollow posteriorly for
half their length, as in most species of Cetacca ; this cavity is filled
Avith a very fine blubber. The tongue is regularly concentrically
grooved and attached its whole length, so as scarcely to be recog-
nized as it lies flat on the base of the mouth; the roof of the
mouth is correspondingly marked. The lungs are each about \\
foot long ; the kidney 9 inches long and about 4^ inches broad ;
the lacteals were very distinct and distended ; the large intestine
at broadest about 4 inches in diameter, at thinnest about 1^ inch,
and about 60 feet in length.

The pectoral Jin is not notched below (as would seem from the
plate in Hamilton's book on Whales), but smooth and entire ;
curved below, the greatest curve pointing posteriorly, but with the
thickest part of the fin anteriorly. The animal was greyish or
velvet-black, with white spots, sometimes roundish, but more fre-
quently irregular blotches of no certain outline running into one
another. There were no spots on the tail or fin ; waxy-looking
streaks shaded off on each side of the indentation of the tail, which
is white at the line of indentation. The ridge along its back
corresponding to the dorsal fin is of a uniform height of 1 inch

* One of the tusks is 3 ft. lon^, and the other 4 it.

'■1

90

B. BKOWN ON THE OETAOEA OF OREEXLAND.

m

■;M-

■II-

(

Mff^

u

\ ;

I.

<!

thronghoiit, irregularly notched on the top, like the embrasures
of a castle-wall, and is formed of blubber covered with the common
intcgtiment of the body, of which it is merely a raised fold.

(-y) Habits, Sfc. — The Narwhal is gregarious, generally travelling
in gi'oat herds. I have seen a herd of many thousands travelling
north on their summer migrations, tusk to tusk and tail to tail,
like a regiment of cavalry, so regularly did they seem to rise and
sink into the water in their undulatory movements in swimming.
It is very active and will often dive with the rapidity of the
B. mysticctus, taking out 30 or 40 fathoms of line. These " schools"
are not all of one sex, as stated by Scoresby, but males and
females mixed. It couples in an upright position ; and seems to
produce at about the same time as the Right Whale. Usually
only one young one is i^roduced, but cjises in which a femalo con-
tained or produced two are known. The use of the tusk has
long been a matter of dispute ; it has been supposed to use it to
stir up its food from the bottom ; but in such a case the female
would be sadly at a loss. They seem to fight with them ; for
it is rarely that an unbroken one is got, and occasionally one
may be found with the point of another jammed into the broken
place where the tusk is young enough to be hollow or is broken
near enough to the skull. Fabricius thought that it was to keep
the holes open in the ice during the winter ; and the following
occurrence seems to support this view. In April 1860, a
Greenlander was travelling along the ice in the vicinity of
Christianshaab, and discovered one of these open spaces in the
ice, which, even in the most severe winters, remain open. In
this hole hundreds of Narwhals and White Whales were protruding
their heads to breathe, no other place presenting itself for miles
around. It was described to me as akin to an " Arctic Black Hole
** of Calcutta," in the eagerness of the animals to keep at the place.
Hundreds of Eskimo and Danes resorted thither with their dogs
and sledges, and while one shot the animal, another harpooned
it to prevent its being pushed aside by the anxious crowd of
breathers. Dozens of both Narwhals and White Whales were
killed, but many were lost before they were got home, the ice
breaking up soon after. In the ensuing summer the natives found
many washed up in the bays and inlets around. Fabricus describes
a similar scene. Neither the Narwhal nor the White Whale are
timid animals, but will approach close to, and gambol for hours
in the immediate vicinity of the ship.

(8) Geographical distribution. — The range and migration of
the Narwhal is much the same as that of the White Whale. It is
only found on the coast of Danish Greenland during the spring
and winter, migrating northward and westward in the summer.
It is rarely seen south of 65° N. lat.

(e) Economic value. — In early times the tusk of the Narwhal
was highly valued as a medicine; and Master Pomet, in his
" Compleat Historic of Drugges," gives special directions regarding
the selection of them. The scrapings were esteemed alexo-
pharmic, and used of old iu malignant fevers, and against the bite

II, BROWN ON THE CETACEA OF GREENLAND.

91

I

of serpents. Cups mnxlo of it were ItoHevcd to possess the power
of detectin«]f and nontriilizinp nny j)oison cont^iincd in them.
From this " horn " also was distilled a strong •' sal volatile."
To this day the Chinese esteem them for their medicinal pro-
perties. In old times it was imposed upon the world as the
horn of the "unicorn," and sold at a very high price. The
heirs of the Chancellor to Christian Frisius of Denmark valued
one at 8,000 imperials. {Mus. Rcy. Ilafnifp.) In 1861 the price
of Narwhal's ivory was I*. Qd. per lb., but of late years it has
risen prodigiously in value owing to the repair of the Chinese
palaces, but is again falling. In the Palace of Rosenborg is a
throne of the kings of Denmark manufactured of this ivory ; and
Capt. Scoresby (the father of the Doctor) had a bedstead made of
it. Tlu! oil is highly est(«med, and the flesli is vory palatable.*
The skiu of the Narwhal boiled to a jelly is looked upon, and
justly so, as one of the prime dainties of a Greenlander. The
hospitable Danish ladies resident in that country always make
a point of presenting a dish of mattak to their foreign visitors,
who soon begin to like it. See also Pennant, Supplement to Arctic
Zool. p. 100.

14. Globiocephalus svineval (Lacop.), Gray.

Delphinus mclas, Traill, Nicholson's Journal, vol. xxii. (1809)
p. 21.

Delphinus deductoj', Traill, MS. and Scoresby's Arctic Regions,
vol. i. p. 496, t. 13. fig. 1.

Delphinus globiceps, Cuv. Ann. Mas. xix. 1. 1. fig. 2.

Delphinus tursio, O. Fabr. Faun. Groenl. p. 49. no. 31.

Popular names. — Bottlc-nose, Caaing WJiale (fishermen and
seamen) ; Grindaquealur (Faroe Islands) ; Grindc-Hval (Swedish
and Danish) ; Ncsernak or Nisarnak (Greenland). The term
Bottle-nose is applied by sailors to several species of Whales. In
fact any Whale which is not a « Right Whale," " finner," « par-
macity " (spermaceti), " purpess," ** unicorn " (Narwhal) or
" White Whale " is with them included under the vague term of
"Bottle-nose." The common and most characteristic name for
this Whale is that used in the north of Scotland, viz. caaing or
driving Whale — a term translated into dediictor,]

There seems little doubt that this is the Delphinus tursio of
Fabricius, as the Eskimo name Nesernak is applied to the present
animal. If so, Fabricius's name has the priority ; but, as it has
been confounded with another species, it is better to keep Lacepede's
most barbarous trivial name. Gray and other authors look upon
Fabricius's Ncsernak as the type of a distinct species, and have
described it as Tursio triincatus. The Delphinus truncatus of
Montagu (Wernerian Society's Trans, vol. iii. t. 5. fig. 3) is a
totally different animal. Fabricius's description (" Frons rotunda,

n

* ThoHgh indeed the learned Wonnius warns us that it is a deadly poison.

■f It has no connexion with calling, as it has sometimes heen translated,
even in works written by Scotchmen, It is derived from the Scotch word
caa, signifying to drive, relating to their ordinary method of capture, viz., by
driving them ashore.

\\< :>«

92

n. nnOWN ON THE CETACEA OF OUKEN'LAND.

docliviH H. Hursnin rcpnndn, dcstncns rostra attonimtiorc ; sic
fronti nnatis mollissiniin non nbslmilis,"), thoii<;li Hcoiniujjly con-
trudictory of the identity of the (Hohiocrplintus sviuevtU ami
J)clphinua tnraio of O. Ful)r., must in reality be received for
no more than it is worth. Cetol()«^ical critics have received the
descriptions of Fabricins as if they wore infallibU^ or superior to
those of any other author who has Huccec<led lum. VVe know
that many of his (h'scriptions of other animals, which are well
known, were erroneous, and that few of those regarding whicli
there couKl be no mistake were altogether free from error ; there-
fore I cannot see why we should receive the others otherwise
than as approximately correct. Fabricius enjoyed during the
few years he passed in (ireenland no better opjmrtunities than
any other naturalist in that country at the present day. Many
of the animals which he describes are very rarely killed or seen
by the natives : and many of his descriptions bear oji tlio face of
them the marks of having been derived from the natives' narration,
and not from actual specimens. Any one who has examined such
unwieldy animals as tho Cetacca must know how diflicult it is,
even under the most favourable circumstances, to arrive at anything
like an accurate idea of the animal the external appearance of
which we may be desirous of describing. Therefore, as the
Greenlanders call this animal Nescrnak, as the description does
not widely differ from the appearance of the Caaing Whale, and
as Montagu's Delphinvs truncatus, with which it has been
supposed to be synonymous, has never been found in Davis Strait,
while the present species has, wo are warranted in concluding,
with Dr. Reiuhardt, that the synonymy given under this species
is correct.

This Whale is not a regular visitor of Davis Strait or Baffin's
Bay, but is occasionally to be seen in droves in the summer time
along the whole coast of Danish Greenland. An excellent
account of this species is given by Turner and M'Bain, derived
from the examination of some individuals of a drove which came
into the Frith of Forth in the spring of 1867 (Journ. Anat. and
Phys. 1867, and Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin. 1866-67 ined.)*

15. Hyperoodon butzkop, Lacep.

3Ionodo)i spurius, 0. Fab. Faun. Groenl. p. 31. no. 19.

ChcBnocetus rostratus (Miill.), Eschr. Undersog. over Ilvaldyr.
4^e Afh. 1845 ; Reinhardt, Tiling til en Bcskrev. af Gronland
(Rink), p. 11.

* For the anatomy of this species, see Murie, Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. viii.,
p. 235. In the Zoological Society's "Proceedings" for 1853, p. 103, there
is a notice of a paper " On the capture of Delphinus orca in South Greenland,"
by M. Rehiiller, in which it is said that the number taken at Westmanshavn
since 1843 was 2,200, whereas between 1819 and 1843 there were only 280.
This additional capture, amounting in the aggregate to the value of 4,000/.
sterling, was described as being due to the introduction of nets. Now there
is no such place as "Westmanshavn" in Greenland, and I question if 2,200
Orcas have ever been killed in Greenland since the beginning of time.
Apparently the notice refers to the capture of Globiocephalus in the Faroe
IslandF.

COrE ox CETACEA FllOM GUEENLAND

98

Populnr names. — Bottlc-nosr or Bottlic ( Knj?lish wlialors) ;
NabbhviU (Scuiulinaviiviis) ; AnUarncJiu (IcelauduiH) ; JJof/lint/
(Faroo-islttuder.s) ; Anarnak (Greenlautlers).

This is undoubtedly the Monodon spuiius of Fiibricius, thivt
fiuthor having made the not nnoonimon mistake of describing tho
upper for tlio U)\ver jaw. As it is a rare animal on tho Greenland
coast, Fabiieius could have been but little acquainted with it. This
Whale is only seen about the mouth of Davis Strait, swimming
in threes or lours ; it is occasionally captured, as one Avill yield as
much oil as a Narwhal. One ship's crew some years ago killed
fifteen, and tho oil was represented to me as mixing well with
spermaceti, and selling for the same price, viz. 10*. 6^/. per gallon.

16. IIyperoodox latifuons, Gray.

iMffcnocctus latifrons, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, p. 241.

This species is known from skulls and skeletons in various
museums ; and as an Arctic animal from a skull brought from
" Greenland " by Capt. Wareham, and now in the Newcastle
Museum, and by a skeleton from the same region in the Copen-
hagen University Museum. Greenland, however, is a loose term ;
but from what I have said as to the range and habits of //.
hntzkof^ we may safely conclude that this has been obtained ia
Davis Strait. I am not aware that we have any external charac-
ters to separate it from the preceding, but yet the apparently
constant distinction i)resented by the skull would lead us to
believe in its distinctness. Therefore, though we may not go so
far as Eschricht in believing it to be the male of H. butzkoJ\
yet we must hesitate before joining in the opinion of even such
an experienced zoologist as Dr. Gray as to its claim to generic
rank.

ol. viii.,
there
nland,"
mshavn
ly 280.
4,000/.
w there
f 2,200
f time,
e Faroe

V. — On some Cetacea of Greenland. By Dii. E. D. Cope
and Du. I. I. Hayes. (From the Proceedings Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Dec. 1865, p. 274.)

" He also alluded to the existence of several species of White
Whales, probably confounded hitherto, owing to their uniform
coloration. Similar uniformity exists in various genera, as CorvuSf
Chasntarhy7ichus, etc. A species brought by Dr. I. I. Hayes,
from Upernavik, was called Beluga rkinodon, and a large one
pre&ented by Dr. E. K. Kane was characterized under the name
B. concrcta."

" Dr. I. I. Hayes stated that the two skulls, mentioned ■ by
Prof. Cope as belonging to the genus Bclvga, brought by him
i'rom Greenland, were obtained from the Governor of Upernavik,
as those of the ' White Whale.' He also obsen^ed, that during his
voyage he had seen the White Whale abundantly as for north as
78° N. lat."

'ilrf

94

NEWTON ON BIRDS IN OREENLAND.

fli

R ! yt:

VI. — Notes on Birds which have been found in Green
LAND. By Alfred Newton, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University
of Cambridge.

Though many authorities have been consulted in making the
following compil.ition, it is founded mainly on the excellent " List
of the Birds hitherto observed in Greenland ", by Professor
Reinhardt, which was printed in <The Ibis' for 1861 (pp. 1-19)
and gives the most complete catalogue of the species of that
country as yet published. Some additions to it have since been
communicated by him to the Natural-History Union of Copen-
hagen*, and these I have here incorporated. I have further to
acknowledge, with sincere thanks, his great kindness in sending
me the proof-sheets of his latest contribution to the subject, made
daring the present year and as yet unpublished {op. cit 1875,
p. 127), that I might avail myself of its valuable contents. On
the other hand, it must be confessed that Prof. Reinhardt's " List ",
though all one could desire as regards the stray visitors to Green-
land, gives few or no particulars of the habitat of some of the
species which regularly frequent that country, and this informa-
tion I have had to supply from the work of the ill-fated HolboUf,
whose long residence there as an offiosi of the Danish Government,
and taste for Ornithology rendered him a most trustworthy autho-
rity on this head. The works of the naturalists of the last century,
Bruennich | and Otho Fabricius§, have not been neglected by
me, and as evidence of the completeness of the latter I may repeat
Prof. Reinhardt's remark, that since its publication the number of
birds known to breed in Greenland has been only increased by
eleven. I have of course examined also the ' Memoir on the
Birds of Greenland '||, published in 1H9, by the venerable Sir
Edward Sabine, and the far too meagre Natural-History Sup-
plements to the several * Voyages ' of Parry and of Ross — works
which excite regret at the glorious opportunities so ingloriously
missed through the absence of special naturalists, and only redeemed
from utter opprobrium by the zeal of •/olunteers.'lf The long
series of expeditions in search of Franklin's ships from the same
cause was still more barren of results in respect to Arctic Orni-
thology, so that a single discovery of Sir Leopold McClintock's,**

%

•^'f

t

* Videnskabelige Meddelelser, 1864, p. 246; 1865, p. 241 ; 1872, p. 131.

t ' Ornithologiske Bidrag til deu gronlandske Fauna.' Naturhistoriske
Tidsskrift, 1843, pp. 361-457. A German translation of this memoir by Dr.
Paulsen was published at Leipzig in 1846, and again reissued in 1854.

J Ornithologia Borealis. Hafniee: 1764. 8vo. 80 pp.

§ Fauna Groenlandica. HafnisB et Lipsia): 1780, 8vo. pp. 53-124.

II Transactions of the Linnean Society, xii. pp. 527-559.

^ The result of nearly all that was then ascertained about Birds is embodied
in the second volume of the well-known ' Fauna Boreali- Americana ' by
Swainson and Richardson. (London: 1831, 4to., 523 pp.)

** Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, 1856, pp. 57-60.

NEWTON ON BIRDS IN GREENLAND:

95

lEEN
3or of
jrsity

ig the
« List
ofessor
. 1-19)
)f that
36 been
Copen-
•ther to
sending
t. made
f. 1875,
ts. On
»List",
Green-
e of the
nforma-

[olbollt,
jrnment,
y autho-
century,
icted by
ly repeat
imber of
ased by
on the
lable Sir
[ry Sup-
1 — works
loriously
jedeemed
"he long
he same
ic Orni-
Itock's,**

p. 131.
rhistoriske
air by Dr.
54.

|4.

embodied
icana' by

and the notes of Dr. Dp,vid Walker*, who did not possess any
special proficiency in the study, furnish almost the only increase
to oiu; knowledge of the subject gained during that period."!"
The different American expeditions, judging from what has been
published about them, added absolutely nothing — a fact particularly
to be regretted when we regard the high latitudes they successively
reached. More in this respect was achieved by the Germans, and
to the observations of Dr. Pansch, contained in the elaborate
work of Dr. FinschJ, we owe information of some value. To
various works not especially treating of Ai-ctic Ornithology, or
of the Ornithology of Davis Strait at least, there is no need for
me here to refer more in detail.

It is now beginning to be recognized by ornithologists that to
draw any sound conclusions from the avifauna of a country we
must strictly limit our basis to the species of Birds which either
breed in or annually, for a longer or shorter period, frequent it,
and consequently to obtain a true notion of its peculiarities all
accidental stragglers should be dismissed from consideration.
They are indeed eminently worthy of regard from another point
of view, throwing hght as they do on the general question of the
wanderings of Birds, but they are of little account in the aid they
give to elucidating the great subject of Geographical Distribution.
It has, therefore, seemed to me expedient to distinguish between
these two categories by using a different series of numbers to indicate
them, and also by indenting the paragraphs in which the stragglers
are noticed. Without some such precaution the interspersal of
stragglers among true denizens only leads to confusion, and espe-
cially would it do so in the present case when the two categories
are almost equal in number, while most of the stragglers have
occurred outside of the Arctic Circle, and in places lying many
degrees of latitude to the southward of the tracts which the new
Expedition is to explore. Still further to direct attention to these
last tracts, the names of those species which, so far as one can judge,
may be not unreasonably looked for in Smith Sound, and some
of them thence to the northward, are printed in thick type, while
the names of those which are known to breed in Greenland
and yet may not be expected to occur beyond the Danish Settle-
ments are in small capitals. The native (Esquimaux) names when
given by Fabricius or others are marked by inverted commas.
I have further to premise that the Danish Settlements are divided
into two Inspectorates, roughly speaking, separated by the 68th
parallel, as well as to observe that when a species is said to be

* Ibis, 1860, pp. 165-168 ; Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, 1860
pp. 61-67.

f The majority of such ornithological specimens as were collected during
the Franklin search passed into the possession of Mr. Barrow, who subse-
quently gave his collection to the Museum of the University of Oxford, and
a catalogue of it has been published by Mr. Harting (Proceedings of the
Zoological Society, 1871, pp. 110-123).

X Die zweite deuische Nordpolarfahrt. Leipzig: 1874. 2 vols, 8vo. vol. 11.
pp. 178-239.

^- I

^6

NEWTON ON BIRDS IN GREENLAND.

... |i

(■;;',

I-

i -■: i-

i' ■.

found generally or throughout Greenland the words " in suitable
*' localities" must be understood to follow, even though not
inserted.

1. Haliaetus albicilla. White-tailed Eagle. <'Nektoralik,"
• « Tertersoak."

Inhabits generally and breeds in the whole of Danish Green-
land, including the eastern coast. Its northern range not as yet
determined. Being the only Eagle found in the country, there
seems no need to give here its diagnostic characters.

(/.) Pandion haliactus. Osprey.

A single specimen obtained (25 Sept.) at Godhavn, by
Mr. E. Whymper, and sent to the Museum of Copenhagen,
Must be regarded as a straggler (most likely from America),
since it is not found in Iceland, and has only once been known
to occur in the Fasroes (1848).

2. Falco candicans. Greenland Falcon. " Kirksovlarsuk-

kakortuinak."
The white form of Great Northern Falcon. In summer more
common in the Northern Inspectorate than in the Southern, but
occurring, according to Dr. Finsch, also on the Eastern Coast.
The limits of its breeding-range in either direction have not been
determined.

3. Falco islandus. Iceland Falcon. " Kirksoviarsuk-kernek-

tok."
The darker form of Great Northern Falcon, by some held to
be distinct both from F. candicans and F, gyrfalco. The northern
limits of its breeding-range have not yet been determined. A
young male Falcon, killed 24th September 1872, on the Fiskenaes,
referred by Dr. Finsch to F. gyrfalco, probably belonged to this
form.

4. Falco peregkinus. Peregrine Falcon. " Kirksoviarsuk-

millekulartok."
Said to breed generally throughout Greenland, certainly up to
lat, 69° N., and in many of the lands to the westward of Baffin's
Sea. Examples obtained by Dr. Walker, of the * Fox,' R.Y.S.,
at Port Kennedy (lat. 72° N.), are specifically indistinguishable
from European specimens.

(2.) Falco cEsalon. Merlin.

A specimen caught at sea (lat. 57° 41' N., long. 35° 23' W.)
in May 1867, by Mr. E. W^hymper, and by him presented to
the Norfolk and Norwich Museum, seems to have reached the
most western limit of the species known. A common species
in Iceland ; in North America replaced by the nearly allied
F. columbarius.

(5.) Tinnunculus alaudarius. Kestrel.

One said to h.ave flown on-board ship off Cape Farewell,
on Parry's first return voyage^ and killed, (Sabine, Suppl.
App. p. ccx.)

XEWTON ON BIRDS IN GREENLAND.

97

suitable
igh not

toralik,"

Green-
3t as yet
[■y, there

lavn, by
jnhagen.
Lmerica),
n known

jviarsuk-

tner more

hern, but

•n Coast.

not been

k-kernek-

ae held to
northern
ined. A
iskensBS,

id to this

soviarsuk-

inly up to
f Baffin's
,' R.Y.S.,

isuishable

23' W.)
tsented to
?achcd the
)n species
irly allied

5. Nyctea scandiaca. Snowy Owl. *= Opik," " Opirksoak."
Very common ; in summer more numorous in the North(M'u

Inspectorate than in the Southern. Found also on the, Eastern
Coast, and extends westward to Lidtlon Island and Melville
Island (75° N.). A thoroughly cireumpohir species, migrating in
winter to lower latitudes, and, from its white colour and large size,
incapable of being confounded with any other species.

6. Asio accipitr'mus. Short-eared Owl. " Siutitok."

A scarce species in Greenland, but perhaps breeds there, though
not further to the southward than 60^. Its northern range
altogether unknown, but it has been shot on the Green Islands in
Disco Bay, lat. 68° 50' N,

(J.) Sjihyropicus vurius. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker.

One found dead near Julianehaab, July 1845 ; another sent
from Greenland about 1858.

Flicker or

Golden-winged Wood-

(5.) Colaptes aurahts.
pecker.

Ilerr Moschler has recorded the receipt of a specimen
from Greenland in 1852 (Journ. fvir Orn. 1856, p. 335).*

{6.) Chatura pelasgia. Chimney-Swift.

One shot in 1863 near the Sukkertop (Reinhardt, Vid.
Medd. 1865, p. 241).

(7.) Hirundo horreorum. Barn-Swallow.

Two known to have been obtained, one at the Fiskonaes
about 1830, the other at Nenortalik.f

(^.) Vireosi/lvia olivacea. Red -eyed Flycatcher.

One received from Greenland in 1844, and most likely
from th Southern Inspectorate. Sir Oswald Mosley has
recorded the occurrence of this American species in England
(Nat. Hist. Tutbury, p. 385, pi. 6).

(9.) Empidonax pusillus. Little Flycatcher.
Two received from Godthaab in 1853.

(/O.) Contopus borcalis. Olive-sided Flycatcher.

One shot at Nenortalik, 29 August, 1840, and sent to the
Royal Museum at Copenhagen.

( / /.) Dendraeca vircn.s. liltick-throated Green Warbler.
One sent from Julianehaab in 1853.

(12.) Dendroica coronata. Yellow-rumped AVarbler.
Three examples prior to 1860.

( 13.) Dendrceca striata. Black-polled Warbler.
One sent from Godthaab in 1853.

■■\-v

[Farewell,
le, Suppl.

'" Chordedilcs popctuv. Amoriciiu Night-Hawk. One fouud dead on
Melville Island.

f Cvtyle riparia. Sand-Martin. A pair said to have been seen on Melville
Island, U .Tnne, 1820 (Parry, Journal, &i. p. I'Jj).

3G12i>. G

98

XEWTON ON BIRDS IN OREENLAND.

1

( /^.) Dendrceca blackburnieB ? Orange-throated Warbler.

A young bird shot at Frederikshaab, 16 October 1845, has
been referred to this species with hesitation owing to the bad
state of the specimen.

{15.) Parula amcricaua. Particoloured "Warbler.

One sent from the Southern Inspectorate in 1857, in a very
bid state, but quite recognizable.

(76.) Helminthophaga riificapilla. Nashville Warbler.

Obtained twice : — once at Godthaab about 1835, and again
at the Fiskenaes, 31 August, 1840.

(/7.) Geothlypis Philadelphia. Mourning Warbler.

One obtained at the Fiskena)s in 1846, another at Juliane-
haab in 1853.

(/S'.) Troglodytes palustris. Long-billed Marsh- Wren.
One procured at Godthaab in May 1823.

(/p.) Regulus calendula. Ruby-crowned Wren.
One sent from Nenortalik in 1859.

7. Saxicola cenantre. Wheutear. " Kyssektak."

Known to breed in Greenland from the time of Otlio Fabrieins,
and, according to Holboll, extending its range to lat. 73° N. and
even further. Strays also to the westward, and observed by
James Ross, 2 May, 1830, in Felix Harbour (lat. 70° N., long.
91° 53' W.). Obtained on Shannon Island by the German
Expedition (Finsch). The peculiar distribution of this species in
the northern part of the Nearctic Region has yet to be explained
{cf. Yarrell, Br. B. ed. 4, i. pp. 352, 353).

(^0.) Turdus migratoriiis, American Robin.

An adult male shot near Kornuk in the Godthaab Fjord
(Reinhardt, Vid. Medd. 1865; p. 241).

{21.) " Turdus minor.''^

One specimen, so named by Prof. Reinhardt, obtained in
June 1845, at Amaraglik, near Godthaab. Prof. Baird says
it is difficult to say which of the three North- American
species is thereby meant (Am. Journ. Sc, ser. 2, xli. p. 339).

{22.) Turdus iliacus. Redwing.

One sent to Dr. Paulsen in 1845, another shot at Frederiks-
haab, 20 October, 1845.

{23.) Motacilla alba. White Wagtail.

One sent from the Southern Inspectorate in 1849, another,
obtained by Dr. Walker, at Godhavn, in August 1857.

8. Anthus ludovicianus. Penn>;-lvanian Pipit.

Supposed to breed in Greenland not further south than lat.
67^ N., but unquestionably does so in the northern parts of the
Nortli-Ann'rican continent.

W

M

*4' ',: I

NEVVTOM ON BIRD,^ iNT GURENLA-ND,

99

[5, has
lie bad

a very

(1 again

Jiiliane-

Fabricius,
i° N. and
icrved by
f N., long.
German
species in
explained

iiab Fjord

btained in
aird says

-American
i. p. 339).

Frcderiks-

|9, another,
J57.

than lat.
larts of the

(jg^.) Anthus pratensis. Meadow-Pipit.

Received by Dr. Paulsen from Greenland in 1845.

(23.) Otocorys alpcstris. Shore-Lark.

One shot at Godthaab in October 1835, but known before
to occur on the other side of Davis Strait: e.g., at Cape
Wilson, 10 July, 1822.

9. Flectrophanes nivalis. Snow-Bunting. " Kopanauarsuk."
Breeds generally throughout the country, and said to be the

commonest land-bird on the Eastern Coast (Pansch). Breeds also
on Melville Peninsula, and is very numerous on the Parry Islands.
Seen by Kane at Rensselaer Harbour in June 1854.

10. PLECTRortiANES LAPPONicus. Lapland Bunting. "Nark-

sarmiutak."
Also breeds generally throughout the country, as well as on
Melville Peninsula and other lands to the westward of Davis
Strait.

11. ZoNOTRicriiA LEUCOPHRYS. White-crowucd Bunting.
Seems to be confined to Southern Greenland : not numerous,

but certainly a breeding bird, though its nest has not as yet been
found in the country.

12. LiNOTA LiNARiA, Mealy Redpoll. " Orpingmiutak,"

" Anarak."
Said to breed generally throughout Greenland, suitable localities
being, of course, understood, but is migratory there. Seems to be
indistinguishable from the Frhigilla linaria of Liunaius, the F.
horcalis of most English authors, but not their F. linaria, which
is a much smaller and more rufescent form.

13. Ltnota canescens. G i inland Redpoll.

Said to be constantly rc.«We. N and a regular breeder, but not
further south than lat. 70° N. Oct urred also in Kaiser Franz- Josef's
Fjord, 1 August, 1870 (Finsch). The Liuota hornemanni oi IIol-
boll, and possibly the jEgiothus rostratus of Dr. Coues.

{"26.) Loxia leucoptcra. American White-winged Crossbill.
An adult specimen procured about 1831 from the east
coast by an Es(iuimaux. Subsequently another adul" and three
young were obtained in South Greenland.

(27.) Xanthocephalus ictcrocephalus. Yellow-headed Maize-
bird.
One obtained, 2 September 1820, at Nenoitalik,

{2S.) Sturnus vulgaris. Starling.

A single specimen sent by Holboll. (Qu. S. fteroensis,
Feilden, if that be a distinct species ?)

14. Corvus corax. Raven. " Tullugak," " Kernektok."
Breeds more in South than in North Greenlanil, uiul also observed

on the East Coast. Several pairs seen on Melville Island. A

r k-

' ..til

\ hi

100

NKWTox OX nnins ix cjhrrxlaxd.

S))e('imon from l>(>cchoy Island in llie liarrow Collection. Noticed
s<!veml times on Purry's Second Voyage.

iV.l

t . ^'^

15. Lagopus rupestris. Ivock-Ftarmigan. " Akeiksck,"

« Kauio."
Tho only species of tlui genus which inhabits Greenland, where
it occurs equally on the i^ast as on the West Coast. Found by the
German Expedition on Sabine and Clavering Islands. In great
abundance on the Parry Islands, and thence southward throughout
Melville Peninsula, but its southern range west of Davis Strait still
nndetermiued. Its specific distinctness from L. mutus is questioned
by several authorities, but the males of L, rupestris (including
under that name L. reinhardti and L. islandoruni) soom never to
acquire entirely black feathers on the breast as do the males of L.
mutus — the Ptarmigan of Scotland and the European continent.
The females and the males in winter of the different forms can
hardly be distinguished.

(2().) Crcx pratensis. Corncrake.

One obtained at Godthaab and sent to the Museum of
Copenhagen in 1851.

{30.) Crcx porzana. Spotted Rail.

One obtained at Godthaab, 28 September, 1841 ; a second
taken at Nenortalik was sent to Copenhagen in 1856.

(37.) Crex Carolina. Carolina Rail.

One killed at the Sukkertop, 3 October, 1822.

( 5;2.) Fulica amcricana. American Coot.

Twice obtained in Greenland, and in the same year (1854)
—once at Godthaab, and once in Disco Bay. The latter
example is in the Barrow Collection.

(53.) Ardea cinerca. Heron.

Said by Crantz to have been seen in South Greenland,
27 August, 1765. A young bird found dead near Nenortalik
in 1856, and sent to Coponhiigen.

{S.',.') Botaurus Icntiyinosus. American Bittern.

One caught by dogs during a storm at Egedesminde in
1869, and identified by its remains.*

{33.) Hcematopus ostralcgus. Oystercatchor.

One sent from Julianehaab in 1847, another in 1871 from
Godthaab, and a third from Nenortalik in 1859.

16. Strepsilas interpres. Turnstono. "Telligvak."

Not common according to IlolboU, but breeds generally along the
coast. Found by the Gorman Exjjedition in Sal)ino Island and at
Caj)e Brocr-Ruys. Recorded from Winter Island in June, and breeds

* Grus cauaJcnsis. Browu Craue. One obtained near Igloolik 25 June.

NEWTON ON inilDS IN OllEENLANl).

101

lotioed

iksck,"

wUoie
by the
L great
ugUout
fiiit still
istiomnl
eluding
levci' to
es of /..
ntinent.
L-ms can

?eum

of

a second

(1854)
le latter

rcenland,
[onortalik

Iminde in

^71 from

along tlie
kid and at
ind breeds

25 June.

on the Parry Islands. Its quaintly marked black and white head,
deep black breast, chostiuit and black back, and white belly,
render this one of the most easily recognized of shore-birds.

(36.) Vant'Uus cristatus. Lapwing.

One obtained, 7 January, 1820, near the Fiskenres ; a second
received from Julianehaab in 1847.

17. Squatarola helvetica. Giey Tlover.

Rare, but found in both Inspectorates, and, according to Ilolbtill,
increasing in numbers — an assertion Avhich Prol'. Riiinhardt doubts.
Said to breed on Melville Peninsula, where, according to Richard-
son, its eggs were obtained. Specimens of these, however, exist in
very few collections, and apparently only from Siberia and Alaska.
The bird is to be distinguished from the Golden Plover by its
larger size, its deep black axillary feathers (which are very apparent
in flight) and its rudimentary hind-toes.

18. Charadrius virginicus. American Golden Plover.

"Kajorrovek," " Kajordlek."
Somewhat rare in Greenland, but possibly breeds there, as it
does in considerable abundance on swampy places in the Parry
Islands. Seen in plenty on Parry's Second Voyage. Not distin-
guished by the older writers (including Richardson) from the
following species, but is always recognizable by its smoky-grey
axillary feathers, and more slender form.

(57.) Charadrius jiluvialis. Golden Plover.

One, in summer plumage, shot in the spring of 1871 on the
Noursoak Peninsula. Believed by Dr. Finsch to breed in
East Greenland. To be distinguished from the foregoing
species by its pure white axillaries and somewhat stouter build.

1 9. JEgialitis hiaticula. Ringed Plover. " Tukagvajok."

Breeds generally in Greenland and found on Sabine and Clavering
Islands. Said to be abundant on the shores of Possession Bay and
Pagcnt's Inlet, but was perhaps mistaken for a nearly-allied
species. Was found by Professors Torell and Nordcnskjold on
the Seven Islands (hit. 80° 45' N.), and therefore has possibly the
highest northern range of any known shore-bird.

The " Charadrius hiaticula " of Richardson (App. Parry's
Second Voyage, p. 351), apparently brought from Mount Sabine,
was subsequently identified by him with the North American
yEffiaiitis scniipalmata (Faun. Bor.-Am. ii. p. 367) — a species be-
lieved to have been obtained in Boothia Felix on Ross's Second
Voyage, but nothithe'to recognized from Greenland, where it may
however not unreasonably be expected to occur. This differs
from yE. hiaticula in being smaller and slenderer, in wanting the
Avhite patch above and behind the eye, and in having a much
narrower pectoral band. On closer examination also the middle
and outer toes of yZi. scmipalmata will be seen to be united at
their base by a very distinct web.

i'h

! -iJ

102

NEWTON ON BIRDS IN GREENLAND.

i:

(3^.) Totanus flavipes. Yellowshank.

Ono sent irom Greenland in 1854 toHcrrMoschlcr (Journ.
f. Orn. 1856, p. 335).*

20. Calidris arenaria. Sandcrlino:.

Scarce, and said not to breed furtlier sontli than lat. G8°, hut
the younjj have hocn obtained at Godthaah. Fonnd on the East
Coast by Graah, and by the German Exjx'ditiou on Sabine Ishind
where it was ))reedin<i;. Said to have been found breeding in con-
siderable numbers on the Parry Islands ; but authentic eggs have
been only recently made known to naturalists (Proc. Zool. Soc.
1871, pp. i^G, 546, pi. iv., fig. 2. ; Zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt,
ii. p. 240), and are very rare in collections. About the size of n
Skyhirk. May be distinguished from other Sandpipers by wanting
the hind toe, and from the small Plovers, which have only three
toes, by the mottled colouring (grey, rufous and black) of its
upper i)lumage. The abundance of this bird during many months
of the year on the coasts of the British Islands, and many other
countries both of the Old and New World, together with the abso-
lute want of any positive and trustworthy information as to the
peculiarities which would seem to accompany its habits during
the breeding-season, and the selection of its i)laces of nidification,
render these matters deserving of close attention.

21. Fhalaropus fulicarius. Grey [or Red] Phalaropc.

" Kajok ? "
Said to be the latest summer-bird to arrive, to be very rare in
the south and not to breed below lat. 68° N., but thence north-
ward to be common. Its common English name of " Grey "
Phalarope is exceedingly inapplicable when in its summer
plumage, for then the whole of the lower parts are of a bright
orange-red colour, the upper parts being diversified with dark
brown and tawny-yellow. The breeding-habits of this bird arc
little known, and it would seem to be often mistaken for the next
species, which is far more common, and readily distinguished by
the white plumage of its lower parts — even in summer, and its
more slender bill.

fii

22. Fhalaropus hyperboreus. Red-necked Phalarope. " Nel-
lourajrsortok."
Seems to be the commonest species of Phalarope throughout
the country, and possibly occurs very far to the northward,
though in the Arctic Regions of the Old World it does not go any-
thing like so far as the preceding. The difference l)etween the
two birds has been given above.f

* Catoptrophorus seniipalmatus. Willet. A bird seen l)y the late Prof.
Goodsir in Exeter Sound was ascribed by liim to this species (Arctic Voyage,
p. 145) ; but the matter must be regarded as doubtful in the liighest degree.

•f Fhalaropus wilsoni, though never yet met with far to the northward, may
be not unreasonably expected to occur, if only as a straggler, within the
Arctic Circle. It can be readily distinguished from either of the foregoing by
its longer and more slender bill and legs.

NEWTON ON 111 RDM IN flKKKNT-AND.

103

Journ.

38°, l>ut
ho East.
) iHhmcl

in con-
[js have
»ol. Soc.
iarfuhrt,
ize of a
wanting
ly three
) of its

months
ny other
;he abso-
is to the
; during
ification,

lialaropc.

^

rare in

north-

Grey "

summer

a bright

th dark

jird are

the next

ished by

and its

« Nel-

•oughout

fthward,

go any-

veen the

ate Prof.
; Voyage,
degree,
vard, may
athin the
egoing by

(59.) Tnnga minntiUa. American Stint.

One shot in the spring of 1867 on Noursoak Peninsula.*

(/fO.) Tringa maculatu. Pectoral Sandpiper.

One was received from Greenland in I80I by the Copen-
hagen Museum, and two more examples Avere sent thither
from Nenortalik in 1859.

23. Tringa BONArARTii. Bonaparte's Sandpiper.

Believed uy Holboll (according to Dr. Paulsen) to breed near
Juliauehaab, where small ilocks of botli old and young birds have
been observed in August. A very young ])ird was obtained
at Nenortalik in 1835, one undergoing the change to winter-
plumage in 1840, and three were procured there in 1841.

24. Tringa ulpiua. Dunlin. " Tojuk."

Dr. Paulsen has more than once received this species from
Greenland both in young and autumn plumage. It probably
breeds there, as it certainly does on Melville Peninsula, and else-
where on the coast of Davis Strait. The Dunlin of the American
continent seems to be constantly larger than that of Europe, and
has been described as distinct by the name of Tringa americana.
No appreciable difference in plumage is, however, perceptible.f

25. Tringa striata. Purple Sandpiper. " Sarbarsuk," " Sirk-

sariarsungoak."
Occurs in winter even so far as the sea is open, and is of
general distribution. Though not mentioned by Graah as met
with on the East Coast, some twenty or thirty were seen on Sabino
Island by Dr. Pansch.

26. Tringa canutus. Knot. " Kajok ? | " " Kajordlik ? "

Rare in the South, but often met .with in the North : believed
not to breed below lat. 68° N. Is thought to have its nest in the
bays of Greenland, but authentic eggs seem never to have been
obtained in that country, nor are such known to exist in collec-
tions. After the breeding-season resorts to the outer islands. Is
reported to have been found breeding on Melville Peninsula, and
in great abundance on the Parry Islands. The large flocks of
this bird which in autumn and spring throng our own coasts, as
well as those of Europe and temperate North America, to say

* " T. minuta." A single specimen brought home by Mr. Edwards
(Eichardson, App. Parry's Second Voyage, p. 354). The " T. minuta " of
Dr. AValker was T. striata.

t There are several other species of Shore-Sandpipers -which may be not
unreasonably looked for (perhaps as stragglers) in high latitudes. Little,
if anything, is known of their breediug-habits, and therefore the occurrence of
such birds is especially worthy of attention.

X This name is also common to Phalaropus fulicarius, doubtless from the
similarity in the colour of the summer-plumage of the two species. The Knot,
however, is at least twice as large as the Phalarope. In Iceland, where both
birds occur, they are equally confounded by the nativeH.

W-,

f

\-i

104

NEWTON ON niRDS IN GUEENLAND.

rrr

'1 )
1 -

nothing of countries lying much further to the southward, while
its breeding-habits are not known with any certainty, render it
especially an object of interest ; and any light that can bo thrown
on its place and mode of nidification will be most valuable, for
there is no common bird respecting the sunnner-haunts of which
ornithologists are at present more ignorant. About the size of a
large Snipe, but with much shorter bill and legs, it is in summer
of a bright orange-red on all the lower parts, and above mottled
with black, reddish-broAvn and white, tlie rump being white or
white tinged with red. Jn its chief breeding-quarters, wherever
they may be situated, it must bo numerous, judging from its
abundance at other times of the year. Large flocks are known to
occur in Iceland, but these do not stay there many days and pass
on — obviously to the northward. It has not been met with on the
cast coast of Greenland nor in Spitsbergen ; the presumption, there-
fore, is that the countries to the west or north of Greenland are
the goal of its vernal migration.

(^/.) Macrm'hamphiis griseiis. Brown Snipe.
One sent from the Fiskenros in 1824.

\%

27. Gallinago media. Common Snipe.

One received by Dr. Paulsen in 1845, but the species has been
so often observed in Greenland, that it may very likely I)reed
there, though positive information as to the fact is not forth-

coming.

*

Black-tailed Godwit.

" Sarg-

(^^.) Limosa fpgocephald.
varsurksoak."

Fabricius seems to have seen a single specimen, and one is
said to have been obtained at Godthaab prior to 1820.

(4<S.) Nttmcnius borealis. Esquimaux Curlew.

Two specimens supposed to have been of Greenland origin
have been received at Copenhagen ; oiio was brought in 1858
and was said to have been shot at Julianehaab; about the
other Prof. Reinhardt knows nothing. |

(4^.) Numcnius hudsonicus, Iludsonian Curlew.

One sent from GodthiOab many years since by Holboll,
who says he had seen two others from Julianehaab and the
FiskensBS respectively.

28. Numcnius p/iaopus. Whimbrel.

Nearly a dozen examples, sent from all parts of the country,
have been received, and, tliough Holboll doubts its doing so.
Prof. Reinhardt thinks that this species may breed in Greenland.

•vi ":\

* The American- Snipe (^GalUnuyo wi/sont) wliicli very closely resembles
our own bird, but differs in possessing sixteen instead of fourteen tail-feathers,
may perhaps be looked for to occur in Greenland.

t Three individuals of a species of Numenivs Hew past the ships' boats in
Kegent Inlet. (Sabine, Suppl. App. p. ccx.)

iiiil

\

NEWTON ON UIRDS I\ (SllKKNLAXn.

105

while
ilor it
I row 11
le, for
which
c of u
inuuer
lottled
lite ov
icrcvcr
om its
own to
k1 pass
on tho
, thcrc-
i\nd ftie

I as been
ly V)ive(l
t forth-

" Surg-

1(1 one is

ul origin

in 1858

Ibout the

iHolboll,
and tho

country,
loing so,
lecnliUid.

rcscnil)lcs
lil-ft-atliers,

boats in

29. Sterna hirundo. Arctie Torn. ♦* rniorkoteilak."
lin^eds in various suitable localities on both coasts of Green-
land, as well as ou the western shores of IJafliu's Sea.

30. Xema sabinii. SabiueV Gull.

Said not to breed further s(»ulh than Int. ''> N. nnd appears
not to be common in Danish (JreenlMud, l)ul was found l)y Sir
]']. Sabine breeding in great numbiu's on tlirec small Islands in
lat. 75° JiO' [(fii. Sabine Islands in Melville Ijay ?J associated with
the Arctic Tern. JMany spccinu'us were obiaiiK.'d in flune and
J\dy at Winter Islaiul and Aulitiwiek, where subsequently lloeks
were seen Hying high, as if migrating to the southward. Has
been found breeding in North- vvestern America, but nothing has
yet been recorded of its habits in that (|uartei'. Sir E. Sabine
informed Kiehardson that he killed two in S[>itsbergen, and the
latter says that the specimen brought thenc(! was in full summer-
j)lumage, but it has not since been observed by others in that
country. Dr. von MiddendorfF fouiul it breeding abundantly at
the month of the Taimyr, again in company with the Arctic Tern.
The fact of these two species resorting to tho same spot in
localities so far apart should put observers on their guard against
the possibility of confounding the nests and eggs of each. The
eggs of this Gull are extremely rare in collections, and such as
have been seen do not so much diifer from those of tho Tern
(which are common enough) as to obviate the need of the most
careful identification. This Gull is of small size and may be
distinguished from others by its grey head, black collar and forked
tjiil. From the Arctic Tern it may be known by its stouter
build, less pointed wings and tail, and black bill and feet, the
former having a yellow tip — the Tern having the bill and feet
red, while in it the <lark colour of the head is confined to a cap
and does not extend below the eyes.

31. Bhodostethia rosea. Cuneatc-tailcd or Koss's Gull.
One of the rarest of birds, to be distinguished from other Gulls

by its snudl (almost Dove-like) black bill, whit(^ head and neck,
with a black ring round the latter, and wedge-shaped tail — the
jdumage, especially of the lower parts, deeply tinged with rose-
colour. Four specimens have been received from Greenland by
the Museum of Copenhagen, of Avhich three were shot in Disco
Bay, and the fourth near the Sukkertop, while a fifth is believed
to have been obtained by Ilolboll. Originally discovered at
Ahignak, in Melville Peninsula, where two examples were killed.
Nothing whatever in known of the breeding-habits of this species,
and only three examples are believed to exist in this country, one
of which is said to have been killed in Yorkshire. It has occurred
once in Heligoland, and once in the Ficroes. The only specimen
known on the continent of Europe is in tin; Museum of Mainz,
and there appear to be none in America.

32. Fagophila eburnea. Ivory-Gull. " Nayauaisuk."

J he well-known circuniuolar '• Icobird " needs no description,
but long as Arctic navigators have been accpiainted with it, its

n

I.; M

Km

NEWTON ON nmVtH IN OUFKNLAND.

■i|i

I- iff I

iW

sa.:

nost Kocms to Imvo boon I'ndisrovcrod until 1853, whon Sir L.
M'Clintock found ono on C'apo Krabln' (Int. 77° 25' N.), containing
ft sin^l(> ogK (Journ. U. Dnbl. Soo., i. p. 57, pi. I). Subsequently
two (';r«;s were obtnhud by one of the Swedish F^iXpeditions in
Spitsbergen, nnd these seem to be the ordy nuthentieatcd speci-
mens that have been brouj;ht to the notice of naturalists. The
bird itself is I'nr from being nneonnnon in eollcctions, and in somo
l)arts of tlie Arctic Regions is pretty ])lentifid. It is subject to
some variation in size, and especially in tlu; relative dimensions of
some of its parts, but there is no good renson to suppose* that thoro
is more than one species of the genus.

33. Bissa tridactyla. Kittiwnke. "Tattarak."

Breeds in both Inspectorates, but more commonly in the
Southern. Recorded by Graah from the P^astern Coast of Green-
land, though not observed there by the (lerman Expedition. Its
limits to the northward have not been laid down. The black
quill-feathers of its Avings are an unfailing distinction between
this Gull and any other of its size likely to 1)0 met with far
north.

(^.5.) Larus argcntatits. Herring Gull.

An accidental and extremely rare bird in Greenland, where
it can oidy be a straggler, and is not known to have occurred
further north than Godthaab. Dr. Walker says he saw it at
Fredorikshaab. A pair observed at Winter Island, 29 June,
1822. Larger than the preceding species, but like it has
black primary quills. A doubtful species (//. (iffi?ns, Rein-
liardt), with a darker back, is said to have been obtained in
Greenlaiid, while on the other hand a form, with a paler
back {L. chalcoptcrus, Licht.) — of which only three specimens
have been procured, — seems to indicate a transition to tho
next.

34. Larus leucopterus. Iceland or Lesser White-winged Gull.

" Nayangoak."
Breeds in both Inspectorates, but more commonly in the
Southern. Also observed on the East Coast, and said to breed on
the Parry Islands. In Greenland it is reported to be the most
common Gull after the KittiAvako. Its comparatively small size,
pale blue mantle (which, however, is subject to some variations
of shade), and wliitc primaries distinguish this species from any
other. Immature birds vary greatly in the intensity of the brown
clouding of the plumage.

35. Larus glaucus. Glaucous Gull or Burgomaster. " Naya."

" Nnyavck," " Nayainak."
The most common large* Gull in Greenland. At Najartut, south
of Godthaab, said to breed by il.'^eH', l)iit most generally in com-
pany with Kissa tr'uJaclijla and L. Icicnptrrun. Subject to tho
same variation of shade as the latter, but the existence of species
called /,. arcticus and L. (flacialis has not been confirmed.
Found also on the west side of Davis Strnit and the East Const of

NEWTON ON HTRDS TN OUEENLANT).

107

Sir L.
talning
|uontly
tioiis in
1 f*poci-
. Tho
in somo
)je('t to
«ions f)t'
\t tlicro

in tho
' Grccn-
on. Its
10 blaclc
between
with I'm'

1(1, where
occurred
saw it at
29 June,
;e it has
/.<f, Kein-
.iiined in
a paler
pccimens
n to tho

rod Gull.

in the
lln'ced on
Itlic most
mil size,
lariatious
irom any
lo brown

' Naya."

lit, south
liu coiu-
|t to the

species
Infinnetl.

'oast of

Circcnland, and said to bo as numerous in the Polar Sea as it is in
Davirt Strait.

36. Larus MAiJiNUS. Groat Black-bnckod Gull. '< Nayardhik,"

" NayanllurkHoak."
llroedH ;,'eii('rally throughout DaniHh Greenland, but most com-
monly between lat. 03° and hit. ()H^ As lat<j;o as the preeedin;;
species, or larger, but easily distiiifjuishcd theicrroni by its black
back and primaries.

{'fd.) StrrcorariHs entdrrhactcs. Great Skua.
Seen twice on the south coast by Ilolbiill.

37. Stercorarius pomatorhinus. Pomatorhino Skua.

Said to be tho coninionest species of Skua in the north. Breeds
in societies from lijornena's, north of Effcdesmindo, to the north-
ward. Several were killed in Rej^ent Inlet, and it was also seen on
tho Parry Islands, but more rarely than tho next species. Authen-
ticated egf^s of this bird are rare in collections. It is easily dis-
tingnishecl in flight by tlie i)eculiar formation of the two middle tail-
feathers, Avhich arc twisted near the tip, so as to take a vertical
direction, and give the appearance of a disc or ball attached to tho
bird's tail.

38. Stercorarius parasiticus. Common Skua. . <' Isiiigak,"

" Meriarsairsok."
Breeds in both Inspectorates, but most commonly in the
Southern. Found on the East Coast by Graali, but not by the
German Expedition. Obtained also on the west const of Davis
Strait. Equally abundant in the Polar Sea as in the latter. To bo
distinguished from tho preceding species by its smaller size and
perfectly straight tail. This and the next species appear to be
" dimorphic," a wholecoloured * and a particoloured bird being
often found paired, and the difFerence in plumage seems to be
irrespective of sex or ago ; bnt on this point further information
is desired.

39. Stercorarius longicaudatus. Buflon's Skua.

Said not to breed further south than lat. 70° N. One example
obtained by the Germans. To be distinguished from the lust
S])ecies by its smaller size, more slender bill, and, even on the
wing, by its exceedingly long tail. Would seem to be rather less
" dimorphic " than S. parasitivns.

40. Frocellaria glacialis. Fulmar or Mallomoke. " Ivakor-

dluk," " Kakordluvek ;" dark variety, " Igarsok."
Said not to breed further to the south than lat. 69° N. Occurs
also in East Greenland (Pansch). A very unmistakealdo bird,
but worthy of attention since individuals vary a good deal in the

* It is to this wholecoloured form that the name «S'. richardsoni properly
applies.

m

108

NEWTON ON BIRDS IN GREENLAND.

;?^

H,

sJiJidc of colouring. The young are supposed to be darkest in
hue, but some geeiu to keep this sign of immaturity all their
life,

41. PuFFiNUS MAJOiJ. Greater Shearwater. " Kakordluugnak."
M)ii'ke<l by Prof, l^einhardt as breeding in Greenland, and said

l>y Ilolboll to be found in great numbers from the soxithern point
of the country to lat. 65° 30' N. ; the eggs of this bird are utterly
unknown. Shearwaters of some species have many times been
noticed in abundance off Cape Farewell.

()/.) l^nfjinns hvhlL Grey Shearwater.

Only known from Greenland by a specimen received thence
by Ilcrr Moschler and now in the Leyden Museum (Schlegel,
Mus. Pays-Bas, Procellarirr, p. 24).

(.^^.) PuffiHus uiujlorum. Manks Shearwater.

Once received from Greenland. The changes of plumage
undergone by Shearwaters seem to be somewhat analogous
to those of the Skuas, and no ornithologist at present has
been able to give a rational explanation of them.

42. TuALAssiDROMA i.EACHi. Fork-tailed Petrel.

Constantly observed near the coast to lat. 64° or 65° N., and
most frequently about the entrance of Godthaab Fjortl, on the
islands in which it is said to breed.*

(.^f>.) Thnlassidroma buhocri. Bulwer's Petrel.

Only known from Greenland by a specimen received
thence at the Museum of Leyden (Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas,
ProcellarifP, p. 9), from the Moravian missionaries.

43. Fratercula arctica(?) Puffin. "Killangak."

Puffins seem to be nowhere common in Greenland, and are said
by Ilolboll not to breed further south than lat. 63° 30' N., which
seems a questionable assertion. Whether two species are found
there is also a doubtful matter.f The Puffin of Spitsbergen
aj)pears to the compiler to be justifiably separable from that
which inhabits more southern stations in Europe on account of
its much larger size, and to it should probably be assigned the
name of F. glaciaUs (Leach), but the type of that supposed
gpecies is said to have been received from Greenland, whence
Cassin also says he has seen it. On the other hand Prof. l?ein-
hardt says VcM all the Puffins he has examined from Greenland
belong to the common species /''. arctica. The difference between
the two is admittctlly only one of size, though that difTerence is

* Two examples of rioccUaria pclacjica, the common Stormy Petrel, with
tlic locality " Groeiiland " arc contained in the Museum of Leyden, liaving been
received direct from Ilolboll, mIio doubtless obtained them on one of his voyages,
but Mhetncr in the Greenland seas is another matter.

f Fratercula cirrkata, the Tufted Puffin, a bird of the nortli-west coast of
North America, is said to have been received from Greenland (Moschler,
Journ. f. Orn. 1856, p. 335) ; but there is mo5t likely some mistake about it.

NEWTON ON r.IUDS IN OllEENLAND.

109

I'kcst in
11 their

ngnak."
ind said
n point
utterly
QH been

(1 thence
jchlegel,

pi uuiage
lalogous
•cnt has

N., and
on the

received

ays-Bas,

are said

., whieh

found

shcrfjfen

Dm that

ount of

ncd the

upposed

Avhence

f. Keiii-

L'eonland

between

renee is

trol, with

ving 1)1011

voyages,

it const of
Moschler,
30Ut it.

great. A series of specimens whieh would help to clear ui)thi^
matter is something to be desired.

44. Uria grylle. Black Guillemot or Greenland Dove. " Ser-
bak," "Sergvak"; (in summer) "Keruekungojuk," "Ker-
nektarsuk" ; (in winter) " Kakortnngojuk."
Very numerous on both coasts of Greenland, and said to remain
longer than any other bird. Plentiful also on Melville Peninsula
but more rarely seen in the Polar Sea. The distribution of the
various species of Black Guillemot (which it may be observed
is, except in the breeding plumage, anything but " black ") is
matter deserving of the fullest attention. The ordinary form
from Spitsbergen is of slender build, and has the Aving-spot in tho
tulult purely and entirely white. That of the Norwegian and
British coasts {U. grylle, vera) is stouter, and has tlie white
feathers of the wing-spot with black at the base, but this colour
does not shew outwardly. That of the North Pacific {U. vo-
lumha) has a distinct black bar across the wing-spot, wliilo
another form {XJ. carlo) is altogether black. Now a specimen
not to be distinguished from the typical U. columlm was obtained
in the Spitsbergen seas by Dr. von Heuglin, and liolboU says he
has seen in Greenland an entirely black example, which, therefore,
may perhaps be regarded as U. carbo. Whether these were excep-
tional varieties of the normal form, or examples whieh had acciden-
tally wandered from their proper habitats is a question which can-
not be decided — but in the latter case the question has an important
geographical aspect, as tending to show the occasional means of
water communication between opposite parts of the circumpolar

region.

45.

Ilotge or

Little Auk. " Akpalliarsuk,"

Mergtdus alle.

<' Kaerrak."

Said not to breed further south than lat. 68° N., but, though
its great stations are in the northern parts of Baffin's Sea, not to be
common in the Polar Sea. Found also in East Greenland.

46. Alca tkoile. Wiliock or Common Guillenot.

Two examples sent by Holboll from Godthaab, where, and
perhaps in other places on the coast, it breeds, but still, to all
appearance, very rarely. Its variety, A. iacrymuns, seems to be
still more rare in Greenland.

47. Alca arra. Brueunich's Guillemot. " Akpa."
Doubtless the commonest bird on the Greenland cosists, but

said not to breed south of lat. 64° N. Occurred on Parry's
Second Voyage. Holboll met with three specimens entirely black,
two near Godthaab and one at the Sukkertop, but all in Avintcr !
Some recent writers have most unreasonably questioned or even
denied the specific distinction of this and the foregoing.

48. Ai.CA Toi{i>A. lliizor-bill. " Akparnak," " Akpartliik."
Not rare either in the Northern or Southern Inspectorate, but

not hitherto observed on the East Coast.

no

NEWTON ON PIRDS IN GREENLAND.

n

t

(50.) Alca impennis. Gare-fowl or Great Auk. '' Isaro-
kitsok."
The earliest discovery of this remarkable and interesting
species in Greenland was in or about the year 1574, when an
Icelander, by name Clemens, visited certain islands on the
east coast, then called Gunnbjarnareyjar, and since iden-
tified with Danell's or Graah's Islands, lying in lat. 65° 20' N.,
whereon he found it so plentiful that he loaded his
boat with the birds. It has not sine been known to
occur on that coast. Bruennich, in 1764, did not mention
Greenland as a locality for it. Fabricius, in 1780, Avliile
giving its Esquimaux name, says that it was rarely seen on
the outer islands, and that in winter j he had, however, exa-
mined a young bird, only a few days old, taken in August.
Old birds, he adds, were very rare. The Museum of Copen-
hagen possesses a specimen, said to have been killed on Disco
in 1821, but this is very possibly that which is known to have
been procured by Heilmann at the Fiskentes in 1815. The
last examples with certainty known to have existed were
killed on Eldey, off the south-west point of Iceland in 1844.

(J/.) Podiccps auritus. Horned Grebe.

A few immature specimens have been obtained in the;
southern part of Greenland.

{p2.) Podiccps holbcelli. American Red-necked Grebe.

This New-World representative of the Old-World P.
griscigcna, was first described as a distinct species from
specimens obtained in Greenland, but its specific validity is
questioned by many ornithologists. It seems to have occurred
three times in that country.

49. Colymbus septentrionalis. Red-throated Diver. " Kark-

sauk."
Found on the East Coast and breeds in both Inspectorates, as
also on the western coast of Davis Strait.

50. Colymbus glacialil'. Great Northern Diver. " Tudlik."
Observed by Graah on the East Coast, on the West breeds

generally, but more iu thi' South than the North, where indeed it
seems to be rare. Examples of this bird from the Fur Countries
and west of North America, Avith a pale-coloured bill have been
described as forming a distinct species, under the name of C.
udamsi, but the like are to be met with in Euj'opc.*

{33.) Sula bassana. Gannet. " Kuksuk."f
Accidental and rare.

51. PiiALACROCOJtAX CAKiux Cormorant, " Okaitsok."

Said by Holboll to Ijreed from the Godthaab Fjord northward so
far as he had been. Obser\ed also on the East Coast.

* Colymbus arcticus, the Black-throiited Diver, was found in considerable
numbers in Tnrry's Second Voyage.

t This name !<ccuis to be also applied to the Swan.

NEWTON ON UT11D8 IN GREENLAND.

Ill

^.

3'

I

o2. Mergus serrator. Red-breasted Merganser. <'Pajk,"
"NyaUksak."

53. Clangula islandica. Barrow's ^Goldeneye. " Ka^rtlutor-

piarsuk," more properly " Niakortok."
Breeds in South Greeuland only, and apparently not further
north than Godthaab.

(.54.) CUmyula albcola. Buffel-headed Duck.

One obtained at Godthaab about the year 1830.

54. UiSTRioNicus TORQUATUS. Harlenuin-Duck. "Tornauiar-

suk."
Observed on the East Coast : most common between lat. G2" and
65° N., rarer to the northward. The male of this species, from
its singularly marked plumage, cannot be confounded with any
other species ; the female is known by its dusky head and the
white spot on cither side.

55. Harelda glacialis. Long-tailed Duck. " Agiek."
Common on the whole coast, and breeds also on the Parry Islands

and on the land westward of Davis Strait. The long tail of the
male sufficiently distinguishes it from that of any other Duck ;
the female has a white or dirty-white head with dusky spots.

(J5.) Faligula marila. Scaup-Duck.

Dr. Walker, of the " Fox," R.Y.S., obtained one at God-
havn, in August 1857. Three specimens were sent from
Neuortalik in 1859."''

(06.) Fulitjula offinis. American Scaup-Duck.

A pair was shot in June on Innusulik, an islet some ten
miles from Egedesminde. It may possibly breed in
Greenland.

56. (Edcmia pcrspic'dlata. Surf- Scoter.

A few specimens have been obtained from the Danish settle-
ments. It was observed by Graah on the East Coast.

57. Somateria moUissima (?). Eider. J " Amaulik," ?

" Aniauiak," " Mittek."
Common along all the coasts, northern limit unknown. In the
Eider of the New World (<S'. drcsscri), regarded by Mr. Sharpc as
distinct from that of the Old, the bill is more gibbous, and the
bare space behind t)ie nostril more extended than iu the European
bird. The Eider of Davis Strait, and theuce northward, will pro-
bably be found to belong to the American form, but the Eider of
the east coast of Greenland is very likely to be the European. Tin;
Eider of Spitsbergen has also been separated from S. mollissuita
by Dr. Malmgren under the name of S. t/tuia/sis, but the asserted
ditlerence between them, if it can be maintained at all, is but

* The Tufttd Duck, Fuliyiila cristahi, is said to have been obtuiucdjUt
(lodhavn, by Dr. Walker, but this was probably a mistake.

112

XEAVTOX OX lURDS TN OUEENLAND.

i ,

slight. In Western Aiclio Ainoiicu occurs a very good species,
the S. r-nif/naii, hirfroi' tlian ;S'. ntollissimd or S. dtrssvri, and
the male having a black chevron under the chin, as in that of the
following.

58. Somateria spectabilis. King-Onck. 'SSiorakitsok,"

i "Kingalik," O " Kaiortok," " Arnaiiiartak."
Said not to lireed further south than hit. '61° N., but in
some niunbei-8 at lal. 73°. Also on the Kast Coast of (Ireenland
and on the western shores of Davis Strait. Breeds abundantly on
the Parry Islands. The male easily distinguished from other
species of the genus by its grey head and protuberant nasal disc.
The female much resembles that of S. moliissima or S. dvesscri,
but is smaller and more ruddy, and the sides of the bill are not
feathered up to the nostrils, while the central nasal ridge extends
as far as the nasal openings. Identified oggs of the King-Duck
are scarce.

59. Anas bosciias. Wild Duck. " Kantlutok."
Breeds in both Inspectorates, and is not rare.

(J7.) Anas acuta. Pintail. " Kan-(lutorpiarsuk."
Of accidental but not very rare occurrence.

( J(^.) Anas crccca. Teal. " Kjtrtlutorpiaivsuk."

A few examples have been killed at diirerent places among
the Danish settlements.

(.>^.) Anas carollncnsis. American Teal.

Four specimens are known to have been obtained in South
Greenland prior to 1860.

{OO.) Anas pcnclopc. Widgeon.

A young drake sent by llolboU in 1851. Prof. Keinhardt
has seen two others also killed in South Greenland.

60. Bernicla brenta. Brent-Goose. " Nerdlck."

Said not to breed in Grc(>nlai!d lower than lat. 70^ N., lait does
so in great numbers in the Polar Sea. Is the smallest species of
Gooso found in the Arctic Regions, and easily distinguished by
its black head and neck, each side of the latter having only a
small semilunar patch of white. In the form called B. niffricans,
which, though most common on the Pacific coast of North America,
also occurs on the Atlantic, the black of the throat extends lower
down and over part of the breast, and the white patches of the neck
almost or quite meet in front.

61. Bernicla ie/fcopsis. Bernaele-tioose.

A regular autumnal visitor at dnlianehaab, and may ))erhaps
bi'(>ed in Greenland, llecorded also by Graali from the East Coast.
The br('e<liii«- of this species in a wihl state seems only to have
been observed by Dr. von ISiidilcndorir in Siberiii, though eggs
laid by tame birds are conniion eiioiigh. Two or more forms
intermediate between this and tli<' next species have been de-

1
i

NEWTON ON BinDS IN GREENLAND.

113

scribed. It may possibly happen tliat the Bcrnacle-Goose of
the New World hitherto sUtributed to li. Icncopsis is distinct.

(d/.) Hcrnicla caundcnsis'i Cunada Goose.

A speeiiueii, supposed to be from Greenland, in the Museum
of Copenhagen, has been doul)tfulIy assigned to this species,
which is perha[is the higgest (Jooso known. It may possibly,
however, be the B. hiitc/iinsi, which is said to l)e distinguish-
able from the true />'. canddcrr'.is by the ])Ossession of sixteen
instead of c'u/ktccn t^il-feathers. But the American Geese
of this form have not as yet been clearly ditlerentiated, and it
seems impossible! to furnisli a true diagnosis of the supposed
species which have received the name of B. leucoparcia and
B. lcucol(cma.

South

lieriea,

lower

neck

[rluips

L'oast.

have

eggs

tonus

II de-

62. Chen hyperboreus. Snow-Goose.

A few young birds only have been seen, and these more fre-
quently in the Northern Inspectorate than in the Southern. Is
found also on the west coast of Davis Strait, Frobably breeds in
the far north, but a doubt may perhaps be entertained whether the
examples killed in Greenland belong to the true C. hyperboreus
or to C. ulbatus (if these be really distinct), which is said to have
occurred in Ireland.

63. Anskr gambeli. American White-fronted Goose. " Nerd-

lernak."
Not rare in fresh water between lat. 66^ and 68° 30', and also
observed by the Gern)an Expedition on the east coast. Though the
White-fronted Goose of Greenland has been generally assign*».d
to the European form, A. albifrons, it would seem to belcig
rather to the larger American A. gambeli ; but the difference
between the two appears to be that of size only. The true A.
albifrons is a regular visitant to Iceland, and therefore the speci-
men obtained by Dr. Copeland on the l^ast Coast may well
belong to that form, though it does not follow that the birds Avhich
frequent the west coast are of the same form.

(6^.) Cygnus ferus ? Wild Swan. " Kuksuk."

The Swan which occurs occasionally in Greenland has
been generally referred to the European species (Cferus),
but that which was observed at Igloolik, on Parry's Second
Voyage, and is said to breed on the Parry Islands (though not
numerously), seems more likely to be one of the American
species, C. buccinator or C. amcricanus. Hence a reasonable
doubt may exist as to which of the three the Greenland
examples are.

From the foregoing list it will be seen that, while sixty-two of
the birds therein enumerated are nothing but stragglers to Green-
land, the number of those which may be called denizens of the
country cannot be raised above sixty-thvce, to reach which we
must even, in some cases, stretch a point. That Greenland, so
far as its birds are concerned, belongs to the Nearctic Region has
3C122. H

-rj^^o's. ■iv-.',.£_:^^r,'?r

114

NEWTON ON BIRDS IN QREENLAND.

; i

long been known, and the fact in respect of the species can be
most conveniently shown thus : —

Stragglers
Inhabitants

Species boloiiff-

ing to the Old

World.

Species belong-

\n« to the New

World.

Species com-
mon to both
Worlds.

19
5

34
11

8
45

Doubtful.

1
2

ir^:

The result with regard to the genera under which the species
are named is not very different : —

Genera belonging to
the Old World.

Stragglers
Inhabitants

2

0

Genera belonging to
tlie New World.

12

Genera common to
both Worlds.

28
45

Turning to the range of the species in Greenland itself, we find
that of the 62 stragglers only 9 are known to have penetrated to
North Greenland, while the localities whence 13 were procured
are not named. Supposing that the same proportion of northern
stragglers exists among the 13 of which no particulars have been
given as among the 49 of which we know the locality, the number
of stragglers to North Greenland may be raised to 12, all of whicli
may reasonably be supposed to have passed through the limits of
South Greenland. Four-fifths of the stragglers named in this
list may accordingly be safely dismissed from our mind, when con-
sidering even the casual visitors to that part of Greenland which
lies nearest to the scene of the new Expedition's labours. The
remainder are not Arctic Birds in any sense, since they have not
crossed the Polar Circle, and indeed many of them have hardly
been within 400 miles of it.

Then of the regular denizens, which, taking the highest estimate,
cannot be put at more than 63, we find that 16 — or nearly one-
fourth — do not occur within the Polar Circle, and are therefore not
entitled to the name of Arctic Birds. The remaining 47 are re-
corded as inhabiting North Greenland, but their northward exten-
sion is uncertain. Considering, however, what is known of them in
other parts of the world, and various facts which seem to bear on
their geographical range, we may arrive at something like an
approximation of the number which may not unreasonably be
looked for in Smith Sound. Yet, making the most liberal
allowance, this number cannot be raised above 36,* and to these

* I am quite aware that this allowance is too great, but I think it best to
err on the safe side. If the Expedition meets with 30 species in Smith
Sound it ■will surpass expectation. The number of species, including strag-
glers, at present known to have occurred in Spitsbergen does not exceed 30.

NEWTON ON BIRDS IN GREENLAND.

115

can be

ubtful.

1
2

36 species should attention be particularly directed — how much
further in the direction of the Pole any of them may go it is of
course impossible to forecast. The principal features by which
each may be distinguished have been briefly noticed by me, and,
I trust, in a way that may lead to an easy and correct determina-
tion even by those observers who are not professed naturalists.

Magdalene College, Cambridge,
20 March, 1875.

) species

)mmon to
Worlds.

8
5

, we find

trated to

procured

aorthern

ive been

number

)f which

imits of

in this

len con-

d which

The

ave not

3 iiardly

s.

estimate,
rly one-
fore not
are re-
1 exten-
them in
bear on
like an
ibly be
liberal
o these

best to
|iu Smith
ig strag-
eed 30.

VII. — A E,EvisED Catalogue of the Fishes of Greenland.
By Dr. Chr. Lutkex, University Museum, Copenhagen.

1875.->«-

Ohs. — The only general account of the Fishes of Greenland
published sines the time of Fabricius is that of the late Pro-
fessor J. Keiuhardt (K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr. VIT., 1838); and the
following list must still be regarded as provisional and open
to corrections. Several species have only been indicated, not
described, and must be regarded as doubtful until the revision of
the Ichthyology of Greenland, in preparation by the writer, is
finished. For further particulars the papers of the late Professor
Kroyer in " Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift," Series I. and II., and
Ser. III., Vol. I., and the Altases of the " Voyage en Islande et
au Greenland," and the " Voyage en Scandinavie, en Laponie,
&c.," par Gaimard, should especially be consulted.

[The species marked with an asterisk (*) are well represented
in British collections, or can be obtained from dealers. With
respect to them see the " Instructions for collecting Fishes," issued
with this " Manual " for the Expedition. — Editor.]

Gasterostei.

*1. Gasterosteus aciileatus, L. (Greenl. Kakilisak.)
(Var. trachurus.)

F. Gr. 122 ; G. loricatus, Rhdt. (var. vlimidiatus cl
gymnurus, Rhdt.).

G. noveboracensis, C. V. (pp) ; Gthr. Cat., I., p. 2, &c.

Scomberoidei.

2. Lampris guttatus (Retz.).

C. v., t. X., p 39, t. 282 ; Gthr. Cat., II., p. 416.
Gaimard, Voyage en Islande et au Greenland, t. 10.
(The skeleton of a specimen caught at Arsuk is in the
Museum of Copenhagen.)

* See also Reinhardt's Catalogue of Fishes in Kink's Naturhist. Bidrag
til en Beskrivelse af Gronland, af J. Reiniiaudt, J. C. Schiodte, O. A. L.
MoKCH, C. F. LuTKEN, J. Lange, H. Rink. Tillseggene til " Gronland,
" geograph. og statist, beskrev." af H. Rink. 8vo. Copenhagen, 1857.

H 2

5 ■I

x^ju-j^i u^amaimaui

116

liJrKEX ON THE fishes of gueenla.sd.

Kotacanthini.

3. Notacunthus Fabricii (Rlult.).

Carapylodon, O. Fabr., Nat. Hist. Selsk. Skr. IV., 2,

p. 21, t. 10, f. 1.
N. nasus, Bl. ; Voya^o on Islando, «fee., t. 11.
C. v., t. VJir., p. 467, t. 241 ; Gthr. Cat., HI., p. 544.
(Fabricius's original specimen is lost.)

Cottoidei.

*4. Cottus scorpius, L. (Grccnl. Kaidok.)
F. Gr. 113.
C. j^roBnlandicus and C. porosus, C. V., IV., p. 185 ;

VIIL, p. 498 ; Gthr. Cat., IT., p. 161, 159. ; Voyage

en Islaude, t. 9, f. 2.
C. ocellatus and lai)radoricus, Stor. ; C.glacialis, Rich. ;

Acanthoc. variabilis, Gir.
fC. quadricornis, Koss (non Sab.).

5. C. scorpioidcs, Fabr. (Gr. PokudUk, Ifiarsok, AkullikitsoK),

F. Gr. 114; C. v., IV., p. 187. *

6. Phobctor venfralis (Val.). (Greeid. Itchivedleh, Kanikitsoh^

IJnrangmio.)
F. Gr. 115 (C. gobio) ; C. V., IV., p. 194, t. 79, f. 1 ;

Gthr. Cat., II., p. 168.
Cottus tricuspis, Khdt. ; Gymnacauthus trie, Gill.
Acanlhocottus patris, Stor.
Phobetor tricuspis, Voy. en Scandinavie, t. 4, f. 1 ;

Nat. Tidsskr., II. 1., p. 263.

7. Centridermichthys uncinatus (Rhdt.).

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VI., p. liii.
Gthr. Cat., II., p. 172.

8. Centridermichthys bicornis (Rhdt.).

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VIII., p. Ixxv.
Gthr. Cat., TL, p. 172.

9. Icelus hamatus, Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr., II., 2, p. 253 ; Voy. en Scandin., 1. 1., f. 2;

Gthr. Cat., II., p. 172.
? Cottus polaris, Sab.

10. Triglops Pingclii (Rhdt.).

Nat. Tidsskr., II. 2, p. 260 ; Voy. en Scand., t. 1, f. 1.
? T. pleurostictus. Cope.
Gthr. Cat., Ii., p. 173.

11. Aspidophorus decagontis (Schn.). (Greenl. Kaniordluh,

Kanioriiak.)
F. Gr. 1 12 ; C. v., IV., p. 223; Gthr. Cat., II., p. 251.
Nat. Tidsskr., II., I., p. 243 ; Voyage en Scand., t. 5,

f. 1. Arc'hagonus decagonus. Gill.

t The true C. quadricornis, L. (^Iiexacornis, Rich.), (^Oncocottus quadri-
cornis, Gill), according to Sabine and Richardson an inhabitant of Arctic
America, has never been sent from the Danish Settlements in Greenland. Peters
determined a Cottus from the East Coast of Greenland as C. hexacornis, Rich.,
but is inclined to regard it as identical with C. scorpius, Fab. (Zte deutsche
Kordpolarfahrt, II., p. 1 CfJ).

!

LUTKEN ON THE FISHES OF GREENLAND.

117

.,f.2;

1, f. 1.

quadri-

Arctic

Peters

:, Eich.,

sutsche

Younw : A. spinosissimus, Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr., 1. c, p. 250 ; Voyage en Scantl., t. 5, f. 2 ;
Gthr. Cat., II., p. 214.

12. Aspidophoroides monojitcrygius (Bl.).

C. v., IV., p. 224 ; VI., p. 554, t. 169 ; Gthr. Cat.,
II., p. 216.

13. A. sp.

(An undcscribed species in tlie Museum at Copenhagen.)
*14. Schastes norvcgicus (Miill.). (Grcenl. SuUnpauyak.)

F. Gr. 121 ; C. v., IV., p. 827, t. 87 ; Giinth. Cat.,
II., p. 95 ; Nat. Titlsskr., II. 1, p. 270 ; Voyage
en Islande, &c., t. 9, f. 1.

(.S". viviparus, Kr. Nat. Tidsskr., II. 1, p. 275, Voy.
en Scand., t. 6, Gthr., p. 96, is now commonly re-
garded only as a variety of S. norveg.)

Lophioidei.

15. Himantolophus grcejtlcmdicns, Rhdt.

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 132, t. 4.

(Only a single mutilated specimen, which could not

be preserved, with the exception of the frontal tuft,

has been received.)

16. Ceratias Holbvelli, Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr., II. 1, p. 639 ; Voyage en Scand., t. 9.
Gthr. Cat., III., p. 205.

(Only a few specimens have been received ; one only
could be preserved.)

17. Oneirodes Esehrichtii, Ltk.

Overs. K. D. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1871, p. 56, t. 2 ;

Ann. Nat. Hist., 1872, Vol. IX., p. 329, t. 9.
(Only one specimen, not quite complete, is known.)

Discoboli,

*18. Cyclopterus lumpus, L. Greenl. NepisUy Angusedlok^
( cJ ), Arnardlok ( ? ).
F. Gr. 92 & 94 (C. minutus, the young).
Gthr. Cat., III., p. 155.
Voyage en Islande, &c., t. 8.

19. C. spi?wsus, Miill. (Greenl. Nepisardluk.)

F. Gr. 93 ; Nat. Tidsskr., II. 2, p. 262 ; Voy. en

Scand., t. 4., f. 2 ; Gthr. Cat., III., p. 157.
jHumicrotremus spinosus Gill.

20. Lipans Fabricit, Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr., II. 2, p. 274 ; III. 1, p. 235.
Voy. en Scandin., t. 8, f. 2.

? L. communis, Sab. (sec. Gthr.); Gthr. Cat., III.,
p. 161.

21. Z^. arctica, Gill.

Proc. Acad. Phil. 1864, p. 191 (Port Foulke).
2\a. L. Montagni, Don.

Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 243 ; Voy. en Scand., t. 13,
f. 1.

ip'

i|

118

LUTKEN ON THE IISHKS OF GREENLAND.

V'

22. L. lineata (Lcp.), Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr., II. 2, p. 284 ; 111. 1, p. 244.
Voy. eii Scandiuavic, t. 13, f. 2.

23. L. tumcatUf Rlult. (Greenl. Ahopokitsok, Amcrsulah.)

F. Gr. 95 (pp.) ; Nut. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 236.
L. biirbatiiH, Ekstr. (sec. Malmgren).
L. (Actiiiochis) major, Gill.

24. X, {Careproctus) licinhnrdti^ Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 252.

L. gclatiiiosus (Pall.), lilidt.
Ohs. — Prof. Peters (Ztc deutsclK; Nordpolarlahrt, p. 172) refers
several of these to one species, but is evidently not acquainted
with Kroyer's last paper on the subject.

Blennioidei (et Lycodiui).

25. StichcBus pripcistis (Kr.).

Nat. Tidsskr., I. i., p. 25 ct p. 372, ; III. 1., p. 295 ;

Voy. en Scand., t. 20., f. 1.
Clinus (Htich.) unimaculatus, Rhdt. ; Gthr. Cat., III.,

p. 283.
Eumesogi'ammus prrecisus. Gill.

26. St, pimctatiis (Fahr.). {Greenl. Ahulliakitsok.)

F. Gr. 110; Nat. Hiat. Selsk. Skr., II. 2, p. 84,
t. 10, f. 3; Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 303; Voy. en
Scandinavie, t. 20, f. 2 ; Gthr. Cat., III., p. 283.

27. Lumpemis aculeatus, Rhdt.

Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 268; Voy. en Scandinavie,

t. 14, f. 2 ; Gthr. Cat., III., p. 282.
Leptoclinus aculeatus, Gill. ? Lump, maculatus. Fries.

28. L. FabHdi, Rhdt. (Greenl. Tejarnak.)

F. Gr. 109; Nat. '^idsskr., III. 1, p. 274 ; Voy. en

Scand., t. 14, f. 1.
Sticha3us lumpenus, Gthr. Cat., III., p. 280.

29. L, medius, Rhdt.

Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 280 ; Stichaeus medius, Gthr.
Cat., III., p. 281. Anisarchus medius. Gill.

30. L. gracilis, Rhdt.

Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 282.
? Leptoblennius gracilis. Gill.
Obs. — L. nubilus, Rich. (Centroblennius nubilus. Gill), from
Northumberland Sound, is not known from Greenland.

31. Centronotus fasdatus, Schn. (Greenl. Kurksaurak.)

F. Gr. 108 (Bl. gunellus) ; Gthr. Cat., III., p. 287.
Gunellus greenl andicus, Rhdt. ; C. V., XI., p. 441-42,

t. 340. Mura;noides fasciatus. Gill.
? Asterropteryx gunelliformis, Riipp. (Gthr. Cat., III.,

p. 288.)

32. C. aMnis, Rhdt.

C D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 123.

33. Lycodes Vahlii, Rhdt. (Greenl. Misarkornak.)

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr. VII., p. 153, t. 5 ; Gthr. Cat.,
IV,, p. 319.

XiiJTKEN ON THE PISIIE8 OF GREENLAND.

119

Gthr.

from

9^^

1.

34. L, rcticHlatuSylX\\({i. (Greonl. Akullinkitsok, Kussaunak.)

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 1(>7, t. 6 j Gthr. Cat.,
IV., p. 320.

35. L. seminudus, Khdt.

K.-D. Via. Sclsk. Skr., VII., p. 223 ; Gthr. Cat., IV.,
p. 320.

36. L. pcrspicillum, Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 289 j Voy. en Scaudin., t. 7
Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 320.

37. L. nebulostis, Kr.

Nat. Tidsskr. III., 1, p. 293.

Obs. — L. polaris (Sab.) (Melville Island), and L. mucosas
(Rich.) (Northumberland Sound), have not been received from the
Danish Settlements.

*38. Aiiarrichas lupus, L. (Greenl. Kigutilik.)

F. Gr. 97 ; C. V., XI., p. 349 ; Gthr. Cat, IH., p. 208;
Voy. on Scand,, t. 12, f.2 ; Voy. en Islande, &c., t. 4.
A. vomerinus, Gill.
39. A. dcvticufcftus, Kr.

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Overs., 1844, p. 140; Voy. en

Scand., t. 12, f. 1.
(A single specimen in the Museum at Copenhagen.)
*40. A. pantherinus, Zouiew ? (Greenl. Kverrak.)
F. Gr. 97, b (A. minor).
A. Steenstrupii, Gill.

(Gilnther, 1. c, regards it only as a variety of A.
lupus.)

41. Bythites fuscusj Rhdt. (Greenl. Amcrsulak.)

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., 175, t. 7 ; Gthr., IV.,

p. 375.
(Only known from a single specimen.)

42. Gymnelis viridis (Fabr.). TGreenl. Unernak.)

F. Gr. 99 ; Nat. Tidsskr., III. 1, p. 258 ; Voy. en
Scand., t. 15.

G. punctulatus et lineolatus, Rhdt. ; G. pictus, Gthr.
Cat., IV., p. 323 and 324.

Cepolophis viridis, Kaup. Ophidium stigma. Rich.

Obs. — Uronectcs Purryi (Ross), Gthr, Cat., IV., p. 326, found
in Baffin's Bay during Parry's Third Voyage, has not yet been sent
from the Danish Settlements in Greenland.

Oadoidei.

*43. Gadus morrhua, L. (Greenl. Saraudlik, Saraudlii'ksoaft.)
F. Gr. 101 et 102 (G. callarias) ; Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 328;

Voy. en Islande, &c., t. 16.
Morrhua americana, Stor.
*44. G. ovak, Rhdt. (Greenl. Ogak or Ovak.)
F. Gr. 103 (G. barbatus) ; G. ojac. Rich.
, Voy. en Scandinavie, &c., t. 19. (According to Giinther
a variety of No. 43.)

V

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

1.0

I.I

150 "^^

■ 2.2

•u ». iaiii

L25 III 1.4

1.6

PhotDgraphic

Sciences
Corporation

I/.

33 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

^.^4.

:^\5^

^^'

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120

LLTKEN ON THE FISHES OF GREENLAND.

*45. G. agilis, Rhdt. (Greenl. Misarkornnk.)

F. Gr., No. 1(H) (G. wglefinus) ; G. saidft, Lep.,
Gtlu'., IV., p. 337.

Merlaiigiis polaris, Sab., Ross, Riolianlson.

G. Fabricii, Richards. Gthr. Cat , IV., p. 336.
IJorcogmlus polarig, Gill.

Obs. — Prof. Peters has established a new species, G. glacialisy
on a specimen of Cod from Sabine Ishuul (Ztc dcutscho Nordpolar-
fahrt, II., p. 172).

*46. Merlanqus carhonar'ms (L.). (Greenl. Ordlit.)

F. Gr. 104. (G. virens); Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 339.;

Voyage en Islande, &c., t. 6, f. 2.
PoUachins carl)., Gill.
♦47. Mcrluccius vulgaris, Cnv. (Greenl. Ahulliakitsok.)

F. Gr. 105 i Gthr. Cat., IV., ]>. 344.
*48, Lota molra (L.). (Greenl. Ivirksoak.)

F. Gr. 106 ; Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 461 (Molva vulgaris, FI.).
*49. Brosmius vulgaris, Cuv. (Greenl. Nejorpallugak).
F. Gr. i07; Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 369 (B. brosme).
Voy. en Islande, &c., t. 5.

50. Motella lleinhardti, Kr.

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 115 (M. mustela).
Onos Reinhardti, Gill.

51. M. ensiSf Rhdt.

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 128 ; Gthr. Cat., IV.,

p. 366. Onos ensis. Gill.
*52. M. argcntata, Rhdt.

K. b. Via. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 128 ; Couchia argentata,

Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 363. Ciliata argentata. Gill.
(A young form ?)

Macrtuidse.

53. Coryphfpnoides Strttmii (Rhdt.).

Macrurus StraMnii, Rhdt., Sundcv.; Voy. en Scindin.,

1. 11.
Lepidoleprns norvogicus, Nilss. ; Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 396.

54. Macrurus rupestris (Fabr.). (Greenl. Jngmingoak.)

F. Gr. 111.; M. Fabricii, Sundev.; Gthr. Cat., IV.,

p. 390.
55* M. trachyrhynchns (Risso).

Lepidoleprus trachyrh., R. ; Gthr. Cat., IV., p. 395.
(A head alone was found on the ice at Kangek (Gotlt-

haabsfjord.)

Fleuronectidse.

*56. Hippoglossiis vulgaris, Fl. (Greenl. Netarnak.)

F. Gr. 117 ; H. maximus, Mind. ; Gthr. Cav., IV.,

p. 403 ; Voy. en Islande, «fec., t. 14.
? H. americanus. Gill.
57. H. pinguis (Fsihr.). {QreevA. Nctarnarak, Kallcraglek.)
F. Gr. 118 (Pleur. cynoglossns) ; K. D. Vid. Selsk.
Skr., I., p. 43, t. 2, f. 1 ; Voy. en Scandinavie, t. 22.
H. groenlandicus, Gthr., IV., p. 404 (cfr. p. 450).

t

II

LUTKEN ON THE FISHES OF GREENLAND.

121

dn, Lep.,

jlaciafis,

ordpolar-

r

p. 339.;

1

J

ok.)

1

aris, Fl.).

1

tk).

1

ue).

1

,ela).

1

:!at., IV.,

i

rgentata,

1

Gill.

',-,

.1

Jcindin.,
., p. 396.

' 1

ak.)
at., IV.,

K 395.

(Godt-

u, IV,

raglek.)
. Selsk.
e, t. 22.
0).

58. Drcpanopsctta {HippoglossoUIcs) platessoides (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 119; K. D. V. Selsk. Skr., I., p. 50, t. 2, f . 2 ;
Voyaj^e en Scandinavie, t. 21(Greenl. Okotak, Kol-
Icvsak). Citharus platessoides, Rhdt. sen.

Ammodsrtidse*

59. Ammodytes dnhim, Khdt. (Grecnl. Putsrotok.)

F. Gr. 98 (A. tobinnna).

K. D. Vid. Sel.«k. Skr., VII., p 131 ; Gtlir., IV., p. 381.

Ohs. — The name will pcrlinps be «lr()pi)ed. Kriiyor distinguished
two Greenland species winch he regarded as new.

Angnillini.

60. Anffuilla, sp. (Greenl. Nimcriak.)

F. Gr. 96.

Clupeacei.

*61. Clupea haretiffus, L. (Grecnl. Kajnsclik.)

F. Gr. 129; Gthr. Cat., VIL, p. 415.; Cuv. «& Val.
XX., p. 30, t. 591-93.

Salmones.

62-66. Sal mo, sp.

The Salmons of Greenland (F. Gr. 123-27), "Kapi-
sarliksoak " {S. salar, Fabr.), *' Ekalluk " {S. carpio
et alpinus, Fabr.), *' Ekallukak " («S^. stagnalis), and
*' Aunardlek " {S. rivalis) are doubtful species, which
have received no revision since the time of Fabricius.
Cfr. Gunther Cat., VI., p. 124. Peters (Zte dcutsehe
Nordpolarfahrt, II., p. 174) determined two fresh-
water specimens from Sabine Isl. (East Crreenland)
as S. Iloodii, Rich. ?
67. Microstoma (?) gr(enlandica, Rhdt.

K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VIII., p. Ixxiv. ; Gthr. Cat.,
VI., p. 205.
*68. Mallotus villosus (Miill.). (Greenl. Angmaksak.)

F. Gr. 128 {S. arcticus) ; S. groenlandicus, Bl., Rich. ;
Giinth. Cat., VI., p. 170 ; Cuv. & Val. xxi., p. 392,
t. 620-23 ; Voy. en Scand., t. 16, f. 1 ; Voy. en
Islande, &c. t. 18, f. 1.

Scopelini.

69. Scopclus glacialis, Rhdt. (Greenl. Keblcrnak.)

F. Gr. 120 (Labrus exoletus) ; Gthr. Cat., V., p. 407.
Nat. Tidsskr., II. 2, p. 230 ; Voy. en Scandin., t. 16,
f. 2.
10. Stomias fc7'ox\ Rhdt.

Nat. Tidsskr., II. 2, p. 253 ; Voy. en Scandin., 1. 16 B.,
f. 2 ; Gthr. Cat, V., p. 426.
Paralcpis boi'calis, Rhdt. (Greenl. Saviliursak.)
F. Gr. 130 (Clupea encrassicholus) .
Nat. Tidsskr., II. 2, p. 241 ; Voy. en Scandinavie,

t. 16 B., f. 1 ; Gthr. Cat., V., p. 419.
Arctozenus borealis. Gill.

7r

71.

li

1 *v :'

m

u

5^

122

LUTKEN ON THE FISHES OF GREENLAND.

':ii

Squall.

72. Selachus tnaaimus (Gunn.). (Greenl. Kaksibkannioa.)

F. G. 90 ; Sq. peregrinus, Blv. ; Sq. elephas, Les.
Cetorliinus maximus, Gill.
Gthr. Cat., VIII., p. 394.

73. Centroscyllium Fabricii, Rhdt. (Greenl. Kuhilik.)

F. G. 88 (Squalus acanthias) ; Gthr. Cat., VIII.,
p. 425.

74. Somniosus'microcephalus {Schn,). (GreGul. Ekallurksoak.)

F. Gr. 89 (Squalus carelmrias) ; Somniosus brevipinna,

Les.
Squnl. borealis, Scor. ; Squ. glacialis, Faber ; Scymnus

micropterus, Val. ; Sc. Gunneri, Rich.
Laemargus borealis, M. H.f ; Gthr. Cat., VIII., p. 426.
Voyage en Islande, &c., t. 22 & t. 1.

Bajse.

75. JRaja radiata, Don. (Greenl. Taralikisak.)

F. G. 87 (R. fuUonica) ; Gthr. Cat., VIII., p. 460.

76. R. sp.

The eggs of a larger species have been received from
Greenland.

Cyclostomi.

77. Petromyzonfluviatilis, L.

Gthr. Cat., VIII., p. 502.

Two specimens have been sent from the southern part
of Greenland.

*78. Myxine glutinosa, L. (Greenl. Ivik.)

F. Gr. 334 ; Gthr. Cat., VIII., p. 510.

Ohs. — The Fishes of Greenland which are of economical im-
portance are especially Cottus scorpius, Sebastes norvegicus,
Cyclopterus lumpusj Hippoglossiis vulgaris, Gadus agilis and
ovak, Salmo carpio, Mallotus arcticus, and Somniosus micro-
cephalus.

Many of the rarer Fishes of Greenland are inhabitants of great
depths, and owe their rarity in collections to this circumstance.

The short time allowed for the compilation of this list has pro-
hibited every attempt to solve the doubts of identity, &c. with
which the history of certain species is perplexed.

t The name Laemargus (M. H.) is preoccupied by Kroyer for a genus of
parasitic Crustacea.

STEENSTRUP ON THE BASKING SHARK.

123

nnioa.)
Lcs.

k.)
VIII.,

rksoak.)
vipinna,

cymnus

p. 426.

460.
ed from

jrn part

cal im-
jegicuSf
lis and
micro-
ti great
mce.
las pro-
c. with

grenus of

VIII. — On the Straining Appendages or Branchial
Fringes of the Basking Shark {Selachua maximus,
Gunn.). By Prof. Dr. Japetus Steenstrup.

[Abstract of the Memoir in the Overs, over d. K. D. Viden.^k.

Selsk. Forhandl., 1873.]

Dr. Steenstrup offers an explanation of certain appendages
many feet in length, consisting of long, hornlike rays resembling
beard or comb-like fringes, which have long been the object of
research.

Professor Hannover showed, in his work on the dermal spines
of Rays and Sharks, that these rays have the same structure as the
spines, being formed of bony matter and identical with true teeth.
Not admitting with Hannover that those rays are situated on
the outer skin, like the spines of certain Rays, Steenstrup has
always supposed, from their form and disposition, that they filled
an office similar to that of the beard-like gurns of the Whale.

Such straining appendages, composed of a series of distinct
teeth set upon the branchial arches, occur in a great number of
fishes,* notably those living on animalcules only. Having been led
to suppose that such appendages belong to certain great Sharks, Dr.
Steenstrup has been fortunate enough to find a remark made by
Gunnerus relative to the Pelerin, dated more than a century ago,
and so exactly descriptive of this organ that there can be no
doubt of its identity. Thus he has been able to show that other
authors also have observed that there was such an apparatus in
the Pelerin, although the indications are so incomplete that
without Gunnerus' description it Avould be impossible to under-
stand them.

With this description by Gunnerus, and corresponding indica-
tions by other authors — for example Low, Pennant, Mitchell, and
R. Foulis — Steenstrup has arrived at the following conclusions .— .

1. The Pelerin {Selachus maximus, Gunn.) or Basking Shark
has the interior of the mouth furnished with a fringe or branchial
strainer of a special character, as a little beard-like apparatus,
with rays 5 or 6 inches long, and resembling that of Balcena.
This strainer is situated along the enormous branchial openings
of the animal, and takes the part of a sieve to strain the food.

2. From this branchial fringe come (as Gunnerus' description
has enabled us to see) the beard-like apparatuses which have
been long preserved in the Museums of Copenhagen, Kiel,
Christiania, and Frondhjem, and Avhioh Professor Hannover has
studied and described in this above-mentioned memoir, in the
K. D. V. Selsk. Skrifter, 5 ser., vol. vii., 1867.

* Dr. Andrew Smith found the branchial openings in the mouth of lihiiiu-
don typicus guarded with a cartihiginou?, sieve-like apparatus for straining

•el

41

\\

animalcules from water ejected through ^the branchial canals.
i», Africa, Pisces. London, 1849. 4to.

-Illust. ZtioL

i m

r ,

r^|KUjjB|auy ~

124

STEENSTRUP ON THE BASKIXG SHARK.

3. The existence of such a fringe places beyond a doubt that
the manner of living of the Pelerin is similar to that of the
*• whalebone" Whales ; so that this colossal Shark obtains its food
from the small animals that it sifts from the mass of water
lyected through the fringe.

4. The rays of the branchial fringo or the elements of the
branchial "beard," as the microscopic researches of Hannover go
to prove, must be considered as very long and attenuated teeth,
an arrangement which gives to the genus Se/achtts a generic
character at present unique.

5. Characterised by these branchial appendages, Selachians
existed in the seas of Europe during the Tertiary period, being
represented by Hannovera aurata of P. J. Van Beneden.f found
in the Belgian Crag near Antwerp.

%

;>».

t-
%

1

IX. — Prodromus Faunae Molluscorum Grocnlandle
(in Rink's "Gronland," &c., 1857, pp. 75-100). By
Dr. C). A. L. MOrch. Revised and augmented by
Dr. 0. A. L. MOrch, University Museum, Copenhasren.
April 1875.

,- [The species marked with an * are doubtful inhabitants of Greenland.]

MOLLUSCA GRCENLANDICA.

Classis I. — Andkogyna, Morch.

Ordo I. — Geophila, Fer.

*1. Arion fuscus, Miill. Probably introduced.
L. agrcstis, L. According to Wormskiold.

2. Vitrina angelica), Bk. & Moll. Pfr.

" The neat little Snail," Olaf. & Paulsen's Reise i Island. Helix
pellucida, Fabr., Faun. Groenl. Found alive all the winter,
chiefly at the hot springs where Angelica grows.

3. Conulus Fabricii (Helix), Bk. & Moll. Pfr.
*4. Helix alliaria. Miller.

Helicella Steenstrupii, Morch. Helicella sp., Stp., Conch, von
Island. Helix nitida, Fabr., F. G., n. 385. H. alliaria,
Forbes, Brit. Assoc, 1839, p. 142.
*5. Helicogena (Tachoa) hortensis, Miill. (Igaliko ; Worm-
skiold.)

6. Pupa (Vertigo) Hopi^ii, Moll. Pfr.

7. Succinea groenlandica, Bk. & Moll. Pfr. (Gr. Kuksuk.)

Ordo II. — Kygrophila, Fer.

8. Planorbis (Nautilina) arcticus, Bk. & Moll. Dkr.

9. Limnsea (Limnophysa, subg.) Vahlii, Bk. & Moll.

(10.) var. a. nitens. L. Pingelii, Bk. & Moll. (In a pond at
Nepisetsundet.)

t Bullet. Acad. K. Belg., ser. 2, vol. xxxi., 1871, p. 504.

I

i

i

Ji.

i I

K.

MOKCII OX THE MOLLUSCA OF OUKENLAND.

125

a doubt that

tlmt of tlio

•tnins its food

iss of water

leiits of the
Ilunnovcr go
nuated teeth ,

(s a

generic

», Sclaeliinns
period, being
iden.f found

[(ENLANDI.E
-100). By
mented by
openhagen.

jrcenland.]

sland. Helix
111 the winter.
Is.

|, Conch, von
H. alliaria,

|o ; Worm-
\Kuhsuk.)

IV.

1.

a pond at

(11.) vnr. 8. leucostoma. L. MojUeri, Bk., 1847. L. groeu-

landica, Jay, Cat. (IJk. olim.)
(12.) var. y. malloata.
(13.) var. 8. parva: peristomatc srepc soluto, linea elevata

parietali.

14. L. Wormskioldii, lik., 1847. Species intermedia. Testa

unibilicata, solldlssima ; spira elongjita, acuminata ;
sutura profunda ; apertura seniikinari, interdum soluta.
Taken with the dredge near Arsut, outside a river, by
L. Barrett and C. 1*. Moller.

15. L. HolboDlli, Bk. & Moll.

Ordo III. — Ptenoglossata, Troschol.

16. Menestho albula, (Turbo) Fabr. Moll. Stimps.

Pyramis striatula, Couthuoy, Bost. Journ.

17. Scalaria groenlandica, Perry, Conch., 1811.

Turbo clathrus grcenlandicus, Ch., XL, f. 1878-79. Scalaria
communis, var., Lam. S. planicostata, Kiener.

18. Scalaria (Acirsa, subg.) borealis, Bk. Proc. Geol. Soc,

1841 : Bronn, Index Pal.

Scalaria, Lyell "On the Rising of Sweden," t. 2, f. 11,12.
S. lischrichtii, Holb. & Moll. S. undata, Sow., Thes.

19. Philine quadrata, S. Wood. BuUsea granulosa, " Sars,"

Moll. ?

20. Ph. punctata, (Bnllrea) Moll, non Adams.

21. Cylichna alba, (BuUa'a) Brown. Loven.

Bulla corticata, Bk., Moll. B. triticea, Couthouy.

22. C. Reinhardti, Holb. & Moll. (Bulla oryza, Totten ?)

23. C. (Roxania, subg.) insculpta, Totten. Gould. (Bulla

Reinhardti, Moll., p.p.)

24. Utriculus turritus, (Bulla) Moll. Bulla obstricta^

Gould ?

25. Diaphana debilis, Gould. Phil.

Bulla subangulata, Moll. Amphisphyra globosa, Lov^n ?

26. D. expansa, Jeffr.

27. Physema hiemalis, Couth.

28. Dolabrifera Holboellii, Bergh. (Belonging to a genus

of Aplt/siadcB not found nearer than the West Indies »
It is about 2 inches long, with an internal shell.)

Ordo IV. — Gymnobranchia, Cuvier.

29. Dendronotus Reynoldsii, Couthouy, Boston Journ.

Doris arborescens, Fabr. Tritonia, Moll.
(30.) junior ? Tritonia Ascanii, Moll.

31. Lamellidoris liturata, Bk. Moll.

Doris muricata (Miill.), Sars. D. bilamellata. Aid. et Hanc.

32. D. acutiuscula, Stp. Moll.

33. Doris (Acanthochila) repanda, Aid. et Hanc.

34. Polycera Holboellii, (Euplocamus) Moll.

35. P., another species, draAvn by Holboll.

*36. Proctaporia fusca, (Doris) Fabr., F. Gr., fig. 10.

37. iKolis salmonacea, Couthouy, Boston Journ.

Doris papillosa, Fab. -^olis papilligera, Bk., 1847. JR,
bodoensis, M<311. non Gun.

38. JE. bostoniensis, Couth. (Omenak ; Olrik.)

*

126

MORCII ON THE MOLLUSCA OF GREENLAND.

h\

! I

I

i '

39. JE. Olrikii, Morch. AfT. J?, 'g^mnofre, Couthouy,

scd utrinque fnsciculis c. xii. i'asciculorum papillis
coufertis, iu linea recta transversa digestis ; dorso nudo.

40. Galvina rupiuiu, Moll.

41. Canipaspo pusilla, Bergli.

42. Crateim hirsuta, Bcrgh.

43. Limapontia ? caudata, Moll, According to Fabricius.

Ordo V. — Fteropoda, Cuvier.

44. Clioue limacina, Phipps. (Gr. Augnrsaky Ataursak.)

Clione papilionacea, Pallas. Clio retusa, Mull., Fabr. Clio
borealis, Brug.

45. Limacina heliciua, Phipps. (Gr. Tullukaursaft.)

L. helicialis, Lam. Argonauta argo?, Mull., Prod. Arg.
arctica, Fabr.

46. Heterofusus balca, (Limacina) Moll.

Spinalis Gouldii, Stimpson, Shells of New Engl., p. 27.

47. Clio pyramidata, L. (Mouth of Davis's Strait; Hol-
boll & Rink.)

Classis U. — DioiCA, Latr.

Ordo I — Tsenioglossata^ Troschel.

48. Onchidiopsis groenlandica, Bergh.

49. Marsenina grojnlandica, (Sigaretus) Moll.

Marsenia groeulaudica, Bergh. (Bk,), t. v., f. 12? Oxynoe
glabra, Couth., probably.

50. M. (Oithonella, subgen.) micromphala, Bergh. (Pro-
bably the same as No. 49.)

61. Velutina (Velutella, subg.) flexilis, Mont. Lask.

V. plicalilis, Lovfen, uon Miill. quse Akera bullata (Fabr.) est.

52. V. (Velutina, Flem., subgen) lanigera, Moll. Sars.

Helix haliotoidcs, Fabr., teste MS. auctoris.

53. V. haliotoides, (Helix) Miill. Moll. Loven.

(54.) var. grandis. Nerita bullata, Ch., X., p. 307, f. 1598-9.

Bulla neritoidea, Ch., 1. c, lin. 20. (Julianehaab).
55. V. (Morvillia, subg.) zonata, Gould. (Godthaab, Holb.)

Galericulum undatum, Brown, teste Gould.
(56.) var. grandis. Velutina canaliculata, Bk., 1847. (Arsut,
Barrett.)

57. Lacuna (Epheria, subg.) vincta, Mont.

Turbo divaricatus, Fabr. non L. Lacuna, Moll. Lovdn.

58. L. glacialis, Moll. Middendorf.

59. L. (Temana, subg.) pallidula, Da Costa. Moll.

60. Littorina groenlandica, Ch. Mke.

Nerita littorea, Fabr. T. Davidii, Bolt. L. castanea, Desh.
(61.) var. laevior. N«rita littoralis, Miill., Prod., 2953.
Fabr.

Lit. palliata, Sars. Lit. arctica, Moll.
*62. L. obtusata, L. An. monstrum praecedentis ?

63. Natica affinis, (Nerita) Gm.

Natica clausa, Sow. N. septentrionalis, Bk. Mdll. N. con-
solidata, Couthouy.

64. Mamma (Lunatia, subg.) groenlandica, Bk. Moll.
Loven.

Natica pallida. Bred. & Sow. ?

4

LAND.

MORCH ON THE MOLLUSC A OF GREENLAND. 127

", Couthouy,

rum papillis

dorso nudo.

Fabricius.

Uaursak.)
I, Fabr. Clio

safi.)

, Prod. Arg.

p. 27.
Strait; Hol-

12 ? Oxynoe
irgb. (Pro-

tk.

(Fabr.) est.
Sars,

', f. 1598-9.
laab, Holb.J
t7. (Arsut,

Lovdn.

ea, Desh.
od., 2953.

11. N. con-
Moll.

I

65. M. (Mamma, subg., Kl. ?) borealis, Gray, 1839, Beechy's
Voy., t. 37, f. 2.

N. uana, MOll.

66. M. (Amauropsis, subg., Morch) islandica, (Nerita) Gm.

Natica holicoidos, Johnst.
(67.) var. fragilis. Natica cornea, Moll.

68. Amaura Candida, Moll. H. & A. Adams, Gen.

69. Aclis Walleri, JeiFr. (Hamilton Inlet, Labrador; Wal-

lich.)

70. Rissoa (Onoba, subgeu.) saxatilis, Moll.

Trochus striatellus, Fab. non L. Rissoa arctica, Lovdu.

71. R. (Paludlnella) globulus, Moll.

72. Rissoa (Onoba, subg.) castanca, Mi311.

R. exaruta, Stiinps. Sh. New Eugl., p. 34, 1. 1, f. 3, probably.

73. R. scrobiculata, Moll.

74. Rissoella eburnea, (Rissoa) Stimpson.

Boston Journ., Proc, IV., 14. Shells of New Engl., p. 34, t. 1,
f. 1, sod spra. groenlandica diflFerunt : labro medio coarc-
tato et columella torta. MoUer, Index, Addende, No. 4,
Gasteropus. (Godthaab, 60 fathoms, Holb.)

75. Skenea planorbis, (Turbo) Fabr. Moll. Loven.

76. Homalogyra rota, Forbes & Hauley. (1,622 faths.,

Wallich.)

77. Moelleria eostulata, (Margarita) Moll. F. & H. (Godt-

haab, 60 fathoms, Holb.)

78. Turritella (Tachyrhynchus, subg.) erosa, Couth., Bost.

Journ.

T. polaris, Bk. & Mdll.

79. T. (Tachyrhynchus, subg.) reticulata, Mighcls & Adams,

Bost. Journ., iv., 50.
T. lactea, Moll.

80. Ceiithium (Bittium, subg.) arcticum, Morch. (Sukker-

tcppen, 65 fathoms, Holb.)

Turritella? uostulata, Moll. (Nee Lam. nee Riaso.)

81. Tvic!iotopis borealis, Brod. & Sow.

Tr. atlantica, Bk.

82. Tr. conicp, Moll. (Near Fladoerne, 30 fathoms ; Soudre

StromQord, 60 fathoms.)

83. ApoiThais occidentalis, Bk. (A fragment from Dr.

Vahl.)

84. Cancellaria (Admete, subg.) viridula, (Tritoniura) Fabr.

Adams, Gen., t. 29, f. 5.

Admete crispa, Moll, C. buccinoides, Conth, C. Couthouyii,
Jay.

Ordo II. — ToKOglossata, Troschel.

85. Pleurotoma (Ischnula, Clark ; Pleurotomina, Bk., subg.)

turricula, Mont., var.

Subsp. 1. Murex angulatus, Don.

Defrancia nobilis, Moll. Pleurotoma Moelleri, Reeve, f. 324.
Defr. lactea, Moll., teste Reeve.

86. Subsp. 2. Defrancia scalaris, Moll.

Fusus turriculus, Gould.

87. Subsp. 3. Defrancia exarata, Moll.

Pleurotoma rugulata, " MSll." Reeve, f. 845.

■M

* 'if ■'

1 '. 'f

128

MORCII ON THE MOLLUSCA OF GREENLAND.

M

t-

88. PI. Woodiann, Moll.

I'li'urotoiua IcucoHtonm, Recvo, f. 278. D. reticulatii, Vahl.,
teste Hcevo. D. harpiiluriii, Cuiith., teste Loviu. Tritoniiim
rosouni, Sars. Lov5n, No. 89.

89. 1*1. ele<5ans, Moll., non Scoclii.

90. 1*1. pyramidulls, Strom.

Subsp. 1 . Fusiis pltiurotoinariuK, Couth. Defrancia Vahlii,
Bk. Moll. Hecve.

91. PI. cancellnta, (Fusus) IMiyhcls & Adams, 1841.

Defrauciu cincrea, MOller. Tritoniiim rinpelil, Sars.
(92.) var. purpurea. D. Pingelii, IJk. Moll.
93. PI. violacea, M. & Adams.

Defrancia c>liiidracea, ^lull. rieiirotoina groeulandica, Recvo
f. 343. 1). suturalis, Moll., teste Reeve.

(94.) vnr. spiia breviori. PI. livida, Reeve, f. 316, non Moll.
(95.) var. ventricosa. Defrancia licckii, Moll.
96. PI. borcalis, Reeve, f. 277 (Errata).

Defrancia Bcalaris, " Vahl.,'' Reeve olim. D. livida, MOll.
non L.
(97.) var. ventricosa, pallida.

D. viridula, Moller, non Fabr. PI. decussata, Couthouy, noo
Brown.

Ordo III. — Bhachiglossata, Troschcl.
98. Tritonium glaciale, L. Ch. Lam.
Bucciuum carinatuni, Phipps, Voyage.
•99. Tr. Hancockii, Morch. 13. groenlandicum, Hancock.
Reeve, non Ch.

100. Tr. scalariforme, Bk. & Moll.

Buccinum tortuosum, Reeve, f. 11. B. tenue, Gray; Reeve,
f. 27?

101. Tr. undatum, L., Midd., Beitr., p. 482, pi. 4, f. 3. (Olrik,
Holb.)

102. Tr. tenvT-novje, Beck. B. Donovani, " Gray," Reeve,
f. 2. (Olrik.)

103. Tr. groenlandicum, Ch., X., p. 177.

Tr. undatum, Fabr. Buccinum cyaneum, Brug. Bk. Moll.
Loven. Sars. B.boreale, Leach, Ross's Voyage, ii.,1819, p. 173.

(104.) var. B. tanebrosum, Hanc. An., vol. xviii., t. 5, f. 12.
(lOo.) var. B. Humphrey sianuni, Moll, non Bennett.

106. Tr. hydrophanum, (Buccinum) Hancock (Olrik, 200-
300 fathoms.)

107. Tr. uudulatum, Moll.

Buccinum glaciale, Don. B. labradoreuse, Reeve. B. un-
datum, Midd., Beitr., 482 ; non L.

108. Tr. Humphreysianum, Bennet ?

Buccinum ciliatum, Reeve, fig. 1 ?, non Fabr.

109. Tr. ciliatum, Fabr. Moll.

B. Moelleri, Reeve, f. 29. B. tenebrosum, var. borealis, Midd.,
Beitr., t. 3, f, 7, 8.
(110.) var. lajvior.

111. Fusus (Neptunea, subg.) despectus, L. Fabr.
(112.) var. Tritonium foi nicatum,'Fabr. Voy. de la Recherche,

t. 2, Fabricius' original specimen.
(113.) var. Fusus carinatus, Pennant. Lam.

fLAND.

3IORCFI OS TIIK MOl.LrSfn OV C IM'f.Nr AM .

12')

;ticulatn, Vuhl.,
r't^u. Triton ium

ifrancia Vahlii,

841.

Sars.

alandica, Recvo
16, non Moll.

'. livida, Moll.
, Couthouy, noo

in, Hancock.

Gray ; RecTC,
f. 3. (Olrik,

ray," Reeve,

11-^ F. lonmtus, (Joiild, viir. (llolbcill rolUc(c(l one spcci-

nicn.)

Fusiis borciilis, riiil., Ahliild.

115. F. (Triluiutf'iisus, sultg.) Kiu'vrri, Miill. (Aisiit,
Lucas IWrctt S: 11o11h")1I.)

Fiisiis iircticuH, I'liil., AbbihI.

116. F. InU'iiceiiP, Miill.

Tritonium iiicarnatiim, !Sars, " IJiisf til Lolott'ii."

117. F. (Sipho, sul)^^) ishiiidiciis, Cli., 4, f. l;}12-i;j. (Dr.
Piiifjel.) Dr. ri'nil', 1 sj»cin.

Ti'itoiiiiiiii iiiiti(|uiiiii, Fabr. iion L.

118. F. Ilolbu'llii, Moll.

119. F. pro|)iii«iiMis, Alilcr.

F. Sai)inii, Ihinck., An., xviii,, \>]. r>, I'. 1(».

120. F. cbur, Minvh.

121. F. toj^atus, Miircli.

122. F. Lnchcsis, ]Murcli. Ciiuiur. U inch lor.«,', uith tiir-
rettoil s|)ire.

123. F. (Volutopsius, sul);^;.) norvegicus, Cli., vnr. (Col-
lected l)y l*uslor .Jiirgonscn.)

F. LaiTxillii^'iti, IVfit, .Tourn. do Conch.

124. Murcx (Troplion, subg.) clathriitn.-^, L.

Tritoniinn Hossii, Loach. Found in a Fish's stoiiwidi.
(125.) var. Tr. Uainllii, Don.

126. Tr. Gunnori, Loven. Trophon r»ainilii, Mt;ll. |)[).

127. Tr. craticulatus, (Tritonium) Fal>r.

Trophon Fubricii, JJk. Hancock, Mmvx borealis, IJoovc.

128. Purpura lapilluy, L. Fabr. (Noritlksokljordcn.)

var. r. imbricata, Lam., No. 31.

129. Columbclla (Astyrls, snbg.) rosacea, Gould. Miill.
Mangelia Holbo'llii, JJcck.

Pleurotoma viridula, " Mull." Reeve.

130. Mitra ( V^olutonulra, Grav, snbg.) gra}nlaiidica, Jik.
Miill.

Bk. Moll.
ii.,1819,p.l73.

, t. 5, f. 12.
lett.
Olrik, 200-

tve. B. un-

krealis, Midd.,

Ir.

iRecherche,

Classis 111. — ExocKPiiALA, Latr.

Ordo I. — Bhipidoglossata, Troschel.

131. Trochus occidentalis, Mijjliels & Adams. Stimp.son.

Trochus formosus, Forbes, Ann. & Mag. ^Marjjarita alaba-strnni,
Bk. Lovcn. F. & II.

132. Margarita grocnlandica, Ch., V., f. 1781, p. 108. Gm.
Wood.

M. umbilicalis, Brod. & Sow. M. undulata, var. Ucvior, Mull.
(133.) var. a. M. sulcata, Sow. IMidd., t. 8, f. 45, 46.
(134.) var. 13. ]M. costcllata. Sow. it Brod.
(135.) var. y. M. undnlata, S. & IJ.

Trochus cinereus, Fabr. p.p. Margarita striata, Leach, lesle
Forb. & Hani.

136. M. cinerea, Couth., Uost. Journ.

Trochus cliierarius, var. Fabr., F. Gr. Margarita striata, var.
grcenlandica, Miill. M. sordida, Hancock, Ann. & Mag. M.
granlandicai ((Jli.) forma despccta, ^liJrch.

(137.) var. grandi.-^. M. striata, IJ. & S. (Olrik.)
3G122. I

MM

;^,^l

V

f!

fi

ti [

130 MORCH ON THE MOLLUSC^V OF OnFEXLAND.

138. M. lu'liciim, PhippH. Fubr.

TrochuH iH'rituidc'M, Giu. Helix nmrgarita, Laskey. Margarita
arcticu, Lciich.

139. M. mj^cntutu, GouKl. Middeiul.

M. gliuicii, Mull., Index. M. Ilurrisuni, Hancock ?

140. M. Vuhlii, Mollcr.

M. pusillu, Ji'ffr. V. 8iU.

141. Ceiuoria nouchinu, (I'atclln) L., Muntiss. plant.

Patella fissurella, Miill., I'rod. 28Gr». Gm.

142. ScissuR'lla ori^pata, Fleming, var. Moll., Append. No. 3.

Ordo II. — Heteroglossata, 'I'rosch.

143. Pilidiuni lultellum, (l*rttella)Fubr. Gm. Miill. Loven.
Sai's.

144. Lei)eta ca3cu, (Patella) Miill. Loven.

\i\r. Patella Candida, Coiithony. P. cerea, Midi.

145. Teetui-a testudinalis, (Patella) Miill. Moll. Loven.

Patella teHtudinaria gra'niandica, Ch., X., f. 1814-1.'».
14(). Chiton (Toniein, nnbg.) murmorens, Fab.
jiuiior? Ch. cinereus, " L." Fubr.

147. Cli.(Leptochiton,snbg.) albus, L. Fabr. Moll. Loven.

148. Chiton ruber, L.

149. Ch. cinereus, L.

Ch. asellus, Ch.

150. Siphonodentalium, sp. According to O. Torell.

Classis IV. — CEniALOPODA, Cuv.

151. Octopus grauilandicus, (Sepia) Dewhurst, 1834. (Gr.
Imab-puirsa.)

Sepia octopodia, Fabr. Octopus granulatus, Moll, non Lam.
O. arcticus, Prosch.

152. Cirroteuthis Mueller!, Esch. Sciadcphorus, Keiidi. &,
Prosch. (Jacobshavn.)

153. Rossia palpebrosa, Owen, Ross's Second Voyage.

154. R. Ma'Ucri, Stp., 1856, Act. Hafn.

155. Leachia hyperborea, Stp., 1856, Act. Hafn.

156. Gonatus Fabricii, (Onychoteuthis) Lichenst. (Gr.
Annhok.)

Sepia loligo, Fabr., F. G. Onychoteuthis Kamschatica, Midd.
(157.) junior {teste Stp.), Onychoteuthis ? amoena, Moll. (Gr.
Amikungoak.)
*158. Sepiola atlantica, d'Orb. ? teste Stp. (Holb.)

ClASSIS V. — ACEPHALA, CuV.

159. Teredo denticulata. Gray, Ann., 1850, VIII. Differt a
T. naiiUi Turt. {T, meyotara, F. & H.) alas parte dorsali
antice rotundata, nee acuminata.

Pholas teredo, Fabr. (Gr. Kerksuk-Kuma.) Teredo navalis,
Moll, non L. T. dilatata, Stimps. Best. Proceed., Oct. 1851,
probably.

160. Mya truncata, L. Fabr. Moll.

var. M. Uddevalensis, Forh., Geol. Surv., I., p. 407. junior M.
arenaria, Fabr. teste MS. auctoris.

161. M. arenaria, L. Moll. Fabr. MS.

^D.

Margarita

MOHCII ON THK MOLLUSCA OK OIIKKNTAND.

i:n

t.

L-ntl. No. 3.

11. Lovcu.

Loven.
5.

H, Lovon.

lell.

834. (Gr.
(11. noil Luni.
Re i nil. Si

age.

ist. (Gr.

latica, Midd.
Moll. (Gr.

. Differt a
)arte dorsali

eredo navalis,
d., Oct. 1851,

J7. junior M.

y4

1()2. Cyrtoduriu Biliqiui, Sp;;!. ( Kosdil, Dr. Uiiik.)
Glycinieri4 incrasgutu, Lain.

163. C. KuiTlaun, l)kr. Ahotit 2 inches lon«^ ; jmlti-hrown
in colour. (Fouuil at low water near JacubMhuvn ; Dr.

rtatr.)

1()4. Saxicava aretica, (Mya) L. Fabr. (Gr. lnnnnck.)

Mja byssifera, Fabr. Saxicava j^rtcnlandlca, I'ot. Sc Mii'h. S.
pholadiH, li. tiray, I'ariy's Voy.

1().5. I'anoniya norvegiea, (Mya) Spgl. Woodward. (Fossil,
Dr. Uiidc.)

I'anopiua SpcMgU-ri, Valenc.

1G(). Lyonsia arenosa, (Pandorina) Miill.

Lyonsia gibhona, Hancock, Ann., XVllI. t. 5. f. 1 1, 1:,'.

1(>7. Thraicia niyopsis, IJk. Mr>ll.
Thracia Coiithonyi, Stinipsoii.

168. Th. Hcptentrioiialis, Jell'r.Th. trnncata, Mighels & Adams,
Boston .lourn., 1842, t. 4, f. 1 (sed niargin<^ dorsuli
niagiH deelivi.) Long. 27 mm. ; height 19 nnn. (Fight
Danish miles oH' land outside the Sondre Stromfjord, at
60 fathoms, MolKr.)

169. Ncajra cuspidata, Olivi. (VVallich.)

170. Tellina (Maconia, subg.) calcarca, Ch.

Tulliiia proximu, Smith.

171. T. muesta, Desh. lY-rhaptj only a variety ol' T. valcarc<t,
influenced by fresh water. (Arsut, L. Barrett.)

172. T. crassula, Desh. Small, triangular. Known from
Greenland by a few specimens only.

173. T. tenera (Macoma, Leach), Hoss's Voyage, ii., 1H19,
p. 17o; Thomson's Annals Philos., xiv., 1819, p. 204.

T. groDnlaiidica, IJk. Gould, p. 66. Lovt'n, No. 299. T.
Fabricii, llanlcy. Sow. Tlies., f. 1 12. Venus fragilis, Fabr.,
No. 414.

174. Venus fluctuosa, Gould, !>. 57, f. .30. (Narsalik ; ITolb.)
17o. Pisidium Steenbuchii, (Cyclas) Moll. (In a poud near

Baals IJiver.)

176. Thyasira Gouldii, Phil., M. Z., 1845, p. 74.

Cryptodpn flexuosuni, Miill. Gould, f. 52.

177. Montacuta elevata, Stimpson.

M. hideutata, Gould, p. 59, non Mont,

178. M. Ma?lleri, Holb.

179. M. Davvsoni, Jeffr., Brit. Conch., ii., 216.

180. Kellia plannlata, Stimpson.

K. rubra, Gould, p. 60, f. 33, non Mont.

181. Turtonia minuta, (Venus) Fabr. (Gr. Ijnhsuunatak.)

Chione miuuta, Desb., Cat. Veu., No. 121.

182. Astarte compressa, (Venus) L., Mantis, plant, non Mtg.

Venus borealis, Ch., \'II., f. 413, 414. Astartu elliptica, Brown.
A. semlisulcata, Gray. ^liill. Piiil., Abbild., non Leach.

183. A. crebricostata, McAudrew & Forbes, Ann., 1847, XIX.,
p. 98, t. 9, f. 4.

A. crenata, Gray (?), Parry's Voy., 1824

1 2

v\

m

W 1 1

It

132 MtiuCII ON THE MOLLL'SCA OF OltKENLAXD.

184. A. (Triilonta, subg.) semiculcatn, Leacli, Koss'a Voy.,
Aijp., 175 ; non Moll.

Crassina arctica, Gray, Parry's Voy. Miill. Venus borealis,
Ch., VII., f. 412. Crassina corrugata, Brown.

185. A. (Nicania, subg.) striatii, Leach, 1819, Ross's Voy.,
App., 170. Gray, Beechy's Voy-, t. 44, f. 9. Moll.

A. multicostata, Macgill. Phil.
(186.) var. A. globosa, Moll.

187. A. Banksii, Leach. Moll. Beechy's Voy., t. 44, f. 10.
*188. A. pulchella, Jonas. Phil., Abbild., X., p. 60, t. 1, f. 12.
A. Warhami. Hancock?

189. Cyprina islandica, (Venus) L. non Fabr. (Dr. llmlolph.)

190. Cardiura ciliatnm, Fabr.

C. islandicum, Ch. C. arcticuin, Sow., 111., f. 2G.

191. C. elogantulum. Beck. MoUcr. Snrs.

192. C. (Serripes, subg.) grasnlandicnni, Ch.

Venus islandica, Fabi*. uon L. (Gr. Ipiksamui/t.)
(193.) var. borealis, Bccvc; striated anteriorly and posteriorly.

194. Ai'ca peetnuculoides, Scacchi. (Widlich.)

195. Nucula inflala, Hancock, Ann.

N. tenuis, Gray, Moll.

196. N. nitida. Sow., Illust. Ilanley.

197. N. dclphinodontij, Mighols & Adams, Boston Journ.
iv., 40. Gould.

'T. corticata, Ilolb. & Moll.

198. Nucnlana buccata, Stp. & jNIoU. Sars.

N. Jacksonii (Gould) differt umbouum sculptura.

199. N. pernula, Miill.

Area Martinii, Bolt., Mus. Bolt.
Leda macilenta, Stp. & Miill.
Nucula rostrata, Mart. Laui.
N. fluviatilis, Sow,, Geu.

200. N. minuta, (Area) Miill. Fabr. Ch. Moll. (Gr. Lnen'
iiinffoak.)

N. parva, Sow., lllustr,

(201.) var. grandis. Leda complanata, Moll.

202. N. (Portlandia, subg.) arctica, Gray, Parry's Voy.
Wood, Suppl. t. 6.,

Yoldia portlandica, Woodward, uon Hitch.
Nucula truncata, Brown, 111., xxv.,f. 19.

203. N. pygma?a, Miinster. Loven. Forbes & Ilanley.

var, Nucula lenticula, Moll,

204. Yoldia limatula, Say. Torell.

205. Y. hyperliorea, Loven.

206. Y. thracia)formis, Storer. (Fiskernajsset and Sukker-
toppen, at 60 to 70 fathoms.)

Yoldia angularis, Moll,

207. Modiolaria nigra, Grav, Parry's Voy., 1824. Wood.
Ch., f. 767.

Mytilns discors, var, suevica, Fabr,, Vid, Selsk, 1788.
M, diserepans, Mont,, Suppl, Leach. Moller.
IModiola coiupressa, Mcnke.

IModiolaria striatula, Beck, Voy, de la Recherche, non L.,
Mantiss.

INI).

>ss'a Voy.,

ms borealls,

o.ss's Voy.,
Moll.

. 44, f. 10.
i,t. l,r. 12.

. Rudolph.)

posteriorly.

ton Jonrn.

^lOllClI ON THE M0LLU8CA OF GREENLAND.

133

208. ]M. lifvigalij, Grny, Parry's Voy. Wood. (Gr. Bibibi-
arsnk.)

Mytilus discors, Fabr. (Modiolaria) Rk. non L.

209. M. corrugata, Stimpson, Conch. N. Engl., 1851. (Godt-
liaab, ,50 to 60 fathoms., Holb.)

M. 4-<Jr*,o. P.^V^ Modiola discors, Gould, p. 130, f. 184, uon L.

^ /-"^ToTM. (Dacrydium) vitroa, Ilolh. & Moll. (Sukkcrtop-

pen, at 100 fathoms, IIoH)oll.)

211. Crenella decussata, Mont., var.

Modiola ? cicercula, Mull.

212. Mytilus odulis, L. Fabr., var. (Gr. Uilok.)

^lytilus edulis cxornatus, Ch., XI,, f. 2024.
M. borealis. Lam,, No, 25 ?
M. cxornatus, Pfr,, Register.

213. Limatnla sulculus, Loach. Lovcn.

Lima sulcata, Moll.

L. eoDclusa, MiiU, Beck, 1847.

214. Pecten islandicus, Moll. Ch. (Gr. Kh/tsoaursak.)

junior P. Fabricii, Phil.
(215.) var. costis elevatis latis.

216. P. (Pseudaraussium, subgen.) grcenlandicus, Sow., Thcs.
Loven.

P. vitreus, Gray, Parry's Voy,, non Ch,

The AcALEPH^: and Hydrozoa, which follow here in the
Appendix No. 4 of Rink's " Gronland," &e., 1857, pp. 95-98,
Avere then enumerated by Du. MoRCii, witli their synonymy
mostly after O. Fabricius' IMSS. : they arc now given in a Re-
vised Catalogue by Dr. Lutken further on, pp. 187-190.

■M

(Gr. Tmeu'

•ry's Voy.

anley.

d

Sukker-

'•

Wood.

J8.

le,

non L.,

I

.3

IJRACIIIONOrODA.

217. Rhynchonolla psittacwi, Ch. Gm. Torcbratula, Moll.

218. TerebratcUa Si)itzl)ergicnsis, Davidson. (Inside dead
Ithynchondlcc and Balani.)

219. TerebratuUna septentrionalis, Covithouy. T. cai)ut-scr-
l)cntis ?

220. Terebratula craniimi, Miill. ( 108-228 fathoms, Wallich.)

Grccnl'iiul Ndmes for Mollusca, &c.

Ajuaursak ; from Ajnrk, a blain or boil ; Ccmorin^ Tectiira, &c.
Akopcrursak, from A/{opiHt, an animal which sits on its back ;

Velntina.
AmUiok, from Amch, a skin or hide ; Gonatus Fabricii, Licht.
Ainiliorsoah, the same.
Annkoungoak ; Gonatus am<cnns, Moll,
Atanrsak ; Clio limacina.
Angnrsak, the same. (A ram.)
Bibihiarsvk ; Modiolaria 1a,vigata.
Daitsimctit, sec Tcssermctut.
Imah Imata o, heart of the sea ; Chri/saora pontocardia.

V

¥

134

MUKCII ON TIIK 31C)LLU8CA OF UUEKNL\ND.

m

!.'!*■*

it

Iniah-pnirsa .>, who shoot themselves out of the sea ; Octopus

ifranlandims.
Imvningoak; Saxivava nrctica ?, L.
Imcinivk, because they squirt so much water (Imck). Tellinn

tetura, Leach. Sa.vicavn arctica.
Inu'iiidffook, the little Lncnnck, l)ccau.se they resemble Saxicava

arctica; Nnnilana iiiiimta.
Ipiksaunak, like a grindstone ; Cardhnn (jrirnlandicum,
Jpiksamuttak, the young of Ipiksaunak ; Turtonia minuta.
Ipiarsursakj like a tent-bag ; the Bcro'ido'.
Kallaliussutj because they socm to jump in the water. The

Sepioid kind of Molluscs, found in North Greenland according

to Mdm. Lytzen. Undetermined Cuttle-fish, Moll.
Kcmiarsursak, like a dog's pup ; JEo/idia, Tritonia.
Kcrksuk-Kuma a, Wood-worm ; Teredo dcnticuluto.
Killiortout, from Killiorpok, scraping tool ; Jlt/ti/us edulis.
Kirksoanrsak, because they jump out of the pots in which they

are to be cooked {Kirkserpok, to jump down) ; or a likeness

to Kirksoak ; Pcctcn Islandicus.
Korotungoak ; the little crcnulated ; Tropkon.
Korsoak ; see Amikorsoak.
Nakkarsursak^ a bladder ; Boltenia Boltcni, L.
Nucrtlek, from JVuak, thick spittle ; Mcdusoi.
Nucrtleksoak ; Medusa capillata, Fabr., Fn. Gr. No. 203.
NyaursfBt o, hair-like ; Scrtularia,

Puirsarsoakasik .>, the big bad ones which jump up ; an Octo-
pus^ Moll.
Sarpangaursfct ; Scrtularia.
Siutcrursak ; Vitrina angclic(F, Margarita /tclicitia, Mcucsthoj

Skcucttf Littoritia grocnlandica, &c.
Siuterok, from sint, ear ; all Snails ; Margarita^ Littorina^ &c.
Siuteruagoak, a little Snail ; Lacuna, Tropkon, &c.
Siutcrursoak, the big Snails ; Tritonium, Fusus.
Tcrkeingak, like a shade for the eyes ; Chiton marmoreus.
Tcrkungoak, in common with Oniscus ; a declivity or slope on a

rock ; Chiton.
Tesscrnietut .7 {Daisimctit), which live in freshwater lakes

( T'essek) ; Limncca.
Tulluka^irtak, from Tulluk, sea-raven, like a raven ; Limacina

arctica.
Tupilek, having a tent over it ; Cirroteuthis.
lltlok, from Uivok{:), to increase or swell out, or rather from

Uiungc, nympha? muliebres ; Mytilus edulis, L.
Uniataursak ; Chrt/saora pontocardia ; Julianehaab.
Usursak, from Usuk, penis ; 3Iya truncata.

APPENDIX.

Notes on Shells, py Dk. Morch.

1. The stomach of the Shark {Squalus) often contains very
rare animals ; often uninjured Cephalopods, Buccimim hydro •

i ; OctojtHS

k). Tellina

le Saxicava

cum.
minnta.

/liter. The
d iiccordiug

' cdiilis.
which they
a likeness

MORCH ON THE 3I0LLUSCA OF GREENLAND.

135

3. 203.
; an Octo-

Mencstho,
orina, &c.

oreus.
slope on a

ater lakes

Limacina

ther from

phanum, &c., also a large Anthipathes (a Mack sponge-like
Coral).

The Sharks are fished for by the Greenlanders in the winter,
through a hole in the ice by a fine line of at least 1(K) faths.,
formerly made of whalebone fibre. The Shark gently follows the
hook to the surface, where it is killed.

2. In the stomach of Anas mollissima, and especially of Anas
sprc fa hilts, rare shells are often found. Large specimens from
Greenland are nearly all found in this way.

3. The shell of Limacina is always broken by the animal when
captured. In the stomach of a species of Coitus, found in North
Greenland, these shells, however, are found entire and empty.

4. The Whelks {Buccitium and Fusus) are taken in sunken
baskets, baited with dead fish, but the basket must not lie too
long as the bait is eaten away by Gammarus, &c., in an incredibly
short time.

5. The land and freshwater shells are particularly interesting.
On the west coast of Greenland are found one Vitrina, two small
Helices (Jlelix fulva and //. alliaria of England), one Pupa, and
one Succinea.

Of freshwater shells there are one small Planorhis, several
LimncPfB, and one Bivalve {Pisidium).

None liave yet been found in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla.

In a memoir " On the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Green-
" land," ( " American Journal of Concbology,") Dr. Morch offers
the following remarks (p. 27 ) : —

" The land shells of Greenland are nearly allied to those of
Iceland. The Vitrina, the Succinea, and IJyalina alliaria accord
better Avitli the species of Iceland than with American species.
The freshwatei- species of Greenland, however, are entirely
different from those of Iceland. The Limiurfc of Iceland belong
to liadix, while those of Greenland all belong to Limnophysa ;
both genera common to Europe and America. The Planorhis
of Greenland is perhaps PI. parvus. Say, of America, or PI.
spirorhis, Rm. f. 63, {PI. Daznri, nob.). Pisidium Stecnhuchii
of Greenland is most nearly allied to P. pulckellum, found in
Iceland and Europe, but it is much larger. They have been all
found in Labrador by Packard. Although the Arctic species arc
Somali, they are the largest in the group of species to which they
belong. Thus Succinea Grcenlandica is larger than S. arenaria ;
Vitrina larger than any European species, except, perhaps, V,
major ; the Pupa is the largest of the Vertigos."

X.—

Marine Invertebrata collected by the Arctic Ex-
pedition under Dr. I. I. Hayes. By W. Stimpson,
M.D. (May 1862). From the Proceed. Acad. Nat.
Sciences Philadelphia, 1862-3, p. 138-142. 1863.

4

U18 very
n hydro-

[In the following list those species are enumerated which were
brought home from Port Fonlkc and Littleton Island^ on the

^.■j'-.!.M-sJ^»a

PI

it\r>

STIMPSO:,- ox AUCTrC INVr.TlTEnnATA,

JC.'istern or (jrocnland shore of Smith Sound, Idt. 7H.V^ from Ca/tc
Fnradajf on thcop[)0';itG shoro, lat. 79" 4.V, und Gale ]^(nnt{\\\X.\).
Otljcrs arc mentioned as coming from (lodhavn and from the W\
!ind N.W. Coast of Greenland, which are inchided, 1»y name or
s} iiouym, in the Catalogues given elsewhere in this " Mannal."]

1. Mollusca.

Clione liraacina, Phipps. Port Fonlke.

Buccinum cyancum. Beck. Port Foulke.

Myatruucata, Lin. Mostly vai-. Uddevallcnsis. The siphons

were found in great numbers in the stomach of a Walrus.

Port Foulke.
Saxicava arctica, Desli. Do. Do.
Astarte plana, J. Sow. Port Foulke.
Cardinra Hayesii, n. sp. Disco Island. Also found in Nova

Scotia.
Crenella faba (O. Fab.), Stimp. N.W. Coast of Greenland.

2. Crustacea.

Crangon boreas, J. C. Fabr. Godhavn ; Port Foulke ; Lit-
tleton Isl.

Ilippolyte Gannardii, M.-Ed\v. Port Foulke.

IT. gibba, Kroyer. Port Fonlke.

II. turgida, Kr. Godhavn ; Port Foulke.

II. Phippsii, Kr. Port Foulke.

H. polaris, Owen. Port Foulke ; Littleton Isl.

11. borealis, Owen. Littleton Isl.

JMysis oculata, Kr. Port Foulke.

Anonyx ampulla, Kr. (var. ?). Gale Point.

Pherusa tricnspis, n. sp. Littleton Isl.

Ganimarus locusta, J. C. Fal). l*ort Foidke.

Themisto arctica, Kr. In the stomach of a Seal at C:i|)e
Faraday.

Bopyrus hippolytcs, Kr. Port Foulke.

Lcrna:'opoda clongnta, Grant. Port Foulke.

II.Tmobathcs cycloptcrina, Stecnstrup 8c Liitken. On the
gills of Gymnelis riridis at Littleton Isl.

Balanus balanoides, Darwin. Port Fonlke.

8. Annelida.

Lepidonote cirrata, Q^-st. Port Foulke.
L. punctata, Q^^rst. Port Foulke and Ijittlotou Isl.
Phyllodoce grocnlandica, (Erst. Port Foulke.
Cirratulus borealis, Larak. Godhavn ; Littleton Isl.
Siphonostomum plumosum, Ilathke. Port Foulke.
Tecturella flaccida, Stimpson. Port Foulke.
Brada inhabilis, Stimpson. Gale Point.
Pectinaria Eschrichtii, Rathke. Godhavn ; Port Foulke.
Spirorbis nautiloides, Lam. Port Foulke.
Priapulus caudatus, Lam. From the stomach of a Wahus
Port Foulke.

4. Echinodermata.

Myriotrochus Riukii, Steenstr. Port Foulke.

WOOD^YAllD, AUCTIC SHELLS, hJV.

137

•oin Cape

in the W.
,' iiiinio or
iiuiivl."]

lie siphons
a Walrus.

id in Nova
recnlaiiU.

ulko ; Lit-

il at C:i|)c

On the

1.

roulke.
la Walius

M

Asterins grnBulandica, Stimps. I'ort Fonlke.
A. albula, 8tini[)s. (iodliavn ; Port Fonlke.
Ophioglyplm S(iuamosa, Stinips. Godhavn ; Port Foulkc.

XI. — Shells, &c., from the Hundk Islanj)s, Davis'
Strait; dredged 1)y J)k. P. ('. Suthkkl.vnd, OcIoIht
IHo'l; named by IJlL S. P. WooDWAltl), 18(j.5. (I'liil.
Trans, civ. IcSGo, p. 328.)

No. I.— 28-30 fathonis. (See page 192, for the material of

these dredgings.)

Water-

Balauus porcatus, DC. ?

worn iVagmonts.
B. crenatus, Brng. ?

worn fragments.
Mya truneata. Fragment.

Saxicnva arctica. Small valve.

Tellina ealearea ( — i)roxima=

Water- lata). Fragment.

Echinns, sp. Fragments
plates and spines.

of

Leda minuta.

(large;) and fry.
Creneila dcenssata.
Limatula suleata.
Astartc striata.
A. semisulciita.
Saxicava. Fry
Kissoa eastanea

No. II.— 30-40 fathoms.
Odd valve R. scrobiculata.

Small.

Young.
Young.

No. 111.

Saxieava aretiea. Adult. •
Lyonsia striata. Fry.
Astarte striata. Adult and

fry.
Leda truneata. Iragmeuts.
L. pygmaja. Fry.
Creneila deeussata.
C. faba.

No. IV.— 50-

Pilidium ftdvum.
Aemaea. Fragment.
Chiton albus ? Two valves.

No. V GO-

Peeten islandicns. Fragments.
INIya truneata.

Astarte boreal is, vai: semisnl-
cata. Young.

Scissurella crispata.
Turritella lactca. Younjr.
Margarita undulata.
]M. einerea. Youn^:.
Eehinus. Small spine.
Spirorbis. Whorls furrowed.

2o-oO fathoms.

Nncula tenuis. Fry.

A. striata.
Saxieava. Fry.

Cardium elegantulum.

Natiea pnsilla (gra3nlandica).

Fry.
Cylichna Gouldii. Young.
Kissoa scrobieulata.
Spirorbis.
Eehinus. Spine.

-70 fathoms.

Astarte striata. Fry.
Spirorbis nautilus ?
S. sulcata.

-70 fathoms.

Creneila deeussata.
Jjimatula sulcata.
Turritella laetea.
liissoa eastanea.
R. scrobieidata.
Margarita helieina.

Fragment.

'%

138

S. 1\ WOODWAKD ON SHELLS, ETC.

Margarita undulata. Fragmeut Pilidium fulvum.

and fry. Serpula.

M. cinerea. Fry. Spirorbis.

Scissurolla crispata. Balaims porcatus. Tergum and
Littorina obtusata. Fry. fragments of parietes.

Cemoria noachina. Fry. Echinus. Fragments of spines.

i

XII. — A Revised Catalogue of the Tunic ata of Green-
land. By Dr. Chr. Lutken, University Museum,
Copenhagen. 1875.

TUNICATA.

Ascidise simplices (Grcenl. Nakasursak).

1. Bof tenia Bolteni, L.

F. Gr. 323 (A. clavata, Fabr.).

B. reniforrais et ciliata, MoUer, Ind. Moll. Gr., p. 9,5.

2. Cynthia chrystallina (Moll.).

Clavellina chryst., Moll. 1. c, p. 95.

3. C. rnstica (L.).

F. Gr. 316 and 317 (?). (Jun.?) (A. quadridenlata,

Fabr.)
A. monoccros, Moll. 1. c., p. 95.

4. C. pyriformis (Rthk.).

Jun. ? F. Gr. 322 (A. villosa).
Ohs. — A species from East Greenland is described by KupfTer
as C. villosa^ Fabr. (Zte deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, II., p. 244).

5. C. echinata (L.).

F. Gr. 318.

6. C. conchilega (Moll.).

MoUer, 1. c.

7. C. {Molgula) glutinans, Moll.

MoUer, 1. c., p. 94.

8. C. tuberculiim (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 321.

9. C. AdolpJd, Kupf.

Zte deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, II., p. 245.

10. Phallusia lurida (Moll.).

MoUer, 1. c, p. 95.

11. Ph. complanata (Fabr.).

F. Gr. n. 320.

12. Chelyosoma Macleayanum, Sow. Brod.

Cp. Eschricht's paper in K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr. V.
(1841).

13. Pclonaia, sp.

(An undetermined specimen from Jacobshavn in the Museum
of Copenhagen.)

Obs. — The AscidicB of Greenland require revision, with exami-
nation of fresh specimens ; several of the above-named species

r'.

i! ;li.

giiin and

i.

t' spincB.

LOtKEN on the TUNIOATA of GREENLAND. 139

are only imperfectly known, and others remain undoscribed
in collections. The Compound AscidicB are rather numerous,
but no attempt has been made to identify them. ^^ Alct/onium
rubrum and dif/itatum" F. Gr. 462 and 463, probably belong to
this division. " Si/noicnm tnrffens " owes its introduction into the
" Fauna of Greenland " to a mistake.

Green-
iluseum,

XIII.

L*., p. 95.

ridenlata,

KupfTer
244).

Skr. V.

Museum

-The POLYZOA of Greenland. By Dr. Chu. Lutken,
University Museum, Copenhagen. 1875.

This List is an abstract from Dr. Smitt's Monograph of the
Scandinavian and Arctic Polyzoa in the "Proceedings of the
Swedish Academy " for 1864-8, to which work the reader is
I'eferred for further particulars. References to Kirchenpauer's
list of Polyzoa from East Greenland, in " Die zweite deutsche
Nordpolarfahrt," are added.*

1. Cyclostomata.

1. Crisia cburnca (L.).

2. Diastopora simplex (Busk).

3. Diastopora hyalina (Flemg.).

Kirchp., p. 426.

4. Mesenteripora mceandrina (Wood).

5. Ttihulipora atlantica (Forb.).

Idmonea utl. (Forb.), Kirchp., p. 427.

6. T. fimbria (Lmk.).

T. serpens, Fabr. F. Gr. 428.

7. T.flabellaris (Fabr.).

Fabr. F. Gr. 431.
Phalangellafi., Kirchp., p. 427.

8. T. incrassata (D'Orb.).

9. T.fungia (Couch).

10. T. pcnicillata (Fixhr.).

Fabr. F. Gr. 430.

11. Hornera lichenoides (Fabr.).

Fabr. F. Gr. 436 ; Kirchp., p. 425.

12. Discoporella verrucaria (L.).

Fabr. F. Gr. 432 ; Kirchp., p. 427.
12a. D. hispida, (Fl.).
Kirchp., p. 427.

13. Defrancia lucernaria (Sars).

2. Ctenostomata.

14. Alcyonidium hirsutum (Flemg.).

Kirchp., p. 428.

15. A. gelatinosnm (L.).

Kirchp., p. 428.

* The ** Isis," " Tabipora," " Madrepora;' iind " MUlepora " of Fabricius
are apparently all Polj^zoa, with the exception of Nos. 438 {NuUipora, sp.)
find 434 {Corallina officinalis?).

••••i**'

essmm

140

LiJTKEN ON TIFE TOLYZOA OF GREENLAND.

16. A. hispid urn (Fal)r.).

Fnbr. F. Gr. 448.

3. Chilostomata.

17. Ci'lhtlarid tcrmita (Sol.).

Scrtitlaria rcptans, Fabr. F. Gr. 459.
Mniipca arrtira (Busk) ami M. Smitlii, Nordni.,
Kirch p., 1. c, p. 417-8.
IS. ('. scdhra (v. Ben.).

Scrtnlana halccina, Fabr. F. Gr. 4oo.
Svrvpocellaria incrmis (Norm.), Kirch. 1. c, p. 418.

19. Cemcllana loricata (L.).

Fistiihnia ramosa, Fabr. F. Gr. 451.

20. Cahcrca EllisH (Flemjr.).

21. ]iu(/Kln Mnrrayana (BeJ^n).

Flnstra foUaccu, Fabr. F. Gr. 445.

22. Flustra chartacca {Gvii.).

23. Fl. mcmhrcmmea (L.).

24. Fl. papyraccu (Pall.)

25. Fl.foiiacea (L.).

26. Ceil aria articnlata (Fabr.).

Isis hippuris, Fabr. F. Gr. 427.

27. Mcmbranijwra lincata (L.).

? Flusira mcmbranacca^ F. Gr. 446.
Kirchcnpaucr, 1. c, p. 419.

28. j\f. spinifcra (Johnst.).

29. M. Flemingii, Busk.

M. Floiiitiyii, B., and 31. niinax, B., Kirchj)., p. 419.

30. M. pilosa (Linn.).

31. Escharipora anmilata, (Fabr.).

Fabr. F. Gi-. 444.

32. Porina Afaftmi (And.).

33. P. cilia ta, Pall.

34. Anarthropora monodon (Busk).

35. Escharclla porifcra (Smitt).

? Iloncschara (?) contorta, Kirclip., 1. c, p. 422.

36. Esc/i. palmafa (Sars).

37. E. Lcycntilii (Aud.).

Lcpralia Siiriffii, Kirchp., p. 420.

38. E. Jacofini (And.).

39. E. anriculata (Uixf^i^.).

40. E. Landsbornvii (Johnst.).

Lcpralia Tjnidshorovii, Kirchp., p. 421.

41. JG". /rwcam (Ilass.).

42. Mollia hyalina (L.).

Ccllepora 7iifida, Fabr. F. Gr. 443.
Lcpralia nitida, Kirchp., p. 420.

43. Myriozoon crvstaccnm (Sin).

44. M. suhgracilc (D'Orb.).

Millcpora truncata, Fabr. F. Gr. 435 (p.p.).

45. M. coarctatum (Sars).

Mill, triincata, F. Gr. (p.p*)*

LUTKRN ON THR rOT.YZOA OF (1 UKP.N'L\Vt>.

m

Noidlll.,

i. 418.

, p. 419.

46. Leprnlin spathnlif(i'<t (Sin.).

47. L. hippopus (Sm.).

48. Porclla uvntirostris (Sm.).

49. P. /rrWs(Flomg.).

.W. Eschara verrucosa (Busk).

51. E. vervicornis (Pall.).

Kirclip., p. 424.

52. /;. ekgantula (D'Oib.).

53. Escliaroides Sarsii (Sni.).

? CcUcpora spouf/iics, Fahv. F. (Jr. 439.

54. E. rosacea (Busk).

55. Discopora coccinca (Abdg.).

Lipralia Pcachii nml L, sinuosa (Busk), Klrclip.,
p. 421.

56. D. appensa (Ilass.).

57. D. si/iccra (Sin.).

58. D. Skcnci {Sol).

Cellcpora Skcnci, Kirclip., p. 424.

59. Cellcpora, scubra, Fabr.

Millepora reticulata , Fabr. F. Gr. 437.
Kirchp., p. 423.

60. C. ramulosa (L.).

C. verrucosa, Fabr. F. Gr. 440.

61. Cclleporaria incrassata (Lam.).

Kirchp., p. 423.

62. Rctepora cellulosa (Linn.).

63. Loxosoma, .sp.*

422.

XIV. — Insects and Spiders of Greenland: an Alwtract
of the Sketch of the Insect-fauna, Ara':*hnida., «S:c., of
Greenland (Freshwater, Land, and Littoral Arthro])oda),
by J. C. ScHiODTE, in tiSie " Naturh. Bidrag til Kink's
Beskrivelse af Gronlaad," 1857, pp. 50-74.

I.— INSECTA.

Eleutherata (Coleoptera). Carabi.

Nebria nivalis, Payk., Mon. Car. 52, xxxi.

Patrobus hyperborcus, Dcj., Sp. Col. III. 30, 3 ; O. Fab., F.

Gr. 190, 139. Gr. Siutisortak.
Bradyoellus cognatus, Gyll., Ins. Snec. IV., App. 455.
Bembidium Grapei, Ciyll., ibid. IV., App. 403.
Dytisci.

Hydroporus, sp.

Colymbetes dolubratus, Payk.,Fn.L 204, 13 ; O. Fab., F. Gr.

189, 138.

* Ivirchenpauer, 1. c, adds to tlie list of Greenland I'olyzoa, Cdtepjnlla
pepralioiJc's (Norm.) and Lepralia pertusa, Busk.

m,.,,nU

142 J. C. SCITIOdTE on insects, etc. of OBRENLANT).

1 1

'it

m

f

Clt/rini. Gyiimis, sp.
Stap/it/lini.

Quedius fulgidus, Fabr., Mant. Ins. I. 220, 14.

QuediuH, sp.

Micralynima brevilingiia, Schiodto, Naturh. Tidskr., ser, 2, T.,
337, 2, t. 4, f. 2.

Anthobiuiu Sorbi, Gyll. op. c. II. 206, 8.

Staphylinus luaxillosus, L., O. Fab., F. Gr. 140,

S. fuscipes, O. Fab., F. Gr. 141.

S. li«^norum, O. Fab., F. Gr. 142.
B^rrhi.

Cistehi (Byrdms) stoica, O. Fab.,F. Gr. 131, var. of Bt/rr/ius
fasciattts, F.

Simplocaria metallica, Sturm, Doutbchl. Lis. II. HI, 18, t. 34,
f. 13.
Curculioncs.

Rbytidosomus scobina, Schicidte.

Phytonomus, sp.

Otiorhynchus maurus, Gyll., op» c. III. 293, 24 ; O. Fab., F.
Gr. 136.

O. arcticus, Fab., F. Gr. 137.
Coccinellce. Cocciuella trifasciata, O. Fab., F. Gr. 133.

Ulonata (Neuroptera, parte),

Epliemera ciiliciformis, Linn., Faun. Suec. 1475.

Ssmistata (Neuroptera, partCy et Trichoptera).

Hemerobius obscurus, Zett., Ins. Lapp. 1049, 7.
Pbryganea grisea, Lin., Faun. Suec. 1484.
P. interrogationis, Zett., Ins. Lapp. 1063, 12.

Fiezata (Hsrmenoptera).

Nematus ventialis, Dahlb., Consp. Tenthred. 9, 91.

Bombus byperboreus, Sclionb., Vet. Ak. Handl. 1809, I. 57,
t. 3, f. 2 (focni.) ; Apis alpina, O. Fab., F. Gr. 155 ; Bombus
arcticus, Kirby, Suppl. App. Parry's Voy. ccxvi. (foem.).*

B. balteatus, Dablb. Bombi Scand. 36, 8 (foem.) ; Bom. Kir-
bicllus, Curtis, App. Ross's Second Voy. Ixii. (masc.) ; an
etiam fopm. ?) ; Bomb, arcticus, Kirby, I. c. (uiasc.).|

Cryptus arcticus, Schiodte.

C. Fabricii, Scbiodte. O. Fab., F. Gr. 198, 154.
Glossata (Lepidoptera). Papilioncs.

Argynnis cbariclea, Hevbst., Pap. 10, 125, 47, t. 272, f. 5, 6 ;

Papilio TuUia, 0. Fab., F. Gr. 143.
Chionobas Balder, Boisd., Icon. Lep. 19, 189, 4, t. 39, f. 1-3.
C. Bore, Hiibn., Pap. t. 29, f. 134-136.
Colias Bootliii, Curtis, App. &c. Ixv. 10, t. A., f. 3-5.
Nocture.

Agrotis quadrangula, Zett., Ins. Lapp. 935, 4.

* See Curtis's List of Insects from the Parry Islands, &c., further on.

t See Kirby's List of Insects from the Parry Islands, &c., further on. The
Insects and Arachnids of the East Coast of Greenland are also ennmerated
further on.

[.AND.

J. V. SCnT^DTK ON IXj^ECTS, ETC. OF ORFENLAND. 143

er, 2, T.|

Bprrhus
18, t. 34,

Fab., F.

3.

09, 1. 57,
Bombus

(foem.).*
om. Kir-
lasc.) ; an

)-t

-, f. 5, G ;
\, f. 1-3.

on.

on. The
tnumeratt'cl

Agi'otis luva, Heir.

A. isLindica, Staudin<;or.

A. Drewsenii, Staudingcr.

Noctua Westermanni, Staudingor.

Hadenaoxulis, Lefob., Ann. Soc. Entom. Franco, V. 392, t. 10,

f. 2.
H. Sommori, Lefob., op. cit., 391, f. 1.
U. grccnlandica, Zett., Ins. Lapp., 939, 9.
H. picticollis, Z«^tt., Iim*. J.iapp., 939, 8.
ApUictii oecnita, Rossi, var. iwplicaUi, (Iladma) L«jfeb., op.

ciL, 394, t. 10, f. 5.
Plusia ganuna, L., Fii. Suec, 1171.
V. iiitcrrogationis, L., Fn. Suec, 1172.
P. parilis, lliibn., Noct., t. 90, f. 422.
1*. diasema, Dalni., Boisd., Index, 93.
Anarta idgida, Lcfcb., op. eit., 395, f. 5, probably Phahena

Mi/rtiUi, O. Fab., Fn. Gr., 147.
A. amissa, Lefeb., op. vit., 397, f. 6, 7.
A. leucocycla, Stjiudinger.

A. vidua, Ilubn., var. lapponiea, Thunb., Diss. Ins. Sv., 2, 42.
Phal(cnce.

Pha?.sylo polaria, Boisd., Duponch., var. Jirnf/ci, Lefeb., /. <•.,

399, f. 8.
Cidaria brumata, Lin., Fn. Sv., 1293.
P^ralidre.

Botys hybridalis, Hi'ibn., Pyral., t. 17, f. 114.
Toi' trices.

Teras indecorana, Zett., op. cit., 989, 3.
Tincfc.
Eudorca conturiella, Schiffenn., Syst. Verz.
Pempelia carbonariella, Fischer von llocslerst. Abb. 30.
Plutc'lla sonik'lla, Zettcrstedt, op. cit., 1001, 2.

Antliata (Diptera).

Chirononius polaris, Kirby, Suppl. App. Parry's Voy., ccxviii.,

Curtis, App., &c. Ixxvii., 27, t. A., f. 14.
C. turpis, Zett., op. cit., 811, 82.
C. frigidns, Zett., ifnrl.^ 812, 14.
C. variabilis, Stasger, Naturh. Tidssk., ser. 2, 1., 351, 4; XL, 571,

44.
0. basalis, Staeg., i/nd., 351, 6.
C. byssinus, Meigen, Zweifl. Ins., I., 46, o6.
C. aterrimus, Meig., I., 47, 59.
C. picipes, Meig., 1., 52, 74.
Diamesa Waltlii, Meig., Streg., 353, 10.
Tauypus crassinervis, Zett., Ins. Lap., 817, 1.
T. tectipennis, Zett., ibid., 815, 5.
T. tibialis, Staeg., op. cit., 354, 13.
Ceratopogon sordidellus, Zett., op. cit., 820, 6. Cnlex pulicans

{ptdicaris), O. Fabr., F. Gr., 211, 173.
Tipiila arctiea, Curtis, op. cit., Ixxviii, 29, t. A. f. 15. T» rivosa,

O. Fabr., F. (ir., 156.

l4

Ill- J. V. SfilllADTK ON INSKCTS, KTC. OF fl UKK.\I<.\M>.

V

k

r-

Kriopft'iJi ruscipciiiiis, Zclt., op. r/V., ^lU, f).

'J'richoccni iiin(iili|u'iiiiis, Mri;;., I., 214, 4 ? Tiptila rcf/cta-

/lo/tis, Fabi-., F. (Ir., 202, l.>7.
llolctimi gminlimdlcji, SUc;;., JJ.'ifi, IH.
SciHiii iridipcniiis, Zott., S27, f).
Siinuliii vittiitii, Zutl., 803, 3. CV//t'.f irjtla/Ks, O. Fabr., F. Gr.,

210, 172.
Uhmnplioinyiii Jiijjfritai, Zctt., Ins. Lapp., oG7. Knijiis ftorai/in,

O. Fal)!., F. (ir., 211, 174.
Dolichoi)U.s j^iceiilandicus, Zctt., Dipt. Seand., II., ')28 ; /).

tibialis, vtir. />., Zctt., Ins. Lttpp., 711.
IIclophiluH grtjcnlandicus (Tnhanus), (). Fah., Fn. Gr., 208, 170;

/A. t)Hincntu.s, Curtl.i, ojt. cit.^ Ixxviil., 30.
Syrplms topiariiiri, Mcig. Ill,, 3()o, 47.
Sphaeiophoriii stiigata, Stasg., 362, 31.
Savcophagn mortuonim, Lin., Fn. Succ, 1830; Volueclld morl.,

Fabr., F. Gr., 206, 166.
Mnsca crvthrocc[)hala, ^Icig. V. 62,22; Volttcilla vofnitot'in.

Fabr., F. Gr., 207, 167?
M. groeidaiidicn, Zctt., In.s. Lapp., 6o7, 16; Vo/. vasar, O. Fab.,

F. Gr. 207, 168 ?
Antboinyia di-iitiixs, Fabr., Syst. Antliat, 393, 9o.
A. irritaiis, Fallen, Mii^c., 62, oH.
A. I'rontata, Zctt., \\\». Lapp., 669, 35.
A. trigonif'cra, Zctt., ihnl., ()69, 36.
A. aretica, Zctt., ibid., 669, 34.
A. triaiigidil'cra, Zctt., ibid., 680, 83.
A. scatophagina, Zctt., ibid., 677, 69 ?
A. striolata, F^dl., Muse, 71, 77.
A. ruliccps, Mcig. V., 1 77, 62 ?
A. ciliata, F'abr., F:nt. Syst. IV., 333, 87.
Scatophaga squalida, Meig. V., 2o2, 10.
S. littorca. Fall. Scatoni., 4, 4.
S. fncoruni, F'all. ibid., 5, 5.
Cordylura bajniorrlioidalis, ]Moig. V., 237, 17.
Heloniyza tibialis, Zctt., Ins. I^ip., 767, 12.
II. gcniculata, Zett. ibid., 767, 13.
Piophila casci, Lin., F. Succ, 1850.
P. pilosa, SttTg., oj). cit., 368, 52.
Epliydra stagnalis. Fall., llydromyz., 5, 5.
Notiplula vittipcnnis, Zctt., Ins. Lap, 718, 6?
riiytoniyza obscurella, Fall., Phytoniyz., 4, 8.

Sactoria.

Pulex irritans [?], L., (). Fabr., F. Gr., 221, 193 ; on (ho Hare
only. Gr. Ukalib-Konia. Piksiksak.

Bhjrxicota.

llotorogastcr graMilandieus, Zett., Ins. Lap., 262, 3.
Cleada'lividclia, Zctt., ibid., 290, 5.
Aphis puncti[)ennis, Zctt., ibid., 311, 7.
Dortheaia cbiton, Zett., ibid., 314, 1.

AM>.

J. C. SCIIIODTE ON INSECTS, ETC. OF OREEXLAND. 145

reffi'lo-

V. Gr.,

28; /).
()«, 170;

in wort.,

oniitoriii,

O. Fab.,

Siphunculata.

reiUciiliis hiimiinns, L., O. Fub., Fn. Gru}nl., 215, 182. Gr.
Komuk. (V^Hi:) Kikck.

PTho following Bird-lice nro cruiinornted by O. Fftbricius in
*'Fn. Groon." under '♦Pcdiculns" (No. 184-192) :—

184. stri^is. Gr. Opib-Konm.

185. oorvi. Gr. TuUukub-Komii.

186. clangultD. Gr. Kmrtlutorpiubsub-Koma.

187. prylloB. Gr. Sorbab-Koma.

188. bassani. Gr. Knbsab-Koma.

189. lari. Gr. Najab-Koino.

IfX). trin^ijaB. Gr. Sarffvarsub-Koinn.

191. hiaticiiloQ. Gr. Tukft«jvajnb-Koma.

192. lagjopj. Gr, Akeisib-Koina.]

Mallophaga.

Tricliodectes (?) canis, Do Gecr, M6in., VII., t. 4, f. 16 ; Fu. Gr.,
215, 183. Gr. Kemniik-Koma.

Thysanura.

1*0(1 ura, spp.

iho Il'rive

XL— AIIACHNIDA.
Aranese.

Lycosa saccata (Fabr.), and Attns, spp.,'Fn. Gr., 204-208.

Opiliones.

Phalanginm opilio ?, L. O. F., Fn. Gr., p. 225, No. 203. Gr.
Niutok.

Acari.

Bdella, &c., spp., Fn. Gr., 194-202.

[Under '* Acariis" O. Fabricius enumerates (No. 194-202) : —

194. siro. Itch-mite. Gr. Okok. Killib-Innua.

195. cadaverum. In dried Fish especially. Gr, Okok,

196. liolosericeus. Gr. Okok.

197. aquaticus. Gr. Imak-Koma.

198. muscorum. Gr. Merkub-Koma.

199. gymnopterorum. Gr. Anarirsab-Koma.

200. coleoptratorum. Gr. Egyptsab-Koma.

201. longicoruis. Gr. Ujarkab-Koma.

202. littoralis. Gr. Sirksat-Koma],

Pycnogona (p. 71).

(See Dr. Liitken's Catalogue at p. 163.)

III.

Isopoda, Amphipoda, Entomostraca (pp. 72, 73).

(See Dr. Liitken's Revised Catalogue of the Crustacea, p. 146.)

V ' i

3G122.

■4"

■ ■ f ,

146 LUTKEX OX THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND. .

XV. — The Crustacea of Greenland. By Dr. Chr.
LiJTKEN, University Museum, Copenhagen. 1875.

I r

This list is chiefly a revised copy of that given by Prof. Rein-
hardt in Rink's " Greenland," containing the corrections and
additions published of late years.*

Decapoda.

1. Chionococtes phalunffmm (Fabr.). G'r. Arksegiarsuk, &c.

Cancer phalanyium, Fabr. Fauna Groenl., n. 214.
Cancer opilioy Fabr., Vid. Selsk. Skr., N. S., III.,

p. 180.
Chionococtes opilio, Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., II.,

p. 249.
Kroyer, Voyage en Scandinavie, &c., Crustac, t. I.

2. Hyas aranea (Linn.). Greenl. Arksegiak, &c.

Cancer arancus, Linn., Fauna Suec, II., 2030.
Cancer araneus, Fabr., F. Gr. 213.

3. Hyas coarctata (Leach).

Leach, Malac. podophthalm. britt., t. 21, C.f

4. Pagurus pubescens^ Kr.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., II., p. 251 ; Voyage, &c.,

t. 2, f. 1.
Eupagurus pubescens, Stimpson, Proc. Philad. Acad.,

1858, p. 75.

5. Crangon boreas (Phipps). Greenl. Umiktak.

Cancer homaroideSf Fabr., F. Gr., p. 218; Mohr, Is-
lands Naturh., n. 245, t. 5.

Cancer boreasy Phipps, Voyage, p. 190, t. 12, f. 1.

Sabine, Suppl. App., p. 235 ; Beechey's Voy. Zool.,
p. 87 ; Zool. Dan., t. 132, f. 1.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., IV., p. 218, t. 4, f. 1-14.

Bell, Belcher's Voy., p. 402.

Buchholz, Zte deutsche Nordpolarf., p. 271.

6. Sabi?iea septemcarinata (Sab.).

Crangon septemcatinataj Sabine, App. Voy. Parry,

p. 58, t. II., f. 11-13.
Owen, App. Voy. Ross, p. 82 ; Kroyer, Naturh. T.,

IV., p. 244, t. 4-5, f. 34-44.

7. Argis lar (Owen).

Crangon lar, Owen, Zool. Beechey's Voyage, p. 88.
Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., IV., p. 255, t. 5, f. 45-62.

4'

* The synonyms given are principally taken from authors on Arctic or
Scandinavian Zoology.

f The occurrence of Lithodes niaja and Nephrops norvegicus in Green-
land needs confirmation. Cancer (jammarus, F. Gr. 215 {Homarus vulgaris),
must be omitted ; also, 220 {Cancer arcttis ; Gr. Tillektoutelik), &c.

». .

LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND. 147

r. Chr.
J75.

of. Rein-
ions and

arsuk, &c.
.214.

s., in..

sskr., II.j
ac.) t. !•
330.

t

.yage, &c.,

lad. Acad.,

; Mohi', la-

L2, f. 1.
''oy. Zool.,

f. 1-14.

'oy. Parry,
laturh. T.,

Ige, p. 88.
,f! 45-62.

I

on Arctic or

[us in Green-
\rus vulgaris'),
], &c.

8. Hippolyte Fabricii, Kr.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., III., p. 571 ; Vid. Selsk.
Skr., IX., p. 277, t. 1, f. 12-20.
9a. Hippolyte Gaimardiiy M. Edw.

Milne Edwards, Hist. Natur. d. Crust., II., p. 378.
Kroyer, Nat. T., IV., p. 572 ; Vid. Selsk. Skr., 1. c,
p. 282, t. I., f. 21-29.
b. Hippolyte gibba, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., III., p. 572 ; Vid. Selsk. Skr., 1. c,

p. 288, t. l.-II., f. 30-37.

Obs.—AwQi. cl. Goesii (Ofvers. Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl.,

Stokholm, 1863) a praecedente sexu (niasculo) modo diversa; hue

quoque accedit Hip. Belcheri, Bell (Belcher's Voy., p. 402, t. 24,

f. 1).

10. H. incerta, Buchh. Zte deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, p. 272.

11. Hippolyte spinus (Sow.).

Cancer spinus, Sowerby, Brit. Miscell., t. 21.
Alpheus spinus, Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc., XL, p. 247}

Owen, Append. Ross, p. 83, t. B., f. 2.
Hippolyte Sowej'bci, Leach, Malac. podophthalm. britt.,

t. 30.
Hippolyte Soicerbei, Kr. N. T., III., p. 573 ; Vid. S.

Skr. 1. c, p. 298, t. IL, f. 45-54.
Bell, Brit. Crust., p. 284.

12. Hippolyte macilenta, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III., p. 574 ; Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.,
IX., p. 305, t. XL, f. 55-56.
13a. Hippolyte Phippsii, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III., p. 575 ; Vid. S. Skr. 1. c, p. 314,
t. III., f. 64-68.
b. Hippolyte turgida, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III., p. 575 Vid. S. Skr., 1. c, p, 308,

t. IL, III., f. 57-63.

Obs. — Auctorit. cl. Goesii (1. c.) fcemina prascedentis. According

to Buchholz (1. c, p. 274) the difference is not of a sexual chp-

racter, but still he regards them only as varieties of the same

species.

14a. Hippolyte polaris (Sah.). Crr. Pikkutak.

Cancer squilla, Fabr., var. (9., Fauna Gr., n. 216.
Alpheus polaris, Sabine, Suppl, App. Parry, p. 238,

t. 2, f. 5-8.
Owen, App. Voy. Ross, p. 85.
Kroyer, N. T., IV., p. 577 ; Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.,

1. c, p. 324, t. III., IV., f. 78-82.
Bell, Belcher's Last Arctic Voy., p. 407.
b. Hippolyte borealis, Owen.

Owen, App. Voy. Ross, p. 89.

Kroyer, N. T., IV., p. 577 ; Vid. S. Skr., 1. c, p. 330,

t. 3, f. 74-77.
Bell, 1. c, p. 400.
Obs. — Auct. cl. Goesii (1. c.) a //. polari haud distincta. Also
Buchholz (1. c, p. 275) is inclined to regard them as one species.

K 2

m

148 LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND.

|]

15. Hippolyte aculeata (Fabr.). Greenl. Naularnak.

Astacus groenlandiciiSf J. C. Fabricius, Systema En-

tomol., p. 416.
Cancer aculeatus, 0. Fabr., F. Gr., n. 217.
Alphcus aculeatusj Sabine, Suppl. App. Parry's Voy.,

p. 237, t. IL, f. 9-10.
Hippolyte aculeata, cornutay armatttf Owen, Zool.

Beechey's Voy., p. 86-89.
Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., III., p. 578 ; Vid. Selsk. Skr.,

p. 334, t. 4-5, f. 83-104.
Bell, 1. c, p. 401 ; Buchholz, 1. c, p. 276.

16. Hippolyte microceras, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., III., p. 578; Vid. S. Skr., p. 341,
t. 5, f. 105-9.

17. H. Panschiif Buchh., 1. c, p. 277, t. 1, f. 1.

18. Pandalus borealis, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., II., p. 254 ; II. R., I., p. 461 ; Voyage,
&c., t. 6, f. 2.

19. Pandalus annulicornis (Leach).

Leach, Malac. podophth. britt., f. 40.

Kroyer, N. T., II. U., I., p. 469 ; Voyage, t. 6, f. 3.

20. Pasiphae tarda, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., II. R., L, p. 453 ; Voyage, t. 6, f. 1.

21. P. glacialis, Buch.

Buchholz, 1. c, p. 279, t. 1, f. 2 (70^ lat. N.).

22. Sergestes arcticus, Kr.

Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., V. R., IV., p. 24, t. 3, f. 7,
et t. 5, f. 16.*

23. Thysanopoda inermis, Kr.f

Kroyer, Voy., t. 7, f. 2.

24. Th. norvegica, Sars.

Buchholz, 1. c, p. 285.

25. Thysanopoda lo7igicaudata, Kr.f

Kroyer, Voy., t. 8, f. 1.

26. Th. Raschii, Sars.

Buchholz, 1. c, p. 285.

27. My sis oculata, Fabr. Greenl. Irsitugak.

Cancer ocnlatus, Fabr., F. Greenl., n. 222, f. 1 ; Vid.

Selsk. Skr., N. S., I., 563.
C. pedatws, Fabr. F. Gr. 221 ?
3fysis Fabricii, Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc, XL, 350.
Kroyer, Voyage, &c., t. 8, f. 23 ; Nat. Tidsskr., III.,

1 R. I., p. 13.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 284.

28. Mysis latitans, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III. R., L, p. 30, t. I., f. 4.

♦ I have omitted Sergestes Rinkii, because this species was not taken
exactly in Greenland, but in the Northern Atlantic, between Greenland and
Scotland.

t The exact habitat of these two species is unknown ; they are inserted
here on the authority of Prof. Reinhardt, who, I believe, consulted Prof. Kroyer
oa the subject.

J

m.

LiJTKEX ON THE CRUSTACEA OP GREENLAND. 149

aa

En-

's Voy.,
I, Zool.
sk. Skr.,

p. 341,

Voyage,

6, f. 3.
6, f. 1.

t. 3, f. 7,

r. 1 ; Vid.

., 350.
Ukr., in.,

29. My sis arctica, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III. R., I., p. 34, t. 1, f. 5.*

Cumacea.

30a. Diastylis Edicardsii (Kr.).

Cuma Edwardsii, Kr. N. T., III., p. 504, t. 5 f. 1-
16; II. R., II., p. 128, t. I., f. 1-3, 5, 9, 14;
Voyage, t. 4.
d. Diastylis brevirostris (Kr.).

Cuma brevirostris^ K. N. T., II. R., II., p. 174, t. 2,
f. 6 ; Voyage, t. 5 A., f. 1.
Obs. — Auct. cl. Sarsii a Z>. Edicardsii scxu (masculo) modo
distincta.

31«. Diastylis Rathkii (K.). '

Cuma Rathkii, Kr. N. T., III., p. 513, t. 5-6, f. 17-
30 ; II. R., IL, p. 144, t. 1, f. 4-6 ; Voyage, t. 5,
f. 1.
b, Diastylis angulata (Kr.)

Cuma angulata, I&. N. T., II. R., II., p. 156, 1. 1.,
f. 2, t. 2, f. 1 ; Voy., t. 5, f. 2.
Obs, — According to Sars, the male of 3 la (Cliristiania Vidensk.
Selsk. Forh., 1864).

32. Diastylis resima (Kr.).

Cuma resimay Kr. N. T., II. R., II., p. 165, t. 2, f. 2 ;
Voy., t. 3, f. 1.

33. Leucon nasica, Kr.

Cu?na nasica, Kr. N. T., III., p. 524, t. 6, f. 31-33.
Kroyer, N. T., II. R., II., p. 189, t. 2, f. 5 ; Voyage,

t. O, I. ^.

34. Eudorella deformis (Kr.).

Leucon deformis, Kr. 1. c, p. 194, t. 2, f. 4 ; Voyage,
t. 5 A., f. 3.t

Isopoda.

35. Arcturus Baffini (Sab.).J

Idothea Bajjini, Sabine, App. Parry's Voy., p. 50,

t. 1, f. 4-6.
Milne Edwards, Hist. d. Crust., IL, p. 123, t. 31, f. 1.
Bell, Belcher's Arct. Voy., p. 408.

36. Idothea Sabini, Kr.

Idothea entomon, Sabine, Suppl. App. Parry's Voy.,
p. 227; Bell, Belcher's Arct. Voy., p. 408.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., II. R., II., p. 395 ; Voyage,
t. 27, f. 1.

n

not taken
[eQlaod and

Ire inserted
>vof. Kroyer

* Dymas typicus (Kr. Naturh. Tidsskr., III. R., I., p. 63) is omitted,
because I; believe it to be, with Myto GaimardU of the same author, only a
larval form of some typical long-tailed Decapodous Crustacean.

f Alauna Goodsiri, Bell, 1. c, p. 403, t. 34, f. 2, should be compared with
the Greenland Cumacea enumerated above.

X Arcturus Baffini, Sab., has not, as far as I know, been found in Green-
land ; but of late years the Museum at Copenhagen has 'received Bsv^ral
Bpecimens from the Faro Islands, and from North-eastern Iceland.

ih

M

■■''•I

;*1

I-W"

150 LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND.

87. Idothea nodulosa, Kr.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., II. R., II., p. 100 ; Voyage,
t. 26, f. 2.*
38. Oniscus, sp. ? Gr. Kerksub-Koma.

Oniscus asellusy Fabr., F. Gr. 228.
: . 39. Asellus grcenlandicus^ Kr. Greenl. Teitsib-Terkeinga.
Oniscus aquaticusy Fabr., F. Gr. 227.

40. Henopomus tricornisy Kr.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., II. R., II., p. 372; Voyage,
t. 30, f. 2.

41. J(Bra nivalis^ Kr. Greenl. Sirksab-Koma.

Oniscus marimis, Fabr., F. Gr., n. 229.
Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 303, t. 4, f. 21.

42. Munna Fabricii, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., II. R., II. B., p. 380 ; Voyage, t. 31,
f. 1.
43«. Anceus elongatus, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., II. R., II. B., p. 388 ; Voyage, t. 30,
f. 3.
bt Praniza Reinhardti, Kr.

Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 301, t. 4, f. 20.t

44. JEga psora (L.). Greenl. Saraulib-Koma, &c.

Oniscus psoraj Linn., Syst. Nat. (X.), I., p. 636 ; Fabr.

F. G., n. 226.
jEga marginata^ Leach ; Milne-Edwards ; Cuvier

Regn. An., t. 67, f. 1.
Liitken, Vidensk. Medd. N. For., 1858, p. 66, 1. 1. A.,

f. 9-U.

45. ^ga arcticUy Ltk.

Liitken, 1. c., p. 71, 1. 1. A., f. 1-3.

46. ^ga crenulata, Ltk.

Liitken, 1. c., p. 70, t. I. A., f. 4-5.
Ois.— The Greenland ^gee are especially found on the Shark,
Somniosus microccphahts ; also probably on the large Cod-fishes.

47. Bopyrus hippolyteSy Kr.

Kroyer, Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 306, t. 4, f. 22.
Gyge hippolytes, Spence Bate, Brit. Cr., II., p. 230 ;
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 286. (On Hip. polaris.)

48. Bopyrus abdominalis, Kr.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., III., p. 102 and 289, t. 1-2;

Voyage, t. 29, f. 1.
Phryxus hippolytes, Rathke, Nov. Act. Ac. Nat.

Cur., XX., p. 40. (On Hip. Gaimardii, turgida,

Kr.).

49. Dajus mysidis, Kr.

Kroyer, Voyage, t. 28, f. 1.

* Z. robusta, Kr., is omitted, because I am not aware that this widelj
difiused pelayic Crustacean really inhabits the shores of Greenland. Kroyer's
specimens were captured between Iceland and Greenland, in 60'^ lat. N.

t Considering the known relations between Anceus and Praniza, it might
be presiimed that these (43a and b) are but the two sexes of one species.

D.

LUTKEN OX THE CKUSTACEA OF GREENLAND. 151

Voyage,

rkeinga.
; Voyage,

f.21.
rage, t. 31,

^age, t. 30,

,f.20.t
636 ; Fabr.
s ; Cuvier
6j tt !• At,

the Shark,
Jod-fishes.

t. 4, f. 22.
[I., p. 230;

>89, 1. 1-2 ;

Ac. Nat.
\ii, turgida,

this \videly
U. Kroyer's
Jat. N.

liza, it might
spociea.

Leptophryxus mysidis, Buchholz, 1. c, p. 288, t* 2,
f. 2. (On Mysis oculata^ Buchholz.)

Amphipoda (et Lsexnidopoda).*

50. Pontojioreia femorata, Kr.

Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., IV., p. 153; II. R., L,

p. 530 ; Voyage, t. 23, f. 2.
Boeck, Cnist. Amphip., p. 123.

51. Opts typica, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., II. R., II., p. 46 ; Voyage, t. 17,

f. 1.
Boeck, Crust. Amphip^ p. 120.
Opis Eschrichtii, Kr., N. T., IV., p. 149.

52. Lysianassa gryllus (Mandt).

Gammarus gryllus, Mandt, Observ. in itinere ad

Greenland, facto, p. 34.
Lysianassa magellanica, Milne-EdAvards, Ann. Sc*

Nat., 3 s., t. 9, p. 398 ; Voyage de Castelnau.
Eurytenes inagellanicus, Lilljeborg, Acta Upsal., 3 B.,

1865, p. 11,' t. 1-3, f. 1-22.
Lysianassa magellanica,\ip.Bate, Cat. Amp., t.lO,f. 5,
Goes, Ofv. Vet. Ak. Forh., 1865, p. 1 (sep.), t. 36, f. 1 ;

Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 105; Skand. Arkt.

Amphip., p. 144.

53. Socarnes Vahlii (Rhdt.).

Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 233.

Anonyx Vahlii, Kr., N. T., II., p. 256 ; II, R., I.,

p. 599; Voyage, t. 14, f. 1.
Anonyx Vahlii, Bruzelius, Skand. Amphipod., Vet.

Akad. Handl., n.s.. III., p. 43.
Gammarus nugax, Owen, App. Ross. Voy., p. 87.
Socarnes Vahlii, Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 100 ;

Skand. Arkt. Amph., p. 129, t. 6, f. 8.

54. Anonyx lagena (Rhdt.).

Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 237, t. 1, f. 1 ; Bell,

1. c, p. 406.
Cancer nugax, Phipps, Voy., t. 12, f. 2, p. 192.
Lysianassa appendiculosa, Kr. 1. c, p. 240, t. 1, f. 2

Nat. T., II., p. 257.
Anonyx lagena, Kr., N. T., II., p. 256 ; Sp. Bate,

Cat. Amph., p. 17, t. 12, f. 7.
Anonyx ampulla, Kr., 1. c, II. R., I., p. 578 ; Voyage,

t. 13, f. 2 ; Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 39 ; Stimpson, Proc.

Philad., 1863 ; non Sp. Bate, Cat, p. 79, 1. 13, f. 5.
Lysianassa appendiculata, Sp. Bate, 1. c, p. 67, t. 10,

f. 8.
Anonyx lagena, Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 108 ;

Skand. Arkt. Amph., p. 152 ; Buchholz, 1. c,

p. 300.

♦ Species dubise: Oniscus aretiarius, F, Gr. 234; O. Straemianui, F, Qt,
286 (^Gr. Kingupek) ; et O. abyssinus, F. Gr. 236.

m

162 LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OP GREENLANP.

1 1

55. Anonyx giilosus (Kr.). Gr. KiDgungonk-aukpilartok.

? Oniscus cicada, Fabr., F. Gr., 233.

Anonyx gulostis, Kr. 1. c, II. R., I., p. 611 ; Voyage,
t. 14, f. 2 ; Bruzel., !>. 44 ; Boeck, Crust. Amphip.,
p. 110; Skaud. Arkt. Ampli., p. 157, t. 5, f. 4.

A. norvegicus, Lillj., Ofv. Vet. Ak. Forli., 1851, p. 22 ;
A. Ilolboelli, Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 75, t. 12, f. 4.

56. Aristias tumidus (Kr.).

Anonyx tumidus, Kr. N. T., II. R., II., p. 16; Voyage,

t. 16, f. 2 ; Bruzelius, 1. c., p. 41.
Lysianussa Andoiiiniana, Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 69, t. 11^

f. 1 (fide Boeck).
Aristias tumidus, Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 107 ;

Skand. Arkt. Amphip., p. 148, t. 3, f. 4.

57. Hippomedon abyssi (Goes).

Anonyx abyssi, Goes, 1. c., p. S, t. 371, f. 5 ; Hip-
pomedon abyssi, Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 103 ;
Skand. Arkt. Amphip., p. 138.

58. Hippomedon Holbcelli (Kr.).

Anonyx Holbcelli, Kr., N. T., II. R., II., p. 8 ; Voyage,

t. 15, f. 1 ; Bruzel., 1. c., p. 43.
A, denticulatus, Sp. B., Cat., p. 74, t. 12, f. 2;

Hippomedon Holbaelli, Boeck, Crust. Amphip.,

p. 102 ; Skand. Arkt. Amph., p. 136, t. 5, f. 6, et

t. 6, f. 7.

59. Ch'chomcnc minuta (Kr.).

Anonyx minutus, Kr., 1. c., p. 23; Voy., t. 18, f. 2.
Orchomene minuta, Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 116;
Skand. Arkt. Amph., t. 5, f. 3.

60. Onisimus Edwardsii (Kr.).

Anonyx Edwardsii, Kr., 1. c, II. R., II., p.[l ; Voyage,

t. 16, f. 1 (non Sp. Bate).
Onisimus Edwardsii, Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 113;

Skand. Arkt. Amph., t. 6, f. 4.

61. O. plautus (Kr.)

Ationyx plautus, Kr., 1. c, II. R., I., p. 629; Voy.,

t. 15, f. 2.
Sp. Bate Cat., p. 78, t. 13, f. 1 ; Buchholz, 1. c,

p. 303.
Onisimus plautus, Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 112;

Skaud. Arkt. Amph., t. 4, f. 2.

62. Onisimus littoralis (Kr.).

Anonyx littoralis, Kr., 1. c, II. R., I., p. G21 ; Voy.,
t. 13, f. 1 ; Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 46 ; Buchholz, 1. c,
p. 302.

Alibotrus littoralis, Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 86.

Onisimus littoralis, Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 112;
Skand. Arkt. Amph., t. 5, f. 7.

63. Cyphocaris anonyx, Ltk.

Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 104 ; Skand. Aikt. Amph.,
p. 141, t. 6, f. 1.

•LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA Or GREENLAND. 153

tok.

oyage,

iphip.,

4.

p. 22;

oyage,
>, t. U,
.. 107 J

. ; Hip-
p. 103;

Voya

ge»

2, f. 2;
imphip.,

., f. 6, et

;, f. 2.
,p. 116;

Voyage,
, p. 113;

9; Voy.,
)lz, 1. c.,
p. 112;

>A ; Voy.,
iholz, 1. c,

., p. 112;
,t. Ampb.,

64. Stegocephalus ampulla (Phipps).

Cancer ampulla^ Phipps, Voy., p. 191, t. 12, f. 3 ;

Herbst., Naturg. Kr., p. 117, t. 35, f. 2.
Gammarus amptdla, Ross, App. Puny's Voy., p. 20.
Stegocephalus injlatus, Kr., N. T., IV., p. 150; II.

R., I., p. 522, t. 7, f. 3 ; Voyage, t. 20, f. 2 ; Bruzelius,

p. 38.
Bell, Belcher's Voy., p. 406, t. 35, f. 1 ; Sp. Bate, Cat.,

t. 10, f. 2 ; Goes, 1. c., t. 38, f. 8-9.
Stegocephalus ampulla,liocck, Ciutit. Ampbip., p. 128.

65. Metopa Bruzclii (Goes).

Leucothoe clypeata, Bruzel. 1. c, p. 96.
Montagua clypcata ct Bruzclii, Goes, 1. e., p. 6, t. 38,
f. 10 ; Boeck, Crust. Aiiiph., p. 192.

66. Metopa clypcata (Kr.).

Leucothoe clypcata, Kr., N. T., IV., p. 157 ; II. R., I.,
p. 545, t. 6, f. 2 ; Voy., t. 22, f. 2 ; Boeck, Crust.
Aniphip., p. 140.

67. Metopa glacialis (Kr.).

Leucothoe glacialis, Kr., N. T., IV., p. 159 ; II. R., I.,

p. 539, t. 6, f. 3 ; Voy., t. 22, f. 3.
Metopa glacialis, Boeck, Crust. Ampbip., p. 141.

68. Syrrho'e cremtlata, Goes.

Goes, Crust. Ampb., p. 11, f. 25 ; Boeck, Crust. Ampb.,
p. 147 ; Bucbbolz, 1. c, p. 304.

69. Odius carinatus, (Sp. Bate).

Otus c, Sp. Bate, Cat. Ampbip, p. 126, t. 23, f. 2;
Goes, 1. c, p. 6.

70. Vcrtumnus cristatus (Owen).

Acanthonotus cristatus^ Owen, App. Ross 2nd Voy.,

p. 90, t. B, f. 8.
Boeck, Crust. Ampbip., p. 179.

71. Vertumnus sciratus (Fabr.). Green f. Kingungoak-Kap-

pinartolik.

Oniscus serratus, Fabr., F. Gr. 237.

Amphithoe serra, Kr., Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 266,

t. 2, f. 8 ; Nat. T., II., p. 260.
Acanthonotus seira, Bruzebus, 1. c, p. 78.
Vert, serra, lioeck, Crust. Ampb., p. 180; Bucbbolz,

1. c, p. 342.

72. Vcrtumnus injlatus (Kr.).

Acanthonotus injlatus, Kr., N. T., IV., p. 161.
Goes, 1. c., p. 7, t. 38, f. 11; Boeck, Crust. Ampb.,
p. 180.

73. Paramphithoe glabra, Boeck.

P. exigiiaf Goes, 1. c, p. 7., t. 38, f. 12 ; Boeck, Crust.

Ampb., p. 175.
? Parapleustes glacialis, Bucbbolz, 1. c, p. 337, t. 7,

f. 1.

74. Paramphithoe panopla (Kr.).

Amphithoe panopla, Kr., Vid. S. Skr., VII., p. 270,
t. 2, f. 9; Voyage, t. 11, f. 2.

'

,«1

■?;i

154 LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND,

If'

'i ■

Bruzclius, 1. c, p. 69 ; Paramph, p., Boeck, Crust.

Ampb., p. 176.
Pleustes tuberculatus, Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 62, t. 9, f. 8 j

PL panoplus, Buchholz, 1. c, p. 334, t. 7.
76. Paramphitho'e bicuspis (Rhdt.).

Amphithoe bicuspis, Kr., Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 273,

t. 2, f. 10.
Paramphitho'e bicuspis, Bruzel., 1. c, p. 73.
Phcrusa bicuspis, Sp. Bate, Brit. Crust., p. 253 ; Cat.,

p. 144, t. 27, f. 7.
Ph. cirrus, Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 143, t. 27, f. 6.

76. Paramphitho'e pulchclla (Kr.).

Amphithoe pulchclla,Kr.,yoyage, 1. 10, f. 2 ; Bruzelius,

1. c, p. 70.
Phcrusa p., Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 143, t. 20-7, f. 5 ; Boeck,

Crust. Amph., p. 177.

77. Atyliis carinatus (Fabr.).

Gammarus carinatus, Fabr., Ent. Syst., II., p. 515.
Atylus carinatus, Leach, Linn. Trans., XL, 357 ; Zool.

Misc., III., p. 22, t. 69.
Amphithoe carin., Kr., Vid. S. Skr., VII., p. 256, t. 2,

f. 6 ; N. T., II., p. 259 ; Voy., t. 11, f. 1.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 357, t. 40 ; Boeck, Crust. Amphip.,

p. 190.

78. Atylus Smitti (Goes).

Goes, 1. c, p. 8, t. 38, f. 14 ; Boeck, Crust. Amphip.,
p. 191 ; Buchholz, 1. c, p. 361.

79. Pontogeneia crcnulata, (Rhdt.).

Amphithoe crcnulata, Kr., Vid. S. Skr., VII., p. 278,

t. 3, f. 12 ; N. T., IV., p. 165.
Amph. inermis, Kr., 1. c, p. 275, t. 3, f. 11; Pont,

ificrmis, Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 194 ; Buchholz,

1. c, p. 366.

80. Tritropis fragilis (Goes).

Paramphitho'e fragilis, Goes, 1. c, p. 8, t. 39, f. 16.
Tritropis fr., Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 160; Buchholz,
1. c, p. 320.

81. Tritropis aculcata (Lepechin).

Oniscus aculeatus, Lepech., Acta Petrop., 1778, 1.,

p. 247, t. 8, f. 1.
Talitrus EdwardsU, Sabine, Suppl. App. Parry,

p. 233, t. 2, f. 1-4 ; Ross, App. Parry's Voy., p. 205.
Amphithoe EdwardsU, Owen, App. Ross Voy., p. 90;

Kroyer, N. T., II., p. 76 ; Voyage, t. 10, f. 1.
Tritropis aculcata, Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 158;

Buchholz, 1. c, p. 316, t. 4.

82. Calliopitis laviusculus (Kr.).

Amphithoe IcBviusculttf Kr., Vid. S. Skr., VII., p. 281,

t. 3, f. 13 ; Bell, 1. c, p. 406.
Amph. scrraticornis, Sars, Christiania Vid. Selak.

Forh., 1858, p. 140.
Paramphithoe Iceviuscula^ Bruzel., p. 76.

LiJTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND. 165

, Crust.
9, f. 8;

, p. 273,

13 ; Cat.,

h^uzelius,
) ; Boeck,

p. 515.
157 ; Zool.

256, t. 2,

Amphip.,

Amphip.,

I., p. 278,

1; Pont,
Juchholz,

J9, f. 16.
Bucbholz,

1778, 1.,

)p. Parry,
,y., p. 205.

oy., p. 90 ;

f. 1.

, p. 158;

[I., p. 281,

id. Selsk.

Calliope Ifcviuscula ct grandoculis, Sp. Bate, Cat.

Amph., p. 148-9, t. 28, f. 2 ot 4.
Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 197.

83. Amphithopsis lotigimana, Bk.

Boeck, Crust. Ampb., p. 199.

84. Cleippides tricuspis (Kr.).

Acanthoiiotus tricuspisj Kr., N. T., II. R., II., p. 115 ;

Voyage, t. 18, f. 1.
Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 201.

85. Halirages fulvocinctus (Sars).

Amphithoefulvocincta, Sars, 1. c, p. 141.

Phenisa tricnspiSf Stimpson, Proc. Ac. Phil., 1863,

p. 138.
Paramphithoe fulvoc.f Goes., 1. c, t, 38, f. 15 ; Boeck,

Crust. Amph., p. 116 {Halirages fulvoc.)\ Buch-

holz, 1. c, p. 367.

86. Paramphitho'e ? megalops (Buchh.).

Buchholz, op. cit., p. 369, t. 12.

87. Acanthozone cuspidata (Lep.).

Oniscus cuspidatiis, Lep., Act. Petr., 1778, t. 8, f. 3.
Aeanthosoma hi/strix, Owen, App. Ross. Voy., p. 91,

t. B., f. 4 ; Bell, 1. c, p. 406.
Amphithoe hystriXy Kr., Vicl. S. Skr., VII., p. 259,

t. 2, f. 7 ; Nat. T., TI., p. 259.
Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 71 ; Acanth. cuspid,^ Boeck, Crust.

Amphip., p. 184.
A, hystrix, Buchholz, 1. c, p. 362, t. 11.
Obs.—" Amphithoe Jurinii ?, Kroy.," Bell, 1. c, p. 406. I am
not aware that Prof. Kroyer ever described a species of that name.

88. (Edicerus saginatus, Kroyer, Nat. T., IV., p. 156 ; Bruze-

lius, 1. c, p. 94 ; Goes, 1. c, t. 39, f. 18 ; Boeck, Crust.
Amphip., p. 162.

89. (Edicerus lyneens, Sars.

Sars, 1. c, p. 144; Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 162.
(Edicertts propi7iqmiSf Goes, 1. c, p. 10, t. 39, f. 19.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 331, t. 7, f. 2.

90. (E. borealis, Bk.

Crust. Amphip., p. 162.
Buchholz, 1. c.

91. Monoculodcs affinis (Bruz.).

(Edic. aff.y Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 93, f. 18 ; Goes, 1. c,
p. 11, t. 39, f. 21.

92. Monocidodes norvcgicus, Boeck.

Crust. Amphip., p. 164.

93. Monoctdodes latimamis (Goes).

(Edic. /., Goes, 1. c, p. 11, t. 39, f. 23; Boeck, Crust,
Amph., p. 168.

94. M, borealis, Bk.

(Ed. affinis, Goes, 1. c, p. 11, f. 21.
Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 168.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 325, t. 5.

il

150 LiJTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND.

95. l^ron acanthtirus^ LiUj.

Tessarops hastata, Norman, Annals, 1868, p. 412,

t. 22, f. 4, 7.
Si/rrhoe bicuspis, Goes, 1. c, t. 40, f. 26.

96. Jfarpina piumosa (Kr.).

Phoxus pluinosns, Kroyer, Nat. T., IV., p. 152, II.

K., I., p. 563 ; Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 66 ; Sp. Bate, Br.

Cr., p. 146.
Ilarpina piumosa., Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 135.

97. Phoxus Holhalli, Kr.

Kroyer, 1. c, IV., p. 151 ; II. R., I., p. 551 ; Bruzc-
liuH, 1. c, p. 68 ; Sp. Bate, I. c, p. 143.

Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 135 ; Skand. Arkt. Amph.,
t. 7, f. 5.

98. Haploops tubicola (Lilljeborg) (vnr.).

Lilljeborg, Ofvers. Vet. Ak. Forhandl., 1855, p. 135 ;

Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 88 ; Goes, 1. c, p. 12.
Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 226.

99. Ampelisca Eschrichtii, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T. IV., p. 155; Boeck, Crusr,, Amph.,

p. 224.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 375, t. 13, f. 1.

100. Byblis Gaimardi (Kr.).

Ampelisca Gaimardi, Kroyer, Voyage, &c.. Crust.,

t. 23, f. 1.
Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 86 ; Sp. Ba*e, 1. c., p. 127 ; Byblis

G.y Boeck, Crust. Amphip., [ 22S.

101. Pardalisca cuspidata, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., IV., p. 153 ; Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 101 ;

Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 151.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 306, t. 1, f. 3, et t. 2, f. 1.

102. Eusirus cuspidatus, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., II. R., II., p. 501, t. 7, f. 1 ; Voyage,

t. 19, f. 2 ; Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 63.
Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 156.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 313, t. 3, f. 2.

103. Melita dcntata (Kr.).

Gammarus dent., Kroyer, Nut. T., IV., p. 159 ; Bru-
zelius, 1. c, p. 61.

Gammarus Krctycri, Bell, Belcher's Aictic Voy.,
p. 405, t. 34, f. 4.

Megamcera dentata, Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 225, t. 39, f. 4.

Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 211.

104. Gammarus locusta, (Linn.). Greenl. Kingak.

Oniscus pulex, Fabr., F. Gr. 231.

Cancer locusta, Linn., Faun. Suec, II., p. 497.

Gammarus locusta, Mont., Linn. Soc. Trans., IX.,

p. 92, t. 4, f. 1.
Gammarus boreus, Sabine, Ross, Owen, Bell (PaiTy's,

Ross's, and Belcher's Voyages).

•!^.,

^! iJiil

).

LiJTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF OKEENLAND. 157

p. 412,

152, II.
Bate, Br.

35.

; Bruzc-

t. Amph.,

>, p. 135 ;

r,. Amph.,

c, Crust.,
7; Byblis

c, p. 101 ;

;■ Voyage,

59;

Bl'Ll-

tic

Voy.,

t. 39, f. 4.

•

97.
ins.

, IX.,

(PaiTy'8,

Gammarus arcticuSy Sowcrby, Account Arct. Reg.,

p. 541, t. 16, f. 14.
Gammarus locustttj Kr., Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 255 ;

Bruzeliu.s, 1. c, p. 52 ; Lilljeborg, 1. c, 1853, p. 448.
Gammartis mutatus et Duehcnii, Lilljeb., 1. c, 1853,

p. 448; 1851, p. 22.
Gammarus pulexy Stimps., Mar. Invert. Gr. Man., p. 55.
Boeck, Crust. Ainphip., p. 204 ; Buchholz, 1. c, p. 343.

105. Gammaracanthus loricatus (Sabine).

Gammarus loric, Sabine, Suppl. App. Parry's Voy.,

p. 231, t. 1., f. 7 ; Bell, 1. c, p. 405.
Kroyer, Vid. S. Skr., VII., p. 250, t. I., f. 4 ; Nat. T.,

II., p. 258.
Loven, Ofv. Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl., 1861, p. 287.
Gammaracanthus loricatus, Sp. Bate, Cat. Amph.,

p. 202, t. 36, f. 2.
Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 135.

106. Amathilla Sahini (Leach).

Gam. S., Sabine, Sup. Parry's Voy., p. 232, t. 1,

f. 8-11.
Ross, App. Parry's Voy., p. 204 ; Owen, App. Ross's

Voy., p. 89 ; Bell, 1. c, p. 404.
Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 244, t. I., f. 3 ; Nat.

Tidsskr., II., p. 257.
Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 50.

Amathia Sahini, Sp. Bate, 1. c, p. 197, t. 35, f. 9.
Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 217 ; Buchholz, 1. c, p. 346,

t. 8, f. 1-2, et t. 9, f. 1.

107. A. pinguis (Kr.).

Gam. p., Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 252, t. 1,

f. 5 ; Nat. Tidsskr., II., p. 258.
Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 218 ; Buchholz, 1. c, p. 353,

t. 9, f. 2.

108. Autonoe macrom/x (Lilljeb.).

Gammarus macronyx, Lilljeb., 1. c, 1853, p. 458 ;

1855, p. 125.
Bruzelius, 1. c, p. 29, t. 1, f. 6; Goes,l. c, p. 15, t. 40,

f. 31.

109. Protomedeia fasciata, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., IV., p. 154 ; Boeck, Crust.

Amph., p. 239.
Gam. macronyx, Lilljeb., K. V. A. H., 1854, p. 458.

1 10. Photis Reinhardtiy Kr.

Photis Reinhardti, Kr., Nat. T., IV., p. 155.

Amphithoe pygmaa, Lilljeb., 1. c, 1852, p. 9 ; Bru-
zelius, 1. c, p. 32 {A. Reinhardti) j Boeck, Crust.
Amph., p. 233.

111. Podocerus anguipes (Kr.).

Jschyrocerus anguipes, Kr., Vid. Selsk., VII., p. 283,
t. 3, f. 14 ; Nat. T., IV., p. 162.

i m

f "

i

iii

«w

II

168 LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF OKEENLAND.

Gunimarus zebra, liiitlikc, Nov. Acta A. C.*L., t. XX.)

p. 74, t. 3, f. 4.
BruzeliuH, 1. c, p. 21 ; IJoeck, Crust. Aiuphip., p. 167;

Buchholz, 1. c, p. 378, t. 13, f. 2, ot t. 14.

112. Podoccrua latipvs (Kr.).

Ischf/roccrns Iatij)Cs,Kr.,tfAt,T.ylY.y\)» 162; Boock,
CruHt. Aiuphip., p. 167.

113. Siphotiovoetcs typivus^ Kr.

Kriiyer, Nat. T., 11. K., 1., p. 481, t. 7, f. 4 ; Voyage,

t. 20, f. 1.
Boeck, Crust. Aniphip., p. 177.

114. Gtaucouomc Icucopis, Kr.

ICroycr, Nat. T., II. K., I., p. 491, t. 7, f. 2; Voyage,
t. 19, f. 1.

Unciola gl., Sp. Bate, Cat., p. 279 Boeck, Crust.
Aiuphip., p. 259.

Buchholz, 1. c, p. 385.
116. Themisto libellula (Mandt).

Thcmisto Gandichaudii, Ross, App. (non Gu^rin).

Gummarus libellula, Mandt, Obs. itin. Gr., p. 32.

Thcmisto arctica, Kr., Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 291,
t. 4, f. 16 ; Stiinpson, Philad. Proc, 1863.

Thcmisto crassicornis, Kr., 1. c, p. 295. t. 4, f. 17.

Goes, 1. c, p. 17, t. 41, f. 33 ; Boeck, Crust. Amphip.,
p. 88 ; Skand. Arkt. Amph., p. 88, t. 1, f. 5 ; Buch-
holz, 1. c, p. 385, t. 15, f. 1.

116. 7%. bispinosa, Boeck.

Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 88 ; Skand. Arkt. Amph.,
p. 87, t. 1, f. 4.

117. Parathemisto comprcssa (Goes).

Themisto compr., Goes, 1. c, p. 17, t. 41, f. 34.
Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 87 ; Skand. Arkt. Amphip.,
p. 86.

118. Hypcria medusarum (Miill.).

Lcstrigonus cxulans et Hypcria oblivia, Kr., Vid.

Selsk. Skr., p. 298, t. 4. f. 18,
Lcstrigonus cxulans et Kinnahani, Sp. Bate, Brit.

Sess. Cr., p. 5 et 8.
Hypcria mcdusorum, Sp. Bate, Cat. Amph., p. 295,

t. 49, f. 1 ; Boeck, Crust. Amph., p. 85 ; Skand.

Arkt. Amph., p. 79, t. 1, f. 1.
Hypcria galba (Mont,), Sp. Bate, Brit. Crust., p. 12.*

119. Tauria medusarum (Fabr.). Greenl. Urksursak.

Oniscus medusarum, Fabr., F. Gr. 232.

Metoccus medusarum, Kr., 1. c, p. 288, t. 3, f. 15 j

I

rf

1

* As Hyperoodon rostratns and Globiocephalua melas are occasionally seen
in Baffin's Bay, their parasites {Platycyamus Thompsoni, Pennella crasticornis,
Xenobalanus gl,, and Cyamus globicipitis) might also be enumerated among the
Crustacea of Greenland ; but they are omitted here because they have not
actually been sent down from Greenland.

IJ

LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GUEENLAND. 169

p. 167 }
; Boock,
Voyage,

Voyage,
k, CruBt.

u6rin).
p. 32.
., p. 291,

', f. 17.
Amphip.,
5; Buch-

a. Ampb.j

34.
Amphip.,

Kr., Vid.

"ate, Brit.

I., p. 295,
; Skand.

tet., p. 12.*
fsak.

3, f. 15 ;

pnally seen

irasaicornis,

among the

by have not

Bocck, Crust. Amphip., p. 86 ; Skniul. Arkt. Amph.,
p. 82, t. 2, f. 2.

120. Dulichia spinosissima, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., II. R., I., p. 512, t. 6, f. 1 ; Voyage,
t. 22. f. 1 ; Boeck, Crust. Aniph., p. 262.

121. Caprella scptcntrionttUs, Kr. (incul. Nappareariak.

Squilla lobatay Fahr., F. Gr. 225 (non Miill.).
Kroyer, Nat. T., IV., p. 590, t. 8, f. 10-19; Voyage,

t. 25, f. 2.
CaprcUfi cercopoulcs, White, App. Sutherland's JourOti

p. 203, f. 1 vt 207.
Boeck, Crust. Amphip., p. 276.

122. Cercops IlolbtelU, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., IV., p. 504, t. 6, f. 1-13 ; Boeck,
Crust. Amph., p. 269.

123. ^gina longicornis, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., IV., p. 509, t. 7, f. 1-12 ; Boeck,
Crust. Amph., p. 270.

124. ^. echinataf Boeck.

? Caprella sjntiifcra, Bell, Belcher's Last Arctic Voy.,
p. 407, t. 35, f. 2 ; Buchholz, L c., p. 388.

125. Cmmus //ii/sticeti, Ltk. Greenl. Arberub-Koma.

Martens, Spitzberg. Reise., p. 85, t. Q., f. D.
Oniscus cetif Pallas, Spicil. Zool., f. IX., p. 76, t. 4,

f. 14.
Squilla baltsTKEf de Geer, Memoir. VII., p. 640, t. 42,

f. 6-10.
Cyumus ceti, Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., IV., p. 476, t. 6,

f. 63-70 ; Sp. Bate, Brit. Crust., p. 85.
C. mysticeti, Liitken, K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr,, 3 R., X.,

p. 251, t. 1, f. 1.
Obs, — On Balfcna my&tirctus.

126. Cyamiis boopis, Ltk.

Oniscus ceti, Fabr., F. Gr. 230.
Liitken, 1. c., p. 262, t. 3, f. 6.
Obs. — On Mcgaptcra boops.

127. Cyamus monodontisy Ltk.

Liitken, 1. c., p. 256, t. 1, f. 2.
Obs, — ^n Monodon monoceros.

128. iiamus nodosus, Ltk.*

Oniscus ceti, Zoologia Danica, t. 119, f. 113-117.
Liitken, 1. c., p. 274, t. 4, f. 8.
0^5.— With the preceding.

Phyllopoda et Cladocera.

129. Apus glacialis, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., II. R., II., p. 431 ; Voy., t. 40, f. 1.

130. Branchipus paludosus (Miill.). Greenl. Taitsim-illfierkei.

Cancer stagnalis, Fabr., F. Gr. 224 ; Zool. Dan., t. 48.

* Quid est Talitrus cyanea, Sabine, Suppl. App. Parry's Voy., t. L, f, 12-»18 ?

J?'-

n

'*''*

160 LiJTKEN ON THE CEUSTACEA OF GREENLAND.

131. Nehalia bipes (Fabr.).

Cancer bipes, Fabr. F. Gr. 223, f. 2.

Cancer gammarellus bipes, Herbst. Naturg. Krabb. u.

Krebse.
Nebalia Herbstii, Leach ; Milne-Edwards, Hist. N. de

Crust.
Kroyer, Nat. T., II. R., II., p. 436 ; Voyage, t. 40,

f. 2.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 388.

132. Daphniarectispitia, Kr. Green/. Taitsim-illaerangoa, &c.

Daphne pulex, F. Gr. 238.

133. Lynceus, sp.

Lynceus lamellatus, ? Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII.,
p. 320.

Ostracoda.*

134. Cypridina, sp. ?

? Cypridina excisa, Stiraps. Marine Inv. Gr. M., p. 39,
t. 2, f. 28 \_Bradycinetus brenda, Baird].

Copepoda.

135. Pontia Pattersonii (Tempi. ).f

Anomalocera Pattersonii^ Templeton, Trans. Ent. Sec.

II., p. 34, t. 5.
Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., IT. R., II., p. 561, t. 6, f. 1-7 j

Voyage, t. 42, f. 1.

136. Diaptomus castor, Jur. ?

Bucbholz, 1. c, p. 392.

137. Harpacticus chelifer (Miill.).

Cyclops chelifer, Miill. Z. D. Prod. 2413.
/Tarjo. cAe/., Lilljeborg, Cladocera, t. 22, f. 2-11.
Buchholz, 1. c., p. 393.

138. Tisbe f areata (Baird).

Canthocamptus f., Bd., Brit. Entora., p. 210.
Tisbef., Clans, Copepoden, t. 15, f. 1-12.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 393.

139. Cleta minuticornis (Miill.).

Cyclops m., Miiller, Entom., p. 117, t. 19, f. 14-15.
Canthocatnptus m., Baird, 1. c.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 393, t. 15, f. 3.

140. Zaus spinosus, Claus.

Buchholz, 1. c, p. 394.

141. Zans ovalis (Goodsir).

Stcrope ovalis ct armatus. Goods.
Claus, Copepoden, p. 146, t. 13, f. 11-18.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 394.

142. Thorellia brunnea, Boeck.

Vid. Selsk. Forh. Christ., 1864, p. 26.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 395.

• See further on, page 166, for the Ostracods from the Hunde Islands, &c,
t Should, perhaps, be omitted for sitnilnr reasons as Idothea robusta.

ill!

LUTKEN OX THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND. 161

143a. Calanus hi/perborcus, Kr. '

Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 310 ; Nat. T., II. R.,

II., p. 542; Voyage, t. 11, f. 2.
Cetochilus scptcntrionalis, Gooclsir.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 392, t. 15, f. 2.
Obs. — According to B., the two following species are probably
the same as 143a.

1436. Calanus qninqucanmdatus, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., II. R., II., p. 545 ; Voy., t. 41, f. 3.
143c. Calanus spitzbergensis, Kr.

Kroyer, 1. c, p. 531 ; Voy., t. 41, f. 1.

144. Calanus caudatus^ Kr.*

Kroyer, 1. c, p. 550 ; Voy., t. 42, f. 2.

145. Canthocamptus ? hippolytcs, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., III. R., II. B., t. 17, f. 10,
p. 334. On the gills of Hipp, acideata.

146. Thersitcs gasterostci (Kr.).

Pagenstecher, Archiv f. Naturg., 1861, p. 126, t. 6,

f. 1-9.
ErgasUus gastej'ostei, Kr., 1. c., p. 233, t. 12, f. 2.
On Gast. aculeatus,

147. Lernceopoda elongata (Grant).

Scoresby, Account Arct. Reg., I., 538, t. 15.
Lemma elongata. Grant, Edinb. Journ. Science, 1827.
Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., I., p. 259, t. 2, f. 12, et t. 3,

f. 3 ; Steenstrup et Liitken, Vid. S. Skr., V. R., V.,

p. 422, t. 15, f. 37.
On the eye of Somniosus microcephalus.

148. LcrntBopoda carpionis, Kr. Gr. Ekallub-massimioa.

Lerncca salmonea, Fabr., F. Gr. 327.

Kroyer, Nat. T., I., p. 268, t. 11, f. 6; III. R., II.,

p. 275, t. 14, f. 4.
On Salmo carpio ; on Gastcrost. aculeatus ?

149. LcrncBopoda sebastis, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., III. R., II., p. 279, t. 17, f. 7.
On Sebastes norvcgicus.

150. Brachiella rostrata, Kr.

Kroyer, 1. c, I., p. 207, t. 2, f. 1 ; III. R., II., p. 290,

t. 17, f. 8.
On Hippoglossus maximits and pinguis.

151. Anchorclla uncinata (MUll.). Gr, Saraulib-massimioa.

Lcrncea unc, Fabr., F. Gr. 328 ; Zool. Dan., t. 33, f. 2.
Kroyer, Nat. T., I., p. 290, t. 3, f. 8.
On Gadus morrhua.

152. Anchorella agilis, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III. R., II., p. 300, t. 16, f. 2.
On Gadus agilis.

153. Anchorclla stichcBi, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III. R., II., p. 298, t. 16, f. 1.
On Stichecus jmnctatus.

* Obs. — Quid Cyclops brevicornis, Fabr., F. Gr. 240 (Gr. Ingnerolanek) ?
36122. I,

m

'4

162 LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND.

If. I

k

164. Lesteira lumpi, Kr.

Kroyer, Nat. T., III. R., II., p. 325, t. 17, f. 7.
On Cyclopterus lumpus.

155. Diocus gobinus (Miill.). Qr. Itekiudlib-massimioa.

Lemma gobina, Fabr., F. Gr. 329 ; Zool. Dan., t. 33,

f. 3.
Chondracanthus gobinus, Kr. N. T., I., p. 280, t. 2,

f. 8, et t. 3, f. 12.
Stp. et Ltk., Vid. Selsk. Skr. V. R.. V., p. 423, t. 15,

f. 39 ; Kioyer, 1. c. III. R., II., p'. 269.
On Phobetw ventralis.

156. Chondracanthus radiatus (Miill.). Greenl. Ingmin-

gursab-massimioa.

LernfEtt rad., Fabr., F. Gr. 330 ; Zool. D., t. 33, f. 4.
. Kroyer, I. c., III. R., II., p. 251, t. 19, f. 1.
On Macrurus rupestris.

157. Chondracanthus nodosus (Miill.). Greenl. SuUu-

paukak-massimioa.

Lernaa nod., Fabr., F. Gr. 331 ; Zool. D., t. 33, f. 5.

Kroyer, 1. c, II., p. 133, t. 3, f. 2.

On Sebastes norvegicus.

158. Chondracanthus cornutus (Miill.).

Lerncea cornuta, Zool. Dan., t. 33, f. 6.
On PleuronectidcB.

159. Tanypleurus alcicornis, Stp. et Ltk.

Steenstrup et Liitken, Vid. Selsk. Skr., 1. c, p. 424,
t. 15, f. 38. On Cyclopterus spinosus.

160. Heipyllobius arcticus, Stp. et Ltk.

Steenstrup et Liitken, 1. c., p. 426, t. 15, f. 40.
Silenium polynoes, Kr., 1. c. III. R., II., p. 329, t. 18,

f. 6. On Lepidonoti and other Chsetopodous An-

nulata.

161. Caligus {Lepeophtheirus) hippoglossi, Kr. Greenl,

Netarnab-Koma.

Binoculus piscinus, Fabr., F. Gr. 239.
Kroyer, N. T., I., p. 625 ; III. R., IL, p. 131, t. 6,
f. 5. On Hippoglossus maximus.

162. Caligus (Lepeophtheirus) robustus, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III. R., IL, p. 135, t. 6, f. 6.
On Haia radiata.

163. Dinematura ferox, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., IL, p. 40, t. 1, f. 5 ; Stp. et Ltk., 1. c,
t. 7, f. 14. On Somniosus microcephalus.

164. Peniculus clavatus (Miill.),

Lernfea clavata, Miill., Zool. Dan., p. 38, t. 33.
Kroyer, Nat. T., III. R., II. B., p. 266, t. 14, f. 8.
On Sebastes norvegicus.

165. Hcemobaphes cyclopterina (Miill.). Greenl. Nepisard-

lub-massimioa.

Lerncea cyclopterina, Fabr., F. Gr. 326 ; Kroyer, Nat.
T., L, p. 502, t. 5, f. 4.

D.

LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OP GREENLAND. 163

i 11

.7.

imioa.
an., t. 33)

280, t. 2,

423, t. 15,

. Ingmin-
t. 33, f. 4.

il. SuUu-
t. 33, Il o.

c, p. 424,

|40.

329, t. 18,
dous An-

Greenl,
131, t. 6,

|Ltk., 1. c,

33.

I, f. 8.

[Nepisard-
lyer, Nat.

1^

;

Steenstrup et Liitken, 1. c, p. 705, 1. 13, f. 30 ; Stimpson,

Proc. Philad., . 139.
On Ct/clopterus spinosus, Coitus scorpius, Cenfffonotus

fasciatus, and Scbastes norvegicus.

166. LerncBa branchialis^ L.* Gr. Okab-massimioa.

Lerncea gadina, Fsibr., F. Gr. 325.

Kroyer, Nat. T., I., p. 293, t. 3, f. 10; Stp. et Ltk.,

1. c, p. 403, t. 13, f. 28-29.
On Gadiis morrhua, ovak, and agilis.
{TncertiE Sedis.)

167. Psilornalbis hippolytes^ Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., III. R., II., p. 336, t. 17, f. 10.
On Hippolyte aculeata.

Cirripedia.

168. Peltogaster paguri, Rathke.

Rathke, N. A. Acad. C. L.-C. N. C, XX., p. 245,

t. 12, f. 17.
On Pagurus pubescens.

169. St/lon, sp.

Kroyer, Vid. Selsk. Overs., 1855 p. 128.
On Hippolyte, sp.

170. Balanus porcatus (Da Costa). Greenl. Katungiak.

Lepas balanus, Fabr., F. Gr. 423.
Buchholz, 1. c., p. 396.

171. Balanus balanoides (Linn.). Greenl. Katungiak*

Fabr., F. Gr. 424.

172. Balanus crenatus, Brug.

Enc. Method. Vers.

Lepas foliacea, var. A., Naturh. Selsk. Skr., I., 1, 174.

173. Coronula diadema (Linn.). Gr. Keporkab-Katun-

giarsoa.

Lepas balanaris, Fabr., F. Gr. 425.

On Megaptera boops.

174. Conchodcrma auritum (Linn.).

Lepas aurita, Syst. Nat. (XII.), p. 1110.
Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., 1809-10, p. 94.
Lepas baleenaris, )un., Fabr., F. Gr. 425. f

APPENDIX.
Fycnogonida.

175. Nymphon grossipes (Linn.). Greenl. Niutok.

? Phalangium grossipes, Linn., S. N. (XII.), p. 1027.
Pycnogonum grossipes, Fabr., F. Gr. 210 (p.p.).
Sabine, Suppl. App., p. 225 ; Kroyer, N. T., II. R.,

I., p. 108 ; Voyage, t. 36, f. 1.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 336.

♦ On Pennella craasicomis from Hyperoodon roatratus, and Xenobalaiius
yiobicipitis from Globiocephalus melas, cfr. the note to p. 158.

t Pegesimallus spiralis, Kr. (N. T., III. R., II., p. 336, t. 18, f. 7), does
not belong to the Crustacea, but to the Hydrozoa (Siphonophora).

L 2

,11

:J

1G4 LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OF GREENLAND.

176. Nt/mphon mixtiim, Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., 1. c, p. 110; Voyage, t. 35, f. 2.
Buchholz, 1. c, p. 397.

177. Nymphon longitarse^ Kr.

Kroyer, N. T., 1. c., p. 112; Voy., t. 26, f. 2.

178. Nymphon hirtum, Faljr.

Fabr., Entomol., IV., p. 417.
Nymphon hirsutum^ Sabine, 1. c., p. 226.
Kroyer, 1. c., p. 113; Voy., t. 36, f. 3; Buchholz,
1. c., p. 397.

179. Nymphon brevitarse^ Kr.

Kroyer, 1. c., p. 115 ; Voy., t. 36, f. 4.

180. .Eurycyde hispida (Kr.).

Zetes hispidns, Kr., 1. e., p. 117 ; Voyage, t. 38, f. I.
Etiryc. hisp., Scliiodte, Rink's Gronland, Nat. Til.,
p. 71.

181. Pallenc spinipes (Fabr.).

Pycnogonum spinipes, Fabr. F. Gr., p. 211.
Kniyer, 1. c., p. 118; Voy., t. 37, f. 1.

182. Pallene intermedia, Kr.

Kroyer, 1. c., p. 119; Voy., t. 37, f. 3.

183. Pallene discoidea, Kr.

Kroyer 1. c., p. 120 ; Voy., t. 37, f. 3.

184. Phoxichilidium femoratum (Rathke).*

Pycnogonum grossipes, var., Fabr., F. Gr. 2 10.
Nymphon femoratum, Ilathke, Nat. Selsk. 8kr., V. 1,

p. 201.
Phoxichilus prohoscideus, Kr., Vicl. Selsk. Skr., VII.,

p. 321.
Orithyia coccinea, Johnst.; Phoxichilid. coccineum,

Miine-Edw.
Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., 1. c., p. 122 ; Voy., t. 38, f. 2.

Principal Works and Memoirs on the Crustacea of

Greenland.

Bocck: Crustacea amplilpoda borealiaet arctica (Vid. Selsk. Forh.

Christian la, 1870).
De Skandinaviske og arktiske Amphipoder. Istc Hefte,

1872.
Buchholz: Crustaceen ; Die zweite deutsclie Nord polar fahrt,

1874.

* I am not aware that Pycnogonum littorale, Strom (rabr.,F. Gr. 212), has
actually been found on the shores of Greenland. Here also should be men-
tioned Phoxichilus prohoscideus, Sab. (Suppl. App. Parry), from North
Georgia, and Nymphon hirtipes and Nymphon robustum. Bell (Belcher's Last
of Arctic Voyages, p. 408-9, t. 35, f. 3-4), from Northumberland Sound.
These two should especially be compared with the species from Greenland, the
descriptions and figures of which were apparently unknown to the English
author.

ND.

LUTKEN ON THE CRUSTACEA OP OREEXLANP. 1G5

, f.2.

2.

; Bucliholz,

I, t. 38, 1. !•
, Nat. Til.,

1.

r. 210.

L. Skr., V. 1,

, Skr., VII.,

coccineum,

t. 38, f. 2.

JSTACEA OF

Selsk. Forh.
Ilstc Hefte,
Id polar falirt,

, Gr. 212), has

Uuld be men-

from North

Jelcher's Last

grland Sound.

Jreenland, the

the English

Goes: Crustacea amphipoda maris Spitzbergiam allucntis cum

speciebus aliis arcticis enumerat. . . . (Ofvcrs. Vetensk.

Akad. Forh. Stokholm, 1865).
Kroyer: Om Snyltekrebsene isjcr mod Hensyn til don dan-sko

Fauna (Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, I., p. 172, 252, 475,

650; II., p. 7, 131. 1837-38).
' Conspectus Crustaceorum Gra3nlandia) {ibid.f II., p. 249,

1838).

■ Gronlands Amphipoder (the Ampliipods of Greenland,

with descriptions of other GreenLind Crustacea, and
an enumeration of the known species, remarks on the
geographical distribution, &c.). ^^Kongl. Danske Vi-
denskabernes Selskabs naturvid.-mathemat. Afh., VII.,
1839.)

■ Bopyrus abdominalis (Naturb. Tidsskr., III., pp. 102 and

289. 1840).
— — Fire nye Arter af Slffigten Cuma {ibid., III., p. 508, 1841).
■ Udsigt over de nordisko Arter af Slaegten Hippolyte {ibid.,

IV., p. 570, 1841).
— — Monographisk Fremstilling af Slaegten Hippolytes nordiske

Arter (Kongl. D. Vid. Selsk. Nat. Math. Afh., IX.,

1842).

■ Nye nordiske Slpogter af Amphipodernes Orden (Nat.Tidsskr.,

IV., p. 141. 1842).

Beakrivelse af nordiske Crangon Arter {ibid., IV., p. 217).

Om Cyamus Ceti, Linn, {ibid., p. 474, 1843).

■ Beskrivelae af nogle nye Arter og Slfcgter af Caprellina

{ibid., pp. 490 and 585, 1843).
— — Bidi'ag til Kundskab om Pyenogoniderne {ibid., II. R., I.,

p. 90, 1844).
— — Carcinologiske Bidrag {ibid., II. R., 1. B., p. 453, 1845 ;

II., p. 113, 1846; p. 366, 1847; p. 527, 1848; p. 561,

1849).

■ Om Cumaernes Familie {ibid., II. R., II., p. 123, 1846).
— — Forsog til en monographisk Fremstilling af Krjebsdyrskegten

Sergestes (with an appendix on the auditory organs of
Crustacea) (Kongl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., V. R.,
naturv.-math. Afli. IV., 1856).
— — Et Bidrag til Kundskab om Krebsdyrfamilien My sides (Nat.
Tidsskr., III. R., I., 1861).

- Bidrag til Kundskab om Snyltekrebsene (on Parasitic Crus-

tacea) (Nat. Tidsskr., III. R., II. Bd., 1863).
— — The Carcinological portion of Gaimard's " Voyage en Scan-

dinavie, en Laponie," &c. (Plates only.)
Liitken: Nogle Bemserkninger om de nordiske ^ga- Arier (Viden-

skabelige Meddelleser fra den naturh. For., 1858, p. 65).
— — Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slsegten Cyamus Latr.

eller Hvallusene (K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., X., 1873).
Steenstrup and Liitken : Bidrag til Kundskab om det aabne Havs

Snyltekrebs og Lernseer (on Parasitic Crustacea and

Lcrn^idaj), Vid. Selskabs Skr., V. R., V. Bd., 1861).

166 G. S. BRADY ON THE OSTRACODA OF GREENLAND.

i;l;;-l:

25-30 fathoms.

60-70

»

60-70

))

?

60-70

»

60-70

»

?

60-70

jj

60-70

»

25-30

»

28-40

))

?

60^70

»

25-30

11

?

XVI. — OsTRAcoDA from Greenland, &c. By G. S.
Brady, Esq., C.M.Z.S.

1.— Ostracoda from the Hunde Islands, Disco Bay, dredged

, by Dr. P. C. Sutherland, and determined by G. S. Brady,

Esq., C.M.Z.S. (Phil. Trans. 1862, civ., p. 327; Trans. Zool.

■ Soc. 1865, v., p. 360, &c. ; Annals Nat. Hist. 1868, ser. 4,

vol. ii., p. 30, and Revision, February 1875).

1. Cythere limicola (Norman).

2. C. angulata ? (G. O. Sars).

3. C. tuberculata (Sars).

4. C. abyssicola (Sars).

5. C. septentrionalis, Brady.

6. C. costata, Brady.

7. C. lutea, Miiller.

8. C. emarginata, Sars.

9. C. Finmarchica, Sars.

10. Cytheridea papillosa. Bosquet.

11. C. pulchra, Brady.

12. C. oryza, Brady.
. ■ 13. C. punctillata, Brady.

14. Cytheropteron latissimum.

(Norman).

15. By thocy there simplex (Norman)

2,— Ostracoda from Cumberland Inlet, 15^ fathoms, lat.
66P 10' N., long. 67° 15' W. Collected by a Whaler. Bj
G. S. Brady, Esq., C.M.Z.S. (Annals Nat. Hist., 1868,
sw. 4, vol. ii., p. 31).

1. Cythere Dunelmensis (Norman).

2. Cytheropteron Montrosiense, C. B. & R. (PI. V., f. 1-5.)

3. C. arcuatum, Brady, non vespertilioj Rss. (PI. V., f. 6, 7.)

4. C. inflatum, C. B. & R. (PI. V., f. 8-10.)

5. Cytherura undata, G. O. Sars.

3.— Ostracoda from Davis's Strait, lat. 67° 17' N., long.
62° 21' W., 6 feet below low-water mark. Collected by a
Whaler. By G. S. Brady, Esq., C.M.Z.S. (Annals Nat.
Hist., ser. 4, vol. ii., 1868, p. 31.)

Cythere lutea, Miiller.
C. villosa (G. O. Sars).
C. Finmarchica (G. O. S.).
/ C. borealis, Brmly. (PI. IV., f. 1-4, 6, 7.)
C. emarginata (Sars).

C. angulata (Sars). -

C. pulchella, Brady. (PI. V., f. 18-20.)
C. tuberculata (Sars).
C. concinna, Jones.
! ; Cytheridea papillosa, Bosq.

Cytherura rudis, Brady. (PI. V., f. 15-17.)

h

LUTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND. 167

4. — Suppl^ient. From Iceland (in Shell-Sand).

Cyther^lutea, Muller.
C. borealis, Brady.
C. emarginata (Sars).

XVII. — A Revised Catalogue of the Annelida and other,
not Entozoic, Worms of Greenland. By Dr. Chr.
LiJTKEN, University Museum, Copenhagen. 1875.

ANNULATA CHiETOPODA et DISCOPHORA,
GEPHYREA, etc.

As far as the marine ChcEtopoda are concerned, this List is
chiefly based upon Dr. MalmgrevUs memoirs on the Arctic Annu-
lata. To the Greenland species enumerated by this author
are added a few from the Museum of the University in Copen-
hagen, for instance, the HirudinidtB, identified by Mr. Malniy of
Goteborg; the Siptmculidfe, by the late Prof. Keferstein, in
Gottingen, &c.

The following memoirs should especially be consulted : —
A. S. (Ersted : Gronlands Annulata dorsibranchiata (K. Di

Vidensk. Selsk. mathem.-natur. Afh., X. Deel). '
Malmgren : Nordiska Hafs-Annulater (Ofvers. K. Vet. Akad.
Forh., 1865), 1-3.

— — Annulata polychaeta SpitzbergisB, Groenlandiw,

&c., 1867.
W. Keferstein : Beitrage zur anatomischen und systema-
tischen Kenntniss der Sipunculiden (Zeitschr. f. wiss.
Zool., XV., 1865).
O. A. L. Morch : Rerisio critica Serpulidarum (Naturhist.
Tidsskr., 3 R., 1 B., 1863).
In the Catalogue of Entozoa (Art. XVIII., p. 172) the species
are added which have been identified from Greenland species by
Dr. Krabbe in the Museum at Copenhagen.

Euphrosyiiidse.

1. Euphrosyne borealis, CErstd.

Euphrosyne borealis, CErsted, Gronland's Annul,
dorsibi'., p. 170, f. 23-27.

Folsruoidse.

2. Lepidoiwtus squamatiis (L.).

Aphrodita squnmata, Linn., S. N., Ed. X., p. 655.

Pall. Miscel. Zool., p. 91 (pp.), t. 7, f. 14 a-d.

A. punctata, Miill. Pr. Z. D. 2642; v. Wiirmern,

p. 170, t. 13 ; Abildgd. Zool. Dan., III., p. 25, t. 96,

f. 1-4 ; Fabr. F. Gr. 291.
• , Polyno'e squamata^ Aud. et M.-Edw. Rech. Annel.,

p. 80, t. 1, f. 1-16. ..i .

(1

1G8 LUTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND.

il-i

^.■f' i^ '.

Lejiidonote jmnctata, CErsted, Annul. Dan, Comp.,

p. 12, f. 2, 5, 39, 41, 47, 48.
LepidonoUis squamatuSf Kinberg, Eugcuies Resa, II.,

p. 13, t. 4, f. 15.
Malingrcn, Nord. Hafs.-Annul., [). 56.
(A single specimen in the Museum at Copenhagen, labelled
«' Greenland.")

3. Nychia cirrosa (Pall.).

Aphrodita cirrosa^ Pall., Miscell. Zool., p. 95, t. 8,

f. 3-6.
Aphrodita scahra, Fabr., Fauna Groenl. 292.
Nychia cirrosa^ Malmgrcn, Nordiska ITafs-Annulater,

p. 58, t. 8, f. 1.

4. Nychia Amondseni, Mlgr.

Malnigren, Annulata polychsDta, p. 5, t. 1, f. 4.

5. Eunoa (E?'stedii, Mlgr.

Lepidonote scabra^ CErstd. (nou Fabr.), 1. c., p. 164,

f. 2, 7, 10, 12, 13, 17, 18.
Eitnoe (Erstediif Mlgr., Nordiska Hafs-Annulater,

p. 61, t. 8, f. 3.

6. Eunoa nodosa (Sars).

Polynoe nodosa, Sars, Christiania Vid. Selsk. Forh.,

1860, p. 59.
Eunoe 9iodosa, Malmgren, 1. c., p. 64, t. 8, f. 4.

7. Lagisca rarispina (Sais).

Polynoe rarispina, Sars, Christiania Vid. Selsk. Forh.,

1860, p. 60.
Lagisca rarispina, Mlgr., 1. c, p. 65, t. 8, f. 2.

8. Harmotho'e imbncata (L. ).*

Aphrodita imbricata, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. XII.),

p. 1804.
Aphrodita cirrata, Fabr., Faun. Grcenl. 290, t. 1,

f. 7.
Lepidonote cirrata, CErsted, 1. c., p. 166, f. 1, 5, 6, 11,

14, 15.
Harmotho'e imbncata, Mlgr. 1. c, p. 66, t. 9, f. 8.

9. Antinoe Sarsii (Kinbg., grcenlandica, Mlmgr.).

Antinoe (Sarsii) grcenlandica, Malmgi*en, Annul,
polych., p. 13, et Nordiska Hafs- Annul., p. 75, t. 9,
f. 6.

Sigalionidse.

10. Pholoe minuta (Fabr.).

Aphrodita minuta et A. longa, Fabr., Faun. Gr. 293

et 294.
Pholoe {'i) minuta, CErsted, 1. c., p. 169, f. 3, 4, 8,

9, 16.
Pholoe minuta, Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Annul., p. 89,

t. 11, f. 13.

g i

3 I

M t

'■4,

* According to Mobius, Harmotho'e imbricata and Antinoe Sarsii are but
one species.

J4UTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND. 169

\arsii are but

ITephthydidse.

11. Nephthys cilinta (Mill I.).

Nereis ciliata, Miill., Zool. Dan., t. 89, f. 1-4.
Nephthys ciliata, Malmgr., 1. c, p. 104, t. 12, f. 17.

12. Nephthys lactea, Malmjp".

Malmgr., Annul, polych., p. 18 (name only). Un-
described specimens, perhaps of this species, are in
the Copenhagen Museum.

13. Nephthys c(eca (Fabr.). (Greenl. Sengiarsoak.)

Nereis cceca, Fabr., F. Gr. 287 ; Naturh. Selsk.

Skr., v., p. 185, t. 4, f. 24-29.
Nephthys ccuca, CErsted, 1. c, p. 193, f. 73, 74, 77-86.
Nephthys cvecuj Malmgr., Nord. Hafs- Annul., p. 104,

t. 12, f. 18.

14. Nephthys lotigosetosa, (Erstd,

CErstd. 1. c, p. 195, f. 75-76.
Malmgren, 1. c, p. 106, t. 13, f. 24.

Fhyllodocidee.

15. Phyllodoce citrinUf Mlgr.

Phyllodoce maculata^ Oilrstd. (non Fabr.), 1. c, p. 191,

f. 46, 48.
Ph. citrina, Malmgr., 1. c, p. 95, t. 13, f. 24.

16. Phyllodoce grcenlandica, QCrstd.

(Ersted, 1. c, p. 192, f. 19, 21, 22, 29-32.
Malmgren, 1. c, p. 36 ; Annul, polych., t. 2, f, 9.

17. Phyllodoce Binki, Mlgr.

Annul, polych., p. 23, t. 2, f. 11.

18. Phyllodoce Luctkenij Malmgr.

Annal. polych., p. 24, t. 2, f. 10.

19. Phyllodoce incisa, CErsted.

? Nereis maculata, Fabr. (uon Miill.), F. Gr. 281.
Phyllodoce ? incisa, CErsted, Gronl. Ann. dors., p. 189,
f. 44. (Perhaps a doubtful species.)

20. Eulalia viridis (Miill.). (Greenl. Sengiarak.)

Die griitie Nereide, Miill., Wiirm., p. 162, t. 11.
Nereis viridis, Fabr. F. Gr. 279.
CErsted, 1. c, p. 188.

Eulalia viridis, Malmgr., Nord. Hafs- Ann., p. 98, 1. 15,
f. 39.

21. Eulalia problema, Malmgr.

Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 99, t. 14, f. 29.

22. Eteone longa (Fabr.). (Gr. Sengiak.)

Nereis lojiga, Fabr., F. Gr. 289 ; Naturh. Selsk. Ski'.,

v., p. 171, t. 4, f. 11-13.
Eteone longa, CErsted, 1. c, p. 185, f. 20, 28.

23. Eteone cylindrica, CErsted.

CErsted, 1. c, p. 187, f. 42, 49, 57.

24. Eteone Jlava (Fabr.).* (Greenl. Sengiarak.)

* Nereis carulea, Fabr. F. Gr., 280, perhaps a Phyllodocean, not deter-
minable (" Sengiarak" in Greenland, as many other species). , , .,,,,,,,

!!H

H^i ..V,

■''■■ -i'.'iJ

V^ •!.

170 LUTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND.

i ;

'^

1 '

M

Nereis Jlava, Fahr.y F. Gr. 282; Nat. SeUk. Skr., V.,

p. 168, t. 4, f. 8-10.
Eteonejiava, (Ersted, 1. c, p. 186, f. 47.
Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 102, t. 15, f. 35.

Keiionidse.

25. Castalia uphroditoides (Fabr.). (Greenl. Sengiarak.)

Nereis aphroditoides, Fabr., F. G. 278 ; Nat. Selsk.
i Skr., v., p. 164, t. 4, f. 4-6.
. / Castalia Fabricii, Malmgr., Ann. polych., p. 32.

2Q. Castalia rosea (Fabr.). (Greenl. Scnyiarak.)

Nereis rosea, Fabr. F. Gr. 284 ; Nat. Selsk. Skr., V.,
.! J . ; p. 175, t. 4, f. 14-16.

SyUidte.

27. Autolytus longisetosus, CEratd. (Greenl. Sengiaraky Iglo-

lualik.^
? Nereis prismatica, Fabr., F. Gr. 285 ; Nat. S. Skr., V.,

p. 177, t. 4, f. 17-20.
? Nereis bifrom, Fabr., F. Gr. 303; 1. c, p. 181,
, f. 21-23.

' ' •'• Polyhostrichus longisetosus, CErstd., 1. c, p. 182, f. 62,

67,71.
Autolytus longisetosus, Malmgr., Ann. polych., p. 34,
t. 7, f. 38.

28. Autolytus Alexandn (Malmgr.).*

Malmgr., Ann. polych., p. 37, t. 7, f. 39.

29. Autolytus incertus, Mlgr.

Malmgr. op. cit., p. 35, t. 6, f. 40.

30. Syllis incisa (Fabr.). (Greenl. Sengiak.)

Nereis incisa, Fabr., F. Gr. 277 ; Nat. Selsk. Skr., V.,
p. 160, t. 4, f. 1-3.
^ ."31. Syllis Fabricii, M&lmgx- {Greenl. Sengiarak.)

Nerds armillaris, Fabr. F. Gr. 276 (non Miill.).
32, Chcetosyllis (Erstedi, Malmgr. ? ...

Joida sp., CErsted, 1. c, p. 182.
•' Malmgren, Annul, polych., p. 45, t. 8, f. 51.

ITereidse.

, ■ ; 33. Nereis zonata, Malmgr. (Greenl. Sengiak.)

? Nereis diversicolo?-, Fabr., F. Gr. 274 (non Mull.).t
Malmgren, AnnuL polych., p. 46, t. 5, f. 34.

34. Eunereis paradoxa (CErsted).

Heteronereis paradoxa, QErsted, 1. c, p. 177, f. 50, 63,
, i . 64,66. (Known from a single specimen.)

35. Nereis pelagica, Linn. (Greenl. Sengiarsoak.)

Linn. Syst. Nat. (X.), p. 654.
Nereis verrucosa, Fabr., F. Gr. 275.

♦ Nereis noctiluca, Fabr. F. Gr. 273 (Greenl. "Ingnerolak"), is a doubtful,
undetermined species.

^ N, diveraicolor is cited from East Greenland by Mobius, Zte deutsche
Nordpolarfahrt, II., p. 254.

LiJTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND, 171

Nereis pelagicn, CErstod, 1. c, p. 175, f. 52, 53, 65,

58, 69.
Malnigren, Annul, polych., p. 47, t. 6, f. 35.
(36.) Heteronereis yrandifoUd (Rathko).

Nereis grandifolia, Rathke, Beitiiige z. Fauna Nor-
wcgenH (Nova Acta C. L.-C. N. C, XX.), p. 155,
t. 7, f. 13-14.
Heteronereis (tretica ct assimilis, Cl-h'sted, 1. c, p. 179-

180, f. 50, 51, 54, 60, 61, 65, 68, 70, 72.
Heter. qrundifolid, Malingr., Noicl. Ilafs-Ann., p. 108,
t. u; f. 15-16.
Ohs, — Euncreis and Heteronereis are now known to be the
natatory, sexually mature state of Nereis; H. grandifolia of
Nereis pelagica,

Ltimbrinereidse.

37. Lumhrinereis fragilis (Miill.).

Lumbricus fragiliSf M iill. Prodr. Zool. Dan. 261 1 ; Zool.

Dan., p. 22, "t. 22, f. 1-3.
Malmgren, Annul, polych., p. 63, t. 14, f. 83.

Eunicidse.

38. Nothria conchi/lcga (Sars), ■' '

Onuphis conchyleguy Sars, Beskr. og Jagttag, p. 61,

t. 10, f. 28.
Onuphis Eschrichtii, CErsted, 1. c., p. 172, f. 33-41, 45,

Glyceridse.

39. Glyccra capitata, CErstd. '(Greenl. Pullateriak.)

Nereis alba, Miill. Prodr. Z. D. 2634 ; Zool. Dan., II.,

p. 29, t. 62, f. 6-7.
Glycera capitata, CErstd. 1. c., p. 196, f. 87, 88, 90-94,

96,99. • y

40. Glycera setosa, (Sx^. ' .'

CErsted, 1. c., p. 198, f. 89, 95, 97.

Ariciidse.

41. Scoloplos armiger (Miill.). (Greenl. Ptdlateriak.)

Lumbricus armiger, Miill. Zool. Dan., I,, p. 22, t. 22,
Scoloplos armiger, CErsted, 1. c., p. 201, f. 113, 117,
118.

42. Naidonereis quadricuspida (Fabr.).

Nais quadricuspida, Fabr., F. Gr. 296.
Scoloplos quadricuspida, CEi'sted, 1. c, p. 200, f. 106
-10.
Opheliidse.

43. Ammotrypane aulogaster, Rathke.

Rathke, Beitr. z. F. Norw., 1. c., p. 188, t. 10, f. 1-3.
Ophelina acuminata, CErstd. Archiv f. Naturg., X.,
p. Ill, t. 3, f. 24-26.

44. Ophelia limacina (Rathke).

Ammotrypane limacina, Rathke, 1. c, p. 190, t. ?.0,

f. 4-8.
Ophelia bicornis, CErsted, Gronl. Ann., p. 204, f. 104

-5, 115, 116, 121.

1^^

I -

172 LUTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND,

ii

I

,if.

45. Trovisia Forhcsi^ Johnst.

Johnston, Ann. Nut. Hist., IV., p. 373, t. 11, f. 11-18.
Ammotrt/imnc ocstroUicSy Katliko, I. c, p. 192, t. 10,

f. 9-12.
Ophelia mnmitlttta^ O^rstod, Gronl. Ann., p. 205,

f. 103, 112, 114, 119, 120; Aichiv f. Naturg., X.,

p. 110, t. 3, f. 21-23.

Scalibregmidse.

46. Scalibrcgmu hi/latum^ Uathke.

Rathko, 1. c, p. 184, t. 9, f. 15-21.
Oligobranchus roscns ct gra-nlandiciis^ Sars, Fauna
litter. Norvegia), I., p. 91, 92, t. 10, f. 20-27.

TelethuMfB.

47. Arcnicola marina (Linn.). (Greenl. Incl/tialuak.)

Lumbricus marinus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (XIL), p. 1077.
Lumbncus marinus^ Fabr., F. Gr. 262, et L. pnpillosuSf

ibid. 267.
Arcnicola piscatorunif CErstd., Gronl. Ann., p. 207.

Sphterodoridse.

48. Ephesia gracilis, Rathkc.

Rathkc, 1. c, p. 176, t. 7, f. 5-8.

Spharodorwn Jiavum, Gt^rsted, Annul. Dan. Comp.,

p. 43, f. 7, 92, 101.
Pollicita peripatus, Johnst., Ann. Nat. Hist., XVL,

p. 5, t. 2, f. 1-6.
Spharodortim peripatus, Claparede, Bcob. Anat. Entw.

wirbellos. Thicre, p. 50, t. 11, f. 8-18.
Ephesia gracilis, Malmgr., Annul, polych., p. 79.

Chlorsemidse.

49. Trophonia ]}lumosa (Miill.). (Greenl. Merkolualik.)

Amphitrite plumosa, Miill., l*rodr. Z. D. 2621 (Abild-
gaard Zool. Dan., III., t. 90, f. 1-2).

Amphitrile plumosa, Fabr., F. Gr. 271.

Siphonostoma plumosa, Rathko, 1. c, p. 208, t. 11,
f. 1 -2.

Trophonia Goodsiri, Johnston, Ann. Nat. Hist., IV.,
p. 371, t. 11, f. 1-10.

50. Flabelligera affinis, Sars.

Sars, Bidrag til Sodyrenea Naturh., p. 31^ t. 3, f. 16.
Siphonostoma vagininiferum, Rathke, 1. c., p. 211,

t. 11, f. 3-10.
Tecturclla jlaccida, Stimpson, Marine Invert. Gr.

Manan, p. 32, t. 3, f. 21.

51. Brada villosa (Rthk.) ?

Siphonostoma villosum, Rathke, N. Act. Acad. C.
L.-C. N. C, XX., p. 215, t. 14, f. 11, 12.

52. Brada granulata, Malmgr.

Annul, polychaeta, p. 85, t. 12, f. 71.
Brada inhabilis (Rathke ?) ; Stimpson, Proc. Acad.
Philad., 1863.

i;|

St:

'"I i

LiJTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF OKEENLAND. 173

Btematpidse.

£3. Slerna.'ipi.f fossor, Stiinps.

Stiinpson, Mariuo Invertebrata of Graml Manau,p. 29,
t. 2, i\ 19.

Chsetopteridae.

54. SjjiochfTtoptcrns tjfpicus, Sars.

Sars, Fauna littor. Norv., II., p. 1, t. I, f. 8-21.
Malni;;rcn, Annul, polych., p. 98.

Spionidse.

55. Scolccolepis (Laotiicc) cirrata (Sars).

Nerine cirrata, Sars, Ny t. Mag. f. Natur., VI., p. 207.
Scol. {Laon.) cirr., Malnigr., Annul, pol., p. 91, t. 9,
f. 54.

56. Spio Jilicornis (Fabr.). (Grcenl. Iglolualik.)

Nereis Jilicornis^ Fabr. F. Gr. 289 ; Spio filicornis,
Fabr., Schr. Naturf. Frcunde, VI., p. 264, t. 5, f. 8-
12.

Spinjilic., Malmgren, 1. c, p. 92, t. 1, f. 1.
67. Spio scticornis, Fabr.

Nereis seticornis, Fabr., F. Gr. 288.

Spio seticornis, Fabr., Sclir. Naturf. Freunde, VI.,
p. 260, t. 5., f. 1-7.

58. Spiophancs Kra-f/eri, Grube.

Grube, Ardiiv f. Naturg., 1860, p. 88, t. 5, f. 1.
Malmgren, Annul, polycli., p. 94, t. 9, f. 56.

59. Leipoceras uvifcrum. Mob.

Zte deutsche Nordpolarf., II., p. 254, t. 1, f. 10.

Cirratulidse.

60. Cirratulns cirratus (Mull.). (Grcenl. Nyaurselik.)

Lnmbricus cirratus^ Miill., Prodr. Z. D. 2608.
TAimhrictts cirratus, Fabr., F. Gr. 266.
Cirratnlus borealis^ (Ersted, 1. r., p. 206, f. 98, 102.
Cirr. bor., Rathke, 1. c, p. 180, t. 8, f. 16, 17.

Halelminthidse.

61. Notomastus latericcus, Sars ?

Sars, Nyt. Mag., VI., p. 199 ; Fauna litt. Norv., II.,

p. 12, t. 2, f. 8-17.
Malmgren, Annul, polycb., p. 97.

62. Capitclla capitata (Fabr.). (Greenl. Pullateriak.)

Lumbricus capitatus, Fabr., F. Gr. 262.
Lumbrieonais marina, CErsted, Nuturh. Tidsskr., IV.,
p. 128, t. 3., f. 6, 11, 12.

Maldanidse.

63. Nicomachc lumhricalis (Fabr.).

Sahella lumbricalis, Fabr., F. Gr. 369.

Ch/mcne himbricalis, Sars, F. litt. Norv., II., p. 16,

t. 2, f 23-26.
Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 190; Ann. polycli.,

t. 10, f. 60.

174 LiJTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND.

t. I

il

l{

§.

f:l

..; 'It

jil

64. Axiothea catenata, Mlgr.

Malmg., N. Hafs-Ann., p. 1 90 ; Ann. pol., 1. 10, f. 59.

Ammocharidae.

65. Ammochares assimiliSf Sars.

Sars, Nyt. Mag. f. Natur., VI., p. 201. , \

Malmgren, Annul, polych., t. 11, f. 65.

66. Myriochelc Heeri, Mlgr.

Annul, polych., p. 101, t. 7, f. 37.

Amphictenidae.

67. Cistenides granulata (L.). (Greenl. Imab-polia.)

,(. Sabclla granulata, L., Syst. Nat. (XII.), p. 1268,

,\ ' j , Amphitrite auricoma, Fabr., F. Grr. 272.
' Amphitrite Eschrichtii, Rathke, 1. c, p. 219.

Pectinaria groenlandica, Grube, Arch. f. Naturg.
■ .. 1 Cistenides granulata, Malmgr., Nord. Hafs-Ann.,
p. 359.

68. Cistenides hyperborea, Malmgr.

Malmgr. Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 360, t. 18, f. 40.

Ampliaretidse.

69. Ampharete Grubei, Mlgr.

? Amphicteis acutifrons, Grube, Archiv f, Naturg.,

XXVI., p. 109, t. 5, f 6.
Amphar. Grubei, Malmg., N. Hafs-Ann., t. 19, f. 44,
69a, Ampharete Goesi, Mgr.

Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 364, t. 19, f. 45.

70. Amphicteis Gunneri (Sars).

Amphitrite Gunneri, Sars, Beski*. Jagtt., t. 11, f. 30.
Crossostoma midas, Gosse, Ann. Nat. Hist., 1855,

XVI., p. 310, t. 8, f. 7-12.
Amphicteis grcenlandica, Grube, Archiv f. N.,

XXVI., p. 106, t. 5, f. 3.
Amphicteis Gunneri, Malmgr., Nord. Hafs-Ann.,

p. 365, t. 19, f. 46.

71. Sabellides bwealis, Sars.

Sars, Fauna litt. Norv., II., p. 22, 23.
Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 368, t. 20, f. 47.

72. Melinna cristata (Sars).

Sabellides cristata, Sars, 1. c, p. 19 et24, t. 2, f. 1-7.
Melinna cristata, Malmg., N. Hafs-Ann., t. 20, f, 50.
72a. Lysippe labiata, Mgr,

Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 367, t. 26, f. 78.

Terebellidse.

73. Amphitrite cirrata, Miill. (Greenl. Jglulualik.)

O. F. Miiller, Prodr. Zool. Dan. 2617.

O. Fabricius, Fauna Greenl. 269.

Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Ann, p. 375, t. 21, f. 53.

74. Amphitrite grcenlandica, Mlgr.

Malmgren, 1. c, p. 376, t. 21, f. 52.
76, Nicolea arctica, Malmgren.

Nordiska Hafs-Annul., p. 381, t. 24, f. 68, 67.

I4UTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND. 176

76. Scione lobata, Mlgr.

1. c, p. 383, t. 23, f. 62.

77. Axionicejlexuosa (Grube).

Terebella fiexuom^ Grube, Archiv f. Naturg, XXVI.,

p. 102, t. 5, f. 2.
Axionicejlexuosa, Malmgren, 1. c, p. 384, t. 24, f. 68.

78. LecBna abranchiata, Malmgr.

1. c, p. 385, t. 24, f. 64.

79. Thelcpus citicinnatus (Fahr.). (Greenl. Iglulualik.)

Amphitrite cificitmata, Fabr., F. Gr. 270.

Terebella ptistulosa, Grube, 1. c, p. 100.

Thelepus Bergmanni, Leuck., Archiv f. N., XV.,

p. 169, t. 3, f. 4.
Lumarajlava, Stimpson, Marine Invert. Gr. M., p. 30.
Thelepus circinnatuSy Malmgr., 1. c, p. 387, t. 22,

f. 58.

80. Leucariste albicans, Malmgr.

Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 390, t. 23, f. 61.
Polycirrus arcticus, Sars, Christiania Vid. Selsk. Fdrh.,
1864, p. 14.

81. Ereutho Smittij Malmgr.

Nord. Hafs-Annul., p. 391, t. 23, f. 63.

82. Artacuma proboscidea, Malmgr.

1. c, p. 394, t. 23, f. 60. -'■^ -

83. Trichobranchus glacialis, Malmgr.

1. c, p. 395, t. 24, f. 65.

84. Tei'ebellides Stroemii, Sars.

Sars, Beskrv. og Jagttag., p. 48, t. 13, f. 31.
Malmgren, 1. c, p. 396, t. 19, f. 48.

Sabellidse.

85. Laonome ? Fabricii (Kr.).

Sahella Fabricii, Kr., Bidrag til Sabellerne, Vid. Selsk.
Overs., 1 856, p. 20.

86. Potamilla renifbrmis (Miill.).

Die nierenformige Amphitrite, Miiller, v. Wiirmern,

p. 194, t. 16.
Sabella reniformis, Leuckart, 1. c, p. 183, t. 3, f. 8.
Sabella aspersa et oculata, Kroyer, I.e., p. 19 et 22.
Potamilla reniformis, Malmgren, Annul, polych.,

p. 114, t. 13, f. 77.

87. Euchone analis, (Kr.).

Sabella analis, Kr. I.e., p. 17.

Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 406, t. 28, f. 88.

88. Euchone tuberculosa, Kr.

Sabella tuberculosa et S. rigida, Kr., 1. c., p. 18.
Etichone tuberculosa, Malmgr., 1. e., p. 401, t. 29, f. 92.

89. Dasychone infarcta, Kr.

Sabella infarcta, Kroyer, 1. c., p. 21.

Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Annul., p. 403, t. 28, f. 86.

90. Chone infundibuliformiSf Kr. (Greenl. Iglualik.)

■11

■'■'1

S.J.

176 LUTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OP GREENLAND.

H
^

h

Tubularia penicilhtSf Fabr., F. Gr., 438 (non Milll.

nee Linn.).
Chone hifundibuliformis et suspecta (?), Kr., 1. c, p. 33.
Sabella paucibranchiatUy Kr., 1. c, p. 22.
Chone infund., Mlgr., N.Hafs.-Ann., p. 404, t. 28, f. 87.

91. Amphicora Fabricii (Mull.).

TubulaHa Fabricii, Mull., Prodr. Z. D. 3066.
Tub. Fabricii, Fabricius, Fauna Groenl., 450, f. 12.
Othonia Fabricii (Johnst.), Gosse, Ann. Nat. Hist.,

2 ser., v., p. 33, t. 4, f. 22.
Amphicora sabella (Ehrbg.), O. Schmidt, Neue Beitr.

Wiirnier, p. 21, t. 2.
Fabricia quadripunctata, Leuck. Beitr. wirbell. Th.,

p. 1.51, t. 2, f. 3; Claparede Mem. Soc. Phys.

Geneve, XVI., p. 118, t. 4, f. 11-15.
91a. Sabella crassicornis, Sars.
S. picta, Kr., 1. c, p. 24.
Malmgr., Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 399, t. 27, f. 83.

Eriographididse •

92. Myxicola Steenstrupii, Kr.

M?/x. Stcenstriipii et Sarsi, Kr. 1, c, p. 9 et 35.
Malmgren, Nord. Hafs-Ann., p. 408, t. 29, f. 90.

Serpulidse.^

93. Hydroidcs norvegica, Gunn.

Serpula triquctra, Fab. F. Gr. 374.
Hydroides norvegica, var. c. grcenlandica, Morch, Re-
visio critica Serpulidarura, p. 31 (sep.).

94. Spirorbis verruca (Fabr.), Morch.

Serpula glomcrata, Fabr., F. Gr. (non Linn.), n. 377.
Spirorbis verruca, Morch, 1. c, p. 85.

95. Spirorbis quadrangularis, Stimps.

Serpula contort uplicata, Fabr., F. Gr. 376.
Spirorbis quadrangularis, Stimps., Mar. Inv. Gr,

Manan, p. 29.
Spir. quadr., var. a. Fabricii, Morch, 1. c, p. 89,

96. Spirorbis borealis, Daud.

Serpula spiriorbis, Fabr., F. Gr. 372 ; Morch, p. 83.

97. Spirorbis spirillum, L.

Serpula spirillum, Linn. S. N. (X.), n. 692.
Malmg., Annul, polych., p. 123 ; Morch, op. cit., p. 92.

98. Spirorbis lucidus (Mont.). (Greenl. Katungiak.)

Serpula porrecta et spirillum.. Fab., F. Gr. 371, 373.
Serpula lucida, Mtg., Test. Brit., p. 507.
Spirorbis (Spirillum) lucidus, var. y. grcenlandica,
Morch, 1. c, p. 93.

99. Spirorbis vitreus (Fabr.).

Serpula vitrea, F. Gr. 378.

* Serptda semilunium (seniivulnm, L.), Fabr., F. Gr. 370, and S. stellarisf
Fabr., F. Gr. 380, are Foramioifera (Morch, Rev. crit. Serpulid., p. 118-119).

,1

TLAND.

on Miill.
. c, p. 33.

, 28, f. 87.

, f. 12.
^at. Hist.,

sue Beitr.

rbell. Th.,
DC. Phys.

33.

35.
'.90.

lorch.

Re-

1.), n.

377.

Inv.

Gr.

p. 89.

5h, p.

83.

cit., ]

k.)

371,

p. 92.
373.

mlandica.

\S. stellaris,
118-119).

LUTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OP GREENLAND. 177

Spirorbis {^Spirillum) vitrcus^ Morch, 1. c, p. 94.

100. Spirorbis cancellatus (Fabr.).

Serpnla canccllata et granulata^ Fabr., F. Gr. 378

et 380.
Spirorbis {Spirillum) cancellatus, Morch, 1. c, p. 94.

101. Protula media, Stmps.

Mobius, Zte deutsche Nordpokrfahrt, II., p. 256,
1. 1., f. 21-24.

Tomopteridse.

102. Tomopteris septentrionalis, Stp.

Nat. For. Vid. Medd., 1849-50, p. iv.

Xumbricidse.f

*103. Lumbricus, sp. (Gr. Pullateriak.)

L. terrestris, Fabr., F. Gr. 258.
*104. Lumbricus (?) rivalis, Fabr.

Fauna Groenl. 260.
*105. EnchytrcBUs vermiculans (Miill.) ? (Greenl. Kuman-
goah.)

Lumbricus vermicularis, Fabr. F. Gr. 259.
*106. Sfemtris lineata (Miill.) ? (Greenl. Kumak.)

Lumbiicus lineatus, Fabr. Faun. Gr. 261.
*107. Clitellio arenarius (Miill.). (Greenl. Pullateriak.)

Lumbiicus arenarius, Fabr. F. Gr. 264.
*108. Clitellio minutus (Miill.). (Greenl. Sirhsao-Kuman-
goa.)

Lumbricus minutus, Fabr. F. Gr. 265.
*109. Opsonais (?) marina, (Fabr.). (Greenl. Kumah.)

Nais mar.. Fauna Groenl. 295.

Opsonais manna, Gervais, Bullet. I'Acad. de Belg.,
v., p. 5 (sep.).

Hirudinidae.

110. Platybdella versipellis (Diesing). (Greenl. Kaneisib-

Kuma.)
Hirudo piscium, Fabr., F. Gr. 301.
Ichthyobdella versipellis, Diesing.
Platybdella scorpii (Fabr. MS.), Malm., Gotcbor,'^

Kongl. Vet. och Vitt. Samh. Hand!., VIII., 1863,

p. 253.
(From Coitus sc&tpius and scor2noides.)

111. Platybdella Fabricii, Malm.

Malm. 1. c, p. 248.

112. Platybdella OlriM, Malm.

Forhandl. Skand. Naturf. Stokholm, 1863, p. 414.
(From Hyas aranea).

113. Platybdella ajfinis. Malm.

1. c, p. 413 (from Phobetor vcntralis).

* The species marked * are doubtful, and have not been revised since the
time of Fabricup

f Eisen described Lumbriculua varieffutus, Miill., and Enchytraus PafjensIC'
cheri, R., from Greenland (Ofv. Vet. Akad. Torh., 187:^).

36122. M

i

178 LUTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OP GREENLAND.

'A.

4

^i*Im.':

Obf. — Other species of Fish-leeclies, not yet determined, have
been found on Atianichas, sp. {PL anari'ichay Malm. ? 1. c.,
p. 122), Liparis tunicatus, Hippofflossus vulgaris {PI. hippo-
glossiy Malm. ? 1. c., p. 257), and Macrtirus rupestns.
.114. Z7i/owc//a, «p. (an hujus loci ?).

{On Caligus hippoglossi.) iC.-.

Echiuridse.

115. Echiurus fordpatus (Fabr.). (Greenl. Illulualik.)

Lumbncus echiurus, Fabr., F, Gr. 268, et Holothuria
forcipatttf ejusdem 349.

Priapulidse.

116. Priajmh's caudatus (Lmk.). (Greenl. Tarfuksunak.) .

Holothuria priapus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (XII.), p. 1091.
Holothuria priapus, O. Fabr., F. Gr. 347.
Holothuria priapus, Zool. Dan., III., p. 27, t. 96,

f. 1 ; IV., p. 18, t. 135, f. 2.
Priapulus caudatus^ Ehlers, Zeitsehr. f. wissensch.

Zool., XI., p. 205, t. 20-21.

117. Priapulus glandifer (Ehlers).

Ehlers, 1. c., p. 209, t. 21, f. 24.

Sipunculidse.

118. Phascolosoma (Erstedii, Keferst.

Keferstein, Zeitsehr. f. wissensch. Zool., XV., p. 436,
t. 31, f. 8, et 33, f. 39.

119. Phascolosoma boreale, Keferst.

Keferstein, 1. c, p. 437, t. 31, f. 7, et t. 33, f. 33.

Myzostomidae (incertae sedis).

120. Myzostoma gigas, Ltk. (MS.).

On Antedon Eschrichtii, M. Tr. ; Copenhagen Museum.

Chsetognatha (ad Nematodas?).

121. Sagitta, sp.

Not uncommon in the Arctic seas in the vicinity of
Greenland.

Is

'fs ■ !

TURBELLARIA.

Obs. — The Planarice and NemcrtetB of Greenland have not
been studied since the time of Fabricius. The following list does
little more than show in what manner his species have been partly
interpreted, and does no justice to the richness of this branch of
the Arctic Fauna. ^

1, Monocelis subulata (Fabr.). (Gr. Kekkursab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 308.

2. Planaria lactca, Miill. (Gr. Kumak.)

F. Gr. 309.*

* Doubtful species: — PL operculata, Fabr. (F. Gr. 310), and PI. caudata,
Miill., F, Gr. 310 (both by the Greenlanders termed "Kekkursab-Kuma," as
are other flat Worms). The latter is perhaps a naked Snail (CErsted, Naturh.
Tidsskr., IV., p. 546).

LiJTKEN ON THE ANNELIDA, ETC. OF GREENLAND. 179

3. Amphiporus grcenlandicus, CErd.

Nat. Tidsskr., IV., p. 581.

4. Omatoplca rubra (Miill.). (Gr. Kekkursab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 304.

5. Polystemma roseum (Miill.).

Mobius, Zte deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, II., p. 257.

6. Tetrastemma grcenlandicuniy Dies.

F. Gr. 311 (PI. Candida).

7. Notospermum viridr. (Miill.^ (Gr. Kekkursab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 305.

8. Meckelia fusca (Fabr.). (Gr. Pullateriak.)

F. Gr. 306.

9. M. angulata (Miill.). (Gr. Pullateriak.^

F. Gr. 303.

A

XVIII.— A Revised Catalogue of the Entozoa of Green-
land, By Dr. Chr. LiJTKEN, University Museum,
Copenhagen. 1875.

Cestoida.^

1. TfBiua pectinata, Goeze.

(Lepus glacialis.)

2. T. expansa, Rud.

(Cervua tarandus, Ovibos moschatus.)

3. T. coenurus, Kiich.

(Canis lagopus : Mobius, Zte deutsche Nordpolar-
fahrt, II., p. 258.)
Obs. — T. canis-lagopodis will probably also be found in the
Arctic Fox in Greenland.

4. T. armillaris, Rud. (Greenl. Akpab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 298 (T. tordse, Fabr.).

Krabbe, K D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., ser. 5, VIII., p. 259,

t. 1, f. 4-6.
(Uria Bruennichii.)

5. T. sternina, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 259, t. 1, f. 7-9.
(Sterna macrura.)

6. T. laritia, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 261, t. 1, f. 16, 17.
(Larus glaucus, tridactylus.)

7. T. micracantha, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 262, t. 1, f. 18-21.
(Larus glaucus, tridactylus, eburneus.)

f

* Ohs. — For the Tapewonns of Birds in Greenland Dr. Krabbe's " Bidrag
" til Knndskab om Fuglenes Bsendelorme," should be consulted, and for those
of the Seals the same author's "Helminthologlske Undersogelser i Danmark
" og paa Island," in the " Transactions of the R. Danish Academy of Sciences,"
vols. VIL and VIIL (1868 and 1870).

M 2

180

LiJTKEN ON THE ENTOZOA OF GREENLAND.

I:

8. T, campy lacantJia, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 263, t. 1, f. 22-24.
(Uria grylle.)

9. T, microrhynchay Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 206, t. 2, f. 38-40.
(Charadrius hiaticula.)

10. T. clavigera, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 267, t. 2, f. 41-43.
(Strepsilas interpres.)

11. T. rctirostris, Cr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 282, t. 5, f. 97-99.
(Strepsilas interpres.)

12. T. megalorhyncha, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 284, t. 5, f. 104-105.
(Tringa maritima.)

13. T. teres, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 284, t. 5, f. 106-108.
(Somateria moUissiroa, spectabilis, Larus glaucus.)
(14.) T. " mallcusy* Goeze (formas monstrosa)).
T. fasciolaria, Pall.
Krabbe, 1. c, p. 288.
(Somateria mollissima, Mergus serrator.)

15. T. minuta, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 292, t. 6., f. 127-129.
(Phalaropus fuliearius, hyperboreus.)

16. T. microsoma, Cr.

Krabbe, 1. c., p. 296, t. 6, f. 146-150.
(Somateria mollissima, spectabilis, Larus glaucus.)

17. T.fusus,KT.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 307, t. 7, f. 180, 181.
(Larus glaucus, L. marinus.)

18. T. brachyphallos, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 310, t. 8, f. 193, 194.
(Tringa maritima.)

19. T. grcenlandicaj Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 316, t. 8, f. 210, 211.
(Harelda glacialis.)

20. T.fallax, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 319, t. 8, f. 221, 222.
(Somateria mollissima.)

21. T. borealis, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 338, t. 10, f. 282, 283.
(Emberiza nivalis.)

22. T. trigonocephala, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, 339, t. 10, f. 284-286.
(Saxicola oenanthe.)

23. Bothriocephalus cordatus, Leuckart.

Krabbe, K. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., VII., p. 377, t. 7,

f. 114-116.
(Homo grcenlandicus, Canis fam. groeul., Phoca barbata,

CEdobaenus rosmarus.^

LUTKFN ON THE ENTOZOA OF GREENLAND.

181

24. B. variabilis^ Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 378. . \

(Phoca vitulina.) :

25. B. lanceolatus, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 378. ' ,

(Phoca barbata.)

26. B. phocarum (Fabr.). (Greenl. Urksuh-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 296, b.; Nat. Hist. Selsk. Skr., I., 2, p. 153,

t. 10.
Tetrabothrium anthocephalum, Rud.
Krabbe, 1. c, p. 379, t. 7, f. 101-105, 117. '•'

(Phoca barb., vitul., Cystophora cristata.)

27. B.fasciatus, Kr,

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 379.
(Phoca hispida.)

28. B. eleganSf Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 378.
(Cystophora cristata.)

29. B. similis, Kr.

Krabbe, 1. c, p. 379.
(Canis lagopus.)

30. B. ditremus, Cr. ?

(Colymbus septentrionalis.)

31. B. rttgosusj Rud. ?

(Gadus ogak.)

32. B. punctatus, Rud.

(Cottus scorpius.)

33. B. crassiceps, Rud. ?

(Cottus scorpius, Gadus ovak, morrhua, Delphinapterus
leucas.)

34. B. proboscideiiSf Rud.

(Salmo carpio.)

35. B. ( Tetrab.) macrocephaluSf Rud. (et sp. aff.)

F. Gr. 297, b. (T. alcae). (Greenl. Akpab-Kuma.)
(Larus glaucus, marinus, tridactylus,Procellaria glacialis,
Uria Bruennichii, grylle, Mergus serrator, Colymbus
septentrionalis, Corvus corax, Falco islandicus.)

36. Octobothrium rostellatuniy Dies. (Greenl. Sullukpaukab'

Kuma.)
F. Gr. 297 (T. erythrini). (Sebastes norvegicus.)

37. Fasciola intestinalisy L. (Greenl. Kakillisab-Kuma,)

F. Gr. 300 (T. gasterostei).

Schistocephalus solidus (Miill.) ; S. dimorphus, Cr.
(Gasterosteus aculeatus, Mergus serrator, Larus
glaucus.)

38. Anthobothrium perfectum, Rud.

(Somniosus microcephalus.)

39. Diplocotyle Olrikii, Kr. '

Krabbe, Vid. Medd. Nat. For., 1874, p. 22, t. 3.
(Salmo carpio.)
Obs. — The Nos. 299, of the "Fauna Groenlandica " (7. scorpH,
"Kaneisub-Kuma"), iromCottus scorpius, Gadus ovakf and Salmo

If]

■■: \l:

If]

I'A

ir^

■ ^1

182 .LiJTKEN ON THE ENTOZOA OF GREENLAND.

I '■'

#i

.'"ijfj' ''

carpio (probably two diiFerenl species, cfr. Rudolphi) ; and 313
(^Fasciola barbata, " Amikorsub-Kuma "), from Gonatus Fabriciif
have not been identified by modern helminthologists. It haa been
suggested that the hist-named (313) is only the spermatophore of
the Squid.

Several Tapeworms have been found in Anser bretitaj Haliatus
albicilta, Larus Sabini, Colymbus glacialis, Fringilla lapponicuy
Hippoglossus vulgaris, &c., but not in such a state that they could
be determined satisfactorily.

Trematoda.

1. Distomum hepaticum, L. (Gr. Sauab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 312. . .:-:

In Sheep (imported ?).

2. D. seriate (Bud.). (Greenl. Ivisarkub-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 314 (Fasciola umblae).
(Salmo alpinus.)
Obs. — Undetermined species of Flukes have been found in
Phoca barbata, Lumpenus aculeatus, and Mergus servator,.

3. Onchocotyle borealis, van Ben.

(Somniosus microcephalus, on the gills.)

4. PhylUne hippoglossi (Fabr.). (Greenl. Netarniab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 302.

(Hippoglossus vulgaris.) . .' . . \ .,

Nematoda.

Obs. — The Nematoda of Greenland have not been worked out.
The following species, with a few exceptions, are enumerated in
the " Fauna Groeulandica," and have been interpreted by later
authors in the manner indicated : —
1, Ascaris mystax, Zed.

(Canis lagopus; Mobius in Zte deutsche Nordpolar-
fahi-t, p. 257).
, 2. A. vermicularis, L. (Greenl. Koartak.)
;•. t , • ■ F. Gr. 248.
'.',■ (Homo groenlandicus.)

3. A. lumbricoidcs, L. (Greenl. Kumarksoah.)

F. Gr. 249.

(Homo groenlandicus.)

4. A. osculata, Rud.

(Phoca groenlandica.)

5. A, gasterostei, Rud. (Greenl. Kakillisab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 242 (Gordius lacustris).
. (Gasterosteus aculeatus.)

6. A, rajcE, Fabr. (Greenl. Taralikkisab-Kunia.)

F. Gr. 253.
(Raja radiata.)

7. Eustrongylus gigcts, Rud. . , -

(Canis familiaris groenlandicus.)

8. Liorynchus gracilescens, Rud. (Greenl. Urksub-Kunia,
_, ^ F. Gr. 251 (A. tubifera). ... v^

^ "' '. (Phoca barbata.) . ', ;

LUTKEN ON THE ENTOZOA OF GREENLAND.

183

md 313
fabiicii,
iiaa been
phore of

laliiBtus
pponicUf
ey could

found in
)r.

n'ked out.

lerated in

by later

^ordpolar-

'.)

9. Ophiostomum dispavy Rud. (Greoul. Atab-Kumuy Neitsib'

Kuma.)
. i F. Gr. 250 et 252 (A. phocoe, ? , et A. bifida, ^ ).
(Phoca grcenlandica, Ph. hispida.)

10. Agomonema commune (Deal.). (Greenl. Kumak.)

■ F. Gr. (241).

11. ^' Nematoiiieum Alcfe-piccs" Rud. (Gr. Akpab-Kuma.)

F. Gr. 257 (Ascaris alee).
(Uria Bruennichii.)

12. " Dub'mm gasterostei uculeati, Rud."

F. Gr. 243 (Gordius globicola).

(Gasterosteus aculeatus.)

Obs. — Fabricius describes four species of Gordius (F, Gr. 244—

247 : G. intestinalis, cinctns, capillnris, lacteolus — " Kumak, Ku-

mangoak ") which apparently have not been interpreted by later

authors ; the first, at least, must proliably bo referred to the

Turbellaria {NemertecB).

Acanthocephala.

1. Echinorhynchus strumosus, Rud. '

(Phoca hispida, vitulina, grcenlandica, Cystophora
cristata, Canis familiaris groenlandicus).

2. E. acusy Rud. (Gr. Okab-Ktima.)

F. Gr. 255-56 (Ascaris versipellis, A. gadi).
(Gadus ovak, morrhua ; ? Hippoglossus vulgaris.)

3. E. polymorphusy Br.

(Somateria mollissima; ? Harelda glacialis.)

4. E. poiTigens, Rud.

(Balaenoptera gigas.)

5. E, hf/strix, Br.

(Graculus carbo, Mergus serrator.)

6. E. ittflatus, Cr.

(Charadrius hiaticula.)

7. E. micracanthus, Rud.

(Saxicola oenanthe.)

8. E. pleuronectis'platessoideSy Rud. (Gr. Okotab-Kuma,)

F. Gr. 254 (Ascaris pleuronectis).

(Drepanopsetta platessoides.)
Obs. — An undetermined species of Echinwhynchus has been
found in Salmo carpio ; another in Squatarola helvetica : un-
described species of Ascaris in Liparis tunicatus and Reinhardtif
Ammodytes, sp., and Motella Reinhardti.

V:
I'-

1(1

i

■ ,m

t i

b'Kwna.

I i

184 LiiTKEN ON THE ECHINODERMATA OF GREENLAND.

XIX. — A Revised Catalogue of the Echinodermata of
Greenland. By Dr. Chr. Lltken, University
Museum, Copenhagen. 1875.

ECHINODP]RMATA.

Bolothuridse.

1. Cucumaria Jrondosa (^Giiun.). (Greenl. luncUunlik, Irk-

soHk.)

F. G. 343, 344 ; Ltk., Gronh Ech., p. 2.

2. C. calciffcra, Ag.

C. Koreni, Ltk., Gronh Ech., p. 4.

3. C. minutUf Fabr. (Greenh Kavmarsungoak.)

F. Gr. 346 ; Ltk. h c, p. 7. Genus Ayresii, Straps,

4. Orcula Barthii, Tr.

Ltk. h c, p. 9.
&, Psolus phantapus, Str.
Ltk. h c, p. 12.

6. Ps. Fabricii (D. K.).

. F. Gr. 348 ; Ltk. h c, p. 13.

Cuvieria Fabricii, Auct. ; Lophothuria Fabricii, Verr.

7. ChiittUota IcBve (Fabr.). (Greenh Kauinarsorsoak.)

F. G. 345 ; Ltk. h c., p. 16.

8. Myriotrochus Jiinkii, Stp.

Vich Medch Nat. For. 1851, p. 55 ; Ltk. 1. c, p. 22.

9. Eupyrgus scaber, Ltk.

Ltk., Gronh Echin., p. 22.

Echinida.^

10. ToxopnciistcsDroebachiensis (Mulh). (Greenh Ekkursak.)

F. Gr. 368 (E. saxatilis) ; Ltk. h c, p. 24.
Strongylocentrotus Droebach., Agassiz, Revision of the
Echin.
Asterida*

11. Asterias polaris, M. Tr. (Greenh Nerpiksoak, Nerpik-

sout.)
; '- F. Gr. 362 (pp.) et 365 ; Ltk. h c, p. 28.

12. A. grocnlandicay Stp.

F. G. 362 (pp.) ; Ltk. h c, p. 29.

13. A. stellionura, Vah

Perrier, Recherches s. h Pedicellaires (1869), p. 48.
Found in the stomach of the Greenland Shark.

14. A. albula, Straps.

A. problema, Stp. ; Ltk. h c., p. 30.
Obs. — Spontaneous division ! Ltk., Overs. Vid. Selsk. Forh.,
1872, p. 117 ; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1873, &c.

♦ Obs. — Brissopsis lyrifera, Forb., was dredged in Davis' Strait, accord<
ing to Goodsir (Forbes, Nat. Hist. Europ. Seas., p. 51).

LAND.

LUTKEN ON TUE ECHINODEllMATA OF OUEENLAND. 185

lATA of

iversity

[ilik, Irk-

Stmps.

icii, Verr.
k.)

p. 22.

|kkursak.)
[ion of the

I, Nerpik-

p. 48.
Ik.

|k. Forh.,

it, accord-

15. A. (Stichaster) rosea, M. Tr.

Cribella rosea, Forb. Ijrit. Sturf.
(With No. 13.)

16. Cribella sanguinolcnta (Miill.). (Grecnl. Ncrpikuout.)

F. Gr. 3G3 (Ast. Hponj^iosa) ; Ltk. Gronl. Ech., p. 31.
Cr. oculata, Fabr. ; Echinastcr cschrichtii, M. Tr.

17. Solaster papposus (L.). (Gri'cnl. Neri»iksout.)

F. G. 3G4 ; Ltk. 1. c, p. 40.

18. S. endcca, L.

Ltk. ]. c, p. 35.

19. Pteraster militaris (Miill.).

Ltk. 1. c, p. 73.

20. CteiiodiscHS crispalus (Relz.).

Cli. pygma'us ct polarit*, M. Tr.
Ltk. Gronl. Echin., p. 45.
2L Arehaster temdspitius (D. K.).

Vid. MecUl. Nat. For., 1871, p. 240.
(With Nos. 13, 15, and 22.)
Ophiurida. "

22. Ophioscolex glacialis, M. Tr.

(With Nos. 13, 15, and 21.)

23. Opiiioglyjtha Sarsii (Ltk.).

Additani. ad hist. Ophiurid., I., p. 42, t. 1, f. 3-4.

24. 0. robiista, Ayr.

Ophiura squamosa, Ltk. 1. c, p. 46, t. 1, f, 7.

25. O. nodosa (Ltk.).

Addit., L, p. 48, t. 2, f. 9.

26. O. Stuwitzii (Ltk.).

Addit., L, p. 51, t. 1, f. 8.

27. Ophioeten sericeum (Forb.).

Ophi. Kroeyeri, Ltk. 1. c, p. 51, t. 1, f. 5.

28. Ophiojnis arctie.us, Lgn.

Oi'. Vet. Akad. Forii., 1866, p. 309.

29. Ophiopholis aculcata (Miill.). (Grecnl. Nerpiksoursak.)

F. Gr. 366; Ltk. Addit., I., p. 59, t. 2, f. 15-16.
Ophiolepis scolopendricn, M. Tr. ; Ophiocoma bellis,
Forb.

30. Anip/nura Sundcvalli, M. Tr.

A. Ilolba'lli, Ltk. 1. c, p. 55, t. 2, f. 13.

31. Opldaeantha spiimlosa, M. Tr.

Ltk. Addit., I., p. iSh, t. 2, f. 14.

Ophiocoma arctica and Ophiacantha gi'oenlandica, M.

Tr.
Ast. bidentata, Rctz. ; Ophiocoma cchinulata, Forb.

32. Asterophyton cucnemis, M. Tr.

F. Gr., p. 367 (Ast. caput-medusaj).
Ltk., Addit., L, p. 70, t. 2, f. 17-19.

33. A. Agassizii, Straps.

Ltk. Addit., III., p. 66.
Crinoida. .^

^ 34. Antedon Eschrichtii (M. Tr.).

Ltk., Gronl. Echinod., p. 55.

■M

ii-

1 mn

180 LiJTKEN ON THE ANTHOZOA, ETC. OF GREENLAND.

XX. — A Revised Catalogue of the Anthozoa and
, . Calycozoa of Greenland. By Dr. Cur. Lijtken,
1 University Museum, Copenhagen. 1875.

n

ANTHOZOA.

PolyRCtinia (Actinida).

1. Actinia {Urtivina) crassicornis, Fubr. (Greeul. Kettu-

ponik.) F. Gr. 340 ; IJ. Dnvisii, Ag. ?

2. A, spectahilis, Fabr. (Greeul. Kettuporareiouk.)

F. Gr. 342, f>.

3. A, (Chrofulractinia) nodosa, Fubr. (Greenl. Aitsib-pa.)

F. Gr. 341.

4. A.{Acthclinis) intcstinalis, Fnbr. (Greenl.Kettuperangoak.)
5-6. Edwanlsia, spp. 2.

7-8. Pcachid, sp. and P. (?) sp.
5-8 arc preserved in the Museum at Copenhagen, but cannot
be identified more uceurately from specimens in alcohol.

Antipatharia.

9. Antipathcs arctica, Ltk.

Overs. K. D. Vid. Sclsk. 1871, p. 18 ; Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist. 4., X., p. 77.
A singlo specimen, found in the stomach of Somniosus

microcephalus (the Greenland Shark). (Rodebay.)

Octactinia (Alcyonaria).

10. Ammothca arctica, Ltk. (MS.)

? Briareum grandijlorum, Mobius, Zte deutsche Nord-

polarfahrt, II., p. 260.
(Not uncommon.)

1 1 . Alc?/onium, sp.

An undetermined specimen in the Museum at Copen-
hagen.

12. Umbellula Linddahlii, K611.

Umb. niiniacea ct pallida, Liudd., K. Vet. Akad.

Handl., XIII., 3, t. 1-3.
(Baffin's Bay and entrance to Omenak Bay, 400 and
122 fatlis.). The identity with the^ type described
by Mylius and Ellis, 1753, "/se* encrinus" L., is
left undecided.
06*.— The ActinidcB want revision, with examination of living
specimens. The " Alcyonia " of the " Fauna Groenlandica " are
apparently either Compound Ascidite (462 and 463) or Spongozoa
(464 and 465).

CALYCOZOA.

1. Liicernaria {Manatiia) auricula, Fabr.

F. G. 332 ; Steenstrup Vid. Medd. Nat. For., 1859,
p. 108.

fc.,^i:

LND.

\ and

iJTKEN,

Kettu-

jib-pa.)
angoak.)

,t Qannot

m. Mag.

\omniosus
odebay.)

he Nord-

it Copen-

t. Akad.

400 and
ilescribed
s" L., is

of living
Ilea " are
Dongozoa

r., 1859,

LUTKBN ON THE ANTIIOZOA, ETC. OP GREENLAND. 187

2. L, quadricornis, Miill.

L. fnscicnluris, Flmj?.

3. L. {//(i/iri/ctus) ovtoradidta (Lmk).

L. auricula, Uathke.
Stoenstrup, I. c, p. 108.

4. L. [Craterntophus) convolvulus, Johnst.

L. cumpanulata, Lmx.

A singlo specimen, collected by tlio late Governor

Olrik ; the other species are not uncommon. (Greeul.

Akuilisaursak, Unnerarsuk, Ornigarsuk.)

XXI. — A Revised List of the Acaleph^ and Hydrozoa of
Greenland. By Dr. Chr. LOtken, University

Museum, Copenhagen.

1875.

The Medusoi and Hydroidte of Greenland have not been
satisfactorily worked out. The following list must be regarded
only as preliminary, being limited to those species whose occur-
rence in Greenland can be stated on tolerably good authority.

Ctenophora (Beroidae). (Greenl. Ikpiarsursah.)

1. Mertcnsia ovum (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 355 {Beroe ovum).
, , Bcroe p'Ueus, Scoresby, Arct. Reg. II. t. 16, f, 4.

Cydippc ovum ct C. cucullus, Esch., Syst. d. Akal.,

p. 25.
Al. Agassiz, Illust. Cat. North Amer. Acal., p. 26,
f. 29-37. • '

2. Pleurohrachia rhododacfyla, Ag.

F. Gr. 354 {Be roe p ileus).

L. Agassiz, Mem. Am. Ac, IV., p. 314, t. 1-5; Coutr.

Nat. Hist. Un. St., III., p. 203-248, t. 2a.
Al. Agassiz, Cat. N. Am. Acal., p. 30, f. 38-51.

3. Idya cucumis (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 353 {Bcroe cucumis) ; Esch., Syst. d. Ak.,

p. 36.
? I. borealis, Less., Zooph. Acal., p. 134.
Obs.—Quid Beroe infundibulum, Fabr. (F. Gr. 352) ?

Discophora (Greenl. Nuertlck) ; Hydrozoa.

4. Aureliajiavidula, Per. Les.

F. Gr. 356 {Medusa aurita).

L. Agassiz, Contrib. Nat. Hist. U. St., III., pi. 6-9.

Al. Agassiz, Cat. N. Am. Ac, p. 42, f. 65-66.

5. Cyanea arctica, Per. Les. (Gr. Nuertlersoak.)

F. Gr. 358 {M. capillata). • > '-

L. Agassiz, Contrib., III., pi. 3-5«., 10, 10a.
Al. Agassiz, Cat., p. 44, f. 67.
OA*.— The difference of Nos. 4 and 5 from their European re-
presentatives may still be questioned.

^!- i

M

HA

'1^

188 LUTKEN ON THE AOALEPH^, ETC. OP GREENLAND,

^n-i

ft

6. Charyhdea hyacinthina (Faber).

Medusa i^Melited) hyacmthina^ Faber, Fische Islands,
p. 197.
Ohs. — Dodecabostricha dubia, Brdt., Quoyia bicolor, Q. G., and
Charybdea pcriphylluj P. L., apparently belong to this or to
closely allied species of this genus !

7. Trachynema digitalc (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 361 \Medusa digitalis).

Eirene digitalis, Esch.

Al. Agassiz, Cat., p. 57, f. 81-86.

8. HydrUf sp.

A fresh-water Polype was observed and collected in
Greenland by the late Governor Olrik.

9. Hydractinia echinata (FL).

F. Gr. 338 {Hydra squamata).

H. polyclina, L. Agassiz, Contrib., IV., p. 227-239,

t. 16 et 26, f. 18 ; Al. Ag., Cat., p. 198, f. 329-330.
Hincks, British Hydr. Zooph., p. 23, t. 4 ; AUman,

Tubularian Hydroids, p. 345-347, 1. 1 5, 16, f. 10, 1 1 .

10. Syncoryne {Sarsia) mirabiiiSf Ag.

Coryne mirab., L. Agassiz, Contrib., IV., p. 185-217,
t. 17-19, 20, f. 1-9 ; Mem. Am. Ac, IV., p. 224,
t. 4, 5.

Al. Agassiz. Cat., p. 175, f. 283-287; Allman, 1. c,
p. 278.

(Distinct from the S. tubulosa of Northern Europe ?)

11. Coryne, sp.

F. Gr. 452 (Fistulana muscoides).

12. Coryne, sp.

F. Gr. 339 {Hydra ramosa, Fabr.).

13. Myriothela phrygia (YsiXiY.).

F. Gr. 333 {Lucernaria phrygia).
Candelabrum phrygium, Blainv.
Allman, Tubal. Hydr., p. 382.

14. Tubularia indivisa, L.

T. Couthouyi, L. Ag., Contrib., p. 266, t. 23a, 24, 26.
Allman, Tubul. Hydr. p. 403 et 400, pi. 20.

15. Monocaulis grcenlandica, Allm. (in litt.)

(An undescribed species in the Museum of Copen-
hagen, which will be described in a forthcoming paper
by Prof. Allman.)

16. Melicertum campanula (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 360 {Medusa campanula).
Campanella Fabricii, Less. Zooph. Ac, p. 281.
Al. Agassiz, Cat., p. 130, f. 202-214.

17. Eudendrium, sp.

F. Gr. 457 {Scrtularia volubilis).

18. Bougainvillia super ciliaris, Ag.

. , , Hippocrene supercil., L. Ag., Mem. Am. Acad., IV.,

p. 250, 1. 1-3.

• i-p ,

iAND.

LiJTKEN ON THE ACALEPHJE, ETC. OF GREENLAND. 189

Islands,

G., and

is or to

lected in

!27-239,

129-330.

Allman,

f.10,11.

185-217,
, p. 224,

aan, 1. c,

urope ?)

;, 24, 26.

Copen-
fig paper

id., IV.,

Bougainv. super ciL, L. Ag., Contrib., IV., p. 289,

t. 27 f. 1-7.
Al.Ag., Cat., p. 153, f. 232-240.
Allman, Tubul. Hydr., p. 315.

? 19. Stomobrachium tentaculatum^ Ag.
F. Gr. 359 {Medusa binKyrpha).
? Al. Agassiz, Cat. p. 98. f. 140-142.

20. Tiaropsis diademataj Ag.

L. Agassiz, Mem. Am. Acad., IV., p. 289, t. 6;

Contrib., IV., p. 308, t. 31, f, 9-15.
Al. Ag., Cat. p. 69, f. 91-93.

21. Campanularia verticillata, L.

C. olivacea, Lmx.

Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., p. 167, t. 32, f. 1.

22. Lafoea fruticosa, Sars.

Hincks, 1. c, p. 22, t. 41, f. 2.

Kirchenpauer, Zte deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, II., p. 416.

23. Cuspidella, sp. In the Museum, Copenhagen.

24. Salacia abietina, Sars.

Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., p. 212, t. 41, f. 3.
Grammaria robusta, Stmps.

25. Eucope ( Thaumantias) diaphana, Ag.

L. Agassiz, Mem. Am. Ac, IV., p. 300, f. 1, 2.
Al. Ag., Cat., p. 83, f. 115-125.

26. Zygodactyla grcenlandica (Per. Les.).

F. Gr. 357 (^Medusa cequorea).
Al. Ag., Cat., p. 103, f. 153-156.

27. Halecium miiricatum, Ell. Sol.

Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., p. 223, t. 43, f. 1.
Obs. — Sertularia halccina^ Fabr., belongs to the Polyzoa !

28. Sertularia jnimila, L.

F. Gr. 456 {S. thuja).

L. Agassiz, Contrib., IV., p. 326, t. 32 {Dynamena

pumila).
Al. Ag., Cat., p. 141, f. 225-226.
Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., p. 260, t. 53, f. 1.

29. Sertidaria abietina, L.

F. Gr. 453.

Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., p. 266, t. 55.

30. Sertidaria fastigiata, Fabr.

F. Gr. 458 {S.fastigiata).

(Vix S. argentea, L., Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph.,
p. 268, t. 56.)

31. Sertidarella rugosa, L.

F. Gr. 454 (Sertularia rugosa).
Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., t. 47, f. 2.
Amphitrocha rugosa, Ag.

32. Sertidarella poli/zonias, L. (Greenl. Ni/aurscet.)

F. Gr. 460 {Sertularia ciliata) ; K. D. Vid. Selsk.
Skr., 1824, p. 37.

' I

.*♦«

190 LiJTKEN ON THE AOALEPH-aB, ETC. OF GREENLAND^

, ;.v Cotulina polf/zonias, Ag.

Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., p. 235, t. 46, f. 1.
33. 5. tricuspidata (Alder).

Hincks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph., p. 239, t. 47, f. 1.
Kirchcnpauer, Zte dentsche Nordpolarfahrt, H., p. 416.

Ohs. — Several boreal Siphonophora (Diphyes, Physophora, &e.)
are also, at least occasionally, found in the neighbourhood of South
Greenland. -

jir!

:f: U

m

XXII. — A Revised Catalogue of the Spongozoa of
Greenland. By Dr. Chr. Lutken, University Mu-
seum, Copenhagen. 1875.

r 1-

SPONGOZOA. ' .;

Obs. — The Sponges from Greenland in the Museum of Copen-
hagen, and those brought home by the German Expedition to.East
Greenland, were determined by Oscar Schmidt in " Grundziige
einer Spongien-Fauna des atlantischen Gebietes" (1870), by
^. Hdckel in his monograph, " Die Kalkschwamme " (1873), and
by both authors in "Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt," zte
Abth. (1874). The following species are enumerated : —

1. Filifera, sp. {Hireinia variabilis).

0. Schmidt. Grundz., p. 31.

2. Cacospongia, sp.

Nordpolarf., IT., p. 430.

3. Chalinula ovulum, O. S.

Grundz., p. 38, t. 5, f. 1.

4. Reniera, sp.

Nordpolarf., p. 430.

5. Amorphina genitrixy O. S.

Grundz., p. 41, t. 5, f. 9.

6. Eumastia sitiens, O. S.

1. c, p. 42, t. 5, f. 12.

7. Siiberites Luetkenii, O. S.

1. c, p. 47, t. 5, f. 7. . .

8. S. arcigery O. S. . '

1. c, p. 47, t. 5, f. 6.

9. Thecophora scmisuberites, O. S.

1. c, p. 50, t. 6, f. 2.

10. Isodictya fimbriata. Bbnk.

1. c, p. 56.

11. /. infundibuliformiSf Bbnk.

Nordpolarf., II., p. 430.

12. Desmacidon anceps, O. S.

1. c, p. 430.
.13. Esperia intermedia, 0. S.
1. c, p. 433.

LUTKEN ON THE SPONGOZOA OF GREENLAND.

191

14. E.fahricanSf O. S.

Ibid.

15. Geodia simplex, 0. S.

Grundziige, p. 70.

16. Halisarca Dujardinii, Johnst.

Nordpolarf., II., p. 435.

17. Ascaltis Lamarckii, H.

Kalkschw, p. 60, t. 9, f. 5, t. 10, f. 4.

18. Ascortis Fabricii (O. S.).

Leucosolenia Fabricii, 0. S., Giiindz., p. 73; Kalkschw.,
p. 71, t. 11, f. 3, t. 12, f. 3.

19. A, corallorhiza, H. . ; -f ,

Kalkschw., p. 73, t. 11, f. 4, t. 12, f. 4.

20. Ascandra reticulum (O. S.).

Nardoa retic, O. S., Grundz., p. 73 ; Kalkschw., p. 87,
t. 14, f. 4, t. 20.

21. Leucandra Egedii {O. S.). .' ;

Sycinula Eg., O.S., Grundz., p. 74 ; Kalkschw., p. 173,
t. 32, f. 1.

22. X. awawas (Mont.).

Sycinula penicillata, O. S., Grundz., p. 73, t. 2, f. 25 j
Kalkschw., p. 200, t. 32, f. 5, t. 40, f. 1-8. , ,: ,

23. L. still/era (O. S.).

Leucandra stilif., O. S., Grundz., p. 73, t. 2, f. 24 ;
Kalkschw., p. 225, t. 33, f. 4, t. 40, f. 11.

24. Sycaltis glacialisy H.

Kalkschw., p. 269, t. 45, f. 4-7.

25. Sycandra ciliata (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 466 ; O. Schm., Grundz., p. 74 ; Kalkschw.,
p. 296, t. 51, f. 1, t. 58, f. 9.

26. S. arctica, H.

Sycon raphanus, O. S., 1. c, p. 74 ; Kalkschw., p. 353,
t. 55, f. 1, t. 60, f. 15.

27. S. compressa (Fabr.).

F. Gr. 464 ; Sycinula clavigera, O. Schm., 1. c, p. 74,

t. 2, f. 26.
Kalkschw., p. 360, t. 55, f. 2, t. 57.

28. S. utriculus (O. S.).

Ute utric, O. S., 1. c, p. 74, t. 2, f. 27.
Kalkschw., p. 370, t. 55, f. 3, t. 58, f. 3.

13

:-\ \'.: .'*

n j •'I

t«

5 I* :■,

(I ;

P

ii

192

PARKER AND JONES ON FORAMINIFERA.

; ^ «•

XXIII. — FoRAMiNiFERAfrom the Hunde Islands in South-
east or Disco Bay, Davis' Strait, on the West Coast
of Greenland (hxt. 68° 50' W., long. 53° N.), from
soundings taken by Dr. P. C. Sutherland in 1850.
By Professors W. K. Parker, F.RS., and T. Rupert
Jones, F.R.S. From a Memoir on some Foraminifera
from the North- Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, including
Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay : Phil. Trans, civ., 1865,
pp. 326, &c.

I. Hunde Islands, 25 to 30 fathoms. Pale-grey micaceous clay ;
more than half small mica-flakes. With vegetable matter (Fucal) ;
Hydrozoa {Sci'tularia) ; Polyzoa {Bercnicea, &c.) ; Entomostraca
(Ci/there, &c.) ; bivalve and univalve Mollusca. Foraminifera :—
Polymorphina, Truncatulina, Pulvinulitia, Polj/stomella, JVojiio-
ninOf Nummulhia, Cassidulina, Bulimina, Tcxtularia arid VcT'
neuilina, Cornuspira, Quinqucloculi?ia, Triloculina, Lituola.

II. 28 to 30 fathoms. Gi'avel of hornblende-schist and syenite.
Sea-weed (i^«^««s) ; NuUipores ; fragments of J5rt/awM5 (predomi-
nant) ; Crustacea ( Talitrus, Cythcrc, &c.) ; spines and plates of
Echinus ; Polyzoa ; Univalves and Bivalves. Foraminifera : —
Glohigerina, TruncatuUna, Pulvinulina, Discorbina, PolystO'
mella, Nonioiiina, Cassidulina, Quinq^ieloculijia^ Lituola,

III. 30 to 40 fathoms. Shelly sandy mud, with syenitic frag-
ments. Fragments of Balani ; Cy there ; Serpula ; spines of
Echi7ius; Bivalves and Univalves. Foraminifera: — Nodosaria,
Cristellaria, Lagena, Polymoi'phina, Uvigerina, Glohigerina^
Y'runcatulina, Pulvinulina, Discorhina, Polystomella, Nonionina,
Cassidulina, JBuUmina^ Virgnlina, Bolivina, Tcxtidaria, VerncU'
ilina, Patcllina, Trochammina, Quifiqucfoculina, Lituola.

IV. 50 to 70 fathoms. Shelly, fine, syenitic sand. Serpula.
Bivalves and Univalves. Foraminifera : — T^agcjia, Polymorp/mia,
TTvigerina, Trimcatulina, PulvinuUna, Discorhinn, Polystomella^
JVonionitia, Cassidulina, Patellina, Qiiinqtieloculina, TMuola.

V. 60 to 70 fathoms. Shelly, sandy, syenitic mud. Serpula,
Balanus (predominant) ; Univalves and Bivalves. Forminifera :—
Dentalina, Cristellaria, iMgcna, Polymnrphina, Uvigerina, Clo-
bigcrina^ Trimcatulina, Pulvinulitia, Discorbina, Polystomella,
Nonionina, Cassidulina, Bulimina, VirguUna, Bolivina, TextU'
laria, Bigencrina, Vcrneuilina, Spirillina, Patcllina, Trochani'
mina, Cornuspira, Quinqueloculina, Trilocnlina Lituola.

The five specimens of sea-bottom above-mentioned, taken at
depths of from 25 to 70 fathoms, and consisting mainly of shelly
muddy sands, aiford a good local example of the F'oramiuiferal
fauna of the " Arctic Province "* of naturalists, at the " Coralline

* See " The Natural History of the European Seas," by E. Forbes and
R. Godwin-Austen, pp. 28, &c. 8vo. Van Voorst, London, 1853.

rAllKKU AND JONES ON rollAMINIFEU.V.

193

zonn" (lo-oO fatlioiiis) mid the " Coral zone " (oO-lOO (hllioins)
of Diivis' Strait, fjujciue Jibound in these dredgln^s at from
30 to 70 f'uthouis ; Pohjmorpluna is small here and rather eom-
nion ; Uvlgirhiu common at from 30 to 70 fathoms, bnt small.
Crlohigeriufc are not rai'o at the same depths, but are very
small. Truncatidina {PlanorbuHnci) flourishes at all the depths
(25-70 fathoms). Puivinulina is frc(dy represented by the small
P. Karstcni. Discorbind gets more abundant with the grcsater
depth. The simph; i'oims of ]*oli/stonivll<i, inehidin<>; the feeble
Nonioniud'y havi; their home evidently in this region. Cassidulwa
abounds, but is not large. A small JVu/iuunlrna, the feeble repre-
sentative of a once highly potent species, still abounding in some
warm seas, is not wanting in the " Coralline zone." The essen-
tially Arctic form of Bul'tinbm {li. clcgatitissund) flourishes at
from 30 to 70 fathoms at the IluniU^ Islands, and other varieties
are not wanting, though not al)uudant. The TexhiUtrue are re-
presented by some small specimens ol' the type, and by three of
its modifications in small but numerous individuals. SpiriUuKi.
is very rari^ and small. PatcUiiut. is small and common from 30
to 70 fathoms. TrovlHOiimhta is couimon, though small, in the
deei)est soundings. Coruuapira is conuuon at the least and the
greatest depths. QnlnquelocnUHa is connnon, but not laige,
throughout. TnlocuHna occurs freely at 2o to 30 fathoms.
lAluola abounds from 25 to 70 fathoms.

J^

M

H
*.^i

i

* 1

XXIV. — FoRAMiNiFERA from Baffin's Bay. Bv Prof,
W. K. Parkeh, F.B.S. ; and Prof. T. Rupert Jones,
F.R.S. From a Memoir on some Foraminiferii from
the North Atlantic Oceans, including Davis' Strait and
Baffin's Bay : Phil. Trans, civ. 18G5, pp. 325, &;c.

ii

Soundings from Baflin's Bay, between 76° 30' and 74'^ 45' N.
hit., derived from seven deep-sea soundings and some iceberg nuid
taken during one of the Arctic Expeditions under Sir Edward
I^iny.

This material from the " Arctic Province " of naturalists * is
but scanty. None of the Foraminifcra here obtained are numerous
except J^oh/stoiiicUa stridtopunctatd, No7iionina smpha, I'liin-
cdtnlina lohatnld, and Cdssidulina Ifvvigdtd, the first two of
Avhich arc at home in Arctic Avaters ; and none have attained
here a large size except Lituohe. The material fi-om 150
fathoms yielded these relatively large and numerous s[)ecimens,

I. — i^i-om lat. 75'' 10', long. 60" 12' ; ? fathoms ; fine grey syenitic
sand, with syenitic fragments : DintaUnd, Ldf/eud, Trunentnlhia,
]*olyst()nu'll(i and Nonioniud^ Cdssidulutd, Quinquclocuruui,
Lit Hold.

5 « I i

'^

ii' ^''

■m

* .V(c K. Forbes ami \\. (iodwin-Austen's " Nr.tural History of the Euvo[)cau
Seas." 8vo. London, Vim \'uorst, 1853.

301:22. N

If 'L

104

PARKKR AND JONES ON FORAMINIFERA.

n

i

t

ft

I

■'•

If

II.— Lat. 76° 30', long., 77° 52' ; loO fathoms ; greyish muddy
micaceous sand, with syenitic fragments : Globigcrhia, Truncatu-
Una, Pulvinulma, PolystomcUa and Nonioninay Cassidulinaf
Lituola.

III.— Lat. 74° 45', long. 59^ 17'; 250 fathoms, grey sandy mud;
quartzose sand, angular and rounded ; no Foraminifera.

IV.— Lat. 75° 25', long. 60°; 314 fathoms ; syenitic sand, with
fragments of syenite : Triloculina, Lituola.

v.— Lat. 76° 20', long. 76<^ 27' : no Foraminifera.

VI. — Lat. 75°, long. 59° 40' ; 230 lathoms ; Tnmcatulina,
Polystomella and Noidoniiiu, Quinfjucloculina, Lituola.

VII. — Lat. 76** 10', long. 76°; sand from an iceberg ; grey, fine,
micaceous syenitic, with fragments of syenite : no Foraminifera.

XXV. — Foraminifera, Polycystina, &;c., from Davis'
Strait. Extracted from Dr. Ch. G. Ehrenberg's
" Microgeological Studies on the Microscopic Life of
" the Sea-bottom of all Zones, and its Geological
" Influences," in the " Abhandlungen k. Akad. Wiss.
" zu Berlin/' for 1872, pp. 131-399, with 12 plates
and a map. 4to. 1873.

Soundings in Davis' Strait from 6,000 to 10,998 feet, and in

Ehrenl>er<»-

J861,

p. 275,

ni the
ike,

one instance 12,540 feet, are noticed by

" Monatsbericht k. Akad. Wiss. Berlin " for

and several Foraminifera, containing their animal matter, are

figured in the "Abhandl. fiir 1872," PI. I., and paitly in Tl. II.

Thus in PI. 1. :—

Fig.

?>
J)

«
»

>l

)>

J)

»
55
55
55
55
55

1. Aristerospira Liopentas, 6,000'.

2. A. Microtretas, 6,000'.

3. A. porosa, 6,000'.

4. A. Pachyderma, 6,000'.

5. A, glomcrata, 6,000'.

6. xMilioIa Daetylus, 10,998'.

7. Quinqueloculina oblonga, 10,998'.

8. Grammostomum ? euryleptum, 6,000'.

9. Phaneroptomum microporum, 6,000'.

10. Planulina lajvigata, 6,000'.

11. Phanerostomum Micromega, 6,000'.

12. P. Alloderma, 10,988'.

13. P. scutellatum, 6,000'.

14. P. Globulus, 12,540'.

15. Planulina abyssicola, 9,240'.

16. P. Globigeriua, 6,000'.

17. P. groeulandica, 10,988'.

18. Nonioniua borealis, 6,000 .

19. llosaliua llcxas, 6,000'.

20. Planulina deprcssa, 6,000

I

muddy
ncatU'
lulina,

f mud ;

1, with

itulina,

iy, fiuo,
lii'era.

Davis'

({BEIIG'S

Life of
ological
}. Wiss.
J plates

, tmd iu

in the

75, he,

tor, are

1 ri. II.

!1

T

^

1

EHRENBERO ON FORAMINTFERA, ETC.

195

Fig. 21. Rotalia profunda, 10,998'.
„ 22. R. globulosa, 10,998'.
„ 23. Pylodexia glomerulus, 6,000'.
And in PI. If., figs. 24, 25, Pylodexia Uvula, 6,000'.

According to the nonieuclaturt: of English rhlzopodists {see
"Annals Mug. Nat. Hist.," ser. 4, vol. ix., p. 211, 280 ; x., p. 184,
253, 453, and for March 1, 1873), the study of Dr. Ehrenberg's
genera and species would lead us to regard figs. 1-5, 9-16, and
22 us various individuals of Glohiycrina biilloidcs, D'Orb., with
some modifications of spirality and size of cliuiubers, whilst
fig. 23 and figs. 24 and 25 of PI. II. are Glob'ujcr'uue within the .
specific limits of Gl. hulloides, but varietal, near clcvata and
helicina (D'Orb.). Fig. 6 is Lagcna globosa, var. ; 7, Quin-
(jucloculina ; 8, Textutaria sayittula. Figs. 17 and 19-21, are
Planorhulhue^ small growths and varieties of PL vuUjuris pro-
bably ; and fig. 18, Nonionina. Looked at in this light, this
group of Foraminifera, excepting its far great richness in Globi-
yerince, is to a great extent such as has been described from
Davis' Strait and Baftin's Bay by Parker and Jones in the " Phil.
*' Trans.," civ,, 1865. Sec above, pp. 192, 193.

Besides Davis' Strai:, Hingston Bay, Greenland, has also
yielded Microzoa to Dr. Ehrenberg (" Monatsber.," 1853, p. 523,
&c.). All of the foregoing, together with the materials he ob-
tained from the First and Second* German North Polar Expedi-
tions ("Monatsb.," 1869, p. 253, &e., and 1872, p. 282, &c.) and
one sounding from Beluing's Strait ('' Abhandl.," 1872, p. 195),
Dr. Ehrenberg has grouped in the " Abhandl." for 1872 (Table,
pp. 220-329), with the following results for the "North-Polar
Zone " : —

Polythalamia (Foraminifera), 36

Polygastrica (Di
Polycystina, 6.

unini
itomaceaj,

&c.), 92.

Phytolitharla (51), Geolithia (3), and Zoolitharia (4), (spicules
of Sponges, «fcc.), 51.

n

n

U

H

I?
?

XXVI. — On the Existence of Marine Animals at various
Depths in Seas abounding in Floatin(} Ice, in
Arctic Regions near Greenland and Spitzberuen.
From the Appendix B. of SiR C. Lyell's " Antiquity
of Man/' p. 508. 1863.

<(

" Dr. Torell, after he had examined, l)etAveen the years 1856
and 1860, the glaciers of Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, Green-
land, and Spitzbergen, was appointed to command in 1861 a
scientific expedition fitted out at tlu' joint expi'iise oi the SAVedisli
Government and Prince Oscar of Swetleu. It consisted of two

* For notes on the ForaiuiuitVrii of tli? N.E. co.ist of (jreciilaud, «<-■
f lutLcr ou,

N 2

w

%.

19G iai:ll and torell on life in auctic skap.

t I

s'llps, 1111(1 n snrvoy wns made of tlio const of Spitsbergen nn<l the
luljoiiiiii;^ sens.

" .So liir from finding any scnreity of Molluscn, tlieso explorers
collected no less than 150 living species, chiefly on the west and
north coasts of Spitzbergen, in hit 79° and 80° N., and the number
of individuals, as well ns the variety of species, was often great,
especially where the bottom consisted of fine mud derived from
moraines of glaciers, and from the grinding action of the land-ico
on the rocks below.

" Between Spitzl)ergen and the north of Norway, but nearer the
former country, Dr. Torell and his fellow-labourer Mr. Chydenius
obtained, at the enormous depths of 1,000 and 1,500 fathoms
(September 1861), Mollusca (a Dcntalinm and Build or Cyliclina)^
a Crustacean, Polythalamlan Shells, a Coral three inches long,
with several red Actinias attached to it, and a few Annelids.
These occurred to the west of lieeren's Island, in latitude
76° 17' N., and longitude 13° 53' E., in a sea Avhere floating ice is
common for ten months in the year. The temperature of the mud
at the bottom was betwc^en 32° and 33° Fahrenheit, and that of
the water at the surface 41°, and of the air 33° Fahrenheit.

" In Greenland, north of Disco Island, between latitude 70° and
71° N., in a deep channel of the sen, separating the peninsula of
Noursoak from the island of Omenak, a region where the largest
icebergs come down into IJaffin's Ihty, Dr. Torell dredged u|),
besidcis more than twenty other Molhisks, Tcrchratclla Spitz-
herffcnsis, living at a depth of 250 fathoms. This shell I found
fossil in 1835, at IJddevalla, in the ancient glacial beds, far south
of its present range. The bottom of the sea in the Omenak channel
consisted of impalpable nnul, and on the surface of some of the
floating bergs was similar nnitl, on Avhich they who trod sank
knee-deep ; also numerous blocks of granitic nndother rocks of all
sizes, most of them striated on one, two or more sides. Hero,
therefore, a deposit must be going on of mud containing marine
shells, with intermingled glaciated pebbles and boulders.

"A species of Kucula (^Lcda truncata or Yoldia truncata^
Brown), now living in the seas of Spitzbergen, North Greenland,
and Wellington Channel, Parry Islands, was found by Dr. Torell
to be one of the most characteristic species in the mud of those
icy regions. Of old, in the Glacial Period, the same shell ranged
much farther south than 'it present, being found embedded in the
Bonlder-clay in the south of Norway and Sweden as well as of
Scotland. It has been observed by the Rev. Thomas Brown,
together with severi^l other cxclusiv ly Arctic specie's, at Klie, in
the south of Fife, in glacial clay, at the level of liighwat(!r-mark.
I have myself collected it in a fossil state in \\\q glacial clay of
Portland and other localities in INIaine in North America. It is the
shell well knoAvn as Lida Portlaudica of Hitchcock.

" In ponds and lakes in ' the outskirts' of North Greenland, in
Disco Island for example, no freshwater Mollusca were met with
by Dr. Torell, though some species of Crustacean of the genera
Aims and Brunchipus inhabit such waters. This may help us to

^

1'.

LYRLL AND TORELL OX IJFK TX AUCTir SKAS.

197

.

t'xpliiiii tli(! wiiiit of IossHh in all <;l:i('ial dcpnsiJs of llnviutilc or
liicustrino orij^in. Tlu; discoveries above referred to show lliat
tlio niarino glacial beds ot' ilw Clyde and those of Elie in File,
with their Arctic shells, are jirecisely such IbrniatioMsas nii^jfht Ik-
looked lor as belon^jfing to a |)(!riod Avhon Scotland was nnder^oinu;
glaciation as intense as that to which Spitzbcrgou and Nortli
Greenlan*! arc now subjected."*

' those
i'ang(Ml
in tho

as of

:irown,

iWe, i!i

mark.

•lay of

is the

XXVlI.-The First Part of tlio" Outlini:s of iiie Dis-
" TRiHUTioN of Arctic Plants." By J. D. llooKi.it,
M.D., F.R.S., &c. &c. Trans. Liui). Soc, V(d. 2:i,
IcSGJ, pacres 251-348. Head June 21, ISOO. Koprinted
by permission.

[Owinj^ to want of time, this ^lomoir is npiintt'd as it appeared in lS(il,
without reference to sliglit modifications in the calculations whicli suhsequent
discoveries necessitiite. The most important of these discoveries, liowever,
arc given in foot-notes, &c. — J. D. IIookeu, April 187o.]

Contents.

I. — Introduction, p. 197.
II. — On the Local Distribution of

Plants within the Arctic

Circle, p. 202.
III. — On the Distribution of the

A.rctic Flowering Plants in

various Regions of the Globe,

p. 205.
IV. — Botanical Districts within the

Arctic Circle: —

1. Arctic Europe, p. 209.

2. Arctic Asia, p. 211.

3. Arctic West America,

p. 212.

4. Arctic East America,

p, 214.

5. Arctic Greenland, p.

216.

V. — On the Arctic Proportions of
Species to Genera, Orders,
and Classes, p. 222.

VI. — On the Grouping of Forms,
Varieties, and Species of
Arctic Plants for the Pur-
poses of Competitive Study.
[Not reprinted.]

VII.— Tabulated Vie-v of Arctic
FU)weriiig Plants, and Perns,
with their Distribution.
[An Abstract of the (ireen-
land and Kast-Arctic-Ameri-
can Plants, printed, p. 224.]

VIII. — Observations on the Species.
[Not reprinted.]

I. — Introduction.

I shall endeavour in tho following pages to comply, as far as
I can, with a desire expressed by several distinguished Arctic
voyagers, that I should draw up an account of the affinities and
distribution of the flowering plants of tho North-Polar regions.
Tho method I have followed has been, first, to ascertain the names
and localities of all Plants which appear on good evidence to have

* See also the notes on the Continental Ice of Grecnhind, former Climate
of Greenland, and range of fossil Sequoia over Arctic Regions, on Mackenzie
River, and in Iceland, " Antiquity of Man," 4th etlit., 1873, pp. 274-281.

{

1 3

n

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i 4

m

a

198

TIOOKEr. ON AlJf'TTr TT- ANTS.

\

^'■*

I i. *

l)ccn found north of tlio Arctic Circle in each continent ; then lo
divide the Polar Zone longitudinally into areas charncterised hy
ditFcrenccs in their vegetation ; then to trace the dislrihution of
tlie Arctic Plants, and of their varieties and very closely allied
forms, into the Temperate and Alpine regions of hoth licmisphcres.
Having tubulated these data, I have endeavoured to show how
far their present distrihiition may be accounted for by slow
changes of climate dining and since the Cirlncial Period.

The Arctic flora forms a circumj)()lar belt of 10^ to 14° latitude
north of the Arctic Circle. There is no abrupt break or change
in th(^ vegetation anywhere along the belt, except in the meridian
of liaffin's Bay, whose opposite shores present a sudden change
from an almost purely Kiu'opcan llora on its east coast, to one
with a large admixture of American jdants on its Avest.

The number of flowering plants Avhich have been collected
within the Arctic Circle is 762 (Monocot. 214, Dicot. 5-iH). Jn
the present state of cryptogamic Itotany it is impossible to esti-
mate accurately the number of flowcrless plants found within the
same area, or to define their geographic^al limits; l)ut the fol-
lowing figures give the best approximate idea I have obtained : —

Filicos -

- 28 Characeae

2 Fungi

- 200?

Lycopodiacea

- 7 Musci

• 250 AlgiB

- 100

Equisetiiceae

- S Hepaticfc

■ 80 Lichenes

- 250

Total Cryptogams

- 925

„ Phajuogams

- 762

1,687

Regarded as a whole, the Arctic flora is decidedly Scandi-
navian, for Arctic Scandinavia, or Lapland, though a very small
tract of land, contains by far the richest Arctic flora, amounting
to three-fourths of the whole ; moreover, upwards of three-fifths
of the species, and almost all the genera of Arctic Asia and
America, are likewise Lapponian, leaving far too small a per-
centage of other forms to admit of the Arctic, Asiatic, and
American floras being ranked as anything more than sub-
divisions, which I shall here call " Districts," of one general Aictie
flora.

Proceeding eastwards from Baffin's Bay, there is, first, the
Greenland District, whose flora is almost exclusively Lapponian,
having an extremely slight admixture of American or Asiatic
types ; this forms the western l)oundary of the purely European
flora. Secondly, the Arctic-European District, extending cast-
ward to the Obi River, beyond the Ural range, including Nova
Zembla and Spitzbergen ; Greenland would also l)e included in
it, were it not for its large area and geographical position.
Thirdly, the transition from the comparatively rich European
District to the extremely poor Asiatic one is very gradual ; as is
that from the Asiatic to the richer fourth or West- American
District, which extends from Bchring's Straits to the Mackenzie
River. Fifthly, the transition from the West to the East-American

^

:itiVf^

HOOKF.Il ON AIICTIC I'LAXTS.

100

one

fifths

1 and

% per-

aiid

sub-

Aictic

^

rllstrict is ovon less marked, for llio lapso of Eiiroponn and West
American Hpocies is trifling, and the appearance of East- American
one is equally so ; the transition in vegetation from this distriet
again to tliat of Greenland is, as I have stated above, compara-
tively very abrupt.

The general uniformity of the Arcli*; (lora, and the special dif-
ference between its subdivisions may ho thus csfimated: the
Arctic PhoBuogamic flora consists of 762 species; of these, f> 16
are Arctics-European, many of which prevail thiou^hout tUv polar
area, being distributed in the followii<g proportions through its
diflTerent longitudes : —

Seandin.'ivlun

AHiutic aud

forms.

Aniericiin.

Arctic Europe - 616

. 586

- 30=1 : 19 /iT

„ Asia - 233

- 189

- 44=1 : 4-2

„ W. America 364

- 2o4

- 110=1 : 2-3

„ E. America 379

- 269

- 110=1 : 2-4

„ Greeidand - 207

- 196

- 12 = 1 : 16-2

This talde places in a most striking point of view the anoma-
lous condition of Greenland, Avhieh, though so favourably situated
for harbouring an Arctic-American vegetation, and so imflivourably
for an Arctic-European one, presents little trace of the botanical
features of the great continent to which it geographically belongs,
iind an almost absolute identity Avith those of Europe.

Moreover, the peculiarities of the Grecniland flora arc not con-
lined to these; for a detailed examination shows that it differs
from all other parts of the Arctic regions in wanting many ex-
tremely common Scandinavian plants, which advance far north in
all the other polar districts, and that the general poverty of its
flora in species is more due to an abstraction of Arctic types than
to a deficiency of temperature. This is proved by an examination
of the Temperate portion of the Greenland peninsula, Avhich adds
very few plants to the entire flora as compared with a similar
area south of any other A rctic region, and these few are chiefly
Arctic plants and almost Avithont exception Arctic-Scandinavian
s})eeies.

There is nothing in the physical features of the Arctic regions,
their oceanic or aerial currents, their geographical relations, nor
llieir temperature, which, in my opinion, at all accounts for the
exceptional character of the Greenland flora ; nor do I see how it
can be explained except by assuming that extensive changes of
climate, and of land and sea, have exerted great influence, first in
directing migration of the Scandinavian species over the whole
polar zone, and afterwards in introducing the Asiatic and American
species with which the Scandinavian are so largely associated in all
the Arctic Districts except those of Europe and Greenland. It
is inconceivable to me that so many Scandinavian plants should,
under existing conditions of sea, land, and temperature, have not
only found their way westward to Greenland, by migration across
the Atlantic, but should have stopped short on the east shore of
Baffin's Bay, and not crossed to America ; or that so many

vm

.,«•

200

IIOOKEK ON ARCTIC rLANTS.

Anicricim lypfs should trnnlniiN* so ;il>niptly on tlio west coast
of Jlndiii's IWvy, iiiid not cross to (Jrcciiliiiul utid K'iii'o|)(' ; oi* tliiit
( Jrcciiland slioidd contain Jictiially nnich fewer species of ICiiropcaii
plants than have I'oiind their way enstwinds from fjiplund l»y Asia
into Western and I'iasteiMi Arctic America; or thiit the Scandina-
vian veg<'tation should in every lonj^itmle have ini;,'rated across the
tropics of Asia and Ainerii^n, whilst those typical plants of these
continents which have found theii- way into the Aiclic re^^ions
have there rcinaine(l i-estrietcd to their own meridians.

It appears to me dillicidt to account for these facts, unless w(5
admit Mr. Darwin's hypotheses,* first, that the existing Scandi-
navian tlora is of j^reat anticpiity, and that |>i'cvious to the (Uacial
l"]poeh it was more inuforndy distril)uted over the polai' /oui' than
it is now ; secondly, that duriupj the advent of the (ilacial Period this
Scandinavian vejjfetation was driven southward in every lon^ilndi-,
and even across the Tropics into tlie South Temperate zone ; and
tliat on the sncceedin;j; warmth of the present epoch, those species
that survived both ascended the mountains of the warmer /ones,
and also returned northwards, accompanied by al>oi'i^ines of the
countries they had invaded during tlusir soutliern migiation. ]Sli'.
Darwin shows how aptly such an explanation meets the dillicully of
accoimling for the restriction of so many American- and Asiatic-
Arctic types to their own p(>culiar longitudinal zones, and for
what is a far greater difficulty, the representation of the same
Arctic genera by most closely allied species in tlifrerent longitudes.

To this rei)resenlation and the comi)lexity of its character, 1
shall have to allude when indicating the sources of dilficultics
I have encountered, whether in limiting the polar s[)ecles, or in
determining to what southern forms many ari^ most directly
referable. ^Ir. Darwin's hypothesis accounts for many \!U'ictics
of one plant being found in various Alpine and Arctic regions of
the globe, by the competition into which their connnon ancestor
was brought with the aborigines of the countries it invaded ;
diilerent races survived the f«truggle for life in different longi-
tudes; and theso races again afterwards converging on the /one
from which their ancestor started, present th(M'e a plexus of (•Insely
allied but more or less distinct \aricties or even S])ecies, wiiose
geographical limits overlap, and whoso mend)ers very proi.'ubly
occasionally breed together.

Nor is the application of this hypothesis limited to this in(piiry ;
for it oflers apossibU^ explanation of a general conclusion at wliieh 1
liad previously arrive(l,| and which I shall have again to discuss here,
viz., that the Scandinavian floi'a is present is every latitude of the
globe, and is the only one that is so ; and it also helps to explain
another class of most interesting and anomnlous facts in Arctic dis-

V

* This theory of a soathern migration of nortliorn types btins due to the
cold epochs preceding and during the Glacial oiigiiiated, I believe, nitli tin-
late Edward Forbes ; the extended one of their tran.stropical ni'^riMt oa is
Mr. Darwin's, and is discussed by him in his " Origin of Species," c'liip. x'.

t Introd. essay to the ** Flora ofTasmauia," p. ciii.

5 ■ Oi:

to (liu
|it!i tin-
■;it o;i is

■p. X'.

•t

nOOKKR ON AltCTTf T'LANTS.

201

fril)uti()n, iil, which I hiiv<» now iinivcd fi»»iii :iii oxnmiiiatlon of
tlu' several polar tlistiicts, and cspcciiilly offhat of (Irceiilaiul.

A }»hiiioe at (ho appended ehait [not. reproduced hen-] show.s
how this theory bears upon the (Ireei hind fh>r!i, exphiinini; the
identity of its e\i,<tin;f \ei,'clalion willi that of Laplan*!, and ae-
coiinlin;; for its paucity of spccii's, lor th(^ rarity of Anu'ri<'an
spei-ies, of peculiar s|>ecics, and of niarkc(| varieties of Muropcan
species. If it 1(1' /granted that the polar area was (nice occupied
by the Scandinavian (lora, au<l tliat th(! cold of the (ilacial I'lpocdi
did drive this vejjelatiou southwards, it is evidi-nt llint the (ireeii-
land individuals, Ironi beinij eonlined to a pcnin--nla, avouM l>e,
exposed to very diih'rent conditions to those of the great conti-
nents.

In Greenland niiiny s[)eeies would, as it were, be driven info
tho sea, tluit is, externiiiuited, and tho Hiirvivors would be coiifmcd
to tho southern portion ot" the peninsula ; and not beini; there
broujj;ht into competition with other tyi)es, (here could lu' no
struggle for life anion^jjst their progeny, and, cousicipiently, no
selection oi' belter adapted varieties. On tlie return of heat these
survivors would simply travel northwards, unaccompanied by the
plants of any other eoiuitry.

In Arctic America and Asia, on the other liand, where there
was a free southern extension and dilatation of land for tho same
S(!andinavian idants to occupy, these would nudtiply enormously
in individuals, In-anching off into varieties tiud sub-species, aial
occupy a larger area the ftuther south they Avore driven ; juid
none need be altogether lost in the southern migration over plains,
thougli many would in the stniggl(( tliat ensued, when (hey reached
the mountains of tliose <.'ontiiients and were brought into competi-
tion with the AI|)ine plants which the same cold had caused to
descend to the ])hiins. Hence, on the retiu'ii of warmth, many
more Scandinavian .s[)ecies Avould return to Arctic America and
Arctic Asia than stu'vived in (Ireenland ; some would bo ehauiircd
in form, because only th(> favoured varieties could have survived
the struggle ; somi^ of the Alpiiu', Siberian, tuid llocky-Moun-
tain s])ecies would accompany them to the Arctic Zone, wliile
many Arctic sjiecics would ascend those mountains, accompanying
the Alpine species in tlu;ir re-ascent.

Again, as tho same species may have been destroyed in most
longitudes, or at most elevations, but not at all, we should ex[)ect
to find some of those Arctic Scandinavian plants ofCJreenland
which have not returned to Arctic America still lurking in remote
Alpine corners of that great continent ; and wo may account for
Draha (lurca being eonlined to Greenland and the Rocky Moun-
tains, PotcntUla tri(Ivnt((t(i to (Jreenland and Labrador, and
Arenaria Granilandica to Greenland and the White JNIoinitains
of New IIami)shire, by supposing that these were originally
Scandinavian plants, wliich, on the return of waunth, were ex-
terminated on the plains of the American continent, but found
a refuge on its mountains, where they now exist.

It appears, therefore, to be no slighi conlirmation of the

202

TTOOKET? ON AROTir, PLANTS.

K

general truth of Mr. Darwin's hypotliesis, that, besides hrvmo-
iiizin^ with tlic distribution of Arctio plants within and beyond
tlie Polar Zone, it can also bo mudo, without straining, to account
for that distribution and for many anomalies of the Greeidand
flora, viz., 1, its identity with the Lap])o;iian ; 2, its paucity of
species ; 3, the fewness of temperate plants in tcmj)crate Green-
land, and the still fewer plants that area adds to the entire flora of
Greenl.'tnd ; 4, the rarity of l)()th Asiatic and American species
or types in Grcenl.'iiid ; and o, the i)rcscnce of a few of the rarest
Greenland and Scandinavian species in enormously i-emote Al|)inc
localities of West America and the United States.

II. — Ox THE Local Distribution of Plants within the

Arctic Circle.

The o;reatest nund)er of plants occurring in any given Arctic
District is found in the European, where 616 flowering plants
have been collected from the verge of the Circle to Spitzbergcn.
From this region vegetation rapidly diminishes in proceeding
eastwards and westwards, especially the latter. Thus, in Arctic
Asia, only 233 flowering plants have been collected: in Arctic
Greenland, 207 species ; in the American continent east of th(^
Mackenzie River, 379 species ; and in the area westwards from
that river to Behring's Straits, 364 species.

A glance at the annual and monthly Isothermal Lines shows
that there is little relation between the temperature and vege-
tation of the areas they intersect beyond the general feature of
the scantiness of the Siberian flora being accompanied by a great
southern bend of the annual isotherm of 32° in Asia, and the
greatest northern bend of the same isotherm occurring in the
longitude of West Lapland, which contains the richest flora.
On the other hand, the same isotherm bends northwards in
passing from Eastern America to (Jrcenland, the vegetation of
Mdiich is the scantier of the two, and passes to the northwards
of Iceland, which is much poorer in species than those parts of
Lapland to the southward of which it passes. The June iso-
thenp ds, as indicating the most eflective temperatures in the
Arctic regions (where all vegetation is torpid for nine months.
and excessively stimulated during the three others), might have
been expected to indicate better the positions of the most
luxuriant vegetation ; but neither is this the case, for the June
isotherniid of 41", which lie;- within the Arctic zone in Asia,
Avhcre the vegetation is scanty in the extreme, descends to
54° N, tat. in the meridian of ]iehring's Straits, where the flora
is comparatively luxuriant, and the flniie isothermal of 32^, which
traverses Greenhuid nortii of Disco, piiises to the north both of
Spitzbergcn and the Parry Islands. In fact, it is neither the
mefin annual, no'' the suinmei (flowering), nor the autumn
(fruiting) t(Mnperature that determines the abundance or scarcity
of the vegetation in eaeii district, but these combined -SAitli the
ocean-temperature and consequent prevalence of humidity, its

.:

n

IIOOKEK ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

203

geographical position, and its former conditions, botli climatal
and geographical. The relations between the isothcrmals and
floras in each longitude being, 11icrof(m>, special and not general,
I shall consider them further -when defining the diiVcrent Arctic
floras.

TliG northern limits to which vegetaticm extoiuls varies in every
longitude, and its extreme limits .-ire still unknnwn ; it may,
indeed, reach to the pole itself. Phamogamic pl.-uils, however,
are probably nowhcn'c found far noi'tli of hit. SI . 70 flowering
plants are found in Spitzbergcn ; and Sabine and Ross collected
nine on Wahlen Island, towards its northern exticme, but none
on Ross's Islet, 15 miles further to the north. Sutherland, a very
careful and intelligent collector, found 23 at Melville IJay and
Wolstenholme and Whale Sounds, in the extreme north of Baffin's
Bay, lat. 76° 77° N. Parry, James Koss, Sabine, Beechey, and
others together found 60 species on Melville Island, and Ly.iii
50 on the islands north of Barrow Straits and ]^ancaster Sound.

About 80 have been detected on the Avest shores of Baffin's Bay
and Davis's Straits, between Ponds ]5ay and Homo Bay. I'o the
north of Eastern Asia, again, Seemann collected only 4 species on
Herald Island, lat. 71^° N., the northernmost point attained in
ihixt longitude. On the east coast of Greenland, Scoresby and
Sabine found only 50 between the parallels of 70° and 75° N. ;
whilst 150 inhabit the west coast l)etAvoen the same parallels.

The diflferences between the ACgetations of the various polar
areas seem to be to a considerable extent constant up to the
extreme limits of vegetation in each. Thus Ennuncuhis glacialis
and Snxifraga jiagcllaris. which are all l)ut al)sent in West
Greenland,* advance to the extreme north in East Greenland and
Si)itzbergen. Calthn palustris, Astn gains alpiints, Oxytrojtls
Uralaifiis and iiigrcscens, P<(rrija (irctica, Sirversin lio.ssii, JV(/r-
flosmid cori/mf)osa, Srnccio pal/fstris, J)('sc/ia))ij>sia ra'.ynto.sf/,
Snxifraga IncraciifoUa. and Jlirciflf/s, all of Avliioh are al)sent in
West Greenland, advance to Lancaster Sound and the jjolar
American islands, a very few miles to the westward of Greenland.

On the other hand Lychnis aljtina, Arabis alpina, Stellaria
ccrasffoides, Potcntilla tridcntata, Cassiojx'ia lii/pnoidcs, Phyllo-
docc faxifolid, Veronica alpi}/a, T/it/mf/s Scrj>//////w, Lnztila,
splcdta^ and Phlcvm alpiirum, all advance north of 70° in West
(Jreenland, but are wholly unknown in any part of Arctic
Eastern America or the polar islands.

The most Arctic plants of general distribution that are foinid
far north in all the Arctic areas arc the following ; all inhabit the
Pai-ry Islands, or Spitzbergcn, or both : —

Kanunculus nivalis. Braya alpina.

B. auricomus. Cardamine 1)ellidifolia.

ratensis.

pyi

nnseui^

Papaver nudicaulc.

L. pri

Draba alpina.

ij 1

its

* Both were found by Kane's Expedition, but by no previous one.

■TTl^p

204

HOOKER ox ARCTIC PLANTS.

•lit

lui r-

W: ::

; ^ -

Draba aiKlro.siicca.

D. Jiirtiu

]>. imiriecllii.

}). incaiui.

T). nipcsd'is.

Co(.'lil('jiriii nnglicji.

V. olliciiDilis.

Sil(!!U' acaulis.

Jjycliiiis jipetala.

Arena liii vcina.

A. arctica.

vSlcllaria longipos.

Cfrastimn alpiiiiiiii.

Potcntilla iiivoa.

V. IVigida.

Dryas octopclula.

Epilobiuiu latiibliuni.

St'diun lihodiola.

i'luysospleuiiiin alloriiitbiiuni.

Saxiiragii op[)ositiiulia.

S. Cfuspitosu.

S. cernuii.

S. rivularis.

S. nivalis.

S. stollaris.

S. llagellari.'^.

S. Ilii'culus (E. Gi'cciilaiul only J

Antonnnria alpina.

Taraxacum Dens-leonis.

Cassiopeia totragona.

Pediciiluris hirsuta.

P. sudeticji.

Oxyria rcnitbrmis.

Polygonum viviparum.

Empetrum nigrum.

Salix lierbaeea.

S. reticulata.

Luzula arena ta.

Juncus biglumis.

Carcx fuliginosa (not yet found

in Arctic Asia, but no doubt

there).
C. aquatilis (not yet found in

Arctic Asia, but no doubt

there).
E iioi)horum capita tum.
E. polystnchyum.
Alopeeurus alpinus.
Deyeuxia Lapponica.
Deschampsia ca?spitosa (East

Greenland only).
Phippsia algida.
Colpodiiun latifoliuni.
Poa flexuosa.
P. j^ratensis.
P. nemorjilis.
Eestuca ovina.

Erigeron alpinus.

Of the jibovc, S(ixiJ)'(i(f(i, oppositifoiia is probably (lui most
ubiquitous, and may be considered the commonest and most Arctic
Howering plant.

Tlie following aie also inhabitants of all the five Arctic areas,
but do not usually altain such high latitudes as the Ibregoing : —

Polemonium ccerulcum, and vara.

Eanunculus Lapponicus.
Draba rupestris.
Viola palustris.
lloidvcneya peploides.
JCpilobium august ifoHuni.
E. alpiinim.
llippuiis vulgaris.
Artemisia borealis.
A'"acciniiun uliginosum.
V. Vitis-ida}a.
Ledum palustre.
I'yrola rotmiditblia.

(East Greenland oi dy).
Pedicularis Lapponica.
Arnu'ria vulgaris.
Betula nana.
Salix lanata.
S. glauca.
S. alpostris.
Luzula campestris.
Carex vesicaria.
Eriophorum vaginal urn.
Atropis mi.ritima.

Tlic absence of (iotUana and Piimula in these lists is very
unaccountaVile, seeing how abundant and very Alpine they are on
<lio Alps and Himalaya, and Gcnfiana on (ho South- American
C<^rdillera8 also. The few remaiuing plants, which are all very

IIOOKKII ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

205

northern, and almost or wholly ooiifinod to the Arctic zone, are
the following, f indicates those species absolutely peculiar ; ^^ the
only peculiar genus.

Raiumculus Pallasii.

II. hyperboreus.

Trollius Asiaticus.

Corydalis glauca.

Cardamine purpurea.

Turritis mollis.

Cochlearia sisymbrioides.

Hesperis Pallasii.
f Bray a pilosa.

Eutrenia Edwardsii.

Parry a arctica.
f P. arenicola.

Odontarrhena Fischoriana.

Sagiua nivalis.

Stellaria, dicranoidos.

Oxytropis nigrescens.

Sieversia Rossii.

S. glacialis.

Kubus areticus.

Par na ssia Kotzebuei .

Saxifraga Eschsclioltzii.

S. serpyllifolia.
f S. Richardsoni.

Coonolophium Fischcri.
I Nardosmia glacialis.

Artemisia Richardsoniana.

A. glomerata.
f A. audrosacea.

Erigeron compositus.

Chrysantheumm arcticum.

Pyrethrum bipinnatuui.
f Saussurea subsinuata.

Campanula uniflora.

Gentiana arctophila.

G. aurca.

Eutoca Franklinii.

Pedicularis flammea.
t Douglasia arctica.
I Monolepis Asiatica.

Betuia iVuticosa.

Salix speciosa.
t S. glacialis.

S. phlebophylla.

S. arctica.

Orchis cruenta.

Pla|4tanthcra hyperborcn.

Carex nardina.

C glareosa.

C. rariflora.

Hierochloe paucifhM-a.

Deschampsia atroi)urpurea.

Phippsia algida.

Dupontia Fisheri.

Colpodium pendulinum.

C. f'ulvum.

C. latifolium.
f f Pleuropogon Sabini.
t Festuca Richardsoni.

III. — Distribution of the Arctic Flowering Plants in
VARIOUS Regions of the Globe.

There is but one distinct genus confined to the Arctic regions,
the monotyi)ic and local Plcurojmgon Sabini ; and there are l)nt
seven otlier peculiarly Arctic species, together witli one Avitii
which r am wholly unac(iuainted, viz., Monolepis yisiftfica. The
remaining 7()2 species are all found south of the Circle, and of
these all but loO advance south of the parallel of 4(f N. lat.,
either in the Mediterranean basin, Northern India, the L'nite(i
States, Oregon, or California ; about oO are natives of the moun-
tainous regions of the Tropics, and just lO'y inheiit the South
I'emperate zone.

The proportion of species which have migrated southwards in
tlu' Old and the New World also bear a fair relation to the

rstiM

200

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

s

1^ it-

facilities for migration presented by the ilifFercnt continents.
Tlius
Of 616 Arctic-European species —
496 inhabit the Alps, and
450 cross them ;
126 cross the Mediterranean;
26 inhabit Africa.
Of 379 Arctic-East- American —

203 inhabit the United States (of which 21 are confined to
the uiountiiins) ;
34 inhabit Tropical American mountains ;
50 inhabit To.iiperatc South Ani.. lea.
Of 233 Arctic-Asiatic species —

210 reach the Altai, Soon<^aria, &c. ;
106 reach the Himalaya ;
0 are found on the Tropical mountains of Asia ;
5 inhabit Australia and New Zealand.
Of 346 Arctic- West- American species —
274 are North-temperate;
24 on Tropical mountains ;
37 in South-temperate zone.

These tables present in a very striking point of view the fact of
the Scandinavian Flora being the most widely distributed over the
globe. The JNIediterrauean, South- African, Malayan, Australian,
and all the floi'as of the New World have narrow ranges com-
jiared with the Scandinavian, and none of them form a prominent
feature in any other continent than their own ; but the Sciuidi-
navian not only girdles the globe in the Arctic Circle, and
dominates over all the others in the North-temperate zone of the
Old World, but intrudes conspicuously into every other Temperate
flora, whether in the northern or southern hemisphere, or on the
Alps of Tropical countries.

The severest test to which this observation could be put is that

sujjplied by the Arctic-Scandinavian forms, for these belong to the

remotest corner of the Scandinavian area, and should of all plants

be the most impatient of temperate, warm, and tropical climates.

The following will, approximately, express the result ; —

Total Arctic-Scandinavian forms - - .. 586

In North-UnJted-States and Canada, &c. - 360

In Tropical America ----- 40

In Temperate South America - - - 70
In Alps of Middle Europe, Pyrenees,'&c. - 490
Cross Alps, etc. - - - - ■ - - 480

Keach South Africa ----- 20

Himalaya, &c. ------ 300

Tro[)ical Asia - - - - - - 20

Australia, &c. 60

In one respect this migration is most direct in the A?nci-ioan
meridian, where more Arctic species reach the higliesi southern
latitudes. This I have accounted fur (" I'loia Anlarelir.i,'' (>. 2'M))

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

207

jcl to

tllilt

to the

)lants

mutes.

Itheru
2:50)

by the continuous chain of the Andes having i'avouied their
southern dispersion.

But the greatest number of Arctic ])lants are located in Ceutrnl
Europe, no fewer than 530 out of 762 inhabiting the Alps and
Central and Southern Europe, of which 480 cross the Alps to the
Mediterranean basin. Here, however, their finther spread is
apparently suddenly arrested ; for, though many doubtless are to
be found in the Alps of Abyssinia and the Western Atlas, there
are few comparcsd with what we found further east in Asia,
and fewer still have found their way to South Africa.

The most continuous extension of Scandinavian forms is in the
direction of the greatest continental extension, namely, that from
the North Cape in La^dand to Tasmania,* for no less than 3oO
Scanduiavian ])lants havebeen found in the Himalayas, and o3 in
Australia ami New Zealand, when-as there are scarcely any Hima-
layan and no Australian or Antarctic forms in Arctic Europe.
Now that Mr. Darwin's hypotheses are so far accepted by many
botanists, in that these concede nuuiy species of each genus to have
had in most cases a common origin, it may be well to tabulate the
Generic distribution of the Arctic plants as [ have done the
Specific ; and this places the prevalence of the Scandinavian types
of vegetation in a much stronger light : —

Scandinavian Arctic Genera in Europe . _ - 280

Found in North-United-States - - (approximately) 270

Tropical American mountains

Temperate South America
„ Alps-
Cross Alps . - - _
Found in South Africa

Himalaya, etc. -

Tropical Asia

Australia, &c. -

11

100

120

280

260

110

270

80

100

The most remarkable anomaly is the absence of Prhmda in
Tropical America, that genus being\ibimd in Extra-tropical South
America, and its absence in theVhole Southern Temperate zone of
the Old ^^'orld, except the Alps of »Iava.

Thalietrnm, Del phiit turn, Iwpatieius, Pniiins, Circcea, Cliri/so-
sj)lcnlnm, P(ii-ii(issi((, BupUiiruni, Tlkraclcutii, Vihaniunt, Vd/c-
r'ldiKi, Artciiiisid, Vacciiiliwt, Ithododcitdrnit, Pedieularis, and
S(tHx arc all Arctic Genera found on the Tro[)icaI mountains of
Asia (Nilghiri, Ceylon, Java, &c.), b\it not yet in the South-tem-

* The line wliieli joiii.i these jioiiitb pa.ssob through >Sibcriii, Eastern China,
the Celebes Ishuids, and Austraha ; but the ghicial niigrutiou has been due
south from the Arctic and North-temperate repons iu various longitudes to the
Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Asia Minor, aiid the IVrsiau and Kortli-
Indian mountains. The further migration south to tiie distant and scattered
ali)ine heights of the Tropics, and thence to iSouth Australiii, Tasmania, and
New Zealand, is, in the , /osent state of our knowh'dge, to me (|uite unac-
counted tor. ^\\\ Darwi.i assumes for this ])urp()si.' a c.ioled conditidii it[ tiu-
jilnln' that must have bi.\'n fatal to all siu'Ii jjureiy tiojiical vegelalion as we
:\w now familiar -with.

20<S

IIOOICEU OX AUCTIC TLANTS.

f|,

;.«

))orato 55onc of Asia, iind very few of thorn in Tenipemte Soutli
Aii'ioa.

Tliero are, however, ii consi(h'riil)le nmiiber of Sciiidiiiavijin
plants which are not foiiiul in the Alps of Mi<hlle ICnivtpe, tlioii*;'!!
ibund in the Caiicasus, llimalayn, 8fC., and convc.Tscly there are
several Arctic-Asiatic and -American jdants fonnd in the Al[)s of
Central Enrope, but nowhere in Arctic Knropc. In other words,
contain species extend from Arctic America westward to Arctic
Enrope, and there are certain other species which extend from
Arctic Enrope to the Caucasns and Central Asia, which neither
exist on the Alps of Central Europe nor extend eastward to
Arctic America : —

[Here follows a list of 103 species of i)]ants common to Arctic
Europe and Temperate Asia, &c., but not to the Alps of Eniopo,
pp. 2()()-l.]

It is curious to remark how many of these Iiorcnl Eiu'oi)ean
phmts, which arc absentees in the Al[)s, ha\(> a veiy wide raniic,
not only extending to the Himalaya and North China, l)nt many
of tlieni all over 'J\Mn[)erate North China ; only one is found in tlie
South-temperate zone. In the present state of our knowled.ii'o we
cannot account for tlie absence of these in the Alps ; either they
were not nalivcs of Aictic Europe immediately previous to the
Glacial Period, or, if so, and they were then drixcn south to the
Alps, they Avere afterwards tliere exterminated ; or, lastly, they
still inhabit the Alps under disjiuised forms, which pass for dif-
ferent species. Probably some belon<>; to each of these categories.
I need hardly remark that none inhabit Europe south of the Alps,
or any part of the African continent.

The list of Arctie-Ameriean and -Asiatic species which Inhabit the
Alps of Euro^K', but not Arctic Europe, is much smaller. Those
marked f are Scandinavian, but do not enter the Arctic Circle : —

Anemone i--'

A. alpina.

A. narcissiHora.
t Ranunculus sceleratus.
f Aconitum Napellus.
f Arabis petra^a.
f Cardamine hirsuta.

Draba stellata.
f Thlaspi montanuni.
f Lepidium ruderale.
f Sagina nodosa,
f Linuni perenne.

I'haca al[)ina.
f Astragalus hypoglottis.
f Spira;a salieifolia.
f Potontilla f'ruticosa.

i*. sericea.
f Ccratophyllum demer.sum.

liuplenrum rannnculoides.
f Viburnum Opulns.

Galium rubioides.
t G. saxatile.

Ptarmica alpina.

Aster al])imis.

Gentiana prostrata.

Polygonum polymorphnm.

Corispcrmum hyssopifolium.

Alnus viridis.

Pinus ccnibra.
t Sparganium simplex.
I Typha latifolia.

Carex ferruginea.

C. snpina.

C. striela.
t C. i)ihdirera.

Scii|)us triciueter.

J)eyeuxia \aria.

vSpavtina cynosuroides.
■j" (llyceria tluitans.

Ilordeum jul)atum.

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

209

IV. — Tjotaxical DiiTiiicr.s within the Arctic Circli:.

The foUowingr iU'(! tlio prominoiit fenturo.^, hotanicMl, fijeogra-
pliiciil, iiiul fliiuiital, of the five Districts of the Arctic zoiio : —

1. Arctic Europe.. — The majority of its pliuits are included
in the Lapland and Finland Floras ; and, owin^ to the temperature
of the Gulf Stream, -which washes its coasts, Lai)land is by far the
richest provinces in the Arctic regions. The mean annual tem-
perature at the Polar Circle, where it cuts the coast-line, is about
37°, and tire June and September temperature's throu.uhout Lap-
land are 40° and o7° respectively ; thus renderin*:; thc^ climate
favourable both toilowering and fruiting. S[)itzbergen belongs to
this flora, as do Nova Zenilda and the Arctic countries west of
the river Obi, which forms its eastern boimdary; for the Ural
mountains do not limit the vegetation any more than do the
Rocky Mountains in America. Gmelin observed, more than a
century ago, that the Iviver Obi in lower latitudes indicates the
transition longitude from the European to the Asiatic flora.

Even in this small area, however, there are two floras, corre-
sponding to the Arctic-Norwegian and Arctic-Russian. The
latter, commencing at the White Sea, though comparatively ex-
cessively poor in species, contains nearly 20 that are not Lappo-
nian, including Urai/a rosea, Dianthus alphius, D. Seffuieri,
Spiraea chanKcdrifoUa , Saxifraga hicracifoUa, Ilieracleum Si-
hiricum, Liffuria Sibirica, Ptarmica afjnna, Gentiana verna,
Pleurogync rotata, and Larix Sihiiica,

There are, further, several Scandinavian plants which cross the
Arctic Circle or the east shores of the White Sea, but do not do
so in Lapland, as Athamnnta IJbanotls, Chrysanthemum Leucan,"
themum, Bidens tripartita, and others.

Iceland and Greenland also botanically belong to the Arctic-
Lapland province, but I have here excluded both : the former
because it lies to the south of the Arctic Circle ; the latter
because both its magnitude, position, and other circumstances
require that it should be treated of separately.

As far as I can ascertain, 616 species (Monocotyledons 183,
Dicotyledons 433,= 1 :2-3) enter the Arctic Circle in this region,
of which 70 advance into Spitzbergen ; but no pha3nogamic plant
is found in Ross's Islet beyond its northern extremity. The
proportion of genera to species is 266:616 (1 :2'3). Of these
Arctic-European j)lants, 453 cross the Alps or Pyrenees to the
Mediterranean basin ; a few occur on the mountains of Tropical
Africa (including Luzida campestvis and Dcschampsia ctespi-
tosa ) ; and 23 are found in South Africa.

No fewer than 264 species do not enter the Arctic Circle in
any other longitude; and 184 are almost exclusively natives of
the Old World, or of this and of Greenland, not being found in
any part of North America j 24 arc confined to Arctic Europe
and Greenland.

36122. o

:F

' i> ■/■'"? I

.m

210

HOOKEli ON ARCTIC PLANTj

The following Aictic-Europeau plants are of sporadic occur-
rence in North America : —

'it '

I

;.!»

Ranunculus acris, Rocky Moun-
tains.

Arabiis aii)inn, Greenland and
Labrador.

Lychnis ali)ina, Greenland and
Labrador.

Arenaria arctlca, Greenland
and Rocky Mountains.

A. verna, Greenland, Arctic
Islands, and Rocky Moun-
tains.

Alcheinilla vulgaris, Greenland
and Labrador.

Gnaphalium sylvaticum, Green-
land iuid Labrador.

G. supinum, Greenland, Labra-
dor, and United States Moun-
tains.

Vaccinium myrtillus, Rocky
Mountains only.

Cassiopeia hypnoides, Green-
land, United States Moun-
tains, and Labrador.

Phyllodocc taxifolia, Greeidand,

United States Mountains

and Labrador.
Gentiana nivalis, Greenland and

Labrador.
Veronica alpina, Greenland and

United States Mountains.
Bartsia alpina, Greenland and

Labrador.
Pedicularis palustris, Labrador.
Primula farinosa, Labrador.
Salix phylicifolia. United States

Mountains.
S. arbuscula, Greenland and

United States Mountains.
Juncus trifidus, Greenland and

United States Mountains.
Carex capitJita, Greenland and

United States Mountains.
Phleum alpinum, Greenland,

United States Mountains, and

Labrador.
Calamagrostis lanceolata, La-
brador.

There are, besides, a considerable number of Arctic-European
plants which, in the New World, are confined to Greenland, being
nowhere found in East America ; these will be enumerated when
treating of the Greenland Flora. [The plants (29 species), Avhich
are widely distributed in temperate America and Asia, but almost
exclusively Arctic in Europe, are enumerated, p. 263.]

The works upon which I have mainly depended for the habitats
of the Arctic-European plants are Wahlenberg's " Flora Lap-
ponica," Ledebour's " Flora Rossicji," Fries' " Suunna Vegeta-
bilium Scandinavice" and " Mantissae," and variou>, admirable
treatises by Andersson, Nylander, Hartmanu, Lindblom, Wahlberg,
Blytt, C. Martins, Ruprecht, and Schreuk.

For Spitzbergen plants I have depended on Hooker's enumera-
tion of the Spitzbergen collections mv le during Parry's attempt
to reach the North Pole, Captain Sabine's collection made in the
same island, and on Lindblom and Beilschmied's " Flora von Spitz-
bergen" (Regensburg, Flora, 1842).

For the southern distribution of the Arctic-European plants, I
have further consulted Nyman's excellent " Sylloge," Ledebour's
" Flora Rossica," Grisebach's " Flora Rumelica," Greuier and
Godron's " Flore de France," Parlatore's " Flora Italiaua," Koch'g
" Synopsis Florae Germanias," Munby's " Catalogue of Algerian
Plants," A. Richard's of those of Abyssinia, Visiani's "Flora
Dalmatica," Delile's " Flora -^gyptiaca," Boissier's noble " Voy-
age botanique dans I'Espague," and TchihatchefTs " Asia Minor,"

^

;cur-

liinil,
»iu9

land

1 and

s.
L and

i-iidor.

ir.

States

. and

lis.

d and
ns.

id and
ns.

inland,
ns, and

a, La-

ropean

being

when

which

almost

abitats
Li Lap-
Tegeta-
nirable
hlbei'g,

umera-
ttempfc
in tho
Spitz-

^ants, I
lebonr's
ler and
iKoch's
llgerian
" Flora

HOOKER ON AUCTIO PLANTS.

211

- 191/ - ^ • ^ ^'

Ui

Voy.
Linor,"

besides ninncrons local floras of the Mediterranean regions, Madeira,
the Azores, and Canaries.

2. Arctic Asia. — This District, which, for its extent, contains
by far the i)oorost llora of any on tlic globe, readies from the Gnlf
of Obi eastward to Behring's Straits, where it merges into tho
West- American. Tlie climate! is marked by excessive mean cold j
at the Obi the Isotlierm of 18^ cuts the Arctic Circle in its S.E.
course, and at the eastern extremity of the province tho isotherm
of 20° cuts the s;ime circle ; while the central i)ait o( tho district
is all north of tlu; isotherm of 9°. The whole of the district is
hence far north of the isotherm of 32^ which descends to 52°
N.L. in its middle longitude. The extremes of temperature are
also very great ; the June isotherm of 41° ascending eastward
through its western half to the Polar Sea, Avhilst the September
isotherm of 41" descends nearly to (30° N.L., whence the low
autumn temperature must present an almost insuperable obsUiclo
to the ripening of seeds within this segment of the PoLir Circle.

The warming intluence of the Atlantic currents being felt no
fiu'ther east than the Obi, and the summer desiccation of the vast
Asiatic continent, combine to render the climate of this region
one of excessive drought as well as cold, whence it is in every
way most unfavourable to vegetation of all kinds.

The total number of species hitherto recorded from this area
is 233 :—

Monocotyledons
Dicotyledons -

The proportion of genera to species is I : 2. Of tho 233 species,
217 inhabit Siberia, as far south as the Altai or Japan, &c. ; 104
extend southwards to the Himalaya or monntains of Persia; none
are found on the mountains of the two Indian peninsulas, and 85
on those of Australia and New Zealand. All bnt 37 are European,
and nine of these are almost exclusively Arctic. [The table fol-
lows, page 2t)4.]

Thus out of 37 non-European species only 12 are confined to
Asia, the remaining 25 being American. On the other hand,
there are only 22 European species in Arctic Asia which are not
also American, which scarcely establishes a nearer relationship
between Arctic Asia with Eiu'ope than with America. [The
table follows, page 264.]

In other word-, of the 233 Asiatic species 196 are common to
Asia and Europe, 22 are v^onfined to Asia and Europe, 25 are
confined to Asia and America only, and 12 are confined to Asia,
of which three are peculiar to the Arctic Circle.

The rarity of Gramiuea3, and especially of Cyperaccae, in this
region is its most exceptional feature, only 21 of the 138 Arctic
species of these orders having hitherto been detected in it. Crypto-
gamic plants seem to be even more rare ; Woodsia liven sis and
Lastrea fragrans being the only Filices hitherto enumerated.
Further researches along the edge of the Arctic Circle would
doubtless add more Siberian species to this flora, as the examina-
tion of the north-east extreme would add American species, and

o 2

212

IIOOKKR ON AIICTIC I'LANTf.,

I"

po.ssilily lend to the floni of tliu country of the; Tcluilelilrf beii
rnnked with thiit of WvM Anierien.

The works whieh Imve yichlod iiKi the; most information ro-
pardinj; this floni aie Lcdehotn''s " Flora IJossica," and the
valuable memoirs of IJiuifje, C. A. INIeyer, and Trautvotter on the
vc^^ctation of the Taimyr and Jlopmida Uivers, and on the plants
of Jenissei Kivci', in Von jMiddendorlV's Silieiian " Travels."
For tlieir southern extension, Trautvotter and Meyer's " Flont
Ochotensis," also in Middendorf's "Travels"; IJnnjio's cnn-
mcratiou of North-China and jNIonjiolian plants ; JMaximovicz's
*' Flora Amurensis " ; Asa Gray's paper op the botany of Japan
(Mem. Amer. Acad. N.S., vi.) ; Karelin and Kiriloff\s enumeration
of Soon<;arian j)lants ; l{e<;el, lJach,and Herder on the East-Siberian
and Jakutsk colleetions of PauUowsky and Von Stubendorff. For
the Persian and Indian distribution, I have almost entirely de-
pended on the herbarium at Kcw, and o;. Jioissier's and JJunge's
numerous works.

3. Arctic West America. — The District thus desisrnatcd is
nnnlo*i;ous in position, and to a considerable extent in elimatc, to
the Arctic- European, but is much colder, as is indicated both by
the mean temperature and by the position of the Jtmc isotherm of
41°, whieh makes an extraordinary bend to the south, nearly to
52° N.L., in the lonjritude of Jiehrin«i's Straits.

It extends from Cape Priuce-of- Wales, on the east shore of
Behring's Straits, to the estuary of the Mackenzie lliver ; and, as
a whole, it differs from the flora of the province to the eastward
of it by its fax* greater number both of European and Asiatic
species, by containing various Altai and Siberian jdants which do
not reach so high a latitude in more western meridians, and hy
some Temperate plants peculiar to West America. This eastern
boundary is, however, quite an artificial one ; for a good many
eastern plants cross the Mackenzie and adva;.v. 3 westwards to Point
Barrow, but which do not extend to Kotzebue's Sound ; and a small
colony of Kocky-Mountain plants also spreads eastward and west-
wards along the shores of the Arctic Sea, which further tends
to connect the floras ; such are Aquilcgia brcvistylis, Sisymbrium
hnmile, Iffftchinsia calycina, Heuchera liichardsonii, Crcpis
nana, Gcutia/ia arctophila, Salix spcciosa, none of Avhich are
generally diffused Arctic plants, or natives of any other parts of
Tempci'ate America but the Rocky Mountains.

The Arctic Circle at Kotzebue's Sound is crossed by the isotherm
of 23°, and at the longitude of the Mackenzie by that of 12° 5' ;
whilst the June isotherm of 41° ascends obliquely from S.W. to
N.E., from the Aleutian Islands to the month of the Mackenzie,
and passes south of this province ; the June and the September
isotherms of 41° and 32° both traverse it obliquely, ascending to
the N.E.

The vast extent of the Pacific Ocean and its warm northerly
currents greatly modify the climate of West Arctic America,
causing dense fogs to prevail, especially throughout the summer
months, whilst the currents keep the ice to the north of Behring's

\ rc-
. the
II the
)lant8
vols."
Flont
cnu-
:)vic//s
Japan
nation
ibevian
'. For
«ly dc-
iunge's

ntcd is
latc, to
30tU by
licrm of
early to

ibovc of
• and, as
jivstwai'd
Asiatic
hicli do
and by
eastern
jd many
to Point
a small
,d west-
ler tends
inhrium
Crcpis
lich are
parts of

isotherm
12° 5' ;
S.W. to
Ickenzie,
Iptember
liding to

[ortherly
Lmerica,
summer

leliring's

y

JIOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS

213

Straits. The shallowness of tho ocean between America nnd Asia
north of lat. (H)-, together with the identity of tiie vegetation in
the higher hititudes of these continents, suggests tho probability
of tho land liaving been continnous at no remote epoeh.

The nunilter of phrenogamic plants hitherto found in Arctic
West America is 3G4 : —

Monocotyledons - - 7fi 1 _ , ,, ,_
Dicotyledons - - - 288 / ~ ^ * '^'' '

The proportion of genera to species is 1 : 1'7. Of these 304
species, almost all but the littoral and purely Arctic species arc
found in We.st-teniperato North America or in tho Rocky Moun-
tains, 20 in the Andes of Tro[)ieal or Sub-tro})ical America, and
37 in Temperate or Antarctic South America. Comparing this
llora with that of Temperate and Arctic Asia, 1 find that no less
than 320 species are found on tho north-western shores nnd
islands of that continent, or in Siberia, many extending to tho
Altai and the Himalaya. A comparison with Eastern Arctic
America shows that 281 are common to it, and 38 are found in
Temperate but not Arctic East America. [The list follows,
page 266.]

These, it will bo seen, are for the most part North-temporato
plants, common in many parts of the globe, and which are only
excluded from Eastern Arctic America by the greater rigour of
its climate.

T'he best marked European and Asiatic species that arc not
found further east in Temperate or Arctic America are 18 in
number. [The list follows, page 267.]

Hence it appears that of the 364 species found in Arctic West
America, 319 inhabit East America (Arctic or Temperate, or
both), and 320 are natives of the Old World — a difference hardly
sufficient to establish a closer affinity of this llora with one con-
tinent rather than Avith the other.

The species peculiar to this tract of hind (Arctic West Ame-
rica) arc : —

Braya pilosa. Saussurea subsinuata,

Saxifraga Kichardsonii.
Artemisia androsacea.

The rarity of Monocotyledons, and especially of the glumaceous
orders, is almost as marked a feature of this as of the Asiatic
flora ; of the 138 Arctic species of GlnmaccfP, only 54 are natives
of West Arctic America.

The materials for this flora are principally the plants of
Chamisso, collected during Kotzebue's voyage, and described by
himself and Schlechtendahl ; Lay and Collie's collections, de-
scribed in Beecher's voyage ; the " Flora Boreali-Americana " ;
and Scemann's plants, described in the " Botiiny of the Herald."
Most of the above collections are from Behring's Straits. For the
Arctic coast flora I am mainly indebted to Richardson's researches,
and to PuUen's and other collections enumerated by Seemann in
his account of the flora of Western Eskimo Land. For the
southern extension of the flora I have had recourse to the " Flora

Salix glacialis.

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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

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(716) 872-4503

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214

JTOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

" Borenli-Americnna," Ledebour's " Flora Rossica," which in-
cludes the Sitcha plants ; the American floras of Nuttall, Pursh,
Torrey, Gray, &c., and to the collections of Drs. Lyall and Wood
formed in Vancouver's Island and British Columbia : for the
Californian, Mexican, and Cordillera floras generally, to the
Herbarium at Kew, the works above mentioned, and the various
memoirs of Torrey and of Gray on the plants of the American
Surveying Expedition.

4. Arctic East America (exclusive of Greenland). —

This tract of land is analogous to the Arctic-Asiatic in many
respects, of position and climate, but is very much richer in
species. It extends from the estuary of the Mackenzie River to
Baffin's Bay, and its flora differs from that of the western part of
the continent, both in the characters mentioned in the notice of
that province, and in possesshig more East-American species.
The western boundary of this province is an artificial one ; the
eastern is very natural, both botanically and geographically, for
Baffin's Bay and Davis' Strait (unlike Behring Strait) have very
deep water and different floras on their opposite shores. The
Arctic Circle is crossed in the longitude of the Mackenzie River
by the isotherm of 12°, which thence trends south-eastward to the
middle of Hudson's Bay ; and in longitude of Davis' Strait it is
crossed by the isotherm of 18.^°. The June isotherm of 41°
descends obliquely from the shores of the Arctic Sea, near the
mouths of the Mackenzie, to the northern parts of Hudson's Bay,
south of the Arctic Circle, and the September isotherm of 41°
is everywhere south of the circle. Hence the western parts of
this province are very much warmer than the eastern, so much so,
that the whole west coast and islands of Baffin's Bay lie north of
a southern inflection of the June isotherm of 32°, which passes
north of all the other polar islands. The Parry Islands have an
analogous temperature of 40°. The warmth of the western portion
of this tract is no doubt mainly due to the influence of the Pacific
Ocean being felt across the continent of West America, though
possibly also to the presence of a comparatively warm polar
ocean, or to Atlantic currents crossing the Pole between Nova
Zembla and Spitzbergen, of which nothing certain is known.* Be
this as it may, the comparative luxuriance of the flora of Melville
Island is a well-known fact, and one inexplicable by considerations
of temperature, if unaccompanied by a humid atmosphere. The
whole region is of course far north of the isotherm of 32°, which,
in the longitude of its middle district, descends to Lake Winnipeg
in lat. 52°.

That portion of this province which is richest in plants is the
tract which intervenes between the Copper mine and Mac::enzie
River ; east of this vegetation rapidly diminishes, as also to the
northwards. The flora of the Boothian Peninsula, surrounded
as it is with glacial straits, and placed ccntrically among the

* It is a well-known fact that the temperature always rises rapidly with the
north (as well as other) winds over all this Arctic-American area.

1

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

215

the

1

Arctic islands, is perhaps the poorest of any part of the area, those
of Banks' Land and Melville Island to the N.W. being consider-
ably richer, as are those of the shores of Lancaster's Sound and
Barrow's Strait, and the shores of Baffin's Bay to the north and
east.*

phfenognmic flora of Arctic East America contains 379

287 / ~ ^

The

species.

Monocotyledons
Dicotyledons -

The proportion of genera to species is 1:2*0;
species, 323 inhabit temperate North America, cast
Mountains ; 35 the Cordillera ; and 49 Temperate
South America. Comparing this flora with that
find that 239 species (or two thirds) are common
regions of both continents, whilst but
of the Arctic European species are

31.

of these 379
of the Rocky
or Antarctic
of Europe, I
to the Arctic
little more than one third
Arctic-East- American : of

105 non -European species in Arctic East America, 32 are
Asiatic ; leaving 73 species confined to America, of which the
following are furthermore confined to the eastward of the Rocky
Mountains and Mackenzie River : —

Corydalis glauca.
Sarracenia purpurea.
Viola cueullata.
Silene Pennsylvanica.
Arenaria Michauxii.
Polygala Senega.
Lathyrus ochroleucus.
Rubus triflorus.
Prunus Virginiana.
Heuchera Richardsonii.
Cornus stolonifera.
Grindelia squarrosa.

Vaccinium Canadense.
Dracocephalum parviflorum,
Douglasia arctica.
Elaeagnus argentea.
Urtica dioica.
Salix cordata.
Populus tremuloides.
Picea nigra.
Spiranthes gracilis.
Crypripedium acaule.
Carex oligosperma.
Pleuropogon Sabini.

Of these, Douglasia and Pleuropogon are the only ones abso-
lutely peculiar to Arctic East America. It is a noticeable fact
that not one of them is found in any part of Greenland. Com-
pared with Greenland, the Arctic-East -American flora is rich,
containing, besides those just enumerated, no less than 165 other
species not found in Greenland. The following are found on the
Arctic islands, and many on the west coast of Baffin's Bay, but
not in West Greenland : —

Caltha palustris. Oxytropis nigrescens.

Parrya Arctica. Sieversia Rossii.

Merkia physodes. Saxifraga hieracifolia.

Stellaria crassifolia. S. Virginiensis.

Astralagus alpinus. S. Hirculus (East Greenland

Oxytropis campestris. only).

0. Uralensis. Valeriana capitata.

* Details of these florulas will be foimd iu the 5th volume of the " Linnean
" Journal," under the notice of Dr. Walker's Collections made dicing ^e
Voyage of the " Fox." '■

!■■

w\

Hi

216

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

' i

Nardosmm corymbosa.
Ptanuica vulgaris.
Crysanthemum arcticum.
Artemisia vulgaris.
Senecio frigidus.
S. palustris.
S. pulchcllus.
Solidago Virga-aurea.

Castilleja pallida.

Pedicularis capitata.

P. versicolor.

Androsace septentrionalis.

A. ChamaBJasme.

Sidix phlebophylla.

Lloydia serotina.

Hicrochloe pauciflora.

Deschampsia crespitosa (East

Greenland only).
Glyeeria fluitans.
Pleuropogon Sabini.
Bromus purgaiis.
Elynius mollis.

Aster salsuginosus.
Crepis nana.
Saussurea alpina.
Andromeda poll folia.
Arctostaphylos alpina.
Kalmia glauca.
Phlox Sibirica.

There are thus no fewer than 184 of the 379 Arctic-East-
American species (fully half) which are absent in West Green-
land, whilst only 105 (much less that one third) are absent in
Europe. This alone would make the limitation of species in the
meridian of Baffin's Bay more decided than in any other Arctic
longitude ; and I shall show that it is rendered still more decisive
by the number of Arctic-Greenland plants that do not cross to
Arctic East America.

Of the 379 Arctic-East- American species, only 56 are not found
in Temperate East America, of which two are absolutely confined
to this area ; two others {Parrya arenicola and Fcstuca Richard'
soni) to Arctic East and West America ; 26 are foimd in Tempe-
rate West America, and about 20 are Rocky-Mountain species,
and not found elsewhere in Temperate America.

For our knowledge of this flora I am principally indebted to
the " Flora Boreali-Americana," and to Richardson's * botanical
appendix to Franklin's First Voyage and his "Boat Journey
" through Rupert's Land."

I have also examined the materials upon which the above works
were founded, and the collections of almost every subsequent
journey and voyage, up to those of Dr. Walker in the " Fox."
To enumerate the numerous botanical appendices to Voyages, and
separate opuscules to which these have given rise, from Ross'
First Voyage to the present time, would be out of place here. I
have endeavoured to embody in the essay the information gleaned
from all of them. For the southern distribution of these plants
in the United States, &c., I have had recourse primarily to Asa
Gray's excellent " Manual of the Botany of the Northern United
*' States," to Chapman's « Flora of the S. E. States," and to the
Reports on the Botany of various Exploring Expeditions.

5. Arctic Greenland. — In area Arctic Greenland exceeds any
other Arctic District except the Asiatic, but ranks lowest of all

♦ I am indebted to Sir John Richardson for some corrections to this list,
which account for a few discrepancies between his lists of Arctic-American
plants and my own ; these refer chiefly to genera and species introduced into
his lists, but here excluded.

^

IIOOKEB ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

217

1 works
kcquent

Fox."
tes, and

Ross'

lere. I

jleanccl

plants
Ito Asa
I United

to the

leds any
of aU

this list,
Lmerican
iced into

■r

in number of contained species. In many respects it is the most
remarkable of all the provinces, containing no peculiar species
whatever, scarcely any peculiarly A.merican ones, and but a
scanty selection of European.

A further peculiarity is that the flora of 4t»-Tcmpcrate I'ogiona S^^
is extremely poor, and adds very few species to the whole flora,
and with few exceptions, only such as are Arctic in Europe also.
Being the only Arctic land that contracts to the southward, form-
ing a peninsula, which terminates in the ocean in a high northern
latitude, Greenland ofl'ers the key to the explanation of most of
the phenomena of Arctic vegetation ; and as 1 have already made
use of it for this purpose, I shall be more full in my description
of its flora than of any other.

The east and west coasts of Greenland difler in many important
features ; the eastern is the largest in extent, the least indented
by deep bays, is perennially encumbered throughout its entire
length by ice-fields and icebergs, which ai*e carried south by a
branch of the Arctic current that sets between Iceland and
Greenland, and is hence excessively cold, barren, and almost
inaccessible. The west coast again is generally more or less free
from pack-ice from Cape Farewell (lat. 60°) to north of Uper-
navik in lat. 73^. It is washed by a southerly current, which
is said to carry drift timber from the Siberian rivers into its
fiords, and enjoys a far milder climate, and consequently has a
more luxuriant vegetation.

A somewhat similar contrast is exhibited between West Green-
land and the opposite shores of Bafiin's Bay and Davis' Strait,
because they may in some degree explain their differences of
vegetation. There is also another difterence between the polar
islands and Greenland, inasmuch as the former are for the most
part low, without mountains or extensive glaciers ; while the
latter is exceedingly mountainous, with valleys along the shore
terminating in glacier-headed fiords, and the coast is bound by
glaciers of prodigious extent from Melville Bay to Smith's
Sound,

The isothermal lines in Greenland all follow one course, from
S.W. to N.E., running more parallel to one another in this
raeiidian than in any other. The isotherm of 32° passes through
the southern extremity of the peninsula, and that of 5° through
its north extreme at Smith's Sound. The June isotherm of 41°
skirts its east coast, and that of 32° passes north of Disco. The
June temperature of Disco is hence as low as that of the north
of Spitzbergen, of middle Nova Zembla, and of the extreme
north of Asia; and yet Disco contains quadruple their number of
plants. The autumn cold is very great, the September isotherm
of 32° crossing the Arctic Circle on the west coast ; and to this
scantiness of the flora may to some extent be attributed.

The Arctic Greenland flora contains 206 species according to
Lange's catalogue (in Kink's " Gronland ") ; or 207, according
to my materials (Monocot. 67, Dicot. 140, = 1 : 2'1), the pro-

■ \

m

218

JIOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

portion of genera to species being 1 : 2. Of these 207 species,
the following 11 alone are not European : — i.i

Anemone Richardsonii (Asiatic). Potentilla tridentata (Labra-

Turritis mollis (Asiatic).

Vosicaria arctica (American
only).

Draba aurea (Rocky Mountains
and Labrador only).

Arenaria Groenlandica (Moun-
tains of U.S.).

dor only).

Saxifraga triscuspidata (Labra-
dor only).

Erigeron compositns (American
only).

Pedicularis euphrasioides (Asia).

On the other hand, no less than 57 Arctic-Greenland species
are absent in Arctic East America, and the following 36 Arctic-
Europe and Greenland species are either absent in all parts of
Eastern Temperate America, or are extremely local there : —

Arabis alpina (Labrador only).

Lychnis alpina (Labrador only).

L. dioica (absent).

Spergula nivalis (absent).

Arenaria uliginosa (absent).

A. ciliata (absent).

Stellaria cerastioides (absent).

Alchemilla alpina (absent).

A. vulgaris (Labrador only).

Sibbaldia procumbens (United
States only).

Rubus saxatilis (absent).

Potentilla verna (Labrador
only).

Sedum villosum (absent).

Saxifraga Cotyledon (Labrador
and Rocky Mountains only).

Galium saxatile (absent).

Gnaphalium sylvaticum (Labra-
dor only).

G. supinum L. (Labrador and
White Mountains only).

Cassiopeia hypnoides (Labra-
dor only).

Phyllodoce taxifolia (Labrador
and White Mountains).

Gentiana nivalis (Labrador
only).

Thymus serpyllum (absent).

Veronica alpina (White Moun-
tains only).

V. saxatilis (absent).

Euphrasia officinalis (N. U.
States).

Bartsia alpina (Labrador only).

Rumex acetosella (absent).

Salix Arbuscula (absent).

Peristylus albidus (absent),

Carex capitata (White Moun-
tains only).

C. microglochin (absent).

C. microstachya (absent).

C. pedata (absent).

Elyna caricina (Rocky Moun-
tains only).

Phleum alpiuum (Labrador and
White Mountains only).

Calamagrostis lanceolata (La-
brador only).

Deschampsia alpina (absent).

When it is considered how extremely common most of these
plants are throughout Europe and Northern Asia, and that some
of them inhabit also N.W. America, their absence in Eastern
America is even more remarkable than their presence in Green-
land.

Another singular feature of both Arctic and Temperate Green-
land is its wanting a vast number of Arctic plants which are
European, and ore found also in America. The following is a

"

nOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

219

U

list of most of these, excluding about 15, which are water-plants,
or siiecies Avhoso range is limited. Tlie letter '* I." placed before
a species sijafnifies that it is Icelandic, and I have introduced
it to show how many are absent from this island nlso, but how
many are present. The letter " S." indicates that the species ia
found in the South Temperate or Antarctic Circle. The asterisk
(*) indicates that the species is Arctic both in East America and
Europe.

Sanguisorba of&ciualis.
Rosa cinnamomea.
R. blanda.
Cireaaa alpiua.
Epilobium tetragoniun.
£. alsiniL'folium.
Lythrum salicaria.
Ribes rubrum.
R. alpinum.
Paruassia palustris.
Saxifraga Sibirica.
S. hieraciifolia.
S. bronchialis.
Bupleurum ranuncu*

loides.
Conioselinum Fischeri.
Cicuta virosa.
Carum carui.
Adoxa moschatellina.
Viburnum Opulus.
Lonicem cajrulea,
Linnsea borealis.
Galium boreale.
G. rubioides.
G. trifidum.
G. aparine.
Valeriana capitata.
Naidosmia frigida.
Crysanthemum arcticum.
Pyrethrum nodosum.
P. bipiuuatum.
Artemisia vulgaris.
Bideus bipartita.
Tanacetum vulgare.
Antennaria Carpatica.
Senecio resedaefolius.
S. frigidus.
S. palustris.
S. campestris. . .
S. aurantiacus.
Solidago Virga-aurea,
Aster Siblricus.
A. alpinus.

Anemone alpina.

I.

A. nemorosa.

A. narcissiflora.

* Rmuuculus Purshii.

#

*I. Caltha palustris.

*I.S.

* Aconitum Napellus.

*I.S.

Actaia spicata.

s.

Nuphar luteum.

#

Nasturtium amphibium.

#

S. Barbarea pr£BCOX.

*I.

S. Turritis glabra.

Thlaspi montanum.

#

Sisymbrium Sophia.

*I. Erysimum lanceolatum.

*

Arabis hirsuta.

I.S. Cardamine hirsuta.

* Parrya artica.

I. Draba muralis.

*I.

I. Subularia aquatica.

*I. Drosera rotundifolia.

I. D. longifolia.

I. Viola tricolor.

*I.

*I. Arenaria laterifolia.

*I.

* Stellaria longifolia.

I. S. crassifolia.

I.

Linum perenne.

s.

Geranium Robertianum.

*

Hypericum 4-angulum.

*

Oxalis acetosella.

*

* Phaca frigida.

I.

* Astragalus alpinus.

* A. hypoglottis.

#

* Oxytropis campestris.

s.

0. Uralensis.

Lathyrus palustris.

Spiraea salicifolia.

«

S. Geum urbanum.

#

I. G. rivale.

#

* Rubus arcticus.

*

Poteutilla fructicosa.

P. Pennsylvanica.

*

P. argentetu

#

I.S. Fragaria vesca.

*

!}• .■1

!|v;1

220

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

Jm

S. Erigeron ncris.

Veratrum album.

S. Souclius arvcnsis.

* Lloydia serotina.

I. Hicrncium borenle.

♦ Allium schffinoprasum.

* Saussurca nlpina.

* Smilacina bifolia.

I. Vaccinium myrtillus.

* Platanthera o1)tusata.

• Andromeda polifolia.

* Calypso borcalis.

Cassandra calyculata.

Godyera repens.

*I. Arctostaphylos alpiua.

Cypripodium guttatum.

*I. Pyrola secunda.

Calla palustris.

. * Gentiana amarella.

Typlia latifblia.

I. G. tenella.

Narthecium ossifragum.

* Myosotis sylvatica.

Luzula maxima.

M. palustris.

S. Juncus communis.

I. M. arvensis.

I. J. articulatus.

* Sentellaria galericulata.

I. J. bulbosus.

I.S. Prunella vulgaris.

J. stygius.

Glechoma hederaceum.

Carex pauciflora.

S. Stachys palustris.

C. tenuiflora.

* Gymnandra Pallasii.

S. C. stellulata.

* Castilleja pallida.

I. C. chordorrhiza.

I.S. Veronica oflicinalis.

C. teretiuscula.

S. V. scutellata.

C. paradoxa.

I.S. V. serpyllifolia.

S. C. Buxbaumii.

Melampyrum pratensc.

I. C. limosa.

M. sylvaticum.

S. C. Magellanica.

*I. Pedicularis palustris.

C. ustulata.

* P. versicolor.

C. livida.

Sarophularia nodosa.

I. C. pallescens.

Utriculaiia vulgaris.

C. maritima.

* Pinguicula villosa.

I. C. cx'spitosa.

Glaux maritima.

I. C. acuta.

Trientalis Europaea.

C. stricta.

* Androsace septentrionalis.

C. filiformis.

* A. Chamajjasme.

I.S. Elcocharis palustris.

Naumbergia thyrsiflora.

S. E. acicularis.

I.S. Primula farinosa.

S. Scirpus triqueter.

I. Plantago major.

S. S. lacuslris.

P. lanceolata.

Eriophorum alpinum.

S. Chenopodium album.

Rhynchospora alba.

I.S. Atriplex patula.

Alopecurns pratensis.

Corispermum hyssopifo-

I. Milium efFusum.

lium.

S. Phalaris arundinacea.

* Pologonium Bistorta.

I.S. Phragmites communis.

I. P. amphibium.

*I. Hierochloe borealis.

* Myrica Gale.

* H. pauciflora.

I. Betula alba.

*I. Catabrosa aquatica.

I. B. pumila.

*I.S. Glyceria fluitans.

I. Alnus incana.

*I. Atropis distans.

I. Salix pentandra.

I. Festuca elatior.

I. S. myrtilloides.

S. Bromus ciliaris.

I. Triglochin maritimum.

I.S. Triticura caninum.

Scheuzeria palustris.

S. Hordeum jubatum.

HOOKER ON AKCTIC PLANTS.

221

lis.

Altogetlicr there me absent in Greenland upwjirds of 230 Arctic-
European species, which are nil of them American plants. The
most curious feature of this list is the absence throu«jhout Green-
land of the gcnrni Spireca^ Scnccio^ Astragalus, 7Vifolium, Phaca^
Oxytropis, Androsace^ Aster, Myosotis, Rosa, liibes, Thlaspij
Sisymbrium, Geranium, &c., and of such ubiquitous Arctic
species as Fragaria vesca, Caltha palustris,* Barharea prtBcox.
It is remarkable that Astragalinetc are also absent from Spitz-
bergen and Iceland.

Iceland possesses 432 species (Monocot. 157, Dicot. 275),
amongst which I find about 120 Arctic-European plnnts that do not
enter Greenland ; whereas only 50 of the European plants that
inhabit Greenland are absent in Iceland. The more remarkable de-
siderata of Iceland are Astragalinca>, Anemone, Aconitum, Braya,
Turritis, Artemisia, and Androsacc ; Alopecunts alpinus, Luzula
arcuata, Hieroehloe afpituiy lluhus chamteomorus, Cassiopeia te-
tragona, Arnica montana, Antennaria dioica, and Chrysoplenium
alternifolium. On the other hand Iceland contains of Arctic
genera absent in Greenland, Caltha (one of the most common
plants about Icelandic dwellings), Cakile, Geranium, Trifolium,
Spirtea, Senccio, and Orchis.

But perhaps the most remarkable fact of all connected with the
Greenland flora is that its Southern and Temperate disliicts, which
present a coast of 400 miles extending south to lat. 60"^ N., do not
add more than 74 species to its flora, and thcee are almost unexcep-
tionally Arctic-European plants ; and, inasmuch as these additional
species increase the proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons
of the whole flora, Greenland as a whole is botnnically morl Arctic
in vegetation than Arctic Greenland alone is !

The only American forms which Temperate Greenland adds to its
flora are. Ranunculus Cymhalarice, Pyrus Americatia, a very
trifling variety of th>^ T^/arc^pean Aucuparia, Viola Muhlenbergii
(a mere variety of V. canina)^ Arenaria Grcenlandica (a plant
elsewhere found only on the White Mountains of New Hamp-
shire), and Parnassia Kotzebiiei (a species which is scarcely
different from palustris).

The only plants which are not members of the Arctic flora else-
where, and which are confined in Greenland to the Temperate zone,
besides the above American plants, are Blitum glaucum, Pola"
mogeton marinus, Sparganium minimum, and Streptopus am-
plexifolius ; the rest Avill all be found in the column of the Arctic
Plant Catalogue devoted to Greenland, where S. signifies that the
species is found south only of the Arctic Circle in that country.
On the other hand, Temperate Greenland adds very materially to
the number of European- Arctic species that do not enter
Eastern America (Arctic or Temperate), amongst which the most
remarkable are —

Cerastium viscosura. Sedum annuum.

Vicia cracca. Galium uliginosum.

Rubus saxatillis. G. palustre.

♦ This is the more remarkable because it forms a conspicuous feature in
Iceland, and is a frequent native of all the Arctic- American coasts and islands.

t

.«#9*

^smi

222

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

Juncus triridus.
J. squarrosus.
Authoxnnthum odoratum.
Narclus stricta.

Leontodon uutumnalo.
Hierncium muronmi.
H. alpinum.
Gentiaua aure^i.
Betula alpcstris.

Another anomalous feature in Greenland flora in the presence,
on the East- Arctic coast, of some species not found on the West,
nor in the Temperate southern end of the peninsula. These are
Lychnis r/eoiV-r/ (Arctic Europe), Saxifraya Jfircnlns (abundant in
all extreme Arctic latitudes but West Greenland), Polcmonium
ciBrulewn (all Arctic longitudes but West Greenland), Deschamp-
sia cfBspitosa (all Arctic longitudes, but also absent in Spitz-
bergen).

For data connected with the Greenland flora, I am mainly
indebted to the collections of the various polar voyagers in search
of a North-west Passage, especially to Drs. Lyall's and Suther-
land's ; to Lange's catalogue in Rink's '* Gronland " ; and to the
notices of Vahl, Greville, Sir William Hooker, «fec. ; to Suther-
land's Appendix to Penny's Voyage, and Durand's to Kane's
Voyage.

There is a curious affinity between Greenland and certain
localities in America, which concerns chiefly a few of the Euro-
pean plants common to these countries. First, there are in Labra-
dor, or on the Rocky Mountains, or White Mountains of New
Hampshire, a certain number of European plants found nowhere
else in the American continent. They are —

Ranunculus acris (Rocky
Mountains).

Arabis alpina (Labrador).

Lychnis alpina (Labrador).

Sibbaldia procumbens (Rocky
Mountains).

Potentilla verna (Labrador),

Montia fontana (Labrador).

Gnaphaliura sylvaticum (La-
brador).

G. supinum (Labrador and
White Mountains).

Phyllodoce taxifolia (Labrador
and White Mountains).

Gentiana nivalis (Labrador).

Veronica alpina (White Mts.).

Bartsia alpina (Labrador).

Salix Arbuscula (White Mts.).

Luzula spicata (White Mts.).

Juncus trifidus (White Mts.).

Carex capitata (White Mts.).

Kobresia scirpina (Rocky Mts.).

Phleum alpinum (White Moun-
tains and Labrador).

Cassiopeia hypnoides (Labrador Calamagrostis lanceolata (La-

and White Mountains). brador).

There are also three plants, peculiar to Greenland and Labrador,
or the White or Rocky Mountains, which have not hitherto been
found elsewhere in America. They are —

Draba aurea (Rocky Mountains).

Arenaria Groenlandica (White Mountains and Labrador).

Potentilla tridentata (Labrador).

V. — On the Aectic Phoportions of Species to Genera,

Orders, and Classes.

The observations which have hitherto been made on this sub-
ject are ahmost exclusively based on data collected on areas too

i

ILOOKEll ON AllCTIC TLAIfTS.

223

(La-

small to yi( 1 general results. Espocially in deterniiniug tho
influence of tuni|)4.>i-ature in regulating the proportions of tho
groat group of flowering plants, it is of the highest importance to
take comprehensive areas, both because of the wider longitudinal
dispersion of some orders, especially the Monocotyh'dons, and the
effects of local conditionn, such as bog land, which determine the
overwhelming preponderance of Cyperacca) in some Arctic pro-
vinces compared witJi others. The proportion of genera to
species in the whole Arctic phamogamic flora is 323 : 762 or

1 • 2-3 (^.^""^'^ ' — ' ^ ^), and that of orders to species 1 : 10-8 :
^Dicot. 1:2-2''

in tho several provinces as follow : —

Gen.

Gen. to Sp.

i

OrdtM'K. '

Orrl to Sp.

Arctic Europe

Asia ...

West America

East America

Qreeuland -

277
117
172
193
104

1:2-3
1:2-0
1:2-1
1:2-5
1:2-0

64
38
48
56
38

1:9-6
1:6-1
1:7-6
1:6-8
1:5*5

Thus Europe presents the most continental character in its
Arctic flora and West America the most insular ; which may be
attributable to the same cause in both, namely, the uniformity of
variety of type. In West America we have, as in an oceanic
island, a great mixture of types (Asiatic, European, East and
West American) and paucity of species ; in Europe the contrary.
The proportions of species to orders are still more various ; but
here, again, Europe takes the lead decidedly. The proportions of
genera and orders to species of all Greenland differ but little from
those of its Arctic regions ; whereas the contrast between Arctic
Europe and this, together with Norway as far south as 60° N. lat.,
is very much greater. This is in accordance with the observation
I have elsewhere made, that the whole of Greenland is compara-
tively poorer in species than Arctic Greenland is : —

Gen. Sp. Ord. Sp.

Arctic Scandinavia - - 1:2-3 1:9-6

All Scandinavia - - -1:2-8 1:11*6

Arctic Greenland - - 1:20 1:5*5

All Greenland - - -1:2-3 1:6-6

The proportions of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons are —

Arctic Flora
Europe

»

Asia

West America

East America

Greenland

All Greenland

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

2

2

4"

3'

3-

2-

2

6
3
5
8
1
1
0

[A Table of the proportion of the largest Orders to the whole
Flora (p. 276) is here omitted.] \

224

HOOKER ON AKCTIC PLANTS.

h t

Tlio f^roat dirtbrciiccs between the proportions of largest Onlors
to tlio whole Flora show how little confidence can ho placed in
conclusions drawn from local floras. ICricvtr is the oidy order
which is more nnnicroiis proportionally to other plants in every
province than in the entire Arctic flora, and Criuifcrte is the only
one that approaches it in this respect; and Lcf/uminosfr is the
only one which is less numerous proportionally in them nil.
East and West America aj^ree most closely of any two provinces ;
then (excluding Lcf/ttmi/iosfp) all (ireenland and Europe ; next
Arctic Greenland and all Greenland. The greatest differences
are Ijctwcen Arctic Europe and Asia, and Arctic Asia and West
America; they are less between Arctic Greeidand and Asia
(excluding Lcf/mfii/tosf/) ; they are great between Arctic (ireen-
land and East America ; and as great between all Greenland and
Arctic America.

The proportion formerly deducted by Brown, and others for
the high Arctic regions was a much smaller one ; the Monocotyle-
dons being in comparison with the Dicotyledons 1:5; and this
still holds for some isolated, very Arctic lociUities, as North-east
Greenland ; whereas Si>itzbergen presents the same proportion
OS all the Arctic regions, 1 : 2 ' 7 ; the Parry Islands 1 : 2 ' 3 ;
the west coast of Baffin's Bay, from Pond's Bay to Home Bay,
1 : 3*3; and the extreme Arctic plants mentioned at p. 205,1 : 3.
Of the prevalent Arctic plants mentioned at p. 203-4 the proportion
is 1 : 3 • 4. I have dwelt more at length on these numerical pro-
portions than their slight importance seems to require ; my object
being to show how little mutual dependence there is amongst the
Arctic florulas. Each has profited but little through contiguity
with its co-terminous districts, though all bear the impress of
being members of one northern flora.

5

VI. — On the Grouping of Forms, Varieties, and Species
OF Arctic Plants for the Purposes of Comparative

Study.

Pages 276-281.

[Not reprinted.]

VII. — Tabulated View of Arctic Flowering Plants, and
Ferns, with their Distribution. Pages 281-309. [Ab-
stract of two columns here given, with some additions.]

[Two columns only of the original table are here abstracted; one for
" Arctic-Eastern America," and another for " Greenland." A few additions to
these have been made by the Author from various Expeditions and other
sources of information since I860.]

The Arctic Flowering Plants and Ferns indicated by the follow-
ing table are — 1. Those from East Arctic America (" EAor U "),
from Mackenzie River to Baffin's Bay : the " M " signifies that
the plant extends to the islands north of Lancaster Sound, and to
the Parry Islands, including Melville Island, the best explored of
them. 2. Those from Arctic Greenland (" G," « S," " E," " Ss,**
or " NE ") : the " S " indicates that the species has been found

, AND

[Ab-

IIOOKEK ON AltCTIC PLANTS.

225

i

south only of tho Arctic Circle in Ptn'onlnnd ; tlio " B " roPer« to
thoMo found on tli«' cnat const only, the explored portions of whicli
lie to the north of Int. 70° ; tho " Ss " hImuU for Smith's Sound ;
and the plants nmrkcd "NE," to;»i'thor with four of tho ci^^ht
marked "B," have been noted on tho ciis«t const by the "Second
** German Polar Expedition."* Afp. moans " Alj)inc in Europe."

DICOTYLEDONES.
BaBunciilacese.

Thalictrum dioicum, L. EA.

alpinum, L. Afp. O.
Anemone patens, L. EA.

Uichardsoni, Hk. EA. O.
parviflora, Mich. EA.
decapctala, L. EA.
Fennsylvanica, L. EA.
Ranunculus aquatilis, L. EA. O.

confcrvoides, Fr. 0«
glacialis, L. Alp. O. ITE.
Flammala, L. EA. 8.

reptans, L. G.
Cymbalaria, Psh. Alp. EA. S.
auricomus, L. M. O. NE.
sceleratus, L.
Furshii, llich.
nivalis, L. Alp. M. O. Ss. NE.

sulphureus, Sol. O.
acris, L. S.

Lapponicus, L. Alp. EA. G.
hyperborcus, Rottb. Alp. EA. G.
pygma^us, Wahl. M. O. NE.
hispidus, Mich. EA.
Pennsylvanicns, L. EA.
Caltha palustris, L. M.
Coptis trifolia, Sal. Alp. S.
Aquilegia Canadensis, L. EA.

brevistylis, Hook. EA.

Papaveracese.

Papavcr alpinum, L. M. G.

nudicaule, auct. Ss. NE.

* Flowering Plants occurring on the East Coast only. Enumerated in Dr.
Hooker's list: —

Lychnis dioica. Polemonium cseruleum.

Saxifraga Ilirculus. De%;hampsia cxspitosa.

Mentioned in the Appendix to the '* Zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt " : —

Cochlearia fenestrata. Polemonium humile.

Saxifraga Hirculus, var. alpina. Deschampsia hrevifolia.

All the plants yielded hy the more lately explored portion of the coast from
75° to 78° N. lat. are enumerated, with localities, further on. — EniTOR.
36122, P

226

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

n I

:. : ■!

Corydalis glauca, Psh. EA.

pauciflora, Fers. EA. '

Saraceniacese.

Saracenia purpurea, L. EA.

Cruciferse. .;

Nasturtium palustrc, DC. EA. S.
Barbarea vulgaris, Br. EA. '

Turritis mollis. Hook. EA. G.

(Arabia) Holboellii, Horn. G.
Arabis hirsuta, L. EA. . ;

alpina, L. Alp. EA. G.
petrtea, Lanik. Alp. EA. G. NE.
Cardamine bellidifolia, L. Alp. U. G. NE.
hirsuta, L. EA.
pratensis, L. EA. G.
Farrya arctica, Br. Alp. Mo

arenicola. EA.
Yesicaria arctica. Rich. EA. G. Ss.* NE.
Draba alpina, L. Alp. EA. G. Ss. NE.
var. glabra and hispida. Ss.
androsacea, Wahl. Alp. M. G.
, Wahlenbergii, Hartm. G. NE.

corymbosa, Br. G. S. .
muricella, Wahl. Alp. EA. G. NE.

nivalis, Lilj. non DC. G.
stellata, Jacq. non. DC. EA.
hicta, L. Alp. EA. G.

arctica, Vahl. G. NE.
incana, L. EA. G.

rupestris, Br. Alp. EA. G. Ss. NE.
aurea, Vahl. G.
Cochlearia Danica, L. EA. G.
Anglica, L. EA. G.

fenestrata, Br. E.
officinalis, L. M. G. 8s.
Hesperis Fallasii, T. & G. Alp. EA. G. Ss.
Sisymbrium Sophia, L. EA.

canesccns, Nutt. EA.
humile, C. A. M. Alp. EA.
salsugincum. Fall. EA.
Erysimum hieraciifolium, L. EA.
cheiranthoides, L. EA.
Braya alpina, Sternb. Alp. EA. G.

(Platypetalum) purpurascens, Br. G.
Eutrema Edwardsii, Br. M. G.
Thlaspi montanum, L. EA.
Capsella bursa-pastoris, L. S.
Lepidium ruderale, L. EA.

* Vesicaria arctica and Hesperis Pallasii were found also in Washington
Land, beyond Smith's Sound.

19

Fill

HOOKEB ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

227

. <»

ihington

X>roierace8e.

Drosera rotundifolia, L. EA«

Violariese.

Viola palustris, L.
canina, L. S*
cucullata, Ait. EA.

Caryophyllese.

Silene acaulis, L. Alp. EA. G. Ss. NE.

Pennsylvanica, Mich. EA.
Lychnis apetala, L. Alp. K. G-. Ss. NE.
affinis, Vahl. G. NE.
triflora, Br. G. NE.
dioica, L. E.
alpiua, L. Alp. G.
Sagina procumbens, L. S.

nodosa, E. M. EA. S.
nivalis, Fr. G.
Linnaei, Presl. EA. G.
saxatilis, Wimm. G !
Arenaria lateriflora, DC. EA.

formosa, Fisch. Alp EA.
uliginosa, Schl. G.

(Alsine) stricta, Wahl. G.
Rossii, Br. EA. G.
Michauxii, Fenzl. EA.
verna, L. M. G.

rubella, Br. G. NE.
arctica, Stev. Alp. EA. G.
biflora, Wahl. G.^NE.
ciliata, L. Alp. G. NE.
Groenlandica, Spr. G.
Honkeneja peploides, £hr. EA. G.
Merkia physodes, Fisch. EA.
Lepigonium salinum, Fr. EA. G.
Stellaria borealis, Big. Alp. EA. G.

humif'usa, Rottb. Alp. EA. G. Ss. NE.
longipes, Goldie. Alp. M. G. NE.

Edwardsii, Br. G. Ss.
uliginosa, Murr. EA. G.
media, L. EA. G.
longifolia. Fries. Alp. EA.
crassifolia, Ehr. EA.
cerastioides, L. Alp. G.
Cerastium alpinuin, L. Alp. M. G. NE.
viscosum, L. S.
vulgatum, L. S.

Fischerianum, Ser. Ss.

■:«

Balsaminese.

Impatiens fulva, DC.

P 2

u

i

228

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

EA.

Lineae.

Linum perenne, L. EA.

Folygaleae.

Folygala Senega, Willd. EA.

Legmninosse.

Phaca frigida, L. Alj), EA.
Astralagus alpinus, L. Alp. M
hypoglottis, L. EA.
Oxytropis campestris, DC. Alp.

Uralensis, DC. Alp, M.
nigrescens, Fisch. Alp. EA.
deflexa, DC. Alp. EA.
Hedysaram boreale, Nutt. EA.

Mackenzie!, Rich. EA.
Lathyrus maritimus, L. EA. S.

ochroleucus, Hook. EA.
Yicia Americana, Miihl. EA.

Cracca^ L. S.
Lupinus perennis, L. EA.

Rosacese.

Alchemilla alpina, L. Alp. G.

vulgaris, L. O. Ss. NE.
Dryas octopetala, L. Alp. M. O. Ss. NE.
integrifolia, Yahl. O. Ss.
Drummondii, Rich. Alp. EA.
Geum urbauum, L. EA.
Sieversia Rossi i, Br. M.
Sibbaldia procumbens, L. Alp. O.
Rubus arcticus, Ij. Alp. EA.

Chamaemorus, L. Alp. EA. S.
saxatilis, L. Alp. S.
Potentilla fruticosa, L. Alp. O.
anserina, L. EA. G.
nivea, L. Alp. M. G. ITE.
Vahliana, L. G.
pulchella, Br. G. Ss. TXH,
hirsuta, Yahl. Ss.
biflora, Lehm. EA.
frigida, Yill. Alp. M. G.

emarginata, Psh. G. NE.
verna, L. Alp. G.

maculata, Lehm. G.
tridentata, L. EA. G.
Comarum palustre, L. S.
Fragaria vesca, L. EA.
Sanguisorba officinalis, L. EA.
Rosa cinnamomea, L. EA.

blanda. Ait. EA.
Pyrus aucuparia, L. S.
Prunus Virginiana, DC. EA.
Amelancheir Canadensis, Torr. & Gray. EA.

•?»

#

f

^

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

Onagrariese.

Epilobium angustifolium, L. EA. G.

latifolium, L. Alp. M. O. NE.
alpinum, L. EA. O.

origanifolium, Lam. G*
palustre, L. EA. S.

Haloragese.

Callitriche verna, L. EA. S.
Myriophyllum spicatutn, L. EA.

alterniflorum, DC. EA. S.
Hippuris vulgaris, L. EA. G.
Ceratophyllum demersum, L. EA.

Fortolacese.

Montia fontann, L. G.

Crassulacese.

Sedum Rhodiola, DC. Alp. EA. G. NE.
villosum, L. Alp. G.
annuum, L. S.

Grossulariese.

Bibes lacustre, Fursh. EA.
rubrum, L. EA.
Hudsonianum, Kich. EA.

Sazifragese.

Mitella nuda, L. EA.

Chrysosplenium alternifolium, L. M. G.

Parnassia palustris, L. EA.

Kotzebuei, C. & S. EA. S.
Saxifraga cotyledon, L. Alp. G.

Aizoon, Jacq. G.

oppositifolia, L. Alp. M. G. Ss. NE.

csespitosa, L. Alp. M. G. NE.

uniflora, Br. Ss.

cernua, L. Alp. M. G. Ss. NE.

rivularis, L. M. G. Ss. NE.

nivalis, L. Alp. K. G. Ss. NE.

Yirginiensis, Mich. EA.

bieraciifolia, W. & B. Alp. EA. NE.

stellaris, L. Alp. M. G.

Hirculus, L. M. E.
alpina, Engler. E.

flagellaris, Willd. Alp. U. G. Ss. NE.

tricuspidata, Retz. M. G. Ss.

aizoides, L. Alp. EA. G. NE.

punctata, L. Alp. EA.
Heuchera Richardsonii, Br. Alp. EA.

TTmb<illiferse.

Bi^plcurum ranunculoides, L. Alp. EA.
Conioselinum Fischeri, Wimm. Alp* EA*

229

m

&J^^^jkM^,i(^;^iSiUf'f>J:i.-

230

HOOKER OX AROTIO PLANTS

|J:

;hN

Archangelica officinalis, DC. G.
Ligusticum Scoticum, L. S.
Ciccuta virosa, L. EA.

maculata, DC. EA.
Seseli divaricatum, Pursh. EA.

Cornese.

Adoxa moschatellina, L.
Cornus stolonifera, Mich.

Canadensis, L. EA*
Cornus Suecica, L. Alp. G.

Caprifoliacese.

Viburnum Opulus, L. EA.
Lonicera cccrulcn, L. EA.
Linnsea borealis, L. EA.

Bubiacese.

Galium borenlc, L. EA.
uliginosum, L. S.
triflorum, Muhl. S.
trifidum, L. EA.
palustre, L. S.
saxatile, L. G.

Valerianese.

Valeriana capitata, Willd. EA.

Compositae.

Nardosmia frigida, Hk. Alp. 1

palmata, Hk. Alp.
Achillea millefolium, L. S.
Ptai'mica alpina, L. EA.
Chrysanthemum arcticum, L. EA.

integrifolium, Richd. EA*
Pyrethrum inodorum, Sm. EA.
Artemesia vulgaris, L. EA.

biennis, WiUd. EA.
desertorum, Spr. EA.
borealis. Pall. Alp. EA. G.
Helenium autumnale, Hk. EA.
Antennaria alpina, L. Alp. M. G.

dioica, Br. EA. G.
Gnaphalium sylvaticum, L. EA. G.

Norvegicum, Gunn. G.
supinum, L. Alp. G.
uliginosum, L. S.
Arnica montana, L. Alp. M. G.
alpina, Lsest. S. NE.
Senecio aureus, L. EA.

frigidus, Less. EA.
palustris, L. M.
campestris, L. EA.

^

€3

^

^

nOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

231

^

#'

Solidago Yirga-a\irca, L. EA.
Aster Sibiricus, L. EA.

salsuginosus, Rich. Alp. EA.
alpiuus, L. Alp. EA.
multilloru», Ait. EA.
Erigeron compositns, Pursh. Alp. EA. O.
Erioccphalus, Ynhl. NE.
alpinuH, L. Alp. EA. G*.
Philadelphicus, L. EA.
Grindelia squarrosa, Duval. EA.
Taraxacum Dens-leonis, Desf. M. O.
ceratophorum, DC. G.
palustre, DC. Ss.
phymatocnrpum, J. Vahl. G. NE.
Troximon glaucuin, Nutt. EA.
Crcpis nana, Rich. Alp. EA.
Sonchus arvensis, L. EA.
Leontodon autuninalis, L. S.
Mulgedium pulchellum, Nutt. EA.
Hieracium muroium, L. G.

alpinum, L. Alp. S.
umbcllatum, L. EA. S.
Saussurea alpina, L. Alp. EA.

Campanulacese.

Campanula rotundifolia, L. EA. G.
arctica, Lange. NE.
liuifolia, Hcnk. Ss.
uniflora, L. Alp. M. G. NE.

Vacciniese.

Vaccinium uliginosum, L. EA. G. Ss. NE.
oxycoccos, L. Alp. EA. S.
vitis-Idaea, L. Alp. EA. G.
Canadense, Kalm. EA.

Ericese.

Cassiopeia liypnoides, L. Alp. G.

tetragona, L. Alp. EA. G. Ss. NE*
Andromeda polifolia, L. EA. G.
Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spr. EA. G.

alpina, Spr. Alp. EA. G. NE.
Diapensia Lappouica, L. Alp. EA. G.
Loiseleuria procumbeus, L. Alp. EA. G.
Rhododendron Lapponicum, L. Alp. EA. G. NE.
Kalmia glauca, L. EA.
Ledum palustre, L. EA. G.

Groenlaudicum, Rctz. G.
Phyllodoce taxifolia, Sol. Alp. EA. G.
Pyrola minor, L. ISA. G.
secunda, L. EA. G.
rotundifolia, L. EA. G. NE.
grandiflora, Rad. G. Ss.
Groenlandica, Horn. G.

I,

232

HOOKEB ON ABCTIO PLANTS.

i^:i

EA. E.
E.

f'S

Oentianeae.

Gentiann arnnrella, L. EA.

aurcn, L. S.

propinquo, Rich. EA.

ilctonsn, Fr. Alp. EA. S.

nivalis, L. Alp.
Pleurojfyne rotnta, Gr. Alp. EA. G.
Mcnyanthcs trifoliata, L. G.

Kydrophyllese.

Eutoca Fmnklinii, Br. EA.

Folemoniacese.

PolemoDium caeruleum, L.
humiie, Willd.
Phlox Sibirica, L. Alp,

Boraginese.

Myosotis sylvatica, Hoffm.
Mcrtensin maritima, Don. EA. G.

denticulata, Don. EA.

Virginica, DC. EA.

Xabiatse.

Thymus serpyllum, L. G.
Dracocephalum parviflorum, Nutt. EA.
Stachys palustris, L. EA.

Orobanchese.

Boschniakia glabra, C. A. M. EA.

Scrophularinese.

Limosella aquatica, I . S.
Gymnandra borealis, Pall. Alp. EA.
Castilleja pallida, Kth. Alp. EA.
Veronica alpina, L. Alp, G.
scrpyllifolia, L. EA.
saxatilis, L. Alp. G.
Euphrasia ofRcinalis, L. EA. G. NE.
Rhinanthus Crista-gnlli, L. EA. S.
Bartsia alpina, L. Alp. G. Ss.
Pedicularis capitata, Ad. EA.

Lapponica, L. Alp. EA. G.

euphrasioidcs, Ster. Al]j. EA. G.

hirsutn, L. Alp. EA. G. Ss. ITE.

Sudetica, L. Alp. M. G.
Langsdorffii, Fisch. G.

finmmea, L. Alp. EA. G.

versicolor, Wahl. Alp. EA.

Lentibularinese.

Utricularia vulgaris, L. EA.

minor, L. EA. G.
Finguicula vulgaris, L. EA. G.

villosa, L.

^

C5

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

23a

^

J.

Frimnlacese.

Dotlecatheon Meadin, L. EA.
Androsace scptentrionalis, T.. EA.

ChnmsDJasmo, L. Alp. EA.
Douglasia arctica, Hk. A/p. EA.
Primula stricta, Horn. Alp. EA. G.
Sibirica, Jacq. Alp. EA. S.

Flumbaginese.

Armeria vulgaris, Willd. EA. G.

Labradorica, Wallr. Ss.
Sibirica, Turc. G. NE.

Flantaginese.

Plantago major, L. EA.

lanceolata, L. EA.
maritima, L. G.

Folygonese.

Koenigia Islandica, L. Alp. EA. G.
Oxyria reniformis, Hk. Alp. M. G. Ss.

digyna, L. NE.
Rumex acetosa, L. S.

Acetosella, L. G.

aquaticus, L. EA. S^.

salicifolius, Wcinm. ISA.
Polygonum Bistorta, L. EA.

viviparum, L. Alp. M. G. Ss*
aviculare. L. S.

Chenopodiese.

Chenopodium album, L. EA.

maritimum, L. EA.

Elseagnese.

Elae.agnus argentea, L. EA.
Shepherd ia Canadensis, Nutt. EA.

Santalacese.

Comandra livida, Rich. EA.

Empetrese.

Empetrum nigrum, L. EA. G. Ss* NE*
rubrura, L.

Urticese.

Urtica dioica, L. EA.

Bettdacese.

Betula papyracea, Ait. EA.

nana, L. EA. G. Ss. NE*

pumila, L. EA.

fruticosa, Pall. S.
Alnus viridis, DC. Alp. EA. G*

incana, Willd. EA*

wr

1 .vi i

;: 1

. ":;

1

i .

, \ ]

234

nOOKEB ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

SalicineiB.

Salix Innatn, L. Alp. EA. G.

spociosa, H. & A. Alp. HA,
myrtilloides, L. EA.
cordatn, Muhl. EA.
Arbuscula, L. Alp. O.
glauca, L. Alp. EA. G.
arctica, Br. Alp. K. G. Ss. NE.
alpcstris, Aud. EA. G.
myi'sinitCH, L. Alp. EA. 8.
plilebophylla, And. EA.
reticulata, L. Alp. EA. G.
hcrbacea, L. Alp. EA. G. Ss.
polaris, L. Alp. M.
Populus trcinuloidos, Mich. EA.
balsainifera, L. EA.

Coniferse.

Piuus Banksiana, Lamb. EA.
Abies alba, L. EA.
Picca nigra, L. EA.
Lriirix Americana, Mich. EA.
Juniperus communis, L.

Virginiana, L. EA.

Fluviales.

Triglochin maritimum, L. EA.

palustre, L. S.
Potamogetou rufescens, Schr. S.
pusillus, L. S.
gramineus, L. S.
Zostera marina, L. S.

Melanthacese.

Tofieldia palustris, L. Alp. EA. G. Ss.

borcalis, Wahl. G.

coccinea, Richards. EA.
Zigadenus chloranthus. Rich. EA.

Liliacese.

Lloydia serotina, L. Alp. EA.
Allium Schocnoprasum, L. EA.

Smilacese.

Smilacina bifolia, Desf. EA*

Orchidese.

Peristylus albidus, L. G.
Platanthera hyperborea, Liudl. EA. G.
Koenigii, Lindl. G.
obtusata, L. EA.
Calypso borealis, L. EA.
Listera cordata, Br. S.
Corallorrhiza innata, L. G.
Spiranthes gracilis, Br. EA*

»?

I

'% J

HOOKER O ARCTIC PLANTS.

285

^

Cypripedium gutttitum, Sw. EA«
huraile, Salisb. EA.

IiideK.

Sisyrinchium Bcrmudianum, L. EA. S.

Aroidese.

Sparganium natans, L. EA. 8.
simplex, Sm. EA.
Typha latifoliu, L. EA.

Juncese.

Luzula epadicea, DC. G.

parviflora, Desv. O*
campostris, Sm. EA. G.

congosta. Ss.

multiflora, Ehr. G.
Bpicata, Desv. Alp. EA. G.
arcuata, Hook. A/p. M. G.

hyperborea, Br. G. NE*
pilosa, Willd. G.
Juncus biglumis, L. Alp. M. G. NE.
triglumis, L. Alp. EA. G. NE.
castancus, L. Alp. EA. G. NE.
arcticus, Willd. Alp. EA. G.
filiformiB, L. EA. S.
trifidus, L. Alp. S.
squarrosus, L. S.
bufonius, L. EA. S.
polycephalus, Mich. EA.
articulatus, L. EA. 8.

Cyperaceae.

Carex dioica, L. EA. G.

gjoiocrates, Wimm. EA.
rupestris, All. Alp. G. NE.
nardina, Fr. EA. G. NE.
capitata, L. G.
microstachya, Ehr. G.
scirpoidea, Mx. EA. G.

Wormskioldiana, Horn. G.
canescens, L. EA. G.

curta, Good. ; vitilis, Fr. G.
glareosa, Wahl. EA. G.

ursina, Dewey. G.
Heleonastes, Ehr. EA. G.
lagopina, Wahl. Alp. G.
festina, Dew. Alp, EA. G.
leporiua, L. EA.
incurva, Light. EA. G.
stenophylla, Light. 8.
alpina, Sw. Alp. EA. G.

holostoma, Drej. G.
atrata, L. Alp. EA. 8.

■TO

'.<j>ij>«l>*wn».i

236

HOOKER ON AllCTIC PLANTS.

^1

i!'

;r'

\i

i fi--

Cnrex fuliginosn, St. E. IIpc. Alp. M* O, NE.
misnndra, Br. Q.
rariflora, Sm. Aip. EA. O.
Magcllanica, Lam. EA.
ustulata, Wahl. A/p. EA.
poflocarpo, Br. EA.
livida, Wahl. EA.
panicea, L. EA. S.
eupina, Wahl. EA. G«
flava, L. S.
pedata, Warl. A/p. O.
capillaris L. EA. O.
salina, Wahl. Q,

subspathacea, Wormsk. NE*
vulgaris, Fr. EA. S.
caespitosa, L. EA.
rigida, Good. Alp. EA. G. Ss.

hyperboren, Drej. G.
aquatilis, Wahl. M. G.
pilulifcra, L. EA. S.
vesicaria, L. EA. G.
pulla, Good. G.
ampullacea, Good. EA. G.
oligosperma, Mich. EA.
Kobresia scirpina, Willd. Alp. EA. G.

(Elyne) spicata, Schmd. NE.
caricina, Willd. Alp. EA. G. NE.
Eleeocharis palustris, Br. EA. S.
Scirpus triqueter, L. EA.

ca^spitosus, L. M. G.
Eriophoriim capitatum, Host. Alp. K. G*
Schenchzeri, Ilpe. O. NE.
vaginatum, L. EA. G.
polystachyum, L. M. G. NE*
anguslifolium, Rth. G.

Graminese.

Alopecurus alpinus, L. Alp. M. G. NE.

gcniculatus, L. EA. G*
Phleum alpiniim, L. Alp. G.
Fhalaris arundinacen, L. EA.
Agrostis rubra, L. Alp. G.
vulgaris, L. EA. S.
canina, L. G.
Deyeuxia Canadeusis, P.B. EA.

lapponica, Yahl. EA. G.
neglecta, Rupr. EA.
varia, P.B. EA. G.
strigosa, Wahl. G.
Calamogrostis lanceolata, Roth. G.

purpurascens, Br. G. NE.

phragmitoides, Hartm. G.

•Pi

c»

<?

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

Spartina cynosnroitles, W. SA.
Anthoxnnthuni oduratiim, L. 8.
Hicrochloo borcalis, L. B%»

alpina, L. M. G. VS.
pauciflora, Br. M.
Deschampsia ca).spitosa, P. B. M. E.
brevifolia, Br. E.
atropurpurea, Wahl. EA. S.
alpina, L. Alp. G.
flexuosa, L. 8*
Trisctum subspicatum, P. B. Afp. M. G. NE.
Phippsia algida, Br. M. G. NE.
Catabrosa aquatica, P. B. EA. 8.

vilfoidea, And. G.
Colpodium latifolium, Br. K. G. NE.

pcndiilinum, Ltestd. 8.
Dupontia Fishcri, Br. M. G.
Gljceria flnitans, Br. EA. G.
arctica, Hk. 8s.
Vahliana, Th. Fr. G.
Pleuropogon Sabini, Br. M.
Atropis maritima, L. EA. G*

(Poa) angustata, Br. G.
Poa annua, L. S. NE.

alpina, L. Aip, EA. G.
pratensis, L. EA. G.
nemoralis, L. M. G.

caesia, Sm. G. NE.
flexuosa, Wahl. Alp. M. G.
Cenisea, All. G.
arctica, Br. 8s. NE.
abbreviata, Br. G. NE.
Festuca Richardsoni, Hk. EA.
ovina, L. M. G.
rubra, L. G.
brevifolia, Br. G. NE.
Bromus ciliatus, L. EA. 8.
Triticum repens, L. EA. G.

violaceum, Horn. G.
Elymus arenarius, L. EA. G.

mollis, Trin. EA.
Hordcum jubatum, EA.
Nardus stricta, L. 8.

237

H

ACOTYLEDONES.

FUices.

Polypodium Dryopteris, L. 8.
Bhseticum, L. 8.
Phegopteris, L. 8.

sasmsm

.>a.*WIBM!

^m

I!

H. I

238

HOOKER ON ARCTIC PLANTS.

Woodsia IlvensiH, Br. Alp. EA. O. NE.
hypcrborcn, Br. Alp. EA. G,
glabelln, Br. Alp. EA. O.

CiHtoptoris fragilis, Bcrnh. EA. O. NE.

Lastrea fragrans, »Sw. EA. O.
filix-mas, Sw, 8.

Polystichum lonchitis, L. Alp. EA. Q.

Cryptogramma acrostichoides, R. Alp. EA.

Botrychium lunaria, Sw. O.

virginianum, Sw.. 8.

Lycopodiaceae.

Lycopodium sclago, L. EA. O.

annotinum, L. EA. G«

clavatum, L. 8.

Hclnginoides, L. 8.

alpinum, L. EA. Q.
Isoetes lacustris, L. 8.

Equitetacese.

Equisetum palustro, L. EA.

rariegatum, L. EA. O.
arvense, L. EA. G. NE.
sylvaticum, L. G.
scirpoides, Mich. EA. G. NE.

Vni. — Observations on the Species. Pages 310-348. [Not
reprinted.]

XXVIII. — Cryptogamic Plants from Baffin's Bay (Lat.
70° 31' to 76° 12' on the East Side, and at Possession
Bay, Lat. 73^ on the West Side). By Robert Brown.
1819.

[From Captain John Ross's " Voyage of Discovery," ^c, 2nd
edit., 2 vols. Bvo. London, 1819. Vol. ii., Appendix, pp.
194-5.]

Lycopodium Selago, L.
Polytrichum juniperinum,

Hooker & Taylor.
Orthotrichum cupulatum, H.

&T.
Trichostomum lanuginosum,

H. & T.
Dicranum scoparium, H. & T.
Mnium turgidum, Wahl.
Bryum, sp.
Hypnum aduncum, L.

Gyrophora hirsuta, Achar.
G. erosa, Ach.
Cetraria Islandica, Ach.
C. nivalis, Ach.
Cenonijce rangiferina, Ach.
C. fimbriata, Ach.
Dufurea ? rugosa, n. sp.
Cornicularia bicolor, Ach.
Usnca ? sp. nov.
Ulva crispa, Lightf.
" Red Snow," N. lat. 76° 25%
W. lonff. 65°.

Jungermannia, sp.

\^See further on. Dr. W. L. Lindsay's Catalogue of Greenland
Lichens.]

4

•fj

-
O

DICKIE ON ALG/R TROM GREENLAND, ETC.

239

9h

i

«v»

^^

XXIX. — Flowering Plants and Aloj5 of Greenland,

Davis' Strait, and Baffin's Bay, collected by Dr.

P. C. Sutherland, and determined by Sir W. J.

Hooker and O. Dickie, M.D., Professor of Natural

^> History, Queen's College. Belfast. 1853.

[From Commander E. A. In^defield's "Summer Search (iii 1852)
« for Sir John Franklin," &c. 8vo. London, 1853. Ap-
pendix, pp. 133-144.]

I. — The Flowering Plants and a Fern, named by Sir W. J.
Hooker, have been incorporated in the foregoing List of
Arctic Plants by Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B., Pros. R.S., &c.
{Sec pages 225-238.)

n. — The ALGiE, named by Dk. Dickie.

1. Melanospermese.

Fucacerc.

Fucus vcsiculosus, L. Hunde Islands, 40-50 fathoms ;

floating near Beechy Island (Barrow Strait) ; on the beach,

Whale Sound. The specimens nearly all destitute of

vesicles.
F. nodosus, L. Fiskernaes and Whale [Whale-fish ?] Island ;

and floating in 70° 50' N.
SporochnacecE.
Desmarestia viridis, Lam. Hunde Isl, 50-100 fathoms.
D. aculeata, Lam. Fiskernaes ; Hunde Isl., 80-100 fathoms ;

Whale Isl. ; floating in 73"" 20' N.
Laminariacets.
Alaria esculenta, Grev. [Pylaii ?]. On the beach, Whale

Sound. Large ; some of the fronds upwards of 6 inches

broad.
Laminaria fascia, Ag. Hunde Isl., 40-50 fathoms.
L. saccharina, Lam. Hunde Isl., 50-100 fathoms.
L. longiciniris, De la Pyl. Melville Bay ; Whale Sound ; Cape

Saumarez; floating off Dark Head, Greenland (lat. 72° 15'

N.), upwards of 10 feet in length, and their roots abounding

with animal forms peculiar to deep water.
L. digitata. Lam. Whale Sound.
Agarum Turneri, Post. «fe Rupr. Hunde Isl., 10-100 fathoms ;

Whale Isl., 40-50 fathoms ; Melville Bay.
DictyotyacecB.

Dictyota ftisciola, Lam. Hunde Isl., 40-50 fathoms ; Whale

Isl., 20-40 fathoms.
Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, Grev. Hunde Isl., 50-70 fathoms ;

and floating in lat. 73° 20' N.
Asperococcus Turneri, Hook. Fiskernaes.
ChordariacecB.
Chordaria flagelliformis, Ag. Fiskernaes; Hunde Is., 40-

100 fathoms ; Whale Isl. ; Melville Bay.
Elachista fucicola, Fries. Fiskernaes ; Whale Isl,

rJfJ|^i_JI

\ \

240

DICKIE ON ALGJE FROM GREENLAND, ETC.

Elnchista flnccidn, Aiescli (?). On Dcsmarestia aculeatUf

Whale Isl.
Myrionema strftnri;iilans, Grev. A minute plant, probably

identicail with this Bi)ecies, was found infesting CaUithani-

nion Rothiiy at low-water-mark, Hunde Isl.
Ectocarpacra^.

Cha)topteri.s plumosa, Kutz. Hunde Isl., 25-30 fathoms ; on

the beach, Whale Sound.
Ectocarpus littoralis, Lyngb. Fiskernaes ; Hunde Isl., 50-

100 fathoms ; and floating in lat. 73° 20' N.
E. Durkcei, Ilarv. (?). Fragments apparently of this species,

mixed with the following.
E. Landsbnrgii, Harv. Hunde Isl., 70-80 fathoms.

2. Bhodospermeee.

Rhodomelnccfc.

Polysiphonia nigrescens, Grev. Fragments apparently of this
variable species were found at Hunde Isl., 40-50 fathoms ;
and cast up in Whale Sound.
Coral linacetr.
Melobesia polymorpha, Linn. Erebus-and-TeiTor Bay, in 15

fathoms.
M. fasciculata, Ilarv. Erebus-and-Terror Bay, 8-10 fathoms.
M. lichenoides, Borl. At low- water-mark, Fiskernaes ; Hunde
Isl., 7 fathoms ; Cape Adair, 12-18 fathoms.
Spheerococcoidefc.

Dclesseria sinuosa, Lam. T>ark Head.
D. angustissime, Griff. Whale Isl.
Calliblepharis ciliata, Kutz. On the beach, Whale Isl.
Sfiuamaric(e.
Peyssonnelia Dubyi, Crouan. Cape Adair, 12-15 fathoms,
on stones.
Rhodymeniaceo'.

Euthora cristata, J. Ag. Hunde Isl., 90-100 fathoms.
CryptonemiaccfP.

Callophyllis laciniata, Kutz. Whale Isl., floating and on

beach.
Halosaccion ramentaceum, J. Ag. Whale Isl., cast up.
Ceramiacefp,
Ptilota sei-rata, Kulz. Whale Isl,, 30-40 fathoms ; Whale

Sound, floating.
Callithamnion Rothii, Lyngb. Hunde Isl., low-v.'ater-mark ;
Cape Adair, on stones dredged in 12-18 fathoms.

3. OJb!orosperme8e.

Confervacea.
Cladophora Inglefieldii, n. s. Low-water-mark, Fiskernaes.
C. rupestris. Kg. Low-water-mark, Fiskernaes.
C. arcta, Kg. Low-water-mark, Fiskernaes.
C. uncialis, Harv. Omenak, and Whale Sound.
Conferva melagonium, Web. & Mohr. Cape Bowen ; Whalo

Sound ; and Beechy Island (Barrow Strait).
C. sp., probably near C. yoiingana ; fragments. Cape Bowen ;

HunUe Isl., 25-30 fathoms.

i

»r^l

^

DICKIE ON ALG.E FllOM GREENLAND, ETC.

241

i

Conferva capillaris, L. Freshwater pool?, Ilundelsl.
C. bombyciua, Ag. Pools, Iliinde Isl.

Eiiteromorplia intcstinalis, Link. Ilunde Isl. ; Cape Bowcu.
E. pcrcursa, Hook. Hmule Isl., beach.
Ulva latissima, Linn. Low-water-mark, Oinoiiak.
U. crispa, Lijihtf. [? Prasiola fliivi<ttilis, Souun.] * Whale Isl.
Porphyra vulgaris, Ag. Whale Sound.
NostochincfP.

Nostoe spha)ric".m, Vaucli. In freshwater pools, Hunde Isl.
Diatomacea:.

Fragments of a minute species of Schizonema, too imperfect
for recognition, were found on Drift Wood in lat. 62° N.,
long. 51° W. ; also on stones at Cape Bowen and Whale
Sound.

XXX. — Plants from West Greenland and Smith Sound,
collected by Dr. E. K. Kane, U.S.N., and determined
by Elias Durand and T. B. James. (From E. K.
Kane's " Arctic Explorations in the Years 1853-1855,"
vol. ii., Appendix XVIIL, pp. 442-467 ; 1856.)

[For the Phaenogamous Plants and Equiseta, see Dr. Joseph D.
Hooker's List, above, p. 225.]

Filicp:s (p. 464).

Polypodium phegoptcris ? lat. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. As

65° N. lat. high up as N. lat. 76°.

Woodsia Ilvensis, R. Br. 64° C. fragilis, var. dentata, Hooker

and 72° N. lat. (?). N. lat. 80°.

LYCOPODIACEiE.

Lycopodium selago, L. L. alpinum, L.

L. annotinum, L.

Musci. (T. B James.)

Sphagnum squarrosum, Pers. Dicranum elongatum, Schw.

S. acutifolium, Ehrt.
S. recurvum, Brid.
Tetraplodon mnioides, Bruch

& Schimper.
Splachnum vasculosum, L.
S. Wormskioldii, Horn.
Bryum lueidum, James, n. s.
B. Muhlenbeckii, B. & Sch.
Aulacomnion turgidum,

Schwreg.
Polytrichum juniperinum,

Hedw.
Dicranum scoparium, ^. ortho-

phyllum, B. & Sch.

D. virens, Hedw.

D. virens, ,3. Wahlenbergii, B. &

Sch., and another var.
D. Richardsoni, Hook.
D. Muhlenbeckii, B. & Sch.
D. 2 spp.

Racomitrum lanuginosum, Bird,
Weissia crispula, Hedw.
Hypnum riparium, L.
H. uncinatum, Hedw.
H. cordifolium, Hedw. and var,
H. stramineum, Dickson.
H. sarmentosum, Vahl.
H. Schreberi, Willd.

I

♦ See Trans. Hot. Soc. Edinb., vol. ix., p. 426 ; ani further on, p. 281.
36122. Q

i

•9:;

242

DUBANT AND JAMES ON CRYrTOGAMS.

Hepatice;e. (T. P. James.)

Ptilidium ciliare, Nees. Jungermannia divaricata, E. B.

Sarcocyphus Ehrharti, Cord. J. squarrosa, Hook.

*

Thallophytes. (T. p. James.)

Cetraria Islandica, Ach. Cladonia rangiferina, Hoffiii.

Peltigera canina, Hoffm. C. fiircata, Floerk.

Cladonia pyxidata, Fries. C. sp.

XXXI.— Notice of Flowering Plants and Ierns col-
lected on both Sides of Davis' Strait and Baffin's
Bay. By Mr. James Taylor, Aberdeen.

[Reprinted, by Permission, from the Transactions of the Bo-
tanical Society of Edinburgh, vol. vii., 1862, pp. 323-334.
Read 13 March 1862.]

'*

The Plants named in the following list were collected by me
in the course of five voyages made to Davis Strait, &c., as
surgeon on board whaling vessels in the years 1856-61. Some
of these years were more favourable for making such collections
than others. My time was often very limited, and the ground I
could explore much circumscribed by the short stay of the vessels
at particular localities. The vessels usually remained longest in
Cumberland Gulf, and accordingly the districts round about it
have been the most completely investigated. But with longer time
and more means at my disposal for making protracted excursions
into the interior, I have no doubt that the subjoined list could have
been very greatly increased. I have here given only the Flowering
Plants and Ferns. I collected a great many Mosses and Lichens,
but they have not yet been thoroughly examined. On the east
side of Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay, I have had opportunity of
exploring parts of the country from Disco Island to Wilcox
Point ; and on the west side my observations have extended with
some intervals, from Cumberland Inlet to Cape Adair, a little
north of Scott's Bay. It may be explained, that in the list,
E., or E. side, means Danish Greenland, and W., or W. side, the
islands lying to the west of Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay, forming
part of the Arctic islands of North America ; also, when any
particular place is named, it is to be understood as including the
district surrounding it. To obviate the necessity of giving lati-
tudes and longitudes in the list, it seems advisable to give here
the latitude and longitude of the principal places named : —

East side.
Disco island,
Hasen or Hare Island, -
Dark Head or Svarthuk,
Upernavik, - . -
Wilcox Point,

N. Lat.

W. Long.

69° 10'

54° 30'

70° 30'

54° 15'

71° 40'

56° 0'

73'' 25'

57° 26'

74" 18'

58° 8'

!

J[. TAYLOR ON FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS. 243

2ata^ E. B.

Hoffm.

N. Lat.
63° 45'
65° 10'

W. Long.
64° 30'
64° 40'

3RNS COl-

Baffin's

f the Bo-
. 323-334.

ted by me

it, &c., as

)1. Some

collections

ground I

he vessels

ongest in

about it

)nger time

xcursions

lould have

lowering

Lichens,

the east

'tunity of

Wilcox

ided with

a little

the list,

side, the

forming

'^heu any

ding the

ing lati-

:ive here

.ong.
30'
15'
0'
26'
8'

West side.
Cape Enderby,
Cape Mercy (of Davis),

According to the maps, the latitude and longitude of these two
places are — Cape Enderby, lat. 63° 45', long. 67° ; Cape Mercy,
lat. 65°, long. 63° 20'.

Niatolik (Nawaktolik),
Cape Searle,
Scott's Inlet,
Cape Adair,

65° 50'
67° 20'
71° 10'
71° 20'

65° (68'?)
62° 30'
71° 0'
72° 0'

The Kickertine Islands, and the islands called Midliattwack,
are in the middle of Cumberland Gulf. They are composed of
metamorphic rocks, which rise in Midliattwack to the height of
557 feet, and in the Kickertines to that of 450 feet. These
measurements, as well as those given in the list, were all made by
means of the aneroid. To give an idea of the temperature of an
ordinary fine day in these latitudes, and show the conditions under
which Arctic vegetation makes so rapid a growth, I subjoin the
temperature of one of the Kickertine Islands at various altitudes,
on the 20th August 1861, when there was a clear sky, a bright
sun, and little wind : — At 50 feet, exposed thermometer 69° Fahr. j
in shade, 48°' 5 ; sunk 1^ foot in soil, 45° ; water of a small lake,
58°. At 100 feet in a valley, exposed thermometer, 70° ; in shade
(a Uttle more wind), 46° ; sunk 1^ foot, in somewhat moist soil,
44°. At 200 feet, exposed thermometer, 58°; in shade, 51°'5;
sunk 1^ foot in sandy soil, 45°. At 450 feet, exposed thermo-
meter, 62°; in shade, 41°; sunk 9 inches in sandy soil, 48°.
Also, at one of these islands a thermometer was sunk 22 inches
in a gravelly soil, and examined every two hours for twenty-four
hours. The mean of all the observations was 42° • 38.

The following is a list of the Flowering Plants and Ferns col-
lected : —

RanunculacecB.

Ranuncuhis affinis, Br. — Flowers in August. Coast to 500
feet. Soil granitic. W. side, at Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf.
Grows to about the height of 18 inches.

R. nivalis, L. — Fl. in June. Sea to snow-line. Perennial ; on
any soil, but most luxuriant on volcanic. E. and W.

R. hyperhoreus, Rottb. — Fl. June and August. Alt. 200 feet.
E., Disco, Dark Head, and Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf,
Cape Searle, Scott's Bay, Cape Adair. Grows in small pools of
water, the depth of which modifies its appearance.

R, pygmtEus, Wahl. — Fl. June to August. Range same on
both sides. Alt., Sea to 1000 feet. Any soil, and grows in small
tufts of from 6 to 12 plants. E., Disco and Hassen Islands, Dark
Head, Danish Head, and Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf,
Cape Searle, Scott's Bay, &c.

R. sulphureus, DC. — Fl. June to Sept. Range as in last species.
Alt., Sea to 200 feet. Any soil. Flower often white, and the
whole plant is often under the snow, except the flower stalk ;
petals very deciduous, and the seeds are often not shed till next

Q 2

u

: U

244 J. TAYLOR ON FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS.

i^f

u

tli'M

'■'i ::

■k

f^pring. E., Dark Head and Danish Head. W., Kiuguite^
Cumberland Gulf, Cape Senrle, Scott's Bay, Cape Adair.

PapavcracCfP,

Papaver nudicaulc, L. — Fl. June to Sept. Alt., Sea to 1,500
feet. Any soil, but chiefly on glacier-drift of a clayey nature ;
and amongst animal refuse, where Esquimaux huts have been.
Flower sometimes of an inky blue colour, with yellow flowers
often on the same plant. The natives appear to make no use of
this species. Common on both sides.

Cruciferce.

Arabis alpina, L. — Fl. June to Sept. Alt., Sea to 500 feet.
Range limited to the following localities ; on trap in loose soil,
and associated with few other plants. E., Disco, Dark Head.
W., Cape Searle.

Cardamine hcIHdifolia, L. — Fl. Jinic to Aug. Range, 6 4° to 74°.
Alt., Sea to 1,500 feet. Mossy soil, amongst Sphagna, Cypcracece,
&c. E., Disco and Hassen Islands, Dark Head, Horse Head,
Wilcox Point. AV., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay,
&c.

C. pratensis, L. — Fl. June and July. Alt., 200 feet. E., Disco.
Draba glacialis, Adams. — Fl. June. Alt., 500 to snow-line.

On trap soil, growing singly, with long filiform roots running deep
into the soil ; appearance much modified by elevation and exposure.
E., Dark Head. W., Cape Searle.

D. hirta, L. — Fl. June to Aug. Alt., Sea to 2,000 feet. In
common Avith some other Drabas, it sends up two sets of flowering
stems, in the earlier and later party of the season respectively ;
the siliculas of the latter generally retaining their seed during the
winter. E., Dark Head, Upernavik, Horse Hexd, Wilcox Point.
W., Cumberland Gulf, Capes Searle and Adair.

I), riipcstris, Br. — Fl. June to Aug. Alt., Sea to 1,000 feet.
On any rocky and granitoid soil. E., Dark Head, Danish Head,
Wilcox Point. W., Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf, Capes Searle and
Adair.

D, muricella, Wahl. — Fl. Juno and July. Alt., Sea to 500
feet. Soil gr.anitoid. Perennial. E., Wilcox Point. \V., Cape
Searle, Scott's Bay.

D. stellata, Jacq. — Fl. June and July. Soil granitic. E.,
Wilcox Point.

D. lapponica, DC. — Fl. June, July. Alt., 1,000 feet. Soil
granitoid. Very varial>le. E., Wilcox Point, Dark Head. W.,
Cape Searle, Scott's Bay.

Vesicaria arctica, Rich. — June. Alt., 500 feet. Soil granitic.
Roots sinking deep. E., Wilcox Point.

Cochlcaria officinalis^ L. — Fl. June to Aug. Alt., Sea to 200
feet. Grows very profusely. The varieties fencstrata, arctica,
and anglica are not so common. E., Hassen Island, Dark Head,
Upernavik, Horse Hpid, Duck Islands, Wilcox Point. W.,
Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay.

1

RNS.

J, TAYLOR OX FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS.

245

Kiugnite,

to 1,500
jr nature ;
ive been.
V flowers
no use of

500 feet,
loose soil,
irk Head.

54° to 74°.

rse Head,
20tt's Bay,

E., Disco.

snow-line.

ining deep

exposure.

feet. In

flowering

ipcctively ;

lluring the

!0x Point.

[,000 feet.
lisU Head,
>earlc and

lea to 500
W., Cape

[itic. E.,

eef. Soil
lead. W.,

11 granitic.

lea to 200
Jr., arctica,
lark Head,
lint. W.,

^

Caryophyllacete.

Silene acaulis, L. — May to July. Alt., Sea to snow-line.
Common on both E. and W. side.

Lychnis apetala, L., and varieties. — Fl. June and July. Alt.,
Sea to 1,000 feet. Any moist soil. Some specimens are but an
inch in height, and covered with long hairs ; others nine inches,
branching freely, and glabrous ; flowers pink or white, the former
colour most frequent on trap soils, where also the whole plant
had a reddish appearance ; the latter on granitic soils, the plant
being of a dark green. E., Wilcox Point. "W., Cape Searle,
Midliattwack, and Niatoling.*

L. afpina, L. — Juno and July. E., Disco.

Honkeneja peploidcs, Ehr. — July, Aug. Alt., Sea to 50 feet.
On the coast, but was also collected about three miles up a river,
at the Winter Harbour, Kingnite, on an old sea beach, now raised
about twenty feet above spring tides ; while it also grew on the
present beach, just below, in plenty. W., Kingnite, Cumberland
Gulf, Kickertine Island, Cape Searle.

Arenaria verna, L., var. rubella, Br. — Fl. June to Aug. Alt.,
500 feet (?). Soil granitic. In crevices of rocks. W., Winter
Harbour, Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf.

A. Rossii, Br.— July, Aug. Alt., 200 to 1,000 feet. Most
frequent in trap soil, moistened by melting snow. E., Hassen
Island, Dark Head. W., Kickertine Island, Cumberland Gulf,
and Cape Searle.

A.arctica,i6tev. — July, Aug. Alt., Sea to 1,000 feet. On any
soil. E., Dark Head, Upernavik, Horse Head, Wilcox Point.
W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay, &c.

Stellaria Edwarclsii, Br. — July, Aug. Sea to 500 feet. Soil
granitic. W., Winter Harbour, Kingnite, Kickertine Island,
Niatolik, Cumberland Gulf.

S. stricta, Br. — June to Aug. Sea to 500 feet. Found in
great profusion about the ruins of Esquimaux settlements. E.,
Women's Island, Duck Island, and Wilcox Point. W., Cape
Searle, Scott's Bay, and along the coast.

S. loHffipes, Goldie. — July, Aug. W., Niatolik, Cumberland
Gulf.

S. humifusa, Rottb. — July, Aug. Plentiful in sandy beaches.
E., Dark Head, Women's Island. W., Capes Adair, Searle,
Kickertine Island, Cumberland Gulf.

S. l(Eta, Rich. — July, Aug. W., Niatolik, Cumberland Gulf,
Cape Searle.

Cerastium alpinum, L. — May to Aug. Sea to snow-line.
Varieties not unfrequently occur. Very common on both sides.

C. triffynum, Fries. — July. Alt., 1,000 feet. E., Disco.

Rosacece.

Dryas octopetala, L. {integrifolia, Vahl). — June, July. Alt.,
1,000 feet. E., Disco, &c. W., Cape Searle, Cumberland Gulf,
«&c.

* " Niatoling " is the name applied to the district round the station cf
Niatolik,

;.7?*«r.">'v?S^^ra2

m

•'I

24G J. TAYLOR ON FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS.

Potentilla tridcntata, L. — July, Aug. Alt., 300 feet. In
crevices of granite rocks. W., Niatolik, Midliattwack Islands,
Cumberland Gulf.

P. emarginata, Psli. — July, Aug. Alt., 500 feet. W., Niatolik,
Kickertine Island, and Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf.

P. nivea, L. — June to Aug. Sea to snow-line. The specimens
sent to Professor Balfour did not appear to liim to be the true
nivcft. Are they nearer var. pulchella of Br. ? E., Dark Head,
Women's Island, Horse Head, Wilcox Point. W., Kickertine,
Midliattwack, Niatolik Islands, Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searlo,
Scott's Bay, Cape Adair.

P. Vahliana, L. — July, Aug. Coast to snow-line. A very
variable plant, giving rise to many of the varietltjs of authors.
Thus, P. sericea seems a two-flowered form, while P. hirtista^
Vahl., and P. Jamesoniana, Grev., are also varieties of it. E.,
Hassen Island, Dark Head, Horse Head, Wilcox Point. W.,
Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay.

OnagracecB.

Epihbinm alpiimm, L. — fTnly. E., Disco.

E. latifolium, L. — June to Aug. Alt., 1,000 feet. Any soil ;
spreads much, but in some places seldom flowers. In warm valleys,
in a southern exposure, it grows luxuriantly ; in such places, I
have several times found the exposed thermometer to indicate 80°
to 90°. The highest temperature I ever observed in these regions
was 106° Fahr. E., Hassen Island, Dark Head, Women's Island,
Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay,
&c.

E. angustifolium, L. — Aug., Sept. Alt., 1,000 feet. Only
found in the locality indicated, where it occupied a large space of
ground amongst Salix arctica. W., North side of Winter Har-
bour, Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf.

Halm^agracecE.

Hippuris vulgaris, L. — Fl. Aug. Range limited. Alt., 100
feet. In small pools, to a temperature of 56° Fahr. W., Kicker-
tine Islands, Cumberland Gulf.

Saxifragacece.

Saxn/raga oppositifolia, L. — Fl. May to July. Alt., 1,500 feet.
E., Disco, Hassen Islands, Dark Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cum-
berland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay, &c.

S. tricuspidata, Retz. — Fl. June to Sept. Alt., Snow-line.
Any soil, and may reach a foot in height. E., Disco, JT-issen
Islands, Dark Head, Women's Islands, Horse Head, Wilcox
Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Capes Searle and Adair.

S. Aizoon, Jacq. — Aug., Sept. Alt., 300 feet. In clefts of
granitic rocks. W., Kingnite, Middliattwack Islands, and Niato-
ling in Cumberland Gulf.

S. nivalis, L. — Fl. July, Aug. Alt., Coast to 1,000 feet. Best
in damp soil, mossy. E., Dark Head and Wilcox Point. W.,
Cumberland Gulf, Scott's Bay, Cape Searle.

S, cernua, L.— Aug. Coast to 200 feet. By the sides of

I

kf

)■

^ERNS.

J. TAYLOR ON FLOWERIXa PLANTS AND FERNS. 247

feet. In
:;k Islands,

., Niatolik,

I specimens
)e the true
)ui-k Head,
Kicker tine,
iipe Searle,

. A very
jf authors.
P. hirusta,
of it. E.,
oint. W.,

Any soil ;
rm valleys,
li places, I
idicate 80P
ese regions
^n's Island,
cott's Bay,

et. Only
;e space of
inter Har-

Alt., 100
., Kicker-

" ,500 fdet.
., Cum-

fnow-line.
JT'issen
Wilcox

I clefts of
lid Niato-

it. Best
[nt. W.,

sides of

■ft

4

i

)

rivulets, amongst mosses, ,&c. W., Kickcrtine Islands, Kingnito,
Cumberland Gulf, Scott's Bay.

S. rivularisy L. — July, Sept. Coast to 2,000 feet. Any soil,
but varies in height from 1 to 6 inches, and often flowers twice a
year. E., Hassen Island, Dark Head, Women's Island, Wilcox
Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay, Cape
Adair.

S. cfBspitosa, L.—- June to Aug. Coast to snow-line.

The following varieties occur : —

1. Leaves variable, the cauline ones entire.

2. Leaves tripartite and cuneate.

3. Leaves of both forms, and in 2 or 3 flowers on the same
stem.

Common on both sides.

S. Hirculus, L. — Aug. Alt., 100 feet ; on clay soil ; it grows
singly. W., Scott's Bay.

S. steliaris, L. — Aug. Alt., 200 feet. On gianite, and often
viviparous. W., Kickertine Island, Cumberland Gulf.

S. foliolosa, Br. — July. E., Disco.

S. hieraciifolia. W. & K.— Aug. Alt., 100 feet ; on moist
granitoid soils. W., Banks of a river south of Scott's Bay.

Chrysosplenium alternifolium, L. — ^Aug., on the beach amongst
mosses. W., Middliattwack Islands, Cumberland Gulf.

ComposUfe,

Gnaphalium sylvaticum, L. — June to Aug. Alt., 1,000 feet.
Any soil ; very variable. E., Dark Head, Women's Islands,
Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay,
Cape Adair.

Antennaria alpina, L. — June to Aug. Alt., 1,000 feet. Pro-
fessor Balfour has doubts whether this be alpina. W., Kingnite,
Kickertine, Middliattwack Islands, Cumberland Gulf.

Arnica montana, L. (angustifolia, Vahl). — June to Aug. Alt.,
500 feet. Varies much ; height, 1 inch to 1^ foot ; is smaller in
trap than in granitic soils. E., Dark Head, Horse Head, Wilcox
Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle.

Artemisia borealis, Pallas. — June to July. Alt., 500 feet. In
crevices of rocks. W., Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf.

Erigeron unijlorus, L. — July to Aug. Alt., 700 feet. Varies
much in size. Largest specim<ms, 18 inches. E., Hassen Island,
Dark Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Capes Searle
and Adair, Scott's Bay.

Taraxacum palustrc, DC. — July, Aug. Sea to 500 feet. E.,
Disco, Dark Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape
Searle.

Campanulacece,

Campanula linifoUa, Haenk. — Aug., Sept. Alt., 500 feet on
granitic soils. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay.

C. uniflora, L.— June to Aug. Alt., 500 feet. There seem
to be two varieties of the plant. E., Disco, Hassen, Dark Head^
Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Capes Searle and Adair.

248 J. TAYLOK ON FLOWERING PLANTS AND FEUNS.

Vacciniaccfr,

Vaccinium uliginosum, L. — Fl., May, June. Sea to snow-line;
often covers largo spaces, singly or associated with Clatlonia
rangiferina. The largo and juicy fruit was abundant wherever I
saw the plant. Common on l)oth sides.

V. Vitis'Idfcn, L.—May, Juno. Alt., 500 feet. E., Wilcox
Point.

JSricacees.

Cassiopeia trtragona, Don. — July, Aug. Alt., Snowline.
Occurs everywhere, like the Calluna of Scotland, and made a fire
for us at niglit when travelling, besides an excellent couch under
the shelter of a boulder — no unnecessary luxuries in my longer
journeys inland to the West of Cimiberland Gulf, &c. Common
on both sides.

C. hypnoides^ Don. — June, July. Alt., 50 feet. In sandy flats
on the coast, in dense masses. W., Kingnite, Kickertinc Islands,
Niatoling, and Cape Searle, Scott's Bay.

Azalea prociimbens, L. — June, July. Alt., 500 feet. E.,
Wilcox Point.

Ledum palustrc, L. — Aug. Mossy soil. Has a powerful odour,
and is hence used by the natives in packing and preparing their
Seal skins ; also used as tea. E., Dark Head, Women's Islands,
Horse Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Capes Searle
and Adair, Scott's Bay.

Andromeda poUJolia, L. — July. Mossy soil. E., Disco,
Wilcox Point.

Menziesia {Phyllodoce) canulea, L. — July, Aug. Alt., 300
feet. In granitic and mossy soils, with Ledum. E., Dark Head,
Horse Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle.

Rhododendron Lapponicum, L. — June, July, Alt., 1,000 feet.
Often covers large spaces, flowering in great profusion; more
frequent on the E. side. E., Disco, llassen and Women's Islands,
Dark Head, Horse Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf,
Cape Searle, Scott's Bay.

Pyrola rotundifolia, L. {chlorantha, Sw.). — Aug. Very common
on any soil ; specimens occur with only one flower. Common on
both sides.

Diapensia Lapponica, L. — July, Aug. Sea to 500 feet. The
withered leaves of former years remain on the stem, closely packed
below the living ones. Often grows on exposed plains, and on
diy soil. Common on both sides.

BoraginaccfP.

Mertensia maritima, Don. — July, Aug.
W., Cape Searle.

Scrophulariactfe,

Pediculai'is arctica, Br. — July, Aug.
Dark Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cape Searle.

P, Kaneiy Durand. — July, Aug. Sea to 1,000 feet. Trap soil.
E., Hassen Island, Dark Head, Horse Head. W., Cape Searle.

Beach, amongst sand.

Sea to 500 feet. E.,

FEKNS.

) snow-Hne ;

h Clndonia

v/hcrever I

E., Wilcox

Snow-line,
made a fire
3iich under

my longer
Common

sandy flats
ne Islands,

feet. E.,

jrful odour,
aring their
I's Islands,
ipes Searlc

E., Disco,

Alt., 300
)ark Head,
pe Searle.
1,000 feet,
iion; more
I's Islands,
land Gulf,

'y common
ommon on

feet. The
ely packed
s, and on

ngst sand.

feet. E.,

Trap soil.
Searle.

I

J. TAYLOR ON FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS. 249

J*, hirstita, L. — June, July. Alt., 800 feet. The most common
of the genus. E., Disco and Hassen, Women's Islands, Dark Head,
Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Capo Searle, Scott's Bay.

JP. TMngsdorJii, Fischer. — June, Jidy. Alt., 500 feet. E.,
Dark Head, Wilcox Point. W., Kingnite, Cape Searle, Scott's
Bay.

P. Nclsoniy Br. — June, July. Alt., 300 fcsef. W., Kickcrtinc
Islands, Middliattwack, Cumberland Gulf.

P. Lapponica, L. — June, July. E., Disco.

Euphrasia officinalis, L. — July, Aug. Sea to 50 feet. The
plants were very small. W., Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf.

PlumbaginaccfB,

Armeria vulgaris, Willd. — July, Aug. Sea to 500 feet. Only
seen at Cape Searle, on trap soil. W., Cape Searle.

Polygonaccce.

une to Aug.

Coast to 500 feet.

Polygonum viviparum, L.-
Common on both sides.

Oxyria rcniformis. Hook. — Juno to Aug. Sea to snow. Very
common, but not used by the natives as a cure for scurvy, for
which they use the stomach of a recently killed Deer. Common
on both sides.

;, Kcenigia Islandica, L. — July, Aug. 50 to 500 feet. On the
ground moistened with water from melted snow, and in moist
crevices of rocks. W., Cape Searle, Middliattwack Island, and
Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf. Annual.

EmpetracccE.

Empetrum nigrtim, L. — May, June. Reaches snow-line. Very
common in some places, and with fine fruit, which often survives
the Avinter. In autumn its berries, with those of Vaccinium
uliginosum, are collected and eaten by the Natives. These are
also eaten by Corvus corax; var. Americanus, and Plectrophanes
nivalis and P. lapponica ; while the Grouse are fond of the young
twigs. Common on both sides.

Betulacete.

Bctula nana, L. — June. Not seen north of Disco, nor on the
Avest side. E., Disco.

SalicacecB,

Salix arctica, Br. — May, June. Alt., 1,500 feet. The tallest
plant seen was 4 feet in height ; it often grows to a considerable
size, spreading over the southern face of some boulder. Common
on both sides.

S. reticulata, L. — May, June. Alt., 500 feet. E., Dark Head,
Wilcox Point. W., Scott's Bay.

S. herbacea, L. — May, June. Coast to snow-line. Covers
extensive tracts, and that too where most other plants cease to
appear, except Junci and Liizid<r, The Grouse feed on the leaves in

• !

■1'

250 J. TAYLOR ON FLOWERING PLANTS AND TERNS.

spring;. Ii» <ljy n»u^ wonthcr in September, I have often seen itH
downy HeodHwut'tnl in clondH over Ittiul luul soft. Common on both
sides.

S. vrstita, Pnrsh.—lMay, ,Inne. Alt., 2(K) feet. W., Niatolik,
Cumberland Gnli'.

.V. tttMi'tortnn, Hich. — May, .Inno. Alt., 100 I'eot. W.,King-
nitc and Seott'w Hay.

.V. (fr/ntfifn/i(t, Sni. — May, Juno. Alt., 2(K) feet. Deleeted by
rroH'ssor IJalfour. VV,, Kiekcrtine and Middliattvvack Islands,
Cumberland Gulf. Frequ(!nt.

Melantlutve<i'.

ToJiehlUi p<tlustris,\i. — June. Alt., ^(K) foef. MoHsy soil. H,
Wilcox I'oint. W., Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf, Capo Searlo,
ScoH's Hay.

Juucaccfr.

Ltiznhi spicata, Desv. — Juno, July. Alt., 100 feet. W.,
Niatolik, Kickertino Islands, Kingnite, all in Cumberland Gulf.

f.. spadicva, DC. — June, July. Alt., 100 feet. In marshos
amon<j;«t Sphagna. W., Kickertino, Kingnite.

L. arvuafn, Ilook. — July, Au^jf. Const to snow-line. Tlie seeds
of this and other Lvzuhc often survivi' the winter, being suddenly
covered with snow, and thus afford a .supply of food in spring to
many Birds in their norllnvard migration, while they are eqmdly
serviceable in autumn on their return. Frequent on both sides.

L. ht/perboren, Br. — July, Aug. Reaches snow -line. The
leaves and stems of succeeding seasons often remain on the same
plant, and from their size, &c. in a measure in H'late the character
of each season. Connnon on both sides.

L. campcsti'is, Br., v. congcsta. — July, Aug. Alt., 200 feet.
W., Cumberland Gulf, in various places.

Juneus bigliimis^ L. — Juno, July. Coast to snow-line. Com-
mon on both sides.

J. custaneus^ Sm. — June, July. Alt., 150 feet. Grows where
water has stood in the early part of the year. W., Cumberland
Gulf, in various places.

J. arctiais, Willd. — Aug. Alt., 100 to 150 feet. Mossy soil
W., Middliattwack Islands, Cumberland Gulf, Scott's Bay.

CypcraccfP.

Eriophoruw capitatum, Host. — June, July. W., Cumberland
Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay, Cape Adair.

E. angustifolium, Roth. — June, July. Coast to 300 feet. Com-
mon on both sides.

Caret rigida, Good. — June, tFuly. Coast to snow-line. E.,
Wilcox Point. W., Cape Searle and Scott's Bay.

C. ruirdma, Fries.— .July, Aug. In dry, stony places, like a
dead tuft of grass. W., Cumberland Gulf, var. loc, Cape Searle.

C. misandra, Br. — July, Aug. W., Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf.

C. saxat His fJj. — July, Aug. Alt., 500 feet. Grows in marshes,
E., Wilcox Point. W., Scott's Bay.

i

'EllNS.

J. TAYLOR ON FLOWKRINO PLANTS AND FKRNS. 251

Oil 8con itH
on oil l)otli

, Niutolik,

W., King.

etccted by
ik Islands,

r soil. E.,
)o Soarlo,

•ct. W.,
(I Gulf,
"iftrshos

rite Hoeda
suddenly
ypring to
0 cqmdly
li Bides.
0. The
ho same
ilmracter

JOG feet.
Corn-
's where
berland

>ssy soil

berland

Cora-

. C,

like a
Searle.
i Gulf,
arshes.

C. rulijaris, L. — June, July, ('oant to 300 ffcf. W., Cum-
berland (jiuir.

i\ (jhircosa^ Walil. — fFuiic, .Inly. At thf Hoa-ipvcl on the sandy
beach, in hirj^c ciroular tul'ts. W., Cumboriand (lull', vnr. loc.

r'. .s7r//^v, Drcj. — einno, .Iidy. S(!a to l,.')(K) loot. ( )n (he snn<ly
shore ; thin plant is so stunted as to sectn very dillcnMit from
specimens at liiji^her elevations and more favonrahle, sittiations.
E., Dark Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cund)eilnii(l (ridf, Capo
Searle, Scott's Hay.

CfitHyinosii, lloppe. — fJnly, Au;;. Coast to o^K) feet. On ex-
posed i)lains. E., Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf.

C. conipacf/i, Hr. — .luiie, July. Coast to 2(K) feet. Very com-
mon, and <^rows amcmgst mosses in marshes. Specimens nearly
2 feet hi<ili seen. E., Dark Head, Wilcox Point. W., Cumber-
land Gulf, Capo Searle, Scott's Hay.

C. aqudtilis, Wahl. — July, Au^. In bop;fl. E., Disco.

C. Icporiiui, L. — June, July. Alt., 200 feet. Tn marshes amongst
mosses. W., Kiekertine Islands, Cumberland (Julf.

C. c(ij)iff(tn.s,L. — July, Aug. Alt., 1,(KK) feet. On granite
cliffH. W., Cumberhmd Gulf, var. loc.

C. scrpoidcsy Mich. — June, .luly. On gi-anite cliffs. E.,
"Women's Islands, Wilcox Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape
Searle, Scott's Bay.

C. F<^</</m', Sehkh. — June, July. Coast, 500 feet. Tn mossy soil,
and about the edges of bogs. W., Cumberland Gulf, var. loc.

C. rurijlora, Smith. — June, July. Coast to r)00 feet. In
marshes. W., Cumberland Gulf, various localities.

Graminvcc,

Alopecurus alpinus, Sm. — June to Aug. Most plentiful about
old Esquimaux settlements ; greatest height, 2 feet. Common on
both sides.

Calamagrostis canadensis, Nutt. — Aug. W., Capo Searle,

Agrostis vulgaris, L. — Aug. Alt., 20() feet. On both dry and
moist cliffs. W., Cumberland Gulf.

A. rupestrisy Willd. — June, July. Alt., 50 l\3et. On dry rocky
soil. W., Middliattwack Islands, Cumberland Gulf.

Hierochloe alpina, Br. — July, Aug. Reaches the snow-line.
A very common Arctic grass ; greatest height, 2 feet. Common
on both sides.

H. pauci/iora, Br. — June, July. Sea to 100 feet. On sandy
soil by rivers, &c., and on the coast. W., Cumberland Gulf, var.
loc.

Poa alpina, L Aug. Alt., 1,000 feet. W., Cumberland Gulf,

var. loc, Cape Searle, Scott's I3ay.

P. arctica, L. — July, Aug. Coast to snow-line. Perhaps the
commonest Arctic grass, and would often form fine pasture. Com-
mon on both sides.

P. ccnisia, All.— July. Alt., 500 feet. W., Kiekertine and
Middliattwack Islands, Cumberland Gulf.

P. Balfourii, Parn.—Jnly. Alt., 500 feet. On cliffs of granite.
W., Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle.

'mu

•■■I

( ■«*

WwT

252

J TAYLOR ON FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS.

P. anffUHtata^ Br. — .Tuly. Alt., 50 foot. Confined to the const,
on sanily soil. W. Cumberland (iidf, var. loc.

Featuca ovina. — June, July. W., Kin«;nitc, Cumhorlund Gulf.

F. drevifolia, Br. — July. Count to 1,500 foot. Vory common
on any soil. Common on both widos.

F. Jlic/iardsoui, Iluds. — ,hi\y. Coast to oCX) foot. On granitic
soils. W., Middliattwack Islands, in Cumberland Gulf.

Elj/miis arcnariuSf L. — July, Aug. E., Disco.

F. mollis, \\i\ — Aug., Sept. Sca-lovol, on saiuly soil. \V.,
North side of VVint(!r Harbour, Kingnitc.

ColpoiHum latifolinm, Br. — July, Aug. Const to 500 foot. In
marshes and in sandy soil. Conunon on both sides.

Phippsia alyida, Br. — Jtmo, July. Coast to 100 foot. Tu
marshes. A vory common grass. Common on both sides.

Trisettitn snbspicutuni, Beauv. — July, Aug. Coast to snow-
line ; very common, growing somotimes 2i foot high. Common
on both sides.

Ihipontin Fischeri, Br. — July. Sea to 50 foet ; soil, sandy.
W., Cumberland Gulf, var. loc.

Pleuropoijon Saliinci, Br. — July, Aug. Const to 200 foet.
Grows in pools of water, on any kind of soil. It is, perhaps, the
finest of Arctic grasses ; its leaves float on the surface, the culm
rising from 9 inches to 1 foot above the water, bearing its beauti-
ful purple florets. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's
Bay, Cape Adair.

Filices.

JVoodsia Ilvcnsh, Br. — July, Aug. Kange limited. Alt., 100
to 500 feet, on granitic rocks. I have not found this nor any other
of the Ferns descend below 100 feet. W., Niatolik, Kingnite,
Cumberland Gulf, Capo Searle.

H\ hypcrhorea, Br. — July, Aug. E., Dark Head, Women's
Islands, "Wilcox Point. W., Niatolik, Kingnite (very abundant),
Cape Searle, Scott's Bay, &c.*

W» glabella, Br. — July, Aug. Range more limited than the
last, not abundant in some localities. E., Horse Head, Wilcox
Point. W., Cumberland Gulf, Cape Searle, Scott's Bay.

Cystopteris fragilisy Bernh. — July, Aug. A Fern of great
beauty and of rapid growth ; ascends 100 feet higher than the
other species. The most characterlbtic specimens of the var.
dentata were found grooving among the dead roots of Salix arctica,
on the N. side of Winter Harbour, Kingnite, in Cumberland Gulf.
E., Disco, Women's Islands, Wilcox Point. W., Kickertine Is-
lands, Kingnite, Cumberland Gulf, Scott's Bay.

C. alpina, Desv. (?) — I have generally brought home with me
in a living state th& roots of such plants as seemed most eligible
for cultivation ; and with a little care and experience in packing,

i

* None of the roots brought home have developed into W. hyper borea.
They have all turned out to be either W. Ilvensis or W. glabella, though the
fronds brought home corresponded with W. hyperborea.

FEHNg.

0 tlie const,

rluiul Gulf.
ry common

On granitic

soil. W.,
)Ofoet. In

[) fl'ct. Tn

(Ics.
to snow-
Common

oil, sandy.

200 feet,
rhaps, the

the culm
its beauti-
le, Scott's

Alt., 100
any other
Kingnite,

Women's
jundant),

han the
Wilcox

of great
than the
the var.
arcfica,
lid Gulf,
tine Is-

ivith me
eligible
>acking,

terborea.
ugh the

'^

J. TAYLOK ON FLOWKIIINO PLANTS AND FKUN'S. 253

this practit'*^ nlfords very snlisfaolory rcsiilt?*, ns in the liandx of
Mr. John Koy, sen., nurseryman, nnd the Kev. Mr. IJevorly.*

Etpusctarcfc.

Ef/nisrftnn arrrnsr, L. — Only seen barren. Alt., Coast to 500
feet. K., I)i«eo, Dark Head, Wilcox roinl. W., Cumberland
Gulf, Scott's IJay.

7i. varicf/atitni, Sohleleh. — Only seen barren. Alt., 100 feet.
Soil, granitic. W., Inland from Cape Searle.

Lt/ropofli nccfr,

Lf/copotlinm nnnotinum, L. — Aug. Only seen onco, nnd at nn
elevation of 2(K) ft. W., North side of Winter Harbour, Kingnite,
in Cumberland Gulf.

L. a//>inum, L. — Const to snow-line; seen in all parts of these
regions visited by me. Common on both sides.

XXXII. — Mr. John Sadler's List of Arctic Cryptogamic
and other Plants, collected by Robert Brown, Esq.,
during the Summer of 18G1, on the Islands of
Greenland, in Baffin's Bay and Davis' Strait, and
presented to the Herbarium of the Botanical So-
ciety.

[Reprinted, by Permission, from the Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin-
burgh, vol. vii., 1.SG2, pp. 374-5.]

No. 1. Collected on the Big Duck Island nnd Duck Islands,
Baffin's Bay, June 8-11, 1861.

Stereocaulon paschale. Lccanora tnrtnrea.

Cladoniuuncialis. L. v<>ntosa.

C. papillarin. Gyrophora hirsutn.

Ceti'aria Islandica. Cornieidaria ochroleuca.

C. nivalis. C. bicolor.

Pnrmclia pnrietina var. Pogonatum ulpinum.

P. saxatilis. Bryum caespitieium.

P. omphnl'Hles. Hypnum aduncum.
P. conspc

* Amongthe Arctic Ferns brought home by nie, and reared by Mr. Beverly,
■were found last year several plants of one ■which he, and several others ■who
examined it, suspected to belong to this species. They were led to this
suspicion by observing the foira and habit of the fronds, and especially the
nature of the rhizome, which spreads more widely, and throws up its small
tufts of upright fronds at greater intervals than C. frayilis. Just now (June
1862) the plants are in good condition, but the fronds seem not quite so like
those of C. alpiiia as they were last year. Though this Fern is evidently
dificrent from the common forms of Cfragilis, and in several respects
approaches the so-called C. tenuis, in others C. alpina, it may perhaps prove
to be only an extreme form of Cfragilis. But it shall be carefully watched
as it grows, in order to fix its identity. At all events, in its present form, if
it is not C. alpina, it is intermediate between that species and Cfragilis, and
as ■worthy of being raised to the rank of a scparat'' species, as many other
vaiieties that have been so treated.

lit

M

254 SADLEIl'3 LIST OP BROWK'S CfiYPTOGAMS.

No. 2. Collected on Browne Island, one of the Women's Islands,

Baffin's Bay, off North Greenland, lat. 74° 7', long. ; primary

rocks and boggy wet soil almost wholly composing the islands.
June 5, 1861.

Several species of Stereocaulon Pogonatum alpinum.
and Cladonia. Hypnum uncinatura, var.

Dicranum Richardsoni ? H. sp.

Aulacomnion turgidum. Urceolaria scruposa.

No. 3. From Hare Island, west coast of Greenland ; lat. 70° 43
N. ; long. 55° 42' W. ; greenstone, gneiss, and other rocks jutting
out above the snow. 27th May 1861.

Bryum nutans. Gyrophora proboscidea.

Cornicularia bicolor. G. proboscidea, var.

C. pubescens. Cetraria nivalis.

Lecidea rupestris. Lecidea geographica.

L. petraea. L. geo., var. apicula.

Gyrophora arctica. Parmelia caperata.

G. hyperborea. P. olivacea.

No. 4. The following were the only Flowering Plants seen and

brought home intermixed with the Mosses.
Salix Lapponum. On all the Papaver nudicaule. On all the

islands.
Stellaria humifusa.

land.
Saxifraga rivularis.

lands.

islands.
Duck Is- Silene aeaulis. Duck Islands.

Empetrum nigrum. Duck Isl.
Duck Is- Poa alpina. Browne Island.

P. danica. Browne Island.

Dr. Brown discovered in addition to several Mosses and Lichens
rare to the Arctic Flora, Laminaria longicruris of De la Pylaie's
"Flora of Newfoundland " occurring plentifully within the Arctic
Circle; and Melobesia calcarea, hitherto only recorded fi'om
Spitzbergen, for the first time in Davis' Strait (Hasen Island,
four fathoms).

XXXIII. — Plants from Smith's Sound. (From the
" Enumeration of the Arctic Plants collected by
" Dr. I. I. Hayes in his Exploration of Smith's Sound,
*' between parallels 78th and 82nd, during the months
" of July, August, and beginning of September 1861.
" By E. DuRAND, Thos. p. James, and Saml. Ash-
" MEAD." Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences of Piiiladel-
phia, March 1863 ; vol. for 1863-1864).

I. — PHiENOGAMOUS PLANTS (52; the localities mentioned are
Gale Point, Netlik, Port Foulke, Cape Isabella, and Tes-
suissak). By E. Durand.

[These are included iu Dr. Hooker's List of Arctic Plants,
see abovCf page 225.-— Epitob.J

■::K

I

DUKAND, JA31ES, AND ASHMEAD ON ARCTIC PLANTS. 255

I's Islands,
- ; primary
be islands.

i'ar.

it. 70° 43
ks jutting

la.

seen and
)n all the

Islands.
)uck Isl.
[sland.
and.

Lichens

Pylaie's

[e Arctic

jd fi'om

Island,

the

3d by

>ound,

lonths

1861.

ASH-

iladel-

|d are
Tes-

flants,

II. — Cryptogamous Plants.

1. LyeopodiacetB.

Lycopodium annotinum, L. Tessuissak.

2. Musci (36). By T. P. James.

8e

Andraea petrophila, Ehrh. ?
Barbula ruralis, Hedw.
Orthotricum affine, Schr.
Grimmia spiralis, Hook.

Tayl.
Bacomitrium

Brid.
Polytrichum juniperinum,

Hedw.
Aulacomium turgidum, Schw.
Bryum Duvallii, Voit.
B. purpurascens.
B. arcticum, Brid. & Sch.
B. rutilans, Br. & Sch.
B. cyclophyllum, Br. & Sch.
B. crudum, Sch.
B. nutans, Schr.
B. palustre, L.
B. SBneum, Blytt.
Mnium affine, var.

3. Lichenes (15).

Alectoria bicolor (Ehrh.), Ny-

lander.
A. sulcata ? (Lev.), Nyl.
A. ochroleuca (Ehrh.), Nyl.
Lecanora ventosa, Ach.
Neuropogon Taylori, Hook.,

Nyl.
Platysma cucullata, Hoff.
P. nivalis, Ach.

Mnium rugicum. Bland.
M. rostratum, Schw.
Meersia Albrotinii.
Bartramia (afF. calcareae).
Conostomum boreale, Swartz.
lanuginosum, Splachnum Wormskioldii, Brid.
S. vasculosum, L.
Hypnum uncinatum, Hedw.
H., aduncum, L.
H. oligorhizon, Br. & Sch.
H., n. sp. ?

Cladonia pyxidata (L.), Fries.
C. furcata, var. racemosa, Hoflf.
C. ignota ?

Lecidea geographica ? Hoff.
Umbilicaria hyperborea ! Hoff.
U. ignota ?

Verrucaria popularis, Floerk.
V. maura, var. striatula, Hoff".

By T. P. James.

Plocadium elegans (Ach.), Nyl.

Parmelia saxatihs (L.), Ach.

P. Borreri, Turner.

P. Stygia (L ), Ach.

P. conspersa ? (Ehrh.), Ach.

Dactylina arctica (Rich), Nyl.

Stereocaulon denudatum,

Floerk.
S. condensatum, Hoff".

4. Algce (16). By S. Ashmead.

Fucus vesiculosus, L. Enteromorpha compressa, Grev.

Alaria esculenta, Grev. Solieria chordalis, Ag.

yiva latissima, L. Cladophora arcta, Dill.

Laminaria phyllitis, Lam. Bryopsis plumosa, Ag,

L. longicruris, Pylaie. Desmarestia aculeata. Lam.

L. fascia, Ag. Chaetomorpha littorea, Haw.

L. saccharina ? Lam. Ectocarpus ?
Rhodymenia interrupta, Grev. Sp. ignota ?

No new species were determined ; living roots brought home
ceased to live in the spring at Philadelphia ; and the seeds col-
lected, or found in the soil brought home, failed to germinate,
though the Arctic soil was apparently very rich, and though
every cai'e was taken.

■■■■•li

) a

M

^fy ' ;T.y-"^''>'^c-?*' '■.*^'--'^i7i^y7fW>TX'^

256

R. BROWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

XXXIV.— Floiiula Discoana: Contributions to the
Phyto-Geoqraphy of Greenland, within the Parallels
of GH^ and 70^ North Latitude. By Dr. Robert
Brown, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., &c.

[Reprinted, by Permission, from the " Transactions of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh," vol. ix., part 2, 1868, pp. 430-465.]
Read July 9,1868. Slightly abridged ; and rev'sed by the
Author, March 1875.*

I. Rcvieio of Greenland Botanical Literature. — 'J.'he flora of
Greenland has been at various times partially examined by
different botanists. The eaj-ly missionaries, Egede, Fabricius,
Saabye, and others, made collections of the plants of the districts
over which their ministerial functions extended, and some of these
are yet in the Herbarium at the Botanic Garden in Copenhagen.
In 1826 the Chevalier Charles Louis Giesecke (better known as
Sir Charles Giesecke), Professor of Mineralogy to the Royal
Dublin Society, who had passed several years in Greenland as a
mineral collector, published a list of the plants of that country .f
His list comprehends a large number of species, but he is mani-
festly wrong in regard to many of them. Some, which may
possibly be members of the Greenland flora, have never been
found since his day. The various explorers in search of Franklin,
and the Surgeons of Whalers, have at different times added to our
knowledge of the distribution of the plants, by collecting on
various portions of the coast.J But by far the most important
collections which ever came from Greenland were those of Vahl,
who botanised with the utmost assiduity over the whole extent of
Danish Greenland, and has published various papers on the plants.
The most valuable literary contribution, however, to the history
of the Greenland flora, is the list in the Appendix to Rink's
" Gronland geographisk og statistisk," by my friend Professor

* Reprinted materially as in the original publication, without augmentation
from the later researches of Berggren, Th. Fries, and others, this paper will
serve as a specimen of a Botanist's summer-work in Greenland.

f Article *' Greenland," Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopasdia.

J Lyall's collections, by Hooker, in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. vol. i. pp. 1 14-
124 ; Notes on Arctic Plants, Dickie, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. vol. iii.
(1859) pp. 109-112 (plants collected by Clarke, Clark, Maitland, Philips,
Craig, and Sutherland) ; Dickie (Sutherland's Plants) in Appendix to Ingle-
field's " Summer Search for Sir John Franklin," (1853) ; Dickie on Philpoti's
Plants from Lancaster Sound, Linn. Soc. Journ. Bot. vol. xi. p. 92 ; Sir W. J.
Hooker and Dickie in Appendix to Sutherland's Narrative of Penny's Ex-
pedition ; Account of the Botany of M'Clintock's Expedition (Walker's
Plants), Hooker and others, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. vol. v. p. 85 ; Taylor
on Davis' Strait Plants, Trans. Bot. Soc. vol. vii. p. 323, or Edin. Phil. Journ.
1862 ; Sadler's Notice of Cryptogamia collected by 11. Brown on islands of
Ba£5n's Bay, Trans. Bot. Soc. vol. vii. p. 374 ; Sutherland on Cystopteris
alpiiia, Trans. Bot. Soc. vol. vii. p. 393 ; and generally Hooker, Lonn. Soc.
Trans. 1861.

I
1

I

I

R. BROWN, FLORULA DISCOAXA.

257

to the
Parallels
Robert

Botanical
130-465.]
jd by the

le flora of
nined by
Fabricius,
e districts
18 of these
penhagen.
known as
he Royal
nland as a
; country .f
e is mani-
rhich may
lever been
■ Franklin,
ded to our
lecting on
important
of Vahl,
extent of
the plants,
le history
to Rink's
I Professor

kgmentation
paper will

i. pp. 114-
>t. vol. iii.
id, Philips,
|x to Ingle-
1 Philpott's
Sir W. J.
penny's Ex-
(Walker's
Taylor
[•hil. Jouru.
islands of
lystopteris
liana. Soc.

1

Johann Martin Lange of Copenhagen, forming a summary of the
labours of all former Danish botanists, and a determination of the
collections of Egede, Vahl, Rl.ik, HolboU, and others contained in
the Herbarium of the University of Copenhagen.* Drs. Kanef
and Hayes| have added to our knowledge of the plants of tho
extreme northern shores of Greenland. Professor Lange's list,
dealing only with the Danish possessions in that country, does
not touch upon these. It is to be hoped, however, that he will
yet undertake an extended flora of Greenland, a task for which he
is so well qualified, both from his knowledge of the subject and
the opportunity which ho possesses of consulting Herbaria.

II. The present Collections, — During the summer of 1867, from
June until September, 1 passed the season in Danish Greenland,
collecting specimens in all departments of natural history, and
pursuing scientific investigations. The summer was very favour-
able for botanical researcli. Accordingly, though my time was
very limited, and greatly occupied with other pursuits, I made u
large collection of the plants, of all orders, found in the country
between Egedesminde and Kudlesa^t. As the country was chiefly
in thf3 vicinity of Disco Bay, 1 have denominated the account
of these collections the Florula Discoana. These plants are
here enumerated by the assistance of various botanical friends,
whose reputation is a sutficient guarantee for the accuracy of iho
lists under their names. Though containing few plants really
new to science, the list is interesting as being the most complete
one of the plants of that section of country, and as adding to our
knowledge of tho phyto-geography of the coast, — the earlier
collections being to a great extent useless for that purpose, as the
labels merely afforded the information that they were collected in
"Greenland."

III. Climate. — During the winter the country is covered with
snow, and the plants protected under its warm covering. Dark-
ness then covers the whole face of the country for about four
months. About May and the beginning of June, according to the
state of the season, the earth again begins to appear. By July
the snow has generally cleared off all the lower grounds, and only
lies in hollows, on the hills, or in places shaded from the sun.

* Oversigt over Gronlauds Planter af Joh. Lange (Bibliothekar og Assistent
ved tleu botaniske Have) Tillseg Nr. 6 til llink in lib. cit. ; Vabl om Stellaria
Groeulaudica og Dryas integrifolia (Nat. Selsk. Skriv. 4 Band. 2 H. Ss. 1G9-
172); see also Rink, " Om den geographiske BoskaflPenhcd af de dansko
" Ilandels - distrikter i Nordgrcinland, &c." (Det Kougl. danske Vidonsk.
Selskab. Sk. 5 Ra;kke, 3 Bind, 1853, p. 71). Drejer's Revisio critica Curicnm
borealium (Kroyer's Tidsskr. iii. p. 423). Ilornemann in Graah's Jonrncy
to East Coast of Greenland (Traasl.) Appendix; Greville on Jameson's
West-Greenland Plants, Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. iii. p. 426 ; Hooker on Sabine's
I'lants, Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xiv., and on Scoresby Plants in App. to Scoreby's
" Greenland "; Flora Danica; Retzius' Floraj Scandinaviaj Prodromns, &n.

t Uurand, in Appendix to Kane's " Arctic Explorations," vol. ii. Ahove,
p. 241.

X Hayes' Open Polar Sea ; and Duraud in Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sciences,
March 18G3; and partially in "Das nordlichste Land der Erde," I'eter-
niann's Geographisehe Mittheil. (1867), p. 176 et seq. Above, p. 2.')4.
36122. Ij

2o<S

n. IJHOWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

Fi'om tluH period until the middle of Si^ptember, very little snow
ever falls, and the climate is mild, and even warm and sunny, as
during the summer of 1867. A little rain also falls during most
seasons. Vegetation springs up apace, and during the long
summer day, of four months, soon comes to maturity. By the
hegiiming of August the flowers are on the wane, and by the end
of that month have AvlioUy disappeared. The weather in Septem-
ber is uncertain, showers of snow falling, and the nights being
dark and cold. By October " bay ice " begins to form in quiet
harbours or inlets, and the ground gets its winter mantle of snow.
The soil freezes hard to the depth of several feet (where it is so
thick), and all nature slumbers. Meteorological observations have
been taken at various royal trading posts tliroughout Greenland.*
At Jakobshavn, one of these settlements. Dr. Rudolph, now
Governor of Upernavik, kept for upwards of three years a care-
ful register of the thermometer. Jakobshavn was our head-
quarters, and the locality for the chief portion of the species here
enumerated, and it may bo taken as typical of the climate of
Disco Bay. I therefore present the means of temperature there,
as a mean of the climate over the region embraced in the title of
this paper.

Thermometrical Means of THis Climate of Jakobshavn.

Lat. 69° 13' 26" N.

January, — 2-4 Ftihr.

July, 45-4 Fahr.

February, 0'3

August, 42*4

March, 8-2

September, 34-6

April, + 18-8

October, 251

May, 32-5

Kovember, 12-5

June 41-5

December - 75

Winter (Mean Temp.) —

3-4

Summer, + 43- 1

Spring, „

19-9

Autumn, 24'1

Whole

year,

22-5.

IV. Character of the Country in which the Plants were
collected. — The country in which the specimens were collected
consists chiefly of bare rounded gneissose hills, jjlaned by old
ice-action, and covered Avith boulders and travelled blocks of
stone. In the hollows, where the melting of the snow collects,
ar(! peaty bogs, and in other places dry heath-looking tracts,
covered with Empetrum. nigrum^ Cassiopeia {Andromeda) tetra-
gona, Betula nana, and such like plants. The eastern side of
these glens is richest in plants, and the vicinity of streams
and dripping springs yields a considerable variety. In the
Waigat Strait, about Kudlesast, Ounartok, and Atanakerdluk, the
geology changes, and bold trap cliffs and dykes burst through
sedimentary rocks of Miocene age. Here is the limited district
containing the now celebrated fossil beds of Greenland.

I may shortly describe each individual district, taking the

♦ Collectanea Meteorohn/ira, Fane. iv. Haunia;, 1856. Riuk, Tillajg Nr. 8,
" Meteoiologie " til Gronlaml (/eot/raphisk o</ statistisk beakrevet, Audet Bind,

1 o r. w '

I

I

I

'I

U. liUOWN, FLOUUIA DISCOANA.

ttle snow
sunny, as
inp; most
the long
, By the
y the end
1 Septem-
hts being
n in quiet
J of snow,
•e it is so
,tion3 have
reenland.*
olph, now
jars a cave-

our heacl-
pecies here

climate of
ituvc there,
the title of

OliSHAVN.

5-4 Falir.
2-4
4-6
51
2-5
7-5

+ 43-1
24-1

Plants were
re collected
mod by old
d blocks of
low collects,
oking tracts,
meda) tetra-
istern side of
of streams
In the
kerdluk, the
urst through
aited district

d.
taking the

Tillseg Nr. 8,
et, Andet Bind,

Danish Trading Divisions as guides, and looking upon the chief
post in each district as the centre and type of the division. It
was also in the immediate vicinity of these posts that the greater
number of the plants here enumerated were collected.

(1.) E(jedesmiude.—Ltit. 68° 42' 39'' N., long. 52° 43' 48" W.*
The island on which the settlement is built is low-lying, bare,
and bleak. The vegetation is very stunted, and is ati'ected by
the cold wind, — no high mountains being in that vicinity to
shield the low-lying ground, and few clilfs which can radiate the
sun on the soil. The climate here is more foggy than in other
places further to the east and nearer the mainland. The Cran-
berries and Whortleberries on the small hills in general bear no
ripe fruit ; the Arctic Willows and the Birch do not grow iu any
great luxuriance ; and the greater part of the country is covered
with swampy Moss, only allowing a little green to a})pear now

and then. Warm springs are found on the island of

Sakartloek, lying at the head of Tessiursak Bay, about eight
miles from Egedesminde, and near the mouth of a little river
flowing over a level tract scattered with boulders. One of these
springs issues in a largo stream out of a very solid granite Avail
and over a smooth mossy ground, out of which other two or
three springs run between the stones and moss with about the
same force. The temperature, according to Dr. Rink, is 42°* 1
Fahr., or 20°'2 Fahr. higher than the mean temperature of the
island. A little basin, a few hundred feet in length, which the
spring forms, is never frozen ; and at the bottom of the bay,
where the stream debouches, no ice lies iu the winter. Larger
banks of Bartramiu fontana, &c., form round the springs, which
keep these Moss banks always in a tremulous motion. On the
island of Aito, and the surrounding islands, the same charac-
teristics prevail as in the vicinity of Egedesininde. The vegeta-
tion is exceedingly scanty, and but little can be seen but brown
rust-coloured rocks and stunted vegetation. Here is found Seduiii
Rhodioliiy DC. — found nowhere farther north than South-East
Bay. It is said to be here very abundant on the top of the small
sterile islands, tipped by turf and the excrement of birds. Wo
arrived at Egedesminde on the 6th of June, and left on the 14th
of the same month. During most of this time the weather was
snowy, and little or nothing except a few Lichens and Mosses
rewarded my search. I am, however, under obligations to
Froken Julie Levesen for most kindly presenting to us a small
collection of Egedesminde plants, made by her iu the pi'cceding

* In most cases, aud in reference to the latitudes invariably, 1 follow my
own observations made diu'iu;j; the past siunmer. In reference to the longi-
tudes, my own observations not being all yet (owinj; to the amuigements of
the expedition) accessible, I have followe.l either Graah's observations (in
*' Tabel over adskillege Punkters observeri'de IJrede og Laengde paa Vest-
•' kysten af Grouland," in " Beskrivelse til det visseude yituations Kaart over
*' den vestilige Kyst af Gronland," &c., &c. Kjiibenhavn, 1825), or others
given to me through the politeness of Premier-Lieutenant 11. L. M. Holm
of the Kongl, Kaart- Archiv iu Copenhagen. The position is that of the chie*'
*' colouie " or tradiug-post.

It -I

260

K. BEOWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

mi'

■it

* ilLMUi'i

iiHi

your, Avliich 1ms enabled us to add some localities to the Disco
floin, and a few additions to the scanty list. The general cha-
racter of the country at this season of the year may bo gathered
from th(^ following jotting in my journal : and as it is equally
characteristic of other portions of Disco Bay, I may bo excused
quoting it: —

" June 6. — To-day we took an excursion over the island on
which the settlement of Egedesminde (' the memory of Egede ')
is built. The Eskimo name of it is Arsiat, and moans the summer
place ; and they remark, not inaptly, that it lies in its little
archipelago of islands, like a spider in its web. Nothing Avas to
be seen but bare granite rocks, worn by ice, or covered with poor
Franklin's t/ipc dc roche — the tudluak of the natives — with
snowy drifts in every shady place, and bogs in the holloAVS, or
lakes with the surface ice yet unmelted. Few living things were
out : a Bee, a Spider or two, and a Dyticus in the pools, with a
Snow-bunting {Emheriza nivnUs) lookingout for a nesting-place,
wore Iho only specimens of animal life we came across in our
rambles. No flowei's were as yet above the ground to any extent.
The Willows were shooting up, and the Empetrum was green
above the half-thawed soil. Eriophorums were coming into
flower, but the only plant in bloom was Cassiopeia tetragona.
Masses of woolly-looking matter, apparently bleached Confer-
vacea?, mantled some of the stagnant pools near the village, which
were half choked up with rotting fragments of Seals and other
animals. Near the top of the island were found larva; and cocoons
of Lepidoptera, pieces of the shell of JJchinus drobachiensis,
Miill., and the shell of a Decapodous Crustacean, apparently
carried up theie by sea-birds, or perhaps by the win(l. If we are
to credit the Eskimo tales of Asaminak, the south-east wind, it
has force enough to carry for some distance much lieavier bodies
than shells. In some of the little valleys we met Greenland
women laden with the Dwarf Birch, Empetrum, and Willows
— collectively the Brcendscl of the Danes — for fuel in their
houses."

(2.) Christianshaah.—L^i. 68" 49' 19" N., long. 51° 8' 14"
(Nordenskiold) W. — I visited this locality in the first week of
August, and added several plants to my collection. My notes
describe it as possessing " more varied scenery than any of the
" other settlements I have yet seen, lying in a long * hope ' with
" green slopes to the water's edge, and fells of syenite 1,600 feet
" in height in front of the * colonic,' and beyond, — the way
" leading through a green grassy valley, — a lake alive with wuld
Geese {Anas hrcnta, Pall.). Behind and all around are sunny
' braes,' green Avitli the moisture of rushing rivulets, and many
flowers as yet strangers to my collection." The coast between
Christianshaab and Claushavn is low and easily landed on, with
green slopes, and streams running down from the hills and bursting
through the boulder-clay. On one of the islands (particularly
Krilicrtasasiih., " the long big island ") about six miles from
Christianshaab, I added several plants to my collection, particu-

«

it'

U. BROWX, FLORULA DI8C0ANA.

2G1

to the Disco
p;eneral cha-
be gathered
it is equally
be excused

he island on
f of Egede ')
1 the summer
in its little
jthing was to
red with poor
latives — with
R hollows, or
!>• things were
pools, with a
nesting-placo,
across in our
to any extent,
im was green
> coming into
cia tetragona.
[iched Confer-
village, which
eals and other
jia and cocoons
drobachiensisj
m, apparently
nd. If we are
h-east wind, it
heavier bodies

let Greenland
and Willows

fuel in their

bg. 51

o g/ 14/'

first week of
jn. My notes
lan any of the
g ' hope ' with
Inite 1,600 feet
|nd, — the way
ilive with Avild
lund are sunny
lets, and many
coast between
,nded on, with
[Is and bursting
s (particularly
ix miles from
ction, particu-

larly PotcntiUa anscrinn, L., Avhioh, though found further norlli,
is yet only entered in Lang(!'s list on Vahl's authority, and was
not found by me elsewhere in the vicinity of Disco Bay.

(3.) Clanshavn—Lttt. 69° 7' 31" K, long. .W^ 55' 30" W.—
This commercial establishment is built on a flat, backed by hills
of considerable height. On this flat is a small lake, round the
marshy borders of which plants grow luxuriantly. This flat is
divided off into little glens by roc/ics woutoiinh's like knolls of
rocks, each glon ending in a terminal moraino at the lower
edge, and exhibiting the s.amo evidences of ancient glaciers.
Many plants arc found here on this sunny flat which I did not
observe at Jakobshavn, only seven miles north of it across tho
IceQord. For Greenland, Claushavn is a sunny spot, and not
unpleasant. Here Epilobinm latifolmtn, L., luxuriates, and
Lychnis aj^etala, L., is found gi-owing in considerable quantity
among the rocks behind the Colonibestyrers house. Armcria
vulgaris^ Willd., Trisctum snbspicat?im, P. 13., and Juiicns
triglumis^ L., were found by me only in this locality. From
Il-ul-ia-min-er-suak (" the big mountain overlooking the Icc-
fjord "), rising to the height of 1,400 feet, can be seen the Icefjord,
and little lakes lying in rugged valleys, with the commencement
of the Tessiusak just peering out, and away beyond to the east-
ward the dreary stretch of the inland ice. Rhododendron lap-
ponicum, Stellarias, and Drabas were the plants most prominent.
Papavcr nudicmde, the hardiest of all Arctic plants, was found hero
long after B. lapponicum had disappeared. I visited Claushavn
first on the 24th June, and subsequently at various times in July,
and afterwards while travelling to Christianshaab in the beginning
of August.

(4.) Jakohshavn—L^i. 69° 13' 26" N., long. 50° 55' W.—
This was our head-quarters for tho whole of our residence
in the country, and the greater number of the plants wero
collecterl here. The settlement is built on rounded knolls of
rocks, with boggy little valleys between, where the vegetation
springs ; further back are various boulder-clay valleys, where
considerable vegetation appears, though very little exposed to the
sun. The flora is not nearly so profuse as at Claushavn. The
whole country in this region is composed of rounded syenitic
hills of various heights up to 1,200 feet, bare or polished with
ice-action, or covered with black, horny Lichens, and with scat-
tered boulders and angular blocks of stone lying in all kinds of
positions over their summits and faces wherever it is possible for
them to lie. Between these fells and rocks lie flat valleys, com-
posed of boulder-clay beneath, but capp*jd with a boggy covering
of turfy Peat, which the natives cut and dry in stacks for winter
fuel. Early in the summer these are more bogs of marshes, into
which you sink over the knees. Here the mcltin<2s of the winter's
snows accumulate, forming miniature lakes in the hollow places,
permanent all the year round, bordered by a thicket of Cyperacea?
and bright with the yellow Ranunculus and other Arctic marsh-
plants, and the overflow goes oft' by streams which pour in

'Y

*

2r)2

!),!

n. lUfOWN, FI.OUTJLA DTSC'OANA.

mimic cnscades ovor llic sca-clifls. In 8oni(! of tlici^c lukos or
lio^^y places 1 found llippuris vul(/aris, which I did not observe
anywhcio else in the district. A fruitful habitat for plants
was the drippini^ rocks, where a little strcatn tlowe<l in throu*;-!!
u valley at the head of the harbour. Outside of the little
harbour a few Alga) were found, the continual grinding of ice-
bergs off the shore haidly allowing of their growth. However,
just below the *'kirl<e" where we lived, the rocks yielded not a
few sp(>cies, and the scum of pools furnished some interesting
freshwater species. North of Jakobshavn the coast is vc^ry
similar — low-lying, with glens and valleys, the outlets of former
glaciers, scattered Avith old moraines, but presenting nothing
particularly worthy of notice in a botanical point of view. On
the site of Eskimo villages (such as Akatout, in Rode Bay) a very
luxuriant growth of vegetation springs up ; and here I gathered
fiome plants, which Avill bo found recorded in their proper [)laccs.
(o.) lUartk'h InUt. — This inlet breaks the coast in hit. 69°
27' N. Like all of such fjords or iidets, it is the site of an ancient
glacier which here reached the coast. The entrance of it is in
Pakitsok Bay, and is marked by an immense terminal moraine,
where many plants grow luxuriantly.* I have always noticed
that plants grow most luxuriantly near lai-ge rocks or boulders,
the rock attracting a greater amount of heat to the soil. This is
very evident on the broad American prairies, where stones are
rare ; and was equally apparent here, though on a lesser scale.
At the head of this inlet (or at least one of the heads) a muddy
glacier stream flows in, silting up the head of the inlet for several
miles. On the left hand is a bold bluff of boulder (glacier ?)-clay
and boulders, a remnant, as all such are, of the former upheaval of
the coast, though at present, in the vicinity of Disco Bay at least,
the coast is perceptibly sinking. This clay was very sandy, and
was kept together by a turf of Empetrum, Betula, and Grasses ;
but on the windward side, where it meets the blast from the
glacier, it was bare of vegetation, and the fine powdery clay
was blown into hillocks around a few Willow tufts. On the less
exposetl places a few stunted plants grew, particularly Ledum
palustrc, here at least belying its trivial name, for it grows mostly
on dry ground. Between the glacier and this place is a flat valley,
after ascending the first slope, covered with a spongy turf and
permeated by streams, and ornamented with a little lake where the
wild Oeese breed. On the slope, just before crossing over a little
ridge to the glacier, I found the rare Lichen Dactt/lina arctica,
Nyl., in considerable profusion, but nowhere else. This valley is
plentifully tufted with the fragrant Hierovhloe alpina, which is
used for stuffing the native boots. Crossing the ridge mentioned,
we descend a little slope and face the glacier, the overflow of that
great mcr de ^//r/w which overspreads the whole interior of Green-
land with an icy covering. The slope facing the glacier and the

* In this catalogue " Illartlek " refers to this locality ; " lllartlek glacier,'
to the immediate vicinity of the glacier and inland ice, &c.

I

Jf. BKOWN, FLOUULA DISCOANA.

'2^y^

cfc lakes oi*
I not obBervo
t for plants
(I in thioii};h
of the little
ulinp; of ico-
1. However,
aelded not a

0 interesting
;oast i3 very
ts of former
hing nothing
[)£ view. On
3 Bay) a very
jrc I gathered
proper places.
;t in lat. 69"

of an ancient
;e of it is in
linal moraine,
Iways noticed

1 or boulders,
soil. This is

jre stones are
a, lesser scale,
iads) a muddy
det for several
■ glacier ?)-clay
er upheaval of
0 Bay at least,
cry sandy, and
and Grasses ;
ast from the
powdery clay
On the less
ularly Ledum
grows mostly
is a flat valley,
)ngy turf and
ake where the
ig over a little
\tijlina arctica,
This valley is
\pina, which is
^e mentioned,
rerflow of that
Irior of Green-
[acier and the

llartlek glacier,'

clitls around are bare of vegetation, and the whole vicinity is very
chilly and dreary. The cold blasts have even nipped the usual
profusion of Arctic vegetation, and we have to go far afield to
gather the Dwarf Birch for our cooking fire. " On the Hloj)e,
" however, survive neaily all the species of Saxlfraga, and on
" the sunny spots Vocvininin HligiHosiim is bearing its plensnnt-
*' tasted berries, all of which tell us that auttnnn (after which
" conieth the winter, when no man can work) Is travelling on
" apace. Stellarias and Oxyria show themselves frecpiontly, as
" do also Einlolnum fntifhlinm, and the Eriophorum with its
" tasselled head of cottony down, in the boggy places here
" and there, whiles Stcf/arift Edwai'dsii is occasionally seen quite
" abundant at the head of the inlet. Papaver iindicaulc is
" coming into seed, as well as the species of Pedicularis, which,
" with Lycopndimn auitotiinim, &c., maintain their ground in
" appropriate situations." The glacier face was in lat. 69° 24'
\2" N. We entered the inlet on the 20th of July, and left on
the 29th of the same month.

(6.) Ritcnbenk—Lvii. 69^ 45' 34" N., long 51° 7' W.— The
island on which this settlement is situated is called Akpnct, and
presents nothing phytographlcally remarkable. There is a con-
siderable amount of Dwarf Willow and turf on it. By the time
we arrived here (August 20) the Arctic flora was nearly gone,
so that Ritenbenk does not figure much in this catalogue. The
shore afforded, however, a few Sea-weeds.

(7.) Sakkak—Liit. 70° 0' 28" N., long. 52° W. (approx.)— At
this little outpost there is a broad sunny flat, with the " inland
ice " appearing as miniature glaciers down between the cliffs
behind. Here I found Festuca ovina, L., in great luxuriance,
but except a few Algai from the shallow muddy ice-choked harbour
1 did not add greatly to my collection.

(8.) Atanakcrdluk—L^i. 70° 02' 30" N.,long. 52° W. (approx.)
— By the time we arrived here Phanerogamic vegetation was
nearly over ; and except a few Crypiogamic plants I have little
to add from this locality. Here, as 1 have remarked, the geology
entirely changes from the primitive to sedimentary formations ;
and the few days we spent here (22nd to 24th August) were
occupied by me almost entirely in collecting the Miocene plants,
and describing and making sections of the strata, the arid slope
presenting no recent plants to collect. Though, of course, the
limited materials possessed will scarcely admit of deciding what
influence the change of soil, consequent on the altered geological
conditions, may have in giving an altered character to the flora ;
yet, so far as 1 was able to judge from the decayed plants which
remained above ground, it seems that they were, to a great extent,
different from those gathered on the granitic soil.

(9.) Otinarfok-^Lat. 70° 2' N., long. 52° 24' W. (both approx.)
— 'Hie locality known under this name seems to have been at
one time a native " house-place," and traces can yet be seen of
former habitations at the mouth of a gurgling creek which flows
from the mountains, and it is yet a favourite camping place for

2G4

K. BROWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

Ui

llio rare viHitors aixl wnyfnrinf^-moii nlon*^ tliirt dronry const.
Much (U'bris luis been br<)ii<:;lit <l()wn by this creek as it (hishc8
from the mountain and the inhmd ice of Disco Island (I'or it is
Kituati^d on the opposite shore of the ^^'aigatz Strait, as arc also
the two next kicalitics mentioned), an<l bursts though the sedi-
mentary strata which lio in its way.

(10.) Kudlcsfrt—Lat. 70" '/ 80" N., lonj^. 52° 82' W. (approx.)
—This was the most fnorthern locality reached by us in 1H(»7.
Hero are green mossy slopes, but as tlu? sun does not reach ihis
Kpot for several hours in the day, the vegetation, even on the 27lh
of August, was backward. Here several streams ilow down and
forma marsliy Hat at one place before reaching the sea. On (his
wet ground, and on the sandy "links " which skirt (he coast for
u few yards in breadth at this place, I found one or two plants,
such as JuHcus triglamis, \j., Etpiisctum varicffdtnni, Jj., i*cc.,
which, though not peculiar to the locality, arc yet rather un-
common in tins region.

(11.) Godhavn or Lirvc/?/ — Lixt. 69" 14' 08" N.,''' long.
63" 24' 40" W.— This little post, situated at the south-western
point of Disco Island, is perhaps the best known botanical locality
in all Greenland, having been a regular halting place for whalers
and the numerous Arctic Expeditions. Hence avc tind |)huits
from this locality figuring in all the lists hitherto published, and
containing some not in this catalogue, as by the time we arrived
(4th Sept.) vegetation had almost entirely disappeared. 'J'he
settlement itself is built on an off-lying islet of syenite ; but on
the other side of the harbour on Disco Island, where the syenite
meets with that great trap dyke which, either in its main body
or in its offshoots, traverses the whole breadth of the island of
Disco and the Noursoak peninsula, there is a " warm " stream of the
same character as that on the island near Egcdesmindc, already
described. This stream falls into the harbour, flowln^j throu;;h
a little green valley called Lyngemarken (or the "heath field"),
backed by huge fells of trap. This Lyngemarken is the best
botanical locality which I have yet seen in Greenland. Though
most of the plants had faded down in this valley, yet, from what
1 was able to identify, or from other small collections, it a])pcars
to be very rich in species. The most characteristic [)lants are
tSalix glauca, Bvtula nana (s-eldom over one foot high), lihodo-
tlciidron lapj)0>ncH/n, Cassiopchi k'trof/ona, Empctnim iih/rHiii,
Saxifraga tricuspidata , S. Aizoou, S. caspitosa, S. rivu/aiis,
Azalea pi'ocumbens, GnaphaUuni nonrgicn/N, Veronica alphm.
Arnica alpina, liartsia alpina, Canipanvla nnijlora, Kpilobiiini
angnstifolium, E. iatifoliufn, Drijas octopetahi var. integrifolia,
Papaver nudicaulc, Pcdicidaiis fiainmea, Sifcnc acaulis, Armeria
maritima, Alcheniilla vulgaris, &c. ; and

among Cryptogam ia.

* Graah pives the lat. as 69° 14' 22," while the late Lieut. I'lrich (in
general a very good observer), according to a meridian altitude givi-n me by
the Royal Chart-Office of Denmark, states it as 69" 13' 30" N. ; but as Capt.
Graah's position and mine agree so closely, I believe that yva are nearer the
truth.

■*

R. BROWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

265

dreary const,
k iifs it (lashes
(land (for it is
lit, as arc also
oiigh the sedi-

2' W. (approx.)
by us ill 1H()7.
1 not reach this
sen on thi; 27tli

How down and
le sea. On lliis
rt the coast Ibr
• or two phmls,
•fotuni, Jj., &c.,

yet rather un-

5H" N.,* lon^r.
J south-western
)otanical locality
ilace for whalers
Ave find plants
) published, and
time wo arrived
^appeared. 'J'he
[syenite; but on
lero the syenite
n its main body
of the island of
n "stream ot (he
isminde, already
lowing through
" heath Held "),
ken is the best
dand. Though
yet, from what
;ions, it a])i)Cars
istic plants are
high), liliodo-
\pctrum tiif/rnni,
Vi, S. rivit/aris,
Veronica a/piii<tj
lortij KpilobiKni
lar . in legnfolia ,
\c(Uilis, Armciia
Ig Cryptogamia,

Lieut. I'lrich (in

[itiide ••ive-ii me by

N. ; but IIS Capt.

Ave are nearer the

Cctrnrin islandicn^ C. nirnlis, Cladonid f/rari/is, Prltidra
ftp/ifhosa, ]*olfftrichuin jtinipcrinttm, Hannnitrinin Cftnt'srens,
Sjthfrrojfhorum corn/loidcs, ifce. {ritlc Dr. liink, «.^e. ) Tla^ valley
graduates by a gentle slop(! to a dark luKstling precipice. At
Ix^tweon one or two thousand feet JVom the shore the vegetation
seems (o be lost, and there is only seen mountain cliirs or dcltris
of rocks rolled from above, through whi(!h the stream runs
gurgling along. The most remarkable of all the plants, hovv-
ev«!r, which 1 saw in this valley AVere reniiiiiis ol' tlu! "t^vaii"
{An(jrlic(i ojfiiina/is, Ilollh.), well known by its native and ^'or^c
names (appartMitly one of the words of the old Norsemen which
have got incorporated in the Eskimo language )< which grew in
patches by the side of the stream, and occasionally in the moist
ground. It is one of the most interesting plants of (Jreenland,
and is only I'onnd on the island of Disco, in Noith (Jrecidand.
It is, however, abundant in the vicinity of South (Jreenland Ijords,
and particidarly in the district of Jnlianshaab, so much so, that
the natives say that Disco was once a poitiou of Jnlianshaab
district, and that a great angekok or wizard towed it north, lie
would liave towed it still further had not a rival cut the rope !
That is what may be called a " myth of observation." The Danes
and Grcenlanders use the leaves much as an antiscorbutic. On
the leaves is occasionally found Vifrina anfjcUcfc. Wy the borders
of the stream, and at the northern head of the Aalley, I found
Aclwmilla vu/f/nris, L., growing. I heard mnch of a place,
about twelve miles from Godhavn, called Qvannvrsoit, " the place
'• of the Qvan," which, if all stories are true, seems to bo the
most agreeable spot in the district. It is situated between high
falls and "jokulls," with numerous waterfalls from them, and
green slopes covered with the most luxuriant vegetation in all
North Greenland. Angelica has been found at varions places on
the island of Disco, but nowhere so abundantly as here, as the
name indicates. The Willow is here eight feet high* when raised
up from the ground. Numerous tlowers grow here. Rhodo^
dcndron lappa nicti in, Pc'dicnlarisjiammca, Ledum yrnnlandicam
{palustrc), &c., are seen in profusion. Godhavn was the last
locality we visited in Greenland, and on the 12th of September
we left in the royal trader " llvalfisk," Capt. Hans Seiftrnp, for
Denmark, just as the snow was beginning to cover the hills, and
the nights were getting cold, dark, and dreary. My time was
much occupied in zoological, geological, and astronomical work,
besides having a full share of the varied dulies of the j)arty, so
that my leisure for botany was limited ; and when we take into
account the time occupied in going from place to place, the
period over which the collecting extended did not much exceed
two months, the whole extent of our residence in the country being
only three months.f

* 1 have seen a stem of Bctn/a nana from Uperniivik (72° 48' N.) two
inches in diameter, and another from South-East Buy equally thick.

f It has been necessary to give these (bites, in order to show the times of
flowering, and to avoid repetitions, though the object of this paper is not to
furnish any narrative of the journey.

II

266

It. IJHOWN, FI.nilULA DISOUANA,

'!'■

ii

V. lu'ononnv liotanff of Disco liiif/, — (I.) (iontnis, — Aroiirni
most of tli(> little trudiii^ poslH thu Danish olliccrs Imvo iit-
tomptcU to (Milliviilo II few pirili'ii vcjicliilih's, und hy l)riii<;iiijj;
soil iVotn old Fiskiiuo Iioiim>s, and lnkiii<; tli<' ^n-calcsi cure, u i'cw
oC tlio hardier vc^otaMos iiro raised in Hiiiail (pmntilies. Potatoes
never «;ot l»i^jj;er tlian niarldes; luit ,s|)inaeh, radishes, lettnees, &,v..
|>ros|»er, and ar»! ready loi- nse about, the middle or bej^inninj; of
Au«i;iisl. or Dr. IMalf's and II r. Andersen's j;aidens at dakohs-
havn and Kiteidu'iik we have most, plensant remenduiinees. The
garden jiI tiie hitler phiee deserves honoinahie men! ion, and as it
was, |)orhiii>s, one of the niosi liivonred and favonruhli^ speeiineiiH
of such, the deseri|)li»»n will snllice for all. It is sitnatcd on u
sunny slope, with a southern ex|)(>snre, and eomposed of earth
I)ron«;ht from old (Jroenland houses (nud tlieicfore richly mainired),
Iieaped up to th" (h>pth of two feet. The ve«:;etal)les were most
luxuriant — lettuce, «'abl>a;;e, turni|)s (white), carrots, [larsley, and
onions. This <j;arden paridleIo;j;rnm of I.S by 12 yards, vvitl; its
luxui'iant vej;t'tation, the <;ravel walk, the niiniatni'e summer-house
in the centre, th(» !j;reon waterin;j;-pot, and the bird nets over the
lettuce, had «[nile a home aspect amid the barren ^rey syenite
and prauite, with hundreds of ictil)er;j;s in sifjjht at any hour. The
Danish ladies cultivate in their houses most of om* garden flowers,
— geraniums, fuchsias, roses, nnsturtiums (a great favourite), ivy,
&M. ; Init they an> apt to be destroyed if i)laced out of doors.

(2.) FkvI. — It is a great mistake to suppose that the Eskimo
burn nothing but Itlnblwr for fuel. Theii' principal fuel is turf,
the Birch, Kmpetrum, Willow, Andromeda, Ledum, Vacelnium,
i^c, which they collect and stoi-e for winter nse, or nse immediately
in th(! summer. Wo used this in all om* travels, though, Indeed,
an armful soon blazes up like a bunch of straw. The collection,
storing, and cutting of the various desciiptionsof fuel is interesting;
but 1 must pass it over with this notice.

(3.) Food Plants. — Equally erroneous is the notion that they use
no vegetable ibod. IJerries i'orm their principal article of vege-
table diet, and comprehend IJlaeberries ( V((reinit(/ii uliy'niosuni)^
Cranberries, Kinpctnnn, I'acc'uiiuin llfis-ideca, &c. Though the
latter is used by tlu Danish residents as a preserve, yet it is not
oaten generally by the natives; and even the IJlaeberries are eaten
cautiously by them, on account of some supposed noxious quality.

(4.) Plants used llijijien'u'dlly. — There are some plants, of
which tlu! flowers, letives, or roots are eaten raw or boiled, sucli as
Scdum Rliodiola, the Howers of Epilobium, l*vdUuloris hhsuta,
of which the flower tops are boiled and eaten as a sort of cabbage ;
the Sorrel {(),rf/ri(t), and the well-known Scurvy-grasa (Cocli-
li<iria), which is used in scurvy by the natives, wlio are often
afl'ected by that disease, though never touching salt. 1 have
alix'ady spoken of tlu' use of the Angelica by the Danes and
Greenlanders. Iceland-raoss {Cctraria islnndica) is found in
various places ; but is rarely, if ever, used by the natives.
Various species of Algjt3 are used as food, but only resorted to
when hard pressed by hunger. The species chiefly used is called

I

K. HROWN, FLOUULA DISOOANA.

207

//.«. — Arournl

<M'H llllVO llt-

I cull', H l«'W
s. I'otatoCM
Id luces, Jiir.
I)('<riiiiiin<; of
iH at Jakobs-
•nii('(\s. 'V\hi
on, and as i(
Ic spi'ciniens
ii(iiuU<l on a
scd of cartli
Ay nianiircil),
)s were most
[)arslcy, and
nls, with its
iiinnior-lionsi^
H'ts over tlu'
fjrcy sycnito
\y lionr. The
I'dcn ilowtMS,
.votM'ilc), ivy,
t' doors.

the Eskinm
fuel is turf,

Vacciniuin,
immediately
>u<^li, indeed,
0 collcetioti,
interesting;

pliat they use
;lc of vege-
]itH(f'n>osuni)y
iTliough the
lyet it is not
lies are eaten
|)us quality.

plants, of
|iled, such as
iris hirsut((,
I of cabbage ;
Irass (Coe/t-
lo are often
lit. I have
Danes and
found in
lie natives,
resorted to.
ted is called

,

«

Aukpadlurtok {('lionln Fihim, Ag.). Fhchs r(.slrtt/osft.SfJj,, Alar'ui
I'fflaii, Grev. (Sutluitsok), (the ally of \vhi<'h, //A//w vsculmtii^
is t-aten on our <t\vn shores), ItlnKli/tnrnin piilniutd^ (J rev., ar(^ als<»
w^K'A. Lifvi^H idott lioristii is said to be a[)|jlied to Ijlciiding
woui\ds.

VI. [iitnidiintt lUiiiils. — In another memoir I propose discussing
the origin and natur«' of the (Ireeidaiid lloi-a, its geographii'ai
range in (ireenland, and the hy|)sometrieal dislribution of the
species; l)ut I l»eliev»! it will not !♦«' out of place to <'onciude these
introductory remarks on the Disco llora, by calling the attiMition of
future collectors to the subject of inti-odueed or colonist species.
Species at all lender, if accidentally introduced into ( Jreeidand,
(hough tliey may survive tlu^ summer, yet can s('/ircely Ixj e.\|»e(!ted
to live over the winter. There lue, however, some |>lant9 found in
(Ireeidaiid, the in«ligenous charaeti^r of which is doubtful. On
the sid(ts of the fjords, up to()l', is found, in the form of snuill
shrubs, the well-known Sorfnis AHcuparhi, L., and from its
l)osition there seenis to b(^ same good reason for supposing it was
brought to (Jreeidan<l by the old Norsti and Icelandic, colonists.
Again, Xantliiuni sfruiHftriufn, L., was found by Gieseeke in tin;
garden of the Moravian lirithien at Llchtenan in the Frith (»f
Agluitsok, near Cape Farewell, in ()()° N. lat. ; but was probably
siMit from Euroj)e in Heed. These subjects, as well as the means by
which plants may bo transported from i)laee to place, the hybri-
dising of some of the more variables spc^cies, especially the Drabas,
ftre all eminently worthy of l)eing attended to ; and as several
Arctic expeditions will be in the field next summer, we may hope
to obtain some more enlightenment on these matters.

VII. In aiUlition to the gentlemen who liave so minutely
examined the collections, and regarding whose work I will not say
a single word, as it speaks for itself, I have specially to thank
Dr. 1 looker. Professor Oliver, and Mr. J. fl. Baker, of the
Herbarium at Kew, for miicli assistance, and a rarfr hlanchc in
the way of Avhatever aid the magnificent collections under their
charg(( could atlbrd to me while stiulying and assorting my
collections. Those collections comprehend all the spe(M(>s actually
brought home; as far as flowering plants and ferns are eoneernefl.
Several other suecics. however, wei<' identiiied, but too far gone to
be preserved. It is possible that a further examination of some of
the marine Algie and Lichens may show some of them to be
distinct, and during the examination of the zoological collections, a
few minute species of Alga? may l)e found. The Diatomaceous and
Desmidious collections are so extensive that it was found impossible
to present the result of their examination in this place, and a large
portion of them is not yet accessible to science.* Though a large
number of the species recorded in this Florida were identified by
me at the time of collection, yet for the nomenclature as it now

* For the species cinisinjj the discoloration of the sea, see Trans. Bot.
Soc. Edin. for Dec, Quart. Jourii. Science, and Seeman'n Joiirii. Bot., 1868,
and Translations in Uas Austaiid, Feb. 27 ; 1868, Geofjr. Mitt., 1868, &c.

K~

'^f0t*&'}iM'^»^)rmmmmstf---

268

R. BROWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

M

k

stands, the botanists whose names are placed aftei* each division
arc responsible. For remarks regarding locality, I am solely
answerable.

(I.) Pliancroffciinia ;and Vascular Cryptogamia. By D. Oliver,
F.K.8., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, University College,
London, &c.

1.

2.
3.

4.
.'3.

6.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.

13.

14.
lo.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.
22.

23.

24.

2o.
26.

ThaUctrum alpinum, L. (In leaf only.) Lyngemarken,
Digco I.

Mannnculus kppcrborcus, llottb. Jakobshavn, Akatout.

R. pijfjmceus, Wahl. Akatout Jakobshavn, Christianshaab,
lllartlek, Claushavn.

R. lapponicus, L. Jacobshavn.

Papaver nudicaulcy L. Greenl.* Nasoot. Claushavn, Jakobs-
havn, &c.

Cochlcaria offfainalis, L., xar. fcnestrata. (R. Br.) Jakobs-
havn, Egedesminde.

C. officinalis^ L. lllartlek Inlet.
Arabis alpina, L. Claushavn, Ounartok.
Cardamine bcllidifolia, L. Jakobshavn.
Draha incana, L. Jakobshavn.

D. incana, var. Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

D. hirta, L. Claushavn, Jakobshavn, Ounartok, Egedes-
minde.

D. hirta, var. Ounartok, lllartlek.

D. hirta, var. (?) Siliqua ovato-elliptica v. orato-oblonga
demum puree puberula valvis reticulatis, pedicello a3qui-
longa V. eod. longiore. Godhavn.

J), muricclla, Wahl. {D. nivalis, Lilj.) Jakobshavn.

D. rupcstris, 11. Br. Jakobshavn, Egedesminde, lllartlek.

D, ajf'. D. rupi'stri, differt : glabrillima, pediccllis inferioribus
longioribus, siliquis late ovato-ellipticis v. fere rotundatis.
Jakobshavn.

Silcnc acatdis, L. Egedesminde, Claushavn.

Lychnis apctala, L. Claushavn.

L. apctala, var. trijtora. (K. Bi'.) Claushavn.

/-. alpina, L. Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

Ccrastinm alpimon, L. Jakobshavn, Claushavn, Egedes-
minde.

C. alpinum, var. From the same localities.

Stcllaria humifnsa, Rotlb. Jakobshavn, Akatout, Godhavn,
Island north of Christianshaab (Kritertasasuk).

S. longipcs, Goldie. Christianshaab.

S. longipcs, var. (*S. Edicardsii, R. Br.) Claushavn, lllart-
lek, Akatout, Jakobs-havn, Christianshaab.

S. media, L. (Near houses only.) Christianshaab.

*,S'. ccrastioidcs, L. ( Ccrastium trigynum.) Claushavn, God-
havn, Ounartok, Lyngemarken.

fe.l

♦ " Greeul." — Greenlauders. The name succeeding is the native one in the
North-Greenland dialect.

each division
, I am solely

3y D. Oliver,
rsity College,

Lyngemarken,

, Akatout.
hristianshaab,

liavn, Jakobs-
Br.) Jakobs-

rtok, Egedes-

ovato-obloiiga
idicello aiqui-

sliavii.
le, lllartlek.
is inl'erioiibus
fc rotundatis.

Ivii, Egcdes-

litj Godliavn,

pavn, Illart-

i>b.

Elavil, God-

ive one in the

. OLIVER, GREENLAND PLANTS.

2G9

27. Arenaria arctica, Stev. {A. bi^orttj Wald.) Lyngemarken,

Claushavn.

28. A. vernoy L. Jakobshavn, &c.

29. Montia fontana, L. Akatout, Claushavu.

30. Alchemilla vulgaris, L. Lyngemarken.

31. Dryas octopeiala, var. integrifolia (V.) {D. integrifolia,

V.) — foliis speciniinibus nonnuUis basin versus crenato-
dentatis. Egedesminde (Miss Levesen, 1866), lllartlek,
Christianshaab, Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

32. Potentilla nivca, L. /S. (P. grcenlandiccty R. Br.) Claus-

havn.

33. P. niveriy L. lllartlek, Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

34. P. tridentata, L. Christianshaab, Lyngeinurken.

35. P. anserina, L. Krikertsisusuk Island, six miles north of

Christianshaab.

36. Sibbaldia 2)roctimhcns, L. Jakobshavn.

37. Saxifraga oppositifolia, L. Greenl. Kakcthlanglct. Jakobs-

havn, lllartlek, Christianshajib, Egedesminde.

38. *S'. {Aizoon, Jacq.) Cotyledon, L. Christianshasib.

39. S. cfEspitostty L. lllartlek, Christianshaab, Jakobshavn,

Egedesminde, Claushavn.

40. S. stcllaris, L. Jakobshavn.

41. S. rivularis, D. Jakobshavn, lllartlek, Egedesminde (Miss

Levesen).

42. >S^. cernua, L. Greenl. Akudlcloot. lllartlek, Christianshaab,

Egedesminde (Miss Levesen), Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

43. S. tricuspidata, Retz. Greenl. Nooneet. Proven, lat. 72°

(Miss Levesen), Egedesminde (Miss Levesen), Claushavn,
Jakobshavn.

44. S. nivalis, L. Jakobshavn, Sakkak, Egedesminde (Miss

Levesen).

45. Hippuris vidgaris, L. Jakobshavn.

46. Epilobium latifolium, L. Christianshaab, Claushavn, Jakobs-

havn, Egedesminde (Miss Levesen).

47. E. angustifolium, L. Varietas foliis oblongo-lancoolatis

basi obtusis sessilibus v. subsessilibus interdum tornatim
approximatis, racemis brevibus foliosis, stylo staminibus
breviore. Lyngemarken.

48. Campanula rotundifolia, L., var. linifolia (Haenk). Claus-

havn, Jakobshavn, lllartlek Inlet.

49. C. unijlora, L. Jakobshavn.

50. Vaccinium uliginosum, L. Greenl. Pedloot. Egedesminde,

lllartlek, Christianshaab, Jakobshavn.

51. Pyrola rotundifolia, L., var. grandiflora, DC, Greenl.

Lapascrt, Jakobshavn, lllartlek, Proven, and Egedes-
minde, 1866 (Miss Levesen).

52. P. rotutidifolia, var. Christianshaab, Claushavn.

53. Diapensia lapponica, L. Jakobshavn, Claushavn, Egedes-

minde (Miss Levesen).

54. Cassiope hypnoidcs, D.M. Egedesminde (Miss Lcvesoii).

55. C. tetragona, D.M. Greenl. Isntscct, Egedesminde (Miss

Levesen), Jakobshavn, Claushavn.

i ■■

M

■ ''ll

J

270

R. BROWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

fi

56. Phi/llodoce taccijolia, Salisb. Egedesminde and Proven (Miss

Levesen), Claushavn, Christianshaab.

57. Ledum palusfj'c, L. Grceul. Karasatch. Claushavn, Jakobs-

havn, Godhavn, Egedesminde (Miss Levesen).

58. Loiselcui'ia procumbcns, Desf. Egedesminde (Miss Leve-

sen), Jakobshavn, Claushavn.

59. Rhododendron lapponicum, Wahl. Egedesminde, Jakobs-

havn, Godhavn, Claushavn, Christianshaab.

60. Erigeron alpinus^ L. Jakobshavn, Claushavn.
6L E. compositus, Pursh. Atanakerdluk.

62. Artemisia borealisy Pall. Christianshaab.

63. Gnaphaliu?n norvegicum, Gunn. Lyngemarken.

64. Artemisia alpina, L. Atanakerdluk, Lyngcinarken, Jakobs-

havn, Claushavn.

65. Arnica montana, L., var. angustifolia, Claushavn, lUartlek,

Jakobshavn.
6Q. Taraxacum Dens-leonis, Desf., var. palustris. Claushavn.

67. Pedicularis lapponica, L. Greenl. Udenarooset.* Claus-

havn, Christianshaab. Jakobshavn.

68. P. fiammea, L. Jakobshavn, Claushavn, Egedesminde

(Miss Levesen).

69. P. hirsuta, L. Jakobshavn, lUartlek, Egedesminde (Miss

Levesen).

70. Veronica alpina, L. Lyugeraarkeu.

71. Bartsia alpina, L. Christianshaab.

72. Pinguicula ; sineflore, vensim. P. vulgari. Christianshaab.

73. Armcria vulgaris, Willd. Claushavn.

74. Plantago maritima, L. Claushavn, Illartlek.

75. P. borcalis, Lange. Flora Danica, t. 2707, Suppl. Jakobs-

havn. (Rocks near Dr. Pfaflfs house, very sparingly.)

76. Polygonum aviculare, L. Christianshaab (Colonist ?),

Jakobshavn, Claushavn, Christianshaab, Proven, and Ege-
desminde (Miss Levesen).

77. Oxyria rcniformis, Hk. Greenl. Somnit. Jakobshavn,

lilartlek.

78. Betula nana, L. Greenl. Modikoote, Jakobshavn, Egedes-

minde (Miss Levesen), Godhavn.

79. Empetrum nigrum, L. Greenl. Panukojct. Egedesminde,

&c. (universally distributed).

80. Salix glauca, L. Jakobshavn, Claushavn, Egedesminde.
8L S. arcticajia. Br. r Greenl. Sect. Egedesminde, Jakobs-
havn.

82. S. herbacea, L. Jakobshavn.

83. S., sp. ( ? fl.)Egedesminde.

84. ^S*., an var. ^S". arcticte ? Egedesminde (Miss Levesen).

85. S. glauca, L., var. foliis latioribus apice rotundatis late

acutatisve (poll, latis). Jakobshavn.

86. Top' eldia palustris, Jj. Claushavn, Jakobshavn, Christians-

haab.

87. Juncus biglumis, L. Kudlesaet.

%

:,;\

Probably all the genus has the same name.

OLIVER, GREENLAND PLANTS.

271

, Proven (Miss
aavn, Jakobs-
3 (Miss Leve-
inde, Jakobs -

n-ken, Jakobs-

lavn, lUartlek,

Claushavu.
oset.* Claus-

Egedesminde
;sminde (Miss

^liristiansliaab.

ippl. Jakobs-
>aringly.)

(Colouist ?),
'en, and Ege-

Jakobsliavn,

Uvn, Egedes-

Igedesminde,

^desminde.
Inde, Jakobs-

?vesen).
Itundatis lute

1, C'hristians-

88. Juncus tHglumis, L. Claushavn.

89. ./. castaneusy Sm. Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

90. Luzula spadicea, DC. Lyngemarken.

91. L. hyperborea, R. Br. Jakobshavn, Lyngemarken.

92. L. campestris, Sm., var. congcsta. Claushavn, ,Iakobshavn,

lUartlek.

93. Scirpits ccespitosiis, L. Claushavn.

94. Eriophorum rnpitaln/n, Hist. Greenl. Ohdliousak* lUart-

lek, Egedeijmindc.

95. E. vaginatum? Jj. Jakobshavn.

96. E. angustifolium, Hoppe. Jakobshavn.

97. Carcx rupcstris, All. Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

98. C. lagopitiUy Wahl. Godhavn.

99. C. rigida, Good, {el varr.). Jakobshavn, Lyngemarken,

Egedosniinde (Miss Levesen).

100. C. (iqmitihs, Wahl. Jakobshavn.

101. C rarijlora, Sm. Akatout, lUartlek, Jakobshavn.

102. C. afpina, Hm. {C. Va/dii,Sdu) Single specimen, Jakobs-

havn.

103. C, off. C. stenopliyllfc. Jakobshavn.

104. Alopccurus alpinus, L. Jakobshavn, Egedesminde.

105. Hicrochloe alpliia^ L. Greenl. Eeiveek. Claushavn, Jakobs-

havn, lUartlek, «&c.

106. Pldppsia ulgida, R. Br. Jakobshavn.

107. Calamagrostis lanceolata, Robb.(var. Cphragmitoides, Hart.)

Lyngemarken, Jakobshavn.

108. Trisetum subspicatum, P. B. Claushavn.

109. Elymus arciinrius, L. lUartlek, Akatout, Claushavn.

110. Agrostis rubra, L. (/J. aljnna, Wahl.) Jakobshavn, Chris-

tianshaab.

111. Poa annua, L. Jakobshavn.

112. P. (ilpina, L. Claushavn, Lyngemarken, Jakobshavn.

113. P. alpina, forma clatior. Akatout.

114. P. cccsia, Sm. Claushavn, Christianshaub, Jakobsbaxii.

115. P. nctnoralis, h. Claushavn, Jakobshavn.

116. P. pratrnsis, L. Proven (Miss Levesen), Claushavn,

Jakol)slunn, Christianshaab.

117. P.Jlcxtiosa, Wahl. lUartlek, Jakol)shavn.

11<S. J*, neinora/ls, L., var. Jakobshavn, Akatout, lUaitlek.

119. J^.flr,vuo.<ia,Wi\h\.,\i\v. (I*, ccnisia, AW.) lUartlek.

120. GIf/ecria )»ariti)na, M. & K. lUartlek.

121. G. {Po(i) angastata (Br.) Akatout, Christianshaab.

122. Fcstnca orina, L. Sakkiik, Claushavn, lUartlek. Jakobs-

havn.

123. J.i/copodhun Sclago, L. (ireonl. Toterunse. Jakobshavn,

Egedesminde, &c.

124. L. annotlnwn, L. Jakobshavn, lUartlek.

12.>. Equisctum arvcnsc, L. Jakobshavn, Kudkisiet, Lynge-
marken, Claushavn.

^'

* A generic iiauie.

•;ife

i v

f

id*

ml

-4

riSKiEWiUn«««J««»!«u(««Mu,___

iUBSfiSf.'^- ~...

272

R. BROW.V, FLORULA T^ISCOANA.

I

126. Equisctum variegatuni^ L. Lynjjomarken, Kudlesaet.

127. Ci/stoptcris fragilisy Bernli. Claushavn, »Jakobshavn, lllart-

lek Inlet.

128. Woodsia livens is, R. Br. Claushavn, Jakobsliavn, Cbi-is-

tianshaab.

129. fV. Ilvcnsis, var. ? Too youn<]f to cleteruiine, but possibly

this may be W. glabella, R. Br. Jakobsliavn.

(II.) Mosses. By M. A. Lawson, M.A., Professor of Botany^ in

the University of Oxford.

1. Andrcfca 7'upestris, Hedw. Jakobsliavn.

2. Sp/mgmim squarrnsum, Persoon. Egcdcsmiiido.

3. Splachmim sphfrricum, Iledw., var. Inridum. Jakobsliavn.

4. Sp. JVormshjoldii, Ascb. Jakobsliavn.

5. AulaconDiium paliistrc, Scliw. Jakobsliavn.

6. Polytrichum junipcrinum, Linn., \',\v.alpestrp. Jakobsliavn

7. P. sexangidare, Hoppe. Jakolishavn.

8. Bryum pallens, Sw. Jakobsliavn.

9. B. IVafilcidwrgii, Br. Lyngcmarkon, Disco. I.

10. B. erudioii, Sclireb. Jakobsliavn.

11. B. inclinatuin, D'wks. Jakobsliavn.

12. Ii. cfrspiflciuni, Sclnv. Jakobsbavn.

13. B. Zierii (? no fruit), Dicks. Jakobsliavn.

14. B. carncum (?) B. Jakobsbavn.

15. B. cajyUlarc, II. & W. Jakobsbavn.

16. Leptohrijum pyriforme, Wils. Jakobsliavn.

17. Psilop'dum arctlcum, Brid. Jakol)shavn.

18. Dicrunnni vircns, Ilodw. Jakobsliavn.

19. D. ccfviculatui/i, Iledw. Jakobsliavn.

20. D. squarrosuin, Starke. Lyngcmarken and Egedesminde.

21. D. palustrc,liYi(l. Jakobsliavn.

22. D. ])oh/carpnm, H. & T. Jakobsliavn.

23. Grimmia jmlvinata, Hook, et Tayl. Godhavn.

24. Ortholrichum riipcstre, Sclileeh. Jakobsliavn.

25. Conostomum horealc, Sw. »lakobsliavii.

26. Bartramia ithyphylht, Bred. Jakobsliavn.

27. B.fontana, Scliw. Jakobsbavn.

28. Tortula faUax, Hdw. Jakobsbavn.

29. Ceratodon purpiircus, Bred. Jakobsbavn.

30. Didynodon ruhcUus, Br. Jakobsbavn.

31. IVeissia cirrhata, Ildvv. Godhavn.

32. JJistichiuin capillaccum, Br. et Sell. Jakobsliavn.

33. Jljjpnum Sclu'chcri, Willd. Jakobsbiiv ii.

34. If. unc'matum, Hdw. fJakobshavn.

35. II. ripar'iuni, L. Jakobsbavn.

36. jr.fiuitdiis, L. Jakobsbavn.

37. J I. pitlt'kcllum, Dicks. Jakobsbavn.

38. //. niollc, Dicks. Jakobsbavn.

39. JL rntalniluni, Linn. Jakol)sbavn.

40. //. stramincum, Dicks. Jakobsbavn.

- 1

CARRINGTON, HEPATIC ^E : LINDSAY, MOSSES. 273

esaet.

lavn, lllart-

avn, Cliris-
but possibly

f Botany in

Fakobshavn.
Jiikobshavn

ulesmlnele.

In addition to the above, Mr. Alex, Croall detected among
Algie gathered on the shore, or washed up from the harbour of
Godhavn, several species of Mosses, which had been swept down
by the mountain-torrents from Lyngemarken Fell, and other of
the bold mountains surrounding the "good harbour." They may
have possibly some geological interest in reference to the imbed-
ding of land species in marine formations in company with marine
plants. They are as follows : —

Dicranura scoparium. Polytrichum urnigerum, sexangularo, ct
piliferum. Bryum albicans, nutans, et Wahlenbergii. Hypnum
fluitans et stramineum.

Some are additions to the muscological flora of Greenland. Mr.
J. Sadleu, R. Bot. Gardens, Edinburgh, has made some correc-
tions in this list.

(III.) HepaticfB. By Benjamin Cakiiington, M.D., F.L.S.,

Eccles.

[The Hepaticai here enumerated were almost solely collected
at Jakobshavn along with the Mosses already described. As
none of them are of any great rarity, it has not been thought
necessary to affix in this summary the exact localities in every
case. — R. B.]

1. Jungermannia barbata, var. attcnuata, Mart.

2. J. barbata, var. Floerkii, N. ab Pj.

3. J. barbata^ var. lycopodiodes.

4. J. catenulata, Hiibner.

5. J. divaricataf E. B.

6. J. acuta, Lindbg.

7. J. minutaj Swz.

8. J. alpestria, Schleich. A few stems among J. minuta.

9. J. setiformis, Ehrh.

10. Ptilidium ciliare, N. ab E.

11. Mar chantia poly morpha, Linn.

Dr. Carrington (in letter, Aug. 7, 1868) remarks. — " I have also
(from Greenland) J. groenlandica, N. ab E. ; J. cordifolift, Hook. ;
J. albescens, Hook. ; J. saxicola, Schradr. ; J. bieuspidata, L. ;
J julacea, Lightf. ; J. laxifolia. Hook." The following species
have also been recorded from Greenland : — Sarcoscyphus sphace-
lattis, N. ab E. ; Gymnomitrum concinnatum, Corda ; Alicularia
comprcssa, Hook. ; Scapania conipacta, Lindbg. ; S. uliginosa,
N. ab E. ; Marpanthus Flobovianus, N. ab E. ; and Fimbriaria
pilosa, Tayl.

(IV.) Lichens* By W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S.E.,

F.L.S., Perth.

1. Alcctoria jubata, T,., \ar. chalybciformis,Jj. Jakobshavn, &c.

2. A. ochrolcuca, Ehrh. Jakobshavn and Godhavn.

* See also Dr. W. L. Lindsay's "Lichen-flora of Greenland," further on,
p. 284, comprising the later determinations of these species and varieties.—
Edito u.

36122. »

l1' ••,

S3i IS

m "* V

I /

274 R. BROWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

3. Alec, och., var. nigricans^ Ach. Illartlek glacier.

4. Cetraria Islandka, L., var. 1 ^ emarken, Godhavn,
DehseiBoxj. I Eiedesminde, Jakobs-

C. Islandicay var. leucomeloiaes, ( j^nvn &p

Linds. J ' '

C. cucullata, Boll. Jakobshavn, Egedesminde, and Illartlek

glacier.
C. nivalis^ L. Jakobshavn, &c.
C. aculeata, Ehrh. Jakobshavn, &c.
Dach/lina arctica, Nyl.* Near Illartlek glacier.
Nephroma arcticum, L. Godhavn.
Peltigera aphthosa^ Ach. Egedesminde.
P. venosa. L. ? Jakobshavn, &c.
P. canina, Hoffm.

var. rufcsccns, Auctt. pr. p. Egedesminde, Lyngemarken,

&c.
Solorina crocca, L. Lyngemarken, Illartlek glacier.
Parmclia saxatilis, L. Jakobshavn, Illartlek glacier.
P. saxatilis, var. panniformis, Ach. Illartlek, «fec.
P. saxatilis, var. sphterophoroidea, Linds. Egedesminde, &c.
P. saxatilis, var. omphalodes, L. Jakobshavn, Egedesminde,

Illartlek glacier, &c.
P. olivacca, L. Egedesminde. The collection contains

several varieties of this.
P. Fahlunensis, L. Jakobshavn, &c.
P. lanata, L. Jakobshavn, Illartlek glaciei*.
P. cncausta, Sm. Jakobshavn, &c.
P. stygia, L. (Several varieties.) Jakobshavn, Illartlek

glacier.
Physcia pulverulenta, Pers. Jakobshavn.
P. c<Bsia, Hffni. Kudlesaet.
P. stellaris, L. Jakobshavn.
Placodium elcgans, Link. Jakobshavn, &c.
P. chrysoleucum, Sm. \ Kudlesaet.

P. chrysoleuctini, var. opacum, Ach. j

Ounartok, Godhavn,
Lyngemarken, and
Illartlek glacier.
Squamaria saxicolaj Poll. Jakobshavn, Godhavn.
Lecaiiora vcntosa, L. Jakobshavn,

L. taitarea, L. "| Jakobshavn, Lynge-

L. tartarea, \av. frigida, Sw. > marken, Godliavn,

L. tartarea, var. gonatodes, Ach. I Illartlek glacier
L. parella, L. Kudlesaet.

var. Upsalienis, L. Jakobshavn, &c.
L. oculata, Dicks. (Various varieties.) Jakobshavn and

Illartlek glacier.

5.
6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

20.

21.
22.
23.
24.

25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

31.
32.

33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

Pannaria brunnea, Sw.

P. brunnea, var. coronata, Hffm

.{

bsl

}

* This lai-e fungoid-looking Lichen was found by me in considerable
abundance on a dry mossy slope before reaching the Illartlek glacier. It was
detected by Mr. W. G. Smith, having been accidentally packed in the Fungi
parcels. — R. B.

1 i

er.

Bii, Godhavn,
inde, Jakobs-

3, and lUartlek

ler.

, Lyngemarken,

glacier.
i glacior.

k, &c.

nfedesminde, &c.
n, Egedesminde,

lection contains

shavu, lUartlek

esoet.

ok, Godhavn,
emarken, and
tlek glaciei-.
jdhavn.

havn, Lynge-
ken, Godhavn,
•tlek glacier.

Jakobshavn and

me in considerable
tlek glacier. It was
jacked in the Fungi

LINDSAY, LICHENS OP GREENLAND.

275

41. Lecanora poli/tropa, Ehrh. Jakobshavn, Ounartok, Ege-

desminde, &c.

42. L. polj/tropa^ var. intricata, Schrad. Ounartok.

43. L. /juflkt, Ehrh. Jakobshavn, Ounartok.

44. L. subfusca, L. Jakobshavn, &c.

45. L. subfusca, var. epibrya, Ach. Jakobshavn, &c.

46. L. brjjontha, Ach. Jakobshavn, &c.

47. L. turfaceu, Whlb. Jakobshavn, &c.

48. L. sophodcs, Ach. (Many varieties.) Jakobshavn, &c.

49. L. calcarea, L. Kudlesnet and Jakobshavn.

50. L. cinerca, L. Kudlesait (various forms).

51. L. smarar/dula, Whlb. Jakobshavn.

52. Stercocaulon paschalc, L.

53. *S'. tomcntosum, var. alpinum, Laur.

54. var. deundaium, Auctt. Egedesminde, &c.

55. Cladonia j^yxidata^ L. (Various vars.) Jakobshavn and

Illartlek glacier.

56. C. verticillata, Hffm., var. cervicornis, Ach. Jakobshavn,

&c.

57. C. gracilis, L. (Various vars.) Jakobshavn, Illartlek

glacier, &c.

58. C. aniaurocrcea, Flk. Egedesminde and Godhavn.

59. C. furcata, ^chveh. Godhavn (various forms).

60. C. cornueopioidcs, L. (Various vars.) Jakobshavn, &c.

61. C.fimbriata, L. Jakobshavn, &c.

62. C. deformis, L. Jakobshavn, Egedesminde, &c.

63. C. rangiferina, L. Egedesminde.

64. C degencrans, Flk. Jakobshavn, &c.

65. C. micialis, L. Godhavn.

66. Thamnolia vcrmicularis, Sw. Jakobshavn.

67. Umbilicariu hyperborean Ach. (Various vars.) Jakobs-

havn, &c.

68. U. arctica, Ach. Illartlek glacier.

69. IT. cglindnca. L. (Various vars.) Jakobshavn and

Egedesminde.

70. U. velleOf L. Jakobshavn.

71. Lecidca Grmnlandica, Linds.* Jakobshavn. (Kudlesait.)

72. L. vernalis, L. Jakobshavn, &c.

73. L. parasema, Ach. (Vars.) Godhavn, Atanjikerdluk.

74. L. lapicida, Ach. Jakobshavn. &c.

75. L. fusco-atra, L. Jakobshavn.

76. L. castanea, Hepp. ? Illartlek glacier.

77. L. sabuletorum, Schreb. Jakobshavn, &c.

78. L. obscurata, Smrf. ? Jakobshavn, «fec.

79. L. disciformis, Fr. (Various vars.) Illartlek glacier, &c.

80. L. atro-alba, Ach. (Various vars.) Jakobshavn, &c.

81. Z. ^e/;'<Ba, Wulf. (Var.) Atanakerdluk, Jakobshavn, &c.

* This species, with nero forms (species and varieties') not here enumerated,
will be described in a separate Memoir in i)reparation. [Trans. Linn. Soc.
xxvii. pp. 305-368, with five 4to. coloured plates.]

s 2

i

e

%.

I: ,■;!

I '• :

•m

^■:?r

276

R. BKOWN, FLORULA DISCOANA.

' )i t\

82. Leciflca gcographicu. L. (Various vars.) Jakobshavn,

Egedcsminde, &c.

83. L. alpicoluy Schr. Jnkobshavn, Egcdesminde, &c.

84. L. sulphurclla, Th. Fr. ? Atanakenlluk.

85. L. myriocarpa, DC. Jakobshavn, Egcdesminde, &c.

86. Sphteroph&ra coralloideSj Ach. (Various vars.) Egedes-

mindc, lllartlek glacier, &c.

87. Coniocybe furfuraceaf L. lllartlek glacier, Claushavn.

88. Collema melisnum, Ach. Jakobsliavn.

89. Lcptogium laceruniy Sw. Jakobshavn.

90. Ephcbe pubcsccnsy L. Egcdesminde.

91. Normandina viridiSf Ach. Lyngemarken.

(V.) Marine Algte. By Alex. Croall, Associate B.S., Stirling,
and Joint Author of ** The Nature-Printed British Sea-
weeds."

[I did not make the collection of Alga3 a special object, and
the comparatively large number of species here recorded is due
more to the skill and patient industry of Mr. Croall, than to any
special acumen or diligence on the part of the collector. Hitherto,
exclusive of freshwater forms, there have been found beyond
60° north latitude over the whole Arctic region 63 species of
Marine Alga).* The well-known algologists who have examined
this collection have been able to detect, by critically examining
every scrap, 41 species of marine and 11 freshwater forms in or
around Disco Bay alone. — R. B.]

MELANOSPERME^.

1. Fucus vesiculosus, L. Ritenbenk shore, with Ectocarpus crinittis,

&c. 30th August, v.c. Egcdesminde, off Rifkol, &c.
Most of the specimens are rather dwarfish, some of them even
less than an inch in length, yet even some of these bear fruit, and
among them are specimens both with and without air-vesicles.

2. Fucus nodosus, L.

Rather more slender than usual, and the receptacles more glo-
bose ; but similar forms may be seen on our own shores. Floating
in sea out of sight of land, in Davis's Strait, off Lichtenau. June.

3. Desmarestia aculeata, L.

Scarcely diifering from ordinary specimens, and barren as usual.
Jakobshavn harbour, in 4 to 5 fathoms, muddy bottom; very
plentiful.

4. Alalia Pi/laii, Grev.

Common just within low- water mark at Jakobshavn, &c. Eaten
by the natives.

♦ Dickie, Journ. Linn. Soc. Botany, vol. ix. pp. 235-243,

'!&

-r --

CKOILL, MARINE ALOJE OF OUEENLAND.

277

Jiikobslmvn,
8cc.

lo, &c.

•s.) Egedes-

lauslmvn.

B.S., Stirling,
. British Sea-

inl object, and
Rcorded is due
dl, than to any
tor. Hitherto,
found beyond
63 species of
have examined
vlly examining
cr forms in or

arpus crinittts,

col, &c.
of them even
jear fruit, and

ir-vesicles.

2lc8 more glo-
»res. Floating
itenau. June.

^rren as usual,
bottom; very

n, &c. Eaten

i-243.

5. lAuninana saccharina, Lam.

Everywhere in the Laminarian zone ; called kak-wdk by the
natives.

6. Chorda filum^ Ag.

Rockpools, and similar to such on our own shores, also in 2
fathoms ; abundantly. Sakkak, Wuigatz Strait. August.

7. Ayarum Turneri, P. Si R.

Very abundant in Egedcsmindc harbour, in from 5 to 6 fathoms ;
substance of frond very brittle when fresh.

[In both 1861 and 1867 I identified as common along the Arctic
shores, Laininaria lotujicruris, De la Pyl., and L. fascia^ Ag.
Among a small collection made at Godhavn by Frue Smith,
wife of the lloyal Inspector of North Greenland, I detected L.
ili(/itata, L., in addition. — 11. B.]

DiCTYOTACEvK.

8. Dictf/osiphon fteniculaccus^ Ore v.

The specimens exhibits both the solid and fistiiloso state of the
plant, but no spores were observed. Most of the specimens had
been found floating. Jakobshavn, 3 fathoms, July 5, with many
Diatomaceo) ; Egedesminde, Juno 10th, high water- mark ; pools
on shore, with Schiezoncma ohtusum ; Claushavn, 30th tfunc,
floating near shore ; Disco Bay generally ; Ritcnbenk, on shore,
August ; Sukkak, in 2 fathoms, August ; everywhere common.

Chord ARiA.CEiE.

9. Chordariajlagellijbrmis, Lam.

Parasitic on L. longicruris, floating in Davis's Strait, May 29th ;
rock-pools at high water-mark, Egedesminde, 10th June.

10. Elachista fucicoli, Fries.

Parasitic on Fucus vesiculosus, in company with E. crinitus ; in
rock-pools within highwater-mark, where streams of fresh water
flow over it during a portion of the day. Jakobshavn. June.

ECTOCARPACEiE.

1 1. Sphacellaria plumosa, Ag,

12. S. cirrhata, Ag.

The first species appears to be the most common, as small frag-
ments of it were continually occurring entangled with almost
every specimen .... No separate specimens were observed ;
but very satisfactory fragments were found among a mass of
rubbish washed up at highwater-mark, at Godhavn harbour, with
other Algic and freshAvater plants.

13. Ectocarpus siliculostts, Lyngb.

Very dwarfish, scarcely an inch in height, and barren ; floating
in the sea off" Holsteensborg, &c. May,

-, t;

m

.:r

'11

11

278

R, BROWN, FLOKULA DISCOANA.

14. Et'tocarpns vrinitus, Carm.

Ill rock-pools, Jiikobsliavn, common ; niso found iit Ritonhenk
jin<l Godhavn. The spociniens referred to this siu'cies arc wutli-
cicntly numorous, l)ut without fruit; if not identical with this
species, they arc ccrtuiuly very closely allied, at least in structure.
.... It cainiot bo a very uncommon species, as fraj^mciUs of it
were occurring with almost every specimen, often much decom-
posed, and covered with Diatomaceao.

RHODOSPERMEiE.

UiIOUOMELACEjK.

15. Polynphoniit nrceoldUi, Grov.

Most of the sections exhibit five siplions, occasionally four,
while P. arctica is said to have seven. The specimens were para-
sitical on the stems of Laminaria), from a depth of 3 fathoms
(Jakobshavn) ; also in rocky pools at Egedesmindc, &c.

16. Mdohcsia polymorpha^ L.

A very characteristic specimen of this species, smooth, rounded ;
the upper surface covered with the dot-like punctures of the
Ceramidia ; the margin free, and somewhat curved upwards. A
fracture shows that only the upper surface, forming a narrow
zone of about J th of an inch in depth is alive, being still filled
with the colouring matter of the cells, the rest being pure white.

17. Dclcsscria angustissima, Griff.

A small fragment only of this was detected entangled among
the filaments of Conferva Mthujoniiun^ without fruit, but suffi-
ciently characteristic of the species. Jakobshavn, 5 fathoms ;
plentiful. July.

18. IJypnea purpurascensy liar v.

Small fragments only of this species were observed, mixed up
with others, also without fruit. Egedesmindc. June.

19. Euthora ciistata, J. Ag.

A small but very distinct specimen of this was found growing
on a fragment of Tuhnlaria indivisa, L.

20. Mhodophyllis vcprccula, J. Ag.

A single small specimen of this was dredged from 12 fathoms.

Egedesmindc. Juno, with Flustra aviciUaris and

Callithamnion umcrican nm ,

21. Dumontia/iliformisj Grev.

Just below high-water mark at the '* Kirke " of Jakobshavn.
June, plentiful ; Ritenbenk shore, August.

22. Kallymenia reniformis, Turn.

We have some hesitation in referring the specimens to this
species, not from any doubts entertained as to their identity, but
from the circumstance of the specimens of previous collections
having been referred to a different species, or at least designated
by a different name (^Kallymenia Pentiyiy Har.) ....

]

I

i

CllOALL, MARINK ALO/K OP OUEENLANI).

279

at Ritonbonk
^it'.s aro hu fil-
ial with this
ill strueturc.
aj^inciUs of it
nucli (k'com-

^ioually four,
jns were para-
of 3 fathoms
&c.

•otli, rounded ;
ictures of tho
upwards. A
iiij; a narrow
ing still filled
: pure white.

annjled among
uit, but sufft-
5 fathoms ;

^cd, mixed up
le.

)uud growing

n 12 fathoms,
wicularis and

Jakobshavn.

mens to this

identity, but

IS collections

st designated

23. l/otomccion ramentnecum, J. Ag.

There uro numerous examples of this, many of them quite
simple, and others abundantly branched, and from ii to 7 inclu^s
in length. Jakobshavn, Sakkak (2 liithoms), &c., v.c.

24. Bhodt/mcnia pahnalff, L. Jakobshavn, in 3 fathoms, July.

CKIlAMKACKiTi.

2.'5. Cvramiwn ruhruni, J. Ag.

A rather slender form, the main stems ()p!i(|iu', llic branches
sub-diaphanous. It may prove a distinct s|)t'C'i('s when (his
pu/zling genus is better understood. Washed up u\\ the beach at
Godhavn. September.

26. J'filotd scrrata, Kutz.

Another intermediate form, and equally puzzling. Only a few
fragmentary specimens were observed, mixed with otlier s[)ecies ;
the smallest of these, however, exhibit the doubtful character of
the species. Jakobshavn, 3 fathoms ; Just below high water-
mark at Claushavn, covered with (hllularin rvptaits.

27. Cullithanniion (iDtcricanuni, Ilarv.

Only a few fragments of what seems referable to this species;
were detected among Ulio^lophi/Uis rc/nccultt. It is remarkable
for the length of the joints, and tho patent and attenuated
branches.

28. C. h'othii, Lyngb.

Scarcely differing even in luxuriance from woU-grown si)ecimen8
on our own shores.

CHLOROSPERMEiE.

Sii'iioNACi;^.

29. Jl/'f/opsis jtinniosft, Ag.

Specimens small, but characteristi(r of the species. The size
may depend partly upon the season (June), and i)artly on the
locality (in rock-pools).

CONFEIlVACEiE.

30. Clailophora ureta, Kutz.

In the colh'ction there aro numerous specimens exhibiting the
plant both in the spring and summer form, some of them in a
beautifully sporiferous condition. Pools on shore, 'Jakobshavn,
June ; Egedesminde, sanily shore close to high-water mark, June
10; Sakkak, 2 fathoms, August. Godhavn, washed on beach,
September.

31. donferva arenosu, Carm.

Agrees in structure, but the filaments liner than usual in this
species. Jakobshavn, rocks on shore. July.

32. C. mclagonium, Web. et Mohr.

The specimens agree well in structure, but their luxuriance is
remarkable ; from 18 to 24 inches being the average size. They

'M■^

\l.

' 1

280

K. DIIOWN, FLORULA D18C0ANA.

i

aro thus much less rigid tlmn if thoy wore more dwarfisli and
stuiitod ill their growth. JakobHhavn harbour, 5 fathoin8, July,
plentiful ; and outside of tho harbour, in 3 fathoms, not so common.

33. Conferva Voutiffcana, Dillw.

To this specioH wo refer ii few fllnmonts apparently attached to a
slice from the stem of Laminnria louf/icruris, being unable Hatis-
factorily to refer them to any other. Found floating in Davis'
Strait, oil' liifkol, mixed with Schizonema ohtusum, Juuo.

ULVACEiE.

34. Enteromorpha compirssn, Grev.

As plentifid and an polymorphous apparently as on our own
shores. All tho forms, however, seem easily referable to tho
present species. Jakobshavn, 3 fathoms, July ; SakkaU, August.

35. Utva latissima, L.

Equally abundant with tho last. Jakobshavn, 3 fathoms.
August, &c.

36. Porphyra vulf/aris, Ag.
Sakkak, 2 fathoms. August.

37. Bangiafusco- purpurea, Lyngb.

Floating in tho sea, Davis' Strait. May.

OsCILLATORIACEiK.

38. Lyngbya Carmichaelii, Harv.

Filaments of this species are frequently entangled among other
specimens, so that the species does not appear to be uncommon,
but they aro very variable in thickness, and several species may
be included. Floating in the sea, parasitic on the stem of JMmi-
naria longicruris, in Davis' Strait, off Holsteensborg. May.

39. L.fiacca, Harv.

Only a few filaments of this were observed mixed v/ith the last
and others.

40. L. speciosa, Carm.

A fine specimen of this beautiful species was picked up floating
in Davis' Strait, north of Holsteensborg. May.

(VI.) Freshwater Alga;. By G. Dickie, M.A., M.D., F.L.S.,

Professor of Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

ULVACEiE.

1. Prasiolajluviatilis, Sommerfeldt,

This Avas first described as a native of Norway by Sommerfeldt
in 1828. Meneghini has more recently published it as P. Saiitcriy
and Grunow has constituted var. /9, Hausmanni ; it is, however,
right to retain the name first given it. Both forms are in this

:S

--4 .J-

DICKIE, rHESllWATER ALOiE.

281

dwarfisli and
athoniH, July,
ot so common.

attached to a
unable Hatis-
in^ in Davis'
Juno.

on our own
brublu to tho
kak, August.

, 3 fathoms.

among other

3 uncommon,

species may

em of Jm/hi-

May.

with the last

I up floating

)., F.L.S.,

deen.

Bommerfeldt
P. Sautcrif

is, however,
are in this

collection, gathorcnl " close to highwator-mark in freshwater
*• pools, visited by tho spray, nt Christianshaab, August ; and
** driod-up pools near tho sea, Jakobshavn, tFune. The largo
" form, var. /3, in freshwater pools, Egodesminde, &c.* The
plant varies considerably in size. In places only partially moist,
it is small; and when superflcially examined in tho dry state, it
might bo mistaken for the hirge forms of J*, eris/ia. This error
I committed in a list of species collected by Dr. 1*. C. Sutherland
in the summer of 1852.t It is reported, on tho authority of Vahl,
as a native of Spitzbcrgen. Mr. Brown's specimens comprehend
various stages. At first it is linear with narrow stripes, subse-
quently oblong-ovate with undulate and crcnatc margin, and finally
very broad and irregular in outline.

2. Entcromorpha comprcssa, Linn.

Tho specimens might V)e referred to the smaller and simpler
forms of this variable species. "Jako1)shavn (June), in a rock
" pool within high water- mark ; but tin? same pools during slack
" water fill by influx of freshwater streams, so that the plants grow
" half the time in fresh, and the other half among salt water." — ll.B.

3. E. pcrcursa, J. Ag.

" Lyngemarken, Disco Island (September) ; and a few specimens
mixed with Prasiola Jluviatilis^ at Jakobshavn, in slightly brackish
jjools, out of reach of the tide, but visited by sea spray, June
1867."— R. B.

Confer vACEiE.

4. Conferva bombycina, Ag.

" Stagnant pools of fresh water, among the rocks near the sea,
Jakobshavn, Egedesminde, and Lyngemarken (July, June, and
September)."— R. B.

5. C.Jloccosa, Ag. {^Microspora floccosa^ Kutz.)

The specimens are not in very good condition, but cannot bo
referred to in any other genus or species. " Pools of fresh water
" near the sea, Jakobshavn (July), and Egedesminde (June)." —
R. B.

ULOTHRICACEiE.

6. Ulothrix mucosa^ Thunb.

There are only two small specimens, which, however, may be
referred to this species. " Moist places near running water,
** Egedesminde (June), and in streams, Jakobshavn (June)."

7. U. minutula, Kutz. ?

Certainly distinct from the former, judging from the diameter

* Many of the marine Alga; were encrusted with various Foniminiferji,
Polyzoa, aud other Zoophytes. Among the hitter were observed Cellepora
pumicosa, C. ramulosa, Cellularia rcptans, Crista cburnea, Flustra avicti-
laiis, Titbulipora patina, Tuhularia indivisa, &c.

t Appendix to Inglefield's " Summer Search for Sir John Franklin," 1853.

■

i?*i

Flii

282

R. BROWN, FLORULA DISOOANA.

Mh

of the filaments ; but in a genus where the length of the joints
and the diameter vary so much, it is not ea«y to name from dried
specimens. Very much entangled and mixed with Conferva
bonihycina, " as a floating scum on freshwater pools close to the
" sea and within reach of the spray. June 1867." — R. B.

PALMELLACEiE.

8. Hydrurus penicillatus, Ag., var., jmrvulus.

" In filaments (attached to small stones) in the current flowing
" from the spring at Lyngemarken ; Sept. This spring maintains a
" uniform temperature all the year round, and remains unfrozen
" during the winter." — R. B. The specimens, in the dry state, were
not in a condition to show general outline ; but there can be no
doubt about the genus, a comparison with an authentic specimen
having been made. The cells (" gonidia," Kutz.) are in lineal series,
ovate or oblong-ovate, and with one end, usually the narrower,
colourless. I have little doubt that it is a small variety of the
above species, which is widely diffused, and varies much in size
and branching. In " Nereis Americana," by the late Professor
Harvey, it is reported as attaining a length of one or two feet at
Santa Fe, New Mexico ; in Northern Europe its size is very much
less, and in every respect liable to great variation. In Fries'
*' Summa Vegetabilium Scandinavia;," it is reported as found in
Norway and Lapland. Mr. Brown's discovery of it in Greenland,
in nearly lat. 70° N., is of some interest, when the circumstances
are so peculiar.

OSCILLARIACE^.

9. Lynghya cincinnata^ Kutz.

Abundant in " Lyngemarken Spring. Sept." — R. B. After
careful examination, I am constrained to refer this to the above
species, which appears to be widely diffiised in North Europe.

10. Oscillaria.

There are two species (mere fragments), and mixed up with the
last, but they are too imperfect for specific recognition.

CHROOESCCACEiE.

11. 3Iicrovystis, sp.

Mr. Brown found this on the petrous bone of a Seal lying on
damp ground at Egedesminde, in the form of a faint green crust.
It may be referred to the above genus, but further I cannot venture
to decide.

During examination of portions of the species already enumerated,
the following Desmidiea) and Diatomacea; were incidentally
noted : —

DESMlDIEiE.

Cosmarium nndvlatnm, Corda.
C vovnatum, Broli. ?
Stavrastruni pygmfPHm, Breb. ?

Penium trnncatum, Breb.
Closterium Cornu, Ehr.

li]

i

I

3f the joints
e from dried
th Conferva
close to the

•rent flowing
; maintains a
tins unfrozen
■y state, were
TO can be no
I tic specimen

lineal series,
le narrower,
iriety of the
mch in size
te Professor
r two feet at
is very much
. In Fries'

as found in
1 Greeidand,
ircumstances

B. After
to the above
Europe.

up with the

al lyinji; on
;reen crust,
not venture

DICKIE, FRESHWATEB : SMITH, FUNGI.

DjATOMACEiE.

283

'1

Cocconcma lanccolalum, Ehr.
Meridian circulure, Ag.
Odontidium mcsodon, Kutz.
Tabcllariajlocculosa^ Kutz.
Himantidium majus, W. Sm.

Epithcmia occllata, Kutz.
Eunotiu monodon, Ehr.
Syncdra ulna, Ehr.
Navicula dicephala, Kutz.
Stauroncis anceps, Ehr.
S. gracilis, Ehr.

In conclusion, it may be remarked, that while greater special
attention to the freshwater forms would probably have produced
a few more species, nevertheless that department of the flora of
Danish Greenland cannot be otherwise than limited, on account
of the peculiar conditions of the region — the interior being at all
seasons a frozen waste, and merely a narrow line along the shores
presenting streams and pools of fresh water, with here and there
a few springs.

(VII.) Fungi. By Worthington George Smith, F.L.S.,

London.

[The species of Fungi found in an Arctic country like Green-
land can be but few, and it being almost impossible to preserve
them in a condition fit for after study and determination caused
me to be less anxious than otherwise I might have been to pay
much attention to their collection. The extraordinary heat and
dryness of the summer of 1867 were not favourable for the
growth of this order of plants. Mr. Smith has, however, been
able to identify with some certainty nearly all of the species
which I brought home. — R. B.]

1. Agaricus (Amanita) vagitiaius, Bull. Mossy bank opposite

the Settlement of Godhavn. Not uncommon. Sept.

2. A, {Clitoct/bc) infundibidiformis, SchaefF. Godhavn, &c.

Sept.

3. A. (Clitocybe) brumalis, Fr. Jakobshavn, &c.

4. Hygrophorus virgitiius, Fr. This common esculent species

I found fit Jakobshavn, &c.

5. Boletus scaber, Fr. Jakobshavn. July.

6. Uromyces intrusa. Lev. Parasitic on leaves of Alchcmilla

vulgaris, L., at Lyngemarkcnj Disco Island. Sept.

i: :tl

numerated,
ncidcutally

Breb.
:hr.

I

HI

It

■ .; i!

Mi

284 DK. LINDSAY ON THE LIClIEN-FLOllA OF GREENLAND.

XXXV.— The Lichen-Flora of Greenland, with Re-
marks on the Lichens of other Arctic Regions. By
. W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

[ Reprinted, by Permission, from the Trunsactions of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh, vol. x., pp. 32-65. Read January 14,
1869.]

I. Introduction.

My attention was drawn to the Lichen-flora of Greenland by
being requested, in the winter of 1867-8, by my friend Robert
Brown, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., to examine and determine the Lichens
collected by him in West Greenland in the course of the " West
" Greenland Exploring Expedition" of 1867. On studying, in
connexion with the determination of the species submitted to me,
the literature of Greenland Lichenology, I was surprised to find
that there is not on record any separate and modern list of the
Lichens of that country. It has occurred to me to endeavour to
supply this want in lichenological literature by drawing up the
Enumeration, hereto appended, of all Lichens up to this date
found, or recorded as having been found, in Greenland, compiled
from all the sources of information accessible to me.

The basis of the said list is a catalogue of the Lichens collected
by Dr. Brown. But it includes also all those mentioned as oc-
curring . in Greenland by Th. M. Fries in his " Lichenes Arctoi
" Europao Grcenlandiasque." * This work includes a record of
all the Greenland Lichen-collections of Danish botanists, by whom
chiefly contributions to its Lichen-flora have been made. The
largest and most important of these collections appears to have
been that of J. Vahl, which was made exclusively on the west
coast, as was also Dr. Brown's. Minor collections were made by
Rink and Wormskiold.

The localities of Dr. Brown's collections were chiefly on, or in
the vicinity of. Disco Island. They have been elsewhere particu-
early specified.f The additional locjilities mentioned by Fries
include the following, which, having no means of ascertaining
their exact geographical position, I arrange in alphabetical order : —

AUuk, Amaralik, Amitsuarsuk.

Godhaab.

Holsteinborg and district —

including Ikkatok.
Isortok.
Julianehaab.
Ktikiarsuk.
Neuuese, Njarasurksoit, Ne-

nortalik.

Okivisekan.

Pakitsok (Jakobshavn dis-
trict).

Sarmalik, Serkunsuk, Syd-
ostbngten (district).

Tiksulik, Tunnudliarbik,
Tessarmiut.

Umanak, Upernavik.

Wajgattet [Waigat].

I have also included in my Enumeration all Greenland localities,
or Lichens, recorded in the following works or papers : —

1. Crantz: "History of Greenland" (1820). Ilis list of
Lichens (p. 318) is unimportant and very meagre, not amounting

* Trans. Royal Society of Sciences, Upsala, scries Hi. vol iii. ISfiO.

t *' Observations on Greenland Lichens." — Trans. Lin. Soc. xxvii. (1869).

Bi

REENLAND.

DK. LINDSAY ON THE IJCHEN-FLOUA OF GTIEENLAND. 285

ivifi

), with Re-
legions. By
S.

the Botanical
I January 14,

Glreeuland by
riend Robert
3 the Lichens
>f the « West

studying, in
initted to me,
prised to find
rn list of the
endeavour to
awing up the

to this date
^nd, compiled

lens collected
itioned as oc-
ihenes Arctoi
i a record of
sts, by whom
made. The
•ears to have
on the west
'ere made by

ifly on, or in

here particu-

ed by Fries

ascertaining

|cal order : —

)shavn dis-

msuk, Syd-
[trict).
mudliarbik,

jivik.

[at].

lid localities,

[lis list of
nnionnting

>^

]8f.O.

kvii. (1869).

to thirty species, named according to the nomenclature and classi-
fication of Dillenius and Hudson. Several names it is impossible
now to identify with modern species.

2. Th. M. Fries : " Liehenes Spitsbergenses," 1867 ; published
in the " Kongl. Svenske Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar."

3. Nylander : " Liehenes Scandinavian," 18(31.

4. Walker and Mitten : Lichens collected by Dr. Walker of the
" Fox " Expedition, under Sir Leopold M'Clintock, on the coast at
Frederikshaab, Godhaab, Fiskernaes, Uppernavik, and on Disco
(Godhavn). Determinations by Mitten. Journal of Linnean
Society, Botany, vol. v., p. 87. This list contains some that arc
not mentioned by Fries. Extra-Greenland localities were — ^Port
Kennedy, 72° N. lat., on the Boothian peninsula, which occupies
a central position among the Arctic- American islands ; Pond's Bay
and Lancaster Sound, on the west side of Bafhn's Bay ; and Cape
Osborne, with whose geographical position I am unacquainted.

5. Hayes and James : Lichens collected by Dr. Hayes ; deter-
minations by Professor Thomas P. James ; Proceedings of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1863, p. 96. These
collections were made much more to the north than any of the
others, viz., in Smith's Sound, between parallels 78° and 82^ It
is not, however, always or clearly stated on which shore they
were collected,* though it would appear to have been the eastern
or Greenland side.

Professor James remarks, " Not a single fruited specimen was
" to be found in the entire collection," a circumstance of interest
in connexion with a fact I have pointed out elsewhere f — the
frequency of barrenness (in apothecia) of the Lichens of Arctic
countries. It Avould almost appear that this sterility, or its fre-
quency, bears a proportion to the northernness of the latitude.

James enumerates the follow "ng, which were not found, or are
not recorded by other collectors or lichenologists : —

Alectoria ulcata, Lev.\ Stereocaulon condensatum,

Neuropogon Taylori, Hook.^ Hffm.%

Parmelia Borreri, Turn.\[ Cladonia furcata, Hffm.^ var.

racemosa, Flk**

* Such an omission becomes of more importance where the Strait is much
broader. Thus, in the Kew and other Herbaria, I have found specimens
hibelled " Baffin's Bay " or '* Davis Straits." Now, Greenland occupies so
decidedly an intermediate position between Europe and America in regard to
its general flora, that it is always desirable to know on what side of the bay
and straits in question given plant-collections have been made. In the
Kew Herb., however, 1 have frequently met Avith labels of a much vaguer kind,
c.r/., " North Pole," '• Arctic regions," " Franklin's first journey," or Parry's
" first voyage," without specifying any precise locality ! Vide also p. 300,

t " Observations on Greenland Lichens."

j Nylander (Syn,, p. 281) gives it only as an Indian species.

§ Nylander (Syn., p. 273) pves it only as an Antarctic species. Probably
it has been confounded with lis Arctic representative N. mclaxanthus.

II Nylander (Syn., p. 389) ^^ivesits northern limit as Central Norway.

^ Nylander, (Syn., p. 250) gives its northern limit as Central Sweden and
New England, U.S.

** Nylander (Syn., p. 206) records it as a central-European form, and de-
scribes the type as becoming rare northwards. Racemosa is a not uncommon

•ti'J

286 DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND.

VeiTucaria popularis, Flk.*

raaurn, WJihih.

^i

I

i

IP

var. striatula, Hffm.^

But these determinations app(!ar to me so little trustworthy, for
the reasons assigned in the Coot-notes, that I have not included
the Lichens in question in my Enumeration.

6. Ross and Bvown : Lichens of the East Side of Baffin's
Bay, lat. 70°. to 16'', and West Side of Possession Bay, lat. 73° ;
determined by the late Robert Brown, F.R.S., of the British
Museum ; published in the " Voyage of Discovery " by Sir John
Ross (London, 1819, 2nd. ed., vol. ii, p. 195). The same Lichens
are probably what are enumerated as Baffin's Bay Lichens in the
collected works of the said Robert Brown (vol. i, 1866, p. 178).
This list contains, however, no Lichens not enumerated in my
Catalogue on other .luthority.

There are, probably, other minor papers on Greenland Lichens
which I have not seen,;]: e.g., one by Nylander, "Ad Licheno-
graphiam Groenlandite qufcdtim Addenda" (Regensburg, "Flora,"
1827), describing certain collections of J. Vahl, inchiding, accord-
ing to Krempelhnber (" Geschichtc," p. 361), a record of three
new species.

In general terms. Lichen-collections in Greenland may be said
to have been made between lat. 60°, the extreme south, and about
7.')°, the latitude of Upernavik. Certain exceptional collections
have been made as high as lat. 82°, while the majority have come
from abcut the latitude of Disco, 70°.

Geologically Greenland appears to consist, for the most part
of — (1), granites ; (2), metamorphic schists, especially gneiss and
mica-slate ; (3), various traps — porphyritic or amygdaloidal ; and
(4), various superficial Tertiary strata, exhibiting at some points
a rich fossil flora.

There is in Greenland a gi'eat scarcity of arboreal vegetation —
a circumstance that, more than any other perhaps, determines the

British form. I collected it both in Norway and Faroe (" Northern Cla-
donioe," pp. 420-1, Journal of Liunean Society, vol. ix. Botany). It would
appear to be a much more northern Lichen than Nylander supposes, I have
given its northern distribution in a paper on the " Arctic Cladonisc " (p. 172,
Transactions of Botanical Society of Edinburgh, vol. ix. 1867).

* This is probably a synonym, but I do not find it in any of the licheno-
logical M'orks in my library.

f If this be V. striatula. Whlnb., it is recorded by Fries (Arct., p. 207) as
occurring in Finniark.

It thus appears, that, while in the case of certain of these Lichens (<'._v-, the
Alectoria and Neuropof/on) it is most unlikely they can occur in Greenland, in
no case is the determination such that it can be relied 'pon !

X Thus Krempelhuber refers (" Gesehichte," p. 361) to—

1. Collections by Breutel. 2. A list of Lichens, determined by Mr. John
Sadler, collected by liobert Brown, F.R.G.S., in North Greenland (Browne
and Women's Islands), and on its west coast (Hare Island). — Trans. Bot. Soc.
of Edin., vol. vii, 1862, p. 374. In a letter to me. Dr. Brown describes the
said Lichens as " only a few " collected, in 1860, "on the Duck Islands, off
" the north (?) coast of Greenland. . . . There was only a short list. . . .
" AVhen I landed that summer, which was rarely, the ground was covered
" with snow, and the only things which peeped out were a few Lichens on the
" rock-summits, all of which I . . . . collected." {See above, p. 253.—
Editor.)

i

GREENLAND.

trustworthy, for
ve not included

Side of Baffin's
II Bay, lat. 73° ;
of the British
*y " by Sir John
le same Lichens
7 Lichens in the
i, 1866, p. 178).
nnerated in my

jcnland Lichens
"Ad Licheno-
sburg, "Flora,"
ichiding, accord-
record of three

md may be said
jouth, and about
ional collections
ority have come

the most part

ially gneiss and

gdaloidal; and

at some points

1 vegetation —
etermines the

("Northern Cla-
■my). It would
upposes. I have
adonisc" (p. 172,

of the licheno-

(Arct., p. 267) as

jichcus (<;.</., the
in Greenland, in

led by Mr. Jolm
enland (Browne
-Trans. Bot. Soe.
n describes the
)uck Islands, off
a short list. . . .
nd was covered
iv Lichens on the
.bove, p. 253.—

DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND. 287

peculiarities of its Lichen-flora. There is a total absence of forests,
and, consequently, of the shade and moisture which they provide
and conserve. Hence there is a comparative absence of the Graphi-
flca;,* Stictff, CoUemata, Calicia, Usnea;, l{umaUn(P, ]*crtusari(P-j
Endocarpa, and generally of the corticolmis Lichens so common in
Central Europe and America. The want of forests can scarcely,
however, account for the paucity of Vcrrucarire, many at least of
which are saxicolous. Though, as a general ruloj trees are absent,
they occur, as they do in Iceland, Faroe, Shetland, Orkney, and the
Hel)rides — exceptionally, of stunted growth ; while there seems to
be no scarcity, at least at certain points on the western coast, of
woody bushes or shrubs. Thus the following trees or shrubs ^i^e
reportedf as occurring in Greenland : — Service-tree, Birch, Alder,
Willow, Junipcir, Crowberry, Whortleberry, and Black Crake-
berry.

While there is absence or scarcity of corticolous, fruticulose,
and foliaceous Lichens, there is an abundance of saxicolous forms,
referable mostly to the genera Lccidea, Lccanora, Squamaria^
Parmelia, and Umbiliearia ; of terricolous species, referable to the
genera Cladonia, Aleetoiia, Cctraria ; and of muscicolous species
and varieties, belonging to the genera Lecidea and Lecanora.
But the only prominent feature of the Lichen-flora of Greenland
recorded by travellers is the abundance of the Umbilicarits,
which in many localities give a character to the colouring of the
landscape. Thus the author of the " Edinburgh Cabinet Library "
volume on Greenland writes of the interior : — " The mountains
" are either entirely harCy or covered with a mourning veil of
" black Lichens " (p. 226). ..." The dark rocks are clothed

with numerous sombre-coloured Lichens, which grmo with great

rapidity beneath the snow "| (p. 380). Near Cape Lister, on
the east coast, he describes a " pavement of loose quartz or horn-
" blende stones, either naked or covered with black Lichens.
" These, with a few tufts of hardy plants, were all the vegetation
« visible " (p. 247.)

Some parts of the country are described as absolutely barren.
" Even the Greenlander, accustomed as he is to the horrors of
" nature, calls these spots places of desolation " (p. 226). Of
certain parts of the coast, Graah says (1837), " No sign of vcge-
" tation Avas observable on these walls of rock ... at many
" places ?iot even a bit of'moss " (pp. 47, 48) — " moss " being a com-
prehensive and vague term generally used by travellers to include
Lichens, especially of the fruticulose kinds {e.g., Cladonia^ Rama-
lina, Alectoria, Usnca, Cctraria). In works of travel I not unfre-
quently find rocky or desert districts of country described as
barren of vegetjition. For instance, Lord Haddo, speaking of the

«

* Artlionia trabiiwlla is the sole representative of this largo family.

f Edinburgh Cabinet Libriiry volume on " Iceland, Greenland, and the
"Faroe Islan<ls," 1840, p. 377, chapter on Botany.

X This assertion, if it is founded on fact, is of much interest in connexion
with the question of Lichen-growth as a test of age, a subject of which I have
treated shortlv in the Keport of the British Association for 1867, p. 88, and
more fully in'" The Farmer" of October 23, 1867.

I

M^

^mf^"

288 DR. LTXDSAV ON TflK LTCITRX-FLORA OP GREENLAND.

r.

I

■i!

rocky banks of the Nile in Egypt and Nnbin, says they were
" withont ft particle of vegetation"* (p. 173). This does not
expressly exclude Lichens, as the term " vegetation " is in such
cases used in reference to phoDnogamic vegetation only. But
elsewhere, in the same narrative, he specially excludes even
Lichens, e.g., where he describes " precipices and cliffs without
" the least particle of vegetation, or even a Lichen on the surface"
(p. 129) . . . " they have wo/ even « single Lichen" (j). 134)
— as if Lichens Avere an inferior growth to vegetation !

All such pictures are imaginative or poetical; they are not
scientific— not the assertion of naturalists with specially trained,
all-observant eyes. They contradict the observations both of
geologists and botanists, e.g., Sir Charles Lyell's observations on
the vegetation of the young lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, and my
own on that of the older lavas of Iceland.f All observation and
inquiry lead me to conclude that in no part of the world are rocks
of any age — that is, of more than a few months old — absolutely
devoid of lichenose vegetation. I have made careful observations
on the rapidity of Lichen-growth and development, and have
shown elsewhere | that a very few months or years, in different
localities, suffice for the appearance on fresh surfaces, whethei' of
lock or wood, of a luxuriant lichenose vegefation.§ Beaumont
therefore sings, with more truth than the travellers quoted —

" The bleakest rock upon the loneliest heath
Feels in its barrenness some touch of spring ;
And, in the April dew or beam of May,
Its moss and lichen freshen and revive."

Even in the desert of loose sand, or equally loose volcanic dust,
where there is not sufficient cohesion of particles to permit of
higher vegetable growth. Lichens are developed both on the said
sand or dust itself, and on all foreign substances of sufficient density
to permit of the adhesion of their thallus, or their apothccia ; for
they are much more frequently athalline than is generally sup-
posed. Thus they coat the bleached bones of the men and animals

* "Memoir of Lord Haddo," by Elliott. London, 1867.

•f " Northern Lichen-Flora," p. 403, Journal of Linnoiin Society, vol. ix.,
Botany.

X " To -what Extent is Lichen-Growth a Tost of Age ?"— Kcport of Brit.
Association, 1867, p. 88 ; "Farmer," October 23, 1867, p. .528.

§ An extract from "M'Clintock's Reminiscences of Arctic Ice-travel," in
the " Journal of the Koyul Dublin Society," vol. ii., p. 23.'5, bears on the
subject.

Sir F. L. M'Clintock, searching for Parry's oncampment at Point Nias,
recognised it " by the stones arranged for keeping down the sides of his tent,"
and others used as seats or pillows, and he found also that " the narrow-
" rimmed wheels of Sir. E. Parry's cart had left tracks, still wonderfully dis-
" tinct, in the soft, wet earth, thinly co.ated with moss ! In one place these
" cart-tracks were continuous for 30 yards. ... No Lichens had grown
" upon the upturned stones, and even their deep beds in the soil, Avhence
" Parry's men removed them, were generally distinct. . . . This astonishing
" freshness of traces, after a lapse of 33 years, compels us to assign a very con-
" siderable antiquity to the circles of stones and other Esquimaux traces, which
*' we find sparingly strewed along the southern shore- of the Parry Group,
" since they are always moss-covered, and often indistinct." — Editou.

/
■^j^"

REENLAND.

ys they were
Ills does not
1 " is in such
1 only. But
xcludes even
cliffs without
lithe surface"
!c»"(p. 134)
ii!

they are not
iially trained,
ions both of
(servations on
Etna, and my
iervation and
:)rld are rocks
lI — absolutely
observations
it, and havo
3, in different
!S, whether of
I Beaumont
uoted —

ith
•ing;

olcanic dust,
to permit of
\\ on the said
|eiont density

othecia; for
nerally sup-

and animals

iicty, vol. ix.,

bport of IJiit.

Ice-travel," in
1 bears on the

Point Nias,
of his tent,"
the narrow-

|»derfnlly dis-
place these

\s had grown
soil, whence

^ astonishing
a very con-

kraces, which

larry Group,

Vtou.

xm

I

nil. LINDSAY ON T!IK LICirFA'-Fr.OllA OF ORRRXLAXD. 280

that have fallen victims to the iiihuspltality of nature ; and all
manner of articles of metal, leather, or wood left by passing
travellers. Tennyson slugs, with perfect truthfulness of descrip-
tion—

" And there they lay till all their bones were bleached
And lichcncd into colour with the crags."

Some deserts on the Pacific coast of South America appear to
be as barren as any in Africa or Asia, if not so extensive. One
of them is described by Darwin, who was all day riding across it,
as " a complete and utter desert." But he goes on to say that
" the loose sand was strewed over with a Lichen, which lies on
" the surface quite wwattached.* This plant belongs to the
" genus Ciadojiia, and somewhat resembles the Reindeer Lichen. f
" In some parts it was in sufficient quantity to tinge the sand, as
" seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour. Further inland,
" during the whole ride of fourteen leagues, 1 saw only one other
" vegetable production, and that was a most minute yellow Lichen |
" growing on the bones of the dead Mules." §

The " Old Bushman," writing of Eiist Finmark, describes " long
" stretches of shingle and gravel without the least signs of vege-
" tation— wo^ even TAchcns" {^. 373). 1| Von Baor ^ says that
absence of vegetation is characteristic of the deserts of Nova
Zembla. Nevertheless, he goes on to remark, that while foliaceous
Lichens are scarce, every block of augitic porphyry is clothed with
crustaceous species, which occur also, though less frequently or
copiously, on rocks or stones of other miiioralogical character.
He specialises T^ecidca gcoyraphica and Stcreocaulon inischale
as prominent forms.

My Catalogue enumerates 2G8 species and varieties (that is,
those separately named by systcmatists) of Lichens in Greenland.
In 1840 the Greenland Lichens on record amounted only to o9,
and the difference between these figures shows the extent of the
contributions that have been made in the interval to its Lichen-
flora. I have elsewhere estimated the Lichens of Iceland at about
150.** But it must bo borne in mind that Icehnid is a very much
smaller country than Greenland — occupying only about 3 or 3^
degrees of latitude (from 63^° to 6()^°) — while its Lichens havo
certainly not been collected and studied to the same extent. 1
believe that the Lichens both of Greenland and Iceland are at
present under-estimated. I have no doubt that considerable

* A t^'pe of an MHattached desert or steppe Lichen is Lccanora esculcnfa,
Pall. ; described in my " Hist. Brit. Lichens," pp. 228, 211, 51.

f Probably a form of 67. rangiferina, which is kuown to occur in Brazil.

j Probably a form of Placodium eleyans or PL murorum.

§ " Naturalist's Voyage," cliap. xvi.

II '■■ Spring and Summer in Lapland."

"If ''Voyage to Nova Zembla :" Bulletin Scientifiquo de I'Acad. Impor. d's
Sciences do St.-Petorsbourg.

>"* " Northern Lichen-Fiora," pp. 390-1.

3G122. • -p

m

290 1)1?. LINDSAY ON THE LICIIKN-FLORA OF OREENLAND.

additions remniii to be made to the Lichen-flora of both countries.
That of Grecnhind cannot bo set down at less than 300, and it will
probably considerably exceed this. There arc few special col-
lections of Lichens made in Greenland that do not contain new
forms. Thus, Th. Fries, Nylander, and myself have detected
novelties in the collections respectively snbniittcd to our examina-
tion— a circumstance that shows what mij^ht be achieved by the
visit of iin expi'rienced Lichen-collector even to Greeidand. As
re<j;ards the <i;eo<>rapliical distribution of Greenland Lichens, it is
suilicieut hero to refer to tliose —

1. That arc conlined to Greenland.

3.
4.

5>

»

the Arctic regions.

common to Britain.

„ the European Alps.

Those that are confined to Greenland, or that may moanwhilo be
held as so restricted in their distribution, arc the m^w species or
varieties described by Fries, Nylander, or myself.* I hiivo UiiU'.
doubt, however, that the majority at least of these Lichens will
sooner or later be found in other countries — Arctic or more
southern.

The purely or generally Arctic species arc very few, viz. : —

Dactylinu arctlca. Lecidea tipilota, var. polar'm,

UsHca me/(hK(iUha. L, auriculata.

]*i/renupsis iKonatopia. L. anucniaca, var. ntclalcucu.

A/cctoiia Jnbata, xav. nitidiUa. h. pallida,

Peltidca scahrosa. L. insignisy var. gcojdtild.

UmhiVwaria Pennsylvaniva. /<. scahrosa, var. cincrusccus.

]*annaria Icpidioto, var. tristis. L. urccolata, and vai'. dvnii'

J*. Jlookvri, var. macrior. nuta.

Squa nutria chrysoleuca, var. L. coronata.

JeracissDita.
S. mclauaspis, var. ulphoplaca,
S. gcopkila.
Lecanoru tartarca, vars. gran-

diiiosa and tliclcphoroidcs.
L, varia, \ ar. leucococca.
L, atro-sulphurca.
L. fenuginea, vars. cinnamo*

L. cumiilata.

L. castanea.

L. Tornwctisis.

L. subfiiscula.

Arthonia trahinella.

Vcrrucariu mauru^ var. arac-

tinu.
V, ceuthocarpa.

mea and hypnophila.

But some of these Lichens occur in countries or districts south
of the Arctic Circle. Thus U. melaxantha occurs in Iceland
(according to Th. Fries, Arct., p. 25, and Carroll in Seemann's
" Journal of Botany," vol. v, p. 109). It occurs also very fre-
quently in the southern hemisphere ; in Patagonia and its islands,
on the Andes, in New Zealand and Tasmania, and on the Antarctic
islands. In the Arctic regions it is invariably sterile, while in the
Antarctic it is often fertile. P. lucmatopis I have found in

* Tlie inic species or varieties fouud by myself iu Dr. Brown's collectious
are described iu my " Observatious on Greenland Licbeus!."

I

^ .rf-^VWT-

KEENLAND.

Dli. LINDSAY ON THE LICIIEX-KLOUA OF UIJEENLAXI). 291

)oth countries.
OO, and it will
V special col-
; contuin new
liiive detected
our exiuuina-
liieved by the
eenluud. As
Lichens, it is

s.

ps.

meanwhile 1)C
'AV species or
I liave lil,(l(>
Liclicns -will
Jlic or more

/, viz. : —
ar. polar is.

. mclakma.

COJ)/lil<l.

'inc'fasccHs.
var. (k'nii-

J var. amc-

ricts south
in Iceland
Seemann's

very fre-
its islands,
e Antarctic
hile in the

found iu

-'Wi

Iceland * nearly as far as south as hit. 64°. U. l*cnnsf/lvanica
occurs in the United States as far south, at least, as hit. 4(P. L.
Tornteensis descends below the Arctic Circle, but apparently not
many miles. L. suhfusvtilu ai)pears to be what Nylander nanunl
in my Herbarium L. havilllt'ct'd, var. suhfnsvuta. Jt occurs in
Iceland.f L. coronatft {Ithexojthiair of Tli. Fries, Arct., p. 70o)
appears to be the Lvcidcd rhcxohlcphani, Nyl. (Scand., 240,
and Carroll, 290). If so, it occurs in Scotland, on Ben Laweis,
according to Jones.

Deducting the species that arc mainly or entirely confined in
their distribution either to Greenland or to Arctic countries, the
majority at least of the remainder occur on the Scandinavian Alps,
and many of them on the Alps of Scotland and Switzerland, or
generally on those of continental Europe ; while a considerable
numljer are common lintisk forms. Some Lichens, which are
only alpine in Britain (Scotland), occur, as might be expected, at
low elevations, and even on or near the sea-level, in Green-
land (<".,</., ThamnoUa vermiculans, which is abundant in the
Jakobshavn district, on or about the coast).

The iiou-British species are the folloAving : —

Alectoria di\'ergeus.

Lecanora Jungermanni

Cladonia carneola.

turfacea.

cyanipes.

nimbosa.

Cetraria odontella.

mniaraja.

Nephroma arcticum.

Lecidca alpestris.

papyraceum.

aghea.

Parmelia centrifuga.

elata.

Umbilicaria anthracina.

gerainata.

hirsuta.

obscurata.

spodochroa.

fuscescens.

Squamaria chrysoleuca.

cuprea.

straminea.

cinnabarina.

Lecanora chlorophoua.

leucora^a.

epanora.

squalida.

oreiua.

Endocarpon dtedaleum.

peliscypha.

Verrucaria mucosa.

molybdina.

clopima.

A comparison of the Greenland Lichen-flora with that of Arctic
America (assuming Leighton's Catalogue of Sir John Richard-
son's collections in 1826 1 to be representative of the Arctic-
American Lichen-flora), shows that there exists a considerable
difference in the elements of Avhich they are respectively made
up. There are certain genera and species in Arctic America
that do not occur in Greenland, while there are in Greenland
at least many species that do not occur iu Arctic America. The

t 'J

sj collections

* "Northern Lichen-Flora," p. 370. f Ibid., p. 372.

J Appiirently during Friinklin's Second LnndExpeditiou, 1825-6. — Journal
of Liuueuu Society, vol. ix, Uotany, p. 184.

T 2

w

IJ

a

f

1

8 'i

292 D15. LINDSAY ON THE LICIIKN-Fl.OUA OF (IKKKNLAND.

first vnto^ory includes T/ieliCiis that are nion^ pc^ciiliiuly Amcnran ;
the socoiul those wliieh are chanictorlstically Seandinacian.*

In Arctic America tliere arc four genera that arc; unrepresented
in Greenhind, viz., Odontotrcma, Gi/rostomum, Xi/loyraphUf and
Graphis ; and the following species : —

Nostoc communcf 8(iuamaria amhigua.

Chidonia cornuta ; cariosa ; Lecanora fulvo-lutea.

pityrea.
Usnea barbata ; lacunosa.
liamtdina calicaris.
Evcrnia Prunastri.
Nephromium tonientosuni.
I'hitysma llichardsoni ; lacu-

nosum.
Sticta hcrbacea.
Physcia ciliaris ; candelaria.
Unibilicaria pustulata ; Muli-

lenber"fii.

Pertusaria leioplaca.

Lecidca coarctata ; vesicularis;

tessellata ; chalybeia ; pro-

trusa ; parasitica.
Vcrrucaria Frankliniana ; ni-

grescens ; glabrata.
C)ciontotrenia llichardsoni.
Gyrostomum urceolatum.
Xylographa Hexella.
Graphis serpentina.
Arthonia intuniescens.

There is, however, a much larger number of Lichens l)c]onging
to the Greenhind llora, and for the most part to that of Scandi-
navia, that do not occur in Arctic America. These include,
besides the new forms found in Brown's Collection, the follow-
ing species enumerated in the present Catalogue of Greenland
Lichens : —

Lecidea — ail except geogra-

phica; sanguinco-atra ; dis-

ciformis; iilro-brunnea; tur-

gidula ; sabuletoruni.
Lecanora — all save vitellina ;

Ephebe — all.
Endocarpon — all.
Sticta — all.
Urceolaria — all.
Sphan'ophoron — all.

smaragdula

; verrucosa,
save physodci

cerina ; cinerea; })arella; Pyrenopsis — all.
snbfusca ; glaucoma; oreina; Arthonia ti'abinella.
turfacea ; varia ; bryontha ; Pannaria lepidiota ; Ilookeri.

Cetraria aculeata ; odontella.
Cladonia bellidiilora ; digitata ;
carncola ; cyanipes ; verti-
cillata ; cervicornis.
Collema flaccidum ; melainum ;

lacerum.
Usnea nielaxautha.
Alectoria Thulensis.
feolorina crocea.
Peltidea scabrosa.
Nephroma arcticum.

Parmelia — all

saxatilis ; olivacea ; lanata ;
stygia. _

Umbilicaria — all except vellea;
cylindrica ; erosa.

Squamaria — all save elegans ;
chrysoleuca ; saxicola.

Stereocaulon — all save tonien-
tosuni.

Vcrrucaria — all except epider-
midis.

* So l";ir as we may venture to judge from the present imperfect data, it
would appear that the affinities of llie (jiecnhmd Licheii-llora are fjreater
towards that of Scandinavia, and generally of Europe, than to that of
Am erica.

t Tliis may l»e inehided in lists of (Jreenland Alytr. Berkeley (iu
•'Treasury of Botany ") places Nustuc, and "Falling stars," among Alt/a.

ssa

JIJKKXLANI).

DR. LINDSAY ON TIIK T,ICIIRN-FU>KA OF OKKKNLANIX 203

ly Amcriran ;
Ihmvian.*
ijiiropresented
lof/mjthUf aiul

4 tea.

[ica.

- ; vesicularis;

iilybeia ; pro-

ica.

kliniana ; ni-

)rata.

linrdsoni.

oolatiim.

Ua.

la.

cens.

;ns belonjifinff
it of Scandi-
licso include,
, the foUow-
>f Greenland

; Hookeii.

odontella.

a; digitata ;

ipes ; veiti-

iiis.

; melainum ;

i.

1.

jrfect data, it

are ffreater

I to that of

Jerkclcy (in
oiig- Alt/ee.

The difforoiioo bchvoen the ClrccnliiiKl and Arclic-Aincj'M'aii
l.ichen-floras is obvious from a coinparisou td" (he summary
ai)pended to my Catalogue of the former with Leigh Ion's similar
summary of the latter (p. 18.')). lint eomparisons l)ased on such
tables alone arc most fallaeious, iiuisnnu'h as they are drawn up
on very different principles. Leighton, for instance, gives Jjo
genera, while I give only 2S ; the number of species and varieties
in Greenland being 2fi8, and in Arctic America 2();}. My genera
are fewer, however, mainly l)ecause 1 do not split up such genera
as Collcma, Chulonin^ Usiira, Afccforio, Cctrnria, XcplironKt,
Parmelia,, Physcia^ S<iii(nnari(i, J^cvanora, Lvvidcd, Kiidovarfum^
and Vrrrucarui into the host of sub-genera into which they have
been divided of late years 1)y Continental Lichenologists. Another
class of discrepancies necessarily arises from the different i)osition
given to certain anomalous species, such as Lcvauora or Prrfii'
.sarin hryontlut, ThamnolUi or Cladomti rrrn)'K'nl<(ns, Endovorpoii
viride or Normnndina viridis. l\ichardson's Lichens, according
to Leighton, amount to 163 ()). 184) — a number which does not
correspond with the total given in his table or sumnuiry (p. 18.5).
But he names or numbers a series of trivial or inconstant forms
or conditions, which in the hands of some other lichenologists—
certainly in mine — would not receive se[)arate nomenclature or
enumeration.* Treated in a similar Avay, the number of species
and varieties given in the following Catalogue of Greenhmd
Lichens Avould be largely increased, for I have neitlier named nor
numbered the " various forms " or " several forms " of many
variable species {c.r/.) of the genera Cladonia, Parmclia, Pliysvia,
LccdnorUy and Lcvidca.

Leighton's enumeration, however, is very far from giving an
adequate idea of the Liclien-flora of tlie vast area known as Arctic
America. Its deficiencies may be judged of l)y tlio number of
species mentioned in other works or herbaria as Arctic-American
Lichens that are not enumerated by Leighton. Thus Tuckerman
in his " Synopsis," published in 1848, records the following,
Avliich do not occur in Leighton's list: —

Trachylia tigillaris. Eamalina polymorpha.

Caliciumlenticulare, yic/<,,-sub- Dufourea ramulosa, JFooh.

tile, Pcrs. ; pha>oeephalum, Cetraria odontella ; aculeata.

T. S)- B. Solorina crocea.

Cladonia alcieornis ; earneola ; Nei)hromium arcticum ; resu-

turgida, Jfjf'))t. pinatum, Ach.

Sphairophoron fragile ; globi- Parmelia tristis ; Fahlunensis ;

ferum, L. ; compressum,

Ach.
Alectoria ochroleuca and var.

rigida ; jubata, var. bicolor ;

implexa, Fr.

caperata ; conspersa; diver-
sicolor, Ach.
Physeia parietina, varn. poly-

carpa,
Dnf.

Fr., and laciniosa,

* His elaboration of tlie genus Cladonia may lie taken as an illustration,
and compared witli my rtniarks on that genus in my "Arctic Cladouiie,"
Trans. Bot. Soc. of Edin., vol. ix, p. 170.

fT

^.'■r

294 DU. MNHSAY ON TflK IJCIIKN-ILORA OF OUEENLAND.

Piinnniia liypnonim ; iiipto-

phyllii, Fi\
Sqiiiiinaiia stinminoa ; miisco-

I'um.
Lecanoia aira; tartarca ; pal-

k'sccn-^, i'V. ; oculiilii; hadia;

vonlosa; cxif;ua ; niiraiUiaca;

fuMco-lutca, //W^ <3' Dirks.
irrcroluiia Hc'ru[»o,';a.
Tlu'lotiTina Icpadinum.

iinlis ; (locolomns, Fr. ; lu-

riila, Fr.
Urnhilicarin proboscidca ; liy-

pcrborca ; Inrsuta ; anllira-

ciiiii, vfir. roticiilatii, Svh.
Portusaria fagiiioa.
Eudocarpon iiiiniatinn ; hctc-

V Irons.
Verriicaria punctiformis, 7V/*.s'.

(= r<(r. of opidennidis).

Lcci<lca parasoma ; I'lisco-alm ; Pyicnotlioa loucoccphala, var.

conlluciis ; Inpicida ; vario- lecidiua, Fr. (= Lccidca

gata, Fr. ; riviilosa, Fr. ; nbictinn, Ach.)
galbula ; Candida, Ach. ; vcr-

Nylander, in his ** Enumeration pfdneralo des Lichons,"* pub-
lislic<l in 1858, mentions in addition, —

Siphula ccratitos.

Platysma soptontrionalc, Nyl.

PhyHcia nquila, Fr., var, com-

pacta, Nyl.
Umbilicaria arctica.

Lecanora frnstulosa, var. sub-
ventosa, Nyl. ; subsophodcs,
Nyl.

Pertusaiia concrota, Nyl.

Lecidea cinnabarina.

In tho Mcuzicsian Herbarium (Edinburgh) I found the follow-
ing— hibcUed ns collected by Richardson, but not included in
Leighton's list : —

Aleetoria ochrolenca (type). Umbilicaria hyperliorca.
Parmelia conspcrsa. Lecidea fusco-lutca, Dicks.

Peltidea scutata.

While that of Kew contains the following — also collected by Sir
John — but in 1848-9, and not mentioned by Leightou : —

Parmelia saxatilis,va/*. furfuracea. Umbilicaria proboscidca.

Peltidea scutata. Placodium murorum.

Physcia aquila, var. compacta ; Lecanora polytropa.

parietina (type). Lecidea anomala.

These omissions amount to 84 species and varieties, which,
added to Leighton's totals — 163 or 203 — give an aggregate of 247
or 287 ; the mean of the two estimates being 267 — a number that
may be said to equal the aggregate Greenland Lichen-flora — 268.
Both Ny lander and Leighton found new species in llie Arctic-
American Lichon-collectious which they examined. WJiat is
known as Arctic America comprises a very large area of country,
much of it wooded ; and there can be no doubt, I think, that if
its Lichens had been collected and studied with the same care as
those of Greenland or Spitzbergen, its Lichen-flora -w^ould have

* "Mcmoires tie la Sociotd Imperiale ilcs Scieuces Naturelles de Cher-
bourg," vol. V, 1857, p. 85.

9«9

IJEKNLANO.
in^^, Ft'.; lu-

oscitlca ; liy-

lutu; unllini-

iliitii, Sch.

II.

iutum ; hcte-

form is, ]*vrs.
lormidis).
ct'pluilu, var,
(= Lecidcu

lions,"* puh-

sa, var. suh-
subsophoclcs,

n, Nyl.

in.

J the follow-
inchuled in

•borcft.
, Dicks.

Ctcd by Sir

I : —

>.scidoa.

im.

n.

i'?s, which,
%i\\c of 247
iinbcr tiuit
lora — 268.
1(3 Arctic-
What is
f country,
ik, that if
ne care as
ould liave

's de Cber-

r>R. LINDSAY OX TITK LICnEN-FLORA OF OREKNLANP. 295

attained a much hiprhor nnmoHcnl position than that of either of
these countries.*

^o proper comparison, however, can 1)C made between Green-
land and Arctic America as re<;nitis tlieir lichenose vepictntion.
The area of Uichnrdson's colleclions — cataloj^ucd by Lcijj;hton —
lies betw(>eu 47 and ()7 N. lal., while, that of the viirions (Ireoi-
land collections reaches from ()()', I he Hoiithmost point of Cireenlnnd,
as hi^h as S2^ N. hit. Thouiih e:\lled "Arctic," no part of tho
so-called Arctic America f of L(>i;:chton's catjilopfuo lies within
the Arctic Circle ;:j; while of e(|ual importance, with mere httitu-
dinal dilfercncc, is the abundance ol" forests in America, and their
absence in Greeidand, — a eircumstaneo that has a similar intlu-
ence in determining^ the ditference 1)ctween the Lichen-lloras of
Iceland and Scandinavia. § lu other Avords, America and Scun-
diimvia possess a large and varied Lichen-flora of rortivolonH ||
species, which cannot be looked ibr in Greenland or Iceland.
This marked dilVercnce in the arboreal vegetation of the two
countries renders it unnecessary to contrast the Lichen-flora of
Greenland with that of Scandinavia.

It is, however, both legitimate and interesting to institute a
comparison l)ctwccn the Lichen-floras' of Greenland and Spitz-
bergen. The latter island is equally devoid of wood ; it extends
nearly as far to tho north as Greenland (76° to 80° N. hit.) ; and
its Lichens have been examined and catalogued ]>y tho same
distinguished Swedish botanist, Fries the younger, so that uni-
formity of nomenclature and classification is secured. The
Lichens of Spitzbergcn and its islets amount, according to Fries'
" Lichcncs Spitsbergenscs," to 266, — that is, about the same as
those of Greenland. Considering the very much smaller area of
Spitzbergcn, this is a largo total ; but, on the other hand, that
Arctic ishind is so easily accessible from Norway that it has been
repeatedly visited by Scandinavian botanists specially Avith a
view to plant-collection. Its Lichen-flora has thus been much
more fully studied than that of Greenland.

Prior to the publication of the "Lichcncs Spitsbergonses," our
knowledge of the Lichen-flora of Spitzbergcn consisted mainly of
tho detcnninatious by Sir William Hooker^lt and Robert lirown '**
(of the British Museum) of the few Lichens collected by Sir

* The additions tlint ytt remain to be made Mill occur, probably, in the
{iroup of microscopic siixicolous Lvcidecc and Lccanora, -which require for
their collection, as avcU as examination and description, the eyes and the
siDccial knowlediJte of a skilled Lichenologist.

f Sec. definition of the term arctic, in the author's " Arctic Cladonisc."

j Arctic America includes also -what was, till lately, knoAvn as liussian
America ; aiul its Lichen-flora ought to embrace the species collected by Dr.
Seemann during Beech(;}''s Voyage in 1848 between Norton and Kotzbne
Sounds.

§ "Northern Lichen-Flora," p. 402.

II It will be observed that llichardson's collections •were, in pfrcat measure, of
corticolous forms.

^ In the Appendix to "Parry's Fourth Voyage," 1827.

** In the Appendix to Scoresby's " Arctic Eegions," vol. i, p. 75 ; and also
in Robert Brown's collected works, edited by Bennett, 1866, vol. i, p. 181.

,-.f^^

2DG DR. LINDSAY ON TIIK LICHEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND.

Edwnrd Vnvvy nnd Dr. Scoresby. Parry's collection was made,
jiliparcntly, chiefly ou the Spitzbergon islets, viz. : —

N. Lilt. N. Lat.

Low Island - - 80° 20' Little Table Island - 80° 48'
Walden Island - 80'' 38' Koss' Islet - - 80^ 49'

ns well as in Hechi Cove, which is, I presume, on the main
island. I^n route he also made collections * at Ilammeri'est, near
the North Cape of Norway, about 71° N. lat. Scoresby's col-
lection, again, appears to have been made on the main island, in
King's Bay or about Mitre Cape. The determinations of Hooker
and Brown were, doubtless, made Avithout microscopical exami-
Ttation; hence their lists of Spitzbergen Lichens are no exception
to the rule, that all determinations founded exclusively on ex-
tei'nal non-microscopical characters include many forms that
cannot be identified with modern species. The following illus-
trations will show the difficulty connected with synonymy in the
catalogues of Hooker and Brown.f

Gyrophoi'ci deusta, Ach., may be either Umbilicaria flocculosa,

TTffm, ; or U. arctica ; or U. proboscidea, — to which both

Leighton and Th. Fries refer it, and which is a Greenland

species.

G. tcssellata, AcJi., is U. anthracina, Sch., var. reticulata, Sch.,

according to Fries.
G. hirsuta does not occur in Spitzbergen, according to Th.
Fries (p. ,53), and is therefore an error in detennination.
He suggests that the plant may be a form of U. vellea.
Chtdonia alcicornis is a similar error for similar reasons (Tli.
Fries, p. 53). Fries suggests that the plant was ])erhaps CI.
macrophylla.
Stcrcocaulon paschalc, Fries suggests, that was perhaps really

form of S. tomentosum (j)p. 27 and o3).J
Spli(rrnplioron fragile. He expresses a similar doubt Ikmc,
suggesting that it may belong to coralloidcs. I hold such
doubts and distinctions, however, to be unnecessarily nice,
inasmuch as I see no good ground for separating the dif-
ferent forms of Sphcrrophoron ov Stcrcocanlon under sop;\ni(o
species.
ParmcUa stygia, he suggests (p. 12), may belong ralher to his
alpicola. I have seen no authentic specimen of his (dpicoht ;
but from the circumstance of his recording its occurrence in
Scotland, it appears to me that Nylander is probably correct
in considering alpicola a mere form of stijgia.
Nephroma polaris, Ach. ; without fruit : Hammerfesi ; is pro-
bably N. arcticum, L.
Alcctoria OQ\\vo\Q\\(tu. occurs only as var. rigida, and A. jubala

only as var. chalybeiformis {Th. Fries), \

•

* Mentioned in his First, Second, and Third, as well as Fourth Voviiges.

t Compare also " L. Spitsber^.," p. 53, " Species ab auctoribiH ulhitfc,
" verisiniiliter omnino exchidenda;."

X ^. dcnudaiuin, Flk., ocours in Kew Herb., labelled " Koss' Islet (Parry)."

§ Usnea mi.luxantha, labelled ** Spitzbergen, Sabine and Scorcsby," occurs
in Kew Herb.

.1

■mnp

EENLAND.

DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICllEN-rLORA OF GREENLAND. 297

I was made,

N. Lat.

■ 80° 48'

■ 80^ 49'
I the main
icri'est, near
i-esby's col-
n island, in
i of Hooker
ical exanii-
o exception
rely on ex-
fornis tliiit
wing illus-
ymy in the

flocculosji,

vhich l)otIi

Greenland

idata, Sc/i.,

ing to Th.
n-mination.
?llcn.

asons (Th.
)erhaps CI.

laps really

onht Ikm'o,
hold sueh
>ari]y nicc^,
g the dii-
:'!• .separate

ther to his
1 alplcoiit ;
iri-enee in
ily eorrcL't

1 ; is pro-

A.. jubala

V()v;i,^CS.
b.i.s iillatcc,

I: (Parry)."
'y," occius

M

Isidinm oculatum * is doubtless Lecanoru oculata.

Parmelia rcenrva, y]r//. = P. ineurva, Pcrs.

Endocarpoii sinopieum, /f7i/y<6. = Leeanora smaragdula, var,

Lecidea atro-virens, Ach.=L. gcographica.

Corniculaiia spadicea, ^467<. = Cetraria aeuleata.

There is less or no dlffienlly as to the identillcation of the
remainder of the Lichens enumerated by Hooker or IJrown, Avhich
are the followingf : —

' i6

Cladonia rangiferina ; pyxi-
data; gracilis; cornncopioi-
des ; furcata ; bellidiflora.

Citiaria nivalis ; Islandiea ;
cucullata. \

Spharoplioron eoralloides.

Pcltidea canina ; aphthosa.

Thamnoliu vermicularis.

l^armcl'ut saxatilis, var. om-

phalodes ; lanata.§
UinhUlc'jvia proboscidea ; ||

erosa.^[
PlacocluDii elegans ; murorum.
Lccdiioru tartarea.**"
Snlorina crocea.
Alectoria diverucns.

The whole number of species and varieties enumerated by
Hooker and Brown is only 37, Avhile the Spitzbergen Lichens
catalogued by Fries amount to 266, — the v(uy great dill'erenee
being a measure of the progress that has been made in the colk'ction
and study of the Lichens of that islrtnd since the voyages of Tarry
and Scoresby. All English lists of Spitzbergen Lichens are
included in the *' Lich. Spitsbergenses " of Fries, which is — and is
likely long to remain — a standard work on the Lichens of that
island.

Contrasting his list with the Catalogue which follows of
Greenland Lichens, it is at once obvious that — as in the case of

* The specimen in tlie Kew Herb., labelled " Wiiklen Ishuid (Parry),"
appears to nie, however, to be referable to Lecanoru turtctrca.

f I have had the opportunity of examining several of them for my.self in
the Kew Herb.

X C . juniperina occurs in the Kew Herb., labelled " Arctic Islets (Parry)."

§ P. caperata, in abundant fruit, labelled " Spitzbergen, Ross," occurs in
the Kew Herb. But I am not aware of Ro.'^s having visited Spitzbergen.
Physcia pin-icthia (sub noni., condclariu), labelled " Ross' Islet (Parry),"
occurs in Kew Herb.

I! U. hi/pvrborca occurs in Kew Herb., labelled " Walden Island (Parry) ;"
and U. vellea, labelled '• Ross' Islet (Parry)." What is labelled in the same
Herb. U. proboscidea, " Parry's Voyige to the North Pole," appears to me
to belong to cijlindrica. In the same Herb. U. hyperborea oeeurs, labelled
" Spitzbergen, Parry, Voyage to the North Pole " (partly sub noni., Gyro-
phora tessellata, partly G. vrllca).

^ It does not appear which species of " v(>ry large Tripe de Roche" it is
that is or are described by Parry as very abundant on rocks on tlie Eorth side
of Walden Island, and on the sides of Little Table Island. In his '■ Narra-
tive " (1829, pp. 6.5, (J7, and 17o) he refers to the abundance on Walden Is-
land of Umbilicaria proboscidea, Cladonia ranijiferinu, and Alcctvria diver(/ens,
while the " Tripe de Roche " was more luxuriant than he luul ever seen it
elsewhere. Scoresby, too, describes the rocks of Spitzbergen as " covered
" with a mourning veil of black Lichens " (consisting apparently of three
species of Umbilicaria ; Parmelia styijiu; and Alectoria chalybvi/'ormis).

** Var. frigida (sub nom. Upsalicnsis) occurs in the Kew Herb., hibelled

Spitzbergen, 1773, C. J. Phipps."

■ * 5

•II

298 DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND.

Arctic America — there is n, large proportion of species in the one
country that does not occur in the other.* It must suffice, as an
iUustration, to enumerate those which — occurring in Spitzbergcn—
have not hitherto been found in Greenland. This category in-
cludes, in the first place, no less than 25 II 'W species or varieties
found for the first linio in Spit/bcjj'gen, and described by Fries,
viz. : —

Toninia conjungcns.
Bilimhia microcarpa.
Bidtoj'bia globula, Flh,, rar,

polytrichina ; tuberculosa ;

Stereocaulorum.

Bncflid vilis ; urceolata ; con-

vexa.
Art/i07iia exec t^nca.
Poli/blastla Gothiea.
Vcrrii carta rejecta ; «!xtreni;i.

Lccidea polycarpa, Korb.^ var. Arthopyrenia consj^urcans.
clavigera ; ramulosa ; pullu- Sticla linita, Ach.y var, com-

lans; sulphurella ; impavida ;
associata.
Spo7'astatia tenuirimata ;

Spitsbergensis ; cincrea,

Sch., var, ha]>loearpa.

plicata.

Lccanora coriacea ; crysibe,
Ach.^ var, personata.

Deducting these ncAv species and varieties, there still remains
the large number of 67 species and varieties not as yet found in
Greenland, viz. : —

Dnfourea murieata, Lanr.

Sticta linita, Ach,

Physcia parietina, var, aureola, Ach,

Peltideu malacea, Ach, ; polydactyla, Jlffm,

Pannaria. microphylla, Sio. ; arctophila, Th, Fr.

Lrcothcciuni aspercllum, Whinh.

Arctomia delicatula, Th. Fr,

Placodinm albescens, Ilffm.

Lccanora glaucocarpa, Whhih. ; subsimilis (suh Gyalolechia),
Th, Fr. ; aipospila, Wldiib. ; gibbosa, Ach,, and var, squamata,
Ach. ; mastrucata, Whlnb. ; cinereo-rufescens, Ach., var,
alpina, Smrf. ; rhodopis, Snnf,, var. melanopis, Snirf. ;
flavida, llcpp; Dicksoni, Ach.; pyracea, Ach.; oligospora,
Rehm.

Tlynicndia, Prevostii, Fr.

Lccidea {snh Toninin) fusispora, Ilcpp ; {stib Bacidia) viri-
descens, Mass. ; venusta, FIcpp ; {sub Bilinibia) syneomista,
Flk. ; (sub Bialorina) fi'audans, TTclIb.; {snb Biatora) mis-
cella, Smrf. ; collodoa, Th. Fr. ; Lnlensis, JTcUb. ; curvoscens,
i\f/fdd. ; rupestris, Scop.; terricola, Anzi. ; {sub Lccidea)
rba!tica, Jfcpp ; conflnens, IFcb, ; tcnebrosa. Fir.; {sub
Sporastatia) Morio, liam., r. coracina, Smrf. ; cinerca, Sch. ;
privigna, Ach. ; {sub IWullia) punctata, F/h. ; ca3rulco-all)a,

* Some of the (Icficioncics of the Si)itzl)ergon flora are remarkable, c.;/.,
Parmclia sa.vdtilis, p/ii/sodcs, olivacca, Fahlunr.vHia ; C/admiia fiiraita ;
Lccduora <)l(iuroni(i, cincrt'ii ; Urccolarid sen/puna ; Lccidea ^''usco-atr a, icina-
dophila ; Eiidocurpon mhiiatum.

/

REENLAND.

DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN- FLORA OP GREENLAND. 299

ies in the ono
suffice, as an
jpitzbergcn-^
! category in-
! or varieties
bed by Fries,

ceolata; coii-

ca.
ioa.

a ; {'xU'onvd.
spurcaiis.
i., vff)'. corn-
ea ; crysibe,
mata.

still remains
yet found iu

ryalolechia),
sqnamata,
Ac/i., rav.
Snu'f. ;
oligospora,

lis.

cidia) viri-
yiicomistn,

tora) mis-

curveseens,

Lecidea)

^"". ; {sul)

rcii, Sr/i. ;
ruloo-alba,

irkahlo, c.tj.,
a f areata ;
>-(ilr((, icma-

Krenip.; Rittokensis, Hcllb. ; coracina, Hffm.i coniops,

Whhib.
Arthonin fusca, Mass. ; elemens, Tnl.
Endomrpon (.sv//> Dermatoearpon) cinereum, Pcrs. ; pulvinalum,

77/. Fr.

Vcrnuaria {suh Microglfeiiii) spliinctrinoides, Xyh ; {sxh
Folyblusfui) thcleodes, l^nirf.^ and v. Scban-eriana, .M(is,s. ;
Helvetica, Th. Fr.; hyper])orea, Th. Fr. ; bryopbila, Lunnr.:
gelatinosa, Ach. ; sepulta, Mass.; {sub Tbelidiiim) pyreuo-
pborum, Ach.; {sub Verrucaria) margacea, H'hbib. ; stri.itula
PVIdnb.; rnpestris, Schrad., v. integra, JV^t/l.; {snb Eiido
coccus) gemmiforn, Taj/l.

Co//^w« pulposum, Bernh.; ceranoidcs, Borr.; scotinum, Avh.

Lcriophysma Finmarkica, Th. Fr,

Pt/renopsis granatina, Sm?'f.

{several, moreover, of the genera in the foregoing'; list arc not
represented iu Greenland, e.g., Arctomia, Lccothcv'mm, JTymcvvl'ui,
SporostatiUy Polyblastia, Bacidia, Microglfcna, Thclidhan,
Leciophysma.

Did the necessary data exist, it woukl be interesting to compare
the Lichen-flora of Greenland with that of the Arctic- America n
Islands — those large islands north of the American Continent,
intervening between Greenland and what has hitherto been known
as Russian America. But, as regards these islands, the necessary
data do not exist. Almost all wc knoAV of their Lichen-flora
consists of the determination by Robert Brown (of the British
Museum) of the collections of Parry during his First Voyage * on
Melville Island, f most of which Lichens are now in the Kew
Herbarium, where I have examined them. In that herbarium
I found, labelled " Melville Island (Parry) "—

Alcctoina bicolor ; ochroleuca ; Usnea melaxantha.
divergens. Dactylina arctica.

Cetraria aculeata. Pertusaria glomerata.

There are a few other Lichens, foiiaccous or fruticulose, wliich
m((g have been collected on that or other of the Arctic- American
Islands ; but the labels are so vague in their reference to localities,
that the species to which they relate cannot be safely quoted in
the [)resent categorj''. Thus ono specimen {Umbilicaria Iiyprr-
borca) is labelled, "North-West Passage" (Parry); anotlier,
" Arctic Islets " ; a third, " Parry's Voyage to the North Polo " ;
others, "North Polo," or "North-Polar Expedition." Such
descriptions too frecpiently constitute a// the information con-
veyed by the labels attached to Parry's Arctic Lichen-collections

■' Iu the Appendix to the First Voyap:o, 1819-20, and reprinted in Brown's
ijotanical works, vol. i (18G0), p. ^.jO.

t There arc proLably otlier citations, c.ij., in tlie List of Dr. Sutherland's
collections iu the "Lady Franklin" (Captain renny), given hy Churchill
llal)ington in " Hooker's Journal of Botany," iv. 27G, to wliich 1 have
not at present .iccess. The only quotation in my note-book is Lecanora
ritellina, on bone used as an implement by the Esquimo on Cornwallis Island.

3 Li

;J0() ni;. T-INPSAV ON THE rJCnEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND.

oonfjiincd in llic Kow llorbanuiii. 1 liavo little doubt lliat thvy
Ycl'cr iniiinly, if no! <>x('lnsivoly, to llic Sjiitzhcrgoi group of islets
liuMif ioMcd oil p.'iLTO 2<Sr).

'^riickcfm.'iii, ill his " Synopsis," eiiunieratos as Melville Island
Liclioiis, rollowini!; lirown's delerniinalion ol' Parry's collectious —

i\'iji<'(/ iiu'l;i\aiitlia [s/iff noni. Stcrconialon \)i\><i.'\\n\v.

spliMcclaln.) l^annvlia s(y};ia.

Clitdoiiid pyxidiita. Vlacod'nnn ('lr!j;aiis.

(\ Iniriii odoiitoUa.

I'lvcii (o {his very ino:i<i;re list dillu'iihies relating to synonymy —
similar lo lliosi^ aln-ady pointed out under (ho liejid ol (lu^ Spil/.-
lu'rg(Mi colleetions of (he snuu^ dis(iiigiiished navigjdor, and tlu>.
de(ernun!i(ions (»r (he Siime eelel)r!i(ed " Hotanieornm I'riiieeps" —
allaeli (hemselves. 'I luis Stcn'ov((tiJo>t fxisclidle may he really, as
ill the Spitzh(>rgen |)laii(, /omcHfositni. 1 have elsewhere seen i(
recorded that S. cordUitiinn, V\\, oeeiirs both in Melville Ishiiid
and Koss's islet, as well as in the " bjirren lands" ol' Aretie
America. This Lit'licii maybe S. <or(illoi(lvs, Fr. ; but in the
" /.. .Ircfoi'" (p. 142), it is given as not distributed more to th(!
n(M"tli than J^ajdand and Nordland. KcpuiUy ])robably it is
foificufosn/ii : or, according to my own \ iew, it and all (he Aretie
Ibrms ol'' Sftrcocdi/fn/f jux refeijibl(>, as mere conditions, to the
type jV, p((sc/i(//<\

The wholi' list of Melville Island Lichens contains the in-
signiticanl number of twelve species, Avhile there is no reason to
(h>ubt the Liehen-llora of the Arctic- American Islands must be as
rich, at least, as that of Si)it/,bergen.

Though by no means to ecpinl extent, the Lichen-llora of Tce-
laml i?;, !is I have elsewluM-e * sliown, very defective, amounting
only to 147 specii'S imd varieties. It does not, therefore, any
more (ban the liiehen-llora oi' Arctic America or the Aretic-
vVmerican Islands, afford data I'or compiirative generalisations in
regard to the Lichens of Greenland, and the countries or islands
in similar latitudes cast and west of it in Europe or America.

^losl singularly, there is no record of any lu'otioniica! Applica-
tions of Lichens in C!vceiilaiul,f while th(>re is no scarcity of
evitlcMice regarding the n-es to whi(4i th(>y are ajiplied in Arctic
America, Iceland, and Scandinavia : — (1.) As food for wild or
dome.-tictited animals ; (2.) As food for man ; (^3.) As medicines ;
or (4.) As ilye-stull's. Dr. lirown assures me, in nioi'e than one of
his letters, that Lichens are absolutely unapplied to any useful
I nrpose by the Creenlanders or by tin; native animals of Grecn-
laml. "1 really believe," he says, " there are no economic ns(\s
" for Licliens in Greeii'and. ... 1 made iiapiiries oi' all the
" Danish otlieials, and ... I have re-examined Kink's 'Grcin-
'' • land gei)graphisk og statistik' for any reference, and can

* " Nortliorn Liclien-Flora,"' pp. 393-4: vUie niso p. 289 of present Memoir.
t I'aiallc'l instaiu'i's (if noii-iiso of bii-liens in JoiiiilriL's in which useful
species abound lue given in my "Northern Liehen-Flora," p. 415.

ENLAND.

t)li M\1)SAV ON Tlin LI(;iir-N-FI/)K.\ OK (iUKKNLAM).

:m)\

llint llioy
ip of ii-lcls

illo Isliind
IK'Clious —

noiiymy —
tlu^ S|)il/.-
r, and (lie
iiu'ops " —
• ivally, ns
re seen it
illc luliind
ol" Arctic
)ut. in the
loro to tli(i
ih\y it is
the Arctic
ns, to the

IS llic iii-

rcnsoii to

mist 1)C as

Pit of Ico-
iinoinitiii;^
cCore, any
0 Arctic-
salions in
or islands
rica.

. i/)/)licn-

aicity of

in Arctic

wild or

iodic incs ;

an onc^ of

y useful
f CJreoii-
)niic nses
f all the
< 'Ciriin-

and can

ti

find none; now, Wink is (lovernor of Soiilii (iiccnland, and
has passed some 15 years in the conntry. IJchens may be ns«^d
in Iceland and yet not in CJrdenland, wheie tin; I'iskiino element
is prc<U)niinant. Tlic Icelamlers learned tiu^r use from their
Norse ancestors."— />/to-o/". //</// 1H()H.
The author of the "Edinl)ur<;h Cabinet Liltrary" volume on
(Greenland writes (p. 228), " The curious fact of (indin;; Reiudetir
*' in this desolate region would seem to imply that it wius not all
" so ban-en or devoid of ve<;i!lation as the portion just described."
But thon<?h Crantz, in his -'History of Greenland," puldisluid in
1820 (p. 61), apparently dt^scribes the Reindeer-food as consisting',
in winter at least, of (Uddnnla rdnyifcrind* the so-called abun-
dant " Reinde(!r-moss " of all arctic and sub-arctic countries,
Brown says that it does not now at all conslituli! their foo(l.|
On the other hand, in other parts of tlu; NorLh Polar r(!,u;ions,^ if
not in Greeidand, Captain ilall describes (7. vdmiifevhin. as the
most important terrestrial ve<;elation, " for on it feed the herds
" of Reindeer, Avhich are the prey of tlu! Wolves, liears, and
" Es((uimaux."§ It is oidy possible to reconcile such discrepan-
cies in evi(lene(! by suj)p()sin<^ that in certain parts of (J"eenland,
or the Arctic reji;ioiis generally, "Reindeer-moss" is a!)undant, and
constitutes the wint.er or other food of the Reind(!ei" ; while in
othei's the "moss " in (pu^stion is absent or scarce, or it do(!S not
ibrm the food, or part ol' the food, of that animal.

The abunthmce in (jreenhuid of at least some of the Li(;hens
that in other Arctic countries are, or have been, serviceable in
supplyint"' the wants of man or animals, and the possibility of d(!-
velo[)in<;' the economical applications of Lichens in a country
whose resources are otherwise so limited, rendcn- it dv'siralde here
to make some reference to certain of the uses els(^wherc of the
more abundant Arctic s])eci(!S.

In Arctic America the vai'ious IJtnhUicdiia-, as "Tripe do
rocho," have played a very prominent [)art in the history of geo-
<i;rai)hical exploration, more especially so in the record of the now
well-known land-journey of Franklin, Richardsiui, Mood, and
IJack. When, in October 1821, Franklin and his companions
were pushinj^ on for the Coppei'mine lliver in a condition ap-
j)roaehin<!; starvation, under the joint inlluence of cold and iinnger,
that intrepid explorer writes : — "Our snlliu-ing from cohl in a
" comfortless canvas tent, in such weather, with (he tempei-ature
" at 20 degrees, and without fire, will easily be imagined : it

it Memoir,
lich useful

* He also (lescrlhes ITaros as living- partly on it (p. OC).

t Si'('\ my " Observations on (jreenland Jiicliciis," sub (.'I. rd/ii^i/hriiiii.
A short paragraph on tlie food of the Greenland IJcindeer will be found in
])r. Urown's'* paper " On the Mannnalian Fauna of (Jrocnland," in the j'ro-
ceediu<>-s of tbe Zoologieai ISociety (of JiOndoii) f(U- ISGS, No. wiii, p. Hi)').
(See above, p. 2G.)

X Dr. lU'own writes nie, "Hall's ' Es(juimaux Lund' refers, I ;ais])(.ct,
" wliolly to tbe western sliores of Davis' Strait. In Danish (ireenlaufl tiicre
" is scareely a pure native livinp:."

§ '• Life with the Esquimaux : the Narrative (d' Captain Hall of tin' \\ liuliufr
" lianjue, ' George Henry,'" 2 vols., London, 18(5 1.

s

1.1'*

■,:>A

302 DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND.

** was, however, less than that which we felt from hunger

" Weak from fasting, and their garments stiffened with the frost,
" after packing their frozen tents and bed-clothes, the poor tra-

" vellers again set out on the 7th After feeding almost

" exclusively on several species of Gyropliora (= Umbilicana), a
" Lichen known as ' Tripe de roche,' which scarcely allayed the
" pangs of hunger, on the 20th they got a good meal by killing a

" Musk-ox On the 17th they managed to allay the pangs

" of hunger by eating pieces of singed hide and a little ' Tripe
" de roche.' This and some Mosses, Avith an occasional solitary
" Partridge, formed their invariable food ; on very many days
" even this scanty su;)ply could not be oblalued, and their appe-

*' tites became ravenous Mr. Hood was nl'^o reduced to a

" perfect shadow from the severe bowel-complaint which the

** * Tripe de roche ' never failed to give him Not being

" able to find any ' Tripe de roche,* they drank an infusion of the
" * Labrador tea-plant' (Ledum palustrc, v. dccumbcns), and ate
" a few morsels of burnt leather for supper. This continued to
" bo a frequent occurrence." *

Horace Marryut, in his " One Year in Sweden," f writes,
" We now tread under foot Avhat has served as food for men,
" baked into bread, and that right often in Sweden," referring,
probably, to Cladonia rangifcr'uici, for he mentions Cetraria Is-
landica separately. " The peasants are ready prepared for famine.
, . . In an old book are printed as many as 13 receipts for
" what is termed ' Weed-bread,* commencing with Bark" Iceland-
moss-bread, or Lichen-bread, is only one kind. Among others there
are bone, grass, straw, sorrel, bran, and furze breads ! The sub-
stances which give the bread its name are, in these cases, probably
only the chief ingredients as to bulk. Consul Campbell, in his
report to the British Government on the trade of Finland for the
year 1867, alluding to the famine of that year in that country,
says, " The bread given to support life is composed of pease-
" straw, combined with Iceland-moss and a small proportion of
" flour."

The '' Old Bushman," in his " Spring and Summer in Lap-
land," J writes, " That the Reindeer thrive [on CI. rangiferina']^
" is proved by the fact that no park-fed Deer in England can look
" fatter .nnd sleeker than the Reindeer when they come down
" from the fells at the end of summer ; in fact, ' fat as a Rein-
" deer,' is a common saying here." It would even appear to l)(<
occasionally too ricii a fodder. The hair of the animal becomes
frequently very brittle ; it snaps across as if rotten, and falls
readily from the skin. This condition is .ascribed to its feeding;
too much on " dry moss " (p. 220). That CI. rcwgifcrhia contains
a considerable percentage of starchy matter is shown by the fact
that quite recently a Swedish chemist has obtained alcohol from

(I

* Extracts from tliu luiri-ative of Franklin's First Land Expedition (IS19-
21), ill Simmonds' " Sir John Franklin and the Arctic llof^ions."
t London, 18(52, vol. i, p. L>31, describing the Falls ol'TrollhattiUJ.
X Loudon, 18G4, p. 173.

mmm

5ENLAND.

DR. LINDSAY ON THE LTCITEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND. 303

ger.

b the frost,
3 poor tra-
ling almost
ilicaria), a
illayed the
y killing a
the pangs
tic 'Tripo
al solitaiy
nany clays
loir appe-
lucod to a
vliich the
^ot being
ion of the
), and ate
tinned to

f writes,
for men,
referring,
raiiu Is-
V famine.
:eipts for
Iceland-
ers there
rhc sub-
irobably
11, in his

for the
country,

pease-
tiou of

iu Lap-

an look
down
!i Rein-

■ to ))((

econies
1(1 fells
bed in"'

lie fact
i from

(1819-

it in large quantity (as well as from other ami/lifernus fAvhens),
by converting the starch into sugar hy heat and acids, and the
sugar into alcohol by fermentation.f

Parry points out the scarcity of CI. rangifcrina in certain parts
of the North-Polar regions, in relation to the rcciuiremcnts of
tame Reindeer. "It would bo next to impossible to procure there
" a supply of provender sufficient even to keep them alive, much
" less in tolerable condition, a whole winter" (p. 206). He
.shipped Reindeer, for sledge-drawing during his expedition, at
Ilammerfest, taking with him a supply of CI. tumj'ifcrina as their
only provender (p. 7)4

Franklin states that his party " used the Reindeer-moss for
" fuel, which afforded us more warmth than we expected "
(p. 128).§

II. Enumcnitiou ojlhe Lichens of Greenland.

The prefixed asterisks indieate the species or varieties collected
by Dr. Brown. They have been already separately enumerated
in his " Florula Discoana," Trans. Bot. 8oc. Edin., vol. ix, p. 454.
Sec (thove, p. , where the localities [] of almost all are given.

The generic names given in parentheses are those of Th. Fries'
classification of Arctic Lichens (iu his *'L. Arctoi," 1860, and
" L. Spitsbergeuses," 1867).
Gen. 1. Ephchc.

Sp. 1. * pubeseens, L. Th. Fries mentions it only on
authority of Nylander (Syu., p. 90).
Gen. 2. Pyrcnopsis.

Sp. 2. luematopis, Smrf.
Gen. 3. Colktna.

Sp. 3. ■*mela3num, AcJi.

1^4. * flaccidum, ^t'Zf. (Synechoblastus.)

5. saturuinum, Dichs. (Leptogium.)

6. *laceruui, Sic.

car. pulvinata, Ach.
Gen. 4. Calicmm.

Sp. 7. *furfuraceum, L. (Coniocybe.)
Gen. 5. Sphfcrophoron.

Sp. 8. *coralloides, Ach.; various forms (e.</., var, isidioi-
dea, IJnds.) ; rarely fertile.
9. fragile, L. ; frequently fertile.
Gen. 6. Cladonia.

Sp. 10. *pyxidata, L. ; several forms.

f '•Illustrated London Nlws," NovfUibur 7, 1808.

i "Narrative of an Attempt to reach the Nortli Pole'' (in 18:27), by
Captain Tarry. London, 1829.

§ Narrative of his First Laud Expedition, 1819-2:2, vol. ii, 2d. od., Loudon,
1824.

II On the south and east coasts of Di.sco Bay, the sides of the eastern end of
the "\Vai;rat btrait, and at Godhavu on the south point of Disco Island. —

Euil'OK.

y'l

I:

■ i'

V

1

804 J)R. LINDSAY ON THE LICIIEN-FLOllA OF GKEENLANl).

Sp. 11. carnoola, Fr. ; not mentioned by Th. Fries, lm(
cited by Tuekermim (8yn. Lich. New Kngi.,
p. r)2), on authority of Fries y>eye,

12. vcrticillata, ffjf'tn., and

*v(ir. cervicornid, Ach. ; both rare.

13. *gracilis, L. (ecmocyna, Ach.); various forms.

14. *lurcata, Schreh., and

^var. crispata, Ach,

— subulata, L.

— pungens, Ach.^ and other forms.
lo. ''''rangiferina,f L., and

var. sylvatica, Ilff'in,

16. *uncialis, />. ; various I'orms.

17. *amaurocroen, Flh.; fruit common.
18 *cornucopioides, L.

IJ). *l>ellidiflora, Ach.

20. *deformis, L. ; various forms.

21. digitata, L.

22. *degcnerans, Flk., and

*v</:'. coralloide.a, ^Ich.

23. *uIeieornis, F/h.

24. *s([uamosii, Jlff'm. ; various forms
2o. *fimbriata, ff/f'/n.

26. *cyanipcs, S/iirf.
Gen. 7. Sto'vocdiilon.
Sp. 27. *paseliale, L.

28. *tomentosum, F)\, and vars. or forms.
*var. alpina, Lfinr.

— coralloiden, JAixls.
Sp. 29. "*denudatum, Flk., and

var. pulviuata, .SV7/.
Gen. 8. ThamnoUa (Cladonia).
Sp. 30. *vermieularis, Sw.
Gen. 9. IJsnca. ^ ^

Sp. 31. melaxantha, Ach. ; always sterile.
Gen, 10. Alcctoria.

Sp. 32. jubata, L. (Bryopogon), and
*var. bicolor, Fhrh.
* — chalybeiformis, L.

— nitiduhi, 21i. Fr. ; all sterile.

33. *Thulensis, Th. Fr.X

34. *(livcrgens, Ach. (Cornicularia.)
3o. *ocbroleuca, Ehrh., and

v(tr. cincinnata, Fr.

— sarmenlosa, Ach. ; very rare, on branches of
Sa/ix (/laiica.
* — rigi(bi, /7//.

*

— nigricans, Ach.^

f Th, Fries spulls this lihainiifcrliKt ; I)iitthe otlicr, though probably otymu-
logioally incorrect, is tlie spcllinn' tivncnilly :i(loj)ti'(l.
X Assi/^ned to A. iii</)-i<:(it)s in b'rii's' " 1,. Spitsber*;-."
§ rromotecl to the rank of a separate species in Fries' " L. Si(it>-ber<>'."

j'.^^!^^

mm

lENLAND.

DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN-FLORA OF GREENLAND. 305

Flies, but
^Hcw Engl,,

forms.

f

inches of

Gen. 11. DactyUna.

Sp. 36. *arctica, Br. (Clailonia ; Dufourea.) Always sterllo,
says Th. Fries (Arct., p. 160).
Gen. 12. Cctraria.

Sp. 37. '"'aculcata, Ekrh. (Cornicularia), and
*var. alpina, Ifepp, 360.

— muricata, Ac/t.

* — acanthella, Ach. ; with other forms.

38. *0(lontella, Ach.

39. lahmdica, L. ; and vars. or forms

*var. leucomeloides, Linds.

— phityna, Ach.

* — crispa, Ach.\

* — Delisei, Bory,

40. *nivalis, L.

41. *cuculiata, Bell.

42. juiiiperina, L.

var. pinastri, Scoj).

43. sropincola, Ehrh. (on bark of Bctula).
Gen. 13. Nephroma.

Sp. 44. *arcticum, L. ; always sterile,

4o. papyraceum, Hffm. (Nephromium, NyL^
var. sorediata, Sch.
Gen. 14. Pdtklca.

Sp. 46. *aphthosa, Ach.

47. *canina, Hffm. ; various forms. Not mentioned by

Th. Fries, but cited by Tuckerman (Syn. Lich.
N. Engl., p. 29), on authority of Giesecke.

48. *rufescens, Fr.

49. seabrosa, Th.Fr.; fruit.

50. *venosa, L.
Gen. 15. Solorina.

Sp. 51. *crocea, L.

52. saccata, Z,., and

var. limbata, Smrf.
Gen. 16. Sticta.

Sp. 53. scrobiculata, Sco}).
Oen. 17. Parmelia.

Sp. 54. *saxatilis, L., and

*var. omphalodes, L.
'* — panniformis, Ach.

* — leucoehroa, Wallr.

* — splia3rophoroidea, Linds.

55. physodes, L., and

'^'var. obscurata, Ach.

56. *eneausta, Sm., and

var. iutestinlformis, Vill.

%-

V otvuio-

im.

t In the EdinSnrgli University Heiburium there are specimens labellel
" C. ^or^i, Del., Grcenluul," from Fries ; and " Newfoundland," from Bory,
1831.

36122.

U

l\

306 DR. LINDSAY OX THE LICIIEM-FLORA OF GREENLAND.

Sp. 57. hypcropta, Ach. f = aleurites, Ach.)

58. '"'olivncen, L. ; vnnous forms.

59. *FtililunenHis, L.^ nnd

var. sciastrn, Fr.
— polyschizn, Nyl.

60. *stygia, /.. ; various forms.

61. aI])icola, Th. Fr. (Arct., p. 57.)

62. *humtn, L. ; fruit abundant.

63. conspcrsa, Ehrh.

64. centrifuga, L.

65. iucurva, Pcrs,

66. diffusn, Weh. (= ambigua, Ach^
Gen. 18. Physcia.

Sp. 67. '"'pulvorulentii, Sehreh.

var. muscijrena, Ach.

68. *stellaris, L. ; various forms.

69. *C£esin, Ilffm.y and

var. albinca, Acli.

70. obscura, Ehrh.

var. orbicularis, Neck.

71. lychnoa, Ach. (Xanthoria controversa, Mass.^ var.

pygma'a, Bory, Th. Fr., p. 68.)
Gen. 19. Umbilicaria.

Sp. 72. Pennsylvanica, Hffm.

73. *vellea, L.

74. *spodochroa, Ilffrn.

75. anthracina, Wtilf.

76. *arctica, Ach.

77. *hyperborea, Ach.

78. proboscidea, L.

79. flocculosa, Hffm, Not cited by Th. Fries, but

mentioned as occurring in Greenland by Tucker-
man (Syn. Licli. New England, 1848, p. 71).

80. erosa, Wch.

81. polyphylla, L. ; only in one locality.

82. *cylindrica, L. ; various forms.

var. Delisei, Despr.^ is frequent in Greenland
according to Dr. Ny lander (Scand., p. 117).

83. hirsuta, Ach. Walker and Mittenf cite this from

Greenland (Lievely). It is not, however, men-
tioned in Th. Fries' " L. Arctoi " as a Greenland
Lichen, and doubtfully as an Arctic-Scandinavian
species, or very rare.
Gen. 20. Pannaria.

Sp. 84. *brunnea, Siv., and

*var. coronata, Hffm.

85. lepidiota, Th. Fr. (Arct, p. 74), and

*var. tristis, Th. Fr.

86. Hookeri, Sm.

var. macrior, Th. Fr,

f Journ. Linn. Soc, Botany, vol. v, p. 87.

BENLAND.

Mass.f var.

Fries, but
by Tucker-
1, p. 71).

Greenland
p. 117).
e this from
^ever, men-
Greenland
andinavian

I

DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICilEN-FLOKA OF GREENLAND. 307

Sp. 87. hypnorum, Vahl. (Psoroma, FY., Ni/l.)

8S. muscorum, Ach. (Massalongia carnosa, Dirks.)
Gen. 21. Squnmarin.

Sp, 89. *saxicola, Poll. (Placodium.)

90. *ehrysoleuca, Sm., and

*var. opaca, Ach.

* — feracis.sinui, Th. Fr, (L. Spitsb., p. 18.)

91. straminea, fVhlnb.

92. gt'lida, L.

93. *cleganH, TAnh. (Xanthoria.)

94. murorum, Iljf'm.

95. fulgens, Stc. (Placodium.)

var. alpina, Th. Fr.

96. melanaspis, Ach. (Lecanorn, Nyl.)

var. alphoplaca, Wlilnb.

97. geophila, Th. Fr., p. 85.
Gen. 22. Lecanm'u.

Sp. 98. *tartarea, /^., and

*vrtr. frigida, Hio,

* — gonatodes, Ach,

— vermieularia, Linds.

* — gi'andinosn, Ach. %

— thelephoroides, Th. Fr. (L. Spitsb., p. 21.)
99. *parella, L. (pallescens, L.), and

*var. Upsaliensis, L.

100. *oculata, Dicks. (Aspicilia); various forms, common*

101. iitra, Huds.

102. *subfusca, L., and

*var. epibrya, AcJi.
— Hageni, Ach.\

103. *frustulosa, Dicks.

104. epanora, Ach. ; doubtfully.

105. *badia, Ehrh.

106. varia, Ehrh.

var, symmicta, Ach.

* — polytropa, Ehrh.

* — intricata, Schrad,
— leucococca, Smrf.

107. atro-sulphurea, IVJilnb.

108. cenisea, Ach.

109. glaucoma, Ach. (sordida, Pers.).

110. *bryontha, Ach.

111. peliscypha, Whlnb. (Acarospora.)

112. molybdina, Whlnb.

113. *smaragdula, fVhlnb., and

var. sinopica, Whlnb.

114. chlorophana, Whlnb.

115. *ventosa, L. (Hgematomma.)

1>

t Stizenberger, in " Botanische Zeituug " (1868, p. 895), mentions var.
atrynea, Ach., as occurring in Greenland.

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(716) 872-4503

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308 DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN-rLOBA OF GREENLAND.

I .

k

i

Sp. 116. nimbosa, Fr. (DimelsDna.)

117. oreina, Ach.

118. *turfacea, fVItlnb. (Rinodinfi), and
var. (Icpaupcrata, Th. Fr.

— roscida, Smrf.

1 19. *sophodes, Ach. ; various forms.

120. mniarsea, Ach.

121. exigua, Ach.

122. verrucosa, Ach. (Aspicilia), and
var. paryrga, Ach.

123. *calcarea, L.
var. contorta, Hffm.

124. •cinerea, Z., and
*var. Myrini, Fr.

— aquatica, Fr., and other forms.

125. lacustris, With.

126. ferruginea, Huds. (Caloplaca.)
var. cinnamomea, Th. Fr.

— hypnophila, Th. Fr.

127. jungermanniae, Vahl., and
var. convexa, Sch.

128. lusco-lutea, Dichs.

129. *eerina, Iledw.
var. stillicidiorum, (Ed.

auiantiaca, Light/. ; doubtfully,
crenulata, Th. Fr., p. 70 (Xunthoria).
vitellina, Ehrh.
leucorffia, Ach, (Blastenin).
Gen. 23. Urceolaria.

Sp. 134. scruposa, L.
Gen. 24. Pcrtusaria.

Sp. 135. *P. paradoxa, Linds.
Gen. 25. Lecidca.

Sp. 136. contigua, Iloffm., and
var. flavicunda, Ach.

137. *fusco-atra, L.

138. panaeola, Ach.

var. elegans, Th. Fr.

139. spilota, Fr. (tesaellata, Flk.), and

var. polaris, Th. Fr.

140. *lapicida, Ach. ; rare, and only the ferruginous con-

ditions of the ordinary form.

141. auriculata, Th. Fr. (Arct., p. 213).

142. alpestris, Smrf. {^^ fere L. aggeratce, ^udd,'* say a

Th. Fries, L. Spitsb., p. 39). Nylander's L.
stenotera, recorded as a Norwegian species in
my "North. Lichen-Flora," p. 385, Th. Fries
refers to alpestris as a variety (L. Arct., p. 214).
arctica, Smrf.
aglsea, Smrf.
145. *sabuletorura, Schreb., and
var. muscorum, Wulf.

130.
131.
132.
133.

143.
144.

EENLAND.

rinous con-

udd," says

ander's L.

species in

Th. Fries

t., p. 214).

DE. LINDSAY OX THE LICIIEX-FLORA OF GREENLAND. 309

Sp. 146. *parasemn, Sch., and

var. enteroleuca, Ach.
— euphorea, Flk.y and other forms.
14/. turgidnla, Fr.

var. denudata, Schrad.

148. atro-brunnea, Ram.

149. armeniaca, DC.

var. melaleuca, Siiirf.

150. elata, Sch. (= amylacea, Ach.)

151. pallida, Th. Fr. (Arct., p. 221).

152. vittellinaria, Nyl.

153. *diseiformis, Fr. (Buellia.)

154. insignis, Nceg.

*var. museorum, ITepp.
— geophila, Snirf.

155. *myriocarpa, DC.

156. *atro-alba, Ach. ; by no means rare, according to

Th. Fnes(Arct., p. 231).

157. scabrosa, Ach.

var. cinerascens, Th. Fr.

158. urceolata, Th. Fr. (Arct., p. 233), and

var. deminuta, Th. Fr. ; parasitic on thallus of
various Lichens.

159. coronata, Th. F/'., p. 205 (Rhexophiale.)

160. geminata, Fw. (Rhizocarpon) ; common.

161. *petriEa, Wulf.^ and

var. CEderl, Ach.^ with other forms.

162. *Grocnlandica, TAnds.

163. *geographica, Z., and

*var. alpicola, Sch.

164. globifera, Ach. (Psora), and

var. rubiformis, IVhlnb.

165. atro-rufa, Dicks.

166. decipiens, Ehrh.

167. squalida, Ach. (Toninia.)

168. Candida, Web. (Thalloidima.)

169. *obscurata, Snirf. (Bilirabia.)

170. cumulate, Smrf. (Biatorina.)

171. cinnabarina, Smrf. (Biatora.)

172. *vernalis, L.

173. cuprea, Smrf.

174. *castanea, Hepp.

175. Tornoeensis, Nyl.

176. fuscescens, Smrf.

177. uliginosa, Schrad.

178. leucoraja, Ach. (Blastenia.)

179. pezizoidea, Ach. (Lopadium) ; rare.

180. flavo-virescans, Dicks. (Arthroraphis.)

181. icmadophila, yicA. (Icmadophila aeruginosa, Scop.)

182. *sanguineo-atra, ^c/i. ; various forms.

183. *fusco-nibens, Ny/.

i

m

•v,1

[rijMp*

310 DR. LINDSAY ON THE LICHEN-FLORA OP GREENLAND.

, 1

fi

5 :

1!^

Sp. 184. *Discoensi8, Linds.

185. *Campsteriana, Linds,

186. Friesiana, Linds.

187. *Egedoana, IJnds.

188. subfuscula, Nyl. Recorded as a Greenland species

in Th. Fries' " L. Spitsb.," p. 35, tbough not in
bis " L. Arct."

Gen. 26. Arthonia.
Sp. 189. trabinella, Th. Fr. (Arct., 240) ; on worked wood.

Gen. 27. Endocarpon.
Sp. 190. miniatnm, L. (Dermatocarpou), and
var. complicata, Stv.

191. bopaticiim, Ach.

192. Daidalcum, Kremp. ; rare.

193. *viride, Ach. (Normandina, Nyl.)

Gen. 28. Verrucaria.
Sp. 194. clopima, Whlnb. (Staurotbele.)

195. maura, Vf'Til?ib., and

var. aractina, JVJdnb.

196. ceutbocarpa, Whlnb., and

f«r. mucosa, Whlnb.

197. epidermidis, Ach. (Artbopyrenia).

vur. analepta, Ach. ; rare.

198. pygmasa, ^6>6. (Endococcus, iV^/.); parasitic.

199. tartaricola, Linds.

Pseudo-genu s. Pyrenothca.
Sp. 200. *P. Groenlandica, TJnds.

Summary.

1.

2.
3.

Genus.

Epbebe -
Pyrenopsis -
CoUema-

Number of

Species and

Varieties.

- 1

- 1

. 4

16.
17.

Genus.

Brougbt foi"ward
Sticta .
Parmelia

Number of

Species and

Varieties.

76

- 1

- 21

4.

Calicium

- 1

18.

Pbyscia

- 6

5.
6.

Spbajropboron
Cladonia

- 2

- 23

19.

20.

Umbilicaria
Pan n aria

- 13

- 7

7.

Stereocaulon -

- 6

21.

Squamaria -

- 11

8.

Tbamnolia

1

22.

Lecanora

- 54

9.

Usnea -

1

23.

Urceolaria -

- 1

10.

Alectoria

- 11

24.

Pertusaria -

- 1

11.

Dactylina

- 1

25.

Lecidea

- 63

12.

Cetraria

- 14

26.

Arthonia

- 1

13.
14.

Nephroma
Peltidea

- 2

- 5

27.

28.

Endocarpon
Verrucaria -

- 5

- 8

15.

Solorina

- 3

1

Carry forward

76

Total

- 268

i»;'

^

BNLAND.

and species
ugh not in

rked wood.

rasitic.

Number of

Species and

Varieties.

76

- 1

- 21

- 6

- 13

- 7

- 11

- 54

- 1

- I

- 63

- 1

- 5

- 8

268

i

I

DR. LINDSAY OX THE LICIIEN-FLOUA OF GREENLAND. 311

The Genera richest in Species are, therefore, in the order of their
richness —

1. Leciden. 5. Cetraria.

2. Lecanora. 6. Uinbiiicaria.

3. Cladonia. 7. Squnmaria. 1

4. Parmcha. 8. Alcctoria. J

These are not necessarily, however, the genera richest in
individuals — the genera, therefore, Avhich give a character to or
constitute predominant vegetation. There is insufficient evidence
to show what the latter genera are. All that can be asserted, on
the evidence of travellers, is, that in some localities the predomi-
nant Lichens and the prevailing vegetation are species of Umhili'
caria or Placodium. There is no evidence that the CladonicB
occupy the same important position, as coverers of the soil, that
they do in Northern Scandinavia and Russia;* or that the AlectoiicBf
CetrancE, and ParmclicE occur in the same gregarious assemblages
that I have seen them do in Norway or Iceland. f

XXXVI.— On the Nature of the Discoloration of the
Arctic Seas. By Dr. Robert Brown, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

[Reprinted, by Permission, from the " Transactions of the Botanical
« Society of Edinburgh," vol. ix., pp. 244-252. Read De-
cember 12, 1867. Revised by the Author, March 1875.]

The peculiar discoloration of some portions of the Frozen
Ocean, differing in a remarkable <lcgree from the ordinary blue
or light green usual in other portions of i\\G same sea, and quite
independent of any optical delusion occasioned by light or shade,
clouds, depth or shallowness, or the nature of the bottom, has,
from a remote period, excited the curiosity or remark of the
early navigators and whalemen, and to this day is equally a
subject of interest to the visitor of these little-frequented parts
of the world. The eminent seaman, divine, and savant, William
Scoresby, was the first who pointedly drew attention to the
subject, but long before his day the quaint old searchers after a
North- West Passage " to Cathay and Cipango " seem to have
observed the same phenomenon, and have recorded their observa-
tions, brief enough it must be acknowledged, in the pages of
" Purchas — His Pilgrimes," or the ponderous tomes of Master
Hakluyt. Thus Henry Hudson, in 1607, notices the change iu
the colour of the sea, but has fallen into error when he attributes
it to the presence or absence of ice whether the sea was blue or
green — mere accidental coincidences. John Davis, when, at
even an earlier date, he made that famous voyage of his with

* See paper on the "Arctic Cludoniee," p. 179.

t " Flora of Iceland," p. 24 (Trans. Bot. See. of Edin., or Edin. New
Philosophical Journal, 1861) ; " Northern Lichen-Flora," p. 403, et acq.

H

] .♦■■

'i

I

f f? '^ ' •

■ I

312

R. BROWN ON THE NATURE OP TIIK

I

k

fcl

the "Sunshine" and the " Moonshine," notes tluU, in the strait
Avhich now boars his name, " the water was very blacke and
«• thickc, like unto a lilthy stuidinj^ pool."* Mor(> motleru
voyagers have more cciually noted the plienonionon, but without
giving any exphuiation, and it is the object of this paper to
endeavour to fill up that blank in the physical geography of the
sea. In the year IHGI I made a voyage to the seas in the vicinity
of Spit7,l)ergen and the dreaiy island of Jan Mayen, and sub-
Boquently a much more extended one through Davis Strait
to the head of Baffin's Bay, and along the whores of the Arctic
Regions lying on the western side of the formiu* gulf, during
which 1 had abundant opportunities of observing the nature
of this discoloration. At that period I arrived at the conclusions
which I am now about to promulgate. In the course of the
past summer [1867] I again made an expedition to Danish Green-
land, passing several weeks on the outward and homeward pass-
ages in portions of the seas mentioned, during which time I had
an opportunity of confirming the observations I had made six
years previously, so that I consider I am justified in bringing my
researches, so far as they have gone, before the Botanical Society.

1. Appearance and Geographical Description of the discoloured
Portions of' the Arctic Sea.

The colour of the Greenland Sea varies from ultramarine blue
to olive-green, and from the most pure transparency to striking
opacity, and these changes are not transitory but pcrmanent.-f
Scoresby, who sailed during his whaling voyages very extensively
over the Arctic Sea, considered that in the "Greenland Sea" of
the Dutch — the '* Old Greenland " of the English — this discoloured
water formed perhaps one-fourth part of the surface between the
pan-allels of 74^^ and 80° North latitude. It is liable, he remarked,
to alterations in its position from the action of the current, but
still it is always renewed near certain localities year after year.
Often it constitutes long bands or streams lying north and south,
or N.E. and S.W., but of very variable dimensions. " Sometimes
*' I have seen it extend two or three degrees of latitude in length,
** and from a few miles to ten or fifteen leagues in breadth. It
*♦ occurs very commonly about the meridian of London in high
*' latitudes. In the year 1817 the sea Avas found to be of a blue
*' colour and transparent all the Avay from 12° East, in the parallel
" of 74° or 7o° N.E., to the longitude of 0° 13' East in the same
" parallel. It then became green and less transparent ; the colour
" was nearly grass-green, Avitli a shade of black. Sometimes the
*' transition between the green and blue waters is progressive,
** passing through the intermediate in the space of three or four
** leagues ; in others it is so sudden that the line of separation is

seen like the rippling of a current ; and the two qualities of the

((

♦ The First Voyage of M. lohn Daiiis vudertakon in June 1585. (Hak-
luyt's Collection.)

t Scoresby, " Arctic Regions," i., 1 75.

DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS.

313

" water kcop apparently as distinct as the waters of a large muddy
" river ou first entering the sea."* In Davis Strait and BafHii's
Bay, wherever the whalers have j^nnc, the same dosciiption may
hold true — of conrse making allowances lor the tlill'erences of
geographical position, and the discolonred patflus varying in size
and locality. I have often observed the vcssul in the space of a
few hours, or even in sliorter periods of time, sail ihrungh alternate
patches of deep black, green, and canidoan blue ; and at other
times, especially in the upper reaches of Davis Strait and liailin's
Bay, it has ploughed its way for oO or even 100 miles through an
almost uninterrupted space of the former colour. 'J'he opacity of
the water is in some places so great that " tongues " of ice and
other objects cannot be seen a few feet beneath the surface.

2. Cunscs of the Discoloralion.

These patches of discoloured water are frecpientcd by vast
swarms of the minute animals upon which the great " Right
Whale" of commerce {Bala-iin mysticetus^ Linn.) alone subsists,
the other species of Cctttcca feeding on Fishes projwr, and other
highly organised tissues. This fact is well known to the whalers,
and, accordingly, the " black water " is eagerly sought for by
them, knowing that in it is found the food of their chase, and
therefore more likely the animal itself. From this knowledge, and
from observations made with the usual lucidity of that distinguished
observer. Captain Scoresby attribiited the nature of the discolora-
tion to the presence of immense numbers of Mcdusfc in the sea,
and his explanation has hitherto met the accepUince of all marine-
physical geographers ; and for more than forty years his curious
estimate of tlu' immbers of individual Mcditscc contained in a
square mile of the Greenland Sea has become a standard feature in
all popular works on zoology, and a stock illustration with popular
lecturers. In 1861, and subsequently, Avhilst examining micro-
scopically the waters of the Greenland Sea, I found, in common
with previous observers, that not only wore immense swarms of
animal life found in these discoloured patches, but that it was almost
solely confined to these spaces. In addition, however, I observed
that the discoloration was not due to the Mcdusoid life, but to the
presence of immense numbers of a much more minute object — a
beautiful siliceous moniliform Diatom, and it is this Diatom which
brings this paper within the ken of botanists. On several cold
days, or from no apparent cause, the McduscB, great and small,
would sink, but still the water retained its usual colour, and on
examining it I invariably found it to be swarming with Diatoma-
ceous life, the vast preponderance of Avhich consisted of the
Diatom in question.

It had the appearance of a minute beaded necklace about
1 -400th part of an inch in diameter, of which the articulations are

* ** Arct. Reg.," i., 176. See also Scoresby's account of the "brown-
coloured" water at 68° 26' lat., 11° 55' W. long., and the " yellowish-green "
at lat. 70° 34', in his " Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-fishery,"
&c., 8vo., Edinburgh, 1823, pp. 353-356.

!•!(

n

.*i

m

m

, ,^. —-gapB

314

IJ. BROWN ON THE NATUltE OF THE

.1

!li

about 1^ or IJ time as long ns lu'ond. These articulations contain
a browninh-grecn {granular matter, j^iving the colour to the whole
]»laiit, ami ngain through it to the sea in which it is found so
abundantly. The whole Diatom varies in length, from a mere
point to l-lOth of an inch, Init ai)i)ear.s to be capable of enlarging
itself indelinitcly lontritudinally by giving oil' further bcad-liko
articulations. Wherever, in those portions of the sea, I threw
over the towing net, the muslin in a few minutes was quite
brown with the presence of this Alga in its meshes. Again, this
sunnnor, 1 have had occasion to notice the same appearance in
similar hititudes on the opposite shores of Davis' Strait where I
had principally observed it in IBGl. This observation holds true
of every portion of discoloured water which I have examined in
Davis Strait, ]bv(lln's Bay, and in the Spit/.bergcn or the Greenland
►Seas — viz., triat wherever the green Avater occurred the aca
abounded in Didtotnaccous life, the contrary holding true regarding
the ordinary blue water. These swarms of Diatoms do not ap-
pear to reach in quantity any very great depth, for in water
brought up from 20() fathoms there were few or no Diatoms.
Thi'y seem also to be ail'ected by physical circumstances, for some-
times in places where a few hours previously the water on the
surface was swarming with them fcAV or none were to be found,
and in a few hours they again rose. But the Diatom I found plays
another part in the economy of the Arctic Seas. In June 1861,
whilst the iron-shod bows of the steamer 1 was on board of crashed
its way through the breaking-np floes of Baffin's Bay, among
tlie Women's Islands, I observed that the ice thrown up on
either side was streaked and discoloured bi'own ; and on examin-
ing this discolouring matter 1 found that it was almost entirely
composed of the siliceous moniliform Diatom I have described as
forming the discolouring matter of the iceless parts of the icy sea.
I subsequently made the same observation in Melville Bay, and
in all other portions of Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay where
circumstances admitted of it. During the long winter the Diato-
maccm had accumulated under the ice in such abundance that when
disturbed by the pioneer prow of the early whalers they appeared
like brown slimy bauds in the sea, causing them to be mistaken
more than once for the Avaving fronds of Laminaria longicruris (De
la Pyl.), which, and not L. saccharma, as usually stated, is the
common Tangle of the Arctic Sea. On examining the under surface
of the upturned masses of ice, I found the surface honeycombed, and
in the base of these cavities vast accumulations of DiatomacecB ;
leading to the almost inevitable conclusion that a certain amount of
heat must be generated by the vast accumulations of these minute
organisms, which thus mine the giant floes into cavernous sheets.
These are so decayed in many instances as to be easily dashed on
either side by the " ice chisels " of the steamers which now form
the majority of the Arctic-going vessels, and they get from the
seamen, who too frequently mistake cause for effect, the familiar
name of " rotten ice." I have since found that in noticing the
Diatomaceous character of these slimy masses, I was forestalled
by Dr. Sutherland (" Journal of a Voyage," &c., 1852, vol, i..

DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS.

315

pp. 91-96, nnd vol. ii., Appendix, by Dr. Dickie, pp. cxcviii., &c.).
Though one Diatom, as 1 have remarked, pretlomiiiatcs, yet there
arc, besides Protozoa^ vast multitudes of many ditferent species of
Diatoms, as shown {loc. cit.)* by Dr. Dickie (now of Aberdeen).

Is it oarryiiif^ the doctrine of final causes too far to say these
Diatoms play their part in rendering the frozen north accessible
to the bold whalemen, ns I shall presently show they do in
furnishing subsistence for the giant quarry which leads him
thither ?

1 have spoken of the discoloured portions of the Arctic Sea ns
abounding in animal life, and that this life was nowhere so abun-
dant as in those dark spaces which, as I have already demonstrated,
owe this hue to the Diutomacecc in question.

These animals are principally varions species of Bcroiilcr, and
other Stetjanophthahnous Mcdustc ; Entomostraca^ consisting
chiefly of Arpacticus Kronii, A. chcUfer and Cctochilus arcticus
and septcntrionalis, and Ptcropodous Mollusca — the chief of which
is the well-known Clio borcaliSy though I think it proper to
remark that this species does not contribute to the Whale's food
nearly so much as we have been taught to suppose. The dis-
colourctd sea is sometimes perfectly thick with the swarms of these
animals, and then it is that the whaler's heart gets glad as visions
of" size Whales " and " oil money " rise up before him, for it is on
these minute animals that the most gigantic of all known beings
solely subsists. What, however, was my admiration (it was scarcely
surprise) to find, on examining microscopically the alimentary
canals of these animals, that the contents consisted entirely of the
Diatomacccc which give the sable hue to portions of the Northern
Sea in which these animals arc principally found ! It thus appears

that

m

the

stmnge

cycle of nature the " Whales' food " is
dependent on the Diatom, so that in reality the great things of
the sea depend for their existence upon the small things thereof!
I subsequently found (though the observation is not new) that
the alimentary canals of most of the smaller Molhisca, EchiuO'
dcrmata, &c. were also full of these Diatomaccxc. I also made
an observation which is confirmatory of what I have advanced
regarding the probability of these minute organisms giving off
en masse a certtiin degree of heat, though in the individuals
inappreciable to the most delicate of our instruments. On the
evening of the 4th of June, this present year (1867), in latitude
67° 26' N., the sea was so full of animal (and Diatomaceous) life,
that in a few minutes upwards of a pint measure of EfttoniO'
straea, McdusfE, and Ptcropoda would fill the towing net. The
temperature of the sea was then by the most delicate instruments
found to be 32*5 Fahr., and next morning (June 5th), though the
air had exactly the same temperature, no ice at hand, and the ship
maintained almost the same position as on the night previous, yet
the surface temperature of the sea had sunk to 27*5 Fahr., and was
clear of life, so much so that in the space of half an hour the

II

m

See pages 319, 320 ; and further on.

31G

n. BROWN ox THE NATURE OF THE

• • •«%

li'

towing net did not cn|)tiiro a nin'^lo I'Jntoi/iostracnn, Medusa^ or
PU'wpod. I ulso found that this swaini of life ebbed and flowe<l
with tho tide, and that the whah'i's used to remark tliat Whales
along shore were most frequently caught at the flow of tho tide,
coming in with the banks of Whales' food. This mass of minute
life also ascends to the surface more in the calm Arctic nights when
the sun gets near tlu^ horizon during the long summer <lay. In
18(>I J was personally acciuainted wiih the death of thirty indivi-
duals of the "Right Whiileboni^ Wlinle" {Bul(ciia /in/sticitns, L.),
and of this immber fully threes-fourths were killed between ten
o'clock p.m. and six o'clock a.m., having come on tho " whaling
grounds "at that period (from amongst the ice where they had
been taking their siesta)^ to feed upon the animals which were
then swarming on the surface, and these; again fwding on tho
DiatomacccB found most abundantly at that time in tlie same
situations. I would however, have; you to guard against the;
supposition, enunciatinl freely enough in some compilations, that
the "Whales' food" migrates, and tliat the curious wanderings of
the Whale north, and again W(!st and south, is due to its "pursuing
*• its living " ; such is not the case. The " Whales' food ' is found
all over the wandering ground of tho Mysticctc, and in all
probability the animal goes north in the summer in pursuance of
an instinct implanted in it to keep 'in the vicinity of the floating
ice-fields (now melted away in southern latitudes) ; and again it
goes west for the same purpose, and finally goes south at the
approach of winter — but where, no man knows.

There are some other streaks of discoloured water in the Arctic
Sea known to the whalers by various not very euphonious names,
but these are merely local or accidental, and are also wholly
due to JDiatomaccee, and with this notice may be passed over as of
little importance. I cannot, however, close this paper without
remarking how curiously the observations 1 have recorded afford
illustrations of representative species in difl'erent and widely
separated regions. In the Arctic Ocean the Balccna mj/sticctus
is the great subject of chase, and in the Antarctic and Southern
Seas the hardy whalemen pursue a closely allied species, Bahcna
mistralis. The Northern Whale feeds upon Clio borealis and
Cctochilus septcntrionalis ; the Southern Whale feeds upon their
representative species, Clio australis and Cctochilus anstralis,
which streak with crimson the Southern Ocean for many a league.
The Northern Sea is dyed dark with a Diatom on which the Clio
and Cctochilus live, and the wai'm waters of the Red Sea are
stained crimson with another Alga ; and I doubt not that, if the
Southern Seas were examined as carefully as the Northern have
been, it would be found that the Southern " Whales' food " lives
also on the Diatoms staining the waters of that Austral Ocean.

I do not claim any very high credit for the facts narrated in the
foregoing paper, cither general or specific, for really it is to the
exertions of the sailor-savant, William Scoresby, that the first light
which has led to the solution of the question is due, though the
state of science in his day would not admit of his seeing more

DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS.

317

hat, if the

clearly into the dark waters of that frozpii sea he knew ond lovotl
so tvell.

At the same time I believe that I nm justified in conclndin;;
that wo have now arrivc<l at thi' following conclusions from
perfectly sound data, viz. : —

1. That the discoloration of the Arctic Sea is due not to animal
lif(», but to UiatomacciS.

2. That these Diatomacccn form the brown staining matter of the
" rotten ice " of Northern navigators.

3. That these Diatomnrca: form the food of the Pteropoda^
Medusa, and Entontostraca, on which the Jia/fcnn tni/sticetus
subsists.

I have brought home abundant specimens of the Diutomadcous
masses which I have so frequently referred to in this paper, and I
am now engaged in distributing them to competent students of this
order, so that the exact species may be determined ; but as these
take a long time to be cxaminetl (more especially as Diatoms do not
seem so popular a study as they were a few years ago), I have
thought it proper to bring the more important general results of
my investigations before yon at this time, and to allow the less
interesting subject of the determination of species* to lie over to
another time. I have to apologise to yon for introducing so mueli
of another science, foreign to the objects of the Society, into this
paper ; but when the lower orders of plants are concerned, we are
so near to the boundaries of the animal world that to cross now
and then over the shadowy march is allowable, if not impossible to
be avoided.

Finally, you will allow me to remark that, in all the annals of
biology, I know nothing stranger than the curious tale I have
unfolded :f the Diatom staining the broa<l frozen sea, again sup-
porting myriads of living beings which crowd there to feed on it,
and these again supporting the huge Whale, — so completing the
wonderful cycle of life. Thus it is no stretch of the imagination to
say that the greatest animal in creation,J whose pursuit gives em-
ployment to many thousand tons of shipping and thousands of sea-
men, and the importance of which is commercially so gi'eat that its
failure for one season was estimated for one Scottish port alone at
a loss of 100,000/. sterling,§ depends for its existence on a being
so minute that it takes thousands to be massed together before they
are visible to the naked eye, and, though thousands of ships for
hundreds of years sailed the Arctic, unknown to the men who were

* The species principally causing the discoloration is apparently Melosira
arctica.

f The foregoinfj observations on the Discoloration of the Arctic Sea have
heen confirmed by the German Expedition in the Spitsbergen Sea, under
Koldeway ; by that to Greenland, conducted by rrofessor Nordenskiiild.

X Nilsson, in his " Skandinavisk Fauna," vol i., p. 643, estimates the full-
grown B. mysticetus at 100 tons or 220,000 lbs., or equal to 88 elephants or
440 white bears.

§ In 1867 the twelve screw steamers of Dundee only took two Whales, and
the loss to each steamer was estimated at 5,000/., and to the town in all at the
sum I have given.

t'

318

R. DllOWN ON THE NATUUB OP TUB

'■1 ' .

1 1

.1

I 'I

. 1
. \

■'i

most intercstod in itH existenco, illustrating in ft rcmarkablo degree
how Nntiit'c \h ill all her kingduniM ilcpciulont on all, uiul how great
are little things!

Note. — Prof. Nordknskiolu oftei's the following remarks on
the Colour of the Arctic Sean, in his " Expedition to Greenland,"
" Geological Magazine," vol. ix., pp. 9, 10: —

Hudson, and other veteran mariners of the Arctic hcus, mention
the variety of colours that distinguish the water in certain partH,
which are fretpiently so sharply distinguished that a ship may
sail with the one si<lo in blue and the other in greyish-green
water. It was at first supposed that these colours were indications
of different currents — the green of the Arctic, the blue of the
Gulf-stream. Later, Scoresby afiirmed that the phenomenon arose
from the presence of innumerable organisms, which he seems to
consider as Crustacea, in the water. This observation has since
been continued, partly by the former Swedish Arctic Expedition,
and partly by Dr. Brown,* during the voyages made by him in
the Arctic seas as surgeon in a whaler, and as a member of
Whymper's Expedition. We also endeavoured to divert the
tedious monotony of the voyage by observations on this pheno-
menon.

The sea-water in the neighbourhood of Spitzbergen is marked
by two sharply distinguished colours — greyish-green and fine
indigo-blue. In the Greenland seas we also find water with a
very decided shade of brown. These colours are seen most pure
if one looks vertically down from the ship to the surface of the
water thi'ough a somewhat long pipe. The green, or rather grey-
green, water is generally met with in the neighbourhood of ice
(whence it was supposed to arise from the Arctic Current) ; the
blue where the water is free from ice ; the brown, as far as I am
aware, chiefly in that part of Davis Strait which is situated in
front of Fiskernaes. When specimens of the water are taken up
in an uncoloured glass, it appears perfectly clear and colourless,
nor can one with the naked eye discover any organisms to account
for the colour. But if, when the velocity of the ship allows of it
(i.e., when the ship makes from one to three knots an hour), a
fine insect-net be towed behind the ship, in the green and brown
water, it will soon be found covered with a film of^ — in the former
case green, in the latter case brown slime, of organic origin, and
evidently the real cause of the abnormal colour of the sea- water.
Just in these parts may be found swarms of small Crustacea,
which live upon this slime, and in their turn, directly or indirectly,
become tlie food of larger marine animals. The blue water, on
the contrary, at least in these seas, deposits no slime upon the
insect-net, and is far less frequented by Crustacea, Annelides, &c.

mm

* A very interesting essay on the subject has been published by Dr. Brown.
The Farmer, Jan. 1, 1865, p. 16. See above, p. 31 1.

!'I-N 1

DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS.

319

0 degree
aw great

niarks on
jenland,"

, mention
lin parts,
iUip may
ish-grccn
id i cation 8
uo of tho
!non arose
seems to
has since
xpedition,
by him in
lember of
livcrt the
liis pheno-

is marked
1 and fine
ter with a
most pure
face of the
vther grey-
lood of ice
:rent) ; the
'ar as I am
situated in
e taken up
colourless,
to account
allows of it
in hour), a
and brown
the former
origin, and
sea- water.
Crustacea,
indirectly,
e water, on
ae upon the
nelides, &c.

)y Dr. Brown.

than the groen. Thus, as Brown, hi tho article nbovo roforrod to,
remarks, the prosciu't! of this slinio, inoonsidi'mMe as it is, but
Bpread over hundreds of thousands of sijuaro mih's, is a condition
necessary for the subsistence, not only of tlie swarms of Birds that
frequent the northern soas, but also of that <;iaiit of tho animal
creation, tho Whale, and all branches of iiulustry dependent on
Whale-fisheries.

Of these remarkable organisms Dr. Oberg collected specimens
when possible, during tho voyage, which it is intended hereafter
to submit to a careful scientific examination, in conjunction with
similar specimens from preceding cxpeditit)iis. Here wo need
only mention that the slimo itself in each particular place is
formed oidy of a few species of Diatomace.t*, often so largo that
after drying the mass tho siliceous frustulcs may be disceruid
with the naked eye; but, on the other hand, difierent parts of tho
ocean exhibit entirely ditTerent forms, so that, for example, tho
green slime in one place has sometimes not a single species identical
with that in another. A long continued collection will therefore
be required to explain this scanty, but nevertheless remarkable,
and we may safely say important, Flora of the ocean's surface.

XXXVII. — Notes of Diatomace.e from Danish Green-
land, collected by EoBERT Brown. By Professor
Dickie, Aberdeen.

[Reprinted, by Permission, from the Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh,
vol. X., pp. 65-67. Read January 14, 1869.]

Mr. Brown sent for examination small packets of material
collected at various places along the coast of Danish Greenland,
with a request that any Diatomaceaj they contained might be
recorded.

The larger marine Algoe, from high northern latitudes, I have
invariably found to yield abundance of these organisms. The
species coUecteil by Mr. Brown, as well as his special Diatomaceous
gatherings, have not yet been seen by me, and therefore the
present communication gives but an imperfect idea of the marine
Diatomacea) in the localities visited.

No. 1. A small mass, chiefly of Hypnum JiuUans^ in the sea at
Jakobshavn, contained the following : —
Cocconeis scutellum. Rhabdoneraa arcuatum.

Coscinodiscus eccentricus. Cocconema cistula.

Stauroneis pulchella. C. parvum.

Hyalodiscus subtilis.

The two latter are freshwater species, and were, doubtless,
attached to the Hypnum before it was conveyed to the sea ; the
marine species seem not merely entangled among the mass, but
attached to it.

" ■_

32i)

DICKIE. DIATOMS FROM GREENLAND.

W.M

\^ •: ^

Mi

No. 2. A mass of Ectocarpus, from Jakobshavn, contained the
following : —

Coccoueis scutellum. Grammonoma Jurgensii.

Coscinodiscus eccentricus. Podosphenia gracilis.

C. radiatus.

And very fine examples of two freshwater species, viz. : —

Hiraantidium undiilatum. Pinnularia stauroneiformis.

No. 3. A mass of Schizonema and Cladophora, floating in
Jakobshavn, contained —

Cocconeis scutellum. Grammonema Jurgensii.

Synedra salina. Biddulphia ; a few frag-

Podosphenia gracilis. ments, too imperfect for re-

Podosira hormoides. cognition.

The Schizonema is doubtfully referred to S. Dihoynii, being in
a very imperfect condition.

No. 4. At a depth of three fathoms, Jakobshavn : —

Cocconeis scutellum, var ^.

Coscinodiscus radiatus ?, frag-
ments only.

C. eccentricus.

Campylodiscus angularis, a so-
litary example.

Synedra salina.

Amphiprora alata.

Surirella gemma.

Nitzschia sijrma.

Navicula didyma.
N. elliptica.
N. liber.

Stauroneis pulchella.
Podosira hormoides.
Hyalodiscus subtilis.
Rhabdoneraa arcuatum.
Biddulphia aurita.
Schizonema ?

No. 5. A mass, chiefly of Dictyosiphon, from sea-shore, Riten-
benk, contained —

Cocconeis scutellum. Eupodiscus fulvus ?

Coscinodiscus eccentricus. Grammonema Jurgensii.

C. radiatus. Podosira hormoides.

And a 'single example of a freshwater species, viz., GompJionema
geminatum.

No. 6. A mass, consisting mainly of Conferva, Melagonium,
Dictyosiphon, and Lyngbya, from Godhavn, contained —

Cocconeis Grevillei.
C. scutelhini.
Coscinodiscus radiatus.
C. eccentricus.

Amphora membranacea, one
only.

Synedra gracilis ?
Navicula Jenneric
N. ellptica.
Nitzschia angularis ?
Podosira hormoides.
Gramniatophora serpentina.

All the species recorded here are British, with the single ex-
ception of Hyalodiscus subtilis, originally described by the late
Professor Bailey from Halifax ; found also on shores of North-west
America, and now on shores of Greenland.

HOOKEII OX PLVNTS FROM SMITH SOUND.

321

ned the

IS.

iting m

w frag-
for re-

being in

ire, Riteu-

11.

mipltonema

elagonium.

XXXVIII. — Note on some Plants from Smith Sound,
collected by Dr. Bessels. By Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B.,
F.H.S. 1873.

[From "A Whaling Cruise to Baffin's Bay and the Gulf of
" Boothia ; with an Account of the Rescue of the Crew of the
" ' Polaris.' " By A. H. Markham, Commander R.N.,
F.R.G.S. 1874. Page 296.]

Captain Markham's collection contains 20 species of Flowering
Plants, including four collected by Dr. Bessels in the highest
latitude from which Flowering Plants have hitherto been obtained,
namely 82^ N. The locality appears to have been on the oast side
of Smitli's Sound.* They are Draba alpina, Ccrastium afpimim,
Taraxacum Dens-leonis, and Poa flexuosa. All of them arc
common Arctic plants, being found on both coasts of Greenland,
as well as throughout the Parry Islands. Of tlic other species
collected by Captain Markham himself, the Arctic distribution is
well known. None of them belong to the remarkable assemblage
of Scandinavian plants which inhabit Greenland, and of Avhich no
other member has been found on the eastern shores of Ballln's
Bay. On the other hand, one of them is a member of that
smaller number which lias never been found on the Grecniland
coast. This is the peculiar and beautiful little Pleuropognn
Sahini, the only genus which is absolutely confined to the An^tic
regions, and of which the solitary species is restricted in its dis-
tribution to the Arctic- American islands. It was discovered by
Captain, now General Sir, Edward Sabine, in Melville Island,
during IParry's First Voyage in 1819-1820, and is probably found
in all the islands. Capt. Markham's specimen was gathered on
Fury Beach.

The other species call for no special remark. They are
interesting as, in several cases, coining from places where the same
plant had not previously been gathered. These localities arc
valuable, as completing a knowledge of the area inhabited by such
species, though they do not materially enlarge it.

[.S'ee above, Dr. Hooker's memoir on Arctic Plants, pages 205,
&c.]

ntina.

single ex-

jy the late

lorth-west

XXXIX. — Notes on the Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Voyage of the " Polaris " to Kennedy and
Robeson Channels.

1. " Nature," July 17, 1873, vol.viii., p. 218. — " During the sum-
mer the entire extent of both low^lands and elevations are biu'c of
snow and ice excepting patches here and there in the shape of the

* "Nature," vol. viii., No. 20G, p. 487. Oct. K, 1873.
30122. X

, f I

■ "I

w

h

322

VOYAGE or THE "POLARIS."

rocks. The soil during this period was covered witli a more or
less dense vegetation of Moss, with which several Arctic Plants
were interspersed, some of them of considerable beauty, but
entirely without scent, and many small Willows, scarcely reaching
the dignity of shrubs.

" The rocks noticed were of a schistose or slaty nature, and in
some instances contained fossil plants, specimens of which were
collected.

" Distinct evidence of former glaciers were seen in localities
now bare of ice, these indications consisting of the occurrence of
terminal and lateral moraines.

" Animal life was found to abound, Musk-oxen being shot at
intervals thronghout the winter. Wolves, Bears, Foxes, Lemmings,
and other Mammals were repeatedly observed.

" Geese, Ducks, and other Water Fowls, with Plover and other
Wading Birds, abounded during the summer, although the species
of Land Birds were comparatively few, including, however, as
might have been expected, large numbers of Ptarmigan or Snow-
partridge.

" No Fish were seen, although the net and line were frequently
called into play in the attempt to obtain them. The water, how-
ever, was found filled to an extraordinary degree with marine
Invertebrata, including Jelly-fish and Shrimps ; Seals are very
abundant. Numerous Insects were observed, also especially
several species of Butterflies, specimens of which were collected ;
also Flies and Bees, and Insects of like character."

2. "Nature," March 26, 1874, vol. ix., p. 405.— " Zoology and
Botiuiy. — The collections of Natural History are almost entirely
lost. With the exception of two small cases containing animals,
minerals, and one package of plants, nothing could be rescued.
The character of the Fauna is North- American, as indicated by
the occurrence of the Lemming and the Musk-ox. Nine species
of Mammals were found, four of which are Seals. The Birds are
represented by 21 species. The number of species of Insects is
about 15, namely, one Beetle, four Butterflies, six Diptera, one
Humble-bee, and several Ichneumons, parasites in caterpillars.
Further, two species of Spiders and several Mites were found.
The animals of lower giade are not ready yet for examination.

" The Flora is richej- than could be expected, as not less than 17
Phanerogamic Plants were collected, besides three Mosses, three
Lichens, and five freshwater Algaj.

" Geology. — Although the formation of the Upper Silm-ian
Limestone, which seems to constitute the whole west coast north
of the Humboldt Glacier, is very uniform, some highly interest-
ing and important observations have been made. It is found that
the land is rising, as indicated, for instance, by the occurrence
of marine animals in a freshwater lake more than 30 feet above
the sea-level and far out of reach of the spring-tides.

" Wherever the locality was favourable, the land is covered
with Drift, sometimes containing very characteristic lithologicjil
specimens, the identification of which with rocks in South

L more or

ic Plants

tuty, but

reaching

re, and in
tiicli were

localities
urrence of

lor shot at
:jemmings,

• and other
the species
jwever, as
1 or Suow-

, frequently
Yuter, how-
ath marine
Is are very
especially
e collected ;

Zoology and

st entirely
ing animals,

3C rescued .
ndicated by

ine species
be Birds are
)f Insects is
Diptera, one

caterpillars.

were fovmd.

ination.

less than 17
llosses, three

per Silurian
coast north
lily interest-
is found that
^ occurrence
;0 feet above

is covered

lithological

LS in South

VOYAGE OF THE ** POLAItlS."

323

Greenland was a \ery easily accomplished task. For instance,
garnets of unusually large size were found in lat. 81° 30', having
marked mineralogical characteristics, by which the identity with
some garnets from Fiskernaes was established. Drawing a
conclusion from such observations, it became evident that the
main line of Drift, indicating the direction of its motion, runs
from south to north." *

3. A. II. Markham's " Whaling Cruise," &c., 1874, p. 205. —
" In the latitude of their winter quarters (81° 38') Musk-oxen
were met with and 26 Avere shot. Foxes and Lemmings were
also seen ; but other animals were comparatively scarce, and only
one Bear was seen during the whole year. Narwhal and Walrus
were not seen to the north of 79°, but Seals were obtained up to
the extreme point in 82° 16'. They were of three kinds, namely,
the common GTreenland Seal, the Ground Seal, and the Fetid
Seal. The Bladder or Hooded Seal was not met with. On the
western side, it was stated by the Etah Esquimaux, that EUesmere
Land abounded with Musk-oxen ; and judging from the con-
figuration of Grinnell Land, the same abundance of animal life is
to be found there also. The Birds all disappeared during the
winter, though Ptarmigan and a species of Snipe made their
appearance early in the spring ; and in summer all the genera
found in other parts of the Arctic regions were abundant.

" With the exception of a Salmon seen in a freshwater lake not
far from the beach, no Fish were met with. The contents of the
stomachs of the Seals they caught were found to consist of
Shrimps and other small shell-fish. Dr. Bessels used to dredge
on several occasions, but owing to the ice, he could seldom do so
to a greater depth than 18 or 20 fathoms, the results being generally
unimportant, and with the exception of a few Shrimps and other
Crustacea, nothing of interest was procured.

" No less than 15 species of Plants, five of which were Grasses,
were collected by the l)octor at their highest latitude, on which the
Musk-oxen must subsist. Ho gave me four specimens of the
flora of 82° N., the names of which will be found in the List of
Plants in the Appendix, to which Dr. Hooker has kindly added an
explanatory note. \_Sce above, p. 321.]

"Mr. Chester presented me with a fossil from the Silurian
Limestone of that high latitude, which is also referred to in the
Appendix. [See further o«.]

" ]3r. Bessels made a fair collection of Insects, principally Flies
and Beetles, two or three Butterflies and Mosquitoes ; and liirds
of 17 different kinds were shot in 82°, including two Sabine Gulls
and an Iceland Snipe."

4. Clements Markham's ''Threshold;' &c., 1873, p. xxii.— Win-
tering (1871) near their furthest point, 82° 16' N., they found
abundance of animal life, and saw much Driftwood of recent
date, which must have come thence across the Polar Sea from the
shores of Siberia.

* Extracted from "Nature," by iterniission.

! ^C

' T'L

^ !i

M

■mi

■ .i;3i|

X t

m

324 MACCULLOCII, GEOLOOV OF BAFFIN'S HAY.

li.

Ii

' ■!«

u

XL. — Geological Notes on Baffin's Bay.
and MacCulloch, 1819.

By J. Ross

From miscellaneous specimens brought homo from Davis's
Strait and Baffin's Bay by Capt. John Ross, and determined by
Dr. J. MacCulloch (Ross's " Voyage of Discovery," &c., 2nd.
edit., 1819, 8vo., vol. ii., pp. 121-141), it appears that: —

(1.) At Waygatt Island (70° 36' N. lat., 54° 40' to 55° W.
long.) and at Four Island Point (70° 46' N. lat., 53° 3' \V. long.)
there arc granite, gneiss, schists, and igneous rocks, with lignite
at the former place.

(2.) At the Three Islands of Baffin (74° 1' N. lat., 57° 25' W.
long.), gneiss abounding in garnets and containing molybdena.
(3.) Cape Melville, granite and porphyry.
(4.) Bushnan Isle (36° 04' N. lat., (io° m' W. long.), granite,
gneiss, and mica-schist ; claystone and amygdaloidal claystone.

(5.) Cape York, Esquim., Inmallick (76° N. hit., m' 46' \V.
long.), porphyritic greenstone, used by the natives in cutting off
their iron from the masses.

(6.) lietween Cape York and Cape Dudley-Digges, including
the Crimson Cliffs (from 75° 45' to 76° 10' N. lat., and from 67°
to 68" 40' W. long.), granite, gneiss, and mica-schist, and green-
stone.

(7.) From Possession Pay and Cape By.nm-Martin, on the west
side of Paffin's Bay (73° 33' N. lat., 77° 28' W. long.), granite,
gneiss (with pyrites, garnet, and green felspar), sandstones, shale,
limestone, jasper, siliceous schist, and igneous rocks and agates.
" The gneiss with green compact felspar appears to be of common
" occurrence on this coast . . . . ; it is exactly similar to that
which occurs abundantly in the Western Isles, and more par-
ticularly on the western coast of Ross-shire, prevailing particu-
larly about Loch Ew and Loch Greinord [Laurentian]." " 'J'ho
jasper, siliceous schist, and chert resemble exactly those spe-
*' cimens which are found in the Island of Sky, among the beds
" of shale, sandstone, and limestone [Jurassic], when these are
" immediately in contact Avith the larger masses of trap ; and
" probably they here also owe their origin to the same cause."

(8.) From Agnos Monument (70° 37' N. lat., and 67° 30' W.
long.), granite, gneiss, and graywacke-schist.

(9.) The Iron mentioned above, under " Cape York," is stated
by Capt. Ross to have been used by the " Arctic Highlanders "
of Prince-Regent's Bay (lat. 75° 54', long. 6o° 53'), for the
edges of their knives, and to have been obtained by them from
the mountains near the coast, behind Bushnan Island. It was
said by the natives, as interpreted by Sacheuse, to occur in several
large masses or pieces, of which one in particular, harder than
the rest, Avas part of the mountain. The Iron was cut off with
a hard stone, and then beaten into small Hat oval pieces. The
place Avhere the metal was found was called "Sowallick," and

MACCULLOCH, GEOLOGY OF BAI FIn's HAY,

325

This

about 25 miles inland (lat. 7Cy'' 12' N., Ion;;. o3° W.)
Iron Dr. Wollaston estimated to contain between 3 and 4 per
cent, of Nickel, and Mr. Fyfe found in it 2-56 per cent. Hence
they regarded it as of vleteorie origin. Op. cit., vol. i., p. 132,
p. 140, and vol. ii., pp. 181-6.

XLI. — Notes on Meteohic Iron used by the Esquimaux
of the Arctic Highlands. By Captain fnow
General Sir) Edward Sabine, R.A., F.K.S., &c. kc.
1819.

1. "Quart. Journ. Lit. Sc., «S;c.," 1819, vol. vi., p. 369; and
" Geolog. Magazine," vol. ix., p. 74, 1872.

The northern Esquimaux lately visited by Captain Ross [in
August 1818] Avere observed to employ a variety of implements
of iron ; and upon inquiry being made concerning its source by
Captain Sabine, he ascertained that it -was procured I'rom the
mountains about 30 miles from the coast. The natives described
the existence of two large masses containing it. The one was
represented as being nearly pure iron, and they had been unable
to do more than detach small fragments of it. The other, they
say, was a stone, of which they could break fragments, which
contain small globules of iron, and Avhich they hammered out
between two stones, and thus formed them into flat pieces about
the size of half a sixpence, and which let into a bone handle,
side by side, form the edges of their knives. It immediately
occurred to Captain Sabino that this might be meteoric iron ; but
the subject was not further attended to till specimens of the knives
reached Sir Joseph Banks, by Avhoso desire Mr. Brande examined
the iron, and he found in it more than three per cent, of nickel.
This, with uncommon appearance of the metal, Avhich was perfectly
free from rust, and had the peculiar silvery whiteness of meteoric
iron, puts the source of the specimens alluded to out of all dou])t.
The one mass is probably entirely iron, and too hard and intractable
for further management ; the other appears to be a meteoric stone
containing pieces of iron, which they had succeeded in removing
and extending upon a stone anvil."

2. Extract from " An Account of the Esquimaux who inhal>it the
" West Coast of Greenland above the Lat. 76°." By Captain
Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. " Quart. Journ. of
Literature, Science, &c.," vol. vii., 1819, pp. 72-94. Sec
also the " Geological Magazine," vol. ix., 1872, pp. 73-74.

" Each of the Esquim.aux Avho visited us on the 10th of August
[1818], and I believe each of the others whom we after saw, had a
rude instrument answering the purpose of a knife. The handle is
of bone, from 10 to 12 inches long, shaped like the handle of a
clasped knife ; in a groove which is run along the edge arc inserted

^ •.' ■ • m

-t^-'.

r{20

SAIJINK ON MKTKORIC IRON.

Il

i

1

',,%

i;^

Kovenil liits of flattoncd Iron, iu nuinlKT from three to seven in
different knives, and occupying generally half the length. No
contrivance was aj)plied to fasten any of these pieces to (he
handle, exce[)t the one at the point, whii.'h was generally two-
edged and was rudely riveted. Jn answer to our incjuiries from
whence they obtained the iron, it was at first understood that
they had found it on the shore ; and it was suj)posed to be the hoop-
ing of casks, which might have been accidentally drifted on the land.
We were surprised, however, in observing the facility with which
they were induced to part with their knives ; it is true, indeed,
that they received far better instruments in exchange, but they
did not appear to attach that value which we should have expected
to iron so accidentally procurcid. This produced some discussion in
the gun-room, when it appeared that some of the offtcers who
had been present in the cabin when the Esquimaux were questioned
were not satisfied that Zaechous' [" Sacheuse " of Captain Ross's
Narrative, 1819] interpretation had been rightly understood; he
was accordingly sent for afresh, and told that it was desired to
know what had been said about the iron of the knives (one of
which was on the table), and he was left to tell his story without
interruption or help. He said it was not English or Danish, but
Esquimaux iron ; that it was got from two large stones on a hill
near a part of the coast Avhich we had lately passed, and which
was now in sight ; the stones were very hard ; that small pieces
were knocked off from them, and beaten flat between other stones.
He repeated this account two or three times, so that no doubt
remained of his meaning. In reply to other questions, we gathered
from him that he had never heard of such stones in South Green-
land ; that the Esquimaux had said they knew of no others but
these two; that the iron breaks off from the stone just in the
state we saw it, and was beaten flat without being heated. Our
subsequent visitors confirmed the above account, and added one
curious circumstance — that the stones are not alike, one being
altogether iron, and so hard and difficult to break that their
supply is obtained entirely from the other, which is composed
principally of a hard and dark rock ; and by breaking it they
get small pieces of iron out, which they beat as we see th(.'m.
One of the men, being asked to describe the size of each of the
stones, made a motion with his hands conveying the impression of
a cube of two feet, and added that it would go through the skylight
of the cabin, which Avas rather larger. The hill is in about 76'
10' lat., and 64° ^' long. ; it is called by the natives ' Sowilic,'
derived from ' sowic,' the name for iron amongst these people, as
well as amongst the South-Greenlander. Zacchcus told me this
word originally signified a hard black stone, of which the Esqui-
maux made knives before the Danes introduced iron amongst them ;
and that iron received the same name for being used for the same
purpose. I suppose that the Noi'thern Esquimaux have applied it
in a similar manner to the iron which they have thus accidentally
found.

" We are informed in the account of Captain Cook's Third

SAI51NK <)\ MKTFXUIC IIJON.

:]'17

seven in
rth. No

s to the
•ally two-
iiicH from
tood that
the hoop-
1 the land,
ith which
ic, indeed,
but they
! expected
cussiou in
Hcers who
juestioned
aiu Ross's
•stood; he
desired to
es (one of^
:y without
anish, but
38 on a lull
and which
nail pieces
her stones,
t no doubt
'e gathered
ath Green-
others but
ust in the
ated. Our
added one
one being
that tlKur
composed
ng it they
see them.
?ach of the
pression of
he skylight
1 about 76^
' Sowilic,'
people, as
)ld me this
the Esqui-
)ngst them ;
)r the same
e applied it
iccidentally

ok's Third

Voyage, that the inhabitants of Norton Sound, which is in the
immediate neinfiibourhood of Behring's Straits, (!all the iron which
they procure from Russians ' shawic,' which is evidently the
same word. The peculiar colour of these pieces of iron, their
softness and freedom from rust, strengthened the probability that
that they were of meteoric origin, which has since been proved by
analysis."

XLIT. — Tiie Mtneraloqical Geology of Greexiand from
Cape Farewell to DrsKo. By the Chevalier
Charles L. GiESECKft, Professor of Mineralogy to
the Dublin Society,

[Extracted from his Article " Greenland," in Brewster's
<' Edinburgh Encycdopaedia," 1816.]

[In the nomenclature of his day Giesecko here refers to the
highly altered or metamorphic paljeozoie (Laurentian and other)
strata, with their igneous rocks, as " Primitive " ; and to the more
distinctly bedded igneous rocks, of later data, as belonging to the
" Flootz-trap formation " : some old slates and trap-rock he refers
to Werner's intermediate " Transition formation." — Editor.]

The accumulation of the ice having rendered the interior of
Greenland totally inaccessible, it can only be examined on ditferent
parts of the coast ; and the promontory Cape Farewell, which is
its most southern point, presents to the eye immense groups of
precipitous mountain-masses, insulated, barren, and naked, sharp-
pointed at the top, greatly decomposed at the surface, and cleft by
the action of the snows and the ice. These rocks arc intersected
by narrow valleys, where immense broken and scattered masses
are borne along by irresistible cvirrcnts, and carried immediately to
the shores where there is no low land to intercept their course.

1. The Granite of this island (Cape Farewell) is fine-granular,
consisting of pearl-white felspar, greyish-black mica, and very
little quartz of an ash-grey colour. The whole rock is very much
ironshot and disintegrated. At the foot of the granite rocks
occur beds of common quartz of a milk-white colour (not milk-
quartz), and flesh-red felspar, with small crystals of moi-oxite
(foliated or common apatite). In another place are found flesh-
red felspar, with little quartz, common hornblende, magnetic iron-
stone, and gadolinite, crystallised in longish four-sided pyramids.
A bed on the east side of the promontory contains garnets in a
tine-granular gi-eyish-white rock, very much resembling the rock
of Naniiest, in Moravia, called by Werner " Weiss-stein " (white
stone) ; but the crystals of garnet here are larger and perfect
dodecahedrons. The granite extends from Cape Farewell to the
east and south-cast of the coast, viz., over the islands of Staaten-

t'

■ i • ^

328 GIKSECKf: ON THE GEOLOGY OF GUEENLANIX

/-

Im I

liiick ami KnkasoeWHiuk, Alluck, and Cn\w DIricoitl, to a (lislancc
of inoiv tlmii 400 iniliis. (inois8 and inicu-slaie lio upon it iit
Kippinj^jijak, both rocks contftining grtrnctn. Tjiloslatt; iornis a
largo bed in it at Akajarosanik, along with actynolld', Aviiich occurs
in large luasstis. Near tho coa.-^t of Akajarosanik is the small
island of Kakasoeit?i:ik. It consists of one hill foraicd of a granito
rock, mixed with some hornl)lon(lc, slender cry.stals of zirkon, and
the new mineral called alfanifc {sec Tnins. Edin. Sue., vol. vi., p.
37 1 ). The rock here assumes the character of the Norwegian 7/nk(»M-
Hyenite ; but its constituent parts are of a ilner grain. All tlie granilio
mountains of the islands of Staaten-huck and Cape Farewell are sur-
rounded by numerous very small islands, presenting round-backed tn
liat conical lulls of primitive syenite. To the west of Cape Farewell,
at a place called Niakornak, is a very extensive bed of yellowish-
whito felspar, crystallised in large flat six-sided prisms, the crystals
being oidy separated by black mica, which gives to the rock a
porphyritic appearance. The place is very difficultly accessible, it
being harassed perpetually by tho most boisterous sea, and washed
!))• the tide at high water. Not far from this, at an elevation of
about 1,000 feet, the granite is divided into immense columnar
or (luadrangular pieces, which, seen from a distance, present an
appearance similar to the ruins of a town. Tho Greenlandcrs
state that the masses were carried thither by some giants, who
inhabited the country in the oldest times, and, having been sor-
cerers, disappeared from the earth.

As granite is the principal rock whicli constitutes the moun-
tains of this vast coast, to enumerate all the places where it is
found would exceed the limits of such an article as tho present.
Its most common colour is greyish-white, flesh-rc3, and tile-red ;
the latter colours are characteristic of the coarse-gramdar felspar.
Magnetic iron-ore is generally found either disseminated or im-
bedded in tho red variety. In some places, molybdena occurs,
and in others graphite, imbedded in the rock. At Bad's Ivivcr
and at Disko Island, iron-pyrites is found; but, excepting there,
the rock is not very metalliferous. Precioua garnet oeeurs very
frequently; also common schorl, tourmaline, common hornltlende,
jade, rock-crystal, nioroxite, calcareous spar, fluor-spar, and the
aljovo-mentioned substances, llock-crystal is only found in veins
traversing the red coarse-granular variety, and appears to be con-
temporaneous; the vein being intimately minglccl Avith the rock,
and presenting no walls. IJcds of hornblende-slate, nnca-slate,
felspar, and quartz rest upon it, and on the red coarse-granular
granite at Kogneckpamiedluadc there is an extensive bed of i-ed
ironstone mingled with massive iron-flint (" Eiscnkiesel " of Wer-
ner). At the end of the north-eastern arm of Baal's River, in the
vicinity of the great continental ice, tho traveller, ascending from
a narrow cliff, suddenly beholds a dreadful chaos of inmiense
columnar granitic blocks detached from each other, and hen[)ed to-
gether in the most fantastic groups, the planes of fracture being so
fresh that the points from which they are broken are distinctly
observable. Places of desolation and devastation of this kind are

liHtaucc
in it lit
Conns u
h ofcnrs

10 SlUilll

V grsviiito
kon, ami
ol. vi., l>.
n 7/uk(»M-
egriinilio
11 arc sur-
backod ov
Farcwt'Uj
yellow ish-
.0 crystals
le rock a
cossible, it
id -washed
ivatioii ol'

colninuar
^)rescnt an
eeulandcrs
;iants, who

been soi-

[Ihe moun-
vhcrc it is
10 present,
ul lile-red ;
ihiv felspar,
ted or ir.i-
ena oceurs,
nl's Iviver
ting there,
eeurs very
lioriibleiule,
jar, and the
]nd in veins
Is to be eon-
thc roek,
mica- slate,
rse-granuliir
bed ol' rod
A " of Wer-
liver, in the
|nding from
)f immense
h henped to-
\ivii being so
[e distinctly
lis kind are

GIESECKK ON THE GEOLOGY OF OREENLAND. 329

vory frequently met Avith in the mountains of (Greenland. Most
of the granitic rocks afleet the noodle.

2. The next roek which Ibrnis numerous mountains in this country
is (fNiciss. It occurs very oftiii altornatiug with granite, some-
times with mica-slate. Its character or texture nuiy be ascertained
l)artiy in the cliffs and on the shores, partly by the Ibrms of the
nu>untalns. Thogranitic nmuntjiius are always more dccomposi^d and
therefore more j)re('ipitous, pres^'utiug very sharp-cdgod summits;
the summits of the gneiss are more /hit and rouud-baeked. The
texture of the gneiss is thick- and thin- slaty ; its ielspar generally
pearl-grey and pearl-white, seldom (Ii'sh-red, line-granular ; its
mica-grey, pinehbeck-brown, and blackish-brown ; il contains but
little ash-grey (|uartz. 'i'he valleys and elefls round the mountains
are filled with rhomboidal fraguicnts, many of them of innnenso
size. The smaller fragments were used by llu' old Norwegians,
Avith mica-slate, hornl>lendo-slate, and slaty claystono to build
their houses ; the walls of which, although not cemented, after a
lapse of several eontiu'ies still brave the power of this destruetivu
c'liniato. Gneiss constitutes one of the most elevated points of
this extensive coast, viz., the mountain Kinyiktorsoah, situated in
the 62nd degree of latitude. It is covered with miea-slate from
the shore to a height of about 1,000 feet above the level of the
sea, where the gneiss again becomes visible, and continues to a
height of nearly 3,000 Icet. The top of this mountain is similar
in shape to the roof of a house, where the ridge is not much ele-
A'ated. It is entirely free fi-om snow in sunnner, except a few
small spots, where it rests in the hollows of its summit.

The miea-slate resting upon the gneiss presents a variety of
beds of hornblendo-siate, whitestone (Weiss-stein) with small
garnets, tale-slate with connnon and indurated tale, potstone,acty-
nolite, and precious sjjlintery serpentine. The gneiss is transverscd
with numerous veins of greenstone, various in thickness from one
inch to six feet. The greenstone whien occurs in the veins re-
sembles basalt ; but it is more crystalline in its texture, lighter
in its colour, and not quite so hard. Common schorl, tourmaline,
and precious garnet occur imbedded in gneiss. It contains veins
of tinstone, accompanied by arsenical pyrites, wolfram, fluor, and
quartz, in a lirtli called Arksut, situated about 30 leagues from
the colony of Juliaua-IIope, towai'ds north-east. The same place
is remarkable for two thin layers of cryolite, resting upon gneiss ;
and it is the only place where this mineral has hitherto been found.
One of these layers contains the snow-white and greyish-white
variety, unmixed with any other mineral. Its thickness varies
from one foot to two feet and a half; and it is divided from the
underlying gneiss l)y a thin layer of mica, always in a state of
disintegration. The other variety is of a yellowish-brown colour,
passing into tile-rod. It occurs along with iron-pyrites, liver-
brown sparry-iron-ore crystallised in rhombs, earthy cryolite,
quartz, compact and foliated 11 nor, earthy lluor, and galena. It
is remarkable that the galena is sometimes coated with a greyish-
Avhitc sulphureous crust, which burns in the flame of a candle
with a bluish colour, emitting a sulphureous smell.

m

330 OIESEOKfe ON THE GEOLOGY OF GHRENLAND.

Those layers of cryolile aro situafod vory noar oaeh other, only
separated by a small ridges of ^nei.^s, of a thickness of 27 feet ;
both are washed at higli water by the lide, and for the most part
exposed, the superincumbent gneiss having been removed. The
white eryolite, scon at a distance, |)rese!its the appearance of a
sniull layer of ice ; small <lefaehed fiagmcnts have acquired, from
decomposition, the shape of cubes. This mineral is called by tho
Grccnlanders Orsvksilisaf, from ihe word orhsiih, blubber, to
which it bears some resemblance. 'I'he same name is also given
by (he natives to white calcareous ^\m\\\

3. iMK'A-SLVTK is likewise one of the most common rocks in
Gi-eenland, and an inseparable companion of gneiss ; there arc
very few instances where they arc not found in the vicinity of
each other, and frequently in contact. Mica-slate forms in this
country a very extensive series of mountains, which never rise to
a considerable height, and appear generally to rest upon gneiss.
Mica-slate is frequently visible on the shores ; and the gneiss
itself forms also very extensive beds in it atDisko Bay, where the
whitcstonc also occurs in beds. Tho Greetdandish mica-slato
abounds in mica ; it is generally thin-slaty, and only thick-slaty
when the quartz prevails. Sometimes it has an undulating aspect ;
but, when this is the case, it passes into primitive clay-slate. The
mica of this mica-slate is mostly greyish-black and ])inehbeck-
bi'own, passing into brownish-black, seldom silver-white. Its
(juart/ is pearl-grey. It is sometimes mingled with nodules of
l)earl-grey felspar, from the size of a i)ca to that of an oraiige, and
this gives it the appearance of gneiss ; but they may be easily and
accurately distinguisiicd, as tho mica-slate presents a surface
perfectly continuous, and easily s(^parablc in the direction of the
plates of the mica. The strata dip towards north-west.

Mica-slate jdso occurs in beds in various parts of this country.
One of the most remarkable, most interesting, and most extensive,
is that in the firth of Kangerdluarsuk in the 61st degree of
latitude, in the district of Juliana-IIoi)e. It extends about five miles
in length and four miles in brcadlh ; its thickness varies from 6 to
12 feet ; and it contains, besides felspar, which is its principal con-
stituent part, hornblende, augite, actinolile, sahlite, garnet, and
that new mineral which has 1)ecu analysed by Dr. Thomson and
Professor Eckebcrg, called sodalite. It is of pale applc-grcen, leek-
green, greenish-white, and pearl-grey colour ; partly massive, partly
crystallised. Another mineral, which has not been analysed,
occurs also with the sodalite : it is of a peach-blossom red and
[)urplc-red colour. On the shore the underlying gneiss is visible
in several places, In the superincumbent mica-slate, graphite
[''granite " in original] is found, of very fine texture, partly in veins,
partly imbedded. Calcareous spar and fluor occur in veins, both
of which are sometimes coated with a thin crust of chalcedony;
also galena in small veins. Jilue phosphate of iron, in detached
pieces, is found on the shores. The mica-slate is generally
decomposed and iron-shot, where the graphite is imbedded. In
the Firth of Ai'ksut a bed of very fine granular limestone is found
in mica-slate, which resembles the Carrara marble. The beds

fjn':sK<Ki': ox tiik okot.ooy of r.iniFNT.wn. HHl

lor, only
27 feel ;
iO!*t \niYt
i\. Tlio

1C(^ of tt

ed, from
(I by tho
iblicr, to
so given

rocks in
hero nrc
ieinity of
IS in this
ir rise to
n gneiss,
e gneiss
vherc the
iiica-slato
lick-shvty
ig aspect ;
ite. The
inchbcek-
ite. Its
lodulcs of
|W)gc, and
■asily and
s\u'face
on of the

country,
xtensivc,
eg roe of
ivc miles
Toni 6 to
ipal con-
net, and
nson and
■cen, leek-
vc, partly
analysed,
red and
is visible
graphite
Y in veins,
sins, both
iilccdony ;
detached
generally
Ided. In
e is found
The beds

wliich occur in this ro<'k on the mountain Kingiktorsoak have
b«'t!n already mentioned. Ilornblende-slatc, forming bods in niica-
slato, is found in nnuiy places.

In lh(^ (i4th degree of latitude, in a fii'th csdled Ameraglik, in
tlu' south of the Danish colouy (^«0(hhaab (( ioodhope), u variety
of niicii-slate is found, whielj [)a'^s<'S into tale-slale, fdniiiiig a very
small layer in coarse-granular granite. It is very remarkal)le, oti
account of the large groups of toiu'maliiie which occur, imbedded
or rather involved in lah'ose mica, and which are (lie largest crvstals
of this fine mineral that hav(* lieeii mi^t with. At the end of the
same tirth, at Auaitsirksarbiek, in th(> neighbourhood of tho great
continental glacier, the finest garnets are f(Mnid. They are of a
lamellar texture, and surpass the oriental specimens in colour,
lustre, and hardiu'ss. At tlie same place, dichroile and hyperstenc
of a beautiful blue colour occur, along with precious garnet, in
decomposed mica-slate. All the lower mountains from the fifilh
to tho 71st degree of north latitude, and particularly all (Ih;
mountains of tb.e continent A»rming Disko Bay, with the greatest
part of the ndjaccut islands, aie composed of mica-slate. There
is scarcely a square mile where the rock is entirely free from
garnets. A large mountain in Omenaks Firth, called Sedliarusa»t
presents on its surface only the powder of mica-slate, and frag-
ments of precious garnet. From the appearance of this powtl^r,
it is probable that the rock formerly conhiined great masses of
imbedded iron-pyrites. No snow rests on the surface of this
mountain in the coldest winter. The fragments of precious
garnet which are found here, when clear, are tho most highly
prized of any on the coast. Other minerals which are found in
mica-slate in Greenland are emery, on the island Kikertarsoeit-
siak in South Greenland ; granatite, on the island Manetsok ;
moroxite, in very largo six-sided prisms, at Sungangarsok, in
North Greenland; and dichroite in six-sided prisms on the island
Ujordlersoak, in the 76th degree N. hit. Except iron-pyrites,
coi)per-pyrites, and galena, no metal occurs in this rock.

White Stom-: (Weiss-stein), which has lately I>een dettM'mined
by Werner, appears to belong to this rock. It presents a white
and greyish-white granular appearance, which was formerly
su[)posed to be comimct or gramdar felsi)ar. It is in this country
characterised by very small and minute crystals of garnet dis-
seminated through the whole mass. Here it is found in layers of
inconsideralde extent, resting on mica-slate, very seldom on gneiss.
It is also found in detached pieces.

4. Clay-slate is very seldom met with on this coast, and
consequently the difterent beds which are characteristic of this
rock, viz., Ilint-slate, lydiau stone, alum-slate, but rarely occin*.
Nevertheless, at the mouth of the Firth Arksut it forms two islands
of some importance, called Arksut and Ujorbik. The colour of
the slate is ash-grey and bluish-grey ; its fragments present a
<louble cleavage ; and it is traversed in all directions by numerous
veins of massive and crystallised quartz, massive hornstone, and
si)arry-iron-ore of an isabella-yellow colour. An extensive bed
of flinty slate and lydian -stone rests upon it on the east side of

h\

, ^1

332 oikskck/^: on the oeolooy of Greenland.

tlio Isluiul l;jor1)ik. In Amciaglik fiord, in G,T 4', there ii n small
isliuid, Avlunj tho claj-slatc Ibnns fnmll liiyers in Inuj-graincil
^inuiitc; line rnlu'H of iron-pyriten, with variouH truncationH,
occnr in thi.s shito, which is greatly (ieconiposcd. Some Kniall
if<!un(lM in the !-onth-enst of DIhUo Ihiy conwist of clay-slate, with a
Miriety of small l)e(ls anil layers, viz., very ironwhot hornblende,
with .small gurnets, whet-slate, gianuhir hornblende, and green-
stone. 'lUh elay-slate may pcrliaps belong to tho class denomi-
nal»:d "Tran.-ition rockH."

.'). INmii'uvuv is very common in the south of Greenland,
from Cape Farewell to the 64th <legrce of latitude ; but it is
generally i'otind towards tho interior of tho continent, forming
insidated roeks. In the interior of the Firth Igalikko, at
AkuUiarasi'ksoak, hornstone-porphyry is found, very distinctly
strulilied, and resting njion fine-grained granite, containing large
crystals of reddish-white, fh^sh-red, and tile-red felspar, and
another mineral of a talcose ajjpcaranco, crystallised in six-.sidod
prisms, and hitherto unknown. The mass of the porphyry is
brownish-red, and passes in some places into claystone forming
chiyst()n(!-porphyry, the crystals then becoming less distinct. Horn-
slone-|)orphyry, with a few very small crystals of felspar, occurs
also in an adjacent firth called Tunugliarbik. This rock rests
upon Old Ked Sandstone.* The i)orphyry is very much decom-
posed. It is of a brown-red colour, and is called by the natives
aulijxiiUrlohf that is, blood-red rock. It contains small layers of a
brown-red iron-ochre, which the Grcenlanders use as a dyeing
material, to embellish tlujir utensils, and the interior of their
houses, a species of luxury they have learned from tho Euro-
peans.

6. vSyenite, and all the porphyritic rocks belonging to the
Priinitiveand Transition Trap-formation, are found in great abun-
dance in this country. Hornblende is a mineral which occurs
almost everywhere. A kind of coarse-granular syenite, composed
of eo.'irse-granular Lal)nidor-felspar and crystallised common
hornblende, rests upon finograiued granite at the mountain
lllcjulit, or Ivedekanunen, 61° lat., in the neighbourhood of that
extensive bed of sodtditc, salilite, and hornblende, which has been
already wientioned. This Labrador-syenite occurs also at the
mountain Kognek, 62' hit., upon granite of a coarser grain. In the
vicinity of tlie mountain Kognek is a group of more than 50
islaiitis, lying in a western direction, in Davis' Strait, and called
by the natives ICittik^^ut, from hitta, west. These islands form
I'ound-backed low hills, and consist of common felspar, of yellow-
ish-brown and lcek-gre(!n colours, and common hornblende of
ravcn-blaek and sometimes velvet-black colour, accompanied by
small four-sided prisnuitic crystals of zirkon of red-brown and
purple-red colour, with line grained common magnetic ironstone
interspersed, and very little black mica. In some parts of the
rock allanite occurs, of a pitch-black colour. The rocks are
tomcwhat ironshot, and disintegrated on their surface.

* The relative age of this sandstone has not been determined. — Editor.

3.

i a 8inall
j-gruinc'il
iicAtionB,
ne Kinall
0, withtt
•nblciulc,
il grceii-
i dcnoini-

I'cenUuul,
but it 18

likko, at
ilistinctly

lUg

large

pur, and
six-suloil
iphyry is
3 forming
2t. Horu-
ftv, occurs
rock rcHts
!h decoiu-
lic natives
layers of a
a dyeing
of tlieir
lio Euro-

to tlio
•eat abun-
,'h occurs
composed

conmion
mountain
id of tliat

lias been
ko at llie
In. In the

than 50
uul calletl
licds form
)f yellow-
Iblcudc of
[)anied by

rown and
I ironstone

•ts of the
Irocks ore

-Epixob.

oiksk(;k^ ox tiik ouoloov op orkenland. 33.1

TitH!uuin-iroii-oro is fouiil in sin:dl liyor-., ail (liio-gr.i'iiilur
chroiinite of ir.)n. Tim ronk itsulf Inn a strikini^ rmomhliiiKv^ to
tlio zirkou-syonite, foiiml at I<\'ioilriclnsv,i5n» an I otluM* plaivH in
Norway, and d vscrib^d by Von Bueh, Ksnark, and ILiiHtninn. *
Tlio noiglibjuring mountiiin hive no traeo of that r.nik. At
Narsak, in thn vicinity of Bud's Uiver, brown titAiiito, or brunon,
is found dissoininatod in syonitu.

Granular por[)hyriti(3 syenite is found at Nunarsoit (Capo of
Desolation). Its stratiHcatioa is not vory distinct. It contains
very extensive beds of coarse-grained, tile-red felspar, and
common magnetic ironstone.

7. PiiiMiTiVK Tu\r (Greenstone). — The islandn which lie
between the 02^ and (JIJ^ of latitude present a very coniph-te
series of the rocks tliiit belong to the Primitive Trap-lorination.
The greenstone first appears at Sakkak and lljorbik in the uioiidi
of Arksutstionl, where elay-slate predominates; and extends
from tliose islands towards the east, that is, to the continent »»('
Greenland, altornnting with greenstone of a p )rpliyiitie hinuituio
i^porphiiravtujer Grunstcht, of Werner), and green porphyry or
verde nntieo. An;)tlier rock of slaty texture, consisting of coni-
l)aet felspar and hornblende, appears to be intermediate IxitwecMi
hornblende-slate and greenstone-slate ; it is here the only rock
which presents very distinct stratification. The green^-itone-slale
covers uninterrnptodly both the greenstone and the greeti por-
phyry, and appears to belong to the Transition Greonstoue-l'oiinal
tion ; and perhaps the whole formation should be referred to it.
It probaidy extends farther to the interior of the continent, as the
fragments which are thrown out from the continental ice luive
an appearance exactly similar. Variolite is fouml there in small,
roundish, rolled pieces. The greenstone, alternating with syenite,
is found upon gneiss and mica-slate on the largo island Nunarsoit.

8. Pkimitivk Limkstoxe, of fine-granular texture, is found only
in beds and rolled pieces, and occurs very seldom in Greenland.
Its beds arc confined to gneiss and mica-slate, and it is mingled
with minute leaves of silver-white mica, seldom with grains of
quartz. It is generally accompanied by tremolite, asbestos, acty-
nolite, sahlitc, and seldom with rock-cork. Thus situated, it
occurs at the Island Akudlek, at the Island Manetsok, at Kakar-
soit and Kangerluluk, mountains in the vicinity of Jakobs-havn
and Christians-haab, in Disko Bay.

It is very surprising, that no vestige of Floetz limestone is
foimtl on this vast coast ; nor does any petrifaction occur there.
Very distinct impressions of the Sal/no arcticus \_Mallotus Gnen-
landicus, Cuvicr], with its bones very little altered, occur in
detached pieces on the alluvial land, which are forming daily.*
In the uppermost sandstone, which belongs to the brown coal of
the Floetz Trap-formation, fragments of Fccten Islandicus are
found, which have undergone but little alteration.

* See Mr. Watson's translation of Dr. M. Sars's " Pajers on the I'ossilit'erous
" Nodules in the I'ost-Tertiary Clays of Norway, &c.* Geol. Ma^'., vol. i.,
p. 15S, &c. — Emrou.

f L

I

'•■I 1

■i '■ I

l/iStttf'

3^4 aiKSEOK^^: ox tttr geology op Greenland.

M

i). The Flcktz Tuap-fuumation of Greenland is perhaps the
most extensive that has been discovered. It begins at 69° 14' N.
lat., occupies the large island Disko, and the eastern coast of the
Waygat, from Niakornak, on the northern cape of Arve-prinz
Island, round the Capo Noursoak, as fur as the end of the southern
coast of Cornelius liay, where it reaches the continental glacier.
Hare Island in the north of Disko Island, Unknown Island in the
mouth of Cornelius Bay, the islands Kakiliseit in the nortli of
the latter, and many other northern islands consist entirely of
fioetz-trap. From thence it extends over a part of the continental
coast of Greenland, vi/., London Coast, Svartenhnk, Ekallult,
Kangersoeitsiak, Karsorsoak, and disaj)peiirs ir. the 76th degree
under the most northern continental ice or glacier, which precludes
all further investigation.

The whole Floetz Trap-formation of Greenland, as far as it has
been examined, rests on gneiss or on mica-slate, tliese rocks
alternating continually. The underlying Primitive rocks, hz well
as the superincumbent Fla^tz-trap, are always somewhat decom-
]josed, where they come in contact. Trap-tuff generally rests
immediately upon the frimitive rock; it consists of balls and
nodules of basalt and wacke, joined together by a cement of the
same substance ; the centre of the balls and nodules is very often
fdled with mesotype, blended with massive or crystallised apo-
]»hyllite, the crystals of which are sometimes penetrated by
acicular mesotype. This trap-tulf scarcely presents another
mineral ; and the apophyllite, or ichthyophthalmite, does not
occur there in ai;y other rock, The underlying Primitive rock is
very variable in its elevations, sometimes it does not surpass the
level of the sea, sometimes (for instance, at Godhavn) it reaches
a height of from 500 to 600 feet, which can be observed very
exactly in the clifls there. Columnar basalt lies upon trap- tuff.
It presents four, five, and seven-sided columnar distinct concre-
tions,; the columns very seldom exceed a foot in diameter. This
basalt does not include any mineral, except sometimes very minute
spots of greyish-white glassy felspar. Wacke generally rests
upon it, forming an amygdaloid with different minerals, viz.,
chabasite, stilbite, analciuie, chalcedony, opal, heliotrope, quartz,
zeolite, miemite, and basillar arragonite. At Hare Island the
chalcedony is found crystallised in cubes. At Ivannioak in
Omenaksfiord, miemite occurs in kidneys, along with chalcedony,
opal, wavellite, arragonite, and some quart/, in grey decomposed
wacke. The wacke of the Floetz Trap-formation of this country
is generally intersected by small veins of iron-clay and bole.
Lithomarge and green-earth occur in nodules. Olivine .ind
augite are but seldom met with in the Floetz-trap of Greenland.
Launionite, in a friable state, is found in very small veins,
traversing wacke at Scrgvarsoit, on the northern coast of Disko
Island. Most of the Greenlandish basalt affects the needle very
powerfully. There are generally two, and sometimes three strata
of columnar basalt, and one of them forms the summit, except at
Ilnre Island, where the summit eonsi"=!ts of porphyry-i^hife resting
upon wacke. The shape of the mountains is very various ; some

i>fc,.

ii'liaps the
)9° 14' N.
ast of the
Lrve-prinz
J southern
al glacier,
and in the
e nortli of
entirely of
ontinental
Ekalluit,
3th degree
1 precludes

r as it has
icse rocks
IS, a:; well
lat decom-
rally rests
balls and
lent of the
very often
lUised apo-
jtratcd by
•s another
, does not
live rock is
surpass the
it reaches
3rved very
1 trap-tuii".
let concrc-
ter. This
ery minute
rally rests
^rals, viz.,
)e, quartz,
Island the
nnioak in
lalcedony,
(composed
s country
land bole,
vine and
reenland.
lall veins,
of Disko
ledle very
ree strata
except at
(o resling
liiis ; some

GTKSKCKfc ON THE C.F.Ol.OGY OF GT?EK\LAX1), 335

of them present pyramidal, some conical forms, and some are
entirely flat. Their stratification is very nearly horizontal ; and
the valleys between the mountains are generally narrow. There
is no doubt that some of the mountains have been separated by
very recent eruptions of rapid torrents.

On some parts of Disko Island beds of brown-coal occur in
Fla3tz-trap ; they rest upon yellowish-white coarse-grained sand-
stone, which is very friable. Large balls of ii'on-pyrit€s are
imbedded in it. The beds of coal are g(>nerally divided from each
other by strata of tine-griiined sandstone, and are of very uneiiual
thickness. In sonu' placn^s of the east coast of Disko Island, in
the Waygat, the sandstone becomes harder, and carbonised im-
pressions of leaves are found in it, which are similar to those of
Sorbits and Atiyeliva.

The coal of Disko Island is conmion brown-coal, of a slaty
texture ; it burns very easily, but it leaves a groat residuum in
the form of white ashes, which have a slaty texture, and some-
what resemble the polishing slate from Bilin in Bohemia. A very
remarkable variety of brown-coal, pa>-;sing into bituminous wood,
occurs in a small bed at Hare Island. It is of slaty texture ; and
honey-yellow amber, in numerous grains of various sizes, is
disseminated parallel tj the cleavage of the coal. Jt rests upon
ash-grey coarse-grained sandstone, is covered with grey common
clay, and belongs undoubtedly to the newest brown-coal forma-
tion. At Koonic in Omenaksfiord, native capillary and fibrous
sulphate of iron, of a beautiful green colour, is found in the cliils
of the brown-coal. All the Greenland coal is subordinate to
Floe tz -trap.

AUuv'^dl land has been formed at the end of every bay and
firth of the coast ; and, in addition to grey and greyish -white
sandy clay, it contains fragments of the neighbouring mountains.
This formation is daily increasing, and contains no metallic
substance, excei)t magnetic iron-sand, with which it generally
abounds.

XLIIL— On the Mineralogy of Disko Island. By Siu
Charles Gif:sECKE, F.R.8. Edin.

[From the Transact. Roy. Soc. Ediid)urgh, vol. ix., lS2i,
p. 263, &c. Read April 4, 1S14.]

[Tho "VVeniei iau tcnus '• rrlmitlvf rojks," " Flcetz Trap." and " Flcetz
" t'onnatiou " are usod as in tho prt'coding paper.]

Disko Island is situated in front of a bay in the continent of
Greenland, within Davis' Strait, known by the name of J>isko
Bay, which is sometimes called, particularly in the old Dutch
charts, Sydost (South-east) Bay. IMiis name is derived from an
immense cni'vature, screened by innumerable islands, made in the

•\m

330

GIKSECKE ON TflE MINEUALOGY OF DISICO.

n -H

continent by the sen. 131sko Inland is situated in 69° 14' of N.
latilude. It is distant from the continent towards the south 12
German miles ; on the west and north it is surrounded by the sea
of Davis' Strait ; and on the east, it is separated by a narrow
sound, distinguished by the name of Waygat by the Dutch, and
by the Greenlan(hM's Ikarcseksoak. It stretches northward from
69° 14' to 70*^ 24' ; and its greatest breadth, which is from Fortune
IJay on tlie west, to Flakkerhuk, so named by the Dntch, on the
east, is 10 German miles.

The whole of Disko Island belongs to the Floctz-trap-formation,
which extends over part of the continent beyond the Waygat,
and shows itself on the other side at 69° 20' of N. hit., continuing
towards and occupying the peninsula of Noousoak, which sepa-
rates Disko Bay from the Bay of St. Jani(!.^, called by the Dutch
Stikkondejakob's Bay. On the east end of this, the Floetz-trap
disappears under the stupendous glacier or ice-blink of this
immense arm of the sea; and on the opposite side of it, not the
smallest vestage of Flwtz-trap is to bo discovered. On quitting the
shore, however, towards the north, the ssimc formntion occurs, at
the island of Uporniivik, or Spring Island, which is formed of
basidt, with immense bods of sandstone, containing veins of brown
and bituminous wood-coal. Two considerable islands situated
beyond the Frith, one named Ubekjendte (or Unknown) Island,
and the other Ilasen (or Hare) Island, belong also to the Floetz-
trap.

These islands, all hough now detached, all appear to have origi-
nallv belonged to the same mass, and to have been torn asunder
by the impetuosity of the sea, wliicli, iuipt'lled by 4;he winds from
every quarter, runs with a force almost beyond belief. During
snch a tempest, I have myself seen the jaws of the great
Greenland Whale, BuUena niysticctus, thrown to a distance of
200 feet inland upon the beach.

Beyond the Bay of St. James, towards the great Northern
Cape called Svartenhnk, the Floctz-trap is interrnpted, either
by the Primitive rocks, or by an immense plain covered with
alluvial soil. Svartenhuk is composed of a granitic rock, with
large beds of micaceous schistus, mixed with small garnets.
In the adjacent bay, called Ilytten, the Floetz-trap shows itself
in small hills, resting on a bed of sandstone, in Avhich bitu-
minous wood occurs. From this point, the continent of Green-
land, which consists of granite, stretches away to the east of
north, and is covered witli an incredible number of small
islands, called the Vrowen or Women's Islands. The base of
these islands is uniformly gnmite or gneiss; the last sometimes,
though rarely, mixed svith garnets. Some of the islands are
covered with beds of the FlaMz Formation, particularly Kakarsoak,
the largest of the '••roup.

Tt) the north oF Kakarsoak, in the colony of XTpprnavik, in
lat. 72° 32', the Fla^tz-trap again dis-ippcars, and granite, alter-
nating with gneiss, present themselves, and continue to lat. 73° 32',
at the islands of lldjordlei'soak and 'J'essiursak. Near Cape
NuUok, in Sanderson's Hope, the Floetz-trap again appears in

r's*.-.,:ii:

:' of N.

)ulh 12
the sea
narrow
;ch, and
I'd from
Fortune
, on the

L-mation,
Way gat,
iitinuing
!h sopa-
- Dutch
oetz-trnp

of this
, not the
tting the
ipcurs, at
)nned of
of brown

situated
) Island,
\c Floetz-

iive origi-
asunder

ids from
During

lie great

stance of

!^orthern
d, either

od with
ek, with

garnets,
vvs itself

\i\\\k, iu
c, alter-

73° ;v:r,

|ar Cape
lears iu

OIESECKE ON THE MINERALOOY OF DISKO.

337

large masses of columnar basalt, resting on gneiss ; but beyond
this place, there is no farther approach, the country being
covered by the Great Boreal Glacier — the Northern Iceblink,

The direction of the trap-rocks, which are here spread over
such an extent of country, is almost entirely similar, being
nearly horizontal, stretching from south-wost to north-east.
The beds of which they are composed arc of a very unequal
thickness; those of basalt are most prevalent. The hills com-
posed of gneiss and granite are never highly elevated; and
the Floetz rocks are placed immediately on the gneiss, which
is always slightly decomposed upon the surface, Avhero in con-
tact with the trap. The prismatic basalt of this district, as of
that species distinguished in Germany by the name of Ba-
saltic Greenstone (griinsteinartiger Basalt). It is almost pure,
but sometimes contains a few detached specks, perhaps crystals,
of felspar. I found only in one place some small grains of
augite and of hornblende. The massive basalt, on the con-
trary, often becomes amygdaloidal by the small globules of
mesotype, stilbite, and quartz which it contains. It occurs
very generally undermost, and touching the Primitive rocks,
which is very rarely the case with the columnar basalt.

The trap-tuff, which is very common among the Floetz rocks
of Disko, rests also always immediately on the Primitive rocks ;
indeed, I never found it in any other situation in that island. It
appears to me here necessary to mark two varieties of this rock,
namely, that which consists almost entirely of fragments of wacke
contained in a paste of the same substance in a state of decom-
position ; it is of a very fine grain, very soft, and almost friable.
The other is composed of fragments of wacke, but more compiict,
and of globular pieces of basalt. When these globules are
broken, the interior is occupied by geodes of crystallised apophyl-
lite, accompanied with capillary mesotype, sometimes decomposed
and reduced to powder, in which state it is known by the name
of earthy zeolite. These are the only minerals I found in this
globular basalt. The apophyllite I never observed in the other
variety of trap-tuif, in Avhich I discovered no simple mineral
whatever, except some very small geodes of radiated zeolite. I
shall distinguish the one by the name of Trap- tuff, and the other
by that of Basalt-tuif. The last appears to me to be the oldest of
the two, and occurs, wherever I saw it, under the other. If the
tuff be entirely absent, then the amorphous basalt occupies its
place ; and on it rests the amygdaloid, the paste of which is of a
reddish-brown colour. It is the amygdaloid of this colour in
which the greatest number of minerals occur, such as stilbite,
mesotype, quartz, calcedony, and igloite. When exposed to the
action of the weather, this rock becomes extremely fragile, and
falls in conchoidal fragments, almost like bole. It occasions,
particularly in the spring season, by reason of its feeble cohesion,
immense devastation. Rent by the effects of the severe frosts of
winter, it falls in huge blocks into the valleys, when the basalt,
deprived of its support, is precipitated in enormous masses, and to

36122. Y

t

'I

338 fUEfeEOKi: ON the MlNERALOaV OF DISKO.

II i I

1'-

such nil extent, that rivers arc often impeded in their course, and
the whole neighbourhood laid under water. Over this amygdaloid,
a mass of ferruginous clay occurs, simihvr to the " Eisenthon " of tlie
Germans, which approaches to the jaspery oxide of iron. This is
again covered by amorphous basalt, separated from columnar
basalt, which usually forms tlie summits of these hills, by another
seam of the same ferruginous substance, of a brownish colour.

The mountain called Ounartorsak, near Godhavn, presents the
following [n'oportions in one of its precipices : —

Basalt, 1 Basalt, in columns of from three to seven
columnar, j sides, with some crystals of felspar.

^^ > Beddish-brown ferruginous clay.

Basalt, ( Amorphous basalt, with geodes of radiated

1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

amorphous, j mesotypo.

> Keddish-brown ferruginous clay.

Amygdaloid. 1 Reddish-brown wacke, containing stilbite,
J mesotype, &c.

Trap-tuff,
Basalt- tuff.

}

The last with apophyllite, &c.
Granite, with gneiss.

All the basalt of Disko is magnetic. That found in the most
elevated situations is most so ; the fallen masses dispersed around
the base of the mountains having more power over the needle than
the others.

The mountains of Disko are almost all flat at the top, and at a
distance present the appearance of large houses. It was only in
the Waygat, and in the Bay of St. James (Omenaks Fiord),
where I. observed pyramidal and conical summits. Mannik, a
mountain in Waygat, is terminated by an immense basaltic pyramid
of four sides.

On the summits of all the mountains which I ascended, I found
numerous rolled masses of Primitive rocks, often of considerable
size, and of a weight beyond my power to move. These masses
consisted either of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, siliceous schist,
quartz, or hornstone.

Porphyry-slate is the rarest rock among those of the Trap-
formation in Greenland. I ascended sever.al of the mountains,
but I found it only in two, Unknown Island and Hare Island,
to the north of Disko ; and there it occupied only the summit, in
tiibles split into a thickness vjirying from six inches to two, af-
fording a clear ringing sound when struck by a hammer. The
Greenlanders informed me, that during tempestuous weather, even
at the foot of the mountain, they often heard tones resembling
those of music, and that Tornarsuk, their good and evil deity,
when enraged, was the cause of them. He never, however, hap-
pened t'" be out of humour within my hearing.

At the foot of this immense Trap-formation of Disko, consider-

o.

GIESECKfe ON THE MINERALOGY OF DISKO. 339

ourse, and
tnygdaloiil,
ion "of the
1. Tbis is
columnar
by another
colour,
-esents the

;c to seven

r.

of radiated

ling stilbite,

in the most

»rsed around

needle than

jp, and at a
was only in
taks Fiord),
Mannik, a

|ltic pyramid

led, I found
Iconsiderable
Ihcse masses
Icons schist,

the Trap-
mountains,
karo Island,
summit, in
to two, af-
Inmer. The
gather, even
resembling
evil deity,
^wever, bap-

lo, consider-

able beds of sandstone occur. It makes its appearance at Auk-
padlartok, Akkiarut, and Imnarsoit ; but the mass of greatest
magnitude is at Aumarurtiksa;t, where it is accompanied with beds
of coal. From this spot the beds extend along the edge of the
sea, by Waygat, and become very considerable at Kudlisa^t, where
tlie stratification is deposed in the following arrangement : —

Ssindstone, sometimes with globules of pyrites.

Brown coal.

Schistose [thin-bedded] sandstone.

Pitch-coal.

Shale [Argillaceous schistus, in orig.].

Brown-coal.

Sandstone, with vestiges of Plants.

The sandstone is very light, and sometimes friable, which is also
the case with the shale [clay-slate, orig.]. The vegetable impres-
sions that occur in the lowest bed, seem to be those of the leaf of
Ancielica archangelica. The most considerable bed of coal is
about 9 feet thick ; while some of the seams are not above 7 or 8
inches.

It is nearly impossible to render this coal available, as scarcely
any shelter is to be found all along the Waygat for vessels of any
description, while a tempest almost continually prevails in the
Strait. It is the same case with the coal of Hare Island, gene-
rally known on account of the grains of amber which it con-
tains. There it occurs under an argillaceous wacke, in the fol-
lowing order : —

Coarse conglomerate.
Argillaceous wacke.
Brown-coal, with amber.
Fine-grained conglomerate.

Sand.

I have now only to mention the simple minerals which accom-
pany the Floetz-Trap-formation of this country, of which the
diifercnt members of the family of zeolite, its usual companion
in all quarters of the globe, are the most remarkable.

1. Mesotype. — The most common sub-species of this mineral is
the fibrous and radiated. The last is found crystallised in rect-
angular i^risms, truncated, with pyramids of four planes.*

b. Capillary. Near Sergvarsoit in Disko there is a small cave
covered with capillary mesotype, which the Greenlanders
consider to be the hair of one of their magicians called
Angekok. When this variety is decomposed, it forms the
earthy or mealy zeolite.

* Dr. Brewster has uxamiuod the Greenland mesotype, aad has found it to
be an entirely different mineral from the Auvergne mesotype. In its crys-
talline form it resembles the Auvergne specimens, -while, in its optical pro-
perties, it resembles the Iceland mesotypes. It is very remarkable that
capillary crystals from Sergvarsoit have been found by Dr. Brewster to be
different from the large crystals, and to be the same as those from Auvergne.

Y 2

l^i'

340 GIESECKfe ON THE MINERALOGY OF D18K0.

l\

H

2. Stilbite, — in thin hexagonal tables.

b. In quadrangular prisms, acuminated by truncated
pyramids.

3. Chabasie^ — crystallised in the primitive rhomb.

b. In truncated rhombs.

c. In macles.

4. Analcimc, — crystallised in the form of leucite.

5. Campact Zeolite, white and red.— This mineral occurs in
cavities and veins in all the rocks of the Floetz-Trap-formation,
except the basalt-tuff.

6. Apophyllite or Ichthyophthalme, occurs—

a. In prisms perfectly rectangular.

b. Also with the solid angles replaced. This variety was

mistaken for mesotype and described as Mesotype
epointe.

c. By a curious arrangement of the particles, the crystals

of apophyllite at the extremities present the shape of
a barrel.* They also occur acuminated and diverging
sometimes in the form of a rose. In perfect cubes,
the apophyllite occurs in Greenland only in the basalt-
tuff, accompanied with delicate capillary mesotype.
Notwithstanding, in Faroe and Iceland it is found in
wacke. This substance forms an opaque jelly in nitric
acid, frothing up and exfoliating. The apophyllite
also occurs in a radiated form similar to stilbite, but
with a more brilliant lustre, presenting on the surface
a crystallisation similar to the cock's-comb barytes.

8. Carbonate of Lime occur a in all rock of this formation, in
cavities and veins, of a greyish-white colour, sometimes massive,
sometimes crystallised in rhombs, also in pyramids of three and
six planes, and in prisms of six planes. I have found it also
crystallised in nearly perfect cubes.

9. Igloite, the arragonite of Haiiy, and hard calcareous spar of
Bournon, occurs fibrous, radiated, and crystallised in pyramids of
three planes ; also in prisms of six planes, terminating by degrees
in pyramids.

10. Radiated and concentric globular mineral, of a yellowish-
green colour, which I take to be Wavellite.

11. Compact quartz, bacillaire, and crystallised in prisms, in
geodes.

12. Calcedony, massive, and very rarely in cubes. Quartz and
calcedony occur in all the rocks.

13. Opal, common, in veins and cp,'»iti<-j, white and yellow,
particularly in basalt.

14. Cereolite, a mineral of a yellowish, brownish, and gi'eenish
colour, very similar to compact lithomarge.

* The cylindrical apophyllite, according to the experiments of Dr. Brews-
ter who examined some specimens which I transmitted to him, differs in a
remarkable manner from the apophyllite of Iceland, Faroe, Uto, and Fassa.
Its optical properties he has found to be of a very curious kind.

hi

OIESECKfe ON THE MINERALOGY OF DI8K0. 341

truncated

occurs in
formation,

'ariety was
Mesotype

he crystals
tie shape of
[I diverging
rfect cubes,
the basalt-

mesotype.
is found in
jUy in nitric
apophyllite
stilbite, but
the surface
barytes.
•rmation, in
|es massive,

three and
lund it also

jous spar of

)yramids of

by degrees

yellowish-
prisms, in
[Quartz and
uid yellow,
id gi-eenisb

bf Dr. Brews-

[1, differs in a

lo, and Fassa.

15. Green Earthy lining cavities, and sometimes filling geodes.

16. Heliotrope, in geodes and veins in basalt.

17. Agate, in geodes in basalt.

18. Felspar in small crystals, constituting the bnsaltic-porpliyry
and porphyry-slate.

19. Feri'tiginous Clay, of a reddish-brown colour, the " Eiscn-
thon " of Werner.

20. Bolus, in small veins.

21. Bituminous Wood, very rarely in minute beds in wacko
and basalt.

22. Brown-coal.

23. Pitch'coal, above described.

The Primitive Rocks, wliich constitute some small islands on
the south side of Disko, are very rarely accompanied with any of
the simple minerals. The felspar of the granite sometimes
becomes opalescent; the granite contains occasionally compact
and prismatic epidote, also diallage and tourmaline ; at Kangck it
sometimes, but very rarely, contains some cubes of pyrites ; and
in one place I observed magnetic iron [ore ?], in nodules, mixed
with it. In the islet of Fortune Bay, I noticed some specks of
the green oxide of copper in the micaceous schistus.

XLIV. — On the Cryolite* of West Greenland ; a
Fragment of a Journal by Sir Charles Giesecke.
(Reprinted from the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
vol. vi., 1821-22, pp. 141-4.)

Towards the end of September 1806, on returning from my
mineralogieal excursions around Cape Farewell and part of the
eastern coast of Greenland, I was informed by one of the Green -
landers who accompanied me, that they sometimes found loose
pieces, of " lead " (Akertlok of the natives) in a frith to the north-
ward of Cape Desolation (Nunarsoit of the Greonlanders), but he
could not tell me the exact spot. Though the unfavourable season
was already advanced so far, and the equinoctial gales had begun
blowing so violently as to make it unadvisable to venture such a
doubtful excursion, yet I resolved to go in search of the place, as
wo Avere near to the mouth of the frith in question. The name
of the frith is Arksut (Engl., the Leeward) : it was divided into
two arms ; that on the right of the entrance had a south-easterly,
and that on the left an easterly direction. I steered up the eastern
arm about 16 miles, and put on shore at different places. I
already began to despair of finding lead, when I observed, at
some distance, but near the shore, a snow-white spot. At first

* I know no name in the sj'stem of mineralogy more expressive of the
external character and the fusibility of this substance than that adopted by
my deceased friend Dr. Abilgaard, late Professor in the University of Copeu-
bageu, -who was the first who noticed and analysed this substance,

!i^

W

■■■■.,i-

342

GIESECK^, CKYOLITE OF OKEENLAND.

Nil

sight

but ('onsiclcTin«^

J''

m.

I suspected it might bo a small •jflucior
tliafc no such thing could exist, at this time of the year, so near
the sea, I landed, and I found, to jny great astonishment, a bed of
Cryolite, the geological situntion of whicli had been hitherto so
doubtful.

The islands -Nvhich lie across or shut up, as it were, the mouth
of this frith, consist of coarse-granular granite. The lofty moun-
tain Koffiukpamiedltwt (Engl,, the clifted rock Avith the long
tail), which rises on the left side of the entrance of the frith,
and which isahmdmark to the navigator, is composed of the siinie
granite, but with overlying syenite, the felspar of which is
beautifully labradoric. This granite continues uninterrupted fr/r
eight miles on both sides of the frith of Arksut, when it dis-
appears and alternates with gneiss. This gneisHs forms tlie shores
on both sides of the frith for from seven to eight miles, to the
spot called Ivikeet by the natives, where the cryolite is found.

The name Ivikcpt (from ivik, grass) was given to this place by
the Greenlanders on account of its peculiar fertility. The place
was formerly visited by them during the summer season, on
account of its being a good place for fishing and.'drying Anymaksfct
{Sal mo arcticns,\j., the Loddcoi\\\Q Norwegians [the Capelin]) ;
but it was deserted 20 years ago on account of the increasing
floating ice. Hence it arises that we owe the first discovery of
cryolite to the Greenlanders, who, in finding it to be a soft sub-
stance, employed the water- worn rounded fragments as weights
on their angling lines. In this shape, the first specimens of
cryolite were sent by the Missionaries as an ethnographical
curiosity to Copenhagen. It was of course incorrectly stated in
some periodical papers that the cryolite was discovered by me ;
I only found its geological situation, and I dare say by a mere
accident.

The cryolite is found, as T mentioned before, near to the shore,
resting immediately upon gneiss. This rock, which here forms
the shore of the frith, is under water during the tide, as well as
the supei'incumbent cryolite, and both are very much decomposed
where they are in contact with each other. The gneiss is metalli-
ferous, and intersected by small horizontal and vertical veins
of cpiartz, from the thickness of 1 inch to that of 3 or 4 inches,
containing tinstone, accompanied by arsenical jiyrites, connnon
iron-pyrites, small particles of wolfram, and lithomarge ; the
whole bearing a striking resemblance to the tinstone veins in
Saxony and Bohemia. The tinstone occurs massive and crystal-
lised in imperfect octahedrons ; the arsenical pyrites is partly
massive, partly crystallised ini oblique four-sided prisms ; the iron-
pyrites occurs only disseminated.

At a distance of about 120 fathoms from this spot, there is an
extensive bed of large quartz crystals, similar to those found
near Zinnwald in Bohemia; but they arc throughout in a per-
pendicular position, some of them measuring a foot in length, and
from 4 to 5 inches in thickness, containing small imbedded
crystals of tinstone of the above-mentioned forms. This bed is
intersected by a nearly vertical vein of compact fluor, of the

iisidoring

•, so near

a bed of

ithcrto 80

lie mouth
"ty raouu-
thc long
tlio iVith,

['the S15UU'-

which in
I'uptoil lV>r
oil it dif'-
thc shores
lies, to the
bund.
s place by
The place
season, on
[nymoksfct
Capelin]) ;
increasing
iscovery of
a soft sub-
as weights
Bcimens of
ographical
y stated in
■ed by me ;
)y a mere

the shore,
lerc forms
IS well as
ecomposcd
is metalli-
tical veins
4 inches,
, conmion
the
veins in
nd crystal-
is partly
; the iron-

inarge ;

here is an
lose found

in a per-
ength, and

imbedded
his bed is
Jor, of the

r

■«
1

aiESECKfc, CRYOLITE OF GUEENLAM).

343

thickness of from 6 to 7 inches. The whole is equally exposed
to the tide. The Huor contains no metallic substance, l)ut it is of
a singular nature. Its colour is reddish-blue, verging towards
lavender-blue ; the substance is dull, soft, and presents rather
blunt-edged indeterrainably angular fragments. Its powdvr is
reddish-white. It emits a strongly hepatic smell when rubbed.
Tlie common kind of compact tluor occurs along with it.

The cryolite rests upon the gneiss, which contains tlu5 sub-
stances just enumerated, and forms two distlnclly ditVerent beds,
which are nearly of the same dimensions, namely, 10 fathoms in
length, and from o to 0 in breadth. The purest cryolite is
that of a snow-white colour, without Jiny intermixed foreign sub-
stance, if 1 except a few nearly minute spots of galena. Its
colour passes gradually into greyish-white, when it approaches to
the other bed. The greyish-white variety on the surface very
much resembles ice which has been corroded and grooved by th(^
power of the sun's rays. In these fissures we sometimes observe
the threefold cleavage of this substance beautifully displayed.
Fragments of quart/ and sparry-iron-oro in rhombs sometimes
occur in the greyish-white variety.

The other bed is separated from the former by an elevation of
the underlying gneiss, and has a very diflerent appearance. The
snow-white and greyish-white colour is changed gradually into
reddish- white, and passes, in proportion to the (piantity of im-
bedded metallic substances, into orange-yellow and brownish-red.
We find in the reddish-white variety quartz crystals and par-
ticles of flesh-red felspar ; in the orauge-yelloAV and brownish-red
varieties sparry-iron-ore, iron 'py rites, copper-pyrites, and galena
occur in great abundance. Sparry-iron-ore occurs massive and in
rhomboidal crystals, accumulated in groups of considerable size.
Its colour is always dark blackish-brown, and the surface of the
crystals partly tarnished, partly decomposed. I found some of the
crystals hollow, and some filled with particles of common iron-
pyrites. Iron-pyrites occurs generally massive, rarely crystallised
in cubes and dodecahedrons. Copper-pyrites occurs only dis-
seminated in galena. The galena of this place has the peculiar
property of melting calmly before the l)lowpipe into a globule,
without the least deciepitation. Some fragments are covered with
a yellowish -white and greenish-white coating, which, when held
to a candle, burns with a blue flame and a sulphurous smell. This
kind of galena presents some properties of native lead, as the
sulphur appears to be elicited, and the ore reduced, by the action
of the sea-water or the atmospheric air. Galena occurs here dis-
seminated, massive, but rarely crystallised in perfect cubes, and in
cubes truncated on the angles and edges.

This variety of cryolite (I may perhai)S call it, in a geological
view, tnetallfferons vri/oliti') was not known in Europe befor«( I
visited the coast of (jireenlnnd ; because, owing to its tlecomposed
state, it was not used for any domestic or economical purpose by
the Greenlandeis. They preferred the white variety, which, from
its colour and greasy ai»pearance, was called by them Orksoksiksat

. il': ■

'4 ,

344

OIESECKfe, CRYOLITE OF GREENLAND.

(from the word orksoky blubber), a substance that has resemblance
to blubber. I coultl have remained with pleasure during the
AvhoU; winter on this spot, so alluring to a mineralogist ; but I
had to provide for twelve human beings who followed me, and who
looked more for Seals than for minerals. The floating ice pressed
upon us in all directions, and it was u<lvisable to get rid of the
frith and gain the open sea, as we had to clear 250 miles in a very
boisterous season before we could roach our winter residence.

(:

^''1

■1%

XLV. — On the Cryolite * of Evigtok, Greenland. By
J. W. Tayler, Esq. (Reprinted, by Permission, from
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London, vol. xii., 185C, pp. 140-144.)

\^Sce above, Giesocke's paper on the Cryolite of Greenland,

p. 341.]

.... Evigtok (which signifies in tho Esquimaux language
" u place where there is plenty") ib distant about 12 miles
from the Danish Settlement of Arksut, and forms a small bay in
the Fjord of Arksut. It is a scmi-ciroular space of rather low,
irregular ground, surrounded by a ridge of mountains rising
abruptly to the height of about 2,000 feet, making the enclosed
space appear the half of a deep basin about two miles in diameter.
Evigtok is noted in Green] \\v\ for its abundance of fish in the
summer season ; shoals of Ci ^ jlins blacken the small bays, Avhilst
thousands of Codfish swim close to the shore in pursuit of them,
both of which are taken by the natives in large quantities. At
the foot of the mountains and on their sides are to be found many
Giouso, Hares, and Arctic Foxes. Tn the Avinter season immense
flocks of Eider-ducks and other water-fowl resort to this part of the
fjord. Vegetation, such as it is in Greenland, also prospers
here ; a miniature forest of Salix arctica, about 4 feet high, covers
about a square mile, and Angelica, liumcx, Taraxacum, Potcn-
tilla, and other plants are met with more abundantly than is
fj,eneral in Greenland ; the spot appearing like a garden amidst
the general barrenness of a land buried deep in snow nine months
out of the twelve. But livigtok is more remarkable as being tho
only place in tho world in which the mineral cryolite has hitherto
been found.

* See Thomson's " Outlines of Mineralogy," vol. i., p. 251 ; and Giesccko's
article "Greenland," in the "Edinburgh Encvclopaedia," 1816. ISee also
Giesecke, « Edinb. Phil. Journ.," 1821-2, p. Ul', &c. ; Allan, "Transact. R.
Soc. Edinb.," vi., p. 351 ; a note on the trade in cryolite, in Irniinger's
" Notice sur ks rechcs du Danemark," &c., 1863, p. 15; Ellis on Cryolite
and its Products, " Cheni. News," 1868, vol. xvii., p. 173 (from "Proceed.
" Americ. Pharmac. Assoc. ) ; and Notes by Dr. K. Brown further on. —
Editor.]

r-o..

omblanco
iring the
it ; but I
, tvnd who
•0 pressed
•id of tho
in a very
Icnco.

lnd. By
ion, from
ociety of

ccnland,

: language
12 miles
nail bay in
rather low,
ains rising
e enclosed
1 diameter,
fish in the
lays, whilst
it of them,
titles. At
lund many
lu immense
part of tho
|o prospers
igh, covers
m, Potcn-
;ly than is
[en amidst
ne months
being tho
IS hitherto

kd Gieaccko's

\^See also

Transact. 11.

Irmiuger's

Ion Cryolite

li " Proceed.

further on. —

TAYLEli ON THE CRYOLITE OF GREENLAND. 345

By reference to the hori/.ontiU section (fig. 1 ), two trap- veins
will bo seen bounding a space containing tho Cryolite and tho

minerals accompying it.

o

H

W

»

H

I-!

O

^:

o

Hi

111
I

'A
P
O

«

'A
O

<
H

O
N

M
«

c

o

M

I

a

01

CO

s
o

.a
o

9i

««-(
O

s

o

l=t(

'/i

CO

:kJfe

J.'^v

*l^^

"M^

Ai

'^h^V

tN-^^

■x-

^ H of .s a

To this space I shall con-
fine my remarks. Tho
section is not drawn accu-
rately to a scale, but it is
^ about .2\ inch to tlic fathom.

*§ Starting from the western

3 trap-vein, which is situated

"g in schistose gneiss and

* hornblende schist, wo find

a the gneiss gradually losing

-a its slaty structure, until in

fl- ^ the neighbourhood of the

^ S cryolite it becomes granitic,

g |> and now contains numer-

g i!. ous metallic traces. Before

n g; arriving at tho cryolite

cuS we find a wide vein of

So . g .^ white quartz and felspar
f^gfoSl running about S.W. ; tho
quartz and leispar are m
very large masses and
crystals, some crystals of
quartz measuring a foot in
thickness. This rock is
traversed in several direc-
tions by small veins and
masses of cryolite, isolated
from the larger body of
that mineral, in which, as
well as in the rock, are to
be found numerous crystals
of a variety of tantalite,
oxide of tin, blende, molyb-
denum, much galena, cop-
per pyrites, arsenical and
iron pyritcp, and sparry
iron ore. "' i this rock are
many small caverns, arising
from the decomposition of
the felspar, and probably
also from the decomposi-
tion of the cryolite, which
is here porphyritic, con-
taining crystals of felspar
and quartz. The floors of
these caverns are covered
with loose crystals and
fragments of felspar, and in
some places kaolin, crystals

(U

^^

*• P ,/ Ji o
(H O t- S 3

&>&>H 5>

&J

<0

s

. *t1

kjr

34G

TAYLKR ON THE CKYOLITK OF GREENLAND.

of iinHtono, and carbonnto of iron. In one of tliOBO cavil ios In n
large vein of arsenical pyritcH and purph; lluor-npar ; also u largo
vein of black cryoHto, containing; copper- and iron-pyrites, and
red felspar. Smaller cavities are fonnd when blasting, the sides
of which arc conii)letely covered with crystids of the tantnlite,
resembling on a larg(! scale tho crystalline cavities in amygdaloidal
traps. In this quart/ and felspar ruck there is a remarkable vein,
containing soft ferruginous clay and rolh.'d pebbles, sparry-iron-ore,
and copper-pyrites. The copper lies ov»'r the sparry-iron, ancl
runs in line threads betwc»3n the folia of the partly decoinposetl
iron-ore, appearing as if it had run into it in a state of solution.
To this quartz and felspar rock succeeds more granitic gneiss, in
•which t\w cryolite occurs ; this gneiss gradually loses its granitic
character as it approaches the eastern trap-vein, where it ugain
takes on the same slaty appearance as at the western trap- vein.

Fia. 2. — Transvkksk Sect[on of the Cryolite at EvKiTOK.

(The width of the Cryolite is about 80 feot.)

South. Nurtfi.

{/, ij. Gneiss.

i, Spiirry-iroii-oro.
7. Quartz vein.
/. Argentiferous gulenu.
/. Purple fluor-spar.

Black Cri/olitv.

j)l, pi. Galena, copper-pyrites, blende,
iron-pyrites, and carbonate of iron, scat-
tered in cryolite.

* A fragment of cryolite was found
imbedded at this spot.

We will now refer to the transverse section of the cryolite
(fig. 2). The cryolite forms a bod or vein parallel to the strata,
and is about 80 feet thick and 300 feet long ; it dips to tho south
at an angle of nearly 45°, and runs nearly E. and W. In the
upper wall of gneiss, about 2 feet above its junction with the
cryolite, runs a vein of sparry-iron, with the same dip as the
cryolite ; and a layer of opaque quartz crystJils lines tlie under side
of the gneiss, between the iron-ore and the cryolite. Sometimes
sinking several feet into the cryolite, but never rising into the
gneiss, is a vein of argentiferous galena, containing .33^ per cent,
of lead and 45 ounces of silver in the ton of ore ; this was worked
during the year 1854-5, and some good ore was extracted. The
cryolite below this vein is impregnated for a few feet Avith galena,
copper-pyrites, and sparry -iron-ore ; but beyond, until within a

<- 13 i

TAYLEU ON TIIR CRYOMTK OK GUKKNLAND.

347

few feet from tlio luidiT wiill of ^noiss, it is (luife pure iiiul white.
Within 10 feet, however, of thin under j^iieisH, it ii^aiii coiitiiins
the name miiieriilH dissemiriatod ; Itut in hero sepivriited from the
giioisH by II vein of dark pnrple (hior-spiir. The f^neiss on hoth
sides of tlio eryolite eontuins much Muor-Hpiir disNt'minated.

Th«? upper part of tiie cryolite ut its junetion with tlio gneiss
is ranch decomposed, leiivinj;: nuiiiy ciivilies, which contain loose
crystals of spaiiy-iron. At a depth of ahoul 10 feet from the
surface the cryolite, althoiijfh free from fon-ij^n mutter, assumes a
darker colour, and at 15 feet it is nearly black, and more t runs-
lucent and compact; and, as the deeper we sank we found tlie
cryolite became darker, there is reason to l»elieve that below I his
depth the mineral will be found to be wholly black. As the while
cryolite; is only found at the surface, and bears evidence of jHiitial
disinte^^ration by havin<^ lost some of its compactness and trans-
huieney, it is reasonable to supiiose that the eryolite was originally
wholly (lark-coh)ured or black.

When the Idack croyolite is heated to redness, it loses about
1 per cent, moisture; and acid, the Avhole of its colour, and part
of its transluceney, becoming perfectly white, like the crycdito at
the surface ; and IVom this fact we may conclude that the white
colour of the eryolite at the surface has been produced by a similar
cause. I consider it prejbable that the trap now found at each end
of the cryolite has formerly overlain it, heating it superficially,
and rendering it white. There are at present no remains of over-
lying trni) between these two veins, but in this country the trap
and allied rocks lisintegrato most rapidly from the eiVects of
frost. The cryolite itself has considerably decreased, from this
and other causes, for I found a piece of it imbedded in the
upper gneiss, more than 8 feet above the highest part of the
cryolite, proving that it tormerly stood at that height.

In working the Icsd vein we sank about 30 feet on the dip of
the cryolite ; it prol)al)ly extends to a great depth, and exists in
great quantity.

The fact of its solitary oeeurrence in this spot induces specula-
tion in regard to its origin. The number of minerals, mostly
crystallised, which accompany it, indicate some powerful anil
long-continued agency to have operated in a limited space. T'ho
few facts I have stated may suggest some opinions which may
elucidate the as yet ill-understood subject of mineral veins.

The cryolite has been hitherto applied to few purposes. The
Greenlanders were the first to turn it to account, which they
did in a curious manner, viz., the manufacture of snufF. They
grind the tobacco leaf between two pieces of cryolite, and the
snuft'so prepared contains about half its weight of cryolite powder.
This snutF they prefer to any other. In Europe cryolite has been
employed to a limited extent, but the recent discovery of the mod(>
of preparing aluminium will probably render it a vulualtle ore of
that metal.

348

TAYLER ON THE TIN-ORE AT EVIGTOK.

t\

h ■■ &

XLVI. — On the Veins of Tin-ore at Evigtok, near Arksut,
Greenland. By J. W. Tayler, Esq., F.G.S., Mining
Engineer to the Greenland Mining Association.^ (Re-
printed, by Permission, from the Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society of London, vol. xv., 1859,
pp. 606-7.)

Ill

The area over which the veins of tin extend is ahout 1,500 feet
length by 80 in breadth; their number is 18 or 20; and

they run in various directions, some E. and W., others N.E.
and S.W., or N. and S. The tin occurs also disseminated in
crj'stals through the rocks, and accompanying the finer-grained
galena and tantalite. The appearance of the veins at the surface
is not very promising, the tin being in small detached crystals,
scattered through the gangue (which is mostly quartz). The
widest of those veins is 10 inches, the tin being 1 or 1^ inch, occu-
pying one side of the vein. The gangue here is felspar, quartz,
sparry-iron (carbonate of iron), and fluor-spar. This vein runs
E. and W. into the white cryolite. Another vein, about 200 feet
west from the cryolite, is visible for about 30 paces ; at the
surface it is not more than ^ of an inch thick, but at a depth of
6 feet it is 3 inches thick. Other veins are at the surface mere
strings, varying from ^ to ^ of an inch thick. Nearly all these
veins occur in a large vein or bed of felspar and quartz, some of
the crystals of the latter having a diameter of 18 inches. This
mass contains, in a limited space, various other minerals, such as
galena, blende, copper-, iron-, and arsenical pyrites, fluor-spar,
black cryolite, tantalite, molybdena, sparry-iron, zircon, <fcc.

There are some peculiarities connected with these tin-veins
which deserve consideration, and would lead one to expect that at
a greater depth they might affbrd a large produce. The only
surface vein which can be seen sectionally (no sinkings having
yet been made) widens rapidly as it descends ; and in other spots
sectional views of two small veins are to be seen which do not
reach the surface. The most remarkable of these is a vein which
I found in the floor of a small cavern. It consisted at first of
sparry-iron, arsenical pyrites, fluor, &c. ; a few feet deeper it
changed its character, and contained good traces of copper ; but
water prevented us following it deeper: it is here about 15 inches
wide. The minerals accompinying the copper are those usually
met with in good and productive veins, besides the black cryolite,
which is here peculiar to it.

These veins, in my opinion, evidently belong to the under-
lying granite, which appears at the surface in veins, and which is
probably at no great depth below, since the tin-veins penetrate
into the overlying gneiss, which dips to the south, and under the

* For Mr. Tayler's remarks on the cryolite of Evigtok, see Quart. Journ.
Geol. Sec, vol. xii., p. 140 ; and above, p. 344.

if I
II

Lrksut,
Mining
^ (Re-
urnal of
., 1859,

TAYLER ON THE TIN-ORE AT EVIGTOK.

349

outcrop of it the granite loses itself. It is highly probable that
the ciy elite forms a bed between the gneiss and granite, but
partly enclosed in the gneiss. We have not yet, however, seen
the bottom of the cryolite in any of our workings. This tin
district differs from all others known, being associated with the
cryolite, whilst tantalite seems to have taken the place of wolfram,
which generally accompanies tin-ores.

Ill

,500 feet
20; and
3r8 N.E.
nated in
r-grained
e surface
crystals,
:). " The
ch, occu-
r, quartz,
irein runs
200 feet
; at the
depth of
ace mere
all these
some of
!s. This
I, such as
uor-spar,
&c.

tin-veins
3t that at
Ihe only
i having
ler spots
do not
in which
first of
eeper it
ler ; but
5 inches
usually
cryolite,

under-
which is
(enetrate
der the

rt. Journ.

XLVII. — Catalogue of a Geological and Geographical
Collection of Minerals from the Arctic Regions,
from Cape Farewell to Baffin's Bay, Lat. 59" 14' N.
to 7C° 32' N. By the late Sir Charles GiESECKf:,
Professor of Mineralogy to the Royal Dublin Society,

[Abstract : from the Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, vol. iii.,
1861, pp. 198-215. See also above, pp. 327, &c.]

The " 356 " Specimens, from " 219 " Localities, may bo grouped
as follows : —

I. The East Coast, for a few miles N. of Cape Farewell. Locali-
ties, Nos. 1-7.

Rocks. — Granites (red and white), syenite, mica-schist, talc-
schist, hornblende-schist, basalt.

Minerals. — Tourmaline, garnet, hemispherical mica, asbestos,
talc, allanite,* avanturine, and common quartz.

II. The South Coast, the Islands of Staatenhuk, and the largo
island off Cape Farewell. Localities, Nos. 8-37.

Rocks. — Granites (chiefly fine-grained, grey, some red and
reddish, and at one place green), syenite and syenitic granite,
mica-slate, hornblende-slate, schistose weiss-stein, chlorite-slate,
basalt, greenstone, red jasper, hornstone, clay (along-shore).

Minerals. — Green mica, garnet, quartz, greenish quartz, dark
blue quartz, with imbedded green garnets, in veins in granite ;
schorl and tourmaline, talcose mineral like triclasite, actinolite in
talc, hornblende, pyrites, arsenical pyrites, glassy-grey felspar,
indigolite, tinstone and zirkon (in coarse-grained syenite up
the Pysursoak-fjord), graphite (in granite), labrador -felspar,
moroxite (in reddish, coarse granite), fergusonite (in syenitic
granite), calc-spar (in granite).

III. The West Coast.

1. From Christian Sound and Islands {see above) to the Iga-
likko-fjord. Localities, Nos. 38-47.

Rocks. — Granites (red and grey), mica-slate, chlorite-slate,
hornblende-rock, basalt.

* See also " Experiments ou Allanite, a new Mineral from Greenland," by
T. Thomson, M.D., &c., Traus. Koy. Soc. Edinb., vol. vi., pp. 371-386.

j/v.

Ifii'J^f""-

3B8I

350 OIESEOKfe, ROCKS AND MINERALS OF S. GREENLAND.

ffil

Minerals. — Quartz, garnet in granite, felspar, massive opidote,
siliceous sinter at hot-spring on Ounartok (Island).

2. From the Igalikko-fjord to the Kangerdluarsuk-fjord (both
inclusive), and to the Tunagliarbik-fjord (not included).
Localities, Nos. 48-74.

Rocks. — Granites (white, grey, and red), syenite, gneiss,
chlorite-slate, hornblende-slate, rod sandstone, basalt, greenstone,
claystono, claystone-porphyry, ironclay, weiss-steiu, iron-jasper,
quartz-rock, hornstone-porphyry.

Minerals. — Talc, quartz, quartz with chlorite, hornblende, phos-
phate of iron, lubrador-felspar, green and greenish felspar,* compact
manganese ia red sandstone, gieseckite and felspar in claystone
poqdiyry (Akulliarasiarsuk, eastern branch of the Igalikko-fjord),
calcite, fluor in hornblende-slate at Julianeshaab, green jasper-
veins in granite ; with the coarse red granite of Nunarsoout, north
coast of the Igalikko-fjord, are graphite in mica-slate, yellow
sparry-iron-ore, calc-spar, massive fluor, green massive felspar,*
and l)eds of weiss-stein with sodalite f (mylopsite) and eudiolite.

3. From Tungaliarbik-Qord to Arksut-fjord (the latter not
included). Localities, Nos. 75-107.

Rocks. — Granites (chiefly grey, both south and north of Cape
Desolation), syenite at the fjord and zirkon-syenite at Cape Deso-
lation, greenstone, rod sandstone, blue schistose jasper.

3finerals. — Prehnite and red felspar in greenstone, magnetite,
skorodite ?, hornblende, apophyllite, phosphate of iron, zirkon and
chromate of iron in syenite, labrador and adular felspar in syenitic
granite, corundum in granite, blue vein-quartz (at Ilundeoe).

4. From Arksut-fjord to Fredrikshaab (Pamiut) and to Ikertok
Bay. Localities, Nos. 108-189.

Rocks. — Granite, gneiss, and mica-slate, predominating ; syenite
at Arksuts Storoe and Pamiut.

Minerals. — Green jasper, quartz, allanite (in granite at Kingik-
torsoak), talc, precious serpentine and amianthus, axestone, magne-
tite in serpentine, moroxite (in mica-slate, Pamiut), garnet (in
mica-slate) ; at Ivitcek and neighbourhood (Arksut-:Qord), tinstone
in vein-quartz, arsenical pyrites, and white, yellow, and earthy
cryolite, with sparry-iron-ore, galena, copper-pyrites, quartz, and
compact fluor.

5. From the neighbourhood of Ikertok Bay and Lichtenfels to
Buxe-fjord. Localities, Nos. 133-151.

Rocks. — Granite,! gneiss, mica-slate, siliceous schist (quartz-
slate), hornblende-slate, greenstone, siliceous conglomerate.

Minerals. — At Fiskernaes : garnets in gneiss, blue quartz,
titanite with quartz and calcite, allanite in felspar-veins, sap-
phirine in mica-slate and with tremolite and quartz.

1^ .1-

* See Dr. MacCulloch's note, p. 324.

f -See " A Chemical Analysis of Sodalite, a new Mineral from Greenland,"
hy T. Thomson, M.D,, &c., Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh.

% In the northern ? part of this district, for several successive localities,
" granite, alternating with quartz and mica-slate " (gneiss ?), seems to pre-
dominate.

LAND.

opidote,

(1 (both
cliuleil).

gneiss,
enstone,
i-jasper,

le, phos-
compact
laystone
o-fjord),
jasper-
it, north
, yellow
felspar,*
iiolite.
tter not

of Cape
pe Deso-

agnetite,
[•kon and
I syenitic
oe).
Ikertok

syenite

iingik-
, magne-
rnet (in
tinstone
earthy
irtz, and

enfels to
(quartz-
quartz,
ns, sap-

ienland,"

localities,
18 to pre-

GIESECK^, ROCKS AND MINERALS OF S. GREENLAND. 351

6. From the Buxe-fjord to the neighbourhood of Godthaab.
Locahtiea, T"' js. 162-193.

Rocks. — Granite (grey and red), syenitic granite, gneiss, mica-
schist and talcosc mica-slate, talcose rock with grains of felspar,
syenite, basalt.

Minerals. — Variously coloured quartz, tourmaline, tremolite,
actinolite with yellow mica, hornblende, asbestos, amianthus
with rhomb-spar, glassy actinolite (diallage), sahlite, augite, antho-
phyilite and varieties, allanite in granite, garnet in mica-slate
and weiss-stein, mica with amianthus, olivine with mica, pargasite
in calc-spar, felspar, green felspar, scapolito, epidote, emerald,
moroxite in granite and mica- slate, indigolite with quartz,
mundic in clay, pyrites in talc, titanite in quartz, felspar, and
sahlite, molybdenite, siliceous sinter.

7. From Godthaab to Narkseitsiak (both inclusive), N. of
Baal's River. Localites, Nos. 194-219.

Rocks. — Red and grey gi'anites (chiefly grey at Baal's River,
&c.), mica-slate, talc-rock, axestone, sandy clay, and clay with
nodules of Mallotus Gi'vcnlandicus.

Minerals. — Quartz, chalcedony, hornstone, adularia, tourmaline,
actinolite, tremolite, sahlite, mica, talc, potstone, garnet in granite
and mica-schist, allanite in red granite.

Mr. J. W. Tayler * adds (p. 215), the following notes : —
Loc. 46. Sardlock. Fergusonite, titanic iron, and beryl in
coarse-grained granite.
59. The gieseckite has been searched for here repeatedly

without success.
62. Julianshaab. A pebble of phosphate of lead in gravel.
96. Nanaitiak, an island close to Nunarsoit. Copper-ore
in chloritic schist, and amazon-stone (green felspar).
111. Ivikaet, Ivigtout, or Evigtok. Tantalite in fine
crystals, a new hydrous siliciite of zirconia and
yttria, fluor, blende, auriferous arsenical pyrites, and
galena containing 58 ozs. of silver to the ton.
116, 117, 118. Allanite, potstone.

120. Greenlanders say that large bones are to be found high
up on this mountain (Kingiktorsoak or Tindingen).
„ 126 (Pamiut). Copper-pyrites, hypersthene.
Avigait, near Tj)c. 187. Much allanite.
Near Godthaab. Selenide of lead and copper.

»j

)»
>>

5>

* See above, pp. 344 ami 348.

m

i

152

SUTHERLAND, DAVIS* STRAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAY.

ii'lj

XLVIIT. — On the Geological and Glacial Phenomena of
the Coasts of Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay. By
P. C. Sutherland, M.D., late Surgeon in the Arctic
Expeditions.*

[Reprinted, with Permission, from the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
London, vol. ix., 1853, pp. 296-312. Read June 1, 1853.]

From Cape Farewell to Cape Atholl. — The Danish settlers in
Greenland have pretty accurately laid down the geological character
of the eastern coast of Davis' Straits from Cape Farewell, about
lat 60*^, to Cape Shackleton, about lat 74°.t Beyond this latitude
and down the west side of Davis' Strait, the coast is almost un-
known, from the difficulty experienced in approaching the land by
the Whaling and Discovery Ships, the only ships that ever attempt
to reach it.

C(»mmencing at Cape Farewell| we find the crystalline rocks§
(granite, gneiss, &c.) forming a rugged and pinnacled coast,
intersected by fiords of great length, in which the tide is generally
very rapid, and the water is of considerable depth. The coast
indeed appears as if composed of a cluster of islands varying much
in size and lying in front of the great glacial plateau constituting
the continent of Greenland.

Disco Island^ Black Hook, Sfc. — Proceeding northward we find
Disco Island, on the 70th parallel of latitude, to be chiefly composed
of trap-rock. Viewing this island from a distance of ten miles,
it presents a succession of steps, and appears to be made up of a
number of truncated cones, planted so closely together that the
bases of all meet ; some of them, at the level of the sea, bounding
long and winding valleys, and others at every intermediate eleva-
tion, until the top itself is reached at a height of from 2,000 to
5,000 feet. At its southern extremity hypogcne rocks (granite,
&c.) occur, from the sea-level to an elevation of about 100 feet,
and passing beneath the trappean formation. In South-east or
Disco Bay several clusters of islands are observed, all of which
appear to be composed of the same crystalline rocks. On the S.E.
and N.E. shores of Disco Island, the N. shore of the Waigat Strait,
Hare Island, the S. shore of Omenak Fiord, Upernivik Naes
(North-east Bay), and in the neighbourhood of the Black Hook,
on the 72nd parallel of latitude, coal (lignite) has been found to a

♦ See also Dr. Sutherland's " Journal of Capt. Penny's Voyage," &c. With
Appendix, 2 vols., 1852. And Capt. Inglefield's *' Summer Search for Sir J.
•' Franklin," &c. With Appendix, 1853.— Editor.

f See Rink's Geology of West Greenland, 1852, Trans. Roy. Soc. Denmark.

X The author refers in this paper to numerous sketches presented by him
to the Geological Society ; these references are omitted here. — Editok.

§ Copper, tin, lead, and silver ores have been discovered in the vicinity of
Julianes-Haab, about a degree north-west of Cape Farewell ; and atUpernivik,
about lat. 71°, graphite of tolerable purity occurs in abundance.

SAY.

lENA of

Y. By

Arctic

ol. Soc,
i853.]

ttlers in
ihara(!ter
11, about
latitude
oaost un-
j land by
• attempt

e rocks§
3d coast,
generally
'he coast
ing much
istituting

d we find
iomposed
n miles,
up of a
that the
Dounding
i,te eleva-
2,000 to
I (granite,
100 feet,
Ih-east or
)f which
the S.E.
it Strait,
l^ik Naes
\k Hook,
bund to a

l&c.
Ifor

With
Sir J.

(Denmark.

pd by him

|OR.

/icinity of
Ipernivik,

SUTHERLAND, DAVIs' STRAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAY. 353

considerable extent and of rather toleral)le quality. The specific
gravity of the coal is 1*3848, and the following analysis of its
proxiuiate ingredients, made by Dr. Fyfe, Professor of Chemistry,
King's Collejje, Aberdeen, upon a specimen obtained from the same
source as that now in the ;>[useum of this Society, enables us to
judge of its value and purity : —

Volatile matter , 50 -6^ <->

Ash 9-84 I?

Fixed carbon 39 ' oG f §

49-40j ^

I have not myself visited t.lie beds of this mineral, but from the
recent elaborate researches of Dr. II. Rink, the enterprising Dan-
ish traveller, it appears tl»at sandstone is associated with this coal.

At Cape Cranstoune, situate on the north side of North-east
Bay (Omenak Fiord), and immediately adjacent to the above two
localities, the trap-x-ocks again occur, and thence extend northward,
apparently in one unbroken series, as far as Proven, in lat. 72° 20'.
Northward of this to Cape York, lat. 76°, with one or two slight
exceptions, in lat. 73° 20' and lat. 74°, the numerous islands and
every part of the coast that protrudes from beneath the glacier are
composed of gneiss and granite.

Capes York and Atholl. — At Cape York, lat. 76°, and on to
Cape Atholl, thirty to forty miles further north, although differing
in outline, owing to the glacial accumulation, from Disco Island
and other well-known parts of the coast to the southward, the rocks
can be referred with certainty to the same trappean formation.
Specimens of greenstone-porphyry were taken From the cliffs at
Petowak, near Cape Atholl.

Wolstcnholme Sound to Cape Hatherton. — Northward of Capo
Atholl we find, in the entrance of Wolstenholme Sound, a flat
island (Saunders Island), which from its distinctly stratified ap-
pearance suggests the commencement of a difterent series of rocks.
And eastward of the same cape, on the south sliore of this Sound, the
strata are seen cropping out with a dip to the south-west. This is
at variance with what we observe in Saunders Island, about twelve
miles N.N.W., for there the strata are perfectly horizontal. At
North Omenak a sandstone, or slaty quartzose grit, with a dip of
about 15° to W.S.W., occurs iuterstratified with greenstone-
porphyry ; and it is very probable that Mount Dundas, a tabular
hill with a talus, is also composed of igneous rock. At the top
of Wolstenholme Sound, in the same bluff, the strata, dipping
about south-west, vary in their inclination from 10° to 25° or 30°.

In Granville Bay, about twenty miles farther north, the strata
are at one place but little out of the horizontal, and at another the
dip is about 45° to the north-west, and at another we have strata
somewhat curved. In the entrance of Granville Bay several small
islands occur which are probably formed of trap-rock. In Booth
Sound, lat 77°, near Cape Parry, there is a very remarkable bell-
shaped rock (Fitzclarence Rock), of a dark colour and rising in an
isolated form to a height of probably 500 or 600 feet, as if from
out of a comparatively level epit of grounv'i this also appears to
36122. 2

354 SUTHERLAND, DAVIS* STRAIT AND BAFFIN's BAY.

i /

M

m I

consist of similar rock. From Cape Parry (lat 77° 5') north-
eastwardly to Bardin Bay (lat. 77° 20'), in the south shore of
Whale Sound, the strata incline a little to the S.W,, and :.: many
places they are somewhat curved. Still farther to the north-east
they have a general dip of 30"^ to S.W., and they are intersected
by irregular dark-coloured dikes of igneous rocks. One of these
dikes rises in the form of a rough peak above tlie outline of the
strata. In the entrance of Baidin Bay, the ship, drawing ten to
twelve feet of water, struck upon a rock, which from the depth of
the water (tifty to sixty fathoms) within a couple of hundred yards,
may be a second protrusion of the same dike above the stratified
rocks. Specimens of quartzose grit were obtained from the low
point on the north-east side of Bardin Bay, and were taken from
strata inclining W.S. W. at a general angle of 15°, but a little curved.
In them we recognise the same sandstone as that of North Omenak,
about sixty miles to the southward. A specimen of syenitic por-
phyry was taken from the shoulder of the hill in the vicinity of the
dike above-mentioned. In other parts of Whale Sound (in North-
umberland, Herbert, and Milne Islands) the strata are perfectly
horizontal ; and at Cape Saumarez, on the same coast, but thirty
miles further north, the same strata can be traced from one clitF
to another in conformable and horizontal lines over many miles.
At Cape Alexander, the eastern boundary of the entrance of Sir-
Thomas-Smith's Sound, in lat. 78" 15', we again find the strata
somewhat curved; but about seven miles farther north (a few miles
south of Cape Hatherton), they are so regularly and horizontally
piled one on another, that from their peculiar appearance they
have received the name of the Crystal-Palace Cliffs. A small
island, lying in front of a glacier two miles southward of Cape
Alexander, appears to be composed of a dark rough-grained sand-
stone, similar to that found in Whale Sound. The strata are
somewhat "indistinct from the large disintegrated fragments that
occupy the surface ; they appear, however, to incline to the west-
ward at an angle of ten or fifteen degrees.

West Coast of Baffin's Bay. Smith's Sound. — The west shore
of Smith's Sound, from Victoria Head, beyond the 79th degree
of latitude, to Cape Isabella near the 78th, as well as the coast
leading southwardly to Jones' Sound, is so inapproachable from the
drifting pack-ice in the season for navigation, that I fear we shall
not soon have specimens of the rocks by which the character of so
large a portion of the coast can be determined ; and it is, moreover,
everywhere so covered by the glacier, that the outlines of mere
protrusions of the land, taken at a distance of ten to twenty miles,
scarcely afford the materials for correct results. From its greater
height in many parts than the adjacent, opposite ?hore, and also
from its rugged, in some cases even pinnacled, contour, thus
resembling the coast at Cape Farewell, it probably consists for the
most part of crystalline rocks.

Jones' Sound, and North Devon. — Similar appearances obtain
(with some local exceptions) along the north and south shore of
Jones' Sound, the Cobourg and neighbouring islands, and the
eastern coast of North Devon.

* i'l

* '5

FINS 13 AY.

77°

r 5') north-
south shore of
, and '.; many
i the north-east
are intersected
One of these
! outline of the
drawing ten to
ni the depth of
hundred yards,
^e the stratified
i from the low
jre taken from
t a little curved.
North Omenak,
of syenitic por-
3 vicinity of the
lund (in North-
a are perfectly
3ast, but thirty

from one cliiF
er many miles,
intrance of Sir-
find the strata
•rth (a few miles
nd horizontally
ppearance they
lifts. A small
hward of Cape
i-grained saud-
The strata are
fragments that
le to the west-

rhe west shore
e 79th degree
11 as the coast
ihable from the
fear we shall
haracter of so
|it is, moreover,
lines of mere
twenty miles,
m its greater
hore, and also
contour, thus
onsists for the

Irances obtain

)uth shore of

[ruds, and the

SUTHERLAND, DAVIs' STRAIT AND BArFIN's BAY. .355

Lancaster Sound to Cumberland Sound [from 74° to 64® N.
Irtt.] — On the opposite shore of Lancaster Sound, at Cape Walter
Bathurst, the crystalline rocks are again recognised, and fro n this
point they occupy the whole coast southward to Cumberland Strait,*
and probably considerably beyond it. To this, however, I believe
there is one exception at Cape Durban, on the 67th parallel, where
coal has been found by the whalers ; and also at Kingaite, two
degrees to the south-west of Durban, where, from the appearance
of the land as viewed from a distance, trap may be said to occur
on both sides of that inlet. Graphite is found abundant and pure
in several islands situate on the 6oth parallel of latitude in Cum-
berland Straits, on the west side of Davis' Straits.

Silurian District of the Georgian Islands, ^-c— The above-men-
tioned extensive development of crystalline rocks is flanked to the
westward by an equally, if not much more, extensive tract of
Silurian rocks, the limits of which as yet we have been unable to
ascertain. The chief, indeed, it may be said, the only navigable
channel through which this Silurian district has yet been reached
is Lancaster Sound ; it is probable, however, we may find it con-
tinuous to the westward with the American series of the same
rocks. Through the labours of Prof. Jameson and Mr. Konig,
thirty years ago, and of Mr. Salter only very recently, some of the
numerous Silurian fossils peculiar to North-Somerset, North-Devon,
and the North-Oeorgian Islands, have been described from the
fragmentary specimens brought home by the ships engaged in the
discovery of these places during the last thirty years. f

Drift Deposits. — On Cornwallis and Beechey Islands in Barrow
Straits, west of Lancaster Sound, deposits containing existing
arctic sea-shells occur at every elevation up to nearly 1,000 feet, —
the greatest height attained by any part of that district. On the
undulating slopes and along the raised beaches of this Silurian dis-
trict of the North- Georgian Islands, 8cc. occur travelled materials,
such as fragments of anthracite, greenstone, quartz, serpentine,
o-neiss, and granite, but all of such small size that their mode of
conveyance to their present position is clearly referable to the
action of coast-ice (previous to the elevation of the land), such as
at the present day occupies the comparatively shallow seas in the
inlets and channels of that district.

On the Greenland side of Davis' Strait, on the contrary, we find
immense travelled boulders of gneiss and granite resting on the
islands and the coast, which have been brought there at former
periods by floating icebergs, previous to the elevation of the coast
above the sea-line. The probable causes of these difierences of

♦ " Cumberland Straits " of Baffin, its original discoverer at the end of the
sixteenth century ; " Hogarth Sound " of Capt. Penny, who rediscovered it in
1839 ; and "Northumberland Inlet" of Capt. Wareham in 1841.

t See Appendix to Sutherland's Journal of Capt Penny's Voyage, 1852,
2 vols. 8vo. See also Mr. Salter's Paper, i?ifra, p. 312. The Rev. Mr. Lon^-
muir, of Aberdeen, found numerous specimens of the genus Rhynchonella m
the ballast of the "Prince Albert," a ship recently returned from Batty Bay,
Prince-Regent's Inlet, on the eastern shore of North Somerset.

z 2

11?

***

356 SUTHERLAND, DAVIs' STRAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAY.

, <

k

%

.■■■ -1

icc-act!on on these two opposite coasts arc explaliie 1 in the sub-
sequent observations.

It may be noticed also, that, from the observations of Dr. Pingel
and Capt. Graah, the west coast of Greenland presents evidence of
its now undergoing the process of gradual submersion.

Glacial Conditions. — At Cape Farewell the fiords run so far
into the interior, that none of the icebergs cscnping into them from
the great inland glacier ever reach Davis Strait, and if the navi-
gator meets with icebergs in the ncighbourliood of this promontory,
they must have drifted to it from other sources. As we advance
northward along the coast of West Greenland, and thus diminish
the annual moan temperature both of the sea and of the atmosphere,
we find the glacier approaches nearer and nearer the coast-line,
until in Melville Bay, lat. 75°, it presents to the sea one continuous
wall of ice, unbroken by land, for a space of probably seventy or
eighty miles. To the southward of Melville Bay, there are numerous
outlets for the ice in the coast, and they vary in breadth from two
or three up to fifteen or twenty miles. To have a correct idea of
the glacier accumulation in Greenland, we must imagine a continent
of ice flanked on its aeaward side by a number of islands, and in
every other direction lost to vision in one continuous and boundless
plain. Through the spaces between these apparent islands, tho
enormous glacial accumulations slowly seek their passage to the
sea and send off an annual tribute of icebergs to encumber, to cool,
and to dilute the waters of the adjoining ocean.

The average height or deptli of the ice at its free edge in these
intervals, or valleys, between the projecting points of coast is 1,200
or 1,500 feet, of Avhich about one-eighth, or 150 feet, Avill be above
water. In some of the valleys, however, the depth is upwards of
2,400 feet. This may be considered to be satisfactorily ascertained,
for the Esquimaux around South-east Bay, lat. 68°, while pursuing
halibut-fishing during the winter months, require lines of three
hundred fathoms to reach the bottom at the foot of the glacier
near Claushaven. In South-east (Disco) Bay, and also in North-
east Bay (Omcnak Fiord), we meet with the icebergs that draw
the greatest depth of water, but those of the greatest cubic contents
occur in Melville Bay and in several smaller bays to the southward
of it. At Cape York, lat. 76", although the glacier there is the north-
ward continuation of the glacier in Melville Bay, its protrusions
into the sea never exceed 50 to 60 feet above the sea-level ; and in
some places it does not enter the sea in a continuous mass, but,
having descended over the brow of the cliff, it breaks oft' and slips
down into the sea over the rocks, scratching and scoring them in
a very marked manner. This is very well seen at Cape York, 76"
N. lat. where the free edge of the ice is upwards of 20 feet thick,
and at least 100 feet above the sea-level ; the inclination of the
abraded part of the coast being about 43°. But it is much better
seen on the west side of Baffin's Bay, at Cape Fitzroy, on the south
side of Jones' Sound, and at Cape Bowen, Pond's Bay, where the
free edge of the ice is at least 50 feet thick, and about 200 feet
above the sea-level. Although many hundred miles of coast
intersected by glaciers were examined in the late voyage of the

SUTHKHLAND, DAVIS* STRAIT AXD BAFFIN'S BAV. 357

'* Isabel," under the command of Capt. Inglcficld, R.N., these cited
localities were the only places, with one or two very trifling ex-
ceptions, where this interesting phsenomcnon of powerful abrading
action was observed. I believe it can be so far accounted for by
the steepness of the inclination, but chiefly by the greater friability
(diminished plasticity) of the ice from the diminished temperature.

One cannot easily determine why the icebergs that come from
the glaciers at, and to the northward of. Cape York and on tbe
west side of Davis' Straits, are of less dimensions generally than
elsewhere. At Capo York, where we have a new formation of
rocks (trappean) commencing, and further northward in the same
coast, it is probably owing to the comparative shallowness of the
valleys and to a diminished supply of snow from the greater in-
tensity of the cold. On the west coast, from Victoria Head to
Jones' Sound, although the land has almost a perfect icy casing,
the icebergs that are sent off are by no means large, and this, as in
the other case, may arise from the decrease of evaporation with
the decrease of temperature. Again, from Jones' Sound southward,
there cannot be such extensive accumulations of ice as on the
opposite and more northern shore of Greenland, although the rocks
in both cases are of the some character generally, for the reason,
I believe, that the vapour-bearing stratum of air coming from the
southward, over an extensive tract of land, contributes but scantily
to the growth of the glacier on the former as compared with tho
latter, which is liberally supplied by the vapour-charged currents
going northerly from the North Atlantic and Davis' Strait. But
it is still more difficult to account for the entire absence of glaciers
on the Silurian rocks westward of Lancaster Sound. Why the
snow and rain falling on the land around Barrow Strait and its
tributary inlets and bays should all escape into the sea in running
streams of water every year during the two short months and a
half of June, July, and August, while that falling on the coasts
•of Davis' Strait makes its escape as hard, but yielding ice, after a
lapse of many ages, is a question worthy the attention of the student
of physical phajnomena.

The annual mean temperature in tho creeks and inlets of Barrow
Strait is several degrees lower than that in corresponding latitudes
on the shores of Davis Strait ; and even at Wolstenholmo Sound,
nearly two degrees higher latitude, the annual mean temperature
is nearly three degrees higher than at Melville Island. This,
however, will not throw light upon our difficulty. The ranges of
temperature will probably prove more useful. A few degrees above
the freezing point of water would settle the question. We know
that the sea exerts a wonderful influence in rendering the climate
temperate, as well as in reducing the ranges of temperature. Upon
this theory, so clearly illustrated in Sir Charles Lyell's " Principles
of Geology," (7 Edit. ch. vi.) the summer in the neighbourhood of
Barrow Strait ought to be hotter than in Davis' Strait. And
such we find Jt, as far as our limited observations can be ma le
available. The month of July 1851, nt Cornwallis Island, w.is
found to be three degrees warmer than the same month of the
preceding year in a corresponding latitude on the east side of

'li

"^p

358 PUTnERLANl), DAVIft' STltAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAY.

"I

Pf i

i \

Dnvis' Strnit. This difforcnce is certainly small, but still it is on
the favourable side ; and when we associate witli it the different
strncturo of the rocks and also the diminished supply of vapour
during the winter months, we have a fuint approximation to the
true cause why the glacier preponderates so largely in one direction,
while it is entirely absent in another. The fact too that large
sections of the coast-ice, before it was generally detached from the
land, l)ecame dissolved by the streams discharging the melting
snows of the North-Oeorgimi If^lands into the seti, may be
taken as an additional proof that the summer heat was positively
higher than was necessary for the conversion of snow into water.
Glaciers. — The travels of Prof. J. Forbes andof Agasaiz in the
Alps liave so fully established the true theory of the descent of
glaciers, which is applicable also to Greenland, as to render any
remarks on this head almost unnecessary. The introduction of
extraneous matter into the substance of the ice to be borne along
must be the same in every country. And so also must be the
deposition of moraines at the angles where the glacier begins to
protrude beyond the land, whether they occur at the sea-level, or
at rapid turnings at higher elevations. This deposition arises
from the dissolution of a portion of the ice rich in earthy matter
consequent upon increased freedom of exposure to the action of the
sun, and also from mechanical displacement of the ro ky matter
by the advancing mass of the glacier. This was remarkably well
seen at the north side of the Petowak glacier, near Cape Atholl,
both at the sea- level and at an angle two miles further up the side
the glacier.

The concentric and wavy appearance of the glacier-surface so
often noticed in the Alps, is remarkably well seen in the vicinity
of Cape Saumarez and of Cape Alexander, and also in Bardin Bay.
Both Prof. Forbes and Agassiz agree in attributing the rough-
ness and irregularity of the surface of the glacier to the inequalities
of the bottom over which it has to pass, more especially in cases
where the action of the sun has not been distributed irregularly by
means of accumulations of extraneous matter. This is frequently
exemplified in the Arctic regions ; and, as in the Alps, large cre-
vasses are the result when a protruding mass is slipping imper-
ceptibly over a convex or ledged surface.*

Although there certainly is a relation between the upper and
lower surfaces of a plastic glacier, even when it may be upwards
of 2,000 feet in thickness, still I must confess that in my opinion
we can scarcely attribute the regularly pinnacled appearance of
many a large iceberg and magnificent glacier to this cause. Some
glaciers and icebergs, again, are so flat and smooth on the upper
surface, that one can hardly conceive a rocky bottom beneath a

* This is very well seen in the glacier of Petowak, and also in a glacier at
Cape Fitzroy, on the south shore of Jones' Sound. These crevasses are not
unfrequently filled up with mud, &c. brought down by debacles and other
means from the land on either side, and then they become frozen, thus cemeu-
ing the whole mass firmly together, and perhaps forming part of the future
iceberg so long as a few cubic feet of it remain undissolved.

SUTHERLAND, DAVIs' 8TRAIT AND RAFFIN's RAT. 35})

glncier to bo eqnnlly smooth. On the nortlj sido of Cape Claienco
in tho north shore of Jones' Sound, (hiring the hito voynf^(( of tho
" Isabel," I observed that one portion of the snrfueo of u flat but
extensive ghicier, tinit protruchnl several miles into(Jlaei«'r Strait,
was exeeedinj^ly smooth, while another portion of it was so rough
and pinnaeled that to walk over it would have been impossible.
This roughness must bo attributed to some peculiar atmospheric
cause, or to the differenco of temperature between tho surface and
the interior of the glacier.

Eight feet is the depth to which a minimum temperature of
— 45°, a monthly mean of— 30°, or an annual mean temperature of
4-2*5°, extended the freezing-point of water through freshwater
ice on a lake of two fathoms' depth (Kate- Austin's Lake) in lat.
74° 40' and long. 94° 16'. If we can presume the heat-conducting
power of ice formed on tho surface of water, and of glacier-ice, to be
the same, then the temperature of the interior of the glacier below
the above depth, with the same minimum or mean annual degi-ee
of cold, would be about -f 32°. The surface exposed to any alter-
nation of heat and cold, from the freezing-point to — 45° or many
degrees lower, would npcessarily become contorted and disturbed
by contraction and expansion, even supposing its base or snpj)orting
part were standing still. Of this we had unexceptionable proofs
in the condition of the surface of the ice on the lake already
noticed. But when we take into account that the whole bulk of
the glacier, except a few feet of its upper surface, retains its
plasticity and continues its downward motion, it need not be
wondered that the latter, hard and friable, assumes a broken-up
appearance. This view, however, does not fully satisfy us, not
being universally applicable.

Following the example of Mr. Christie, one of the Secretaries
of the Royal Society,* during a winter in Barrow Strait, I per-
formed a number of experiments by submitting water in a strong
iron bottle to various temperatures, from +32° to — 45°. While
the temperature to whicli the bottle containing the water was
exposed did not descend more than eight or ten degrees below the
freezing point, the column of ice, ascending through the orifice or
** fuze hole," and always amounting to about one tenth of the
whole mass of water used, retained its cohesive property so perfectly
that without being broken, and although only half an inch in
diameter, the whole apparatus weighing four to five pounds could
be raised by its means, and sometimes even inverted. But at lower
temperatures tb.e ascending column escaped with a slight crepitating
sound, and frequently with explosive reports, accompanied each by
a sudden propulsion of a portion of it to a distance of several feet ;
it was so friable too that it separated into discs of half or a quarter
of an inch in thickness, and sometimes crumbled to fragments
between the fingers. The important points, relative to the plasticity
jof ice, contested some years ago by Prof. J. Forbes and Mr. Hop-
kins come within this field of research; they ai*e well knoWu,"arrd
need not be recounted here.

* Lyell's Principles of Geology, Seventh Edition, p. 226.

m

It

N

360 stttiierlAnd, davis' strait and Baffin's dav.

Icchcrgs. — From wlmt has been obscrvoil in tlio Alps, it may bo
considered a settled question that the downward niotioti of the
glaciers is constant and comparatively uimilected by low tempe-
ratures applied to the surface, especially whrn the depth of the solid
ice amounts to several hundred feet. In the Al[)s, ami even within
the tropics, they travel great distances from the snow-clad heights,
until frecpiently they gradually dosccnd into ihc regions habitable
by man, where they undergo dissolution by the increase of
temjjerature. Jn Greenland, after descending into the sea through
the valleys, they retain their hold of the land ♦ until the buoyant
property of water upon ice comes into operation, and then they
give birth to icebergs, sometimes of enormous dimensions. f The
constant rise ami fall of the tide exerts great power in detaching
these floating ice-islands. IJy it, a hinge-like action is set up as soon
as the edge of the ghicier comes within its influence, and is carried
on, although the surface of the sea for many leagues around is
covered Avith one continuous sheet of ice. After summer has set
in and somewhat advanced, the surface-ico either drifts away or
dissolves, and then we have winds prevailing in a direction contrary
to what they had been during the cold season of the year ; and the
result of this is a great influx of water into Davis' Strait, which
causes tides unusually high for other seasons of the year, and
which in their turn set at liberty whole fields of icebergs, then to
commence their slow southward course. In August 1850 the
number set free in a deep fiord near Omenak, North-cast Bay, so
occupied the navigable passage out of the harbour at that settle-
ment, that the Danish ship which had but a few weeks previously
entered the harbour was in great danger of being detained for the
winter. In the same month in 1852, the whole of the coast south-
ward from Melville Bay, extending over a space of 180 miles in
length and probably 12 to 15 miles in breadth, was rendered
perfectly unnavigable by any means whatever. When wo sailed
along that portion of the coast about the middle of August in the
season of 1852, avo were astounded by the constant booming
sounds that issued from whole fields of floating icebergs, often
bursting and turning over. To me the change appeared to be
remarkable, for I spent the months of June and July of 1850 in
company with a whole fleet of whalers there, sailing safely in the
very place which now we could no more enter with our ship than
navigate her through the city of London, half submerged in the
sea, and all the houses tumbling about and butting each other as
in an earthquake. At Cape York one could count nearly two
hundred icebergs in a semicircle of twelve miles, all of which
appeared to have been quite recently detached from the glacier ;
and in the upper part of Wolstenholme Sound, the icebergs, that
had come off from the three protruding points of the glacier
entering it, were so closely planted together, that it was not

* Some of these glaciers of Northern Greenland push forward into the sea
to the extent of from one to three miles.

t For the description of an immense iceberg, 200 feet high above the sea
and two miles in length, see Sutherland's Journal, vol. i. pp. CI, 62.

SUTHERLAND, DAVls' STRAIT AND UAFFIN'S DAY. 3G1

'without somo difllculty and oven danger wo advanced among tliOQi)
although aided hy steam.

Action of glaviers on the sen-bottom. — The cfTect of luxlies of
such dimcnHions on the rocks and mud at the bottom must bo as
extensive as it is important. While passing >ip tlio Strait early
in the season, one rarely sees sea-weed floating in the water, but
at tt period somewhat later, after these natural reapers have sallied
out to mow down their crops, wo meet with whole rafts of tho
produce of the sub-marine forests of these regions floating down
tho straits. Tho steins of Laniinarin are often found al)raded,
and their roots contain shells and other animals, somo of which
appear to have participated in the violent action that liberated tho
plants they sought as a protection. In every i)art of Davis' Strait,
from Cape Farewell to Smith Sound, on either side or mid-channel,
from two to two hundred fathoms, wherever tho dredge has
reached the bottom, these animals have been found to exist, in
Bpite of iceberg action in its most intense form upon their rocky
or muddy habitats. Ascidians and Cirrhipeds, and many other
animals which attach themselves to the rocks at considerable
depths, are often found. The Echinoderms, which wo know are
too slow in their motions to escape danger, swarm in those seas.
A species of Sea-Urchin (Echinus 7ieglcctus) and Brittle Stars
have been taken up from depths varying from ninety to two hun-
dred fathoms in Melville Bay, and from various other depths in all
parts of the Strait. Shells also occur, but they are sometimes
found broken, as somo of the species of Mi/a, Saxicavay Cardiunif
PecteUf and many others, taken from depths of seven to one hun-
dred fathoms, Avill show.* Except from the evidence afforded by
plants and animals at tho bottom, we have no means whatever to
ascertain the effect produced by icebergs upon the rocks. Doubt-
less when they contain earthy and stony matter they must scratch
and groove the rocks *' as the diamond cuts the glass," and when
they are impelled along a muddy bottom, they cannot fail to raise
moraines and leave deep depressions in its otherwise smooth surface.
But it will be well to bear in mind that when an iceberg touches
the ground, if that ground bo hard and resisting, it must come to
a stand ; and the propelling power continuing, a slight leaning
over in the water, or yielding motion of the whole mass, may com-
pensate readily for being so suddenly arrested. If, however, the
ground be soft, so as not to arrest the motion of the iceberg at
once, a moraine will bo the result ; but the moraine thus raised
will tend to bring it to a stand. Wo can more readily conceive
this from the fact that the power which impels icebergs is applied
to about the upper third or fourth part of their whole bulk.

Another mode of action is sometimes exhibited by the iceberg,
by which its triturating and ploughing force is locally brought
into play with immense effect. Icebergs resting on the bottom,
and situated at the edge of the fixed surface-ice (that which is
attached to the land), when pressed upon by loose and drifting

* For an account of the Fauna of these seas, see Appendix, vol. ii. of
• Sutherland's Journal." Also Catalogues, &c. reprinted above.

'<M

f

,., i:

362 SUTHERLAND, DAVIS' STRAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAT.

III

■!■'

II
-I'

floes of large size, are frequently subjected to a rotatory motion,
extending sometimes to three-fourths of a circle, or even a complete
revolution.

The conveying power of icebergs is so well known to geologists,
that I need make but few remarks on this subject. As a general
rule, the source of all the foreign matter they contain is the land
on both sidos of the glacier. It may, however, be received from
other sources. I have often thought that the fragments of a huge
iceberg, acquiring a state of quiescence after separating into several
masses in one of its fearfully gi'and revolutions, had turned up mud
and other earthy matter from the bottom. This, however, is
doubtful ; for we can hardly conceive it possible that anything
extraneous can adhere to hard and brittle ice passing rapidly
through the water during the iceberg's revolution. Icebergs are
sometimes floated so close along a bold and overhanging rocky
coast, as to touch the perpendicular clifis and to remove disinte-
grating fragments of the rock. Another, probably the most com-
mon, of these unusual modes of receiving debris, is from coast-ice,
which, impelled by the winds and tides, is often piled up with its
load of pebbles, sand, and mud against icebergs. The foreign
substances thus cast upon the si\rface of an iceberg must necessarily
be precipitated to the bottom at the first revolution it undergoes.

The quantity of rocky matter which ice is capable of floating
away can be estimated from the specific gravity of both substances.
Taking 2-5 as the density of granite and *92 as that of ice, an
iceberg half a mile in breadth, a mile in length, and 200 feet high
above the water (dimensions, we may observe, by no means out of
the average) will convey a load of one hundred and forty millions
tons weight. Some of the icebergs seen in Davis' Strait are so
charged and impregnated with earthy matter, that by inexperienced
persons at a distance they may be mistaken for masses of solid
earth. And we often observe large boulders, of perhaps one hun-
dred tons each, lying on the surface of icebergs, or sometimes
imbedded deeply in the ice.

By far the gi-eatest number of these floating masses dissolve in
Davis' Strait, and deposit their earthy contents throughout its
extent. Some of them, however, find their way into the Atlantic,
and appear disposed to push far to the southward into the Tempe-
rate zone. As Sir Charles Lyell and others have remarked, where
the greatest number of these undergo dissolution there the deposi-
tion of rocky matter is most active, consisting of angular and
rounded fragments, together with sand and mud, a great part of
. which materials are probably from sources of very opposite
character.*

Coast-ice. — Ice forming on the surface of sea-water is also well
known as an agent of importance in conveying away to considerable
distances the materials of the sea-coast. With strong gales the
ice in the Arctic Sens is driven in upon the coasts with great force,
and, if the bottom about the low- water-mark is composed of loose

See also Col. Sabine's Observntions, Brit. Assoc. Bep., Trans. Sect., 1843.

-^-f.

Mi^

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SUTHERLAND, DAVIS* STRAIT AND BAPFIN*S BAY. 363

lost com-

ametimes

gravel or mud, moraines are raised to a height of several feet.
The wind ceasing and high tides proving favourable, the ice again
withdraws from the coast, carrying with it large accumulations of
the loose shingle of the beach, which it deposits in the surrounding
seas, after travelling several hundred miles. The moraines it had
raised are not wholly obliterated, and as winter proceeds to hem
the coast with a fringe of ice, they cause an irregularity in the
surface of the latter by the rise and fall of the tides, which results
in a large portion of their contents, mud, sand, shingle, and perhaps
also traces of animal and vegetable matter, being included in the
new ice formation. This process ceases altogether only with the
return of summer, and then the coast-ice, varying in thickness from
two or three up to twenty or more feet, according to the degree of
cold, the stillness of the watei, and the extent of the rise and fall
of the tides, is subject, in some localities at least, to the power
exerted by debacles in loading it with foreign matter. Thus
freighted, it withdraws from the shore when the straits and inlets
open out, and drifts many hundred miles before it is dissolved by
the action of the sun and the water, and yields itself and its care-
fully bound cargo to the sea. We find this occurring every season
on the south shore of the North-Georgian Islands ; but from the
testimony of numerous travellers,* it occurs on a magnificent
scale at the entrances of the great American and Siberian rivers
which discharge their waters into the Arctic Seas.

Polar Currents. — The necessity there is for currents into the
Polar Seas to keep up their mean salinity will become obvious when
we reconsider the vast amount of fresh water which enters them
in the form of icebergs from the glaciers. That there are currents
out of the Polar regions is sufticiently clear ; were there no such
currents, evaporation alone from the surface of the sea, the greatest
part of which is geneially covered with ice, would fail to remove
the excess carried by the annual crop of icebergs ; and then we
should have an icy pile ever growing and gradually extending
into the Temperate zone. The difference of temperature observed
by the navigator in the waters of the eastern and western shores
of the North Atlantic, amounting, as it does, to nearly 30° of
Fahrenheit's thermometer in lat. 59° during the warmest months
of the year, affords the best possible proof of the existence of
currents in the two directions we have indicated. In Dnvis'
Strait, although on a much smaller scale, there is also a difference
in the temperature of the sea on its two shores. On several
occasions during the late expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin,
while the ships were crossing that strait from cast to west a fall
of a few degrees was observed. This accounts pretty accurately
for the fact that the east shore during a great part of the year
keeps clear of ice, while the opposite is for the most part encum-
bered ; and the greater mildness of the climate on the east side
arises from the same cause. Allusion need not be made here to
the late President's Paper on the temperature of the North of

* Principles of Geology, Seventh Edition, page 86.

364 SUTHERLAND, DAVIS* STBAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAT.

! I

, 1

1 !

W i ■■ ■

■t

Europe,* as the analogy between the North Atlantic and Daris*
Strait with respect to currents will easily occur to us.

The specific gravity of the water also assists in determining the
direction of the currents in the Polar Seas. During Captain
Inglefield's late voyage, it was found to decrease as we approached
Cape Farewell and advanced northward and westward in Davis'
Strait.!

In the Atlantic, long. 30°, lat. 56° 30', 24th October 1852, the natural tem-
perature being 48° Fahr., the density at 60° Fahr. was 1 -02808.

At Cape Farewell on the 31st July, natural temperature 33°, density 1 '0245.

Davis' Strait, lat. 68°, sixty miles off the coast of West Greenland, August
11th, natural temperature 40°, depth fifty fathoms, density 1-0265.

Close to Cape York, lat. 70°, August 21st, nsitural temperature 30°, sea-water-
ice and icebergs abundant, depth fifty-four fathoms, density 1'0215.

About two miles off Cape Alexander, Smith's Sound, lat. 78° 20', long 71°,
August 27th, natural temperature 32° no ice but in the vicinity of the
glaciers in the coast, depth 154 fathoms, density 1*02516.

In Jones' Sound, lat 76° 11', long. 83° September 1st, natural temperature
30°, sea-water-ice and icebergs present but not abundant, density 1 • 02451 .

About two miles off Cape Fitzroy, Lady-Anne's Strait, Jones' Sound, lat 75°
35', September 2nd, natural temperature 30°, sea-water-ice thirty to forty
feet thick, most abundant, no bottom, 150 fathoms, density 1*0235.

And off Cape Walsingham, lat. 66° 34', long. 60° 60', October 12th, natural
temperature 30°, density 1'0245.

Slight as the differences in these densities may appear to be, in
my own estimation they arc assignable to no other cause than the
increased saltness of the water on the east shore, consequent upon
a tendency of the water to advance from the southward, and the
diminished salinity resulting from the dilution of the water moving
to the southward. The above cases taken by chance, I have cited
from the observations made every day at noon ; and, although the
results at Cape York and Cape Farewell do not bear out the im-
pression conveyed by the whole, wo may still presume that impres-
sion to be safe in a general point of view. The exception at Cape
Farewell arises in all probability from a diversion of the great
Arctic Current which flows round that promontory, and carries
into that part of the Strait ice and drift-woud which may have
come southward from great distances in the Greenland Seas ; and
in this respect it may be taken as a proof of the dilution of the
water of that current consequent upon its burden of comparatively
freshwater ice. Again the exception at Cape York may arise from
some local cause, such as the presence of an unusually large number
of icebergs. On our own coasts the mean density of the sea is
often disturbed by the discharges of rivers and small streams. An
evening of rainy weather in November of the past year reduced
the density of the sea in Stromness harbour from I •0285 to 1 * 0235,
and eighteen hours of heavy rain on the 17th of the same month
reduced that of the water of St. Margaret's Hope, Frith of Forth,

* On the causes which may have produced changes in the earth's superficial
temperature. By W. Hopkins, Esq., M.A,, F.R.S., &c., Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. viii., pp. 56 et seq.

+ Compare Forchhammer's Observations on the Currents and Salinity of
the Folar Seas in the Reports and Transactions of the British Association,
1846.

•A.

r*s BAT.

SUTHERLAND, DAVlb' STRAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAY. 365

and Daris'

mining the
Jg Captain
[ipproached
d in Davis'

natural tcm-

!808.

isity 1«0245.

land, August

•0265.

1°, sca-water-

1'0215.

0', long 71°,

ciuity of the

temperature
lityr 02451.
•und, lat 75°
lirty to forty
•0235.
12 th, natural

%r to be, in

3e than the

juent upon

d, and the

;er moving

have cited

hough the

at the im-

at impres-

)n at Cape

the great

id carries

may have

t>eas ; and

on of the

jaratively

irise from

e number

he sea is
■ims. An
reduced
1-0235,
ne month
3f Forth,

superficial
urn. Geol.

Salinity of
ssociation,

from 1 *024o to 1 • 0185. Before, however, this theory of a northerly
seeking current in Davis' Strait aloug the eastern shore can bo
accepted, we must get over the difficulty arising from the position
of the great Arctic Current in the North Atlantic. This current
sweeps southward across the entrance of Davis' Strait and prevents
the ingress at the surface of any water from the Athmtic, except
such as the current itself would supply. The Rev. Dr. Scoresby
suggests the idea that two currents may arise from the existence
of two strata of water varying in temperature.* The question
then arises as to the order of superposition. If sea-water indepen-
dent of its saline ingredients follows the law of expansion peculiar
to water from 40° to 32°, one current at a temperature of 36° may
pass over another at 44°, and if we separate the extremes eight
degrees more, the coldest is still the most buoyant, for, even
although it is sea-water, if in a state of tolerable quiescence a por-
tion of it will have become congealed. It is a well-known fact
that the process of congelation separates the saline from the watery
particles. I have often observed sea-water freezing when the
immersed thermometer stood at 32°, and the ice produced at the
time was found to contain little more than a trace of saline matter.
But there seems to be no reason why this separation should be
confined solely tc the act of congelation, since it is owing to the
universal law of contraction observed in obedience to cold by, I
believe, everything in nature except water itself, and that only
between the temperatures of 40° and 32°. This may appear some-
what at variance with the experiments of Erman, as quoted by
Sir Charles Lyellf ; the latter, however, acknowledges the pos-
sibility of the colder and more diluted Avater of the Arctic Current
passing over the wjirmer and more saline waters of the Gulf
Stream. Until our knowledge of the physical changes peculiar ta
these high latitudes extends, such phsenomena as the al>ove must
remain more or less obscure ; at present we may rest assured that
a meeting and commingling of waters differing in point of saltnes&
and temperature takes place in the entrance of Davis' Strait, and
to this causing sudden and decided meteorological changes may be
attributed, in great measure, the extreme violence of the storms
experienced by navigators when they approach Cape Farewell.

Sea-fiottoms and Soundings. — Presuming then upon tlie exis-
tence of currents into the Arctic Seas which may assist the action
of the sun in dissolving icebergs and sea-water-ice, we are in a
position to consider the extent and character of deposits and
accumulations of drift material or "till " noAV forming in the track
of these conveying agents. At the confluence of two opposite
currents the largest amount of foreign matter Avill be deposited,
for there icebergs and coast-ice are brought to a stand in the eddies,
and are liable to be detained until they are dissolved. In such cases
submarine ridges and mounds begin to grow above the general
level of the sea-bottom, and they may continue to increase until
the surface of the water is reached.

Priuciples of Geology, 7th edit., page 97.

t Ibid.

t (

ft 2*1

m

m

'I

\ I

V'-^

366 SUTHERLAND, DAVIS* STRAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAY.

A bank in latitude 67° and 68" off the coast of West Greenland,
well known to the whaling and cod-fishing vessels by the name
*• ReefkoU or Riscoll Bank," seems to answer this description.*
The depth of water on the highest part of it does not exceed fifteen
fathoms. It appears to be composed of angular fragments of rock
and other materials brought down by icebergs and coast-ice. This,
however, can only be inferred from the sounding lino, and from
the rough usage to which the lines of the whalers are submitted
when they attack and get fast to their prey in its neighbourhood.
Its limits can be defined almost at all times by the clusters and
groups of small icebergs that take the ground upon it ; and like
other banks of a similar character but less extensive on tlie same
coast, it is exceedingly fertile in shoals of Cod-fish and Halibut
which frequent it in the months of May, June, July, and August.
These and other fishes, including myriads of Sharks, may pass the
whole year upon it ; but this we have not as yet had the means of
putting to the test.

In other parts of Bafiin's Bay and Davis' Straits the bottom is
composed of fine mud, sand, rounded and angular fragments of
rock, shells, and marly deposits resulting from minute subdivision
of calcareous, phosphatic, and siliceous animal and vegetable matter
all of which have been brought up in the dredge. In the neigh-
bourhood of islands composed of crystalline rocks the bottom vfixa
often found to be rocky ; but, as might be expected, numerous
depressions were filled with sand and shells. From a depth of
twenty-five to thirty fathoms at the Hunde Islands,"!" South-east
Bay, lat. 68°, the dredge passed over a loose and softish deposit,
and brought up a quantity of dark-coloured rather finely divided
matter resembling peat, which appeare<l to have been the result of
the decomposition of Fuel at the bottom. In some cases the roots,
being the hardest and most enduring parts, could be detected.

Organic Remains deposited 171 the Arctic Sens. — Diatomaceae
are exceedingly abundant within the Arctic Circle. Mud from
almost every locality has not failed to yield considerable varieties ;
but the most productive source is the surface-ice when undergoing
decay. It often occurred to me that these microscopic forms may
be accumulating in a state of great purity, and to a considerable
extent, in some of the highly favourable localities so common in

I

A:t .

* Mr. E. WuYMPER states — "On the voyage up Davis Strait (in 1867)
we were becalmed off Rifkol, a noted landmark, and anchored on some banks
in 18 fathoms. These bpnks have certainly been greatly increased, if not
originated, by the deposition of matter from the icebergs of the Jakobshavu
ice-stream. At the time we were anchored a large number of small bergs
were aground upon them, breaking up and revolving all around. We took
the opportunity to put down the dredge ; and although we only worked from
the ship's side and consequently over a very limited amount of bottom, we
brought up in two or three hauls fragments of granite, gneiss (some with
garnets), syenite, quartz, hornblende, greenstone, and mica-slate. The sound-
ing-lead showed a fine sand bottom, and the anchor-flukes brought up fetid
mud" (Brit. Assoc. Rep. for 1869, p. 2). — Editor.

f For the Entomostraca, Foraminifera, and Algae of these dredgings, see
above, pages 166, 192, and further on. — Editor.

PFIN S BAY.

Vest Greenland,
s by the name
lis description.*
>t exceed fifteen
igments of rock
;oast-ice. This,
line, and from
i are submitted
neighbourhood,
le clusters and
n it ; and like
(re on tlie same
3h and Halibut
[y, and August.
s, may pass the
id the means of

the bottom is

r fragments of

jte subdivision

egetable matter

In the neigh-

le bottom was

cted, numerous

rom a depth of

ds,! South-east

softish deposit,

• finely c'lvicled

11 the result of

ases the roots,

detected.

— Diatomaceae

Mud from

able varieties ;

en undergoing

3ic forms may

considerable

30 common in

itrait (in 1867)
on some banks
nc reused, if not
the Jakobshavu
of small bergs
und. We took
y worked from
of bottom, we
isb (some with
te. The souud-
onght up fetid

3 dredgings, see

SUTHERLAND, DAVIs' STRAIT AND BAFFIN'S BAY. 367

Davis' Strait. In many of the sheltered bays, where the water is
still and the ice dissolves without drifting much about, a brownish
slime, consisting of nothing but these forms, occupies the whole
surface of the water among the ice, which, after the latter has all
disappeared, becomes rolled into rounded pellets by the rippling
of the water, and ultimately sinks to the bottom.* This process
of deposition extending over thousands of years would produce
accumulations scarcely second to those of the " berg-mehl " of
Sweden, or of the " tripoli " of the Isle of France, &c.

In addition to such varied materials as we have indicated, the
accumulation of "Ti'l" will contain abundant remains of animals
high in the order of creation. Of all parts of the ocean this is the
most frequented by the large Cctacea and the Seals. The numbers
of the former are very great, and that of the latter almost beyond
comprehension. Their bones must be strewed on the bottom, and
thus they will become constituents of the growing deposit. It may
also contain the enduring remains of other animals. Every Arctic
traveller is aware of the fact tliat Polar Bears are seen on the ice
at great distances from the land ; and ray own experience bears
testimony to the fact that not unfrequently they are found swim-
ming when neither ice nor land is in sight. The Arctic Fox and,
I believe, also the Wolf, and certainly the Esquimaux Dog, animals
not generally known to take the water, are set adrift upon the ice
and blown out to sea, where they perish when the ice dissolves.
And cases are known, although perhaps not recorded, in which
human beings have been blown away from the land upon the drifting
floes, and never heard of. Two persons to my own knowledge
have thus disappeared from the coast of West Greenland. One of
them, however, reached the opposite side of Davis' Strait, where
he spent the remainder of his life among his less civilised brethren.
And the ships engaged in the whaling on the west side of this
Strait sometimes have a deed of humanity to discharge by
taking from the drifting pack-ice a group of Natives. I have not
alluded to the remains of Reindeer and other ruminants of these
regions, for the reason that I believe they frequent the ice much
less than those that have been mentioned, and consequently are
much less liable to be drifted away. It is highly probable, how-
ever, that their bones, as well as human remains and works of art,
sometimes reach the bottom of the Arctic Seas, the ice of rivers
and deep inland bays being the conveying agents.

• For an account of the Diatomaceae of these seas, see Prof. Dickie's " Notes
on the Algse," in the Appendix to Dr. Sutherland's " Journal," vol. ii. p. cxcv.
et seq. ; also above, page 319, and further on. — EoiTou.

\ '

368 MEKK, FOSSILS TROM KENNEDY CHANNEL.

XLIX. — Fossils from the West Coast of Kennedy
Channel. By Prof. F. B. Meek.

[From Silliman's American Journal of Science and Arts, ser. 2,
vol. xl., I860, pp. 31-34. See also Hayes's "Open Polar
Sea," &c., 8vo., London, 1867, p. 341.]

i !

■J I

S'S

:t'!:: ;

These were collected by Dr. I. I. Hayes at Cape Leidy, Cape
Frazer, and other points of the west coast of Kennedy Channel.

1. Zaphrentis Hayesii, Meek.

2. Syringopora, sp.

3. Favositcs, sp.

4. Strophomena rhomboidalis,

Wahl.

5. Strophodonta Headleyana,

Hall?

6. Strophodonta Beckii, Hall.

7. Rhynchonella, sp.

8. Coelospira concava. Hall.

9. Spirifera, sp.

10. Loxonema ? Kanei, Meek.

11. Orthoceras, sp.

12. Illsenus, sp.

Dr. Meek regards these as closely allied to species found in
the " Catskill Shaly Limestone "* of the *' Lower Helderberg "
group of the State of New York.

L. — On the Miocene Flora of North Greenland. By
Prof. Oswald Heer. Translated by Robert E. Scott.

[From the Report of the Thirty-sixth Meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Not-
tingham in August 1866 ; Transactions of the Sections,
pp. 53-55; 1867.t]

The Royal Dublin Society is in possession of a rich collection
of fossil plants, which have been brought from the Arctic regions
by Capt. Sir F. Leopold M'Clintock and Capt. Philip H. Colomb
at various times, and have been presented by those gentlemen to the
Museum of the Society. 1 am indebted to the kindness of Mr.
Robert H. Scott, Hon. Sec. of the Royal Geological Society of
Ireland, for a sight of these specimens, as the Royal Dublin Society
has been induced to entrust the whole collection to me for exami-
nation. Before I received these, Dr. J. D. Hooker had entrusted
to me specimens which had been presented to the museum at Kew
by Dr. Lyall and Dr. Walker. In this latter collection I dis-
covered seven determinable species, which are also to be found
among the specimens of the Dublin collection. In this I find 63

* Uppor Silurian ; the " Delthyris Shaly Limestone," Hall, Geol. Report,
p, 144; Mather, Geol. Report, p. 345; Bigsby, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc,
vol. xiv., p. 370, &c. — Editor.

•(• Also in the " Journal of the Royal Dublin Society," vol. v. No. 36,
pp. 69-85, with rather more details and some notes by Captains Inglefield,
Colomb, and M'Cliutock, and an extract from Giesecke's Joiunal.

[ANNEL.

of Kennedy

and Arts, ser. 2,
s'a **Oi)en Polar

IIEER, MIOCENE FLOllA OF GREENLAND.

369

;5ape Leidy, Cape
luedy Channel.

iita Beckii, Hall,
ella, sp.
concava, Hall,
sp.

? Kanei, Meek.
s, sp.

?•

species found in

vev Helderberg"

REENLAND. By

BERT H. Scott.

? of the British
ce, held at Not-
)f the Sections,

I rich collection

Arctic regions

ilip H. Colomb

gentlemen to the

ndness of Mr.

ical Society of

Dublin Society

0 me for exami-

had entrusted

museum at Kew

iollection I dis-

so to be found

this I find 63

.11, Geol. Report,
ourn. Geol. Soc,

" vol. V. No. 36,
iptains Inglefield,
iirnal.

recognisable species. If we add lo this the additional species
mentioned by Brongniart and Vaupel, we obtain a total of 66
species.

All the specimens of the Dublin and Kew collections come from
Atanekerdluk, as do also the sjipciinens which Capt. E. A. Ingle-
field brought home, of which he deposited a portion in the Museum
of the Geological Survey, and retained a portion in his own
hands. The former have been kindly sent to me by Sir Roderick
Murchison, while I have obtained the latter through the goodness
of their owner.

Fossil Plants from Atanekerdluk. — Atanekerdluk lies on the
Waigat, opposite Disco, in lat. 70°. A steep hill rises on the
coast to a height of i ,080 feet, and at this level the fossil plants
are found.* Large quantities of wood in a fossilised or carbonised
condition lie about. Captain Inglefield observed one trunk
thicker than a man's body standing upright. The leaves, how-
ever, are the most important portion of the deposit. The rock in
which they are found is a sparry-iron-ore, which turns reddish-
brown on exposure to the weather. Tn this rock the leaves are
found, in places packed closely together, and many of them are
in a very perfect condition. They give us a most valuable insight
into the nature of the vegetation which formed this prim£eval
forest.

The catalogue which I append to this paper f will give a general
idea of the flora of this forest of Atanekerdluk ; but before we
proceed to discuss it I must make a few remarks.

(1.) The fossilised plants of Atanekerdluk cannot have been
drifted from any great distance. They must have grown upon
the spot where they are found. This is proved —

(«.) By the fact that Capt. Inglefield and Dr. Rink observed
trunks of trees standing upright.

(6.) By the great abundance of the Leaves, smd the perfect state
of preservation in which they are found. Timber, hard fruits,
and seeds may often be carried to a great distance by ocean
cuiTcnts ; but leaves always fall to pieces on such a long journey,
and they are the more liable to suffer from wear and tear the
larger they are. We find in Greenland very large leaves, many of
which are perfect up to the very edge. It is, however, ditlicult
to work them out from a stono which splits very irregularly, and
consequently we can hardly exhibit the entire leaves in a perfect
condition.

(c.) By the fact that we find in the stone both fruits and seeds
of the trees whose leaves ai'c also found there. Thus of Sequoia
Langsdorffii we see not only the twigs covered with leaves, but
also cones and seeds, and even a male catkin. O^ Populus, Coryliis^
Ostri/a, PaUurns, and Primus there are leaves and some remains
of fruit, which could not be the case if the specimens had drifted
from a great distance.

* For detailed sections by Prof. Nordenskiold and Dr. Brown, see further
on. — EoiTon.

f For a later and more perfect catalogue, see further on. — Editor.
30122. " ^ A

il

f

(

V> p.'

370

HEERj MIOCENE FLORA OF GREENLAND.

1

k

(d.) By our finding remains of Insects with the leaves. There
is the elytron of a small Beetle, and the wing of a good-sized
Wood-bug (probably belonging to the family of the PentatomidfE.)

(2.) The Flora of Atanehcrdluk* is Miocene. Of the 66
species of North Greenland, 18 occur in the Miocene deposits
of Central Europe. Nine of these are very widely distributed
both as to time and space, viz., Scignoia Laitgsdorff'ii, Ta.rodium
dtibiutn, Phragmitcs Oeningensis, Quercits Drymcia, Planera
Ungeri, Diospyros brachysepala^ Andromeda protogfea, Mhatnniis
Eriduni, and Juglans acuminata. These are found both in the
Upper and Lower Molasse of Switzerland, while some species, viz.,
Sequoia Couttsiee, Osmunda Heerii, Corylus Macquarrii, and
Populus Zaddachi, have not as yet been noticed in the Upper
Molasse. From these facts it seems probable that the fossil
forest of Atanekerdluk flourished in that high northern latitude
at the earlier Miocene epoch.

(3.) The Flora of North Greenland is very rich in species.
This is evident from the great variety of plants which the speci-
mens exhibit. Although the amount of material obtained from
Atanekerdluk is of small extent compared with that which has
come from the Swiss localities, yet many of the slabs contain four
or five species, and in one instance even eleven. Atanekerdluk
has only been twice visited,f so that we have only got a glimpse
of the treasures buried there, and which await a more careful
search. At Disco and Hare Island there are extensive beds
of brown coal, in whose neighbourhood we may fairly expect to
find fossil plants. Professor Goppert mentions three species from
Kook (Kome) in lat. 70° N., (nearer 70° 30') Pecopteris borealis.
Sequoia Langsdoi^i, and Zamites arcticus^X which last he has
described in the I^ues Jahrbuch fUr Mineralogie, &c., 1866, pp.
130 and 134.

(4.) The Flora of Atanekerdluk proves^ withotit a douht^ that
North Greenland^ in the Miocene epochs had a climate much
warmer than at present. The difference must be at least 30° F.

Professor Heer discusses at considerable length this proposition.
He says that the evidence from Greenland gives a final answer to
those who objected to the conclusions as to the Miocene climate of

i

■t J

* The fossil Plants here referred to were obtained high up on the hill-side ;
lower down, at the foot of the hill, Nordenskiold subsequently discovered
remains of a Cretaceous Flora (see further on) ; and Prof. Heer suggests that
Eocene Plants also are to be found in that section. — Editok.

f This was written in 1866. In 1869 Prof. Heer communicated to the
Koyal Society of London (Phil. Trans, for 1869,) a memoir descriptive of
additional specimens from Atanekerdluk and Kudlisaet (Noursoak and Disco)
collected by Messrs. E. Whymper and 11. Brown, in the summer of 1667, A
further collection, made by the Swedish Expedition In 1870, is described in
the K. Sv. Vet. Akad. xiii. No. 2, 1874. A general resume is given in the
3rd. vol. of his "Flora fossilis arctica," 1875.

X Prof. O. Heer subsequently proved that both Pecopteris borealis, Brong.,
and Zamites arcticus, Goppert, are Cretaceous species, from Kome, on the Nour-
soak Peninsula ; whilst Sequoia Langsdorfii (Brongniart) is of Miocene age
and common in Disco Island. — Editor.

. IIEER, MIOCENE FLORA OF GREENLAND.

371

Europe drawn by him on ft former occAsion. It is quite impossible
that the trees found at Atanekenllnk could ever have flourished
there if the temperature were not far higher than it is at present.
This is clear, first, from many of the species, of which we find the
nearest living representatives 10° or even 20° of latitude to the
south of the locality in question. Some of the species are quite
peculiar, and their relationship to other forms is as yet in doubt.
Of these the most important are a Daphnogene {D. Kanii) the
genus Macclintockiaj and a Zamites.* The Daphnogene hatl large
thick leathery leaves, and was probably evergreen. Macclintockia,
a new genus, comprises certain specimens belonging perhaps to
the family of the Proteacete. The Zamites is also new. Inas-
much as we know no existing analogues foi these plants wo
cannot draw accurate conclusions as to the climatal conditions in
which they flourished. It is, however, quite certain that they
never could have borne a low temperature.

If, now, we look at those species which we may consider as
possessing living representatives, we shall find that on an average
the highest limit attainable by them, even under artificial
culture, lies at least 12° to the southward. This, however, does
not give a fair view of the circumstances of the case. The trees
at Atanekerdluk were not all at the extreme northern limit of
their growth. This may have been the case with some of the
species ; others, however, extended much further north, for in the
Miocene Flora of Spitzbergen, lat. 78° N., we find the Beech, Plane,
Hazel, a Poplar {Populus Richardsoni), a Fir, and the Taxodium
of Greenland ; and in lat. 79° N., a Lime and Populus arctiea.
For the opportunity of examining these specimens I am in-
debted to Professor Nordenskiold. At the present time the Firs
and Poplai-s reach to a latitude 15° above the artificial limit of the
Plane, and 10° above that of the Beech. Accordingly we may
conclude that the Firs and Poplars which we meet at Atanekerdluk
and at Bell Sound, Spitzbergen, must have reached up towards the
North Pole so far as there was land there in the Tertiary
Period. The hills of fossilised wood found by M'Clure and his
companions in Banks' Land (lat. 74° 27' N.) are therefore dis-
coveries which should not astonish us ; they only confirm the
evidence as to the original vegetation of the Polar regions,
which we have derived from other sources. The Professor then
proceeds to say that the course of reasoning which led him
to the conclusion that the Miocene temperature of Greenland
was 30° F. higher than its present temperature would be fully
developed in his work " On the Fossil Flora of the Polar Regions,"
which will contain descriptions and plates of the plants discovered
in North Greenland, Melville Island, Banks' Land, Mackenzie
River, Iceland, and Spitzbergen, and which he hopes to publish at
an early date.

He then selects Sequoia Langsdorffii, the most abundant of the
trees at Atanekerdluk, and proceeds to investigate the conclusions
as to climate deducible from the fact of its existence in Greenland.

mi

* See the more perfect list further on. — Editor.

A A 2

i I

372

BEER, MIOCENE FLORA OF GREENLAND.

IS

m-

M

Sequoia sempervirens^ Lnmb (Red- wood), is its present represen-
tative, and resembles it so closely that we may consider S. semper'
virens to be the direct descendant of S. Langsdorffii. This tree
is cultivated in most of the botanical gardens of Europe, and its
extreme northern limit may bo placed at lat. 53' N. For its
existence it requires a summer temperature of 60° F. Its fruit
requires a temperature of 65° F. for ripening. The winter
temperature must not fall below 31° F., and that of the whole year
must be at least 50° F. Accordingly wo may consider the iso-
thermal of 50° as its northern limit. This we may then take as
the northern temperature of the Sequoia Langsdorffiiy and 50° F. ns
the absolute minimum of temperature under which the vegetation
of Ataiiekerdluk could have existed there.

The present annual temperature of the locality is about 20° F.
Dove gives the normal temperature of the latitude (70° N.) at 16°
F. Thus Greenland has too high a temperature ; but if we como
further to the eastward we meet with a temperature of 33° F. at
Altenfiord. Even this extreme variation from the normal conditions
of climate is 17° F. lower than that which we ore obliged to assume
as having prevailed during the Miocene period.

The author states that the results obtained confirm his conclu-
sions as to the climate of Central Europe at the same epoch (conf.
Heer, Recherches sur leClimat et la Vegetation duPays Tertiaire,
p. 193), and shows at some length how entirely insufficient the
views of Sartorius von Waltershausen are to explain the facts of
the case.

Herr Sartorius would account for the former high temperature
of certain localities by supposing the existence of an insular
climate in each case. Such suppositions would be quite inade-
quate to account for such extreme differences of climate as the
evidence now under consideration proves to have existed.

Professor Heer concludes his paper as follows : —

I think these facts are convincing, and the more so as they are
not insulated, but confirmed by the evidence derivable from the
Miocene Flora of Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Northern America.
These conclusions, too, are only links in the grand chain of evi-
dence obtained from the examination of the Miocene Flora of the
whole of Europe. They prove to us that we could not, by any
re-arrangement of the relative positions of land and watei-, produce
for the northern hemisphere a climate which would explain the
phenomena in a satisfactory manner. We must only admit that
we are face to face with a problem whose solution in all proba-
bility must be attempted and, we doubt not, completed by the
astronomer.

Appendix by Editor.

Memoirs and Reports on the Fossil Plants of
Greenland, &c.

1867. — On the Miocene Flora of North Greenland. By
Professor Oswald Heer. Translated by R. H. Scott. Brit.
Assoc. Report for 1866, Trans. Sections, p. 53. 1867.

INLAND.

IIEER, MIOCENE FLORA OF GREENLAND.

373

5 present rcpresen-
lonsider S. scmper-
dorffii. This tree
of Europe, and its
. 53^ N. For its
f 60° F. Its fruit
ng. The winter
t of the whole year
consider tlie iso-
3 may then take as
orffii^ and 50° F. as
lich the vegetation

ity is about 20° F.
ide (70° N.) at 16°
e ; but if wo como
-ature of 33° F. at
B normal conditions
3 obliged to assume

lonfirm his conclu-
I same epoch (conf.
du Pays Tertiaire,
;ly insufficient the
3xplain the facts of

• high temperature
ice of an insular
d be quite inade-
of climate as the
e existed.

ore so as they are
erivable from the
orthern America,
and chain of evi-
)cene Flora of the
could not, by any
nd water, produce
would explain the
st only admit that
ition in all proba-
completed by the

Plants of

;

1867. — On the Miocene Flora of North Greenland. By
Professor Oswald Hecr. Translated by Robert II. Scott, M.A.
With Notes by E. A. Inglefield, P. II. Colomb, Sutherland,
and M'Clintock, and extract from Giesecke's Journal. Head
November 19, 1866. The Journal of the Koyal Dublin Society,
vol. v., for 1867, pp. 6S^85.

1868. — Flora fossilis arctica. I. Die fossile Flora der Polar-
liinder. enthaltend die in Nordgrciuland, auf der Melville-Insel, im
Banksland, am Mackenzie, in Island und in Spitzbergen entdeck-
tcn fossilen PHanzen, von Dr. Oswald Heek, Professor am
Polytechnikum und an der Universitiit in Zurich. Mit einem
Anhang iiber vcrsteinerto Ilolzer der arctischen Zone, von Dr.
Carl Cramer, Professor am Polytechnikum in Zurich. (Mit 1
Karte und 50 Tafeln.) 4to. Zurich, 1868.

1 870. — Report of Proceedings to obtain a Collection of Fossil
Plants in North Greenland for the Committee of the British
Association. By Edward Whymper. Brit. Asoc. Report for

1869, pp. 2-8. 1870.

1870. — Report on the Fossil Plants collected by Mr. Whymper
(and Mr. Brown) in North Greenland in 1867. By Professor
O. Ileer. Brit. Assoc. Report for 1869, pp. 8-10. 1870.

1871. — Flora fossilis arctica. II. Die foss., &c., Zwciter Band,
enthaltend : 1. Fossile Flora der Baren-Insel (Kongl. Svensk.
Yetensk. Akad. Handl., vol. ix.. No. 5, 1871). 2. Flora fossilis
Alaskana (K. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl., vol. viii., No. 4, 1869).
3. Die miocene [miocane] Flora und Fauna Spitzbergens (K. Sv.
Vet.-Ak. Handl., vol. viii., No. 7, 1870). 4. Contributions to
the Fossil Flora of North Greenland (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc,
London, 1869). Mit 59 Tafeln. 4to. Winterthur, 1871.

1872. — Notice of Heer's Flora fossilis arctica (vol. ii.). Com-
municated by R. H. Scott, F.R.S. Geol. Mag., vol, ix., pp. 69-72.
1872.

1871. — Prof. E. A. Nordenskiold. Redogiirelse for en Expedi-
tion till Grbnland Ar 1870; Ofversigt af K. Vet.-Akad«
Forhandl., 1870, No. 10. Separately published, 1871.

1872, — Prof. E. A. Nordenskiold. Expedition to Greenland in

1870. Geol. Mag., vol. ix., pp. 289, 354, 409, 449, & 516. 1872.
^ 1875. — Flora fossilis arctica. III. Die foss., &c., Dritter Band,
enthaltend : 1. Beitrage zur Steinkohleuflora der arctischen Zone
(K. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl,, vol. xii., No. 3, 1874). 2. Die Kreide-
flora der arctischen Zone (K. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl., vol. xii,, No.
6,1874). 3. Nachtriige zur miocenen [miociinen] Flora Gron-
lands (K. Sv, Vet. Ak. Handl., vol. xiii.. No. 7, 1874). 4.
Uebersicht der miocenen [miocanen] Flora der arctischen Zone,
1874. Mit 49 Tafeln. 4to. Zurich, 1875.

1875. — R. Brown. Geological Notes on the Noursoak Peninsula,
Disco Island, &c. Transact. Geol. Soc, Glasgow, vol. v. 1875.

4

M

Greenland. By
Scott. Brit.
1867.

374

HEEB, ARCTIC FOSSIL PLANTS.

LI. — Notice of Heer's " Flora fossilis arctica" (Car-
BONiFEuuus Fossils of Bear Island and Spitzbergen,
and Cretaceous and Miocene Plants of Spitzbergen
and Greenland). Communicated by Robert H. Scott,
F.R.S., &c.

[Roprinted, with Permission, from the Geological Magazine,
Vol. IX., No. 2, February 1872, pp. G9-72.]

Carboniferous: Bear Island and Spitzbergen. — In vol. ii. of
his " Flora fossilis urctica," Professor Oswald Heer has treated of
the Fossil Flora of Boar Island, and shown that it belongs to the
Lower Carboniferous Formation, of which it forms the lowest beds
(named by him the " Ursa Stage"), close to the junction with
the Devonian.* The Yellow Sandstone of Kiltorcan in Ireland,
some of the Grauwacke of the Vosges and the southern part of
the Black Forest, and some strata near St. John in New Bruns-
wick, belong to the same group. In the summer of 1870 two
young Swedish naturalists (Wilander and Nathorst) discovered
this same formation in the Klaas Billen Bav of the Eisfiord in
Spitzbergen, and brought home fine specimens of Lcpidodendron
Veltheimianum and Stigmariajicoides. It has also been found in
West Greenland ; for Prof. Nordenskiold tells us that the Swedish
Expedition, which went to Disco, in the course of last summer, to
fetch the meteorite, weighing about 20 tons, which he discovered
at Ovifak in that island, has brought home fossil plants of true
Carboniferous age.

The Carboniferous formation, therefore, has been extensively
developed in the Arctic regions, for it occurs also in the Parry
Islands and in Siberia ; on the Lena it approaches the Arctic Circle.
These facts shoAv us that at the Carboniferous epoch there was a
great extent of land near the North Pole, covered with a vegetation
closely resembling that of our own latitudes at the same period.
Of 18 species of fossil plants at Bear Island, only 3 are peculiar to
it, the others are common to the European localities (such as Lepi'
dodendron Vtltkei/nianum, Knoi'ria imbricata, &c.) ; and, from
the fact that they are as fine and as well developed in the northern
as in the southern deposits, it is evident that no great difference
of climate could have prevailed between the two localities.f

Tertiary : Spitzbergen. — In Spitzbergen we have, besides the
Miocene Flora and Fauna, an important Diluvial formation. 132
species of Miocene plants have been found, mostly in Eisfiord
(lat. 78° N.), but some in King's Bay (lat. 78° o& N.). The
chief form here is an Equisctum {E. arcticum); but it is sur-

* See also Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvii., p. 1, and xxvii.,pp. 161-173
■f Prof. Heer has worked out this idea very fully in his paper ou Bear

•Island, and traced the alternations of rise and fall of the land, which probably

occurred during the later part of the Fulseozoic period*

4 '-4

'S.

IIEEU, AUCTIC iOdtilL i'LAKTsj,

875

ARCTICA" (CaR-

id Spitzbeugen,
of Spitzberoen
OBERT H. Scott,

logical Magnzine,
9-72.]

n. — In vol. ii. of
[eer has treated of

it belongs to the
IS the lowest beds
he junction with
)rcan in Ireland,

southern part of
a in New Bruns-
ner of 1870 two
liorst) discovered
f the Eisfiord in
>f Lcpidodcndron
ilso been found in
that the Swedish
f last summer, to
ich he discovered
il plants of true

been extensively

Iso in the Parry

he Arctic Circle.

)och there was a

th a vegetation

ic same period.

are peculiar to

I (such as Lt'pi'

.) ; and, from

in the northern

great difference

calities.f

ve, besides the

)rmation. 132

-itly in Eisfiord

56' N.). The

but it is sur-

Kvii.,pp. 161-173
s paper ou Bear
, which probably

prising to find a Lime ( Tiliu Malnujnni), an Arborvittu ( Thuitcs
Khrvnswiurdi), a Juniiicr, and two I'oplars nearly on the 7yth
parallel of latitude. The Floi'a of the Eisfiord is much richer,
especially that of the black shales of Cape Staratschiii, where we
find 26 Conifers belonging to the Ahietima-^ the Cupnusi/ua;,
and the Taxodiecr. Several of these species are represented
not only by leaves, but by their fiowers and fruit. The
chief forest-trees were a Sequoia (S. Xonhuskiohli), of which
we have leaves, twigs, and seeds, Libocidrtts Sadiniufui, and
Taxodiiim distivkum. Of the last-named the collection contains,
not only the twigs clothed with leaves, but the male and female
flowers, the scales, and seeds ; so that not even the delicate catkins
are wanting to identify this tree with tluit which is now growing
in the Southern States of North Ameriwi. No one can possibly
doubt that the tree grew Avhere its remains are now found.
Lihncvdrus Sahinkma is also well represented by its peculiar
seeds; it was tlie most graceful tree iu Spitzbergen, and its
nearest congeners are now found in Chili. Of other trees. Pop-
lars are tlio most common, with the Birch, Hazel, and Snowball
( Viburnum) ; but we are not so much surprised at finding them
as two large-leaved Oaks, the Ivy, and a Walnut.

This Flora has the greatest resemblance to that of North Green-
land and the other Arctic localities ; but several species extend
southwards into Europe. On the whole, this Miocene Flora
bears evidence of a far greater contrast of climate between
Euro{)e and the Arctic regions at that epoch, than the Lower-
Carboniferus plants show for their period. Ail the tropical and even
sub-tropical forms are wanting. These facts show us that great
changes of climate nmst have occurred, and it will be interesting
to trace when these first began to show themselves.

Cretaceous : Greenland. — The Cretaceous Flora of the Arctic
regions throws important light on this point, and our knowledge
of it has been largely enriched by the tliscoveries of the Swedish
Expedition of 1870. When the first volume of the " F'lora
aj'ctica " appeared, Prof. Ileer could only speak of a few speci-
mens belonging to this epoch, which had been found at Ivome,
on the north side of the Noursoak Peninsula. Prof. Nordenskiold
has, however, paid great attention to these fossils, and has dis-
covered several new localities for them on the same coast. They
are found in black shales, apparently, from the character of the
fossils, belonging to the Lower Cretaceous — the Urgonian, for
they resemble the Flora of Wernsdorf, in the Carpathians.
Among forty-three species already determined. Prof. Heer finds
twenty-four F'erns, five Cycads, eight Conifers, three Mono-
cotyledons. Only one fragment is dicotyledonous, a Poplar
leaf, and it is the oldest dicotyledonous plant that has hitherto
been discovered. Among the numerous Ferns the GleicJuinia is
the most common type, but Marattiacece and Sphetwpteris are not
rare. Of Cycads we have Zamitesy with very fine leaves, and
Podozamites Iloheiwggei'i (known from Wernsdorf in the Car-
pathians). It is striking that Sequoias and Pines approaching
closely to Tertiary types appear among the. Conifers.

!'■■'

m

1

376

IIEER, ARCTIC FOSSIL PLANTS.

I,:

I

In

'1^

The plant? of the black shales of the south side of Noursoak
Peninsula have a different character. Nordenskiold has found
them at tAvo points (Atane, and on the shore below Atanekerdluk,
the well-known Miocene locality). The number of species is
about equal to that found in the Lower Cretaceous just referred to;
but their type is almost totally diiferent, and it indicates that thsy
belong to the Upper Cretaceous. Scquma again predominates among
the Conifers, and fortunately cones were found as well as twigs.
With them were found a Thuitcs and a Salisburca (?). Cycads
are much less common than in the Lower Cretaceous beds, only one
( Cycaditcs Dicksoni) having been discovered. Among the Ferns,
though these are common (eleven species) only two GlcichenicB
were found instead of six ; other forms, such as Marattiace(P,
Adiantum, and Dictyophyllum^ have disappeared. The predo-
minant forms are Dicotyledons, of which there are twenty-four,
of various genera and species ; many of them have not yet been
absolutely determined. But there are three species of Poplar, one
Fig (leaves mA fruits), one Myrica^ one Sassafras, ona Crcdncriay
with two Magnoli(E.

These facts show us that here, as in Central Europe, the
Lower Cretaceous Flora consists principally of Ferns, Conifers,
and Cycads ; while in the Upper Cretaceous Dicotyledons appear.
The climatological changes which produced so important modifica-
tions in the types of vegetable life must have been as extensive in
high as in lower latitudes. If we examine into the climatic
character of the Lower Cretaceous Flora, we find it to be almost
tropical, as will be seen from the predominant forms of vegetation.
The same is true of the Flora of Wernsdorf in the Northern
Carpathians, so that in this respect the Lower Cretaceous Flora
resembles the Carboniferous Flora. The comparative rarity of
Gleichenias and Cycads, and the disappearance of Marattiaccce,
might point to a change of climate for the Upper Ci*etaeeous ;
but the presence of Ficus renders this doubtful, so that we cannot
decide whether the change of climate occurred during the Cretaceous
or the Tertiary period in Greenland ; at all events, the Flora of
the former epoch has a more southern character than that of the
latter.

Miocene : Greenland. — Besides these fossils, Nordenskiold has
brought over a large series of Miocene Plants from various locali-
ties. The most interesting of these are from a deposit, which is
separated by beds of basalt, some 2,000 feet thick, from the Lower
Miocene plant-bearing strata, and which, though still Miocene, are
much later in age.

[According to the succession of strata, Nordenskiold divides the
Miocene plant-bearing formation into three groups : —

I. The lowest (" Upper Atanekerdluk ") consists of sand, sand-
stone with shale, coal-seams, and clayironstone. To this belongs
the upper portion of the Atanekerdluk section, with its rich fossil
flora, Lower Miocene in character. Also found at Iglosungoak and
Isungoak on Disco Island.

II. The middle or " Ifsorisok group " of plant-bearing sand,
shale, coal, and brown clayironstone, lying between basalts, tuffs,

HEER, ARCTIC FOSSIL PLANTS.

377

I

and lavas, several thousand feet in thickness, and approximately
in the middle of the trap-formation. This group is found at : —

1. Netluarsuk, N.VV. of Atane, between Noursoak and Noursak,
at the mouth of the Waigat, and near the N.W. end of the Nour-
soak Peninsula, about 1,000 feet above the sea. Sand, shale, coal,
and brown clayironstone, with plant-remains, between basalts.

2. Ifsorisok, N.E. of Netluarsuk (about 70° 40' N. lat.),
12 miles from the coast, and about 2,2o0 feet above the sea. A
soft sandy clay, alternating with thin coal-seams, and containing
the plants, rests on basalt, Avhich further inland forms higli
mountains. The Kinnitak, between Niakornak and Ekkorfat, is
the nearest, and reaches the height of 6,000 feet, and apparently
consists wholly of eruptive rock.

3. Asakak, Not far from Kome, on the north side of the
Noursoak PeuinsiUa, is the Asakak Glacier, and among the
stones on its surface carbonised and eilicified wood abounds, also
some fragments of coarse sandstone containing Miocene Plants.
The place of origin could not be discovered.

m. The uppermost group consists of some sand and clays, on
the south coast of Disco, lying on and in the basalt, which there
overlies gneiss ; and it was probably contemporary with the last
of the great post-cretaceous volcanic eruptions of the district.
The fossil plants from Puilasok, having an Upper-Miocene cha-
racter, belong to this series, and occur in black or dark-grey sand,
or soft sandy shaly clay ; but Prof. Heer thinks that the plants
from the clayironstone of Sinifik, on the same coast, must be some-
what older. The soft sandstones and sandy shales of Puilasok,
with their thin irregidar coal-s:^ams, are represented by Nordeu-
skiold's section, at p. 4 of O. Heer's " Nachtriigo," &c., as lying in
nearly horizontal layers to the height of 200 feet, on and against
the eroded slope of horizontally stratified basalt and basalt-tuff. —
O. Heer, " Nachtriige zur mioc. Flora Gronland's," 1874, pp. 3, 4.]

East Coast of Greenland. — The German Expedition has
brought from the East Coast of Greenland some vegetable
fossils, many of which are, however, only undistinguishable
carbonaceous traces. Lieutenant Payer, however, brought some
specimens from Sabine Island which could be identified. They
belong to Taxodium distichum and Poptilus arctica, with a
fragment which probably belongs to Dlosjiyros brachysepala.
These trees have been discovered in West Greenland, and the
two first-named in Spitzbergen also, so that they probably
flourished over the entire district from the west coast to
Spitzbergen. In his paper on Spitzbergen, Prof. Heer had
remarked that we might expect to find the plants which were
common to the West Coast of Greenland and to Spitzbergen on
the East Coast of Greenland also. This anticipation has now been
confirmed by the discovery of these two species, and it may fairly
be expected that the fossiliferous sandstones and marls of Ger-
mania Mountain in Sabine Island contain many of the missing
forms.

m

f ! 'i

J y

*,

378 HEER, MJOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, GREENLAND.

LII.-- -The Miocene Flora and Fauna of the Arctic
Regions. By the Rev. Dr. Oswald Heer, F.M.G.S.,
Professor of Botany, University of Zurich, &c.

[From " Flora fossilis arctica," vol. iii., 1875.]

I

Miocene Plants have been found in Spitz])ergen from 77^° to
78§° N.L., in West Greenland from 70° to 71° N.L., in East
Greenland at 74i° N.L., in Iceland between 65° and 66°, on the
Mackenzie (Bear-Lake River) at 65°f and in Banks' Land at
74° 27' N.L.

1. In Spitzbergen Miocene Plants have been collected at six
places ; namely, at the Scott Glacier in Recherche Bay* (77^°
N.L.) ; at Cape Lyell at the entrance of Bell Sound ; at Cape
Staratschin at the entrance of the Ice-fjord (78° 5' N.L.) ; at
Cape Heer near Greenhaven ; and in King's Bay, 78° 56' N.L.

We now know 179 species of plants from these localities ; 34
from the Scott Glacier, 51 from Cape Lyell, 9 from Boll Sound,
115 from Cape Staratschin (from black shale and sandstone),
15 from Cape Heer, and 16 from King's Bay.

Equisetum arctic um, Taxodium distichum, Populus Hichnrdsonif
P. arctica, Corylus Macquarrii, Platanus aceroidcs, and Hcdera
Macclurii occur at nearly every one of the places, and must have
spread over all the old land. With other species common to
several of the localities, they show that the strata containing them
belong to one formation. The new discoveries show also that
these beds are Lower Miocene. We find 40 of the Spitzbergen
species in the Miocene of Europe; 23 in Switzerland, of which
19 occur in our Lower Freshwater Molasse.

2. In West Greenland Miocene Plants have been collected at
10 localities. Excepting Asakak, they are on the shores of the
Waigat, some in Disco, some in the Noursoak Peninsula. The
most important is the upper part of the hill at Atanekerdluk, where
124 species have been got. In the " Supplemental Remarks on
" the Miocene Flora of Greenland," in this vol. of the " Flora
foss. arct.," it is shown that during the long period of the great
Basalt-formation of Greenland no special change in the vegetation
took place. The plants of Ifsorisok, Netluarsuk, and Sinifik
agree generally with those of Upper Atanekerdluk, although
during their deposition 2,000 feet thickness of basalt was
formed. The deposit at Puilasok only, which lies on the basalt,
shows some diflPerence in its plant-remains, some of which resemble
those of our Upper Molasse (CEningen beds).

Of the 169 Miocene species from Greenland, 69 occur in Europe ;

* The new localities for these fossils at the Scott Glacier, Cape Lyell, and
Cape Heer were discovered by Prof. Nordenskiold iu the summer of 1873,
The plants then collected will be published by-and-by ; they increase the
Miocene Flora of Spitzbergen by 47 species.

NLAND.

HEER, MIOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, GREENLAND.

379

e Arctic
F.M.G.S.,
c.

.]

rom 77^" to
L., in East
66°, on the
3' Land at

ected at six
Bay* (77^°
id ; at Cape
' N.L.) ; at

56' N.L.
calities ; 34
Boll Sound,

sandstone),

Richardsonif
and Hedera
1 must have
common to
;aiuing them
w also that
Spitzbergen
d, of which

collected at
lores of the
isula. The
.11 uk, where
Remarks on
the "Flora
jf the great

vegetation
and Sinifik
although
basalt was

the basalt,
ch resemble

»>

in Europe ;

je Lyell, and
ler of 1873.
increase the

42 in Switzerland. Of these there are 35 in the Lower and 24
in the Upper Molasse. Thus, excepting those from Puilasok, the
Greenland fossil plants, like those of Spitzbergen, accord chiefly
with those of our Lower Miocene.

3. In East Greenland MM. Payer and Copeland have obtained
some fossil plants at Sabine Island (about 74^° N.L.) : remains
of Taxodium distichmn, Populus arctica, and Diospyros hrachy-
sepala, all known from West Greenland, and the first two
common in Spitzbergen. The 35 species which are common to
Spitzbergen and West Greenland probably existed all over the
intermediate region, and their remains may yet be found at Sabine
Island.

4. The Lignite- or Browncoal-formation of Iceland is wide-
spread, and plants have ' jached me from five places : — Briamslock
(about 65|° N.L.), Hredavatn (64° 40' N.L.), Langavatsdalr,
Sandafell (about 65^° N.L.), and Husawick (65° 40' N.L.),
yielding 42 species, of which 18 belong to the Miocene of Europe.

5. From the Mackenzie River district we have still only the 17
species of Miocene Plants described in vol. i. of " Flora foss.
arct."

6. Still further off is Banks' Land 74° 27' N.L.), with its re-
markable wood-hills, yielding five Conifers and a Birch. One of its
Pines (Piyius Macclurii) has been found also in Greenland by
Nordenskiold, confirming my conjecture of the Miocene age of
these accumulations of wood (" Flora arct.," i., p. 20.)

7. Altogether there are 353 species from these Arctic regions.
[A table of distribution in families is given, p. 5.] There are 31
Cryptogams, 53 Gymnosperms, 55 Monocotyledons, 65 Apetalte,
16 Gamopetalae, 88 Polypetalaa, and 45 of doubtful alliance.

Several species of these Miocene Plants can now be traced from
Spitzbergen, by Greenland, to the Mackenzie in N.W. America,
namely : —

Taxodi.-m distich um. Salix Raeana.

Glyptostrobus Ungeri. Corylus Macquarrii.

Sequoia Langsdorfii. Platanus aceroides.

Populus arctica. Hedera Macclurii.

The Swamp Cypress, Poplar, Hazel, and Plane are among the
most abundant of those both in Greenland and Spitzbergen ; Se-
quoia and Glyptostrobus abound in Greenland, and have lately
been found in Spitzbergen, but appear to be more limited there.
Either wide-spread or abundant in both of these countries are —

Lastraea Stiriaca. Quercus Groenlandica.

Taxites Olriki. Q. platania.

Phragmites Q^uingensis. Andromeda protogaea.

Populus Richardsoni.
Salix varians.
Carpinus grandis.
Fagus Deucalionis.

Nordenskioeldia borealis.
Paliurus Colombi.
Rhamnus Eridani.

■ '1

i'i^l

Of the Arctic species, 97 occur in the Miocene Flora of Europe.
There is 27^ per cent, (more than ^) of these Arctic plants common
to the Miocene of Europe. The per-centage for Spitzbergen is

• if

380 HEER, MIOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, GREENLAND.

about 22, for Greenland about 41, for Iceland and the Mackenzie 40,
In the most northern regions, in Spitzbergen, it is therefore the
least ; in Greenland it is almost twice as great, and it increases
southward.

Of all the European fossil floras, that of the Baltic comes
nearest to the Arctic. Of the 71 species known from the Sam-
land and the Browncoal of Rixhoft (near Dantzic, about 55° N.L.),
there are 38 (54 j»cr cent.) in the Arctic fossil flora. [Other com-
parisons and illustrative remarks follow ; and at pages 13-24 a
table is given, of which the following is an abstract.]

i i

I.

List of the Miocene Plants of the Arctic Regions.

[From Prof. O. Heer's " Uebersicht der miocene Flora der
arctische Zone," 1874; pp. 13-24.]

Spitzbergen = Sp.; Greenland=G.; Iceland — L; MacKenzie River = M.

I. — Cryptogam^e .

FiLICES.

Polypodiaceee.
Adiantum Dicksoni, H«iw j^.
Woodwardites arcticus, H. G.

Fungi.
Sphseria arctica, H. Sp.
S. annulifera, H. Sp., G.
S. pinicola, H. Sp.
S. hyperborea, H. Sp.
Dothidea borealis, H. I.
Sclerotium Dryadum, H. I.
S. Cinnamomi, H. G.
S. populicola, H. G.
Rhytisma induratum, H.? I.
R. boreale, H. G.
Polyporites SequoisD, H. G.

Lastr^a Stiriaca, (Ung,^u^p.,G.
Sphenopteris Miertschi||ppB^G.
S. Blomstrandi, H. Sp., Gi /
Aspidium Meyeri, H. G.
A. Heerii, Ett. G.
A. ursinum, H. G.
Pteris CEningensis, Ung. G.
P. Rinkiana, H. G.
P. Sitkensis, H. G.
Pecopteris gracillima, H.

Alg^.
Muensteria deplanata, H.

Sp.

Musci.
Muscites Berggreni, II. Sp.
M. subtilis, H. G.

OsmundacecB.
Osraunda Heerii, Gaud.
O. Torelli, H. G.

Equisetacete.
Equisetura boreale, H.
E. Winkleri, H. I.
E. arcticum, H. Sp.

G.

G.

G.

Conifers.
Taxincte.

Taxites Olriki, H. Sp., G.

T. validus, H. G.

Ginkgo adiantioides (Ung). G

Torellia rigida, H. Sp.

T. bifida, H. Sp.

II. — Ph^nogamia.

CuprcssinefB.

Juniperus rigida, H. Sp.
Biota borealis, H. G.
Libocedrus Sabiniana, H, Sp.
L. gracilis, H. Sp.
Thuites Ehrenswardi, H. Sp.
Cupressinoxylon Breverni,
Merkl. G.

5ENLAND.

HEER, MIOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, GREENLAND. 381

Mackenzie 40,
therefore the
i it increases

Baltic comes
om the Sam-
ut 55° N.L.),
[Other com-
ges 13-24 a

Regions.
Flora der

e River =M.

.cece.

i, Ha. Sp.

icus, H. G.

Jng.k.Sp.,G.

sch^npS^G.

H. G.

Ung. G.

~\

T.

la, H. G.
aud. G.

EiE.

H. G.

3.

Sp.
G.
la, H. Sp.

ii, H. Sp.
Breverni,

Cupressinoxylon ucrauicum,
Gp.? G.

C. pulchrum, Cr. Banksland.

C. polyommatura, Cr. Banks-
land.

C. dubium, Cr. Banksland.

Taxodieee.
Widdringtonia Helvetica, H. G.
Taxodium distichum-miocsenum,

H. Sp., G., M.
T. Tinajorum, H. Sp.
Glyptostrobus europseus, Brgn.

G.
G. Ungeri, H, Sp., G., M.
Sequoia Langsdorfii, (Brongn.)
Sp., G., M.
var. b. striata. Sp.
„ c. acuta. Sp.
„ d. obtusiuscula. Sp.
„ e. abrupta. Sp.
„ /. angustifolia. Sp.
S. disticha, H. Sp.
S. brevifolia, H. Sp., G.
S. Nordenskioeldi, H. Sj^, G.
S. Couttsiae, H. G.
S. Sternbergi, Gp., sp. G. I.,

AbictinecB.
Pinus montana, Mill. Sp.
P. polaris, H. Sp., G.
P. Thuleusis, Steenstr. I.
P. Martinsii, H. I.
P. cyloptera, Sap. Sp.
P. stenoptera, H. Sp.
P. macrosperma, H. Sp.
P. abies, L. Sp.
P. Ungeri, Eudl. Sp.
P. Loveni, H. Sp.
P. Macclurii, H. G., Banks-
land.
P. (Tsuga) microsperma, H. I.
P. remula, H. I.
P. Dicksoniana, H. Sp.
P. Malmgreni, H. Sp.
P. brachyptera, H. I.
P. (Picea, Don.) inipressa, H.Sp.
P. hyperborea, H. Sp., G.
P. Ingolfiana, Steenstr. I.
P. Steenstrupiana, H. I.
P. Arrastrongi, H. Banksland.
Piuites latiporosus, Cram. Sp.

Pinites cavernosas, Cram. Sp.
P. pauciporosus. Cram. Sp.
P. Middendorfianus, Gp. Boga-

nida.
P. Baerianus, Gp. Taimyrland.

GnetacccB.

Ephedoites Sotzkianus, Ung.
Sp.

GRAMINEiE.

Phragmites OiJningensis, H.

Sp., G.
P. multi;?ervis, H. G.
Poacites Mengeanus, H. G.
P. Nielseni, H. G.
P. avenaceus, H. Sp.
P. hordeiforniis, H. Sp.
P. Friesianus, H. Sp.
P. IsDvis, A. Br. Sp.
P. aequalis, H. (Ia3viusculus, H.

olini). Sp.
P. offosus, H. Sp.
P. sulcatus, H. Sp.
P. parvulus, H. Sp.
P. Torelli, H. Sp.
P. argutus, H. Sp.
P. trilineatus, H. Sp.
P. bilineatus, H. Sp.
P. lepididus, H. Sp.

ClTPERACE^..

Cyperus arcticus, H. Sp.

C. Sinifikianus, H. G.

Carex rcdiviva, H. I.

C. Andersoni, H. Sp.

C. Berggreni, H. Sp.

C. hyperborea, H. Sp.

C. misella, H. Sp.

C. ultima, H. Sp.

C. antiqua, H. Sj).

C. Nourscakensis, H. Sp., G.

Cyperacites borealis, H. Sp.,G.

C. Zollikoferi, H. ? G.

C. Islandicus, H. I.

C. nodulosus, H. I.

C. microcarpus, H. G., I.

C. strictus, H. Sp.

C. argutulus, H. Sp.

C. trimerus, H. Sp.

JUNCACE^.

Juncus antiquus, H. Sp.

.■.(>fi

r,':'3

m

jjT^jSSBS

n

J I
i

I .1 S I

m

ii

-m

382 HEER, MIOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, GREENLAND.

SMILACEif:.

Miy anthemophyllum boreale, H.

Sp.
Smilax grandifolia, Ung. G.
S. Franklini, H. M.
S. lingulata, H. G.

'^ TYPHACBiE.

Sparganium Valdense, H. I.
S. stygium, H. G.
S. crassum, H. Sp.

Aroide^.
Aconis brachystachys, H. Sp.

Najade^.
Potamogeton Nordenskioeldi, H.

Sp.
P. Rinkii, H. G.
• P. dubius, H. G.
Najas striata, H. Sp.
Caulinites borealis, H. I. .
C. costatus, H. G.

Alismace^.
Alisma macrophyllum, H.

Sp.
Sagittaria ? difficilis, H. Sp.
S. ? hyperborea, H. Sp.

iRIDEiE.

Iris latifolia, H. Sp.
Iridium Groenlandicum, H.
Sp., G.

SaLICINE-(E.

Populus balsamoides, Gp

Sp.
P. Richardsoni, H. G., Sp.
P. Zaddachi, H. Sp., G.
P. curvidens, H. Sp.
P. arctica, H. Sp., G., M.
P. Hooker i, H. Sp., M.
P. mvitabilis, H. G.
P. Gaudini, Fisch ? G.
P. retusa, H. Sp.
P. sclerophylla, Sap. G.
Salix macrophylla, H. Sp., I.
S. varians, Gp. Sp., G.
S. Raeana, H. Sp., G., M.
S. Grcenlandica, H. G.
S. elongata, O. Webb. G.

Salix longa, A. Braun. G.
S. tenera, A. Braun. G.
Liquidambar europ89um, Al.
Braun. G.

Myeicaeg-«;.
Myrica acuminata, Ung. G.
M. borealis, H. G.
M. lingulata, IL G.
M. grosseserrata, H. G.
M. acutiloba, Brgn. (Dryan-
dra, olim.) G.

BETULACEiE.

Alnus nostratum, Ung. G.

A. Kefersteinii, Gp. Sp., I.
Betula macrophylla, Gp., sp.

Sp., I.

B. prisca, Ettingsh. Sp., I.
B. Forchhammeri, H. I.
B. Miertschingi, H. G.

B. Macclintocki, Cr. Bnksld.

CuPULIFERiE.

Ostrya Walkeri, H. G.
Carpinus grandis, Ung. Sp.,

G.
Corylus Macquarrii (Forb.).

Sp., G., I., M.

C. Scotii, H. Sp.
C. insignis, H. G.

Fagus Deucalionis, Ung. Sp.,

G., I.
F. dentata, Ung.? G.
F. macrophylla, Ung. G.
Castanea Ungeri, H. G.
Quercus Drymeia, Ung. G.
Q. furcinervis (Rossm.). G.
Q. Lyelli, H. Sp., G.
Q. elaena, Ung. Sp.
Q. Grcenlandica, H. Sp., G.
Q. Olafensi, H. G., I., M.
Q. platania, H. Sp., G.
Q. Steenstrupiana, H. G.
Q. Laharpii, Gaud. G.
Q. spinulifera (venosa, olim),

H. Sp.
Q. atava, H. G.

ULMACEiE.

Ulmus Braunii, H. Sp.
U. diptera, Steenstr. I.
Planera Ungeri, Kov. G., I.

JENLAND.

HEER, MIOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, GREENLAND. 383

aun. Gr.
n. G.
opseum, Al.

Ung. G.

1

T.

G.
H. G.

n. (Dryan-

iTO a?

Ung. G.
p. Sp., I.
la, Gp., Bp.

1. Sp., I.
H. I.
[. G.

Jr. Bnksld.

[. G.

Ung. Sp.,

rrii (Forb.).

r.

, Ung. Sp.,

G.

ng. G.
p. G.
Ung. G.
3sm.). G.
G.
p.

Sp., G.
, I., M.
)., G.
H. G.

G.
losa, olim),

Sp.
•. I.

DV. G., I.

MoRKffi.
FicuB ? Grcenlandica, H. G.

PLATANEiE.

Platanus aceroides, Gopp. Sp.,

G., I., M.
P. GuillelmsB, Gopp. G.

POLTGONEiE.

Polygonum Ottersianum, H.
Sp.

CHENOPODIACBiE,

Salsola arctica, H. Sp.

ELiEAGNE^.

Elaeagnus arcticus, H. G.

Aleace^.
Fraxinus denticuLitn, H. G.
F. (?) microptera, H. Sp.

RUBIACEiE.

Galium antiquum, H. G.

CAPRIFOLlACEiE.

Viburnum Whymperi, H. Sp.,

G.
V. Nordenskia3ldi, H. Sp.j
V. macrospermum, H. Sp.

Akaliaceje.
Aralia Browniana, H. G.
Hedera Macclurii, H. Sp., G.,
M.

Elgagnites campanulatus, H. Cornus rhamnifolia, O. Web.
^" Sp.

Sp.

Thtmele^.

C. macrophylla, H. Sp.

Daphne persooniseformis, 0. C. orbifera, H. Sp.

Webb. G.

LAURINE-ffi.

C. hyperborea, H. Sp., G.
C. ramosa, H. Sp.
C. ferox, Ung. G.

Sassafras Ferretianum, Mass. Nyssa arctieu, H. Sp., G.

N. reticulata, H. Sp.
N. europaea, Ung. Sp.
Nyssidium Ekmani, H. Sp.
N. crassum, H. Sp.
N. oblongum, H. Sp.
N. Groenlandicum, H. G.
N. fusifoiTOe, H. Sp.
N. lanceolatum, H. Sp.

G.

Proteace^.
Hakea (?) arctica, H. G.

Aristolochie^.
Aristolochia borealis, H. G.

SYNANTHEREiE.

Cypselites sulcatus, H. Sp.
C. incurvatus, H. Sp.

Ericace^.

Ampelide^.
Vitis Islandica, H. I.
V. Olriki, H. G.

Andiomeda protogaea, Ung. V. arctica, H. G.

Sp., G.
A. Narbonensis, Sap. G.
A. Saportana, H. G.
A. denticulata, H. G.

Ebenace^.
Diospyros brachysepala, Al.

Braun. G.
D. Loveni, H. G.

GENTIANEiE.

Menyanthes arctica, H. G.

ASCLEPIADE^.

Acerates veterana, H. G.

HAMAMELIDEiE.

Parrotia pristina, Ett. Sp.

Ranunculace^e.
Helleborites marginatus, H.

Sp.
H. inajqualis, H. Sp.

Magnoliace^.
Magnolia regalig, H. Sp.
M. Nordenskioeldii, H. Sp.
M. Inglefieldi, H. Sp.
Liriodendron Procacinii, Ung.
I.

• -. -v.

..in

1:

384 HEEB, MIOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, GREENLAND.

P
m

•,l' i-r

Menispermace^.

Cociilites Kunii, H. G.
Macclintockia Lyallii, H. G.
M. dentatn, H. G.
M. trinervis, H. G.
M. ? tenera, H. Sp.

Nympii^aceje.
Nymphsea arctica, H. Sp.
N. Tluilensis, H. Sp.

Myrtace^.
Callistemophyllum Moorli, H.
G.

T1LIACE.E.
Tilia Malmgreni, H. Sp.
Nordenskioeldia borealis, H.

Sp., G.
Grewia crenata, 11. Sp.
G. crenulata, H. Sp.
G. obcvata, II. Sp.
Apeibopsis Nordenskineldii, H.

G.

Stercultace^.
Pterospermites spectabilis, H.

G.
P. alternans, 11. G.
P. integrifblitis, H. G.
P. deutatns, IT. M.
Dorabeyopsis Islandica, H. I.

Acerine^.

Acer otopteryx, Gp. G. ?, I.
A. arcticum, H. Sp.
A. Thulense, H. Sp.
A. angustilobiim, H. G.
A. infeqnale, H. Sp.

SaPINDACEjE.

Koelreuteria borealis, H. Sp.

iLICINEiE.

Ilex macrophylla, H. G.
I. longifolia, II. G.
I. reticulata, H. G.

Celastrtne^.
Evonymus ainissng, H. G.
Celastruscassinefoliu8,Ung. Sp.
C. Greithianus, H. Sp.
C. firmus, H. G.

Rhamne^.
Zizyphus borealis, H. G.
Paliurus Colombi, H. Sp., G.
P. borealis, H. G.
Rhamnus Eridani, Ung. Sp.,

L, G.
R. brevifolius, A. Br. G.
R. Gaudini, H. G.

ANACARDTACEiE.

Rhus Brunneri, H. I.
R. bella, H. G.
R. arctica, H. G.

JuGLANDEiE.

Juglans acuminata, A.Brauu. G.
J. bilinica, Ung. I.
J. paucinervis, II. G.
J. Strozziana, Gaud. G.
J. denticulata, II. G.
J. albula, H. Sp.

Pomace;e.
Sorbus grandifolia, H. Sp.
Crataegus antiqua, H. Sp., G.
C. Warthana, H. G.
C. Carneggiana, H. Sp.
C. oxyacanthoides, Gp. Sp.
C. glacialis, II. Sp.

ROSACEJE.

Rubus ? scabriusculus, H. Sp.
Fragaria antiqua, II. Sp.

Amygdale^.
Pruuus Scotii, H. G.
P. Staratschini, H. Sp.

Leguminos^:.
Colutea Salteri, H. G.
Leguminosites arcticus, H. G.
L. Thulensis, H. Sp.
L. vicioides, H. Sp.
L. longipes, H. G.

InccrtcE scdis.
Phyllites liriodendroides, H. G. '
P. membranaceus, H. G.
P. rubiformis, II. G.
P. celtoides, H. G.
P. evanescens, H. G.
P. acutilobus, H. I.

|ii1 ill

\ik'i.

5 EN LAND.

IlEER, MIOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA, OREENLAND. SSf)

H. G.
H. Sp., G.

r.

, Ung. Sp.,
Br. G.

. I.

A.Braim. G.
I.

G.
d. G.

G.

, H. Sp.
II. Sp., G.

G.
. Sp.

Gp. Sp.

).

M.

lus, IT. Sp.
I. Sp.

G.

Sp.

G.
cus, H. G.

pp.
).

lis.

ides,H. G.'
. G.

G.

G.

Phyllitcs tcnollns, II. I.
1*. vncclnloidos, II. I.
V. accroidcs, II. M.
P. liyperboreus, H. Sp.
Antholitcs aniissus, II. M.
Carpolitlios cocculoides, II.
C potentilloidcs, 11. G.
C. foUicularis, II. G.
C. sulculatus, II. G.
C. pusillimus. H. G.
C. Najadum, H. I.
C. gcminus, H. I.
C. borealis, II. Sp., I.
C. symplocoidos, II. G.
C. spha?nila, II. G.
C. litliospeimoidos, II. G.
C. bicMi-pcllaris, II. G.
C. sernlnulimi, II. M.
C. candiitus, II. Sp.
C. singulaiis, II. Sp.

CnrpolithoH fiinUioidoa, II. Sp.
C. pnhdu'lliis, II. Sp.
C. lo.-acous, II. Sp.
C. ohlongo-ovatuM, tl, Sp.
C. clavatiH, II. Sp.
G. C. ovalis, II. S|).

C miculoidcs, II. Sp.
C. circularis, II. Sj).
C. dcplanatus, II. Sp.
C. planuiscnlus, II. Sp.
C. Iroviuscnlus, II. Sp.
C. annulifer, II. Sp.
C. impressus, H. Sp
C. lateralis, II. Sp.
C. apiculatus, H. Sp.
C. oblongulus, H Sp.
C. mininnis, II. Sp.
C. pocTforniis, II. Sp.
C tcnue-striatus, II. Sp.

List of Fossil Animals from tho Arctic Miocknk Fomi.VTiox.

[Flora loss, arct., i., j). 129, 130 ; and p. 484-5 (riiil. Trans., IKfi'.O ; at'd
Kong. Sv. Vet. Akad. llandl., xiii., No. 2 (Flora foss. arct., iii.), p. S.'i.)]

InSECTA : CoLEOrTElJA.

Trogosita insigiiis, II. Atanekcrdlnk.

Chrysomelites Fabricii, II. Atanekcrdlnk.

Clstc'litos punctnlatus, H. Atanckcrdluk and Pnllasok.

C. minor, II. Puilasok.

Corcopidium rugulosum, H. Atanekcrdlnk.

OllTIIOPTEUA.

Blattidium fragile, H. Atanekcrdlnk.

RlIYNCIIOTA.

Pcntatoma boreale, II. Atanekcrdlnk.

MOLLUSCA.

Cyclas, sp. Atanekcrdlnk.

30122.

B B

M

i>^'

■ sir V

mm

if

ifi'i ".vt«i

m

!l

380 IIEEU ON THE CRETACEOUS FLORA OF UKEENLAND.

LIII. — The Cretaceous Flora and Fauna of Greenland.

[From Professor O. Heer'8 Memoir on the Cretaceous Flora. &c.,
Kongh Sv. Vet. Akad. Ilandl., vol. xii., part vi., pp. 5-7
and 16-18. 1874. Sec above, p. 375 ; and Prof. Nordcn-
skiold's MamoiVf further ow.]

1. — Fossil Plants from the " Kome-Foumation " (Loweu
CuETACEous) on the Nouxii Coast of the Noursoak
Peninsula, including the Localities Kome, Pattokfik,
Kaijsok, Avkrusak, Angiausuit, and Ekkoufat.

Ferns.

G. Gieseckiana, H.

G. Zippei, H.

G. Thulensis, H.

G. rotula, H.

G. rigida, H.

G. comptoniajfolia, Deb.

G. Nordenskiceldi, H.

G. gracilis, H.

G. acntipcunis, II.

G. nervosa, H.

G. delicatula, 11.

G. micromei'a, H.

Dictyophyllum Dicksoni, II.

Danffiitos firmus, H.

Osmunda petiolata, H.

Jeanpaulia borealis, H.

J. lepida, II.

Sclerophyllina cretosa (Shk.).

S. dichotoma, H.

Asplenium Dicksoniauum, II.
A. Johustrupi, H.
A. Nordenskiceldi, K.
A. lioyeanum, H.
Sphenopteris fragilis, H.
8. Johnstrupi, H.
S. grevillioides, H.
Sclcropteris bellidula, H.
Adiautum formosum, II.
Aneimidium Schimperi, II.
Baiera arctica, H.
]j. grandis, H.
Oleandra arctica, H.
Acrostichites Egcdeanus, II.
Pccopteris Andersoniana, II.
1*. borealis, Brong.
P. arctica, H.
P. liyperborea, H.
P. Bolbroeana, H.
Glcichenia lougipenuis, H.

Gleichenia Nuuckhoffii, H., was found, together with Gl. Zijtpci
and Gl. rirjida, in large rolled blocks of quartzose sandstone
(brown within and yellowish without), at Ujarasusuk on the north
coast of Disco, south of, and nearly opposite to, Atanekerdluk.

[Here also Cauloptcris' punctata (Sternb.) was found un<lcr
similar conditions ; sec page 388. — Editor].

Selagines.
Lycopodium redivivum, H.

Equisetum amissum, H.
Equisetites Groenlandicus, H.

CALAMARIiE.

E. annularioidcs, II.

I ^: !

UEENLAND.

IIKEU ON Tin; CUKTACKOUS FLOUA OF OIlKrONLAND. 387

Greenland.

ous Flora. &c.,
t vi., pp. 5-7
Prof. Nordcn-

ON " (LOWEU
10 NOUJISOAK
C, PATTOltriK,
FAT.

I.

1, Del).
, H.

cksoni, 11.
[I.

I, H.
s, H.

osa (Shk.).

I Gl. Zi]>pci

se sniidBtono
on the north
kcrdluk.

found iindor

Znmitcs spocio3us, II.
Z. arcticus, II.
Z. horoalis, II.
Z. acutipeimis, II.
Z. brevlpenuis, H.

Torroya Dicksoniana, H,
T. parvifolia, H.
Inopelis inibricata, 11.
Thuites Meriaui, H.

CvCADACEiH.

Ptorophylhim concinnum, H.
P. Icpulum, H.
GlossozaniitoH Schenkli, II.
Anomozaniites crutuceuH, li,

ComVEU/E.

Seqnoia rigida, II.
S. gracilis, II.
S. Sinittianii, II.
Pinus lingulata, II.

Frcnelopsis Iloheneggeri (Ett.). P. Pctorscni, H.

Cypaiissidiuni gracilo, II. P. Crameri, 11.

Glyptostrobus GraMdandicus, H. 1*. Kirikiana, II,

Seciuoia ambigua, 11. P. Oialiana, II.
S. Kcicheubaclii (Gein.).

GLUSIACEiE.

Poacites borcalis, II. C. arctlcus, II.

Cyperacites hypcrboreiis, H.

COUONARI^E.

Eolirion primigcnium, Sch.

SALICINEiE.

Populus priinajva, 11.

iNCEllTiE SEDIS.

Fasciculites Groenlaudicus, H. Carpolithes Thnlensis, II.

(? Eolirion).

(Monocotyledon.)

2. — Fossil Plants from the "Atane Formation" (Upper
Cretaceous) on the South Coast of the Noursoak
Peninsula.

Those marked with an asterisk (*) are also found in the Komo Formation.

Aspleninni Foersteri, Det.
A. Nordstroemi, H.
Pecopteris striata, Stb.

* P. arctica, H.
P. Pfaffiana, H.
P. denticulata, H.
P. argutula, H.

P. Bohemica, Cord.
P. Kudlisetiana, H.

* Gleichenia Zippei (Cord.)
G. acutiloba, H.

* G. gracilis, H.
Osmunda CEbergiana, H.

Cycadites Dicksoni, H.
Otozamites Gra3nlandicus, II.
Salisburca primordialis, H.
Thuites PfaflBi, H.
Widdringtonites subtilis, H.

* Sequoia Reichenbachi (Gein.).

* S. rigida, H,

S. fastigiata, (Stb.)
S. subulata, H,
Pinus vaginalis, H.
P. Quenstedti, 11.
P. Staratschini, PI,
Arundo Grocnlandica, H.

IJ IJ 2

m

A

:i*

■■^1

388 lIEEll ON THR CURTACROUS FLORA OP GURRNLAND.

' i;

S|mr^'finiiim iTotncoum, TI.
ZiM<?ilK'rit('S pulclic'llii-:, li.
l*o|)>ilu.s JJer<(j5roni, II.
P. hyperborea, II.
P. sfygin, II.
Myricii Thulensis, II.
M. Zvukcvl (Ett.).
Ficus protogiwi, H.
Sassafras aictica, II.
Proteoidea lon«;ns, IT.
P. crassipcs, II.
P. vexans, H.
P. {^ranulatus, H.
Cretlneria, sp.
Andromeda Parlatorii, II.
Dermatophyllites borealiM, II.
Diospyros prodroinns, II.
Myrsiiic buronlis, IT.
Panax cretacea, II.

(Mionjlropliyllnin Nordonskiohl,

H.
C. avbioulatum, II.
Mairnolia Capollinii, II.
M. altornariH, II.
Myrtophylhun Geinitzii, II.
Mctrosideros porogrinns, II.
Snpindus prodrotnus, II.
Rlius nucrophylla, II.
Lcgnmiuosites prodromus, II.
L. phascolites, H.
L. cassias formis, II.
L. AUvncnsis, H.
L. coronilloides, H.
L. amissuH, U.
Phyllitcs linguffiformls, II.
P. laavlgatus, II.
Carpolithcs scrobiculatus, II.

3. — Note. — CAULorxERis tunctata (Sternberg) a Cuktackous
Fossil, according to Mu. Caruutiieks, F.R.S.

At page 7 of his " IJeitragc zur SkMnkoliIcn-Flora dor
" arktisclien Zone" (K. Sv. Vet. Akad. lliindl., vol. xii., No. iii.,
1874), Prof. O. Hkku describes several fragments of a fossil
Fern-stem, found in rolled sandstone at Ujarasusuk, on the north
coast of Disco, where also some rolled blocks of sjindstone con-
taining real Carboniferous ])\iintii {Siffil/aria, &e.) have been found.
The Fern-stem above menliouod Prof. Ileer refers to the same
fi|)ocies to which Sternhcvg'a ^^ Lcpidodeudroti punctatnm" from
Kannitz in Bohemia belongs. This was entered in systematic
works as having come from the Coal-measures of that country, but
Dr. FuiTscir, of Prague, has assured Mr.CAiuiuTiiERS, F.R.S., of the
British Museum, that it was derived from the Cretaceous (Upper
Greensand) beds of liohemia. in which also two allied forms*
have been discovered by JNI. Dormitzen (sec " Geoloirical Maffa-
zinc," vol. ii., 18G5, p. 485.) Another specimen of this Tree-fern,
which Mr. Carrutliers refers io Goeppert's Canlopteris (as lx;ing
an older and l)eirer generic term than Prtsl's " Protopteris "), was
<liscovered of laic years in the Upper Greensand of Shaftesbury,
Wiltshire, and has been described by Mr. Carruthers in the
"Geol. Mag.," loc. cit., as Cciulopteris 'punctata, with evidence
showing that it belongs to the same species as SternlDcrg's specimen.

With these facts before us, and ol)serving that the Disco spe-
cimens of Canlopteris {Protopteris) 2)unctata (Sternb.) figured by
Prof. O. Jleer {oj). cit., pi. 5, figs. 1, 2, & pi. 6), are in their
ijdliywish-hroum colour decidedly different from the grei/ Carboni-
ferous fossils, Mr. Cakrutiikrs has suggested to the Editor that

'etj^

* Ahophilinn Kaunieiana, Krejci, and Oncopteris Nettwalli, Kr.

ii'

-1

. i- *

IRRNLAND.

Nnrdpiiskiolil,

ii, II.

iiiitzu, II.
^riiins, II.
us, II.
II.
droinus, II.

[.

[.

rmis, II.

[iiilutus, II.

IIEEU ON TIIK CRETACEOUS FLOIJA OF QUEENLAND. 381)

tlicsc rolled flpeciinons of Tror-fonis iVom flio Disco slioif hIiouM
lu! rc<<;i«t('n'd ns "C'retaccoiis," Imviii;^ Ikm'Ii ilnivcd (Voin llut
Cretaceous Foriniitioii, wlH'tlicr in thf iiniucdiiiU! neij;liltoinhood
or at a distance. Atanckerdluk, with its Crotacrons, utHliMlyin;^
Tertiary, strata, is duo north on tho other side of the Wiiigat. —
Editoh.

4 Fossil Insects fron> tho Crkiac:i;oiis Stkata of CJimokn-

LANi>. From Trol'. O. IIkku's McuHtir on tin- t'iela«'eoiis
F'lora of Grcenlaml, K. Sv. Vet. Ak, Iluudl., vol. xii., No. (),
p. 91, 92, 120. 1874.

Rhynchophora.

Archiorhynchus anfjjusticollis, Ileer. Konic.
Curculionitcs crotoccus, Ilcer. Kome, with leavubi of J'inm
Cramer i.

Myriopod.

Juloi)si8 eretaceu8, Ileer. Lower Alanekerdluk.

'I'jj

.:i I

CllKTACKOUS

in-Flora dor

. xii., No. iii.,

of a fossil

an tho north

mdistone con-

3 been found.

to tho sanio

tatnm'* from

n systematic

country, but

F.R.S.,oftho

CO us (Upper

llicd forms*

^ical Maga-

is Tree-fern,

ris (as being

I tori s "), was

Shaftesbury,

lers in the

th evidence

s specimen.

Disco spe-

) figured by

ire in their

ft/ Carboni-

^DiTOii that

i//», Kr.

LIV. — Account of an Expedition to Oukenland in th
Year 1870. By Prof. A. E. NoiidenskI()LD, Foreign
Correspondent Geol. Soc. Lond., &c. &c. &e.

[Reprinted, with Permission, from tho " Geological Magazine,"

vol. ix., 1872.]

Part I. (" Geol. Mag.," vol. ix., p. 289, &c.)

After explaining the reasons for the Expedition, and enume-
rating the several voyages of discovery to East Greenland, from
lo79 to 1869, with some observations on the present state of the
Greenlandcrs, Prof. Nordenskiold proceeds to slate: —

VV^e took up our night-cjuarter, the 12th of July, at Mancrmiul,
the 13th at Kttngaitsiak, the 14th, 15th, and IGth on islands in
Auleitsivikfjord. On the 17th we at length arrived at the
northern side of the glacier Avhich shoots out from tlie iidand ice,
and occupies tho bottom of the northern arm of Auleitsivlkljord,
that is to say, the spot selected as the starting-point for our
journey over the ice.

The tract through which we passed, like the whole west coast
of Greenland south of the basalt region, bears a strong resem-
blance to the Scandinavian peninsula, and that rescml)hine(! is not
the result of any accident, but of a similar geological I'orniation, ami
a similar geological history. The surface of Greenland, like tluit
of vScandinavia, is for the most part occupied by stratified crystal-
line rock (gneiss, hornblende-schist, hornblende-gneiss, mica-sehisi,
etc.), crossed by dykes and veins of granite, Avhich even bear
the same peculiar minerals which distinguish the Scandinavian
granite-veins; and, as in the case of our mountains, the mountains

is

:>Mi

1 :

B^-f

rl

390 PROF. NOIIDENSKIOlD, expedition to CrltEEXLAND.

I

of tlR'fsc regions Iiave once been covered with glaciers, which have
left nnmistakeablc marks of their presence in the boulders, which
arc met with scattered high up on the sides of the mountains, in
the rounding oif, in the [)olishing and grooving of the surface,
and in the deep fjords, evidently scooped out by glaciers, which
distinguish the western coasts of both Scandinavia and Greenland.
There is, however, this difference, that whereas the glacial period
of Scandinavia belongs to an age long past, that of Greenland,
though it is receding,* still continues. While, in fact, nund)erlcss
indications show that the inland-ice has in ancient times covered
even the skerries round the coast, these are now so free from ice
that a tr.aveller in most places has to advance several miles into
the country before reaching the border of the present inland-ice.
It is at least certain that wherever anyone hitherto has penetrated
into the land he has met with its border,f and in all instances has
seen it from some neighbouring mountain-top, rising inwards with
a gradual and regular ascent, till it levels undistinguishably hill
and dale beneath its frozen covering, like the waves of a vast
ocean.

Of this inland-ice the natives entertain a superstitious fear, an
awe or prejudice, which has, in some degree, communicated itself
to such Europeans as have long resided in Greenland. It is thus
only that we can explain the circumstance, that in the whole
thousand years during which Greenland has been known, so few
eiforts have been made to pass over the ice farther into the
country. There are many reasons for believing that the inland-
ice merely forms a continuous ice-frame, running parallel with the
coast, and smTounding a land free from ice, perhaps even in its
southern parts woody, which might perhaps be of no small
economical importance to the rest of Greenland. The only serious
attempt that has hitherto been made, in the parts of Greenland
colonized by Danes,| to advance in that direction was made by —

A Danish expedition, fitted out for the purpose in 1728. — A
Danish governor, Major Paars, with an armed company, artillery,

* Certainly receding, although the inland ice sometimes makes its way to
the sea, and thus tracts which have been free from ice are again covered. We
have an example of this in the ice-fjord of Jacobshavn, of which more
hereafter.

1 1 have, however, met with persons in Greenland who do not consider it
as fully proved, that the inland-ice really does form an inner border to the
whole of the external coast. Many Danes have resided several years in
Greenland without ever having seen the inland-ice.

J Dr. Hayes's remarkable journey, in October 18G0, over the fields of
ice tha* cover the peninsula between Whale Sound and Kennedy Channel
(78° N.L.)> ^'"^8 performed, not upon the real inland-ice, but upon a smaller
ice-field connected with the inland-ice, like the ice-fields at Noursoak peninsula.
The character of the ice here seems to have differed considerably from that
of the real inlard-icc. Hayes ascended the glacier at Port, ¥ouIke, on the
23rd of October, and advanced on foot, the first day 5, the second 30, the
third 2.5 miles, in all 60 English miles. He was here forced to return, in
consequence of a storm. The height of the spot where he turned back above
tbr level of the sea was 5,000 feet {The Open Polar Sea, by Dr. I. I. Hayes,
pp. 130-136).

IIEEXLAND.

PROF. NOHDENSKIOLD, expedition to GREENLAND. 391

!rs, -wLich liave
)oul(lers, which
) mountains, in
3f the surfnce,
glaciers, wliicli
md Greenland,
glacial period
of Greenland,
ct, niunberless
times covered
I free from ice
■ral miles into
ent inland-ice.
has penetrated
[ instances has
: inwards with
iguishably hill
-ves of a vast

itious fear, an
micated itself
[1. It is thus
in the whole
mown, so few
ther into the
^t the inland-
piUel with the
3s even in its
of no small
B only serious
of Greenland
s made by —
•n 1728.— A
ny, artillery,

"•'.es its way to

covered. We

which more

lot consider it
border to the
ernl years in

the fields of
nedy Channel
3on a smaller
)ak peninsula.
)ly from that
oulke, ou the
icond 30, the
to return, in
d back above
. 1. 1. Hayes,

etc., was that year sent from Denmark, to Greenland, and took
with him, among other things, also horses, with which it was
intended to ride over the mountains, in order to rediscover, by an
overland course, the lost (East) Greenland. The horses, how-
ever, died, either during the voyage out or shortly after their
arrival in the country ; and thus this expedition, really magnificent,
but prepared in entire ignorance of the real nature of the country,
was abandoned.

Dalagcr's attempt^ 1751. — This year the Danish merchant
Dalager made an attempt, in about 62° 31' latitude, to advance in
the beginning of September over the inland ice to the cast const.
In the first volume of Kranz's "History of Greenland "* there is a
short description of this journey, interesting, among other reasons,
as recording au instance of a gl.acier, which since Greenland has
been an inhabited land has forced its way f rward and closed the
entrance of a previously open fjord. We find farther from that
account, that Dalager, partly on foot and partly in a canoe, in
company with five natives, reached the border of the inland ice
near the bottom of a deep fjord situated north of Fredrikshaab.
For two days they continued their journey over the ice, but suc-
ceeded during this time in advancing only eight English miles
to some mountain summits rising above the ice-field, where a
reindeer hunt was undertaken. Dalager would willingly have
continued the journey a day or two longer, but was unable to do
so, i^artly because the two pairs of boots taken with them for each
person were so cut to pieces by the ice that they walked ''as good
'* as barefoot," partly because the cold at night was so severe that
their limbs became stiff after a few hours of rest. On the other
hand, the route chosen l)y Dalager seems not to have been inter-
rupted by very many or deep chasms — in the lieginning of the
journey the surface of the ice was even " as smooth as a street in
" Copenhagen." Further on, however, it was extremely rough.

E, Whympcr''s expedition, 1867. — All that I knoAv about this
expedition is, that Mr. Whymper, in company with Dr, R. Brown,
three Danes, and a Greeniander, endeavoured to make their way
ui3on the inland ice with dogs immediately to the north of the
ice-fjord at Jacobshavn, but that they turned back again on the
second day, after having proceeded only some few miles. The
reason of this was probably the unfitness of dogs for such a
purpose.

It was originally my intention to renew these attempts, but on
conversing in Copcidiagen with Messrs. Rink and Olrik, who had
formerly been Inspectors in North Greenland, as also with several
other persons who had visited Greenland, I found all so unanimous
in considering further advance over the inland ice as impossible,
that 1 determined net to risk the whole profit of the summer on an

* I have not had access to Dalagcr's original account. " Gronlandsko
llelationei, indehaaldende Gronliiuderues Liv og Lovnet, dcrcs Skioke og
Vcdtagtcr, samt Temperament og Supcrstitiouerj llUige nogle korrte Iletlexioner
over Missionen, samnienskrevet vcd Frcdrickshaabs Colonia i Griinland," by
Lars Dalager, Merchant.

m
[^'1

II

392 TROF. NORDENSKIOLD, expedition to GREENLAND.

-,

uV

1

•,■

'i

iindortfiking of the kind beforehand disapproved of by everybody.
Nevertheless, I was unwilling entirely to abandon my plan, and
determined therefore to make a little attempt at a journey on the
inland ice only of a few days' extent.

If the inland ice were not in motion, it is clear that its surface
would be as even and unbroken as that of a land field. But this,
as is known, is not the case. The inland ice is in constant motion,
advancinj; slowly, but with different velocity in diifercnt places,
tow.ards the sea, into which it passes on the west coast of Green-
land by eight or ten lai'go and a grf .t many snail ice-streams.
This movement of the ice gives vise in its turn to huge chasms
and clefts, the almost bottomless depths of which stop the
traveller's way. It is natural that these clefts should occur cliiefly
where the movement of the ice is most rapid, that is to say, in
the neiglibourhood of the great ice-streams, and that, on the other
hand, at a greater distance from these the ground should be found
more free from cracks. On this account I determined to begin
our wanderings on the ice at a point as far distant as possible
from the real ice-^ords. I should have preferred one of the deep
** Stromfjords " (stream-fjords) for this purpose, but as other
business intended to be carried out during the short summer did
not permit a journey by boat so far southward, I selected instead
for my object the northern arm of the above-mentioned Auleitsivik-
fjord, which is situated 60 miles south of the ice-fjord at Jakobs-
havn, and 240 miles north of that of Godthaab. The inland ice,
it is true, even in Auleitsivikfjord reaches to the bottom of the
ijord, but it only forms there a perpendicular glacier, very similar
to the glaciers at King's Bay in Spitzbe-rgen, but not any real
ice-stream. There was accordingly reason to expect that such
iissures and chasms as might here occur would be on a smaller
scide.

On the 17th July, in the afternoon, our tent was i)itchcd on the
shore north of the steep precipitous edge of the inlaml ice at
Auleitsivikfjord. After having employed the 18th in preparations
and a few slight reconnoitrings, wo entered on our journey
inwards on the i9th. \Ye set out early in the morning, and lirst
ro'.vcd to a little bay situated in the neighbourhood of the spot
occupiod by our tciit, into which several muddy rivers had their
cnibouchures. Here llio land assumed a cliaractcr varied by hill
and dale ; and furtlier inward it was bounded by an ice-wall some-
times i)crpendicular and sometimes rounded, covered witli a thin
layer of earth and stones ; near the edge, only a couple of hundred
foot high, but then rising at first rapidly, afterwards more slowly,
to a height of several hundred feet. In most places this wall
could not ])0ssibly be scaled ; we however soon succeeded in
iinding a phice where it was cut through by a small cleft,
sullieieiitly deep to aiFord a possibility of climbing up with the
means at our disposal, a sledge, which at need might be used as
a ladder, and a line originally 100 fathoms long, but Avhich, proving
too heavy a burden, had before our arrival at the llrst resting-
])lace been reduced one-half. All of us, with the exception of our
old and lame boatman, assisted in the by no means easy work of

REENLAND.

by everybody,
my plan, and
Durnoy on the

int its surface
Id. But this,
istaut motion,
tfcrcnt places,
►ast of Green-
11 ice-streams,
huge chasms
lich stoj) the
I occur chiefly
; is to say, in
, on the other
lould be found
nod to begin
nt as possible
le of the deep
but as other
t summer did
lected instead
d Auleitsivik-
ird at Juicobs-
be inland ice,
bottom of the
, very similar
not any real
ot that such
on a smaller

itched on the

Inland ice at

preparations

our journey

pg, and lirst

of the spot

•s had their

iriod by hill

■wall somc-

Iwitli a thin

I of hundred

horo slowly,

>s this wall

Icceoded in

imall cleft,

[) Avith the

be used as

•h, provinj^

|st rostin<jj-

Ition of our

iy work of

•■''k

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 393

bringing over mountain, hill, and dale, the apj^aratus of the ice
expedition to this spot, and, after our dinner's rest, a little further
up the ice-wall. Here oi'r followers left us. Only Dr. Berggren,
myself, and two Greeniamlers (Isak and Sisarniak) were to proceed
farther. We immediately commenced our march, but did not get
very far that day.

The inland ice differs from ordinary glaciers by, among other
things, the almost total absence of niDi'.iine-fonnalions. The col-
lections of earth, gravel, and stone, with wliieh I ho ice on (he
landward edge is covered, are in fact so inconsiderable in com-
parison Avitli the moraines of even very small glaciers, that they
scarcely deserve mention, and no larger, newly (brnied ridges of
gravel running parallel with the edge of the glacier are to be met
with, at least in the tract visited by us. The laiuhvard Ijorder of
the inward ice is, however, darkened, we can scarcely say covered,
Avith earth, and sprinkled with small sharp stones.

Here the ice is tolerably smooth, though furrowed by deep
clefts at right angles to the border — such as that made use of
by us to climb up. But in order not immediately to terrify
the Greenlanders by choosing the way over the frightful and
dangerous clefts, we determined to abandon this comparatively
smooth ground, and at first take a southerly direction parallel
Avith the chasms and afterwards turn to the East. We gained
our object by avoiding the chasm, but fell in instead with ex-
tremely rough ice. We now understood Avhat tht; Greenlanders
meant, when they endeavoured to dissuade us from the journey
on the ice, by sometimes lifting their hands up over their heads,
sometimes sinking them down to the ground, accompanied by to
us an unintelligible talk. They meant by this to describe the
collection of closely heaped pyramids and ridges of ice over which
Ave had noAV to Avalk. The inequalities of the ice Avere, it is true,
seldom more than 40 feet high, with an inclination of 25 to oO
degrees ; but one does not get on very fast, Avhen he has con-
tinually to drag a heavily laden sledge up so irregular an accli\ily,
and innncdiately after to endeavour to get down uninjured, at
the risk of getting broken legs, Avhen occasionally h)sing one's
footing on the here often very slippery ice in attempting (o mode-
rate the si)eed of the doAVUAvard rushing sledge. Had Ave used an
ordinary sledge, it Avould immediately haA'e been broken to ])ieces ;
but, as the component parts of our sledge Avere not nailetl but lied
together, it held together at least for some hours.

Already the next day Ave perceived the impossibility nnder such
circnmstanccs of dragging Avith us the .'30 days' jirovision Avith
Avhieh Ave had furnished ourselves, especially as it avms evident
that, if Ave Avished to proceed fiuther, we nuist transform ourselves
from draught- te i)ack-hors(>s. We tbereroie determined to h^ave
the sledge and part of the provisions, take the rest on our sliouldeis,
and i)roceed on foot. We noAV got on (piicker, though for a
sufficiently long time OA'cr grouml as bad as before. The ice
became gradually smoother, but Avas broken by large bottomless
chasms, Avhich one must either jump over Avitli a liea\y load on
the back (in Avhich case avoc to him who made a false step), or

. 1'

jlj"'

394 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO OTIEENLAND.

else make <a lon» circuit to avoid. After two hours' wandering-,
the region of clefts was passed. In the course of our journey, how-
ever, we very frequently met with portions of similar ground,
though none of any very groat extent. We were now at a height
of more than 800 feet above the level of the sea. Farther inward
the snr&cc of the ice, except at the occasionally secui'ring regions
of clefts, resembled that of a stormy sea suddenly l)0und in fetters
by the cold. The rise inwards was still (piite perceptible, though
frequently interrupted by shallow valleys, the centres of which
were occupied by several lakes or ponds with no apparent outlet,
although they received water from innumerable rivers running
along the sides of the hollow. These rivers presented in many
places not so dangerous, though quite as time-wasting, a hindrancij
to our progress as the clefts ; they did not occur so often, but the
circuits to avoid them were much longer.

During the whole of our journey on the ice we enjoyed
fine weather, frequently there was not a single cloud visible
in the sky. The warmth was to us, clad as we were, quite
sensible ; in the shade, near the ice of course, but little over zero ;
higher up, in the shade, as much as 7° or 8° ; but in the sun 2o"
to 30° Centig. After sunset the water-pools froze, and the nights
were very cold. Wo had no tent with us, and, although our party
consisted of four men, only two ordinary sleeping sacks. These
were open at both ends, so that two persons could, though with
great difficulty, with their feet opposite to each other, squeeze
themselves into one sack. With rough ice for a substratum, the
hed was so uncomfortable that, after a few hours' sleep, Ave were
awakened by cramp ; and as there was only a thin tarpaulin be-
tween the ice .nnd the sleeping sack, the bed Avas extremely cold
to the side resting on the ice, Avhich the Greenlanders, AAdio turned
back before us, described to Dr. Nordstrom by shivering and
shaking throughout their Avhole bodies. Our nights' rests A\'ore,
therefore, seldom long ; but our midday rests, during Avhich Ave
could bask in a glorious Avarm sun-bath, were taken on a [)ropor-
tionately larger scale, Avhereby I Avas enabled to take observations
1)0th for altitude and longitude.

On the surface of the inland ice avc do not meet Avith any stones
at a distance of more than a cable's length from the border ; but
Avo find everyAvhcrc, instead, vertical cylindrical holes, cf a foot or
tAvo deep, and from a couple of lines to a couple of feet in section,
so close one to another that one might in vain seek betAveen them
room for one's foot, much less for a sleeping-sack. We hnd
alAA'-ays a system of ice-pipes of this kind as substratum Avhen we
rested for the night, and it often happened, in i lie morning, that
the AA'armth of our bodies had melted so much of the ice, that tlie
sleeping sack touched the Avater, AvhercAvith tlie holes Avere idAvays
nearly full. But, as a compensation, Avherever Ave rested, Ave had
only to stretch out our hands to obtain the very finest Avaier to
drink.

GREENLAND.

PROF. N0RDENSKI5LD, EXPEDTTTON to GREENLAND. 395

irs' wanderingr,
journey, ho.v-
milar ground,
OAv ot a height
farther inward
urring regions
3nnd in fetters
sptiljle, tliough
itrcs of which
^parent outlet,
ivers running
nted in many
g, a hindranc<3
often, but the

s we enjoyed
cloud visible
B were, quite
tie over zero ;
n the sun 2o"
nd the nights
Ligh our party
acks. These

though with
ther, squeeze
bstratum, the
eep, we were
tarpaulin be-

tremely cold

, who turnetl
livering and
rests wore,
jg which we

m a propor-
lobservations

[i any stones
)order; but
cf a foot or
in section,
[ween them
\A\! had
b when we
jrning, that
le, that the
[ere always
h1, we had
water to

Part II. (" Geol. Mag.," vol. ix., p, 3oo, &c.)

These holc3 in the ice, filled with water, are in no Avay connected
with each other, and at the bottom of them we found every where,
not only near the border, but in the most distant parts of tho
inland ice visited by us, a layer, some few millimetres thick, of grey
l^owder, often conglomerated into small round balls of loose con-
sistency. Under the microscope, the principal substance of this
remarkable powder appeared to consist of white angular transparent
grains. We could also observe remains of vegetable fragments;
yellow, imperfectly translucent particles, with, as it appeared, evi-
dent surfaces of cleavage (felspar ?) ; green crystals (augitc) ; and
black opaque grains, which were attracted by the magnet. The
quantity of these foreign components is, however, so inconsiderable,
that the whole mass may be looked upon as one homogenous sub-
stance. An analysis by Mr. G. Lindstrom of this fine glacial sand

gave —

►Silicic acid - - - - G2 • 2.5

Alumina - - - - 14 -93

Sesquioxyd of Iron - - - 0*74

Protoxyd of iron - - - 4 • (J4

Protoxyd of Manganese - - 0 • 07

Lime .... 5-09

Magnesia - - - - 3-00

Potassa - - - - 2-02

Soda- .... 4-01

Phosphoric acid - - - 0 • 1 1
Chlorine - - . .
Water, organic substance (100" to red
heat) - - _ . -
Hygroscopic water (15° to 100°)

4
0
0-0(3

2'H6
0-34

100-12

After long digestion with sulphuric acid oidy 7*73, and with
muriatic acid 16*46 per cent. Avas dissolved. The remainder was
entirely Avhite after heating to redness. The analysis gives tho
atomic relation —

or the formula —

2Ii-i-Al + 7 >S7 + H

2 R Si2 + Al Si^ + H
Specific gravity = 2 '63 (21°). Hardness inconsiderable, crys-
tallization probably monoclinic.

The substance is not a clay, but a sandy trachytic mineral, of
a composition (espociiTlly as regards soda) which indie;;! es that it
does not originate in the granite-i'cgion of Greenland. Its origin
appears therefore to me very enigmatical. Does it come from the
basalt-region? or from the supposed volcanic tracts in the interior
of Greenland ? or is it of meteoric origin ? The oclMliedrally crys-
^jiilised magnetic particles do not contain any traces of nickel. As
the principal ingredient corresponds to a determinate chemical
formula, it would perhaps be desirable to enter it under a separate

■k^:

3P6 niOF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GIIEENLAND.

class in the register of science ; and for that purpose I propose for
this substance the name Kryokonite (from Kpijoq and kovh;).

When 1 persuaded our botanist, Mr. Berggren, to accompany me
in the journey over the ice, we joked witli him on the singularity
of a botanist making an excursion into a tract, perhaps the only
one in the world, that was a perfect desert as regards botany. This
expectation was, however, not confirmed. Dr. Berggren's quick
eye soon discovered, partly on the surface of the ice, partly in the
above-mentioned powder, a brown polycellulnr Alga, which, little
as it is, together with the powder and certain other microscopic
organisms by which it is accompanied, is the most dangerous enemy
to the mass of ice, so many thousand feet in height and hundred
miles in extent. The dark mass absorbs a far greater amount of
the sun's rays of heat than the white ice, and thus produces over
its whole surface deep holes which greatly promote the ]irocess of
molting. The same Plant has no doubt played the same part in
our country ; and we have to thank it, perhaps, that tho deserts of
ice which formerly covered tlie whole of northern Europe and
America have now given place to shady woods and undulating
corn-fields. Of course, a great deal of the grey powder is carried
down in the rivers, and the blue ice at the bottom of them is not
unfrequently concealed by a dark dust. How rich this mass is in
organic matter is proved by the circumstance, amongst others, that
the quantity of organic matter in it was sufficient to bring a large
collection of the grey powder, which had been carried away to a
distant part of the ice by sundry now dried-up glacier-streams,
into so strong a process of feimentation or putrefaction, that the
mass, even at a great distance, emitted a most disagreeable smell,
like that of butyric acid.

Dr. Bergguen has communicated the following notice* of the
Microscopic Organisms met with on the Inland Ice.

" One of the species of Algas met with on the inland ice occurred
in such vast quantities, that the surface of the ice throughout
larger or smaller tracts was tinted with a peculiar colour. Two
others seemed exclusively to belong to the fine sand, which is found
either in the form of a thin covering on the surface of the ice, or
as a more or less thick layer at the l)ottom of the pipe-like holes
that appear in the surface. The first-mentioned species, occurring
copiously, does not require any such substratum, but is found
l)rincii)ally on the sides of ice- hills, where tho water from the
melting ice filtered itself out between the little inequalities of the
sui'face.

" The most copiously represented species has the form of a short
thread, not spreailing out in branches, but consisting of a single
row of cells ; the number of cells in each thread is 2, 4, 8, or at
most 16. Threads of 4 and 8 cells are most common. The species
vciy frequently appears only as a single cell. The threads an?
usually a little bent, sometimes, when the number of cells is 16,
forming a comi)lete semicircle. The number 2 or its multiples

* A more dcttiilod account, !icconii)anioil by drawiii^fs, of these remarkable
Alga; will iiereai'ter be publislied in the " K. Vet. Akadoiniens Ofvcrsigt."

i

lEENLAND.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO OREENLAND. 397

[ propose for

ccompany me
e singularity
ips tlie only
•otany. This
gren's quick
partly in the
which, little

microscopic
erous enemy
ind hundred
T amount of
:oduees over
e ]U'ocess of
ame part in
10 deserts of
Europe and

undulating
Br is carried
them is not
3 mass is in
others, that
ring a large
d away to a
ier-streams,
>n, that the
^-able smell,

ice* of the

e occurred

iroughout
)ur. Two
5h is found

lie ice, or
-like holes

occurring
is found

from the
ies of tlie

of a ghort
a single
, JS, or iit
^ic sjiccicH
rciuh aro
Ills is 16,
multiples

remarkable
Isigt."

taken as the standard for the number of cells in the separate
threads is accounted for by the regular continuous bisection of tlio
cells, whereby their propagation proceeds. The connexion bi^tweiMi
the cells is the looser the older the partitions become, as the oldcir
membranes assume a looser consistence. In a thread of 16 cells,
the connexion between the eighth and ninth cells is soon broken,
and in the two threads thus resulting the connexion between the
fourth and fifth cells is weaker than that between the second and
third or the sixth and seventh. The threads therefore often lie
bent at an angle. The diameter of the cells is 0'008 — 0'012 mm.,
and their length 0*016 — 0*040 mm. Individual cells may some-
times attain a length 0*055 mm. and a breadth of 0*015 mm.,
whereas a great number of other single cells are met with of very
small dimensions, from spherical forms of only 0*006 min. diameter
to those of ordinary form and size. As the ends of the cells, where
they are joined together, are rounded, there is, of course, a con-
traction between them, which becomes more and more conspicuous
as the connexion between them is loosened by time. The mem-
brane is thin and hyaline, and its outermost layer (the remnants of
the membranes of the mother-cells altered after division) is of an
almost slimy consistence, whereby the cells are for some timcke])t
together. The contents of the cells are in part concealed by a dark
purple-brown colouring-matter, which in dried cells is immediately
drawn out on wetting them. The centre of the cells is occu|)ied
by an oblong or cylindrical mass of chlorophyll, of somewhat
irregular contour. In the extremity of which two nuclear rounded
bodies are imbedded, which in general cannot bo perceived by the
eye till the colouring-matter has been removed by means of re-
agents. We sometimes meet with four such bodies in a cell,
sometimes only one : the foi*mer a result of accidentally checked
division of the cells ; the latter of sucli division having lately
taken place. In the liquid of the cells a number of small grains
are found, which are for the most part collected round the peri-
phery of the cell or at its ends.

" Judging from the construction of the cells, and the manner
of their multiplication, the Alga before us appears to belong to
the ConjugatfP ; but as I have not succeeded in discovering irm •
tification in it, it would be rash to decide to which genus it is to
be referred. The thread-like rows of connected cells agree ■vitU
the Zygnemacere ; whereas, on the other hand, an unmistakal)io
likeness to the Desmidiacca;, especially Cylindrocystis, and the
nearly related genera, is indicated by the strongly marked divisions
into multiples of two, and by the tendency of the rows of cells to
fall asunder, as far as the dcstructlbility of the uniting cell-mem-
branes permits, into parts consisting of cells united in pairs, which
however is seldom possible. In consc([uenco of the greater energy
possessed by the power of multiplying the cells. As the above-
mentioned small single cells, which occur In great nund:»crs, are
much loss in diameter than those cells which arise from the bi-sec-
tlon of the threads, they have perhaps a different origin from these
latter, although the researches which I 1 .avo hitherto been enabled
to devote to this subject have not furnished any Illustration of it.

■j:

398 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

i) ,

If these ilaughtcr-cclls originate in tho division of the spores, the
ubove-montioned supposition with respect to the systematic phvcc
ol" the species being correct, [the stage ofi conjugation and spoi'es,
in some period of its development, ought to bo found. Two rare
forms of peculiarly constructed cells ought not to be passed un-
uoticed. I have sometimes found the extreme coll in a thread
considerably more swelled than the others, more elliptic in form,
also provided with a thicker membrane, and with tho con-
tents of the cell more coarse-grained. I once found one of tho
middle cells in a thread thus transformed, and on two occasions I
have met with single cells of the same kiml. I also once met with
a cell of very peculiar construction. It had the usual form, but
Avas unusually large, with a long mass of chlorophyll, as usual, in
the midst, and tho granular matter grouped rather towards tho ends
of thcjl cell ; and in it there were about twenty larger or smaller
spherical bodies. Four of these lay arranged at each end of the
cell, and were almost entirely opaque, of a dark-brown colour, and
in appearance much resembled the smaller cells of Protococciis
nivalis. The others were translucent, with sharply defined con-
tours. As our knowledge of the natm'e of these bodies is confined
to what is here stated, the fuller explanation of their significance
must be reserved for future investigation.

'* In places similar to those in which this species occurs, and
often in company with it, Protococcus ?iivalis was met with.

" Amidst the fine gravel upon the ice, Init to a trifling amount,
there arc small green cells, sometimes united in little groups, some-
times isolated, which appeared to belong to Protococcus vulgaris.
" Scytomcna gracilc, on the other hand, is everywhere met with
in great profusion, wherever the gravel either lies in thinly
scattered grains on the surface of the ice, or forms more or less
thick layers. The threads lie either alone, or united in small
bunches, as they join together at the lower part, and bend back-
wards higher up. They are neither stiff, S-shaped, or forming a
curve of several undulations, and yellowish-brown in colour.
Their leni^th is very various; their breadth generally about 0*009
mm."

At our mid-day rest on the 21st we had reached latitude 68° 21'
and 36' longitude east of the place where our tent was pitched,
and a height of 1,400 feet above the level of the sea.

Later in the day, at our afternoon rest, the Greenlanders began
to take off their shoes and examine their little thin foot — a serious
indication, as we soon iiereeived. Isak presently informed us, in
broken Danish, that he and his companion now considered it time
to return. All attempts to persuade them to accompany us
a little farther failed ; and we had, therefore, no other alternative
than to let tlicm return, and continue our excursion without
them.

We took up our night (piarters hero. The provisions were
divided. The Greenlanders, considering they might, perhaps,
not be able to find our first depot, were allowed to take as
much as was necessary to enable them to reach the tent. AVo
took cold provisions for five days. The remainder, together

I

;eenland.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 391)

c spores, the
:cmatic place
I aiul spores,
. Two rare
! passed iiii-
iu a thread
tic in form,
;h the cou-
one of the
occasions I
ice met Avith
al form, but
as usual, in
rds the ends
r or smaller
end of the
colour, and
Protococcus
lefined con-
is confined
significance

Dccurs, and
with.

ig amount,
oups, somc-
^' vulgaris,

0 met with
in thinly

)re or less

1 in small
end back-
Porming a
[n colour,
[out 0-009

le68°21'
pitched,

prs began
(a serious
3d us, in
Id it time
many us
lernativo
Iwithout

IS were
|erhai5s,
Itake as
It. Wo
)gether

with the excellent photogen portable kitchen, which wo had
hitherto carried with us, were laid up in a depot in the neighbour-
hood, on which a piece of tarpaulin was stretched uj)on sticks, that
we might be able to find the place on our return ; which, however,
we did not succeed in doing, though we must have passed in its
immediate vicinity.

Dr. Berggren and I then procccdeil fartlier inward. The
Greenlanders turned back.

At first we passed one of the before-mentioned oxtonsivo bowl-
shaped excavations in the icc-i)lain, which is here furrowed by
innumerable rivers, often obliging us to make long circuits ; and,
when to avoid this, we endeavoured to make our way along
the margin of the valleys, we came, instead, upon a tract where
the ice-plain was cloven by long, deep, parallel clefts running true
N.N.E. — S.S.W., quite as difiicult to get over as the rivers, and
far more dangerous. Our progress was accordingly but slow.
At twelve o'clock on the 22nd we halted, in glorious, warm, sunny
weather, to make a geographical determination. We were now
at a height of 2,000 feet, in latitude 68° 22', and in a longitude of
57' of arc east of the position of our tent at the fjord.

During the whole of our excursion on the ice we had seen no
animals except a couple of Havens, which on the morniug of the
the 22nd, at the moment of our separation, ilc^v over our heads. At
first, however, there appeared in many places on the ice traces
of Ftarmigaus, which seemed to indicate that these birds visit
these desert_^tracts in by no means inconsiderable flocks. Every-
thing else around us was lifeless. Nevertheless, silence by no
means reigned here. On bending down the ear to the ice, we
could hear on every side a peculiar subterranean hum, proceeding
from rivers flowing within the ice ; and occasionally a loud single
report like that of a cannon gave notice of the formation of a new
glacier-cleft.

After taking the observations, we proceeded over comparatively
better ground. Later in the afternoon we saw, at some distance
from us, a well-defined pillar of mist, whicii, when we approached
it, appeared to rise from a bottomless abyss, into which a mighty
glacier-river fell. The vast roaring water-mass had bored for
itself a vertical hole, probably down to the rock, certainly more
than \,\so thousand feet beneath, on Avhich the glacier rested.

The following day (the 23rd) w'c rested in latitude 68° 22' and
76' of arc longitude east from the position of our starting point
at Auleiisivik.

The provisions we had taken with us were, however, now so
far exhausted, that we were obliged to think of retiniiiug. We
determined, nevertheless, first to endeavour to reach an ice-hill
visible on the plain to the east, from which wc hoped to obtain an
extensive view ; and, in order to arrive there as quickly as possible,
wc left the scanty remains of our provisions and our sleeping sack
at the spot where we had passed the night, taking careful notice
of the ice-roeks around; and thus we proceeded by forced march,
without encumbrances.

The ice-hill Avas considerably further off than we had supposed

400 PJIOF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GKEENLANI).

L

The walk to it was riclily rowardod l)y an uncommonly cxlcn-
siv(! view, which showed us Ihat lh(^ iiihmd ice contiiUKMl lo
rise towiinls th(! interior, so tlint the liori/.on towaid-j the oast,
north, and sojith was terminated by an ice-bordor ahnost as smooth
as tliat of tlu! ocean. A journey fiu'lher (even if (mk; were in a
eondiliitn to employ wi'i'ks for tlu; |»ur|)o.se — wliich want of time
and pi'ovisions ivudered impossible to us) coidil thertd'orc evi-
dently furnish no other infornnition concerning the nature of the
ice than that which wv. had already obtained ; and even if want
of ]n'ovisions ha<l not obliged us to return, wo shouKl hardly have
considered it worth while to add a few days' mai'chcs to our
journey. Our iurnik<g-point was at a heiglit of 2,200 feet above
the level of the sea, and about 83' of longitude;, or oO miles west
of the extremity of the northern arm of Auleitsivikfjord.

On departing I'rom the spot wb.cre wo had left otu* ])rovisions
and sleeping sack, we had, as wo supposed, taken careful notice
of its situation ; nevertheless, we were nearly obliged to abandon
our f-earch as vain — an example Avhich shows how extremely
ditlicult it is, without lofty signals, to find objects again on a
slightly undulating surface everywhere similar, like that formed
by the inland ice. When, after anxiously searching in every direc-
tion, we ut length found our resting place, we ate o\ir dinner with
an excellent ap[)etite, made some further reductions in our load,
and then set oil' with all haste back to the boat, which wc rcaehe<l
late in the evening of the 2otli. ,

*o

At a shoi't distance from our turning-point, wc came to a
copious, deep, and broad river, {lowing rapidly between its blue
banks of ice, which were here not discoloured by any gravel, and
which could not be crossed without a bridge. As it cut olF our
return, we were at first somewhat disconcerted; but we soon
concluded that — as in our journey out wc had not passed any
stream of such large d' ^^ensions — it must at no great distance
disappear under the ice. Wc therefore proceeded along its bank
in the direction of the current, and before long a distant roar
indicated that our conjecture was right. The whole immense
mass of water here rushed down a perpendicular cleft into the
depths below. We observed another smaller, but nevertheless
very remarkable, waterfall the next day, while examining, after
our mid-day rest, the neighbourhood around us with the telescope.
We saw in fact a pillar of steam rising from the ice at some dis-
tance from our resting-place, and, as the spot was not far out of
our way, we steered our course by it, in the hope of meeting —
judging from the height of the misty [)illar — a waterfall still
greater than that just described. We were mistaken : only a smaller,
though nevertheless tolerably copious, river rushed down from the
a7,ure-blue cliifs to a depth from wliich no splashes reboun<led to
the mouth of the fall ; but there arose instead, from another smaller
hole in the ice, in the immediate vicinity, an intermittent jet of
water, mixed with air, which carried hither and thither by the
wind, wetted the surrounding iec-clifFs with its spray. We had
then here, in the midst of the desert of inland ice, a fountain, as

l#l

KNLANI).

ruor. noudenskiOld, expedition to (hieenlvni). 4()l

far ns wo could jutljjjc from tho descriptions, very llko tlio goysors
wliioh in Iceland are produced l)y voleanic heat.

In order, if possible, to avoid the dibtriet of ice-roeks, which
on oiu" journey out had rcfiuircd so much patience and exertion,
wo hud in rctiu'uing chosen a more northerly route, intending to
endeavour (o descend from tlu' ice-ridge higlicr up on the slip of
ice-free land, which lies betwcisn tho iidund ice and Disko l>ay.
The ice was here, with the exception of a few i(!e-hilloeks of a lew
few feet high, in most places as even as a floor, hut often crossed
hy very large and diuigerous clefts, and we were so fortunate as
immediately to hit upon a place where the ineliniilion towards
the land was so inconsiderable that one might have driven up it
ibur-in-hand.

The remainder of the way along tlu^ land was harder, partly on
account of tlu^ very uneven natui'e of the groinid, aiul partly
on account of the numerous glacier-streams which we had to
wado through, with the water fur above our boots. At last, nt
a little distance from tho tent, wo camo to a muddy glacier-
stream, KO largo that, after several failures, avo were obliged to
abandon the hope of linding afordable ])lace. We were, therefore,
obliged to climl) high up again upon the shining iee, so us to b(i
ubhi to find our way down again further on, after passing tlw,
river ; but tho descent on this occasion was i'ar more dilUcult
than before.

Laborious as this journey along tho land was, it was, neverthe-
less, extremely interesting to me in a geological i)uint of view.
We passed in fact over ground that had but lately been aban-
doned by the inland ice, and the whole bore such a resemblance
to the woodless gneiss-districts in Sweden and Finland, that oven
the most sceptical persons would be obliged to admit that tho
same formative power had impressed its stamp on both localities.
Everywhere rounded, but seldom scratched, hills of gneiss* with
erratic blocks in the most unstable positions of equilibrium, occur,
separated by valleys with small mountain-hikes and scratched
rock-surfaces. On tho other liand, no real moraines were dis-
coverable. These, indeed, seem to be in general absent in Scan-
dinavia, and are, generally speaking, more characteristic of small
glaciers than of real inland ice.

The border of the iee is, as indicated in Figs. 1 and 2, p. 402,
everywhere sprinkled with smaller boulders, partly rounded, partly
angular ; but the number of these is so inconsiderable, that, when
tho ice retires, they give rise only to a slope covered with
boulders ; not to a moraine, similar, for example, to that which the
little Assakak glacier in Omenakfjord drives before it. Tho little
earth-bank, which at most places collects at the foot of tho glacier,

* For the preservation of a scnitclied rock-surface it is necessary tliat it
should be protected by a layer of water, cla}', or saud, from the destructive
elFects of frost, and more especially from those of Lichens. The finest scratches
disappear in a few years from a mountain slab, the position of which is
favourable to the growth of Lichens, but are, on the contrary, preserved where
Lichen-vegetation cannot develop itself — as, for example, when the rock is,
for a time in the spring, covered with water,

36122. C C

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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

Ui|2j8 12.5
■^ Uii 12.2

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L25 114 11.6

■ 2.0

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Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

v-

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23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 873-4503

...««'«K"'

'^

402 TROF. NORDENSKIOlD, expedition to GREENLAND.

is frequently washed away again by the glaciei-.stream.s and ruin.
We often find at the foot of the glaeier, as in Fig. 2, ponds or
lakes in which a freshwater ghieial clay, containing angular
blocks of stone, scattered around hy small icebergs, is deposited.

Figs. 1, 2, and .3. Inland Tco abutting on Land.

A. Inland Ice ; 13. Solid llock ; C. Small follectidu of earth at the foot of

the Glacier ; D. Lake; E. Separate blocks of Ice.

(Tlie Woodcuts iilustmting this Memoir have been kindly k-nt by the Publishers of

the Gevl. Mag.)

Fig

Fig. 2.

It is a common error among geologists to consider the Swiss
glaciers as representing on a small scale the inhind ico of Green-
land, or the inhuid ice which once covered Scaiidiiavia.* The
real glacier bears the same relation to inland ice which a rapid
river or brook does to an extensive and calm lake. While the
glacier is in perpetual motion, the inland ice, like the water of a

11

■^ Switzerland was probably never quite covered with real inland ice ; its
glaciers have, hovvever, been consideralsly more extensive than they now are.

ENLAND.

« and ruin,
ponds or
^ tin^iiliir
•posited.

;ho foot of

iiblisliers of

'mm^.

Pfcti

tilt* Swiss
)f" Grc'cM-
i.* The
h a rapid
Vhilo the
ater of a

ad ice ; its
1 now are.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITKW TO (JUKENLAXD. 403

lake, is comparatively at rest, exceptiii<,' in those places where it
streams ont into the sea by vast but short ;;laeiers. If one of
these glaciers, throu<^h which the ice-lake falls ont into the sen,
pass over smooth ground where the ocean's bottom gradually
changes into land Avithout any steep breaks, steep precipitous

Fig. 4.

^

j^

./"

■ ,///'■■ '

i."

I> prceii

•I

, o", / / "f.

Fig. 4. Inland Ice (A) extending into the Sea (D) and terminating in a steep

edge, 100 to 200 feet liigh.

glaciers are produced, from Avhich indeed large ice-masses fall
down, ])ut do not give rise to any real iceberg. But if the month
of the fjord be narrow, the depth of the outlying sea great, and the
inclination of the shore considerable, the result Avill be one of those
magnificent ice-fjords which Rink so admirably describes, and
which we, later in the course of our journey, had an opportunity
of visiting. The following diagram will illustrate this more
clearly.

1,500 ft.

Fig. 5. Inland lue abutting on the bottom of im ice-fjord, i.e., a fjord in
which real icebergs are tormed.

c c 2

M

•1

m

I

lif

;.!

',

14

^^:s

-i..

404 PROF. NORDENSKIOlD, expedition to GREENLAND.

True icebergs arc formed only in those glaciers which terminato
in tlio manner indicated in Fig. 5 ; though pieces of ice of
considerable dimensions may fall from a steep precipice (Fig. 4).
These various kinds of glaciers occur not only in Greenland, but
also in other ice-covered polar lands, e.g. in Spitzbergen, though
on so much smaller a scale than in Greenland, that one never
meets in the surrounding waters with icebergs at all comparable
in magnitude with those of Davis Strait.

Tn Spitzbergen, and probably also in some parts of Greenland,
the ice passes into the sea in the following manner.

Fig. 6.

H

It

Fig. 6. Inland Ice abutting on a mud-bauk.

As I have already remarked in the account of the geological
relations of Spitzbergen,* this last-mentioned kind of termination
of inland ice towards the sea is met with only either in those
places where the limits of the inland ice rapidly recede, or where
the ice breaks for itself a new channel or way to the sea. This
is, for example, the case with Axels Glacier in Bell Sound, which,
when I first visited the spot in 1858, had an edge like that
indicated in Fig. 6, but which a couple of years latter filled the
whole of the harbour lying before it, and is now terminated in the
manner shown in Fig. 5.

The great denuding effect of the glaciers has been, as is known,
proved by numerous and accurate investigations. Greenland also
offers examples of this in the long and deep fjords that indent its
coasts, and which, if they run parallel to ante-glacial depressions
of the earth's crust, yet, as the smoothed, scratched, and grooved
rocks, and the erratic blocks strewn high up upon the slopes show,
have been widened, formed, and cleansed from earth, gravel-bods,
and looser sedimentary mountain-detritus by the operation of the
glaciers. The mere effect of the immovable inland ice cannot be
anything like so great. Nevertheless, here also the earth and the
layers of gravel are completely washed away by the rapid glacier-
streams running under the ice. The subjacent original rock is
thus exposed, and perhaps to some extent worn away, especially
in places where the ice passes over layers of limestone, sandstone,
or slate. Its original depressions, filled during the older geological
periods, therefore re-appear, and often form — when the ice-covering
has again retired — the basins of those beautiful lakes which
characterize all glacial lands. To assume that the whole lake-basin

(?)

urn

NLANP.

PKOF. NOIIDENSKIULD, RXPKDITION TO GIlEKXLAND. 405

fl

terminate
)f ice of
(Fi-. 4).
ilaml, but
1, though
no never
mparablo

reenland,

geological
rmi nation
in those
or where
3a. This
d, which,
like that
filled the
ed in the

s known,
land also
ndent its
pressions
grooved
)es show,
vel-bods,
)n of the
annot be
1 and the
1 glacier-
l rock is
specially
mdstone,
eological
covering
IS which
kke-basin

lias been scooped ont during the Glacial Period is, however, evi-
dently a mistake ; and equally erroneous in the form in which it is
customary to clothe the theory of the origin of Alpine lakes. But
when we take into consideration how rapidly (evon within historical
periods) a lake is fiUetl and converted, first into a morass, and
then to a level and dry plain, we easily see the reasonableness of
the following proposition :

We meet with lakes only in those places where, from some
cause or other, during the latest geological periods, depressions
or excavations have taken place in the crust of the earth ; and
since, among more generally operating causes than this, we know
only of the volcanic and glacial powers, it is natural to conclude
that modern (not filled up) lake-basins only occur Avhon; the
strata, in consequence of volcanic activity, have fallen in, or where
the ice has ground to powder, and the glacier-streams have swept
away, the looser e^rth and rocks situated nearest to the surface of
the earth.

On observing Tessiursarsoak from the heights nearest to the
spot where wo had first descended from the glacier, w(! had per-
ceived that its appearance had changed in a remarkable manner ;
its surface was bright as a looking-glass, and so thickly covered
with ice that our first impression was that we had an arm of the
inland ice before us. On arriving at the tent we discovered the
cause of this. During our absence the inland ice had launched or
deposited ice in such tiuantities that the whole bay Avas almost
choked with it, and the Greenlanders were very uneasy, for I'ear
partly of our being inclosed, and partly of the violent waves
caused by the deposition. They were therefore very gljid when,
immediately on our aiTival at the boat, we declared our readiness
to start on the following day.

In order to be in time to meet the Inspector — who just at this
time was expected t« visit the colonies around Disko Bay in a
commodious yacht, whence he was to sail through the Waigat up
to Upemivik, and who had oifered us a place on board as far as
our routes were the same — ^we had agreed with several kayak men
from Ikamiut and the surrounding districts, that on an appointetl
day they were to meet us at the Tessiursarsoak. Our intention
was to have the whale-boat dragged over the low neck of land
Avliich at Sarpiursak separates the innermost part of the north
arm of Auleitsivikfjord from Disko Bay, and thus entirely to
avoid the long circuit round Kangeitsiak. At the appointed
time we saw a whole flotilla of these small, elegant, and light
kayaks approaching our tent. We immediately started, and, as
soon as the necessary dram of welcome had been distributed to the
canoe-men, rowed over to the other side, where Dr. Oberg, with

zoological

boat and a number of other men,

the crew of the

awaited us. We were now a large body of men, but Green-
landers are neither strong nor inclined to unusual exertions, and
we were obliged to let our people row the whale-boat all the way
round, while with our effects we passed directly over to Sarpiursak,
where two other whale-boats lay at our disposal.

According to Dr. Rink, the interior of the fjord we had just
left had never before been visited by Europeans, and even natives

k '■■

:$>

406 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, expedition to GREENLAND.

-1
. i

■ 'i

^

only visit it in summer to hunt and finh, usually in an " umiak,"
which is carried over the neck of land. Jt is seldom that they
row from the month to the end of the fjord. They are afraid of
the violent currents which the tide produces in the long narrow
estuary, and which, as the Greenlanders several times, with
horror in their countenances, inform(!d na, when wo wished to
take advantage! of the favourable but violent current to get on
faster, had once swallowed up two " umiaks," with all the men,
women, and children on board. There must now, however, be
but very little to be got by hunting there ; at, least, during the
whole of our journey wo saw no Reindeer. But there are persons
still living who remember the time when thousands of Reindeer
were killed in these parts for the sake of the skins only. This
abundance of game enticed a few families to settle there also during
winter, and one meets in several places traces of old houses. 'IMio
shores of the fjord are occupied by gneiss hills separated from
each other by valleys, in which Grass and Lichen grow plentifully,
thus affording copious pasture for such Reindeer as may occa-
sionally stray thither. This is an event which has now become
rare ; but many maintain that the good times may return, for,
according to their account, the Reindeer make periodical migrations,
sometimes appearing at a particular place in vast numbers, and
then suddenly disappearing, and there are many persons who
connect this account with that of an inland tract free from ice, or
even with the story of wild inhabitants with European features in
the interior of the country. To us the visit to this fjord was
of interest, partly because we hoped thus to become acquainted
with the true, immixed Greenlander scarcely in contact with
civilization, and partly for botanical reasons. We hoped in fact
here, far from the moist fogs of the ocean, to find a far richer
vegetation than on the outer coast. A very small tree was said
to have been transplanted hence to the clergyman's garden at
Egedesminde. This anticipation of the botanist was, however, not
confirmed, at least not to the amount expected. The flora was
indeed richer and the Willow-bush larger than at Egedesminde,
but not so rich nor so large as in the more northerly but
fertile basalt-region of Disko, which is traversed by subterranean
streams of warm water. The Insect fauna, on the other hand,
appears to be somewhat richer here than on the coast ; at least we
collected the best harvest of Insects that we had during the whole
summer on the 17th of July, on a little island in Tessiursarsoak,
and the time we spent at the foot of the inland ice was, although
in other respects extremi'iv pleasant, embittered to a degree — of
which those who have not experienced it cannot form an idea — by
countless swarms of Gnats. The Greenland Gnat is like ours, but
its bite is far more venomous, though at first not particularly
painful. One is therefore usually too incautious at first, and
exposes oneself to twenty or thirty gnat-bites in the face at once.
A few hours later one's face becomes unrecognizable with the
lumps and swellings caused by the bites, and this is followed by
pain and fever, especially at night, which hinder sleep, and are
almost enough to drive one mad.

inland ice, in former timef;,. evidently covered the whole of

The II

INLAND.

PROF. NORDENSKT^LD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 407

" umiak,"

that they

afraid of

ig narrow

mos, with

tvishod to

to get on

the nu'n,

wever, be

uring the

re persons

E" Reindeer

ily. This

Iso during

ses. The

atod from

»lentifully,

Tiiiy ocea-

y become

iturn, for,

ligrations,

nbers, and

sons who

ora ice, or

eatures in

fjord was

cquainted

tact with

;d in fact

ar richer

was said

arden at

^ever, not

Iflora was

[lesminde,

lierly but

erranean

ler hand,

least we

|he whole

jrsarsoak,

lalthough

Igree

of

dea — by

)urs, but

Iticularly

Irst, and

1 at once.

^ith the

j>wed by

land are

irhole of

Auleitsivikfjord, together with the surrounding valleys, moun-
tains, and hills. The ice has accordingly, during the last
thousand or hundred thousand years, considerably retired. Now,
on the contrary, its limit in thes(? parts is advancing, and that by
no means slowly. Of late years the rowing of an "umiak" in
Tessiursarsoak has been rendered diflicult by ice-blocks fallen
I'rom the glaciers, which is saitl not to have been the case for-
merly ; an<l one of our rowers, Henry Sissarniak, even affirms
that he rowed Avithout obstruction seven years ago round an
island, which now forms a peninsula jutting out from the margin
of the inland ice. Many similar examples in North Greenland
are adduced : thus, for example, the glacier that issues into
Hliisedal, near Godhavn, has, since the time when Dr. Rink
mapped that place, according to the statement of Inspector Smith,
advanced much farther into the valley, — in the fjords around
Omenak the ice has advanced considerably within the memory of
man, — a path formerly often frequented between Sarfarfik and
Sakkak * is now closed by inlan<l ice, etc., etc. I shall have occa-
sion hereafter to mention a similar case in the ice-fjord at Jakobs-
havn. In a word, there can be no doubt that in many parts of
North Greenland the inland ice is certainly gaining ground ; but
I nevertheless think that the conclusion drawn by many persons,
that the whole coast of North Greenland will, at no very distant
l^eriod, be again covered with ice, is somewhat too hastily made.
These persons, in observing tlie phenomena relative to this
subject, not only seem to have forgotten to register the examples
occasionally adduced by the Greenlanders of a retiring of the ice
— a less striking and therefore less observed phenomenon, but
they have also attributed far too great weight to an experience
extending only over a few years, which may perhaps have been
peculiarly unfavourable. On the contrary, the extensive, rounded,
polished, and grooved border of land, which almost everywhere
separates the inland ice from the extreme coast, shows plainly
that the inland ice has in many places during the last geological
period retired several miles. That this border-land has been
uncovered later oven than that at Spitzbergen is proved by this
fact among others, viz., that not one of the numberless small
sea-basins in North Greenland, in spite of the suitableness of the
locality for moss-vegetation, has yet become filled with turf, even
to the depth of a few feet ; and this indicates that the slip of ice-
free land is but a child of yesterday. It is true that " turf" is
the Greenlander's principal winter fuel, but what he means by
that name is, in almost all instances, merely an earth, consisting
of rotten moss, grass-roots, guano, and refuse, which to the

* At Sakkak (" Sunsidc," Giesecko) the great valley -which runs into the
heart of the Noiirsoak Peninsula is drained by a small stream that appears to
divide the {rneiss of the mainland from the trap-formation of Noursoak. The
glaciers on both Disco and Noursoak appear, from this place, to be steadily
advancing, " so much so that their progress can be noted j-ear by year," as
noted long ago also by Giesecke. The glaciers to the south, however, are, in
Mr. Whymper's opinion, decidedly shrinking. (Mr. E. Whympkr, Brit. Assoc.
Rep. for 1869, pp. 2 and ,3.)— Editor.

1

■,«•

■( ■

'^'1

j:.}

K'

'! ''^

408 J'ROF. NORDENSKIOLD, P.XrEDlTION TO GREENLAND.

depth of a few inches is soon formed on tlic skerries and islands
in tlio sea, and serves the sea-fowls as places of incubation. The
jjreat^st part of the Greenlander's tnrf-beds are situated on gulls-
hillocks (" maagetuer "), and have, therefore, geologically speak-
ing, nothing in common with what we mean by turf-deposits, it
was accordingly impossible for me to collect, as I had desired, by
an examination of the older turf-beds, materials for determining
the latest Post-tertiary changes of climate that have taken place
in (ireenland. But instead, we find hero many other deposits,
which serve at least to give an indication of the changes that the
animal world has undergone during the Glacial Period.

11

I;

Part III. (Geol. Mag., vol, ix., p. 409, &c.)

Before proceeding to give an account of these changes in the
Fauna of Greenland, I wish to draw attention to the possibility
\Thich exists in these parts of obtaining a comparison between the
units of geological and historical chronology, that is, if, by collect-
ing observotions and reports from many different localities, it be
possible to determine certain limits for the velocity with which
the border of the inland ice moves. One may arrive at the lower
limit by the following considerations. The breadth of the slip
of border-land at AuleitsivikQord is about 60 miles, or 350,000 ft.
The annual retreat can, of course, never exceed the thickness* of
the covering that yearly melts, divided by the sine of the inclination
of the icy surface, which in the places passed by us was nowhere
less than 30°. It is hardly probable that dmnng a summer in
Greenland an ice-layer of more than 10 ft. can melt away, so that
a yearly retreat exceeding ,in'^ = 20 ft. is not to be thought of.
This would give for the time that has been required for the un-
covering of the outer strip of land at Aideitsivikfjord a period of
at least 17,000 to 18,0(X) years. But this number is evidently too
low, for neither the yearly falls of snow nor the advance of the
ice-mass has been taken into account, as they of course ought to
be ; and yet we have here to do with a geological period which
undoubtedly forms but a small fraction of the interval that has
elapsed since the first appearance of Man.

The point at Sarpiursak forms a very level and extensive plain,
elevated about 60 to 150 feet above the sea, covered with a vege-
tation of " Lyng," Moss, and Sedge, too scanty to conceal the clay
which forms the bottom of the plain. Similar formations in many
other places along the shores of Disko Bay and Auleitsivikfjord

* Estimated at right angles to
the surface of the ice. The annexed
cut shows this more clearly. If G
is the surface of the ice in e.y. 1870,
and G' the same surface in 1871,
then AG' is the thickness of the
layer that has melted ; and the
distance the ice has receded is =
AG': sin V. The angle V is, of
course, determined by the relation
between the velocity of melting and the velocity with which the ice flows out
of the higher parts of the glacier.

rr,vj:

fLAND.

islands
II. The
n gulls-
y speuk-
sits. It
iircd, by
Tmining
in place
deposits,
that the

'8 in the
assibility
veen the
jrcollect-
es, it bo
h which
he lower
the slip
0,000 ft.
ness* of
clination
nowhere

rmer in
HO that
>ught of.
the nn-
)eriod of
ntly too
of the
Dught to
which
that has

re plain,
a vege-
he clay
n many
ikfjord

lows out

PROF. NOUDENSKIOlD, RXPEDITION to GREENLAND. 409

have given rise to vast clay.beds, which attnvctcd attention long
ago in these parts so ill-snpplied with clay. Our Greeulandors
even mentioned that they contained petrified shoUs and "Ang-
maksjiter " (the Capelin *). These fossils are also mentioned by
Dr. Rink in his work on North Greenland ; and he adds, that a
collcctioti which he had sent homo hatl been examined by Dr. O.
A. L. Morch, who found the shells partly to belong to species
still existing on the coasts of North Greenland, partly to more
southern forms. As the collection of materials for forming a
judgment relative to the changes in the climate of the polar
regions was one of the principal objects of the purely scientific
part of our expedition, it was natural that we should pay especial
attention to these circumstances.

Older glacialf fossils occur in N. Greenland in two different
formations, namely, either imbedded in clay (south of the Waigat),
or else at Pattorfik in a somewhat hardened basaltic sand, bo-
coming a basalt-tuff. The material of the clay-beds has evidently
been deposited by the glacier-rivers whose muddy water every-
where bursts out from under the inland ice ; but in general the
deposits are marine, which proves that these regions, in the course
of the present glacial period, have been elevated at least 100 feet.

The Danes, on the other hand, who have long resided in Green-
land, declare most decidedly that a depression is now taking place
in most pai'ts of the country. Herr Einar Hansen, who has for
19 years lived in the colony of Omenak, says that even in that
short period he has clearly seen this ; and it is still more evident
when we refer to the statements left by Herr Hansen's predecessor
relative to its height 60 years ago. The situation of the blubber-
house at Fredrickshaab, as well as many other facts in South
Greenland, shows the same. At Godhavn, in Disko, on the con-
trary, a rise is said to be taking place. It would be an im-
portant service if these circumstances, to which attention has
been called by Pingel, Brown, and others, were fully investigated,
with an accurate collection of all data relating to the subject ; and
proper bench-marks fixed in appropriate spots among the skerries
along the coast of Greenland.

As at the present time the glacial clay, covered with muddy
water, is poorly supplied with animal life, so the similar clays
deposited in ancient times present but a scanty variety of fossils.
In the clay-beds at Auleitsivik^ord, for example, we could
only find a few shells of Saxicava arctica, and in the thick clay-
beds of Sarpiursak we at first sought in vain for any remains of
animal life ; these, however, were very numerous on the shore.
Bivalves still united, inclosing, and often inclosed in, a hardened

* " Angmaksajt," Giesecke, &c. ; " Angmaksak," Reinhardt, &c.

■f Of course one finds in many places, at about the level of the sea, modern
deposits, with sub-fossil shells identical with forms now living. From these
formations those of which we are now speaking differ by the great age of the
latter, and by the very different type of shell-remains found therein. This is
especially the case with the shell-deposits at Pattorfik, which appear to me to
belong to the earliest part of the glacial period of Greenland. A very con-
siderable, but lately formed, bank of shell-earth, with bones of Whales and
Walruses, alternating with beds of Sea-weed, occurs at Saitok,at the mouth of
Disko-fjord. Unfortunately we had only time to examine it cursorily.

I

;*

i-T4I

Cjk.

410 PROF. NORDEN9KIOLD, EXPEBTTTON TO GREENLAND.

iff

'I if

■I

mixture of sniul and clay, and flat or ring-sluipod olnyMtonos, con-
taining remains of Fish, Ophiurae, Crustacea, etc., wore found
tliere in great numbers, for the sea is constantly washing away
u clay bank, 60 feet hij^h, and fossils and claystoncs are loft on the
shore. The fossils in the clay itself are but few ; biit the clay-
stones form a s<^parate layer, in which they lie close together.
Similar fossils, together with a few Gasteropods Avere collected by
Dr. Oberg at the foot of a elay-bank, South Lcerbugt, near
Claushavn.

The fossils at Pattorfik were large and with thicker shells.
They are found at a height of from 10 to 100 feet above the sea-
level, imbedded in greyish-green basaltic sand, in part hardened
into a kind of basalt-tuff. This is especially the case in the neigh-
bourhood of Shells, and according';' they were most easily dis-
covered by breaking up the hard round nodules that are imbedded
in the rest of the mass. These no<lules are often so hard and
tough, that they cannot be broken with an ordinary hammer.
Besides these this "basalt-tuff" contains large rolled blocks of
stone, indicating that at the time of the formation of these layers
a glacial period prevailed in the region.

The fossils* brought home by us from these parts have been
examined by Professor S. Lov^n, who gives the following list of
them.

SiiBFOSSTL Species of Animals collected in Greenland during

the Expedition of 1870.

Pattorfik.

Sarpiursak.

Lcerbugt .

Tessiur-
sarsoak.

Mya truncata, L. -

+

+

+

Mt/a arcnaria, L.

+

-1-

+

f Cyrtodaria siliqua, Spgl.

+

—

+

Saxicava arctica, L. -

+

+

+

•f <S. Norvegica, Spgl. -

+

Lyonsia arenoaa, Moll.

—

+

Tellina sabulosa, Spgl.

+

+

+

T. tencra, Lench

+

+

Astarte cornigata, Br. -

+

+

A. elliptica, Br.

+

+

A. striata, Leach

—

+

Cardium Islandicum, Chem, -

+

+

+

C Grcenlandicum, Chem.

+

+

+

Leda pcrniila, M. -

+

+

Yoldia truncata, Br. -

+

+

Y. hyperhorea, Iiovfen. -

—

+

+

Mytilus edulis, L. -

+

Pecten Islandicus, L. -

+

Tritonium undulatum, Moll.

—

+

T. Groenlandicum, Chem.

—

—

+

T. hydrophanum, Hancock

+

+

Natica clausa. Sow. -

*-"

+

Idothea Sabinei, Kroyer

__

+

.§'i

All are species still living in the Arctic Seas. Those marked with f are called
" fossil " by Dr. Rink ; perhaps not found living in the Greenland waters.

* Erantz in his work speaks of fossil shells at Godthaab, which are nowhere
else found in these parts.

Sit

1 1

l;v

NLAND.

PROF. NORDEXSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 411

1108, con-
re found
ng away
?ft on the
tho cljvy-
together.
locted by
igt, near

cr shells.
» the sea-
hardened
he neigh-
[vsily dls-
iml)c<lded
hard and
hammer.
Moeks of
ese layers

ave been
iig list of

D during

Tessiur-
sarsoak.

are called
raters.

re nowhere

Afto' passing some time at Sarpiinsuk in collecting fossils,
we removed to Christianshaab, and thence onward to Leerbugtcn,
south of Claushavn. By means of certain arrangements mado by
the Inspector, we wore enabled to make a particularly interesting
tour inland, to tho extremity of one of tlu; largt'st ice-fjords in
(TreenJand — the ice-fjord of Jakobshavn.

This fjord is found insertt>d on very early maps of Greenland,
though generally as a sound imiting the Nortli Atlantic with
Baffin's Bay. It is now known that the supposed sound is only a
deep fjord, fdled throughout its whole length with huge icebergs,
which completely close the fjor*!, not only to ships, but also to
whale-boats and umiaks, nay, even to kajaks (canoes). The shores
of the fjord are therefore uuinhabited, and seldom visited. A
tradition exists among the Greenlanders, that tho fjord was in
former times less obstructed by ice, and was conse(]ucntly a good
hunting and fishing place ; and this is confirmed by the older
maps of tho fjord, but especially by the numerous remains of old
dwellings, which are still met with along the shores, not only of
the principal f^jord, but of its southern arm, Tossiursak, now
completely baiTicaded by icebergs and inaccessible from the sea
(not to be confounded with the fjord Tessiursarsoak which we had
just left). Tessiursak itself is still tolerably free from ice, and is
easily reached by dragging an umiak over the point which separates
the western shore of Tessiursak from the ocean. For such a
purpose, however, a traveller must take his umiak with him, partly
because he cannot obtain any boat at the now deserted Tessiursak,
partly because about half-way over the point he meets with a lake,
to go round which would be a considerable circuit.

On our arrival at Leerbugtcn, we found, in consequence of the
Inspector's excellent arrangements, a Greenland family there to
meet us, and the women's boat, or " umiak," lay drawn up upon
the shore. The journey over the point was immediately com-
menced. Six men took the roomy iimiak upon their shoulders,
others took our instruments, and provisions for us and our people
for two days. The way was first over a high ridge, which
separates the sea from the lake, on the shore of which the Green-
landers had pitched their summer tent. Here we rested awhile,
and tried the temperature of the water (12° Centigr.), by a bathe
in the lake, to the great astonishment of the Greenlanders. We
then rowed over the lake in the umiak, took it up and cai'ried it
on our shoulders over another point, steeper but shorter than the
former, and clothed just at this time in all the colours that the
Flora of the extreme north can offer. On the other side of this
point was water again, not however fresh, but salt : it was the
above-mentioned southern arm of the Jakobshavn ice-^ord. The
umiak was again launched, and, after a row of a few hours, inter-
rupted by hunting after young Seagulls, we reached the spot where
Tessiursak falls into the main ice-fjord veiy near its inner
extremity. Here the water that was free, or nearly free, from ice
terminated, and we had to make our way along the southern shore
of the ice-fjord for a distance, not indeed long, but dangerous, on

412 rnop. NouDRNSKniM), expedition to Greenland.

ftccount of tlio nuissos of ico driven liithor ami thither hy tho
violent currents near tlie shore.

Further out the fjord was completely covered with lofty sharp-
pointed icebergH, some of which stood so firmly on the ground
that the stream could only move them at floo<l-tide. Others, which
did not draw so much water, were carried hither and thitlier by
tho currents, and it is difficult to descrilte in words the deep
booming and scraping which took place when these were driven
ngainet each other or against the still mightier masses aground. A
loud report sometimes gave notice of tho splitting of an iceberg,
which was usually followed by a violent undulation reaching to
the shore. It is not surprising that the Greenlanders do not liko
to make long voyages in such waters. Neither did wo long
continue our row. Just on tho other side of a headland formed
by a high steep gull-hill, bordering the mouth of Tessiursak, were
the remains of an old house, which formed tho terminus of our
journey. Hero wc rested for the night, and returned next day
by the same route by which we had come. We employed our
time partly in an examination from the tops of the neighbouring
hills of the vast iceberg-factory that lay at om* feet, and partly
in a careful investigation of the remains of the dwellings left
desolate for a century, perhaps many centuries, where we now
rested.

I have already given a profile of this glacier (Fig. «5), from
which it may be seen tliat it is imi)Ossiblc to draw any dctinito
line of boundary between the inland ice and the sea. The glacier
is, in fact, as its profile indicates, for a considerable distance,
probably several miles, from Its cihI broken up into icebergs,
the original situation of which lias, by the continual advance of
the ice, been entirely disturbed, so that they are thrown in con-
fusion one over the other. Even at the mouth of the fjord th'.'so
icebergs are as closely packed as when they formed a part of tho
glacier, and most of them perhaps always aground. Jt is at a
considerable distance further on that they are separated from eacdi
other, so far at least as to allow the surface of the water to be
seen between them.

Even if there had been time to take topographical measui'c-
ments, it would not have been possible for me to state how many
hundred yards the house we now visited is from where th« fjord
and inland ice meet. It is certain that at present the distance is
not very great, and the appearance of the environs must have been
very different when Kaja — such is said to have been the name of
the locality — was an inhabited place. That it was so for a long
period is shown by the magnitude of the kitchenmiddens, and by
the numerous remains of houses and graves. Either the level of
the water in the fjord has risen or the land has sunk considerably
since that time. It is not probable that the situation of a house
would be chosen so close to the shore that not even a canoe could
find room in front of the dwelling.

As a Greerilander now seldom resides at any distance from the
Danish-trading stations, one finds in numbierless places along the

.AND.

rUOF. NOUPENSKl'iLD, KXPHDITION TO ORKENLANP. 413

by the

y slmrp-
giound
s, which
tlicr hy
lie (loop
3 driven
und. A
iceborg,
jhing to
not liko
wo long
I formed
ik, were
s of oiir
icxt day
tyed o>n'
ibonring
d partly
ings loft
wc now

5), from
(letinito
0 glaoior
distance,
ceborgs,
van CO of

in con-
rd those
t of tluj

is at a
oni ca(!h
or to be

iieasnro-
Lv many
Ihtt fjord
ptanoe is
Lve boon
Iname of
• a long
and by
lleVel of
[derably
honse
le could

lorn the
Ing the

coiwt old doscrtod dwolling-placos. Thoy are rooognizablo at a
<Iislanco by tho lively verdmo, arising from the rich vegetation,
which tho remnants of tishing and hunting prey acattorctl round
the cottages or tenia has produced. On taking a few spadefuls
of <'artli, or on examining tho walls of tho now liousi-s, — gt-nerally
built with turf taken from these spots, — one ovorywhoro finds tho
earth and grass-roots mixed with the bones of tho aninuds which
the Grounlanders hunt. Tho animals killed by the men are in
fact cleansed by the women besitlo or in thr collage itself, and
the refnso after the cleansing or the meal is thrown away — seldom
far from the cottage-door. Even now, in the cours(^ of years, a
heap is frequently collected as truly circidar as if it had been
drawn with a pair of compasses round the door as a conlre. On
examining its contents, it is found to consist of a black, fat earth,
formed of decayed refuse — frecpiently bits of bone? gnawed asunder
and broken, shells, especially thosi; of MijtilnSj lost or broken
household goods, etc. This boue-mixod earth most likely con-
tains, like guano, not ordy considerable quantities of phosphoric
acid, but also ammoniac salts, and it may happen that tho trade
of Greenland may find in this a valuable article of export.

As the kitehenmidden dates from the Stone Age in Greenland, —
which undoubtedly extended beyond tho epoch at which tho
whalers first began to visit these coasts, — we find in it arrow-
hoails, skin-scrapers, and other instruments of various kinds in
stone, and especially a quantity of stone-flakes knocked otf in
forming the instruments, easily recognizable, not only by their
form, but by their consisting of stones — chalcedony, agate, and
especially green jasper (called by the Greenlanders " angmak '') —
not met with in the gneiss formation, but only at certain spots in
the basalt region of Disko or the peninsula of Noursoak. One
somotinics finds smaller instruments of clear quart;;, also half-
wrought crystals of the same mineral. Everything shows that
the material Avas carefully chosen among such minerals as united
tho necessary hardness loith absence of vlcavagc and a fiat con-
choidal fracture. Among minerals in general, the diftorent
varieties of quartz (rock-crystal, agate, chalcedony, flint, and
jasper) arc tho only ones which fully satisfy these conditions ;
and it is therefore almost exclusively these minerals that tho
various races of men have chosen for making their chipped (not
ground) stone instruments.

The two largest of the old house-sites, among which wo were
now resting, lay so near the sea that their bases Avere washed by
the water. A small stream had found its way through one of
thorn, and had thus not only exposed a section of the kitchen-
midden, but also subjected a part of it to a washing process, in
consequence of which bits of bone and other heavier objects lay
clean- washed at the bottom of the channel and in the hollows of
the gneiss slabs of the shore. Those were carefully examined,
and a number of stone instruments and stone chips were collected.
There were no traces of iron ; but wo found a small oval perforated
piece of copper, which had evidently once served as an orna-

.t

■ -v-f

''

if

Wfi

i

r

I -'■

414 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

ment. At the largest site a tolerably thick circular stone wall,
8 or 10 feet high, and 26 in section, was still distinguishable,
divided into two unequal portions by a party-wall. The entrance
seems to have led into the larger of these areas, judging from
the extensive kitchenmidden just outside it. In one of the
other heaps of bones a flat stone was found, so large as to require
the united efforts of several Greenlanders to turn it. They
declared that the workshop for the fabrication of stone instru-
ments must have been situated on that spot, and expected
accordingly to find a great quantity of chips in its vicinity, which,
however, the result of their searches did not confirm.

The kitchenmidden outside the large cot rested on a low slab
of gneiss, separated from it by a thin layer of turf, in which were
no trace of any pieces of bone, and which had therefore been
formed before the place was inhabited. In other respects this
turf, of which specimens were taken away, was perfectly like the
earth which was mixed with bones and stone-chips. Here, there
were no Mytilus shells, though these are everywhere else found
around Greenland dweUings : an indication that formerly the in-
habitants were not obliged to have recourse to this species of
famine-food.

To discover the various animal forms that had here been the
prey of the hunter. Dr. Oberg collected a quantity of bones, in
which work the . Greenlanders took a lively interest, usually
determining with great certainty the species to which the pieces
of bone had belonged.

The following species could bo ascertained :

Cervus tarandus.
Ursus maritimus.
Trichechus rosmams.
Cystophora cristata.
Phoca barbata.

Phoca Gnenlandica,

hispida.

vitulina.
Delphinapterus leucas.

»

Even if we suppose that this spot was first inhabited shortly
after the Esquimaux entered Greenland by Smith's Sound, its
age will still be scarcely more than 500 years, a period generally
too short to show marks of the slow but continuous changes to
which the organic world is subjected. Neither do the kitchen-
middens of Kaja contain any other forms of animals than those
still living on the coast of Greenland. Nevertheless we obtain
here an interesting confirmation of the changes that the Lte-fjord
has undergone. The Walrus, P/ioca barbata, and Cystophora cris-
tata no longer venture into this long ice-blockaded fjord ; and
even the Bear has now become so scarce in the colonies of North
Greenland south of the Wuigat that most of the Danes resident in
those parts have never seen it. The remnants of bones in the
kitchenniiddens on the other hand prove that these animals were
abundant there formerly, and are consequently an (evidence that
the fjord at Jakobshavn was less filled with ice than now. Tlie
uniform agreement of the older maps in placing here a strait.

k.

-1fi(lll«.

ILAND.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 415

me wall,
uishable,
entrance
ing from
) of the
0 require
. They
B instru-
cxpected
y, which,

, low slab
lich were
bre been
pects this
r like the
3re, there
Ise found
ly the in-
pecies of

been the
bones, in
, usually
\xQ pieces

IS.

shortly
found, its
jeuerally
[anges to
I kitchen-
|ian those
ire obtain
[iv'-e-fjord
\ora cris-
[rd; and
A' North
Isident in
les in the
lals were
mce that
kv. The
la strait,

extending completely across Greenland,* indicates that it is only
within the last few centuries that this fjord has been converted
into an ice-fjord, and that accordingly the same phenomenon,
though on a larger scale, has taken place here as in the northern
harbour of Bell Sound, Spitzbergen. Krantz mentions a similar
case with reference to the ice-fjord north of Fredrlckshaab in
South Greenland.

At all the old house-sites in Greenland one meets with graves,
and such is the case here. The grave usually consists of a cairn,
built of moderate-sized stones, in the middle of which an oblong
excavation, about the length of a man, and covered with a large
flat stone, forms the chamber. In these we usually find the
skeletons of several persons, so that the grave has been ji «ort of
family tomb. Peculiar small chambers close beside the real grave-
chamber form store-rooms for the deceased's outfit for the next
woi'ld. We find here arrovz-heads, scraps of leather, bone, stem?
or iron knives, water-ladles, bits of stone pans, lamps, pieces of
flint, bows, models of canoes, oblong smoked pieces of pebble-
stones, small wooden staves (according to the statement of the
Greenlanders, dipped in oil, and to be used as torches), &c., &c.
In a similar grave-chamber at Fortune Bay I found a number of
glass beads, evidently of European origin, beads of bone, flint-
points, and some rusty nails (these last probably the most costly
among the valuables, which the male or female potentate resting
in the gi-ave was to take with him or her to the other world). A
Greenlander gave to Dr. Oberg a pair of blinkers, or, more in-
telligibly speaking, snow-spectacles, made of wood found in a
grave. The proprietor would seem to have sufiered from weak
eyes, and to have been afraid of the reflection of the light from the
snow-fields in the abode of the blessed.

It seems to be usually assumed, that whatever iron is met Avith
among the Greenlanders is either of meteoric origin, or has
come from the original Northmen colonists, or from the mer-
chants and whalers of modern times. This assumption appears
to me erroneous. First, as regards meteoric iron, it is certainly
met with in Greenland, as in all other lands which have been but a
short time inhabited by man ; in other countries it has been used
up during the period when iron was more valuable than gold. The
meteoric iron that has hitherto been found in Greenland is, however,
generally too hot-short, cold-short, and brittle, to bo otherwise than
exceptionally used ; and even if a piece of better quality should be

* The views we got of the land inwards from a high mountain near Kaja
showed clearly, however, that the often repeated story of a strait passing
completely across Green la ntl has arisen from a misunderstanding of the (Green-
landers' accounts of the long narrow fjord. We received from the Green-
landers at Auleitsivikfjord a similar account of the southern arm of that
fjord ; but on questioning them more closely, it appeared that they only meant
that the distance to the extremity of the fjord was, according to their notions,
inomensely great. Krantz (in the middle of the last century) speaks of the
fjord as quite full of ice. It was then long before Giesecke's time, when,
according to Brown, '• this inlet was quite open for boats " (Quart. Journ.
Geol. See, xxvi. p. ♦584).

i?

! '

'^1

A-<

!#■

i'!ii>;

«»»iWl«#*IWMiJ,

IM E,

416 PROP. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

I -■;.

p. I

met with, I cannot see how the Greenlanders, with the tools they
at present possess, could possibly forge an arrow-point out of
a piece of iron weighing a couple of pounds. But, on the other
hand, since the time when ships first began to cross the Atlantic,
a wreck may now and then have been carried by the current on to
the coast of Greenland, sometimes far up BaflBn's Bay. Wo were
able to verify an example of this. During our stay in North
Greenland, a fragment of a small schooner or brig drove on
shore at Disko, between Diskofjord and Mellanfjord. As soon as
notice of the matter was given, the Greenlanders in the neighbour-
hood made an accurate inventory of everything on board that could
be turned to any useful purpose. They found bread and sundry
other provisions, also potatoes, but no paper or any indication of
the name the ship had once borne, or the nation to which it had be-
longed, further than that the brass bolts by which the timbers were
fastened together bore the stamp " Skultuna ; " they were there-
fore from the Swedish brass-foundry of that name, and it is perhaps
probable that the vessel itself was either Swedish or Norwegian.
It was a two-masted vessel of 100-150 tons burden, according
to the estimate of the Danes, and, according to the Greenlanders,
could take a cargo equal to about half that of a three-master. The
timbers were of oak, the outer covering of pine, the sides were not
strengthened to resist ice, the stern was round " as a Dutchman's."
The Greenlanders asserted that undoubtedly the ship was neither
a whaler nor intended to sail amongst ice ; and there is not the
slightest reason to doubt the accuracy of their judgment, which is
most sagacious in such matters. We have then here an example
of.a wreck drifting hither from the southern seas. Similar events
must of course have often happened before, and what an abundance
of iron the wreck of a ship supplies to a Greenland colony with its
limited wants, is evident from the quantity of iron lying, at our
visit, scattered around the houses in Godhavn, and obtained from
whalers that h.id been stranded there in the preceding year.
Hero again was evidence of the Greenlander's improvident cha-
racter. It never entered the mind of any one of them, out of all
that quantity of iron — sufficient perhaps to supply the wants of
the Greenlanders for a century — to preserve more than what ho
for the moment required ; and if the regular exportations from
Europe were to cease, the colony would again in a few years have
to go back to the bone-knife, the bow, and the stone implements.

For bone-knives, such as arc sometimes found in old graves, the
edge of which is formed by an iron plate let into a groove in the
bone, a piece of an iron hoop of a barrel, that may have washed
ashore, may easily enough have been used ; an old worn-out iron
knife would have been less fit for the purpose. These iron-edged
bone-knives are therefore by no means always remnants from the
time when the iron brought into the country by the Northmen in
the beginning of the present millennium had begun to be scarce ;
but merely examples of the Greenlanders' way of turning to use
for their simple wants, in the moLt appropriate manner, any objects
that may come in their way.

j.tv

il .

LAND.

ols they
out of
le other
Ltlantic,
111 on to
V^o were
I North
rove on
soon tis
ghbour-
at could
I sundry
sation of
had be-
jrs were
Q there-
perhaps
'wegian.
jcording
danders,
er. The
were not
liman's."
; neither
5 not the
which is
example
r events
undance
Avith its
, at our
ed from
(g year.
Int cha-
it of all
^anti:^ of
what he
IS from
irs have
ments.
Ives, the
le in the
Iwashed
)ut iron
i-edged
[•om the
imen in
[scarce ;
to use
[objects

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 417

At Kaja persons have been buried, not only in ordinary graves,
but in low caves formed at the foot of neighbouring steep cliffs of
gneiss by huge blocks of rock fallen from the mountain one over
another. Most gi'aves in the vicinity of the colonies have been
long ago plundered by searchers after antiquities. This was not
the case in this distant locality ; nevertheless, all that we found in
the graves was a pair of water-ladles and arrow-heads. On the
other hand, as has been already said, a rich harvest was gathered
at the sites of the old houses.* Some skulls were also taken, the
Greenlanders not appearing to object to this, and it being a matter
of the greatest scientific interest to obtain perfectly authentic
skulls of the original inhabitants of Greenland before any mixture
of race had taken place.

On the 3 1st July we returned to Leerbugten, where we were
obliged to divide our little expedition into two parties. It was of
interest to the geologists to visit as many places along the coast as
possible, even if it were only for a few hours, whereas the botanist
and the zoologist for their researches, and especially for the pre-
servation of their collections, were obliged to remain at least some
days at each place. Dr. Berggren and Dr. Oberg therefore now
went together, to collect from the bottom of Disko Bay, and from
its mountainous shores, the fauna and flora of the place. Dr.
Nordstrom and I, on the other hand, hastened to the Basalt region,
to seek new materials for the climatological history of the extreme
north, in the coal-, sand-, and clay-beds to be met with there. The
harvest we gathered was rich beyond our expectations.

In the first volume of his work on Greenland, Krantz has in-
troduced some notices of the mineralogy of the country, whence
we find that the coal-beds of Disko were then (1765) already
known. A statement of the Greenlanders is moreover adduced,
that in certain distant parts all sorts of fishes were to be found
turned into stone. Some years later the surgeon Brasen, who in
1767 made a voyage to these parts for his health, collected a
quantity of minerals, of which a catalogue is given in the third
volume of Krantz's work. This catalogue contains 25 items, in-
cluding different varieties of quartz, granite, graphite, pot-stone
(steatite), pumice (of which it is justly remarked, that it has
been brought hither by the currents from Iceland), and so forth.
In the beginning of the next century (1806-1813) C. Giesecke —
who was first an actor, afterwards a mineralogist with the title of
" Bergsi'aad," and lastly professor in Dublin, and Knight, made
extensive mineralogical excursions on the coasts of Greenland.
Giesecke himself has published but little of his observations,!
though carefully kept journals of his travels are preserved in
manuscript at Copenhagen. Numerous and important new dis-

* Stone implements of various kinds were collected and purchased by us at
several other places, so that the collection we brought home consisted of above
1,000 specimens. Dr. Oberg made the richest harvest at Kikertak.

t In Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, vol. x. pp. 481-502, under the
word " Greenland," is an article written by Giesecke, containing, among other
things, some short notices of the mineralogy of that country. There is also a
work by him on Cryolite in the Edin. Philos. Journal, vi., 1822. See above.

36122. D D

r

■i

h

hi-

I< ;■

i f -'
* ' •-

;>

■I'fii

r

« ,

418 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLANP.

coveries prove that his researches were carried out lu a true
scientific spirit, and with a completeness and accuracy the like of
which but few of the old civilized lands of Europe could at that
time produce. Even North Greenland was visited by Giesecke.
Here he discovered, among other things, fossil Plants at Kome *
and on the east coast of I)isko,f and furnished several instruc-
tive sections. Subsequently (1838) the coal-beds of North Green-
land were, by order of the Danish Government, examined by
J. C. Schythe, though, as it appears, chiefly for technical purposes.
A more important event for geological science was Dr. Rink's four
ycare' residence (1848-1851) in North Greenland, during which
time he visited many parts of the Basalt region, whence rich col-
lections were taken home, among which may be mentioned fossil
trunks of trees fi'om several places, as also fossils from Kome, de-
scribed in Heer's " Flora fossilis arctica." Some years later a
Dane, Jens Nielsen, residing at Atanekerdluk, discovered magni-
ficent Miocene fossils there, a large number of which were collected,
when Captain Inglefield, in company with Captain Colomb, and
Mr. Olrik, the Inspector of North Greenland, visited the place in
July 1854.

These strong proofs of a formerly warm climate up in the
neighbourhood of the Pole aroused aston:shment in all who
saw them. More collections were made, partly by Inspector
Olrik, J partly by other officials of the Danish Trade. Also Prof.
Torell, Dr. Walker, Dr. Lyall, and others brought home not
inconsiderable collections from their travels in Greenland.

The importance of this discovery to the history of our globe
was, however, first taught by means of Heer's " Flora fossilis
arctica," in which these fossils are described, together with similar
fossils collected during the English Franklin Expeditions from
the most northerly archipelago of America, by Prof. Steenstrup
from Iceland, and by the Swedish Polar Expeditions from Spitz-
bergen. The British Association had already (1867), at the
instance of Mr. Robert H. Scott, F.R.S., sent out an expedition
to make new researches in thia geologically interesting quarter.
These were entrusted to Messrs. Whymper and Brown ;§ but in

* Giesecke's Journal. Heer's Flora fossilis arctica, p. 7.

t The above-mentioned article in Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopscdia,
p. 493.

X Mr. Olrik's collections were given partly to the University Museum at
Copenhagen, partly to Capt. M'Clintock, who, on his return in 1859, passed
Disko, and, on returning home, presented them to the Koyal Society in
Dublin, the same institution to which Capt. Colomb had presented his collec-
tions. Capt. Inglefield's collections were given partly to the Geological
Survey in London ; Dr. Walker's and Dr. Lyall's (from the eastern side
of Disko, near the sea-level) to the Botanical Museum at Kew; Prof.
Torell's to the National Museum at Stockholm ; Mr. Whymper's and Mr.
Brown's to the British Museum. The collections from Spitzbergen and of
the expedition of 1870 will be divided between the Museums of Stockholm
and Gottenburg.

§ See Oswald Heer, " Contributions to the Fossil Flora of North Green-
land, being a Description of the Plants collected by Mr. Edward Whymper
(and Dr. Brown) during the summer of 1867." — Phil. Transactions of Roy.
Soc, vol. 159, part ii., p. 445. 1870.

AND.

PROF. NORBENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 419

I!

a true
3 like of
[ at that
fiesecke.

Kome *

instruc-
li Green-
lined by
juvposes.
nk's four
g -whicli

ricb col-
led fossil
[ome, de-
s later a
d raagni-
collected,
omb, and
e place in

ip in the
all who
Inspector
Uso Prof,
home not
d.

our globe

)va fossilis

ith similar

ions from

Iteenstrup

lom Spitz-

), at the

ixpedition

quarter.

§ but in

icyclopaedia,

J Museum at

l859, passed

Society in

I his coUec-

1 Geological

lastern side

lew; Prof.

i's and Mr.

gen and of

1 Stockholm

|)rth Grecn-
Whymper
Ins of Roy.

consequence of a combination of unfavourable circumstances, the
new researches were confined to the already well-examined
locality of Atanekcrdluk and the opposite shore of the Waigat.
The new collections thus indeed completed the knowledge we
already possessed of the Flora of the Miocene Period in the
extreme north, but they opened no new views of the periods
which immediately precedetl and followed it.

As I had in 1858, and especially in the Spitzbergen Expedi-
tion of 1868, the opportunity of contributing in some measure
to the climatic history of the extreme North, this question inter-
ested me in the highest degree. It was especially desirable to
collect materials from the Cretaceous beds at Kome, and to obtain,
if possible, fossil Plants belonging to the long periods between the
Fern-forests of the Cretaceous and the Beech- and Plane-woods
of the Miocene Epoch ; as well of the ages intervening between
the last-mentioned era and the present time. This was the object
of the tours made by Dr. Nordstrom and myself during the
remainder of the summer.

Aug. 1. We departed in the Inspector's yacht, with our own
whale-boat in tow, from Sandbugten to Flakkerhook, where
the Inspector took leave of us, promising to meet us again at
Atanekcrdluk. We rowed, touching at a number of intermediate
places to collect plant-fossils, past Mudderbugten, round Isungoak,
to Ujarasusuk, whence I passed, in a boat obtained from the
Danish officer, to Ritenbenk's coal-mine, north of Kudliset, and then
crossed the Waigat to Atanekcrdluk. Dr. Nordstrom stopped a
little longer to collect more fossils at Ujarasusuk, and thence
sailed in somewhat rough weather direct to our appointed place
of meeting. On this now uninhabited spot we all met on the 5th
of August. On the 9th we rowed farther, to Mannik, Atane,
Noursak, and Noursoak, where we remained a couple of flays
(August 12 and 13).

The time there was employed partly by a visit to the coal-beds of
Netluarsak, situated high up in the basalt beds between the two
last-mentioned places. From Noursoak the Inspector continued
his journey to Upernivik, while we rowed along the shore of
Omenakfjord, touching at Niakornet,* Ekkorfat, Karsok, and other
places, to Pattorfik. From Niakornet and Karsok two trips were
made into the interior ; to coal-beds at Ifsorisok and to the famous
graphite-bed at Karsok. From Pattorfik we rowed over the fjord,
though densely packed with icebergs, to Omenak, where we
arrived on the 20th of August. Here we were detained by the
ice a couple of days, during which we were lodged in the most
hospitable manner by the local Colonial Governor, Mr. Boye.

On the 22nd, in the afternoon, we rowed over to the Assakak
glacier, and the following day onward to Kome, whence we went
on board a ship lying there belonging to the Greenland Trade, in
which, in the evening of the 24th, we set sail for Godhavn, where
we arrived on the 30th, and whence some excursions were made
to the spot where the Meteoric Iron was discovered a Ovifak ;

M

* f.

Niakornak," on the map accompanying Prof. Nordenskiold's memoir.

D D 2

420 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

m^

■I ■ !

i ' !

^kh '

to Saitok, at the mouth of the Disko Qord ; and to Puilasok and
Sinnifik. Shortly after our arrival at the last-mentioned place
(Sept. 3), we received a Kayak express from Godhavn with the
news that war had broken out, which induced us to hasten back
to the colony in order to avail ourselves of the first opportunity
to return to Europe. As no vessel was just then lying there, nor
was any expected to arrive at Godhavn for the next few days, I
immediately passed over to Egedesminde. Dr. Nordstrom re-
mained at Godhavn, awaiting Drs. Oberg and Berggren, to return
home with them. At Egedesminde I went on board the brig
Thialfe, commanded by Captain Brockdorff. Contrary winds
prevented our departure till the 23rd of September, and the
passage was slow in consequence of storm and unfavourable winds,
so that it was not till the 2nd of November that I could land at
Elsinore.

During the whole period of our boat-excursions in Greenland
we had, with the exception of one rainy night, a constantly clear
sky and a favourable sailing breeze, circumstances, which greatly
facilitated our movements, and rendered it possible in so short a
time to investigate at least the principal geological features of
that remarkable tract, and to collect extensive scries of plant-fossils
from above twenty separate localities, and belonging to five widely
separated geological horizons.

Like previous similar collections from the Arctic regions, these
have been transmitted for examination to Prof. Oswald Heer, of
Zurich, and I venture to hope that, when duly interpreted, they
will give us an idea of the changes of climate these regions have
undergone since the epoch when serious variations of climate
first took place upon the globe. I will offer a few remarks on the
geognosy of these interesting beds.

The basalt or, as it is also called, trap-formation, probably ex-
tends completely across Greenland north of the 69th degree
of latitude ; at least Scoresby found, in his remarkable visit to
the eastern coast of Greenland, trap with the impression of Plants*
at many places along the extent of coast visited by him. It is
possible that the same formation may continue under the sea to
Ireland, and thence, partly in a more northerly direction by
Jan Mayen to Spitzbergen, partly in a southern direction from
Jan Mayen, by the Faroe islands, to the Hebrides and Ireland.f
The same eruptive formation extends also westward over a vast
part of Franklin's Archipelago, perhaps even to the volcanic tracts
at Behring's Strait. These basalt beds probably originated from a
volcanic chain, active during the Tertiary Period, which perhaps
indicates the limits of the ancient polar continent, in the same

T»f?!

* Scoresby's collections from these parts seem to have been lost. On the
other hand the last German Expedition to East Greenland brought back col-
lections of plant-impressions, which have also been placed for investigation in
the hands of Prof. Osw. Heer.

f The agreement between the basalt formations of Greenland and the
British Islands, both as retrards the character of the rocks and the age of the
beds, seems to be perfect.

ii- 1 ,

%

i^.

NLAND.

lasok and
[letl place
with the
}ten back
jportunity
there, nor
5W days, I
Strom re-
, to return
the brig
ary winds
', and the
ible winds,
Id land at

Greenland
autly clear
ich greatly
so short a
features of
)lant-fossils
five widely

wions, these
Id Heer, of
ireted, they
gions have
of climate
,arks on the

•obably ex-
9th degree
e visit to
ofPlants*
him. It is
he sea to
rection by
ction from
Treland.|
over a vast
;anic tracts
ted from a
jh perhaps
the same

nt. On the
[ht back col-
^estigation in

md and the
le age of the

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO OREENLANP. 421

manner as is now the case with the eastern coast of Asia and tho
western of America, thus confirming tho division of lanil und
water in the Tertiary Period, which upon totally ditferent grounds
lias been supposed to have existed.

This formation appears most developed in North Greenland to
the large island of Disko and the peninsulas of Noursoak and
Sortcnhook [Svartehuk ?], where it occupies an area of about
7,00() square miles, with a vertical section of 3,000 to 6,000 feet.

Here these eruptive rocks are divided into beds, which, between
Godhavn and Fortune Bay, rest immediately upon the gneiss ;
but on the coast of Omenakfjord, between Ekkorfat and Kome,
upon sand- and clay -beds" belonging to the Cretaceous age. To the
east of Godhavn, at Puilasok and Sinnifik, we meet with sand-
and clay-beds lying between, not under, the basaltic rocks, and
accordingly newer tlian some of the latter. The fossils in these
beds belong to the Tertiary Period. It follows, then, that the
crtiptions, which have given rise to these vast beds of basalt, have
taken place subsequently to the commencement of the Cretaceous,
and have ceased before the termination of the Tertiary Period.

In the preceding pages I have intentionally spoken of basaltic
strata or beds. In almost every place where I have had the
opportunity of examining it, the Greenland basalt is so stratified
that one is forced to admit that it is only exceptionally that we
have to do with masses of lava, but for the most part with sedi-
mentary beds of volcanic ashes and volcanic sand, which in the
course of thousands of years have become hard and assumed a
crystalline structure.

Decided lava-streams I have scarcely observed ; even large or
small dykes are not so common as one might expect ; and, where
they are found, the mass of lava has produced scarcely any efi'oct
upon the loose beds of sand or clay, or the basalt that it has
pierced.

No volcanoes, either extinct or active, are met with in these
parts, although circular depressions in tho basalt plateau, caused
by glaciers or brooks, may, when carelessly observed, easily be
mistaken for true craters. It is, of course, quite natural that
great cavities in tho interior of the earth must arise in the places
whence the great eruptions have issued, which have produced the
basalt region of Greenland ; and that these in their turn must,
within a short period, be followed by tho destruction of the super-
jacent volcanic cone. The place or places Avhere these old volca-
noes once rose high over the surrounding plains will therefore
now most probably correspond with the greatest depths in the
neighbouring sea.

At Godhavn the lowest strata resting immediately upon the
gneiss formation (e.f/. outside liliisedaleu) consist of a basalt-tuff or
breccia, containing various species of zeolites (according to Giesecke
only apophyllitc), next comes colunmar basalt, free from zeolites,
then again basalt-tuft' with zeolites, alternating with true basalt.
A coarse crystalline dolerite, very similar to the Spitzbergen

i A

i

ii

h^'

422 ritOF. N0RDEN8KI0LD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

^l

!

hypcritc, forms at Atanekcrdluk, noar the shore, a hill several
thousand foci high.

'JMic basalt beds are 50 to 100 feet thick, and may bo traced for
miles along the shores, often separated from each other by thin
layers of red basaltic clay. Sometimes the layers are crossed by
dykes of a hard, fine-grained basalt.

Not only dykes, but also basalt beds, on the cooling of the
melted mass, or during the drying and ciystallizing process which
the volcanic ashes have undergone in their transformation to
basalt, have been broken into regular columns, mostly hexagonal.
Briinnvinshamn, Skaiifjiill, Kudliset, and other places on Disko
and the peninsula of Noursoak, alFord examples of this kind of
basaltic structure, comparable in magnificence with Staffa and
other geologically famous European localities.

Volcanic eruptions, as has been above remarked, no longer
occur in this region. Yet, in consequence of the rapidity with
which basalt is destroyed, layers of basaltic sand constantly collect
on the shores — beds which, in the course of thousands of years,
may, under favourable circumstances, harden into a rock not
distinguishable from real basalt, unless perhaps it be that, as these
beds are deposited in the sea, they may contain marine fossils,
which tuflfs of the real basalt formations do not. Such a hardened
fossiliferous basaltic sand occurs at P.attorfik, in Omenakfjord, and
between that place and Sarfarfik. This stratum, which has already
been described, is, however, evidently far more recent than the
newest beds of the real basalt. See p. 409.

Young as are the colonies in these parts, tradition can never-
theless adduce sundry examples of the rapidity with which basalt
rocks are destroyed. It is difficult to induce a Greenlander to
penetrate by boat into the inner parts of the three Ijords which
cut into the west coast of Disko Island. The reason of this is
said to be, that on one occasion a whole house with all its inhabi-
tants was crushed by a sudden fall of a basalt rock. At Godhavn,
on the brow of a basalt mountain, there were formerly twelve huge
projecting elevations, called "the twelve apostles." Of these there
is now but one remaining.

In the immediate neighbourhood of Godhavn the basalt either
extends quite down to the sea, or lies immediately upon the
gneiss formation, which there forms the shore-cliffs. On row-
ing from this point further to the east, as soon as Skarffjiillet
is passed,* beds of sand or sandstone are found nearest the shore,
increasing in thickness as we approach the Waigat, so that at
Flakkerhook and Isungoak they form mountains of 1,500 to 2,000
feet high, frequently crowned with a perpendicular basalt diadem.
The same formation is met with on the other side of the Waigat
at Atanekcrdluk. Further north-west in the strait, however,
the conformable sandstone and basalt sink again, so that before

l-:t

* Some of these beds (at Puilasok and Sinnifik) nearest Godhavn are how-
ever more recent than the great basalt formation, i.e., stratified between^ not
under, some the rocks of this formation.

f ^

>*ivi

<LAND.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GUEENLAND. 423

il several

traced for
3r by thin
roBsed by

ig of the
ess which
[nation to
icxagonal.
on Disko
s kind of
^tatfa and

no longer
)idity with
itly collect
of years,
rock not
it, as these
ine fossils,
1 hardened
ifjord, and
has already
t than the

can never-
lich basalt
ilander to
)rds which

of this is
its inhabi-

Godhavn,
^elve huge

lesc there

ia\i either
upon the
On row-
karffj allot
;ho shore,

[o that at

to 2,000

It diaxlem.

lie Waigat
I however,
lat before

wo arrive at Nonrsak the basalt reaches the sea-level. Be-
yond that point the peninsula is entirely occupied by basalt-beds,
terminating in terraces, between which no sand-layers can be dis-
covered from the shore. But at a height of from 1,000 to 2,000
feet above the sea we find here, also, sedimentary formations of sand,
clay, coal, &c., but very thin, and therefore, for the most part,
concealed by basaltic detritus.

Further inward, the shore ofOmenakQord is occupied exclu-
sively by basalt, extending beyond Niakornet ; but afterwards we
again meet with a formation similar to that of Atanekerdluk,
though of a widely different age, and resting, not upon basalt, but
upon gneiss. These strata belong to the Lower Cretaceous
series. Here the basalt strata no longer extend down to the water ;
and the beach pebbles farther inward are again of gneiss. But
the glaciers that extend downwards from the interior continually
curry with them blocks and columns of basalt, indicating that the
lofty inland mountains are composed of that rock ; and that
there also it is interstratified with Tertiary beds, is shown by
the plant-remains which lie, mixed with pieces of basalt, on the
surface of the Assakak glacier.

Here also was found a specimen of wood inclosed in basalt;
but, with this exception, all the fossil j)lants have been found in
the coal-bearing sandstones and clay-beds which are associated
with the basalt in Greenland. I have no doubt that organic
remains will be found in the red basalt clay that lies between
the real basalt beds, though we had not time to look for them.

The fossils in the sedimentary strata of the Trap-formation * in
Greenland consist exclusively of Plant-remains, and fragments of
two or three Insects and Freshwater Moll usea ; there are no traces
of Marine Mollusea nor vertebrate animals.

An extensive continent occupied this portion of the globe at
the time when these strata were deposited ; and the abundance
of sandy strata, furthermore, seems to indicate that, during the
Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, this was a vast sandy desert [?],
varied only by oases of inconsiderable extent. At that time there
toerc no glaciers in these parts. For the sand-beds contain no
traces of any such erratic blocks or large boulders as always accom-
pany and characterise the glacial formations, and such as are met
with even in the loose clay-beds, of glacial origin, which, where a
subsequent denudation has taken place, cover the beds of basalt and
Tertiary sand. I ought however to mention that in places where
both the modern glacial formation and a part of the subjacent
Tertiary sand have been washed away, sections often occur, Avhich,
on a cursory examination, seem to indicate that the Tertiary sand
contains a vast quantity of erratic granite and gneiss blocks. But
wherever time permitted us to make a careful investigation, or

I': ::■

are how-
It;* ween, not

* I have preserved this name as used in Greenland as a common denomina-
tion for the Cretaceous formation, dolerite, diabase, basalt, the Tertiary strata
included in basalt, and the strata at Sinnifik and Puilasok, probably deposited
shortly after the cessation of the eruption of the basalt,

!«^'

'*mmmumM^:^..

424 l»ROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

Fig. 7.

X<'ig, 7. — Scctioti Or/ore any modern denudation had taken place.

a. Tertiary strata without erratic blocks.

b. Glacial strata with erratic blocks.

where, as is the case in most of the places where phmt- remains arc
found, fresh sections are exposed, it is evident that these blocks
have been washed down from superjacent glacial strata of more
recent date {b), and in no wise belonged originally to the Tertiary
strata (a), on which they now lie. The accompanying Figs. 7
and 8 show this clearly : —

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. — Section along a modem mountain-stream (c— f/),with blocks derived
from the glacial deposits at the surface.
a, b, as in fig. 7.

These Tertiary beds therefore do not afford any evidence that
the favourable climatic circumstances of the Tertiary era have been
interrupted by a separate glacial period, which has subsequently
disappeared. The Cretaceous, Miocene, and recent sand-beds are
in outward appearance perfectly alike ; and, if a new elevation
should expose the sand-beds now in process of formation in many
places at the bottom of the Waigat, it Avould be very difficult,
wherever they are destitute of organic remains, to distinguish these
from the Cretaceous sand-beds at Kome, or the Miocene beds at
Atanekurdluk, Isungoak, &c.

It was formerly supposed that all the coal-beds of Greenland
belong to the same geological period. Heer's important discovery

LAND.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO OUEENLAND. 425

:^-;i

lace.

inuinii uro
oso blocks
, of inoro
i Teitiiiry

ig FigH. 7

[cks derived

lencc that

have been

(sequeutly

-buds are

I elevation

|i iu many

difficult,

liish these

beds at

rieenland
liscovery

that the Htrata at Komo and Atanekerdluk belong to two widely
difterent periods, showed that this is not the case. Subseciueiilly
a rollfil block was found on the shore of Diako containing an im-
pression of a Sif/illaria. This stone, however, appears either to
have been brought hither as ballast or by ice. At Irast, we could
not discover anywhere in these parts ))eds belonging lo the old Car-
boniferous Period.* Heer's discovery was not only confirmed by
our researches last summer, but we also discovered Plan t-rem» ins
from one or two geological horizons (juite new for Greenland.

In the descrij)tion of these 1 follow the chronological order,
beginning with the oldest.

I. — The Kome Strata (older division of tht^ Cretaceous fonna-
tion, according to Ileer).

By this name I designate a sedimentary, coal-bearing formation,
occurring here and there ])etween Kome and Ekkorfat, on the
coast of the Noursoak Peninsula, S.W. of Omenak. The name
is tiiken from the place where the chief coal-lx;d is found, and
which, in all i)rol)ability, yielded the plant-impressions brought
away by Giesecke and Kink. These strata, however, occur not
only at Kome, but all along the above-mentioned coast, with the
exception of a few interruptions by gneiss hills. The Kome strata
rest immediately upon undulating gneiss-beds, probably filling up
old valleys and depressions between them. Higher up the gneiss
is covered by eruptive rock. The strata generally lie tolerably
horizontal ; but sometimes with a dip inwards of as much as 20°.
They are most developed in the neighbourhood of the two ex-
tremities, Ekkorfat and Kome, where the thickness exceeds 1,00()
feet.

As the fossil Plants occur almost exclusively in the lowest strata,
we cannot, Avithout a careful examination of the few fossils we
have brought home from the upper strata, decide whether the
whole of this vast series of strata belong to the same geological
formation or not. It is, however, probable that the upper portion, ^^
distinguished by its thick coal-bed, belongs to the next division..

Most of the Kome strata consist of sand or soft sandstone,
often interstratified with shale f and coal-bands. The shale is
generally mixed with sand, and, as it were, thoroughly corrodetl
by acids ; and in these cases it is so loose that the fossil Plants
it may contain can scarcely be preserved. Fortunately there is
also found, especially in the neighbourhood of the lowest coal-
beds, a harder, sometimes argillaceous, sometimes talcose [?], shale,
with numerous impressions, chiefly of Ferns and Coniferae (not

* Fossils really belonging to the Coal-period have been since found by Dr.
Nanckhoff, at Kudliset (Expedition of 1871).

f Amonir the somewhat foreign words and expressions revised in this re-
print, the word " slate " (Skifer, Swed., Sehiefer, Germ., &c.) is replaced by
" shale " (Skiferlager, Swed. '/), used in the nomenclature of English jroologists
for the laminated clays, of various consistence, which constitute so large a
portion of these Tertiary and Cretaceous formations. The word " slate " is
applied by geologists in England only to roofing-slate and some metamorphic
schists. — Editor.

^

:r

\gf

'■•^tiMlSniu * v^*i,i. ,,,

426 PKOr. NOIIDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

only twigs, but conos, ncods, and Icftvcs). The leaves pspocinlly
occur in abundftneo, generally tran.sforinod into a dark-brown,
Bomi-transparont, parchment-like Hubstanee, rcHcmbling tho vogo-
tablo parchment produced by tho action of Hulphuric acid on lignite.
Some bc<ls occur in which these leaves are so numerouH that
they form a floxiblo felt (which can alniOHt be unravelled), woven
of leavcH and other Himiiarly altered remnants of plants. It is
possible that this fossilization depends upon tho action of tho
aciil gases which have come forth during tho volcanic eruptions
and condensed themselves in the waters of tho locality, and that
the condition of tho fossil leaves is thus connected with thu
extremely corroded appearance of the shale and sandstone.

The most important of the coal-beds * occur in the upper part
of the strata at Kome ; but bands of coal are intcrstratified with the
shale in many other places. They are not very extensive, how-
ever, though sufficient to provide some Greenland households with
tho few tons of coal they want in the year. At present, according
to tho statement of the Governor of tho Colony, coal is thus col-
lected, not only at Kome, but also at Sarfarfik, Pattorfik, Avkru-
sak, and, less frequently, at Ekkorfat.

To this, or rather to a still more recent formation, belongs also
the remarkable layer of graphite at Karsok, and probably the layer
of graphite at Niakornet. One has to pass over a somewhat ex-
tensive tract of the subjacent gneiss before arriving at the sedimen-
tary strata, which appear, with a steep inclination, on the bank of
the Karsok River at a height of 840 feet. Afterwards, slopes of
basalt, boiilders, gravel washed down from the mountains, &c.,
continue, until, at a height of 1,150 feet, one arrives at a terrace
covered with gravel, in which a few angular pieces of graphite
may be discovered, and fragments of a hard sandstone impreg-
nated with coal. In consequence of the unfitness of our Green-
land assistants for real labour, our attempts to dig through tho
strata of gravel and reach tho graphite bed were unsuccessful ;
but we were informed by Capt. G. N. Brockdorft' — master of the
ship which, in 1850, was to have taken a cargo of graphite to
Europe, and which actually carried over about five tons of that
mineral — that the graphite here forms a horizontal bed eight to
ten inches thick, covered with clay, sand, and angular fragments of
sandstone. This interesting graphite bed does not contain any
organic remains ; but, as both the underlying Cretaceous strata
and tho graphite lie horizontally and near each other, and the
latter is situated about 300 feet higher up [?j, it is evident that
the Graphite at Karsok belongs cither to the Cretaceous or to a
still later period.

* As stated above, the coal-beds probably do not belong to the Lower, but
to the Upper Cretaceous (the Atane) beds.

U.

.AND.

j>oc*mlIy
■brown,
0 vogo-
lignito.
us tbut

, WOVOIl

I. It is
of tho
iiptions
iiid that
itli tho

)C!r part
with tho
e, how-
Ids with
;cording
hus col-
Avkru-

ngs also
the layer
vhat ex-
icdimcn-
bank of
slopes of
ns, &ti.j
terraco
raphito
mpreg-
Green-
ugh the
cessful ;
of the
hite to
of that
ight to
ents of
iin any
strata
md the
bt that
or to a

ower, but

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXrBDITION TO GREENLAND. 427

Tart IV. ("Gool. Mag.," vol. ix., p. 449, &c.)

Somewhat farther to the west of Kursok, and about 50 fnct
higher up, occurs another similar stratum, containing a mass of
graphite, so soft that it may bo cut with a knife. This spot was
not, however, accurately examined. A similar stratum, of graphite
imbedded in sand and clay, occurs also at a very great height
above tho sea at Niukornot ; but time did not admit of our visit-
ing it.

Tho graphite from Karsok is perfectly compact, without any
signs of cleavage. On being heated, some pieces de«'i'epitate
violently and yield water. An analysis by Dr. Nordstrom gave :

Carbon
Ilydrogon
Ash -

I.

II.

93 70

95-68

0-69

0-22

4-92

3-60

99-31

99-50

III.

95-42
0-27
3-60

99-29

l*art of tho loss was probably
oxygen. The ash contained per-
oxide of irpn, alumina, and 50 per
cent, of silica; so that even these
analyses indicate that this mineral
is much nearer pure graphite, with
which it fully agrees in appearance,
than tho coal that is usually found
in these formations.

In the strata belonging to this
division wo found plant-remains at
the following places : —

1. Ekkorfat. — Tho strata here
rest upon a red gneiss, which has a
tendency to break off in scaly flakes,
thus forming rounded hills on the
coast. Nearest to the gneiss, at an
inconsiderable distance from tho
shore, a little above the level of tho
water :

(I.) (Lowest.) Hard sandstone,

unfbssiliferous (60 feet).
(2.) Carbonaceous shale, with
sandstone and coal-bands, inter-
stratified Avitli thin layers of
leaves of Coni ferae (30 feet).
(3.) Hard red and white sand-
stone (300 feet).
(4.) Red sandstone, with bands of
shale, and ripple-marked (30 ft.).

xxwx

xxxx

*xyy
hxxx

XX

yvxx

KXXX

xxxx
xxxx

XXKk
XXXJf

KXXX

xxyt
yxxx

>CX»X
yxx»f
xxvx

XNXX
XXj<»

xxtv

KXXX
XXXK
XXX>
XXXV

8.
7

a,

3.,
1,

Fig. 9. Succession of
strata at Ekkorfat.

m

:-\

428 PROP. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

iiil

(5.) Hard grey sandstone, almost like porphyry, inclosing round
nodules of small stones and fragments of coal (100 feet).

(6.) Alternating layers of sandstone and carbonaceous sliale,
with seams of coal, layers of harder shale, impressions of
leaves, etc. (100 feet).

(7.) Black shale and grey sandy shale with sandstone seams, no
fossils (300 feet).

(8.) Sandstone of uniform yellow colour, the upper part, for a
depth of 200 feet, interstratified with grey shale, sand-
stone, and coal seams (300 feet).

(9.) Basah.

2. Angiarsuit. — Yellow sandstone, interstratified with grey
shale, with seams of coal and impressions of plants ; the same
stratum as No. 8 at Ekkorfat (Fig. 9). At Ekkorfat the strata,
with the exception of occasional irregularities, dip S.W., so that
nearer Karsok the yellow sandstone (8) reaches to the level of
the sea. We thus had an opportunity of collecting fossils
from this stratum, at a place called by the natives Angiarsuit ;
and these decidedly belong to the same formation as the fossils
from the lower strata at Ekkorfat.

3. Avkrusak. — Fine impressions of plants arc found here, near
the shore, immediately under the sandstone, in horizontally strati-
fied shale.

4. Karsok. — The coast-land here, as has been mentioned above,
is occupied by gneiss rocks, which, at a height of eight or nine
hundred feet, are covered by a layer of shale containing fine im-
pressions of Ferns. The shale, however, at a short distance is
covered by gravel, so that the formation is exposed here only for
a very limited distance, close to the Karsok river.

5. Pattorjik. — For a distance of six English miles from Karsok
the coast towards the fjord is occupied by gneiss ; but on the
other side of the river, at Pattorfik, first shales and then sand-
stones reappear close to the shore ; the former with particularly
beautiful fossils, found principally in the beds nearest the gneiss.
No extensive sections are however to be met with here, for the
perpendicular exposed cliff, some yards above the sea-level, is
covered with detritus of basalt, often hardened to a tuff-like mass,
and inclosing the large subfossil shells mentioned above (p. 409).

6. Kome, or more properly Kook. — The former name, though
grammatically wrong, ought however to be retained, as having
been already introduced into science. The lowest portion of these
strata forms on the shore an abrupt terrace, from 80 to 150 feet
high. Higher up the strata terminate in a gravel-covered slope,
scored by a number of deep ravines, which offer very clear sec-
tions of the various strata of the formation, for the most part
uearly horizontal, or slightly dipping inwards. The series is as
folloAvs (beginning at the top) : —

On the brow of the hill - Basalt.

About 1,500 1o 1,200 feet above f Thick banks of gravel,
the level of the sea. \ concealing the strata.

LAND.

ig round
00 feet),
js sliale,
(ssions of

leans, no

irt, for a
lie, sand-

ith grey
the same
Hi strata,
,, so that
3 level of
g fossils
igiarsuit ;
he fossils

lerc, near
,lly strati-

led above,
^t or nine

fine im-
istance is

only for

n Karsok

on the

len sand-

ticularly

gneiss.

for the

■level, is

ke mass,

p. 409).

though

having

of these

150 feet

d slope,

ar sec-

st part

a is as

grnnel,
lata.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 429

1,200 to 1,000 feet above sea- f Shale.
level. \ Sandstone.

Sliale.

1,000 to 750 feet above sea-
level.

750 feet above sea-level

<

1 50 feet above sea-level

Sandstone.
. Shale, xoith seams of coal,
j and a few plant-impi'es-
l sions.
\_Sandstoiic.

A thick stratum of coa .

Shale, with layers of sand.

Sand.

Shale.

Sand.

Sandstone, very loose.

Carbonaceous shale, with
bands of sand and coal.

A coal seam.
■^ Shale, with abundance of
impressions of plants.

Strata not e.vposed.

Gneiss.

This section was taken in a ravine opening into the centre of
Kome Bay. The finest impressions of Plants, however, occur in
the neighbourhood of the house-sites, not far from the limit of the
gneiss, which here forms a high mountain, immediately east of
the river (Kook), which on that side seems to mark the limit of
the Lower Cretaceous beds of Greenland.

Thick as the Lower Cretaceous strata are, they are now visible
only over a small area, as they merely fill the valleys between the
gneiss hills near the coast. The strata at Kome are separated by
gneiss hills from the strata at Pattorvik, and these again in the
same manner from those of Karsok, Angiarsuit, Avkrusak, and
Ekkorfat. The main mass of the formation, which evidently once
extended over Omenak Fjord, has been washed away. Whether or
not it extended inward, into Noursoak peninsula, under the basalt,
it is impossible to say with certainty, as several of the deeper
valleys are filled with ice. I think, however, that this is ex-
tremely probable, although the real Kome strata seem to be want-
ing at Atanekerdluk. They may possibly reappear between the
last-mentioned place, and the gneiss formation at Takkak. Calca-
reous strata are entirely absent in the Greenland Cretaceous, and
it is useless to look for marine fossils there : everything shows

that what we here have before us is a fresh-water deposit.

TI 3 fossils are most numerous and best preserved in the lowest
strata, find consist principally of Ferns and Coniferae. Leaves of
Coniferrc and other Plant-remains are also met with, although
rarely, in the upper strata ; but these, in consequence of their
friability, can hardly be preserved. As regards these fossils,
Prof. Oswald Heer has made the following communication : —

"All the places where these remains have been discovered
(Kome, Avkrusak, Angiarsuit, Karsok, Ekkorfat, Pattorfik) havo

430 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

n

■f

the same Flora, the character of which is marked * by numeroua
Ferns, among which the Gleichcnife {Gleichenia Rinkiana, Zippei^
Gieseckiand) play the chief part ; by a remarkable Cycad {Zamites
arctica), magnificent leaves of which are found ; by a large
number of Conifers (Pinus Crameri, Sequoia Beichenbachii,
Widdringtonia gracilis, etc.) ; and, in addition to this, by the
almost total absence of Dicotyledons. The fine new discoveries
tend to confirm my opinion, already expressed,! that this Flora
belongs to the Lower Cretaceous, in all probability to the
Urgonian stage. This is particularly shown by the beautiful
Cycad, Glossozamites Hoheneggcri[y\ discovered at Kome. The
Greenland collections contain many specimens which resemble
the plants from Wernsdorff, belonging to the Urgonian, and
have exactly the same character as those from Kome. Among
the most remarkable new species from the Greenland Lower
Cretaceous, a fine Ttsniopteris, n. sp., an Adiantum (both from
Avkrusak), and an elegant new Sequoia from Pattorfik, deserve
special mention." See the Lists, abovCy pp. 386, &c.

II. — The Atane strata (Upper Cretaceous, according to Heer).

These strata occur on the south side of the Noursoak Peninsula,
between Atanekerdluk and Atane, and probably also farther on
towards the north on the eastern side of the Waigat. Some few,
and not clearly determinable, vegetable remains from Kome (750-
1,100 feet above the sea), and from the strata situated nearest the
sea-level at Kudliset| (Ritenbenk's coal-mine), probably belong to
this formation, which contains more shale than either the subjacent
Cretaceous strata or the superimposed Miocene beds, besides sand
and soft sandstone, but no limestone. The thickest coal-beds
in Greenland — as well those at Atane (the richest I have seen in
Greenland) as those near the sea-level at Ipiit, and probably also
those 750 feet above the sea at Kome — belong to this period.
This is also probably the case with the strata inclosing retinite
(not amber) at Hare Island. Small nodules of resin, however,
occur in the Greenland Miocene.

Fig. 10

.^-l^>^^.^

Sc^VSU.-

Fig. 10.— Lower series of strata at Atanekerdluk ("Lower Atanekerdluk/

Heer).

• For the later determinations of these characteristic Plants, see Prof.
Heer's Lists in his '* Kreideflora," &c., reprinted above, pages 386, &c. —
Editor.

t Heer's " Flora fossilis arctica."

X The upper strata in the neighbourhood of Kudliset are Miocene.

LAND.

ameroua

Zippeif

Zaraites

a large

nbachii,

, by the

icoveries

lis Flora

to the

beautiful

le. The

resemble

ian, and

Among

[1 Lower

:>th from

, deserve

;o Heer).
'eninsula,
rther on
lome few,
ne (750-
»arest the
belong to
subjacent
ides sand
coal-beds
e seen in
ablv also
period.
» retinite
however,

'

} /

jrdluk,"

I see Prof,
k, &c.—

PROP. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND. 431

Fig. 10 shows the succession in the lower portion of the
section seen at Atanekerdluk. The mass of the formation in
this lower slope consists of very fine black shale («), resembling
the shale at Cape Starastschin, in Spitzbergen, containing a
quantity of plant-remains, which, however, it is very difficult to
preserve, in consequence of the brittleness of the shale. There
are no marine fossils whatever here, so that it is evidently a
freshwater formation.

At Atane the adjoining cliffs nearest to the water's edge are
concealed by stone and gravel, consisting partly of sandstone and
partly of basalt and basalt-breccia containing zeolite. Over these
we have :

At 450 feet, horizontal strata of hard sandstone.

At 600 feet, shale, which soon alternates with sandstone.

At 650 feet, a thick coal-bed resting upon fine shale, with im-
pressions of Plants (Upper Cretaceous) and particles of resin.
Then again shale, often interstratified with coal-beds of con-
siderable thickness.

At 900 feet, a coal-bed two feet thick, from which, on the side
left bare by the ravine a white salt has fretted out (sulphate
of alumina). On this is a sandstone 50 feet thick, then shale,
and over that sandstone again, and lastly basalt.

On the fossils from these places Professor Heer remarks : " The
fossils from the lower strata at Atanekerdluk belong probably to
the Upper Cretaceous. This appears from : —

" 1. The presence of a remarkable Cycad ( Cycac?i7es Dicksoni).
It is true that this is not altogether consistent with the suppo-
sition that these impressions belong to the Eocene formation [ ?] ;
but at any rate no Cycad, and especially no Cycadites, has hitherto
been found in strata belonging to the Eocene epoch.

" 2. The frequent occurrence of Ferns.

" 3. The occurrence of a Sequoia scarcely distinguishable from
Sequoia Reichenbachii ;

*' 4. And of a CredneriOj of which, however, only fragments
are before us.

" On the other hand, this Flora differs entirely from that at
Kome, especially by the presence of pretty numerous dicotyle-
donous leaves, which are, moreover, quite unlike the Greenland
Miocene plants. The investigation of these fossils presents
serious difficulties, as the greater part of them are those of full-
bordered leaves with a complicated nervation offering but few
fixed points of discrimination. One leaf seems to agree with
Magnolia alternans, Heer, from the Upper Cretaceous of
Nebraska.

" These dicotyledonous leaves indicate the Upper Cretaceous
formation, but to which of its sub-divisions the lower strata at
Atanekerdluk are to be assigned can only be determined by a
closer investigation. This new flora is, at any rate, one of the
greatest discoveries of the Expedition of 1870, opening, as it does,
for North Greenland an entirely new geological horizon, which
shows that in the Arctic regions, as in Europe, Dicotyledonous

m.

fT-

!■.

-.i'i

432 PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

Plants do not occur in the Cretaceous beneath the Gault, whereas
immediately above it they appear in a great variety of forms. In
North Greenland then, as well as in Europe and America, the
vegetable world underwent gieat changes during the course of
the Cretaceous age."

III. — The Miocene Formation.

During the Miocene Period masses of basalt, sand, and clay, to
a depth of many thousand feet, wore piled together in the district
of Greenland we are now considering ; and by far the greater
part of the rocks on Disko Island and Noursoak Peninsula belong
to that epoch. The Greenland Miocene strata (of sedimentary
and eruptive origin) may be arranged under three divisions,
namely : —

(«) Loioest. Sand or soft sandstone, with shale, coal-bands of
slight thickness, and ferruginous clay-beds, veiy rich in impres-
sions of plants.

{I)) Basalt, Tuff, and Lava, several thousand feet in thickness,
usually as regularly stratified as sand-beds, often alternating
with basalt beds. At about the middle of this basalt formation
layers of fossiliferous clay, sand, and ferruginous clay, of limited
thickness, are met with.

{c) Loose layers of sand, and one or two bands of clay, deposited
on the southern coast of the Isle of Disko, betivecn the basalt
rocks, and therefore of more recent date.

From all these localities, separated from each other by basalt
strata, 2,000 feet thick, numerous fossils have been collected,
indicating, according to Heer, the Miocene Period. As the strata
are, nevertheless, in geological respects widely different from each
other, I give an account of each separately.

III. a. — Upper Atanekerdluk strata. — At Atanekerdluk we
meet with fossils from two different stages, namely : (1) between
300 and 400 feet above the sea, shales with thin sand-beds and
coal-seams (<?, fig. 12, further on), with fossils imbedded in black
shale and belonging to the Upper Cretaceous (the Atane strata
described above, p. 430) ; and (2) thick sand-beds, with occasional
shales (c, d), containing but few fossils. At 1,000-1,200 feet
th(>se layers of sand begin to be interstratified with a ferruginous
clay, which, as well as the sandstone close to it, is remarkably
rich in impressions of plants. The greatest part of the fossils
that have been brought home from Greenland belong to this
locality, of the discovery and scientific examination of which 1
have already given a succinct account. Here I will only add a
few words on the hitherto imperfectly, and in part, inaccurately,
described geognostic relations of the place.

By the name " Atanekerdluk," the Greenlanders designate a little
peninsula, 400 feet high, connected with the mainland by a small
isthmus, in the southern part of the Waigat, and forming a projec-
tion from the cliffs of Noursoak, which are bold everywhere else,
and rise to 3,000 feet even close to the coast. This place was
formerly the seat of a Greenland colony, round a Danish " out-
post " (Utliggare), but is now uninhabited. Deserted house-sites

[LAND.

whereas
■ms. In
•ica, tlie
sourse of

clay, to
?. district
! greater
a belong
imentary
divisions,

-bands of
I impres-

hickness,
tornating
formation
if limited

deposited
he basalt

by basalt
collected,
the strata
rom each

dluk we
between
3eds and
in black
le strata
ccasional
200 feet
ruginous
narkably
e fossils

to this
whicli I
y add a

urately,

te a little

a small

projec-

jre else,

le was

II «out-

ise-sites

riioF. nordenskiOld, expedition to GUKENLAMX 4oo

and paths, which in Greenland remain unoblitciated for a great
length of time,* and a number of graves, still serve to remind ns
of the now dead or scattered little colony. The peninsula itself is
formed of a rusty-brown, rather coarse-grained dolerlte, composed
of two species of felspar (labradorite and sanidiu ?), titiiuilcrous
iron, in thin hexagonal lamina^ and augite. In this it ditfors
from the genuine Greenland basalt and basalt-tulf, although it
evidently only forms the oldest link of the vast volcanic and
plutonic chain of rocks of North-west Greenland. At the steep
cliffs on the western side of the peninsula one can see even that
dolerlte is lying on sandstone of the same loose character as the
superjacent sand and sandstone beds.

Immediately on the other side of the low isthmus, which rises
only a few feet above the Avater, uniting the peninsula with the
mainland, we first meet with the above-described Atane strata (c) ;
then follows sand, after which a basalt bed again, covered by
layers of sand alternating with shale, and crossed l)y vast plutonic
veins {(f, ((', a", a'"), Avhicli seem not to have ha<l the smallest
influence on the sand through which they have i){isse<l. Only
here and there a grain of sand Is found melted, or rather rusted,
into the surface of the dyke.f The uj)per part of the dyke
generally forms a ridge standing up from the surrounding loose
Layers of earth. Between the layers of shale avc find one or two
small seams of coal, and in the sand hero and there a carbonised
stem of a tree, but no real impressions of leaves, until Ave come to
a height of 1,200 feet above the sea. J Here commences sand or
saiulstone, with clay, covered by shale, and interstratlfied with
thin beds of ferruginous cliiy-rock (/>), often divided into largo
or small lenticular masses, and extremely rich in Miocene fos.-iis.
These ocetir not only in the ferruginous clay, but also in the
siirroundlng somewhat hardened sandstone, and may [x-rhaps
be obtained from this sandstone in greater perfection tlian from
the extremely hard and unmanageable ferruginous (^lay. Wo
often found in the sandstone nodules and Hat ellipsoids of Icrrugi-
nous clay so full of remains of plants, ospeeially on the surface,
that it looks as if these nodules, before they had been imbedded
in the sand and hardened, had been rolled in a heap of leavers.
The ferruginous clay lias, Avhcn newly broken, a dark-grey
fracture, Avhich, by exposure to the air and the polishing eifect
of the sand, acquires a [)olish and a brick-brown colour. Pieces
of it arc plentifully scattered about in the confined locality
Avhere these vejretable renuiins occur. In the same sandstone, a

fessions of leaves are

■^pot

impr(

met with, may bo found at the edge of the glen, very deep at

* Rink meutions paths still lenialuing iu districts uninhabited since the time
of the old Northmen colonists, and Me ourselves could clearly distinguish at
Kajii the paths round the long-deserted house-sites there.

f The remarkably slight ett'ect which the eruptive rock has produced on the
surrounding layers of sand astonished Mr. Brown also.

J 1084 Inglefield ; 1175 mean of six measurements with the aneroid by
Whymper ; i20.'3 by tlu' aneroid u-;ed by the Expedition of 1870.

3Cli!2.

i: E

I .

i.:.

w^

iXti^i^Oi'.VU.AM,

434 PROF. nokdenskiOld, p:xpedition to oueknlakd.

Fig. 11. — liituniinisod troe trunk at
Atanokt'i'dluk.

this spot, trunks of trees, the tops of which ri.so uhove the sand,
oi- form black spots in the white sand. An excavation was made
in our presence, and we saw, as the annexed woodcut indi-
cates, the roots branch out in un underlying clay-bed. There

can, tlierefore, be no doubt
Fig. 11. that these trunks once grew

in the [)lacc where they are

now found. Above these

strata is sand, then a thick

^ stratum of basalt, over which

I sand again, and lastly a

basalt bed, perhaps 2,000

^^^^^^^ feet thick, and, as far as one
can judge from a distance,
not interstratified with layers
of sand or shale.

At Atanekerdluk itself the
strata follow the direction of
the strait (or, more correctly
speaking, strike true N.N.VV.
S.S.E.*), and the slope, as
indicated in the following sections, taken from a ravine the direc-
tion of Avhicli was at right angles to the shore, is 8°-32° E.N.E.
Further up in the strait the strata gradually sink, so that the
capping of basalt reaches down to the surface of the sea a little
north of Atanc. The perturbations at Atanekerdluk, therefore,
seem to have been only local ; and, on the whole, the strata may
be said to lie nearly horizontal, with a slight dip to N.W.

This Miocene formation has evidently in former times extended
completely over the Waigat to Disko Isle, at the south-east angle
of which it attains its greatest thickness. One may here see from
the sea sandhills of 2,000 or 3,000 feet high, often, but not always,
containing basalt-beds. The chief substance of the mountain
consists of vast horizontal sand-bods, interstratified with thinnish
beds of clay, and occasional horizontal coal-bands, with carbonised
stems of trees, sometimes in their original position and of consi-
derable size. A stem of this kind, two feet in diameter, was, for
example, seen in a rock in the district about Mudderbugten. The
quantity of carbonised stems is often so great that the Green-
landers collect and use them as fuel. Silicified tree-stems are also
met with, though more rarely. 'J'ho greatest nunilu'r of impres-
sions of leaves occur, both on Ihe western shore of the Waigat,
and at Atanekerdluk, almost invariably in a hard, grey, ferruginous
clay-rock turning red by exposure to the a!. :• pliero (" Atanc-
kerdlukstone "), which forms either ix'euliMi beils, one or two
inches thick and a few lathonis in extent, or lenticular masses
in sand or clay, or small balls in huge, almost spherical sandstone

* Mean of several observations made in the ravine along the side of which
I ascended the slope. Brown gives K. and W. as the direction. The ditference
probably arises from the circumstance that the magnetic perturbations at
Atenckerdluk are of a local nature, and thus dillerent in dilferont ravines.

INLAND.

rUOF. NOUDE\SKir)LP, EXPRDITION TO OllKENLAND. 43,>

the patul,
,vas inailo
cut imli-
,. There
no doubt
ncc •^rcw

they jvre
»ve these
11 a thick
ver which

lastly a
ips 2,000
far as one

distance,
vith hxyers

k itself the
irection of
i correctly
lie N.N.W.
3 slope, as
the dircc-
12° E.N.E.
o that the
sea a little
,, therefore,
strata may
V.

s extended
-east anj^le
•e see from
lot always,
mountain
1 thinuish
carbonised
of consi-
r, was, for
l;t,cn. The
he Grcen-
ns ar(^ also
lof imprcs-
[C Wiiigat,
rruginous
(" Atnnc-
le or two
ar masses
sandstone

Ide of wbich
\e ditference
krbalions at

nodules, sc<]jregated in <he sand by the infiltration of some ron-
glomoratinj; mcdiiMn, an<l often of rciniirkably rc'ujular form and
some yards in se<'lion. Atanekerdhdistoiio, like the neai'est
sancls and clays always conbiins remains of Iciives, which may
then either form small separate layers or an isolated nodule in

Fio. 12.

19tCf.

Fio. 13.

f2CC/i „ f>..

Figs. 12 and 13. — Section of the strata at Atanekerdluk. (See also fig. 10.)
The scale of fij;. 13 is about half that of fig. 12.

the sand, some few inches in diameter ; whereas it would be
vain to look for impressions of leaves in the more distant sand-
beds. Coal-beds worth working i)robably do not occur in this
liorizon of the Miocene ; at least the layers at Atane, the largest
coal-beds at Kome, and at Ipiit near Kudlisot, seem to belong to
the Upper Cretaceous, while the strata at Nctliiarsak, Isorisok, tlie
coal in the high fells at Skaiidsen and Assakak, belong to the
middle, not the lower, horizoj/ of the Miocene of Greenland.
Probably also the coal-beds at Hare Island belong to the Ui)per
Cretivceous formation, as I have already observed {above, p. 430).*'

* Dr. Nauckhoft's and Dr. Pfatt's discovery of Si(jill(tria luakes it possible
that the Coal of the Coal-formution occurs at Ujarasusuk.

E E 2

q

It y

Ci'l

i^y

h:"lr*''

4:10 IMIOF. NOKDICNSKIOl J), KXI'KDITK >N H) (iUKKNLAND.

Ik:

i From the Lower Miocene hIiuIu nt Di.sLO wo collected i'os^ils
nt Fliikkorkuk, and near Mudderbiigten, Isuugoak, Ujanisusuk,
and Iglosuugoak. These localities are not to be compared with
Atauekerdluk for richness in fossils.

111. b. — Ipsorisok strata. — \\y this name I designate the thin-
nish layers containing fossils that occur inibedded in the basalt of
the high hills. Such strata have been met with at —

Netliiarsiik, between Noursoak and Noursak. A little north
of Atane the basalt sinks down to the surface ol' the sen, and
from a distance it is impossible to discover in the very regularly
stratified basalt-beds, ending at the shore with a vertical section of
several thousand feet, any sand or shale beds. Neither do the
Greonlandci's know of any other coal-beds in that neighbour-
hood than one which is met with at Netluarsuk, at an elevation
of about 1000 feet. The strata are here, lor a distance of a
few dozen feet, exposed at a steep gorge between the basalt
hills. They seem to be of trifling thickness, and consist of
alternating beds of from 0' 2 to 2 inches thick of sand, coal,
shale, and a ferruginous clay, ditl'cient in appearance from the
ferruginous clay at Atauekerdluk, though, like it, full of fos-
sils, chiefly of Fir leaves and twigs, mixed with clay or coal.
Among tlicse fossils occur not only loaves and cones, but also
seeds. The coal consists almost exclusively of Ihittcned and
carbonized stems.

JfsorisoJi, about twelve miles lioin the coast, and 22-50 feet
above the sea. We visited the spot from lIolUiiKhubugten or
Itiblit, situated a little to the north of Niakornet. Soine dis-
tance from the coast wc first find thick layers of a rock, which
appears to be a much changed siliceous slate. Afterwards
tlie path proceeds up steep slopes of basalt detritus and basalt
rocks, or (at 2300 foot) extensive i)lains, covered with the same
material, and, at tho period of our visit, free from snow, though
hardly clothed with any vegetation. Here one has to pass long
distances over weathered and crumbling slabs of basalt, which
show that the underlying rocks are everywhere composed of
eruptive masses. From thost; plains considerable basalt hills rise
further inw^ard, among which Kinnitok — a lofty mountain-ridge
between Kiakornct and Ekkorfat — is the largest. This mountain
is probably 5000 or 6000 feet high, and, seen from a distance
appears also to be composed entirely of the eruptive rock common
in these parts.

Somewhat beyond the spot where one passes the highest
point of the plains are some shallow valleys. In the slope of
one of them is the spot which formed the object of our visit.
The place betrays itself by large and small pieces of coal lying
mixed with the basalt detritus ; and, on digging here, sedimentary
strata, consisting of coal-seams some inches thick, sandy clay, and
fine, grey, hardened clay are discovered. The clay contains im-
pressions of plants, and among the coal flattened and imperfectly
carbonized tree-stems arc met with. Silicified wood is also foimd
in the gravel. The schists are evidently of no gi'eat thick-

yiv

LAND.

'd i'oK.^ils
rasusuk,
red with

he thiu-
basalt of

Lie north

sen, and
rcguUuly
section of
;r do the
eiglibour-

elevation
an CO of a
;hc basalt
consist of
and, coal,

from the
all of fos-
y or coal.
1, but also
Itcned and

2250 feet
•biigten or
Some dis-
ock, which
ftervvards
land basalt
the same
w, though
pass long
alt, which
;nposed of
t hills rise
tain-ridge
mountain
distance
|k common

ie highest
|e slope of
lour visit.
3oal lying
lilimentary
clay, and
[tains im-
liperfectly
llso found
[at thick-

PUOF. NOUUKNSKIOLD, EXl»Kl)ITIOV TO <n{KK\LANI). 1-07

ness, but regularly stratified with a dip of about 10° towards the
north.

Assakuk. — Immediat(.'ly south of Komc River, Noiirsoakland,
the coast consists of lofty gneiss rocks, between which a num-
ber of glaciers project. One of these, Assakak glacier, has
long been celebrated for the charred tree-stems lying scattered on
tlio surface of the ice. The glacier itself does not reach down lo
the sen, but is separated from the shore by a low foreland,
covered with boulders of gneiss, and passing without any dis<;over-
able line of demarcation into the glacier, which is there also
itself covered with gravel. The gravel, however, here principally
consists of angular ftvagments of basalt, among which pieces of
charred wood may be here and there remarked. Higher up the
mas3 of charred or silicified wood increased considerably, and was
often piled together, as if by Innnan hand, ft wns, however, easy
to satisfy oneself that this was not the case, but that the coal came
from some stratum in the neighbourhood of the glacier, on the
surface of which it now lay scattered, chiefly at a height estiumlcd
by me at about 300 feet. The nearest high mountains surround-
ing the glacier seemed to consist of gneiss, hornblende-slate, etc.
A thick fog prevented us from seeing far inward, and induced us
to defer an excursion avc had intended in that direction, which
probably, as far as the object of finding the stratum from which
the pieces of wood had come is concerned, would not have been
crowned with success. In fact, it is probable that the fragments
of wood belong to a Tertiary stratum beneath the glacier. After
a careful search, pieces of clay and sandstone were found, con-
taining remnants of plants exactly similar to the fossils at Ifsori-
sok, whence I draw the conclusion, that the strata, whence the
coal has originated, Avere about contemporaneous with those of
Ifsorisok and Netluarsuk.

The strata of this horizon arc separated from the Lower
Miocene strata at Atanekerdluk by basalt-beds several thousand
feet thick, for the formation of which an immense lapse of
time must have been required ; and one would accordingly expect
to find here remains of a vegetation very difierent from the
Miocene vegetation of Atanekerdluk ; but this is not the case.
According to Professor Ileer, the fossils in both these places have
a purely Miocene stamp. As evidence of this. Professor Heer
adduces the presence of Sequoia Lanffsdorjii, at Ifsorisok, and
that of Tnxodinm <listiclinm, Gli/ptostrohns Eitropfcns, and
Chamfeeyparin Mossificnsis at Netluarsak.

lY.— T/ie Sinnifik strata.

At C4odhavn the basalt rests innucdiately upon gneiss, but only
a little way to the east the eruptive rock reaches the sea-level;
and in rowing hither along the southern shore of Disko, we pass
cliffs of basalt-tulF and basalt, often (as, for example, at the
Briiunvinshamnen) broken up in the most splendid manner into
hexagonal basalt columns, basalt grottoes, and basalt arches. On
the other side of Brededalen the basalt first begins to be inter-
stratified with sand and shale beds, which probably are the begin-

I >.

■n

k^

438 1MK)F. NORDEN^^KIOLD, EXTEDTTTON TO OUKENLAND.

■N

nings of those vnst sandy stnitii that nioct us on both huIch of the
t'ntmncc to the Waijjjnt.

Further on, at Puihisok niul Sinnillk, tlio nhoro itself consists
of sandstone, Avith very thin shales, here and there interrnpted
by basaltic clitl's, Avirh a worn and smooth surface. Tlie sand-
Htone around the clifls is not in appearance distin«.Miishal)lo
from the sand si ill lieaped by the action of wind and wave
around the basalt rocks on the shore. Everything seems to show,
that in many places hereabouts,* wo have befure us sand-beds
deposited between basalt rocks. In this ease these layers arc
more recent than the whole basalt formation ; and the fossils they
contain, imbedded partly in an extremely brittle shale, partly
(at Sinnifik) in hard marl-nodules resemblin<jf those at Atane-
kerdluk, but not containing very nmch iron, are of interest as
indicating the limit of the period during which this tract was
the scene of the vast v(dcanic eruptions which have given rise to
the l)asaltic masses of North-west Greenland. These fossils con-
sist, at Fuilasok, of fragments of leaves of broad-leaved trees
(Saliiv, 3ft/ricn, ]*lant<mns accroides, Cratrcnis (atfi(/tia, etc.) 'y
at Sinnifik, of leaves of l)oth broad-leaved tices and Conifene
(Scf/Hoia Lanffsdorfii, Taxitps Olri/di, ]*opuhis arctico), and,
according to lleer, bear constant witness to a Miocene, perhaps
an Upper-Miocene epoch. If Ibis be so, tlie volcanic agency in
these parts commenced during the Cretaceous and terminated pre-
viously to the close of the Tiliocene period. The basalt-beds in
the Cretaceotis and Lower (Gi'cenland) Miocene are, however,
quite trifling in comparison with those which cover the Miocene
deposits at . Atanekerdluk, Ujara^ ' uik, Isungoak, etc. Accord-
ingly in these (Greenland) districts the volcanic action attained
its greatest intensity in the Middle Miocene.

During our involuntary stay at Godhavn, I made an excursion,
in company with some comiades, in a boat manned by Green-
landers, to the spot whence the Rudolph meteoric iron was
supposed to have been taken, namely, the old whaling-station of
Fortune Bay, in the neighl)Ourbood of Godhavn. On arriving
there, I ordered the Greenlanders to look after hcavy^ rounds
rusty-hrown stones^ which I knew tvould certainly be found
someiL'herc thereabout. It was in vain. No meteoric stones, or
rather pieces of meteoric iron, were on this occasion found ; but
before leaving the spot I again re])cated to the Greenlanders,
that pieces of iron of the nature described were most unquestionably
to be met with somewhere in that neifjhboitrhood, and I promised
them a reward, if they could discover them, against my return
in the autumn.

When, at the end of August, we returned from Omenak to
Godhavn, one of the Greenlanders communicated to me, with many
lively gestures to express their size, shape, etc., that they had

* In this neighbourhood we even meet with sand scams beneath basalt.

T.AND.

H of the

consists
urniptod
lie stun)-
uishiiblo
1(1 wiivo
to show,
i\n(l-betls
ycrs are
<sils tlK7
I', piii-tly
t Atiinc-
it crest as
raet \va^<
en rise lo
ssils coii-
vctl trees
no, etc.) ;
Couit'erio
im), and,
}, perhaps
agency iu
latcd pre-
It-heds ill
however,
Miocene
Accord-
n attained

?xcin'sion,

|)y Green -
iron was

Istatlon of

arriving

f, round,

!»c found

Istones, or
md ; but
kdanders,
ystionahly
Ipromised
ly return

jncnak to
|ith many
they had

buijalt.

IMIOF. NOUDENSKloLP, KXl'KDITION TO GUKKNLAM). l,*}y

de<!ide<Uy hit upon tlie stones I had described. A snwiil s[)eeinu'ii
was shown, whicli confirnjed the statcnient.

The j>hiee where the iron musses wci'o found was not, however,
at Fortune IJnv, but one ol' ilic >h(>res most dillieult of access in
the wlu»l(! ci)a>t of Danish (irt'cnhiiid, namely Ovifnk, or the IMne
Hill, which lies «|uit(^ open to the south wind, and is iiniccessiblc;
in even a very moderate sea, between Jjixe-bngt and Disko-tjord.
1 scaiccly need mention that this discovery completely altered the
plan for our further ('xcursions. Our intention had been to
employ the rest of our sojourn in Greenland in an examination of
tho basidt formations between Skandscn and Godhavn, and wo
had therefore, immediately on our arrival at Godhavn, hired two
whale-boats manned with Grecidanders, with a view to rowing iu
shoit day-journeys with them along the coast of Disko to the
eastward of Go(lhavn. These boats, on the morning when tho
discovery of the meteorites was made, lay ready and provisioned
on the strand. We immediately set sail, and, favoured by a
toh'rably good wind, we sailed westward to Ovifak, where wo
arrived the same evening before sunset. Tho sea was calm,
Ko that it Avas possible to land, and the very stone at which wu
hiy to was itself a ])icco of meteoric iron, probably the largest
piece yet known. On searching more carefully W(^ further dis-
covered two large and a great number of smaller pieces of
meteoric iron scattered over an area of n few square fathoms in the
vicinity of the large stone.

The meteoiites lay as on the accompanying map and section,*
between high and low water, among rounded blocks of gneiss
and granite, at the foot of a vast basalt slope, from which, higher
up, the horizontal basalt-beds of Mount Ovifak project. Six-
teen metres from the largest iron block a basalt ridge, a foot high,
rises from the detritus on the shore, and could be followed for a
distance of four metres, and is [)robably part of the rock. Parallel
with this and nearer to the sea is another similar ridge, also about
lour metres long. 77/e former contained lenticular and dis-
coidal blocks of nickel-iron, like meteoric iron, in external
ap|)earance, chemical nature, and relation to the atmosphere
(^weathering). On being polished and etched this iron exhibited
tine Widnianstiidtian figures. The native iron lay imbc(hle,d in
the basalt, separated from it at the most by a thin coatinj: of rust.
Moreover, in that basalt, in the neighbourhood of the blocks of
native iron, nodules of hisingeritc were found, evidently formed
by the oxidation of the iron, as also small imbedded particles of
nickel-iron.

The meteorites themselves were of various colours, from that of
tombac (pinch-beck) to rusty-brown ; and in some })laces at least
they had a metallic lustre on the surface. Here and there one
could discover on their surface, and in the iron nearest the sur-

••* This Miip (riatc VIII., %. i and 2), iiiscilea at p. .'3.05, "Gcol. Mag." for
August, with I'art 11. of I'rof. Nordons^kioldV paper, is not reproduced here. —
Epitoh.

4 in I'ROK. NOnnRNSKTOl.l), r:XPKI)TTl()\ to okkhm.and.

Dice, niocoH of biiHnlt, or frji^inonts of si cnisl, .(' liasiilt, i)oi CiM'lly
Hitnilur to tho l)nsjilt in the alxwo-dojicribod ridfro. Tin* imicr
piirt of tl»<» iron nuiss contninod no Ixisrilt, and as far as analysis
lias yet been altlf to disoovcr, srai'ccly any tracers »»f' silica. In
tlip nci'jiibonrliood of llic sniMJici' stones tlio sand and f^nivcd wci-o
rusty with the cfTcots oC the wcatlicrinfi; of tho motcoritos, ypt
their npiuM'surCaee was nsnully i)i'etty pure, but (lie under surface
p;eueraily I'usly. The lar<i;ei" stones were sfroM;j;ly poiar-maifnelic,
HO (hat (ho up[)er part ol' the stones atti'aeted th(^ noith, the lower
part tho south polo of tho mnj^netic needle.

Within the area represented on thci map above-montione(l not
oxreedinjjj 50 scpiare metres, tho foUowiniij blocks of meteoric
iron were found by the Ex])e(lition of 1870 :

z^ais:^:3^^'^T"r'^i£;r5i^

Eia. 14. — The three largest Meteoric Stones,* Troni ii skotcli made on
the spot by Dr. Th. Nordstriim in 1870.

kilog.

1, Ovally rounded. Greatest diam. ahove ground 2

metres, smallest 1'7 m. Trobablc weight - - 21,000

2. Nearly spherical. Greatest and least diani. above

ground, 1 • 13 and 1' 27 met. Probable M'eight - 8,000

;>. Sonicwbat conical. Greatest and least diani. above

ground, 1* 15 and O'S.'j met. Probable weight - 7,000
4. Oval stone, weighing - . . . 142

.'). A drop-shaped stone, weighing - - . ')(]

(>. Another : now belonging to the British Muscimi ; about 87

7. A stone, weighing - - - - - „ .54

8. A stone „ _ . . - _ 81
I). A stone „ . _ . - . about 42

10. A stone - . . . - . I8

11. A stone -.._-. 24

12. A stone, which immediately after our arrival home fell

to dust ; originally weighing - - about .'54

1.3. A smaller stone, weighing - - - - G*4

14. Another „ - - - - .3-4

15. Another „ - - - - 2'.>
Several lenticular ])iee('S of Iron from the basalt vein,

.3-4 inches thick, weighing altogether - - about 100

■\

* Nos. 1, 2, and 3 of the list: brought to Europe by tho Swedish Greenland
Expedition of 1872, under command of Capt. Baron von Uber.

sl-ANI>.

rUOF. NOIIDENSKH'H.I), KXTF-DITION To (lUr.K.Nr.AND. V^ I

bo imn-r
tiniilysis
liciv. In
iv»!l \yvn^
)ritos, yot
cr suifi\('«>
inn_u;no(i{',
tlio lower

oiumI not
meteoric

100

Greenland

The Oviliik iron ia extremely ery.^ullini! ami liiitllc, .^o that
smnller pieecs may l)e lirokeii with a lusimiicr ; and, uilii llio ex-
eei)lioii of the little hits of hasiilt on oi- near tli(> mm lace, it is not,
mix«'(l with any silicates visil»le to the nakecl oyv. 'I'hc iion from
the hasalt rUh^v dilfers fiom th(! otlwr hy a lon^TJiPf fraetin'e a>»(l
•greater tonghness. With th(^ naked eye one eaii seldom discover
any nodules of troilite or iroii-sidphide. In tJie \V( jitheied detritus,
on the other liaml, a few Mack ina^^Mietie ;4rains were found, with
slron<rly rel!cctin«< faeettes mid octahedral stu'faee.'^, which on
examination we loimd to ))(> m.i^iietite. When enl; and polished,
the«liilerent spoeimens vaiied very jrreiitly ; on some of them parts,
yellow as brass, of troilite were disoernibl(>, and the [)oli-.hed
snrl'aec of the nvtal itself appeared, when the li^hl I'ell (»n it in a
eerlain direction, divided into rotm<lcd parts, of dill'erent brilliancy
and shades of <'oloMr. ()tlier pieces secnie<l to form a peireclly
homogeneous ap;2;ref:5ate of crystal needle;^ of carbnt'etted nickel-
iroe. Th(! Widmanstiidtian lignres were visilde after etching on
some, but not all, ol'tlu; sp(>eimens. Tlicsc U'( re inirlivnhirlif ilis-
tiiKl <)'/. the iron from the (ilHtrr-nicniioiicd Ixtsdlf ridf/c. In
gen(!ral the iron was so hard that tiiey would not undertake atllu!
ircaiworks to saw through any of the larger bulls, in consequence
of which 1 1 now no more of the internal <'haracter of the meteoric
iron than Avha* I could ascertain I'rom the specimens which fell to
pieces.

Part V. (" Gcologiral ^Fag.," for November 1872, p. oK).)

Notwithstanding the very inconsiderable amount of sulphur it
contains, this Gn.'enland iii>u has a remarkable^ tendency to I'all (o
pieces by the action of the air. The weathering depeiuls on an
oxidation, probably [)rodiued by a ((uantity of chlorine contained
in the iron, and its urcat jx losity ; nevertheless, somo of the
phenomena connected with the weathering still appear to me in-
explicable. I shall therefore somewhat more i'ully detail the
observations and experiuK'nts made towards explaining this very
disagreeable circumstance.

The Ovifak meteoric iron does not fall to pieces at the place
Avbore it was found, though sometimes washed by the sea, somc-
i les left bare ; but on the shore it was pr(.'servcd at the temperature
of t!io sea, which varies but little during the whole year.

Even during the passage, when the masses lay i)acked in wooden
chests in the hold, and were exposed to a very moist atmosphere
and at a temperature but little abov(^ free/ing-pomt, the unbroken
stones did not snili'r perceptibly; whereas almost all t!ie fragments
packed in the same manner split into pieces, more particularly
those Avhich 1 had preserved in the heated cabin.

From some of the i)ieees of iron sea-green drops oozed out, which
alterwards became reddish-brown by the action of the aimos[)here.
They contained protoehloride of iron with traces of sulphate.

One of the larger pieces, which, after our return home, was
placed in a room of ordinary temper'«ture, soon began to crack on

m

!gjiji[ij<ijiavii&ws

442 PllOF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND.

f ; I

i'

I ,

its surface, and ultimately, when unpacked two months later in
Stockholm, crumbled to a reddish-brown powder, consisting
])<Mrtly of u fine rust-powder, partly of angular bits of iron, rusty on
the surface, and varying in magnitude from the size of a pea to
that of a hemp-seed. An entirely unchanged, and therefore, on
fresh fracture still metallic, portion of Stone 4, began at one
corner to rust, swell and crumble, while the remainder of the
iron remained unaltered. The rust spread itself like a fungous
growth over the rest of the piece, and extended itself to the interior,
Avhieh thereupon swelled and ci'umbled like an oflioreseent salt.
During this time the weight of the piece of iron increased.

Weight of a fragment of iron when packed - 29* 935 gr.

„ „ after 129 days - 30-143gr.

Weight of tlic unchanged iron - - 24*529 gr.

so that 5* 406 gr. had weathered away to a rusty-brown powder
aiul (luring this time had increased in weight 0*208 gr. or 3*8 per
cent.

In a hermetically sealed glass tube the iron was completely
unchanged.

in n glass tube, that had been hermetically sealed, but iu which
a fine crack had taken place in cooling, the iron continues to
crumble.

In a eudiometer over mercury, the iron in a few days absorbed
a considerable amount of oxygen, in consequence of which the
mercury rises in the tube.

In alcohol, the iron does not crumble. In water, it rusts, but
does not appear to fall to pieces.

In air dried by sulphuric acid the crumbling process takes place
slowly.

Varnishing does not fully protect these pieces of iron from
weathering, not even if immersed in warm copal-varnish. I
thought at first that the cracking was the result of the contracting
and shrinking of the mass, but this is not the case. On the con-
trary, the cracking is caused by dilatation. With Avhat force this
operates may be judged from the fact, that a piece of iron, on
which chisel and saw are used without effect, is broken or bent by
the decomposition of the mass. In general, cracks first appear at
light angles to the surface of the stone ; these diverge as from a
centre, and, at a depth of a few lines beloAvthe surface of the stone,
meet a crack that runs parallel with the surface, which, by the
swelling of the overlying crust, is soon formed into a little dome,
sometimes an inch in height. In the meantime the overlying
crust is raised, doubled up and broken in a manner which bears a
stiiking likeness to the doubling of the stratified rocks by the so-
called eruptive forces, — that is, if one supposes that the cracks,
instead of being empty, are filled with dctritu,!, which gradually
hardens to an " eruptive " rock.

When fragments of the largest stone, weighing 134 gr., were
heated to redness, they parted with nearly two litres of gas, or
about 100 times the volume of the iron, as also a considerable
amount of water, which, like the gas, had a bituminous smell.

fon, on

[cut by

jear at

from a

stone,

3y the

1 dome,

iilying

Wars a

lie so-

[rackp,

jtlually

were

Ky, or

lable

smell.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD, EXrEDITION TO GREENLAND. 413

The gas was clearly no primary constituent, but was formed partly
by the decomposition of organic matter in the meteorite, partly
by the reducing operation of compounds contiiining carbon on the
oxide of iron in the meteorite, which wns I'ound to be completely
reduced at the termination of thei-xpcrimcnt. On tlie iron being
dissolved in chloride of mercury, only a tiilling cpiantity of gas
was emitted, probably coming iVom the pores in the iron. In
hydrochloric and nitric acid the meteoric iron is dissolved, leaving
in some cases a residue containing much carbon, in others very
little residue at all. The gas that escapes during solution in
hydrochloric acid has a most penetrating smell, probably due to
some hydrocarbon. On dissolving in acid Ovifak iron which has
been heated to redness in air or oxygen, there often remains a
ilocky, voluminous, brown material soluble in warm, but hardly
soluble in cold, water, and very easily dissolved in annnonia, form-
ing a dark-brown, almost opaque fluid. The same material is
obtained from the carbon that remains after the solution of the iron
in acids. It can again be precipitated by means of acids from the
ammouiacivl solution, though not (piite comi)letely, so that the acid
solution is also brown, but of a very light tint. This material is
a humus-like compound, which probably did not originally exist
in the meteorite, but arises from the solution of the carboni-
ferous iron in acids.* This humus-like body can be decomposed
with difficulty by long boiling in strong nitric acid or chlorate of
potash and hydrochloric acid.

The following analyses have been made of this iron from Ovifak: —

I. Analysis of a fragment from one of the large stones, by A. K.
Nordenskiold. II. Analysis of a specimen of more compact
iron, by Th. Nordstrom. III. Analysis of iron with con-
spicuous Widmanstilttian figures from the basalt ridge, by
G. Lindstriim : —

Iron - - -

Nickel
Cobalt
Copper
Alumina
fame
Magnesia
Potash
Soda

Phosphorus -

Sulphur ...
Chlorine - - -

Silicic acid - - -

Insoluble portion
Carbon, Organic matter, "1
Oxygen, and Water (loss) J

:}
:}

I.

11.

HI.

84-49

8G-34

93 • 24

2-48

1-G4

1-24

0*07

0-3.')

O-GG

0-27

()-19

0-19

hardly percei)tiblo-

0"24

0-48

0-04

0-29

some traces.

scarcely enough J
to weigh. \

0-07

0-08

0'f4

0-12

0 • 20

0-07

0-03

1 • 02

0-22

1-21

0-72

1-lG

0-16

scarcely perceptible
o-un

O-GG
4-37

1

0-59

10- IG

3'7f ■

,■;

. 2-30
0-07

100 -00

loo-oo

99-79

* A similar substance, obtained by dissolving iron containing carbon, has
beeu mentioned by Berzelius, in Afhandl. i Fi/sik, Kcwi or.h Mineralogi.
When iron containing carbon is dissolved in liydroehloric acid of proper

[
1

V.' .ii

-y^-.n wjil-<fc» ^ i,^vit4fdri,t:^

4-44 PROF, NORDKNRKTOLr*, EXPEDlTTOX I'O OIU'.RNLANI).

' i;

I. Contained scarcely any traces of silicic acid, alumina, or lime.
The iron was, therefore, entirely free from silicates, although largo
lumps of basalt wore firmly rusted on to the surface of the meteo-
rite, and one or two fragments of basalt surrounded with iron
could bo observed within the iron near the surface. Even before
heating to redness, I. emitted a good dcnl of water and gas, as
much apparently as amounted to about 100 timos the volume of
the iron — tiiat is to say, considerably more than the iron examined
in Analyses Land II.; this explains the largo loss in T. The
specific gravity of I. was ascertained, from (wo (porous) fragments
of some grammes weight, to be 6*36 and .5*86. The smaller
specific gravity hero arises evidently from the large quantity of
carbonaceous matter that is contained in this iron. Norclstnim
obtiiined the specific weight of IT. from two experiments on small
pieccs=7'0o and 7 "06. Lindstrom found the specific gravity of

III. at 17° C. to be equal to 6 •21:. The iron employed in
Analysis II. was less crystalline and more compnet than that used
in Analysis I. It was liard to break, and small grains could be
hammered flat without disintegration. In Analyses II. and III.
the materials examined Avcre in external appearance precisely
alike, and I therefore consider it as probable that the material of
II. also was from the basalt ridge, although it hnd afterwards
crumbled apart.

IV. Analysis of the silicate that remained undissolved in Ana-
lysis II., by Dr. Th. Nordstrom. V. Analysis of a piece of
basalt firmly rusted on to the surface of the largest meteorite,
by Dr. Th. Nordstrom : —

Silicic Acid

Alumina

Sesquioxide of Iron

Protoxide of Iron

Alagnesia

Lime - - -

^'^^^^^^'^ I (losH included)

100-00

IV.

V.

61-79

44-01

23-31

14-27

1-45

3-89

—

14-75

2-83

8-11

8-33

lU-9i

2-29

{

0-97
2-61

9 9 •.52

VI. and VII. Analyses of the carbonaceous matter in the iron
of II. by Norilstr()m. 33 '0479 gr. gave, nfter first treating with

strength and tempei-aturo, not only is this hnmus-like matter generated, but
hydro-carbons also, and (according to a statement made to me by Prof. Eggertz)
even fluid hydro-carbons, the atomic composition of whieh is very complieated.
We have here, then, a method for attempting the synthesis of organic sub-
stances from their inorganic components unemployed iiitherto, as far as I am
aware, in synthetic organic ehemistry. Iron rinitaluiiKj curlwii was pointed
lint hi/ lierzeliiis in 1818 (Aph. i. Fysik, Kemi, etc., vol. v. p. 534) as an
iimryauic inalerial which viiffhl serve as a means for the synthetical formation
of organic compounds.

\ND.

r lime.
Ii largo
metco-
;h iron
before
jjns, as
imc ot
imlneil
. The
[Tincntg
smaller
itity of
•clstrinu
n small
^vity of
)ye(l III
lat used
ould bo
nd III.
recisely
terial of
erwards

ill Aua-
1 piece of
etoorite,

he iron
\g; with

Ltcd, but
Kggertz)
Bilioatcil.
fiiic sub-
I as T am
I poinU'd
I) as (in
\rmation

rilOF. NOIIDKNSKIOLI), EXrEDlTION TO CJUKENLAND. 445

chloride of copper, and afterwards with chloride of iron, 4"7J) per
cent, of a carlmuaceous matter containing 42 •.'iS per cent. ash. 7vn
elementary analysi of this carbonaceous matter, deducting the
ash, gave —

V:\

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen (loss included)

1

VI.
03 -.jl)

3 • L'G
33- .5

VII.

03-04

3T),-.

32 "8 1

lOO-(H)

l(i( )•()(»

This substance is not soluble in eiliicr alcohol, animoniii, or
potash, and evidently consists of a mixture of organic matter,
water, and carbon.

The discovery at Ovifak is remarkable, not only as the largest
discovery of meteoric iron hitherto known to have been made,
but also as of that which is richest in carbon, excepling the carbon
powder that fell at Ilcssle. Add to this, the rcnmrkable circum-
stances, that lenticular and discoidal pieces of native iron occur
nt the same place in the underlying basalt, and that basalt in
pieces of considerable size, at numerous spots, fonns a crust ou the
larger meteorites, and even sometimes has been driven through
the surface into the iron. Nevertheless, in spite of this, it appears
to me that there cannot be a doubt of the really meteoric origin of
the large masses. Their form, their composition, their ap[)earance,
SLiiRciently indicate this. To explain the occurrence of meteoric
iron together with basalt we must then assume :

That (1) the ridges fg and gii {sec map*) on the shore arc not
rcfdly in connexion with the rock, but arc only fragments of
one large meteorite of 20 to 40 feet in diameter, formed prin-
cipally of a mass of basalt-like matter, with bulls of iron dis-
seminated through it, that has fallen at this spot. This
assumption would, however, be too huirardous, and is rendercid
improbable by the circumstance that th<i basalt that surrounds
the meteoric iron is perfectly similar to the variety of GreenLind
basalt forming the rocks of the locality.f The greatest part of
the mass in which the iron particles are scattered is, however,
very unlike genuine basalt, and in external appearance ralliei-
resembles the meteoric stone from Tanaeera Pass, in Cliili. Time
has not yet permitted a more accurate investigation.

Or that (2) the whole fall of meteoric iron took place during
the period when the piling up of these Greenland basalt rocks was
in progress, i.e. during the latter portion of the Cretaceous au<l
the beginning of the Tertiary periods. Sonic of the })ieces of
meteoric iron have I'allen to iron-dust, and tilled cracks in the
basalt, where they have again hardened into the iron above de-

* Published -wilU I'urt 11. in " Gicol. Alan-.," Augu-t, p. 355.
■\ Only tlk' basalt in sonic parts of the ridge re; and on, but not tlie basalt
from other districts ol' Disko and Noursoak, contains native iron.

'I

1

%

k

i-

%

1

*

\ti^-

44G rnoF. notrdenskiold, rxprdition to gueenland.

Ik

if ' j.

scribed fts foiiml in tlio ri(ln;o f<j. Of similar origin mo nlso llio
jwiiliclcs of nativ(( iron in Uio biisiilt lyinjjf noiiroHt tho iron, Aviiicli
ofcasioimlly lius a con<i;loineriitt'-liko s(rn<!ture.

As conaiilerablo musses of iion, of ii composition probably very
similar to that of nietooric. iron, withont a doubt occur in tho
interior of the earth, it may bo suggested that the Ovifuk iron
may be of telluric origin, and that it has been, together with the
{)lutonie rocks, thrown up during the eruptions that have given
rise to tlic vast strata of basalt in this neighbourhood. But not
only docs the fully marked nieteoritic form of the many iron
pieces militate against this supposition, but also the circumstance
that the iron in question — as the facts of its containing organic
matter, its porosity etc., show — has evidently never been heated
even to a, temperature of a few hundred degrees.

Neither is it possible that these masses of iron can have arisen
from the reduction by gases developed in connexion with basalt
eruptions of a ferruginous mineral. Iron-pyrites cannot be
reduced by these means ; tjud no oxide-of-iron-mineral containing
nickel, and at the same time almost free from lime and silica, is
known. The foruuition of the iron from chloride of iron, erup-
ted from the interior of the earth and since reduced, can hardly
be supposed. The explanation I have given above, that the iron
is the result of an unusually rich Miocene fall of meteoric iron,
seems, therefore, to me most plausible.

Oberg was fortunate enough to meet with a piece of me-
teoric iron from the neighbourhood of Jakobshavn. lie received
the piece, which weighed 7^ Skalpund (71b Avoird.), from Dr.
Pfaif, of Jakobshavn. This piece, which is now preserved in tho
Riks Museum at Stockholm, is an oval lump, with a somewhat
rough surface, consisting principally of very hard, tough iron,
not crumbling. On being sawn through, it presented tho
appearance of a mass of iron grains welded together, here and
there impregnated Avith a basalt-like black silicate. On etching,
fine Widmanstiittian figures are obtained. We have not had time
to analyse it, and I need not therefore dwell longer on the de-
scription of it, especially if, as is greatly to be wished,* the three
larger iron blocks at Ovifak should be brought home, in which
case I shall be enabled to give a complete account of all the
Greenland discoveries of iron, together with more analyses. I
will here simply enumerate the discoveries of iron hitherto made
on the western coast of Greenland.

(1.) Ross* and Kane's discovert/ of Iron in JJavis Strait. —
According to these famous polar navigators, the Esquimaux in
North Greenland make knives and instruments of iron from sonu;
large blocks situated probably somewhere to the north of
Upernivik. Sec above, p. 324.

* As I have above meutioned, tlie Swedish Government sent for tliis
purpose an expedition to tircenland in 1872, which succeeded inbriu<jing home
not only the tliree meteorites of 21,8, and 4 tons, but also several smaller ones

of from 4 to 200 kilosr.

rait

■

lUX

in

1 somo

•til

of

for

this

Ig home

her cues

PROP. NOUDKNSKIOLP, rAl'KDITTOX TO (illKi:\LAM>. 447

(2.) RinWs discovcri/ of Jrofi at Ninhorit(ik,J(iliohsliarn District.
— In 1847 Rink found in the possossioii of sonic (Ireenliinders an
iron ball, which they said thoy had found in a plain covcro*! with
boulders near the mouth of the Auorritok River. It wei^^hed
211b, with n specific gravity of 7*02. Analysed by Forchaminer.
Crumbling scarcely perceptible.

(3.) Rudolph^ s discovery of Iron at Fortune Hay. — A i)iece of
iron Aveighing 11,844 gr. was found by Colonial Governor Rud()l{)h
luiiong ballast that had been taken in at Fortune IJay. The iron
crumbles much, and belongs proliably to the same fall as the iron
found at Ovifak.

(4.) Fiskernds. — A small piece of metallic iron was found by
Rink at Fiskerniis in South Greenland. The iron was declared
by Forchammer to be of meteoric origin.

(5.) The Pfaff-Oberg Iron from Jakobshavn.

(6.) The Iron discovered at Ovifak.

Lafctly it should be mentioned, that the old northern chronicles
state, that during the time the old colonies existed in (jSrccnland,
so violent a shower of stones once happened that several churches
and other buildings were destroyed.

It is remarkable that Giesccke, in his many years of travel in
Greenland, should not have met with any meteoric iron, whereas
he mentions that huge balls of iron-pyrites Avere found in the
sand-beds of the basalt formation. We also met Avitli some such
nodules at an elevation of two hundred feet above the sea,
between Ujarasusuk and Kudliset. They were as much as I'rom
3 to 4 feet in diameter, spherical, and lay loose in the sand close
to a basalt dyke. Nevertheless, they did not contain pyrites, but
a mineral (not yet analysed) like magnetic pyrites, of a very
unusual appearance. {See above, p. 33o.)

LV. — On Meteoric Irons found in Greenland. By
Walter Flight, D.Sc, F.G.S., of the Department of
Mineralogy, British Museum; Assistant Kxaminor in
Chemistry, University of London.

[Reprinted, by Permission, from the " Geological Magazine," new
series, vol. ii., Nos. 3 and 4, March and April, 187o, pp. 115
and 152.]

Meteoiuc Ikons found August, 1870. — Ovifak (or Uigfak) near
Godhavn, Kekertarssuak or Island of Disko, Greenland ; Lat.
m° 19' 30" N. ; Long. 54" 1' 22" W.*

The interesting story of the discovery of these (>normous masses,
by Prof. Nordenskjold is already known to the readers of the

„l|

i

i !

*

A.

E.

Nordenskjold, Roc

OirinX'

so for

en E;

^jiedition

fill (

iWlnliind Ai

•1870;

K.

Vt

.'/.-

A/uid. Fr.rh., 1870,

873.

(See

transh

itioi

ill (

icill.

MiK/.,

IX.

289, ct

scq

.)-

-1)

. ForheB, Abstract

Proc.

Cieul

^V.,

No.

238,

Novemher

8th,

1871 ;

■M

448

ini. W. FLIGHT, OKEKNLAND MIJTEORITES.

i:

Geological Mii{^ii/jim Ihrough ii Iniusliitioii ol' hi.s origiuul memoir.
While exploring in Danish Greenland in 1870, hi.s attention was
directed to the possibility that meteorites might be met with in
Diyko Island, by the accidental discovery of a block of meteoric
iron in some ballast which had been taken in at the old Avhaling
station at Fortuna Bay, near Godliavn. and he urged the Green-
landers to search the district for masses of that metal. He pro-
ceeded to explore Omenak and other islands north of Disko, and,
on his return to Godhavn at the end of August in the same year,
not only learned from the Greenlanders that masses such as he
sought for liad been found, but he was shown a specimen of
meteoric iron in confirmatiou of their statement. They were dis-
covered, not at Fortuna Bay, but further eastward along the shore
at Ovifak, between Laxe-bugt * and Disko Fjord, a spot than
which there is none more diiUcult to reach along the whole of
the coast of Danish Greenland, as it lies open to the soutli
"wind, and is inaccessible in even a very moderately rough sen.
Kordcnskjold at once chartered two whalo boats, manned by
CJrecnlandcrs, and set sail for Ovifak, Avhere, the sea being calm,
tlujy were able to land, and tlu* stone* at Avhich they lay to proved
afterwards to be the largest block of meteoric iron that they were
to discover.

As the readers of this Magazine are already familiar with the
description which Nordenskjold gives {see ahove) of the condition
under Avhich these nuisses arc found, we may l)reak off here to
consider the more recently published report of Nauckhotf, the
Geologist of the Expedition of 1871, of the peculiar geologicd
characters of the rocks at Ovifak (Blafjell, or Blue Cliifs) with
whicli they arc associated.

C/icm. News, Novnnhor 17tli, 1871. — A. E. Nonlcnskjilld, ]icmarks on
Gruoiilaud Meteorites; Abstract Proc. (?fio/. .Soc, December 20th, 1871. —
T. Nordstrom, Ofv. Vvt.-Ahiid Fih-h., 1871, 453. See also Geul. Matj., ^^J 1 1.
570, and IX. 88. — A. E. Nordenskjold, Les Meteorites ; Revue Scieiitifit/nc,
187:2, ii. [2], 128. — G. A. Daubree, Compt. Rend., Ixiii. 12G8 ; Compt. RiikL,
Ixxiv. 1542 ; Cvmpt. Rend., Ixxv. 240.— E. Liidwig, Min. Mitt., 1871, i. U)<>.
— E. Ilebert, Seance Soc. ^Geol. de France, February 5th, 1872; Revue
Seiriiti/ique, i. [2], 858. — !fi. de Chanconrtois et M. Jennatez, Seance Soc.
Geol. de France^ February IDtli, 1872 ; Revue Seientifique, i. [2], 905.— G.
A. Daubn'e, Seance Soc. Geol.de France, May 20th, 1872; Rcwe Scieti-
ii/h/iic, i. [2], 1 1G9 ; Amcr. Jour. Sc., ill. 71 and 388. — F. Wbhler, Nuc/irir/it.
k. Gesell. Wiss. zu Gdtthujeii, 1872, No. 11, 197; P ii/y. Aim., cxlvi. 297 ;
Aim. dcr C//p»j.,clxiii., 247 ; Nachricht.K. Gesell. Wiss. zn GiJttinyeu, 1872,
No. 26; Ann. dcr Clicm., clxv. 313.— G. Rose, Zeit. Deutsrh. Geul. Gesell.,
xxiv. 174. — G. von Helmerssen, iieit. Deulsch. Geol. Gesell., xxv. 347. —
C. Kamnielsberg, Uebor die Meteoriten (Sinnm. Wiss. Vortruye), pages 14
and 18.— C. W. Blomstrand, Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., iv. 987. — G.
NaucklioflF, Scens/ui Vet. Ahud. Handl., 1872, i. No. G ; Bcr. Deutsch. Cliem.
Gesell., vi. 140.'} ; Mhieraloyisclie Mittheilungcn, 1874, 109. — G. Tschermak,
Mine nil vylsc.he Mittheiliui(/en, 1874, 1G5; Dcr Naturfurseher, 1874, Nos. 49-
52. — J. Lawrence Smith, Compt. Rend., Ixxx. 301. — For a map of Disko see
also Geoqrapliical May., February, 1875.

* ^Qc'Geol. Mag., 1872, vol. ix. PI. VII. In this map two bays called
"Laxebugt" are , 'riven ; the one mentioned above is situated to the south of
Disko Fjord.

DR. W. FLIGHT, OUEENLAND METEORITES.

440

Tlin siirfiico of llm souili-wcstcrn and wostern ])orlion of tlio
Tsliiiul of Disko is composed of b:is!iU, which extends as fur a^
Smith's Sound, and was prol)ably <'rnj>ted in Miocene times, in
only a few points of tlic island, Godhavn, the islets of Fortnna
Bay, and Nangiset, the primitive rock is observed. Jt consists for
the most part of slaty gneiss, passing over in some places into
mica-schist and often traversed by veins of pegmatite. Granite
was nowhere seen.

Immediately ovci'lying the gneiss is a bastdt-breccia of dark
blackish-green colour, some two hundred feet in thickness. In
places the largo angular fragments are cemented together with
calcite ; as a rule, liowever, they are so small that the rock at
some distance appears homogeneous. Few cavities are observed,
and they are usually filled with calcite, rarely with zeolites.
Above the breccia lies a bed of basalt-wacke of rust-brown colour,
and with amygdaloidal structure, the cavities containing apophyllito,
chabasitc, levynite, stilbite, desmino, mesotype, analcime, and other
zeolites. Over this again rises a bed of basalt of vast thickness,
sometimes attaining one thousand feet, and of a dark-greyish
green hue ; it occurs not unfrequeutly in vertical regular six-
sided columns. The texture is generally crypto-crystalline,
though exhibiting in places the characters of anamcsite and dole-
rite ; the few cavities are filled with chalcedony, rarely with
zeolites. At Ovifak the cliffs rise to a height of 2,000 feet above
the sea-level. The upper portion consists of compact dark-
coloured basalt. Proceeding downwards on the nearly vertical
face, we sec thick beds of red wacke and basalt clay, imtil already
at mid-height the face is hidden by vast screes of large and small
fragments of basalt. Where the cascades of surface-water have
removed the finer portions of the talus, and the face can be in-
spected to greater depths between the larger blocks of basalt, the
basalt-wacke is seen which overlies the breccia.

On the shore below these screes, between high and low-water,

and within an area of about fifty square metres, twelve

large

and

many small iron masses were found. The six largest weigh re-
spectively 21,000 kilog., 8,000 kilog., 7,000 kilog., 142 kilog.,
96 kilog., and 87 kilog.

Thanks to the kindness of Prof. Nordenskjold, I am enabled to
give a representation (Plate IV.*) of the largest mass, about 19
English tons in weight, which is now preserved in the Hall of
the Royal Academy at Stoekliolm. The second block, weighing
about nine tons, has, as a compliment to Denmark, on Avhose terri-
tory the meteorites were found, been presented to the Museum of
Copenhagen. Another of the masses, weighing 195 lbs. 8 oz., is
preserved in the British Museum.

For the earlier account of the discovery of these masses the
reader is referred to Nordenskj old's memoir,t and Nordstrom's

'i

called
Until of

* This Plate, which appeared in the April number of the Geol. May. with
Tart IV. of Dr. Fli<fht's paper, is not here reproduced. — Enrrou.
t Geol. Mag. 1872, vol. ix., pp. 401, 402, and Tlute VIIL, and above.

36122. F F

450

DR. W. FLTOIIT, (HIKENLANO METKOUITES.

jKipor. Tlio Expedition of that your, 1870, hiiviii*; no moans of
l)iinf^ing such vast masses to Europe, a new expedition was e.|uipped
by the Swedish Government in the following spring, consisting
of the gunboat " Ingegerd," Capt. F. W. von Otter, and the brig
" Gladan," under the command of M. von Krusenstern, who
brought the meteorites to Denmark in September, 1871.

NanckholF in his paper draws attention to one remarkable block,
about 200 lbs. in weight, which lay throe feet below high-water.
On the under-side it was covered with basalt grains, cemented to-
gether Avith hydrated oxide of iron, and consisted of coarsely
crystalline iron, containing much carbon, and which readily
woather<!d.

8ixty-fivo feet N.E. of the spot where the largest block lay, a
ridge of dark-brown basalt-like rock comes to the surface.
Through its superior hardness it has withstood the deiinidation
better than the loose basalt-wacke on either side of it. It is soon
lost to sight, but reappears to take a direction towards the spot
where the large iron lay. The rock forming this ridge resembles
ordinary compact basalt. It is of finely granular texture. Near
the margin it becomes crypto-crystalline. and is seen, under the
microscope, to consists of labi-ndorito, greenish-brown augite, and
black grains of magnetite. It will bo found, when we come to
speak of the analysis of the rocks accompanying this iron, to accord
in composition with the basalt itself. It ditlers from it, however,
in the presence of two aeecssory constituents which arc dis-
seminated through the parts forming the edge of the ridge, and
are : — a greenish hydratcnl ferrous silicate, resembling hisingerito,
and a yellowish-brown iron-sulphide. Tla; analyses of the former
mineral, it Avill be s(>en in the sequel, show that it is not identical
with the chloro[)haitc so often occurring in basalt ; the sulphide
compl(>tely accords in composition with the troilite of meteorites.
Tlie columnar structure, so often found in basalt, was not noticed,
the cracks occurring near the sides appearing to be all parallel to
the margin. The surface of a freshly broken fragment displays
peculiar smoothness and lustre. On the east side of this ridge,
and in the solid rock, a piece of much-weathered iron was found
inclosed by NauckhoiF; while another member of the expedition,
Mr. J. Steenstrup, detected metallic iron on the west side of the
ridge. The analysis of this iron, apparently that which was an-
alysed by Lindstrom, will be referred to later on. While blasting
this basalt, a rock was hit upon which was at once seen to differ
considerably from the matrix. It consists of a greenish ground-
mass, inclosing spangles and grains of iron, and occurs in rounded
masses that are separated from the basalt by a coarsely crystalline
greenish shell, about 20 mm. thick, as well as by an outer rusted
brown crust. The boundaries of these masses were well defined ;
in no instance were they detected passing over into the basalt.

The masses of iron lying in the basalt ridge usually had an
ellipsoid form and a rusted crust, that allowed of their being
easily detached from the basalt. Nauckhoff succeeded in remov-
ing six lumps, the aggregate weight whereof was 1 50 lbs. This
iron is hard and crystalline, exhibits Widmaunstattian figures.

!

Pf

I

DR. W, FLIOTTT, OTIEENLAND MRTEDKITKS.

4.-) I

US ol"
ippetl
listing
5 brij5
who

block,
water,
tod to-
sarsely
readily

^ lay, a
iiirfa<;e.
iidation
is soon
ho spot
isemblorf
. Near
ider the
;ite, and
come to
to accord
however,
jvre dis-
fdge, and
4ngerite,
iL' ibrmer
identical
snlphide
'teorites.
noticed,
tvrallcl to
displays
lis ridge,
las found
Ipedition,
\e of the
was an-
blasting
to differ
ground-
rounded
lystallinc
|r rusted
]defined ;
Lsalt.
^ had an
I'ir being
L vemov-
, This
figures,

and is in every respect like that of the larjie loose blocks. More-
over, like them, it unibrtunntely possesses the property of exudinj^
a yellow liquid (ferrous chloride), and of weathering jiway. It
was noticed that these inclosed masses had their major axes
parallel to the direction of the ridge, and that they were, in a way,
connected with each other by little veins of weathered iron.

Nordenskjold states that the large free blocks of metal had a
tombac to rusty-brown colour, and, when found, exhibited metallic
lustre on parts of their surface. Hero and there, fragments of
basalt, similar to that of the ridge, were found a<lhcting to them.
The inner parts contained none of the rock, and his analyses de-
tected the presence of little silicic acid. They were strongly polar,
the upper surface attracting the north, the lower side the south
pole of the magnetic needle.

The iron of the larger masses is crystalline and brittle, so that
pieces can readily he removed with a hammer ; the metal of the
ridge is tougher, and has a rougher fi'acture. The jnesence of
troilite was rarely detected in the detritus ; a finv black magnetic
grains were met with, which, by their octahedral faces, were
recognized to be magnetite.

The characters of the jjolishod sections of the ditl'ercnt masses
ditfer greatly ; in some tin; surface shows rounded areas of vary-
ing brightness and shades of colour, with parts of a brassy yellow
(troilite) ; others ju'e more homogeneous, or appear to bo made up
of tine prisms of " carburetted niekcl-iron." Some, not all, exhibit
figures when etched.

Though containing little sulphur, the Greenland irons, since
they have been brought to Europe, have shown a marked tendency
to crum])lo to pieces. On tln^ shore at Ovifak, sometinn's exposed
to the Avash of the waves, sometimes left high and (hy, but pre-
served at the constant temperature of tlu; sen, which varies little
thi-oughout the year, the masses apparently underwent little
change. Already during the passage, however, many fragments
crumbled away, and when unpacked at Stockholm two months
later, and placed in a room of ordinary temperature, others broke
up into a reddish-brown powder. A freshly fractured lustrous
surface of one of the masses commenced in one corner to rust,
expand, and crumble away ; while the remainder experienced no
change, till at length the oxidation extended into the interior and
the whole fell to pieces. In a hermetically sealed glass tube the
iron is preserved unchanged ; but in another tube with a fine
crack oxidation continued. In alcohol no change takes place ; in
air, dried by sulphuric acid, the change is greatly impeded.
Attempts to preserve them by coating them with varnish were of
slight avail. The cracking is caused by dilatation, and takes place
with such force that masses of metal, on which chisel and saw
were without effect, are broken and bent out of shape during
oxidation.

Nordenskj()ld found that a fragment of the largest iron, when
heated to redness, gave off more than 100 times its volume of
a gas which had a bituminous smell. It was (;videntlv <>-as not
simply occluded by the metal, but was produced by the deeompo-

F F 2

(iM

4.32

1)11. W. FLIGHT, UUEENLAND METEOIUTES.

i:

!■

HiiUm of "tlio orpjnnic matter in the meteorite," thron^li tlio
r.Mlucinnf action of thoHO eoinponiid^ on the oxide of iron iis.^ociiited
with them. Wlion such iron is treatcil with mercury-chloride
but little giis is evolved ; in ttqua-regia it dissolves, leaving in sonu;
cases a carbonaceous residue, in others very little residue of any
kind; by the action of hydrochloric acid a gas is given otF which
has a penetrating odour resembling that of some hydrocarbon.
By treatment with acid a humus-like compound appears to bo
generated, which is soluble in ammonia, insoluble in acid, and can
be oxidized only with difficulty by long boiling with very strong
acids.

In Nordenskj old's paper are given the earliest analyses of these
irons :

I. Fragment of one of the largo iron masses : this specimen
evolved more gas than II. and III, Specific gravity=5-8t> —
6-36. Analysed by Nordenskjtild. II. Fragment of iron, more
compact and less crystalline than I., probably from the basalt
ridge. Small grains were observed to bo malleable. The speci-
men from which this was tivkcn subsequently crumbled away.
Specific gnivity=7'05 — 7-06. Analysed by T. Nordstrom.
III. Fragment of iron from the basalt ridge, Avhicli exhibited
well-marked Widmanstiittian figures. In external appearance
this iron exactly resembled II. Specific gravity =6 ' 24. Analysed
by G. Lindstrom. See above, p. 443.

I.

II.

ur.

Iron

.

-

84-49

86-34

93-24

Nickel

M

-

2-48

1-64

1-24

Cobalt -

.

-

0-07

0-35

0-56

Copper -

-

-

0-27

0-19

019

Phosphorus

-

-

0-20

0 07

0-03

Sulphur -

-

-

1-52

0-22

1-21

Chlorine -

-

-

0-72

1-16

0 16

Alumina -

-

-

trace

0-24

Lime

-

-

trace

0-48

— .

Magnesia

-

-

004

0-29

trace

Potash -

-

-

trace

0 07

0-08

Soda

-

-

trace

0-14

0-12

Silicic acid

-

-

trace

0-66

|o-59

Insoluble portion

I

-

O-Oo

4-37

Carbon, Organic

Matter

■}

10- 16

3-7l|

Carbon

2-30

Oxygen, and Water

X\J 1\J

Hydrogen

1 0-07

10000 99-93 99-79

Nordstrom analysed the carbonaceous residue of the compact iron
II., after digestion with double chloride of copper and sodium, and
iron chloride, and found, when a quantity of ash is deducted, that
it is composed of :

Carbon - - G3-59 - - 63*64

Hydrogen - - 3 26 - - 3-55

Oxygen (by diiFerence) 33-15 - - 32-81

100-00

100-00

DK. W. FMOIIT UUEENLAND METEOIUTEF,

4:>3

li Iho
ciatetl
ilorulo

)f any
which
larbon.

to bo
,nd can

strong

if these

)ecimen
5-86—
n, more
5 basalt
B speci-
l uway.
•dstroni.
jchibited
jearanco
inalysed

III.

93-24
1-24
0-56
0-19
003
1-21
0 16

}

trace
0-08
0-12

0-59

2-30
}n 0-07

99-79

pact iron
lium, and
cted, that

)4
)5
II

)0

These numbers yield no satisfactory atomic ratios, and it is not
improbable that the carbon is prenent in two allotropic nio<lific<i-
tions, aft well as a constituent of a complex orejanic compound.

In 1872 two intercstinf^ papers were published by Wohler on
the results of his examination of this iron, especially that from
the riilge. The specimen he choso for examination came from u
vein of metal, several inches wide and some foet in len;(th, which
was inclosed in a rock " that presents a marked dillerence in
" composition from the basalt-breccia whence it protrudes." He
describes this iron as bearing a close resemblance to grey cast
iron ; it has a bright lustre, is very hard, is quite unalterable
in air, and has a specific gravity=5-82. Nordenskjold, as wo
have seen, extracted gas from the metal of the larger masses by
heating it. Wohler finds that the iron of the vein evolves more
than one hundred times its volume of a gas that burns with a
pale blue flame, and is carbonic oxide, mixed with a little carbonic
acid. The " iron," in fact, contains a considerable amount of car-
bon, as well as a compound of oxygen ; and, according to Wiihler
can at no time have been exposed to a high temperature. After
it has been heated, the iron becomes brighter, and, though more
soluble in acid, it still leaves a carbonaceous residue. A fragment
heated in dry hydrogen, with a view to determine the amount of
oxygen present, formed a quantity of water, and lost 11-09 per
cent, of its weight. "It contained, in other words, 11*09 per
" cent, of oxygen." It is not stated whether the water corre-
sponded in weight to that amount of oxygen. Hydrochloric acid
acts but sloAvly and imperfectly on this metal, evolving first
sulphuretted hydrogen, and then hydrogen possessing the odour of
a hydrocarbon ; and leaves a black granular magnetic pow<ler,
which, though insoluble in cold acid, generates, on the application
of heat, a gas with a strong odour of a hydrocarbon, leaving a
residue of amorphous sooty carbon and slightly lustrous graphitic
particles. In iron-chloride the " iron " dissolves without evolution
of gas ; about 30 per cent, of a black residue remaining, which,
after having been dried at 200" C, lost by ignition in hydrogen
19 per cent, of its weight, Avater being produced. It is now very
readily attacked by acid, evolves sulphuretted hydrogen, and
gives a residue of nearly pure carbon in powder or in graphitic
scales. Iron-chloride and acid appear, therefore, in the main, to
remove the free metjd only, and to be without action on the cora-
})ounds with sulphur and oxygen. The ultimate composition of
the specimen he analysed is as follows : —

Iron

- 80-64

Sulphur -

- 2-82

Nickel

- 1-19

Carbon -

- 3-69

Cobalt

- 0-47

Oxygen -

- 11-09

Phosphorus

- 0-15

100 05

Wohler was disposed to regard the oxygen, constituting so
considerable a portion of an apparently metallic maas, as present
in the form of a diferrous oxide, FegO, were it not that, according
to this view, there would be no iron provided for combination
with tlio sulphur and carbon. As, however, Norden!<kjold fuiind

:ky

r

■■^meas^bm

4:)4

I*K. W. FLIGHT, (lUKKNLAM) MKTKOlMTK^'.

i

mnsnctito in or near other Ovifuk ironn, Wiihlor, rcganlrt llie
snbstmicc constituting the vcinH lus an intimate niixtun^ of
niagnctito, ol' which IhiT'-^ wouhl ho 40-20 per cent., with metallic
iron, of whlcli there would then ho 4() -(iO per cent., the sulphide,
carhide, and phosphide, as well as the alloys with ui(!kel and eo-
})alt, and some carhon in isolated particles. The latter prohahly
underj^o no chan;^e when the ma^iu'tito and carhide, hy tlm action
of heat, ;j;eneiate <!arl)onie oxide.

A specimen of the iron from tlio hasalt has also hcen investi-
gated hy ])aul)r6e; ho describes it as having a mctallit^ lustre and
being nearly black. Ho found its compobition to bo : —

I.

Iron in the free state

- 40-940

Iron in combination

- 30-150

Carbon in the free state

- 1-640

Carbon in combination

- 3-000

Nickel

- 2-650

Cobalt

- 0-910

Phosphorus
Arsenic -

- 0-210

- 0-410

Suli)hur -
Sili(!ium -

- 2-700

- 0075

Nitrogen -

- 0-004

Oxygen -

Water (bygrometri(r)

- 12-1(K)

- 0-910

Water in combination

1-950

Chromium, copper, &c.
Calcium sulphate, chloride, &c.

- 1-010

- 1-354

100-013

In liis second paper ho gives analyses of two more specimens :
II. Light-grey iron, ])ossessing metallic lustre. It is not
homogeneous, as it might bo assumed to be from its lustre and
colour. When crushed in a mortar, it is divided into two [)arts :
the one crumbles to tine powder, the other is flattcncul into plates,
requiring much trituration to break them up. 111. Metallie grains
mechanically separated from the rocky portion in which they w^cro
distributed. These spherules exhibit figures, when etched, and
contain silicate distributed in very fine ])articles throughout their
mass ; in one rounded fragment the silicic acid of this silicate
amounted to 11-9 per cent, of the total constituents.

II.

III.

Iron in the free state

- 80-800

61-990

Iron in combination

- 1-600

8-110

Carbon in the free state -

- 0-300

1-100

Carbon in combination -

- 2-600

3-600

Silicium - - -

- 0-291

—

Water - . -

- 0-700

—

Calcium chloride

- 0-233

0-146

Iron chloride

- 0-089

0-114

Calcium sulphate

- 0-053

0-047

Copper - , -

trace.

trace.

1*

nu, W, FMOIIT, (JIIKFA'I.AM) M KTK.OIMTKS.

4')')

H thi"
10 of
etttlHc
|)hi(lo,
ml «'(>-
>l»al)ly
notion

nvoHti-
;ro and

o

imcns :
is not
tro and
Mvrts :
o plates,
grains
cy wci'O
icd, and
3ut their
silicate

0
0
0

l6

k

7

It will ho scon that specimen III. is not h-ss rich in carbon
than 1., and that Hpccimcn II. also contains a considerablu
quantity. Specimen I. is distin;i;uished iVctm II. hy ii lar<;»' pro-
portion i»r e()ml»in«'d iron. By trciilment witli ulctdinl, calcium-
chloride was extracted and determined in I.; with cold distilled
water, tlu' rtolidihs salts were removed from II. nnd III. I. con-
tains more lime-sulphate and less chloride than 11. nnd III.

These meteoric masses are distin<jnished l>y tin* amount of ciu--
hou, free and eomltined, which they contain; I >y the presence of
a large pro])ortion of iron in eond)ination with i)xy}^en, hut in
what state of oxidation is not dearly ascertained; and hy the
occurrence of soluble chlorides and sulphates, especially calcium-
sulphate, throughout their structure. No salt of potassimn has
been detected in them, nor, which is very rennvrkabh*, has sodium-
chloride been fomid, although carefully sou^it for. The intimate
distribution of these salts through the Ovifak iron is ecrtaiidy an
indicati(m that they must be numbered among th(! original con-
st iluents of these meteorites.

Daubree noticed that specimen II. showed a marked ten<lency
to absorb watci' and to rust away ; a few (lays suiliecd to inako
this apparent. The local nature of the oxidation he attiibutcs to
the irregular distiibution of th(f deli(piescent salts. Among these
conipuunds, instead of iron-chloi'ide, to the action of wliieh the
decay of meteoric iron has usually been ascribed, calcium-chloride
np[>ears to i)lay tlu; most pronuuent part. In support of this view
it may be remarked that No. II. iron, the one most liable to change,
is that containing the gi'eatest proportion of this salt, the amount
being six times that met with in No. 1. iron.

Calcium- and magnesium-sulphates were noticed by Daubree to
form constituents of the Orgueil Stone, and the latter salt is also
j)resent in the aerolites of Kaba and Alais. All these are carbon-
aceous meteorites. May the calcium-sulphate of these irons, as
well as that of the above-mentioned aerolite, be a prochict of the
oxidation of a calcium (magnesimn) sulphide such as occurs in the
meteorite of liusli, which stone also contains, among other con-
stituents, augiti' and melallic iron ?

The greater !-tal)ili(y which these masses exhibited so hmg as
they were in pulur latitudes is no doul)t due to the reilueetl tension
of aqueous vaj)our ; had tlusy fallen in regions further south and
been exposed to a milder climate, they wouhl without doubt have
long since fallen to powder.

In his second paper NN'iihler points out the probability of thci
No. II. iron, which Daubree 'icamined, being of the same kind as
that which he himself analysed, lie remarks that, although
Daubree found this variety of the metal to show a tendency to
oxidise (;ven in a few days, his s|)ecimen had remained liright and
unchanged after it had been a yc^ar in his collection.

NanckhoiV, whose exhaustive examination of the rocks associated
Avith the Ovifak irons we shall imnicdiately tiun to consider,
analysed the spangles and spherules which can be removed by a
magnet from the rock that occurs in rounded masses in the basalt
ridge, and of which the comj)Ositiou is given in the table of his

I !

%

456

DK. W. FLIGHT, GREENLAND METEORITES.

annlyses under III. Some of these spangles could be pulverized
only with diflBculty, and were readily flattened out ; the spherules,
though so hard that a sharp steel file would scarcely touch them,
were easily crushed. They had the following composition : —

Iron

- 58-25

Alumina -

•

- 1-45

Nickel -

- 2-16

Nickel and cobalt

ox-

Cobalt -

- 0-30

ides

- 0-44

Copper -

- 0-13

Magnesia

- 0-33

Hydrogen

- 0-28

Lime

- 0-50

Carbon -

- 1-64

Soda

- 0-09

Sulphur -

- 0-16

Potash

- trace.

Chlorine

- 0-16

Residue -

- 6-07

Magnetite
Silicic acid

- 30-42

- 0-26

102-64

Phosphoric acid

trace.

In the basalt of the ridge, of which an analysis is given under
II. in the same table, a compact, very brittle, yellow, or slightly
brown mineral occurs in thin flakes, sometimes in nodules of the
size of a pea ; it is invariably penetrated and usually surrounded
by a mineral resembling hisingcrite, to which attention will pre-
sently be directed. 1'he mineral has a hardness of 5 to 5*5, and
easily fuses before the blowpipe, with evolution of sulphurous acid,
to a magnetic rcgulus. It has the composition :

Iron -

- 52-94 ■

. 57-91 -

- 2

Nickel

- 5-06 .

■ 5-53 -

- 0

Copper

trace •

trace -

-

Sulphur

- 33-41 ■

• 36-56 -

. 2

Silicate

- 8-59

—

Equivalent
Ratios.

285

100-00 100-00

These numbers give the formula (Fe,Ni)S, or that of the iron
(nickel) monosulphide or troilite, which has hitherto only been
met with in meteorites.

Intimately associated with the troilite, and evidently a product
of its oxidation and further alteration, is the mineral already
mentioned, the fresh fracture of which is of a light olive-green
colour, that by exposure to the air soon becomes brown, and after
some days turns quite black.

Its specific gravity is 2-919 ; and its composition:

Silicic acid
Iron sesquioxide
Iron protoxide -
Water

31-70

51-49

3-81

15-56

Oxygen.
16-90
15-44
0-85
12-05

*

-1

100-56J

These numbers indicate the formula :

FeOjSiOa +3 (2Fe203,3Si02) + 1411^0
as that of the mineral. NauckhoflT, however, draws attention to

DR. W. FLIGHT, GREENLAND METEORITES.

457

! iron
r been

roduct
liesidy
i-grecn
Id after

r

Id
i5

V^

lion to

the rapidity with which the oxidation of the pulverised mineral
takCvS place : five dnys after the analysis -wiis made the per-ccntage
of iron-protoxide in another portion luul lallcn to 3 "47, nnd after
three weeks to 1 • 55. The original uiiclianged mineral wsis pro-
bably a hydrated ferrous silicate.

The following rocks from Disko island have been exnmined by
Nauck liofi' :

I. Section of a six-sided basalt column from lUcdodal, east side
of Skarfvefjell and »bout 10' E. of (Jodhavn ; showing compact
dark greyish-green ground-mass with cry[)to-cryr^tallino texture ;
under the microscope, crystals of a felspar, auuitc, and magnetite
are recognised. Fusible before the blow-pipe.— II. Basalt from
the east side of the ridge at Ovifak, where the iron and breccia
were found. Fusible before the blowpipe. — III. Kock occurring
in rounded masses, Avith green foliated crust, in the basalt ridge,
and inclosing spangles and spherules of iron, some G — 7 mm. in
diameter ; these exhibit Widmannstiittian figures. Appears to be
a very finely granular mixture of a felspar with a small amount of
a green mineral, probably augite, and imperfectly crystallised
magnetite, which latter usually surrounds the spangles of iron ;
olivine is only occasionally met with, in grains the size of a pea.
Melts with dilRculty before the blowpipe. — IV. Very hard brown-
coloured mass inclosing rock in which iron spangles are found ; it
closely resembles 111. The ground-mass consists of a felspar,
probably anorthite, the crystals of which are occasionally large,
and show marks of twinning, and a great number of reddish
octahedra closely resembling spinel. Small particles of a greenish
mineral, having the appearance of augite, are also to be distinguished.
Spangles of iron are very rarely found in the felspar ; and magne-
tite is apparently absent. Melts very slowly before the blowpipe.
— V. Hounded lump of grey rock from the basalt ridge ; it was
covered with a dark -green vesicular crust, from 15 to 20 mm.
thick. Through the ground-mass, which appears to consist of a
felspar, were disseminated numerous brilliant greyish scales,
besides some very black magnetite or graphite. Augite sparsely
distributed ; abundance of red spinel in some parts, none in
others. Melts with great difficulty before the blowpipe. — VI.
The dark greenish-brown crust of V., closely resembling that
of the rounded masses III. It consists of a felspar inclosing a
brown and a green auglte-likc mineral, and, in places, clusters of
granules of spinel. Melts with great difficulty before the blowpipe.
— VII. Light-grey foliated rock from Ovifiik, the exact circum-
stances of the occurrence of which are not known. The ground-
mass consists of a mixture of a felspar with a grey, finely foliated
mineral with graphitic lustre. Red spinel is met with abundantly in
both constituent minerals. This variety of rock, like those from the
ridge, is covered with a rust-like crust. It breaks easily, and always
parallel to the scales. Before the blowpipe it melts with difficulty
on the edges. — Vlll. Compact, slightly weathered breccia, filling
a fissure two to three inches wide in the basalt ridge parallel to
which it runs. It is a black granular mass, devoid of metallic
lustre, and incloses fragments, some with edges sharp and angular
others with the corners rounded, of a rock exactly like that form-

i m

'"■m

■m,

iiS^^^^teasii

458

DR. W. FLIGHT, GREENLAND METEORTTKS.

l1.

ing the ridge. — IX. Loose, much weathered bieccia, from the top
of the ridge, in irregularly shaped fragments. It can be broken
in pieces with the hand, is much rusted, and closely resembles the
oxidation of the metal blocks. Like the preceding specimen, it
incloses rounded fragments of the rock forming the ridge. The
specific gravity is about midway between that of iron and of
magnetite. — X. The brokcn-up basalt, resembling that of the
ridge, inclosed in the weathered breccia IX.

I.

IL

III.

IV.

V.

VI. j VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

Silicic acid -

49-18

4S-04

42-72

34-72

36-59

44-94 37-92

1-04

0-81

41-25

Titanic acid -

0-52

0-39

trace

—

—

— —

__

0-34

Pliosphoric acid -

0-13

0-07

trace

—

—

— —

0-12

0-12

—

Iron scsquioxide -

5-52

6-89

1-64

4-88

—

— —

—

—

16-18

Alumina

13-52

13-13

16-01

31-83

19-18

22-20 32-36

2-31

2-92

13-06

Cliromivun oxide -

—

—

—

—

—

— 1 0-08

—

—

—

Magnetite -

—

—

—

—

—

— 1 —

52-51

77-39

—

Iron protoxide -

10-31

11-14

14.27

5-53

14-85

9-45 4-02

—

—

10-78

Manganese pro- \
toxide. S

0*28

0-11

trace

—

0-29

— 0-19

—

0-25

Nickel and CoO
bait oxides. )

~

—

~

—

—

— , —

1-17

0-82

—

Miignesia

(5-83

5-17

7-93

9 -.35

7-24

4-98 2-86

0-02

trace

6-41

Lime - - -

11-51

10-87

10-10

10-19

8-73

11-01 11-57

0-30

0-20

7-97

Soda -

1-84

2-83

1-65

1-00

0-79

1-86 1-48

0-08

0-11

1-54

Potash -

0-0(5

0-06

0-13

0-27

trace

0'06 trace

trace

tracts

0-03

Iron

—

—

4-57

0-09

5-01

1-11 ! -

28-36

7-73

—

Nickel -

—

—

0-44

—

0-25

— trace

1-22

1-81

—

Cobalt -

—

—

trace

—

trace

— i trace

0-30

0-33

tnico

Cojjpcv -

trace

—

trace

—

trace Iraco trace

0-08

0-30?

trace

Hydrogen -

—

0-25? 0-30?

0-29?

0-31V 0-3iy'0-21V

0-38

0-51

0-49

Carbon -

—

0'79 O-.W

0-53

2-55 3-;55l 6-00

3 -.53

2-33

0-86

Sulpliur

—

0-98 0-32

—

trace .trace ()-77

0-34

trace

trace

Chlorine

trace

trace 0-OS

0-12

0-23! 0-20 trace

trace

0-14

0-25

Water -

0-34

—

—

—

— 1 —

—

_

—

Itesiduo

—

—

—

96 '02

99-47198-39

2-9-27 2-761

1

9-0^4

3-71

~

100-04

100-72 100-40

98 -SO

100-39

99-23

99-41

Specific Gravity -

3-016

3-024; 3-1(59

2-942

3-141

4-560

6-570

3-358

Tschermak examined two microscopic sections of the Ovifak
rocks, and compared thorn with sections of the meteorites of Jonsac,
Jiiviiias, Petersburg, and Stannern, Avhich consist chiefly of augitc
and iuiorthitc, with little or no nickel-iron ; they form a class
Avliicli G. Hose termed " eticritic." Loth sections exhibit a crust,
us meteorites possess ; it is, however, so altered by oxidation, that
it Is not possible to determine whether it is the fused crust usually
noticed on a meteorite. The crystals of felspar, which, according
to Nauckhofi''s analyses, must be regarded as anorthite, are fully
developed ; they penetrate the augite, iron, and magnetite, and
must evidently have been formed before them. They are com-
pletely transparent, and have but few and large cavities, which are
tilled, partly with black granules, i)artly with a brown substance
of irregular form ; some traversing the length of the crystals are
filled with a transparent glassy substance. The augite is of a
light greenish-brown hue, traversed here and there by flaws ; it
lills gaps between the other constituents, as has been often observed
in dolerites and diabases, iuid encloses individual black grains. In
the section containing iron the colourless felspar encloses a black or
brown substance running the length of the crystals, or dust-like

■

DR. W. FLIGHT, (HiEKNLAND METEOlJTTKS.

450

c top
oken
18 the
en, it
The
id of
' the

, X.

11 tl-25
I 0-34

,2 -
16-18

12 13 "06

59 —
10-78

0-25

82

(5-41
7-97
l-M
0-03

cc

20
11

,(^()
73 -
HI' —
'33,tnu'o

JO? '. tVilCO

•51 1 <)•«

•1531 0-8fi

lice ! tnifc!

U 0-25

;;5 99 -n
•0 3-35S

Oviftik
Tonsac,

class

crust,

11, that

isually

[I

tovding
ro fully
\.Q, and
com-
tch arc
l»staiicc
\ls arc
of a
iws ; it
lscrvc»l
In
lack or
Ist-like

:

fine black granules, or larger round transparent bodies of a violet
colour, which may be the mineral Nauckhoff regards as spinel.
Side by side with the felspar, brown grains, less numerous than in
the former section, are seen, and these are probably augito. Black
particles, moreover, occur, which by reflected light appear to be
semi-metallic, and are probably magnetite, as well as others that
are likewise black, but devoid of lustre, which seem to be graphite.
A few small grains of troilite were also recognised. In the second
section, which bore a general resemblance to the first, the felspar
crystals were larger, the matrix being made up of finer crystals.
In some of the felspar crystals cloudy pale-brown patches were
observed, which, Avhen viewed with a higher power, were found to
be due to numberless, minute, elongated, inclosed granules lying
in parallel position, or to others that were shorter and more rounded.
These appearances recall those noticed in eucritic meteorites, like
that of Jonsac, except for the fact that the inclosed particles are of
smaller size. The larger cavities in the felspar are filled in the
same manner as in the other rock-section from Ovifak. The
structure of eucritic meteorites is tufaceous ; that of the Ovifak
rock very compact. This distinction, however, has often been
observed in meteorices. Many chondritic meteorites are tufaceous ;
while others, having similar chemical composition, like tlie aerolites
of Lodran and Manbhooni, are compact and (irystalline. Tlie
augite of the Ovifak rocks has not the characteristically filled
cavities observed in that of certain eucritic meteorites ; but in tlie
augite of some meteorites, as those of Shergotty and IJusti, for
example, they are equally wanting.

The meteorites of Ovifak in some respects resemble the carbo-
naceous meteorites, though they differ greatly from them in other
characters : especially in the appearance of l)otli metallic and rocky
portions. They form a new type in tln^ series of meteoric locks,
and fill the gap that has hitherto separated the carbonaceous from
other meteorites.

If some difterences arc^ to be traced between the rcnuirkable rocks
and irons of Ovifak and known meteorites, others still greater
present themselves, when we compare the Greenland maissos wifh
terrestrial rocks, even with the basalts and dioiites, near which it
might be proposed to class them, on account of the occurrence in
them of magnetite, and of the crystalline arrangement of their
silicates. Iron has not hitherto been found as metal inclosed in
basalt, except on very rare occasions (as by Andrews in the basalt
of Antrim,"*' and then only in line particles, and apparently not
alloyed Avitb nickel and cobalt), while troilite is a meteoric mineral,
and has never })cen met with in a terrestrial rock.

liut if the weight of evidence favours the assumption that
these masses are of meteoric origin, there remain the folloAving
considerations to which attention has been drawn by Ivanimels-

* A. E. Rcuss detected the presence of iron in some Bohemian ])asalts by
Andrews' method. (^KennqoWs Ucbcrsicht Result. Min. Forschunqep , 1859,
105.)

•ft

'^(*i*4;i-»iMi«..„.

460

PR, W. FLIGHT^ GREENLAND METEORITES.

berpr, supporting the view that they may possibly liavo been
cruj)te(l.

Of the rocks composing the globe, the greater portion accessible
to us have been modified by the action of water. There is one
class of which this cannot be said : the molten masses brought to
the surface by volcanos, the various rocks avc term " lava." How
ever they may differ as regards constituent minerals, they have
amongst them a family resemblance, and it is with them that the
meteoric rocks may be compared. The old lavas of Iceland and
Java consist of augite and anorthite, as do the meteorites of
Juvinas, Jonsac, and Stannern. The "bombs" of the prehistoric
volcanos of the Eifel are composed of olivine, augite, bronzite, and
chromite, minerals that are commonly met with in meteorites.
Hence arises the question : Are these masses, so similar in their
lithological characters to the meteorites, samples perhaps of the
the inner unchanged nucleus of our planet ? Does the original
mass of the earth differ in point of magnitude only from the frag-
ments which yield to its attraction ?

The mean density of the earth is greater than that of the
minerals composing the rocks of the outer crust. The volcanic
rocks and the meteorites, which in point of chemical constitution
arc basic, are alike denser than this crust. The presence of
metallic iron, a characteristic feature of meteorites, points to the
absence of water and free oxygen as one of the essential conditions
for their formation. Terrestrial rocks rarely contain iron, but it
is replaced by an oxidised form of iron — magnetite. Only in
combination with platinum is it found in the metallic state. May
the rocks of the interior of our globe contain this, the most im-
portant of all the metals, in an uncombined condition ?

It has been pointed out by Daubree that a region like Green-
land, where doleritic rocks cover so wide an area, appears in a
marked degree to present the conditions necessary and favourable
for the upheaval of masses from very considerable depths.

Another phase of the question to which he directs attention
should also be mentioned. It appears not improbable that the
basalt of Greenland, which contains more than 20 per cent, of
iron-oxide, m.iy during eruption have undergone reduction such
as ho imitated in his laboratory some years since. This theory is
the more admissible fi'om the fact that in the region under con-
sideration, between Lat. 69° and 72°, nimicrous largo beds of
lignite, as well as graphite, occur, especially in the Island of
Disko, in which Ovifak is situated.

In a paper on the anomalous magnetic characters of iron-sesqui-
oxidc iirepared from meteoric iron, communicated in February last
to the French Academy, Dr. Lawrence Smith announces that the
investigation of this iron, on which he is at present occupied, has
convinced him that the Ovifak metallic masses are of terrestrial
origin.

The fact, observed by Nordenskjold and Wohler, of the evolu-
tion of a large amount of gas by Ovifak iron when heated, led
these observers to the conclusion that it could never have been

».,i^ . ° draws attention to a Z^hI '° ""nosplicrc.

depositing <».'bot mrtlv •r""''''',''''''^' <""'^<»"« o^Me bre:i; "™"
limate mixture with •■'^ " combination with im, „ ,7 . "'''

J- keen fouLd roerr-4'Sci»'"r"" '« " -S ^tL ll."
i'lgh temperatures. ^"" » ^^^s not take place at very

to ta \::i' terS''^"'"'"-^ "f ■"^'eone iron ,„,, , .
p. 324, &c ) T,, ""^ possession of tlie ]?",•'* ^o'" "me

'bese i,„,lmr,„t ."'"''' («"««»■• de 1872^ VJ?'""'"!"^'^

'bese implements ,e» „t ,i*"'ssion de 1872) p„,. «

nature ledel'Z T" ^'«'^"«u^>ourf,L • °' "-'"'■O'' oi

"73,;%t pi t ""■ ' ^■"'^^' 2e s^i: Tom:tr2^ L;::s;n"

CllYOCONITE found I«7^rT~i

Auleitsivik Ford n.^l "ry^ i9th-25th, ou in].,,,,,:,

i.at 80 N., Long. 15° E> ' ^^> ^^^^y September

-nearly in December 187i fi
the iieighbourliood oP 4;/ 1 , , ^^'*"=' '' honvier f-dl nP
wU.unthmej4:;f/-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

* A. E. NordenTkMc^iri. 7^^---^^— -1^"^'^"*^^ to Norden-

''^^''^"''•'''mmmmimi^

402

DI?. W. FLIOHT, GREENLAND METEORITES.

Ik

skjold an opportunity of dotciiuining whcthci' the snow bronglit
coKiuicnl matter to the earth's surface. A cubic metro of appa-
rently pure snow, collected towards the end of the fall, left on
melting a small black residue. From some of this substance,
when heated, a liquid product distilled over; a portion when
burnt left a red ash ; while a magnet extracted particles whicli,
when rubbed in an agate mortar, exhibited metallic characters,
and on being treated with acid proved to be iron. Although the
possibility must be admitted that this material may have been
derived from the chimneys and iron roofs of the city, already
covered with a thick layer of snow, the result was sufficiently in-
teresting to make it desirable that a similar experiment should be
tried with snow fulling remote from towns. For this purpose
snow was collected on the 13th March 1872, by Dr. Karl Nor-
denskjold at P^voia, in Finnland, to the north of Ilelsingfors, and
in the centre of a large forest. It was taken from off the
ice of the Rautajerwi, tit a spot whicli is separated by a dense
wood from the houses of that northern station. When melted,
this snow yielded a soot-like residue, which under the niiscro-
scope was found to consist not only of a black carbonaceous sub-
stance, but white or yellowish-white granules, and from it the
niiignet removod black grains, which when rubbed in a mortar were
sciOn to bo iron. Here again the material was too small in amount
to allow of a determination of the presence of nickel and cobalt ;
in other words, to establish the meteoric origin of the metal. Tlio
Arctic Expi>dition of 1872 presented an opportunity for the col-
lection of snow in a region as far removed as possible from hinnp.n
habitation. On the 8th August, the snow covering the drift ice
at Lat. 80° N. and Long. 18° E. was observed lo be thickly
covered with small black particles, while in places tlicse pene-
trated, to a depth of some inches, the granular mass of ice into
Avhich the underlying snow had been converted. Magnetic par-
ticles were abunilant, and their power to reduce copper-sulphate
Avas established. Again, on the 2nd September, at Lat. 80° N,
and Long. 15° E., the ice-field was found covered with a bed of
freshly fallen snow, oO mm. thick, then a more compact bed
8 mm. in thickness, and below this a layer 30 mm. thick of snow
converted into a crystalline granular mass. The latter was full of
black granules, which became grey when diied, and exhibited
the magnetic and chemical characters already mentioned ; they
amounted to 0-1 to 1-0 millegramme in a cubic metre of snow.
Analysis of some millegrammes enabled Nordenskjold to establish
the presence of iron, phosphorus, cobalt, and probably nickel.
The filtrate from the iron-oxide gave a small brown precipitate,
which gave a blue bead Avith borax. The portion insoluble in
acid consisted of ?me angular colourless matter, containing frag-
ments of Diatoms. This dust from the polar ice North of Spitz-
bergen bears a great resemblance to the remarkable substance,
cryoconite,* Avhich was found in Greenland in 1870, very evenly

G

* A. E. Nordenskjold. An Account of an Expedition to Greenland ;
vol. MiKj. vol. ix. p. 353. See also above, p. 395.

DR. W. FLTOTTT, OREENLAND METEORITES.

46J5

(pitz-

111 CO,

[only

land ;

distributed in not inconsiderable quantity on shore-ice, as well on
ico thirty miles from the coast and at a height of 700 metres
above the sea. The dust of both localities has probably a common
origin.

The cryoconite is chiefly met with in the holes of the ice, form-
ing a layer of grey powder at the V)ottoni of the water tilling the
holes. Considerablt' quantities of this substance are often carried
down by the streams which traverse the glacier in all directions.
The ice-hills which feed these streams lie towards the east, on a
slowly rising undulating plateau, on the surface of which not tin;
slightest trace of stone or larger rock -masses was observed. The
actual position of this material, to wliich Nordenskjold has given
the name of cryoconite (/cp'os ice, and ko'h? dust), in ojien hollows
on the surface of the glacier, precluded the possibility of its luiv-
ing been derived from the ground beneath.

The grey powder contained a not inconsiderable amount of or-
ganic matter, which, (iveii at the low temperature of the ice, under-
goes putrefactive decomposition. A quantity, amounting io (Vom
two to three cubic metres, which was lying in the dried-up bed of
a glacier-stream, emitted u very offensive odour, bearing some
resemblance to tliat of butyric acid.

When examined with the microscope, the chief constituent oi'
this powder appears to consist of colourless, crystalline, angular,
transjiarent grains, among which are a few yellow and less trans-
parent. Some had distict cleavage-surfaces, and were ])()ssibly a
I'elsjiar ; other crystal fragments, having a green colour, wi're
probably augite ; while oilier black, opaque* particles could be re-
moved Avith a magnet. These foreign eonstitutents, lunvevei'.
are present in so small a quantity that, if all the white grains con-
sist of one and the same mineral, it may be regarded as homo-
geneous. The specific gravity of this mineral is 2-6'ii ; the hard-
ness apparently inconsiderable, and the form probably monoclinie.
It resists the action of acids ; by long digestion with sulphuric
acid 7*73 per cent., with hydrochloric acid l()*4(j per cent, were
dissolved. Lime-carbonate Avas not present. According to
Lindstrom's analysis, it consists of-

Silicic acid -

-

62-65

Potash

2-02

Phosphoric acid

-

O-II

Soda

4-01

Alumina

-

14-93

Chlorine

0-06

Iron oxide -

-

0-74

Water (hygroscopic)

0-34

Iron protoxide

-

4-64

Organic matter and

Manganese protoxide

0-07

combined Avater* -

2-86

Lime
Magnesia

O-09
3-00

••

100-12

This composition corresponds with the formula :

2RO,Si02 + AlgOg.SSiOa -f HgO.

The origin of this cryoconite is highly enigmatical. That it is
not a product of the Aveatliering of the gneiss of the coast is shoAvn

* This passed off when the uiiueial was heatcil to teiiii)eraturi;H ranging
from 100' to a letl heat,

; -lii

I-

111

;«•

\^^

••l«liil>»i|[ Vni:«i,

mtmrnemt^

464

DR. W. FLiaUT, OltEKNLAND METEOIUTES.

by its iiiforior hanlnoss, iiKlinatinj; tlin al)Sf>nco of quart;;, the
\m'<xo propDrtioii oT sod.i, and tijo i'act of inici not buiiijij [)ro.sont.
Tliat it is not dust d(M'ivo(l from tlio basalt aroa of (j-roojilaiul is
indicated by tlio stibordiiiato [)j.-utio;i iivjii-oxido oecLi|)ios amoiij^
the codstitucuts, as well as by the iar^o proportion of siliuio acid.
Wo have then to tall 1) ick on tlio assuinplioii that it is either of
volcanic or cosniical origin.

That dust may bo carried ininieiisa distances has been well
established. Darwin* refers to instances of its having fallen ou
ships when more than a thousand miles from the coast of Africa,
and at points sixteen luindnHl miles distant in a north and
south direction. If the (Greenland dust were volcanic, it would
probably have been wafted from Iceland or Jan Mayen, or some
as yet uidcnown volcanic region in the interior of Greenland.
Nordenskjold found it to bear the closest resemblance, under tho
microscope, to] tho ash of Vesuvius (1822), and to a specimen of
that which fell at Barbadoes and probably came from St. Vincent.
Looked at in the mass, however, it is at once seen that tho
volcanic ash is of a brownish red ; the cryocouitc is grey. The
magnet when placed in contact with tho Vesuvian ash tailed to
extract anything ; out of that from IJarbadoos it drew magnetic
particles, which, however, were not metallic, nor did they contain
nickel or cobalt.

The cryoconite, nevertheless, whencesoever it comes, contains ono
constituent of cosniical origin. Nordenskjold extracted, by means
of the magnet, from a large quantity of material, sufficient particles
to determine their metallic nature and composition. Those grains
separate copper from a solution of the sulpliate, and exhibit con-
clusive indications of the presence of cobalt (not only before tho
blowpipe, but with solution of potassium-nitrite), of copper, and
of nickel, though in tho latter case with a smaller degree of
certainty, through the reactions of this metal being of r less
delicate character. Moreover, ammonia removes from cryoconite
a humus-like substance which, among other characteristics, in its
powers of resisting powerful oxidising reagents, closely resembles
the organic compound found in the residue of Ovifak iron after
treatment with acid.

Hail, Avhich fell at Stockholm in the autumn of 1873, was found
by Nordenskjold to contain grey metallic particles that reduced
copper from its sulphate. Although the roofs of the buildings
surrounding the Academy, in the courtyard of which these hail-
stones fell, are of iron, the grains were rounded, and of light
colour, instead of a reddish-brown. The observation is of sufficient
interest to allow of its being placed on record.

It has been shown that small quantities of a cosniical dust,
containing iron, cobalt, nickel, phosphorus, and carbonaceous
substances, fall with other atmospheric precipitates on the earth's
surface. Nordenskjold, in his paper, alludes to the theory, already
advanced, we believe, by llaidinger, that this deposit may play an

* C. Darwhi. Journal of Researches of a Naturalist ; Voyage of H. M.S.
"Beagle" uew c:l., Itt70, p. 5.

T

^^

U'tz, tllC

|)ro.seiit.
nliuid is

3iu ac'ul.
lithor of

3CU well
fallen ou
Africa,
>rth tinil
it would
or some
•eenlaiul.
nder tlio
cimen of
Vincent,
that the
y. The
tailed to
nagnetic
' contain

tains one
by means
particles
JO grains
jit con-
ore the
ler, and
egree of
r less
yoconite
in its
sembles
)n after

s found
educed
lildings
ic hail-
f light
fficient

dust,

jaceous

Icarth's

dready

)lay an

DK. W. FLIOIIT, OUEENLAND METEORITES.

4(55

t

If

<

important part in the eoonomy of nature in supplying phosphorus
to soils already exhausted by the growth of crops. His observa-
tions, moreover, are of value through the light they throw on the
theories of star-showers, aurora;, &c. The small but continuous
increase of the mass of our planet, which ap|)eara to take place,
may lead students of geology to modify the view at present held,
that from the time of the first appearance of vegetable and animal
life upon our planet it has undergone no ciiange, in a quantitative
sense ; in other words, that the geological changes Avhich have
occurred have been confined to a difference in the distribution of
material, and not to the introduction of new material from without.

When the instances of the fall of soot-like particles, blood-rain,
sulphur-showers, «&c., which have from time to time been de-
scribed, are considered, the view pronounced by Chladni, that
these phenomena arc due to the precipitation of largo quantities
of cosmical dust, appears of great import. The black carbona-
ceous substances which fell with the Ilessle meteorites, and coated
some of them, may be quoted as an illustration. Some meteo-
rites, moreover, are so loose and friable in texture that they arc
very readily reduced to powder, as the Ornans meteorite (1868,
July 11th), while that which fell at Orgeuil (1864, May 14th)
breaks up when placed in water. If this stone had not fallen on
a day when the atmosphere was dry, portions, if not the whole of
it, would probably have reached the earth's surface in the form
of powder. These atmospheric deposits may have a very varied
composition. The dust which fell in Calabria, in 1817,* con-
tained chvomium. The reil rain that fell at Blankenberg, in
Flanders,f in 1819, owed its colour to the presence of cobalt-
chloride.

In 1872 three papers were published in the Comptes Rendu&,\
on the origin of polar auroras, which called forth one from
Baumhauer,§ where he refers to a theory as to their origin pro-
pounded in his thesis De ortu lapidum mctcoricorum (Utrecht,
1844). After having shown the connexion which apparently
exists between the planets, their satellites, the comets, the shoot-
ing-stars, the meteorites (" qui^pour moi, soiit de petites planetcs "),
and the zodiacal light, a disc of asteroids or cosmical matter massed
together near the sun, he gives expression to the following views
respecting the polar aurorai : Not only solid masses, large and
small, but clouds of " uncondcnscd " matter probably enter our
atmosphere (probabile etiam est nebulas materiei primigeniai sine
nucleo condensato in atmosphajram venire). If from our know-
ledge of the chemical composition of the stones and irons which

* L. Sementini. Atti delta lieale Acad, dclle Scienze, 1819, i. 285 ;
Gilberts Ah71., Ixiv. 327.

f Meyer and Van Stoop, Gilbert's Ami., Ixiv. 335.

X LeMarechal Vaillant, Compt. Itend.y Ixxiv. 510 ami 701. — J. Silbermann,
Compt. Bend., Ixxiv. 553,638, 959, and 1182.— H. Tarry, Compt. Rend., Ixxiv.
549.

§ E. II. Vou Baumbaucr, Compt, Bend,, Ixxiv. 678.

3G122. O O

■M'l

'll

Vim»ii«»iii[

im*

4GG

DU. W. FLiailT, GllEKNLAND METEOIUTES.

fall to the onrth's surfncc, wo may draw any conclusion icspcctino;
tlie chemical constitution of these clouds of matter, it appears
possihlo that, as many of these stones consist partly, uiul the irons
almost entirely, of irou and nickel, the attenuated cloud-liku
matter may also contain a considerable proportion of these
magnetic metals.

Let such a cloud, the greater part of the constituents of which
luivo magnetic characters, approach our eaith, which we have
been taught to regard as u great magnet : it will evidcsntly be
attracted towards the poles of this magnet, and, penetrating our
atmosphere, the particles which have not been oxidised and an^ in
a state of extremely lino division will, by their oxidation, gene-
rate light and heat, the result being the i)henomenon which we
term a polar aurora. Observations have shown that the seat of
tln!se phenomena is about, not the geographical, but the magnetic
poles. Not a few facts, even at that time, could be advanced in
support of the theory, which assumes the occasional presence of
metallic particles in the higher regions of our atmosphere. Mor(^
than once such particles had been discovered in a fall of hail.
Eversmanu* found in tlu; hailstones which fell on the 11th June,
1825, at Stcrlitaniak, 200 wersts from Orenburg, Siberia, crystals
of a conij)Ound of iron and sulpliur, in whicli Hermann found
90 per cent, of that metal. f lu hail which fell in the province
of Majo in Spain on the 21st »Iunc 1821, Pictet J found metallic
nuclei whicli were proved to be iron ; and the hail wliich fell in
Padua on the 26th August 1834, was observed to contain nuclei
of an ashy grey colour. The larger ones were shown by Cozari §
to be attracted by the magn<}t, and to contain iron and nickel.
" It would," wrote Baundianor, " be very interesting, in veiifica-
" tion of this theory of the origin of polar aurora), to detect in
" the soil of polar areas the presence of nickel." This theory,
which at the time it was promulgated appeared so rash that it
met with severe criticism by the great Berzelius,|| has gained
support from recent researches ; among others, the discovery by
Heis of the simultaneity of boreal and austral aurorcc, the relation
between the aurora; and the meteor-showers, the i)erturbations of
the telegraph-lines, which not only accompany, but forecast, an
auroral display ; and the identity of the light, principally that of

* E. Von Eversmanu, ^/t/u'i; /mV die (jcsamintc Naturlehre, iy, 196. — A.
Neljubin, ArchivfUr die yesammte Naturlehre, x. 378. — R. Ilermnnu, Gilbert's
Ami., Ixxvi. 340.

t Though Von Baumhaucr cites this instance, it does not appear tluit the
metallic character of the " crystals " -vvas fully established iii this case. Nel-
jubin found them to consist of 70 per cent, iron-oxide, and 17* 5 per cent, of
other metallic oxides. In fact, this substance appears to have been an impure
limonite, like that which fell at Iwan, in Hungary, on the 10th of August
1841, and was probably not meteoric.

t Pictet, Gilbert's Attn., Ixxii. 436.

§ D. L. Cozari, Ann. Sc. Reyn. Lomb,, 1834, Nov. e Dec. ; New Ed. Phil.
Jour,, xxxvii. 83.

II Jahresbericht, xxvi. (1847), 386.

I>-1

tf^

\

I

ss.

rcspeclinj;

it appcHi's

l1 tlio irons

cloud-liku

of these

s of which
1 wc liavo
.'idnntly be
rating our
and nro in
tion, gonc-
whlch we
the scat of
B magnetic
Ivancc'd in
irosencc of
n-o. Mor((
ill of linil.
1 1th June,
in, crystals
mn found
' province
d metallic
ich fell in
ain nuclei
y CoziU'i §
id nickel.
\n vcrifica-
detect in
is theory,
Ih that it
|is gained
povery by

relation
Rations of
fccast, an

that of

196.— A,
I, GilherVs

Ir tluit the
Ise. Ncl-
|r cent, of
lin iinpure
If August

Id. Phil.

Dll. W. FLIGHT, OUEENLAND METEOIIITKS.

'iu;

fi-i

\

1^

tho green portion of the spectrum, iu zodiucal uml auroral lighl,
as estahlishcd by Uespighi.*

In connexion with this subject, reference shouhl be made to
the discovery by Reichenbach some years sinct; of the presence of
nickel in soila. From the Lahisberg in Austria, a conical hill
some 3(M) to 4(K) metres in heighl, and covered to the sumnut
with beech-trees, he took samples of soil from the thick inider-
wood, and fouml thcn'in traces of nickel and cohalt. Other
specimens Irom the llaindelberg, Kallenberg, and Dreymarck-
steinberg, mljacent hills, yielded the same n-sults, and that from
tho Marchfeld plain also revealed tracea of nickel. These hills
consist of beds of sandstone and limestone, and are (piito free from
metallic vchis. It has already been suggested that impoverished
soils juay have their fertilising powers renewed by the preeipitu-
tiou of cosmical matter containing phosphorus.

lai

CO

LVI. — Abstract of " Geological Notes on the Noursoak
Peninsula, Disco Island, and the Country in tho
VrciNiTY of Disco Bay, Greenland, by Dr. Rorkjit
BiioWN, F.L.S., F.II.G.S., etc." "Transact. Geological
Soe. of Glasgow," vol. v., 1875. By Pennissiou.

I. — Intkoduction.

The author prefaces these notes on the geology of Mid-Greon-
iid,f Avith a succinct account of the history of geclogii'al (lis-
very in Greenland; namely, (1.), by Sir C. L, Gii-secke, early in
this century, who collected largely, and left many i>ul)lished and
MS. observations ; (2.), Dr. Piugel,J 1828 ; (3.), Dr. II. liink,§

* ]<osi)i<fbi, Compt, Rend., Ixxiv. ,514. — The grccii I'ay is that known as
1241 in liirchhoft's scale; and near it is another of loss biilllaucy, iy:i() in
i\w same scale.

t Greenlaiul is divided by the Danish Governinont, who maintain a mono-
poly of the trade np to 73" N. lat., into the North and South Inspeetorutes ;
the former embracing all the coast-line north of lat. 6G ', tho latter all south
of that parallel. The region Dr. Ikown is describing may be termed, Mid<lIo
Greenland, he says, as it lies between the parallels of 68^ 30' and 71' N.
lat.

X With Capt. Graah. Sea " Undersogelscs-lleise til Ostkysten af GrOnland
efter Kongl. Befaling udfort i Aarene, 1828-31, 1832." Translated into
English by G. G. Macdougall, 1837. See also "Proceed. Geol. Soc. London,"
vol. ii. p. 208.

§ " Om den geographiske Beskaffenhcd af de danske Ibuidels-distrikter i
Nordgronland" : Udsigt over Nordgronlands Geognosie (Det Kongl. danske
Vidensk. Selskab. Sk., 3 Bind, 1853, p. 71). In all, Dr. Rink resided 22
summers and 16 winters in Greenland. Also " Journal of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society," vol. xxiii. and vol. xxviii. ; " Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift"
(3rd series), 1852, itc, ; " Grunland geographisk og statistisk beskrevet,"
2 vols. ; and " Eskinioiske Eventyv og Sugn ovcrsatte efter de Inludte I'or-
ttcllercs Opskrifter og Meddelelser."

a a 2

:m

=|i4p

4i'

niK)WN ON NOUUSOAK PHNlNSirLA, &C.

lHr>2, See. ; (4.), Lntor explorers in Expeditions from 18i';2 to IS67,
('Hpcciuily SntJMMland, In(:rlt>ii(>l(l, Kunr, un<l Ilivyos; C. J. M. Olrik,
Whympor, ivnd Brown, 1H()7 ; NonlciiHkjiild, IJcr^gnMi, Nordstrom,
and Oberg,* 1870; J. (>. llolulo and K. J. V. Stoon.strup,t 1H72;
(5.), Scoresby and tho German Expeditions, for East (trccnland.

II.— -Genekal Geology ok Gueenland (p. 8).

' 1. Primitive and Mctamorphic Rocks. — These arc chiefly gneis«,
mica-schist, hornblende-schist, syenite, «fec., pi(!rced by granitic
veins, and arc the most widely distribute*! ol' all the Greenland
formations, exten<ling from tho extreme north to the south of
Greenland, with the exception of a few patches occupied ])y traps
and Miocene beds and tho Igalliko Sandstone. Th(^y rraeh to
4,000 feet in height, and form the r()(!k almost everywhere seen
protruding from beneath tho " inland " or eontinentnl ico which
covers tho interior of the country. The aspects of the count ly
occupied by this rock are, rounded bosses of hills, ice-plane<l, with
mossy valleys or glaciers protruding to the sea. Rarely does it
form the jagged peaks and more varied scenery of the trap-rocks,
though sometimes rising into high hills.

In this formation are found all the economic minerals of Green-
land ; such as Steatite, used to make the lanii)s and other domeslic
ware of tho natives, though this manufacture is greatly on the
decrease, and Cryolite, a mineral of great and increasing value.
The mineral was originally brought to the notice of mineralogists
by Giesecke ;% but it was not until a comparatively recent period,
chi(!fly owing to the energy of Mr. Tayler of J^ondon, now of
Prince Edward's Island, and the Messrs. Thoniscn of Copenhagen,
that its value has been properly developed. The mineral derives
its name from x/)to;, ice, from its property of melting in tho flame
of a candle. It is a crystalline mineral, viiiyiiig in colour from
snow-white when pure to almost black when mixed with extraneous
substances, probably, according to Eriglok, graphite, as the
colouring matter disappears when the mineral is heated. In
chemical composition it is a double fluoride of sodium and alumi-
nium : Aluminium, 13*0; Sodium, 32-8 ; Fluoruie, 54*2. It is
valuable as an ore of aluminium, and is now exported in gi-eat
quantities to America and Europe, chiefly to Copenhagen, where
it is applied to a variety of purposes. In 18(il 30 ships were sent
from Greenland with cryolite. From a recent repoit by Mi-. Paul
Quale we learn that the chief veins at present worked are situated
at Iviktout or Ivigtot on the south side of Arsuk Fjord, in South

o

* " Redogorelse for en Expedition till Gronlaud Ar 1870," af A. E. Nor-
deuskjold (Ofversigt af K. Vet.-Akad., FOrh. 1870, No. 10; and as a separate
publication, Stockholm, 1871). It has been translated, apparently by Professor
Nordenskjold liiniself, in " The Geological Magazine," July, August, Sep-
tember, October, and November, 1872.

t Teterraann's " Geograph. Mittheil," 1874, p. 142 ; and " Om dc Kuhl-
forende Dannelser paa Oen Disko, Ilareiicn og Syd-Siden af Niigssuak's
Ilalvoen i Nord-Gronland," Af K. J. V. Steenstrup, &c. «' Vidcnsk. Medd.
fra den Naturh. Forening i Kjobeuhavu, 1874, No. 3-7.

% See above, p. 341. — Editor.'

f>3

4^

^

to 1867,
Vl.Olrik,
ti'ilstroin,
),t 1H72;
sunlaud.

ly gnois",

granitic

U'eenlund

south of

by trai>B

reach to

lioro socii

ico which

p ccHUilry

,ne«l, with

ly (Iocs it

•jip-rockH,

)f Grecii-

clonipstic

ly on the

ing viihic.

E. Nor-

sepanite

i'lofessor

[list, Sep-

le Kuhl-
Igssuak's
\i. Mudd.

BROWN ON NOURSO.VK PENINSULA, &CV

469

w>yi

^^

firooiiland, in 6r 13' N. lat. and 48^^ 9' W. long. (Green.)
The surfaces of tlic vein of cryolite was originally covered with ii
layer of earth, clay, and gravel, which Iteing removed, the v<'in is
exposctl. Its greatest length is ahotit <)(H) feet, hreadth ahont
loO feet, and the extent ahont o3.(MK) euhic feot. It is composed
of two i)arts, one close to the fjord, the other to the east, and
separated hy a rock from 5 to lo feet high and about KM) K-et
broad ; it is continued in gneiss crossed in beveral parts by veins
or layers running from north-west to south. The principal
mineral in the vein is, of coiu'so, cryolit**, but as constatit accoui-
paniments are found <pmrtz, ironstone, lead-ore, sulphide of iron,
sidphur, arsenic, and tin-stone, though the last two are very rare.
These substances are not evcidy distributed through the nuiss;
but the cryolite is partly found (piite clean and lunnixed, while
larger and smaller quantities are fouiul containing more or less of
the above-mentioned minerals. A strip of the vein oidy a few feet
broad along the south and south-west boundary of the same is con-
spicuous for its richness in iron-stone and quartz, but especially
for lead-ore and sulphide of iron. The surrounding mountain is
also in certain places, viz., along the south-western l)oundary,
strongly impregnated with ores of lead, arsenic, tnntalite, molyb-
dona, and tin. In the cryolite, according to Mr. Quale, are found
pieces of the surrounding rock, both of granite and trap, and il-
thereforo appears that the cryolite is newer than the gneiss and
the trap. The mine during the winter is filled with ice und snow,
and all blasting must therefore cease from November to April. In
the summer and autumn, from May to October, the mine can bo
Avorked, except under unusually severe climatic conditions, and in
this time, witli a gang of about 50 men, about 5,000 tons of cryolite
can be had. There is considerable difficulty in keeping the work-
men in health ; but from what I can learn there need be no imme-
diate fear of a failure of the mineral, though its distribution is
exceedingly local, being almost entirely confined, except in small
quantities, to the fjord mentioned. Excepting a small amount
found at Miask in Siberia, the mineral is confined to Greenland.*

* III addition to the report quoted (Smithsonian Keport, 18CG) ami a
report issued" On the Resources of Icehmd and Greenhuid" hy the United
States Government (1868), for further particuhirs regardinj; the geology and
economic vahie of cr5-olite, we may refer to the work of liiuk already men-
tioned, and the three following works in Danish : — L. Jacobsen's " Et Aar i
Gronland," with sections and plans (18G2) ; E. Bluhme's " Fra et OjihoM i
Griinland," 1863-1864 (1865), and V. Vallii's " Gronland" (No. xxxiv. of the
" Danskc Folkeskrifter,'' 1861), as well as certain papers by Lieut. Bluhme
(of which the above work by him is merely a reprint), in the Danish Magazine
" Fra alle Laude," vol. i. Many details of the chemical and other charac-
teristics of cryolite and its derivative aluminium may be found in numerous
reports and communications scattered through various scientific periodicals,
by Wohler, II. St. Clair Deville, II. Rose, Bunsen, Charles N. A. Tissier, ,1.
W. Tayler, C. Brunner, Salvetat, Sahn-IIorstmar, Erdmann, lleeren and
Karmarsch, N. Debreeq, Mallet, Batf, II. Masson, Kobell, Bondet, Schiitter,
liirzcl, Degousse, Fabian, Christofle, Sauerwein, J. Thomsen, Scherer, A.
Strange, 11. Wagner, Dallo, C. Ilegemaun, and others. Deville has published
a separate work, " De rAluminium" (Paris, 1859), and Tissier, a "Guide
Pratique de la Fabrication dc rAlumiuiuin."

470

BUOWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

Graphite is found in considerable quantities at Karsok and
Niakornak, on the Noursoak Peninsula, and on some of the islands
lying off the Greenland coast, but hitherto it has not been found
profitable to export it to Europe.

The basalt or trap extends right across the country north of
69° N. lat., and appears to date from Ttitiary periods. It is par-
ticularly well developed in Disco Island and the Noursoak penin-
sula, covering an area of some 7,0(X) square miles, and rising in
Homo places to a height of 6,000 feet. Near Disco these traps
overlie the gneiss. Properly speaking, the Disco Bay traps are
not masses of lava, but " consolidated beds of ashes and volcanic
sand," which in time by pressure have assumed a crystalline
character, a fact pointed out also by Nordenskjold. In the pecu-
liarly disintegrating climate of Greenland the trap speedily decom-
poses. With these trap-rocks are almost invariably associated the
Miocene and Cretaceous beds.*

2. The Red Smulstone. — This was originally discovered and
described by Pingel,f and is only foimd in the fjords of Igalliko
and Tuimudleorbik in about 61° N. lat. It is probably Devonian,
but owing to the absence of fossils the age of this interesting for-
mation cannot be accurately determined. The rock is, for the
most part, firm and hard in structure," and is composed of fused
quartz particles. It appears to be very local, but perhaps is partly
concealed under the continental ice.

3. Carboniferous. — The coal long known in Greenland belongs
to a period much more recent than the true " Carboniferous." In
1870 and 1871, however, the Swedish Expedition, as well as my
friend Dr. Georg PfafF, the inspecting surgeon, for many years
resident in Greenland, discovered Sigillaria,^ a Pecoptcns (.?), &c.,
on the Disco shore at Ujarasasuk. These fossils, probably belong-
ing to the true Carboniferous period, have, however, been as yet
only found in travelled blocks, net in rocks in situ^ so that the
existence of the Carboniferous fc raation in Greenland is still
problemjitical. They may have drifted in ice from the Carboni-
ferous strata of Melville Island. Ono of these ])lants, sent me by
Dr. Pfliff, I submitted to the inspection of Mr. llobert Etheridge,
juu., F.G.S., Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of Scotland,
who says : " The fossil is unfortunately only a blackened cast of

the Fern itself, all the vegetable matter having apparently
" vanished, except along the rachis, Avhere a little carbonized
" material still remains. Its characters are rendered yet more
" indistinct from the nature of the matrix, a fine-grained grit. The
Fern appears to be allied to those figured by Heer under the
name of Gleichenia {G. Giesechianay Hr., G. Zippei, Corda,
" G. Einkiana, Hr., &c.), but I think not identical with any of
'* them ; more probably a new species of either Gleichenia or

* For an excellent description of the basalt of Greenland see Nordenskjold,
" Gcol. Mag." vol. ix., pp. 421, &;c.

t " Afliand. Videnskab. Selskah. Skrifter," 1828.

% Noticed also by Prof. C). Heer in his " Beitragc zur Stcinkohlen-Flora
der arktiscbe Zone," p. 10, note. — Editou. ■ -

(<

«

wa

i

BROWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

471

rsok and
he islands
jen found

north of
It is pur-
>ak penin-

rising in
cse traps

traps are
1 volcanic
jrystalline

the pecu-
ly decom-
iciated the

?^ered and
>f Ij];alliko
Devonian,
BSling for-
is, for the
I of fused
s is partly

id belongs
ous." In
ell as my
any years

5(?),&C.,

|ly belong-

en as yet

o that the

d is still

Carboni-

nt ine by

theridge,

Scotland,

ed cast of

parently

rbonized

ct move

^rit. The

nder the

i, Corda,

|h any of

henia or

fdenskjold,
Lien-Flora

rm

m^

m

" Pecopteris. The whole of the nervation has disappeared, so
" that 1 think it would be somewhat hazardous to describe it as a
" new species simply on the two specimens in your possession."

4. Cretaceous. — This formation in Greenland has only been
recently separated from the Miocene formation, with Avhich it is
associated. It is, as far as we yet know, only found in the vicini<y
of Kome or Koke, on the Omenak Fjord, in about 70° N. Int.,
though traces have been found on Disco and clsewlierc.

5. 3Iioccne. — This formation (included by Rink* in his " Trap-
formation med kulforende Lag "), in West Greenland, is confined
to the vicinity of the Waigat Strait and the west coast of Disco
Bay, and is the chief subject of this paper.

6. Qtiaternary Deposits. — These consist of peats at present in
process of slow formation, and of beds of clay, with scattered
boulders, shells, and other marine remains, the exact counterpart
of the laminated fossiliferous, brick-clays in Scotland. These are
described by the author in the " Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
logical Society of London" (February 1871), and in " Das Inuero
der Gronland," Petermann's " Geog. Mittheil.," 1871.

III. — The Miocene Beds oe Greenland (p. 13).

The existence of fossil plants of relatively recent date in strata
on the shores of the Waigat Strait was known to Giesecke ; but
he was unaware of their exact age and significance — supposing
them to be identical with, or nearly allied to, the ordinary Sorbus
aucupaHa and Angelica qj[ficinalis, now growing on Disco Island.f
It was not until MM. Olrik and Rink had sent some of the speci-
mens to Europe that their nature was apprehended. Subsequently
through the exertions of Captain (now Admiral) Inijloficld, R.N.,
Dr. Lyall, R.N., and Dr. David Walker^f the " Fox " Expedition
— aided by M. Olrik, several specimens reached England, and
these with those already in the Copenhagen Museum were, with
the other Arctic plants, descril)ed in Proiessor Heer's very im-
portant work, " Flora fossilis arctica " (1867). A general resume of
his results was given by him in the " Journal of the Royal Dublin
Society," vol. v. pp. 69, &c., for 1867.

After explaining the circumstances of his visit to Noursoak, in
company with Mr. E. Whymper, Mr. A. P. Tegner, two other
Danes, and several natives, in 1867, Dr. R. Brown proceeds to give
notes from bis journals.

1. Atanakcrdluk, Lat. 70° 2' 30" N., Long. 52° 1,5' 3" W.—
The rock seen on the shores of th(> mainland when coasting from
Jakobshavn (llulissat) to this locality is the gneiss, sometimes
rising into hills 1 ,400 feet in height, but generally in low i-ounded
hills, with mossy valleys ; the hills covered with boulders, and
smoothed by ice-action. The rocks are ban;, except where coated
with a mossy covering of Lichens, while here and there, on

* ** Gronland," vol. ii., App., p. 13P. Sec further on, p. 497.
t See *' Florula Discoana," above, p. 256.

'!«•»

"^ ">^f'i(M^$'V'l(t'^rV.'pnitiMti»i

ItJIiamiiiMamm^..

472

BROWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

V ^

jjlaces where a peaty soil has accumulated, the Arctic Birch
(Betula nana), Willow {Salix, various species), Andromeda^
Vaccinium, oi\Croyfherry {Empctrum) creep in such unwonted
profusion that in the height of summer some more favoured spots
seem almost to support the florid title which Erik llanthri gave to
the country he Avas the first European to land on. Everywhere
the dreary marks of present or former ice-action are apparent.

The first exposure of trap-rock noticed was at Akpaet (Riten-
bcnk, Lat. 69*' 45' 34 N., Long. 51° 7' W.), appearing also on
Arve-Prince Island. Such Tertijiry igneous rocks continue as far
as 76° N. Lat. To the south older traps are known to exist.

At Atanekerdluk,* on the north coast of the Waigat,f the shore
consists of a strip of sandy beach, backed by lofty trap cliff's,
sloped and ravined, from 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, and traversed
with white streaks of Miocene beds. The chief locality for fossils
here is on the side of u hill,| about 1,154 feet above the sea, mostly
in fragments of hard ferruginous shale, resisting disintegration
better than the associated shales and sandstones.§

Dr. Brown, ascending the ravine of the Ekadluk stream, made
the following section (p. 21) : —

Section along the Course of the Stream at Atanekerdluk : General
Strike of the Strata E.N.E., Dip as noted.

1. 6 feet (?) : sandstone, dip 32° (concealed by debris, and
probably resting on trap).

2. Shaly coal (?), 10 inches.

3. Seam of lignitic coal, 14 inches.

4. Shale with faint vegetable impressions, 16 inches.

5. Hard clayey shale, broken into splintery angular pieces, 10
inches.

6. 20 feet: black shale, faint vegetable impressions.

* Esquimaux : " Rocks in the Sea " ; basalt rocks forming a skerry off
the sliore.

f Waygatz of the old Dutch ; Waigattet of the Danes ; Ikarcsoksoak of
the natives.

X The most northern of three peaks overlooking the bay. — Whympku,
" Ikit. Assoc. Rep. 18G9," p. 3.

§ A trench cut here, apparently in the talus of the hillside, gave the
following section to Mr. E. Whymper, " Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1869," p. 4: —

1 toot 7 inches.
8 inches.

8 inches.

9 inehoR.
6 inches.

1 . Light grey fine sand

2. Grey fine sand

3. White fine sand

4. Grey fine sand
.5. White fine sand
G. Yellow sand (not penetrated).

The plant-impressions were found in pieces of hard red clay in the uppermost
hcd or on the surface ; and also from hedr. 2, 3, and 4, in softer and more
brittle shales, and in lumps of hard iron-grey clay.

Mr. E. Whymper's Report on the Geology of this locality is given in the
" lirit. Assoc. Report" for 1869, p. 1, &c., and, vith Notes by Dr. R. IJrown,
in Prof. Hcer's Memoir on the fossil plants from Greenland in the " riiil.
Trans." for 1869, p. 446, inc. See also Nordcnskj old's Memoir, above, p. 432.
— Editou.

13)^

i

T

i

BROWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

473

fiiie-gi'aineil

saiulstoiio, with brownish specks

.Try off
;oak of

fMl'EU,

vc the

Irmost
more

[i tliu
roMii,

Iriiii.

, 4;32.

ca

i

f

i

7. 16 feet
dip 26°.

8. Shaly seam, intcrstratitied with sandstone in thiu layers,
6 inches.

9. 6 inches : sandstone in thin layers.

10. 1 inch : shale.

11. 18 inches : fine white sandstone.

12. 8 inches : soft shale.

13. 11 inches : shaly coal, dip 28^.

14. Soft black shale, 3 feet.

15. Soft white sandstone, 3 feet.

16. 4 inches : soft black splintery shales.

17. 2^ feet : hard sandstone.

18. 3 feet : white sandstone.

19. 2^ feet : splintery shale.

20. 10 inches : soft sandstone shale.

21. 4 feet : splintery shale; the section is here much hidden by
debris.

22. White soft sandstone, 3 feet.

23. Splintery shales, 6 feet.

24. Fine-grained brownish sandstone, 5 feet. Dip 27.',°.

25. Shaly beds, intermixed with some thin sandstones and hard
shale, covered with debris. I estimated the depth of these beds
to be about 150 feet.

26. 4 feet : white sandstone.

27. 60 feet : splintery shale.

28. 5 feet : white sandstone, dip 43°.

29. 8 feet : shale.

30. 16 feet : brown sandstone.

31. 3 feet : shales.

32. 5 feet : white sandstone.

33. 28 feet : black splintery shales.

34. 4 feet : shales.

35. Brown sandstone, exposed licvo and there, but the section
for about 150 feet is concealed by debris.

36. White sandstone was here exposed in either clifl", about
30 feet as far as could be seen. Dip 40°.

Here a dyke of trap (A) intersected the beds right across the
ravine, in a course N. 43° E. Mag., standing out in wall-like
masses of an average breadth of 12 feet, the angle al)out 5°.

37. Brownish sandstone. Dip as above. Partly concealed by
debris. Where in contact with the trap, this sandstone was but
little altered. In some cases it enclosed small pieces of the trap.
This sandstone has altogether, on either side of the dyke, an
average thickness of 30 feet.

38. Here, on the opposite (south) side of the ravine, were
several feet of shales interbeddcd with seams of coal and sandstone.
Not tmced on the north side on account of debris.

39. Hard fine sandstone, 3 feet.

40. Soft crumbling shales, 16 feet.

41. Thin seam of sandstone ; scaly sandstone, with black

y^

If

474

BROWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

shales ; thin sandstone ; laminated sandstone ; layers of sandstone ;
and irregular very thin black shale.

42. The section here becomes somewhat indistinct, but shows
about 40 feet of gritty white sandstone, with brownish stains at
the lower portion, and intermixed with an irregular seam of
conglomerate. Dip 27°.

43. Reddish sandstone, with an alkaline efflorescence.

44. 40 feet : splintery shales.

45. 3 feet : greyish sandstone, with specks of oxide of iron.

46. Black splintery shale, thin.

47. 5 feet : sandstone.

48. The section is continued on the south side of the ravine,
the north side being obscure. Here 8 feet of shales and sand-
stones, alternating in beds of from 1 to 2 inches in thickness, were
exposed. The topmost layer is black and soft, like shaly coal,
about 4i feet. Dip 28^

49. 7 feet : brown sandstone, irregular.

50. Slaty shale, 4 feet.

51. 7 feet : hard black sandstone shales, with indistinct vege-
table impressions.

52. 20 feet : shaly seams, alternating with thin layers of sand-
stone, one 16 inches thick.

53. 6 feet : white sandstone, with (near the top) slight layer of
black matter, looking like coal, and shaly matter, mixed as in
bed 52.

54. 30 feet : irregular seams of brownish sandstone and shales,
and 1 inch of soft shaly coal.

56. 6 feet : brownish sandstone, dip about 39°.
66. Shales, &c., 35 feet.

57. White gritty sandstone, dip 37°.

Here another trap dyke (B) cuts across at an angle of 8° ; the
stream tumbles over it in a waterfnll. Course of this dyke is
S.W. and N.E. ; average breadth 6 feet. The rock contiguous to
it (on the further side) is 57 bed, but the dyke also cuts across
58, 59, and a portion of 60 bed.

58. Black shale, with irregulnr seams of sandstone.

59. Six feet : white sandstone. At 59 the section is again con-
tinued on the north side of the ravine, where it is more distinct
than on the south side.

60. 3 feet : black splintery scaly shales.

61. 3 feet: white sandstone.

62. 10 feet : irregiUarly bedded shales and sandstone mixed —
faint fucoid-like impressions.

63. 25 feet : white sandston* ; 31° dip.

64. An irregular series of thin beds, as follows : —

4 feet : splintery shale ; 4 feet : white sandstone ; 8 feet : irre-
gular shales and sandstone ; 4 feet : white sandstone ; black shale ;
4 feet : Avhite sandstone ; and 6 feet : irregular shales^

65. 25 feet : white sandstone.

66. 10 feet : black splintery shale.

J^

r

i

ixed —

IITC-

Isliale ;

W3m

V

BROWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &;C. 475

67. 18 foet : shales nnd brownish sandstone with 1 inch scams
of shale.

68. 20 feet: soft shales.

69. 12 feet: hard grey sandstone.

70. 5 feet : laminated shales.

71. 10 feet: hard greyish sandstone.

72. 3 foet : shales and sandstones ; and 6 feet : stuidstone.

73. 8 feet : laminated shales and sandstones.

74. 8 feet : hard grey sandstone.

75. 80 feet : irregular shales, sandstones, «&e., so high up us to
be indistinct ; and below covered by d6bris.

76. Coal, 1 foot.

77. White sandstone, 2 feet.

78. Splintery shales, 4 feet.

79. Hard gi-eyish sandstone, 20 foet. A nari'ow spur from trap
dyke (C) runs perpendicularly through this.

80. Irregidar seams of sandstone, shale, &c., about 2.> loot.

81. Hard grey sandstone, mostly washed by tho torrent.
Between this and 82 a trap dyke (C; runs. Its course is N.

Mag., rising in the direction of the Atjmekerdluk basaltic lieudland,
intersecting the beds at an acute angle, and about at right angles
to " A" and « B " dykes.

82. Irregular beds of sandstone shales, to about 45 feet.

83. Grey sandstone, 8 feet.

84. Brownish, hard sandstone, 4 feet.

85. Black shaly coal (?), 6 feet.

86. White gritty sandstone, with perhaps a layer of shale
intervening, 60 feet.

Leaving the ravine. Dr. Brown crossed to a ravine, which
unites with the main valley at dyke " C," and thence ho continued
the section : —

87. Here were exposed, from the bed of the stream to near the
pinnacled summit of the hill, about 80 feet of brown sandstone
shales, clayey iron-stone, or sidorite (in Avhich the fossil impres-
sions are chiefly found), coal, &c. In ascending order they were
as follows : —

a. Splintery shales, 12 feet; h. Bed of coal, 2 feet; c. Hard
shales intermixed with gritty sandstone, much obscured by debris ;
d. White gritty sandstone ; e. 2 feet of the sideritic shale — the
same as tho fossil loaves are found in ; out of rc'ch ; f. Irregular
shales, 10 feet ; (/. About 20 foot of irregular shales with irregu-
lar layers of coal ; and A. Shales, &c., with small bits of lignitic
coal, irregularly scattered throughout, about 10 foot.

88. Many thin beds of sandstonos and shales, thus : —

1. A few Inches of sandstone ; 2. Thin layer of shalo ; 3. Thin
sandstone, same as 1 ; 4. 1 inch of sideritic shale, same as the

fossil impressions are in

5.

Sandstone, as before, 1 inch

6. Shale, I inch; 7. Sandstone, 2 inches ; 8. Shale, with pieces of
coal ; 9. Sandstone, thin ; 10. Thin clay ironstone, same as fossils
arc contained in ; 11. Thin shale ; 12. Sandstone, thin ; 13. Thin
shale ; 14. Thin seam of coal ; 15. Sandstone, 1 foot thick ;
16. Shales, 6 inches, with 17. A broken thin layer of coal in tho

'H

&

1^

i

I

•t \

476

3R0WN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

middle ; 18. Layer of clayey siderite with fossils, 2 inches ; 19.
Sandstone, 1 foot ; 20. Shale, with fragments of coal, same as 6 ;

21. Excessively splintery shales with very faint fossil impressions ;

22. Thin seam, sandstone, with a broken seam of coal, 4 inches ;

23. Splintery sideritic ahales with faint fossil impressions ; 24.

1 foot: coarse-grained white sandstone, as before; 25. Splintery
shale, as in 23 ; 26. Gritty sandstone, 14 inches ; 27. Splintery
shales, 18 inches (as in 23), with faint vegetable impressions ;
28. Gritty sandstone, with little specks of coal, and stained with
iion in patches ; 29. 3 feet : splintery shale, bluish-black and
it'ddish, with imperfect vegetable impressions ; 30. A seam of
coal and sbalo, 1 inch ; 31. Gritty sandstone, stained, 4 feet; 32.
Brittle shales, with faint impressions of leaves, &c. ; 33. 4 feet :
gritty sandstone, with several irregnlar thin layers (not exceeding

2 inches) of shale as before ; 34. 2 feet : splintery shale witlx
faint vegetable impressions ; 35. White gritty sandstone, 8 inches ;
36. 1 foot : gritty sandstone ; 37. Thin shale ; 38. 2 feet : gritty
sandstone ; and 39. Shales, about 3 inches.

89. Various shales and sandstones ; possibly 100 feet ; dipping
33°, with E. strike ; obscured with debris, containing much of
the thin, hard, shaly clay iron-stone, with leaf marks.

90. Irregular beds of sandstone and shale again, consisting of —
1. Fine sandstone, 10 inches ; 2. Splintery shale, as before, 5

feet ; 3. Shaly sandstone, 10 inches ; 4. Shale, 6 feet ; 5. Shaly
sandstone (as 3), 8 inches ; 6. Splintery shale, 8 feet ; 7. Shaly
sandstone (as 3), 10 inches ; 8. Splintery shales, 12 feet ; 9. Shaly
sandstone, with cherty iron-clay, shale, siderite (" Atanakerdluk-
stone " of the Greenland Danes), 12 feet ; 10. Splintery shale, 8
feet ; 1 1. Broken layer of sandstone shale (as 3), on the summit
of the hill.

Beyond this, trap rocks predominate over the country • dykes
of variously weathered configuration, such as Rink's Obelisk,
forming prominent objects. Travelled blocks of syenite and
greenstone lie about.

In Prof. Heer's paper '* On the Miocene Flora " in the " Journal
of the Koyal Dublin Society " (/. c), a sketch is given by Coni-
niiinder Colomb, R.N., of certain fossil stems which he and Cjiptain
(Admiral) Inglefield,R.N., saw in this locality at the time of their
visit; but these could nowhere be seen. There had apparently
been a landslip, and they are doubtless buried under the debris.*

Dr. Brown further examined another section of the same strata,
but rather lower down in the series, about 1,007 yards S.E. by S.
(Mag.), from House at Atanekenlluk, in the cliff fticing the sea
(p. 32.)

1. Brown sandstone, 2 feet, dip 33° (on the top) ; 2. Shale and
shaly coal, irregular, average 8 inches ; 3. Seam of coal, 2 inches;
4. Shale, 6 inches ; and 5. Whitish sandstone, stained with brown,
2 f(;et exposed.

* Norrtenskjokl describes bituminised stems found in this locality by liira
with the roots so perineatiug the soil as to leave no doubt but that they grew
in situ. See above, p. 434.

C^

buown on noursoak peninsula, &c. 477

and
plies;
)wn,

him
frcw

e»

In the shale, and in tho sandstone where it joins the shale, faint
and imperfect impressions of plants appeared. Probably bed
No. 5 is No. 1 of the former section ; but it is obsciu'cd by debris
and pieces of trap fallen from the dyke " A," which here extends
right across the strata. It becomes fully exposed further on, to a
thickness of 6 feet, and is inters tratified with sjindstone and shale,
and succeeded by 16 inches shaly lignite, with faint impressions.
This is topped by 8 inches of white sandstone, succeeded by 3.^ feet
of grey and black shales ; 4 feet of white soft sandstone, inter-
stratified at the top with 2 inches of sandstone and shale ; and
finally by black shales, here dwindling away to 6 feer, though
doubtless, from their position and dip, one of the thick bods ex-
jx)sed up the ravine. The bottom of this is a kind of coal, united
with the sjuidstone beneath by 2 inches of shale. A mih? and a
half (English) further along the beach the trap dyke comes down
perpendicularly through the strata, and sends a transverse; vein at
61° between the sandstone and the shaly sandstone. North of
this, another perpendicular vein was previously met with, coming
down from dyke "A " in the same direction (S.E), but not so well
marked. The strata arc slightly tilted at the line where the dyke
spur cuts through them ; on the northen side the dip being 47" JS.,
and on tho other side 61°, dipping slightly northward. The strike
of all the strata is, however, the same (N.E. Mag.). Tlie white
sandstone resumes its former dip on the other side, and there does
not seem to be deflected by the dyke. This gritty sandstone does
not seem to have been much metamorphosed, though doubly in
contact with the trap. In some places the trap seems to take the
character of the sandstone, being soft, crystalline, and easily
broken with the hand. On the other hand, the grit in contact
with the trap does not always seem to differ from tliat in the nor-
mal state, but in most cases to have been melted by the heat, a
thin glaze being formed on the surface.

The section extends to about 1,180 feet (by aneroid), and is con-
tinued nearly uniformly N. and S. ; though on the surface; facing the
sea the strata were denuded in many places. In some other ])laces,
northward in the cliffs with greater height, a similar section, with
a similar uniformity and alternation, could be traced, probably even
to 1,200 feet."

2. Ouiamsuksumitok. Lat. 69° 51' 2" N., Long. 52° 19' 6" W.
(Nordenskjold.) — In the cliff at the Avater-edge, tlie section exhi-
bited sandstone, a small seam of shale, and 2 feet of poor lignite,
the whole resting on trap. Ouiarasuksumitok means the place
where the coal is mined out, and was chiefly built for the con-
venience of the coal-mines at Ounartok. It is also called Ujarar-

* From the examination of some fossils from the loiver strata at Atanekcrd-
hik, Dr. lleer is of opinion thatprobiibly they belong to the Upper Cretaceous.
The fossils on which he founds this opinion are CijcaditcH Dicksoni, the
frequent Ferns, a Sequoia allied to S. lleiclwithachii, and a Crediuria. For
further descriptions of Atanekerdluk, see also Nordeuskjold's Memoir (above,
p. 432), Ileer's " Les liegiones polaires du Nord" (" Bibl. Univ.," Jan.
1SG7, p. 51), and his great work already meutioned.

T,' ■■'I

m

J jy'l.iiiii'.iii >w»iii2j"il(>.i ill /•.,

5*1'****'**'*^*^ ''^•.^v-.

478

BROWN ON NOTTRSOAK PENINSULA, &0.

susuk.* M. Olrik found fossil leaves in the sandstone here. It
was in a boulder in this locality that Dr. Pfaff found a Sigiltaria
and Pccoptcris (?) of Carboniferous age f (see above, p. 470).

3. Ounartok (^Bitenbenk Coal-mine). — Here, nearly opposite to
Atanekerdluk, shales rest on trap (?) and are covered by white
sandstone ; this is apparently covered by coal (for along the 1)oach
there was a face of 3 feet of Hgnitic coal exposed, though the floor
was of coal, and therefore the seam appeared to extend to a still
greater thickness), covered by 1^ foot of shale, this by 10 feet of
coarse brownish grit, then 2 feet of hard brownish sandstone,
finally 4 feet hard grey sandstone, coloured in some places by
iron. The dip of these strata was about 33°, the strike easterly
(across the Waigat). Both the shaly sandstone and grit contained
innumerable impressions of stems, interlaced in eveiy direction,
more particularly in the shales ; but there were no leaves, and
most of the stems in the shales appeared only like lines of charred
wood. Ounartok was probably once a native " house-place," an<l
much debris has been brought down by the mountain-stream close
by. In this debris, Gudeman and Pavia, two of the native boat-
men, found fair impressions of leaves, though not hitherto found
in the stratum itself here; and Gudeman discovered the fruit of
the Magnolia. {M. Inglejieldi, Ilr.). Dr. Brown found that these
fossils had come from the little stratum of hard broAvn sandstone,
which, as well as the sandstone and shales already noted, had
yielded some fossil impressions. These comprehended dicoty-
ledonous leaves {Populus, probably P. Richardsonij Hr.) and
fronds of Aspidium Meycri, Hr. and A. Hccrii, Ett. ; but it was
was very difficult to obtain pieces of the rock on accoimt of the
superincumbent mass of strata.

4. Ktidlisact. Lat. 70° 5' 3o" N.| — Here were green mossy
slopes, but the vegetation on the whole was on this side much
more backward than on the Noursoak shore (August). An
Arahis and Stcllariu Edivardsii, E. Br., were frequent on the
dry j)laces, but little of Tlierochloc borcalis, so abundant elsewhere.
The glaucous Willow {Salix glanca) was common, and Elymus
arcnarius gave a link-like character to the sandy shore, while u
little marsh at the mouth of a little stream was thick with E(jiti-
sctuui arvense and E. vaticgatum.

wm%

'^

* In Professor Ileer's paper in the " Phil. Trans.," I.e., Ounartok is erro-
neously called by the two names of Ujararsuk and Ouiarasuksumitok, Mhilo
that of Ounartok applied to the locality where the coal is at present mined is
never mentioned.

f Here also Avere found the remains of Caulopteris punctata ; Oetacodus
according to Mr. Carruthers, F.K.S. Sec above, p. 388. — Editou.

J In the map attached to Professor Norden&kjold's memoir, already quoted,
Kudlisaet (Kudliset) is apparently applied to a locality in lat. 70°, while the
locality of Kudlisaet is marked as Ritcnbenk Coal-mine (" Kitenhoiiks
Kolbrott"). A locality still farther to the south, on a stream, is marked on
Nordenskjold's map as " Igdlokungoak." It is in about the latitude of
Ounartok ; but as I had no opportunity, adds Dr. Brown, of taking observa-
tions to determine the latitude (as apparently Professor NordenskjOld had not
either), I cannot be certain ; as we were very careful, however, in getting the
exact names from our native boatmen, all inhabitants of the immediate vicinity,
I cannot but consider that they arc correctly given by us.

BROWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

479

■ the

erro-
■whilo
!io<l is

CCdUS

lotocl,
0 the

KMlks

(<l on
le of
trva-
[l not
the
Inity,

f!^-l

flfll>

Wf

Section southward ulontj the Shore at Kudiisaet.

1. Alluvium and debris of rock i'rom cliffs behind ; 20 feet.

2. 5 feet : brown gi'itty sandstone.

3. 14 inches : hard grey sandstone.

4. 1 foot : hard sandy shale, with vefjetablc impressions, &e.

5. 14 inches of poor coal, exposed by men attempting to work
it at a place where a little stream breaks througli the strata.

6. Shales, 2 to 3 feet.

7. Hard sandstone, 3 feet.

8. Shales, sandstones, &c., irregular ; 2 feet.

9. Hard sandstone, 1 foot.

10. Shales, 2 feet.

11. Hard grey sandstone, ivith pieces of coal in if. About
14 feet of this is exposed. The dip is here 4;j° to the N., strike
E. across the Waigat. Scattered along the beach and on tlu' slopes
are great blocks of breccia-like material, apparently the peculiar
basalt referred to already (see p. 470), which have rolled from the
mountains.

Geology of fleer's Creek. — In the stream, called by Dr. Brown
" Hcer's Creek," a little north of the last locality, Mr. Andersen,
of Ritenbenk, had found fossil stems. Gudeman, who had accom-
panied him, soon pointed them out. They were lying in frag-
ments in the stream, mixed up with pieces of isandstono containing
impressions of leaves. The stems were much broken, but their
dicotyledonous character was quite apparent. The section where
these stems had rolled down (as it afterwards appeared) out of tlu;
coal, showed, from the level of the stream upward, the following
beds : —

1. (Bottom) 4 feet : splintery shales ; 2. 1 foot : hard gritty
sandstone ; 3. 4 feet : mixed shales and sandstone ; 4. 1 foot :
coal ; 5. 1^ foot : shale, with faint impressions of leaves, stems,
8cc. ; 6. 2^ feet : coal enveloping Hilicoous stems lying apparently
horizontally E. and W. and N. and S. (Mag.), in fragments ;
brownish outside ; mostly without the bark ; 7. Shales, 18 inches ;
8. Sandstone, with leaves, &c., 3 feet ; 9. Thin soft shale ; 10.
1 foot: coal; 11. 4 feet : shale, soft and splintery; 12. 1 foot:
coal ; 13. 3 feet : soft, splintery, brownish shales ; 14. Whitish
gritty sandstone (?) ; 15. Soil.

(P. 42.) The Miocene strata seem to continue down the coast
to very near Godhavn, and coal appears at various places. At
one place, called Skandsen (The Battery) by the Danes, appear
regular basaltic columns. The north-east of Godhavn is built on
a low syeuitic island. Syenite also ajipears on the opposite side
on the main island, backed by great fells of trap rising to the
height of betAveeu two and three thousand feet.

No calcareous beds have as yet been met with in cither the
Miocene or the Cretaceous strata of Greenland ; and they appear
to have been of freshwater origin.

#^*iM<ii<iiilii iiWu^i

480

nnOWN ON NOURSOAK PENINSULA, &C.

( :

9

IV. — Grkenland Coal.

(P. 42.) The ooal of Noursoak and Disco Isluiid was uwd by
soino of tlie En«;lish Arctic Expeditions (Inglcfiold and M'Clin-
tn<'k's, at Kudlisart and Atanakordluk). Many yoiiVH ago it was
niiiu'd for nsc in tlic Disco-lJay Sottlenicnts, bnt for IJO years
tlic nso of it was discontinuetl. Since Mr. Andersen has had
<'liarge of Ritenbenk, the workings have been resumed for a few
diiys every suranier, and ho takes out yearly about 3(K) Danish
tiindes (barrels about the size of a su;;ar hogshead), which costs at
the rate of 48 skillin<i;s, or about Lv. l^d. per tonde. The coal is
like all Tertiary coal — rather poor, little coherent, and breaking
Avith a cubical fracture, though bright and glistening in colour.
It abounds in a snuill species of rotinite, varying from a nu're
speck to pieces the size of a marble. It gives off less smoke than
lOnglish coal. It gives as little ash as wood, and the heat-giving
power Mr. Anderssen estimates as being only one half of Euglisli
coal. He generally mixes it with English coal, and finds the
arrangement work well in every respect ; for in the " General
Taxt-List" for Greenland in 1867 English coal is charged at the
rate of 3 rd. 48 sk. (or 7*. lO^l.) per cask of 4*677 bushels.

Two analyses of this coal, one made by the late Prof. Eyfc, of
Aberdeen, and in the Appendix to " Ingleficld's Summer Search
afler Sir J. Franklin" (p. 1,51), and another by Mr. T. W. Keates,
of London, in the *' Philosophical Transactions " for 1869, p. 449,*
are here placed side by side for comparison : —

Keates.

Fyfe.

Specific gravity

1-369

1-3848

Gaseous and vol. matter

45-45 —

— 50-60

Moisture

_^

•75 46-20

— —

Sulphur

"~"

— -55

— —

Coke { ^h''l' ''''^''"

47-75 —

— 39-86

5-50 5325

— 9-54

100-00

100-00

This lignite contains a trace of bitumen ;

the coke is non-caking, and of little use.

In addition to the localities mentioned, coal has been found by
the natives at various places on the coast. For instance, Dr. Rink f
mentions the following places, and Giesecke several others, where
coal could be conveniently dug : — 1. Atanakerdluk ; 2. Patoot ;

* A third analysis, by Dr. Wartha, is given in Ileer's " Flora fossilis
arctica," p. 5.

t " Groulnnd," vol. i., pp. 172-178.

»H

nnOWN ON NOUUSOAK PKNINSL'I.A, &C.

481

ii

..

3. Atanc ; 4. Koidliitok ; 5. Nulluk Cupo ; G. Ekkoi<;va»t ; 7.
MihcrHt(!on Fjeld ; H. Pnttorlik ; 9. Siirfnrfik ; 10. Komo ; i I. Upoi-
iifivik Capo; 12. Iniiorit Fjord; l.'J. Hare Island; 14. kitonbeiik
Coal-inino (various places on tlic Disco slioro of the Waigat) ;
15. Skandscn ; 16. Makkak ; 17. lj;li;;tsiak.

The fii'.st Hvo localities named an; on the Noursoak shore of the
Waigat ; the next five are on the Noiiraouk shore of Onicnak Fjord,
and most likely belong to the Cretaceous formation, certainly not
altogether to the Miocene ; the twelfth locality is on Svarte link
Peninsula, in Upernavik district; while the three last-named
places arc on the southern shore of Diseo Island — Igligtsiak being
only 16 Englisli miles from the Settlement of Godhavn, to which
the natives sometimes bring the coal on their sledges in winter.

W

So -GO

[9-86
|9'54

lo-oo

Ind by

Rnikf

Iwhere

itoot ;

Ifossilis

1

Note. — The maps accom[)anying Prof. Nordenskiiild and Dr.
Brown's memoirs comprise that i)ortlon of tlio West Coast of
Greenland lying between the 69^ and 71° parallels of North latitude.

The very iiulentctd coast-lino of the coimtry, intersected by
numerous Ijords l)earing many islands, bends outwards in a
north-westerly direction to form the Peninsula of Noursoak at
about 70° N. lat. Between it and the adjacent mainland to the
south lies the Bay of Disco, so called from the largo Island of Disco,
which lies due south of Noursoak. from which it is sei)arated by the
Waigat Strait.

The mainland, as well as a small portion of the eastern end of
the Noursoak Peninsula, and the southern extremity of Disco (at
Godhavn) is mainly composed of gneiss or granitic rocks ; but the
peninsula itself, as well as the Disco Island, consists chiefly of
Miocene or of Cretaceous formations underlying Traprock.

Jn the Island of Disco the Miocene beds arc represented as
extending from the gneissic promontory of Godhavn on the south,
round the eastern side to nearly the northern point ; and on this
coast, proceeding in the above direction, Pnilasok, Sinnifik, Skandsen,
Isungoak, Ujarasusuk, Igdlokungoak, and Kudlisjct are known as
localities whence fossil plants can be obtained.

In the Noursoak Peninsula the JMioccne beds lie on its southern
coast from Sakkak, past Atanekordluk, to beyond Mannik, where
plant-fossils have been found; and at Atanekerdluk, the position
of which is mai'ked by a definite promontory, is the Ekadluk
ravine from which Dr. Brown's principal section is taken.
Netluarsuk and Ifsorisok, near the northern point of Noursoak,
arc .ilso fossiliferous.

The Cretaceous strata appear below the trap along the northern
coast of Noursoak, extending from Ekkorfat past Angiarsuit
Avkrusak, Pattorfik, Komc, and Assakak, to nearly the neck of the
peninsida, where the overlying trap appears to unite with the
gneiss of the mainland. All the places above mentioned are rich
in fossils.

Cretaceous fossils have also been obtained froii\ below tlu^ Ter-
tiary strata at Atane, on the Waigat, and in the lower part of the
section at Atanekerdluk.

3C122. ir II

M

IH'2

nilOWN ON NOUUSOAK PENINHIILA, &C.

iliU'o I.sliiud, lit tliu iiorlhuni (Mitniiu'.u of thu VVHigut, an
Omuiiuk, nil inland in thu Omeuuk Fjurd, thu boundary ut' tli
puuinaula ou thu uurth, coiisifit uppareiitly of tnip-rock.

d
thu

*'f

T'

LVIL— Dr. PiNGEL on the Guadual Sinking of Paut of
the Soutu-West Coa9T of Greenland.

[Reprinted, with Permission, from thu Proccu(Unji's of the Gco-
h)j;icttl Society of Loudon, vol. ii., 1833-183b, p. 208 ; read
Nov. 18, 1835.]

The lirst observations which led to the .supposition

tliat the west coast of Greenland had subsided were made by
Arcdinder between 1777 and 1779. He noticed, in the firth
called I<:falliko (lat. 60^ 43' N.), that a small, low, rocky Island,
about a gnnshot from the shore, was almost submerged at si)ring
tides, yet there were on it thu walls of a house o2 feet in lenglb,
30 feet in breadth, .') feet thick, 6 fed high. Half a century
later, when Dr. Pingel visited the island, the whole of it was
so far submerged that the ruins alone rose above the Avater.

The colony of Julianeshniib was founded at the mouth of the
same ilrth in 1776 ; and near a rock, called the Castle by the
Danish colonists, are the foundations of their storehouse, which
are now dry only at very low water.

TJie neighbourhood of the colony of Frederlckshaab (lat. ()2^ N.)
was once inhabited by Grecnlanders, Init the only vestige of their
dwelling is a heap of stones, over wliich the firth Hows at high
water.

Near the well-known glacier which separates the district of
Frudcrickshaab from that of Fiskenais, is n group of islands
called Fulluartalik, now deserted ; but on the shore are the ruins
of winter buildings, which are often overflowed.

Half a. mile to the west of (ho village of Fiskenics (lat. OS" 4' N.),
the Moravians ibunded, in 17o8, the establiishment called Lich-
tenfels. In 30 or 40 years they were obliged once, perhaps
twice, to move the poles upon which they set their large boats,
called " umiak " or women's boats. The old poles still remain as
silent witnesses, but beneath the water.

To the north-east of the mother colony,Godthaab (lat. 64'^ 10' N.),
is a point called Vildmansnajs by St. Egede, the venerable apostle
of the Greenlanders, In his time, 1721-1736, it was inhabited
by several Greenland families, whose winter dwelling remains
desolate and in ruins, the firth flowing into the house at high
tide. Dr. Pingel says that no aboriginal Greenlander builds his
house so near the water's edge.

The points mentioned above Dr. Pingel had visited, but he
adds, on the authority of a countryman of his own highly deserv-
ing of credit, that at Nupparsok, 10 Danish miles (45 miles
English) to the north of Nyo-Sukkcrtop (lat. 65' 20' N.), the

F'1

4^

lit, mu\
of tlio

?AUT of

he Gco-
)8 ; icutl

ppoHition
fuiitlt' l)y
the lirth
.y ishuul,
it spring

1, ccntiuy
jf it WJi!^
ter.
th of the

ie by the
ise, whieh

t.(>2'"N.)
n of tlieir
a at high

listrict of

If ishmds

the ruins

led Lieh-

pcvluxps

re boats,

bmaiu as

'^lO'N.),

Ic apostle

Inhabited

remains

at high

luilds his

but he

descrv-

5 miles

In.), the

PINOEL, SUnsiDENCR OF SOUTH (»REENLAM>

48:i

mm

4>

ruins of iincieut Grouulmul wiiilcr hou.sc.s uro to bo aocn at low
water.

Dr. Pingol is not uwnro of any instaneo of subsideiu'e in tlu?
more northoru districts, but he suspects that tUv plnnonn'non
reaches ut least as far as Disco IJay, or nearly to Gfr north (at.

NoTK. — Souic facts reliitiiig to tho Uise and Fall of the Green,
land Coast luivo been collected by Dk. U. Huown in the " (^nart.
Journ. Geol. Soc," xxvi., pp. GJKM)<)2 (Jnne INTO), lioprintijd
in the Royal Gioynipli. Soc. Manual, i)ublishcil for the Arctic
Expuditiou.

>

LVIIL— Recent Elevations of the Earth's Suuface hi

the NOUTIIEUN ClUCUMl'ULAU ReUION. By HeNUY
11. HOWOIITII.

[Reprinted in part, with Permission, from the Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society, Loudon, vol. xliii., 1873, pp. 240-2G3.]

It is well known that Grcenhmd is subject to a move-
ment of oscillation, the northern portion of it being in process
of elevation, and tlu; southern of depression, the axis of tho
movement being variously })lneed betAveeu the parallels of 74 and
77. I will quote a passage from Dr. Kane's travels : " Tho
*' opi)ortunity I had to-day of comparing the terrace and boidtler-
" lines of Mary Hiver and Charlotte- Wood Fiord ennbles me
" to assert positively tlu* interesting fact of a secular elevation
" of the crust commencing at some as yet undetermined ])oint
" north of 76*^, and continuing to the great glacier and the high
" northern latitudes of Griiuiell Land. This elevation is con-
" nected with the eqiuilly well-sustained depression of the Green-
" laud coast south of Kingutak." * Again : " The depression of
" tho Greoidand coast which I had detected as far north as
" Upernavik is also going on here (/.c, the Crimson Clill's).
" Some of the Esquimaux liuts Avere "svaslied by the sea or torn
'* away by the ice that had descended with the tides. The turf
" too, a representation of very ancient groAvth, was cut off even
" with the water's edge, giving sections 2 feet thick. 1 had
" noticed before such unmistakable evidence of the depression
" of this coast. Its converse elevation I had observed to tho
*' north of Wolstenholmo Sound. The axis of oscillation must
" be somewhere in the neighbourhood of latitude 77°." t
M'Chntoek says : "It has been abundantly proved by the exis-
" tencc of raised beaches and fossils that the shores of Smith's
" Sound have been elevated within a comparatively recent period."
lie then goes on to show that this elevation has probably ceased
in tho very latest times, and concludes that at Upernavik the land

;.ft

* Vol. ii. p. 80.

t Op. cit. p. 277. Sec alfso '' The Opuii Polar Sea," j.. A\r2.

H II 2

*

R

«

484 HOWORTII ON SURFACE MLEVATION IN ARCTIC REGIONS.

h.as sunk, us is pliiinly shown hy similar ruins, ovor wliicli tlic
tides now flow.*

Crossinj; Baffin's Bay to the American coast, we have little
difficnlty in proving that the axial line previously spoken of
extends into that continent. Thus, in regard to Labrador :
" From all the indications noticed casually by us, such as the
" portion of beaches apparently very recently raised above the
" sea-level, so as to be just beyond the reach of the waves, the
'* land is slowly gaining on the sea. The Rev. C. C. Campbell,
minister at Caribou Islands, in the Straits of Belle Isle, also
informs me that this is his impression, gained both from his
obseiTations and from information given by the settlers. To this
last source Mr. J. F. Campbell is indebted for the statement in
his * Frost and Fire ' that the Coast of Labrador is slowly
rising." f In Chimmo's account of his visit to the north-east
coast of Labrador, he mentions many reefs, &c., not marked on
the maps.| These were probably, therefore, recent elevations.

In regard to Newfoundland Mr. Moroton says " that there is
' much bare protruding rock in all parts of the island presenting
everywhere a rounded, worn, and water-washed appearance,
such as can only be produced by their having once been part
of the ocean-bed. Large boulders of stone of different character
from all the rock around are lodged in all parts. Some of the
most remarkable are on the highest lands. A recent, and I
suppose still proceeding, uprising of the whole island from the
sea is very observable, and many proofs of it have been brought
to my notice. For instance, a narrow tickle at the head of
Greenspoud Harbour, in which the water now is scarcely deep
enough for a punt passing, was in the memoiy of aged people
sufficient for the passage of large fishing-boats called shallops.
At Purchard's or Pilchard's Island and in Twilling- gate Harbour,
rocks now above water are remembered as formerly sunken
rocks, over which it was possible and usual to row small boats.
In many places, from the same causes, the fishermen cannot
now let their boats ride in the same water Avherc their fathers
were wont to moor them. I have been told of similar changes
in Trinity Harbour." § Going somewhat further south, Mr.
Hopkins says : " Two hundred and fifty years ago Sir Franois
" Drake sailed into Albemarle Sound through Koanoke Inlet,
" which is now a sandbank above the reach of the highest tide ;
" only seventy years ago it was navigable by vessels drawing 12
" feet of water." ||

It is clear, however, from Lyell's obsei'vations,^ that we are
here on the borders of an area of subsidence which extends along

((

a

ti

* " M'Clintock's Journal," pp. 76, 77.

f Packard's " Glacial Phenomena of Labrador," &c., " Memoirs of Boston
Nat. Hist. Societj," vol. i. part 2, p. 229.

j " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. xxxviii. p. 258.

§ Ibid., vol. xxxiv. pp. 2G4-5.

II " World before the Deluge," p. 22.

i " Principles of Geology," 11th edition, vol. i. p. 5C3.

F<«

IGIONS.

ieli the

■c little
aken of
briidor :
. as the
L)Ove the
Lves, the
ivmpbell,
[ale, also
Tom his

To this
iment in
s slowly
orth-east
arkecl on
itions.

there is
I'csentinj^
pcavancc,
been part
character
me of the
lit, and I

from the
1 brought
i head of

;ely deep

id people

shallops.

rlarbour,
sunken

|all boats.

i\ cannot

r fathers
changes

|uth, Mr.

Francis

e Inlet,

;st tide ;

liwing 12

we are
Ids along

l)i' Boston

F-'S

IIOWORTII ON SURVACK KLEVATION IN ARCTIC REGIONS. 485

the United States coast as far south as Florida, an area which
I ijhall describe more particularly in a future })ai)or. I will now
adduce the facts Avhich make it clear that the clevafory movement
is shared by the whole Arctic border-land of Amoricn.

In Franklin's voyage in 1819, 1820, and 1821, he nicntious
having found much Drift-wood in the estuary of the ("opper-iMinc"
River. He also picked up "some decayed Avood far out of rcich
" of the water." He adds that the Copper-INliiie lliver itsflf
brings down no drift-wood,* In his second voyage ah)iig iJic
Arctic Sea he describes the coast from the ISIackenzic IJiver to the
Kocky Mountains as very shallow and full of shoals and reefs.
Inside some of the latter was brackish water, as was also the water
in pools at some distance inland ; pilco of wood weix' also thrown
up far from the coast. f While Franklin surveyed the coast west-
ward, Dr. Richardson did the same to the cast. Tlie latter says :
" On the coast from Cape Lion to Point Keats there is a line of
*' large drift-timber, evidently thrown up by the Avavcs, about 12
" feet in perpendicular height above the ordinary tides." Ho
shortly afterwards mentions that in the Polar Sea when cumbered
Avith ice such Avaves are impossible, and as his journey Avas in the
hot season, and the sea Avas then croAvded Avith hnnnnoeks, the
inference that the drift-AVOod was thrown up by the Avaves is
inadmissible, and the line of drift -Avood 12 feet above the sea-level
is only a parallel to the numerous other eases. 'J'ho vast sheet
of shalloAV and brackish Avater, 140 miles long and 150 broad, Avhieh
is separated from the Polar Sea by Ioav banks and spits of sand,
and is called by Dr. Richardson " Esquimaux Lake," formed, tiiere
can be litthi doubt, very recently, as that traveller suggested, n
bay of the Polar Sea, and is an example of the ci'oation of huge
brackish lakes by a sea Avhich is constantly contracting, such as
are common in the eastern borders of the Caspian. " M'Cluro
" found shells of Cf/prina Islandica at the summit of tlie Cox-
" comb Range, in Baring Island, at an elevation of 800 feet above
" the sea level. Captain Parry has also recorded oocurrenees of
" Venus (probably Cyprina Islandica) in Byam-]\lartin Island,
" and in the recent voyage of the ' Fox' the surgeon found llu^
" foUoAving sub-fossil shells at Port Kennedy, at elevations of
" 100 feet to 500 feet : — Saaicava rrtr/osa, Tcllhia jjro.ii/ua,
" Astarte arctica {horcaiis), Mya Uddcvallensis, .^lya truncata^
" Cardium sp., Bneemnm inulatum, Arnica tcstudinalis, and
" Balanns Uddcva lien sis. ''^

Speaking of tlie eastern part of Melville Island. Parry says :
" One of the ' Hecla's ' men brought to the l)oat a narAvhal's horn,
" Avhich he found on a hill more than a mile from the sea, and
" Avliieh must have been carried there by the Ks<iuiniaux or by
*' bears (!).... Sergeant INIartin and Captain Sabine's
" servant brought doAvn to the beach se\'eial jjieees of lir-trec
" Avhich they found nearly buried in the sand at the distance of

* " Narrative," p. ;}57.

X " Appendix to M'Cliutock's Narrativi.-,"

t Ibid., p. 134.

486 ItOWORTII ox SUUFAOE ELEVATION IN ARCTIC REGIONS.

<' 300 or 400 yards from the present high-water-mark, and not
" less than 30 feet above the se.a-level. We found no indication
" of this part of the island liaving been inhabited, unless the
" narwhal's horn above alluded to be considered as such."*
Again, si)eaking of the northern part of Melville Island, near
Point Nias, two pieces of drift-wood were also found on the beacli
10 or 20 foot above the present level of the sea, both of pine, one
74 fi't't long and 3 inches in diamet' ., and the other much
smaller. IJuth Avore partly buried in sand and their fibres so
decayed as to fall to pieces on being laid hold of.f .Again, s[)cak-
ing of the Avcst of Melville Island : *' The land gainst upon the sea,
" as it is called, in process of time, as it has certainly done her(»,
" from the situation in which we found the drift-wood and the
" skeletons of Whales," J

King William Island is rather low, the western shore extremely
so, and bears evidence of a gradual and tolerably recent upheaval
from beneath the sea.§ These extracts from the Arctic voyages
might be extended, but they will suffice to show what is generally
recognised, that the archipelago north of the Americ.in continent
shows, wherever examined, signs of current elevation. We may
now continue our survey along its western coast.

So long ago as 1778, Captain Cook makes the following remark
about the coast of Behring's Straits, near Cape Denbigh : — *' After
" breakfast a party of men were sent to the peninsula for brooms

" and spruce It appeared to m.; that this peninsula

'* must have been an island in remote times, for there weie marks
" of the sea having flowed over the isthmus. And even now, it
" appeared to be kept out by a bank of sand, stones, and wood
" thrown up by the waves. By this bank it was evident that the

land was here encroaching upon the sea, and it was easy to

trace its gradual formation." ||

In describing the journey of Captain Krenitzin and Lieutenant
Levashef in 1768-69, Coxe says : " The ' St. Catherine' wintered
" in the Strait of Alasca, and AVfis drawn into shoal water. 'I'ho
" instructions set forth that a private ship had in 1762 found
" there a commodioiis haven, but the captain looked for it in vain.
''.... On surveying this strait and the coast of Alasca
" many craters Avere observed in the low grounds close to the
" shore, and the soil produced few plants. May not this allow
" the conjecture that the coast had undergone considerable
*' changes, even since the year 1762 ?"i[

In Whymper's account of his journoy to Alaska, I find the fol-
lowing passage : — " The island of St. Michael's is covered Avith

moss and berries, resting sometimes on a bed of clay, but more

commonly on a porous laA'a rock. The formation apparently

((

m

t

a

a

* " Parry's Voyage in 1819-20," p. 68.
X Il'i<l., p. '2;55.

t Ibid., p. 193.

§ M'Clintock in " Joiu-nitl of the Koyiil Gcograpliical Society," vol. x^x,
p. '10.

II " Cook's Voyages," edition of 1842, vol. ii. p. 344.
IT " Coxe's Ku&sian Discoveries," p. 251.

lOIONS.

iiul not
ilicatioii
less the
such." *
cl, ncfiv
0 beach
ine, one
V much
bres so
I, spcak-
the sea,
ne here,
and the

:tremely
iplicaval
voyages
generally
ontinent
iVc may

f remark
-*' After
brooms
eninsnhi
•e marks

now, it
iJ wood
that the

easy to

jutonaiit
intcrcd
. The

|2 found

|in vain.
Alasca
to tlie

Is allow
derable

Ithc fol-
L'd with

lit more
prently

93.
lol. x%x.

^

\

HOWOKTII OX SURFACE ELEVATION TN AllCTTC IJEGTONS. 4S7

" extends to the Youkon. The Indians have a tradition that the
" island was upheaved from tlio sea, an occurrence at least pos-
*' sible. A lar<i;e rock in the chain of the Aleutiiin Islands, known
" to the llussiiins as the liiijaslov Yolciuio, rose fi-om the sea in
" 179(3." Zagoskin says: " Tliitt ihc spot wlioro the fort {i.e.,
" Fort Youkon) now stands has been covered by the sea within
" the memory of the Indians liviui>; at the dat(? of his visit in 1842
" and 1843." Ajjain : " The entire; country is sprinkled over
'•' with reniiiins of Pliocene Mjimmals, FJcjtlias ( ?), Ori/jos nios-
" rhdfHS, he. Beds of niiirl near Fort Youkon contain fresh-
" Avater shells still livinj; in the vicinity." * Mr. Grant tells us
th;it in Vancouver's Isbind a raised sea-beach with scanty sandy
soil is mentioned as extendinj; with a lu-eadth of from 300 to

000 vards all alonjj; the north-east end of the harbour of Port
St. Juan.f

In a paper on the Beaches of British Columbia, by Mr. Bcjjbie,

1 find the followuig parao;raph : " Chanjies of level are now j^oinji;
" on in a <i;radual way in some parts of the colony. At a pf>iut
'' near Frazer River, 13 miles south of Qnesnelle, and again on
" that creek an affluent of Bonapsirte River, I have noticed beaver-
" dams on n slant, — al>andoned dams, of course. A bejiver-dam is
" nevei" known to give wiiy, nevcn- built on a stream that runs dry
" in summer, and is, of course, as level as the surface of the water
" it is meant to retain. There had been no violent conniiotion,
" for the dams were all (|uite perfect. No Avater was now
" running there. The old watercourse still visible and many
" cotton-trees still growing, perhaps 30 years old, but no signs of
" living Beavers."!

To prove that this movement of the northern coasts of America
is shared by the interior of the country, we must examine the
gi'cat series of lakes that form such a notable feature in the phy-
sical geography of that continent.

Captain Back says that the country from the Great Slave Lake
to the RoliU' Sea is strewn Avith boulders, &c., and has evidently
tiot been long reclaimed from the sea.§

The country forming the Hudson's Bay Territory is coveretl
Avith erriitic boidders, and many patches of Pleistocene deposits,
containing marine shells of the prescht Arctic species {M?/(t. trnn-
cdta, Saaicavd, rngosa, Sfc). The AAdiolc country is too flat for
these bould(!rs to have been the debris of glaciers. They Avere
most probably left by floating ice and icel)crgs when the liuid 'vas
submerged. The cliffs of Lake Winnipeg contain fresli-Avater
shells still living in the loAA'cr A\'aters, such as U/iio, Ileliv, I'lipo.,
itc, often raised more than 100 feet above the present levels of
the streams, and appear to be ancient lake- or river-terraces,
leading to the belief that the existing series of lakes from the
St. LaAvrence nortliAvard were once united in one or mori; vast

1; " Journal of the Koyal Geographical Society," \-ol. xxxviii.

t Ibid., vol. xxvii. p. 285. % Ibid., vol. v. p. 132.

§ Ibid., vol. vi. p. 1.

488 IIOWORTII ON SURFACE ELEVATION IN ARCTIC REGIONS.

fresh- water seas. A subsidence of 400 f(?ct would make Lake
Ontario di.schar<>;e its waters by thu ]Mohawk and Hudson into the
Atlantic, convert Lake Champlaiu into a maritime strait, and form
islands of the States of New York, New En;j;land, and Maine,
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia ; a subsidence of one-fourth
of this would carry the waters of the Missouri and the Upper-
Churchill and Mackenzie Ilivers into Lake Winnipcfj;, ami convert
the phiin country bordering; the Rocky Mountains into an inland
sea. The raised beaches of Lake Superior are 100 feet above the
present level.*

'* On Lake Superior, in Canada, deposits face the lake in the
" shape of bare earth-banks and terraces. They are all the pro-

" duce of the lake when standinj^ at a higher level On

" Lake Huron are successive belts of water-worn erratics of large
" size, one above another, with a few yards interval between each.
" On the summit of a cliff 100 feet high, Colonel Delaheld informs
" me there is a range of water-worn stones, regularly strewn as
" on a beach, for 200 feet in length. These instances of remains
" of ancient deposits might be greatly multiplied, as they are
" very usual in this lake when the vegetation permits them to
" bo seen." I have extracted this passage from a very interest-
ing paper by Dr. Bigsby on Canadian Erratics,t which describes
similar traces as existing in nearly all the lakes of North America.
His resume of the evidence states that *' the Canadas, in common
" with all the western and northern parts of the United States,
'' are mapped out by irregular concentric rings of terraces and
" ridges, sometimes hundreds of miles in circuit, which enclose
" the beds (with or without water) of lakes iind ponds more or less
" closely. The mouths of rivers here and there bn^ak tli rough
" these rings, and the rivers themselves are also bordei'ed with

" terraces The terraces are the margins of former

" l)odies of water much loftier and larger than those now existing.
" These ancient lakes have been more or less emptied by the
•' eleval ion of iheir bed;?, an elevation taking place perhaps very
" ext(>nsively, slowly, and variously" (p. 28(3).

Having shown by the evidence of the lakes and rivers (tluiso
gauges of level by which alone we can t(;st the change of level
that is progressing in a country) that the interior of the northern
part of the American continent is rising as Avell as the coast,
we will now pass on to an examination of the remaining half
of the northern circumpolar regions comprised in Europe and
Asia.

The remarkable changes that have taken place in Scan-
dinavia, in illustration of our subject, are among the elementary
facts of geology. They have given rise to an extensive litera-
ture, somewhat fierce in its controversial bitterness. The ques-
tion has been complicated by a difficulty which arises in tnany

«t

I

•"■ iHblstLT'B '' Geology of tin; Hudson's Bity Territory, t'tc", " Quart.
Journal, Geological yoeiety," vol xi, p. 497.
I " Quart. Jourual, Geological bociety," vol. vii. pp. 215, &e.

LGIONS.

0 Lako
into the
ncl form

Maine,
e-tbiu'th

Upper-
convert

1 inland
bove the

:; in the
the pro-
. . . On
of lar^e
jcn each.
I informs
trewn as
' remains
they arc
them to
interest-
describes
America,
common
id States,
faces and
1 cncU).-»c
e or less
hrongli
ed with
former
'xistinj^.
by the
aps very

5 (tlioso
of level
lorthern
0 coast,
ng hall

[)0 and

L Scan-

|nentary

litera-

lie ques-

li many

1

IIOWOIITII ON SURFACE ELEVATION IN ARCTIC REGIONS. 489

Oilier districts, namely, that we scorn to have arrived at it critical
tMrning-jJoint in the world's history, where ai'oas which have
lon<r been risinjj; have become (piiescent or even begun lo sink
again. I cannot enter into the detiiils of the Scaiulinavian con-
troversy which have been collected by Sir Charles Lyell, in his
' JJakerian Lecture' on this subject and elsewhere, but will con-
lent myself with (pioting the more strildng auihoi'ilies, wilii
whom 1 agr(!e. J'Jarly in the last century Celsius expressed his
o[)inion tliat the waters both of the llahic and Northern Ocean
were gradually subsiding, and from numerous observations in-
ferred that the rate of depression wms al)out -K) Swedish inclu'S
in u centuiy. In support of this position he alleged that there
were many rocks both on the shores of the Baltic and of the
Ocean known to have been once suidicn n^efs and ihingerons to
navigators, but which were in his time above water; that the
Gulf of Bothnia had been gradually converted into land, several
ancient ports having been changed into inland cities, small
isla,nds joined to the continent, and old lishing-grounds deserted
iw being too shallow or entirely dried up. lie also maintained
tiiat in the time of the ancients Scandinavia was what they
tlescribcd it to be, namely, an island, and that it became a
peninsula some time between tlui days of Pliny and the ninth
century.*" This view Avas opposed by several writers. Tlayfair,
in 1802, acc(^pted the views of Celsius, and argued that tlu;
change was due to the rise of the land. In 1807 Von IJnch,
after returning from a tour in Scandinavia, announced his con-
viction that the whole country from Frederi(d<shall in Norway
to Abo in Finland, and i)erhaps as far as St. .Petcisl).irg, was
slowly and insensibly rising, lie was led to these conclasions
jnincipally by inlbrmation obtained li'om the inhabitants and
pilots, and in part by the occurrence of marine shells of recent
species which he had found at several j)oints on the coasts of
Norway above the level of tlu^ sea. lie also mentions the
marks set on the rocks. f These discoveries induced several
Swedish philosophers to have certain rocks grooved at the level
of the water in calm weather, with the date of each added. In
1820 and 1821 the marks were examined by the oHicers of the
pilotage-service, who reported to the Koyal Academy of Stock-
holm. From this Report it ai)peiU'cd that along the Avhole
coast of the northern piirt of the (Julf of Bothnia the water
Avas lower than formerly. New marks Avere at the sanu! time
made. In 1834 Sir Charles Lyell made an elaborate survey of
the district, and published the result, as the " Bakerian Lecture,"
in the "Philosophical 'I'ransactioiis " Ibr 18;}.'). Ho reports that
in the interval between 1821 and 1834, the land appeared to
have risen in certain places north of Stockholm 4 or o inches,
and he convinced himself during his visit to SAveden, after con-

versing Avith many civil-engineers, [)ilot^

am

I lisl

lernien, ancL

I" Quurt.

* Ljell's "rrliieii)k'8 of Geology," litli oditioii, p. :>2().

t Traus. of " Vou 13ucir!s Travels," 387, quoted in J^jell, oi',. cit.

riipr,^

490 ITOWORTTT ON SURFACE ELEVATION IN ARCTIO REOTONP..

after examining some of the ancient marks, that the cvidoncc
formerly adduced in favour of the chan<>e of level, both on the
coasts of Sweden and Finland, was lull and satisfactory. Inter
(did ho mentions rocks and bouldei-s strewn over tlio shoals,
which have been observed to increase in hei<i;ht and dimensions
within the previous hall-century. Some foi-merly known as
dangerous sunken rocks are now only hidden wlien the water
is tlu^ highest. Similar points liave grown to long reefs, while
others have Ijeen changed from a re(>f annually submerged to a
small islet on which a few lichens, a fir-seedling, and a few
blades of grass attest that the slioal has at length be(ni fairly
changed into dry land. Long fiords and narrow channels, once
separating wooded islands, have; been deserted by the sea within
the memory of living witnesses on several parts of the coast.
It is well known that the southern extremity of Scania is
sinking; the proofs will be collected in another paper. On
the eastern or Baltic side of Sweden Sir Charles Lyell found
the first unmistakable evidence of rising at Calmar, in 56° 41'
N. lat. Tlie foundations of the castle there, Avhich had originally
been subacjueons, wore found to have risen 4 feet in four cen-
turies. At Stockholm there were found striking proofs of change
since the Baltic acquired its present tenants — Tcstacea, ibund
there 70 feet above the sea-level, being identical with those
now found in the adjacent sea at Sodertelji. A little further
south, strata of sand, clay, and marl, more than 100 feet high, and
containing shells of species now inhabiting th«^ Bothnian Gulf,
Avere found. The three lakes of Hnsar, Ladn, and Uggel, which
formerly (temp. Charles IX.) constituted the G ulf of Fiskartorp,
had grown much shallower, and in part become dry land. At
Upsala, 40 miles N.N.W. of Stockholm, brackish-Avater plants
were founu la meadows where then* are no salt-springs ; proof
that the sea has recently retired. The Marsh at Oregrud, 40 miles
north of Upsala, had risen o^ niches in the interval since 1820.
At Gefle, 40 miles to the N.W., are low pastures, where the
inhabitants' fathers remembered boats and even ships floating.
At Pitea, in the Bothnian Gnlf, the land had gained a mile in
45 years ; at Lulea, a mile in 28 years ; and at Tornea it was
advancing rapidly, according to M. Reclus,* at the rate of 5 feet
3 inches in a century.

These facts, which might be multiplied, suffice to show that the
Baltic coast of Sweden, north of about the 5()th parallel, has been
recently rising from the sea.

M. Reclus argues that the Baltic commnn leafed but recently
with the North Sea by a Avide channel, the deepest depressions
of which are now occupied by the Lakes Miilai-, Iljelinar, and
Wener, considerable heaps of oyster-shells being found in several
places on the heights commanding these lakes. Simihir beds are

T-'t

:«-.>

* " The Earth," vol. ii. p. 622.

IIOWORTII ON SURFACE ELEVATION IN AlIf'TTC KEaiOXS. 49l

f^->

found round the Gnlf of Botlmia.* From von liacr's i-escnrclu^s it
would seem that oyster.s cannot Hv(^ and jrrow in watiT liol(lin<?
more than 37 parts in a thousand of salt, or less than Ki or 17 in a
thonsand. Tho wrtors of the IJaltic now do not contain nioro
than o parts in a thonsand, and yot (iio bods of oysters ]>rove that
both tho Baltic and tho inland lakos wereonco as salt as tho North
Hea. M. Reclus argues this saltnoss coulil only come from some
former strait which occupied tho depressions in Avhieh the Swedish
engineers have dng out the Trolhatta Canal. Jiosides, he says,
when the sliuces Avere heing constructed, there were foinid not far
from the cataracts, and at a height of 40 feet above tin.' Cattegat,
various marine remains mingled with relics of human industry,
boats, anchors, and piles. f Sir Charles Lyell says similar oyster-
beds have been found further inlnnd on the borders of Lake Wener,
50 miles from the sea, at an elevation of 200 feet, near Lake Rog-
varpen. Similar beds have also been discovered on the southern
shores of Lake Malar, at a place 70 miles from the sea.;}: So that
we may take it as proved that the great Swedish lakes are the
remains of a veiy recent marine strait, separating Scania from the
mainland. The shores of the Cattegat afford ample evidence of
upheaval.

The greater part of Denmark is either stationary or sinking;
but according to Forchhammer, the terminal point of Jntiantl,
bounded by an ideal line tending obliquely from Fredcu-icsluivn
toAvards the north-west, rises 11'70 inches in a century. The
amount is here probably exaggerated.

Wo will now tiu'n to the coast of Norway. FTero we approach
evidently a boundary-line between rising and sinking land. " Pi-o-
" fessor Keilhau, of Christiania," says Sir Charles Lyell, "after
collecting the observations of his predecessors respecting former
changes of level in Norway and combining them with liis own,
has made the fact of a general change of level at some uidvuown,
but, geologically speaking, modern period (that is, within tho
period of the actual testaceous fauna) very evident. He infers
that the whole country from Cape Lindcrnas to the North Cape,
and beyond that as far as the fortress of Vardhuus, has been
" gradually upinised, and on the south-east coast the elevation
" has amounted to more than 600 feet." The same author tells
us that marine fossil shells of recent species have been collected
from inland places near Drontlieim. On the other side Mr.
Everest has shown that the island of Munkholra, an insulated
rock in the harbonr of Drontheim, has remained nearly stationary
for eight centui'ies. Jirongninrt and Sir Charles Lyell both found
beds of recent shells raised 200 feet nbove the sen at Capellhacken,
all the species being identical with those now inhnbiting the con-
tiguous ocean. The foi-mer also found Bahtni adhering to the
rocks above the shelly deposit, showing that the sea had lemained

* Tlu'sc beds of shells have since hecn traced by Erdnmnn to Sindc, at the
lioad of a lake of that name, 13U miles west of tStockhohii, at the height of
230 feet above the sea.

t Reclus, op. cit. vol. ii. J Lyell, op. cit. 527-9.

^*^~

492 nowoiiTii on surface elkvation in auctic regions.

llicro u lonj; time. This wns voiificd by Lyoll in 1834, nt Knre<l,
jiliout 2 milt'H iKUth of Uddevjillii, nt a heij^ht of more thnn 1(X)
led Jibove the ^^t'}l. He says tlic8c ]5«rnaclt's luUicrcd so firmly to
llio gneiss, tlijit he })roko off i>ortioiis of the rocks, with the shells
attached. Similar deposits of shells are found at the island of
Onist, opposite Uddevalla. Between Gothenburg and Uddevalla,
and on the islands of Marstrand and Gulholnieii, similar proofs
may be studied,* proving that we are here on the borders of u
doubtful line.

Jn 1844 M. liravais showed that in the Gulf of Alten, in
Fiuuiaik, the most northern part of Norway lying to the north of
Liipliind, there are two distinct lines of upraised ancient sea-coast,
one above the other. f

From Finmark wo may naturally step across to Spitzbergon,
an island which is notoriously rising from the sen at a rapid rate.
1 (ind the following passage as early as 1646: — Thcvse mountains
(twenty-two mountains of Spitzbergen) increase in bulk every year,
so as to be plainly discoverable by those that pass that way.
Lconin was not a little surprised to discover upon one of those
hills, about a league from the seaside, a small mast of a ship, with
one of its jjulleys still fastened to it. This made him ask the sea-
men how that mast came there, who told him they were not al»lc
to tell, but were sm-e they had seen it as long as they had used
that coast. Perhaps formerly the sea might either cover or come
near their mountain, where some ship or other being stranded,
this mast is some remnant of that wreck. J Parry, in an account
of his journey towards the Pole, page 126, refers to the vast
cjuantitics of Drift-wood stranded on the Spitzbergen coast above
high-water-mark.

In the 16th vol. of the "Quart. Journal of the Geological Society,"
INlr. Lament tells us that he found great quantities of Drift-wood
on all the Thousand Islands, as well as on the south coast of the
Spitzbergen main — some of it much worm-eaten, much of it lying
at least 30 feet above high-w-ater-mark. He nowhei'e found any
wood in situ. On all })arts of Spitzbergen and its islands, visited
by him, lie found numerous bones of AVhales far inland and high
above high-watcr-mark. One large piece of a jaAvbone, found
by himself in October 1859, was discovered 40 feet above the sea.
Jt was i)art of an entire skeletoi , which lay hali' buried in moss,
aliout hull' a mile from the sea, in Walter-Thymen's Strait.
There was also a terrace of trap-rocks higher than the moss in-
tei-veiiin<r between the latter and the sea. On one of the Thou-
sand Islands he counted eleven very large jaw-bones, along with
many bones forming other parts of the Whale's skeleton, all lying
(;lo.'^e togetiier in a slight depression, about 10 feet above the sea
le\el. On the same island he saw what he took to be a further
proof of the recent upheaval of tlic land. This was a sort of
fiu row or trench, 100 yards long by 3 or 4 feet deep, and 3 or 4

* Lji'll, op. cit. passim. f Lycll, " rrinciplcs," lltli edition, 194.

X " Accouut of Grceulancl," by La Pcyrcre, in " Cburchill's Voyages,"
vol. ii.

9 }

4

>IONS.

Knred,
an 100
rmly to
D shells
limcl of
IcvuUn,
proof's

IS of II

Iten, in
lortli of
a-coast,

;l)orgcn,
>i(l rate,
juntains
ry year,
at way.
of tlicso
ip, Avitli
the sea-
not al)lc
lad used
or come
;trande(l,
aceonut
the vast
st above

50ciety,"
't-wood
of the
it lying
mnd any
visited
nid high
found
the sea.
in moss,
Strait,
moss in-
e Thou-
3ng "svith
all lying
e the sea
I further
sort of
d 3 or 4

I

i

3?:

HOWORTII ON SURFACE ELEVATION IN ARCTIC UK(»IO\. iO.l

feet broad, ploughed up among the boulders, and presumed to bo
done by icebergs. It was on a gentle sloi)e, about 20 fci-t above
the sea, and extended from north-east to south-west, exaetly tin"
run of the current-ice at the present <lay.* 'I'he soal-Hshers told
Mr. Lamont that the land was rising, and that the Uight Wliali'
had forsaken tho Spitzbergen seas, which had beeomc too shallow
for it.

Tho German Expedition of 1869 also found heaps of i^rift-wood
20 feet high above high-watcr-mark on tho south-east shore of
Spitzbergen.

East of Nova Zembla Captain Mask, who nnido a journey
there in 1871.. found the barren and sandy islands known as the
Gulf-Stream Islands. In tho spot where these now are, the
Dutch, in 1594, found and measured a sandbank in souiulings of
18 lathoms, showing an upheaval hero of 100 feet in IJOO years.
In tho same year Captain Nils Johnson lauded in tho country
called Wichc Laud in the map of 1G17, situated about JJ()° east
longitude and 78° north latitude, lie says that the shores there
to a distance of 100 miles inland, and to a height of about 20 feet
above high-water-mark, are covered with drift-wooil.j

We may now return to the mainland of Europe, and continue
our survey eastwards.

l*ennant long ago observed that the White Sea and the lialtic
were but recently joined together by a strait. He says the
Lakes Sig, Onda, and Wigo form successive links from the Lake
Onega to the White Sea. The Lake Siama almost cuts Finland
through from North to South. Its northern end is not remote
from Lake (Jnda, and tho southern extends very near to the Gulf
of Finland, a space of nearly 40 Swedish, or 260 English miles.
These vfore i)robably part of the bed of the ancient Streights {sic')
which joined the White and Baltic Seas.J Great portions of
Finland, which is known to the natives as Suomenia, or tho land
of swamp, has all the character of a recently emerged land. It
is sprinkled over with lakes separated by flats of sand covered
with moss. The level of some of these lakes is rapidly falling,
which means that the land is rising. We are told this especially
of the River Vosca and the Lake Saniia, of which it is the only
feeder. In the spring of 1818, Lake Souvando, on the west of
Lake Ladoga, broke down the isthmus that separated it; its
waters were lowered 5 ' 026 fathoms, and much land was left dry.

Sir Charles Lyeil tells us, that on the coast of Finland, as on
that of Sweden, the fishermen have traditions that Avhat is now
dry land was in their fathers' days water. The surface of Fin-
land g(uierally is covered with traces of a prodigious diluvial
re\'olution in recent times.

MJNI. de Iveyserling, Murchison, and do Vcrneuil have found at
points 2o0 miles to the south of the White Sea, on the banks of
the Dwina and the Vaga, beds of sand and mud containing seNcral

on, 194.
Voyages,"

* '■ Quart. Jouni. Geol. Soc," vol. xvi. p. 42i*.
t " Ocean Highways," \^^. 'Ml and :i92.
j *' Appendix to Arctic Zoology," p. 23,

404 IIOWOUTII ON SUUFACE ELEVATION IN AllOTlC! IlEGIONS.

kinds of hIiuIIs similar to those which inhiibit the uoi^hbouring
.sens, und so well preservetl that they had not lost their colours.*

Ill some notes on the ice between Greenland and Nova Zeml)Ia,
by Captain Jansun,t he says, quoting iin experienced navifiator
called Thenius Ys : " Drift-wood, though there is plenty on the
*' beach, is found far abo\ e this mark, und ho roniaikubly high,
" that I do not understand how it is brought tlicre." Again,
speaking of Captain Wni. do Vlaningh, who sailed along the
north and north-enst coasts of Nova Zembhi in 1664 : At a con-
siderable height he found on a rock, on the smallest of the three
Islands of Orange, a very hu'ge tree that three or four men could
not lift. This tree was rotten. The tree lay much too high to
have been brought there by water, perhaps by a waterspout he
says.

The two islands of Nova Zcmb'vi are each divided from north
to south by a prolongation of the Ural Mountains, but they consist
chielly of a marshy moss-clad plain. It has lately been found that
there are saline lakes in these islands. |

M. do Middendorf states that the ground of the Siberian tundras
is in a great part covered with a thin coating of sand and fine clay,
exactly similar to that which is now deposited on the shores of the
Froz(>n Ocean. In this clay, too, which contains in such large
quantities the buried remains of Mammoths, there are also found
lica[)S of sliells perfectly identical Avith those of the adjacent
ocean. Far inland, besides, traces of drift-wood are seen, the
trees Avliich once grew in tlie forests of Southern Siberia : these
ti-ees, having been, first carried into the sea by the current of the
rivers, have be^n tlu'own up by the waves on the former coast,
which arc now deserted by the sea.§ Our chief authority for the
sliores of the Arctic Sea is Von Wrangel, and from his travels I
shall quote freely: — "In 1810, Hei'/'ustrom went across the
*' Tundra direct to Utsjansk. He says, on the Tundra, equally
" remote from the present line of trees, among the steep sandy
" banks of the lakes and rivers are found large Birch-trees, coiu-
" pleto with bark, branches, and roots. At first sight they appear
" well preserved, but on digging them up they are found to be in
" a thorough state of decay. On being lighted they glow, but

never burst into flame ; the inhabitants use them for fuel ; they

call them Adamoushina, or, ' of Adam's time.' The first living
" Birch-tree is not now found nearer than three degrees to the
" south, and then only as shrubs." Again, in ISll, Samukof
reports that he found the skulls and bones of various animals in
the interior of Kotelnoi Island, and that both there and in New
Siberia he found lai^ge trees partially fossilized. These islands
have apparently all been recently submerged, for it is reported
that the greatest stores of Mammoth ivory are now got from tluj
sand-banks which are constantly a^jpearing near the Bear Islands ;

u

i

* " Eochis, op. c;it.," vol. 11. p. G27.

t " rioct'oclings of the Koyal Geo^Tiiphicai Society," vol. ix. p. 1G;3.

X Maltebruii : (loofj,., vol. ii. ]). '}y4.

§ Iloclus, " Tho Eurtli," vol. ii. pp. C27, 028.

m

*

coast,
or tlio
iivels I
the
equully
sandy
, coiu-
appoar
> be in
w, l)ut
; they
livinj;-
to the
amnkoC
mals in
in New
ishinds
epoi'ted
•om th(j
shuulri ;

'

IIOVVOUTII ON SUUr ACE ELEVATION IN AUCTIC llEUIONS. 49o

tht! barren surliiee ol" the hitti'r, a con^htiuenite ol' bones, stones,
luul iec, has all the clianieter ol' a recently rccovi-ied sea-bottom.
Wrangel tells us that ribs ol" Whales are often I'ound on tlu; west
coast, and that Whales are now very seldom sii'n on the Sibi'rian
coast, while in the IHlli century their iipix-aianee there was nnieh
more Irccjuent. The only cause I'or this desertion that T can sug-
gest is that assigned by the Spil/.bergeu (Ishernien, namely, that
the sea is becoming too shallow lor tlie Whali'. "The shores ol"
" the Polar Sea, t"rom the Lena lo lielning's Straits, arc t"or the
" most part low and Hat. In winter it is hai'd to say when- land
" ends and sea begins. A i"ew versts inland, however, a line ol'
*' high grouml runs parallel with the present coast, and Ibrmerly
" no doubt constituted the boundary ot' the ocean. This belief is
" strengthened by the (pianlity ol' drift-woud roinid on the upper
" level, and also by the shoals that run I'ar out to sea, and will no
" doul)t become dry land." * Again: "At several places along
" the coast we found ohl weathered drift-wood at th(; height of
" two fathoms above tlu^ present level of the sea, whili; the fresh
" drift-wood lay on a h)wer level. This indicates change of level."
Again: " Captain Sarytschew says the winter-dwellings erected
" by Laptef on the bank where his vessel was driven on shore
'* lead to the belief that the channel must formerly have been on
" that side. At present there is no watcsr there for a vessel of
" any size, and even a boat can only approach at high water. At
'^ low water th(j shoal runs three versts out to sea." f Diomed
Island, described by Chalavrof in 17()0, and by Laptef at a liter
date, no longer exists : it now forms a part of the main. TIk?
same voyagers describe the cast coast of the Swatoi Moss as very
sinuous: it is now very straight, the sinuosities having meanwhile
disappeared. These facts will sufiicc to prove that so far as we
ha\ e any evidence, the whole Siberian coast, as I'ar as Behring's
Straits, is rising from the sea.

In Mr. Grieves' translation of the "History of Kamtchatka," 1
find it stated, in the description of Behring's Island and the adja-
ceiil island, that, 30 fathoms higher than the sea-mark, lie wood
and whole skeletons of sea-animals which have been lei't by the
sca.l He speaks of one of the rivers at Ochotsk as being now
dry ; this is probably caused by upheaval. And in describing the
l*enschinska Sea, he says he had seen "trees which are not to be
" found in the comitry hanging out of the; earth, and more than
seven feet below the surface ; whence (he says), it may be con-
eluded that all thcs(! barren, boggy places, where at present
there are no woods Init shrubs and stunted Sallows and Jjirches,
Avere ouce covered with Avater, which has decreased l)y degrees
here, as it has on the north-eastern coast." §
Quite recently Russian travellers have discovered on the coast
of the great islanil of Saghalieu heaps of modern Shells, lying not
far from the shore on l.)eds of marine clay, and also former bays,

<(

I,:
n

'*$•

'i

■I ■'h

a.

* Voii Wraiiycl, S;ibiiic'« tninslutiou.

t Ibi.l., cvii. X I'lige M

§ Vou Wraiigc'l, fSabiac's tiauslutiou, i>]^, 5y-Cl.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

■50 '^™

125

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^ |i£ 12.0

is

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L25 l|||_U ii.6

4"

V]

**

/

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Corporation

23 WfST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80

(716) 872-4503

1^ J^.

/a

_; .' ' III II ii iiiiiitii

•diki.

496 IIOWOHTII ON SURFACE ELEVATION IN ARCTIC REGIONS.

Avhich are now converted into lakes or salt-marshes. In like
Tiianner it has been proved that the re«;ions of the Amnr arc
gradually belnj; upheaved, for, in order to maintain its level,
the river has constantly to hollow out its bed between the cliffs ;
and on the plateau by the river-side semicircular sheets of water
may still be seen, which are evidently former windings of the
Amur.* [Alterations of level and evidences of desicca-
tion in the Japanese and Chinese regions, in Central Asia, and the

Persian and Casi)ian areas arc next noticed.]

I have now completed a rough and slight survey of the great
mass of land that surrounds the North Pole, ami have shown
that, so far as .we have any evidence, that great mass is under-
going a general movement of upheaval ; or, to be perfectly
correct, we find on it traces in all directions that there has
been a movement of upheaval since there was any subsidence ;
and in those areas, which are accessible enough to enable us to
experiment, as in Sandinavia, &e., we find that the movement is
going on now at a greater or less rate. This general movement
of Circumpolar land having its focus apparently near the Pole,
has no doubt been coincident with a corresponding revolution
in other physical phenomena, such as climate, the distribution

of magnetism, &c There is one fact which is very obvious

that in the vast area over which we have shown that there

are traces of upheaval, there is not, so far as I know, a single
volcano. Tf the ancient theory that volcanoes are due to I he
eruptive forces of the earth be true, this^ fact requires expla-
nation

LIX. — Rocks and Mineuals of Greenland. By Dr. H.
Rink. (From " Tilhvg No. 7," of Dr. H. Rink's " Bcs-
krivelse af Groiiland," 18o7. [This ought to have
followed " Sutherlancl," at p. 3G8, in order of date.]

tfs

In the ^'Prhnitive '' rocks, which constitute a great portion of
Greenland, granitic and gnelssic varieties, with or without horn-
blende, and with garnets and magnetite, are common. Trap-rocks
also occur with them. As bedded masses in these granitoid rocks,
hornblende-schist, with garnet, is most common (shown in Rink's
sketch, at p. 140, as traversing the Omenak Hills). Actinolite,
asbestos, and pyrites occur in this schist. Dolomite, with tre-
niolitc and other minerals, occurs in the Omenak, Christianshaab,
and Egodesminde districts. Authophyllito, with actinolite, is
noticeable at Upernavik ; where also occurs a felspathic stratum -vith
(piartii, dichroite, and garnet. As veins in the granitic rocks, red
felspar is found, with magnetite, apatite, allanito, zircon, and
])yrites ; also white felspar and tourmaline. E[)idote also, with
iron-glanee and c:deite, is disseminated in the rock, and barytes

* Rechis, vol. ii. p. 660.

REGIONS.

In like
Lmnr arc
its level,
the cliffs ;
of water
;;s of Ihe
{' desicca-
\, and the

the gi'cat
re shown
is under-
perfectly
here has
bsidencc ;
ible U3 to
vcment is
novement
tlie Pole,
■evolution
stribntion
y obvious
that thore
, ii sinjilo
lie to liio
OS expla-

in Dr. H.
"s " Bes-
to have

ate.]

)ortion of
»ut horn-
ap-rocks
)iJ rocks,
in Rink's
.ctinolito,
yvitli tre-
ianshaab,
lolito, is
turn 'vith
ocks, rod
3on, and
Iso, with
I barytos

RIXK, HOCKS AXD MINERALS.

497

occurs in layers. In the gneiss are pyrites and magnetite ; and
graphite at Upernaviks Ljinge and Onienaks Stoioo. Greenstone,
granite, or norite, also diabase, graphie granite, granulite, and
slates are met with in different parts of the coast and mainland.

The red quartzose sandstone of IgJilliko Fjord niul Tunnud-
liorbik Fjord is local ; it is pierced by [)orphyry veins.*

(The great Trap-formation,f with Brown-coal, has been more
fully descrilK'd by Noudexskjold and others since the date of
Rink's Memoir, and the aUuvial formations will also be found
more fully noticed in the same papers. See above.)

RiXK notices the following minerals and their places of occur-
rence : Quartz, siliceous sinter, jasper, olivine, felspar, adularia,
opalescent adularia, labradorite, amazon-stone, scapollte, [)umice
(from JanMayen), gicseckite, nephrite, sodalite, eudialite, zeolites,
mica, chlorite, talc, serpentine, hornbleiulc, actinolite, smaragdite,
tremolitc, augite, asbestos, croeidolile (loc. incog.), clay, clay-
slate, barytes, garnet (various), dichroite, epidote, zircon, emery,
beryl, tourmaline, saphirine, allanite, gadolinit(>, fergusonite,
calcite, dolomite, fluor, cryolite (with a plan of the locality where
it is workedj), tungstate (tungspath), sparry-iron-ore, malachite,
apatite, magnetite, specular-iron-ore, l)rown iron-stone, yellow
ochre, titaniferous iron-ore, tin-stone, wolfram, native sulphur,
native iron, pyrites, arsenical pyrites, smaltine, copper-pyrites,
galena, copper-glance, molybdenite, blende, graphite. {See also
Giesecke's list of rocks and minerals above, p. 349.)

* It is sometimes called " Old Red Sandstone ;" but it may be of Cambrian
age. — Editok.

t Rink gives sketches, — 1. Of Innerit (south side) with its long cliffs of
horizontal sandstone, and beds of lignite, capped with jyfreat beds of trap -,
2. Of a part of the gneiss county, near Proven, overlain by massive trap-rocks
on one part, and showing a great, isolated, crater-like hollow in the trap in
another.

J See above, Giesecke, Tayler, &c.

m

36122.

I I

498

M'CLINTOCK, ANIMALS OF PARRY ISLANDS.

§ n.

Parry Islands and East-Arctic America.

LX. — Note on Animal Life in the North -West Parry
Islands (Melville Island, Prince-Patrick Land, and the
Polynia Islands). From "Capt. M'Clintock's Remi-
niscences of Arctic Ice-Tra.vel in search of Sir John
Franklin" (Third Expedition). With Permission:
Journal Royal Dublin Society, vol. x. pp. 236-7.

*' A comparison of 300 thermometric observations made upon
this journey and those simultaneously registered at Bridport Inlet,
in latitude 74° 56' N., shows a difference of 3*5° of lower tempe-
rature for any more northern position, for which, as a mean, we
may assign the parallel of 76^° N., being about lOK) miles north of
the ship (H.M. ** Intrepid "). The means of temperature thus
compared were 18*5° and 22°.

" These observations having been made between 12th April and
15th July (1852), sufficiently account for the diminished vegetable
growth, and consequent decrease of animal hfe upon the land j
whilst the absence of the Polar Bear is significant of a similar
scarcity of the frozen deep."

" As bearing upon the distribution of animal ,life I subjoin a
record of aU that were shot or seen." Abstract : —

April 4 to
May 13.

May 14 to
June 26.

June 26 and 80.

July 1-19.

Melville Island.

PrincePatrick I.

Emerald Is-
land.

Melville Island.

Musk-oxen -

59

5

0

30

Rein-deer

29

8

13

74

Hares - - -

1

1

0

2

Seals -

0

2

1

15

Gulls -

0

12

7

34

Brent Geese

0

20

0

107

Ducks - - -

0

5

0

18

Ptarmigan -

16

37

0

12

" No traces of Bears were found. A few Wolf tracks were seen,
but only on Melville Island. No traces of Oxen, Deer, Foxes, or
Ptarmigan beyond the 77th parallel, except in one instance, when
a decayed bone of a Deer and traces of a Fox were found. Up to
77° N. Fox tracks were frequently seen, although we never saw
the animal. Lemmings were tolerably numerous whenever there
was vegetation.

" Three kinds of Gulls. The Ivory Gulls {Larus cburneus)
were the earliest to arrive, and were found furthest north ; they
began to lay eggs before the thaw commenced ; eight only were
Been, and all of them upon Prince-Patrick's Land. Seventeen

AXDS.

MERICA.

Vest Parry
md, and the
ock's Remi-
3f Sir John
Permission :
236-7.

made upon
ridport Inlet,
lower tempe-

a mean, we
ailes north of
)erature thus

2th April and

led vegetable

on the land;

of a similar

! I subjoin a

July 1-19.
Melville Island.

30

74
2
15
34
107
18
12

cs were seen,
3r, Foxes, or
stance, when
und. Up to
e never saw
enever there

IS eburneiis)
north ; they
t only were
Seventeen

m'clintock, animals of parry islands.

499

Glaucous and twenty-eight Skua Gulls {Lcstris parasiticus), the
latter chiefly on Melville Island. Of the Ducks, three were long-
tailed (Anas (jlacialis), and the other twenty-two were King Ducks
{A, spectahilis). Several Snow-buntings, sparingly, but univer-
sally distributed ; four or five Red Phalaropes ; two Sea-Snipes ;
a Raven ; and a bird supposed to be a Snowy Owl, complete the
list."

[H.M.S. " Resolute," stationed at Dealy Island, Bridport Inlet,
Melville Island, obtained from 3 Sept. 1852, to 9 Sept. 1853 : —

Musk-oxen, 114. Bears, 6. Geese, 128.

Rein-deer, 95. Wolves, 3. Ducks, 229.

Hares, 146. Ptarmigan, 711. Plover, 16.

Belcher's " Last of the Arctic Voyages," 1855, vol. ii. p. 155.J

LXL— Mammalia of the Parry Islands and Neighbouring

Coasts.

From : —

I. A Supplement to the Appendix of Captain Parry's Voy-
age for the Discovery of a North-west Passage in
1819-20. 4to. London, 1824. Mammalia, by Captain
Sabine, pp. clxxxiii-cxcii.
II* Appendix to Captain Parry's Journal of a Second Voy-
age, &c., in 1821-23. 4to. London, 1825. Quadrupeds
and Birds, by John Richardson, M.D., pp. 287-341.
III. Journal of a Third Voyage of Discovery, &c., in 1824-5.
4to. London, 1826. Zoology; Mammals, by J. C.
Ross, R.N., &c., pp. 92-95.
R. Narrative of a Second Voyage in search of North-west
Passage, &c., in 1829-33. By Sir John Ross, C.B.,
&c. 4to. London, 1835. Zoology, by Captain J. C.
Ross, R. Owen, &c., pp. vii-xxiv.
The species and genera have been critically revised in later
works. See other Catalogues in this " Manual."

I, II, III, R. Ursus maritimus, L. Esquimaux, Nonnook or
Nennook. GrcctiL, Nennok.
I, II, B. Gulo luscus, L. Esq., Kablee-aree-oo (Parry's
2nd Voyage). Esq. of Melville Penitisula,
Kab-le-a-rioo (Ross). Esq. of Boothia Felix,
Ka-e-week. Remains throughout the winter
as far North as 70''.
Mustela erminea, L. Esq., Terree-ya.
Canis lupus, L. Esq., AmSrok.
C. lupus occidentalis. Rich.
C. lagopus, L. Esq. of Melville Peninsula,
Terree-anee-arioo. Esq. of Delcome and
Coppermine River, Terregannoeuck. Greenl.
Terienniak, Kakkortak.

I I 2

I, II. B.

I. II.

B.

I, II. III. B.

:oo

SABINE AND OTIIEllS, AIICTIC MAiXLMALIA.

II. It. C. Ingopns, v.ir. j5. fiiliginosus, (Shaw).
Grccnl, Keinektnk.
II. Avvicola Groenlandica, (Trjiill). Esquimaux ?,
0\v-in-yuk.
I. II. III. A. Hiulpoiiia (F'oristcr).
II. B. A. trimuci'onnta, Kich.
II. R. Arctomys Parryii, Sab.
I. II. III. B. Lcpue glaeiulis, Leach.

I. II. III. R. Cervus tarandus, L. GrcaiL, Tukta {mule),
Pangnek (yc'/>?w/r),Kollc\vak ; yo?f «</, Norak.
Esq., Tooktoo.
I. II. III. Ovlbos moschatiis, L. Esq., Oo-ming-mak.
GreciiL, Oniimak or Uminiak, and of the
natives o*" IVolstcnholm Sound. '
II. III. B. Plioca focticia, Miill. Grccnl., Neitsek. Esq.,
Neith-kcek or Ncitick {middle-sized, Kai-
rolik ; youn(f, Ibbccn).
II. Bi P. barbata, Fabr. Esq. (Ross), Oo-ge-ook. Esq,
of the Welcome liiver, Ogg-a'ook. Esq. of
Melville Peninsula, Oguke. Grenl., Urksuk.
II. B. P. Groenlandica, Fabr.
I^ P. vitulina, L.
I. II* III. Baliena mysticetus, Lacepede. Esq., Agga-ueek
(Yookai, ichalcbone).
I. B. physalus, L.
I. II. III. B; Alonodon monoceros, L. Esq., Keina-lov-a.
I. II. III. B. Delpliinapterus beluga, Lacep. Esq. (Ross), I-

we-ak.
I. II. III. B. Trichecus rosmarus, L. Esq. of 3Ielville Pen-
insula, Ei-ii-ek. Esq. of the JVelcome River,
Ej-ee-werk.

LXII. — Fishes of the Parry Islands and Xeighbouring
Regions.

1. From Pakry's 1st and 3rd Voyages (I;, pp. ccxi.-ccxiv., and
Ill.y pp. 109-1 12), and Ross's 2nd Voyage (B., pp. xlvi.-xlix.).
Described by S.abine, Ross, and Richardson, 1824, 26, 35.

[For Dr. Lutken's revised Catalogue of the Arctic Fishes, see
above, pp. 115-122.]

B. Cyclopterus minutus.
I.. B. Liparis communis.
III. B. Ophidium Parrii, Ross.
III. B. O. viride, Fabr.

B. Gadus morrhua. Esquimaux of Boothia, 0-wuk.
B. G. callarias. Esquimaux of Boothia, Il-lit-toke.
I. Illi B. Merlangus polaris. Leach.
I. M. carbonarius.
I. B. Blennius polaris, Sab.

ALIA.

SADIXE AND OTHERS, ARCTIC FISHES.

501

)siis, (Shaw).
Esquimaux ?,

Tukta {mule),
young, Norak.

Oo-ming-mak.
k, and of the
I. .

icitsek. Esq.,
^/e-sizcd, Kai-

o-ge-ook. Esq,
'ook. Esq. of
rc?iL, Urksuk.

q., Agga-ueek

'eina-lov-a.
sq. (Ross), I-

Melville Pen-
Icome Rivcvy

GHBOURING

-ccxiv., and
xlvi.-xlix.).
1, 35.

c Fishes, see

hia, 0-wuk.
Il-lit-toke.

I. B. Cottus quadricornis, Bloch. Esquimaux of Boothia,
Knn-ny-yoko.

1. Ill* R. C. polaris. Sab.

B. Pleuronectes hippoglossus.

It. Salmo Rossii, Richardi^ou.

B. S. alipes. Rich.

B. S. nitidus. Rich. Esquimaux, Augraalook.

B. S. Iloodii, Rich. Esquimaux, Masnmacush.

2. From Wellington Sound (Channel), collected by Sir E.
Belciieu, and described by Sir John Richardson, in Belcher's
Last of the Arctic Voyages, ii.. Appendix, pp. 347-376 ; pi.
23-30, 1855.

Cottus glacialis, Richardson.
Phobetor tricuspis, (Reinhardt).
Gasterostcus insculptus. Rich.
Gunellus fasciatus, (Bloch).
Lumpenus nubilus. Rich.
Lycodes mucosus. Rich.
Gymnelis viridis, (O. Fab.).
G. viridis, var. unimaculatus, Rich.
Merlangus polaris. Leach and Sabine.

LXIII. — Insects and Arachnids from Greenland, the
Parry Islands, and Neighbouring Lands, collected
during Parry's First and Third Voyages, and Ross's
Second Voyage, and determined by the Rev. Wm.
KiRBY, Lieut. J. C. Ross, and Mr. John Curtis.
1825, 26, 35.

I. Parry's First Voyage, Appendix, &c., pp. ccxiv.-ccxix.

Insects. By the Rev. W. Kirby.

Bombyx Sabini, K. Chironomus polaris, K.
Bomb us arcticus, \^.^Apis

alpina, Fab. Spider.

Ctenophora Parrii, K. Salticus ? Melvillensis, K.

IL Parry's Third Voyage, Appendix, &c., pp. 112-115.
Insects. By J. C. Ross.

Simulium reptans (Fab.).
Ctenophora Parrii, K.
Pedicia rivosa (Fab.).
Culex caspiiis, Pallas.
Melitaea Tullia (Fab.).
Bombyx Sabini ?, K.
Bombus arcticus, K.
Formica rubra, L.

Spiders.

Salticus scenicus, (Fab.).
Dysdera erythrina, Latr.
Oxyopes variegatus, Latr.
Lycosa saccata (Fab.).

502

KIRDY AND CURTIS, ARCTIC INSECTS.

III. Ross's Second Voyage,

Insects. By John

Order, Coleoptkka.
Fam., Dyliscidfc.
Colymbetes moDstus.

Order, Derjiaptera.
Forficulii. Taken 23 June,
1831 ; scarce; under stones.

Order, Hymknoptera.
Fam., Ivhnenmonid(r.
Ichneumon Laria?. Infesting
the larviD of Laria Rossii,
early in July.
Ephialtes, sp.
Campoplex ? arcticus.
Microgaster unicolor.

Fam., Formicidfe.
Myrmica rubra, Linn. Nume-
rous, under stones.

Fam., Apidee.
Bombus Kirbiellus.

B. polaris.

Order, Trichoptera.
Fam., Phryganeidce.
Tinodes ? hirtipes.

Order, Lepidoptera.
Fam., Papilionidsa.
Colias Boothii.

C. chione.
Hipparchia Rossii.
H. subhyalina.
Melitsea Tarquinius.
Polyommatus Franklinii.

Appendix, &c., |)p. Ix., et, seq,

Curtis, Esq., F.L.S.

Fam., BombycidiB vel Arc'

tiidce,
LiU'ia Rossii.
Eyprcpia hyperborca.

Fam., Noctuidce.
Hndena Richardsoni.

Fam., Phalfpnidce.
Psychophora Sabini.
Oporabia punctipes.

Fam., Tortricida;.
Orthotajnia Bcutleyana.
O. septentrionana.
Argyrotoza Parryana.

Order, Hemiptera.

Fam., Acanthidte,

Acanthia stellata.
Pedeticus variegatus.

Order, Diptera.
Fam., CuUcidtB.
Culex caspius. Pall.

Fam., Tipulidce.

Chironomus polaris, Kirby.
C. borealis.
Tipula arctica.

Fam., SyrphidtB,
Helophilus bilineatus.

Fam., MuscidfB.
Tachina hirta.
Anthomyia dubia.
Seatophaga apicalis.
S. fucorum, Fall.

\

r

ii<

SABIXE AND OTHERS, ARCTIC INVERTEJHIATA. 503

LXIV. — Some Marine Inveuteiirata enumerated in
Parry's 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Voyages (I. Sabine, Kirby ;
II. J. C. Ross, Dr. Fleming ; III. J. C. Ross) ; Ross's
1st* (L. Leach, 1819) and 2nd(R. J. C. Ross and R.
Owen) Voyages, 1824, 25, 26 ; 1819 ; 1835.

■i 1^

[For the Vertebratn, see ahove^ pages 1 -93, and 499 : the Birds
are inchided in Prof. Newton's catuloguc, pages 94, &c. For the
Fishes, see pp. 115-122, and 500. The Mollu.sca are included in
Dr. Morch's catalogue, pp. 124-135 ; and tlie Tunicata in Dr.
Liitken's hst, pp. 138-139. The other groups are revised in Dr.
Liitken's catalogues, sec above, pp. 146-191. The native names
and the localities in these older lists arc points of interest.]

Tunicata.

I. Asciilia globifera, Sab. West coast of Davis Strait, lat. 70" ;

trawl.
B. Boltenia reniformis, MacLeay. 70 fathoms, Elizabeth

Harbour.
B. Cystingia Griffithsii, MacLeay.f Fox Channel and Felix

Harbour.

Pycnogonida.

J* III' %7Pl^»fi glossipes, Fab. 1 North-Georgian Isles, at
I. III. N. hirsutum, Sab. > , , . . i^ /r ^

I. Phoxichilus proboscideus, Sab. J ^ *''*

Crustacea.

-<\

, (Those from Ross's 2nd voyage (B»0 were taken at Port Bowen,
^^ Prince-Regent Inlet.) y .j-y

I. III. Idotea entomon (Pall.). Melville Island, at ebb

tide (I.) ; wide-spread (III.).
I. III. I. Baffini, Sab. VV. coast of Baffin's Bay, 20
fathoms ; trawl (I»).
I. B. Gammarus nugax (Phipps). Polar Sea, at ebb
tide (I.).
I. III. B. Talitrus ampulla (Phipps). Polar Sea and
Davis Strait; trawl (I.).

* The importance of Sir Joirx Ross's Deep-sea Soundings in Baffin's Bay,
whereby several of the Invertebrates were obtained, is strongly insisted on in
Dr. Wallicu's " The North-Atlantic Sea-bed " (Part I., p. 79) ; 4to. Van
Voorst, Loudon, 1862. The deep-sea forms specially referred to are — Hip-
polyte, sp., Gammarus Sabini, Nereis, Phyllophora, Lepidonotus Rossii, and
Gorgonocephalus articus.

t See also Trans. Lin. Soc, xiv. 1825.

N*^

504 SABINE AND OTIIEKS, AllCTIC INVEKTEBKATA.

Z. III. Zl.

I. III. B.

L. I. III. R.

I. III.

I. III. B.

I. It.

Z. IZZ.
Z. It.

B.

B.

B.
III. B.

B.

B.

B.
III.
III.
III.

L.

I.

Ganimarus horous, Sab. "I Polnr Sen, at ebb tide

G. loricntus Sab. J (I.).

G. Sal)ini, Leach, 1819. Baffin's Bay (L.

and I.).
Aniphithoc Edvardaii (Sab.). W. coast of Davis

Strait ; trawl (I.).
Talitrus Cyauca?, Sab. Parasitic on Cyanca

arctica.
Crangon Boreas (Phipps). W. coast of Davis

Strait (trawl) and Melville I. (dredge) (I.).
Sabinca septemcarinata (Sab.). W, coast of

Davis Strait ; trawl (I.).
Alphens acnleatus (Fab.). Melville Is. (I.).
Hippolyte polaris (Sab.). Melville I., 50 fathoms

(I.).
II. aculeata (Fab.).
H. Sowerbei, Leach.
H. borealis, Ross.

Mysis flexnosus, Miill. Esq., Il-le-ak-kak, (B.)
Themisto Gaudichaudii, R. & O.
Acanthonotus cristatus, R. & O.
Acanthosoma hystrix, R. & O.
Caprella scolopendroides. Lam.
Cyamus Ceti (Fab.).
Nebalia glabra ?, Lam.

Balanus areticns. Leach, 1819. Baffin's Bay.
B. glacialis, Gray, 1824.

Annelida.

I. Nais ciliata, Miill. North-Georgian Islands.
I. Polynoe cirrata et P. scabra (Fab.). Melville Island (Sep-
tember).
L. Nereis phyllophora. Leach, 1819. Baffin's Bay.
L. Lepidonotus Rossii, Leach, 1819. Baffin's Bay.
I. Spirorbis nautiloides (Lin.).
I. S. spirillum (Lin.).

ECHINODERMATA.

L. Gorgonocephalus (Euryale) arcticus. Leach, 1819.

Baffin's Bay.
I. Ophiura texturata. Lam.
I. III. O. fragilis. Lam.
III. O. filiformis (Miill.).

I. Asterias papposa, Fab. > Davis Strait; trawl (I.).

I. A. rubens. Fab.

I. A. violacea, Miill. 12-18

fathoms. j

I. A. polaris. Sab. Melville Island.
I. Echinus saxatilis, Lin.

iBRATA.

SABINK AND OTIIEllS, ARCTIC INVERTEBUATA. 505

en, at ebb tide

ix's Bay (L.

coast of Davis

J on Ci/anca

>ast of Davis
5<lge) (I.).
W. coast of

'• Is. (I.).
•M 50 fathoms

k-kak. (R.)

C(ELENTEUATA.

I. Bcroe ovum, Fab. Baffin's Bay.
I. B. cucumis, Fab. Baffin's Bay and New Gioif^in.
I. III. B. pileus, Fab. Davis Strait and BaHln's Bay.
I. III. Diannea glacialis, Sab. Baffin's Bay and adjacent seas.
Z. III. Cyanea arctica, Sab. Barrow Strait and Polar Sea,
I. Flnstra angnstiloba, Lara.

II. F. pilosa, Solaiudcr.

II. Cellaria lorieulata, Sol.

II. C. ciliata, Sol.

II. Tubularia?

II. Sertularia argcntea, Sol.

II. S. cupressina, Sol.

II. S. repens, Sol.

II. Plumularia bnllata, Fleming.

II. Millcpora pnmicosa, Sol.

II. M. tubulosa, Sol.

Protozoa.

II. Spongia infundibuliformis, Lin.
II. S. parasita, Montagu.

* '(

n's Bay.

laud (Sep-

LXV.— Fishes from Port Kennedy, lat. 72° N., long. 94 W.
(From Dr. Walker's Memoir " On Arctic Zoology,"
&c. Journ. Koyal Dublin Soc, vol. iii. 18G0, p. G7.) ^

Cottus polaris, Sab. A few specimens dredged up in 5-15
fathoms.

Lumpenus mibilus, Richardson. A single mntilatcd specimen.

Gymnelis viridis, Fabr. Two small specimens, from the beak of
a Glaucous Gnll.

Salmo Hoodii, Rich. A few specimens, 3 to 11 inches in length,
from a freshwater lake at the head of Port Kennedy.

ih, 1819.

iwl (I.).

LXVI. — Arctic Mollusca, obtained during the Voyage of
the " Fox." From Dr. Walker's Memoir on Arctic
Zoology : Journ. Royal Dublin Soc, vol. iii. 1860,
pp. 70-72.

Rossia palpebrosa ? Several beaksj probably of this species, were

found in the crop of a Gull.
Fusus tortuosus, Reeve. A few dead specimens at 100 fathoms

in Melville Bay.
Buccinum Donovani, Gray. Godhavn, 20 fathoms.

■I:

f^^-

50G

WALKER, ARCTIC MOLLUSC A.

I

B. cyfineum, Clicmn. Melville Tiny, HOfiithoms; Port Kennedy
(Int. 72' N., long. 94 W), 1.5 futhoma.

B. uiululattini. Port Kennedy, 15 fnthome.

B. hydrophanum, Hancock. Port Kennedy, 15 fathoms.

B. Gncnlandicuni, Hanc. Port Kennedy, 15 fathoms.

B. tencbroHum, Hanc. Godhavn, 10-20 fathoms.

B. ciliatum, Hanc. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms.

B. i)licosum, Hanc. Melville Bay, 100 fathoms.

Trophon clathratnn, L. Godhavn, 20 fathoms.

T. clathratns, var. scalariformis. Godhavn, 20 fathoms.

Mangelia turricnla, Mont. Godhavn, 20 futhonis ; Melvillo Bay,
80-140 fathoms.

M. Trcvelliuna, Tnrton. Port Kennedy, 15 fathoms.

M. rul'a, Mont. Godhavn, 15 fathoms; Port Kennedy, 10
fathoms.

Natica pusilla, Say ? Gonld. Godhavn, Fiskernaes, and Port
Kennedy, from 5 to 20 fathoms.

Turritolla lactea, Moll. Melvilh; Bay, 80-100 fathoms.

Littorina ienebrosa, Mont. Godhavn, 20 fathoms.

Scalaria Groenlandica, Sow. Godhavn, 20 fathoms.

Margarita cinerea, Couth. Godhavn, 15 fathoms.

M. arctica, Leach. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms, veiy abundant.

M. umbilicalis. Sow. Cape York, 10 fathoms ; Port Kennedy.

M. nndulata. Sow. Godhavn, 15 fathoms.

Lottia testudinalis, Gray. Godhavn ; Fiskernaes ; Melville Bay.

Chiton marmoreus. Fab. Port Kennedy and Godhavn, 10-20

fathoms.
Bulla sculpta, Reeve. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms.
Cylichna alba, Loven. Near Cape York, 15 fathoms.
Saxicava arctica, L. Godhavn, Fiskernaes, Melville Bay, and

Cape York, 5 to 140 fathoms.
S. rugosa, L. Reefkol and Godhavn, 10-25 fathoms.
Mya arenaria, L. Godhavn and Melville Bay, 10-120 fathoms.
M, truncata, L. Reefkol ; Fiskernaes ; Godhavn.
M. truncata, var. Uddevallensis. Reefkol ; Fiskernaes ; Godhavn.
Tellina proxima, Brown. Godhavn ; Melville Bay.
Astarte compressu, Mont. Reefkol ; Godhavn ; Melville Bay ;

Port Kennedy ; 10-140 fathoms.
A. arctica. Gray. Melville Bay ; Port Kennedy.
A. elliptica, Br. Melville Bay ; Port Kennedy.
A, sulcata, DC. Godhavn.
A. Warhami, Hancock. Godhavn.
A. fabula. Reeve. Port Kennedy, 15 fathoms.
C^rdium Grcenlandicum, Chemn. (Young.) Godhavn ; Melville

Bay.
C. Islandicum, Chemn. Godhavn ; Melville Bay.
Montacuta bidentata, Gould. ? Cape York. Small and unique.
Mytilus edulis, L. Fiskernaes ; Godhavn ; Melville Bay,
M. edulis, var. elegans. Melville Bay.
Velutina laevigata. Melville Bay, 100 fathoms.
Nucula tenuis, Mont. Godhavn and Melville Bay, 10-20 fathoms.
N. Poi-tlandica. Melville Bay, 80 fathoms.

WALKEH, AUCTIC MOLLUSOA.

607

I'ort Kennedy

I0IU8.

ns.

ms.

ilelvillo Bay,

I.

Cennedy, 10

58, and Port

IS.

ibundant.
Kennedy.

!lvillo Bay.
avn, 10-20

i Bay, and

fathoms.
Godhavn.
viUe Bay;

; MelviUe
inique.

^

fathoms.

N. truncata, l^\'. Port Kennedy, 16 fathoniH.
N. uitidji, Sow. Godhuvn.
L(!da eaudata, Don. Godhavn ; Melvillo Bay.
L. miniita. Godhavn.
L. pygniaea, Munster. Godhavn.
Yoldia hicida. MolvilK' Bay, 140 fathoms.
Modiola nigra, Gray. Cape York ; Port Kennedy.
Crenella discorn, L. Crimson Clitfs.
C. deeusnata, Mont. Melville Bay.
C. glandida. Melville Bay, 76 fathoms.
Pecton Islandieus, Miill. Godhavn ; Keefkol ; Melville Bay.
P. Grocnlandicns, Sow. Cape York ; Mi'lville Bay.
Hypothyris psittacea, Chemu. Recikol ; Gotlhavu ; Melville
Bay, 140 fathoms. Numerous.

Pteuopoda.

Clio borealis. Baffin's Bay ; Melville Bay.

Limacina arctica. Baffin's Bay ; Melville Bay.

Hyalaea tridentata and Deadora pyramidata in the North Atlantic.

LXVII. — Insects and Arachnids from Pout Kennedy,
lat. 72° N., long. 94° W., June and July 1859, and from
Pond's Bay ; taken during the Voyage of the " Fox."
From Dr. D. Walker's " Notes on the Zoology of the
last Arctic Expedition under Captain Sir F. McClin-
TOCK, R.N., &c." Journal Royal Dublin Soc, vol. iii.,
pp. 72-74.

I. INSECTA.

Order Coleoptera.

Fam. Feroniida3, Lat.
Platyderus nltidus, Kirby.

Order Hymenoptera.
Fam. TenthredinidaB, Leach.
Nemetus intercrus, St. Farey.

Fam. Apidas, Leach.

Bombus frigidus, Smith.
B. terricola, Kirby.

Order Lepidoptera.

Fam. Argynnidae, Dap.

Melitaea Tarquinius, Curtis.

Fam. Arctiida}, Leach.

Arctia Americana, Harris. A
larva.

Fam. Hadenida;, Granby.
Hadena Richardsoni, Curtis.

Fam. Larenitidie, Green.
Psychophora Sabini, Kirby.

Fam. TortricidfB, Steph.
Cheimatophilu, ri.s.^?

Order^Du'TERA.

Fam. Chironomidae, Hal.

Chironomusjpolaris, Kirby.
C. aterrimus (?), Meig.
C. sp. ?

Fam. Tipulidai, Lat., Leach.

Tipnla artica,5Curtis.
Limnobia, n.s. ?

Fam. Muscidae.
Eurigaster hirtus (Curtis).

508

WALKEB, ARCTIC INSECTS AND SPIDERS.

Anthomyia dubia, Curtis.
A. 2 spp. ?

Fam. Empidae, Lcneh.

Microphorus drapetoides, Barn-

ston.
Scatophaga pubesccns, Barn-

»ton.

Order Thysaxuka.
Fam. Poduridai, Burns.
Podura sp.

Order Dipteua.
Tipula arctica, Curtis.

II. ARACHNIDA.f

PHALANGIDiE.

Fam. Opilionidaj, Herbst.
Opilio scabripes, sp. nov.

AllANEIDiE.

Fam. Lycosidae, Sundis.
Lycosii andrenivora, Walck.

Pond's Bay lat. 72° N., long. Jj. blanda, Koch. Immature.
76° rV.j Auyust 1858.

Order Lepidoptera.*
Hadena Richardson i, Curtis.

Fam. Lingphida^, Black.

Nereino longipalpis, SundervoU.
WalckeusBra sp. ?

LXVIII.— Arctic Crustacea and PYCNOGONiDiE, collected
by English Expeditions. From Dr. D. Walker's
Memoir on Arctic Zoology, Journ. Royal Dublin Soc,
vol. iii., 1860, pp. 68, 69.

W [See Dr. Lutken's Catalogues, above, at pp. 146 and 163, for the revised
nomenclature of these and many other Arctic species.]

CRUSTACEA.
Secapoda.

Hyas coarctata, Leach. Godhavn, 69° N., 20 fathoms, M'Clin-

tock.
Pagurus pubescens, Kroyer. Godhavn, M'Clintoek.
Hippolyto borcalis, Owen. Ross' 2nd Voy. Belehei-.J Port

Kennedy (lat. 72° N., long. 94° W.), 10 to 15 fathoms,

M'Clintock.
H. aculeata, Fabr. Parry's 1st and 3rd. Vcy. Rosss 2nd

Voy. In a Cod's maw, lat. 66° 34', long. 5o° 8', Penny.

Belcher. Port Kennedy; Melville Bay, 68 to 140 fathoms;

M'Clintock.

* The Hadena, Tipula, &c., came, apparently, from Port Kennedy ; but
it is not clear, from the insertion of *' Pond's Bay," &c., after "Podura,"
whether the succeeding groups came from Pond's Bay or from Port Kennedy.
—Editor.

f For the Pvcnogonid^, see further on, p. 510.

X The Crustacea obtained in Capt Sir E. Belcher's voyage, 1852-4, werj
dredged between Beechey Island and Northumberland Sound, generally ia
depths not exceeding 30 fathoms. (Belcher's " Last of the Arctic Voyage s,"
vol. ii., p. 400.)

DERS.

)lPTEI{A.

[!3urtis.

HNIDA.t

lidaj, Herbst.
sp. nov.

:iDJE.

lio, Suntlis.

'ra, Walck.
Immature.

ida^, Black,
(is, Sundervoll.

OM, collected
. Walker's
Dublin Soc,

for the revised

oms, M'Clin-

3hei'4 Port
15 fathoms,

Ross s 2nd

8', Penny.

10 fathoms;

Kennedy ; but
!r "Podura,"
ort Kennedy.

1852-4, -wero

generally ia

c Voyage s,"

WALKER, ARCTIC CRUSTACEA, ETC.

509

1

II. polaris, Sab. Parry's 1st Voy. Ross's 2nd Voy. As-
sistance Bay, 7 to 15 fathoms, Penny. Belcher. Port
Kennedy, 10 to 15 fathoms, M'Clintock.

H. Sowerbyi, Leach. Ross's 2nd Voy. N<^ar Cape York,
10 to 25 fathoms, M'Clintock.

H. Belcheri, Bell. Belcher.

Crangon borcus. Sab. Parry's 1st and 3rd Voy. Ross's 2nd
Voy. Assistance Bay, 12 to 15 fathoms. Penny. Belcher.
Port Kennedy, from the stomach of a Bearded Seal,
M'Clintock.

C. septem-carinatus, Sab. Parry's 1st. Voy. Ross's 2nd
Voy. Assistance Bay, 7 to 15 fathoms. Penny. Melville
Bay, 1 10 fiithoms, M'Clintock.

Cumadse.

Alauna Goodsiri, Bell. Belcher.

A. uncinata, Baird. Assistance Bay, 7 to 1 5 fathoms. Penny.

Stomapoda.

Mysis, .flexnosus, Milll. Parry's 3rd Voy. Ross's 2nd Voy.

Union Bay, Beechey Island, 15 fathoms, Penny. Port

Kennedy, M'Clintock.
M. ? Fabricii ? Kr. Belcher.

Amphipoda.

Gammarus Sabinii, Leach. Parry's 1st and 3rd Voy. Ross's

2nd Voy. W. Greenland, 4 to 20 fathoms. Penny. Belcher.
G. loricatus, Sub. Parry's 1st and 3rd Voy. Ross's 2nd Voy.

Belcher. Port Kennedy, M'Clintock.
G. locnsta, Mont. Port Kennedy, M'Clintock.
G. Kroeyeri, Bell. Belcher.
G. borens. Sab. Port Kennedy, M'Clintock.
G. (Lysianassa) nugax, Fabr. Parry's 1st and 3rd Voy.

Ross's 2nd Voy. W. coast of Greenland, 4 to 20 fathoms.

Penny.
Amphitoe Jurinii, Kr. ? Belcher.
A. loeviuscula, Kr. Belcher.
A. Edwardsii, Sab. Parry's 1 st and 3rd Voy. Ross's 2nd Voy.

Assistance Bay, 7 fathoms, Penny. Near Cape York, 15

fethoms, M'Clintock.
Acanthostoma hysrrix, Owen. Ross's 2nd Voy. Belcher.

Near Cape York, 15 fathoms, M'Clintock.
Lysianassa lagena, Kr. Belcher.
L. Vahlii, Kr. Port Kennedy, M'Clintock.
L. appendicnlata, Kr. Port Kennedy, F. M'Clintock.
Stegocephalns ampulla, Phipps, Kr. Ross's 2nd Voy. Belcher.

Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms, M'Clintock.
S. inflatus, Kr. Assistance Bay, 7 fathoms, Penny.
Anonyx, sp. Penny.
Metoecus CyanefB, Sab. Parry's 1st Voy.
Themisto arctica, Kr. Ross's 2nd Voy. Port Kennedy, in a

Seal's stomach, M'Clintock.

>n

■ht

:|^

510

WALKER, ABOTIC CRUSTACEA, ETC,

Isopoda.

Arcturus Baflfini, Sab. Parry's 1st and 3rd Voy. Union Bay,

Beechey Island, 15 fathoms. Penny. Belcher. Near Cape

York, 15 fathoms, M'Clintock.
Idotaea entomon, Latreille. Parry's 1st and 3rd Voy. Assistance

Bay, 7 fathoms. Penny. Belcher. Port Kennedy, 10

fathoms, M'Clintock.

Lsemodipoda.

Caprella cercopoides, Adam White. W. coast of Greenland, lat.

73° 16' N., long. 57° 16' W., 4 to 20 fathoms, Penny.
C. spinifern, Bell. Belcher.

Entomostraca.

Nebalia Herbstii, Leach. Parry's 3rd Voy.

Arpacticus Kronii, Kr. Davis Strait, lat. 66° 34', long. 55° 8',

Penny.
A. chelifer, Baird. Davis Strait, lat. 73° 20', long. 57° 16',

Penny.
Bradycinetus Brenda, Baird. Assistance Bay, Barrow Strait,

Penny.
Cetochilus septentrionalis, Baird. North Sea, Penny. (Not

Arctic.)
C. arcticus, Baird. Off Cape Desolation, lat. 71° 21', in lat.

64° 19', and Melville Bay, Penny. Melville Bay, M'Clin-

tock.
Cyclopsina sp. ?, Baird ") Davis Strait, lat. 73° 20', long. 57° 16',
Cyclops sp. ?, Baird j Penny.

Pycnogonidse.

Nymphon grossipes, Fabr. Parry's 3rd Voy. Near Cape York,
20 fathoms, and Melville Bay, 80 to 100 fathoms, M'Clintock.

N. hirtum, Fabr. Parry's 3rd Voy. Near Cape York, 20
fathoms, and Melville Bay, 80 to 100 fathoms, M*Clintock.

N. crassipes, White. Union Bay (dredged). Penny.

N. hirtipes, Bell. Belcher.

N. robustum, Bell. Belcher.

N. sp. ?, White. Union Bay, Beechey Island, Penny.

LXIX. — EcHiNODERMATA, CiRRiPEDiA, and AoTiNiiE, Col-
lected during the voyage of the " Fox." (From Dr.
Walker's Memoir " On Arctic Zoology," &c. Journ.
Roy. Dublin Soc„ vol. iii. 1 860, p. 70.)

I. Echinodermata.

Alecto glacialis. Dredged, 80-95 and 140 fathoms, in Melville

Bay.
Ophiura texturata. Godhavn, 15 fathoms; Crimson Cliffs,

140 fathoms ; Melville Bay.

i

E i^ H-

TO.

WALKER, ARCTIC ECHIN0DERM8, ETC.

511

oy. Union Bay,
ler. Near Cape

Voy. Assistance
t Kennedy, 10

P Greenland, lat.
, Penny.

W, long. 55° 8',

, long. 57° 16',

Barrow Strait,

Penny. (Not

71° 21', in lat.
Bay, M'Clin-

•',long. 57° 16',

?ar Cape York,
s, M'Clintoek.
ape York, 20
VI*Clintock.

nny.

OTINI^., col-
(From Dr.
&c. Journ.

s, in Melville
imson Cliffs,

O. alvida. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms, lat. 72° N.,long. 94° W.

O. echinulatu. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms.

O. fasiculata. Port Kennedy ; Crimson Cliffs.

Ophiocoma, sp. n. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms.

0. nigra. Crimson Cliffs.

Uraster violaceus (?), Young. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms ;

Melville Bay, 80 fathoms ?.
Echinus neglectus. Godhavn, 15 fathoms; Melville Bay,

100 fathoms ; Port Kennedy, 8 fathoms.
Solaster endeca. Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms.
8. papposus. Reefkol, 20 fathoms.

II. Cirripedia.

Balanus porcatus, DC. Godhavn ; Fiskernaes ; Reefkol ;

Port Kennedy.
B. scoticus. Godhavn.

III. Anthozoa.

^^t^^'^^^^^^^'^^^"*} Fiskernaes; Godhavn; Melville Bay.

LXX. — MoLLUSCA from "West Greenland and the Parry
Islands. From the Appendix to Dr. P. C. Suther-
land's Journal of Captain Penny's Voyage, &c., 1852,
pp. cei. ccii.

The Mollusea of the Arctic Regions are enumerated in the
Revised Catalogue by Dr. Morch, above^ pp. 124-135 ; and most,
if not all, are described in Mr. J. Gwyn Jefpkeys' " British Con-
" chology, or an account of the Mollusea which now inhabit the
*« British Isles and the sun'ounding seas," vol. i — v. ; 1862-69, 8vo.

Conchifera.

Modiola (Lanistina) discors.

Astarte arctica.

A. Spitzbergensis.

Nucula (Yoldia) arctica.

N. (Leda) fluviatilis.

N. radiata.

N. cordata.

Hiatella arctica.

H. minuta.

Tellina (Psammobia) fusca.

T. calcarea.

Cardium (Aphrodite) Groeulandicum.

Saxicava rugosa.

Mya truncata.

Pandora glacialis.

Montacuta substriata.

>

Abundant ; Assis-
tance Bay and the
shores of Barrow
Strait 7-20 fa-
thoms.

i'''^\

-I

512

SUTHERLAND, ARCTIC IVIOLLUSCS.

Gasteropoda.

Bucoinum glacialo. Assistance Bay, 7-10 fathoms.
B. cyaneuin. West Grcculaiul, 15-20 fathoms.
Turbo corneus, Keiner. Assistance Bay, 7-15 fathoms.
Trichotropis eostellata. Assistance Bay, 15 fathoms.
Margarita unclulata.~1

M. glauca. I Abundant ; Assistance Bay and West

ir ?r 1 r • I Greenland, 12-20 fathoms.

M. Vahlu. '

M. umbilical is. J

M. helicina. West Greenland, 15-20 fathoms.

Bulla corticata. Assistance Bay, 7-10 fathoms.

Chiton lasvigatus. Barrow Straits, 12-15 fathoms.

Patella rubella. "]

P. cerea. ^Assistance Bay, 12-15 fathoms.

Lottia testudinalis.

* J

Cephalopoda.

Philoncxis sp. ? On ice, Melville Bay, July 1850.
Sepia, sp. ? In stomach of Narwhal, Melville Bay, July
1850.

Annelid.

Sagitta bipunctata. Large in Davis Strait, and abundant
everywhere.

LXXI.~The Results of some Dredgings made afc Goodhaab,
West Greenland, by Dr. G. C. Wallich in 1860.
" The North-Atlantic Sea-bed," &c., by G. C. Wallich,
M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., 1862 (4to, London), p. 102.

[This ought to have been inserted in § 1, under " West Greenland."]

Crcstacea.
Hyas arenarius.

Mollusca.

HiatcUa arctica.
Cardium Groenlandicum
Pecten Islandicum.
P. pectinatum.
Mytilus edulis.
Trophon Fabricii.
T. Gunner!.
Margarita striata.

L From 50-100 fathoms.

Volutomitra Groenlandica.
Astarte elliptica.

Annelida.

Pectinaria.

Spio.

Cirratuius.

Syllis.

Terebella.

COTTID^.

Cottus glacialis, !Rich.

cs.

I thorns,
as.

1 5 fathoms,
fathoms.

Bay and West
horns.

s.

ns.

lioras.

thoms.

1850.

lie Bay, July

and abundant

WALLICH, ARCTIC INVERTEBRATA.
II. From 100-250 fathoms.

513

Crustacea.''

Hippolyte polarls.
Grammarus arcticns.
Caprella linearis (on Algro).

Mollusc A.

Acmea testudinalis.
Chiton mermoreus.
Natica GroBnlandiea.
Lima subanriculata (East Coast,
in sounding).

Tunic AT A.
Boltenia picta, n.s.

ECHINODERMATA.

Echinus spha>ra.
E. neglectus.
Ophiocoma bellis.
O. granulata.
O. Goodsiri.
Ophiura texturata.
Solaster papposus.

Annelida.

Seppiila contortuplicata.
Terebella (several species).
Spirorbis communis.

LXXIL — Some Arctic Ascidians and Echinoderms.
(From Dr. Sutherland's Journal, &c., Appendix. 1852.)

fc GOODHAAB,

CH in I860.
Wallich,
102.

-^

reenland."]

andica.

>A.

AsciDiA, pp. ccxii.-ccxiii.

Pelonaia corrngata, Forbes. Assistance Bay.

Pelonaia sp. ? Assistance Bay.

Dendrodon sp. ? Assistance Bay.

Phallusia Sutherland!, Huxley. Assistance Bay.

ECHINODEKMATA, pp. CCxi-CCxii.

Echinus neglectus. Assistance Bay, 7-15 fathoms.

Ctenodiscus polaris. Assistance Bay.

Uraster violaceus ?, Young. Assistance Bay.

Solaster papposus, Young. Assistance Bay.

Ophiura fasciculata, Forbes. Assistance Bay.

O. glacialis, Forbes. Assistance Bay.

O. sericea, Forbes. Assistance Bay.

Ophiocoma echinulata, Forbes. Assistance Bay.

Cucumaria Hyndmani. Assistance Bay, 7-10 fathoms.

C. fucicoia. Assistance Bay.

Chirodota brevis, Huxley. Assistance Bay.

h.

a'

3612?.

K E

t#s

514

ADAM WHITE, ARCTIC INSECTS, ETC.

LXXIII. — Some Arctic Insects, &;c. From the Appendix
to Dr. Sutherland's Journal of Captain Penny's Voyage
in Baffin's Bay, &c., pp. ccvii-ccxi. 1852.

Fodurellse.

Desoria arctica, Adam Wliito. Near D. saltans^ Ag. (Z>.
glacialis, Nicolet), abundant on some glaciers in Swit-
zerland. D. arctica was found by Dr. Sutherland abun-
dantly on Nostoc in the neighbourhood of Assistance
Bay, Barrow Strait, July 1851 ("Journal of a Voyage
" in Baffin's Bay and Barrow Strait," &c. pp. 201-207).

Acaridse.

Ixodes Uriae, Ad. White. Parasitic on the Loon ( Uria troile).

Spider.

Micraphantes arcticus, Ad. White. Assistance Bay, among the
vegetation.

.i:f.

LXXIV. — Plants from Barrow Strait and Davis Strait, &c.
Named by Sir W. J. Hooker, K.H.,D.C.L.,F.R.S., &c.
From Dr. Sutherland's " Journal of a Voyage," &c.,
1852, vol. ii., Appendix, pp. clxxxix-cxc.

DiCOTYLEDONES.

Ranunculus frigidus, Willd. Assistance Bay, south end of
Cornwallis Land.

Papaver nudicaule, L. Assistance Bay.

Cochlear! a fenestralis, Br. Assistance Bay.

Parrya arctica, Br. Assistance Bay.

Cardamine bellidifolia, DC. Assistance Bay.

Braya glabella, Richardson. Assistance Bay.

Draba ruprestis, Br. Assistance Bay.

D. glacialis, Adams, var. Assistance Bay.

D. alpina, L. Assistance Bay.

Arenaria Rossii (?), Br. Assistance Bay.

A. rubella, Hook. Assistance Bay.

Cerastium alpinum, L., and var. glabatum. Assistance Bay and
Bushnan Island.

Stellaria longipes, Goldie. Northumberland Inlet or Hogarth
Sound, and Assistance Bay.

Lychnis apetala, L. Assistance Bay.

Potentilla nana, Lchm. Berry Island (73° 14' N. Lat., 56° 50'
W. Long.), and other islands in Davis Strait.

Dryas integrifolia, L. Assistance Bay; Berry Island and
adjacent islands.

Cruciferse ?

Epilobium latifoliuni, L. Northumberland Inlet.

Saxifraga pauciflora (?), Stev. Bushnan Island.

i —%^

3TC.

Q the Appendix
Penny's Voyage
52.

altanSf Ag. (Z>.
:laciers in Swit-
itherland abun-
1 of Assistance
al of a Voyage
pp. 201-207).

on ( Uria troile).

Bay, among the

vis Strait, &c.
.L., F.R.S., &c.
Voyage," &c..

south end of

mce Bay and
t or Hogarth

Lat., Se'' 50'
Island and

HOOKEK, PLANTS FaOM BARROW STRAIT, ETC. 515

S. oppositifolia, L. Assistance Bay and Berry Island.

S. nivalis, L. Assistance Bay.

S. cernun, L. Northumberland Inlet and Assistance Bay.

S. caespitosa, L. Assistance Bay.

S. flagillaris, Willd. Assistance Bay.

S. tricuspidata, De. Northumberland Inlet.

S. hirculus, De. Northumberland Inlet.

Pyrola rotundifolia, L. Northumberland Inlet.

Cassiopeia tetragona, Don. Bushnan Island.

Vaccinium vitis-ideea, L. Bushnan Island.

V. uliginosum, L. Northumberland Inlet.

Arctostaphylos alpinus, Spr. Northumberland Inlet.

Polygonum viviparum, L. Assistance Bay.

Oxyria reniformis, L. Assistance Bay and Northumberland Inlet.

Empetrum nigrum, L. Northumberland Inlet.

Salix cordifolia, Parsh. Assistance Bay.

S. arclica. Pall. Assistance Bay and Bushnan Island.

Juncus biglumis, L. Assistance Bay.

Carex Hepburnii, Boott. Berry Island.

Luzula hyperborea, Br. Beny Island, Davis Straits, and
Bushnan Island.

Eriophorum polystachyum, L. Assistance Bay,

Phippsia monandra, Trin. Assistance Bay.

Alopecurus alpinus, Sm. Bushnan Island, Assistance Bay.

Poa cenisia, Al. Bushnan Island, Assistance Bay.

Hierochloe alpina, Wahl. Bushnan Island.

Woodsia glabella, Br. Berry Island and other islands in Davis
Straits.

LXXV. — Arctic Alg^e collected in Davis Strait, Baffin's
Bay, Barrow Strait, and Wellington Channel, by Dr.
Sutherland during Captain Penny's Expedition,.
1850-51. By Dr. Dickie. From Dr. P. C. Suther-
land's "Journal of a Voyage," &c., 1852, vol. ii., Ap-
pendix, pp. cxci-cc.

Melanosperme^.

Sporochnaceset

Desmarestia aculeata, Lamour. 3 fathoms, N. lat. 73° 20',
W. long. 57° 20'.

Laminariese.

Laminaria saccharina, De la Pyl. Assistance Bay, 1 5 fathoms

N. lat. 74° 40'.
L. fascia, Ag. Union Bay, dredged.
Agar urn Turnen, Post, and Rupr. Assistance Bay, 15

fathoms. Union Bay (between Beechey Island and Cape

Spencer), dredged.

KK 2

516

DICKIE, ARCTIC ALO.i:.

Ectocarpese.

ChsBtopteris plumosa, Kiitz. 3 fathoms, N. lat. 73° 20',
W. long. 57° 20'.

RlIODOSPERMEiE.

Halymeniese.

Dumontia soholifera, Lamr. 3 fathoms, N. lat. 73° 20',
W. long. 57° 12'.

Folysiphoniese.

Polysiphonia urceolata, Gi'ov. On Ch. plumosa.

Corallinese.

Melobesia polj'morpha, Harv. On stones, 15 fathoms. Union

Bay.
Kallymenia Pennyi, n.s. Harvey MS. Assistance Bay, 15-

20 fathoms.

CHLOROSPERMEiE.

Confervaceae.

Cladophora lanosa, Kiitz. 2-6 fathoms, N. lat. 73° 20',
W. long. 57°.

C. sp. nov, ? On driftwod, lat. 66° 53'.

Conferva melagonium, Web. & Mohr. Assistance Bay.
Attaining 5 feet in length.

C. glucialis. Kg. ? Matted crust on stones in a stream, Pros-
pect Hill, winter quarters, south end of Cornwallis Land.

C. serea, Dillw. ? With others, N. lat. 73" 20', W. long.
57° 16'.

I 1

Vlothrichese.

Ulothrix zouata. Kg.

U. lequalis. Kg. I Wet rock on island. N. lat. 73** 20',

Scytonemese. f W. long. 57° 16' and 57° 20'.

Sirosiphon ocellatus. Kg. J

Xlivularieae.

Rivularia microscopica, n.s. "Very minute ; on Enterotnorpha
compressa.

Oscillatoriese.

Oscillatoria sp. ? Thin green crust on limestone, Seal Island,
Welliugton Channel.

TTlvacese.

Prasiola arctica, n.s. with Nostoc microscopicum ; winter
quarters.

Enteromorpha compressa, Hook. Pools on shore above sea-
level, Beechey Island, Assistance Bay, and Baring Bay.

Ifostochinese.

Nostoc microscopicum, Carm. On stones in sfream, winter
quarters.
N. Sutherland!, n.s. Winter quarters. South-Cornwalli.s
Laud.

DICKIE, ARCTIC ALO^E.

617

<. lat. 73° 20',

N. lat. 73° 20',

losa.

fathoms. Union
stance Bay, 15-

t^. lat. 73° 20',

Lssistance Bay.

a stream, Pros-
rnwallis Land.
20', W. long.

N. lat. 73° 20',
and 57** 20'.

Entcromorpha

le, Seal Island,

ncuni ; winter

)re above sea-
aring Bay.

ream, winter
th-Cornwallis

N. arcticum, Berk. On wet and boggy slopes around Assis-
tance Bay. When the ground becomes frozen, the plant
is loosened off the surface, and often blown away ; thus it
is found far out at sea on the ice, and sometimes full of
Podune which may have hatched from ova laid in it on

land. Edible,
food in China.

Nostoc ctlulCf Berk. & Mont., is used as

Falmellese.

Hsematoi^occus minutissiinus, Hass. Wet stones on island,

north side of Baring Bay, N. lat. 75° 49'.
Protococcus nivalis, Ag. Red crust on stones in stream,

winter quarters, July 1851. Also on snow and ice as

usual.

DESMIDIEiE.

Cosmarium crenatum, Balfs, and C. pyramidatum, Breb. On
Nostoc Suthcrlandi. Found also by Dr. Dickie at a considerable
elevation in N.E. Scotland.

Arthrodesmus minutus, Kiltz. With Diatomajlocculosum, in
fresh water (melting snow), 100 feet above the wea, on island,
N. lat. 73° 20', W. long. 57°, 22 J une, 1850.

DiATOMACEiE.

Dr. Dickie states, " At my request, made previous to the depar-
ture of the Expedition, Dr. Sutherland paid special attention to
the colouring matters of ice and sea-water ; samples of such from
different localities were carefully collected and forwarded for my
inspection. They were found to consist almost solely of Diato-
macece ; and in some instances freshwater forms were detected,
though rather sparingly, intermixed with others exclusively
marine. This is not surprising when avc consider the copious
discharges of fresh water from the land, occasioned by the melting
of snow and ice during the brief summer.

" The contents of the alimentary canal of examples of Leda,
Nucula, and Crenclla dredged in Assistance Bay, consisted of
mud in a fine state of division, including also numerous Diato-
macece identical with those colouring the ice and the water.
Though not a new fact, it is one of some interest in relation to
the existence of animal life in those high latitudes. Where
Diatomacece abound certain Mollusca obtain sure supplies of
food ; these in turn are the prey of Fishes ; these last contribute
to the support of marine Mammals and Birds." ..." Many of
the species enumerated have also been found in other parts of
the world; and this confirms the ideas entertained respecting
their wide distribution, and the very general diffusion of these
minute organisms."

From water, due to melting snow and ice, on island, N. lat.
73° 20', W. long. 57°, 100 feet above the sea.

1. Achnanthesminuiissima,Ag. 5. Navicula affinis, Ehr.

2. Diatoma flocculosum, Ag. 6. N. lanceolata, Elir.

3. Eunotia monodon, Ehr. 7. N. n. sp. ?

4. E. diodou, Ehr.

iii'

m

r
M

518

DICKIE, ARCTIC \J,aiE.

If

Nos. 1) 2f and 5, occur at high altitudes iii Scotland.

Schizonema Grcvillii, Ag. ? On Desm, aculcata,

Micromega Stewartii, n. s. Dredged ; N. lat. 73** 20', W.
long. 57° 16'.

Grammonema Jurgeusii, Ag. Ou Desm, aculeata, 2 fathoms,
with myriads of minuto Crustacea.

Molosira arctica, n. s. Mixed with last two, and giving brown
tinge to the water in Melville Bay, off the Devil's Thumb, in
threads of mucilaginous consistency, infested with Microzoa, July
11, 1850.

Triceratium striolatum, Ehr. 15 fathoms. Union Bay,
Sept. 3.

Frugilaria, n. s. ? Round l>rown pellicles in the sea. N.
lat. 73° 20', W. long. 57° 16'.

From water in which the Kallymcnia above-mentioned (from
Assistance Bay) had been macerated ; some freshwater, but the
majority marine, forms :

Amphora hyalina. Kg.
Cocconeis borcalis, Ehr.
Coscinodiscus striatus, Kg.
C. minor, Ehr.
C. subtilis, Ehr.
C. sp. n. ?

* f Cyclotella, sp. n.

* t Cymbella helvetica, Kg.
Epithemia zebra. Kg.

E. Westermanni, Kg.
Gomphonema acuminatum, Ehr.
G. curvatum, Gr.,var. marinum.
Grammatophora stricta, Ehr.

*f Grammatophora anguina, Ehr.
Navicula quadrifasciata, Ehr. ?

* N. didyma, Ehr.

* f Odontella obtusa. Kg.
O. aurita. Kg.

* Rhabdonema minutum. Kg. ?

* f Stauroneis aspera, Kg.
•f Synedra curvula. Kg. ?

* f S. pulchella, Sm.

* f Triceratium striolatum, Ehr.
Pleurosigma prolongatum, Sm.
P. elongatum, Sm.

P. fasciola, Sm.

Those marked * were also obtained from the washings of
Desmarestia and ChcBtopteris dredged in N. lat. 73° 20', W.
lang. 57° 20'.

Those marked f were also met with in the washings of Agarum
Turneri from Union Bay.

From a slimy substance on the surface of the water and under
the ice, N. lat. 72° 15'.

Grammonema Jurgensii, Ag.
Pleurosigma Thuringica, Kg.
P. fasciola, Sm.

Similar, from N. lat. 73° 17'.
Achnanthidium delicatulum.

Kg.

Cocconeis rhombus, Ehr.
Coscinodiscus marginatus, Ehr.
Melosua arctica, n. sp.

Navicula, n. sp. ?
Surirella, n. sp, ?
Triceratium striolatum, Ehr.

Navicula oxyphyllum, Kg.
N. Thuringica, Kg.
Nitzchia n. sp. ?
Synedra pulchella, Sm.

n

*-Ul:,

land.

ta,

t. 73° 20', W.

eatUy 2 fathoms,

d giving brown

vil's Thumb, in

Microzon, July

Union Bny,

the soa. N.

lentioned (from
iwater, but the

'aanguina,Ehr.

fasciata, Ehr. ?

ir.

tusa, Kg.

t

ainutum, Kg. ?
pera, Kg.
a. Kg. ?
Sni.

riolatum, Ehr.
ongatum, Sm.

washings of
73° 20', W.

;s of Agarum

sr and under

turn, Ehr.
im, Kg.
Sm.

DICKIE, AUOTIC ALO^,

519

From N. lat. 73° 40', W. long. o7°, July 1851, among rotten
ice.*

Denticula obtusa, Kg. ? Pleurosigma faseiola, Sm.

Melosira arctica, n. s. P. angulntum, Sm.

Navicula oxyphyllum. Kg.

In Hinkson's Bay, N. lat. 73° 50', W. long. 57°, July 2, 1850.

Amphora hyalina.
Amphi psora alata. Kg.
Ceratoneis cloaterium, Ehr.
Cocconeis rhombus.
Denticula obtusa.
Dictyocha gracilis. Kg.
Grammonema Jurgonsii.

In lat. 75° 42', May 1850.

Cocconeis rhombus ?
Navicula didyma.
N. semen, Ehr.
N. n. sp. ?
Nitzchia, n. sp.
Odontella obtusa.

Melosira arcti< a.
Navicula oxyphyllum.
Nitzchia, n. sp. ?
Pleurosigma fasciola.
P. Thuringicum.
Schizouemu, n. sp.
Trlceratium striolatum.

Odontella aurita.
Rhabdonema minutum ?
Stauroneis aspera.
Synedra curvula.
S. pulchella.
Triceratium striolatum.

The colouring matter of Arctic ice is due sometimes to Algce
decomposed and triturated by ice. The littoral species are few, kept
down by the abrasion of ice. The olive and red Algcc are rare.
Of the five olive AlgcB^ four are British, and one {Agarum) is
exclusively American. Of the three red Algce, one {Polgsiphoniii)
is common in Britain, the Dumontiu is American, and the third
is new. Of the green Algcc there arc six marine, and fourteen
from fresh water or moist places j and about a third are British.
Of the three Desmids in this collection two are British, and the
Arthodcsmus has been found in France and Germany. The
Diatoms are relatively numerous.

LXXVI. — On ALGiE collected in Cumberland Sound, by
Mr. James Taylor, with remarks on the Arctic
Species in general. By G. Dickie, M.D., F.L.S.

[With Permission, from the Proceed. Liu. Soc. Botany, vol. ix.,
pp. 235-243. 1866. Read 15 June, 1865. (Somewhat
abridged.)]

[This article should have been inserted in § I. under " West Greenland," &c. ;
but its close connexion with the preceding article, by the same Author,
and its general conclusions, allow of its insertion in this place.]

Cumberland Sound, an arm of Davis Strait, on the west side,
commences about lat. 65° 10' N., long. 64° 40' W., and is about

— ■'■ III .11 -II— — .— — --II. I ...-I -.. .. ...■ ■— I...-. ■ ■■^

* The so calletl " rotten " condition of the ice is described by Brown aa
being due to the iutermixtare of Diatomaceous slime. Hee above, pp. 314<«
315.— Editor.

Ci

tM

620

DICKIE ON ARCTIC ALQJE.

• I

i

( 1

90 milos long, and 30 broad. It has nmny small iHlundij alon^j^
its shoroSf and is indented by numerous bights. It 18 t'requentu(l
by whalers, and the Kikcrton lulandH, near the head of the Sound
arc their head-quarlcrH. The tide rises, it is saitl, 30 feet, forming
a " bore " ; but in the o^Kin strait it rises only 6 or 7 feet. Animnl
life abounds in tho upper part of the Sound ; and some of tlio
Aigfc are abundant and large. The mean temperature of tho air
during 40 days, through August to September 9, 18()1, was 35 '0°
Fahr. that of the sea 32*7°; observations made while tho ship
was in tho pack-ice.

I. — MELANOSPERMEiC.

Fucaccfc.

Fucus vesiculosus, L.
F. uodosus, L.

Sporoch naccfT.
Dcsmarcstia nculeata, L.

LaminariaccfP.

Agarum Turncri, P. & R.
Laminaria longicruris, Dc la F.
L. eaccharina, Lam.
L. fascia, Ag.

Dicti/stacete.

Dictyosiphon fooniculaccus,

Grev.
Chorda lomentnria, Grev.
PuEctaria plantaginea, Grev.

Chordariacece.

Chordaria flagclliformis, Ag.
Ralf^Ia deuistn, C. Ag.
Elnchista fucicola, Fries.

EctocarjiaccfB.

Chatoptcris plumosn, Lyngb.
Sphacelaria arctica, Harv.
S. cirrhosa, Ag.
Ectocarpus littoralis, Harv.

II. RlIODOSPERMEiE .

RhodomelacetB,

Odonthalia dentata, Lyngb.
Bhodomela subfusca, Ag.
Polysiphonia arctica, J. Ag.

Ithodi/mcmaccte,

Enthora cristata, J. Ag.
Khodymenia palmata, Grev.

Cryptoncm iacetc.

Ahnfeldtia plieata, J. Ag.
Kallymonia Penny i, Harv.
Halosaccion ramcntaceum, J.

Ag.
H. dumontioides, Harv.

CcramiacefP.

Ptilota scntvta, Kutz.
Callithamnion Amoricanum,

Harv.
C. spnrsum, Harv.
C. Rothii, Lyngb.

111. — ClILOROSPERMEiE,

Ulvacete.

Ulva latissima, L.
Enteromorpha intestinalis, L.
E. clathrata, Grev.
E. comiiressa, Grev.

Cotifcrvaccfe.

Cladophora arctica, Kiltz.
C. lanosa, Kiitz.
Rhizoclouinm ripnrium, Kiitz.
Chaetomorpha melagoniuni,

Kiitz.
C. tortuosa, Kiitz.

Oscillatoriaccfe.

Calothrix pilosa, Harv.
Oscillatoria, sp. ? Freshwater.

J^ostochinefc.

Nostoc arcticum. Berk.

[For other enumerations of Arctic Algae (including Diatomacc(c)y
in this Manual, see pp. 239, 255, 276, 280, 319, 515; and
' further on.]

\

' r*

hi. f;

It

DICKIE ON ARCTIC ALQJE.

521

mall JHliinds nlon^
it iu fVequentod
Iiead of tho Sound
«l, 30 fetitf forming
or 7 feet. Animal
luid 8omo of tlio
)eriiture of tho air
•» 1««I, was 35 -0°
Ic while the ship

fnctiiaci'fe,

tft, J. Ag.
(ilmntJi, Grev.

ncmiacca:,
'ftta, J. Ag.
'»nyi, Harv.
nnientJiceuni, J.

>s, Harv.

niaccfe.

Kiitz.

Americanum,

rv.

f^'.

lOSPERME^.
cecc.

r
-J.

itestinalis, L.

V.

rev.

a, Kiitz.

arium, Kiitz.
nielagonium,

accfs.
Jarv.

Freshwater.
nea;.
Jerk.

'^iatornaccfc)^
h 515; and

I

Other Arctic Algw, from beyond hit. ()0°, noticed by other
observers, Ilurvoy (** Nerei.s-Boreali -Anicricanu) ; Agardh
(" Species Algarum "), &c. : —

Fucus distichus, L.
F. serratus, L.
Alaria I'ylaii, Grev.
Laminaria digitata, Lam.
A8|)erococcus echinatus, (ircv.
Myrioncma strungulaiis, Grev.
ElachiHta flaccida, Arcsoh.
Ectocarpus Durkeci, Ilarv. ?
lihodomula lycopodioidci^, Ag.
K. gracilis, Kiitz.
Polysiphonia urceolata, Grev,
Corallina officinalis, Lam.
Melobesia polymorpha, ]j.
Desseria sinuosa, Ag. Found

in lat. 75*' N.
Rhoilophyllis veprccnla, J. Ag.
Phyllophom interrupta, Grev.
Ccramium rubrum, Ag., var. 6,

virgatnm.
Ulva bullosa, L.

Ulva crispa, Li^ihtf.
I'orpliyra vulgaris, Ag.
CI ulophura ni[)erttris, Kiitz.
Clia-tomorplwi IMquotiana,

Mont.
llanu<»tricliinn Carmichaolii,

Harv.
H. borealo, Harv.
H. WormskioKlii, Kiitz.
IMougeotia, sp. ?
Oscillatoria corium, Ag.
Norftoc muscoruu), Vaucher.
N. microscopic urn, Carm.
N. Ycrrucosum, Vaucher.
Scytoncma myocliroum, Ag.
Sorospora montaua, Harv.
Htematococcus frustulosu?,

Harv.
Tyndaridca anomala, Harv.

Summary.

Of marine Algte there have been found beyond 60° N. lat., along
the shores of Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay, and their branches

Melanospermeas - - 25"]

Uhodospermeaj - - 22 > 63 species.

ClorosperraecB • - - 16 J

The Families represented are the Fucacete, SporochnacciKy Lami-
nariaccfff Dictyotocccp, Chordariacc(c, Kctocarpaccfr, Cornllinaceaf
Sph<erococcoid<e, lihodt/mcniaccdi', Cn/j)toineniacc(c, Ccramiaceee,
U/vaccoe, and Conjervacccp.

Collections have been few, and many localities have yet to be
explored .

Some of the Alycc occur in the greatest profusion. Masses con-
sisting chiefly of Fucus vcsicidosiis^ Dcsmarcstia acideata^ Lami-
naria longicruris, and Alaria, float about in the summer, set free
by the action of icebergs. The multitudes of Diatomacca;, abound-
ing everywhere in the Arctic Seas and on ice-floes, supply abun-
dant material for the support of animal life. In the alimentary
canal of various Molluscs brought home in spirits, I have invariably
found abundance of Diatoms ; and masses comparable with
" sodden biscuit," can be gathered from the ice-floes ; and these I
find to be pure Diatoniacea).

Not a few of the species of Alg<e occur also on the west coast
of America, as shown by Prof. Harvey's remarks on Dr. Ly all's

522

BIOKIE ON AKCTIC ALG^.

collection, in a recent volume of h t •

,„ oiume of the Linneun Society's Proceed-

M,n.enia Penn^l ?«^J^f Phonia^^ede^^^ ^"'^^ ''

Halosaccion duniontioides. -PMlophora interrupta.

west jide"" ^''"^"'-« ^«».«-. a. «» 'A'. tt'S'L^r
Three P^<Iuet,T™,,^^L"S',t'"'V? "^ ''<=" ""X ™

^ueus nodosus - .
F. vesiculosus .
I^ictjosiphon foniculacens
Laraiuaria longieruris
x'tiiota serrata .
Ahnfeldtia plicata

i;ol7siphonia arctica -
Ulva latifblia .

Conferva melagonium -

Pale purple.
i*ale purple,
^ey dark blue,
-t^aie rose.
Pale purple.
Pale rose.
Pale rose.
^^]q rose, slowly.
Pale purple.

I-..'

LXX VII.— Lichens from Ra«..

collected by Dr. fXth/p^?"^.^^^ ^^^^s Stbaits

^ichenes. ■ .

Evenna ochrolennn v^- ^^ ^^^^'

I ^^ivergenrpS ^'^Z fc'^T ^^^^•
Dufourea ramulosa, Hook (?) ^' ^'^'^•

Alga

LXS

^■ .1'^ i

BABIXGTON, ARCTIC LICHENS.

)1>3

I

Cetraria nivalis, Fries. Near Cape York.

Parmelia triptophylla, var. Schraclcri, Fi*ies. Assistance Bay.

P. fulgens, Sw. (?) Assistance Bay.

P. coarctata, Sw. (?) Assistance Bay.

P. stygia, L., var. lunata, Fries. {Coniieularia fanata,

Auctt.)
P. elegans, Ach., and var. a, miniata, Schscr. The latter

near Assistance Bay.
P. aurantiaca, var. 7, calva, Fries. Assistance Bay.

P ^?temna''' ^^^^" I ^^^''^wallis Island, on a bone implement,

P. pulverulenta, Ach., var. Fries. (P. pityrca, Ach.)

Umbilicaria hyperborea, HofFm.

U. proboscidea, L.. var. a, Fries (two forms).

U. vellea, Fries, var. lecidina, Bab. Near Cape York.

Urceolaria scrnposa, Ach. (?). Assistance Bay.

Lecidea geographica, var. contigua, Fries. Assistance Bay.

L. atroalba, Ach. Assistance Bay.

L. lapicida (?), Fries. Assistance Bay.

L. confluens, Fries et Auct. pr. p. Assistance Bay.

L. contigua, var. calcarea, Fries. Assistance Bay.

L. vesicularis, var. globosa. Fries. Assistance Bay.

L. sp. Assistance Bay.

Alga.

Protococcus nivalis. Assistance Bay.

LXXVIII. — An Account of the Plants collected by Dr.
Walker in Greenland and Arctic America, during
the Expedition of Sir Francis M'Clintock, RN., in
the Yacht "Fox." By J. D. Hooker, Esq., M.D.,
F.RS., F.L.S., &c. (Read June 21, 1860.) Reprinted, by
Permission, from the Proceedings of the Linnean Society,
Botany, vol. v., 1861, pp. 79-89.

On the termination of Capt. M'Clintock's memorable voyage,
the Plants collected by Dr. Walker, surgeon and naturalist to the
Expedition, were placed in my hands by that otficer for determi-
nation, together with some accurate notes of the localities, and of
the temperature of the soil and air to which they are exposed in
their native habitats. Though containing no absolute novelties
amongst Flowering Plants,* Dr. Walker's herbarium is a parti-
cularly interesting one, both from the thorough manner in which
that officer explored the localities he visited, and from the proximity
of one of his stations (Port Kennedy, in the Boothian peninsula)
to the magnetic pole. The florula of that province is further im-

* Amongst the Cryptogamic plants are two Algae of great rarity, and three
new Fungi.

lii^

'■'■fi

524

HOOKER, BOOTIIIAN PLANTS.

portant, as affording a means of determining the western and
eastern limits respectively of several Arctic, Western American,
and Greenland plants.* A glance at the northern circumpolar
chart shows that the peninsula of Boothia is placed in a very
central position amongst the Arctic- American islands, the Botany
of the (^astern, western, and northern of which has been investi-
gated by many indefatigable and intrepid officers, whilst of the
central districts, and especially of Boothia itself, nothing has
hitherto been known.

The total number of species brought by Dr. Walker is about
170, of Avhich nearly 100 are Flowering Plants. Of these, only
46 Flowering Plants, and 58 Cryptogamic, Avere collected at
Port Kennedy ; most of the remainder were gathered cither on
the coasts of Greenland — at Frederickshaab and Godthaab, south
of the Arctic circle, and at Disco (and Godhavn), Fiskemaer, and
Upernavik, north of that circle — or in Pond's Bay and Lancaster
Sound, to the west of Baffin's Bay. As these are all botanically
well-known localities, I shall make no further remarks on them here,
observing only that Dr. Walker's plants from these quarters have
been of great use to me in drawing up a general account of the
whole Arctic flora which I shall have the honour of laying before
this Society,! and I shall confine my attention at present to the
Port Kennedy flora.

Port Kennedy is situated in latitude 72° N., and is 250 miles
north of that part of the Arctic-American coast which was traversed
in 1839 by Dease and Simpson (who made careful collections), and
about as far south of the Parry Islands, which have been thoroughly
explored by General Sabine, Admiral Sir James Ross, Dr. Lyall,
and many other oflficers.

The country about Port Kennedy would at first sight appear to
be favourable to Arctic vegetation in many ways. It is uncovered
by snow from July 1st to October 1st. The soil is not un-
favourable, and there are ravines, lakes, marshes, and sea-beach,
offering both shelter and varied conditions for plants ; but yet the
flora seems to be considerably poorer than that of any of the
surrounding islands — Melville Island containing no less than 67
Flowering Plants. Dr. Lyall's Wellington-Channel herbarium
contained 50, all collected north of latitude 76° N. ; Dr. Anderson
and Herr Miertsching obtained 108 species on Banks Land and
the adjacent islands, in latitude 70°-74°; whilst Dr. Rae got 78
species on Prince- Albert, Victoria, and Wollaston Lands, in latitude
66°-69°. On the west coast of Baffin's Bay, between the Arctic
Circle and Lancaster Sound, 80 have been collected.

Comparing Dr. Walker's herbarium with those to the north,
east, and west, I find the following contrasts : —

* See Dr. Hooker's Memoir on Arctic Plants, Trims, Linn. Soc, xxiii.,
1861, reprinted (in part), above, pp. 197 et seq. — Editou.
I The Memoir referred to in the foregoing note.

W ^ -'-

TS.

g the western aiul
Western American,
rthern circumpolar
is placed in a very
islands, the Botany
h has been investi-
Rcers, whilst of the
itself, nothing has

)r. Walker is about
ts. Of these, only
were collected at
gathered cither on
id Godthaab, south
n), Fiskemaer, and
iay and Lancaster
ire all botanically
arks on them here,
lese quarters have
al account of the
ir of laying before
it present to the

and is 250 miles
lich was traversed
I collections), and
i been thoroughly
Ross, Dr. Lyall,

t sight appear to
It is uncovered
soil is not un-
, and sea-beach,
Its ; but yet the
' of any of the
10 less than 67
iiiel herbarium
Dr. Anderson
anks Land and
'r. Rae got 78
nds, in latitude
'en the Arctic

•

to the north,

i

linn. Soc, xxiii.,

i

;

HOOKER, BOOTIIIAN PLANTS.

525

In Melville Island the following species occur which were not
found by Dr. Walker at Port Kennedy : —

Ranunculus hyperboreus,Rottb.,

var. (Sabini, Br.).
R. auricomus, L., var. (aflBnis,

Br.).
Caltha palustris, L., var. (arc-

tica, Br.).
Draba Lapponica, DC.
Parrya arctica, Br.
Cardamine belHdifoHa, L.
Stelljiria longipes, Goldie (Ed-

wardsii, Br.).
Phaca astragalina, DC.
Oxytropis Uralensis, DC. var.,

(artica, Br.).
Chrysospleniumalternifolium,L.

Sieversia Rossii, Br.
Taraxacum officinale, DC. (var.

palustre).
Arnica montana, L.
Senecio palustris, L., var.

(Cineraria congesta, Br.).
Nardosmia coryrabosa. Ilk.
Antennaria alpina, Br.
Deschampsia cajspitosa, P.B.,

var. (brevifolia, Br.).
Trisetum subspicatum, P.B.
Hierochloe alpina, R. & S.
H. pauciflora, Br.

The Port-Kennedy plants not found in Melville Island are the
following : —

Epilobium latifoliura, L.
Chrysanthemum integrifolium,

Rich.
Cassiopeia tetragona, Don.

Pedicularis capitata, Ad.
P. hirsuta, Willd.
Salix reticulata, L.

On the western shores of Baffin's Bay, between Pond's Bay
and Heme Bay, the following Port-Kennedy plants appear to be
absent : —

Stellaria humifusa, Rottb.
Saxifraga flagellaris, L.
Pedicularis sudetica, L.

Pedicularis capitata, Ad. (Wes-
tern limit).
Dupontia Fischeri, Br.

Lastly, comparing Dr. Walker's Port-Kennedy collection with
Dr. Anderson's and Herr Miertsching's from the Western Polar
Islands and Banks Land (lat. 7l°-75°), I find the following in
Dr. Walker's which are absent in the Western Islands : —

Stellaria humifusa, Rottb.
Arenaria verna, L., var. (ru-
bella, Br.).
Saxifraga rivularis, L.

Juncus biglumis, L.
Luzula arcuata, Wahl.
Pleuropogon Sabini, Br.
Phippsia algida, Br.

Of these the Pleuropogon and Fhipj)sia are the most peculiarly
Arctic plants. The others, except the Stellaria, were more pro-
bably overlooked in Banks Land, though the collections from
there appear to be so complete that this is hardly likely.

[The Catalogue of Flowering Plants is omitted, the species
being incorporated in Dr. Hooker's list above, at pages 225 et scq.l^

■^'

i"1

M

526

HOOKER, BOOTHIA N PLANTS,

Musci.

(Determined by W. Mitten, Esq., A.L.S.)

Aulacomnion turgidum, Schw. Cape Osborne.
Biyura nutans, Schreb. Cape Osborne.
Pogonatura alpinum, Brid. Cape Osborne.

Hepatic^.
Jungermaunia Starkii, Funk. Cape Osborne.

Alg^.

(By Dr. Dickie, Professor of Botany, Queen's University,

Belfast.)

Agarum Turneri, Post. & Rupr. Port Kennedy.

Laminaria saccharina, Lamour. Port Kennedy. Attains a
length of 20 feet.

Rliodymenia interrupta, Grev. Port Kennedy.

Dredged up. Only a single specimen of this plant was
known previously. It was brought from the Arctic
regions by Lieut. Griffiths and preserved in Mrs.
Griffiths's herbarium.

Kallymenia Pennyi, Harv. Port Kennedy.

The specimens, though wanting the point of attachment,
exhibit the general outline of K. Dtibi., but with the
margin more or less laciniate. Previously known only
from fragments brought home by Dr. Sutherland.*

Gymnogongrus plicatus, Kg. Port Kennedy.

Callithamnium Americanum, Harv. Port Kennedy.

Conferva melagonium, Web. & Mohr. Port Kennedy.

Enteromorpha compressa, Grev. ? Port Kennedy.

Nostoc verrucosum, Vauch. PuJt Kennedy. Fresh water.

N. arcticum, Berk. Port Kennedy. Fresh water.

N. muscorum, Ag. ? Port Kennedy. Fresh water.

Rivularia Pisum, Ag. Port Kennedy. Freshwater.

Scytonema myocbroum, Ag. Port Kennedy. Fresh water.

Soraspora montana, Harv. Port Kennedy. Fresh water.

Ha3matococcus frustulosus, Harv. Port Kennedy. Fresh
water.

Tyndaridea anomala, Ralfs. Port Kennedy. At the beach-
line.

Fungi.

(By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley.)

Marasimus arcticus, n. sp.,Berk. Frederikshaab.
Agaricus furfuraceus, P. Godhavn and Port Kennedy.
A. vaginatus, Bull. Godhavn and Port Kennedy.
A. cyathiformis. Bull. Port Kennedy.
A. umbelliferus, L. Port Kennedy.

♦ See above, page 516.

L-.

fTS,

>rne.

le.

3n*s University,

ledy.

me'dj. Attains a

of this plant was

from the Arctic

reserved in Mrs.

it of attachment,
'ihL, but with the
)usly known only
iutherland.*

nedy.

"ennedy.

edy.

Fresh water.

iter.

roXer.

water.

Fresh water.

resh water.

nuedy. Fresh

At the beach-

).

unedy.

BERKELEY AND MITTEN, BOOTHIAN PLANTS. 627

A. allosporus, Berk. Port Kennedy.

Hygrophorus coccincus, Fr. Godhavn.

Hlosporium earneuni, Fr. Port Kennedy. Very scarce.

Lichens.*
(Determined by W. Mitten, Esq., A.L.8.)
Collema furvum, Ach. Port Kennedy. Rare. In wet places

Ach. Port Kennedy. Rare.

Lievely and

and bed of lake.
Sphoerophoron coralloides,

Lieveley.
Cladonia deformis, HofFm. Port Kennedy.
C. pyxidata, Fries. Port Kennedy. Scarce.

Cape Osborne.
C. gracilis, Hoffin. Greenland.
C. rangiferina, Hoffm. Greenland and Frederikshaab.

C. bellidiflora, Schoer. Greenland.

Stereocaulon botryosum, Ach. Port Kennedy. Very com-
mon. Cape Osborne, Loively, and Greenland.

Alectoria orchroleuca, Nyl. Port Kennedy, Lievely, and Cape
Osborne.

A. jubata, Ach. (chalybeiformis). Lievely.

Dufourea madi'eporiformis, Ach. Port Kennedy.

D, arctica, Hk. Pond's Bay.
Cetraria Islandica, Ach. Lievely.
Solorina crocea, Ach. Lievely.

S. saccata, Ach. Port Kennedy. Very scarce.

Platysma nivalis, Nyl. Port Kennedy and Frederikshaab.

P. juniperinum, Nyl. Port Kennedy.

Parmelia saxatilis, Ach. Port Kennedy and Lievely.

P. incurva, Fries. Port Kennedy and Lievely.

P. conspersa, Ach. Port Kennedy.

P. stygia, Ach. Port Kennedy.

P. lanata, Nyl. Lievely.

Physcia pulverulenta, Fries. Port Kennedy.

P. candelaria, Nyl. Cape Osborne.

Umbilicaria hyperborea, HofFra. Port Kennedy. Not common.

U. hirsuta, DC. Port Kennedy. Rather rare. Lievely.

U. proboscidea, DC. Port Kennedy. Most common of Umbi-

licarifB.
U. cylindrica, Ach. Lievely.
Squamaria gelida, Nyl. Port Kennedy. Rare.
Placodium murorum, DC. Port Kennedy.
P. elegans, DC. Port Kennedy. Abundant. Cape Osborne.
Lecanora tartarea, Ach. Port Kennedy. Abundant. Lievely

and Cape Osborne.
L. subfusca, Ach. Port Kennedy.
L. chlorophana, Ach. Port Kennedy.

* The Arctic Lichens are treated of above in Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay's
Memoir, pages 284 ct seq. See also Babixoton on Sutherland's Collec-
tion, above, p. 522 ; and further on. — Editor.

528

HOOKER, BOOTHIAN PLANTS.

L. frustulosa, Ach. Port Kennedy. Scarce.

L. cerina, Ach. Port Kennedy. Scarce.

L. ventosa, Acli. Port Kennedy, Lievely, and Cape Osborne.

L. -vitellina, Ach. Port Kennedy. Scarce.

Lecidea vesicuhiris, Ach. Port Kennedy. Scarce.

L. lapicida, Fries. Port Kennedy.

L. rupestris, Ach. Port Kennedy.

L. globifera, Ach. Port Kennedy.

L. petraea, Ach. Port Kennedy.

L. geograpliicn, Ach. Port Kennedy and Cape Osborne.

L. alpicola, Wahl. Port Kennedy. Universal.

Urceohiria scruposa, Ach. Port Kennedy.

I append a resume of the important observations made by Dr.
Walker on the temperature of the air and earth, and the average
covering of snow ; and, to render them more complete, I have
extracted and meaned the monthly temperatures of Boothia, of
from three to four years' observations, published in Sir John Ross's
" Voyage." The observations of these officers correspond to a
remarkable degree, the approximate mean annual temperature,
according to Koss, being 4- 2° '5, and by Walker (interpolating
August as 28°) 4 l°-0. The high mean temperature of the soil
at 2 feet 2 inches depth is very remarkable, and that of the
surface of the earth below the snow, which depends much on
the temperature of the subsoil, and is of great influence upon
the vegetation, is still more remarkable.

,!.!;:

;;?:

Appendix. — Ousekvations at Port Kennedy on the Tempera-
ture of the Soil, &c. By Dr. Walker.

On the 14th September 1858, so soon as it appeared probable
that we should winter at Port Kennedy, I sunk a brass tube
2 feet 2 inches vertically in the ground, and inserted a padded
thermometer.

The ground at the time of sinking the tube was frozen from
6 inches below the surface, and it was with great difficulty that I
could get the tube sufficiently far down. The soil (surface) was
similar to that strewn over land, but from below 6 inches it was
of a yellowish mud. The thermometer used was one of very small
bore, with a long stem finely graduated (it had been prepared for
taking the temperature of trees).

From the 18th to the 29th September no register was made, as
the ship was not in port ; also from the IC* h to the 28th March
1859, as I was absent from the ship, travelling. The minimum
temperature registered was 4-0*5, on Mai'ch 10th, 1859. The
lowest may be assumed at zero, on the 16th JNlarch.

The register was continued until June 18rh, when water entered
the tube, and the thermometer was frozen to the side, so that it
could not be detached. Column 2 gives the register of the
thermometer. Column 3 gives the depth of the overlying snow,

i

i

HOOKRIT, IJOOTI'TAN PLANT.5.

529

which wns always jjienter tlian tho avcmgo qunntity ovor tlie hvnd.
On tho 17th January 18o9, a tube was placed 1 foot 1 inch
deep in a mixture of shingle and earth ; in this a thermometer
was placed. The position of the ground was such that scarcely
any snow lay upon it, the constant strong winds removing it
almost as soon as deposited.

Column 4 gives tho register of this tiiermometer.

February 12th 1859. — A tube was placed horizontally on the
surface of the ground beneath the snow lying over the place
where thermometer No. I was sunk, and tho temperature as
shown by this thermometer (column 5) was registered until all
the snow disappeared. Column 6 gives the moan temperature of
the air for the day on which the registers of the diflferent thermo-
meters were taken.

Column 7 gives the mean temperature of the air for the nnmlior
of days or hours intervening between the registering of tho
thermometers.

All the registers of the different thermometers arc corrected so
as to reduce them to that of the standard.

Tliermo-

Depth

of
snow.

Thonno-

Temp, of

Mean of

Mean of

Date.

meter

buried

2 ft. St in.

nieter

burioil

1 ft. 1 in.

surface
below

Hl'.OW.

iiir on
days ot"
observa-
tion.

air from

that of

intervals.

Ross.

1858.

ft. in.

September -

+ 30-9

—

—

—

+ 25-0

+ 24-5

+ 2.'-.

Op iober

+ 2 ft

0 6

—

—

-9'(5

-8-4

-9

November -

+ 15-8

4 0

—

—

-12-0

-13-0

-9

December -

+ l:J-0

4 5

—

—

-31-9

-33-7

-1(!

1859.

January

+ 6*2

5 8

-21-5

—

-34-0

-3;j-4

-20

February -

+ 2-3

5 8

-24-8

-3

-32-7

-34-8

-32

March -

+0-7

6 0

-16-7

-3-8

-19-9

- 17-4

-27

April -

+1T.

0 6

-8-1

+ 0-7

-1-6

-5-4

-3

May -

+ 3'5

fi 0

+ 8-1

+4-9

+ 16*4

+ 14-4

+ 14

.TiniQ •

+7-5

3 0

+ 27-3

+ 2(5-0

+34-2

+ 3.-)-0

+34

July -

+ 31-7

0 0

+39-0

—

+4<)-7

+39-9

+3(!

August

? +40-0

?0 0

?

~ 1

? +30

+28-0

+ 25

Mean •

+ 14-7

1

—

+ 1-8

+ 1-0

+ 2-5

1, 1859. The

LXXIX. — On some Arctic Diatomace^, collected during
the voyage of the " Fox." By the Rev. Eugene
O'Meara. (By Permission, from the Journal Royal
Dublin Soc, vol. iii. pp. 59-GO, 18C0.)

In this account of Diatomaceae found amongst mixed sediments
of bottles in which larger specimens had been brought home from
various Arctic localities, namely. Port Kennedy, long. 94° W.,
lat. 72" N., Bellot Strait, Brentford Bay, off the Crimson Cliffs,

36122. I^ L

•■t; I

P

\ . • ,

• IHMinr

530

O'MEAllA, AUCTIO DIATOMS.

C'iipe York, mid elsewhere. The following list iind renmrkri me

given

ii

Achnnnthes longipes.
Ampliipleura sigmoidcu.
Amphiphoni alata.
A. constrieta.
Amphora cymbifcra.
A. hyalina.
A. robiistu.
A. proboscidea.
A. teneni.
Bacillaria paradoxa.
Biddul])hia aurita.
Cami)ylodiscuH parvulus.
C. angularis.
Cocconeis scutellum.
C. seutelliini, var. /3,
C. splendida.
C. nitida.
C. ornata.
C. ovalis.

C. pseadomarginata.
Coscinodiscus radiatus.
C. minor.
C. piinctulatus.
Cymbclla scotica.
Denticula fulva.
Doryj^hoia Boeekii.
Eupodiscus fulvus.
E. crassus.
Fragillaria virescens.
Grammatopliora marina.
G. serpentina.
Gomphonema mariniim.
Hyalodiscus parallelus.
Mclosira nivalis.
M. nummuloides.
Navicida elliptica.
N. cryptoccphala.
N. ineouspicua.
N. didyma.
N. lyra.
N. cuspidata.
N. minutula.

N. cluthensis.

N. minor.

Nit/iOhia angularis.

N. hyalina.

N. laneeolata.

N. parvula.

N. sigma.

N. distans.

Pinnularia interrupta.

P. cyprina,

P. lata.

P. latistriata.

P. allinis.

P. Jolinsonii,

P. directa.

P. panduril'ormis.

P. peregrina.

Pleurosi2;nia lanceolatuni.

P. angulatum.

P. prolongatum.

P. strigosum.

P. delicatulura.

P. faseiola.

Podosira hormoidcs.

Podosphenia Ehrcnbergii.

llhabilonema arcuatuni.

R. minutum.

Rhizolenia styliibnnis.

R. calcar-avis.

Schizonema erucigeruni.

Striatella nnipunctata.

Stauroneis crucicula.

S. pulchella.

8. pulchella, var. p.

Surirella ovata.

8. fastuosa.

8ynedra tubulata.

8. fulgens.

8. gracilis.

8. arcus.

Tabcllaria floculosa.

Triblionclla constrieta.

3

}

" In addition to the forms detailed in the foregoing catalogue,
there were ten species which I could not identify with any
figured in the books which up to this time I have been able to
consult, but without research I would not presume to describe
them as new to science.

" In conclusion I would take the opportunity to remark that it
appears to me a very important and interesting fact that so many

.i^u^

OMEARA, ARCTIC DIATOMS.

r>.'U

BritiHh spoclos of Diatoms should Imvo been found \u (licse scanty
j^atherings from the Arctic regions, their goiu-ric un<l specitic
characters liaving been in no perceptil)lo (k'groe atfectcd l»y con-
<Utious so different as exist between the climate of the Arctic Ocean
and tliat of our own waters."

LXXX. — Some Plants of tho Akci^ic American ARcrn-
PELAGo. From " A Whaling Cruise to Batttii's Bay and
" the Gulf of Boothia, and an Account of the Ilcseuo
" of the Crew of the ' Polari-s.' " By AlueuT
Hastings Mahkhaai, Commander ll.N., F.11.G.S,,
1874. 8vo. London.

Appendix B. — Arctic Plants collected by Capt. A. II. Markhani,

K.N., F.K.G.S. 1873.

Nan 10.

Ranunculus Hlacialis (L.)
I'apavtr alpinum (L.)

Lychnis a))etala (L.)
Stellaria Edwardsii (11. Br.)
Uryas octopetala (L.)
Saxifra^a c^espitosa (L.)
S. nivjdis (L.)
S. flagcUaris (WiUd.)
S. oppositifolia (L.)
Pcdicularis hirsuta (L.)
Juncus biglumis (L.)
Salix arctica (R. Br.)
Alopecurus alpinus (L.)
Festuca ovina (L.) var.
Pleuropogou Sabini (11. Br.

Platysma junipernus (L.)
Alectoria ochrolence (Elirh.)

Fury Beach ; Elwyn Inlet,
Fury B(!ach ; Klwyn lidet ;

Navy-Board Inlel.
Fury Beach.

Flwyn Jnli't ; Fury Beach.
Navy-Board Inlet.
Fury Beach.

Port Leopold ; Elwyn Inlet.

Navy-Boai'd Inlet; li]lwyn Inlet.

Fury Beach.

14' S. of Cape Garry.

Fury Beach.

6' S. of Cape Garry.

Fury Beach.

Lichens.

6' S. of Capc^ Garry; Fury

Beach.
Fury Beach.

LXXXL— On Arctic SilUrun Fossils. By J. W. Salter,
Esq., F.G.S. (Reprinted, by permission, from fclie Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. ix., 1853, pp. 812-317.)

A considerable number of limestone fossils were brought home
by the officers and gentlemen engaged in the late Arctic Ivxpedi-
tion (1850-51), which have added very materially to our know-
ledge of the geology of those Polar regions.

L L 2

:M

-Hi

*••

532

SAl.TElt, ARCTIC GF.OLOOY.

Tlif rooks jilonjj the oonsts of Tiarrow Strait and tlif» slioros of
I'rini'e-IJcjrcm's InU't were iilreudy partly explored by Pmry, and
(leseriltod by IVof. Jameson and Mr. Kcini;;, and a few fossils,
brought away in ballast from Prinee-Leopold's Island by Sir James
Koss, had been <letected at Woolwich by Caj)!. James, ll.E., and
mentioned in Prof. Ansted's " Geology." But the present collec-
tions, from the cntranop of Wellington Channel, are far more ex-
tensive than those before named, and the localities have been
exactly marked.

Her Majesty's squadron, under command of Ca[)t. Austin, col-
lected specimens of fossiliferous limestone in Assistance Jiay, Cape
Rilej', and Beechoy Island, and in Griffiths and Somerville Islands ;
and some travelling parties brought home a siiecimen of the same
limestone with fossils from Cape Walker, still farther to the south-
west. Our thanks are especially due to (.'!i|)t. Ommanney and
Mr. Donnet, who have presented their specimens to the Museum
of Practical Geology, and to Sir John Richardson, who has per-
mitted us to examine those brought homo by Mr. Pickthornc of
the " Pioneer."

In addition to these, Capt. Penny and \ns companions discovered
that the same rock with fossils extends up both sides of the strait,
and covers the islands at the mouth of the newly discovered
(Queen's Channel. These researches were prosecuted more par-
ticularly by Dr. P. C. Sutherland, assisted very willingly by the
seamen ; and to Sir John Richardson we are indebted also for
the examination of these fossils.

Of the following list of n'j^anic remains (described in the
Appendix to Dr. Suthcrlana o "Journal"*) some are known
European fossils. Among these the conunon Chain-coral {Hali/-
sitcs catemdatus), the Favosites Gotlandica and /''. polymorphoy
and the Atrypa reticularis are well-known cosmopolitan species.
There are some others more doubtfully European forms ; and
tlu-ee, among which is the Petitamerus concliidium^ appear to bo
identical with Swedish species in the Wenlock Limestone of Goth-

* See the " Journal of a Voyage in Baffin's IJay and liarrow Strait in the
" years 1850-1, performed by II.M. ships 'Lady Franklin' and 'Sophia,'
" under the command of Mr. William Penny, in search of the missing crews
« of II.M. Ships ' Erebus ' and ' Terror,' &c. By Peter C. Sutherland, M.D.,
" &c., Surgeon to the Expedition." London, 2 vols. 8vo., 1852.
Appendix:

Drift-wood, Dr. J. Kichardson, pp. cxxii.-cxxx. Meteorology, pp.

cxxxi.-clxxxvi.
Vascular Plants, pp. clxxxix.-cxc. Sir W. Hooker, K.IL, F.R.S., &.c.

Included in Prof. Hooker's Table, pages 225, ct seq.
Algsc, Dr. Dickie, pp. cxei.-cc. .SVe page 515.
Zoology : Mollusca, pp. ec.-cciv.. Dr. P. C. Sutherland. See page 511.

Crustacea and Insects, pp. ccv.-ccxi., Arthur Adams and Adam

White. See pages 508 and 5U.

Ascidians, Prof. Huxley, pp. ccxi.-ccxiii. "]

Echinoderras, Prof. E. Forbes, pp. ccxiii.- S- See page 513.

ccxvi. J

Geology, J. W. Salter, pp. ccxvii.-ccxxxiii. — Editok.

HALTER, AKCTIC c; IK lL<)({ V.

oXl

itherliind, M.D.,

IjukI. The rest iirc new to me cither as «)eeurrin«^ in JCniope or
Anua'ien.

The gcnenil reseniblanee with the fossils of our own UpiMT-
Sihirliin rocks is very considcrahU-, and, in thi! ahsence of many
characteristic Lower-Sihirian jicncra, the identity of several
species with Upper-Silurian forms, and tlu; great [irevalence of
Corals, 1 think wo are (piite warranted in placing these strata in
the npper division of the Silurian system.*

The shores at the entrance of Wellington Strait, at Cape Rilt^y,
Ijcechcy Island, ami Cornwallis and (Jrilliths' Islands, contain the
following fossils, most of which are figured in the work above
quoted : —

CUUSTACEA.

1. Encrinnrus loevis, Auffclin ? (Sutherland's "Journal,"

Appendix, pi. 5, f. 14).

2. rroetus, sp. (/. c, pi. 5, f. 15).

3. Lcperditia (baltica, Ifisitiffcry sp., var.) arcticn, Jones, I. c,

pi. 5, f. 13.

MOLLUSCA.

4. Lituites, n. sp. Allied to L. articuliUus, Sow., but with

more numerous whorls.

5. Orthoeeras Oramanneyi, n. sp. (/. c, pi. 5, f. 16, 17).

6. species, with distant septa and central siphuncle.

7. species, imperfect, but distinct from both the preceding.

S. Murehisonia, sp. (/. r., pi. 5, f. 18). Like 31. f/racilis, Hall.

9. larger species, with numerous whorls (I.e., pi. 5, f. 19).

10. Euomphalus, a small species.

11. Modolisi (or Modiolopsis). An oval and flattish form.

12. Strophomena Donneti, n. sp. (/. c, pi. 5, f. 11, 12).

13. , ^»p. The same as at Leopold's Island.

14. Orthis, large flat species. Griffiths' Island,
lo. Spirifer crispus, Li?in ? (/. c, pi. 5, f. 8).
16. , s^)., very like S. elcvatus, Dalm.

1 7. Chonetes lata, Von Buck ?

18. Pcntamerus conchidium, Dalm. (/. c, pi. 5, f. 9, 10). Coarse-

ribbed and fine-ribbed varieties.

19. llliynchonella phoea, n. sp. (A r., pi. 5, f. 1-3).
20. , sp. (/. c, pi. 5, f. 5).

Radiata.

Encrinitcs are so abundant at Cape Riley that in several places
the rock is composed entirely of their detritus. A species of
Aciinocrinus is the only fragment at all recognisable.

Corals arc very abundant ; twenty or more species having been
observed. Among them there are : —

21. rtychophyllura.

22. Cystiphyllum.

* Tht'so researches by Mr. Salter are referred to and vcrifled in Murchi-
sou's " Siluria." last edit., 1867, pp. 440-441.— EurfOK.

m

i^:m

.SAT.TKU, Allf'Tir (iF()LO(!Y.

W

23. C'yjilhophylluni.

2*1. Strcpliodi's I'icktlinrnii, n. sp. (/. r;., pi. 6, I*. 5).

2.5. • ? (C'lisic)|)hyllnin ?) Austiiii, ii. Hp. (/. c, pi. 6, I". (5).

2(). C.Misioplij'Uinn, s[). (/. r., i>l. (J, f. 7).

27. Aulopora, sp.

2M. Ftivislrllii icticiihitn, n. sp. (/. r., jil. G, f. 2).

2*). • Kniiiklini, ii. ,sp. (/. r., pi. (i, f. .'{).

JiO. Favo.sitt's p()ljiii()r[)ii}i, Goldfiiss ( /. <•., pi. G, f. !'). liranchcd
iiiul muorplioiis viirictirs.

31. Gotlmidicn, Linn., var,

;J2. , sp.

.'i;j. , sp.

.'J4. C<cnite.s (Llmnria), sp. Abundant at Becchoy Island.

3o. Ilalysitcs catonulatu.s, Linn. {I. r., pi. G, f. Hj.

3G. Syiiiiji;opoi'n, sp.

37. Ilcliolites (rorilos), sp. Raro.

38. Coluninaria Sntherlandi, u. sp. (/. r., pi. G, f. 8). Bcechcy

and Seal Islands.

rrooooding np W('IIin;>ton Channel, at Point VAvn, on (Ik*
south side orBarinjj Hay, Dr. Snlhorland found n new Coral, —

39. Arachnophylluni Ulehardsoni, n. sp. (/. <;., pi. G, f. 10) ;

like some Cmbonll'eious foims.

And at the sonlh-wrst end of Seal Island, a rock in Baring Bay,
in white crystalline limestone, —

Enerinurns laivis, and

Ijcpcrditia (balthica, His,, sp., var.) arctica, Jones, above
noticed.

40. Atrypa retienlaris {Lin., /. r., jd. 5, f. 7). Small, abundant.

41. Khynehonellii Mansonii, n. sp. (/. c, pi. 5, f. o)t

42. sublej)ida, JJe Vein. ? (/. r., pi. 5, f. 6).

43. Fenest(,'lla (/. c, \)\. G, f. 1). Small species, same as at

Leopold Island ?

44. Crotalocn'inins ; stem only ; like C. r/ff/osffs, Miller.

45. Calopliyllum phra<i;nioceras,';n. sp. (/. c, pi. G, f. 4) ; a Cuj)-

eoral with lar<i0 Hat diaphra<;in;s.

Dr. Sutherland followed the margin of the strait to its north-
eastern angle in hit. 7G^ 20', and Capt. Stewart continued along
the shore until he reached the new Queen's Channel, long. 97°.
Along the whole coast the same limestone roeks were visible; and,
from its peculijir luiiform castellated appearance, it could be traced
by the eye to extend still farther up the sides of that inlet. In
the meantime Captain Penny and his crew were exj^loring the
islands which separate this channel from the Wellington Strait,
and both in Hamilton Island and Dean-Dundas Island abundance
of fossils were seen. The necessity of abandoning their. boat
ju'cventcd their bringing them away ; but one of the seamen,
James Knox, contrived to roll np a Trilobite and a Bellero[)hon
In the corner of liis shirt, and bring them back to Dr. Sutherland.
They were from Dundas Island, in lat. 76° 15', the most northerly

i:, 1 1.

:;: i' i' ■' I ijin.

SAI/FT-IJ, AUCTIf (ii;OT,()(i\'.

.').*].')

i, f. 5).

f' i^-y pi. 6, i; fi).

2).

J, f. \)). liiJuicJicd

: u).

> '• 8). Bceclioy

f Kdon, on ^lo
now Coivil, —

V pi. «, f. 10) ;
in Baiin<i^l}n,y,

a, Jotu's, above

niall, abundant.

5),

t's, same as at

MilJer.

» ^- 4) ; a Cup-
to its uorth-
iitinued aIon;r
ncl, lonj;. 97^
" visible; mid,
>nld bo traced
lat inlet. In
3xp]oring the
ngton Strait,
id abundance
g tlieir^boat
the seamen,
Bellcroplion
. Sutherland,
ost northerly

polut of the now cnntinont from whence fossils have been brou<dit.
One of them is tlio —

Encrinurus hi'vis, before mentioned; (ho other —

46. Ik'lhM'ophon naiitarum, n. sp. (/. f,, pi. ,'>, I". 20) ; so named

in honour of the crews of the " Lady Fninklin " and
" Sophia."
R(;turnin«f to IJarrow Strait, the ballast from Leopohl'n Ishmd,
before (pioteil, yielded : —

Favosites polymorpha. AbuiKhmt.

■ Gothiudica.

Foncstella, sp. Probably the same as al)ovc, No. 43.

Strophomcna, sp. Same as No. 13.

llhynchonella phoca. As al)Ove, No. 19.

— — sublepida, I)( Vi'ni, var.

47. , sp. With simple plaits ; distinct from No. 20.

The existence of this great formation of Upper-Silurian lime-
stone along the shores of Prince-Regent's Inlet is rendered all
but certain from the notes finnished i)y Prof. ,lames(m and Mr.
Konig in the Appendices to C'apt. Parry's V^oyagcs. From Iheir
accounts the coasts arc occupied by a " transition limestone " of
an ash-grey or yellowish and grey colour, often feet id, and some-
times crystalline or compact. It is described as filled with
Zoophytes and Shells, and in certain parts, as noticed by Mv.
Konig, quite made up of the detritus of Eniirinites, the frngments
of which are so comminutct' that it might readily be mistaken for
a granular limestone. lie also found in it the Chain-coral.

Prof. Jameson gives a list of organic remains from Port Bowen,
which, by modernising the nomenclature of the fossils, Avould
agree well with those from the north shore of Barrow Strait,
and indeed he has himself ideulilicd them. And lie mentions that
this same rock extends eastward to Cape York, Admiralty Tnlcit,
and even occurs at Possession P.ay; while in a southerly direc-
tion it was found as far us the Regent's Inlet was explored. We
have seen that a similar limestone occurs at Ca[)C Walker, Russell
Island, and from the general low character of tluj shores that
stretch to the Avcst (explored lately by Capt. Ommanney), it is
[)r(>bably continued along them.

'le north-eastern shores of Lancaster Sound arc composed, at
least in part, of igneous and crystalline rocks ; but from the
commencement of tlie table-land at Powell's Inlet all along the
coast to the Wellington Channel, a uniform a[)pcaranco ol' the
shore (the clitfs appenring like fortifications) indicates the presence
of the same tabular strata of liniGstone.

Dr. Sutherlan<l, who is well accpiainted with the appearance of
the limestone cliffs, and who had the advantage of communicating
with the different exploring parlies, is without doubt of its con-
tinuity along this coast.

Again, the limestone of Melville Island, according to Mr.
Konig, contains Favosites and Tcrehratuhr.

Dr. Conybeare adds to them Ctitenipora; va\^Cnryophyll'ifr ; nnd
this is just the aspect which the fossi's of the limestone we have
described would present on a cursory examination. In Melville

1 :.

53G

SALTER, ARCTIC GEOLOGY.

If

Lsland, however, it is connected with a sandstone and coal-forma-
tion, with a Carboniferons flora; and, as this sandstone contains
Trilobitcs, Encrinites^ and Avictifff;, we may hesitate, in the
absence of autlientic specimens, to extend the Sihn'ian limestone
so far.*

We may now, then, definitely colour the. shores of Wellington
Channel and Barrow Strait, except the eastern entrance of the
latter (which is occupied by igneous or crystalline rocks), as Upper
Silurian ; and, on the return of the expedition under Cap!. Belcher,
the limits of this formation will be no doubt greatly extended.
I may mention that coal or lignite was picked up at Byam-Martin
Island, and that a fragment of it occurred in the detritus 3oO feet
above the sea, at Kate- Austin's Lake, Cornwallis Island. Also
at Griffiths' Island and Browne Island fragments of iron [native ?]
were fourul.

In conclusion, it is worth while to observe the occurrence
of Pleistocene deposits with marine Shells of existing Arctic
species {Mi/a truncatUf Saxicava rugosuy &c.), which were found
on every elevation up to 500 feet on Beechey and Cornwallis
Islands.

LXXXII. — On the Occurrence of numerous Fragments
of Fjr-Wood in the Islands of the Arctic Archi-
pelago ; with Remarks on the Rock- Specimens
brought from that Region. By Sir Roderick Impey
MuRCHisoN, D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Director-General
of the Geological Survey. Reprinted, with Permission,
from the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xi., 1855,
pages 536-541. (Read June 13, 1855.)

On the present occasion I cannot attempt to offer any general,
still less any detailed description of the rocks and fossils of the
north-western portion of that great Arctic Archipelago whose
shores Avcrc first explored by Parry and Sabine. The specimens
they brought home from Melville Island, and which were
described by Mr. Konig, first conveyed to us the general know-
ledge of the existence there of fossiliferous limestones and other
rocks analogous to knowni European types in Scandinavia. Since
those early days the voyages of Franklin, and of the various
Officers who have been in search of our lamented friend, have
amplified those views, and have shown us that over nearly the
whole of the Arctic Archipelago these vast islands possess a
structure similar to that of North America. We shall soon, 1

* In the collection of rocks from Melville Island, in the Society's Museum,
a specimen of the compact limestone and a Coral (Favistclla Frunklhti)
occur ; the latter was " collected by Lieut. Liddou, second in command in the
" Expedition of 1819-20," and presented by Dr. Granville, F.G.S.

mm

MURCIIISON, ARCTIC CEOLOCY AND DIUFT-WOOD. 537

;

believe, be made acquuintcd with the cliJ»i;icters of the speeimciis
collected by the E.vpedition nudor Sir lOdward Belcher, who is
])rcparing a description of the natural-history products of his
survey. My chief object now is to enll altcntion lo the remark-
able fact of the occurrence of considerable quantities of wood,
capable of being used for fuel or other purposes, which exist in
the interior, and on the high grounds of lai-ge isljuids in latitudes
where the Dwarf Willow is now the only living shrub.

Before I allude to this phenomenon, as brought to my notice
by Capt. M'Clure and Lieut. Pirn, I would, Iiowever, brieily
advert to a few rock-specimens collected by the latter officer in
Beechey Island, Bathurst Land, Eglinton Island, Melville Island,
Prince-Patrick's Island, and ]Janks Land, where he joined
Capt. M'Clure ; specimens which we ought to value highly, seeing
that they were saved from loss under very trying circumstances.

From this collection, as well as from other sources to which I
have had access, as derived from Voyages of Parry, Franklin,
Back, Penny, Inglefield, and the recent work of Dr. Sutherland,*
I am led to believe that the oldest fossilifcrous rock of the Arctic
region is the Upper Silurian, viz., a limestone identical in com-
position and organic contents with the well-knoAvn rocks of
Wenlock, Dudley, and Gothland.

No clear evidence has been afforded as to the existence of
Devonian rocks, though wc have heard of red and brownish
sandstone, as observed in very many localities by various explorers,
and which possibly may belong to that formation. Tims, in
North Somerset, to the south of Barrow Strait, red sandstone is
associated with the older limestones. Byam-Martin Island was
describeil by Parry as essentially composed of sandstone, with
some granite and felspathic rocks ; and, whilst the north-eastern
face of Banks Land is sandstone, its north-Avestern cliffs consist
(as made known by Capt. M'Clure) of limestone. But, whilst in
the fossils we have keys to the age of the Silurian rocks, we have
as yet no adequate grounds whereon to form a rational conjecture
as to the presence of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian group.

True Carboniferous Producti and Sjnrifcri have been brought
home by Sir E. Belcher from Albert Land, north of Wellington
Channel ; and hence we may affirm positively that the true Car-
boniferous rocks are also present. Here and there bituminous
shale and coal are met with ; the existence of the latter being
marked at several points on the general chart published by the
Admiralty. With the Pahcozoic locks are associated others of
igneous origin and of crystalline and metamorphosed character.
Thus, from Eglinton Island to the south of Prince-Patrick's
Island, first defined by the survey of Capt. Kellett and his officers,
we see concretions of greenstone associated with siliceous or
quartzose rocks and coarse ferruginous grits ; and in Princess-
lloyal Island, besides the characteristic Silurian limestones, there
are black basalts and red jaspers, as well as red rocks less altered
by heat, but showing a passage into jasper. Highly crystalline

* Sec above, pp. 5:32, ^a.

'^^

538 MURCniSON, ARCTIC GEOLOrJY AND DRIFT-WOOT).

'i

gypsum was also procured by Lieut. Pim from the north-western
shores of Melville Island. In the collection before us we see
silicified stems of Plants, which Lieut. Pim gathered on various
points between Wellington Channel on the cast, and Banks Land
on the west. Shnilar silicified Plants were also brought home by
Capt. M'Clure from Banks Land, and through the kindness of
Mr. Barrow, to whom they were presonted, they are now ex-
hibited, together with a collection mnde by Capt. Kellett, which
he sent to Dr. J. E. Gray, of the British Museum, who has
obligingly lent them for comparison.

I had requested Dr. Hooker to examine all those specimens
which passed through my hands, and I learn from him that he
will prepare a description of them, as well as of a great number
from the same region which had been sent to his father, Sir W.
Hooker, associated, like those now under consideration, with
fragments of recent wood.

Of Secondary Formations no other evidence has been met with
except some fossil bones of Saurians, brought home by Sir E.
Belcher, from the smaller islands north of Wellington Channel,
and of those fossils Sir Edward will give a description. Of the
old Tertiary rocks, as characterised by their organic remains, no
distinct traces have, as far as I am aware, been discovered, and
hence we may infer that the ancient submarine sediments, having
been elevated, remained during a very long period beyond the
influence of depository action.

Let us now see how the other fiicts, brought to our notice by
the gallant Arctic explorers who have recently returned to our
country, bear upon the relations of land and water in this Arctic
region during the quasi- modern period when the present species
of Trees were in existence. Capt. M'Clure states that in Banks
Land,* in latitude 74" 48', and thence extending along a range of
hills varying from 350 to 500 feet above the sea, and from half
ji mile to upwards inland, he found great quantities of wood, some
of which Avas rotten and decomposed, but much of it sufficiently
fresh to be cut up and used as fuel.

Whenever this wood was in a Avell-preserved state, it was either
detected in gullies or ravines, or had probably been recently
exhumed from the frozen soil or ice. In such cases, and parti-
cularly on the northern faces of tins slopes where the sun never
acts, wood might 1)o preserved any length of time, inasmuch as
Ca[)t. M'Clure tells mc; he has eaten beef wliieh, though hung up
in his cold larder for two years, was [)erfeetly untainted.

Ilie most remarkable of these specimens of well-preserved
recent wood is tin? segment of a tree which, by Capt. M'Clurc's
orders, was sawn from a trunk sticking out of a ravine, and which
is now exhibited. It mcasiu'es 8 feet 6 inches in circumference.
Still more interesting is the cone of one of these Fir-trees which
he brought home, and which apparently belongs to an Abies
resembling A, albn^ a plant still living within (he Arctic circle.
One of Lieut. Pim's specimens of wood from Prince-Patrick's

* See Prof. O'Heer's Memoir, above, p. 379.

■■■■I

KIFT-WOOD,

MURcnrsoN, aTvCtto geology and drift-wood. 530

p north-wosteru
efore us we see
sred on various
md Banks Land
rought home by
ho kindness of
y arc now ex-
. Kellett, which
ieum, who has

hose specimens

n him that ho

great number

father, Sir W.

Jeration, with

been met with
me by Sir E.
igtou Cliannel,
Jtiou. Of the
ic remains, no
iscovcred, and
ments, having
id beyond the

3nr notice by
unied to our
tliis Arctic
■osent species
lat in Banks
iig a range of
lid from half
f wood, some
; sufficiently

it was either
Ben recently
3, and parti-
e sun never
nasmuch as
4I1 hung up
d.

ill-preserved
. M'CIure's
, and which
auraforence.
trees which
) an Alfk's
letic circle.
'c-Patrick's

Island is of the same r^iaracter as that just mentioned, and in
microscopical characterti much resenil>les Pin us strohns, the
American Pine, according to Prof. Quckett, who refers another
specimen, brought from Hecla-and-Ci riper Bay, to the Larch.
In like maimer Lieut. Pim detected similar fragments of wood,
two degrees further to the north, in Prince-Patrick's Land, an<l
also in ravines of the interior of that island, Avlicre, as he in-
formed me, a fragment was found like the tree described by
Capt. M'Clure, sticking out of the soil in the side o!' a gully.

We learn, indeed, from Parry's Voyage that portions of a large
Fir-tree were found at some distance from the .south shore of
Melville Island, at about 30 feet above high-water mark, in
latitude 74° 59' and longitude 106°.

According to the testimony of Capt. M'Clure and Lieut. Pim,
all the timber they saw resembled the present driftwood so well
known to Arctic explorers, being irregularly distributed, and in
a fragmentary condition, as if it had been broken up and floated
to its present positions by water.* If such were the method by
which the timber was distributed, geologists can readily account
for its present jjosition in the interior of the Arctic Islands.
They infer that at the period of such distribution large portions
of these tracts were beneath the waters, and that the trees and
cones were drifted from the nearest lands on which they grew.
A subsequent, elevation, by which these islands assumed their
present configuration, would really bo in perfect harmony with
those great changes of relative level which avc know to have
occurred in the British Isles, Germany, Scandinavia, and Russia
since the great Glacial Period.f The trnnsportation of immense
quantities of timber towards the North Pole, and its deposition
on submarine rocks, is by no means so remarkable a phenomenon
as the wide distribution of erratic blocks during the Glacial
Epoch over Northern Gci'many, Central Kussia, and large [)or-
tions of our island, when under water, followed by the rise of
thes(! vast masses into land. If we ado[)t this explanation, and
look to the extreme cold of the Arctic region in the comparatively
modern period during which this wood has been diifted or pn;-
served, we can have no dilEcully of aerounting ^ov the different
states in which the timber is found. Those })orlions of it which
happen to havi; been exposed to the alternations of fi-ost and thaw,
and the influence of the sun, have necessarily become rotten ;
whilst all those fragments which remained enclosed in frozen mud
or ice would, when brought to liglit i)y the opening of the ravines
or other accidental causes, present just as fresh an appearance as
the specimens now exhibited.

The only circumstance within my knowledge which militates
against this view is one communicated to me by Caj)!. Sir
Edward Belcher, who, in lat. 7r>" 30', long. 92° l.V, ..] .served
on the east side of Wellington Channel the trunk of a Fir-tree
standing vertically, and which, l)eing cleared of the surrounding

* Sec Scoreshy on Drift-wood, " Northern Whalo-fishery," p. 19, 1823.
f Sec Mr. II. H. Howorth's Memoir, reprintod above, p. 48.3.

in

is;^p^«

540 ML'IICIIISON, AllCTIC GEOLOGY AND DRIFT-WOOD.

(!cartli, &c., was founil to extend its roots into what he supposed
to be soil.*

If from this observation we should be led to imagine that all
the innumerable fragments of timber found in these polar latitudes
belonged to trees that grew upon the spot, and on the ground
over which they are now distributed, we should be driven to
adopt the anomalous hypothesis that, notwithstanding physical
relations of land and water similar to those which now prevail
{i.e., of great masses of land high above the soa), trees of large
size grew on such terra Jirma within a few degrees of the North
Pole ! A supposition which I consider to be wholly incompatible
with the data in our possession, and at variance with the laws
t)f isothermal lines. If, however, we adopt the theory of a former
submarine drift, followed by a subsequent elevation of the sea-
bottom, as easily accounting for all the phenomena, we may
explain the curious case brought to our notice by Sir Edward
Belcher, by supposing that the tree he uncovered had been floated
away with its roots downwards, accompanied by attached and
entangled mud and stones, and lodged in a bay, like certain
" snags " of the great American rivers. Under this view, the
case referred to must be consitlered as a mere exception, whilst
the general influence we naturally draw is, that the vast quantities
of broken recent timber, as observed by numerous Arctic ex-
plorers, were drifted to their present position when the islands
of the Arctic Archipelago were submerged. This inference is
indeed supported by the unanswerable evidence of the submarine
jissociates of the timber, for from the summit of Coxcomb Range
in Banks Land, and at a height of 500 feet above the sea,
Capt. M'Clure brought home a fine large specimen of Cyprina
Isfandiea, which is undistinguishable from the species so common
in the Glacial Drift of the Clyde ; whilst Capt. Sir E. Belcher
found the remains of Whales on lands of considerable altitude in
lat. 78° north. Reasoning from such facts, all geologists are
agreed in considering the shingle, mud, gravel, and beaches, in
which animals of the Arctic region are imbedded in many pjij-ts
of Northern Europe, as decisive proofs of a })criod wlicn a glncial
s(!a covered large portions of such lands ; and the only distinction
between such deposits in Britain and those Avhicli were formed
in the Arctic circle is, that the Avood which was ti'ansportcd to the
latter has been preserved in its ligneous state for thousands of
years through the excessive cold of the region.

P.S. Since the above was written Capt. Collinson transmitted
to me an instructive collection of rock-specimens collected during
his survey. Most of them show the great prevalence of crystal-
line rocks alonff the north coast of America.

■r

* This trunk of a White Spruce, standing dead in North Devon, is noticed
in lk'ic'her'.s " Last Arct. Voy.," i. p. 380, witli a note by Dr. Iloola-r at
p. 381. — EuiTOK.

■r»i»

■MjlJllli

DKIFT-WOOD.

ETIIERIDOE, ROCK SPEOIMRNS.

541

'hat he supposed

LXXXIII. — Notes on some Rock- Specimens from the
Arctic-American Archipelago, by R. Etheridok,
Esq., F.R.S. In the " Whaling Cruise to Bafliu's Bay
and the Gulf of Boothia, and an account of the
rescue of the crew of the ' Polaris' ; " by Albert
Hastings Markham, Commander, R.N. F.R.G.S.,
1874. 8vo., London.

Appendix C. List of the Geological sspecimens collected by
Captain H. Markham, R.N., F.R.G.S., and examined by K.
Ethkridge, Esq., Museum of Practical Geolou:y.

Upernavik. — 1. Syenite, much resemblin*? the Lanrontian*
series of Cape Wrath (Suthei'landshire). 2. Crystals of felspar,
also like those in the Sutherlandshire rocks. 3, 4. Quartz-rocks.

Elwyn Inlet. — Piece of quartz-rock and quartzite.

Cape Hay. — Two pieces of limestone, extremely like that of
Durness in N.-W. Sutherlandshire, of Llandcilo ago (Lower
Silurian). Two specimens of Saxicava rugosa, from 150 feet above
the sea-level.

Navy-Boaro Inlet. — Specimens of " fundamental gneiss," like?
that of Cape Wrath ; hornblende-rock, mica-schist, quartzite, and
magnesian limestone.

Port Leopold. — Syenite, felspar, and quartz, like the Cape
Wrath rocks. An alternation of limestone and sandstone pro-
bably Silnrian. Gneissose rocks, much the same as the "funda-
mental gneiss " of N.W. Sutherlandshire, A specimen showing
Annelide tracks in fine-grained sandstone.

Fury Beach. — Specimens of gneiss, hornblende, quartz, and
gneissose rocks, much like the " fundamental scries" of Sutlier-
landshiie. Argillaceous limestone, with the following fossils of
Upper-Silurian age : — Favositcs (two specimens) ; Athyi-is (two
specimens) ; Tlolopclla.

Cape Garry. — Hornblende ; quartz-rock, stained red ; crystals
of calcareous spar; concretionary limestone. Limestone contain-
ing several fossils of uncertain age. Chonetcs and Tcrehratula of
the Upper-Silurian age.

Several of the specimens, having been picked up on the beach,
are much waterworn.

1 •

■ ■ •■ 'M [

t

f

'■«-■

■fj

* The occurrence of rocks referable to what are now known as Lanrenlian
is noticeable also in Macculloclj's list of Ross's Sjieciincns, ahove, p. 3'2A.
riiigcl's Igalliko quartzite and sonic of the quartz-rocks of the above list uuiy
be of the succeeding Cambrian age. — Editor.

4i-

^l

'^-~ss

542 IIAUGTITON, GEOLOGY OF PARRY ISLANDS, ETC.

LXXXIV. — On the Geology of the Parry Islandp and
neighbouring Lands By the Rev. Profe.ssor Saml£L
Haughton, M.D., F.KS., &c. (With Permiasion.)

[From Notes und Appendices accompanying M'Clintock's " ]lc-
miniscences," &e., in the Jouru. Royal Dublin Society, vol. i.,
1857, pp. 195, 210-214, 239^250 (with six Plates and a
Map) ; and vol. iii., 1860, pp. 53-58 (with four plates).]

i I

(1.) Vol. 1, p. 195, in M'Clintock's "Reminiscences," &c.. First

Expedition.

1. Gamier Bay, UTorth Somerset, Lat. 74" N., Long. 92° W.

Cromus arcticus, Hgt. J .R. D. S., i. t. 6., f. 1-5. {EncTi-

nurus Uvvis, according to Salter.
Atrypa phoca, Salter. Sutherland's Journal, t. 5, f. 1-3 ;

J.R.D.S., i. t. 5, f. 3, 4, 7.
A. reticularis, Sow.
Cyathoi)liyllum helianthoidcs, Goldfuss. J. R. D. S., i. t. 8,

f. 1, 2.
Ileliolites porosa (Goldf.). J. R. 13. S., i. p. 247, t. 10, f.;o ;

also near Cape Bunny.
II. niogastoma (M'Coy).
Columuaria Sutherlandi, Salter.

2. Port Leopold, Lat. 73^ 50' N., Long. 90" 15' W.

Limestone, containing numerous fossils of tlie Upper-Silu-
rian tyiie : Calamopora ?, Goilandicf/, Goldf., J. R. D. S.,
i. J). 248, t. 11, f. 3,; Rhynchonclla cuncata{?), Dalmaii,
Ci/atho])hyllum, sp.

Dark, earthy limestone containing multitudes of casts of
Loxonema Maeclintockif Haugliton, J. R. D. S., i. t. 5,
f. 2, 5; 1,100 feet above the sea-level at North-e(tsf,
Cape.

Selenite and fibrous gypsum, from shaly beds in the cliff.

(2.) Vol. i. p. 210 In M'OHntock's " Reminiscences," vSccond

Expedition.

1. Griffith's Island, Lat. 74^ 35' N., Long. 95° 30' W.
Cromus arcticus, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 6, f. 1-5.
Orthoceras Griffithi, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 5, f. 1.
Orthoceras, sp., with lateral siphuncle.
Loxonema Rossi, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 5, f. 6, 8-11 ;

iii. t. 4, f. 6.
Macroclieilus, sp.
Strophomena Donneti, Salter. Sutherland's Journal, t. 5,

f. 11, 12.
Atrypa phoca, Salter. Sutherland's Journal, t. 5, f. 1-3.

J. R. D. S., i. t. 5, f. 3, 4, 7.
Atry[)!i, ribbed sp.
Polyzoou.

SLANDS, ETC.

ITAUGIITON, GEOLOGY OF PARRY ISLANDS, ETC. 543

|RY IsLANDP and
'rofe.ssor Samlel
1 Perniiasioii.)

'Clintock's " ]ic-
)lin Society, vol. i.,
six Plates uikI a
four plates).]

Jences," &c.. First

N., Long. 92° W.
•) 1. 1—5. (^Ene7'i'

rnal, t. 5, f. 1-3 ■

1^. R. D. S., i. t. 8,
). 247, t. 10, f.;o ;

the Uppcr-Siln-
3lclf.,J.R.D.S.,
«^«(?), Dalman,

ides of casts of

R. r>. s., i. t. o,

at North-eant
s in the cliff,
mces," Hcconfl

O'W.

1-5.

5, f. 1.

5, f. (>, 8-11 :

Journal, t. 5,
, t. 5, f. 1-3.

Calophyllum [»lniiginoeeras, Salter. Sutlu'rland'ri Journal,

t. (), f. 4.
Syriuf^opora geniculatn, Phil. J. R. D. S., i. t. 11, f. 2.
Crinoidal Limestone.

2. Beechey Island, Lat. 74" 40' N., Loug. 92" W.

Orthoeeras, sp.

Atrypa plioca, Salter ; constituting a dark limestone.

Loxonema, spp. ; constituting at places a pinkish and

whitish limestone.
Loxonema, sp., Salter. Sutherland's Jouruid, t. 5, f. 10.
Atrypa, ribbed sp.
Syringopora reticulata, Goldf.
Calophyllum phragmoceras, Salter.
Cyathophyllum cajspitosum, Goldf.
C. articulatum, Edw. 8c II.
Favosites Gotlaudica (?), Linn.
F. alveolaris (?), Bl.
Favistella Franklini, Salter. Sutherland's Journal, t. (),

f. 3; J. R. D. S., i. t. 11, f. 1. Abundant at Capo

Riley.
Clisiophyllum Salteri, Sutherlaiul. j Op. cit., t. 6, f. 7.
C. Austiui ? (Salter). Strcjthodcs, Sutherland's Journal,

t. 6, f. 6 ; J. R. D. S., t. 10, f. 2.
ChsDtetes arcticus, Ilgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 10, f. 3, 4.
Cyathophyllum, sp.
Crinoidal Limestone.

3. Assistance Bay, Cornwallis Island, Lat. 74° 30' N.,

Long. 94° W.

Cromus arcticus, Hgt.

Orthoeeras Ommaneyi, Salter. Sutherland's Journal, t. 5,

f. 16, 17 ; J. R. D. S., i. p. 249, t. 11, f. 5.
Pentamerus conchidium, Dalman. Sutherland's Journal,

t. 5, f. 9, 10. Peutamerus Limestone.
Cardiola Salteri, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 7, f. 5.
Syringopora geniculata, Phil. J. R. D. S., i. t. 11, f. 2."

4. Cape York, Lancaster Sound, Lat. 73° oO' N., Long.

87° W.

Chajtetes ? sp. The same as " Fcivositea Gotlandica,^''
from Beechey Island.

5. Possession Bay, S. oi' the entrance into Lancaster Sound,

Lat. 73° 30' N., Long. 77° 20' W.

Brown earthy limestone, foetid when struck ; closely re-
sembling the limestone of Cape York, Lancaster Sound.

G. Hillock Point, Melville Island, Lat. 76° N., Long.
111° 45' W.

Productus sulcatus, var. borealis, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 7,

f. 1-4.
Spirifer arcticus, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 9, f. 1.

:|i

'.m

(in

hj^^'"-^

;i"i;'!'

544 ITAUOIITON, OEOLOOY OF PARRY ISLANDS, ETC.

7. Cape Lady-Franklin (?), North Const of Bathurst

Island, Lilt. 7G" 40' N., Long. W -1.5' W.
Spirifer fircticus, TI*?t.

Lithostrotion basiiltifbnnc, Phil. J. R. D. S., i. p. 249, t. 1 1 ,
f. 6.

8. Ballast Beach, Baring Island, Lut. 74^^ 30' N., Lon<,'.

121° W.
Wood fossilized by brown hiBmatito ; structure distinct.
Cone of Spruce-Fir, fossilize*] by brown hoematite.

9. Frincess-Boyal Island, in Frince-of-Wales' Strait,

between liiuiiij; or Banks' Island and Prince-Albert Land,
Lat. 72° 45' N., Long. 117° SCy W.

Nodules of clay-iron-stone, partly converted into brown
hfcmatito.

Native copper, in large masses, procured from the Esqui-
maux in Prince-of- Wales' Strait.

Pisolitic brown hfcmatite.

Groyish-yollow sandstone, like that of Cape Hamilton and
Byam-Martin Island.

Terebratula aspera, Schlotheim. J. R. D. S., i. p. 248,
t. 11, f. 4.

10. Cape Hamilton, Baring Island (Bank's Land).

Lat. 74° 15' N., Long. 117° 30' W.

Greyish-yellow sandstone, like that found in situ in Byam-
Martin Island.

Coal, brownish, of lignaceous texture, consisting of very
thin interstratitied layers of brown coal and jetty black
glossy coal; with a woody ring under the hammer.
These characters hold good for all the known Arctic coal
except the Tertiary coal of Disco, W. Greenland.

11. Cape Dundas, Melville Island. Lat. 74° 30' N., Long.

113° 45' W.
Coal (as above.)

12. Cape Sir- James-Boss, XSelville Island, Lat. 74° 45' N.,

Long. 114° 30' W.

Sandstone, passing into blue quartzite.

13. Cape Providence, Melville Island, Lat. 74° 20' N.,

Long. 112° 30' W.

Yellowish-grey sandstone, and clay-iron-stono, passing into
pisolitic hajmatite.

A specimen of Crinoidal Limestone, like that of Griffiths'
Island ; but the present currents and drift-ice could not
bring it thence, as their set is constant from the W.

14. Winter Harbour, Melville Island, Lat. 74° 35' N., Long.

110° 45' W.
Yellow and grey fuie-graincd sandstone.

IliANDS, ETC.

IIAUGIITOX, GKOLOOY OF PAintV tsr.ANDS, 1/iT. CtW)

»t of Bathurst

S., i. p. 249, t. 11,

t° 30' N., Lon-.

0 Hamilton and

passing into

16. Bridport Inlet, Melville Island, Lat. 7.'>()° N., Long.

110° 45' W.

Coal with inipicssions of SphinojUvris.
FeiTuginons-spotted white sandstone.
Clay-iron-stone, passing into brown ha)niatite.

IG. Skene Bay, Melville Island, Lat. 75° N., Long. 108° W.
Bituminous coal, laminated ; associated with brown crys-
talline limestone (with cherty beds), and grey-yollowiHli
sandstone, passing into brownish-red sandstone.

17. Hooper Island, Liddon's Gulf, Melville Island, Lat.

75° 5' N., Long. 112° W.

Nodules of pure and heavy ehiy-iron-stone ; associated with
the usual ferruginous fine-grained sandstone and coal.

18. Byam-Martin Island, Lat. 75° 10' N., Long. 104° 15' W.

Yellowish-grey sandstone, in situ, conUvining a ribbed
Atrypa, allied to A. primipilavis, Von Buch, and A,
faliax of the Carboniferous rocks of Ireland.

Reddish limestone, with fragmentary Atri/jJce, like the last.

Coal, of the usual quality.

Fine-grained red sandstone, ])assiug into red slate [?].

Boulders of scoriaeeous hornblcndic trap.

19. Graham-Moore's Bay, Bathurst Island, Lat. 75° 35' N.,

Long. 102° W.

Coal, of the usual quality.

(3.) Vol. i., p. 211. — In M'Clintock's "Reminiscences," &c.
Second Expedition. — Coal, sandstone, clay-iron-stone, and brown
haematite were found along a line stretching E.N.E. from Baring
Island [Banks' Land], through the middle and S.-E. part of
Melville Island, Byam-Martin Island, and the southern half of
Bathurst Island [towards Grinnell Land and the Victoria Archi-
pelago]. Carboniferous Limestone, with characteristic fossils,
was found along the north coast of Bathurst Island, and at
Hillock Point, Melville Island.

Vol. i., p. 199. — The sandstone of Byam-Martin Island is of
two kinds, one red, finely stratified, passing into purple slate, and
very like the red sandstone of Cape Bunny, North Somerset, and
some varieties of the red sandstone and slate found between
Wolstenholme Sounil and Whale Sound, West Greenland,
lat. 77° N. The other sandstone of Byam-Martin Island, is fine,
pale-greenish, or rather greyish-yellow, and not distinguishable
in Land-specimens, from the sandstone of Cape Hamilton, Baring
Island [Banks' Land]. It contains numerous shells and casts of
a Brachiopod, closely allied to Tcrchratida primiinlaris, Von
Buch, found abundantly at Gerolstein in the Eifel. On the
whole. Dr. Ilaughton inclines to the opinion that the sandstones,
limestone, and coal of Byam-Martin Island, and the corresponding
rocks of Melville Island, Baring Island [Banks' Laud], and
Bathurst Island, arc low down in the Carboniferous System ;
3G122. M :si

: U

:^P

rAG IFAUOllTON, <»EOLOUY OF rAllllY ISLANDS, KTC.

s

tr,

m\:

>\S

l|:'

m'^i

L;. .

■ ■'■*

ki^'k.

■ I ;5

and tliJit thcro in in these northern C'oiil-lields no Huh-division
into "red sundstone," "limestone," and " coal-measures," such as
prevail iu the West of Europe.

If the ditlerent points where coal was found be laid down on
n map, we have iu order, proceeding from the S.W., Cape
Ilumiltou, Baring or IJanks' Island ; Capo Dundas, Melville
Island, south ; Bridport Inlet and Skene Bay, Mclvillo Island ;
Schombcrg Point, Graham-Moore Bay, Bathurst Island ; a lino
joining all those points is the outcrop of the coal-beds of the
south of Melville Island, and runs E.N.E.

Vol. i., pp. 213, 214. — At Capo Lady-Franklin, and at many
other localities along the north shore of Bathurst Island, Car-
boniferous fossils in limestone, clay-iron-stone balls, passing into
brown hasmatite, cherty limestone, and earthy fossiliferous lime-
stone, with the same species of Atrypa as at Byam-Martin
Island, were found in abundance by Sherard Osboru, Esq.,
Conmiandcr of II.M.S. " Pioneer."

(4.) Vol. i., p. 223.— M'Clintock's " Reminiscences," &c. Third
Expedition. — On landing [at Point Wilkie], I found the beach
low, composed of mud with the foot-prints of animals frozen in
it. A few hundred yards from the beach there are steep hills,
abont loO feet in height, and upon the sides of these, in reddish
limestone casts of fossil Shells abound. Inland of these the
ordinary pale Carboniferous sandstone and cherty limestone re-
appeared. The fossils are all small, and of only a few varieties,
some being Ammonites, but the greater part Bivalves. They
differed from any I had met with before, and the rock was
almost brick-red. I picked up what appeared to be fossil bone
{lehthijosaurus "i ), on\y x^'AVt oi it appearing out of the fragment
of the rock. Point Wilkie appears to bo an isolated patch of
Liassie age, resting upon Carboniferous sandstones and lime-
stones, with bands of chert, of the same ago as the limestones
and sandstones of Melville Island. The eastern shore of Intrepid
Inlet is composed of this formation ; while the western, rising
into hills and terraces, is of the underlying Carboniferous epoch.
At tho western side of Intrepid Inlet I found upon the ice a
considerable quantity of white asbestos, but did not ascertain
whence it had been brought.

Vol. i., p. 238.— M'Clintock's "Keminiscences," &c. Third
Expedition. '(Also M'Clintock's "Fate of Franklin," &c. ;
Ilaughton's Appendix. 1859.)

Wilkie Point, Prince-Patrick's Land, Lat. 76'' 20' N., Long.
117° 20' W.

Lias Fossils.

Ammonites Macclintocki, Haughton. J. R. D. S., i. t. 9,
f. 2-4. {See also Dr. Ilaughton's Manual Geol.f 1865,
p. 141.)

Monotis septeutrionalis, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 9, f. 6, 7.

Pleurotomaria, sp. J. R. D. S., i. t. 9, f. 8.

Univalve, cast. J. R. D. S., i. t, 9, f, 5.

Nucula, sp.

■... Maw

tlgB^mmm » uptw! wj-M mjpuiib W3j;a

VNDS, KTC.

IIAUUIITON, OEOLOOY OF PAKRY INLANDS, ETC.

47

(5.) PnOF, Haugiiton on the Geological Results of tbo Voyngo
of the " Fox." Op, cit.

Vol. ill., p. 53. During the voyage of the " Fox," and tho
sledge-jonrncyH made by her otllcors from Bellot's Strait, in tho
autumn of 18o8 and .spring of 18.>9, many fossils wore found,
which were brought home by Captain M'Clintook, and presented
to the Royal Dublin Society. Those specimens complete our
knowledge of the south and east shores of North Somerset, of tho
east and west shores of lioothia Felix, of King-William's Land, and
to some extent, of the south and east shores of Priace-of- Wales
Island. I have also received through Captain MClintoek, a few
specimens collected by Sir E. Belcher, in the extreme north of tho
Queen's and Belcher Channels. By the aid of those I have been
enabled still further to complete the geological map of the Arctic
Archipelago, which I published in vol. i., of this Society's Journal
in February 18o7.

The whole of North Somerset, Boothia Felix, King- William's
Island and Princc-of- Wales Land is thus proved to be of Silurian
age, although the evidence as to whether it is of Upper- or Lower-
Silurian age is contradictory, as characteristic fossils of both
epochs arc found throughout the whole area.

From Sir E. Belcher's specimens it is evident that the Carboni-
ferous rocks, including seams of ironstone and coal, extend through
Buckingham Island, to tho north-east, in the Victoria Archi-
pelago. The following lists contain the names of the principal
specimens identified :—

1. North Cornwall. Lut. 77" 30' N., long. 95° W.

This land lies to the N. of Exmouth Island, on which the
vertebnc of Ichthyosanms were found. ( See Belcher's
" Last Arct. Voy.," ii., p. 389,) The specimens api)ear
to be stones collected on the ground. They consist of
earthy limestone, quartz-pebbles, and a kind of granite
not found elsewhere in the Arctic Regions ; it is com-
posed of quartz, black mica, and grey translucent felspar.
Sir E. Belcher states that the ravines consist of sand-
stone, and contain large masses of clay-iron-stone, sopturia,
nodules of iron-pyrites, and coal, not in situ ; togcthej-
with sub-fossil shells, strewed on the ground.

2. Buckingham Island. Lat. 77° 10' N., long. 91° W\

Composed of clay-iron-stone and dark ferruginous shales.
The specimens of coal and iron-stone brought from this
island by Sir E. Belcher bear a striking resemblance to
those found by M'Clintock in Liddon Gulf, Melville
Island ; and it is wortiiy of remark that a lino drawn iVoni
Liddon Gulf to Buckingham Island coincides with tho
strike of the Carboniferous beds laid down on the map
[not reproduced here]. Boulders of a binary i^!;ranite,
composed of grey quartz and pinkish-red felspar, were
also found on this island.

M M 2

!': ^'^',

^i|'

rj48 IFAUOIITON, OK()I.O(JV Ol' I'.VUUV ISLANDS, KTC.

3. ViUage Point. Lut. TO'' r>()' N., Ici.^'. f>7° W.

Colli of the UHUiil (l<'8('iipliou ioiiiul in tlio Parry ThIiiihIs
was foiiiid at this [)oint, Avhieli lies in iho liuo joining
Buckingham Lsliuul with Liddon GulC.

4. Dep6t Point, Orinnell Land, Lnt. 77° 5' N.

Carboniforous Liiuestono.

Lithostrotion basuUitbrme, Phil. Bolchor'd Voyago, t. 36,

f. 4 ; Journ. K. D. S., i. t. 11, f. 6.
Zaphrentis ovibos, Salter. Belcher's Voy. t. 3G, t*. 5.

5. Dep6t Bay, Bellot>« Strait. Lat. 72° N., long. 94° W.

Silurian Dolomite, white, sacchnroid, with large rhombo-

hedral crystals of calcspar.
Macluroa arctica, Hgt. J. R. D. S., iii. t. 3, f. 1, 2.
Cyathophyllum holianthoides, CJoldtuss.

6. Cape Farrand, East side of BootMa, Lnt. 71° 38' N.,

long. 95° 35' W.

Silurian limestone ; grey, earthy.

Atrypa phoca, Salter. Sutherland's Journal, t. o, f. 3.

Loxonenia Rossi, Hgt. J. R. D. S., i. t. 5, f. G, 8, 9, 10, 11.

Favosites Gotlandica, Goldf. (/'. NiagurcnsiSy Hall.)

Atrypa, ribbed sp.

Cyrtoccras, sp.

7. West shore of Boothia. Lat. 70° to 71° N. Containing

the Magnetic Pole.

Earthy limestone, and cream-colourod chalky dolomite.
Atrypa phoca, Salter. Sutherland's Journ. t. 5, f. 1-3 ;

J. R. D. S., i. t. 5, f. 3, 4, 7.
Loxonema Rossi, Hgt.
L. Salteri. Sutherland's Journ. i. 6, f. 1 8.
. Favistella Franklini, Salter. J. R. D. S., i. t. 11, f . 1 ;
Sutherland's Journ., t. 6, f. 3.

One of the most remarkable facts brought to light by M'Clin-
tock's geological exploration of the Arctic regions during the
Voyage of the " Fox," is the occurrence of dolomito or magnosian
limestone, covering large areas in almost horizontal beds. It
abounds in fossils ; and is an almost pure dolomite, or union of
carbonates of lime and magnesia in equal atomic proportions. To
my mind this fact is of as much, if not more, importance in
identifying the Silurian strata of Boothia Felix, King-William's
Land and Prince-of- Wales Land, as any identification of fossils
could possibly be. Considered in reference to Dr. Bigsby's papers
on the Silurian rocks of New York, recently published by the Geo-
logical Society of London,* it is a fact of great interest.j The
following is the composition of the Dolomite I'rom the western
shore of Boothia Felix ; those of the other dolomites arc given in
their projier places.

♦ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xiv. pp. 335, 427 ; xv. p. 251 ;
1858-9.

■f Dr. IT. Rink has noted the existence of a Dolomite low down on the west
coast of Greenland, above, p. 496. — Editor.

NOS, KTC.

IIAUOHTON, (»KOLO(}Y OF FAUIIY ISI.ANDS, ETC. 549

Dolomite from Jlonthin Fili.r,

I'cr ci'iit.

AtoniN.

A.-il

2 '22

IVroxiiU; of iron (iiid ulnminn -

()-2{)

Curhomitc (»!' lime

- 54 •5)2

110

Curboimtu of luugncHla

. 42 -o?

97

1 ()()•()(>

Carbonate of Hme : carbonnte of magnesia :: 110 : 07=1 '134 : I.

8. Fury Point, Lat. 72" 50' N., Long. 92° W.

Siliuian Limestone ; grey, earthy.

Cronuis arcticus, Ilgt. J. K. D. S., i. t. 6, f. 1-5.

Maebuca arctica, ITgt. J. R. D. S., iii. t. 3, f. 1, 2.

Stromatopora concentrica, Goldf.

Cyatbopbyllum belianthoides (Goldf.).

Petraia bina (Loiisd.).

Favositea Gotlandiea, Goldf. {F. Niagarcnsis, Hall).

Cyatbopbyllum cfpspitosum, Goldf.

Favistella Franklini, Salter.

Strepbodes Austini, Salter. Sutherland's Journ., t. 6, f. G.

Atrypa pbocn, Salter.

Cbatetes lycopcrdon, Hall. J. R. D. S., iii. pi. 4, f. 4.

9. Frince-of- Wales Land, Lat. 72° 38' N., Long. 97° 15' W.

Silurian Limestone, grey and earthy ; near the junction

with the red arenaceous limestone.
Favosites Gotlandiea, Goldf. {F. Niayarciisis, Hall ;

Chtctctcs arcticusy J. R. D. S., i. t. 11, f. 3, 4.)
Stromatopora concentrica, Goldf.
Cyatbopbyllum, sp.

The Dolomite found by Capt. Young on the extreme west of
Princc-of- Wales Land has the following composition : —

Per cent. Atoms.
Argil- ... - 6-93

Peroxide of iron and alumina - 0*65

Carbonate of lime - - - 46*80 94

Carbonate of magnesia

45-62

108

100-00

Carbonate of lime : carbonate of magnesia : : 94 : 108=0*870 : 1.

10. West Coast of King- William's Island.

Earthy limestone, grey ; and cream-coloured compact

dolomite.
Loxonema Rossi. J. R. D. S., i. t. 5, f. 6, 8-1 1 ; iii. t. 4,

f. 6.
Catcnipora escharoides, var. agglomerata. Hall. J. R. D, S.,

iii. f. 4, f. 5. Dolomite.

m

ttv

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frj

550 IIAUGHTON, GEOLOGY OF PARRY ISLANDS, ETC.

4'^

r ■:

;■

1

-i. !■ ,.■

1 ;;

1 '^RH

v' i

9

F

Ormoceras crebriseptum, Hall. J. B. D. 8., iii. t. 1, f. 3.

Maclurea arctica. J. B. D. S., iii. t. 3^ f. 1, 2. Dolomite.

Atrypa, sp.

Syringopora geniculata.

Clisiophylluni, sp.

Orthis elegantula.

Huronia vertebralis, Stokes. J. R. D. S., iii. t. 2, f. 1, 2.

Dolomite.
Receptaculites Neptuni, Defiance. J. R. D. S. iii. t. 3,
f. 3.
Composition of the Dolomite full of Catcnipora cscharoides)
from the western side of ICing- William's Island : —

Per cent. Atoms.
Argil, peroxide of iron and alumina - 5 • 40
Carbonate of lime - - - 62-91 106

Carbonate of magnesia - - 41 • 67 94

99-98

Carbonate of lime : carbonate of magnesia : : 106 : 94 = 1 - 127 : 1.

6. Note. — The Geology of the Parry Islands, &c. From
the Map and descriptions given by the Rev. Prof. Dr. S.
Haughton.

The eastern portion of North Devon consists of crystalline
(granitic and other) rocks, cori'esponding with those round about
fVolstcnholmc Sound (from Capo York to Granville Bay), and
the Carey Isles, on the opposite coast of Baffin's Bay. The
western part of North Devon, and the Cormvallis, Griffiths, and
Loivther Islands further to the west, and, to the south, the
northern portion of Cochhurn Land, North Somerset (excepting
some crystalline rocks on the coast of Peel Sounds with offstand-
ing islands), all Boothia, Kincj- William's Land, and Princc-of-
Walcs Land, are Silurian. Banks'' {Baring) Land, the northorn
portion of Eglinton, Melville, and Bathurst Islands (approximately
marked off by 76° parallel), and all Byani- Martin I., are occupied
by the Carboniferous Sandstone, Iiimestone, Ironstone, and
Coal (" Ursa Stage," O. Heer) ; and these reach away to the N.E.,
into the Victoria Archipelago and North Cormoall. The Car-
boniferous limestone constitutes the eastern part, at least, of
Prince-Patrick Island (exclusive of a small Jurassic patch), the
northern third of Eglinton Island, most part of the two northern
promontories of Melville Island, the three northern promontories
of Bathurst Island, and the north-eastern part of Grinnell Land
(about 77° N., 96° W.).

Jurassic (liias) rocks occur in two localities: (1) at Point
Wi I Me, on the Eastern coast oi Pri7icc- Patrick Island; and (2)
between Grinnell Latid and North Cormoall, at Exmouth Island,
IT 10' N., 96° W. Belcher's "Last of the Arctic Voyages," vol. i.
p. 106 ; ii. p. 391.

K>

BELCITEP, GEOLOGY OF TAKRY ISLANDS, ETC. 551

LXXXV.— Geology of the Parry Islands, &c.

(From Sir Edward Belcher's *' Last of the Arctic Voyages,"
2 vols. 1855.)

1. Arctic Carboniferous Fossils, collected by the Expedition
under Sir E. Belcher, C.B., 1852-4. Described by J. W.
Salter, Esq., F.G.S., " Last of the Arctic Voy.," vol. ii. pp.
377 et seq. 1855.

Fusulina hyperborca, n. sp., p. 380, t. 36, f. 1-3. Depot

Point, Grinnell Land (77° N., 95° W.).
Stylastrsea inconferta, Lonsdale; p. 381, t. 36, f. 4. De-
pot Point.
Zaphrentis ovibos, n. sp., p. 382, t. 36, f. 5. Depot Point ;

and similar specimens from Princess-Royal Island, and

the entrance of Jones's Sound.
Clisiophyllum tumulus, n. sp., p. 383, t. 36, f. 6. Depot

Point.
Syringopora aulopora, sp., p. 385, t. 36, f. 7 ; on large corals.

DeiJot Point.
Fenestella arctica, n. sp., p. 385., t. 36, f. 8. Depot Point.
Spirifer Keilhavii, Von Buch, p. 387, t. 36, f. 9, 10, 11.

Depot Point ; and in red limestone, Exmouth Island.
Productus cora, D'Orbigny, p. 387, t. 36, f. 12. In red

limestone, Exmouth Island.
Productus semireticulatus, Martin, var. frigidus, nov., p.

388, t. 36, f. 13, 14. Depot Point.

'I-

2. Fossil Bones from Exmouth Island.

" The Last of the Arctic Voyages," &c. By Sir Edward
Belcher, C.B., 2 vols., 1855. Vol. i. page 106.

The following extract is descriptive of Exmouth Island, in
Lat. 77° 16' N., Long. 96° W., of which a sketch (PI. IV., facing
page 105) is given.

" The formation is red sandstone, capped about 20 feet on the
" summit by fossiliferous limestone, in which some largo Bivalves
" (Pcctens, &c.), and some bones were found, unfortunately
" broken before they were brought to me. Beneath this lime-
" stone, the rock is swinestone to about three-quarters from the
** base, the entire height being 567 feet. In the sandy bed of one
" of the large gullies a large ball of iron-pyrites was found, at
" first mistaken by one of my crew for a six-pound shot, and
" brought to me as belonging to one of the missing ships. Some
" very slight traces of coal were noticed iit the wasii of the sea,
" but none in situ on the Island."

Professor Owen, F.E.S., F.G.S., describes, in vol. ii., page
389 (Appendix), some remains (vertebra) and pieces of ribs) of
Ichthyosaurus (pi. 31), discovered in this Island. Sir E. Belcher
remarks at page 391, with reference to these, that they were
found 570 feet above the sea-level, and above the limestone

aK

\s\

tif

552 IJELOIIER, GEOLOGY OF TARRY ISLANDS, ETC.

' -51

!
Ji"'

SO:

(jibout 114 feet thick) covering the "friable disintegrating sand-
stone," which forms the base of tlie island. The strata have a
Avesterly dip of 7°.

[At page 379, vol. ii., J. W. Salter, Esq., F.G.S., states that
the Carboniferous Productus Cora, Spirifcr Kiclhavii, &c., were
found on the top of Exmouth Island (in the limestone), and that
" close upon this again " lay the Ichthyosaurian bones.]

The hasty examination given under the circumstances led to the
conjecture that fossils [Lias ?] were only to bo found in the ,area
marked out by Exmouth, Table, Ekins, and Princess-Royal Islands,
and that portion of the mainland lying betAveen the latter and
Cape Briggs ; but this coast, at Depot Point and P.-Royal I., con-
sists of Carboniferous Limestone {above, pp. 548, 551).

3. North Cornwall, &c.

Vol i. p. 111. The ravines are deeply channelled out of a very
friable sand-stone, and in the bottom were noticed large masses of
clay-iron-stone, septaria, and nodules of iron-pyrites. Coal Avas
also found, but disseminated, and impossible to trace in situ*

Bivalves, apparently of recent origin, and having the cartilage-
hinge peifect, were abundant Birds may have

placed these shells ; but with . . . this climate, prevailing ice,
and the scarcity of animal life especially, this is scarcely credible
. . . . This friable sandstone and sand, interspersed on the
surface with boulders of granite, and almost garnet masses, con-
stitutes the principal features of the land on West Cornwall.

While constructing a cairn at Glacier Bluff in N.-E. Grinnell
Land, Northumberland Sound (vol. i. p. 125,) gold was discovered
in '' a heavy piece of quartz."|

Vol. i. pp. 316-320. At Buckingham Island (Victoria Archi-
pelago), spits of gravel radiating from the embouchure of an old
river-valley, noAV dry, are mentioned, and other evidence of former
rivers and lakes in Grinnell Land and North Devon, and of sub-
mergence of mountain-ranges, when " Whales and other objects
" were deposited on elevations of 500 feet and upAvards." Ter-
races, mud-flats, graAcl-ridges, pebbles of chalcedony, and carcases
and bones of Whales at 80 or 500 feet elcA-ation are also alluded
to ; and the iuAariable dip of the strata at about 5° to northAvard
is noticed.

In some cases vertebrae and skulls of Whales have been set up
as land-marks. Such are not to be mistaken for drifted remains.

(Dr. Walker of the " F'ox " Expedition mentions a Whale's skele-
ton found at an elevation of 80 feet.)

At Mount Parker (Belcher, vol i., p. 261), the " head and pro-
" bably the entire skeleton of a Whale," were discoA'ered at a
height of 500 feet above the sea level.

At Cape Disraeli (i. p. 266) an embedded Whale Avas found.

* Loose coal was found also to the south in Grinnell Lund, and some bitu-
minous shale further to the south-west (pages 40 and 97).
t Gold was also brought home by Dr. llae from the Arctic Regions.

BESSELS, NOTES ON POLARIS BAY.

553

LXXXVI. — Notes on Polaris Bay. By Dk. Bessels.*

From the " Bulletin dc la Soc. dc? (Jcograpliio," March 1875.

Paris, pp. 291-9.

The geological formation of ," Polaris Bay " ami it.s neighbour-
hood consists of Silurian limestone with few fossil;?.

At an elevation of 1,800 feet, not only Drift-wood was found,
but Shells (il/ya, &c.), of species still existing in the neighbouring
seas.

In small lakes, numerous in that region, were found marine
Crustacea living in fresh water ; and thus bearing witness to the
uprise of the northern coasts of Greenland.

Erratic blocks occur in great numbers, difTercnt in charac-
ter from the rocks of the surface. Among them are blocks of
granite, gneiss, &c., derived from South Greenland, aiul certainly
not transported by glaciers, but by floating ice, showing that the
current in Davis' Strait was to the North formerly, and not to
the South as now.

-^';.

Note. — Mr. C. E. De Rance, F.G.S., has lately given a
series of papers in Nature (Macmillan, London), vol. xi., pp. 447,
467, 492, and 508 (April 1875), on the geological, glacial, and
other phenomena of the Arctic Regions. In a condensed form he
here presents what is known of the Ice of Greenland, the Cryolite,
the Cretaceous and Miocene formations of Mid-Greenland, the
geology of East Greenland, and the Ovifak Meteorites. The
geology of the Arctic-American Archipelago and of Grinnell
Land (Hayes, &c.), the glacial conditions and geology of Spitz-
bergen and Bear Island, the extent of the Carboniferous deposits
in N.-W. America, and the former continental areas, are also
treated of. Lastly, some remarks arc offered on the homotaxcous
relationship of the Tertiary and Cretaceous Formations of Green-
land with those of other countries.

* For some other notes on the results of the Voyage of the " Pohuis," sec
above, pages 321-3.

I a:'

:a

ii

554 PETEBS, THE MAMMALS, &C. OF E. OBEENLAND.

§111.

East Greenland, &c.

LXXXVII. — The Mammals and Fishes of East Green-
land. By Dr. W. Peters. 1871 [("Die zweite
dcutsche Nordpolarfahrt," * &c., vol. ii. pp. 157-174,
2 pis.)

These Lists are extracted without the synonyms and descriptions
given by Dr. Peters.

A. MAMMALIA.
Ferae.

1. Ursus (Thalassarctos) maritimus, Lin. Ice Bear.

2. Mustek (Putorius) erminea, Lin., var. Putorius novae-

boracensis, De Kay. Ermine.

3. Canis (Vulpes) lagopus, Lin. Polar Fox. Ice Fox. Rock

Fox.

Finnipedia.

4. Odobasnus rosmarus, Lin. Walrus (PI. I, fig. 1, 2). All

along the coast, especially at Sabine and Wah-us
Islands. In the stomachs of some were 500 or 600 of
the animals of Mya truncata without the shells. The
young Wakus remains two years with its mother, until
its tusks are grown long enough to be used in grub-
bing up the shell-mud at the sea-bottom,

5. Phoca groenlandica, Miiller. Greenland Seal, Sadler.

The stomachs of some contained remains of Crusta-
ceans and Fish ; others had only Crustacea ( Gani'
marus arcticus and Thcmisto).

6. Phoca barbata, Miiller. Bearded Seal.

7. Cystophora cristata, Exleben. Hooded Seal.

Glires.

8. Myodes torquatus, Pallas. Lemming.

9. Lepus glacialis, Leach. Polar Hare (PI. II., fig. 1).

Fecora.

10. Cervus tarandus, Liu. Reindeer. From Kuhn Isl. on

the N. down to the bottom of the Fjord (Franz-
Joseph), and on Sabine Island, Reindeer seen in
herds of 20 or less ; most numerous in the southern

* Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jiihren 18G9 und 1870untcr
Fiihruug dcs Kapitan Karl Koldewey. Herausgegeben von dem Verein fiir
die deutHche Nordpolarfahrt in Bremen : zwei Biiudo. — Zweiter Band. Wissen-
schaftliche Ergobnisse. Mit 31 Tafeln und 3 Kiirten. Erstc Abtheilung
(Botanik und Zoologic). 8vo., Leipzig. 1874. Dr. A. Pansch's " Anthro-
pologic," p. 144, is not here noted, that subject coming within the scope of the
Royal Gcograph. Society's Manual. The Birds (pp. 178-239) are included
in Prof. Newton's Catalogue, above, p. 94.

^

PETERS, THE MAMMALS, ETC. OF E. OREENLAXD. 555

eFox. Rock

district. One killed in the middle of June on
Sabine Isl. had already its summer coat nearly com-
plete. The antlers were still covered with hair, and
had not sprouted at the points. Quite young Deer
were not seen.

11. Ovibos moschatus, Zimmermanu. Musk-ox. Wandering

all along the coast in herds of about 10 to 20. On
the eastern half of Shannon, Pendulum, and Sabine
Islands, they seem only in summer to occur singly.
They were seen by the end of March on the south-
west part of Shannon Isl. and on the mainland ;
therefore they probably remain there all the winter.
A calf, some days old, was met with on the 26th
March, and several calves were with the herds in tho
beginning of June, from which a rough skin could
still be got. Traces of the Ovibos were observed
both on the plains and the hills. They feed on grass,
herbs, and mosses.

Cetse.

12. BalaBna mysticetus, Lin. Greenland Whale.

13. ? Balaenoptera hoops, Eschricht.

14. Monodon monoceros, Lin. Narwhal.

15. PDelphinus globiceps, Cuv.

B. PISCES (pp. 169-174).

Cataphracti.

1. Cottus hexacornis, Richardson.

2. C. porosus, Cuvicr, Val.

3. Icelus hamatus, Kroyer.

Discoboli.

4. Liparis gelatinosus, Pallas (PI. I., fig. 3),

Cradini.

5. Gadus glacialis, Peters, n. sp. Sabine Island.

Salmonini.

6. ? Salmo Hoodii, Richardson. Upper freshwater Itiko on

Sabine Island.

LXXXVIIL— Remarks on some Skulls of Eskimo Dogs.

By Hermann von Natiiusius. 1874.
("Die zweite deutscho Nordpolariahrt,'' &c., vol. ii. pp. 175-177.)

[Extract, pp. 176, 177.]

"It is particularly interesting to notice the variability in this
scries of skulls, which most probably belonged to animals of one
and the same race. We may well suppose that the Dogs under

■mi

'Ml

lSMF'<r''

556 VON NATIIUaiUP, skulls of ESKIMO DOGS.

notice were to some extent confj^encrous ; and, hb the extinct
Kskinio could not have been in active commerce with other tribes,
lliey could scarcely have crossed their Dogs with another breed.
The ei<;ht skulls, however, indicate more or less striking difterences
in those parts which in Dogs are especially variable, irrespective,
of course, of those due to relative age, as, for example, the
occi])ital crests.

" The nasal bones either pass higher up into the forehead than
the frontal edges of the maxillary, or they do not reach a lino
which these edges of both maxillaries touch ; the orbital borders
are more or less raised, and therewith the frontal foranina are
more or less large ; the forehead between the orbital processes
is more or less deeply concave, or nearly flat ; the orbits arc
smaller or larger ; the zygom.atic arch is more or less wide and
high, but only one of the skulls has this perfect. These are all
characters by which to distinguish the Dogs from "Wolves. The
nasal bones are all broken at their distal ends.

" Thus this little collection contributes to the observation that
the domestic animals, particularly the Dog, are extremely varial)le
as to the form of skull within limits of a race-type. The skulls
arc sufliciently well preserved to show that none had a third molar
in the upper jaw, a feature not so uncommon as usually thought
in studying Dogs' heads."

LXXXIX.— The TuNicATA of East Greenland. By Prof.
Dr. C. KuPFFEE. 1874.

(" Die zweite deut. Nordpolarfahrt," vol. ii. pp. 244, 245.)

Cynthia villosa (0. Fabricius). Germania Harbour.
C. Adolphi, n. sp. Shannon Island.

Descriptions and synonyms are given in full by the author,
loc. vie.

XC. — The Molluscs, Woiims, Echtnoderms, and C(elen-
TERATES. By Dr. Karl MObius. 1874.

(" Die zweite deut. Nordpolarfahrt," vol. ii. pp. 246-961, 1 pi.)

These Lists have been extracted without the descriptive remarks
given by the author.

MOLLUSCA (pp. 248-253).

G-asteropoda*

1. Chiton albus, L. Fabr. F. Gr., p. 422. Forbes & II.,
pi. 62, f. 12. Jeffreys, Br. Couch., V., pi. 56, f. 3.
Distrib. Spitzbergen to the Kattegat and Britain,
Massachusetts (Gould & Binncy). To 550 faths.

r\TB

MOnlUS, THE MOLLUSCS, &C. OF E. GREENLAND. 557

2. Lcpeta caecn, Mull. Zool. Dan., I., 12, pi. 12, f. 1-JJ.

Jeffreys, B. C, III., 252 ; V., pi. 58, f. 6, 7. Wnlnis
Island, 25 faths. Distr. Circumpolnr, Sitka, North
Japan Sea (Schrenck), Spitzbcrgcn to the Kattegat
and Britain.

3. Trocbus groenlandieus, Cheran. Conch. Cab., V., 108,

f. 1671 ; F. & H. Brit. Moll., pi. 68, f. 1, 2. Sabine,
Jackson, and North Shannon Islands, Gerniania Har-
bour, 2-30 faths. Distr. Labrador to Massachu-
setts, White Sea to the Kattegat and Britain.

4. Trochus helicinus, Fabr. F. Gr., p. 393. F. & H. Br. M.,

pi. 68, f. 4, 5, and pi. CC, f. 4. Jeffr. B. Conch., 111.,
p. 295 ; v., pi. 61, f. 4. Sabine, Jackson, North
Shannon, and Walrus Islands, 427 faths. Distr.
Circumpolar, Massachusetts, Sea of Japan, Norway to
the Kattegat and Britain.

5. Pleurotoma pyramidalis, Strom, (pi. 1, f. 1, 3). Stnim.

Nye Saml. Kong. Danske Vid. Selsk. Skrifter, 111.,
1788, p. 296, f. 22, Buccimim pyramidale. Moich,
Moll. Gronl., calls it Pleurotoma pyramidale and refers
to Defrancia Vahlii as a synonym. Beck in Mollor's
Index MoUuscorum Groenl., p. 86. Kroyer, Naturh.
Tidsskrift, IV., 1842-3. Moller's diagnosis applies
to the foregoing. Sabine, Jackson, and Shannon
Islands, 4-30 fathoms. Distr. Greenland to Massa-
chusetts, Spitzbergen to Norway (Bergen).

6. FusuR propinquus, Alder. F. & H. Br. M., pi. 103, f. 2.

Jeffr. B. Conch., pi. 86, f. 3. Middendorf, Malac.
Ross., II., p. 471, pi. 4, f. 13, Tritonium islandicum,
var. sulcata. Sabine and Clavcring Islands, Gcrmania
Harbour, '^2-20 faths. Distr. Russian Arctic to the
Kattegat and Ireland.

7. Buccinum undatum. L. Syst. Nat., ed. 12, p. 1204. F.

& H. B. Mol., III., p. 401, pi. 109, f. 3, 5, pi. LL.,
f. 5. Jackson and Clavcring Islands, 4 faths. Distr.
Circumpolar, North Atlantic on the European and
North American coast, Mediterranean, Okotsk Sea.

8. Scalaria grocnlandica, Chemn. Conch. Cab., XI., f. 1878-9.

Kiener, Gen. Scalaria, p. 18, Sc. platicostata, \)\. 7,
f. 21. F. & II. Br. M., pi. 70, f. 5, 6. North
Shannon Island, 30 faths. Distr. North Arctic,
Norway (to Bergen).

9. Natica clausa, Brod. et Sow. Beechey's Voy., pi. 34, f . 3,

and pi. 37, f. 6. Gould (Binney) Invert. Massach.,
1870, p. 343, f. 612. North Shannon, Sabine, and
Jackson Islands, Clavcring Beach, 30 faths. Distr.
Circumpolar, Sea of Japan, Finmark.

10. Cylichna cylindracea, Peun. (pi. 1, f. 4-9.) F. & II.

Br. M., pi. 114 B., f. 6. Jeffr. B. Conch., pi. 93, f. 4.
Jackson Island, 4 faths. Distr, Fimnark, Canaries,
Mediterranean, 3-160 faths.

m

iii'i

558 MOniUS, THE MOLLUSCS, &C. OF E. GREENLAND.

I'j:

11. Clione limacina, Pliipps, Voy. North Pole, 1773. Martens,
Spitzb. u. Gronl. Reis., 1671, p. 128, " Seo-Gots-
Pferd " (Neptune's horse), pi. P., f. /. Eydoux et
Souleyet, Voy. "Bonite," Moll. Atlas, pi. 15 bis,
f. 1-19, Clioborealis, Brug. Bang, Descr. Gen. Ptcr.
et esp. Clio, Ann. Sc. n., 1825, V., p. 285, pi. 7, f. 2,
CI. Miqueloiiensis of Newfoundland. Distr. West
Greenland, Massachusetts.

Lamellibranchia.

1. Modiolaria discors, L. Syst. Nat., ed. 12, p. 1159. F.

& H. Br. M., II., p. 195, pi. 14, f. 5, 6. Shannon,
Sabine, and Clavering Islands, 4-30 faths. Distr.
Circumpolar, North America, North Japan Sea,
Mediterranean, North Sea, West Baltic.

2. Cardium groenlandicura, Chemn. Conch. Cab., VI., pi. 19,

f. 198. Sow. Conch. Man., 'p. 70, f. 123. Gould
(Binney), Livert. Massach., p. 144, Aphrodite grcen-
landicif f. 454. Distr. West Greenland, Massachu-
setts, Behring Straits.

3. Astartc borealis, Chemn. {Ast. arctica, Gould). Chemn.

Conch. Cab., VIII., pi. 39, f. 412. Philippi, Abbild.
u. Besch. Conch., II., pi. 1, f. 12. Gould (Binney),
Invert. Massach., f. 433, Astarte semisulcata. Meyer
u. Mobius, Fauna dcr Kieler Bucht, II., p. 1. Shan-
non, Sabine, Clavering, and Jackson Islands, 3-10
faths. Distr. Arctic Sea, from Behring Straits to
Lapland, Norway, Baltic (to Bornholm).

4. Astartc sulcata, Da Costa, Br. Conch., p. 192. F.

& H. Br. M., I., p. 452, pi. 30, f. 5, 6, A Damno-
nicnsis. Distr. Circumpolar, Sea of Okotsk, Canaries,
North-east America, Kiel and Flensburg Harbours.

5. A. compressa, Montagu, Test. Br. Suppl., p. 43, pi. 26, f. 1.

F; & H. Br. M., I., p. 464, pi. 30, f. 1-3. Jack-
son Island. Distr. North Arctic, North-east America,
Spitzbergen, Norway, Britain, Kiel Harbour.

6. A. crebricostata, Forbes, Ann. N. H., XIX., 1847, p. 98,

pi. 9, f. 4. Gould (Binney), Invert. Massach., p. 126,
f. 440. Shannon Island, 30 faths. Distr. West
Greenland, Norway, North-east America.

7. Venus astartoides. Beck. Middend. Mai. Ross., III.,

p. 572. Phil. Abb. u. Beschr. Couch., III., p. 61,
pi. 9, f. 4. Gould (Binney), Inv. Mas., p. 136, f. 447,
Tapes fiuctuosa. Shannon and Jackson Islands, 4-
30 faths. Distr. West Greenland, Massachusetts,
Seas of Okotsk and Japan.

8. Myatruneata, L. Syst. Nat., ed. 12, p. 1112. F. & II.

Br. M., I., p. 163, pi. 10, f. 1-3. Dr. Pansch found
in the stomach of a Walrus 500 bodies of this Mollusc,
and only one piece of shell. Near the ice-hole where
the Wah'us came out lay heaps of shells. Sabine
Island, 10-20 faths. Distr. Circumpolar, Sea of

EENLAND.

mOBIUS, the molluscs, &C. of E. GREENLAND. 559

Okotsk, North-cast Amoricii, Britain, IJay of lii;sc'jiy,
Norway, West Baltic.
9. Saxieava rugosa, L. Syst. N., cd. 12., p. 1113 (ritf/osff),
p. 1116 (aretica). F. & H. Br. M., I., p. 141,' pi. (i,
f. 7, 8. Shannon Island, 30 faths. Distr. Circum-
])olar, Japan and China Seas, North-east America,
ISitka, Mediterranean, Canaries, North Sea, West
Baltic.

BRACHIOPODA.

1. Tcrebratula psittacea, Gmol. Middend. Mai. Ross., III.,

pi. 11, f. 11-17. Gould (Binncy), Invert. Mass.,
p. 210, f. 501. Juckson Isl.uul. Distr. VN'cst
Greenland, Massachusetts, Spitzbergcn, Finmark.

2. T. cranium, Miillcr, Zool. dan. Prodr., p. 249. JcfFr.

Br. C, II., p. 11. ; v., pi. 19, f. 1. vShannou isliind,
30 faths. Distr. Norway, Shetland, Finmark to the
Kattegat.

VERMES (pp. 253-258).
Annelides.

1. Polynoii cirrosa, Pallas. Sabine Island. Distr. Fin-

mark to the Kattegat, Britain, W. Greenland, and
Spitzbergen, 3-120 faths.

2. P. cirrata, P. Sabine Island and Clavering Strait, 4-12

faths. Distr. Circumpolar, Baltic to Sitka.

3. Nereis diversicolor, Miill. Shannon Island. Distr.

Norway, North Sea, Baltic.

4. N. pclagica, L. The Hetcroncreis form has 22 segments

in the anterior body (Kathkc and Malmgren noted 16,
Oersted 20), and 65 posteriorly. Distr. West Bal-
tic to Finmark, Spitzbergen, Iceland, W. Greenland.

5. Leipoccras uviferum, nov. gen. et. sp. [Loc. ?]

6. Scolophus armiger, Miill. Sabine Island. Distr. Spitz-

bergen to the Baltic, North France.

7. Travisia Forbesii, Johnst. Sabine Island. Distr. West

Greenland, Spitzbergen to the West Baltic, Scotland.

8. Scalibregma inflatum, Rathke. [Loc. ?] Distr, The

Kattegat to Spitzbergen, Scotland, W. Greenland, 5-
280 faths.

9. Thelepus circinatus, Fabr. Sabine Islands, 20 faths. Distr.

Mediterranean, Britain, Kattegat to Finmark, Iceland,
Spitzbergen, and W. Greenland.

10. Protula media, Stimpson. Sabinelsland, 20 faths. Distr.

Grand Manan (Bay of Fundy, 45° N. lat.).

11. Serpula spirorbis, Miill. Shannon Island. Distr, W.

Greenland, North Sea, Baltic.

'ill

.111

•,il! "il

i..k>

oGO mOiuuh, tiik molluscs, Sec. ov k. gueenland.

12. Clinno infundibnliformis, Kr()ycr. Snbinc Tsl., 2.1 fatlis.
Distr. Fiiinmrk, SpitzluTgon, W. Clrcciiland, 15-40
faths.

Gephjrrea.

PriapuluH caudatus, Lam. (Ehlers.) [Loc. ?]

Turbellaria.

rolystomma roscum, Miill. Clavoiing Straits, 15 faths.
Distr. Norway, the Souud, W. Baltic.

Nematodes.

Ascaris mystax, Zed. {mar(finata^ Rud.). From the intestine
of Canis htf/ojms, November 1869.

Cestodes.

1. Tetrabothrium anthocephahim, Rudolphi. From the intes-

tine of Cystnphora cristatUy July 1869. Fabricius
found it in Phoca barhata.

2. Ti>;nia expansa, Rud. From intestine of Ovibos mos-

t'hatus. Has musky odour. Found in many Ruminants
of all zones.

3. T. ccrnurus, Kiichenmeister. In intestine of Canis la-

[/(yinis, in September, November, and December, at

many places in East Greenland.

Supplement. — In the North Sea Dr. Pansch col-
lected Epibdcltd hippoffhssij Miill., from the
skin of Hippoglossns vulgaris and Rhombus
maximns ; and Ascaris clavata^ Rud., in the
stomach and first intestine of Gailus morrhuu.

r- >

ECHINODERMATA (pp. 258-260).

Kolothurioidea.

1. Myriotrochus Rinkii, Stcenstrup. Germania Harbour,
2 faths., October 1869. Distr. W. Greenland, down
to 10 faths.

Echinoidea.

1. Echinus Droebrachiensis, Miill. Clavering Isl., 15 fjiths,
Distr, Circumpolar, Newfoundland, Gulf of Georgia,
White Sea, Kamtschatka, Sea of Okotsk, North Cape
to the Sound, Britain.

Asterioideat

1. Asteracanthion albulum, Stmps. Sabine Isl. Distr. W.

Greenland, Grand Manan (Bay of Fundy).

2. Ophioglypha robusta, Ayres. 26 faths. [Loc. ?] Distr.

W. Greenland, Massachusetts, Iceland, Spitsbergen,
Nor^ray to the Sound, Groat Britain.

3. Ophiocten sericeum, Forb. 26 faths. Distr. East and

West Greenland, Spitzbcrgcn.

lEENLAND.

MOBIUS, THE MOLLUSCS, ETC. OF E. OTIEEXLAND. 561

4, Astcropliyton cncncmin, Miill. and Troschel. One yoiinn:
individual. Distr. \V. Greenland, down to 1,(K)0
faths.

ilts, 15 faths.

m the intestine

enland, down

CCELENTERATA (p. 260).

1. Actinia nodosa, Fabr. One small specimen.

2. IJriareum graudiflornm, Sars. On Jlorncra lichenoides,

L. Distr. Oexfjord iu Finmaik, Aicndal (German
Baltic Exped., 1871).

XCI. — The Crustacea 'of East Greenland. By Dr. R.

BUCHHOLZ. 1874.

(Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, vol. ii. pp. 262-399 ; with
15 plates).

The List of j^enoiu and species, with localities, here compiled
omits the synonyms and descriptions given in full by the author.

These Crustacea were collected by Dr. Pansch during the two
German Expeditions on the coast of N.E. Greenland, and in the
Arctic Ocean and North Sea ; thus —

Dccapoda, 13 (comprising 3 new specios).

Isopoda, 3 (Bopyrida) ; 1 new or little known).

Amphipoda, 27 (comprising 2 new species).

Phyllopoda, 1.

Copepoda, 8.

Cirrhipedia, 1.

Of these 55 species, there are —

(1.) Peculiar to the Arctic region (including Finmark and
Nordland) : —

Amphipoda, 17"]

Isopoda, 2 >26.

Decapoda, 7 J
(2.) Belonging to the Norwegian Coast : —

Amphipoda, 12"^

Decapoda, 5

Isopoda, 2 >-26.

Copepoda, 6

Cirrhipedia, 1

(3.) Belonging to the English coast (Spence Bate, Westwood,
Bell, andBaird)

Amphipoda, 5

Isopoda, 2

Phyllopoda, 1 )>16.

Copepoda, 7 I

Cirrhipedia, ij
36122. N N

iipj

►-»>»

r>C'i IIUOIIIIOLZ, TUB (;iaJSTA(!KA OP K. (MIKKNLAND,

(K) Jlclon^^inj^ to tlio liiiltlc, only .1 ; namely, —
Gamraiii'UA iociistu.
Amtithillu Subini.
Hui'pucticu» choiifcr.
Diiiptomus castor.
BiihiiKis porcatus.

m

DECAPODA.

Macroura.

Crangonidse, Milnc-Edw.

1. Craugon l)oreas (Phipps). Sabine Isl., 10-27 faths.
Jackson Isl., 4 fatliH. (S. and W. Greenland. S[)itz-
bergen;.

Falsemonidse.

1. Ilippolyte inccrtn, n. sp. [Log. ?]

2. H. turgida, Krciycr. Capo Wynn, 5 tilths. Sabine Ir^I.,

20-110 fatlw. North Shannon IsU 30 faths. (S. and
W. Greenland. Spitzbcrgen. Norway.)

3. II. Phippsii, Kr. Cape Wynn, 5 faths. Sabine Isl., 27

faths. (S. and W. Greenland, Spitzbergen, Finmark.)

4. H, polaris (Sabine). Sabine Isl., 20-100 faths. Cape

Wynn, 5 faths. Shannon Isl., 2 faths. (W. and S.
Greenland. Spitzbcrgen. Finmark. Norway.)

5. H. borealis, Owen. Sabine Isl., 20-100 fatlis. Cape

Wynn, 5 faths. (S. and W. Greenland, Noiway.)

6. H. aculeata (Fabr.). Abundant on the East Greenland

coast. Sabine Isl., 10-120 faths. Cape V\'ynn, 5
faths. Shannon Isl. (S. and W. Greenland.)

7. H. Panschii, n. s[). North Shannon Isl., 30 faths.

Feneidse, M.-Edw.

I. Pasiphae glacialis, n. sp. Surface of sea, 74° N. lat.

nCysidse.

1. Mysis oculata (Fabr.). Cape Phillip-Brooke, 3 faths.
Sabine Isl., 4 and 10 faths. ( S. and W. Greenland.
Spitzbergen.)

Thysanopoda, M.-Edw.

1. Thysanopoda norvegica, Sars. Cape Wynn, 5 faths.

(Norway.)

2. Th. liaschii, Sars. In the pack ice, 175 faths. (Norway.)

Brach3rura.

1. Corystes Cassivclaunus, Penn. From stomach of Codfish,
North Sea. (Norway.)

nuniHOLZ, TiiR rnrsTAC'EA of e. oheenland. r)(»:i

ISOPODA.
BopyriAm.

1. Gyge hippolytort (Kiciyer). In Ilippolt/tr po/ari«, (S.

und \V. Grci'iiliuul. Spitzl)erg(Mi. Kngliiiid.)
1. PhiyxuH iilMlominalirt (Kr. ). In Ifippoltjtt' turgidn ; also

ill //. GdinianU (.'Iwnvlujrc. (S. and W. Greenland.

Spitzbcigon. Finmark. Norway. England.)
1. Leptophryxus Mysidis, gen. ot sp. nov. In Mysis oculutn.

■ i',''!

AMPIIIPODA.
LysianassidsB) Dnnn.

1. Anoiiyx lagona, Kr. Common along the E. Greenland

eoMHt. Snl)ine Isl., o-2() f'atlis. Gerniania Harbonr,
3 fatliH. »Iaekson Isl., 24 laths. (S. and W. Green-
land. Iceland. S|)ilzltergon. White Sea, Finmark.
Norway. IJritain.)

2. A. littoralls, Kr. Cap(! Wynn, 5 faths. Germania Tlar-

honr, 3 faths. (Open sea. S. and W. Groeidand.
Si)itzbergen. Finmaik.)
;>. A plautus, Kr. Cape Wynn, .'J faths. Germania Har-
bour, 3 faths. Sabini! Isl., 10 faths. (Open sea.
S.andW. (ireenlaiid. Spitsbergen. Norway, liritain.)

Syrrhoinse, A. Boeck.

1. Syrrhoe crcnuhita, Goes. Sabhic Isl., 5-10 faths. (Spitz-
bergeii. Norway.)

Fardaliscinse, A. Boeck.

1. Fardalisca cnspidata, Kr. North Shannon, 30 laths.
(S. and W. Greenland. Spitzbergen. Norway.)

LeucothoinsCy Dana.

1. Eusirus cuspidatus, Kr. Sabine Isl., 20-110 faths. (Open
sea. S. and W. Greenland. Open sea ? Spitzber-
geii. Fiinnark. Norway.)

1. Amphithonotus nculeatus (Lepechin). North vShannon,
30 faths. Cape \N'ynn, 3 faths. (S. and W. Green-
land. Spitzbergen. White Sea. Finmark. Nor-
way?)

1. Tritopsis fragilis (Goiis). Sabine Isl., 10 faths. Cape
Wynn, 3 faths. (S. and W. Greenland. Spitzbergen.)

CBdicerinse, Lilljeborg.

1. Gidicerus borealls (A. Boeck). One of the most abundant

species on the coast. Sabine Isl., 10 faths. Ger-
mania Harbour. (Spitzbergen. Finmark.)

2. CE. lynceus, Sars. With the foregoing. Sabine Isl.,

10 faths. Germania Harbour, 3 faths. (S. and W.
Greenland. Iceland. Spitzbergen. Finmark.)

Fleustinse.

1. Pleustes panoplus (Kr.). Sabine Isl., 20-110 faths. (S.
and W. Greenland. Spitzbergen. Finmark. Nor-
way.)

N N 2

is "

564 BUCHIIOLZ, THE CRUSTACEA OF E. GREENLAND.

ill

ii

Pflll

1. Paraplenstes gracilis, nov. gen. et. sp. Sabine Isl., 10
faths.

Iphimedinsey A. Boeck.

1. Vertumnus serratus (Fabr.). North Shannon, 30 faths.
(S. and W. Greenland. Iceland. Finmark. Nor-
way.)

G-ammarinse.

1. Gammarus locusta (L.). The most general and abundant
species. Sabine Isl., 10-20 faths. Germania Har-
bour, 3 faths. (S. and W. Greenland. Open sea.
Iceland. Spitzbergen. White Sea. Finmark. Nor-
way. Britain. Baltic.)

1. Amathilla Sabini (Leach). Wide-spread. Sabine Isl.,

10-110 faths. Germania Harbour. (S. and W. Green-
land. Spitzbergen. Finmark. Norway. Britain.
Baltic.)

2, A. pinguis (Kr.). One of the common species. Sabine

Isl., 10 faths. Cape Wynn, 3 faths. North Shannon,
30 faths. (S. and W. Greenland. Spitzbergen.)

Atylinse, Lillj.

1. Atylus carinatus (Fabr.). High Arctic; common on N.E.

Greenland coast. Sabine Isl., 10-110 faths. Ger-
mania Harbour, 3 faths. (S. and W. Greenland.
Spitzbergen.)

2. A Smittii (Goes). North Shannon, 30 faths. (Spitz-

bergen. Finmark.)
1. Acanthozone hystrix (Owen). North Shannon, 30 faths.
(S. and W. Greenland. Spitzbergen. Finmark.
Norway.)

1. Paramphithoe inermis (Kr.). Very geneml and common

on N.E. Greenland coast. Sabine Isl, 10-120 faths.
Cape Wynn, 3 faths. Germania Harbour, 3 faths. ;
and other places. (S. and W. Greenland. Open
sea).

2. P. fulvocincta (Sars). Very common high up on the N.E.

Greenland coast. Sabine Isl., 4-110 iaths. Ger-
mania Harbour. Cape Wynn, 3 faths. Shannon Isl.
(S. and W. Greenland. Open sea. Spitzbergen.
Finmark.)

3. P. megalops, n. sp. Sabine Isl., 10 faths. Germania

Harbour. Shannon Isl.

Ampeliscineae, Sp. Bate.

1. Ampeliscus Eschrichtii, Kr. Germania Harbour. Sabine
Isl., 10 faths. (S. and W. Greenland. Icelaml.
Spitzbergen. Finmark.)

Fodocerinesey A. Boeck.

1. Podocerus anguipes (Kr.). Common. Sabine Isl., 10-110
faths. Germania Harbour, and elsewhere. (S. and
W. Greenland. Spitzbergen. Finmark. Norway.)

BUCIIHOLZ, THE CRUSTACEA OF E. GKEENLAND. 565

CorophinsB) Dun a.

1. GlauconoiiiG loiicopis, Kr. North Shannon, 30 faths.
Germania Harbour. (S. and W. Greculautl. Spitz-
bcrgcn. Fiumark.)

Uyperidse, Dana.

1. Thcniisto libellula (Mandt). Common everywhere on the
hiurface of the sea in astonishing quantities. (S. and
W. Greenland. Open sea. Spitzbergen. Finmark.
Britain.)

Caprellinse, Leach.

1. iEgina spinifera (Bell). [Loc. ?] (Spitzbergen. Norway.)

m

Hilr

■ i"-'' ;,

PHYLLOPODA.

Nebaliadse, Baird.

1. Nebalia bipes (O. F.). Germania Harbour, 3 faths,
Sabine Isl. Jackson Isl. Shannon Bank, 150 faths.
(S. and W. Greenland. Spitzbergen ? Fiumark ?
Norway ? Britain.)

1'^':;;

■ • :. I

COPEPODA.

Calanidse.

1. Cetochilus septcntrionalis, Goodsir. Wide-spread and

enormously abundant. Open sea. Circumpolar ?

Large individuals netted at 170 faths. (S. and W.

Greenland. Spitzbergen. Finmark ? Norway ?

Britain.)
1. Diaptomus castor, Jurine. Got from the tide-hole, by the

side of the ship, February 1870. (Norway. Britain.

Baltic.)

Harpactidsey Claus.

1. Ilarpacticus chelifer (0. F. Miill.). Common. Sabine Isl.,

10 faths., &c. (Finmark. Norway. Britain.

Baltic.)
1. Tisbe furcata (Baird). Common. Sabine Isl., 10 faths.,

&c. (Finmark. Norway. Britain.)
1. Cleta minuticornis (Miill.). [Loc. ?] (Britain.)

Feltididese, Clans.

1. Zaus spinosus, Claus. Sabine Isl., 10 faths., &c. (Nor-

way. Britain.)

2. Z. ovalis (Goodsir). [Loc. ?] (Norway. Britain.)

Cyclopidse, Dana.

Thorellia brunnca, A. Bocck. Sabine Isl., 10 faths.
(Norway.)

I '.

'If.

I!

4\

I

ill

566 BUCIIHOLZ, TlfE CRUSTACEA OF E. (mEENLANI).

■ i

COPEPODA PARASITA.

Caligidse, Milne-Edwards.

1. Lcpcophtheirus Hippoglossi, Kr. North Sea, on the gills
of Plcuroncctcs rhombus and of Ilippoglossus,

Lernseopodidse.

1. Brachiella rostrata, Kr. With the foregoing.

n

CIRRHIPEDIA.

1. Balanus porcatus, Da Costa. [Loc. ?] (S. and W. Green-
land. Finmark, Norway. Britain. Baltic.)

Appendix.
PYCNOGONIDA.

1. Nymphon grossipes, O. F. North Shannon. (S. and W.

Greenland. Spitzbergen. Norway.)

2. N. mixtum, Kr. [Loc. ?] (S. and W. Greenlaiul. Spitz-

bergen.)

3. N. hirtum, O. F. North Shannon. (S. and W. Green-

land. Spitzbergen.)

XCII. — The Arachnides of East Greenland. Extracted
from the Memoir by Dr. L. KocH in "Die zweitc
deutscho Nordpolarfahrt," vol. ii., part i,, 1874, pp. 400-
403, 1 plate.

Lycosa aquilonaris, n. sp. (PI, I.).

Lycosa nqmlonnris belongs to C Koch's snbgonus Lnmonia,
and is very nearly allied to Lye. scpfetitrionalis, Wer^triiig (" Arancoe
Siiecic.T," p. 469), as yet known ouly in Norway. It is also vory
similar to L.sociata, O. Fabric ins](F. Gr., p. 228), mentioned also
by Tliorcll in his paper " On some Spiders from Greenland "
(Ofvers. K. Vet.-Akad. Forh., No. 2, 1874).

[The Pycnogons are enumerated above.]

i

XCIII. — The Hymenoptera and Diptera of East Green-
land. Extracted from the Memoir by Dr. A. Ger-
STACKER, with Notes by Dr. A. Pansch, in " Die zweite
deutsche Nordpolarfahrt," vol. ii., pp. 404-406. 1874.

Hymenoptera.

1. Borabus pratorum, L. Common to the whole of northern
and middle Europe. Often seen in E. Greenland

PANSOII, IIYMENOPTERA, ETC. OF E. GREENLAND. 567

flying and crawling, but not numerous, nor in the
swarms spoken of by Scoresby as seen farther south.

2. Cryptus sponsor, Fab. Cape Broer-Ruys, on the grass.

3. Limneria clifFormis, Gravenhorst. Cape Borgen, Shannon

Island, on the ground.

Diptera.

1. Tipula truneorura, Meig. All along the coast on warm

days.

2. Echinomyia senea, Staeger. [Loc. ?]

3. Cynomyia alpina, Zetterstedt. Possibly this species is

founded on small individuals of C. mm'tuorum, L.
Sabine Island.

4. Calliphora groenlandica, Zet. Noria Shannon Island, &c.

Flies were plentiful in the autumn of 1869, dis-
appearing with the first frost in September. C. grcenl.
appealed on 26th May 1870, when the temperature
first rose above freezing (max. +0'8°; min. — 4*3° E.
Afterwards, as the temperature rose to — 4*9° R.,
Flies suddenly abounded, both the great Cat. grinnl.
and smaller Flies, on shipboard, on the mainland, and
up on the mountains. First egg found on June 7th,
and in the middle of the month can'ion swarmed with
maggots.

''m

. ^ '

i^ 1

Hi"

' r 'I
■i-

%■-

XCIV.— The Lepidoptera of East Greenland. Ex-
tracted from the Memoir by Captain Alex, von Ho-
MEYER, with Notes ^y Dr. Herrich-Sch^ffer and
Dr. WocKE, in " Die zweite deutsehe Nordpolarfahrt,"
vol. ii., pp. 407-410. 1874.

1. Argynnis polaris, Boisd. 1 ^. Labrador. Lapland? N.E.
Siberia ?

2. A. chariclea, Schnd. 1 (5* j 2 P . W. Greenland. Labrador.
N. Lapland.

3. Colias hecla, Lef. 2 (^ , 1 P . W. Greenland. N. Lapland.

4. Larentia polata, HilbntT (Zntr., f. 805, 806). 5 (^. W.
Greenland. N. Lapland. Labrador.

5. Geometra, sp. ? A caterpillar crawling under loose roots of
herbage, Sabine Isl.

6. Dasychira groenlandica, Wocko, n. sp., very near to D. liossii
of Labrador, and perhaps only a casual black variety.

M

r-.\

^U

u^

568 KIIICIIENPAUEK, HYDROIDA, ETC. OF E. GREENLAND.

k; i'

1 1.

XCV.— The Hydroida and Bryozoa [Polyzoa] of East
Greenland. Extracted from the Memoir by Dr. G. H.
Kirchenpauer in "Die zweite dcutsche Nordpolar-
lahrt," vol. ii., part i., pp. 411-428. 1874.

Class CQXENTERATA. Suk-class IIYDROZOA.

Order Hydroida. Suhortler Tecapiiora.

Fuiu. Campanularidse.

1. Lafwa fruticosa (Hincks), Sars. North Shannon. Distr.

Iceland. Tromsoe. North Cape= Bergen. Britain ?
Bass Straits ?

2. Canipanularia, sp. indet. North Shannon.

Fam. Sertularidse.

3. Sertularellatricuspidata (Alder), Hincks. [Loe. ?] Distr.

W. Greenland. Spitzbergen. Vardoe. North Cape.
Iceland. Straits of Belle Isle. Britain. New Zea-
land ? Bass Straits ?

4. Scrtnlaria, sp. (nova ?) North Shannon.

Class MALACAZOA. Sub-class ACEPIIALA (or Class
VERMES. Sub-class GEPHYREA).

Order Buyozoa [Polyzoa]. Snb-order Cheilostomata.

Fam. Cellularidse.

1. Menipea arctica, Busk. North Shannon. Distr. W.

Greenland, Assistance Bay (Sutherland, Busk), and
elsewhere. Arctic Ocean (200 faths., Smitt).
Belgium ?

2. M. Smittii, Norman. North Shaniion. Distr. Spitz-

bergen (oO fatlis. and less).

3. Scrupelocellaria inermis, Normn.ii. [Loc. ?] Distr.

Shetland. W. Greenland ? Spitzbergen ?

Fam. Membraniporidse.

4. Membranipora Flemingii (Smitt), Busk. [Loc. ?] Distr.

Spitzbergen. Arctic, European, and Adriatic seas.
Australia ?

5. M. minax, Busk. [Loc. ?] Distr. Shetland.

6. M. Hneata (L.), Busk. Sabine Isl Distr. \V. Green-

land (Lamouroux). European seas.

7. Lepralia hyalina (L.), W. Thomson. Sabine Isl. on Fucus.

Distr. AV. Greenland. Spitzbergen. Scandinavia.
Heligoland. England. Falkland Isles. California.
Probably in all seas.

8. L. Landsborowii (Smitt), Johnst. North Shannon on

Ilorncra and Cellcpora Icpralioides. Distr. \Y.
Greenland. Spitzbergen. Norway. England.

Ii.

IEENLAN1>.

KIRCIIENPAUEH, IIYDROIDA, ETC. OF E. GREENL VND. 569

STOMATA.

9. L. Smittii, nov. North Shannon on A/f/re. Distr.

Spit/-1)er<i;('u. Norway. IJritain ? it^gcun Sea?
FalklamlLslcs ? New Zeahind ?

10. L. Peachii, Johnst. Sabine Is. on a til one with L.

sinnosa. Distr. Si)itzborf>j('n. Norway. Britain.
(Deep water.)

11. L, sinuosa, Busk. S-ahine Isl. (ns al)ove), and elsewhere

on ProbosciiKi incrcpnta. Distr. Slietl.uiil on Mussel
shells. (Like L. nrcolald^ Busk, from tlie Straits of
Magellan.)

12. L. pertusa (Espcr), l>usk ? [Loc. ?] Distr. General ?

13. Hemeschara (?) contorta, n. sp. North Shannon,

Fnm. Celliporidae.

14. Celleporella lepraUoidos, Norm. [Loe. ind.] on Homer a

lichenoides. Distr. Shetland.

15. Ccllepora scahra (Fabr.). Sabine Isl. and elsewhere.

Distr. North Sea and Arctic.

16. C. incrassata, Lamarck. Common, but loc. ind. Distr.

W. Greenland. Spitzbergen. Finmark.

17. C. Skenei (Ellis), Johnst. [Loc.?] Distr. Spitz-

bergcn. Norway. Britain.

Fum. Escharidse.

18. Eschara ccrvicornis, Lamarck. [Loc. ?] Distr. W.

Greenland. Spitzbergcn. Finmark. Norway.
Shetland. Britain. Adriatic.

Suborder Cyclostomata.

Fam. Horneridse.

19. Ilornera lichenoides (L.), Smitt. [Loc. ?] Four va-

rieties. Distr. General.

Fam. Diastoporidse.

20. Diastopora hyalina (Flem.), Smitt. Sabine Isl. North

Shannon Isl. Distr. Arctic, Atlantic, Mediterra-
nean, and Adriatic Seas.

Fam. Tubuliporidise.

21. Idmonea atlantica, Smitt. North Shannon. Distr.

Arctic and Atlantic Oceans.

22. Phalangella llabellaris (Fabr,), Smitt. North Shannon

on Ilcmcschard contortd. Distr. W. Greenland. Spits-
bergen. Norway. Britain. France. Adriatic.

Fam. Lichenporidse.

23. Discoporella verrucaria (L.), Smitt. Sabine Isl. on

Alga. Distr. Atlantic, North Sea, and Arctic.

24. D. hispida (Flem.), Smitt. Loc. ind. on //o/vw^/y;;. Distr.

Arctic. North Sea. Britain. France. Mediterra-
nean. Adriatic, lied Sea ? r.icific ?

..ij!.!

4 -

■ )j '

li'

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It'

:\

I

:1

;-.tl|.

m-: t

I :;

570 KiRCnENI AUER, ITYDROIDA, ETC. OF E. GREENLAND.

Subonlor Ctenostomata.

Fam. Halcyonellese.

25. Alcyonidium hirsutum (forma membranacea), Smitt.

North Shannon, on Hmmcra. Distr. Arctic Ocean.

North and European Seas.
2G. A. gelatinosum, Smitt ? North Shannon on Hornera^

an indeterminalile Httle specimen.

-: p.

.;• ^

XCVI. — The Siliceous Sponges of East Greenland
From Dr. Oskar Schmidt's Memoir in " Die zweite
" deiitsclio Nordpolarfahrt," vol. ii., part i., pp. 429-
433, 1 plate. 1874.

1. Cacospongia, sp. Interesting, as pure keratosc Sponges arc
rare in the North.

2. Chalinula, sp.

3. Reniera, sp.

4. Isodictya infundibuliformis, Bowerbank.

5. Thecophora somisuberitos, Schmidt.

6. Desmacidon anceps, n. sp.^j

7. Esperia intermedia, n. sp. ^Spicules figured in pi. 1.

8. E. fabricans, n. sp.

XCVII. — The Calcareous and Soft Sponces. Extracted
from Dr. E. Haeckel's Memoir in " Die zweite deutsche
" Nordpolarfahrt/' vol. ii., part ii., pp. 434-436. 1874.

1. Ascaltis Lamarckii, Haickel. North Shannon. North At-
lantic. Mediterranean. Florida.

2. Sycaltis glacialis, H. North Shannon. Spitzbergen.

Halisarca Dujardinii, Johnst. [Loc. ind.j Norway.

s i;<.i

■^

XCVTTI.— The Microscopic Organisms of the North-Polar
Zone, l)otli on Land and in Deep Sea ; from the Mate-
rials l)rought home hy the " Germania ; " magnified 300
times. By Dr. Ch. G. Ehrenberg. 1874. " Die zweite
" deutsche Nordjiolarfahrt," vol. Ii., pp. 437-4(57 ; four
plates.

I. The soundings taken in the First Voyage, 1867, were partly
off the coast of East Greenland (about 73° to75°N. lat. and 12° to
17° 40' W. long.), but mainly south and west of Spitzbergen.
From these Prof. Ehronl)erg (k'fermiucd (p. 443) 21 Polygastrica
[Diatomaceo}], 16 Polythalamia [Foraminifcra], 2 Polycystina,
26 ZooHtharia, PliytoHtharia, and Geolithia [spicules of Sponges,
&c.], and one soft plant-remain.

lEENLAND.

ETlRKNIJEUCr, MrCllOSCOnO OllGANIS.MS.

:.7l

311 Horner a.

GREENLAND

Of the minute teiTOstrial oro^anisms of Spitzbergen are men-
tioned (p. 444) : —

(1.) Nine Polygastrica [Infusoria and Arcella], revived at Berlin
among the Mosses from Spitzbergen ; also two living
Nematoidea {Anguillula)^ and one Rotifer {Callitlina
alpiuni), and an egg.
(2.) Dead si)ecimeiis : Dijflayiu^ Eunot'ui, Fragiluriu, Piw
nularia (2), Stuuroneis, and an Acarid.

Sfjued'ut tilvu and Spongolitim acivuhivu, possibly

terrestrial forms, got from the sea in 1841, are to

be added to the above.

II. For the Second Voyage, 1869-70, lo soundings of ooze

and mud at sea off East Greenland (from 13 to 1,319 fathoms),

and 2 muds at 3 fathoms, Sabine Island, are worked out (pp. 445,

&c.). Also some gatherings from the laud-surface, fresh water,

and glaciers (pp. 450, &c.), giving chiefly BncUhiria, with some

Arcellinu and Cryptomonadimi (especially from the Shannon

Brook). Some greenish fine mud (possibly bird-droppings) from

floating ice yielded Cosvinodiscus and SpovgoUthis.

The two muds from Sabine IsL, south of the glacier brook, gavo
many Baciilaria and some Spongoliths. Altogether (l)oth Expe-
ditions) Dr. Ehrenberg enumerates (marine) 82 Polygastrica
[Diatoms, &c.], 6 Polyci/stinu, 37 PolytludainUi \_Foraminifc7a^y
and 43 Phytoliths, GeoUths, and Zooliths [Sponge spicules, &c.] ;
(terrestrial) 68 Polygastrica [Diatoms, Infusoria, &c.], 2 Nema-
toids, 2 Rotifers, an Acarid, and some Phytoliths.

Several new species are figured in the four plates. Those in
PI. I., Foraminifera, appear to be according to the nomen-
clature of English naturalists : —

Fig. 1. Nonionina; 2. Planorbiilina; 3. Planorbulina ; 4. Dis-
corl)ina, D. rosacea ; 5. PtdvinuUna auricula ; 6. Nonionina ;
7. Cassidulina; 8, 9. Pnlvinulina, near P. Karstoii ; 10, 11. Dis-
corhina glohularis ; 12. Virgulina Schrcibcrsii, var. ; 13. Virgil-
Una Schreibei'sii, x'dv. ; 14. l*n/vi?mlina pimctulafa ; 15. Planor-
bulina; 16. Discorbina, with germs; 17, 18. Planorbulina; 19.
Nodosaria.

These [resen^bie in their fades the North- Atlantic and Arctic
Foraminifcral Fauna liguretl and described in "Phil. Trans.," vol.
civ., 1865. {Above, pp. 192, 193.)

()f the 16 figured species, Dr. Ehrenl)erg states (p. 464) that 12
ari! new and known only in the Polar zone.

The following Avere obtained from more than 1,000 feet depth : —

Rotalla Ilegemanni

R. ibex =

R. microtis =

Nonionina cryslallina =

Aristerospira discus =

A. cucuUaris =
Strophoccnus hyperboreus =

Planorbulina.

Planorbulina.

Pulvnlina auricnla.

Discorbina ?

Discorbina Ivarstt iii, var.

Discoil)ina globularis.

Virgulina Schreibersii, var.

Planorbulina.

Planulina profunda
Yellowish soft animal substance still filled the shells of Aristo-
spira borealis (No/iionina), A. corticosa {Palvunilinapunctulata\
and Xonioiiiiia Koldcwvyi ; from 168-510 feet.

i72

OKAAII, PLANTS FROM EAST GREENLAND.

'i

pi

i

XCIX.— Plants from East Greenland, collected by Capt.
Gi!AAH, and determined by Prof. Hornemann. 1832.

[Nunativc of an Expedition to the East Coast of Gicenlnncl, &c.,
under command of Capt. W. A, Grauli, &c., translated from
the Danish l»y G. G. Macdougall, &c., 1837, Appendix 11.,
pp. 177-8.]

I. Plants found in Queen-Maria's Valley, N. Lat. 63° 38',

W. Long. 41° 35'.

Ilippuris vulgaris, Linn., var. Rubus saxatilis, L. High up

tetraphylla.

Veronica saxatilis, L. High up
among the cliffs.

Elymus arenarius, L.

Alehemilla alpina, L.

Polygonum viviparum, L.

Epilobium origanifoliuni, L.
High up among the cliffs'.

E. latifolium, L.

E. angustifolium, L., var. denti-
culuta. Less than on the
West Coast.

Erica cajrulea, Willdenow.

Vacciuium uliginosum, L. The
leaves larger than on the
West Coast.

►Saxifraga stellaris, L.

Cerastium alpinum, L.
Potontilla nivea, L., var. Per-
haps a new species ; the
imdcr surface of its leaves
not white. Not yet found on
the West Coast.
V. retusa, Retz. High up
amou": the cliffs.

among the cliffs.
Euphrasia ofRciualis, L. Eight

inches : one to three inches

on the West Coast.
Bartschia alpina, L. High up

among the cliffs.
Arabis alpina, L.
Erigeron alpinus, L. ; and var.

uniflora, Spreng.
Gnaphalium alpinum, L. High

up among the cliffs.
G. sylvaticum, L., var. furcata,

Wahleub. High up among

the cliffs.
Betula nana, L, High up

among the cliffs.
Carex, sp. Without flower.
Salix glauca, L.
S. herbacca, L.
Equisetum arvense, L.
Aspidium fragile, Swarts.
Lycopodium alpinum, L.

II. Plants found at the Island of Kemisak ; N. Lat. 63° 35',

W. Long. 41° 35'.

Veronica saxatilis, L.
Alehemilla alpina, L.
Campanula rotundifolia, L., var.

uniflora.
E])ilobium latifolium, L.
Polygonum viviparum, L.
Saxifiaga cosspitosa, var. groen-

landiea, Retz.
S. stellaris, L., var. pygmaea.

Not yet found on the West

Coast. The flower and fruit

Stellaria humifusa, Rotlba^ll.
Cerastium alpinum, L.
Lychnis alpina, L.
Ranunculus hyperboreus, L.
Larger than on the West Coast.
Thymus sorpyibmi, L., var.

prostrata.
Bartschia alpina, L.
Draba muricella, Walhlenb.
Leontodon taraxacum, L., var.
Erigeron alpinus, L. ; and var.

uniflora.

are, as in many Greenland

plants, large in proportion to Hieracium alpinum, L.

the stalk and leaves.

fLAND.

nUClTENAU, rLANT.-:!, EAST OREEXLAXn.

r)7n

Jtcd by Capt.
MANN. 1832.

jiecnlnntl, &c.,

truii slated from

Appendix IL,

C. — Botany of the East Coast of Arctic Oiieicnlaxp.
Extracted from " Die zweite dcutsclio Nordpolarfahrt," *
&c., Vol. ii., Part I., 1874.

'. Lat. 63° 38',

L. lliffh

up

ftlis, L. Eight
a three inches

onst.
L. High up

fs.

, L. ; and var.

g-

luni, L. High

lifts.

., var. furcatu,

;h up among

up

High
)ut flower.

', L.
Swarts.
im, L.

.at. 63° 35',

Kottbwll.
L.

iborous, L.

West Coast.

1, L., var.

alhlenb.
n, L., var.
/. ; and var.

L.

■i

1. — ^l^LANTiE Vasculares (pp. 12-61). By Du. Fk. Blciienau

and P". W. O. Focke.

[The names and localities only are here extracted, M-ithout the remarks

and descriptions.]

I. Ilanunculacea.

1. Ranunculus glacialis, L. At many damp places on the

islands. Noticed by Scoresby and Sabine.

2. R. auricomus, L. Slopes of the Kaiser-Franz-Joscph

Fjord.

3. R. nivalis, L. Common. Sabine, Clavcring, Little-Pen-

dulum, and Jackson Islands, and Cape Broer-Uuys.
Collected by Sabine also.

4. R. pygmaeus, Wahlenb. Little-Pendulum and Jackson

Islands. In W. Greenland, 60° 43'-72° 48', according
to Lange.

II. Fapayeracea.

5. Papaver nudicaule, L. Common, especially at Sabine

Island. Noticed also by Scoresby and Sabine.

HI. Crucifera.

G. Arabis petraea, L. Probably from the K.-Franz-Joscph
Fjord. Arabis alphia was found by Scoresby.

7. Cardamine bellidifolia, L. Sabine and Little-Pendulum

Islands. W. Greenland, 60°-72° 48', according to
Lange.

8. Vesicaria arcticji, R. Br. Ileidelbeerborg on the K.-Fr.-J.

Fjord, at 400-800 ft. W. Greenland, 69° 40'-70° 41',
Lange.

9. Draba arctica, Vahl. (Flor. dan. t. 2294). Pendulum,

Clavcring, Jackson, and Sabine Islands ; the K.-Fr.-J.
Fjord.

10. D. Wahlenbergii, Hartm. (Flor. dan. t. 1420). Sabine

and Clavcring Islands ; the Fjord.

* Botany, &c. of Ii:ast Greenland, pp. 3-137 :
Trefiice by Dr. Fr. Buchenau, pp. 3-4.
Climate and Plant-life in East Greenland. By Dr. Adolf Panseh,

pp. 5-11.
Vascular Plants. By Dr. Fr. Buchenau and Dr. W. O. Focke, pp.

12-Gl.
Mosses. By Dr. Karl Midler, pp. 62-74.
Lichens. By Dr. G. W. Korber, pp. 7;") -8 2.
Alujc. Bv Oberfinanzrath G. Zeller, pp. 83-87.
Fungi. By Dr. II. F. Bonorden and llerr L. Fuckcl, pp. 88-90.
Drift Woods, By Prof. Dr. Gre<?or Kraus, pp. 'J7-137.

,1

li-i

I ■

4

r : >lh

'■'V

-.!|S

h^-r- •*■

574

IJUCIIENAir, PLANTS, KAST OUKENLAND.

i

f .

r .fi > ' . '.\ 1 •

U f

11. D. ali>iiia, L. Sabitiu, Clavciing, Slianiiun, aiul Jacknuii

Irtlaiuls ; Cape Broor-iliiys ; the Fjord.

12. D. lupcstriM, R. Br. (Flora dan. i. 2421). U. hirta, L., /?.

alpico/a, Wahlenb. Flov. lapp., p. 175. The Fjord ;
Clavering and Jackson Islandn.

13. D, muricella, Waldb. {nivalis, Liljob. ncc DC). Sabine

Island.

14. Cochlearia lenewtrata, 11. B. (?). VValrns, Sabiue, and

Little-Pendulum Islands. Hooker (Scorcsby), C au-
fflica ct C, sp. ? (Sabine), C. fcnc'stnUa'i

IV. Caryophyllea.

15. Silene acaiili.s, L. Frequent in thick tufts. Sabine,

Little-Pendulum, and Jackson Islands; Cape Brocr-
Ruys. Collected also by Scorcsby and Sabine.
IG, Waldbergellii (Lychnis) apetala (L.), Fries. In damp
grass and among wet mosses. Sabine, Clavering, and
.Jackson Islands, Cape Broer-Ruys. Fouml by Sabine
also.

17. Melandrium alUne, Vahl. Sabine and Clavering Islands;

th(! Fjord. VV. Greenland, 65° 38'-72° 48', Laiige.
Probably also under the name Li/chnis dioiva, var.
iKOKi, Hooker, in Sabine's collection.

18. M. triflorum, (R. Br.) Vahl. Sabine and Shannon

Islands. W. (Ireeidand, Wr 50'-72° 48', Lange.

19. Arcnaria ciliata, L. On fertile damp earthy bottoms,

moraines, &e. Sabine, Clavering, and Jackson Islands ;
Cape Broer-Ruys ; slopes of the K.-Fi*.- J. Fjord.

20. Alsine rubella, ^^^ahlenb. The typical form in Sabine

Island, var. y Gicr.ecliii, Lange in Rink (Alsine Gicscc/m,
Hornemann, Flora danica, t. 1518) at many places ;
Sabine and Jackson Islands ; Cape B.-Ruys ; the
Fjord. Found by Sabine also.

21. Al. b'iflora, Wahl. Sabine Isl. W. Greenland, 60°-72° 48',

up to 2,040 feet above the sea, Lange.

22. Ilalianthus pcploides,* (L.) Fries, var. oblonf/ifoli(/,

J. Lange, MS. In thick herbage at the foot of steep
cliff's ; Clavering Island ; near Capt; Borlase-Warren.
Mentioned by Sabine. W. Greenland, 60°-69° 14',
Lange.

2H. Stellaria longipes, Goldie. St. Edwardsii, R. Br., St.
nitida, Hooker (Seoresby). Wide-spread. On dry
turf and among other plants. Sabine, Shannon, and
Jackson Islands, Cape Broer-Ruys ; the Fjord at
about 600 ft. high. Collected by both Seoresby and
Sabine.

24. St. humifusa, Rottb. In meadows. Sabine Island,
noticed by Sabine and Graah. Not rare in W. Green-
land.

St. cerastioides, L., also was found by Sabine.

* This is Honchenvja peploides of Dr. Hooker's list at page 227.

nUCIIRNAU, PLANTS, KAST OREKNIANP.

575

n, and fJiiekiiiUii

DC). Sabine

25. Ccrnstiuni ulpiuuin, L. vnr. laiuitji. Very yencuil.

Found nlso by vScoroHby, Snbine, and Graah.

C. latifolium mentioned in Scoresby'M list, is now
regarded ns quite doubtfid.

V. Rosacea.

26. Dryas octopotala, L. Very j;eneral, and forming thiek

clumps on the groui.d, as in tlic Alps. Var. integri-
folia, Vahl, occurs in W. Greenland according to
Lange.

27. Potentillapulchclla,R.Br. (Flor. dan. t. 2234.) Clavoring

Isl. Tlie typical form oecuis also in Arctic America
and in W. Greenland; and a distinct variety in Spitz-
bergen.

28. P. nivea, L. On sunny slopes; Sabine and Jackson

Islands ; the shore of the Fjord. In Sabinr eolleetion,
var. a and /3 (Tlookcr). VV. Greenland, (>4°-72'^ 4H',
Lange.

29. r. emarginahi, Piu-sh (Flor. dan. t. 2291). The most

common plant, at most of the i)laces vished. Prol)ubly
the same as this are, — Scoresby's Pot. rcrntf, L.
(Hooker); also Sabine's I*ot. niveau var. (Hooker);
and Graah's Pot. retnsa, Rctz (Ilorneniauu.) VV.
Greenland, 6()° oO'-72° 48', J. Lange.

VI. Onagrariacea.

30. Epilobium latifolium, L. Wide-spread, especially on

new bottoms, moraines, &c. One of the finest flowei's
of Greenland. Seen also by Scoresby, Sabrinc, and
Graah.

VII. Crassulacea.

31. Sedum Rliodiola, DC. Cape Mary, Clavering Isl. W.

Greenland, 60°-67", Lange.

Vni. Saxifragacea

32. Saxifraga oppositifolia, L. A wide-spread Arctic plant,

met with nearly everywhere, as high up as 77° N. Lat.
Found by Scoresby and Sabine also.

33. S. cajspitosa, L., var. grcenlandica (L.). Nearly every-

where, except at the Fjord. Found also by Scoresby,
Sabine, and Graah.

34. S. cernua, L. Nearly everywhere. ScorcsV)y and

Sabine also.

35. S. rivularis, L. Clavering Isl. and Cape Broer-Iluys.

Found by Sabine.

36. S. nivalis, L. Everywhere, especially in wet muddy

places. Found by Scoresby and Sabin<!.

37. S. hieracifolia, W. & K. Cape B.-Ruys : Spitzbergen and

Arctic lauds.

38. S. Hirculus, L., var. alpina, Engler. On muddy bottoms

and in wet mossy clumps. The group of Pendulum
Islands, Mackenzie Bay. Found by Sabine.

'It;

570

nUClIRNA[', PLANTS, EAST GIlEEXLANn.

39. S. fln;?ollari.s WilM. Nenr f^luricr-ln'ooks, Sic. In the

IVndiilum Group.

40. S. nizoidcs, L. Moininc-enrlh and swnmps of the- K.-Fr.-

J. Fjord, forming thick turf and chimps.

»SV/.r. Stella risy L. (Jhliosa, II. Br.). Also was found
by Sabiuf.

IX. Composita.

Gnftp/uftinm (ilpimmi, L., found by Scorc-iby, ist wanting in
this collection.

41. Arnica alplna, Murr. (J. Hii< fast if alia, Vahl, Flor. dan. t.

1524). On turfy slopes, wry general ; common at
Clovoring 1., Jackson 1., Mackenzie Bay. Slopes of
tho Fjord. Found also by Scorcsby and Sabine. W.
Greenland, Lange.

42. Erigon criocophalus, J. Vahl (Flor. dan. t. 2299). South

coast of Clavering I. Koticcd by Scoresby, Sabine,
and Graah.

E. coiiiposUus, I'ursh, found by Sabine, was not
collected in this Expedition.

43. Taraxacum phyinatocarpum, J. Vahl (Flor. dan. t. 2298).

At nearly every place visited. Graah mentions Leon-
todon laraxavnm, var.

X. Campanulace^.

44. Campanula nniflora, L. Pendulum Islands. Noticed by

Sabine. Wide spread in West Greenland.

45. C. rotundifolia, L., var. arctica, J. Langc (Flor. dan.

t. 2711). On tho slopes of tho Fjord, abundant at
6()()-8()() feet, with Pyrnla. Graah" mot Avith it below
63° N, Lat. In W. Greenland, 68°-7()°, J. Lange.

XI. Vacciniacea.

46. Vaccinium uliginosum, L. Wide sju'ead, on the Islands

and at the Fjord. Found also by Scoresby and
Sabine. In W. Greenland, with var. also.

XII. Ericacea.

47. Andromeda tetrngona, L. A very v/ide-spread Arctic

plant. Cleveiing I., Shannon I., the Fjord, 8cc.
Scoresby and Sabine also.

48. Arctostaphylos alpina, Spreng. On the alluvium of

Eleonorc Bay ; the Iv.-Fr.-J. Fjord, &c. Among
grasses, reeds, mosses, and Vncv'miv))). Lange has
found it near Sukkcrtoppen, W. Greenland.

49. TJhododendron lapponicum, L. Rare. Coal Island ; tho

K.-Fr.-J. Fjord. Found l)y Sabine. ^More common
in W. Greenland.

Pedum pal/fstre was found l)y Sabine, but not by
this Expedition.

XIII. Pyrolacea.

50. Pyrola rotundifolia, L., var. arenaria, Koch. Veiy

plentiful at 600-800 feet, on gras.sy slopes, at the

taS-tf-.,.

IND.

nUCIIENAU, I'LANTS, I.AST (JlfRKKLAND.

577

H, Sic. In the
< of the- K.-Fr.-
\lso was found

is wanting in

il, Flor. (liin. t.

; common at

>ny. Slopes of

I Sabine. W.

2299). South
rosby, Sabine,

l)lne, WHS not

(Ian. t. 2298).
icntions Lcon-

Noticcd by
ul.

c (Flor. dan.
abundant at
with it below
J. Lange.

n the Islands
^coresby and

0.

spread Arctic

0 Fjord, he.

alluvium of
fee. Amonff
Lange has
nd.

1 Island ; the
Tor(> common

', but not by

'och. Veiy
opes, at the

K.-Fr.-J. Fjord. Anolb* i form, P, f/raiif/l/lora,'Ri\i\.i
Auct., a])0unds in W. (IrcH'idand,

XTV. Empetracea.

51. Fmpefiiini nigrum, L. Coal I. ; Mackonzio Bay. Found

by Scorcsby. W. Greenland, ()0''-72'' 48'.

XY. Folemoniacea.

52. rolemonium humile, Willd. (J\ acutiJtonnHf Willd.,

P. jmlchcllum, liung., 7*. vapitatum, KhcIiscIi., P.
EichartIsonif\look. et Arn., J*. jiu/chctrimnm fllookcv).
Very characti-ristic for East Greenland, wliere it is
general ; but it is not known in S. or W. Green-
land.

XVI. Scrophulariacea.

VernnU'ii (ilpinii was gathered by Scorcsby, but not by
this Expedition.

53. Euphrasia ollicinalis, L. Hare, at one spot under Iho

Burgermcistcr Crags, in Jackson J si.

54. Pcdicularis hirsuta, L. Common. Found by Sabine.

Common also in W. Greenland.

XVII. Plumbaginacea.

55. Armeria maritima, Willd. {A. Sibiricu, Turcz. in DC.

Prod., XII., 678 ; Flor. dan. t. 2769). Rare.
Sabine Island ? Found by Sabine also.

XVIII. Folygonacea.

64. Oxyria digyna (L.), Campd. A very wide-spread Arctic
plant and very gregarious ; at nearly all i)laces visited.
Also Scorcsby and Sabine.

Kainif/ia Islundica^ L., found by Sabine in E.
Greenland, and more common in W. Greenland,
was not collected by this Expedition.

XIX. Betulacea.

58. Betula nana, L., var. genuina, Regel. Forming a thick

bush on the edge of the moraine, 800-1,000 ft., on the
slope of the K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.

XX. Salicacea.

59. Salix arctica, Pallas. At all the localities visited. Also

observed by Scoresby (" Salix afF. glmicie et limosfP "),
Sabine, and Graah.

XXI. Juncacea.

GO. Luzula hyperborea, 11. lir. A characteristic Arctic
plant, found at most of the localities. Also by Scores-
by (" Ltizula arcuata. Hooker "), and Sabine.

61. Juncus biglumis, L. Sabine Isl. ; Cape Broer-Ruys ; the

Fjord.

62. J. triglumis, L., var. Copelandi, Buchenau. Moraine

at the K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.

63. J. castaneus, Sm. K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.

3C122. O O

' ■' !
'i;
X'.

578

BUCIIENAU, PLANTS, EAST cmEENLAND.

XXII. Cyperacea.

64. Carex rupestris, All. Rare. Jackson Ibl.; Cape B.-Ruys.

Wide-spread in Greenland.

65. C. nardina, Fries. Rare. Clavering and Jackson Islands.

More common in W. Greenland.

66. C. fuliginosa, Sternb. et Hoppe. Bottoms with streams.

Clavering and Sabine Islands; K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.
Middle-sized specimens are from widely in the Alps.

67. C. snbspathacea, Wormsk. One specimen from the

Fjord. W. and S. Greenland, 60°-62=' N. Lat., Lango.

68. C. rigida, Good. One specimen, Cape Brocr-Ruys.

Widely spread in W. Greenland.

69. Krobesia caricina, Willd. Moraines at the Fjord. W.

Greenland, 64"-72° N. Lat.

70. Elyne spicata, Schrad. Cape B.-Ruys. In W. Green-

land, wide-spread.

71. Eriopliorum polystachum, L. Sabine Isl. ; Clavering Isl. ;

Cape B.-Ruys ; the Fjord, &c. Collected by Sabine also.

72. E. Seheuchzcri, Hoppe {capitatum, Host). Clavering

Isl. ; Cape B.-Ruys ; the Fjord. Scoresby and Sabine.

XXIII. Graminea.

73. Alopceurus alpinus, Sm. Common everywhere, in damp

low-lands. Also by Scoresby and Sabine.
64. Calamagrostis purpurasccns, Br. (Flor. dan. t. 2523).
With Catabrosa latifoliu at the K.-Fr.-J. Fjord. The
tallest grass plant in East Greenland. Not rare in
W. Greenland.

75. Hierochloa alpina, R. et S. Shannon, Sabine, and flack-

son Islands, 8tc.

76. Deschampsia brovifolin, R. Br. Rare. Cape Phillip

Broke. By Sal)ine also. Limited to East Green-
land.

77. Trisetum subspicatum, P. deB. A rather common Arctic

grass. Jackson Isl. ; Clavering Isl. ; Cape Broer-Ruys.
Scoresby and Sabine. S.-W. Greenland.

78. Catabrosa (Phippsia) .ilgida, (Sol.) Fries. Sabine and

Shannon Islands. Wide-spread in W. Greenland.

79. C. (Colpodium) latifolia, (R.Br.) Fries. Cape Brocr-

Ruys ; the Fjord. W. Greenland, 70°-72° 48'. The
next tallest grass after Calam. pnrpiircscois.
SO. Poa abbroviata, R. Br.. Clavering Isl. K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.

81. P. arcti^,a, R. Br. (and varieties). General and abundant.

Probably P. laxa of Scorcsby's and Sabine's collec-
tions (Hooker) is a variety. Spitzbcrgcn.

82. P. caisia, Sm. General and aljundant.

83. P. ajniua, L. (?)

Glyccria (Pou) anyiistata, (R. Br.) Fr. (near to GL
woritiuK/, M. & K.), in Sabine's collection, was
not sent home by this Expedition.

84. Festuca brevifolia, R. Br. Forming turf. Jackson I. ;

Clavering I. ; Cape Broer-Ruys (this is Festuca ovina,
var,, of Sftbiuc's coll., Hopker). W. Greenland,

BUCIIENAU, PLANTS, EAST GREENLAND.

r)79

85. Festuca (?). Viviparous, t'orming thick tiiri'. Subine I.

Scorcsl)y has a Festuca vivipara ; aud Lauge F. oviiia,
var. vivipara in W. Greenland,

XXIV. Pilices.

86. Woodsia Ilvensis, R. Br, The slopes of K.-Fr.-J. Fjord,

at 700 feet. Dr. Kulin:— ^. Ilvcnsis, R. Br.,
emended, var. hypcrhorca^ R. Br. ; forniu pilosclhi.
(Ruprecht) Milde, Fil. Europ. p. 1()2 (^ Woodmi pilo-
se lla, Rupr. Bcitr. III., p. 54, t. Spec, origin. !

87. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. Jackson 1. ; Clavcring I. ;

the Fjord. Noticed by Sabine and Grnnh. Dr.
Kuhn : — C. fragilis, Bornh., 1, forma arclica; 2,
forma lobulato-dentata, Mihle, Fil. Eiirop. j,«. MS.
K.-Fr.-J. Fjord. Common on both mountains and
plains in Germany.

XXV. Equisetacea.

88. Equisetum scripoidcs, Miclix. In mud and under Vacci-

nitim nlif/., on the east side of Sabine Island near tlie
shore. At some places in W. Greenland.

89. Eq. arvense, L., var. borealc (Bongard). In wet places,

Sabine I., Cape Broer-Ruys, &c.

1,; I

ine, and flack-

2. — List of the Plants collected lij the Crew of the " ITonsa" in
South Greenland, at the end of their tony ice-journci/ under
Captain P. F. A. Ihijemann, Pp. 59-61.

1. Tlialictrum alpinum, L. 20.

2. lianunculus acer, L. 21.

3. Coptis trifolia, Salesb. 22.

4. Cjirdimine pratcnsis, L.

5. Draba incaua, L. 23.

6. Cochlearia officinalis, L., 24.

var. arctica. 25.

7. Viola Muehlenbergiana, 26.

Ging., ^. minor, Ilook.

(Flor. dan. t. 2710.) 27.

8. Viscaria alpina, (L.) Fries. 28.

9. Stellaria cerastioides, L.

10. Cerastium alpinum, L. 29.

11. C. triviale, Lk. 30.

12. Iiathyrus maritimus, Fr.

13. Alchemilla al])ina, L. 31.

14. A. vulgaris, L. 32.

15. Potentilla tridcntatii, Pursli. 33.

16. Sedum rhodiola, DC. 34.

17. Saxifraga aizoon, Jacq. 35.

18. S. oppositifolia, L. 3(>.

19. S. ccepitosa, L. 37.

S. nivalis, L.

Antennaria dioica, Giirln.
Taraxacum officiiiaU', L.,

var. palustre (DC.)
Vaccinium idiginosum, L.
Andromeda hypnoides, L.
Azalea procumbens, L.
Rhododendron lapponicum,

L.
Ledum latifollum, Ait.
Phyllodoco caarulea, Gr. &

God.
Pyrola rotundifolia, L.
Thymus ser])yllum, L., var.

boreale, Lauge.
Veronica alpina, L.
Bartsia alpina, L.
Pinguicula vulgaris, L.
Armeria marifima, Willd.
Plantago boroalis, Lgc.
Rumox acctosa, L.
Polygonum viviparum, L.
(> O 2

v.^\

-,1^...-«

580

BUCIIEVAU, PLANTS, EAST GllEEXLAND.

38. Empetrum iiij^nnn, L.

3i>. IJetulu intcrnuMliii, Thomas

(see B.'ibington, Rcvis.

Flora Icelanil, Joiirn, Lin.

Hoc. 1870, xi. 45 ; Flor.

dan. t. 2852.)

40. B. nana, L., y, intermedia,

Kegel.

41. Salix myrsinites, L.

42. Streptopus amplexifolius,

DC.

43. Platanthera Kojnigii, Lindl.

44. Junciis trifidus, L.

45. Carex rarifolia, Sm.

46. C. nigritella, Drejer.

47. tScii*pus C£espito.sus, L.

48. Eriophornm cnpitulum,

Host.

49. Phlenm alpinnm, L.

50. Poa pratensis, L., var, arctica,

J. Lange.

51. P. alpina, L.

o2. Aspidium Ic cliitis, Sw.

53. Polystiohuiii spinulosum,

DC.

54. Lycopodium selago, L.

55. L. annotinum, L.

56. L. alpinuin, L.

57. Equisetum arvense, L.

58. Amanita (Agaric Fungus,

p. 90.)

3. — Remakks on the PYora of East- Arctic Greenland
(BUCHENAU).— Pp. 20-21.

The vegetation of East- Arctic Greenland agrees in all important
points with the well-known flora of West Greenland. On the
south coast of East Greenland, Kcmisak Island, 63° 37' N. Lat.,
examined by Graah, is the most northern spot whose vegetation
is thoroughly known. Between Kemisak and Kaiser-Franz-Joseph
Fjord lie nearly nine degrees of unsearched territory. Scoresby
landed at only one intervening point; but even reckoning the
Sound named after him as part of the known northerly range of
coast, there remains a gap of seven degrees between the extreme
points waiting for exploration. We see, therefore, whj' the flora
of the southern part, and that of the northern part of East Green-
land differ so greatly. Whether within that great space of the
nine, or of the seven degrees, a sudden limit or a gradual transi-
tion between these two botanical regions is to be found, is quite
unknown. As far as we know, the south part of East Greenland
has no plant but what the west coast possesses. The northern
flora of the east coast, on the contrary, is characterised by some
peculiarities. The following plants have been found on the
northern, but neither on the southern coast of East Greenland nor
in West Greenland : —

1. Ranunculus glacialis, L. (>. Pyrola rotundifolia, L., var.

(very doubtful for West
Greenland.)

2. R. auricomus, L.

3. Dryas octopetala, L. (forma

typica !)

4. Saxifi'aga hieracifolia, W.K.

5. S. Hiroulus, L.

arenaria, Koch.

7. Polemoiiium humile, Willd.

8. Juiicus triglumis, L., var.

C()})elandi, liuchenau.

9. Deschampsia brevifolia,

R. Br.

D.

BUCIIEXAU, PLAXTS, EAST GREENLANJ).

581

capitulum,

tim, L.

L., var. arctica,

cliitis, Sw.
spinulosum,

jelago, L.
,L.
J.
vense, L.

^•xric Fungus,

GREENLAND

all important
and. ()n the

37' N. Lat.,
>se vegetation
•Franz-Joseph
ry. Scoresby
eckoning the
lerly range of
I the extreme
why the flora
f East Green -

space of the
radual transi-
)und, is quite
iist Greenland
The northern
•ised by some
bund on the
Trecnland nor

ifolia, L., var.
ch.

lumile, Willd.
mis, L., var.
•uehenau.
brev Ifolia,

Of these plants some arc represented in West Greenland by
similar species or varieties : —

1. Ranunculus glacialis, L., by R. alpinus, L.

2. Dryas octopetala, L., by Dr. inlcgrifolia, J.Vahl.

3. l*yrola rotundifolia, L., var. arenaria, Koch., by R. rotundifolia,

L. var. grandifiora, Radde.

4. Juncus triglumis, L. var. Copelandi, Buchcnaii, by J. triglumis,

L. (typicus.)

Of tlio characteristically North-eastern Greenland plants, the
following live in Spitzbergen and its islands : —

1. Ranunculus glacialis, L. 4, Saxifraga Ilirculus, L.

2. Dryas octopetala, L. 5, Polemonium humile, Willd.

3. Saxifraga hieracifolia, W.K,

To the west of Greenland, on Melville Island, in the Arctic-
American archipelago arc : —

1. Ranunculus auricomus, L. 3. Saxifraga hirculus, L.

2. Saxifraga hieracifolia, W. 4. Deschampsia brevifolia,

& K. R. Br.

All these occur also in Arctic Europe. Ranunculus cmricomus,
Sax. hieracifolia, S. Hirculus, Pol. humile, and Desch. brevifolia,
are wide-spread Arctic plants, whoso absence in West Greenland
is more remarkable than their presence in East Greenland. On
the other hand, Ranunc. glacialis is a European, Alpine, and
Scandinavico-Spitzbergen species stretching to North-eastern G reen-
land, but not over other Arctic regions. Dryas octopetala is rt?-
prcscntcd in the Arctic-American archipelago, in West Grecnhmd,
and iu many other northern stations, by Dr. integrifolia, wanting
in Europe. Should the occuri'ence of this species in Si)itzbergi'n
during the Post-pliocene period (lleer, Flor. foss. arct. 11., 2, j). 91,
t. l(), f. 69), be substantiated. Dr. octopetala must be regarded as
having migrated from Europe, and Dr. integrifolia as a supplant-
ing race.

The variety arenaria, of Pyrola rotundifolia, distributed in
Middle Europe on sand-dunes, in company with littoral plants on
the isea-coast and in tiie Valais (Switzerland), is still the same in
the Arctic regions. The new varieties Juncus triglumis, var. Cope-
landi, B., Draba muricella, \ ar. Panschii, B., and Saxifraga hiera-
cifolia, W. & K., have been added to the Arctic-East Greenland
Flora by the Second German Expedition.

582

MiJLLER, ]\[OSSES, EAST OUEENLAND.

CI.— The Mosses of East-Arctic Greenland. By Dr.
Karl Muller. Die zweite deutsche Nordpolaifabrt,
vol. ii., pp. G2-74. 1874.

I'
'i ■-

■ k ■

[TliG names only of genera and species are here enumerated.]
11} j)num sarmcntosum, Wuhl. T>. ccrniuun, V>v. h Sch.

11. Schrcberi,* Willd.

IT. nitens, Sehreb.

11. stiamincum, Dicks., var. laxi-

foliiim.
II. stramiueum, Dicks., var. flui-

tans.
II. julaccum, Vill.
II. apiculatum, Tlied.
II. cirrhosum, Schw.
II. plumosum, Sw.
II. salcbrosum, Iloffm. ?
H. Mikleanum, Schpr.
H. polygamum, Schpr.
II. uncinatum,* Sw.
H. fluitans, var. pseudostra-

minea, C. Miill.
H. Wilsoni, Schpr.
H. revolvens, Sw.
H. pratense, K.
H. Lamulosum, var. julacca.
IT. revolutum, Liudb. (H. Heu-

fleri, jur.).
H. moUe, Dicks., var.
H. chryscum, ITsch.
Mnium affine, Bland. Dioe-
cious.
M. subglobosum, Br. Eur., var.

pusilla. Herm aphrodi to,
M. (aulacomnion) Lurgidum,

Wahl.
M. (aulacomnion) palustre,

II(hv., and var compacta.
Timmia Austriaca, Hdw.
T. Megapolitana, Hdw., and

var.
Bryum pseudotriquetrum,

Schw., vav.
B. cclophylluni, R. Br., and var.

coniparffi.
B. teres, Lindb.
B. rutilans, Brid.
B. nitiduluni, Lindb.

B. Arcliaugelicuni, Schpr.

B. Algovicuni, Sendtn.

B. arcticum, Br. & Sch.

B. Brownei, Schpr.

B. bimum, Schrcl>.

B. cirrhatum, II. & 11.

B. demissum, Hook.

B. Ludwigii, Spr., var. gracilis.

B. nutans, Sehreb.

B. annotinmu, Hdw.

B. crudum, Sehreb.

Meesea tristicha, Br. & Sch.

M. longiseta, Hdw., var. luxu-

rians.
Bartramia ithyphylla, Brid.
B. fontana, vSw.

B. cosspitosa, Wils., var. com-
pacta.
Conostomum borcale, Sw.
Spaclmum uinioides, L., var.

compacta.
S. Worraskioldii, Sw.
Polytrichum commune, L.
P. polare, C. Miill.
Encalypta procera, Br. Eur.
E. rhabdocarpn, Schw.
Grimmia npocarpn, lledw.
G. uuicolor, Grev.
G. (Dry})todon) Panschii, C.

iMiiil., n. sp.
G. (Khacoiuitrium) canescens,

C. M.
G. lanuginosa, C. M., and var.

arctica.
Gnembelia arctica, C. M.,

n. sp.
Barbula ruralis, Hdw.
B. leucostoma, R. Br. ?
Trichostomum rubellum, Ra-

])enh., var. dentata.
T. (Dcsmatodou) Laiu'eri,

Scbultz.

* Uroiight also i'lom S.W. Grceiilaml (Juliaiisliaab) by the crew of the
" Ilausa."

:N[i;LLErvj mosses, east cjiieexlaxd.

583

Disticliium capillacciim, Br.

Eur.
Lcptotriclmm flexicaulc, Ilpe.
Angstrccmia Walilenbcrgii, C.

Miill.

Dicranum strict lun, Schl., vur.

compacta.
D. arcticum, Schpr.
Wei??ia curviro.stri;?, Syii. Muse.

Clfivpriug, Sliaunou, Walrus, Sabiuc, and iho Pi'iulnluni Isliiud.s,
C/iipc IJorlase-Warren, Muckon/ii; Bay, and the shores of the gruat
Kalscr-FraDZ-flosepli Fjord are the chief localities.

CTI. — The Lichens of East-Auctic Gueenland. By.
Dii. G. W. KoRBER. Die zweite deutscho Norcl])olar-
faliit, vol. ii. pp. 7o-82. 1874.

[Only the names of genera and species arc here enumerated.]

lie crew of the

Usnoii mclaxantha, Ach.
Stercocaulon paschale, var. gra-

cilcnta, Th. Fr.
S. alpinum, Laur.
Cladonia rangiferina, L., vi sil-

vatica, Iloffm. From Julians-

haal), 8.-W. Greenland ;

brought by the crew of the

" Hansa."
Cetraria nivalis, L.
Peltigera rufescens, Fr.
Iraliricaria stygia, /3, at lanata,

Ach.
1. alpicola, Th. Fr.
J. olivacca, L.
I'armolia muscigena, Ach.
riiyseia parietina y, octanea,

Ach. {Ph. falldx, Ilepp. )
Gyrophora anthracina, VVulf.

{foDHU tcsscldta, Ach.)
G. cylindrica, L.
G. arctica, Ach. {G. proboscidea

(3, arctica, Kbr.).
G. Traniitziana, Kbr., n. sp.
G. Koldcwcyi, Kl)r., n. sp.
Aniphiloma elegans, Lk. Very

abundant.
A. mnrorum j3, niiniatum,

IIotFm.
Acarosi)ora peliscypha, WahJ.

{ruguh (I, Kbr.).
Caudclaria vitellina, Ehrli.
Calopisma flungermannia)

(Vahl.), T1.1. Fr.

C. aurantiacum '^, hc^ocarpum,

Ehrh.
C. mydaleum, Kbr., n. sp.
Rhinodina turfacea, Wahl., ct

p, microcarpa, Hepp.
R. mniara^a, Ach.
11. Panschiana, Kbr., u. sp.
Lecanora llageni, Ach.
L. subfusca a, 5 bryontha

(Ach.), Kbr.
L. subfusca, var. allophaua.
Atrosulphurea, Wahl.
Aspicilia calcaroa a*, ochracea,

Kbr.

A. rosulata, Kbr., n. sp.
Psora rubiformis (Wahl.).
Blastenia fuscolutca, Dcks.
iiiatora polytropa, Ehrh. Plen-
tiful.

Bilinibia Kcgeliana (llepp.),

Kl)r.
Buellia stigmatea, Ach.

B. Copelandi, Kbr., n. sp.
B. Payer! , Kbr., n. sp.
Leciilella sabuletorum, Schv., ct

forma dcpuupcrata.
L. subulctorum, var. tcquata,

Flk.
L. gonio[)hila, Flk.
L, llansatica, Kbr., n. sp.
Bhizocarpon geogiaphicuni, var.

alpicola, Wahl.
Iv. iua[)s, Kbr., n. sp.
Sporastatia Morio, llam.

. M

I-

584 kOrbeb, liciiexs of east Greenland.

Orphniospora Grocnlandica, Eudopyrcnium rnfcsccns, Ach.

Kbr., n. gen. et sp. E. dactlaloura, Kmpli.

Kui)hiospora flavo^ircsccns, Pertusaria glomerata, Schl.

Dcks. Tichothecium pygmaeura, Kbr.

Localities as with the Mosses, above, p. 583.

'I-

CI II. — The Algje of East- Arctic Greenland. By
Obcrfinanzrath G. Zeller. (Die zwcite deutsche
Nordpolarfahrt, ii. pp. 83 -87. 1 874.)

[Only the names of litmilics, genera, and species, arc here

extracted.]

LTNGBYEiE. L. digitata, Lx. {Ilafyygia dig.^

I^yngl^ya glutinosa (?), Ag. ^S' Yvc^m.

Confer vACEiE. Fucus vcsiculosus, L., var. eva-

Chajtomorplia mclagoniuni, nescens ?

Kiitzing. {Conferva melag., Callitiiamnie^.

Rhizoclonium litoreuni, Kg. ^ ^dota serratn, Kg. {PL plu-

{Zygnema lit., Lyngb.). ^f'^f.^' ^\''TT'lr /f^'"" !''''!'

{Zyynema lit., Lyngb.)

EcTOCARPEyE.

Eclocarpvis ochracens, Kg.
StypocaiUon scoparium, Kg.

ENTEROWOUniE/E.

Enteromoi'pha ranidosa, Hook.

AlKSOGLiEACE.'E.

Chordaria flagelliformis, Ag.

Sporociineti':.
Desmarestia aculeata, Lamx.

!■: iK

LaMINARIEyE.

Laminaria phyllltis, Lx. (Ac-
cording to Agardli, possibly
only a, young form of L. sac-
charina.)

Kutzing's system is followed by the author.
The localities are Walru,^ Island, Cape Wynn, and Sabine
Island.

Julianshaab S.-W. Greenland.

CrSTOCLONIE^C.

Cystooloiiium purpurasccns, Kg.
Oidy from Julianshaab.

TvLOCARrEyi:.

Coccotylus IJrodia-i, Kg. {Pliyl-
lophora Brod., Ilarv.)

POLYSIPIIONIE^E.

Polysiphonia stricta, Grev.

DELESSERlEi?-;.

Phycodrys sinuosa, Kg. {Dcles-
scria, Lx.), and var. liiigu-
hita, Ag.

DlCTYOSiniONE^.

Dictyosiphon fijcuiculaccus,
Grev.

ND.

bonohden, fungi of east Greenland.

585

ifcscens, Acli.
ipli.

rntrt, Schl.
^mceum, Kbr.

LAND. By
)ite duutsclie

)ics, arc here

IE.

I, L., var. evu-

[Cg. (Pt. plu-
.) Also from
W. Grccnlantl.

)iirasccns, Kg.
sinsliaub.

M,Kg.(iV/y/-
Harv.)

)N1E^E.

ta, Grev.

HE/E.

I, Kg. {Dctes-
id var. lingu-

ONEyE.

jLuiiculaccuy,

and Sabiiic

CIV. — Fungi, from East-Arctic Greenland. By Dr.
H. F. Bonorden. From " Die zweitc deiitsdic Nor
polarfalirt, "vol. iii., pp. 88-90, ]874.

[Names only extracted.]

Lycopordon fusciim, Bon. Agaricus, sp. ?

Lycoperdon bovista, Fr. Leptonia, sj). ?

raxilhis grisco-tomentosus, Fr. Lactariiis, .sp. ?

Agaricus simiatus, Fr. ? Leiicosporus, !?p. ?

From South Greenland.
Amanita (Agaricns vaginatus, Ag.).

CV. — Parasitic Fungi from East -Arctic Greenland.
By L. Fuckel. From "Die zweite deutsclie ISord-
polarfahrt," vol. ii., pp. 90-9G ; with a Plate. 187-i.

[IleiT Fuckel's descriptions of those Endophytic Fungi arc not extracted.]

I. TJredinei.

1. Melampsora salicina, Tul. On Salix arctica, Sabine Isl.

and elsewhere.

II. Fyrenomycetes.

2. PleoHi)'jra hyperborca, sp. n. (PI. I. f. 1). On dry leaves of

Andromeda tetrcif/ona, Shannon 1.

3. PI. arctica, sp.n. (PI. "l., f. 2). On dry stems of Kinlob'uim

IntifoliuDi, Kaiser-Frfui/.'Josepb's Fjord.

4. PI. paucitriclia, s[). n. (PI. 1., f. 3). On dead leaves of

.SV///.1' arcllca, K.-Fr.-J. Fjord,
o. PI. dryadis, sp. n.(PI. 1., f. 4). On dry leaves o^ Drijas

ovtopetala, Clavering and Sabine Island.
G. PI. lierbarum, Tal. On dry leaves and stems of Pole-

monium huniilc, Sabine 1.

7. Sphau'ia nivalis, sp. n. (PI. 1., f. o). On dry leaves and

stems o? Epil. h/fi/'o/hn/f. K„-Fr,-J. Fjord.

8. Sph. arctica, sj). n. (PI. 1., f. 6). Wide siu'ead in the

Arctic regions ; ;ibnnd;uit on J*oa rivsla and other
grasses, Sabino I. and K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.

9. Ceratostoma ioliicoliun, sp. n. (PI. I., f. 7.) On dry leaves

of Safiv (irclivd, Sabine 1. and elsewhere.

10. Cystipora ciipitata, s[). n. (PI. J., f. 8.) On dry ))ranches

of Salix arctica.

1 1 . Phoma draba), sp. n. ( PI. 1., f. 9. ) On dry stems of Druha,

Clavering I.

12. Rhizomorplia arctica, s[». n. (PI. L, f. 10.) On rotten

roots of Salix arctica. K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.
lo. Xylographa arctica, sp.n. (PI. h, f. 11.) On haul
barkless Avood of Salix arctica. K.-Fr.-J. Fjord.

580

KRAI'S, DRIFT-WOOD OF EAST OREEXLAND.

CVI. — Drift-wood of East-Arctic Greenland. From
the Memoir by Dr. Guegor KiiAus, in " Die zwcito
dcutschc Nordpolarfalnt/' vol. ii., pp. 97-132. 1874.

Of the 2.) pieces of Drift-wood und two siumU pieces of Bark,
submitted to the Autlior, one specimen Avnsibiind in the K.-Frnnz-
»Jus('|)h Fjord, and the otiiers near the Pciuhdum Ishuids. Ho
sultmitled them to an exhanstivc botanical examination.

Twenty-two of tlic 25 Woods Avere Coniferous four certainly
beh)ngiug to Larch {LarLv sihirictty Le(U'rb. ?), and probably
1.3 others; and o to J^trhv Sihirica, Led., or Picva ohovahi, \,vx\.,
probably tlic latter. Of the two bits of Bark one belongs to Larch,
and th(^ other possibly to P'lcca ixcelsd. Of three remaining
specimens, two are Alder, possibly yllmfs utcfntr/, L. ; and one
probably J^opulKs tremvla, L.

That Siberia is the source of the E.-Gi'cenland Drift-wood, as
it is (according to Agardh) of that of Spitzbergen, Dr. Krans
regards as very probable. He adds his opinion, moreover, that
there is strong support for Grisebacli's hypothesis, that the Flora
migrated from Siberia, by Novaya Zcndya and Spitzbergen, to
Greenland and Iceland, in succession.

CVIL — Geology of East-Arctic Greenland.

L— Geneiial Account of the Geology, by Fjj. Tout-a. From
the Proceedings of the Impei-ial Geological Institute, Febru-
ary 20, 1872.

[Communicatod by Count A. G. vox IMAiiscnALL, C.IM.G.S., &c. See aho
"Die zwoite deutsclio Nordpolurfahrt."*]

]3r. Toula reported that the geological and pala^ontological
specimens collected in East Greenland, between 73° and 76° N. lat.,
by Lieut. Julius Payer and Dr. Copeland, had been examined
by Dr. F. Lenz and Dr. Fr. Tonla, under the superintend-
ence of Prof. V. von Hochstettcr. Sabine, Pendulum, and Kuhn
Islands vs^crc l)est represented in this collection. The Avhole
continent of Greenland, between 73° and 76° N. lat., constitutes

* Zweiter Band. Wisseuschid'tHclie Ergebiiisse. Zwcite Abtheilung.
Leipzig, 1874.

1. I'loFiice, by Ferd. von Ilochstcttor. 1'. 471.

•2. Geology of East Givenland between 73'' and 7(') N. Int., with a geo-
logical 8ketch-ni:ip. P. 47 a.

(1 .) General sketch of the geological constitution of E. Grconland.

By Dr. Fiaiiz Toula. P.' 475.
(2.) Description of the local Geology in E. Greenland, liy Dr.
0. Lenz. T. 481.

Mesozoic Fostiils from Kuhn Islan

iption
Touhi. (With two plates.) T. 497.

By

4. Analysis of Rocks from E. Greenland, by lleir John Stingl, in Prol'.

Bauer's Laboratory. B. .'508.
.-J. Fossil riants from E. Groeiiland. By Prof O. Ilecr. (With a

plate.) 1'. r,!:..

W'K

IXLAND.

TOULA ON THE UEOLOaY OF EAST OT{EENI,AND.

58 7

aAXD. From

I " Die zvvuito
-132. 1874.

l)iocc8 of Biirk,

II the K.-Frjuiz-
n IhlaiuLs. Ho
ition,

lour cortiiinly
and probably
i ohoralii^ I-ctl.,
■loii.qs to Lurch,
line rcnialniug
r/, L. ; and oiio

Drift--\voo(l, as
;en, Dr. Kraus
moroovor, tluit

that tlie Flora
Spitzbergciij to

INLAND.

FouT.A. From
istitiitc, Fcbrii-

S., &c. Sv.v. also

)ala^ontoloi>icul
aiul76°N.'lal.,
)ecn cxainiiu'(l
! sui)crintcnd-
um, and Kuliu
The whole
nt., coustitulos

}ite Abtheilung.

lilt., with a pco-
of E, Grcoiiliiiid.
eiiland. By Dr.
(1. 15y Dr. Fr.
1 Stin<j,l, ill Pror.
leer, (With u

H crystalline " mnssit," cut into l)y fjords extending far inward.
In tho ubovo-named islands tluvsc crystalline rocks arc associated
with Mesozoic and Caiuozoic deposits. Sonic of these islands arc of
volcanic natiuv, such as Shannon, whore ciystallinf rocks exist only
on (he N.E. extremity, and Sabine and Pendulum, both entirely com-
posed of Basalts (Doleritcs and Anamesitea) and of Ba-altic Tuffs.
The Basalts extend along a line striking N.E 1o S.W. They
begin on Shannon and continue through Sabin(>, the protruding
peninsida between False Bay and the Tirol Fjord, tht; t'ast jKirtion
of Clavering Island and Jackson Island, as far as llie coast between
this last-named island, Cape Broer Iluys, and Cape Franklin.
According to Lieut. J*ayer's statiMuents, the Basalts constitute
inunense ca[)pings, spreading in f'oi'm of plateaux, seldom bearing
volcanic cones of any height. They occur under the form of
Doleritcs (crystalline granular aggregations of Labradorie felspar,
l)yroxene, and magnetic oxydule of iron), or of finegrained
Anumcsites (genuine peridotic Basalts), occasionally of amygdaloid
tuff-like or scoriaceous Basalts. The Amygdaloids generally include
Zeolites (Chabasite very fre(piently), and double-refractive Calcite.
Along the coast of Flat Bay th(» Anamesite takes the form of
walls, 8 feet high, and is columnar in structure, the columns
measuring o to 7 feet in length and 1^ to 2 feet in breadth.

Miocene beils exist from the S. end of Ilochstetter's Foreland to
S. from Cape Seebach, in a height between 300 and o()0 feet,
along the foot of a crystalline ridge. They become narrower as
they advance northward, where they take the form of yellowish,
fine-grained Sandstones witli moulds and casts of a Cytherea-likc
Bivalve. A quartzosc Sandstone with calcareous cement exists
on Sabine Island. The Sandstones of the S. sideof Mount Germania
include shaly beds with Taxodiuiit (listirhinii mincfcnicHiii, which
occurs also in a blackish-brown Shale, and in the grey shaly
Sandstones W. of Mount (iermania. In these beds have been
fonnd leaves of Popntirs (irvtwd and JJifjapjiron briwhysvpala^
indicating these beds to be coeval with the Miocenes of Atano-
kerdluk (VV. Greenland, 7° N. lat.), Iceland, and Spitzbergen.*

Mesozoic deposits.— fJnrassic Marls and Sandstones Avere met Avilli
on the E. andS. side of Ivnhn Island. Calcareous Sandstones with
oi'ganic remains are found on the S. coast of False Bay. 'i'he
Jurassics on the E. coast of Kuhn Island are Marls and fine-
grained Sandstones, with a Fauna very nearly allied to that of the
Ivussian Jurassifs. On the S. side they arc coarse-grained Sand-
stones and shell-breccias, with Coal-seams. They rc^t on crystal-
line rocks, forming a high central ridge with glaciei's. AticeUa
ronccntrica in ii\e varieties, connected 1)y intermediate forms, is fre-
(pient on the E. coast of Kuhn Island. The genus Aucelhi, is
frequent in all the liussian Jurassics, extending from the Lower
Volga northward to the mouth of the Petschora, and i^ known to
occur in Spitzbergen [Aftceffa Mosqucnsis). Its westernmost
limit is the E. coast of Kuhn Island. The other organic remains

* See above, pp. 378, 432, &c.

588 TOULA ON THE GEOLOGY OF EAST GREENLAND.

f'lom tlii.s locality mc : CyprinOj sp. {Ci/pr. Si/ssohr, Keys.);
Hovcnal liclcinnitcs, among thein well-preserved spccimcnw of Bil.
]*andcrtfinns, d'Orb. ; Bvl. (tAsolutus, Fisch. ; and indctcrniinablc
fragments of a third species. The Annnonites arc represented oidy
by two Hpccimens ; one indeterminable, highly involute, with a
nearly circular transversal section ; the other a new species,
l*i'rispliinctcs Paycri^ somewhat similar to, l)ut evidently different
from. Amnion, im^olvtus, Quenst., and Aniwoti. sfrioloris, Kein.

The Jurassics (Middle Dogger ?) of the S. coast are brown-
ish micaceous Sandstones, and a seam of bituminous fissile
Coal, associated with indistinct and indeterminable fragments of
plants. Possibly these beds may prove equivalent to the Car-
bonaceous Jurassics of lirora, Mull, and Sky (Scotland). These
ilne-grained Sandstones include an abundance of a middle-sized
Otstrca, an incomplete cast of Goniomya v-scriptii (Sow.), moulds
and casts of Myacitcs^ sp. indet. ; Modiola, sj)., reminding us of
Mo(L Strajrskiana (d'Orb.) ; Avunla, sp., possibly Avic. Muenstcri
(Goldf.), and an undetermined Bclemnite. A coarse-grained
variety of these Sandstones, abundant in shells, includes an Ostrca-
likc Bivalve with fibrous shell {Trlchites, J^ycctt'^), two species
of Patella, a Nerita {Ner. hcmisphccrica, Koem. ?), moulds and
casts of Trochns, and spines of Ecliinida.

The Sandstone on the southern coast of False Bay is very cal-
careous and light-coloured, with cavities including crystals of cal-
careous spar. The only hand-specimen collected includes ixRhyn-
ehonclla perfectly agreeing with Rh. Jlssicoatuta, Suess, a cha-
ractevistic Kha^tian form, — a young individual of a smooth and
equivalve Tcrvhratiila, — a small, nearly circular, smooth Pcctcn, —
some indistinct casts of Bivalves, — and abundant sections of Cida-
rite spines.

Palaeozoic strata seem to be widely extended on the N. coast of
Francis-Joseph Fjord, in the form of red, brown, blucish, and
greenish, somewhat calcareous clay-slates, without any trace of
organic remains, and of grey or black, white-veined compact
Limestones. Possibly these may be analogous to the Carl)oni-
I'erous Limestones.

line grained Gneisses, frequently separable into laminte, prevail
among the crystalline rocks. Those from tlie Francis- Joseph
Fjord contain Garnet (Almandin(>) in distinct rhombic dode-
cahedra up to the size of the fist. Oligoclase-gneisses occur at
Paver's Peak (7,000 feet altitude), in the wcstcnunost ])nrt of the
same Ijord, together Avith Gneissoid Mieasehists. A fine Am-
phibolic Gneiss, Avith Ampliibole crystals, two iiuthes in length,
appears on the north point of Shannon Island, farther northward
at Haystack, and at Cape Schuhmacher, S.E. point of Kuhn
Island. Granitic rocks are rather subordinate, as gneissic Granite
near Cape Koner, and the large-grained Granitite between Bcsscls
Bay and Cape Seebach (N. of Hochstetter Foreland), a compound
of white and reddish Felspar, Quartz, and black Mica in large
lamellie. Crystalline Dolomite is imbedded in the Gneiss of False

lENLAND.

TOULA ON TltR GEOLOGY OF EAST OUEr.XLAND. 589

'solfp, Koys.) ;
ciinonw of Bel.
lulctormiiinblc
pn'Hcntcd only
•olutc, with u
ncAV species,
[ciitly different
olfiriSf Kein.

st nro brown-
iminous fissile
fragments of
it to the Cur-
land). These
L niid<lle-sized
Sow.), moulds
minding us of
vie. Mncnstcri
coarse-grained
des an Ostreu-
I, two species
), moulds and

ny is very cal-
rystals of cal-
ludcs a R/iJ/n-

Sucss, a cha-
i smooth and
lotli Pcctcn, —

tions of Cida-

he N. coast of
bliieish, and
any trace of

ined compact
the Carboni-

iminoD, prevail
rancis- Joseph
iond)ie docle-
isses occur at
ist ))nrt of the
A fine Am-
ies in length,
icr northward
)int of Kuhn
eissic Granite
twecn Bcssels
I, a compound
Mica in large
neiss of False

l^ny. It offers two varieties : the one nearly compaet and yellow-
ish-white, the other coarsely crystalline and blimish-white, wilh
abundant interspersed lamellar Ciraphite.

2. — List of Mesozoic Fossils from East CJkkkn'l.wp. Ex-
tracted fnmi Dr. Fu.vnz Toul\'s Memoir in " Die /weitc;
deutschc Nordpolarfahrt," vol. ii., 1874.

P. 498. Jurdssic Fossils from the East Coast of Kuhn [sbinil.
Perisphinctes Pnyeri, u. sp.
Ammonites, sp. ind.
lJelemnit(!S Pander ianus, d'Orb.
li. absolutus, Fisch.
li. Volgcnsis, d'Orb. ?
IJ., sp. ind.

Aucellii concentrica, Keys, (non Fiseh.).
„ „ var. rugosa, K.

var. crassieollis, K.

var. subhcvis, K.

var. rugossima, nov.

»>

Cypriua, sp.

Pp. 50o-(). Jurassic Fossils from, the Dofiyrr (f Kuhn Tshnul.

Ostrea.

Goniomya v-scripta (Sow.).

Myacites, sp. ind.

Modiola Strajeskiana (d'Orb.) ?

Avicula Mueusteri (Goldf.) ?

]}elomiiites fusiformis (Queust.) ?

Trichites, sp.

Pat(41a Aubentonensis, d'Arch. ?

Patella, sp.

Nerita heniispliaerica, Rom. ?

Trochus, sp.

Echinite spines.

3. — Analysks of Rocks, by Herr J. Stingl ; pp. 508-510.

Dolomite from False Bay.
Crystalline Limestone from False Bay.
Labradorite from Dolerite in Sabine Island.
Coal from the South coast of Kuhn Island.

4._0n the Fossil Plants from East Greenland. By Prof.
Dr. O. IIeer. " Die zweite deutschc Nordpolarfahrt,"
vol. ii., pp. 512, &c. 1874. [Extracts.]
Herr Payer and Dr. Copelaud collected Fossil Plants at three
different places : —

1. East side of Kuhn Island. Brown-coal, with obscure
plant-remains, associated with rocks containing Belem-
nites, Ostrcea, and IVajnchoncllafissieostutu.

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590 TOULA ON THE GEOLOGY OF EAST GREENLAND.

2. Hocliatetter's Promontoiy. Coal and sandstone without

plant-remains.

3. Sabine Island. In shales and sandstones on the east

slopes of Hasenberg and Gerraaniaberg, both about
74^° N. lat.

Taxodium distichum miocainum, Hr., the most abun-
dant fossil plant in Sabine Island.

Populus arctica, Hr.

Diospyros brachysepala, Al. Br.

Celastrus, sp.

These are of Miocene age, and belong to a plant-bearing forma-
tion like that in W. Greenland and Spitz bergen. Of the four
species above mentioned, three are found also in W. Greenland.
Prof. Heeu remarks (p. 515), " I have stated in my ' Miocene PMora
" * of Spitzbergen ' that Spitzbergen has 25 species of Miocene
" plants in common with W. Greenland ; and I have mentioned
" these species in particular, Taxodium distichum, Sequoia
" brevifolia, Populus arctica, P. liichardsoni, P. Zaddachi,
" Corylus Macquarrii, Quercus platania, Q. Grcenhmdica, Pla-
" tamis accroides, Andromeda protoyfca. Viburnum If^ht/mpcri,
" Cornus liypirhorcu, TIcdcra Macclurii, Rhamnus Ei'idani,
" Paliurus Colombi, and Nordenskiceldia borealis. As these
*' species had been found in W. Greenland at 70° N. lat., and
" in Spitzbergen ut 78°. I remarked that very probably they once
" spread over a great intermediate land and the whole of North
Greenland, and that they would be found in the Tertiary beds
of East Greenland (Ileer's ' Flora Spitsberg.,' p. 12). This anti-
cipation has been fulfilled by the finding oi Populus arctica and
Taxoditim distichum on Sabine Island, where probably furl her
" search would discover the other above-mentioned species. Tlio
" Tax. distichum is of the greatest interest, as it was certainly
" tlie most abundant tree in Miocene Spitzbergen and West
" Greenland, and exists still as far as the Southern States of
" North America." See above, Prof. Hecr's later researches,
pp. 378, et seq.

((

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si' :^ ■ ■

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4i jj

CVIII. — On Rock-specimens from South Greenland,
collected by Prof. G. C. Laube. By Dr. Karl Vrba.

[Sitzungsberichte d. k. Akad. Wissenschaften, Wien, Math.- Nat.
CI., vol. 69, pp. 91-123. 1874. With three plates. J

Dr. K. Vuba describes the following, both ar to constitulion
and structure : —

1. Gneiss from Illuidlek Island (Lat. 61° N., Long. 42 .|° W.),
associated with a coarse-grained hornblendic gneissose
granite. It is fine and sometimes loosely grained mix-
ture of black-brown mica, yellowish-grey felspar, greyish
quartz, and some garnet.

VRBA, ROCK SrECIMENS FROM S. GREENLAND. 591

me without

2. The Granite of the south end of Gieeahind, i'roin Jiloiig
the cast coast, on Kiug-Chn«tian-IV. Lund, Sedlovik
Island, the district of Friedrichsthal and Lichtenau, and
elsewhere. Tt is hornbleudic at Munarsoit. It contains
apatite at the South Cape of Christian's Island.

3. Eiidkilyte-si/enite of the Kittisut Islands, W, of Fried-
richsthal. Elajolite in the Island of Kikkertarsursoak.

4. Orthoclase-2)orphfjrij, piercinj^ th(; hornbleudic granite
and over-lying red sandstone of Igalliko Fjord.

The Diorite of the many grecustonc-dykes in the granite
of both Fast and West Gvecnhind is mostly a coarse-
gi'ained mixture of hornblende and plagioclase.

Diabase, of plagioclase and augite, occurs on King-Chris-
tian-IV. Land, and is not common,

7. The Gahbro of the Lichtenau Fjord consists of plagioclase,

diallage, and pinchbeck-brown mica.

8. " Jrdchstein " (" soft stone ") of the Greenlandcrs :—

1. Serpciilinc, at Unortok Fjord, bordering a dyk(^ of
dioritic porphyry. 2. Clinaclilore, (loc. iucoy.).

For Rome of these localities, compare Giesecke's List, ubovv,

349.— Editor.

5.

G.

CIX.— Spitzbergen.

Resides the references to the Natural History and Geology oi"
Spitzbergen in this "Manual" {see Index, &c.), nothing can be given
here except references to, and brief notes from, some of the more
important memoirs and books concerning the country, such as :—

I. (1.) Paul Gabiakd. Voyage en Islands ct au Greenland,
sur la Corvette "La Recherche," en 1835-36, &c. In parts,
Svo. Paris, 1838-40 (?) ; and Atlas, fol.

liistoirc de la Voyage, «S:c. (I., 1838). Instructions for Sweden,
Norway, and other parts of Scandinavia ; for Spitzbergen (p. 412),
Bear Island (p. 414), Jan Maycu (p. 424). At p. 415, Elie de
Beaumont notices the possible relation of the Carboniferous plants
of Cherry (or Bear) Island, with those of Melville Island and
Ingloolik Bay (Parry). Full geological descriptions and illustra-
tions of Iceland are given.

In the Atlas, the plate of Card'mm Grtmtaiidicnm by Beck
(for both Iceland and Greenland), is the only Nat. Hist, illustra-
tion for Greenland, except some J?ish.

The " Kecherche" had in 1836 visited Iceland, and rounded^S.
Greenland, touching at Fredrickshaab, of which place and its
people the Atlas contains some view.<. The " Lilloise," wbicli the
" Kecherche" went to seek, had visited the East Greenland coast
in Lat. 69° N., and Long. 27° W. in 1833.

592

NOTES ON 8PITZBERGEN.

■ I'' f- ■

-•7 ■

L

•1^ ff>i'i

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■fflf

(2.) Paul Gaimakp. Voyafj^cs dc la Commission Scicntifiquc
<lu Nord, on Scandinavic, en Lnponic, an Spitzboi'g ct aiix Feroo
en 1838-40, &c. In parts, 8vo., Paris, 1842-48 (?), nnd Atlas, fol.

IJuroehcr, geology, metallurgy, and cliemistry ; and Eugene
Robert, geology, mineralogy, and metallnrgy, for Scandinavia,
Fcroc, Spitzbcrgen, Nova Zomlila, Poland, &c. A. Bravais,
Ch. Martins, &c.. Physical Geography, Botany, &c. Bivalct,
&c., liirds. Thornam, Petersen, &c., Fishes. Kroycr, Crustacea.
Jioeck, Khizopods, &c. &c.

Many good views of cliffs, snow, ice, places, and people, &c.

II. Reisen nach dem Nordpolnrmer in den Jahren, 1870-71, &c.,
Mit Beitriigc zur Fauna, Flora, nnd Geologic von Spitzbergen
imd Novaja Semlja, von M. Th. von IIeuglin. 8vo. 3 vols.
1873-74. ' 8vo. Brunswick.

Zooloffj/ : Vertebrata, pp. 3-229. luA'crtebrata, pp. 229-269.

Botant/ : Phanerogams of Spitzbergen, p. 269, &c. Cryp-
togams of Spitzbergen, p. 282, &c.

Phanerogams of Novaya Zemlya and Waigatsch, p. 286, &c.
Ci*yi)togams of Novaya Zemlya and Waigatsch, p. 307, &c.

Endophytic Fungi of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, p.
317, &c.

Geoh//f/ : Geology of Spitzbergen, p. S25, &c. Elevation
of the Coast, p. 328, &c. Glaciers, p. 339, &e. Drift,
&c., ]>. 342, &c.

Geological notice of Novaya Zemlya, p. 348, &c.

III. Among the Zoological works also arc the memoirs by
Prof. Alfred Newton, Proceeil. Zoolog. Soc. London, Nov. 8,
1864, pp. 494-502 ; by the Kev. A. E. Eaton, in the " Zoologist,"
scr. 2, vol. viii., pp. 3762-72 ; ix., pp. 380o-22, 1873-4 ; by
Dr. O. A. L. MoKCii, on the Molluscs of Spitzbergen, in the

Annales de la Societo Malacologique de Belgique," iv., 1869,
pp. 8-32, in which references also to former notices of the Molluscs
will be found. Also Otto Torell's " Bidrag till Spitsbergen s
Molluskfauna jemte, en allmiin Ofversigt af Arktiska Regionens
naturforhailanden och forntida Utbredning." 8vo. Stockholm.
1859.

IV. In Sir John Richardson's " Polar Regions " (8vo. Lon-
don), 1861, are some notices of the Nat. Hist., Geology, &c. of
Spitzbergen, at pp. 66, 201, 203, 204, 210, 259.

V. J. Lamont. Notes about Spitzbergen ; with appendix by
Woodward, Prestwich, Salter, Horner, and T. R. Jones, Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi. pp. 428-444, 1860. Some of the
information in the abovo is repeated also in J. Lamont's " Seasons
with Sea-liorses." 8vo. Hurst and Blacket, London, 1861.

"VI. The Geology of Spitzbergen has been largely treated of by
Prof. A. E. NoRDENSKioLD, in his " Geografisk och gcognostik
Beskrifning ofver Nordiistra Delarneaf Spitzbergen," &c. Kor '\.
Vets.-Akad. Ilandl. vol. iv.. No. 7. Translated into Englisn,
" Sketch of the Geology of Spitzbergen, by A. E. Nordenskjold."

((

NOTES ON SPITZBERGEN.

593

With two plate?, including coloured map and sections. 8vo.
Stockholm. 1867.

Prof. Nordonskiold enumerates tho rc.«cnrchos of Parry (1827),
Keilhau (chiefly Boar Isl., 1827), Loven (1837), Robert (18as),
Toroll and Nordonskiold (18o8), Luniont (1858-9), Blomstrand
(18()1), Nor(lonski(")ldand Mahnjjron (IH()4) : jiiid the results of Iho
palieontological work by Vou IJuch, Do Koninck, Salter, Lind-
stWmi, and O. Ileor.

This work aflRmls the following condensed viow of the geologi-
cal series represented by the rocks and strata of Spitzbergcn
(pp. 50, 51.)

I. Crystalline Bocks.

1. Granite and gneiss.

2. Vertical and contorted strata of mica and hornblende-
sehisf, with beds of quartzite, crystalline limestone, and
dolomite.

II. Kecla-Kook Formation.

1. Strata, at least 1,500 feet in thickness, with fossils,
consisting of red and green clay-slate, grey white-veined
limestone, and quartzite.

2. Red ferruginous slates and conglomerates, without fos'
sils ; of less extent and unascertained thickness.

III. Mountain-limestone.

1. Ryss-Island limestone, or rather dolomite, non-fossili-
ferous ; traversed by beds of quartzite and flint. Thick-
ness about 500 feet.

2. Cape-Fanshawo strata, containing Corals ; 1,000 feet at
the most in thickness.

3. Layers of hyperite.

4. Upper part of the Mountain-limestone, consisting of
calcareous sandstone, limestone, gypsum, and flint,
abounding in fossils, and 2,000 feet in thickness. Be-
tween the strata are extensive seams of hyperite.

5. A very extensive and regular bed of hyperite, stretching
from Mount Edlund to the Thousand Islands.

IV. Triassic Formation.

Black bituminous shale, stratified hyperite, limestone, copro-
lite beds, and sandstone, with remains of Saurians,*
Nautilus, Ammonites, 8fC. ; about 1,500 feet in thick-
ness.

V. Jurassic Formation.

Shales, limestone, and sandstone, abounding in pyrites, and
traversed by a small seam of hyperite. At Mount
Agardh the thickness amoimts to 1,200 feet.

* Descrihecl and named as Ichthjosaurus polaris, Icht. Nordcnshiwldii, and
Acrodus Spitsbcrgensis, by J. W. IIulke, Esq., T.ll.S., &c., in the "IJiliang
" till k. Svenska Vet. Akad. Ilandlingai", vol. i. No. 9 ; 8vo. Stockholm.
" 1873."

^'•i

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36122.

P P

; 4

594

NOTES ON SPITZBERGEN.

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VJ. Miocene Formation.

A freshwater formation in Bell Sound, 1,500 feet thick,
and consisting of conglomerates, shale, liraestone, and
sandstone, almost devoid of animal fossils, but containing
coal-seams and fine impressions of Plants.

YII. Becent Deposits.

De[)osits belonging to the glacial period, present glacier
detritus, &c.

It' Plioc'e7W or Post-Tertiary beds exist at Spitzbcrgen, they
are most likely to be met with either in the interior of the penin-
sula between Ice Sound and Bell Sound, the only tract of any
extent uncovered liy ice, or on the eastern shore of Barents Land
and Stuns Foreland. A complete exploration of the first-named
])lace, especially, would be of great interest. Doubtful traces of
Post-pliocene beds were found on the shore south of the entrance
to Bell Sound.

VII. — Cir. Martins, Le Spitzberg : Tableau d'un archij)el a
repo«iue glaciaire. " Bullet. Soc. Geolog. de la France, ser. 2,
vol. xxii. pp. 336-348. I860.

the

VIII.— J. C. Wklls, " The Gateway to the Polynia ;
Voyage to S[)itzbergen." 8vo., London. 1873.

In the Appendix to this book there are some notes on
Natural History of Spitzbergen. Of Insects it is said —

There are no Coleoptera in Spitzbergen; while 21 species arc
recorded as having been found in W. Greenland.

Of Jfymenoptera there are 13 species, and only three hjivo
been noticed in W Greenland. In the latter country Lepido-
ptcraave relatively abundant, 26 having been described; while but
one specimen has, as yet, been noticed in the former.

Of the Diptera, however, there are 49 in Spitzbergen, and only
26 in W. Greenland ; and no Hcmiptera, against four W.-Grecn-
land species.

At pp. 351-355, the following resume of Prof. O. Heer's re-
searches on the Miocene Plants, &c., of Spitzbergen is given.

The fossil plants belonging to the Miocene period of Spitz-
bergen have been ably treated by the distinguished naturalist,
Oswald Heer, in the " Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Academiens
*'• Handlingar," for 1869. The results fully prove that a warmer
climate existed in Spitzbergen when these plants flourished. In
his list of the Miocene Flora he identifies —

3 species of Fungi.

14 species of Grasses.

1

1

AlgSD.

Mosses.

10
1

ft

Cyperaceae.
Rushes.

2

))

Ferns.

2

it

Aroidese.

1

6

17

3

»

Equiseta
Cypress.
Poplar.
Taxinieae.

1
2
2

4

if
n
»»
a

Typhacea.
Alismaceae.
Irideas.
Salicine®.

1

it

Ephedrinee.

8

i*

Betulacea).

uW'\

NOTES ON SFITZBEBOEN*

595

5 species of Cnpuliferro.

2 species of Ranunculaccac.

1

Platanea).

2

f)

Nyraphajaceo}.

1

PolygoneiB.

2

»

Tiliacca).

1

Chenopodiacca).

2

ii

Rhanineae.

1

Ela=;agneac.

1

f}

Juglandea'.

2

Lynanthera3.

2

it

Pomncerc.

1

Ericuceaa.

1

>»

Rosjveca'.

1

Oleacea}.

1

>»

Ainygdale.T.

2

Capri fbliacca).

1

»

Lc'jutninosn'.

8

Araliacea*.

21

»

Dubla> sedis.

It will bo seen from this list that tho plants of a temporalo
region onco existed there; and individuals of tho same s|)ecit's aro
found in tho districts named below in the following order —

25 in Greenland.
8 in Iceland.

5 on the Mackenzie River.
7 in Alaska.
30 are recognised as belonging to the Arctic Flora.

10

))

j>

„ Baltic Flora

o

»

»>

Schosonetz.

2

))

fy

the Bonn Coal.

8

))

»

„ Wetterau.

8

If

n

Bilin.

11

»

»

Switzerland.

5

it

»

France.

8

»

if

Italy.

2

j>

>>

Kumi (Greece).

The Insect-fauna is represented by 23 species.

Of the 9 families of the Colcoptera, the list contains—

Carabus ; 2. Serropalpaj ; 1.

DytiscidflD ; 1. Donacida); 2.

Sylphida3 ; 1. Chrysoraelida) ; 2.

Hydrophilida) ; 1. Curculionida) ; 4.

Elaterida); 2.

Of the Orthoptera, Blatta hyperhorea is the sole representative ;
and of the Hymenoptera there are two species.

Of the Marine Fauna in the Miocene period there are —

Terebratula grandis. Ostrea, sp.

Dentalium incrassatum. Perna, sp.

Dentalium, sp. Turbo, sp. ?

Pecten, sp. Buccinum, sp.

Corbula Heukelinsi. Natica phasiancUa.
Corbula, sp.

Of the Polyzottf a new species of Lunulitcs.

A

p p 2

[ y- s »_

590

I'AYJJR ON FUANZ-JOSEPII LAND.

~4\

■ i

ex. — Franz-Ooseph Land.

(1.) — Notes on tho Land discovorod by tlio Austro-ITunoarian
KxPKDiTioN iindor Likut. Wkypueciit and Lieut. rAYi;i{,
in 1872-4. — By Julius Payer.

[By Permission, fi'om tlio 11, Geograph. Soc. Proceedings,
November 1H74, xix. pp. 17, &e.]

At p. 24 Lient. Payer snys " Tho newly discovered country
(Franz-Josepli Land) equals Spitzborgen in extent, and consists
of f^cveral large masses of land — Wilczek Land in the east, Zichy
Land in the west, which are intersected by numerous fjords and
skirted by a large lunnber of islands. A wide sound — Austria
Sound — separates these masses of land. It extends north from
Cape Ilansa to about lat. 82° N., where Rawlinson Sound forks otl'
towards the north-east. The latter wo were able to trace with
the eye as far as Cape Buda-Pcst.

" The tide rises about 2 feet in Austria Sound, and exercises but
a small cftcet, merely causing the bay-ice to break near the
coasts.

*'Dolerito is the prevailing rock. Its broad, horizontal sheets,
and the steep table-mountains, which recall the Ambas of
Abyssinia, impart to tho country its peculiar physiognomy. Its
geological features coincide with those of portions of North-
eastern Greenland. A Tertiary coal-bearing sandstone occurs
in both; but only small beds of Brown-coal were discovered.
On the other hand amygdaloid rocks, which arc so frequent in
North-eastern Greenland, were not met with in Francis-Joseph
Land ; and, whilst the rocks in the south were frequently aphani-
tic in their texture, and resembled true basalt, those in the north
were coarse-grained and contained nepheline.

"It is an established fact that portions of North-eastern Green-
land, Novaya Zemlya, and Siberia, are being slowly upheaved ;
and it was therefore very interesting to meet with Raised Beaches
along the shores of Austria Sound, which attested that a similar
upheaval was taking place there.

" The mountains, as a rule, attain a height of 2,000 or 3,000
feet, and only towards the south-west do they appear to attain an
altitude of 5,000 feet. The extensive depressions between the
mountain-ranges arc covered with glaciers, of those gigantic pro-
portions only met with in the Arctic Kegions. Only in a few
instances were we able to determine the daily motion of the
glaciers by direct measurements. On the coast they usually form
mural precipices, 100 to 200 feet in height. The Dove Glacier
on Wilczek Laiul is undoubtedly one of tlio most considerable of
the Arctic Regions. Tho glaciers visited by us were characterised
by their greenish-bluo colour, the paucity of crevasses, and extra-
ordinarily coarse-grained ice, a small development of moraines.

PAYER ON PRANZ-JOSEPII LAND.

5U7

slow motion, and the considerable thickness of the nnniml layers.
The ni've, or «j;luciul rc}Jcion above the snow-liiif, was much ujoro
elevated above the sea than in (Greenland or Spitzbcrj^cn.

"Another peculiarity which eharactfrlf^es all liie low ishiiids in
the Austria Sound is their bein;:; covered by a •ilncial eaji.

" The vegetation is tar poorer than that of Greenland, Spitz-
berjTen, or Novaya Zemlya ; and, cxceptinfr in the* Antarctic
Iie<;ions, no country exists on th(! face of iIic earth wiiieh is
poorer in that respect. Tint jicneral ph) siuj^noniy of the Flora
(but not that of the species) resembles that met v.itli in the Alps
at an altitude of 9,()()0 or 10,000 feet. The season duiinj; Avhich
we visited the country was certainly thiit in whieh ve<;e(Mble life
first puts forth its appearance, and most of the sl(>[)ed weic still
covered with snow ; but even the most favoured spots near (he
sea-level, which were no lonj^er covered with snow, were nnnble
to induci! us to arrive at a dilFerent conelusion. On level spots
even we scarcely met with anyt]iiii<;' l»ut [)o()r nnd solitary bunelies
of Grass, a few species of Saxifnijie, and Sllciic artitffis. Dense
carpets of Mosses and Lichens Averi; more abundant, but most
abundant of all was a Lichen — the winteily UnibUiciria itrctira.

"Drift-wood, mostly of an old date, Avas met with on many
occasions, but only in very small quantities. We once saw lying-
only a triile hi»>;her than the water-line the trunk of a Larch,
about a foot thick, and some 10 feet in length. The Drift-wood,
like our vessel, had probably been carried to these latitndes by the
winds, in all likelihood from Siberia, and not by currents.

"The country, as might have been supposed, has no Human
inhabitants, and in its southern portion scarcely any animals
excepting Ice-Bears are met with.

" Many portions of the newly discovered country are exceed-
ingly beautiful, though it bears throughout the impress of Arctic
rigidity."

Lieut. Payer remarks (p. 24.) that in January 1874, on
Count Wilczek Island, south of Franz-Joseph Land, " the visits
of Bears were as frequent then as they had been at other seasons
of the year: they came close up to the ship, and were kilh'd by
regular volleys lired from deck. The Bears here are certainly
much less ferocious than those we met with in Eastern Greenland,
where they not unfretpiently attacked us, and, on one; occa-
sion, they even carried one of the crew out of the ship : here they
generally took to flight as soon as we made our ap])carance.

"As regards the disputed question whether Bears pass the
Avinter in a dormant state or not, wo observed that amongst the
great number shot by us during two winters, there was not a
single female ; and during our second sledge-expodition in the
spring of 1874, we even discovered a tunm4-sliai)ed winter hole
in a snow cone lying at the foot of a clilf, which was inhabited by
a female Bear and her cubs.

" On encountering Bears, we found it generally most advan-
tageous to fire after they had approached within a distance of 50
or 80 paces.

w

:H*'I

fiF t

598

FAYER ON FRAMZ-JOSEPII LAND.

** We frequently encountered Ice-Bears while in the

Ilawlinson Sound [much further to the nortli]. They eaino
towards us whenever they caught sight of as, and fell an easy
prey to our rifles." (p. 29.)

In Rudolph Land an increase of temperature was noticed (as in
Smith Sound by the Americans), and ho says (p. 30), " Wo had
previously noticed the fligjit of Birds from the north, hero wo
I'ound the rocks covered with thousands of Auks and Divers.
They rose before us in immense swarms, and filled the air with
tlu! noise of their vehement whirring, for breeding-time had
arrived. Traces of ]iears, Hares, and Foxes were met with
ev(!rywhere, and Seals reposed sluggishly upon the ice

" VV(! rounded Auk Cape, which resembhMl a gigantic aviary,
and reached the two lonely rocky towers of the Cape of Columns.
Hero we first found open water extending along tho coast,"*

:'m

(2.) — On the Newly Discovehed Franz-Josepii Land.
liy Lieut. Julius Payeh.

[From tho Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Sciences,
Vienna, 17 December 1874.]

(Communicated by Count A. G. von Marscuall, F.C.G.S., &c.>

This land has been surveyed by means of eleven determinations
of latitude, the compass, and by geodetic operations as far as pos-
sible under the existiufj circumstances.

mi

* " It is, perhaps, not premature to hazard the conclusion that in this new land
(Franz- Joseph Land), we have the eastern continuation of the abrupt and
mountainous coast of East Greenland, which, as geographers of Pctermann's
school are of opinion, trends away to the north-east, slightly beyond Parry's
furthest point of Spitzbergen. The scarcity of animal life at first sight
appears important. Around the shores of Smith Sound, Hayes tells us, the
whole region teems with animal life, and one good hunter would feed twenty
mouths ; the sea abounds in Walrus, Seal, Narwhal ond White Whale ; the
land in Reindeer, Foxes, Kider-duck, Wild Geese, Snipe, and Gulls of various
description, and the ice is the roaming-ground of Hears. Again, to the north
in Thank-God Bay, Hall's party found the plain free from snow, a creeping
herbage covering the ground, on -which numerous herds of Musk-oxen found
pasture, while Itabbits and Lemmings abounded. The wild flowers were
brilliant, and large flocks of Uirds came northward, Francis-Joseph I^nd
■would, on the other hand, appear to be less favoured as regards climate.
This may be attributed to the presence of colder currents than are met with
in Smith Sound. But it is not too much to assume that animal life may
have existed there though not seen. Admiral Usboru, that staunch advocate
of Arctic research, points out that in the Parry Group there is scarcely a
single island where properly organised hunting parties could not have largely
added to the resources of the English who wintered there. No limit has as
yet been discovered to the existence of animal life within the Arctic Circle,
and it is most improbable that the failure to discover it immediately in this
new region has more than a passing Biguificauce." — Academy, Sept. 12, 1874.

Hi 1i

PATER ON FRANZ-JOSEPn LAND.

599

West Greenland is a hi<j;h and monotonous glacier-plateau.
East Greenland ofTurs beautiful Alpine scenery, with a rich du-
volopmt .t of animal and vegetable life. Spitzbergcn and Nowaja-
Zemlya have the aspect of high mounUiin-groupn, rising about
9,000 feet above the sea. Both are far less iniprossed with the
typo of Arctic severity than Franz-Joseph Land is ; tho iultc^r,
by its enormous glaciers and many pUiteaux, reminds one of Wvat
Greenland, and in tho low level of tho limit of its congealed snow
(Firn), and in its volcano-like peaks, it bears some resumbhuiee to
Victoria Land of the Antarctic regions.

Tho average height of its mountains is botwcen 2,000 and
3,000 feet ; 5,000 feet in the S.W. There arc great volcanie
" massifs," with recent deposits in their hollows. 'J'iio prevailing
rock is crystalline and fino-grained Dolerite, identical with that of
Greenland. Amygdaloids have not been met with, though
common in Greenland. In the south the Dolerite becomes
aphanitic, passing into real Basalt. To the noith they are coarse-
grained, and contain Nepheliuc. Erratic blocks are scarce.

Some of the newly discovered islands of this group must be of
considerable extent, as they bear enormous glaciers, whoso abrupt
slopes, sometimes 200 feet high, generally border tho coast. Tho
greater part of Franz-Joseph liand seems to bo buried under
snow. The vesicular form of the glaciers on all the smaller islands
is remarkable and pecidiar.

The Tides upheaving the ice in the bays, and breaking it
against the shore, do not reach above two feet along the coasts of
Austria Sound.

The Vegetation of Franz-Joseph Land is extremely scanty, far
more so than that of Greenland. Its general character is that of
an Alpine Flora of between 9,000 and 10,000 feet above the sea.
The hollows, free from snow, and even in the most favourable situa-
tions, offer no richer aspect. Level places are scantily beset with
Grasses, some few species of Saxifraga and Silcne acaulis. Cc-
rastium and Poppy are of rare occurrence. Mosses and Lichens
are more frequent. Among them Umbilicaria arctica prevails,
which is found very high up in Greenland.

Drift-wood of old date, is common, though in small quantity.
It was probably driven thither by winds.

No traces of human habitations were met with. In the
southern part White Bears and passing Birds were the only
representatives of Animal Life, excepting the Walrus, seen only
twice.

i

600

WOODWAUP, rOLAR OLACIATION, ET(!.

CXI. — On the Olaciation of the Poles of tho Eautii. By
Hknhy Woodward, Esq., F.R.S., Pius. Oeol. Assoc, kc.

M
r'

[I. With Permission ; from the Proceedings of tho Geologists'
Association, vol. iv., pp. 17-24. IH75.]

[In connection with the Glacial Accunuilutions at the I'olar Uigion.s, and
their varying eoiiditious, the folUtwing extracts from Mr. II. Woopwaud's
IWsithiitial AtUrffis to the Geologists' Association, November (Jtli, 1874,
supply a resume of much that is known, and hear upon the mifrration of
I'aiinu; and Flora*, such as that treated of (dhove) in Dr. lIooKi:it'a "Memoir
on the Distribution of Arctic riunts," at pages 200, 2U7, &c. — Kinrou.]

If the obli(iuity of the Earth wore iiiereased, tigrc.itor

juul yet greater urea would Ite bronght under Arctic eonditiony.
When the obrKpiity reached 3.>^°, the Arctic Circle would extend
to lat. 54.^°, and the 'J'ropics to 3')^°, reducin;^ the TiMnpei'iitc
Zones from their present width, of 43° each, to lf)°, one-half of
the decrease being added to the Tropics, and the other half to
the Arctic Zoue. The half near the Equator would have its

Fiti. 8.

Fig. 8. — Diagram of North-Polar Sea, to contrast ivith the South Polo
(Fig. 9). The South Pole has a land-surface surrounded on all sides by
water ; whereas the North Pole appears to be a marine area almost entirely
surrounded by laud.

[These woodcuts (Figs. 8 and 9) have been kindly lent by the President of
the Geologists' Association.]

woodwaud, roi.Aii of-aotattov, etc.

cm

ho Prcsidout of

tomppinturc grently rniscd, uhd bccoino nu lulditioiml oroa ol'ovn-
ponttion ; whilst thai iK>ur«8t the Poles wuuhl be an :uUlitiuiml
nreti of comlousntioii.

As the ieo oxtendctl nnd consoluhited, it would grndunlly shut
cl!" the warm currents of the oeeun, now extciidiii^j; nearly to the
Pole ; and the heat so diverti'd would tend to assist and incrciiso
cvui>oration, and thus precipitation would also ho proportionahly
increased.

It is u fiUHlanicntal part of Mr. Ckoll's theory, that thi-
phu'iatiou of tho two heniis[)heres should take place separately and
alternately.

It is an <M|U!dly fun(hunental principle of Mr. Belt's theo<y that
they shouhl he jjlaeiatcd simultJineously.

In snp|)ort ol' his views, Mr. BKi;r i-eininds u^i —

{(/,) 'I'hat glacial conditions (hu; to the obliquity of the Keliptie
exist at tho i)i'esent time around /fof/i l*nl<s.

That more ico is heaped on the Antarctic regions than upon
the Arctic is explicable by the fact that a larger area for evapo-
ration is afforded in the southern hemisphere by its more extendtMl
ocean-basins; whereas, in the north, not only are the Ar«'tie
regions iduiost encircled by lands, nnd so oiler a fi\r less area for

Fio. 9.

j?ig. 9. — Diapvam of the South-rohir Continent, to ilhistrato the vast land-
area forming the gathering ground for the great Antarctic Icebergs, referred
to l)y Mr. James Croll.

The darker parts along the margins of the South-Polar Land indicate those
portions Mhieh have boei\ more or less accurately surveyed, such as South-
Victoria Land (with Iklount Erebus), Enderby Laud, Trinity Land, &c.

M

fit.

602

WOODWAIID, POLAR OLACIATION, ETC.

ii^;.

evaporation, but much of the snow which would doubtless reach
the Polar regions is intercepted by mountain-chains and added to
local glacier-systems, such as the A\[)% the Himalayas, and other
high northern ranges. (Compare Diagrams, Figs. 8 and 9.)

That the difference is due to lessened precipitation, and not to
differences of temperature, will be seen by following the isotherm
of 30° around each hemisphere.

In the southern hemisphere it deviates but little from the lino
of 60** S. lat. In the north it is much more irreguhu', but the
mean is again about 60° N. lat., proving that if the precipitation
were the same, there would be us much snow and ice north of hit.
60° N. as there is south of lat. 60^ S.

{b.) Accumulations of snow have only been observed on one
planet viz.. Mars, which, with an obliquity of 31^°, [^ glaciated at
both Poles at the same time.

Judging, then, from analogy, we might expect the Glacial
Period to have been contemporaneous in both hemispheres.

(c.) Many plants and animals are found in both the northern
and southern Temperate Zones, having close affinities, and even
pointing to a common origin, yet separated by the whole width of
the Tropics, which they cannot now pass.

Mr. Dakwin has explained their presence by supposing that
during the Glacial Period they were driven to the high lands of
the Tropics by the advancing ice, and that on its retreat they
followed it north and south.

A glacial period in one hemisphere only would not, Mr. Belt
thinks, afford this means of migration. The plants and animals
driven south by the northern ice would always have a hot zone to
the south of them which they could not puss.

id.) Mr. Alfked Tvlok has suggested that the piling up of ice
in the nothern hemispheres during the Glacial Period would lower
the level of the general ocean 600 feet.

Mr. Croll, on the contrary, in his recent papers on the subject
(Geol. Mag.j July and August, 1874), shows that, if each hemis-
phere were glaciated alternately, the level of the ocean would be
raised and not lowered in the one in which the ice accumulated
(as already explained) by the melting of the ice at the opposite
pole, and the shifting of the centre of the earth's gravity towards
that covered by an ice-cap.

Mr. Belt concludes that one Polar ice-cap could not materially
lower the general ocean, if the opposite pole were freed from ice ;
but, on the contrary, if the Glacisil Period in the tvv'O hemispheres
were contemporaneous, then the water abstracted from the sea and
frozen into ice at the Poles, together with that impounded in the
great lakes of North America, North Europe, and North Asia, by
the blockade of the northern drainage of the continents with ice,
must have lowered the general level of the ocean to a great
extent.

From data gathered in Central America, and in Siberia, Mr.
Belt estimates the lowering of the sea-level by the accumulation
of ice at the Poles could not have been less than 2,000 feet, and
may have been much more.

WOODWARD, POLAR OLACIATION, ETC.

603

hule width of

ing up of ice
would lower

Applying this result to the solution of the problem of insular
floras and faunas, he points out that their derivation has usually been
explained by supposing such islands to have been at one time
joined to the continents nearest to them, and to each other in Post-
Tertiary times. In every case, therefore, the last movement has
been one of depression, the bridge by which they passed over has
been submerged and destroyed

It is a significant fact, first noticed by Wallace that, whilst
all islands having shallow channels, however broad, separating
them from each othei-, and from not distant continents, give evi-
dence of a former connection in Post-Toiliary times ; on the other
hand, islands surrounded by deep water are marked by peculiar
faunas. Thus Madagascar, though near the coast of Africa, is
separated by a deep sea, and its fauna and fiora are singularly
distinct. The (jialapagos islands have also a peculiar fauna, indi-
cating the antiquity of their insulation.

A uniform lowering of the sea-level would aftbrd a satisfactory
solution of these difficulties Avliich cannot so readily be explained
by local subsidences and elevations

A rise of the sea, owing to the increase of its volume — liberated
after the Glacial Period from the ice of the Polar regions — would
produce the same efl'ect as the lowering of the land, which might
not occur generally with the same precision of level as that of the
waters of the ocean.

The continent of South America, and indeed the mountain-
chains generally, all over the world, testify to the fact that they
have been glaciated to lower levels upon their slopes than that to
which ice and snow now descend, or where they occur perennially.
A general lowering of the sea-level would produce pj'ccisely the
same effect on climate as the raising of the continental surfaces ;
the atmosphere, following down, would bring the freezing point so
much lower than it otherwise would be.

An increase in the present obli(piity of the Ecliptic would not
only permit a greatly increased accumulation of ice on Circum-
Polar lands, but it would be the cause of lowering the mean tem-
peratiu-e of the Tropics; so that the snow -line would even descend
still further from increased precipitation, due to the greater -svapo-

If, as Mr. Belt concludes, the melting as well as the accumu-
lation of the ice of the Glacial Period must have occupied thou-
sands of years in accomplishment, this is (piite in accordance with
tlic gradual groAVth of coral-reefs, and the silting up of deltas
filled Avitli freshwater deposits. But probably some sudden rises
did from time to time occur, causing local floods and the inun-
dation of vast low-lying tracts of country.

Since the close of the great Ice-age, there is clear and indis-
putable evidence of the Rise of Land* both towards the North
and the South Pole, which is probably even now in progress. . . ,

I ^ tl

* See above, Mr, UowouTU on the Elevatiou of the Cii'cunipolar RegioDf.
— Editor.

'I ;

mm

604

WOODWARD, POLAR OLACIATION, ETC.

i *

* ■

i :

; 'i '

A part of the coast of Greenland is said to be in a state of sub-
sidence ; but Greenland is noto undergoing intense glaciution, and
is buried in snow and ice piled mountains high. All the geological
evidence is in favour of these lands having been above the sea in
Pre-glacial times. The lands around the Poles must then have
sank down after they were covered with ice, and they have been
slov'ly rising since it melted away.

Mr. Belt believes the cause of the depression was the piling up
of so vast a weight of ice around the Poles, and that the cause of
the elevation was the removal of that vast weight by the gradual
melting of the ice

That the movement of elevation still continues in some places
only shows that the earth is a (more or less) rigid body, and gives
way but slowly to great strains.

In considering the theories which have been put forward in
order to account for the cold of the Glacial Epoch, one important
point to be borne in mind is the relative time assumed to be occu-
pied by the respective operations of eccentricity of the Earth's
orbit, on the one hand, and greater obliquity of the Ecliptic, on the
other.

Thus, Mr. Croll's theory of the eccentricity of the earth's
orbit requires a period of 200,000 years to elapse. On the other
hand, Mr. Belt's theory of the greater obliquity of the Ecliptic
would not require much more than 20,000 years, or one-tenth of
the time demanded by Mr. Ckoll

If our Glacial period merely necessitated, as Mr. Croll sup-
poses, the heaping up of snow and ice around the North Pole, the
only result would be a slight shifting of the centi'e of gravity of
the Earth northwards ; but, if it was contemporaneous in the two
hemispheres (as Mr. Belt assumes), the figure of the Earth would
be changed, its Polar diameter would be lengthened, its mean
Equatorial diameter shortened, and a series of strains would be set
up, tending to restore its figure to a state of equilibrium. And if,
during the Glacial Epoch, that state had been arrived at by the
sinking-down of the circunipolar land, and the rising of land in
the Tropics, then, when the ice melted away, the Polar diameter
would be shortened, the mean Equatorial diameter lengthened, and
forces would be set in operation tending to lower the land at the
Tropics, and raise that around the Poles.

That the deepening of tropical seas, as evidenced by the growth
of Coral islands, is due to an actual sinking of the bod of the ocean
is perfectly in accord with this theory. But whether by the deep-
ening of the sea by addition to its volume, or by depression of its
bed, the cause (according to Mr. Belt) has been tlie gradual
melting of the ice piled up during the Glacial Epoch, which, by
its liberation, has disturbed the equilibrium of the figure of tho
Earth

\ i

605

■ I''

PART II.-PHYSICS.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

fMb;

land at the

I. Meteorology:

1. Temperature of the Air.

2. Pressure of the Air.

3. Wind and weather.

II. 1. Temperature of the Sea.

2. Specific gravity of sea-water.

III. 1. Formation and Composition of sea- water ice.
2. Temperature and thickness of ice.

IV. Tides and Currents.

V. 1. Geodesy and Pendulum experiments :
2. Measuring the motion of glaciers.

VI. 1. Observations on refraction and on Air.
2. Observations and experiments on Sound.

VII. Terrestrial Magnetism :

1. Declination.

2. Dip.

3. Magnetic intensity.

VIII. 1. The Aurora Borealis.

2. The spectmm of the Aurora.

3. Experiments on the Electrical state of the air.

;:ii-. •!

>iM

606

INTRODUCTION.

I !

ii

U

If

i\

u

The following account of the physical work done in the Arctic
regions by past Expeditions must be regarded as n collection of
rough heto?i facis, which have been luirriedly brought together at
the request of the Arctic Comniitteo of the Koyal Society in about
six weeks during the months of March and April. In conseipience
of the short time given for collating and arranging, it will, no
doubt, be found that many oF those facts have not fallen into (licir
proper places, so as to present a (flear and complete account of ihe
state of our knowledge on each separate branch of the subjcK't,
and that some important results are altogether wanting ; nor has
it been possible, for the same reason, to discuss the obscsrvatlons or
to form them into one harmonious whole, so as to show their rela-
tions to one another.

As most of the temjjcratures are given in Fahrenheit degrees,
the observations made by German observers, which are expressed
in degrees Reaumur, have been converted into degrees Fahren-
heit ; had time permitted, it would probably have been better to
have converted all the observations of temperature into degrees
Centigrade, especijiUy as the observations on board the " Chal-
lenger " are so expressed. In some cases, especially in the accounts
of the earlier voyages, where the physical observations of all
kinds are not numerous, and are scattered throughout the narrative,
it has been impossible to classify them under their several headings ;
but the general arrangement of this, the second part of the "Manual,"
is according to subjects, and in each subject as far as possible a
comparison has been made of the observations and conclusions
arrived at by the several observers, and other important matters
added bearing on the subject.

My thanks are due to R. IT. Scott, Esq., E.R.S., for his kind
interest in the work and for the loan of valuable papers ; and I
have also to thank numerous Authors, Publishers, and Societies for
permission, of which I have freely availed myself, to make use of
valuable papers, relating to Arctic scientific Avork ; these arc
specially referred to in the " Maiiual."

If the curves of temperature of the air and of the surface of the
sea be laid down graphically on the same sheet, there will generally
be seen to be a remarkable correspondence between them, and their
irregularities may readily be compared. It would be convenient to
have sheets of regularly ruled papers (similar to Letts' divisional
papers, with ten divisions to the inch) arranged with two or more
separate divisions, one for the barometric curves, one for the tem-
perature of the air in black ink, and for the temperature of the sea-
surface in red ink ; another might be added for the dry and wet
bulba, or Regnault's hygrometer and the hair hygrometer, to be
distinguished in the same manner. It would be also of great ser-
vice if the changes in the barometric and thermometric curves were
laid down graphically on a sheet in such a way as to show their

INTRODUCTION.

607

in the Arctic

collection of

t toj;etlicr at

jiety in about

conseiiuencc

«j^, it will, no

Ifn into their

ccount of the

the subject,

ng ; nor lias

iservations or

)w their rela-

heit degrees,
ire expressed
fees Fahren-
een better to

into degrees
I the " Chal-

the accounts
ations of all
;he narrative,
[•al headings ;

le "Manual,"

as possible a
conclusions

tant matters

br his kind
3ers ; and I
Societies for
make use of
these arc

uTace of the
rill generally
in, and their
onvenient to
ts' divisional
two or more
for the tem-
e of the sea-
dry and wet
meter, to be
)f great ser-
curves were
show their

relation to the winds. The clearness of the tables and graphical
illustrations contribute not a little to the value of the record of
the Expedition to East Greenland under Captain Koldewey, as
published by the Committee of the German Arctic Expedition.

Since all descriptions of phenomena which may be called appear-
ayices, such as the forms and character of clouds, an<l cspeciidly the
display of the aurora, depend not only on the phenomena, but also
on the sense of relief felt by the observer in having something to
interest him beyond mere routine, it would l)e well that the descrip-
tion of such appearances should be accompanied by sketches. For
clouds reference should bo made to the excellent sketches of clouds
in (he Report of tlie Proceedings of the Conference on Maritime
JMetoorology, 1874 ; sketches of the Aurora similar to these would
be of very great service. Clood sketches of Aurora may be made
in Chinese white and indigo on f^Yoy pnper. (Such sketches have
been made by M. Capron, who suggests that drawings should be
made through a grating of wires or threads upon ruled paper.)

The excellent papers of M. l^emstrom and M. \Vijkau(ler, taken
in connexion with the discoveries of M. Angstrom and other ob-
servers on the Spectrum of the Aurora, seem to show clearly that
the Aurora is an Electrical effect, closely resembling the discharge
in a vacuum tube ; whilst the important results of M. Wijkander
for determining the electrical otato of the air point to some very
important questions with regard to the conduction of electricity
by air at dilFcrent temperatures. Some light would probably be
thrown on these questions by measurements of Earth currents in
the Arctic regions.

It does not appear, from M. Wijkander's results on the Electricity
of the Air, that there is any distinct relation between the conducting
power of air and its temperature : for we find that the oir insulates
well at — 15° and — 16° ; whilst at another time at — 17°, or between
— 17° and —13°, the charge instantly disappears: we also find
that although at lower temperatures air usually insulates well, yet
at times the insulation is not good at —27° or again at —31".

When the temperature of the air is or has been increasing, the
electrometer may be somewhat colder than the surrounding air ; in
such a case moisture will be condensed on the insulating supports
and the charge will be lost ; whereas when the temperature of the
air is diminishing, and the electrometer warmer than the air, no
moisture will be condensed upon the supports and the insulation
will be good.

This may explain M. Wijkander's results, and is in accordance
with the results of experiments by Sir W. Thomson, that Air,
whether dry or moist, always insulates perfectly at all ordinary
temperatures.

If, as M. Wijkander supposes, Air at a low temperature becomes
a good conductor of electricity, then it will be well to employ his
method of using the Quadrant Electrometer to detect it ; the
quadrants may be kept at a constant difference of potential by
employing Mr. Latimer Clark's constant cells. It might also be
possible to test the direct effect of the Aurora on the needle of a

■ r\i

:il-

C08

INTRODUCTION.

!;

i I

tn "

galvnnometer, by placing mi insulated copper plate or ball above
the mast-head, or in an elevated position above the Observatory,
with an insulated wire connecting it to the galvanometer, tho
other galvanometer-wire being connected with a metal plate buried
at some depth in the ground or in contact with water. For this
purpose and for detecting Earth currents, a delicate thick-wiro
galvanometer would be required.

As far as lines of equal cold can be laid down from the observa-
tions made in the most extreme latitudes on tho temperature, the
dryness and the direction of the winds, it would seem that a polo
of greatest cold may possibly be met with in the region to tho
north-west of Melville Island and Wellington Channel ; and sup-
posing that the tides which meet in Wellington Channel are two
bi'anches of the Baffin's Bay tide, it seems probable that in tho
neighbourhood of the pole of greatest cold there is also a pole or
region where the three tides meet which enter the Arctic regions
by Behring Strait, Baffin's Bay, and tho North Atlantic or Spitz-
bergen Se.i. What relation these facts may have to the supposi-
tion that cold upper currents descend to the Earth's surface at tho
pole of greatest cold remains to be considered. Of true currents
independent of the tides there seem to be few. The Gulf Stream
flows to the north on the west and east of Spitzbergen, and from
the north or north-east come two currents divided by North
Greenland, the westerly current probably flowing through Robeson
Channel and Lady Franklin Strait westward, beyond which we
know nothing of it ; but we find in Barrow Strait and Bellot Strait
and Lancaster Sound a return current flowing from the west into
Baffin's Bay.

As those currents seem to have nothing to give rise to them but
the Gulf Stream and the Siberian rivers, may not the current on
the north of Greenland flowing westward be regarded as the
continuation of this stream, which, flowing till it strikes against
Kellett Land, is reflected back to the south of Melville Island ?

There is one very remarkable fact with regard to the direction
and temperature of the winds. On the east and north of Spitz-
bergen it has been found by Lieutenant Weyprecht and others
that the prevailing winds are from the south-east and east, driving
the ice round the north of Spitzbergen. As we go westward to
Polaris Bay and Kennedy Channel, and almost everywhere imme-
diately west of Greenland except at Van Rensselaer, the prevailing
winds are from the north-east and east, except in summer, and
they are invariably warm winds loaded with vapour. On the east
of Greenland the prevailing Avinds, >.rcrjo^ in summer, are from
the north ; they also arc the warmest winds, and are loaded with
vapour. This seems to show that the prevailing winds to the cast
of Spitzbergen, blowing over the region of the Gulf Stream, arc
warmed by its heat, and take up vapour ; retaining their warmth
and vapour, they become the north-east Avarm winds of the regions
west of Greenland and tho north winds of the East Greenland
const.

INTKODUCTIOX.

C09

vm

or ball above
0 Observatory,
anometcr, tho
al plate buried
ter. For this
ate thick-wiro

111 the obscrva-
mpcrature, the
sera that a polo

region to the
mol ; and snp-
liannel are two
ble that in tho
s also a pole or
Arctic regions
antic or Spitz-
to the snpposi-
! surface at tho
' true currents
10 Gulf Stream
rgen, and from
ded by North
rough Robeson
ond which we

d Bellot Strait
the west into

Also their direction both on the cast and on the wc^t of Green-
land is precisely the direction of the currents which may be re-
garded as the contiiniation of the Gulf Stream.

From the evidence of Parry and others it appears that sounds
travel very long distancos in the Arctic regious during winter,
when the atinosphore is no doubt very homogeneous ; it would be
interesting to test whether sounds can be heard equally and with
equal clearness over the same distance in opposite directions, or
whether at times sounds seem to travel farther in one direction
than in the opposite.

Making allowance for the wind, the theory of Sound recjuii-cs
that any sound shall travel with equal speed and equal intensity
between two point?, whether it be going in one direction or in the
opposite. It may be expected that, in experiments over tlio ice-
floe, spaces of open water intervening will tend to deaden sounds
by producing changes of density of the atmosphere, even wlien to
the eye tho atniosphere may be perfectly clear. That sounds arc
sometimes deadened in a clear atmosphere is clearly shown l>y the
experiments of Dr. Tyndall in the English Channel, which also
show that even in a thick fog which light cannot penetrate sounds
may be distinctly heard for long distances ; under such circum-
stances the atmosphere may probably be regarded as consisting of
a homogeneous fog. The mists which sometimes prevail over
open water will jirobably afford opportunities for testing these
interesting questions.

W. G. Adams.

Physical Laboratory, King's College,
May 1875.

se to them but
lie current on
Igarded as tho
trikes against
lille Island ?

the direction

lorth of Spitz-

Iht and others

Id east, driving

lo westward to

[ywhere imrae-

tlie prevailing

summer, and

On the east

mcr, are from

fe loaded with

ids to the east

If Stream, arc

their warmth

lof the regions

last Greenland

The nndcr-merdioned Physical Subjects are treated incidentalli/

in Part I.

1. J. Taylor. Temperature of the Kickertine Islands, in Cumber-
land Gulf (Inlet or Sound), Davis Strait, p. 243.

2. P. C. Sutherland. (1.) Glacial Conditions and Temperature of
Davis' Strait, Baffin's Bay, and Barrow Strait, p. 35(). (2.) Glaciers of
their Coasts, and Remarks on Ice, p, 358, (3.) Icebergs and Coast-ice,
p. 360. (4.) Polar Currents, and Specific Gravity of Sea-water, p. 363.

3. D. Walker. Temperature of the Soil at Port Kennedy, Boothia,
p. 528.

4. W. Flight. Aurorae, p. 4()5.

36122.

QQ

i If'

■ : ■!

H^*

610

SUMMARY.

I-J

u

% ■■?■-■■ ^
I" ■ ' D"' < .

suM.ArARY OF VARIOUS expp:ditions, some

NOTICE OF WHICH IS CONTAINED IN THE
" MANUAL."

I. Pjii'ry's First Voyngc in search of a North-west Passage,
1819-20: ^

Observations on Tides at Melville Island.

Determination of the three magnetic elements.

Observations on Sonnd.

Existence of twilight thronghout the year.

Pendulum observations.

Description of Aurora Borealis.
. II. Parry's Second Voyage in search of a North-west Passage.

III. Parry's Third Voyage for the discovery of a North-west
Passage.

IV. Parry's Voyage to Spitzbergeu and approach to the Pole.
. V. Sir John Koss's Second Voyage in 1829-33 : ,_

Meteorological observations.

Observations on refraction.

Auroras. .

Magnetic observations.

VI. Sir John Franklin's Second Expedition to the Polar Regions:
Observations on velocity of sound.

Auroras.

VII. Expedition of Capt. Maguirc, in H.M.S. "Plover," to
Point BarroAV :

Magnetic observations.
Auroras.

VIII. Sir Edward Belcher's Expedition in search of Sir John
Franklin :

Meteorological observations.

Tides.

Rate of formation of floe-ice.

Composition of floe-ice.

Remarkable refraction, " Paraselenoe."

Observations of Aurora. .

IX. McClintock's voyage of the « Fox " :
Meteorological observations.

Tidal observations.
Ice observations.
Observations on refraction.
jNIagnetic observations.
Auroras.

X. Second Grinnell Expedition of Dr. Kane in 1853-55 to
Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel :

Meteorological observations.
Tidal observations.
Sea temperatures.
Magnetic observations.

SU31MAKV.

Gil

west Passage,

;li of Sir John

in 1853-55 to

XI. Expt'dition of Dr. Iluyo^i, lH(i(Mol.
ML'tooruldiiicul obsorvittioii!-!.

Tidiil ol)?^('rviitions.
Mnj^netic ohservntions.
Pondiiliim observations.
^Iciisuienifnt of «ijliicier3.
Anroi'iis.

XII. Observations in Polaris Bay, nuido by the Expedition
nnder C'apt. Hall, from a letter by Dr. Bessul.s, to the French
Geographical Society.

A small observatory was bnilt in Polaris Bay (lat. Hl° 31' N.,
long. Gl° 44' \V.) at a height of 34 feet alcove the level of the sea.
The instruments were —

(I.) A transit instrument.
(2.) A pendulum.
(3.) A theodolite.

(4.) A sextant by Gamboy, graduated to 10".
Meteorological and magnetic observations were also made.
The magnetic instruments were —
(1.) A nnililiu- magnetometer.
(2.) A (li[)ping needle.

Several prismatic compasses.
A great pjut of the work was lost when the vessel was wrecked
in Ballin's Bay, but sonie of the meteorological records were saved.
They include hourly observations on —
Temperature of the air.

The barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer.
Terrestrial and solar radiation.
The Aurora and on Ozone.
Twenty series of jwndulum experiments were made to determine
the figure of the earth. Dr. Bcssels says that the magnetic obser-
vations were more complete than any of those matle up to the
present time in the Polar regions.

The declination was 96° 00' W., and the absolute declination
[? inclination] 84° 23'.

Note. — As Dr. Bessels gives this value as a correction to the
statement made in America that the inclination is 45°, the word
declination in his letter is probably a misprint. Hourly observa-
tions for declination were made for five months, and on three days
in each month they were made every six minutes.

Dr. Bessels also says that the observations on magnetic intensity,
&c. were lost duriug the storm in the ice. Although he docs not
say so, yet there is great fear from the way in which he speaks of
them, that the pendulum observations are also lost. His account
of the scientific work of the Expedition is not yet published, but
he says that the first volume on the physical observations will be
ready very shortly.

XIII. Physical work of the second German Expedition :
Meteorology and Hydrography.

1. Observations and full discussion of the temperature of the
Air at Sabine Isljind and on the East Greenland coast.

QQ 2

i!«

612

SUMMARY.

• )

7:f

■ i:

' It

I m

2. Tcinperaturo and thickness of ice, and tho wind find

weather.

3. The baronictei".

4. Tho tcmpcnutnre of the sea and currents.

5. The tides.

6. Spt'ciru'. {gravities of salt water.
Geodetic measurements. .
Astronomical observations alon^i; tho coast.
Ma^jnetic observations for the three magnetic elements.
Remarks on the Aurora Borealis.

Measurement of the velocity of sound.
Measurement of the motion of glacier in Franz-Joseph-
Fiord.

XIV. The second Swedish Expedition under Professor Norden-
skiuld.

In the first Swedish Expedition to Spitzbcrtren in 1868, in
addition to the meteorological, magnetic, an<l otiier observations,
attempts were made by M. Lemstrom to d«!terminc the spectrum
of the Aurora, and also the electrical state of the air. His apparatus
was not sntficicntly delicate to give sfvtisfactory results ; but to
M. Lemstiom we owe the discovery of a spectroscope which has
revealed several of the lines of the spectrum of the Aurora, not
only to himself at home, but also to M. Wijkamler in the Arctic
regions, on the second Swedish Expedition. An account of these
results will be found under Aurora (p.737).

Among tho general results of this Expedition, which are not yet
published, are contained :

I. Hourly Meteorological observations.
II. Astronomical positions of stations, &c.

III. Pendulum and refraction observations in great cold.

IV. Hourly Magnetic observations, besides observations every

five minutes on two term days a month in connexion
with observations at Upsala.
V. Tides and Currents.
The record of the meteorological observations will be ready very
shortly.

XV. Austro-Hungarian Expedition under Lieut. Weyprecht :
Meteorological observations, Avinds, and ice-drifts.
Formation and melting of ice.

Astronomical observations.

Magnetic observations, including disturbances of all three

magnetic elements.

The Aurora.

The " Manual " also contjiins an account of a discussion of the
temperatures of places in the Arctic regions by M. Dove, to which
more recent observations have been added. It also treats somewhat
fully of the Aurora, and its relation to the earth's magnetism, to
the electrical state of the air, and to observed phenomena of sun
spots.

» ;; , , .^

10 wind and

C13

THE PHYSICS OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS.

1.— M ETEOROLOGICAL OliSKU VAl IONS.

lich ore not yet

1 be ready very

It will probably be unnecessary to discuss nt length the records
of all those ordinary observations whii.'h have been made by pre-
vious expeditions to Polar regions, and which are usually included
in the ship's log.
These include —

(1 ) Temperaturo of the air.

(2.) Direction and force of the wind ; and the wcnthcr.
(3.) The barometer.

(4.) The temperature of the sea at the surface.
(5.) Latitude and longitude.
These observations have generally been made every one or two
hours, instead of every Avatch.

In Dr. Hayes' expedition they Avcrc made every two hours, but
hourly observations were made for part of the winter, and the
mean of hourly observations of tempenitiu'e differed from the bi-
hoiuly mean by less than 0°'04.

Also in McClintock's expedition the hourly and two-hourly
series of observations of the barometer give precisely the same
mean.

Observations have also generally been made for —
(6.) The temperature of the sea at different depths.
(7.) The specific gravity of sea water.
(8.) Tides and currents.
There are some few points on the relative temperature of
different places, and on the connexion between the temperature
and the direction of the wind to which it may bo well to draw
attention.

s of all three

1. Meteorological Ohskuvations by Sir Leopold McClistock.

The meteorological records of McClintock's expedition in the
" Fox " are discussed in the fourth number of JMeteorological
Papers of the Board of Trade, 1860.

They are also fully discussed in the " Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge" (Vol. 13). The following facts relating to this
expedition are drawn from those sources or from McClintock's
Voyage of the '• Fox."

Temperature.

" Among the principal features of this Arctic register will be
found instances of temperature 48° below zero ; a mercurial column
of 31 inches (very nearly) at the sea level ; notices of warm winds
not only from the south-eastward, but also from the north-west-
ward (in the high latitude of 74°), and of several cyclones."

m

6U

MKTKOItor.OOirAL r)n^KllVATI()N«

■It

i.^

\l

-I

()n Dcf'oiiibcr *JHtIi, wluii tlrii'tini;- oti ilic ire down Bitllin's Hny,
McC'Iiiitock siiy.s : —

" VVi! Imvi' lu'cn in cxpoctiition of u ;,'iile all diiy. Tliis evonin;^
thor«* is still a donhll'iil trnco nnion^' the elements. IJnionicter
down to 28*8;j ; theinionu-ter up to 4-.') , altliouf^li the wind has
been stronp: and steady from the X. for twenty-four lumrs, l«»w
scud flying from the 10., snow eonstanily fMHiiipr. An hour a<ro
the wind suddenly ehanficd to S.S.E. ; the snowin;^ has ceased;
thonnonieter fulls and harometer rises."

Northerly winds prevailed throughout December and daiuiary,
and McClintock attributes the drift down IJalHu's liay entiioly
to the winds. He says, *' Durin;;' December we drifted (S7 milos.
" Wc move before the wind in |)roportion to its shcMigfh ; we
" remain stationaiy in ealm weather; neither surface or submarine
" current has been detected."

A table of the winds and ice-drifts is jriven on p. 1 10.

Capt. AllcMi Youufr, in his snninu\ry of the voyage, savs : —

" Dec. 26th, 74° N., (36^ W. During Divine'Servico' the wind
increased, and towards the afternoon we had a srale from the
nort/i-tvcstwatf/, attended by an unusual rise of fo/ipcrftttftr. The
gale continued on the 28th with a warm wind from the north
north-west."

" The Danish settlers at l^pernavik are at times startled by a
similar sudden ri-^e of temperature. During the do]tth of winter,
when all nature has been long frozen, rain sometimes fulls in
torrents. This rain comes with the warm sot/fh-rnsf wind,"

McClintock notices the formation of icebergs going on in
Melville Bay in August 18o7, when the mean temperature of the
air is -}-35° F. when drifting in the pack down BntHn's Bay.

The mean temperature for February 1858 was —U\° F., for
June +36°, and for July +40°.

Ai Port Kennedy, — The mean temperature for January 1859
was -33°; for February, -32°; for March, -3°.

The minimum temperature of the earth 2 feet below the
surface was found to be half a degree above 0° F. during the
winter of 1858-59.

The greatest cold recorded was —48° F., in January and again
in February at Port Kennedy ; and the maximum temperature of
those months, —14° and —12° F.

June was the warmest, and January the coldest month.

The greatest cold at Port Kennedy was generally recorded
during five days after full moon. The five-daily means of
McClintock's observations, both in Baffin's Bay and Port Kennedy,
bear out the statements of Artie travellers that it is coldest about
the time of the full moon. This is also borne out by the o])ser-
vations of Sir John Ross and of Dr. Kane.

A comparison of the temperature with the direction of the wind
shows that in Boffin's Bay i\\Q, S.E. wind is the warmest, next to
it the N.E., and the 8.W. the coldest.

At Port Kennedy the East wind is warmest, next to it the
South, and the N.W. the coldest.

:Mr,Ti:<>u«)L<)(jiCAL ouskuvations.

615

Mt'C'liiilock also iiotiirs a (Irivic mid (•(mlimicd iiiirit ovci' l^rllof
Striiit, t'luiscd liy coii^idcriibly wiiriucr Wilier lliaii llic iiir iihovo
it ; and strong; IcM'al winds.

The |)revailin<i wind- in liuHiirs lUiy an*l at I'uit Kenni'dy are
about N.VV. Ity iN., wlicrcas tin* |»icv;iiliii'4' wind>< at Van llrusse-
ItttM' arc S. l»y W., or S.S.W.

The avi'ia<j;(' velocity of the ri'snltin^ win<l in niilts i)er hour
was:— In IJallln's Bay, (i miles \h'V hour n' l*«)rt Kennedy,
11 "4 ; and at \'an Ivcussclatr, 4'.> mile; per i,(<in'.

Al Tort Kcmirdy the average vcloeity cjI." mo:^ of tiic wuuls
was about 10 or 12 mile.s an hour; but of tin; S. ;ind S.K. winds
the avera<i»' velocity was i'rom 19 to 20 miles an lionr.

y/fc BarofiK'lrr.

The mofc veniavkable storms at I'oit Kennedy were flccom-
panied by sudden falN of the barometer.

Readings were <;• iierally taken with tlu' anei'oid barometer,
but observations were mad(^ with l>oth the aneroid and an excel-
lent mercurial l)aiometer during the >lay at I'orl Kennedy.

The dificussion of the observations with the Imrometers shows
that the hourly and bi-hourly series of observations give the same
mean, and that the mean deduced from observations every four
hours does not ditfer much from. them.

Mean of 24 observations a day
12
6

Inchus.
30 049
30-049
30-047

5> " >> »>

The diurmil variation of the barometcn- in Bonn's Bat/, in
latitude 72° -o N., shows an inerensc from 4 a.m. to 6 p.m., and a
more rapid diminution from 6 p.m. to 4 a.m.; the pressure having'
its mean value at midnight and at 10 a.m.

At Port Kennedy, from 10 p.m. to 4 a.m., there is a rapid fall
of the barometer, then n rapid rise to the mean value at 9 a.m.,
still a rise until noon, then the barometei- remains pretty steady,
but on the whole rising a little until 10 p.m.

The range of fluctuations is : —

In BatHn's Bay
Port Kennedy
Van Rensselaer
Port Foulke -

Inches.
0-028
0-048
0-010
0'014

m

t to it the

2. Record of Dk. Kama's Mi:Ti-:oKOLor.ic.CL Observations.
" Smithsonian Contributions," vol. 11.

The Mfteornlofiical Obser^•atory was a wooden strneturc, 140
yards from the ship, on the ojjen ice floe, latticed and pierced
with holes on all sides, and firmly frozen to the ice. To keep out
drift, a series of screens were placed at right angles to each other,
so as to surround the inner chamber in which the thermometers
were suspended. They were read and illuminated through a
lens and pane of glass without going inside the screens.

;;i

1-' I

W:

616

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

1 ;•.

:l
I

if

If

The Tcmpcruture..

The temperature was lower in winter at the Astronomical
Observatory and in the outer ehain)el than at the ^leteorological
Observatory.

The following notes, as to tlio amount of daylight, aro added to
the tables : —

"Nov. 10. Thermometers eould not l)e read without a lantern.

" Nov. 22. Barely abh; to read at midday.

*' Jan. 19. Able to read largo tvpp bv illumination from southern
sky.

'' Jan. 22, 18.54. Thermometer read at 12 o'clock without a
lantern.

"April 19. The sun was refracted above the horizon at mid-
night.

" May 20. Sun's [)ower felt. Black tarpaulin sinks on the snow
about 2 inches in a day.

" Nov. 19, 1854. Could not read Parry's type at noon.

" Nov. 29. Mercury congealed at —42° -7, and melts at —38°.

" Rise of temperature during fall of snow ; maxinnnn fall of
snoAV during the period of new moon, as seen in tables ; minima
of cold near the time of new moon.

" Superior maximum of Dec. 27th to Jan. 1st, 1853-4, during
which time it snowed 44 hours."

This should be taken in connexion with the direction of wind,
which on Dec. 28th blew a gale from S.E. (magnetic), during
which the tempjraturc rose nearly 23° F. in five iiours, from
—6° '4 F. at midnight to +16°"o at 5 a.m.

During December 1853 there are clear indications of a rise of
temperature accompanying S.E. wind, aiul so often does this occur
that the following remark is appended to the table of force of
wind, p. Qi^ : — " The connexion of the rise of temperature with
" the wind is embarrassing." (Sm. Con., vol. ii., p. 10.)

Under table of temperatures, Dec. 1st, ih note, "Temperature
" falling 21°* 8 in eight hours." On referring to the table of wind
it is found that this is during a wind from the N.E., followed by a
cjdm. With the S. and S.K. wind following, there is a rise of
temperature. So again on Dec. 4th and 5th.

Again, on Feb. 7th, 1854, there is a rise of temperature of
35° F. in 12 hours, during a calm of four hours, followed by wind
from E. and S. during eight hours, during which thermometer
rose to 20°- 5 F.

To this there is the remark : — " These Avarm changes are very
" trying to the health, and envious in their relation to the winds."

On the next day one hour's north wind sent the temperature
down 10°, but three hours after the wind from the S.E. sent it
up 10°.

" March 9. Between 1 a.m. and 2 a.m. the temperatsre rose
12° "5. At the close of the watch there was a fresh breeze from
the eastAvard. ' ■.

"March 22. Temperature rises 11°*1 betvveen 6 and 7 a.m.
Wind S.E."

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

617

July 23. 10 ami 11 a.m. Highest temperature of the season,
+ 51°*0 after a cahn for two days.

" The •warmest mouth is July, aud the cohlest is March, but
December is ahnost as cold, and Docomber is coMer than March
during the second winter."

As other observers have noted, so Dr. Kane often remarks : —

"There is a seeming connexion between the increasing cold and
the increasing moonlight."

"Tlie full moon season, with cloudless nights, is always in cor-
respondence with the lowest mean temperatuies."

"p. 59.--N0V. 28th, 1803. After 8 a.m. the wind, Mhich had
been previously from the S., set in from due S.E. The thermometer
instantly rose 2°*1, and by 6 p.m. gave the extraordinary tem-
perature of — o°"4. This, when comjiared with the record of
the 24th, of — 41°-8, shows a change of 36''-4. This eilect is due
to the S.E. wind, and is sometimes much more excessive."

Snow fell for 12 or 13 hours after this, during which the tem-
perature increased to +1° F., although the wind was from the S.
and S.W.

At 10 a.m. on the 29th the snow ceased, and the temperatuie
began to fall rapidly, reaching —24° at 11 p.m. In two hours,
at 1 a.m. on the 30th, snow Ix'gan to fall, and the temperature
had risen to —9", and continued to rise to — 3"*o. The snow
continued to fall until 8 p.m., after which the temi)erature fell.
Dr. Kane remarks ("Narrative," vol. i., p. 154) : —

*' The temperature on the floes was always somewhat higher
than in the island, the difference being due, as 1 suppose, to the
heat conducted by the sea water, which was at a temperature
of 4-29°, the susi)endcd instruments being afF(>ctcd by radiation."
Also (p. 267), *' Upon the ice floes, commencing with a surface
temperature of —30^, I found at 2 feet deep a temperature of — 8°,-
and at 4 feet +2°, and at 8 feet +26°."

This was in mid-winter, on the largest floe in the open way off
Cape Stafford.

With Parry and other more recent Arctic travellers. Dr. Kane
notes the effect of the resscl in increasing the temperature in the
neighbourhood, causing a difference of sometimes 2°, and also the
heating effect due to the ai)proach of the observer or a lantern.

For very low temperature spirit thermometers are not trust-
worthy. Instruments agreeing within 1*8 down to —40'' were
found to diiler from lo^ to 20^ at a temperature of about —60".
The freezing point of mercury varied from — 38""o to — 41°*o ;
after freezing its contraction is very uniform, and the column was
seen to descend to —44°.

Sir E. Belcher observed the mercury to descend to — 46°.

Spirit thermometers Avere found in some cases to agree well
together, but to differ considerably from others, and from the
most probable temperatures. In such eases they Avere probably
companion thermometers, made Avith the sanui preparation of
spirits.

From April to September 1854, observations Averc made Avith a
black bulb thermometer to determine tlie radiation of heat by the

;!i "

618

MKTEOllOLOGICAL OHSEKVATTONS.

I

'■} :

Sun, an<l (•ori'cspoiicliii'j; iiutcs were made on the Soliir light, ?'.<"
on tlic anionnt of cloud obscuring the Sun.

Discussion of J finds.

The moan true direction of the Avind is from the eastward. In
the month t)f June the 'wind veers round to the west of south. In
winter it is E.N.E. (true), and in stimmor S.E. by S.

The S.W. and N.W. winds (magnetic), i.e., S.S.W. and E.S.E.
(true), blow most violently, the mean velocity being 10 miles an
liour, the avei-agc vcdocity of the other winds being about five
miles an hour.

The calms greatly i^redominato, there being more hours of calm
thau hours of wind, a circumstance quite characteristic of the
locality.

All gales come from the vS.W. in the summer, and the S.E.
(magnetic) in winter, i.e., over South Greenland from the true
E.S.E. in summer, and from the true N.N.E. in Aviuter.

Note. — Gales appear to come with the Av;\rm Avinds. Snow
comes cither from the N.W. (magnetic), i.e., from the upper part
of Baffin's Bay, or from the S.E. or S.W. i.e., from between
N.N.E. and E.S.E. (true), or from tlie direction of the
Spitzbergeu Sea.

Barometric Observations.

In the diurnal changes of pressure there is an increase from
2 p.m. (rather rapid) until the maximum is reached at 10 p.m. ;
then the iiressare diminishes until 3 a.m., remains pretty steady
until 9 a.m., and then gradually diminishes to a. minimum at 1 p.m. ;
the average amount of this change being about '01 of an inch.

There are much greater irregularities both in pressure and
tem[)erature in Avinter than in summer. There seems to be very
little, if any, change of the barometric pressure caused by the fall
of snoAV.

During S. and S.W. (magnetic) Avinds the barometer rises aboA'C
it^ mean value. For other Avinds it is depressed.

In the annuiil changes there is a maximum in April, then
a fall (rather rapid) until August, then a gradual rise until
November, after Avhich there is little change until February,
folloAved by a sharp rise to the maximum in April.

.(-IrSi

3. Dr. Hayes' Meteokologicai. Obsehvations in the Arctic
Seas. " Smithsonian Contribntions," vol. 15, p. 167.

J7t<? Temperature.

Port Foulke. — The annual fluctuations of the temperature of the
air are exceedingly regular, being loAvest at the end of January
and increasing very uniformly until July, and then diminishing as
uniformly from July until January ; the range being from — 26° F.
to +42° F.

The diurnal fluctuation of temperature through the year is a
minimum at 2.30 a.m. and a maximum at about 2.30 p.m., passing

METEOllOLOGTOAL OBSERVATIONS.

619

1, a I tout five

V rises above

minisliing as
cm - 26° F.

tlirongli the mean valno about 8 n.iii. and S ji.m. ; llic -vvholr' diilly
range l)eing alioiit 4" V.

The observations at Port Fonlke do not liear out the statements
of other observers, that it is coklest about the time of lull moon.

JJalli/ Range of Barometer.

The barometer is at its lowest Ix'tween midnight and 4 a.m.,'
and then rises slowly until 8 a.m., l)ut descends again until noon ;
it then rises to its highest point at 4 p.m., and then descends to
its lowest value at midnight.

The yearly maximum occurs in April at Port Foulke and Port
Kennedy, and in May at Van Rensselaer. The minimum occurs;
in October at Port Foulke and at Port Kennedy, and in September
at Van Rcn.s.selacr. At Port Foulke another maximum was also
observed in November, and a smaller maximum at Port Kennedy in
the same month.

"The resulting direction of the wind at Port Foulke is N.E.
" (true), which agrees with tlio general movement of the atmosphere
" in Arctic regions, but the resulting direction at Van Rensselaer
" is S.S.W. nearly." (Sm. Con., voi. lo, p. 237.) In Juno, July,
and August the winds on the AN'est Greenland coast are variable,
but throughout the other nine mouths of the year they are mostly
from the north-easi. The winds which prevail the least are the
south-west in January and the north-west in July.

In proceeding north on the West Coast of Greenland, the
difference of temperature between the extreme seasons gradually
increases thus : —

The Rehitivc Range of Temperature in West Greenland.

PliU

Miui-
inuiii.

Mean,

Maxi-
iiiuin.

Moan.

Ycarlv -

^^Tcnr^ Latitude,
perature.

Jacol)sluiven -
Ometiak
Uperuavik

Wolstcnholmc Sound
Port Toulko -
Van Rcnssiilacr
Port Kennedy
Sabino Island

Pel). 10
Pel). 11

Ai)ril ;50
April 2(3

July 12
July 12

Nov. 2
Nov. 2

:\rarch 1
Jan. 11)
Feb. 23

April 29
April 23
Mav 4

Julys
July 20
July 13

Oct. 12
Oct. 22
Oct. 1

41-6

4.-) -8
47-7
60 • 7
3S-0
Ci"()
72-1

69 12

70 41
72 47
70 33
7S IS
78 37
72 01
74 32

Port Kennedy and Sabine Island are added for comparison, and
it will be seen that the range at Wolstenholme Sound and at
Sabine Island is nearly the same.

The mean temperatures for Port Foulke, Van Rensselaer, and
Port Kennedy are : —

Sprina. | Sunaner. i Autumn. Winter.

Year.

Port Foulke

Van Rensselaer Harbour

Port Kennedy -

1

- 3 19
-10 59

- 2 04

- '
+ 3C 82
t-33 38
+ 37 40

-rll 01

- 4 03

-r 7 t>9

0 /

-21 22
-28 .'i9
-3. J 04

3 /

+ 5 se

-2 46

-r 1 8,>

ll

iff;

'\i 'm

■■ %.

'-'tetaaauwiv.

•^JT ^

rmiv.^

G20

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Simultaneous observations at Port Foulke and Van Rensselaer
Harbour in 1861 shoAved that during four days in March the
mean difference of temperature was 26° F. ; A''an Rensselaer being
26° colder than Port Foulke. At or near Port Foulke the sea
does not freeze over entirely during tlie winter ; the Esquimaux
reside here during the Avinter, and animals abound. At Van
Rensselaer, which is exposed to the north, the climate is much
more severe, and there is scarcely any animal life.

At Port Foulke the south-east, south, and south-west winds are
warmest, and the north-cast and north winds are coldest.

In his summer journey northwards in 1861 Dr. Hayes made
observations of temperature at several stations. At Jensen's
Camp, latitude 80° 48' N., it was 4° -8 colder than at Port Foulke.

Across Smith Sound, and up the west coast of Kennedy Channel
it was on the average 10° "7 colder than at Port Foulke.

Dr. Hayes left Mr. Knott at Jensen's Camp on May 16th, who
made observations during his absence ; he himself went north to
Cape Lieber, in latitude 81° 37' N., longitude 69^ W., which he
reached on May 18th. [No longitude seems to be given in the
tables for Jensen's Camp, or anywhere north of Cape Hawks
Camp, in latitude 79= 44' N., longitude 73° 6' W.]

The fluctuations of atmospheric pressure for the month and
year, and the extremes as well as the direction and force of wind,
and the state of weather, are fully shown in the tables and curves
accompanying tlie record given in the loth volume of the
" Smithsonian Contributions," which also contains an excellent
map of Dr. Hayes' discoveries.

The remarkable fact, which so much puzzled Dr. Kane at
Van Rensselaer Harbour, that the true N.N.E. wind is a warm
wind, and is laden with moisture, seems to show that the northern
part of Greenland does not extend northwards very faj' beyond
his position, but that the winds obtain their moisture from an
extensive sea to the north or north-east of North Greenland, and
that they derive their high temperature Irom the waters of the
Gulf Stream, since that seems to be the oidy Avarm current flow-
ing from low latitudes to the Polar regions.

4. Meteokological OnsERVATioNS by Sir John Ross, in
Baffin's Bav in 1818, and at Boothia Felix (1829-33).

In the appendix to Sir John Ross's account of his first voyage in
1818, the temperature of the air and the surface temperature of the
sea are laid down grnpliically on the same diagram sheet, showing
a close correspondence between them. On tho same sheet are con-
tained curves showing tlie variations of

The barometer.

The sympiesometer.

Kater's hygrometer.

The latitude and longitude.

The winds.

The specific gravity of sea- water.

The magnetic variation.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

G21

The appendix to his " Second Voynge " contains a complete
register of temperatures, direction and force of the -svind, and the
state of the weather at various hours, and the daily and monthly
means, also the register of the l)arometer, and an abstract of the
meteorological observations.

The ])revailing winds through the first winter, 1829-30, were
N."^^' and next N.E. South-easterly winds were light, and the
total average of the wind was nnich greatest from the northward.
This was also true of the summer months. With regard to winds
and currents Sir John Ross remarks : — " This, together with the
" numerous and large rivers which discharge themselves into the
" Gulf of Boothia, nuist account for the strong current which Sir
" E. Parry found running to the eastward in Ilecla and Fury
" Strait. J)uring the second winter the wind i)revailed from the
" north-west ; but north-east winds were not so prevalent as
" during the former winter, south-A/est winds b'.'ing the next ;
" this may account for the winter being so severe, as there can
" be no doubt that the wind came from a colder quarter. These
" winds brought vast (inantities of ice into the gulf."

In the account of his first voyage to discover a ]\orth-west Passage
Parry remarks : —

" The wind and the thermometer rose together on more than
" one occasion. On Dec. 31 the wind freshened from the north-
" east, and the thermometer rose from —28°, the wind changed to
" the S.S.E., and the thermometer still continued to rise and
" reached 5° F. Other instances .also ap[)ear in the register where
" a change of Aviud from north to north-east or east was accom-
" panied by a great increase of temperature. The north-east, east,
" and south-east are the warmest winds." The prevailing winds
appear to have been from the north.

In Sir John Franklin's second expedition to the Polar regions
in 182o-27, when he went overland to the Mackenzie Kivcr,
in addition to the usual meteorological record, observations
were made on the amount of solar radiation by means of a black-
ened thermometer at Port Franklin, latitude 62° 12' N., longitude
125° 12' W. ; and at Carlton House in the following year, latitude
52° 51' N., longitude 106° 13' W.

5. Meteorological Obseiivations by Sin Edward Belcher.
(The Last of the Arctic Voyages, &c.)

From Sir Edward Belcher's Record of Temperatures it seems
very clear that the winters of 1852-53 and 1853-54 were very
severe.

On Januarys, 1853, the temperature was — 51-5° and continued
to fall; on the 12th, at 9 p.m., the temperature was — 62*5°, and
the indices of four thermometers the next morning at 8 a.m. read
— 62-0°, — 61-6°, — 66-0°, — 63-2°; on the 14th the temperature
had not risen above — 46° for four days, and the mean for the last
three days had been — 55*61°.

From the 5th to the 15th the mean temperature was — 48*88° F.
The temperature did not rise above — 46° for 6^ days, or above

il

1^'

iU»'

•■ t i I:

622

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

M

mi

4 '

u

l-\

— 52^ for 3h diiys. For 14 lioiirs it continued between — ,>8-'
and — fi2'o°. Yet with thcHo low temperatures Sir Edward says
'* \Ve leave our -warm cabins at oO^ and rush after science or
bruin " with a change of temperature of about 99° F. " without
damage'."

On referring to Vol. II., p. 100, it is seen that the low tempera-
tures of — .JO-" and — o7^ were mucli more keenly felt dunng the
second winter, thus illustrating what has been remarked at Moscow,
that EngHsh residents scarcely notice the cohl during the first
winter, but during the second they feel it much more acutely.

Sir James Koss is said to have registered — 60° F., and on the
loth of February 1820 the thermometer stood at — o4 for loA
hours (Belcher, I. p. 202).

The mercurial thermometers were obi?erved to register correctly
below the temperature — 39'o° F., and towards the end special
attention was given to this, and the coniparison with the standard
spirit thermometer showed that down to — 46^ the mercurial
thermometers rise and fall with the spirit thermometer very
regularly.

Experiments on the freezing of mercury showed that exposed
for 20 minutes to a temperature of — 47"7° the mercury began to
crystallize, the circumference l)ccame very convex at the edges of
contact with the conical vessel in Avhich it was contained, and the
centre raised to a point when it had actually congealed. When
placed solid into water at — 47"o° the mercury became encased in
ice, but flowed on the bottom at a temperature of — 44*5° F. Pre-
vions to freezing, or at the instant of returning to fluidity, the
mercury assumed a very active motion, resembling lively polypi,
parts moving in circles with great velocity. An attempt was made
to determine the form of crystallization (p. 208). Allsopp's ale
was found to freeze at 22*5° ; the frozen part was found to be very
insipid, the remainder concentrated forming an excellent liqueur.

Note. — McClintock froze Allsopp's ale when the temperature
of the air was — 35°. When its temperature had risen to 17° it was
almost all thawed, at 22° it was completely so.

P. 209. In describing experiments on the expansion of alcohol
at low temperatures a very useful caution is given, the neglect of
"which may be very serious, to take Qiwo of the fingers in handling
good conductors or good absorbers of heat at low temperatures.

During the early part of March 18o3, the temperature still con-
tinued loAv, the mean on some days being as low as — 46°, — 52*8°,
— 52°, and the mean of 10 days being - 43-23° F. After the
17th of March a most decided change took place iu the weather.

The hole for the tide-gauge Avas cleared, rhe ice being 7 feet
thick, and the whole thickness of ice anrl .sin^v was 21 feet within
20 yards of the ship. The ice towards the shore grounds in 16
feet of water, the thickness of oti'-shore floe formed in one season
probably does not exceed six feet in thickness. As soon as the
hole under the stern for the tide-gauge had been completed, the
water rushed up similar to an artesian spring ; this is singular
since the fire-hole abreast of the ship had been kept open all the
winter.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSEKVAT TONS.

G23

low teinpera-

to 17° it was
)n of alcohol

Although the winter of ]8.)2-.>3 Wiis u Noiy colil one it appears
from the records for Novcmhcr 1853 and fTaimiiry and Fdiruary
1854, that the second winter 1H53-54 was much colder than the
first.

Thus at the end of January for 84 continuous hours the mean
temperature is — 54'9°, the maximum being — 50', and for 48
continuous hours the mean is —57' 12° and the maximum —5o°.

The mean of 10 days at l)eginning of February, —47* 145^, is
the coldest on record lor that time of year.

This Avas the winter during which Dr. Kane wintered at Van
Rensselaer Hai'bour, when he experienced such intense cold.

From the ]\Ieteorological Tables at the end of Vol. II. it will be
Been that the warm winds in Wellington Channel are either from
the N.E. or from the S.E.

At Beechey Island strong southerly gales are experienced on
the southern side, but no such breez(^ appears lo extend up
Wellington Channel or even into Union Uay.

In the table which gives a comparison of the tem])eratures
observed in various Arctic voyages from 1819 to 1855, it is shown
that there is a remarkable coincidence in the times of low tempera-
tures and in the mean amount of (!old throughout the whole
range.

In the northern part of Wellington Channel the warm winds
flow from the east (I. p. 127), and the gales come from this
quarter with increasing temperature.

" Gales inevitably accompany any undue rise of temperature."

Gales on the N.E, of Melville Island were strong from the
N.E. ; also animals frequent the eastern side of the north-east
point of Melville Island, showing that it is milder on the north-
east side (II. p. 48).

6. OiJSERVATioxs of Tkmpkuatuke of Atk and Sea AVateu by
Capt. Makkiiam (as gi\en in Map).

Lat,

Longitude.

Temp, of
Ail-.

Sea at
Surface.

Dec]) Sea.

Depth,

18 May -

O

62 N.

r,3° W.

O /

39 0 V.

0 1

3t (IF,

o

30

1
OF.

210 fathoms.

7 JlllKJ-

75 N.

02'' W^ (Melville Bny)

32 0

2lt 0

2tt

5

2(10 (eiltco of
laud ice).

12 „ -

74 N.

70^ W. (C, Byiim-
mai'tin.)

28 .5

2i.) :>

2',)

5

llti) fathoms

18 „ -

74 y.

76" 30' W. (nearer
shove.)

30 0

37 (1

3:2

0

ivio „

15 July -

73 N.

74= W, (on' Poml's
Inlet.)

11 'J

3.'j o

32

0

200

17 „ -

73 N.

73' W. (I'livtlier oil'
coast.)

10 (1

38 2

30

o

200

21 „ -

74 N.

S2°30W.(El\viuBiiv)

37 0

3t 0

i;!>

• >

lt>0 (bottom).

1 Aug, -

73 N.

92'W,(Fiiryl5eaeii)

30 4

33 0

—

—

In addition to these, which include the deep- sea temperatures
observed, Capt. Markham nuide observations on tempt!rature of air
and of surface water fre([uenfly throughout July and August in
BaiHu's Bay and Lancaster Sound, mostly near the coast of Baffin
Land.

JMMii

024

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

51 i

i !

,' l !

It

7. Skcond German ExrEDnioN under Captain Koldewev.

Tenijtcrnfurc.

The winter ([nnrhM's of l]ie KxpcdltiuH were at Sabine Island,
on tlu! East ({reonliuid const, in latitude 74° 32' N., longitude
18° 49' \\'., but obsiTviitions were nuidc a,t various [)oints of the
coast towartls the nortli and the soutli.

On eouipurin^i; observations on tlio I'^nst and West Coast of
Greenland it is found that, except in the month of December, the
mean diminution of temperature for one de<:;rce of increase of
latitude is nearly the same on tlio P^ast and West Greenland coast.

The changes of temperature thi'ou<rhout the year at Sabine
Island ai'o very reiiidar, and ean be said to have only one maximum
and one minimum. Th(> mean temperature is lowest in January, but
changes very Utile until the middle of March, being about — 13° F. ;
then it increases somewhat rapidly for three months, until the end
of June, to about P>if F. Jn August it descends again, not quite
so rapidly as it ascended, until November, and with a slight check
in December it atiain reaches its minimum toward the end of
January.

The curves re])resenting the mean temperatures for ditferent
hours of the day are also very regular.

In wint(!r the coldest part of the day is froni 2 p.m. to 2 a.m.,
and the temperature almost remains constant throughout these
hours. There is very little change throughout the day.

Throughout each season, the temperature at 8 a.m. and at 8 p.m.
is exceedingly near to the mean temperature for the day.

The greatest changes of temperature during the day take place
in the spring, and both in spring and summer the temperature is
lowest at 2 a.m., and increases very steadily until 2 p.m., and
again diminishes very steadily until 2 a.m.

In the mitumti there is no change of temperature from 8 p.m.
to 4 a.m., then a gradual rise until 1 o'clock in the day, ancl an
almost equally gradual fall until 8 p.m.

The coldest month is January, but February and March are
very nearly as cold, the lowest cold registered occurring in
February. The warmest month is July, and the highest
temperature 55 "6° F., on the 1st of July at 2 p.m. .. .„ ^\x

Temperature and Wind at Sabine Island.

It appears that (p. 589) in autumn the north wind is the
warmest, and next to it the north-east and the north-west winds,
and that the south wind is the coldest.

During east wind it is perfectly clear, and also during the
north-west wind.

Two-thirds of the whole of the snow came from the north with
the warm winds.

Winter. — The south-east wind is warmest with a very high
barometer, and the north-west the coldest. During calms it was
cold and cloudy.

METnOROLOCJICAL OnSEUVATIOXS.

625

KOLDEWEV.

al)iiie Ishuul,
N., lonfjitucle

Spriiiff. — The south find south-oast winds aro warmest, and th(3
west the coldest, but the ditrorcnce of tempera tu re is very small for
even the extremes.

Summer. — There is very little variation in the temperature
throughout the sumuier, the mean value being 3i)-()7" F.

The force of the wind was very much greater from the north
than from any other quarter ; with the exceptioii of the winds
between the north and north-east all the winds were very light.

Taking the means for the ditfcrent \vinds through the year, it is
seen that a change in the direction of the wind allee(s the
barometer very little. It also ai)peais that in autumn the north
wind is warmer than any other, and that, taking the mean of the
four seasons, the south-east, the south, the north-east, and the north
arc the warmest winds.

for different

I March are

) during the
e north with

The Baroukctcr.

The mean dally changes of the barometer show that —

In whiter the l)arometer is highest at 10 a.m., antl diminishes
very regularly through the day and until midnight, after which
hour it rises as steadily until 10 a.m. ; the whole variation being
about '03 inches.

In spring there is a gradual rise of the barometer frou) 4 a.m.
to 12 noon, then a gradual fall from noon until 10 j).m. ; between
10 p.m. and 4 a.m. the pressure remains constant, antl the whole
variation is about '02 inches.

In summer there are two daily maxima, at 12 noon and 12 mid-
niglit, and two minima, at 4 p.m. and at 2 a.m. ; but the total
change is less than "01 inches.

Jnafftunm the barometer is highest about 11a.m., and falls
until 4 p.m., then rises and is steady from G to 8 p.m., tlun falls
again to its lowest level at 2 a.m. ; but the whole variation is *01
inches.

In considering the monthly changes, it appears that the baro-
meter rises rather rapidly (about • 3 inches) from January to ^lurch,
being then at its highest ; then falls rapidly to April and keeps
steady until June, then falls rapidly to its lowest in July and as
rapidly rises to August, then slowly falls again about • 1 inches
from August until January, its second minimum

The barometer was very little affected by storms. On Dee. ~),
whilst a very severe storm from the north was coming on, the
barometer remained quite steady; but while its force was at the
greatest the barometer rose gradually, and continued to rise as the
storm abated. When it became calm and the wind changed to
south for an hour, the barometer fell a little, but afterwards
continued to rise.

The temperature continued stea:lily to increase from the
beginning of this gale, and when the w'ind changed increased more
rapidly, and came down again with the south wind, to increase
again as the wind returned to the north.

36122.

R R

' Mi '

.J^ ;

626

MKTEOUOLOGTC'AL onSERVATIONS.

ii^

8. TKMrEHATURES of the POLAU RkGIONS.

The C'LiMATOLOCiiHCiiK IJkitk.uii: (Dove 18,")7) contains n dis-
cussion of the tcmperaturt's of tlii" Poliir Kegionn with especial
reference to the existence and i)osition of Poles of eoUl.

The north of A^ia is warmer in summer than the rej^ions to
the north of America, and the changes of temperature thronjjh
the year arc very much jfrcater, bein^u (luitc as low or lower in
winter tlian any place where temperatuies are ol)S('rved in the
Polar regions, and very much higher in summer. The Asiatic
summer is entirely absent from the (ireenland seas, and in
summer these seas have the character of a soa climate.

Thus comparing Ustjansk, Jakutsk, and Van Rensselaer for
the four seasons we get : —

I'stjunsk.

Jukutsk.

Van lUMisselaer
Ilurboiu.

Winter -
Spring -
Slimmer
Autumn

-35-95 F. '
-0-62

40-78
1-02

-36- Gl) F.
U-8;}

]'-27

-29-56 F.
-11-47
32-99
-4' 83

showing the diflTerenee in character, as well as the greater
differences at an inland station than on the coast of Sil)eria.

Comparing the means of the same month of the year at various
places in the American Polar Sea, we find the places of greatest
cold for the several months of the year as follows : —

January, Northumberland Sound - — 40-00

February, Disaster Bi\\ - - - —40-24

March, Van Rensselaer - - -38-09

April, „ ... -14-00

May, Disaster Bav - - . 9-34

June, Winter Ishind - - - 23-17

July, „ . . - 35-36

August, Port Bowcn - - - 29-72

September, Van Rensselaer - - 9-81

October, ., - - — ]0-o4

November, „ - - -23-03

December, Northumberland Sound - — 35-ol

As these values are obtained in different years, no allowance
can be made for mild or severe seasons, and therefore the table
formed on so few observations may be somewhat misleading.

We shall probably get a closer approximation to the region of
greatest cold, if we compare observations made at several places
during the same season.

If we take the winter of 1 852-53 we get the greatest cold at —

Mercy Ray in October
Melville Island in November
Northumberland Sound in December
INIercy Day in January -
Melville Island in February
,, in March -

Northumberland Sound in April -

-5-6
-20-1
— 35-51
-43-87
-40-8
-31-7

-8-60

jtiiliis a (lis-
itli especial
lI.

0 rcf?ions to
lire throujjh
or lower in
rvotl in the
Tiie Asiatie
ea:^, and in

msselaer for

an Rensselaer
Ilarboiu.

-29 •56 F.
-11-47
32-99
-4*83

the greater
il)eria.

ar at various
s of greatest

40-00
40-24
38-09
14-00

9-34
>3-lT
io-36
?9-72

9-81

0-o4

3-03

5-ol
allowance

e the table

'ading.

lie region of

reral places

cold at —
■0-6
120-1
lo'ol

13-87
10-8

;i-7

■ 8-60

MKTEOUOLOGICAL OBSKIIVATIONS.

G27

Taking the following year in the sjiiiie way we may eoinparo
Bcechcy Island, Disaster Hay, and Van Rensselaer.

Disaster Bay in September 18.j3 - 17-00

Van Kensselaer in October - - 0-.).">

,, in November - - —23-01

Disaster Bay in D<'('einber - - —28-08

„ in January 18o4 - - —37-38

„ in February - - —40-24

Van Rensschier in March - - —38-09

„ in April - - — 8*()

Disaster Bay in May - - - 9-34

„ in June - - - 27-91

„ in July - - - 38-12

Van Rensselaer in August - - 3l'3o

These results show tliitt tlie pole of greatest cold (if there is
one) in the American Polar Sea is nearly equally distant I'rom
Mercy Bay, the south-west side of Melville Island, Nortliumber-
land Sound, and Van Rensselaer, exce[)t in so far as the extreme
cold at any of these places may be due to local causi.'s.

If we consider this (luestion in connexion with tht; three ocean
tides from Behring Straits, BafHn's Bay, and around the north
coast of Greenland, we shall see that the line joining [daces where
these tides meet coincides very closely indeed -with the line; of
greatest and nearly e(iual cold as already observed. This suggests
the consideration whether there is not a direct eonnexion between
the temperature of the air in the Polar regions and the meeting
of the ocean tides. »S'ec " Tides and Currents."

A table of monthly mean tem))eratures of Polar stations is
added, chiefly taken from Dove's work, Avith the addition of the
results of those expeditions which have been sent out since 18o4,
as far as th(;y could be obtained.

A small table of the monthly mean temperatures at stations on
the West Greenland coast is added for coiii[)arison, this includes
the mean of the temperatures for several years. It also appears
from tiddes given by Dr. Rink in his account of tlu; meteorology
of West Greenland that out of 14 years observations at U])ernavik
the mean tem])erature for January as well as for March was
lower in 1853 than in any other year, being as low as 33° F. in
each month. This was the wunter when Sir E. Belcher was in
Northumberland Sound.

n: .Ml'^

||ri:.if;

R R 2

H

62S

METEOROLOOIC.VL OnSERVATIONf.

M

W

;^

c«

1

MM^M ^tMiifiIlllsiIW3MEM^M

Oct Nov. Dec.

fr, T, ^ ??;s s?'3 :S

r Hf

^ « S S 2? a S

S P4 «t>

1 1 1 III II 1

1 1 1

•fl •?! -i? -,'1 •?? -51 •?:•

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

5 -; !3 ?>'2y, 5 5 «?

.-J 33

», 0 3 P" ffi S P-

11 o 11

« .1- ■ r) . rr — .- . 1-: n • i-j

7171 II 1

7 1-

••f "j- •« -i -S -^ -fi

'''ill!

P.1 pH p^
1 1 1

S iT ?i SS?^ 5'>?

r, as

.0 « 9 r5 ? !2 p-

W.3 11

F^ f— 1— f-1 fH

• sv • -< l«

1

• iH ■© .p.* •;> -pH .11 ..fi
II II

1

Sept.

r^ p- ^ 11 p- «

'. r . r T"* T r
51 :i 11 Vim 11 »i

• '- '''r'-j:

p^ p.1

11 ph i-i ii

PH ll'a

1S

«? ?? Sr; S?ii?

i.o

•J ■/. 11 0

1

11 ■Ji'w

"r^ •§? • -^i? -iiif.r, •

• • • S

■ -i? • • •?? "S • • •J'J •

• -1? -^P.

^S S fiS ?i:???

•ti

5 ^ 1?

r- 0

. — ir. . . j> ■ •}■ 1.. . p- 1- 1, .

• • • •:=?

. . t^ . . .15 . y- . . .11 .

*S ' *co

1
ly. June.

^5 PH .H t .• to p." PH

■»

t>. •• p- pH
« 11 X Js n

1-5 PH

M 11 s? e? '.■> -.* «

* ' ' 'm

• 'T^ •?=' Ti ST • • 'il •

(y) ?5 »c r» n 10 t-

C/ll 11 r^ 11 0 to If3

0

0 lO "f" n
-< c^ i~ w 00

ij e> 1

<»

11

.Ti

110

•J

If3

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031

II.— TEMPEKATURE OF THE SEA, &c.

1. Tables of TEMrERAxuitEs of tlie Sea at Various Depths
below the Surface, taken between 1749 ami 1868. Collated
by Professor Prestavicii, F.R.S.

The first experiments were made by bringing np water by
means of a bucket with valves ; this was employed by Scoresby,
who showed that in the seas around Spitzbergen, while at the
surface the temperature varied from 29° to 42°, at depths of from
2,000 to 4,000 feet the temperature was generally about 34° or 36°.
The apparatus was improved by Lenz, and remarkable results
were obtained by him in Kotzebue's expedition in 1823. Sir John
Ross sometimes used Six's thermometers, and at others took the
temperatures of the silt from the bottom. Six's thermometers
were also used by Parry and on most subsequent expeditions.

The observations made in the Mediterranean with these instru-
ments, which were very probably protected by an outer coating,
have a remarkably close agreement with those recently made by
Dr. Carpenter.

The experiments of Scoresby, Martins, and Ross show that in
Polar regions the temperature at depths is higher than the
average surface temperature, and this applies to Arctic and
Antarctic regions. From the experiments of Ross, Sabine, and
Parry, this rule is not found to hold good in Baffin's Bay, where
the temperature falls from 30° and 32° at the surface to 29° and
28° '5 at the greatest depths attained.

The facts show that at depths in the tropical seas the tempera-
ture is about 34° or 35° F., and Lenz has shown that this could
only be maintained by a constant slow under current from the
poles to the equator, and has also shown, by making observations,
that a belt of cooler water exists at the equator, and that the
temperature at equal depths is lower at the equator than a few
degrees to the north or south of it. He concluded that this arose
from the circumstance that the deep-seated Polar waters there
met and rose to the surface.

As bearing out this, he showed that the waters in the same
zone were of loAver specific gravity, which was also noticed by
Humboldt : —

" Lenz shows that in the Arctic Ocean the batliymetrical
isotherm of 35° is deepest on the west of Spitzbergen, while nearer
Greenland, and again nearer Norway, the deep waters are colder.
The several isothermal surfaces of 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°, and 80° are
then traced southward, attaining their niaximuni depth between
50° and 40° latitude, and rising thence towards the equator.

" Taking another zone on the western side of the Atlantic, from
Baffin's Bay to the Efjuator, he shows that the highest isotherms

mm

p.

M:^k

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632

TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA, ETC.

■T *

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arc not prolonged so fur north as on the first line, anrl that
the water at the bottom of the Bay is colder than in the Spitz-
bergen seas, approaching much nearer that of its maximum
density and of its point of congelation ; Avhence he concludes
that tins is the main source of supply of tlic deep-seated cold
waters in the Atlantic, Avhich, after attainino; their greatest depths
between latitudes 40^^ to 50° N., arc found 3,000 to 4,0C0 feet
nearer the snrfjice on approaching tlie Equator."

2. Specific Giiavity of Si:a-Watek. — J. Y. Buchanan.

In No. 160 of the Proceedings of the Royal Society (just
published) is a paper on the determination at sea of the siiecific
gravity of sea-water which well deserves attention, being the
result of Mr. Buchanan's experience on board II.M.S. Challenger.
He draws attention to the great care reqnired in the means used
for collecting the water and making the necessary measurements,
and for reducing the results, and describes the special instrument
(on the principle of Nicholson's hydrometer) which had been
made for him. and which he had used and tested by comparison
Avith other methods.

His mode of reduction by the graphical method in which he lays
down isothermal lines and forms a chart by means of which the
specific gravity of sea-water at any temperature may be at once
read oft' from its observed specific gravity at any other temperature,
is also well Avorthy of adoption.

3. FoKCiiiiAMMEu's Reseauciies on Sea-wateh and Cukrents.
(Report of British Association, 1846, p. 90.)

The greatest quantity of saline matter is found in the tropical
regions far from land where there is 36"6 parts of salt per 1,000
of salt Avatcr. The proportion diminishes on the western side of
the Gulf Stream and near any coast. Towards the north-east it
decreases slightly, but is pretty constant over the North Atlantic,
about 3o'7 per 1,000.

More than 100 miles S. of Greenland the proportion of salt is
3o-0 per 1,000 parts.

In Davis Straits, 40 miles from land, 32'o per 1,000, and this
is nearly the proportion in the Polar current.

In latitude 43^° N. and longitude 46}/ W., it is 33-8 per 1,000.
This points to the fact that the vapour rising in tropical regions is
condensed in Polar regions and flows back in the form of Polar
currents, so that more Avater flows aAvay from than toAA'ards the
Doles.

[This seems clearly indicated by Parry's rapid drift to the
soutliAvard off' Spitzbergen, Avhere some portion of the influence
of the Gulf Stream might be supposed to extend to prevent such
a southerly drift.]

The Avater of different seas may contain more or less salt, but
the relative proportion of its constituent saline i)ait3 changes very
little.

TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA, ETC.

633

l!^ I

. CUKREXTS.

on of salt is

00, and tliis

10,000 to 1,188

Comparing the sea in tUflxncnt parts, tlie proportion between
chlorine and sulphuric acid —
In the Atlantic is -
In the sea ' letwccn the Faroe Isles,

Iceland, and Greenland-
In the German Ocean
In Davis Strait - . -

In the Kattegat - - -

j-i*

10,000 to 1,193
10,000 to 1,191
10,000 to 1,220
10,000 to 1,240

The propoi'tion of sulphuric acid increases near shores.

4. SuiiFACE Temperatuee of Sea-Watkk.

The mean monthly values from hourly observations in \i\\\
Rensselaer Harbour, at a depth of 4 feet were : —

1853, September, 29°' 1, October 28° -8.
From November to March, 28° '7.

1854, April, 28° -8, May, 28° '9.
„ June, 30°- 3, July, 32°- 3.
„ August, 31"- 8, September, 31°- 3, October, 30''- 9.

" ■ 0.

After November 1854 the readings remained constant at 29^

5.

Measuring the SrECiFic Gravitv of Ska Water.
zweite dcutsche Nordpolarfahrt, vol. ii. p. 667.)

iDie

V

A very complete series of determinations of the specific gravity
of sea-water at the surface and at various depths Avas made by
Dr. Borgen with a very delicate glass hydrometer. A full account
of the results is given in the excellent record of ]\I. Koldewey's
Expedition to East Greenland. The instruments were tested at
Gottingcn by Professor Kohlrausch before the Expedition sailed.
In working out the i-esuUs the temperature +15'^ C, or 59° F.,
was taken as the standard temperature, and the tables of Dr. Gerlach
on the specific gravities of salt solutions of different strengths and
temperatures (Freiberg, 1859) were employed. For other tem-
peratures than 4-15° C., a correction was required for the change
of volume of the glass.

As these tables will be useful for working out the results of
any observations which may be made on the specific gravity of
sea-water, and will at once give the relative strength of the salt-
water when its temperature is known ; the portion of them which
may be required is added to the Manual, and also the table of
corrections for the change of volume of glass for different tem-
peratures.

To make an observation, the reading of the hydrometer must
be taken and also the. temperature of the water ; multiplying the
observed reading of the hydrometer by the correction for the
observed temperature, and substracting the result from the reading
of the hydrometer, we get the Rpecific gravity at 15° C. ; on
referring to the table of strengths of solution the per-ccntagc of
salt in the sea is obtahied.

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634

TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA, ETC.

Strkngth of Salt Solution.

Temperature,

(C entigrade

Scale.)

Distilled
Water.

Salt Solutions.

Volume
of Glass

1

Hydro-

1 per cent. 2 per cent.'S per cent.[4 per cent. 5 per cent.

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0

1-0007

1-0083

1-0159

1-0285

1-0312

1-03877

0-999612

1

1-0007

1-0083

1-0169

1-0235

1-0311

1-0386

0-999638

2

1-0008

1-0084

1-0169

1-0234

1-0310

1-0385

0-999664

8

1-0009

1-0084

1-0159

1-0234

1-0309

1-0384

0-999690

4

1-00092

1-0084

1-0159

10233

1-0308

1-0383

0-999716

6

1-0009

1-0083

1-0158

1-02.32

1-0307

1-03815

0-999741

6

1-0008

1-0083

1-0157

1-0231

1-0305

1-0380

0-999767

7

1-0007

1-0082

I'OieO

1-0230

1-0304

1-0378

0-999793

8

1-0007

1-0081

1-0155

1-0229

1-0303

1-0377

0-999819

9

1-0006

1-0080

1-0154

1-0228

1-0301

1-0375

0-999845

10

1-00058

1-0079

1-0153

1-0226

1-0300

1-03737

0-999871

11

1-0005

1-0078

1-0151

1-0225

1-0298

1-0371

0-999897

12

1-0004

1-0077

1-0150

1-0223

1-0296

1-0369

0-999922

18

1-0002

1-0075

1-0148

1-0221

1-0294

1*0367

0-999948

14

1-0001

1-0074

1-0147

1-0219

1-0292

1-0365

0-999974

16

1-0000

1-0072

1-0145

1-0217

1-0290

1-03623

1-000000

The following table contains the corrections for the change of
volume of the Hydrometer:

Temperature.

Reduction.

i Temperature.

Reduction.

Temperature.

Reduction.

o
0

-0-0016

!

i 5

-0-0013

10

-0*0009

1

16

6

13

11

7

2

16

7

12

12

5

3

15

8

11

13

3

4

14

9

09

14

2

The observations are divided into four sets —
(1.) Those in the North Sea 60° N. lat.
The North Atlantic.
The Polar Sea to the border of the ice.
The Ice-bound sea.

and corresponding

gravities

strengths

of

(2.)
(3.)

(4.)
The mean specific
solution were —

(1) 1-02545 (2)/ 1-02594 (3)1 f 1*02493 (4)/ 1 -02411
3-511 \ 3-578 \ 3-439 \ 3-326

Observations were also made at various points along the coast
of East Greenland in July and August 1870, which showed that
after the melting of the snow the water collected contained only
about 2 per cent, of salt.

Observations were also made on the increase of specific gravity
with the depth, which show some remarkable changes in different
parts of the Atlantic and the Polar Sea.

A useful table is also given in Die zweite deutsche Nordpolar-
fahrt, vol ii., p. 697,

comparing the summer temperatures at

almost all Polar stations in Greenland, Arctic America, and Russia
where observations have been mado.

ler cent.

I '03877

1-0386

1*0385

I- 0384

L-0383

I '03815

L'0380

1-0378

L-0377

L'0375

L- 03737

L'0371

L-0369

L'0367

L'0365

L- 03623

Vohimo
of Glass
Hydro-
meter,

0-999612
0' 999638
0' 999664
0' 999690
0'999716
0' 999741
0-999767
0-999793
0' 999819
0-999845
0-999871
0-999897
0-999922
0-999948
0-999974
1-000000

the change of

ure.

Reduction.

-0*0009
7
5
3
2

TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA, ETC, 635

6. Specific Gravity of Sea Water (McClintock).
{Appendix to Record of Voyage of^^ Fox" p. iii.)

In this Appendix arc contained the specific gravities of sea
water ; remarks on the state of the ice and on aurora and atmo-
spheric phenomena.

The sp. gr. of surface water fell from I • 0^7 on the 9tli of Aug.
1857 to 1*0208 on the 10th, when the yacht was surrounded by
icebergs.

On Sept. 5th sp. gr. of sea at surface

in 25 fathoms
50 „

88

)>

>>

1 ' 0265
1*0290
1-0292
r0302

Temp.

28-8

29-0

29-0

29-0

McClintock refers to freezing salt water and to evaporation
through ice (pp. 77, 78).

On a calm day the temperature of the external air being —33°,
but within a snow hut the thermometer stood 17° higher, the
difference being due to the transmission of heat through the ice
from the sea beneath. Evaporation goes on through ice from the
water underneath it.

On the coast of Lapland, much salt is made from the sea or
floe ice, not from fresh water, glacier or pack-ice.

In the drift down Baffin's Bay, McClintock remarks : —

Sept. — Melville Bay. Ice drift affected by local cause.

Dec. — In mid-channel a tendency to drift westward.

Feb. and March. — Drifted parallel to the Greenland shore.

April. — Ice deflected eastward by land to the west. Rapid
increase of drift. Could not ascertain the existence of current.

A table of the winds and ice-drifts is given on p. 110.

•li:

'm

.1-

;i ■: 1

■if- ;■* ■:,'?.

III.— PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ICE.

strengths of

{

1-02411

3-326

ng the coast

showed that

>ntained only

Bcific gravity
s in different

3 Nordpolar-
peratures at
I, and Russia

1. First Grinnell Expedition under Comjiander De Haven
(1852). Forms of Ice. By Dr. Kane.

De Haven, in his drift through Lancaster Sound and Baffin's
Bay, met with some very singular cases of the bending of large
blocks of ice.

In one case, a table of ice, 4 feet thick, 18 feet long, and 15 broad,
was curved so as to form a well-arched bridge across a water
chasm. It had evidently reared high in the air, and then gra-
dually bent over.

In another case, a straight block of rectangular section and
50 feet long resting on other blocks near its two ends, Avas bent
down by its own weight so as to form the arc of a circle.

[The change of form produced in ice by pressure or by its own
weight is due to the fact that the temperature of the melting point
of ice is different under different pressures. Under pressure ice is

■^s

'[. '"

f^-r^

|t'' ,.

C:3G

PHYSICAL PItOrERTIES OF ICE.

*n

■ 31-

H.\

mi

m

meUed below 32^ F. ; so that if pieces of ice rather below 32° F. be
l)l}ice(l in a mould and pressed, the portions of the ice Avhich press
jigaiust one another will melt, and so the pressure will be relieved.
In consequence of the removal of the pressure, the water will fret, v
again, since its temperature is below 32^ F., and the pieces will be
irozen together and take up a new form ; this may be again
moulded in the same way into new forms in consequence of the
altcrnato melting of the ice by pressure, and its regelation when
the pressure is removed.]

(Reference should l>o made to Tyndall's " Glaciers of the Alps "
on this and on other questions connected Avith glacier-ice.)
In his narrative of the voyage, Dr. Kane says : —
"In Wellington Channel our ice had not acquired its full
firmness and tenacity ; its structure Avas granular and almost
spongy, its mass infdtrated with salt water, and its plasticity such
that it crumbled and moulded itself to our form under pressures
which would otherwise have destroyed us.

" By the time we had reached the middle of Barrow's Straitj
and the winter's midnight of December had darkened around usj
our thermometers iutlicating a mean of 15° and 20° below zero, the
ice attained a thickness of three feet, with an almost jihity hard'
nvss, and a spluttert/ fracture at right angles to its horizontal
plane. Such ice was at its surfaces completely fresh, and, when
tested with nitrate of silver, gave not the slightest discolouration.";
(Chapters XLII. and XLIII. contain an account of remarkable
changes in the floe-ice in Batiin's Bay).

Dr. Kane discovered that the floes "which had formed in
" mid-winter at temperatures below — 30 were still fresh and pure,
" while the floes of slower growth, or of the early and late portions
" of the season, were distinctly saline. Indeed, ice which only
" two months l)efore I had eaten with pleasure was now so salt
'' that the very snow which covered it was no longer drinkable."

"Another clement in the disintegration of the floes, of which
this was but a preliminary process, struck me forcibly a little
later in the season. The invasion of the capillary structure of the
ice by salt water from below Avould act both chemically and
mechanically in destroying its structure ; but I am led to believe
that, in addition to the actions of simple infiltration, forces allied
to endosmosis are called into play."

" The infiltration of saline water through the ice assists the
process of disintegration. The water formed by surface or sun
thaw is, by the peculiar endosmitic action which I believe I have
mentioned elsewhere, at once rendered salt, as was evident from
Baume's hydrometers and the test of the nitrate of silver. The
surface crust bore me readily this evening at a temperature of 21°
and 19°, giving no evidences of thaw. Beneath, for two inches
it was crisp and fresh. As I tried it lower, cutting carefully with
my bear-knife, it became spongy and brackish j at eight inches
markedly so ; and at and below twelve, salt-water paste. On the
other hand, all my observations, and I have made a great many,
prove to me that cold, if intense enough, will, by its unaided

PITYSrCAL niOPERTIES OF ICE.

637

action, independent of percolation, solar heat, depending position,
or even depth of ice, produce from salt water a fresh, pure, and
drinkuble element."

2. Ice Observations. Uy Sir Edwakd Belcher.
The Formation of Floc-Ice. (Sir Edward Belcher.)

Some interesting experiments were made on the rate and
mode of formation of the tloe or salt-water ice by inserting a
wooden tube, with two ojjposite sides [)artially open, into the ice.
The results from November to March, recorded on page 123,
Vol. I. show an average increase of ice of half an inch a day
solely from below. Observations of thickness were made every
10 days, and compared with the recorded temperatures.

After the ice-gauge was raised in March 1854, obscrvatioris
were made on the in-shore ice to discover when the ice-crystals
ceased to attach themselves to the under surface. From Novem-
ber 5th to March 25th the thicknei^s had increased from 18 to
68 inches.

Again on April 9th (p. 1()1) the thickness of the ice was found
to be 66 inches. The ice had not oidy ceased to form, but the
loicer portion of two inches in deiith was entirely composed of
loosely cohering separate crystals yielding easily to the pressure
of the finger. The ice in contact with these crystals Avas also in
a rotten state.

By experiments made l)y rapidly lowering bottles fitted with a
plug of loose cotton to a considerable depth so as to bring up
water from that depth, the water was found to be full of
crystalline stars of ice.

These results entirely agreed v.'ith experiments made on sea-
water in glass cylinders at 50° F., and submitted to a temperature
of — 24° F. The crystallization commenced from below. As the
freezing point was approached, peculiar stars were produced, and
rose to the surface where they became attached to and formed the
general mass. These stars were perfect detached crystals, similar
to those met with in the atmosphere.

Experiments are also described in Vol. I. (p. 150) intended to
measure the amount of evaporation from ice, and cubes of ice
from different layers were exposed to the upper-deck temperature
during winter, and weighed at intervals to determine the changes.
The water which thawed from these cubes was bottled for future
examination, and the atmospheric air in well-dried bottles, and
covered with leather and bladder, was also obtained.

In the Appendix at the end of Vol. II. of the Last of the Arctic
Voyages will be found records of experiments to ascertain the
amount of evaporation from cubes of salt-water ice from diflferent
depths in the floe; also an Analysis of the Water, and a most
interesting Account of Observations on the Forms of and Changes
in Crystals of Ice and Snow, Avitli magnificent pictures of the
remarkable and, in some cases, complicated forms which were
observed.

"i

V-

> !5 ■
■ IS v.

Hi \

feii-'

^<'mmmaiam^.^^^.

038

niYSICAL TROrERTIES OF ICE.

3. The Composition of Sea- Water niul of Salt-Watek or
Floe-Ice. (Vol. II. p. 293.)

In the Appendix are also tables giving the composition of sea-
water and of the melted sea-water or floe-ice from difterent depths
of the floe in Wellington Channel, taken during the period at
which it became solid for the season.

The waters contain large quantities of carbonates of lime and
magnesia, no doubt due to the presence of those substances iu
rocks in the neighbourhood. Water taken at spring-tide from a
depth of 10 fathoms, contained more chloride of sodium and less
sulphate of lime than the water 4 feet below the ice, and contains
sulphate of magnesia in place of chloride or bromide of magnesia.
The water of the ice is obviously derived from land sources, but
the amount of common salt shows that some sea salts are inter-
mixed with the natural salts derived from the land.

Analysis of the Arctic Floe : in 1,000 grains of Water.

r|

M- ■

No. 1. No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 6.

Si)ecific gravity -

Sesquioxide of iron and phosphate
Insoluble lime
Soluble lime
Insoluble magnesia -
Soluble magnesia -
Sodium . _ -

Potassium - - -

Chlorine . - -

Sulphuric acid
Carbonic acid

1-004

1-006

1^007

•010

•050

•010

trace

•009

•032

•078

•142

•113

•024

•041

•043

•124

•363

•471

1-739

1-933

2^708

•594

•096

•128

2-723

3-476

4-424

•372

•472

•575

•052

•128

-140

1-007

•008
•025
-103
-052
-360

2-286
-096

3-950
-497
•154

From Northumberland Sound, lat 76° 52' N., long. 97° AV.
No. 1. — From the under 6 inches of the floe.
No. 3. — From the upper 6 inches of the floe.
All collected on October 24, 1852.

The Composition according to the preceding Table.

No.l.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 6.

Sesquioxide of iron and phosphate -

•010

•050

•010

-008

Carbonate of lime - - -

trace

•016

■058

-046

Sulphate of lime - - -

•189

•344

•274

•250

Carbonate of jnagnesia

-050

•110

-090

•110

Chloride of magnesium

•289

•859

1-122

•855

Sulphate of potash - - -

•133

•220

•284

•220

Sulphate of soda

•355

•300

•504

•442

Chloride of sodium - - -

4-132

4 •668

6^129

5^454

Total residue

5^158

6^567

8-471

7^385

Residue by evaporation

5^400

6-600

8-340

7 •280

AVatf.u or

No. 6.

1^007

•008

•025

•103

•052

•360

2 •286

•096

3^950

•497

•154

' No. 6.

1

•008

•046

•250

•110

i -855

•220

•442

5^454

7^385

7-280

PHYSICAL rR0PEUTIE8 OF ICB.

Analysis of the Arctic 8ea Water.

639

No. 2.

No. 7.

Sesqnioxide of iron and phosphate

•010

•022

Tnsolvible lime

-

.

.

•027

•091

Soluble limo

-

-

-

r260

•474

Insoluble maguesia

-

-

-

•110

•081

Soluble maguesia -

-

-

-

•571

•491

Sodium

..

-

.

10-85;5

—

Potassium -

-

.

.

•384

•432

Chlorine

.

.

17 950

17^585

Sulphuric acid

.

•

•

r986

2-040

Carbonic acid

-

-

-

•284

•260

No. 2. — Four feet below ice.

No. 7. — Ten fathoms, at spring tide.

Composition of the Sea Water of Wellington Channel,
calculated from the preceding Table.

Sesquioxide of iron and phosphate
Carbonate of lime -
Sulphate of lime
Chloride of calcium
Carbonate of magnesia
Sulphate of magnesia
Chloride of magnesium
Bromide of magnesium
Sulphate of potash =•
Chloride of sodium

Specific gravity

A comparison of the results of the analysis of the floe-ice water
with that from the Straits of Dover, analysed by Professor Guthrie,
shows that the amount of solid residue after evaporation of the
Dover water is nearly the same in amount as from the ujiper
6 inches of floe-ice in Wellington Channel.

In May 1854 experiments were made to ascertain the pro-
tecting power of snow from cold. Thermometers at 32° F. were
inserted .horizontally into holes close to the floe in 4 feet of snow
and 3 feet above it at a dej)th of 1 foot from the top of the
snow bank. After 10 days that at the bottom of the bank in
contact with the ice indicated, -|- 14° ; the other indicated -f 2° ;
while the external temperature had been — 1 9°, and the mean + 2-5°,
so that one foot of snow was equivalent to an increase of tempera-
ture of 21° ana four feet of snow to 33° F. After 10 days more,
at one foot deep, the temperature Avas + 8°, and at four feet deep it
was 16°; the minimum had been —11°, and the mean -f- 11-19°.

\^

if!

iir

640

PHYSICAL rUOPEIlTIES OP ICK,

i1

ml

X

4. IcR Oiisi:uvATio\s. By Dii. W.VLKEU, (luriiifij tlio Voyage of
tlio " Fox." (From the Journal of tlio Uoyal Duhlin Society,
Jan. 1860.)

jNly attention was directed to the analysis of ice, and the elmngcrt
])ioducod in sea-water when freozinfj, by the various and contra-
dictory opinions held by different authorities. Sir Chai'les Lyell,
in his "Principles of CJeology," p. 96, states that sea-water ice is
ftcsh, havinnf lost its salt by the decomposing process of freezing.
Dr. Sutherland, in his '* Journal of Penny's Voyage," says that
sea-water ice is salt, containing about a quarter part of the salt
of the original water, the i)roportion depending upon the tempera-
ture ; it being very probable that the lower the tempei'ature is the
more salt the ice will contain. At variance with both of these.
Dr. Kane asserts in his " Arctic Expedition," pp. 377, 38.5, 392,
that, although at some temperatures and at some small thicknesses
the ice niai/ be salt, yet, " if the cold be sufticiently intense, indo-
" pendent of percolation, solar heat, depending position, or even
" depth of ice, there will be formed from salt water ii fresh, pure,
" and drinhihle clement." Baron Wrangell ("Le Voyage an
Nord dc la Siberie") mentions that the salt left by evaporation on
the surface of the ice is mixed with the snow that falls upon it,
and is eaten as salt with food, though bitter and aperie t.

Five diflferent sets of observations were carried out during the
winters of 18o7-8 as we drifted down Baffin's Bay, Davis' Strait.

1st. To observe the changes in speeific gravity of sea-Avater iee
formed under different degrees of cold.

2nd. Forming fresh water from salt (or sea) water, by freezing
the latter, and thawing and re-freezing the ice tluis formed,
continued one, two, or three times, as necessary, at different
temperatures.

3rd. Converse of last, forming brine from sea-water by freezing
at different temperatures, and re-freezing the residue.

4th. Specific gravity, &c., of saline efflorescence at different
temperatui'es expressed from sea-water ice in its early process of
formation.

5th. Specific gravity of ordinary ice of winter formation at
close of winter, taking specimens at different depths.

On the 7th of September 1857, we were frozen in whilst
endeavouring to pass through Melville Bay, and until the mouth
of April 1858 our ship was immoveably fixed in the ice. During
all the intervening time I have watched and tested the growtli
and condition of the ice formed, taking advantage of all oppor-
tunities which offered, and filling up every blank, as fjir as possible,
by artificial means. An abstract of the changes produced are
here given, with tables of the observations.

V\lien the temperature of the water and air falls below 28° "5,
sea-water exposed Avill in a short time be covered with a thin and
almost pellucid pellicle of ice, of a very plastic nature, allowing of
a great amount of bending, curving, and such like accommodations
to external circumstances. In proportion to the temperature,
this covering becomes thicker, and presents a vertically striated

IMJYSICAL PROPKUTIES OF ICE.

641

.1

;er by freezing

formation at

appearance, idcnticiil with that of sal ammoniae, gradually dis-
appearing as the mass thickens and gi>(s mort; comj)act; still, tho
lowest portion, or that most recently formed, always presents this
aspect. When this pcUiele or covering becomes of the thickness
of a quarter of an inch, or more, small white crystals ai)pcar on its
surface, at first sparse and widely separated, but gradually forming
into tufts, and ultimately covering tho whoK; smfuce. This may
be called '* etllorescence." This also ditfers as to it>3 appearance,
quantity, and quality, according to tho temperature of the air at
the time; its trm^ nature and the purpose it I'ullils will be; seen
presently. For tho first few hours or days the increase of tho
thickness of tho ico is rapid, on account of the comparative
exposure to tho coldness of tho atmosphere, but afterwards the rate
of growth is much slower and more uniform.

In this way is formed the great body of ice known as " the floe,"
or " great jiack " extending approximately from 78° to Go° N.
latitude, about 900 miles in longtli and 200 miles broad, enclosing
an area of about 500,000 square miles. Dr. Kane stales that the
average thickness of this ice in 18oO-.")l was 8 feet; during oui
drift in 18o7-o8 it was o feet. This body of ice is not all level ;
its otherwise uniform level is disturbed by hummocks, tiieso being
produced by the piling up of the tables of the floe by pressure ;
such accumul.'itions not only appear above the surface of tho floe,
but exist also underneath it to a far greater degree, so that a
larger quantity of ico is formed annually than the mere superficial
extent of the floe would lead one to suppose, and at the same time,
on account of their abundant presence, materially increasing its
average thickness. The ice thus formed varies in specific gravity
according to the temperature at which it was frozen, the density
decreasing in proportion to the degree of cold; such decrease
being more apparent from tho freezing point of sea-water down to
zero, and from that becoming less evident, yet still ])rescnt. Yet
in no case (and my observations extend from below the freezing
point to —42°) could I obtain fresh water, tho purest being of
specific gravity 1*00.5, and affording abundant evidence of the
presence of salts, especially chloride of sodium, rendering it unfitted
for culinary purposes, much less for photographic use. Table No. I
gives the observations on the changes of specific gravity of the ice
formed under different degrees of cold ; this is surface ice, but i s
this ice increases in thickness and becomes exposed to greater degrees
of cold, it gradually becomes more compact and close, and part of
the remaining salt is expressed, so that, by the termination of the
season, this same ice is somewhat fresher than when it was formed.
This is shown by the observation on tho loth of January and the
22nd of March 1858. All the floe which annually drifts out of
Davis' Straits is not formed at the same temperature, as wide
cracks and lanes appear abundantly at times throughout the
whole winter, so that parts of the surface arc formed at + 10° or
so, and others — 20° or — 40°. I say parts of the surface^
because that portion first formed acts as a covering to tho
remainder from the cold, so that, proportionately, there is but
36122. S S

!^4il

.lUtj'

Uatf^-r-jr

642

rilYSlCAL ruOPERTIKS OP ICK,

i-

mi

i?

little formed ut u low tomperatiirc ; l)iit, no mnttor nt what
tempernturc formed, ii [mvi of the lemaining salt is expressed ns tho
ice contracts and Ijeconics closer.

Having thus found that sea-water iee loses some of its saline
constituents, I en(h'avoured to find out what hccame of the
remainder. I have* above spoken of the white er3'stal3 formed
on tho surface, called efflorescence ; on testing::; this, 1 found that
it contained a (ionsiderablo portion of the (jrcted salts. This
efflorescence formed at o// temperatures, i'rom a little below the
freezing point of water to the lowest temperature observed ; this
also in character, density, and amount, varied with tho t(!mpera-
ture at Avhich formed, its density innrasinff according to the
degree of cold. In the act of freezing, some of the saline particles
were squeezed out of the ice and forced to the surface, there
becoming crystallized if the cold were sufKcieutly intense, but,
if not, only part forming crystals, the remainder forming a pasty
semi-fluid understratum. This efflorescence appeared, sooner or
later, according to the temperature, but generally commenced
when the ice was about j|ths of an inch thick ; from this period
until the ice was from 4 to 9 inches thick, more or less was forced
out; when it attained the latter thickness, this exudation ceased,
as the upper portion of the mass had now become too compact
and too consolidated to allow of its protrusion. At temperatures
above zero, the amount of efflorescence Avas small, not always well
crystallized, and scattered over the surface, being slow of appear-
ance, and taking a long time to crystallize ; whereas at low
temperatures there was an abundant crop, well crystallized, and
covering thickly the whole extent of surface. To test the
residuary mass of water after the ice had been formed, so as to
determine the amount, if any, of salts expressed into it, set No. 3
was instituted. By exposing sea-water to different temperatures
in a large tub, and testing the residue after the ice was taken off,
I found it contained some considerable portion of the expressed
salts ; this portion being dependent on the temperature and length
of exposure. On many of these occasions I found on the surface
of the ice a pasty fluid, being the liquid efflorescence not yet
crystallized. Baron Wrangell, in his Travels, noticed this extra
saltness of the crystals found on the surface, but attributed it to
evaporation. Now, this cannot be the case, as evaporation is less
in proportion to the cold, whereas the amount and density of the
efflorescence increased in proportion to the cold. By exposing
the residuum of the first freezing of salt-water to a second, a
residue was obtained, containing much more salt, and by a con-
tinuance of freezing this residue or its residue, a concentrated
brine was obtained, no limit being apparent, so far as my experi-
ments were made. This set of observations led to another. No. 2.
Finding that some of the salts were precipitated, I tried to form
fresh water by a similar exposure of sea-water, and, thawing and
exposing the ice thus formed three or more times, I succeeded in
obtaining water of a density of 1 • 0025 and 1 • 0020, these results
being dependent on the time of exposure andtem perature. Oppor-

I! I

il *

iMivsicAL i'uori:iM"ii:s or ici:.

G43

II

ttor nt what
[)i'ess«d fts llio

^ of its saline
}Cftmo of the
j'stals formed
, 1 found thrtt
I salts. This
ttlo below the
bserv('<l ; this

the t(fmpom-
nding to the
nlino particles
snrfttce, there

intense, but,
nning a pasty
reil, sooner or
y commenced
»m this period
ess was forced
(hit ion ceased,
0 too compact
t temperatures
^t always well
low of appear-
hereas at low
ystallized, and

To test the
rmed, so as to
o it, set No. 3

temperatures

was taken off,
the expressed
ire and length
on the surface
2enco not yet
cd this extra
ttriVmted it to
oration is less
lensity of the
By exposing
a second, a
nd by a con-
concentrated
as my experi-
nother. No. 2.
tried to form
, thawing and
succeeded in
these results
ture. Oppor-

tunities not always occurring during tlio winter of examining
the ice foinied naturally, I entlciuoured to till up tlut Itlanks by
artilicially tVi'c/.ing >ea water. The residts gi\en in the tublu may
not seem as unilorm as wouM be expected, e()usf(|ueut on the
amount of enU)ieseenee not being always crystallized, and ad-
hering to the ice at the tinjo of thawing and testing. Still, from
the results obtained, and the eompesition of the etilorcseeneo and
the residui', the conclusion nuiy with propriety be educed, that,
an the timjnntttor thcndst.^ from -\- 2H 'o to tin loinst i/mouut
of iiatuial I'olil^ the ire formed will, in n/n((l times, <ilso (l( rrea.se
in density and inerease in thiehness. Must likely there will be a
point at which this decrease in density will be in a degree limited,
tine to the rapid increjise of thii'kness under extreme cold (say
— GO^ or — 70 ) in a short si)acc of time.

I have before stated that we were frozen in on the 7th of
September 1857 ; the new ice then forming around us was of
spccilic gravity 1 0235 (30); on the loth of January 1858 this
same surface ice was specific gravity 1 '0102 (30 ) ; on the 22nd of
^larch 1858 specific gravity 1'0()78 (30') ; so that this surface
ice, which was exposed for G.^ months to a tempeiature varying
from +28 "2 to — 47 , had, by contraction, sciueezed out so much
<;xtra of its remaining saline constituents.

Set No. 4 gives the results obtained from the testing of st)eeific
gravity of efflorescence formed at dilTerent temperatures. If the
temperature at which the efllorescenee was exijressed were not
sufficiently low to freeze it, it remainetl for a time semi-fluid and
pasty, only producing crystals on its surface ; but as the cold
increased, all the quantity squeezed out becanjc ciystalliue. At
first, the spots of emergence of those crystals were few and widely
separated, but as the ice increased in thickness, the efflorescence
also increased in quantity, and, after collecting in tufts, ultimately
spread o\ er the whole ; except the temperatme were low, these
crystals generally presented a moist appearance, but if below — 10°
they were always dry and hard. These crystals, from below
+ 28^*5 to —25% presented almost the same form, the changes
being very slight and dependent on the amount of aggregation,
the original being in the form of a broad feather, with [dumes
and secondary plumes branching off these ; length varying from
^ to 2 inches, breadth from ^ to 1 inch. But at and below the
temperature of —25°, the crystals presented a very different form,
having the appearance of long acicular fibres, varying from ^ to
2 inches in length, of no definite structure, but always fibrous,
from -^jr to ^^5 of an in ii in diameter, sprouting up from a basic
tuft very like pure crystals of " eaffeinc.'^ Whether this change
in form in the crystal is dependent on the cold, or greater amount
of saline ingredients present, I cannot say.

When the sun-rays in spring become sufficiently intense, the
exposed surfaces of snow, ice, or efflorescence, begin to melt.
During the winter, as cracks and lanes of Avater appear in the
Jioe, these are covered with ice, efflorescence, and some little
snow. The melting point of this niixtiu-e of efflorescence and

H s 2

ill-' '■ ■

•*

644

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ICF,

i« ;

Know is much lower tlmn that of sea-water ice, the deijree de-
pendins^ upon the amount of salts contained. Consequently, in
these lanes docs the disintefj^rating action first commence ; the
sun's rays acting on this mass, thaw if, and form a kind of sludge
on top ; afterwards cxosmosis and endosmosis commence, the ice
acting as the membrane between the salt water below and the
.sludgy pools above ; in time this intervening ice becomes per-
meated and infiltrntcd with salt, less buoyant, and thus soon
becomes a prey to the eroding action of the water and the thaw-
ing power of tlie sun. Thus the new lanes and bay-ice are first
broken up, allowing more play to the water on the remaining
thicker mass, and at the same time giving greater advantage to
the action of the Avind, which drifts it to a warmer situation,
where it is soon reduced in bulk, and gradually wastes away. But
not only do these lanes experience the effect of the eflflorescence,
but also the main body of the floe, but not to so great an extent,
as there is more snow mixed Avith it, and the intervening mem-
brane is much thicker. The portions of the hummocks which
were below the general under surface of the floe having become
water-eaten, honeycombed, and detached, now make their appear-
ance (under the name of tongue-pieces), and act the part of
■wedges, keeping separate the different fields and masses of ice. I
have said these tongue pieces are Vv'ater-eaten and honeycombed.
The salts retained in the ice are not equally dispersed through it,
but are (if I might so speak) contained in cells, having aggregated
at the time of freezing ; as these cells are exposed to the thawing
power of the Avater beneath, they become melted much sooner than
the mass of the ice, less heat being required, and thus present the
honeycombed appearance seen by every one as they sail through
nips in the floe. The needle-ice spoken of by Parry and other
Arctic travellers over ice is due to the same cause, although that,
distinguished navigator says it depends on the drops of rain. I
have often seen it in early summer, before one drop of rain had
fallen, but when the sun had commenced to act on the surface of
the ice.

A word or two on the appearances seen when sea-water was
frozen in a capacious vessel. After, say, 12 hours' exposure,
when the ice Avas removed, it Avas found vertically striated, and
oftentimes divisible into two or more layers, the nnder-surfaco
])rcsenting a curious aspect, small lines of about half an inch long,
and in groups of four or six, reticulating, seemed to cover the
entire under-surface.

This occurred at all temperatures, and independent of length of
exposure and consequent thickness of ice. From the bottom of
the vessel thin plates of ice Avere seen protruding into the resi-
duary Avater, from ^ to 2^ inches long, and proportionately Avide.
These AA'crc found to be much fresher than the ice formed on top,
or the residue beloAv ; they completely studded the bottom of the
vessel. The appearance of these plates Avas not at all modified by
the varied density of the residue in which they Avere formed, or
even the density of the primary solution ; but of coarse their

v\ ■-.

^ defjree de-
equently, in
mence ; the
nd of sludge
Slice, the ice
ow and the
ccomes per-
thiis soon
d the thaw-
-ice are first
0 remaining
idvantage to
jr situation,
; away. But
ffloresceneo,
it an extent,
eninu mem-
Qoeks which
i^lng become
heir appear-
the part of
?s of ice. I ■
)neycombed.
[ tlu'ough it,
) figgi'egated
he thawing
sooner than
present the
ail through
and other
lOugh that,
of rain. I
of rain had
surface of

water was
exposure,
triated, and
der-surface

inch Ion 2",

«... '

cover the

f length of
bottom of
the resi-
ately wide,
icd on top,
tom of the
lodified by
formed, or
arse their

rilYSICAL PKOrERTIES OF ICE.

645

;|.::..l

density varied with that of the solution in which they were found.
On breaking this artificial sea-water ice, as ■well as that naturally
formed whilst under two inches thick, I observed that it easily
separated into perpendicular lamiuie, thin, but not long; when
viewed with a magnifying glass, presenting the same appearanc^^i
as that of the plates just mentioned ; the markings noticed on
the under-surface being but the edges of these lamina, which,
being phiced side by side, presented a sal annnoniac appearance :
in fact, a mere lateral assemldage or building up of thin lamina:! of
ice, the increase being from below on the lower end and under
edge of these plates.

Perhaps the statement of Dr. Kane, that sea-water ice under
certain circumstances is completely free from salt, may be ex-
plained by the following facts and experiments. After om-
winter preparations had been commenced, and the pool of fresh
water (fiom melting snoAv) had been frozen over, the men sent
out to bring in snow for culinary purposes brought in some ice
instead ; this they obtained from some hummocks near the ship,
these hummocks being part of the formation of the previous
"winter's pack in which we were caught. This ice turned out to
be sufficiently fresh for all the purposes of domestic use. On
several occasions the party sent out for this ice, digging too deep
into the hummock, and not content with the surface pieces, founc^
that the ice was no longer fresh, but quite salt — this ice being a
continuation of the same hummock, and also of the previous
■winter's growth.

On the 12th and 13th of August 1857, whilst lying off Browne
Islands, and within about four miles of the glacier, suiTounded by
bergs, I noticed an appearance like oil on the surface of the
Avater ; en closer inspection and testing, this proved to be fresh
Avater fioating on the surface of the salt to the depth of tAvo or
three inches. The sun, beaming doAvn upon the bergs, hnd
melted the ice and snoAv ; this, running oft', tloated on the surface
and remained separate, so long as there Avas no Avind to mix and
agitate the fluids of different densities. To a combination of such
circumstances, Avith an after frciezing of this surface Avater, do
these fresh hummocks OAve their origin ; the Avater, being frozen
in this state, and afterAvards the ice elevated into hummocks
afforded us a " drinkable element " during the winter; and Avhen
the men had exhausted the supply of top-pieces, they, supposing
that all Avas alike, continued their labours, but Avere disai)pointed
in obtainiiij; salt-Avater ice instead of fresh. To make sure of
this, 1 took a tub of salt-water, and poured upon its surface, on a
glass plate, fresli Avater, to the thickne;-s of tAVO inches, and
alloAved the Avhole to freeze. On testing the upper two inches
of ice formed, I found it quite fresh, Avhil^t the under portion was
salt.

646

PHYSICAL TROPERTIES OF ICE,

No. 1.

Mamier of Ex-
posure.

Specific

Gravity wlien

exposed.

31

2-

3

si

s a.

H

tt

8

pH

53^

o

V- a<

M .

= ^;

£?'

5^*

■^ a

!■-

^-2

SpeL'ific
Gnivity of
Ice formed.

Specific
Gravity of
Residue.

A tub of salt water

A hole in the floe
A tub of sea water

A hole iu the floe -
A tub of sea water ■
A hole in the lloe •
A tub of sea water >
A hole in the floe ■
A tub of sea water

>• » ■

A hole in the floe -
A tub of sea water -

>i »f "

A hole in the floe -
A tub of sea water -

If t>

A hole in the floe -
Atubof sea water -
A hole in the floe -
A tub of sea water -

l-02fiO
1-0260
1-0265
1-0278
1-0278
1-0270
1-0265
1-0265
1-0-265
1-0265
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0-270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270
1-0270

(28°.. 5)

'28 -5)

•28 -5)

28 -5)

28 -5)

28 '5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(-28 -5)

(28 -5

(28 '5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

(28 -5)

28 -5)

28 -5)

28 -5)

(28 -5)

1

in.

in.

i —

+20-0

—

—

12

+18-0

6^-

X

12

+ 10-0

6

.7.

—

+ 3-0

—

If

12

Zero.

5i

2

12

- 5-5

5^

2?

12

- 7-5

y

2

12

- 7-0

—

24

12

- 8-0

05-

3J

—

- 8-0

3i

12

- 9-0

5^

3

21

-17-0

—

3f

12

-17-5

5^

2J

12

-18-0

31

3i

4

-23-0

^

12

-23-0

5^

3

12

-29-0

5i

2J

—

-30-0

—

2*

12

-32-0

Gi

2^

10

-35-0

6

3i

24

-35-0

—

4

6

-36-0

6

21

15

-40-0

—

3f

12

-40-0

54

3 j

1-0220
1-0200
1-0180
1-0160
1-0135
1-0130
1-0135
1-0130
1-0160
1-0105
1-0140
1-0105
1-0098
1-0103
1-0140
1-0155
1-0130
1-0115
1-0150
1-0095
1-0105
1-0085
1-0140
1*0095

1-0322 (28°)
i 1-0350 (-28 )

I 1-0375 (-28 )

1 1-0560 (27 )

! 1-0580 (-28 )

I

; 1-080 (28 )

j 1-0575 (30 )

1 0625 (28 )
1-0830 (28 )

1-0770 (30 )
1-0595 (80 )

1-0508
1-0545

1-040 (30 )
1-0060 (30 )

No. 2.

i

i I '

I: i

Manner of Ex-
posure.

Siiecific

Gravity when

exposed.

i

^-d

1 .'1

X

ci — ■

(H

%9

^%'-

'•s

^^'i^

S.C

- ci c S

STc^c e

'«'•

P-,^-

Sijeciflc
Gravity of
Ice formed.

Specific

Gravity of

Residue.

Exposed sea water
„ residue of
fonner experi-
ment.
Exposed sea water
„ residue of
former experi-
ment.
Exjiosed sea water
„ residue of
former experi-
ment.
Exposed sea water
„ residue of
former experi-
ment.
Exposed sea water
„ residue of
former experi-
ment.
Exposed sea water
„ residue of
former exjjeri-
ment.

1-0-278 (28°
1-0375 (:

1-0278 (-28° -5,
1-0560 (27)

1-0278 (28° -5)
1-0675 (28)

1-0270 (28° -5)
1-0025 (38)

1-0270 ('28° -5)
1-0830 (28)

1-0270 (-28° -5)
1-0770 (30)

1

12

5

Zero.

+ 3°

in.
5i
34

in.
2

12
5

- 5-5
-11

54
3

2f
1

12
5

- 9

-2

54
3

3

li

12
5

-17-5
-10

54
3

2i
1

12
2

-18

-18

Sa-
il

34

1

12
5

-23
-27

54
2

3

1-0135 (30°) , 1-0375 (28°)
1-0230 (-29 ) : 1-050 (30 )

1-0030
1-040

(30 ) I 1
(40 ) I 1

1-0560 (27 )
0850 (28 )

1-0140 (30 )
1-0475 ('«) )

1-0098 (30 )
1-0375 (40 )

1-0575 (28 )
1-102 (30 )

l-06'25 (28 )
1-0925 (30 )

1-0165 (40 ) ' 1'0830 (28
1-051 (40 ) I 1'12'25 (-26

1-015.-) (40 ) I 1-0770 (30 )
1-0535 (30 ) j 1-1-20 (40 )

Specific

Gra\it,v of

Rosidue.

1-0322 (28°)

1-0350 (28 )

1-0375 (28 )

1-0560 (27 )

1-0580 (-28 )

1-080 (28 )

1-0575 (30 )

1 0625 (28 )

l-08o0 (28 )

1-0770 (30 )

1-0595 (30 )

1-0508
1-0545

1-040 (30 )

) i 1-0660 (30 )

Specific

f

Gravity of

d.

Residue.

1-0375 (28°)
1-050 (30 )

1-0560 (27 )
1-0850 (28 )

1-0575 (28 )
1-102 (30 )

1-0625 (28 )
1-0925 (30 )

1-0830 (28 )
1-1225 (-26 )

) 1-0770 (30 )
) I 1-120 (40 )

rUYSICAL rROPERTlES OF ICE.

No. 2 — continued .

647

Manner of Ex-
posure.

i

s

H

3S-i

'A

ea

^^

•a

Specific

■■*-•

s >^

t

X .

Griivity when

o

t'^

o>

'i^.n

cxijoscd.

ti

s.-i

iS

-2 S

3 S
O en

9-^

0) =

■%^

a

EH

p-

H

Specific
Gravity of
Ico formed.

Specific

Gravity of

Residue.

Exposed sea water
residue of
experi-

former
ment.
Exposed

w.- It

former
ment.

Exposed
former
ment.

Exposed
former
ment.

Exposed

former
ment.

Exposed
former
ment.

Exposed
form er
ment.

sea water \
residue of
experi-

residue of
experi-

rosidue of
exi)eri-

sea water

residue of

experi-

rcsidue of
experi-

residue of
experi-

1-0270 (-28° -5)
1-0595 (30)

1-0265 (28° -5)
l-05i5 (28)

1-0750 (28)
1-0910 (28)

1-0265 (28° -5)
1-040 (28)

10490 (28)
1-061 (28)

'\

-29
-25

in.
5i

3

in.

23
13

10
3

-35
-35

3i

J

3

-36

1

2

-30

—

0
3

-.36
-36

6

2f
1

3

-36

—

5

■

-35

1-0130 (30 )
1-0480 (30 )

1-0095
1-0165

(40 )
(oO )

1*0460 (30 )

1-070

(30)

1-0085
1-0225

(30
(30 )

1-0340 (30 )

1-050

(50)

1-0595 (30 )
1-1070 (30 )

1-0545
1-0750

11!

1-0910 (28 )

1-1225 (-26 )

1-040 (28 )
1-0490 (28 )

1-061 (28 )

1-1175 (26 )

No. 3.

Manner of Ex-
posure.

Specific

Gravity wlien

exposed.

Expo-

o 1

Hours
sure.

£; o
S5

H

a!!

p-"lH'

-o

u

I.H

Sm

O

r/l

I

M

i-C:

S

41

it

^

X.

?.

Specific

Gravity of

Ico formed.

Specific

Gravity of

Residue.

A hole cut through

the floe.
Ice oft" last

A hole cut through

the floe.
Ice off last

A hole cut through

the floe.
Ice oft' last

jj ». - ■
A hole cut through

the floe.
Ice oi! last

» » "
Tub of sea water •
Ice oil last

1-0265 (28°) —

1-0105 (30 )

1-0055 (60

1-0045 (35

1-0270 (28*5

1-0110 (30 )

1-0055 (40 )

1-0015 (to )

1-0270 (28-5 )

1-0130 (30 )

1-0095 (30 )

1-0270 (28-5 )

1-0105 (70

1-0070 (70

1-0265 ('28-5

1-0150 (35

1-0097 (30

12
6
34
: 24

6
2

I 1

12
3

18

7

12

7

24;

in.

in.

- 8°

—

3i

- 9

- 1

+ 5

71

n

__

1

-17

3f 1

-20

54^

u '

-20

Ik

* ■

-20

i

i

-28

3i

-20

3f

1

-14

2

-20

—

3

-31

5^

24

-31-5

—

-32

6i

2i

-32

-33

—

1-0105 (30°)

1-0055 (60 )

1-0045 (35 )

1-0025 (30 )

1-0110 (30 )

1-0055 (40 )

1-0045 (40 )

1-0025 (30 )

1-0130 (30 )

1-0095 (30
1-00-20 (32
1-0105 (70

1-0070 (70 )
1-0020 (32
1-0150 ■'
1-0097
1-0030

(35
(30
(32

1-0315 (28°)
1-0105 (-28 )
1-008 (29 )

1-0195 (28
1-0120 (30
1-0080 (29

1-0150 (30 )
' 1-0125 (30 )

1-050 (28

1-0140 (30

1-0508 (-29

1-0210 (29

■■m

I,,
lit

.;.^l

648

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP ICE.

Monthly Measurements of Ice and Snow.

Ice
Thickness.

Increase

Snow
Thickness.

Increase

Date.

during
Month.

during
Month.

ft. in.

ft. in.

in.

in.

1857. October 10 -

1 H

—

24

—

A

* November 16 -

2 05

8f

5i

2f

_K

December 16 -

3 0

lU

01

n

.'V

• 1858. January 16 -

3 1i

7^

81

2

i February 10 •

3 9

11

94

1

'«

- ' March 10

4 -ii

01

91

0

X

i

decrease

'"^

; April 16 - -

■
( , ■ .

3 1

1-21

101

1

•i 111

Small Measurements of Increase of Ice.

Hours.

Thickness.

Temperature.

in.

3

1

-29'

6

U

-20

18

3J

-25'

24

3t

-22-5

No. 4.

1 Number of

] IIOIU'S

I in forming.

Temperature.

Specific
Gravity.

Efflorescence

18
30

24

48
24

- 2'^

- 2 ■

- 3-5

- 7
-23
-28
-30
-35
-38
-40

1-0375 (70=)
1-0410 (44 )
1-0495 (34 )
1-0625 (45 )
1-0650 (28 )
1-0605 (40 )
1-0710 (30 )
1-0945 (30 )
1-0775 (28 )
1-0880 (30 )

Date.

Ice formed (3 inches thick) at Specific

Temperature of +25. | Gravity.

1867. September 7 and 8
1858. January 15
- — March 22

Same ice, upper 3 inches -

„ 0 to 6 inches from surface

6 to 12

12 to 18 „

18 to 24
„ 24 to 30 ,, „
„ 30 to 30 „ „
„ 36 to 42

42 to 48 „

'48 to 34

Total depth, 4 feet 6 inches.

1 02:J5
1-0102
1-0078
1-0065
1-0052
1 0050
I'OOoO
1-0058
1-0055
1'0050
1-0050

(26°)
(29 )
(■iO )

m )

(32 )
(30 )
(30)
(32 )
(30 )
(32 )
(35)

w.

Iiicreaso
during
Month.

in.
2i

n

2
1

0

ic

y-

ro=)

14 )

$4 )

t5 )

!8 )

10 )

iO )

w )

;s )

!0 )

4

Specific

Gravity.

1 0235 (26°)

1-0102 (-29 )

1-0078 ('iO )
1-0065 (35 )

1-0052 (32 )

1 1 0050 (30 i

1-0050 (30 )
1-0U58 (32 )

1-0055 (30 )
1-0050 (32 )
1-0050 (35 )

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ICE.

649

Port Kennedy. Latitude, 72° V N. ; longitude, 94° 15' W.

1858, October 7. Surface ico formed at temperature +21". Specific gravity 1-0230 (30°)

1859, Junes. „ „ „ (upper 6 inches) „ „ 1-0055(30°)

Sails in 100 Grains.

Xo.O.

No. 1.

Xo. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5.

Sulphate and carbonate of lime
Sulphate of magnesia
Chloride and bromide of magnesium
Chlorides of sodium and potassium -

: 0-5658
0 -361)6
0-9766

12-6192

14-4282

1

0-1170
0-2316
0-2470

2-4158

0-1496
0-2616
0-2H2
2-7ti64

0-1382
0-2.')94
0-2118
2-8212

0-1120
0-2762
0-2184
2-7790

0-1439
0-2290
0-3695

2-7825

Solid contentL -

3-0114

3-;:5S8

3-4306

3-3868

3-6-265

No. o.

Salts ; 100 grammes. 6.

Sulphate and car-
bonate of lime.

Sulphate of magnesia

Chloride and bro-
mide of magnesium.

Chlorides of potas-
sium and sodiom.

0-0378 0-03581

0-0610

0-0884

0-0548
0-0698

0-350010-2474

Sol id contents - 0 - 5378 ' 0 - 4078

6.— Portion of ice taken from middle of i)eri)en-
dicular block of ice— forming jiart of Hoc— after
being exposed in situ to a varying temperature
during eight months ; this Hoc had drifted 1,200
miles. Specific gravity, l-<io5 (30^).

7.— Tn surface ice which was formed at tern-
l)erature of 21°, specific gravity, 1-0-230. After
l)eing exposed in situ to a tcmpei-ature between
+ 20° and — 18° during nine months. Specific
gravity, 1-0055 (30^).

5. Physical PKorEiixiES of Ice. By Dr. J. Rae. (From the
Proceedings of the Physical Society.)

If a saturated solution of salt is frozen, and the ieo so formed
is fresh, it is evident that the salt that has been "rejected" must
be deposited or precipitated in a crystalline or some other solid
form, because the water, if any, that remains unfrozen, being
already saturated, can hold in solution no more salt than it already
contains.

Could not salt be obtained readily and cheaply by this means
from sea- water in cold climates ?

During several long journeys on the Arctic coast, in the early
spring before any thaw had taken place, the only water to bo
obtained was by melting snow or ice. By exj)ei-ience I found that
a kettlcful of water could be obtained by thawing ice with a much
less expenditure of fuel, and in a shorter time, than was required
to obtain a similar quantity of Avater by thawing snow. Now, as
we had to cany our fuel with us, this saving of fuel and of time
was an important consideration, and we always endeavoured to get
ice for this purpose. We had another inducement to teii the sea-
ice frequently as to its freshness or the reverse.

I presume that almost every one knows that to cat snow when it
is very cold, tends to increase thirst, Avhereas a piece of ice in the
mouth is refreshing and beneficial, hoAvever cold it may be ; we
were consequently always glad to get a bit of fresh ice whilst at the
laborious work of hauling our heavy sledges ; yet with these strong

'^%:)V.

■■■■; ■■■! .

I K

in

650

niYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ICE.

(:

i

l^^r

inducements we were never able to find sea-ice, in situ*, either
eatable Avhen solid or drinkable when thawed, it being invariably
much too salt. The only exception (if it may be called one) to this
rule, was when we found rough ice, which, from its wasted
appearance and irregular form, had evidenty been the formation of
a previous winter. This old ice, if projecting a foot or two above
the water-level, was almost invariably fresh, and, when thawed
gave excellent drinking-water. It may be said that these pieces
of fresh ice were fragments of glaciers or icebergs ; but this could
not be so, as they were found where neither glaciers nor icebergs
are ever seen.

How is this to be accounted for ? Unfortunately I have only a
theory to offer in explanation.

When the sea freezes by the abstraction of heat from its surface
I do not think that the saline matter, although retained in and
incorporated with the ice, assumes the solid state, unless the cold is
very intense, but that it remains fluid in the form of a very strong
brine enclosed in very minute cells. So long as the ice continues
to float at the same level, or nearly the same level, as the sea, this
brine remains ; but when the ice is raised a little above the water-
level, the brine by its greater s])ecific gravity, and probably by
some solvent quality acting on the ice, gradually drains off from
the ice so raised ; and the small cells, by connecting one with
another downwards, become channels of drainage.

There may be several other requisites for this change of salt ice
into fresh, such as temperature raised to the freezing-point, so as
to enable the brine to ivork out the cell-walls into channels or
tubes — that is, if my theory has any foundation in fact, which may
be easily tested by any expedition passing one or more winters on
the Arctic, or by anyone living where ice of considerable thickness
is formed on the sea, such as some parts of Norway.

All that is required, as soon as the winter has advanced far
enough for the purpose, is to cut out a block of sea-ice (taking care
not to be near the outflow of any fresh-water stream) about 3 feet
square, remove it from the sea to some convenient position, test
its saltness at the time, and at intervals repeat the testing both
on its upper and lower surfaces, and observe the drainage if any.

The result of the above experiment, even if continued for a long
while, may not be satisfactory, because the fresh ice, that I have
described must have been formed at least 12 months, perhaps
18 months, before.

The Transjwsition of Boulders from bcloio to above the Ice.

When boulders, small stones, sand, gravel, &c. arc found lying on
sea-ice, it is very generally supposed that they must have rolled
down a steep place or fallen from a cliff, or been deposited by a
flow of water from a river or other source. There is, however,
another way, in which boulders, &c. get upon floe-ice, which I
have not seen mentioned in any book on this subject.

* What I mean by ice in situ is ice lying flat and unbroken on the sea, as
formed during the winter it is formed in.

PHYSICAL TROrERTIES OF ICE.

651

■f I have only a

During the spring of 1847, at Repulse Bay on the Arctic shores
of America, I was surprised to observe, after the thaw commenced,
that large boulders (some of them 3 or 4 feet in diameter) began to
appear on the surface of the ice ; and after a while, about the month
of July, they were wholly exposed, whilst the ice below them was
strong, firm, and something like 4 feet thick.

There were no cliffs or steep banks near from which these
boulders could have come ; and the only way in which I could
account for their appearance, was that which by subsequent
observation I found to be correct.

On the shores of Repulse Bay the rise and fall of the tide are
6 or 8 feet, sometimes more. When the ice is forming in early
winter, it rests, when the tide is out, on any boulders, &c. that
may be at or near low-water mark. At first, whilst the ice is weak,
the boulders break through it ; but when the ice becomes (say
2 or 3 feet) thick, it freezes firmly to the boulder, and when the
tide rises, is strong enough to lift the boulder with it. Thus, once
fastened to the ice, the stone continues to rise and fall with the rise
and fall of each tide, until, as the winter advances, it becomes
completely enclosed in the ice, which by measurement I foimd to
attain a thickness of more than 8 feet.

Small stones, gravel, sand, and shells may be fixed in the ice
in the same way.

In the spring, by the double effect of thaw and evaporation, the
upper surface of the ice, to the extent of 3 feet or more, is removed,
and thus the boulders, which in autumn were lying at the bottom
of the sea, are now on the ice, while it is still strong and thick
enough to travel with its load, before favourable winds and cur-
rents to a great distance.

The finding small stones and gravel on ice out at sea does not
always prove that such ice has been near the shore at some time
or other.

I have noticed that wherever the Walrus in any numbers
have been for some time lying either on ice or rocks, a not
inconsiderable quantity of gi-avel has been deposited, apparently a
portion of the excreta of that animal, having probably been taken
up from the bottom of the sea and swallowed along with their
food.

m

.^■i;

we the lee.

■ice, which I

on the sea, as

6. Some Experiments with Sea-water, by Dr. F. Guthrie.
(From the Proceedings of the Physical Society.)

Sec. 32. Freezing Sea-tvater. — The sea-water with which the
following experiments were performed was procured from Dover.
After filtration, it was found to have at 760 millims. the boiling
point 100° -6 C, while the temperature of its vapour was 100° '2.
This sea-water began to freeze at —2° C. On evaporation on a
water-bath and keeping at 100° C. for two hours, the per-centage
of solid residue was 6 • 5786. A large beaker of this sea- water was
cooled to 0° C. A tin vessel was supported inside the beaker so

t

'•«..-ii»:*Jiiimm,-J:,

652

niYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ICE.

l^

mir

m

« «",!•

P,

thnt its bottom jnst touched the surface of the water ; and u
freezing-mixture Avas placed in the tin vessel. When about yi\jy
of the whole had solidified, the solid was removed and divided into
two parttj : one was allowed to melt, and its per-centage of solid
matter was determined as above ; the other was broken up and
frequently pressed between linen and flannel in a screw press,
being allowed to melt as little as possible. The per-centage of
solid matter in this also was determined. The following numbers
show the result of this examination : —

Ttr cent, at 100'' of
solid residue.
Sea-water ... - 6-5786

Frozen sea-water - - - 5 • 4209

Frozen and pressed sea-water - - 0 • 4925

It appears, then, that under these conditions the freezing of
sea-water is little more than the freezing of ice, and that thu
almost undiminished saltness of the unpressed ice is due, as
suggested by Dr. Rae, to the entanglement amidst the ice-crystals
of a brine richer in solid constituents than the original water
itself. Such brine, which is here squeezed out in the press, drains
in nature down from the upper surface of the ice-floe by gravita-
tion, and also is replaced by osmic action by new sea-water which
again yields up fresh ice ; so that while new floes are porous and
salt, old ones are more compact and much fresher, as the traveller
observed.

7. Observations on Sea-water Ice. By J. Y. Buchanan.

These observations were made on board II. M.S. Challenger in
the broken pack ice in the Antarctic regions. An analysis of the
melted ice showed the presence of lime, magnesia- and sulphuric
acid, and on the average 0'1723 gramme of chlorine per litre.
Another piece, when pounded and melted in a beaker and ex-
amined, gave 0 • 0520 gramme of chlorine per litre, showing that
the lump of ice was not homogeneous, as might be expected from
the different ways in which it may be formed in the Polar regions.

The melting point of the pack ice was determined. The fresh
ice began to melt at — I°C. ; after twenty minutes the thermo-
meter hadi'isento — 0'9 C, then to —0* 4 C, where it remained
constant for an hour, and then to —0 • 3 C.

" These determinations show that the salt in sea-water ice is not
" contained in it only in the form of mechanically enclosed brine,
" but exists in the solid form either as a single crystalline sub-
" stance, or as a mixture of ice and salt crystals." The melting
point of ice crystals, formed by freezing salt water in a bucket,
was found to be — 1 • 3° C. (Royal Sociotv Proceedings, vol. xxii.,
p. 431.)

8. The Temperature of Ice and Snow. (Sir John Ross.)

The thickness of ice was metisured regularly every month, and
increased until the end of May, when it was 10 feet in the sea, and

ii:* L

PHYSICAL TKOPERTIES OF ICE,

G53

e water ; and ii
When about yj^f,-
and divided into
-centage of solid
■i broken up and
n a screw press,
10 per-centage of
dlowing numbers

r cent, at 100^ of

solid residue.

6 • 5786

5 • 4209

0 • 4925

s the freezing

„ of
cc, and that thu
I ice in due, as
st the ice-crystals
le original water
1 the press, drains
c-floe by gravita-
V sea-water which
)es are porous and
r, as the traveller

Y. Buchanan.

I.S. Challenger in

SlU analysis of the

sia. and sulphuric

chlorine per litre.

I beaker and ex-

tre, showing that

bo expected from

the Polar regions.

nined. Tlie fresh

utes the therrao-

whcre it remained

ea-water ice is not
ly enclosed brine,
c crystalline snb-
s." The melting
ater in a bucket,
eedings, vol. xxii..

;iR John Ross.)

every month, and
eet in the sea, and

11 feet in a lake of fresh water. In February and March, witli tlie
air temperature at —oQP F., the temperature of the ice gradually
diminished between the surface and the water wliich was imme-
diately below the ice at a temperature of — 27 ° F.

The change of temperature in 12 feet depth of snow being the
same as in 7 feet of ice.

Effect of Cold OH Mercury.
" Every year the mercury which had been used froze at a higher
temperature until it reached — Sl'^ F., being eight degrees higher
than the usual point, while mercury which had not been exposed
retained its purity."

9. The Second German Expedition under ^I. Koldkwev.
Temperature and Tliickness of the Ice.

Observations were made on the rate of formation and on the
temperature of the ice at various depths in the harbour at Sabine
Island, with the following results : —

On Sept. 28 the thickness of the ice was 7 English inches.
On Nov. 11 the thickness was 31 inches.
Temperature of the air —12^ '3 F.
Temperature of ice at the surface — G • 7 F.

8 inches deep - 0'-8 F.
12 „ r)°-9F.

18 „ 13- -3 F.

24 _ „ 22^-(iF.

The level of the water was 3|- inches under the snrfuec of the
ice, and the temp, o*" water + 28° F.
Nov. 24. — Thickness of ice 36 ' 5 inches.

Temperature of the air —2° '9 F.
Temperature of ice at the surface (f' 1 F.

( 2 iin-UKn

< \) i: .

13 „

12-4 F.

18-5 „

1(3" • 5 F.

23 „

19^-9 F.

27-o„

21°-4 F.

30-0,,

23^-9 F.

The level of the water was 3^ inches under the surface of the
ice, and the temperature of the water was 28^ "2 F.
Jan. 20. — Thickness of the ice 53 inches.
Temperature of the air— 5° '3 F.
Temperature of ice at the surface — 0^ • 2 F.
„ „ 10 inches 1°-2F.

»

The level of the water was 5*5 inches under the surface of the
ice, and temperature of water 28° •2.

XV/ III

14

3^-4 F.

20-5

>J

rP'o V.

26

>»

7°'9F.

31

J?

11=3 F.

37-5

>»

13° -3 F.

44

5»

19° -2 F.

■■X^'

>!1

654

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ICE.

Feb. 18. — Thickness of the ice o7 inches.
Temperature of the air— 14° • 8.
Temperature of the ice at the surface— 16°'
„ „ 14 "4 inches— 7°

»>

The level of the water was 6 '

19

35-9
45-6
50-6

5>

»

- 3°-

- 7°-
10°
15°

8F.
1 F.
8F.
5F.
OF.
8F.

1 inches under the surface of the

ice.

26=

8F.

23°

•5F.

26°

•2F.

26°

•2F.

26°

•8F.

May 21. — Thickness of the ice 79 inches.
Temperature of the air 29° '1 F.
Temperature of the ice at the surface

17 inches
26-5 „
31
38
This was the greatest thickness of the ice. From April to May
the increase in thickness was at the rate of 7 inches a month,
whilst from January to February it was only 4 inches a month.
In winter the snow lying on the ice protects it, whilst in spring
the evaporation and the storms which sweep the surface of the ice
quite clear of snow keep down the mean temperature, and tend to
increase the rate of formation of ice.

IV.— TIDES AND CURRENTS.

U

K-'

iMi'i

1. Parry's First Voyage for the Discovery of North-west

Passage (1819-20).

Latitude of anchorage in Melville Island - 74° 47' 19" '36 N.

Longitude . - . . 110° 48' 29" '2 W.

Dip of magnetic needle . - - 88° 43'

Variation - - - - - 127° 47' 50" E.

The mean time of high water on full and change days (luni-tidal
interval) was Ih. 29m. Usually the ice cracked from the high
spring tides about ttvo days after new and full moon, but in
December the ice did not crack from the beach until the 22nd,
i.e., 5 days 8 hours after the new moon. This retardation of the
tides may, perhaps, have arisen from the circumstance of the moon
and sun having both had their greatest south declination at the
usual time of the highest spring tide. There were also fresh gales
from the eastward on December 17th and 18th. During the three
months May, June, and July the night spring tides were higher
than the day spring tides, showing that the two tides in the day
are not equal. Tides were observed during May, June, to the
20th, and in July 1820.

From this it appears that at Parry's winter quarters the tides
came from the east through Barrow Strait.

30

•8F.

r°

•1 F.

j°

•8F.

r

•5F.

0°

•OF.

5°

•8F,

surfuce of the

'•8F.
"oF.
»-2F.
°-2F.

'•8F.

n April to May
iichea a month,
nches a month,
vhilst in spring
rface of the ice
ire, and tend to

North-west

47' 19"-36N.

48' 29" -2 W.

43'

47' 50" E.

lays (luni-tidal

Vom the high

moon, but in
ntil the 22nd,
irdation of the
ce of the moon

ination at the
Iso fresh gales
iring the three
3s were higher
des in the day

June, to the

•ters the tides

TIPE9 AND CUnUEXTS.
Ifcif/ht of the Tides.

Coo

Maximum.

Minimum.

Mean.

May
June
July

-

4 ft. 2 in.
3 m 7 ,,
3 ., 9 „

0 ft. 10 ill.

1 ., 4 .,
1 „ .1 „

2 ft. C^ in.
'> 7 '

At the quarter.s of the moon the low tidos were much gi-eater
during the day tlmn during the night. Also the evening high
tides reach their minimum 1^- days lioforc the morning high tides.

2. Parry's Second Voyage. — Observations on the Tides
Winter Island and Igloolik.

at

The observations on tides were carried on at Winter Island
from October 1821 to May 1822, and those at Igloolik from
November 18, 1822, to Ajpril 1823. The heights of the tides
were measured by means of a tide pole which was let through the
ice and moored to the bottom by a heavy weight.

At Winter Island, the mean time of high water on full and
change days is 12h. 11m.

The highest spring tide occurred on October 13, and was 15 ft.
8 in. high.

The lowest neap tide on March 18 was 3 ft. 1 hi.

At Igloolik the mean time of high water on full and change
days was 7h. 28m.

The highest spring tide on January 27 was 9 ft. 8 in., and the
lowest neap tide on February o was 0 ft. 5 in.

3. Tides at Port Bo wen. (Parry's Third Voyage, &c.)

" The great depth of water in which we lay at Port Bowen
prevented our observing the rise and fall of the tides during the
winter, by the usual method of a pole moored to the bottom. In
the spring, however, when the fire-hole alongside the ship could
not be kept constantly open, we adopted another plan, which it
may be useful to describe. A stove of about 3 cwt. was let down
the fire-hole to the bottom, having a whale-line attached to it. The
line was rove through a block fixed to an outrigger from the ship's
side, and to its other end was fastened a weight of 50 lbs. By
this means the line was kept quite tight, and a marked pole being
attached to it, served to indicate with great accuracy the perpen-
dicular rise and fall of the water. The observations being given
at length in the tide-table, 1 shall only here mention the fact, that
during nine weeks in the months of April, May, and June, the
morning tides were found, almost invariably, to rise several inches
higher than those of the evening."

■'■ .* I

m

050

TIDES AND Cl'UUEXTl«.

1

1

From the tables of tides it uppears that when h\^]i water
occurred at about 8 to 9 a.m., and 9 to 10 p.m., tlicn tlio two
heights were nearly equal ; and if we call these hours the limits
of day and nij^ht, then in almost all cuses it is found that through-
out April, May, and Juno (the period during which tides were
observed), th(> night high tides are higher than the day tides. The
two high tides were equal about K»ur or five days after the half-
moons, and the time of these equal high tides was a little earlier
in the day as the summer advanced.

After new moon both high tides continued to increase for
three or four days, and attained their maximum nearly together ;
but after full moon, the day tide began to diminish on tlio day
after tho full moon, whilst the night high tide still continued to
increase for two or three days.

After new moon the height (i.e. the rise from tho last low
water) of the day tide is from 3 to 4 ft., and of the night tide is
about 5 ft. ; after /)/// moon the height of tho day tide is from
3 to 4 ft. and of the night tide about 6 ft.

If, on the other hand, wo measure the heights of the tides by
the fall from the last high water, then about three days after
new and full moon tho depths are e(puil and occur about 7 p.m.
and 8 a.m., and they continue to be very nearly equal, except in
the interval between three or four days after the half moons and
the next new or full moons.

The greatest fall is about 4 feet at new moon and about o feet
at full moon.

The moan time of high water at full and new moon is llh. lOm.

The greatest rise of the tide is 6 ft. 4 in. and the least
1 ft. 1^ in.

.if. .|4' I

4. Tidal Odservations by Siit Edwaud Belciikr.

The pack-ice to the northward of Jones' Sound in the neigh-
bourhood of North Cornwall was acted on by a strong tide, and
Sherard Osborn accounts for tho disturbed state of the lloe-ice ns
early as the IHtli of May by supposing that a strong tidal wave
flows in an east and west direction.

Again, on the north coast of Melville Island, on the east side of
riecla and Griper Bay, Commander Richards found a piece of
pine wood which had been drifted by the sea.

Vol. II. page 154. " Tho distinct increased dimensions of all
" the floe-ice noticed to the westward, as well as northward, of
the Queen's Channel, is to my mind satisfactory proof that it
belongs to another sea, and has no connexion with Baffin's Bay,
Lancaster Sound, or tho Wellington Channel ; and although it
may have considerable motion in summer, yet I believe that in
" the Victoria Archipelago, as in the case between Banks' Land
" and Melville Island, it remains unbroken for years, even

«

u

a

ages.

In "Vol. I. p. 116, in speaking of the region near the western
part of Jones' Sound at Pell Point (lat. 77° 29' N., long. 95° W.,

TIDES AND CUUIIENTS.

057

dccliniition 141'' 18' W.), Admiral Ik'lcher says: — "In this
" rc't^ion, wliere tho tidiis or currents uro scarcoly ohstruclt'd by
" islundrf, and run with hoiuo velocity, ripping up tho Hoc liko
" paper, niucii open water must of necessity i)revail, and possibly
" still more so to the northward."

Aj^ain, (H. p. l.'J2) : — '' Nortii of our present position (Xorlhum-
*' berland Sounil) the llcod tide sets in from (lie I'ohir Sea, and
** brings its Wdrnur oceanic xodtir ; southerly the Hood has to
" pass up Lancaster Sound, there to be defhicted up this channel,
" and makes high water somowhero between this and Beechey
« Island."

Vol. I. p. 244. Strong breezes from tho westward and from tho
north-west are found to have a surprising inlluenee on the tides,
and show that there nuist be vacant space somewhere ; "nothing
*• but open water to tho northward or westward can eirect such
" motions." It was found by Commander Kichiirds that " tho
" main-tido channel at the north end of Wellington Channel,
** between Pioneer Island and Village Toint, was open for half
" a mile ; and here the gales ranged from north to north-north-
" west."

Early in May a largo sheet of water was found at Village
Point about one mile in length, and extending nearly across tho
Strait.

about o feet

Heights of Tides at various Points in Arctic Regions,

In Behring Straits, at Kotzcbue Sound, the flood tide from the
Pacific rose 2 feet, and at Point Barrow at flood tide the rise was
7 inches.

In the Prince of Wales Straits M'Clure found that the flood
tide came from the south with only 3 feet rise and fall on spring
tides.

At the Bay of Mercy, Banks Island, as at places generally in
Barrow Strait, the flood came from the east with a rise of about
2 feet.

In Jones' Strait the flood tide also flows from the east.

The observations of Sir Edward Belcher at Northumberland
Sound show either that the tides from Lancaster Sound and from
Jones' Strait meet in Wellington Channel ; or if the distance
by Jones' Strait is too great to admit of this explanation, then,
takiuG; them in connexion with the observations of Dr. Bessels in
Kennedy Channel, they seem to show that the tides from the open
Atlantic Ocean to the north-east of Greenland, entering through
Robeson Channel, and possibly through Lady Franklin Straits
and other openings more to the north, meet the tides from Baflin s
Bay about Cape Eraser and also in Wellington Channel.

•il-

years, even

Difficulties in Pleasuring the Height of Titles.

Notwithstanding the very great care taken by Admiral Belcher
to register the tides as accurately as possible (as shown in Vol. I.
36122. TT

658

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

p. 141), after a manner similar to, but somewhat more elaborate
than that since adojited by Captain Koldewey in East Greenland,
and described, p. 664, he says (p. 163): — "Nov. 28. The
" increased thickness of the ice, and consequent gradual rise of
" the ship, prevents the tide-gauge from acting correctly, unless
" indeed the entire frozen surface does not admit the due flow of
" tide. The difficulty, and incessant labour also, of breaking
" away the constantly-forming ice, is too much for the men ; 1
" have therefore put it out of gear until spring."

Also, page 155 ; — "The gale of November 9th came on with
" the thermometer at 20° ; on the 10th the temperature ranged
" from 0° to 9°, rising according to the strength of the wind.
" The tide-gauge rose one foot above its scale, and I have reason
" to believe that some movement of ice unperceived by us shook
" the observatory. A heavy snow-bank formed on our port side ;
*' water flowed above the ice."

r't:

'!i

The Amount of Rise of the Tide. — (II. p. 181.)

" The rise and fall of the tide is apparent, not only on the tide-
pole, but also on the ice, proving that until the floe becomes
entirely free from the shore it does not rise and fall to the extent
to which the water indicates it should. Thus, in addition to the
rise and fall, as exhibited by the true index (the tide gauge
secured to the bottom), we notice a rise and fall between shelf
cakes of ice deposited at high and Ioav water, a distance of
18 inches, fully proving a resistance in rising due to floatfition if
free. This is specially evident at the in-shore cracks, where the
communication is impeded at high water by thin sludgy ice and
water."

On May 14, 1854, strong tidal action was observed, and experi-
ments were made by inserting a tide-pole through the fire-hole.
The depth was 21 feet 8 inches amidships, and the tide fell one
foot within the hour.

(Vol. II. p. 203.)

June 25. — " We have noticed that the vrcntlier here is more
" influenced at the actual moments of the moon's quartering than
" at the spring tides, which is opposed to my experience in other
" parts of the world. To-day, however, the moon changed at noon,
" butthewind, which has prevailed strong, still continues in heavy
" gusts ; about 8 p.m. it abated, and at midnight ceased. But the
" tide does not appear to coincide to-day with its natural move-
" ments, not rising at noon by 6 feet to its natural height, at mid-
" night it flowed 6 feet above."

Some interesting and important facts are recorded by Sir
Edward Belcher (I. p. 146) on the production of raised terraces
or beaches by the ice being driven up the shore by the tides,
and on the formation of fissures in the ice along the line of
coast.

i!-l

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

659

)!• the men : 1

Tides of Northumberland Sound and Refuge Cove, discussed
by Professor Haugiiton. (Proceedings of Royal Society,
vol. xxiii., p. 2.)

Semi-diurnal tide.

Mean luni-tidal interval forliigh water
.» M „ for low water

DiflFerence between true luni-tidal and
soli-tidal intervals.

Diurnal tide.

True soli-tidal interval
True luni-tidal „ -
True solar coefficient

Northumberland
Sound.

+ Oh. 7 •05m.
6h. 35- 35m.
•38m.

7h. 49m.
4*7 inches.

Refuge
Cove.

Oh. 26^7ra.
6h. 1-lra.

20h. 48ra.

5. The Tides of Port Kennedy. (Proceedings of Royal Society,

vol. xxiii., p. 299.)

The tidal observations made by Sir Leopold McCliutock in July
1859 have been discussed by Professor Haughton, with the follow-
ing results : —

The heights of the tides were observed every hour for 23 days.
They are remarkable for —

(1.) The magnitude of the diurnal tide.

(2.) The solar diurnal tide is greater than the lunar diurnal tide.

Solar Diurnal Tide.

The true soli-tidal interval is 5h. 12m. 7^s.

The coefficient 23*4 inches.

The true luni-tidal interval of the lunar diurnal tide is

Oh. 33m. 50s.

r 18"4 inches (in time).

" \ 23 • 37 „ (in height.

rriv J Id. 4h. 14im. (time).

The age - ■' 2 v /

Coefficient

{

4d. 6h. 20|m. (height).

corded by Sir
raised terraces
by the tides,
ng the line of

Lunar Semi-diurnal Tide.

True luni-tidal interval 23h. 18m. Is.

Uncorrected ratio of solar"! ^ _ r0'412 inches (height),
and lunar coefficients - J M"~ \0'549 „ (time).

T t' 2

660

TIDES AND CUKllENTS.

• I ■:^ (

11: t

■1"'; ':

■■.:i-i;

*'\

i ■

m

' ''•■'■ !

;§ ;■;

r^-=-

6. Record of Dr. Kane's Tidal Observations, in Winter
Quarters at Van .Rensselaer Harbour. " Smithsonian Con-
tributions," vol. xiii., p. J, &c.

An attempt was first made to determine the height of the tides
by means of a tide-staff, and afterwards by a pulley-gauge
attached to the vessel and rising with it. The graduations were
on the arc of the pulley.

The difficulties arising from the slow movement of the vessel,
the softness of the bottom, the alteration in length of rope, and
especially the slipping of the rope over the pulley, which often
froze to the axis, render the series of tidal observations very
defective, and entirely break their continuity.

The observations Avere continued, with several breaks, from
October 1853 to October 1854, and part of these series, from
their regularity, may probably be regarded as trustworthy. A
comparison of the tides at Port Foulke and Van Rensselaer is
given in connexion with the account of Dr. Hayes' Expedition.

P. 81. The observations show that when the sea is partially
open the wind has an effect on the tides ; thus : —

Aug. 17, 1853. With a heavy gale from the southward, " our
" flood rose 2 feet above any previous register, ovei-flowing the
" ground ice, and our last ebb or outgoing tide was hardly per-
" ceptible."

When the snow melts in spring, the ice cracks open and water
rises through the ice, making large basins at every tide.

The tide at Van Rensslaer is derived from the Atlantic through
Baffin's Bay, as shown by the following table : —

Lat.

Long.

High Water
at P. and C.

Higliest
Spring Tide.

Julianshnah
Frederickshaab
Holsteiuborg Harbour
Wbalefish Islands -
Godhavn (Disco) -
Upernavik

Wolsteuholme Sound
Port Foulko

Van Rensselaer Harbour
Polaris Bay

0 /

o /

60 35

46 5

62 0

50 5

66 56

53 42

68 59

53 13

69 12

53 28

72 47

56 03

76 33

68 56

78 18

73 0

78 37

70 53

81 38

61 44

h.
5
6
6
8
9

11

11

11

11

12

m.
6
3

30

15
0
0
8

24

52

13

feet.

7

10

7i-

7i
'a

8
7to7i
9*9 I
10-8
8

The value 12h. 3m. is given by Dr. Bessels as the establishment
of Polaris Bay. At other places in W. Greenland an addition of
10m. to the mean establishment gives the luni-tidal interval, or the
time of high water at full and change. This addition gives
12h. 13m. for the luni-tidal interval.

It is estimated that the whole distance, 770 knots, from Hol-
steinborg to Van Rensselaer is travelled by the tide in 6^ hours,
which would correspond to a mean depth of 220 fathoms.

TIDES AKD CURRENTS.

6{n

Comparing Upernavik and Van Eensselaer, the velocitj cor-
responds to a depth of 800 fathoms. These are probably extreme
values.

tor
C.

Highest
Spring Tide.

feet.

7

12^
10

7?
8^

7to7i

9-9 1

10-8

8

7. Observations by Dr. Hayes at Port Foulke, in 18G0-61.
" Smithson. Contrib.," vol. xv. Consisting of two series.

In the first, for 17 days in November and December, half-
hourly observations of height of tide were made, and in the
second series, in June and July 1861, observations were made at
intervals of 10 minute^ about the time of high and low water
only.

The readings are regular, and are not affected by agitation of the
surface because of the surrounding ice. The graphical method of
recording the tides was adopted, and was found to be the best.
By means of it the actual times of high and low water can bo
more exactly determined.

The tide-gauge consisted of a tripod mounted over a hole in
the ice, and supporting a pulley, over which passed a rope ; the
rope was fastened to a heavy weight at the bottom, and was kept
stretched by a counterpoise.

The rope was graduated, and the exact readings of the lengths
of the portions of it measured.

The following are some of the difficulties in the way of making
accurate observations : —

(1.) The weight at the bottom may drag along the bottom from
currents or ice-motion.

(2.) The rope may stretch or may contract from becoming
^oaked with water.

(3.) The ice-field may have a slow motion, and incline the
rope.

From these causes the zero level may be lost.

Note. — With an index on the rope, and a scale fixed vertically
on the tripod, any dragging or inclination of the rope may be
detected.

There is great advantage in referring all tidal observations to
half-tide level —

(1.) For testing for any change of zero.

(2.) For measuring' any secular change of level, i.e., relative
level of sea and land.

(3.) For separating and measuring the changes due to the
lunar and solar tides.

To construct a diagram showing the half- tide level, the mean
of two successive high tides is placed opposite the reading of the
intermediate low tide, and the mean of these gives one point
showing the half-tide level. In the same way the mean of two
successive low tides is compared with the intermediale high tide,
and their mean gives another point showing the half-tide level.
In this way the half-tide level curve is traced out.

662

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

Superposed on the semi-diurnal tides at Port Foulke is the
diurnal tide. The diurnal inequality in height of high water
amounts to about two feet, and in the November observations is
very regular.

In discussing the observations in June 1861, the diurnal inequality
in times of high water and of low water are somewhat irregular,
but their periods agree with the computed inequality in time of
low water.

In November and December 1860 the day high tides were higher
than the night high tides, whereas in June 1861 the night high
tides were higher than the day high tides. The range of the half-
monthly inequality in time amounts to Ih. 26m. At Van Rensse-
laer it amounted to Ih. 52m., a very large value.

General Character oj Port Foulke Tides.

The general character of the half-monthly and diurnal in-
equalities is very much the same as at Van Rensselaer Harbour ;
the establishment is half-an-hour less at Port Foulke. The aver-
age range of the tide is about the same at the two places, and the
diurnal inequality in the height of high water is greater than in
the height of low water.

Note. — Comparing the heights of the highest spring tides in
Baffin's Bay, generally about 7^ feet, with the height in Van
Rensselaer Harbour, 1 1 feet, it would appear possible that the
tide at Van Rensselaer may result from both the southern and
northern tides. The fact that the duration of the fall of the tide
18 less at Van Rensselaer than at Port Foulke, would also seem
to shovr that Van Rensselaer is nearer to the open ocean than
Port Foulke. Also at Van Rensselaer Harbour the extreme
fluctuation of low water is very much greater than at Port
Foulke.

8. Theory of Tides. Half-Monthly Inequality.

Trans., 1834 and 1836.

Phil.

li

The Theory of Bernouilli. — The pole of the fluid spheroid
follows the pole of the spheroid of equilibrium at a distance (at
the hour angle X), and the spheroid of equilibrium corresponds to
the coniiguration of the sun and moon, not at the moment of the
tide, but at a previous moment at which the fight ascension of the
moon was less by a quantity a.

Thus tan 2(01 --xO = -^^-ll5L?(£i:fi)

-^ + cos 2(^ — a)

^1 is the hour angle of the place of high water from the moon's
place; ^ the hour angle of the iioon from the sun; A, Aj, the
heights of solar and lunar tides ; X^ the hour angle by which the
tide follows the pole of equilibrium ; a the retardation or diff. of
R.A. due to the age of the tide.

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

663

The value of (6^ —>-i) is a maximum or minimum when

cos 2(^ — a) = —

hence tan 2{B^ — Xj)= —

^/H|-)

k \2 'H

The height y of the tide above the mean surface is given by the
equation y =: */ ft^ + h^^ -\- 2 hlty cos 2(y) -• «)

To determine the variations in the mean level accurately
requires very great care, and the observations made in Dr. Kane's
or Dr. Hayes' Exi)editions do not at all determine them, as the
zero was several times shifted during the series of observations.

The height of the tide is affected by the barometric pressure,
and also by the wind.

The eftect of pressure may be tested by grouping the mean
levels for days below the average pressure, and those for days
above the average pressure, in two separate columns ; the dif-
ferences from the average value are tlien taken, and the mean of
the whole series gives the change of level due to a given chan^'e
in the height of the barometer.

Similarly the effects due to opposite local winds mny be deter-
mined by an arrangement of the observations according to the
direction of the wind.

9. Obseuvations on Tides and Currents in " Polaris Bay "
by Dr. Bessels (Bulletin Soc. Geographique, March 1875).

As soon as the ice was strong enough an Observatory was
erected on it for the observations on the sea and on ice.

Observations on the tides were generally made hourly and
extended over seven lunations ; during three or four weeks they
were made every ten minutes, and the following results were
obtained.

The Establishment of Polaris Bay is 12h. 3m.

The highest spring tide - -8-0 English feet.

The lowest spring tide - - 2 • 5 ft.

Mean height of low tides •• 3*8 ft.

Mean height of high tides - 5-47 ft.

Mean of neap tides - - 1 • 83 ft.

Observations were also made on the specific gravity of the sea,
the depth, and the temperature at different depths^

After entering Smith's Sound a current to the south was met
with varying from 1 "5 to 5 miles, and this current brought drift
wood into Polaris and Newmann Bays. The wood was pine-wood,
and the different layers showed that it had grown in northern
latitudes.

p^p^

664

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

Tho floe ice was always in motion in the direction of the
currents and the wind. Tho ice in Robeson Strait was divided
by lanes of open water, which were too broad to admit of travel-
ling on sledges, but too narrow to admit of navigation.

If-

10. Currents on tho East Coast of GnEEXLiV^D (Koldetvey).

The observations on currents show that between tho latitudes
of 70° N. and 75° N., there are two currents to wards the south.

Outside the ice and in the drift ice quite up to the ice fields
■which form its inner barrier tliere is a current of 8 to 10 knots a
day, which shifts eastwards or westwards according to the wind
and the ice-drift. Close to the coast there is a current of about
4*6 knots in 24 hours, which almost ceases in summer when the
southerly winds are stronger and the northerly winds weaken.

There is no true current attending the ebb and flow of the
tide, although the height of the spring tide was about 5 feet : even
in the neighbourhood of the Kaiser-Franz- Joseph Fiord there
was no current.

M;

\u

11. Observations of Tides by Capt. Koldewet at Sabine
Island, on the East Coast of Greenland, during the Winter
of 1869-70. " Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt," vol. ii.,.
part 4, 1874.

Apparatus.

At the end of one of the davits was fastened (in a vertical posi-
tion) a wooden scale, divided into feet and tenths. Vertically
below it, a stone sunk in the ground, and fastened by an iron bar,
was attached to a light rope, which passed over a pulley on the
davit, and had a counterpoise at the other end.

Attached to the rope was an index, which marked the position
of some point of the scale.

As the ship and scale sank and rose with the ice during the
ebb and flow of the tide, the position of the fixed index on the
scale showed how much the scale had fallen or risen, and in this
way the height and times of high and low water were recorded.

Capt. Koldewey's method of registering is better than that
employed by Dr. Kane, viz , graduating the arc of the pulley, for
ho found that often the pulley was frozen on its axis, in which
case the rope slid over it.

Dr. Kane tried to correct this defect by taking soundings, but
these soundings are somewhat uncertain, because the vessel moves
with the ice, and very numerous soundings at various times would
be required.

The difiiculties as to shifting of position are well shown hy
a note in Dr. Kane's log, of Feb. 3, 1854. He says: —

*'The enormous elevation of the land ice by the tides has
raifed a barrier of broken tables 72 feet wide and 20 feet high

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

665

1 the latitudes
Is the south.
< the ice field&r
I to 10 knots a
g to the wind
rrent of about
imer when the
cla weaken,
id flow of the
It 5 feet : even
h. Fiord there

between the brig and the islands. This action has caused a
secession of the main floe ; our vessel has changed her position
20 feet within the last tivo spring tides, and the hawser connected
with Butler Island parted with the strain."

Note. — Under these circumstances it seems hardly necessary
to make allowance for the rise of the ship in consequence of the
consumption of food by the crew during the winter.

Port Foulko.

Van Rensselaer

Sabine Island.

Average rise and fall of tide

7-7 ft.

7-9 ft.

311 ft.

Extreme fluctuation of high

7-3 „

8-4 „

— .

water.

Ditto, of low water -

5-2 „

9-0 „

__

Ditto, in water level -

13-8 „

16-G .,

^..

Mean establishment of high

lib. 13- 8m.

llh. 43-3m.

lOh. 53 •7m.

water (Aj).

Ditto, of low water -

17h. 19-5m.

17h, 48 -Om.

17h. 6-lm.

Retardation of R.A. (a) for

8° 36'

5° 15'

16° 45'

high water.

Ditto, for low water -

10° 30'

12° 30'

13° 0'

Value of T- for high water -

n

•3624

•367

•4305

1*

Ditto, low water

•3665

•471

•4019

Range of half-monthly di-

Ih. 26m.

Ih. bP.m.

Ih. 42m.

urnal inequality in time.

Ditto, in height

2-4 ft.

3-0 ft.

1-38 ft.

Cotidal hour and minute

1.5h. 43ra.

16h, 04m.

llh. 47m.

High water (moon's tide) in-

llh. 24m.

llh. 52m.

—

terval.

Duration of fall of tide

6h. 05 • 7m.

6h. 04 •7m.

^_

( = difference of establish-

ments) .

Duration of rise of tide

6h. 18- 7m.

6h. 19 •7m.

—

1 the position

To obtain the cotidal time, the mean establishment must be
added to the longitude west of Greenwich, and a correction of
Im. in half-an-hour made for the moon's motion.

In this way the cotidal time of places in W. Greenland are as
follows : —

pxis, in which

)undings, but
vessel moves
times would

jrennEsta- Correction X „„„ -.^
blisliment. for Moon. ^^"^- ^'^•

Julianshaab

Fredriksbaab

Holsteinborg

Whalefish Islands

Godhavn

Upernavik

Wolstenholme Sound

Port Foulke

Van Rensselaer Harbour

Polaris Ray

Cotidal
Time.

Latitude.

h. m.

m.

h. m.

h. m.

4 56

- 9

3 04

7 51

5 53

-12

3 20

9 1

6 20

-13

3 35

9 42

8 5

-16

3 33

11 22

8 50

-18

3 34

12 6

10 50

-22

3 4i

14 12

10 58

-22

4 36

15 12

11 14

-23

4 52

15 43

11 43

-23

4 44

16 4

12 3

-24

4 7

15 46

60 35
62 O
66 66

68 59

69 12
72 47
76 33
78 18
78 37
81 38

m^*-

606

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

CoTiDAL Times of Places in E. Greenland (Koldewey, p. 665).

11.

If

it

MeanEsta-
Ijlisliiuunt.

Correction
for Moon.

Lonsr W I Cotidal
uong. w . rpimo.

Latitude .

Nubarbik -
Eleonoren Bay
Cape Broer Ruys
Jackson Island
Sabine Island
Klein Pendulum -
Cape Philip Broke
Cape Bergen

h. m.

lU.

h. m.

h. ra.

6 30

-13

2 48

9 5

10 45

-21

1 40

12 4

10 51

-22

1 20

11 49

11 3

-22

1 20

12 1

11 14

-23

1 15

12 6

11 21

-23

1 14

12 12

11 28

-23

1 11

12 16

12 7

-24

1 12

12 55

63 24
73 27
73 28

73 54

74 32
74 37

74 56

75 26

The difference in the establishments of high and low water is
the duration of the fall of the tide.

In places receiving the direct ocean tide, the duration of rise is
greater than the duration of the fall of the tide ; but shallow water
tends to diminish the duration of the rise of the tide, and so makes
the rise shorter than the fall.

The law of the velocity of tides as depending on the depth
may be well tested in Baffin's Bay by observations in difl'ereut
parts from Cape Farewell northwards, and for this purpose sound-
ings should be taken at all points at which the time of high or
low water is observed.

It is important to have observations on both shores of the bay
during two lunations.

The heights of high water are different in two successive tides,
because of the action of the diurnal and semi-diurnal inequalities
combined, and the diii'erence depends on the declination of the
moon.

Near full moon the night tides are higher than the day tides in
the winter, but the night tides may be less than the day tides for
other positions of the moon.

.i|-

12. Average Depth of Davis Strait, Baffin's Bay, and

Smith Sound.

Distance.

Diff. in
Cotidal hours.

Velocity.

Depth.

miles.

h.

ft.

JuHanshaab to Whalefish

680

3-5

194m. per h.

418

Island.

Whalefish Island to Port

770

4-35

177

349

Foulke.

Port Foiilke to Van Rensse-

55

•35

157

277

laer Harbour.

Hence the average depth of Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay
(according to theory) is about 383 fathoms, the length of the free

TIDES AND CUIIIIENTS.

6G7

3wey,

p. 665).

)tidal
imo.

Latitude .

. ra.

o /

) 5

63 24

! 4

73 27

49

73 28

! 1

73 54

! 6

74 32

> 12

74 37

16

74 56

55

75 26

I low water is

tion of rise is
sliallow water
and so makes

m the depth
i in diftereut
irpose sound-
ue of high or

es of the bay

jcessive tides,
il inequalities
nation of the

day tides in
day tides for

Bay, and

!ity.

Depth.

ft.

)er h.

418

»

349

>»

277

Baffin's Bay
of the free

tide wave nearly 2,300 miles, with a height between trough and
crest of about 7^ feet.

[By comparison of these results with other similar results
obtained by the Expedition and with soundings, some important
conclusions may be arrived at as to the theory of the tides.

A table is given comparing the diftbrent tidal observations at
points on the East Coast of Greenland by M. Koldowey, with
those on the West Coast by Drs. Kane and Hayes, showing the
progress of 'he tides from the south along those two coasts. The
average height of high water at spring tides on the cast side is
only about 4 feet, and at neap tides is about 2 feet. It will bo
seen that the tides in "Polaris" Bay, Avhich are 5 feet at spring
tides and 2 feet at neap tides, are nearly of the same amount as
those at Sabine Island. At some plaetis M. Koldcwey liad f^reat
difficulty in determining within half-an-liour the time of high
water, even by bis apparatus, which was more perfect tlian that
used by Dr. Hayes.

From the aecount of the observations of tides made by Dr.
Kane and Dr. Hayes, it is seen that there are great delects in the
apparatus, and even with the improvement a(loj)ted by Cajjt.
Koldcwey, viz., with a straight scale fixed to the vessel, and rising
and falling with it, and an index fixed to the rope, the observations
were liable to serious and unknown crrcis, either (1), from the
dragging of the weight ; (2), from the motion of the ice-field ;
(3), and especially from the freezing up of the hole through which
the rope passes. This is a serious objection to observations
made by cutting holes in the ice, for the rope will be frozen to
the ice and be lifted or dragged with it, and so the zero of the
scale may be altered either by the motion of the ice or even in
breaking the ice before making the next observationg.

From Admiral Belcher's observations it is clear that the
objections to a tidal pole are even greater than the objections to
the above method.

There is one method by which these difficulties may be dimi-
nished or entirely got rid of, but the ships will require to be
specially adapted for the purpose.

An opening may be constructed in the bottom of the ships,
through which direct communication may be had with the water
below the ice when the ships are frozen up in winter quarters.
Through these openings not only the observations on tides could
be made, but also on the temperature and on the specific gravity
of sea water at various depths, as well as observations on currents.

Some of the evident advantages of sach a plan are, —

(1.) Observations made within the ship will be far more
accurate, because the observer is not exposed to cold and the
weather.

(2.) The rope does not get frozen to the ice, and therefore will
not be subject to a sudden pull, as it would in breaking the ice
round it.

(3.) Valuable observations could be made on currents, and proper
apparatus could be fitted in the ships for the purpose.

6G8

TIDBd AND CURRENTS.

^ ■; - •

u:

Usually no observfttions havo bcon made on tlio currents iu tho
Arctic regions, except whcro the sea is clear of ice, because of tho
want of apparatus.

(4.) Much more perfect apparatus for registering aud even
recording tho tides may bo fitted within tho ships ; thcro seems
to bo no reason why tho height of tho tides should not bo con-
tinually registered on a revolving cylinder as in various ports,
according to the plan adopted by Sir Wm. Thomson. Fixing tho
tidal apparatus within tho ship, the rope, which is usually attached
to a float, must be attached to a stone at the bottom, and must have
a pencil or index attached to it, as in M. Koldewey's apparatus.
Thus the pencil will remain fixed, and tho cylinder on which the
tidal curves are traced will rise and fall with the tide. Also tho
currents in tho sea might be registered and recorded by means of an
apparatus similar in construction to tho apparatus devised by Dr.
Robinson for registering tho rate of tho wind, but with tlio cups at
tho bottom instead of at the top of the shaft. The apparatus consists
of four hemispherical cuj)S placed symmetrically in a horizontal
piano, and attached to a vertical revolving shaft. By means of
proper gearing, the rate of revolution of the shaft is recorded by a
pencil on a revolving cylinder. There seems to bo no reason why
tho rate of currents of water should not be registered by this
apparatus quite as accurately as the rate of the wind by means
of Dr. Robinson's apparatus.

Even if the delicate apparatus for recording the currents con-
tinously cannot be conveniently applied on board the ships, it will
still be of very great importance to employ some such apparatus
as tho revolving cups above described, and to apply to them an
index which shall enable the observer to record the rato of
revolution, and so to determine the rate of the current.]

13. Voyage of the "Polaris" under Captain Hall.

A comparison of the facts relating to this voyage are gathered
from Captain A. H. Markham's " Whaling Cruise to Baffin's Bay,"
and Clement Markham's " Threshold of the Unknown Regions,"
with the records of the discoveries of Dr. Kane aud Dr. Hayes in
Kennedy Channel.

p. 189.— In August 1871 the " Polaris" went from Cape
Shackleton (in latitude 74°, near Upernavik) to her extreme
northern point in 82° 16' N. (a distance of about 600 miles) in
five djiys (part of the way against a current of 1 knot an hour),
and was stopped by an insignificant stream of ice which might
have been easily passed through, while there was a magnificent
water-sky to tho northward. The floes in Smith Sound were
small, and no icebergs of any size were seen north of 80° N., i.e.,
north of Cape Fraser or the Humboldt Glacier. Like Dr. Hayes,
Captain Hall went northwards on the west side of Kane Basin
and Kennedy Channel, whereas Dr. Kane was proceeding on the
eastern side when he was caught in tho ice in Van Rensselaer
Harbour, where he experienced very severe cold.

TUIES AND CrUUKNT.-.

CG9

urrcnts in tho
)ocau30 of tho

ng and even
; tlicro socras
I not bo con-
various ports,
. Fixing tho
iially attached
md must have
y's apparatus,
on wliich the
lIo. Also the
•y means of an
levised by Dr.
th tlio cups at
vratus consists
1 a horizontal
By means of
recorded by a
o reason why
stored by this
ind by means

currents con-
e ships, it will
ich apparatus
y to them an
the rate of
t.]

Hall.

are gathered
laffin's Bay,"
wn Regions,'*
)r. Hayes in

from Cape
ler extreme
00 miles) in
lot an hour),
vhich might

magnificent
Sound were

80° N., i.e.,

Dr. Hayes,
Kane Basin
ling on the

Rensselaer

This suggests tliat probably the cxtrenio cold of Van Ren^>
selaer, as oxpL'rlcncod by Dr. Kane and also hy Dr. Hayes in
18()l,m:iy be <hio to tlio extensive glaciers on the liigh lands to tho
east as well as to tlu; ex|)()suro to the N.W.

The Humboldt (ilacior, in latitude 79" 12' N., with a sea face
46 miles long and from 3.'}() to .500 feet high, bounded by i)recipic(is
of Old Retl Sandstone and Silurian limestone from 100 to 1,400
feet high, sends oil' icebergs in lines which lill up tlio eastern side
of Kane Basin, and arc drifted by the prevailing winds (and tho
current, if there bo any, in Kennedy Channel) into Smith's Sound
and Badin's Bay.

A comparison of the six maps of tho Smith's Sound route in
** The Threshold of tho Unknown Regions" scarcely bear out Mr.
Clement IVIarkham's statements with regard to tho accuracy of
Morton's statements on page IGo, or the statements of Captain
Markham in his " Whaling Cruise," page 192, as to the coast lino
laid down by Hayes in 1853-51 and again in IBGO-Gl. These
remarks are of course founded on conversations with Dr. Bessels
on the voyage.

Morton stilted that he went 76 miles farther (than Dr. Kane ?).
Dr. Kane did not cross the front of tho glacier ; thus, according
to Morton's statement, ho would only have gone about 30 miles,
or half a degree of latitude, beyond Cape Jackson, which is rightly
placed by Morton in Kane's map in latitude 80° N. and longitude
nearly 66° W.

From his extreme point about a distance of 90 miles, or 1° 30' of
latitude, directly north, is marked in Dr. Kane's maj) as open sea up
to Mount Parry. This entirely agrees with tho discoveries of the
" Polaris." Throughout the whole of this region, according to Dr.
Bessels, there is an open sea or basin extending over a space of 3° of
longitude by 1° of latitude, with four broad channels leading out in
four directions, where the ice was insignificant, and where there was
a magnificent water-sky to the northward ; where also the ice floes
seldom exceeded 5 feet in thickness, and were all of one year's
growth. He also states that the heavier ice probably drifts up
Lady Franklin Strait.

This seems to agree exceedingly well with Morton's statement
that he found open water extending in an iceless channel to the
western shores, and the fact that the northern tide reaches south-
wards to Cape Fraser favours Morton's statement that the heavy
surf was beating against the rocks. Morton was very near to, and
rather to the north of, the point where the northern and southern
flood tides meet, and in an open sea there would be that disturbance
of the water which was noticed by Morton, but which was not
noticed at Cape Fraser by the ** Polaris " or by Dr. Hayes along
the western shore, because of the ice.

There is one point in Avhieh Morton may have been wrong, viz.,
he may have overestimated the distance he had travelled in a
direct line northwards; but with this exception it seems that
Morton's statements are fairly trustworthy. According to Dr.
Bessels' observations, Morton must have gone about 76 miles
beyond Dr. Kane to rc;ic]i Cnpc Constitution.

G70

TIDES AND CUUKENIS.

( I

wri

ii

As thn prevailing winds iti Kcnncily Channel aro from tho
nortliM'Hst, and this would cause I lie drift of the ico, it docs not
seem certain, as Dr. liessols' results have not yet been published,
that there is any tine current ajit/whcrc to the sottt/i of Lady
Fntnklia Bay, and in that case a channel can hardly have been
cut in tho ico by tho strong current during the days of niidsummer.
The meeting of the tides and conse(|uent disturbance would tend
to keep tho sea clear of ico provided there were no heavy ice.
Tho current through Koboson Channel, in which heavier ico was
Been drifting southwards, may proceed up Lady Franklin Strait,
carrying with it tho heavy ice, which according to Dr. Bessels
did not come farther to the south.

De Haven, McClintoek, and other obsorvors all attribute the
drift down IJaflin'^^ Bay entirely to the winds.

Except perhaps in Barrow Strait, there seems to be no evidence
from De Haven's Drift, in Wellington Channel, Lancaster Sound,
and Baffin's Bay, that any true oirrcnt exists. At first, in
Wellington Channel, tho drift was in opposite diicctions, accord-
ing as tho wind changed, while in Barrow Strait, at times with
a north wind, tho drift was westward, the ice being driven by the
tide from the eastward through Lancaster Sound and Baffin's
Bay ; the amount and direction of the drift seemed to depend
almost entirely on tho direction of tho wind.

On the N.E. of Spitsbergen it has been found by Lieut. Wey-
precht that the prevailing winds aro from E. to W., causing the
great ico drift which drifted Parry to tho S.W., and which brings
down the ico towards East Greenland. Tho rate of this drift
varies from 8 to 13 miles a day. These winds, which may partly
be caused by the warm Gulf Stream, towards which they blow,
to the N. and W. of Spitzbcrgen, will bo warmed as they pass
over that region, since the tcmperattiro of the sea water in the
whole of that region is found to be high, and flowing on still
■westward will pass over the sea to the west, and over tho north
of Greenland, and so to the shores of Kennedy Channel and
Smith Sound.

This would also seem to be borne out by the fact reported from
the observations of Captain Hall in the ** Polaris," that tho tide
round tho north of Greenland met the tide up Smith Sound at
Capo Eraser, on tho west side of Kennedy Channel, in latitude
80° N.

With regard to the existence of an open sea north of Smith
Sound, Kane says : — *' Whether it exists simply as a feature of
** the immediate region, or as a part of a great and unexplored
" area communicating with a polar basin, may be questions for
" men skilled in scientific deductions ; whether it does or does
" not communicate witii a polar basin we are without facts to
" determine." He adds : — '* The influence of rapid tides and
" currents in destroying ice by abrasion can hardly be realised by
" those who have not witnessed their action. It is not uncom-
" mon to see such tidal sluices remain open in the midst of
" winter."

TIDES AND CURRENT?,

G71

I aro from tho
ice, it (Iocs not
i)eon piihliHhed,
w>////« of' Lady
iidly hiivo been
of inidsiiinincr.
ICO would tend
! no heavy ice.
eavier ice was
'ninklin Strait,
to Dr. Bossels

[ attribute the

be no evidence
ncnstcr Sound,
At first, in
ctions, nccord-
, at times with
; driven by the

II and Baffin's
mcd to depend

ly Lieut. Woy-

'., causing the

1 which brings

0 of this drift

ch may partly

ch they blow,

as they pass

water in the

wing on still

»vcr tho north

Channel and

reported from
that tho tide
ith Sound at
il, in latitude

)rth of Smith
a feature of
d unexplored
questions for
does or does
hout facts to
)id tides and
)e realised by
not uncora-
he midst of

The obacrvations of Dr. Hcssels with rc^mrd to tho climate of tho
wint(M' (juiirters of the «• I'olari.s ' in Hl^ ;JM' N., on tlu! east side of
Hall Miisin or Kennedy Channel, that it is niiivh milder than it is
several decrees to the south, and that a eurretit of a knot a>\ hour
Jifttvs dotvn llohvson Channel from the north, and earries the iee
out into liaffin's liai/, also ajjno with the vii.'w that the iee to tho
north of Spitzbergen, Nova Zembia, and Siberia \a drifted to tho
west and north-west by the winds, and divides to the north of
Greenland into two streams, one current flowing down along East
Greeidand, and the other flowing through Kobeson Channelto the
south-west.

These observations must also be taken in connexion with
Admiral Belcher's observations at the north end of Wellington
Channel, that the tides from the north meet tho tides from tho
south in that channel.

Sir Edward Beleher says, in "The Last of the Arctic Voyages,"
page 219, vol. ii. : — " I had well [noved, by experiments conducted
" at Beechey Island, Cape Bowden, and the late winter (luartcrs
" (at the north end of the Wellington Channel), that the flood-
" course di«l not run from Lancaster Sound thromjh Wellington
" and the Queen's Channel; but that the northern flood from the
" Arctic Ocean met that from Lancaster Sound, as nearly as I
" could determine, at Cai)e Bowden, and \\mv\\ in the same manner
" as the Channel and North Sea tides nuict about Dover."

"Hence \i was clear to my mind that Avithout a groat effort of
nature to clear away the ice northerly as well as Koutherli/ of that
parallel, antagonistic forces must continue to compress any loose
floes together, and perfect a solid barrier in that the narrowest
portion of the Wellington Channel."

He also says, on p. 222 : — " We know of no southern drift in
" Wellington Channel; we have never experienced northern
" gales ; we do possess facts to prove tho reverse ; portions of
" the * Breadalbane ' reached our winter quarters, and that with-
« out a gale ;" on the 4th of September 1 853. " The « Breadal-
" bane' was wrecked 55 miles to the south on the 21 st of
" August."

That there is a " permanent easterly current on i\\Q south of
" Melville Island, and in Barrow Strait," towards Lancaster
Sound, is clear from the evidence of Captain Kellett from obser-
vations between Sept. 10 and Nov. 12, 1873.

14. Remarks on Tides and Curkents.

If, as seems not unlikely, the tide from the north of Greenland
passing through Lady Franklin Channel to the south-west meets
the Baffin's Bay tide near the north end of Wellington Channel,
then there may be no one point where the three tides actually
meet, but Melville Island will probably be washed by all three
tides, and it seems not improbable to expect that the pole of
greatest cold will be not far fi'om Melville Island.

But it seems more probable, and this should be made clear from
the character of the tides near Wellington Chajmel, that the tides

672

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

^f i

meeting in tlint channel are the two branchea of the Baffin's Bay
tide flowing through Lancaster Sound and through Jones' Sound.
The shortest way to the north-west end of Wellington Channel
being probably through Jones' Sound.

The flowing of the three tides into the region between Melville
Island, Grinnell Land, and Kellett Land, the Behring Strait tide
from the S.W., the ]iaflin's Bay tide from the S.E. through
Jones' Sound, and the North Greenland tide through Lady
Franklin Strait, and other straits to the north of it, will fully
account for the heavy nature of the ice in that region as far as it
has been observed, and for the fact that it is never carried out of
this Arctic sea through the somewhat narrow openings into it. In
this case there will be some point in the open ocean to the north
of Melville Island where these three tides meet, forming, as it
were, a pole of tides. McClure'was prevented from passing from
Prince of Wales Strait to Barrow Sound by the ice collected where
two opposing tides meet, and was afterwards obliged to abandon
his ship in Mercy Bay probably for the same reason. Professor
Ilaughton has shown that where heavy ice exists, as, for instance,
on the west of Boothia Felix, the meeting of the tides tends to
consolidate the ice and to prevent its drifting, and that it was
owing to this meeting of the tides that Sir John Franklin's ships
could not escape.

In the neighbourhood of this pole of tides we should look for the
pole of greatest cold, since we may expect that the tides and
currents in the air and its temperature will be regulated to some
extent by the distribution of sea and land, so that where we get
the pole of ocean tides there we may also expec^t the i)ole of aerial
tides.

The correspondence between the temperature of the air and the

surface temperature of the sea is also in favour of this hypothesis.

Such a position may be expected to be one of comparative rest,

so that the colder air above will more readily descend to the surface

of the earth and produce the cold winds.

Judging from the direction of the cold winds as observed, the
pole of cold may bo expected to be somewhere to the N.W. of
Wellington Channel.

The fact that " the oscillations of the barometer are much
" greater in the neighbourhood of water," although the surface
temperature over water is more nearly constant, shows that the
distribution of land and water must have an important effect on,
and to some extent regvdate, the aerial tides.

May not the flow of the tide through Lady Franklin Bay to
the westward, nearly in the direction of the prevailing N.E. winds,
be connected with Admiral Belcher's observations in Wellington
Channel, which would be about 400 miles to the south-west?
Dr. Bessels saw large ice-fields in latitude 82° 16' which were
drifting south, but which were never seen to the sotith of Lady
Franklin Bay, and it is his impression that they go up that sound
or Btraiu Docs not this also seem to show that the current of
one knot an hour in Robeson Channel flows through Lady Franklin
Strait rather than down Kennodv Channel?

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

673

Baffin's Bay
Hies' Sound,
on Channel

Ben Melville

Strait tide
.E. through
'ough Lady
t, will fully

as far as it
irricd out of
s into it. In
to the north
ruling, as it
lassing from
lectod where

to abandon
;. Professor
for instance,
ides tends to

that it was
nklin's ships

look for the
le tides and
ated to some
['here we get
)ole of aerial

air and the

lypothesis.

)arative rest,

the surface

jserved, the
Hie N.W. of

are much
the surface
^vs that the
t effect on,

din Bay to
N.E. winds,
Wellington
ou til- west ?
vhich were
th of Lady
that sound
current of
ly Franklin

It is also stilted by Sir Edward Belcher that the cast winds arc
the warm winds which are laden with snow.

Dr. Bessels states that the coast of Greenland extends only as
far as 82° 30' N., and then trends away to the eastward.

Pieces of pine-wood, up to 4 feet in length, were picked up in
82° N., drifting with the stream from the north, and the Esqui-
maux, elem, told them that plenty of wood came from the north,
and was washed up along the shore of Grinncll Land, on the west
side of Kennedy Channel.

" To the south of Capo Eraser the tide rose to a greater lioight
during the night, as is the case along the coast of Greenland ;
whereas to the north of Cape Eraser tlierc was no perceptible
difference between the day and night tides." This will depend on
the age of the moon.

Captain Markham, p. 19L — At times of full moon, i.r., at the
highest spring tides, Avhich must tal?e place at Cape Fraser about
12 o'clock, this will be true ; but at other times, when the tides are
small, it will probably not be found to be true even south of Capo
Fraser. Where the whole rise of the neap tide is oidy 2 feet, there
may be some difficulty in finding the difference in the height of
two tides.

(Jn referring to the map (p. 159) showing Kane's and Hayes' dis-
coveries,'it will be seen that the latitudes of all places observed by
Hayes up to his most northern point on the shore of Lady Franklin
Strait, in latitude 81° 35' N., agrees with the latitudes as deter-
mined by Dr. Bessels ; also that he agrees almost entirely Avith
Dr. Bessels in the longitude of Cape Fraser and Cape Barrow
(lat. 80° N., long. 70° W.), and in the position and dimensions of
Hayes Sound.

In going north from Cape Barrow, according to Dr. Bessels,
the coast line bears rather more to the east than accordinu to
Hayes ; so that while Hayes places his extreme northern point
in the same longitude as Cape Barrow, Dr. Bessels places it
rather more than 2°, i.e., about 20 miles, to the east of Capo
Barrow.

[From the discussion of Dr. Hayes' Observations, I cannot find
that any longitudes were determined to the north of Cape BarroAV.]

Hayes found the channel frozen over in May 1861, liut the
ice much decayed. The coast on the west side was lined with
a heavy ridge of pressed-up ice, in some cases 60 feet high, and
far up on the beach.

Captain ]\larkhani's " Whaling Cruise," p. 190. — The north coast
of Greanland Is steep and precipitous, and is free from land ice,
whilst the shores of Grinncll Land are low and shelving, and have
fast ice attached to them. This agrees Avith the observations of
Dr. Hayes, p. 194. The lowest temperature registered was — 48'- F.,
with very little wind bloAviiig at the time. The prevailing winds
Avero from the N.E. (It Avould be interesting to knoAv Avhethcr
the highest temperatures Avere registered during these Avinds.
The

(<

season seems to have been a mild one.) " The fall of snoAV
Avas remarkably small."

36122.

u u

674

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

:||

p. 196.— In latitude 81° 36' N., "on the 2l8t of December there
" were six liours of twilight, which rose at noon to an altitude
« of 10°."

Dr. Bessels visited Port Foulke, and ascended to a height of
4,181 feet on the glacier visited by Hayes. His observations here
arc not given.

p. 190.— The north cojist of Greenland is in latitude 82° 30' N.
The land on the west side of Koboaon Channel is a little farther
to the north, and is bounded by a cha .nel trending towards the
west, while to the north, at a distance of 60 miles (estimated), is
seen another northern land. This would give a latitude of 83° 30'
for this northern land.

While Kane was in Smith Sound his Danish interpreter,
P(^tersen, conversed with the Esquimaux who had been to a large
island called Umingmuk (Musk-ox) Isle, where there was open
water, with Walrus there, and some of their people formerly lived
on the island.

" Whaling Cruise," p. 194. — In Hall Land, the winter quarters
of the 'Polaris,' Musk-oxen were met with, and Foxes and Lem-
mings ; also three kinds of Seals, but no Wali'uses.

p. 192. — Traces of Esquimaux were found in latitude 82° N.,
a couple of ribs of Wnlrus (used as sledge-runners), and a small
piece of wood (the back of a sledge); also remains of a summer
encampment. This would seem to show that Umingmuk Isle and
Hall Land are identical, the Petermann Fjord dividing it off
from the mairdand at least for a considerable distance from the
mouth of the fjord, as shown by Dr. Bessels.

Captain Sabine met with Esquimaux in East Greenland in 1823,
which were believed to have come from the north ; and M. Kol-
dewey met with Musk-oxen, which probably came from the north,
since none are found to the south of Wolstenholme Sound.

p. 193. — " The ' Polaris ' drifted to the southward from her most
" northern point, in consequence of the prevailing north-east
" winds." There was a current of 1 knot an hour down the
channel.

Can this current down Poboson Channel be the effect of the
tides coming from a larger area of water beyond into the smaller
channel, or do the winds cause the ice to move in that direction
and so cause a surface current in the channel, or is there a
true current down this channel from the N.E. Avhich flows into
Lady Franklin Strait ? These are interesting questions to deter-
mine.

15. The AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN NOIITII-POLAK Exi'KDlTlON of

1872-74. (A Lecture by Lieuteiumt Weypreeht.)
Mcteoroloff?/ and Hydrography.

(Petcrmann's " Geograph. Mittheilungeu," 1875 ; and" Nature,"
March 11th and 18th, 1875.)

" In the preliminary expedition to the east of Spitzbergen in
1871, the observers had found the sea completely free from ice as

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

675

Ind " Nature,"

far as 78° N. lat., north of Nowaja Semlja, and their intention at
the second expedition was to investigate this sea in an easterly
direction, taking the Siberian coast as basis, and depending on
the influence of the great Siberian rivers, whose great quantities
of comparatively Avarm water probably free the coast from ice
almost every summer.

" TTnfortunately the year 1872 Avasone of the most unfavourable
ever seen. Already in 74*5° N. lat. the explorers fotnid ice;
they could only reach Cape Nassau with great Jifliculty, and
were finally blocked up by packed ice in a locality where, in the
previous and following years, there was no ico ibr one hundred
German miles round. They never got within the reach of the
Siberian rivers, and the uncertainty Avith roiiard to their influence
upon the ice along the Siberian coast is still the same as ever.
But one point is clearly proved, namely, that the conditioiis of
ice between Spitzbergen and NoAvaja Semlja are highly variable
from year to year ; this circumstance, more than any other,
speaks against the advisal)ility of future expeditions to lu; made
on the basis of Franz- Joseph's Land. In 1874 the explorers
found the ice again in iho same position as in 1871 ; there is
perhaps a certain periodicity in this.

"Lieut. Weyprecht formerly thought that marine currents Avere
the principal cause of the general motion of the ice in Arctic
regions ; he is noAV of a different opinion, as he maintains that
during the drift of their vessel, Avhieh Avas frozen in, in packed
ice, and drifted in this state for over fourteen months, tlie in-
fluence of currents Avas imperceptible compared to that ofAvinds
upon the drifting ice. The existence of Gnlf-stream Avater in
the great area between Norway, Spitzbergen, and Nowaja Sonilja
is undeniable ; the current cannot, however, be traecil directly
by its course, but rather by the unproportionally high sea-
temperatures in those high latitudes. As a natural consequenci;
of this, the Gulf stream does not regulate the limits of ice, but
the ice, set in motion by Avinds, regulates the limits of the Avarnier
Gulf-stream Avater, depriving the same of the last d(^grees of heat
which it contains. A comparison of the Hansa dritt Avith the
Avinds Avould shoAV Avhether on the east coast of Greenland the drift
of ice is only produced by the latter ; Sir L. MeClintoek proves
Avith figures that this decidedly is the case in Baffin's Bay. The
gpeed of the drift of course depends upon the force of the Aviiids,
local conditions, A'icinity of coasts, and the more or less opcTi Avater.
The great influence of the Avind upon the ice-iields is cxplainetl
by their rnggedness ; each projecting block repre.>^ents a sail.

" In the vicinity of coasts it is somewhat ditt'erent ; inimenso
currents are often perceived there, originating through the tides,
or perhaps through the motion of the ice itself and the Avinds.

" There is a decided general tendency in tlu; ice to move south-
ward during the summer ; the reason of this may be the flowing
off* of melted Avater in all directions, Avhich causes a breaking-up
of the whole Arctic mass of ice. But all other influences upon
the motion of the ice are nearly imperceptible Avhen compared to
that of winds, and can only be traced in their most general eU'ects.

U IJ 2

^a^-TS"

f

676

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

1^' ^

rr;

It is quite certain, however, that in the south of Franz-.Toseph's
Land there is a coust^int flow of ice from eawt to west, i.c. from
the Siberian sea. If the field of ice which held Lieutenant
Weyprecht's ship a prisoner had not attached itself to Wilczek
Island, it would have drifted toward the northern end of Spitz-
bergen ; he arrives at this conclusion from observing the winds
of last winter.

" To the influence of winds Lieutenent Wevprecht also ascribes
the existence of open water near all west coasts in those regions :
he found the main direction of winter-storms in Franz- Joseph's Land
to be E.N.E. ; the ice under west coasts is therefore constantly
broken up. Lieutenant Payer, on the northernmost point he
reached, Avas stopped from extending his sledge journeys further
by open water near a west coast, upon which he was travelling.

" Also, with regard to quality, the ice in those seas is Acry
variable. While in the summer of 1873 the explorers could not see
the end of the field in which their ship was frozen in, they never
met fields of such an extent during their retreat ; also, with regard
to thickness, there was great variety. In 1873 their field formed
an irregular frozen mass, with high ice walls in all directions
and immense protuberances ; in 1874 they found much greater
evenness, and although thawing had begun so late that they almost
perished with thirst during a month and a half, the ice was so
thin in some places at the end of July that they often broke
through while drawing their sledges. During the drift the Avhole
mass was doubtless packed very closely ; the field, in spite of the
constant drifting motion, did not turn round, the bow of the
ship pointing always in the same direction ; only in September,
Avhen the field was greatly reduced, it began to turn ; in Octobtir
and November large holes were seen in it in the vicinity of the
coast towards the south.

" Whether Franz-Joseph's Land can again be reached by ship.
Lieutenant Weyprecht thinks mainly dependent on favourable
conditions of weather and ice ; in any case a very warm summer
will be necessary, and then it could be done only late in the
year. As to the most favourable point to start from in such an ex-
pedition, he indicates 45° East long., as here he found the barrier
of ice in 1871 to be 50 German miles more to the north than in
60° E. long.

"In the preliminary expedition of 1871, Lieut. Woyprec'it

found

sure signs

of the vicinity of land in 43° E. Ion-, and

78° 75' N. lat., and accordingly he proposed this unknown land as
the basis for future expeditions sent to reach the pole. The mys-
terious Gillis-Land is situated upon 30° E. long. The south coast
of Franz-Joseph's Land was seen by Payer at least as far as 50° P].
long. Lieut. Weyprecht now thhiks he may be permitted to con-
clude that these three points are connected. Thus Franz-Joseph's
Land would become greatly extended in n western direction.
Nmnerous icel)ergs floating along the coast seem to confirm this
idea, and it is hardly necessary to point out how much the interest
in Arctic investigntioii would be increased by this idea proving a
correct one.

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

677

fanz-»Toseph's
rest, i.e. I'lom
1 Lieutenant
if to Wilczek
'ud of Spitz-
iir the winds

also ascribes
hose rep;ions :
Joseph's Land
re constantly
lost point ho
irneys further
travelling,
seas is "sery
s could not see
in, they never
io, with regard
r field formed
all directions
much greater
lat they almost
lie ice was so
y often broke
drift the whole
in spite of the
le bow of the
in September,
■n ; in Octob(ir
vicinity of the

[ached by ship,

on favourable

Iwarm summer

ly late in the

in such an ex-
iind the barrier

north than in

|it. Wcyprcc'.t
E. loiij^. and
iknown land as
He. The mys-
'hc south coast
l\s far as 50° E.
(rmitted to con-
Franz-Joseph's
rcrn direction.
to confirm this
iich the interest
dca proving a

" During a year and a half the explorers had constant oppor-
tunities closely to observe the behaviour and formation of puek-
ice. The phenomenon is instructive, as it is'the same in the whole
of th(» Arctic regions. With the exception of land-ice, which
clings to the coasts and never reaches far out into the sea, all ice —
icebergs as well as fields — is in constant motion, winter and
summer ; and this, as has been shown, is through the influence of
winds. The motion, however, is a ditferent one ahnost with every
field, and thus a certain pressure results wherever two fields touch ;
this naturally leads to the breaking up of the fields, and the con-
traction of the ice during sudden low temperatures plays its part
in a similar way. If one considers the great extent of the fields,
sometimes of many miles, and their enormous masses, one can
easily imagine the colossal forces which are active in these
phenomena, and the greatness of their efiects. When two fields
meet, a combat body to body ensues, often lasting only a few
minutes, l)ut sometimes even for days and weeks. The edges are
then turned up on both sides, upwards ai\d doAvnwards, an ir-
regular wall of ice consisting of wildly-rnixed blocks begins to
build itself, the pressure increases more and more, masses of ice
eight feet long and broad arc lifted 30 to 40 feet high, and then
fall to make room for others. At last one of the fields begins to
shift itself for some distance underneath the other one ; often they
separate for a whil(> only to renew the struggle. But the end of
it always is that the intense cold unites all into one solid mass ; a
single fiehl results from the two, and the next storm or quick
change of temperature cracks the new field)- '.n some other direc-
tion, the pieces renewing the old struggle. This is the ori!_nn of
the ice-fields, which are quite irregular abo\ c and bt'low, some-
times only consisting of blocks that hav(^ frozen together, and
filling up the whole Arctic region as so-called paek-iec.

"During winter, snow-storms fill up all smaller irregularities
completely. As soon as the sun begins its action, the crushing
of the ice decreases, the winterly ice walls diminish considerably,
immense masses of iet and snow are melted, and the resulting
sweet water forms large lakes on all the lower even parts of the
field. During the summer, about four feet of ice are thus melted
down from above; of course the whole field and everything ii])on
it — the explorer's shij), for instance — is raised so much higher. In
the following winti'r it grows below in the same ratio, atid thus flie
whole of the ice is in an uninterrupted process of renovation, from
l)('low upwards; we may conclude that all the old pack-ice is
replaced by new in the course of two years.

"The spaces of open water which naturally occur during the
great crushes are soon again covered by fresh ice in winter; the
intense cold keeps I'cpairing the l)roken field of iee. Lieut.
Wey|)reeht o1)served that within 24 hours, and with a tempe-
rature of -30° to 40° K. (37 '0-50° C'.,) the new crust becomes
about a foot thick. The salt of the sea- water has not lime to be
displaced entirely, the formation of ice going on too quickly, and
a considerable (piantity freezes into the upper strata of the ice ;
this (piantity decreases downwards as the ice takes more time to

.1.1;

-^*F.--

678

TIDES AND CUKRENTS.

'■ii

form,. Beginning at a certain thickness, the ice is almost free
from salt. The upper strata, however, on account of the salt they
contain, attract moisture in a great degree, and foim a tough,
leathery mass which bends under foot without breaking. This,
however, is only the case with new ice, as after a short time the
salt crystallizes out of the ice, and the surface covers itself with a
snowy layer of salt, sometimes reaching two inches of thickness.
Even in the most intense cold this layer retains so much moisture
that it makes the impression of a thaw ; only little by little, evapo-
riition and drizzling snow do their work, and the ice itself becomes
brittle.

" In this way almost all the salt, which was frozen in, crystallizes
out, and is washed off and back into the sea by the melted water
in the next summer. The melted water at the end of the summer
is, thercfoi-e, almost free from salt, and has a specific gravity of
1 005. It is evident that a smooth plane of ice, as is found on
sweet water, is a very rare occurrence in Arctic regions.

" The astronomical observations while the ship was still drift-
ing Avere confined to determinations of latitude and longitude, the
latter by clirononieters and correction of clocks, by lunar distances,
as often as opportunity served. In this only a sextant and a
prism circle with artificial horizon were used. When the ship
was lying still, a little 'universal' instrument Avas erected, and
the detoruiinations of time, latitude, and azimuth were made with
this. The longitude was calculjited from the mean of as many
lunar distances as could be observed during the winter ; they
were 210 in number. The azimuth of a base line 2,171 metres
long, measured by Lieut. Weyprecht with a Stanipfer levelling
instrument, was determined Avith the universal instrument of the
magnetic theodolite. All this vvoik was done by Ensign Orel,
Lieut. Weyprecht only taking a share in measuring lunar distjinces.
The determinations of locality Avere made Avithout regard to tem-
peratures ; if the mercury of the artificial horizon was frozen,
blackened oil of turpentine SA^1S used instead. The Avinter quarters
were in latitude 79" 51', and longitude 58° 56' E.

" Of the results of the meteorological observations, only some
general ideas can be given, as hero figures alone decide. They
were begun on the day the explorers left Tromso, and Avere only
discontinued Avhen they left the ship ; thus they Avere made
during twenty-two months. Readings Avere taken every two
hours, and also at 9 a.m. and 3 p.m., therefore fourteen times
daily. The observers were Lieut. Brosch, Ensign Orel, Capt.
Lusina, Capt. Carlsen, Engineer Kriscli (from autumn 1872 till
spring 1873), and Dr. Kepes (during the last two months only).
The direction as avcU as force of Avinds Avere noted down Avithout
instruments. Lieut. Weyprecht thinks this method by far the
best in Arctic regions, as errors are more or less eliminated,
AA'hile Avhen using instruments the constant freezing, drifting snow,
&ii., produce errors that cannot be determined nor controlled ; be-
sides, any one Avho has been to sea for a short time will- soon
acquire sufficient exactness in these observations.

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

C79

almost free
;he salt they
m a tough,
iing. This,
Drt time the
itself with a
)f thickness,
iich moisture
little, evapo-
sclf becomes

1, crystallizes
melted water
the summer
ic gravity of
is is found on
ns.

LS still drift-
ongitude, the
lar distances,
}xtaut and a
lien the ship

erected, and

re made with

of as many

winter ; they

2,171 metres

){er levelling

uient of the
nsign Orel,

nar distjinces.

crard to tem-
was frozen,

inter quarters

IS, only some
ecide. They
nd were only

were made
n every two
)urteen times

Orel, Cai)t.
inn 1872 till

onths only).

own without
d by far the
eliminated,
Irifting .snow,

ntrolled ; be-
ne will- soon

"Until the autumn of 1873 winds were highly variable. In
the vicinity of Nowaja Semlja many S.E. and S.W. winds were
observed ; in the spring these veered more to N.E. A prevalent
direction of winds was only recognized when in the second winter
the Expedition was near Franz-Joseph's Land. There all snow-
storms came from E.N.E., and constituted more than 50 per cent,
of all winds. They generally produced clouded skies, and the
clouds only dispersed when the wind turned to the north. The
explorers never met with those violent storms from the north,
from which the Germania party had so much to suffer on the
east coast of Greenland, and which seem to be the prevalent winds
in the Arctic zone. Altogether, they never observed those
extreme forces of wind which occur regularly in our seas several
times in every winter (for instance, the " Bora" In the Adriatic).
Every Arctic seaman knows that the ice itself has a calming
eflFect upon the winds ; very often white clouds are seen passing
with great rapidity, not particularly high overhead, while there
is an almost perfect calm below.

" One peculiarity must here be mentioned. Lieut. Weyprccht
made the lemarkable discovery that the ice never drifted straight
in the direction of the wind, but that it always deviated to the
W^'/t^, when looking from the centre of the compass; with N.K.
wind it drifts due W. instead of S.W. ; with S.W. wind it drifts
due E. instead of N.E. ; in the same manner it drifts to the north
with S.E. wind, and to the south with N.W. wind. There was
no exception to this rule, which cannot be explained by currents
nor by the influence of the coasts, as with these causes there would
be opposite results Avith opposite winds. Another interesting
phenomenon in both years was the struggle between the cold
northern winds and the warmer southern ones in January, just
before the beginning of the lasting and severe cold ; the warm S.
and S.W. winds always brought great masses of snow and pro-
duced a rise in the temperature amounting to 30-3o° E. within a
few hours.

"Little can at present be said on the result of the baron.' ter
readings, without a minute comparison of the long til■)le^ of
figures, although very extreme readings occurred at time/. 'Ihc
explorers had three mercury and four aneroid barometers ; by ",/ay
of control. Ensign Orel took the readings from five of these
instruments every day at noon, while the intermediate observa-
tions were made with an aneroid.

" The thermometers were suspended about four feet from the
surface of the snow, in the open air, and perfectly free on all
sides, about twenty-five yards from the vessel. Excepting the
maximum thermometers, they were all spirit thermometers, niJide
by Cappeller of Vienna. They were often compared with a very
exact normal thermometer of the same make. Headings from a
minimum thermometer were noted daily at noon ; during the
summer a black bulb thermometer was exposed to the rays of the
sun ; during the winter frequent observations were made with
exposed and covered minimum thermometers to ascertain the
nightly radiation at low temperatures. In both winters February

G80

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

Avns the coldest month, while Janunry both times showed a rise
in the tempcratm-e when compared either with Di-ceniber or
February. In winter the temperatm'O was hi<i;hly variable, and
sudden rises or falls were frequent ; in the three summer months,
howev(!r, the temperature was very constant, and chano;es very
rare. July was the warmest month. The lowest reading was
— 37^° 11. (nearly — 47° C.) The inlluence of extremely low
temperatures u}>on the human Itody has often been exaggerated ;
there are tales of dilHeulty in breathing, pains in the breast, &c.,
that are caused by them. Lieut. Weypreeht and his party did
not notice anything of the kind; and although many of them
had been born in southern climes, they all bore the cold very
easily indeed ; there were sailors amongst them who never had
fur coats on their bodies. Even in the greatest cohl they all
smoked their cigars in the open air. The cold only gets unbear-
able when there is wind with it, and this always raises the tem-
perature. Altogether, the impression cold makes upon the body
differs widely according to personal disposition and the quantity
of moisture contained in the air ; the same degree of frost pro-
duces a very uncomfortable effect at one time, while at another
one does not feel it.

".To determine the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere, an
ordinary psychrometer, a dry and a wet thermometer, were used.
But the observations with these instruments are not reliable at
low temperatures, and had to be given up altogether during
winter, as the smallest errors give great differences in the absolute
quantity of moisture in the air. In order to determine approxi-
mately the evaporation of ice during winter, Lieut. Weypreeht
exposed cubes of ice that had been carefully weighed to the open
air, and determined the loss of their weight every fourteen days."

" During winter the air seemed always to contain particles of
ice ; this was seen not only by parhelia and paraselene when the
sky was clear, but also in astronomical observations. The images
of celestial objects were hardly ever as clear and well defined as
they are at home, although the actual moisture in the atmosphere
was far less. It happened very often that with a perfectly clear
sky needles of ice were deposited in great quantities upon all
objects. It was quite impossible to determine the quantity of
atmospheric deposits, as during the snow-storms no distinction
could be made between the snow actually falling . nd that raised
from the ground by the storm ; it was remarkable, however, that
during the first winter the quantity of snow was small compared
with that of the second wintei', when the snow almost completely
buried the ship (this happened near Franz-Joseph's Laud). The
same proportion was repeated in the quantity of rain during
the first and second summer ; in the first only a little rain fell
late in the year, while in July 1874 it rained in torrents for
tlays.

" Clouds are naturally of a very diffei-ent character from those
seen at home ; nimbus and cumulus are never seen. The form
of cloud is either that uniform melancholy grey of an elevated
fog, or cirru,5 ; the latter consists of round but undefined mnsses

TIDES AND CURRENTS.

081

showed n rise
DoceinbtT or
y varijil)le, and
ummor months,
1 chnnnjes vory
st r(;a(ling was
cxtromoly low
1 exaggerated ;
the breast, &c.,
I his party did
many of them

the cohl very
^^ho never had
, cohl they all
y gets unbear-
aises the tom-
jpon the body
1 the quantity
3 of frost pro-
liile at another

atmospliere, an

;er, were used.

not reliable at

(getlier during

in the absolute

mine approxi-

Lit. Weyprecht

d to the open

urteen days."

in particles of

en CD when the

The images

ivell definetl as

he atmosphere

lorfectly clear

itics upon all

e quantity of

mo distinction

lid that raised

however, that

nail compared

>st completely

Land). The

rain during

ittle rain loll

torrents for

erfrom those
The form
■ an elevated
efincd massep

of fog at but a small elevation, therefore somewhat ditferont from
the cirrus of the temperate zone. Jnstead of clouds, fogs are
prevalent, now higher, now lower, and 24 hours of idear weather
rarely occur during the summer; generally the -iun is seen for a
few hours, then to disappear again behind the thick fogs. Melan-
choly and depressing as these fogs are, (hoy are nevertheless
necessary for the general conditions of the ice ; they prevent the
escape of the heat of the sun's rays, and melt more ice than the
direct rays.

" Parhelia and paraselenaj were often observed ; they always were
certain indications of coming snow-storms. A new phenomenon
was only observed once, when, besides the double system of
parhelia, two other mock suns appeariui on tne same altitude
with the real sun.

"On the whole path which the vessel described souudini??' were
made constantly, and the depth of the sea was found to increase
towards the east ; on the easternmost point, 73° E. long., there
were 400 metres of water, and the depth steadily decreased towards
the west. In front of Franz-Joseph's Land there is a bank which
seems to reach as far as Nowaja Semlja ; beyond it the depth
increases again. The whole area east of Spitzbergen rarely ex-
ceeds 300 metres in depth. Lieut. Hopfgarten specially con-
structed an instrument to fetch up dredging?, which was frequently
done. The deep-sea temperatures were measured with Casella's
minimum and maximum thermometer, and these measurements
were continued throughout the winter. They showed a slight
increase in the temperature at the bottom. The pcr-centage of
salt in the sea-water at different depths was also determined.
Until the ship Avas blocked up the surface temperatures of the
sea Avere also measured. Lieut. Weyprecht thinks that, as a ride,
too much importance is attached to these, as the state of the
Aventher is not taken into account, and it is just that Avhich has
the greatest influence upon the surface temperature ; it is quite
Avrong to imagine the existence of currents from observations of
this kind."

-GEODESY AND PENDULUM EXPERIMENTS TO
DETERMINE THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

1. Pakry's Pendulum Observations in Melville Island.

These ex])erinicnts Avere made by setting \\[) a clock containing
the i»endulum and observing the number of vibrations, the pies-
sure and temperature of the air, the ares described, and the height
above the sea.

Tna'o clocks Averc used, and Avere the same Avhieh Captain Cook
took round the world.

The i)endulMms Avero prepared by Ca|)tain Kater, being each
cast in one piece of solid brass, vibrating on a knih; edge of hard
steel on hard agate, in the form of a liolloAv cylinder.

1*.

682

GEODESY AND PENDULUM EXPERIMENTS.

The number of vibrations made by the clocks in London was

nHcorfnincd before the departure and after tlie return of the

Expedition.

London. Mean.

Clock I. Jan. 1819

„ Dec. 1820

Clock II. March 1819

Dec. 1820

86392-5673\g3 2.4.13
86392 •3353)***''^^^ ^^^^

8649G-997 1 36496-98

55

- 86496-9741/

The daily acccleraiion of a pendulum, from the mean of the
results with botli pendulums, is 74-734 vibrations between the
latitudes Sr 31' 08-4" and 74^^47' 14*36" N., giving the ellip-

ticity of the earth .\ . .. , /..

;t

•V '^U

n

2. Observations in SriTznERGEN by Captain Sabine.

Similar observations were made by Sabine at Spitzber^en in
latitude 79° 50' N., in the year 1823.

Experiments were also made by Sabine at Hamnierfcst in
latitude 79° 40' N.

Comparin<]j together these results with those which have been
obtained by Sabine at Greenwich and at Paris, we get —

Length of Seconds
Pendulum.

Measure of the
Force of Gravity.

At Spitzbergen - - -
„ Hammerfest-
„ Greenwich -
„ Paris _ _ .

39-21469
39-19475
39-13983
39-12851

32-2528
32-2363
32-1912
32-1819

3. Parry's Experiments at Port Bowen. (Third Voyage.)

These experiments on the time of vibration of one of Kater's
Pendulums, were made at Port Bo wen, in lat. 73° 13' 39 -4" N.,
long. 88° 54' 48-55" W., and compared with experiments with the
same pendulum at Greenwich, before the Expedition left England,
and also after its return. The number of vibrations made at Green-
wich in 24 hours mean time reduced to the level of the sea, and in
vacuo at the temperature of 50° Fahr. inApril 1824, was 86159-315,
and in November 1825, was 86159 '554 ; the difference 0*24
is probably due to the wear of the knife edges, which gives the
average 86159*434 at Greenwich, to compare with 86230-242,
the mean of two series of observations made at Port Bowen.
Taking these values, the ellipticity of the earth is found to be

-————, and the comparison of the force of gravity at the two
309*16 & ./

places is at once determined. The length of the Pendulum being

^r

>IT8.

a London was
'eturn of tho

Mean.

392-4513
196-9855

mean of tho
1 between the
ing the ullip-

Sabine.
pitzbei'^en in

animei'fest in

cli have been

Bt

Basure of the
cc of Gravity.

.32

2528

32

2363

32-

1912

32-

1819

i-(l Voyage.)

e of Kater's
3' 39-4" N.,
snts with the
eft England,
de at Green-
o sea, and in
;861o9-315,
srence 0 • 24
h gives the
86230-242,
ort Kowen.
bund to be

at the two
lulum being

GEODESY AND PENDULUM EXPERIMENTS.

C83

invariable, tho valuo of the acceleration duo to tho force of gravity,

is directly proportional to tho square of tho number of vihratiouH ;

or, which amounts to the same thing, tho force of gravity is

directly proportional to the length of thi^ second's Pendulum. Iff/

be tho acceleration at Greenwich, and r/, the acceleration at Port

i> *i ff\ /8623()-242\a , ,^,," ,,.

Bowcn, then ^ =■{,„, .,r.- A =rOOl044o.

a \861o9-434/

4. ExrKRiMKNTS made bv Dii. IIayks at Pokt Foijlkk in

September and Octob'jr i860, to <lete'riniiu; the Figure of tho
Earth.

A series of ex})eriments on tho time of vil)rati«)n of a Pendulum
were compared witli u serios made with tiie stunt! Pfiiduium at
Cambridge, Miissacliusetts;, helnre (lie Expetlitioii Hulled. Tho
number of vibrations in 24 hours nt C'uniinidgi' was S(j4;^l • 14, uiul
the number of vibrations iil Port Foulke was 86.').')0 • 72.

These values would give a compression or flattening of the

l-olc =±.

This value is smaller liian that dcn-ived from Parry's experi-
ments and by other methods. Baily's Penduknn experiments

gave the ellipticity — j:, but other smaller values havo been

28o

obtained. The value given by geodetic measurements is ^~~,

The ratio of the value of the force of gravity at Port Foulkc,
and at Cambridge, from these Pendulum experiments, is r003 very
nearly.

5. Geodesy. (Die zweite deutscho Nordpolarfahrt, vol. ii.,

p. 761.)

A base line was measured on the coast near German ia Harbour,
and connected by a system of triangulation with three points in
Sabine Island, at some distance from the harbour and from one
another.

The sides of this triangle were then used as bases of other
systems of triangidation extending to other islands, and to various
points on the mainland, extending ovei" nearly one degree of
latitude.

The comparison of these measurements, with the astronomical
observations for the elevation of the Pole Star at the different
places, gives, by the usual formuho for the length of a degree of
latitude, 72751 -429 metres. The length of a degree of latitude as
deduced from theoretical considerations is 72937*627 metres,
the difterence being about one four-hundredth part of the whole
distance.

Tho heights of a great many points along the coast were also
determined by trigonometrical measurement, as well as by the
barometer.

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684

GEODESY AND PENDULUM EXPERIMENTS..

?l -
15 1 ■ :•

6. Measurtno the Advance of the Glacier in Franz-Joseph-
Fiord. (R. COPELAND.)

Two signal stations were taken on the glacier, and their posi-
tions determined with reference to two points on the side of the
glacier, 80 metres apart, in a line parallel to the motion of the
glacier.

The motion of the marks was measured on August 11, after 19
hours, from 4 p.m. to 11 a.m., and again on August 12, after
another interval of 18 hours, from 11 a.m. to 5 a.m. the next
morning.

From these observations the daily advance of the glacier was
found to be ()• 164 + 0 • 019 metres.

7. Measurement of Motion of Glacier by Dr. Hates.
(Smithson Contrib., vol. xv.)

In the autumn of 1860 Dr. Hayes made a survey of glacier in the
neighbourhood of Port Foulke, the end of it being about two miles
from the sea. A base line was measured along its axis, ami bear-
ings taken to fixed objects on the mountain on each side. After
eight months the measurements indicated a motion of 94 feet.

On the interesting subject of the motion of the Swiss glaciers,
reference may be made to papers of Prof. Forbes, in the Edinburgh
New Philosophical Journal (Oct. 1842), who discovered that the
central portion of a glacier moves more rapidly than the sides,
and that a glacier is continually advancing ; also to the works of
De Saussure, about the same perio<l, in the " Comptes Rcndus,"
and especially to the experiments of Dr. Tyndall, on the motion
of the Mer de Glace. (Tyndall's Glaciers of the Alps, p. 275.)

VI.— ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION AT LOW
TEMPERATURES.

1. Appendix to Sir John Ross's North-west Passage.

«

Captain Scoresby gives some extraordinary instances of both
land and ships seen at immense distances, and on our first voyage
it is recorded that Cape Clarence was seen from the deck at the
distance of 120 miles, the ship being at that time 2° of latitude
south of the cape. The most remarkable circumstance which
occurred was the uneven current of refraction raisincf an inter-
mediate body (an iceberg or island) above the more distant land,
which at the time of no refraction was considerably higher."

2. Observations at Port Bowen. (Parry's Third Voyage, &c.)

(Pago 56.) The amount of atmospheric refrnction at low tem-
peratures was the subject which, next to magnetism, appeared the

MENTS..

Franz-Joseph-

f, and tlieir posi-

the side of tlie

e motion of the

gust IJ, after 19
Uigust 12, after
5 a.m. the next

the glacier was

Dr. Hates.

of glacier in the
about two miles
s axis, and bear-
ich side. After
I of 94 feet.
! Swiss glaciers,
n the Edinburgh
!overed that the
than the sides,
to the works of
mptcs Rcndus,"
, on the motion
ilps, p. 275.)

lT low

IT Passage.

stances of both
)ur first voyage
iho deck at the
! 2° of latitude
instance whicli
aising an inter-
ne distant land,
higher."

d Voyage, &c.)

on at low tem-
, appeared the

ATMOSPHERIC REFRiiCTION AT LOW TEMPERATURES. 685

most interesting to investigate. The extreme difficulty attending
the use of the repeating circle during intense cold, rendering it
next to impossible to obtain with that instrument observations of
a star having quick motion with the minute accuracy requisite
for this purpose, we were led to adopt the simple method of ob-
serving the setting of a star behind a horizontal board fixed
edgewise on a neighbouring hill, the altitude of the board being
obtained at leisure by repeated observntions with the circle.
These observations, the details of which are given in the Philo-
sophical Transactions, make the refraction at low temperatures,
and from the altitude of 4^° to 7^°, as computed from the tabic in
the Nautical Almanack, considerably in defect.

The instruments used were a theodolite and a small repeating
circle with two telescopes which were fixed at 122 feet above the
sea-level on casks filled with sand and firmly frozen to the ground.

It will bo seen from the observations made by Sir John Ross
that the accuracy of the Nautical Almanack tables cannot be
tested by the method adoptctl.

3. Capt. Parry's Third Voyage by Spitzbergen, p. 99.

Fog Botes. — At half-past 5 p.m. on 23rd July 1827, in lat.
82° 43', a beautiful phenomenon, consisting of six fog ])ows, was
seen in a direction opposite to the sun. First one Avhite bow
was seen, then it became tinged with prismatic colours and five
other complete coloured arches were formed within it, the interior
ones gradually narrowing.

The larger bow and the one next within it had the red on the
outer or upper part of the circle, the others on the inner side.
Altitude of the outer arc, 20° 45', its extent at the horizon, 72^°,
the altitude of the sun being 20° 40'.

The smaller bows were seen for 20 minutes.

In these travels the southerly drift of ice was more than four miles
a day for the last five days of the journey, so that after immense
labour in making a good 23 miles journey there was found to bo
only a gain of one mile northwards.

Lat. 82° -45', long. 19° -20' E., dip, 82° '21' -6, and declination
18°* 10' W. No bottom at a depth of 500 fathoms ; the specific
gravity of water at that depth was 1 '034 at 37° F.

At 6 fathoms the specific gravity of water was 1 ' 0225.

On July 27th, at 3 a.m., saw another fog bow, the sun's altitude
being 12^°, that of the centre of the outer arch 28°, and its extent
at the horizon, 77^°.

Three smaller fog bows Avere seen within the large one.

Aug. 2nd.— In lat. 82° 6', and long. 17° 45' E., we met with
snow, tinged with some red colouring matter to the depth of
several inches, giving a rose tint and in some places a salmon
coloured tint to the snow when pressed.

¥

686 ATMOSPHERIC BEFBACTION AT LOW TEMPEBATURES.

Aug. 5th. — ^Appearances of the raising of ice in the horizon by
refraction until it resembles a perpendicular wall, were generally
taken to be an indication of open water, but were not thought
by Parry an infallible one.

4. Scoresby's Observations of Fog Boavs.

Scoresby in his Greenland Voyage (pp. 96, 144, 164) also de-
scribes remarkable effects of refraction by layers of air of different
densities ; and (p. 275) remarkable coronto or fog-bows, with a
number of prismatic circles, seen from the mast-head 105 feet
above the sea-level in a direction opposite to the sun.

Round the centre was —

1. A bow from 3° to 4° in diameter.

2. A bow 9^° in diameter.

3. A bow 13° in diameter.

These at times gave the colours of the spectrum.

4. A circle about 5° broad, and mean radius 38° 50'.

The upper edge of this circle was about 6° above the horizon.
Another outer circle was seen on another occasion.

The sun's altitude was 35° 42'. Many shining spikes or needle.",
supposed to be crystals of snow, were seen floating in the breeze,
but they were so small that they could not be caught and
examined under a microscope.

The sun shone above the fog with great splendour, and the
shadows of the m.asts, sails, he. were clearly thrown on the water.

p. 351. Passed through brown coloured patches of sea- water,
the colour being due to animalcules covering the sea in streaks,
as shown by examining the water under a microscope. They
must be exposed to an average temperature 15° below the freezing
point in a sea perpetually covered with ice.

Water of a similar appearance is also noticed by Parry on his
entrance into Davis Strait. See Journal of Voyage for Discovery
of N.W. Passage.

Sometimes these streaks are of a yellowish green colour.

5. Observations on Refraction. Paraselene. (Belcher.)

On November 30, 1852, Admiral Belcher saw a beautifully
defined paraselena (see illustration in Vol. I. p. 169) about N.N.E.
true. The interior circle had a radius of 22° 30', the exterior 44°,
the moon's altitude at the time 30°.

There were two concentric halos, incomplete near the horizon,
accompanied by a strong vertical and a horizontal beam passing
through the moon. It was also accompanied by arcs of other
concentric circles, having their common centre at a point within
the zenith. The greater of these intersected the moon and outer
halosy forming at their contact luminous spots.

JIPERATURES.

the horizon by
were generally
re not thought

lows.

\, 164) also (le-
uii" of (liffbrent
l^-bows, Avitli a
head 105 feet

38° 50'.

'e the horizon.

kes or needles,

in the breeze,

e caught and

iour, and the
I on the water,
of sea-water,
ca in streaks,
icope. They
w the freezing

Parry on his
for Discovery

colour.

(Belcher.)

a beautifully

about N.N.E.

exterior 44°,

the horizon,
)eam passing
ires of other

point within
>on and outer

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION AT LOW TEMPERATURES. 687

At the points of intersection of these halos, bright paraselennc,
forming five on the lower and two on the upper arcs, presented
themselves ; the moon and the intersections by the vertical ray
exhibiting the most luminous. The moon was four days past the
full.

On the same evening, between 9 p.m. and midnight, the magneto-
meter was deflected westwards 10" more than usual. The next
night the magnetometer was again unusually disturbed. There
was also a fainter disi)lay of paraselena3.

On December 1st a beautiful illustration of the effect of intense
cold, fixing, as it were, the clouds and currents of air, and giving
Ihem rounded outlines. Probably another remarkable effect due,
like the paraselena;, to the floating of crystals or needles of ice in
the air.

" The distant land on the southern shore, near Cape Lady
Franklin, was peculiarly refracted, and ap])eared to be consider-
ably nearer than our positive knowledge would warrant, displaying
very beautifully its particular features." A delicate salmon tint
pervaded the horizon.

6. Halos, &c. — McClintock, p. 74.

Dec. 4, Dawn at 1 Ih. Cm. a.m. A well-marked halo and several
paraselena; between 7h. and lOh. p.m., consisting of five false
moons, three arcs of halos, and a horizontal belt of light, round the
heavens and passing through the moon.

7. Twilight throughout the Winter.

With regard to the existence of twilight through the winter,
McClintock says : — " On the mid-winter day (December 21st) at
" noon we could just read type similar to the leading article of the
" ' Times.* Few people could read more than two or three lines
" without their eyes aching."

Parry in his first voyage to Melville Island says : — " Up to the
" shortest day of the year the return of each successive day was
" very decidedly marked by a considerable twilight for some time
" about noon, that on the shortest day being sufficient to enable
" us to walk out very comfortably for nearly two hours. There
" was usually a beautiful arch of bright red light in the southern
" horizon for an hour or two."

8. Parky's Second Voyage to discover a North-west

Passage.

Analysis of Air, p. 240.

Bottles of air collected at Igloolik and packed in oakum were
examined by Prof. Faraday, whose results showed that the air
contained 20*5885 per cent, of oxygen, whilst the air of the
Laboratory at the Koyal Institution contained 21*9625 per cent.

G88 ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION AT LOW TEMPERATURES.

Expansion of Air, p. 245.

A glass cylinder, 1*7 inch in diameter and 2*6 inches in lenj^Ui,
was used ; into this was fitted a long tube or stem 10 inches in
length and nearly half an inch in diameter, graduated into 140
equal parts. The cylinder was also fitted with a ground glass
stopper. A drop of mercury was placed in the stem, antl the
vessel carried from a cold atmosphere to a warm one, and tiien
the tcinpcratun! taken by removing the stopper. Again, the
vessel Avas carried from i\w warm room to the cold, and the
results showed that 2059 '854 volumes of air at 55° '5 F. are re-
duced to 1682-24 volumes at 34° -5 F.

; -1

m

'I'

. n

!).'■'

9. ExrERiMENTS and Observations on Sound. (Parry's First

Voyage, &c.)

The distance at which sounds were heard during intense cold
constantly afforded matter for surprise.

" We have often heard people distinctly conversing in a com-
" mon tone of voice at the distance of a mile." A man was licanl
singing to himself as he walked along the beach at even a greater
distance than this.

[These facts, recorded by Parry, are no doubt due to the singu-
larly homogeneous nature of the air over the whole region.

The experiments of Prof. Tyndall in the English Channel show
that whether the weather be foggy or clear, the air will con\ey
sound well, provided it is homogeneous ; but that if there arc
layers of air of different densities, or if there are dry and moist
currents of air alternating, then the sound will be reflected or
diffused at the common surface of two layers, and will be lost.
The acoustic transparency of the air and its optical transparency
are entirely independent of one another.]

10. The Velocity of Sound. (Franklin's Second Journey.)

Observations on the velocity of sound at different temperatures
were made by Lieutenant E. N. Kendall duriug October, Novem-
ber, and December 1825.

The experiments, divided into five series, according to the
temperatures at the time of observation, give the following

results : —

Temperature. Velocity of Sound.

28-0 to

270F. -

- 1112 feet

per second.

10-0 to

3-0

- 1089

)j

2-0 to

- 4-0

- 1079

J)

36-0 to

-35-5

- 1036-1

J)

41-0

• "■

- 1030-3

»

IPEKATURES.

iches in lenj^lh,

m 10 inches in

uated into 140

I ground glass

stoni, and the

one, and tlien

Again, tho

eold, and the

5° "5 F. arc rc-

(Parry's First
g intense cold

rsmg ni a coni-
man was heard
, even a greater

le to tho singu-
rcgion.

I Channel sliow
air Avill convey
It if there arc
! dry and moist
bo reflected or
\d will be lost,
il transparency

nd Journey.)

; temperatures
tober, Novcm-

ordiug to the
the following

ouud.

second.

ATMOSPnERIC REFRACTION AT LOW TEMPERATURES. 689

11, Parry's ExrERiMENxs on Soi'xd at Winter Island.
(Second Voyage, &c.).

(p. 237.) Base linos were determiiu'd between two stations, and
the time between the flash and the report of a six-pounder was
taken by pocket chronometers, &c., by each observer. The gun
bad an elevation of 10"^, and was directed towards the observers.
The results are arranged according to temperatures.

-41-

-27'
-21'
- 2'
+ 33

^feau V

olocity 1

of Sovuul.

Feel

985'

9

1011-

2

1009

2

1031

0

1039

8

1069

9

From these observations the velocity of sound is seen to increase
with an increase of temperature, at the rate of 1*126 feet for
1" Fahr.

On Feb. 9th, with barometer 28*96, and thermometer 25° Fahr.,
the officer's word of command *' fire " was several times distinctly
heard about three-eighths of a second after the report of the gun.

12. Experiments on the Velocity of Sound at Port Bowen.
(Parry's Third Voyage to discover a Northw-est Passfxge.)

(p. 58.) Lieutenant Foster having occasion to send a man from
the Obsen'atory to the opposite shore of the liarbour, a measured
distance of 6,696 feet, or al)0ut one statute mile and two-tenths, in
order to fix a meridian mark, had placed a second person half way
between, to repeat his directions ; but lie found on trial that this
precaution was unnecessary, as he could without difficulty keej) up
a conversation with the man at tho distant station. The ther-
mometer was at this time 18°, the barometer 30*14 inches, and
the weather nearly calm, and cpiite clear and serene.

(Appendix, p. 86.) The following experiments were made with
a six-pounder brass gun placed on the beach at the liead of Port
Bowen, and fired by signal from the Heclaj tho interval elapsed
between the flash and report being carefully noted by the boats of
a pocket chronometer held to the ear of each observer. The
initials in the columns of interval are tliose of Capt. Parry
36122. X X

;i ' ;

090 ATMOSPITEUrC UKFIt.VCTION AT LOW TEMPERATURES.

(infl Lieut. Foster, niul tlio result in tho last cohinm of the
tnhle is (l('clnct>(l fVoiu the mean of botli. Tho distance of the
muzzle of tlie gun from the place of observation, ns measured tri-
gonometrieally by Lieut. Foster, Avas 12,892 '82 f<'<'t, and by Capt.
Parry (by a different series of triangles). 12,892-9(3. The meau
distance emidoycd in the calculation is 12,892" 8f) feet. The bear-
ing of the gun -was S. 71° 48' E. The observations appear to
indicate a decided decrease of velocity, with an increased density
of tho atmos[)here, the rate of travelling decreasing from 1,098 feet
per .second, at a pressure of 30-118 in., and temperature +33'5°,
to 1,014 feet per second, at a pressure of 30-398 in., and tem-
perature — 38*5°, all other circumstances being alike. The last
experiment in the table shows a still greater velocity at a high
atmospheric tem])crature, which, however, might have been
influenced by a stronger breeze blowing from the direction of the
gun at that time.

c

Winil.

c Interval in Seconds 1 E^d

DnU;
1821.

^«-

.3 1 betwen Flash and

^ Tl i

-"is

i|

o

Direc- ' t7„„„„

Weather.

O

j ivcjwri.

As »-

cd "^

W

o

s
H

tiou. -■O'^C'^-

d :

^ i V.

F.

Mean.

m-

Nov. 24 -

20-841

-T"

E.S.E.

Light

Overcast -

5

s.
12 -3.525

s.
12-430

s.
12 -.301 2

low -40

Dec. 9

22-501

-0

N.N.E. Squally

Very clear

6

12-331

12-520(i'l2-4288'l037'34

Jan. 10. 1825

30-2(58

-37

E.S.E. Light

Clear

4 12- G88o! 1 2 - 4700, 12 - 5290 ' 1029 - 04

1 j

Feb. 7

20-0-47

-24-5

■

X.E. Lifcht

Very clear

fl 12-639 12-(il07 12-0278 1020-99

Feb. 17 ■

20-508-18

Cahii.

Overcast -

0 :12-372 12-4-10 12-400 1039-25

Feb. 21 -

29-735-37-5

1

Calm.

Overcast -

6 12 8167 12-7007 12-7017 1010-28

1 1 1

March 2 -

30-398 -38-5

E. ; Light

Little over-

6 12-040 12-780 ,12-710 1014-30

1

cast.

1

March 22 -

30-258 -21-5

! i

W. 'Light ,

i 1

Very clear
and tine.

6

12'40 12'7167 12'5583 1026'*64

1

Juno 3

30-118 +33-5

i

E. Light
C Sti-oug

Vcrv clear

6

11-733311-744 ll-7387!l09S-32

1 !

June 4

30-102+35

S.E.-J \ and

[•Clear - ,

G

11-5889 ll-4733,ll-n311,1118-10

CiSqually

1

)

1

1

iSi

13. Determination of the Velocity of Sound at Low Tem-
PERATCRES. (Second German Expedition.)

Observations were made at a point of Walross Island and at
the cairn containing the records of the Expedition at Sabine
Island, the distance being 2091 -21 metres.

One observer was stationed at each point with a gun and a
chronometer, and each observer noted the instant at wliich the
gun was fired, and the time at which the sound was heard.

•EMPERATURES.

t column of the
c distance of tho
, as measured tri-
fcct, and by Capt.
I -Of). Tho mcau
) feet. The l)(>ar-
vations appear to
increased density
ig from 1,098 feet
peratuve +33 '5°,
;J98 in., and tem-
alike. The last
clocity at a high
itrht have been
o direction of the

val in Soconds I t.'^'^
en Flush nnil ^.= 5
Report.

r. Mean.

12-520(1
»

s.
12-3(tl210W4«J

12-4288 1037'34

12-470O,12-r)29n'lO29-04

12-C.in712-fi278 1020-99

i j

12-4t0 '12-406 !l039-25

12-700712-70171010-28

I
12-780 |12-710 il014-3!t

55831026'64

73871098-32

2-7167,12-

n-744 11-

!

ll'4733,llTi31l!lll8-10

I

at Low Tem-

tion.)

)ss Island and at
lition at Sabine

itli a gun and a
mt at which the
as heard.

ATMOSIMIEKIC I.'EFIIACTIOX AT LOW TEMPEKATrilES. OOI

The (lin'eroncc in the liiin's corrci-tcd fur thv |).r-unal equation
of the observer by taking r('i»cated observations will In; tlu' time
Sound takes to travel the distance.

On January 28, 1870, the velocity of sound at a temperature
of —21 -2' V. or —6-2 F. \va^ ;J21 -.',8 ni.'tn's, und on Fel)ruary
20, at a temperature of — 3;}*9 Cor —29 F., the veloi-ity of
sound was .317" 02 metres per second.

Assuming the ordinny law for the I'oduetion ui' the observa-
tions to 0 C. to be true, tlu' mean of the two results at 0^ C. or
32° F. is 337 0 metres or 1,10') feot per second.

A 1 1 ,— TE U REST R I AL M A(;N K T I S M .

1. Or.SKUVATioNs in Dwis Stiiait and Baii'inV Uay, by Siu
Jamks Ross and Cai'TAIx Saimm:. rbil. Trans. 1819, and
Voyage of Sir John Ross in 1818.

The observations on the dip and magnetic intensity were made
by Sir James Ros,-; siud Caiitain Sabine at Waygate Islands, juid
at several points on ice in liaffin's Bay, Ijy observing the time of
100 vibrations of the dii)ping-needle both in and perpntflirtt/ftr to
the magnetic meridian. There was no opportunity for usino-
instruments which requii-ed fixing during tho voyage.

The dipping needle used Avas one by Nairnc and Blunt, and the
balance of the needle was truly adjusted by screws on the cross-
wires attached to its axis, so that no alteration took place in the
indication of the dip on reversing the poles.

The intensity of the magnetic force was determined Avitli the
dipping needle, the needle being drawn to a horizoi»tal position l)y
a magnet and then alloAved to oscillate freely. Observations of the
time of 100 vibrations, and the extent of arc ti'a\-erse(l at cvei'y
tenth viin'ntion, were made both in and perpendicular to tlu* mag-
netic meridian.

The ol)servations in the magnetic meridian, as well as those for
the dip, were repeated with the face of the instrument towards the
east and towards the west.

These observations were compared with observations made with
the same instruments at Regent's Park in April 1818 l»y Captain
Kater, and in March 1819 at the same spot and also at Brassa
Island, Shetland, by Sabine.

The magnetic declination was determined by means of Ca[)tain
Kater's azimuth compasses, descril)ed in "Iii>tructions fur the use
" of instruments furnished to the Northern Expeditions." The
compass was placed on a copper-fastened stool, and careftdly levelled
by means of a sj)irit level. Each altitude and azimuth is a mean
of several observations, the com[)ass being removed and levelled
afresh between every one, thus making each faithfully distinct.

The latitudes and longitudes are deduced by the ship's log
from the nearest observed. " The influence of the ship's iron on
" her compasses, increasing as the directive power of magnetism

X X 2

iril

G92

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

" diniinishod, prorluco»l irregulftrities that remlercl obsorvations
" on hoard ship of little or no valiio towards a knowledge of the
'* true variation."

Abstract of the times in which 100 vibrations of dipping needle
wore performed :

riacc.

Rejront's Park
Shetland -
Davis Strait
Hare Island
Baffin's Bay

Davis Strait
Regent's I'ark

Lut.

Lonor.
W.

0

/

51

31 1

60

09 1

68

22 1

70

26 1

75

05

75

5U !

76

45

76

08 1

70

35 ;

51

31 !

In
Sleri-
dian.

wi».J Pi'rpondiruliir

\Ir\ to ti>«

^'^' Meridian.

' I M. 8. ' °

0 08

1 12 7 49.3 74

53 50 7 20 83

54 52 7 21 83
60 23 7 27\ 84
63 06 : 7 23 I ' 84
76 00 7 15 85
78 21 7 16 85
66 55 7 16 83

0 08 8 02 70

7 26
7 18

7 18-

8 18

First
Arc.

M. s.

8 18-3 ' 90

7 .')9-5 90

7 33 90

7 26 I 90

7 26 90

90
90
90
90

2. Parry\s First Voyage in search of a Noktii-west Passage.

Magnetic Observations at Observator?/^ Melville Island. — (Made

by Captain Sabine.)

Variation - 127° 47' 50" E.

Dip - - 88° 43' (on July 17, 18, 19, 1820).

Dipping Needle. — To adjust the needle to the magnetic meri-
dian, a box containing an horizontal needle and card was fitted to
the instrument. The variation is the mean of a great number of
observations extending from October to July.

The intensity of the magnetic force was determined by the
dipping needle in July 1820, by determining the time of 100
vibrations in and perpendicula)' to the magnetic meridian,
observing the amount of swing after every ten vibrations, and
the results were compared with determinations made in Regent's
Park in March 1819 and December 1820:—

The time of 100 vibrations in Regent's Park, 8m. 2s., in the
meridian.

The time of 100 vibrations in Regent's Park, 8m. 18- 5s., per-
pendicular to the meridian.

The time of 100 vibrations in Melville Island, 7m. 26 '253., in
the meridian.

The time of 100 vibrations in Melville Island, 7m. 26 '43.,
perpendicular to meridian.

The time of 100 vibrations in Regent's Park, 8m. 00s., in
magnetic meridian.

Observations for Horizontal Intensity were also made with bars
of steel suspended horizontally in a stirrup by a silk line, and
allowed to vil)rate on each side of the magnetic meridian, the
readings being taken at each 10 vibrations.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM,

093

tl

I obnorvations
>wle<lge of the

lippiiifl ncciUo

These v, ,i'o compnn'tl with ohservjitioiis made nt Sheorness.
Comparing the results obtainnl, we g«^t —

L'rpoiitUculiir

First

to thu

Arc.

Meridian.

M. f.

0

8 18-3

90

7 .V.)-5

90

7 33

90

7 20

90

7 20

90

7 26

90

7 18

90

7 18-5

90

8 18

90

rEST Passage.
'i/awrf.— (Made

I, 1820).
nasrnetic meri-
was fitted to
3at number of

mined by the

time of 100

tic meridian,

i^ibrations, and

do in Regent's

im. 2s., iu the

m. 18- 5s., per-

!m. 26 -208., in

, 7m. 26 -48.,

, 8m. 00s., ill

iiade with bars
silk line, and
meridian, the

Dip.

Observed |
Force.

Calculated.

1

London
Melville Island

70° 33-3'

88^ 43 -.V

1
1

1-163

1
ILW

1

By dipping
needle.

Dip.

Observed

Horizontal

Force.

Calculated
Horizontal

Force. '

1

Sheemess -
Melville Island

69° 55'
88^ 43-5'

13-33

1

13-275 r l>o'" several
1 observations
J 1 with three
L needles.

Showing a remarkable agreement between theory and experi-
ment.

A description is given of the special means employed to keep
the agate planes horizontal, and also of a l^etter method of re-
leasing the magnet instead of employing another magnet for the
pm'pose.

From observing the variation 128° 58' W., in longitude 91° 48'
W., and then 165" 50' 9" E. in longitude 103° 44' 37" (where the
dip was 88° 25 • 58'), Parry estimated that he was north of the
magnetic pole in longitude 100° W.

3. Appendix to Paury's Second Voyaoe in the " Fury " and

" Hecla."

(p. 97.) Observations were made to determine the Declination
on ico and on shore. On a floe 132 yards, and even at 200 yards
from the ship, the ship's influence- on the needle was found to be
considerable, which is shown by the eftect of a change in the position
of the ship : the floes of ice to which it was attached had a slow
motion in azimuth. Observations were afterwards made at a
quarter of a mile from the ship.

(p. 276.) Magnetic observations at Winter Island and at Igloolik
were generally made at 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. throughout the winter.
The mean of all the observations gave :

Place.

Lat.

Long.

Declina-
tion.

Dip.

Force.

Time of 100
Vibrations.

At Winter Is-
land -

At Igloolik -

o /

66 11
69 21

o /

82 34 W.
81 37 W.

0 /

57 24J-
83 li

C / fl

87 51 9

88 9 49

125
135

4 57-3
4 46-7

694

. TKRKK^TRIA!- MAGNETISM

Tlie force in London, ns dctciinincd by llicsunic (li|»|»iiifr ncodlc,
iM'ing 100.

Tho time of 100 vihrntlons in London wns .V 30" Ixf'oi-o llic ICx-
pcdition fslarlcd, and .V ;j(Jo" ulk'i' its return: giving n menu
vnhu-of -)' 33;V'.

With regard to the diiinnil changes in nil the magnetic elements
contrary results uere ohtained at the two winter stations.

At Winter i>lantl the declination W., the dip and th(! force were
each greater in the morning than in tJic alternoon ; lait at Igloolik
each of the three magnetic elements was greater in the afternoon
than in the morning.

At l)oth stations tho magnetic force increased ns sununer ad-
vanced.

I;

4. Pakky's Jourxal of a Third Voyaoe for tlu« Discoveuy of
a Noimii-West Passage. (1824-2.3.)

JMinjiu'tic Observations at l^ort liotvm.

The dipping needles emjdoyed were three by Jones, 7^ inches in
length ; one of which, l)elonging to the same instrument, was em-
ployed for intensity, and to another each one of three brass spheres
could be attached, by means of which its moment of inertia could
be determined.

There were also two dipping needles by Dollond, one of which
was emj)loyed exclusively for intensity.

" The observations for ijilensity, by means of the time in which
the needles peribrmod 100 vil)iiitions in the meridian, are deduced
from the mean of 400 vibrations obtained with the lace of the
instrument on each side of the vertical, and the needles reversed on
their axes in the two positions."

These times are compared with the times during which the
same needle made 100 vibrations on *' Woolwich Common," at
1 1 .30 a.m. on Dec. 3, 1825. f

Three obsci'vations for intmisity were made at Port Bowen on
Nov. 8, 1824, Jan. 10, and Juno 27, 1825, and the ratio of the
force at Port Bowen to that ut Woolv/ich was found to be 1 '296,
1-298, and 1*286 in the three experiments.

The observations for the dip gave :

Date.

Xo. of
Obscrvatiou^.

]Moiin Dip.

0

/

II

Nov. 1-12 -

-

10

87

5

291

Jan. 4-8 -

-

6

88

O.-)

.31

Mean for all

April 26, 27

.

3

88

J.'}

02 J>

tho ( lisci vatioiis,

June 2

_

3

88

08

12 1

88^ or 23"

June 27, 28

-

4

87

44

41 J

Au-r. 30, 182")

-

1

8S

e8

2.)

At Xiiirs Harbour.

Dee. 4, 5, 1S2,)

-

70

0

4

At Woolwich.

TKURKSTKIAl- MAUNKTISM.

095

ilipjiiiiiT ncodli',

ns sn minor acl-

DlSCOVEKY of

1, one of ■which

()l>Horvations wore nmdo lor the vni iiiiioii \> itii ( iilhtit's A/.i-
iiuith <-oni|»ihs, and u1m> with KiiUm's ronipas.-;.

A j{ri'ii( nmny obsorvatioufi wuio made in N(»\cnd)or 1S24, and
a tow in Dcccndn'r and .Inniniry.

Tin- naau variation wa.s lonnd lu bo I2',i 21' ,')')" at Port
IJowcn.

At Nt'iir.s Harbour the moan variation was llS^ 48' W. on
Juno 4, lH2o.

Since ISlJj the variation iiad incroasod ai l\»it IJuwon I'rom
114° to 123".

The maximum vaiialion wostcrly was observed to oceiu' between
the hours of 10 a.m. and 1 p.)n. ; and the ndnimnm between 8 p.m.
and 2 a.m. ; tho (piantity beinj^ sehban less tbiiii I .'^ or 2 , and
.sometimes amonntinjj; to .'), (>, or oven 7"^.

In connexion with theses obsi'rvations a rej;uhir scries of hourly
fxperimcnts was made on the maj^netie intensity witli u snspc/tt/ed
needle, whieh admitteil of tiie Intervals of vibral ion btin;; observed
with minute ac<'uraey. There was found to be a diurnal ehanjie of
intensity, genorally showiufj; a rej^ular inen-ase of intensity from
the morning to the afternoon, and as re<;ular a <lt!t'roaao from the
afternoon to the morninir. The <'luinges Hoomed to depend on the
sun and the relative position of the sun and moon. The diurnal
maximum Variation occurred at llh. 49m., and iho mininniin
Variation at lOh. Im. p.m.

[The importance of havin*;; needles delicately ttuspcnded in-
stead of siipjiortrd on a point for observing tho magnetic dis-
turbances is noticed by Parry, and also by McClintock in liis ob-
servations at Port Kennedy. Corresponding di.-turbauces in the
dip were not observed, probably because the dipping needles were
too heavy and not delicately suspended.

For measuring these disturbances the dij>',.ing needle may
be made very light, and be suspended )iy two threads attached
to two points in a horizontal axis, past^ing through the centre
of gravity of the needle. If the magnetic axis of the needle is
at right angles to the axis of suspension, the disturbances will
be indicated, even though the centre of gravity should not be
accurately on the axis of suspension. The importance of having
very light needles is shown by M. Wcyprecht in his account of his
Arctic scientific work {see p. 709).]

Observations icere made hourly for Horizontal Intensity.

The maximum intensity of the horizontal needle uniformly took
place at 7 p.m., bnt the minimum was not so well maikod.

The needle for estimating the diurnal changes in the horizontal
needle was frequently observed to vibrate in very small arcs in its
passage to and fro westward from 2 to 6 p.m., and also in its
passage eastward. Diu'ing the same interval tho intensity of the
horizontal needle was observed to bo very changeable, and the
action of the suspended needles very irregular.

Feb. 22, 2. a.m. — Aurora appeared in an arch from north to west
by compass, Avitli bright streamers towards the zenith ; the needle
was not afli?cted in any way -whatever.

696

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

-a
4

' I

A comparison of the changes of intensity of the horizontal
force with the changes of intensity of the total force seems to show
that the change of intensity in the horizontal force is due principally
to a change in the dip, rather than to a real change of intensity in
the Earth's magnetic force.

Lieutenant Foster believes he accounts for the diurnal variations
of direction and intensity by supposing that the magnetic axis
of the earth revolves round and is inclined to the earth's axis at
an angle of 2' or 2^'.

5. Magnetic Obseuvations by Sm John Ross.

The magnetic observatory at Felix Harbour was built of snow,
200 yards from any metal.

Observations for Variation were made every two hours in April
and May.

In the Diurnal Variation instrument (by Dollond) the needle
was nicely suspended by a single fibre of New Zealand flax. Sir
John Ross says, " It was materially disturbed by the approach of
" any metallic t^ubstance, by any sudden increase or decrease of
" light, and by alteration in the temperature." The increase
of temperature caused by looking through the microscopes had a
considerable effect, and the needle had a " constant tremulous
motion."

Sir John Ross also says, " When too dark to observe without
" a light, I was obliged to take a paper lantern, and even then,
*• when the lighted candle shining through the paper was held
" for the purpose of reading off the arc, it produced a horizontal
" motion in the needle corresponding to the direction and
" strength of the light."

The position was near the magnetic pole, in latitude 69° 59' and
longitude 92° W., where the variation was 89° 45' W. and the dip
89° 55'. " During the winter it was proved that the needle was
" disturbed by and followed the light of a candle ; that it was
" materially disturbed by a brilliant Aurora Borealis, particularly
" when that was of a deep red."

Note. — This passage shows the delicacy of suspension of the
needle, and may possibly have some bearing on the beautiful
experiments of Mr. Crookes on delicately suspended bodies
subject to the action of a candle, although the effects may
probably be due to the fact that some kinds of paper are strongly
magnetic.

The dip was determined by three dipping needles, and was the
same with each, viz., 89° 55'.

At Spence Bay the dip was 89° 56', and the variation
68° 35' W.

On the shoi-es of the sea to the west of Boothia Felix, Sir
James Ross made ol)servations of declination and dip, and calcu-
lated the position of the magnetic polo.

On reaching the calculated position, attempts were made to
determine the m.^gnetic meridian by suspending a dipping needle
first by means of a single fibre of silk, and afterwards by a single

f the horizontal
ce seems to show
s due principally
e of intensity in

iurnal variations
; magnetic axis
! earth's axis at

N Ross.

as built of snow,

o hours in April

3nd) the needle
saland flax. Sir
the approach of
le or decrease of
' The increase
icroscopes had a
istant tremulous

observe without

, and even then,

paper was held

ced a horizontal

direction and

ude 69° 59' and

W. and the dip

the needle was

le ; that it was

is, particularly

sjiension of the
the beautiful
pended bodies
le effects may
3er are strongly

es, and was the

the variation

)thia Felix, Sir
dip, and calcu-

wcre made to
dipping needle
Lrds by a single

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

097

fibre of flax, also by finding in what dii'Gction a given number of
vibrations was made in the shortest time, but no result could b3
obtained. Six sets of observations were taken in what seemed to
be the most probable direction, and at 45° and 90° to it, and tha

mean of all the observations gave the dip 89'^ 59'.

------ - - - i>j»^^

96° 45' 48" W.

The latitude of the position avus 70° 5'

The longitude

>»

>»

6. Magnetic Observations in the Aiicnc Skas, by Dii. E. K.
Kane, during the Second Grinnell Expedition in 1853-
55, at Van Rensselaer Harbour. (" Smithsonian Con-
tributions," vol. x.)

Observations for changes of magnetic declination were made
with a unifilar magnetometer. The magnet was suspended by a
silk string 9^ inches in length, and on several trials the effect of
torsion was found to be exceedingly small. The Expedition not
being well provided with instruments, the same instrument was
employed for observing absolute declinations. j\lr. Sonntag ob-
tained a few values in winter quarters by detaching the box con-
taining the magnet from the circle which bears the telescope. The
telescope was then moved in azimuth until a well-defined object
within the range of its vertical motion could be observed. The
same instrument was also employed to determine the Earth's
horizontal magnetic force.

The instrument was perched on a pedestal of frozen gravel,
the contents of two barrels, and this mounting was as stable as
the rock underneath.

At Van Rensselaer Harbour the Observatory was placed upon
the northernmost of the rocky group of islets that foimed the
harbour. It is 76 English feet from the highest and northern-
most salient point of ihis island, in a direction S. 14° E., or in one
with said point and the S.E. projection of the southernmost islet
of the group. A natural face of gneiss rock formed the western
wall of the Observatory. A crevice in this rock had been filled
with melted lead, in the centre of which is a copper bolt. Eight
feet from this bolt, and in the direction indicated by the ci'evice,
stood the magnetometer. This was called the Fern Rock Obser-
vatory. The highest point of the island was about 30 feet above
the mean tide level of the harbour.

On the 9th of June 1854 Mr. Sonntag examined the instru-
ment in reference to local disturbance, and found no sensible
deviation arising from such a source. " The local deviation seems
*' to have corrected itself; the iron in our comfortless little cell
" seems to have been so distributed that our results Avere not
" affected by it." Hourly o])servations for diurnal variation were
made during January, February, and INlarch 1854, generally at
intervals of three or four days, as well as on term daj^s. The
term days were January 18, 19, February 24, 25, ISlarch 22, 23,
April 19, 20, May 26, 27, June 21, 22, 1854. Readingrs (the

ni

mean of two extremes during a vibration Avhen the

motion) were taken every sixth minute on term days, beginning

magnet is

C98

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

■'til

-i I :
f '■

between 4 and 5 o'clock in the afternoon, so as to correspond with
the times of observations at Gottingen. Each set of observations
extends over 24 hours, and the times of observations are given in
the tables, beginning at 4h. 37m. 34s. mean Fern Rock time, i.e.
at 10 p.m. Gottingen time, the diiferencc of longitude being
assumed to be equal to oh. 22m. 26s.

The winter quarters at Van Rensselaer Harbour were in lati-
tude 78° 37' N. and longitude 70° 40' W. The Observatory was
of stone, 10 fet.'t square, with a wooden floor and roof, and with a
co])per fire-grate.

The results of the observations of changes of magnetic declina-
tion as given in the tables show that the total easterly deflection
is greatest at 2 a.m., when it is equal to 29', and the greatest
westerly deflection, which amounts to 37'*8, occurs at 12 noon,
the needle being in its mean position about 6*45 p.m. and
7 a.m.

The observations for changes of magnetic declination at Fern
Rock have been compared Avith those at Greenwich and Washing-
ton, and the results of these comparisons are given in the tables.

7. Magnetic Observations in the Arctic Seas, by Dr. Hayes,
at Port Foulke, in 1860-61. (" Smithsonian Contributions,
vol. XV., p. 42.)

The Observatory was erected on the first of a series of terraces
Avliich lay north-east from the anchorage, and its foundation
was 38 feet above the mean tidal level. The rock on Avhich it
stood Avas a dark reddish-brown syenite, which rose on either side
of the harbour into hills from 600 to 800 feet high. It faced
the S.W., its axis being nearly in the magnetic meridian.

Winter quarters in Port Foulke were in latitude 78° 17' 39"
and longitude 73"^ 0' 0" west of Greenwich, 20 miles south of the
latitude of Rensselaer Harbour, and distant from it hy the coast-
liiie about 55 miles.

The unifilar magnetometer was mounted in the centre of a room
8 feet square and 7 feet high, on a stand made of two kegs, whose
heads being removed, and the ends carefully fitted together, were
filled Avith beans and Avater ; the lower keg Avas placed on the
solid rock through a hole cut in the floor.

For diurnal Aariation of magnetic declination, hourly observa-
tions Avere recorded on 15 days between November 26, 1860, and
March 4, 1861, at interAals of from six to eight days.

The diurnal variations at Port Foulke and Van Rensselaer
Harbour through the Avinter arc very similar in character, both
positions being northward of the magnetic pole.

A maximum west deflection occurs about 1 p.m., and a maximum
cast dc'fl(^ction botwei'n 2 and 3 a.m., the needle being in its mean
position at 6.30 p.m. and 7 a.m.

The range of motion at Fort Foulke in 1860-61 Avas 42', and at

Van Rensselaer ILuboui' in 18o4 wrs 69'; the horizontal force at

Fort Foulk(i is less than the horizontal force at Van Rensselaer

Harbotu'.

A maximum ivrst deflection occurs at 1 p.m. at Godhavn (as

Iw.

lorrespond with
[)f observations
ns are given in
Rock time, i.e.
jiigitude being

I* were in lati-
iservatory was
oof, and with a

ignotic declina-
terly deflection
d the greatest
's at 12 noon,
1*45 p.m. and

lation at Fern
and Washing-
in the tables.

by Dr. Hayes,
Contributions,

I'ies of terraces
its foundation
k on which it
on either side
igh. It faced
idian.

e 78° 17' 39"
s south of the
l)y the coast-

liitveof a room

o kegs, whose

[ogether, were

laced on the

irly observa-
26, 1860, and

|n Rensselaer
iracter, both

a maximum
!>• iu its mean

Ls 42', and at
Intal force at
I llonssolaer

brodhavn (us

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

699

observed by Lieutenant Foster at Wlialefish Islands, lat. 68° 59',
long. 53° 13', iu 1824 ; also rxt Port Kennedy, observed by
McClintock 1858-59, lat. 72° 1', long. 94° 19', very near the mag-
netic pole, magnetic declination 135° 47').

The time of maximum west deflection appears to be 1 p.m. for
all places in the north magnetic hemisphere.

The time of the maximum cast deflections appears to be subject
to disturbances which cause it to vary from 2 a.m. to 9 a.m.

A westerly magnetic motion of the north end of the needle at
Port Foulke or Van Rensselsier Harboiu- means a change farther
from the north on the western side, i.e., a change from a point
geographically nearly S.W. to a point more towards the south. •

Observations for absolute declination were made at 14 stations
in various parts of the Polar regions west of Greenland, and the
results are recorded In the following table.

8. Declinations observed by Dr. Haves.

Place.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Declination.

Date.

o ,

0 /

O '

Proven . _ -

72 23

55 33

83 24

Aug. 1860.

Starr Island

78 18

73 6

109 45

Oct. „

Cairn Point

78 31

72 59

110 9

April 1871.

Foggy Camp

79 55

71 28

106 53

^lay „

Camp Hawks

79 44

73 6

115 38

" »

Cache on Floe

79 30

72 53

113 52

>' » •

Sconse Camp

79 29

72 53

112 6

" 5>

Potato Camp

79 4

72 30

105 34

» }>

Camp Separation -

78 53

72 8

105 4

" >> .

Last Camp

78 38

72 8

108 36

>' »

Port Foulke

78 18

73 0

111 40

July „

Northimiberlautl Island -

77 11

72 20

106 0

Aug. „

Netlik

77 8

71 22

106 49

J) j>

Upernavik

72 47

56 3

72 12

1

" 5» ,

Observations for the Horizontal Magnetic Force were made at
five stations by Dr. Hayes and at three stations by Dr. Kane, and
the results are as follows : —

Values of Hokizontal Force of the Eautil (8m. Con., vol. xv.,
p. 66. Drs. Kane and Hayes.)

j Lilt.

Long.

Hor. Force.

Date.

1

0 /

o /

Cambridge, Massa.

-

42 23

71 07

3 • 607

July 1860

Godhavn

-

- ! 69 12

53 28

1-762

Sept. 1861

Proven

-

- ' 72 23

55 33

1-576

Aug. 1860

Upernavik -

-

- i 72 47

56 03

1-358

„ 1861

Netlik

-

- , 77 08

71 22

1-110

» •,

Port Foulke -

-

78 18

73 00

1-084

July „

Cape York -

-

- ' 76 03

68 00

1 - 573

1855

Ilakluvt Islard

-

- 1 77 23

73 10

1-344

1855

Vail IJcnssciaer Ilarliour

- : 78 37

70 53

1 -139

1854

700

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

These observations of Horizontal Force made by Drs. Kane and
Hayes are compared with what seems to be the absolute vahie of
the Horizontal Force, 3 ' 607, for the same period at Cambridge,
Massachusetts ; in which case the Total Force at Port Foulke is
12 "56, and at Van Rensselaer 12*38 British absolute units, ac-
cording to the system adopted by Sir Edward Sabine in his Mag-
netic Survey of the Earth.

The inclination was obtained at five stations in the neighbour-
hood of Smith Sound by means of a dip circle, and the deter-
minations were made with each of two needles. In the following
table they are compared with three determinations from Dr. Kane's
Expedition in 1853-54, and with observations made at Port
Kennedy and at Polaris Bay.

Observed Inclination.

Date.

Locality.

Lat.

Long.

Observed
Dip.

Declina-
tion.

Hor.
Force.

Aug. and

Gotlhavu, Disco Is-

0 /

69 12

o /

53 28

o /

81 51

0 /

1-762

Sept. 1861

land.

July 1861 -

Port I'oulkc, Smith

Str.
Littleton Island

78 18

73 0

85 3

111 40W.

1-084

»l "

78 22

73 30

81 43

"™

I» ■

Gale Pt., Cadogtm
Inlet.

78 11

76 28

85 21

—

Auf,'. 1861 •

Hakluyt Island, off
Whale Sound.

77 23

73 10

85 0

1-344 (f)

» "

Netlik, Wliale Sound

77 8

71 22

84 58

106 49\V.

i-110

Aug. 1853 ■

Cape Grinnell -

78 3-1.

71 3t

85 8

—

—

Sept. „ -

Marshall Bay -

78 51

68 51

84 49

—

—

June 1854-

Van Rensselaer Har-
bour.

78 37

70 53

84 46

108 12

1-139

Nov. 1858 -

Port Kennedy -
Polaris Bay

72°0'40"

94° 19' W.

88° 27' 4"

135 47

—

"^

81° 31'

61° 44'

84° 23'

96° 00'

^—

.( :

- ;! \ :i

9. Hourly Observations of Magnetic Declination, liy Capt.
R. Maguire and the Officers of II.M.S. " Plover," in
1852-54, at Point Barkow. Phil. Tmns., 1857, p. 497.

I^The instruments used were two dip circles, one of 9^ inches,
the other of 6 inches, each with two needles ; and a portable decli-
nometer having a perforated magnet of 3 inches in length, carrying
a collimator scale in the interior, the divisions of which were read
by a detached telescope.

The Observatory was composed of an outer house of ice 12 feet
square and 7 feet high, within which was another of sealskin
7 feet by 6. Two posts 23 inches apart were then sunk, and
being firmly frozen into the earth served us supports for the
declinometer and telescope, whilst another post was placed in the
N.W. corner for the chronometer, and a pedestal was placed outside
the Observatory for the dip circle, which was afterwards removed
to another house 15 feet N.W. of the Observatory.

The dip was observ^ed twice a week. Two dipping needles were
broken through awkward handling owing to the extreme cold.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

701

■ T

Declina-
tion.

Hor.
Force.

0 /

1-762

111 40W.

1-084

1-344(1')

106 49W.

ji-no

108 12

1-139

135 47

96° 00'

—

Latitude of place of observation, 71° 21' N., long. 156° 15' W.
A heavy j;ale on December 17th stopped observations for five
days, raised the water 3 feet round the wall of the observatory,
and on December 21st the water had come within 6 inches of the
top of the pedestal.

There were two series of hourly obser%'ations of declination
from November 1852 to June 1853, and from October 1853 to
June 1854. The influence of the disturbances at Point Barrow
was to occasion a small mean deflection of the needle towards the
east, thus slightly increasing the easterly declination.

The mean declination at Point Barrow is 41° E.

There are two epochs of maximum disturbance, the principal at
from 7 to 9 a.m., when the proportion reaches twice the average
amount, and a lesser maximum at from 11 p.m. to 1 a.m. The
principal minimum is from 3 to 6 p.m., and a smaller minimum at
3 or 4 a.m.

The amount of disturbance at the different hours as compared
with Toronto shows that it is regulated by a law which has refer-
ence to the hours of solar time ; but the easterly disturbances
at Point Barrow correspond to the westerly disturbances at
Toronto.

The principal maximum disturbance at 7 to 9 a.m. is occasioned
chiefly by easterly disturbances, and the lesser maximum by westerly
disturbances; the minimum for both easterly and westerly dis-
turbances being from 3 to 6 p.m. The easterly are in all respects
as to time and range more strongly marked than the westerly dis-
turbances, but each probably consists of a single progression in the
24 hours, and the double maxima and minima would seem to be
capable of being resolved into two single progressions (easterly and
westerly), having different hours of maximum and minimum.

For the further elucidation of these relations of disturbances
and deflections at different stations, observations should include
variations of the magnetic force as well as of the magnetic
direction.

The mean-^'dip in each yeur was found to be 81° 36', being
greatest iE February, March, and April in 1852-53, and in
February, March, and June in 1853-54, and least in November
and December 1852-53, also in December and January 1853-54;
the range throughout the year being about 10'.

Both at Toronto and Point Barrow the north end of the magnet
is at its easterly extreme at 8 a.m. ; in returning towards the
west its motion is more rapid than at any other part of the
24 hours; that it passes its mean position at 11 a.m., and roaches
its westerly extreme at 1 p.m. The subsequent motion to the
east is slower at Point Barrow than at Toronto, and at both
stations is checked by a small retrogression towards the west,
which would seem to be due to the disturbances. (Phil. Trans.,
1857, p. 508.)

702

. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISil.

10. McCltxtock's VoYAoE of the "Fox." Hourly Obsorvations
of Magnetic Dcelinntion at Port Koiinedy in the Wintor of
1858-59, and Results compared -with Observations made at
• Point Barrow in 1852-54. (Phil. Trans., 18f)3.)

Port Kennedy is in lat. 72' (T 49", and long. 94= 19' W. The
Observatory was built on a large hinnmock of old ice about
220 yards magnetic south from the ship and al)out 400 yards
from land.

Ice was cut into blocks and built to enclose a space 7 feet
square. The roof was of loose planks covci'ed and cemented by a
mixture of snow and water. A slab of marble jdaced on slabs of
ice in the centre of the room was adjusted and frozen to the ico.
The declinometer was mounted and levelled on a. tripod table-top
on brass grooves, and the table was frozen to the slab and the brass
levelling screws to the table.

The declinometer Avas supported on a point and steadied, and its
Aveight relieved by a silk thread, but it did not work satisfactorily
until the magnet was sui)ported onhj h\ the silk thread which had
been employed to relieve its weight.

Within the observatory were only a wooden cuntUestick, a
copper lamp, and a board upon which the obserxation-i^aper was
fastened by copper tacks.

Accumulations of snow-drift on one side or the other of the
observatory occasionally slightly altered the level of the ice and of
the instrument.

Auroras were of frequent occurrence.

The extreme easterly disturbances are found to occur approxi-
mately at the same absolute time at Port Kennedy and at Port
Barrow ; ;ind the principal maximum of westerly disturbance at
the same local time at the two stations. The secondary maxima
of westerly disturbance do not agree, and are stronger at Port
Ken)iedy. The positions diifer about four hoiu's in time, and are
nea''ly in the same latitude, both being about 2° north of the
magnetic pole.

The mean value of the dip at Port Kennedy in October and
November was 88^ 27' '4 N., and hence the horizontal force Avas
small. Notwithstanding this, it appears that the energy of the
disturbing force is greater at Point Barrow.

It is also a fact that the aurora is very much more frequent at
Point Barrow than at Port Kennedy.

At Port Kennedy the aurora is seen about one day in four.
At Point Barrow it was seen about six days in seven, Avhicli must
be considered in connexion with the fact that 1853-54 Avere years
of minimum disturbance, and 1858-59 Avere vears of maximum
disturbance, so that many more might have been expected at Port
Kennedy.

Several of the auroras at Port Kennedy Avcre seen oA'er ji space
of AA'ater open throughout the winter townrds the S.W.

When the disturbances are eliminated it is found that the solar
diurnal variation produces a maximum easterly deflection mag-

urly Observations
in tilt' Winter of
M-vations made at
1863.)

94= 19' W. The

of old ice about

about 400 yar<ls

c a space 7 feet
nd cemented by a
])laced on slabs of
frozen to the ice.
I tripod table-top
slab and the brass

1 steadied, and its
rovk satisfactorily
thread which had

L'U candlestick, a
A'ation-jjaper was

the other of the
. of the ice and of

o occur approxi-

a

•1

cdy and at Port
y disturbance at
condary maxima
ronger at Port
in lime, and are
2° north of the

in October and
zontal force Avas
le energy of the

lore frequent at

>ne day in four.

en, which must
8-o4 Avere years
rs of maximum

xpected at Port

™^en over a space

d that the solar
deflection mag--

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

703

netically at 8 a.m., and a maximum w»'stcrly deflection at 2 p.m.,
at Port Kennedy as at other places of ol)servation.

Before elimination these oifeets are marked by (he greater
disturbance deflections at these times in tlie opposite directions.

At Port Kennedy what is magnetically north is geograi)hicnlIy
S.W., and at Point Barrow magnetic north is about N.E.

11. Magxetic OiJSERVATiONS made in the Second Gkkman Ex-
pedition on the East Coast of Gheenland, in 18G9-70,
by Captain Koldewey, 1874.

The instruments nsed by this expedition Avere —

(1.) A portable magnetometer.

(2.) An inclination-needle.

(3.) An induction magnetometer by Weber, eonsisting of a coil
Avhich could be rotated through 18(F about an axis
Avhich could be placed either vertical or horizontal. The
galvanometer to be used Avith this coil Avas an astatic
needle, but this Avas found to be too delicate, and one
of the needles AA'as taken ofl", and oidy one needle
employed.

(4.) A small needle Avas employed for observations of horizontal
intensity.

By means of the theodolite of the magnetometer the bearing of
a small cairn on the highest point of Walross Island Avas deter-
mined, and the azimuth Avas found to be N. 123° 11' 10".

7V/C Declination.

Observations for determining the absolute declination Aveio
made generally on tAVO consecutive days about tAvice a month,
during December 18G9, January, Februaiy, March, and June
1870. In all these observations the declination Avas nearly 40"^ W.,
and the mean value is 4o^ 6' 1" W. Generally it Avas found on
trial that there Avas no correction required in the declination for
the torsion of the thread.

Observations on Changes of Declination on Term Days.

It had been previously arranged Avith Professors Klinkerfus
and Kohlrausch at Gottiugen, that on the 21st of the month, for
24 hours, terminal observations of changes of declination should
be made.

For the first 10 minutes of every half-hour (Copenhagen time)
observations Avero to be made CA'cry 2 minutes, and during the
remainder of each hour at every o minutes.

From these observations the hourly and daily means are deduced
and recorded in the taldes.

The observations AA'cre made on the term days in December,
January, February, and March ; also on January o, February 11,
and March 4.

On January 5, at 9 o'clock (Copenhagen time), the aurora was
seen, and there Avas, about 9.30 p.m., very great disturbance of
the magnetometer.

*^**«W«teKtt«»a,»«,,,,^^

704

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

i|tf

r

On Feb. 11, another of the term days, there was great dis-
turbance of the magnetometer, but there seemed great doubt
whether the aurora had any connexion with it. This was eight
days after the sun had returned.

[The results are recorded in divisions of the scale employed, and
the reading 318 corresponds to tlie mean declination : on days
when there were no remarkable disturbances, the change in the
deflection was from 10 to 15 divisions of the scale.

On Jan. 5, at 9 p.m., the reading avus 298, and increased to 326
at 9.30 p.m., after which the change was 20 divisions in 5 minutes,
and 16 more in the next 2 minutes to 362, then back to 315 in
the next 2 minutes, and to 298 in the next 2 minutes.

Again, on Feb. 11, from 7.30 to 8, the changes in declination
are from 298*57 to 213*40. For some hours the disturbances
in both directions are very great. From lOh. to 13h. the change
is from 210 to 360.

Each division of the scale is equivalent to 2' • 2, so that this
change of deflection amounts to 5° 30'.

On Marcli 21, again, there are great disturbances at 18h. and
19h., but not so sudden nor so great as on the 11th of February;
they are chiefly in the opposite direction.]

*' The observers were troubled with cloudy weather, which often
may have prevented them from seeing the aurora. Still it must
be considered that the declination needle was not generally greatly
distui'bed by the aurora."

Dr. Borgen remarks, with regard to the return of the sun being
accompanied by magnetic disturbance, that Dr. Kane's observa-
tions also show the greatest disturbance in the magnetic declina-
tion on Feb. 16, soon after the return of the sun.

The maximum westerly dechnation occurs at 6 to 7 p.m., and
the minimum declination at 4 to 5 a.m., the needle being in its
mean position at 10 or 11 in the morning and in the evening
(Copenhagen time). The diiFerence of time between Copenhagen
and Sabine Island is 2h. 6ni.

In November 1869, as the sun sinks towards the horizon, the
movement of the needle was observed to increase, whilst Dec. 21
shows very little disturbance of the needle ; the disturbance again
increases as the sun returns towards the horizon. The changes
which take place in the Polar regions are much greater than cor-
responding changes which are also observed in lower latitudes.

" It would seem that with the approach of the observer to the
magnetic pole the disturbances are increased."

[As Dr. Borgen observes also : — ** This is scarcely borne out,
*•' at any rate not to the same extent, by Dr. Kane's observa-
" tions." Nor does it seem to be borne out by the observations
of English expeditions at Point Barrow, and at points nearer the
magnetic pole ; nor again by the results of the Austro-Hungarian
Expedition.]

T/ie Dip.

The magnetic dip was determined on Aug. 6, 1869, by the
dipping needle, and on Aug. 7 by the induction magnetometer
with the astatic galvanometer.

TEIIRESTUIAL MA0NETIS3I.

705

idS great dis-

This galvanometer was foiuul to be too delicate, and only one
needle was afterwards used for the observations which were made
on Jan. 7, 11, 15, 16, and June 25, 26, 27, 28.

The mean value of the dip from these determinations is
79^ 42' 4".

Hourly observations for changes of dip were also made with
the dipping needle at 4 minutes past the hour on all term days.

On Feb. 11, from 6h. to 12h., there Avas found to bo lirst a
great increase, and then a great diminution in the dip, accom-
panied by great oscillations. The ciiangc of dip in 2 hours
amounted to about 2^.

On March 21, especially at 18h. and 19h., there is great dimi-
nution in the dip.

[On comparing the tables it seems that magnetic disturbances
which cause an increase in the reading of the scale of the majjneto-
meter also cause a diminution in the dip, and those which
diminish the reading of the scale increase the dip.

This is true of most of the simultaneous disturbances observed
on the term days, February 11 and March 21.

Since an increase in the reading on the scale of the magneto-
meter means a diminution in the westerly declination, we sec, by
comparing the observations for declination and dip, that a disturb-
ance which causes an increase hi the westerly declination also
causes an increase in the dip.l

12. Method of Odservation with the Induction Magnetometer.

A circular coil of copper wire, to the ends of which the gal-
vanometer wires are attached, is capable of rotating through 180^
about an axis which may be placed in a horizontal or in a vertical
position in the magnetic meridian. When the coil is rotated at a
given rate, it cuts the lines of terrestrial magnetic force, and a
current is induced in the wire, the strength of the current being
proportional to the number of lines of force cut during the half
revolution. The number of lines of force cut by the revolving
coil will depend on the angle between their direction {i.e., the
direction of the dip) and the axis of the coil, being proportional
to the sine of half the angle.

If f and <pi be the deflections of the galvanometer when the axis
is horizontal and vertical respectively, and i the dip, then

sin

tan i =.

sm

9i
2

If X be the observed reading on a reflecting galvanometer, when
the scale is at a distance ;• from the centre, then

X

tan 2 p = -
r

36122.

Y Y

700

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

1 >

\ J

. r.

Si

i i

If the nnglo f is small, then

, ip .r 1

and *■ = —

2 4;- 12

.r

.3

So that sin ^ = , I 't^ — „„ • '^, )
2 4r V 32 r^J

.3

.T —

hence tan i =

11 a^
32 • 7-2

a-, —

n

32

.r.

».a

The correction —

11

32

x^

must be applied to the observed read-

ing? of the scale.

The needle being at rest, the coil was turned through 180°,
causing a deflection of galvanometer, at the instant when the
galvanometer needle was swinging back through its point of rest,
the coil was turned back again, thus increasing the swing, and at
each instant when the needle is passing its point of rest, the coil
is turned through 180°, each time increasing the swing of the
needle until the increase in the swing becomes very small.

Taking the mean of all these successive corrected deflections
of the needle on both sides for the horizontal and vertical posi-
tions of the axis, their ratio will give the tangent of the dip.

Horizontal Intensity.

Observations of horizontal intensity were made in the usual
way, by measuring the moment of inertia of a magnet, its time of
vibration, and the amount of deflection which it produces in a
small needle placed at given distances from it.

Observations to determine the values of the magnetic elements
were also made at various points of the coast with the several in-
struments, and the results are contained in the following table : —

Place.

Cape Bergen
— ]{remen -
Phil. Broke
Klein Pendulum
Sabine Island
Cape Broer Ruys
Franz Jos. Piord

Time.

Lat.

Long.

Declina-
tion.

Inclina-
tion.

Hor.
Force.

O /

o /

o /

o ;

20 Apr. 1870

76 28

19 3fi

45 28

• it »»

76 18

19 41

45 30

14 Aug. 1869

75 80-5

17 40

45 24

28 July 1870

75 26

18 1

—

79 60*1

SO May „

74 58-4

19 57

45 48'2

79 57

—

74 55-8

17 40

45 25-5

78 50-6

29 Aug. 1869

74 37-6

18 29

43 3-6

80 10-4

—

74 32-3

18 49

45 6-7

79 42-4

4 Aug. 1870

78 27-7

20 43

43 52-5

79 54

12 „ .,

73 11-6

25 58

50 30-2

79 59-7

0-9608
0-9880
1-1325
1-0C14
1-0489
0-9832
0-9587

The Inclination observed at Sabine Island, in East Greenland,
in 1823, by Sabine was 80° IT, and the Total Intensity observed
by Sabine 1 1 • 54 in absolute British units.

observed read-

i throiigU 180°,
stant when the
;s point of rest,
B swing, and at
of rest, the coil
le swing of the
sry small.
?cted deflections
iitl vertical posi-
)f the dip.

ide in the usual

Isrnet, its time of

produces in a

gnetic elements
the several in-
llowing table : —

Inclina-
tion.

Hor.
Force.

o ;

79 60*1

79 57

78 60-6

80 10-4

79 42-4

79 54

79 59-7

0-9608
0-9880
1-1325
1-0C14
1-0489
0-9832
0-9387

iast Greenland,
Itensity cbservcil

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

707

The values obtained by KoUlcwcy in 1869 arc, Inclination
79^ 42', and the Total Intensity 5-8690 Gottiugen units, that is,
11 '580 British units.

In most of the expeditions to the Arctic regions the utiifilar
magnetometer has Ixien employed to determine, the declination,
and the changes of declination, and also the earth's hori-
zontal magnetic force. Let F sUind for the magnet which is
employed to determine the earth's horizontal force. For this
purpose it is necessary to determine the time of oscillation of the
magnet F, employed with its usual mounting, and to determine
it again when loaded with a ring or weight of known moment of
inertia.

If ^ and <i be the times of vibration of the magnet when free
and when loaded respectively, and I, I,, be the moments of inertia
of the magnet and the weight added to it, then the observation
of the times t and t^ will give the moment of inertia of the magnet
by the formula

If M be the magnetic moment of the magnet F, and X the
horizontal force of the earth, then tlie observation of the time of
vibration t will give the products MX, by the foi-mula

MX=

TT'

/2

M

The ratio ^ is given by the deflections produced by the magnet

F when employed to produce deflections in another magnetic
needle.

The formula is

M

r^ sm u

X

1 +

Pa.9

t 1^

where u is the deflection of the

suspended magnet, and r the distance between their centres.

To determine the values p and q it is necessary to take observa-
tions for deflection at thj-cc different distances. (For details as to
the method see "Lloyd's Magnetism," p. 91, and "Admiialty
" Manual of Scientific Inquiry," p. 96.)

M

A less approximate value of -i^ is obtained by neglecting the

fraction -^ in the above expression, in which case

M_ ^7-3 sin ti

X

M

or - = i 7-3 sin it (l — ^„], where ^ is small.

For this formula it is only necessary to take deflections at two
different distances ; but the results obtained will not be accurate

unless ^ is very small.

Y Y 2

Ci

h t

I

:i >

5:--

708

TEUUKSTUIAL 3IA0NETISM.

Ifrnndr, bo the two distancos between the centres of tho
magnets, ond u, n^, tho tlcfleclions, then combining the two fornuilao

wo get

- ;' =V

sin u^ — ;',2 /-s sin u

<a

sm

sin u.

_,.»

lin u^ __ lr_y
8in n \r, '

sin //, _ I r \
sin u V|'

;••> sin 11

-P'

»=?-/)»

so that ^ - = .\ ;'3 sin w ^

wlicre /) = — nnd <r =

0- — ^6

Sin w

1,
sin u

These were tho formula) employed in discussing tho observations
of Dr. Kane nnd Dr. Hayes in the Arctic regions ; nnd the values
of M nnd X determined by Dr. Kane in 18o4-5.3 at three t<tations,
and by Dr. Hayes in 1860-61 at six stations, arc given on p. 699.

[Tho great difTcrouces in tho value of ^, obtained by Dr.

Hayes at Port Foulke in the course of one week's observations in
July, differences which range from -f 0'0044 to —00851, would
seem to show that if this method is employed to determine tho
Earth's magnetic force, it will bo necessary to take tho more exact
formula, and to detcrmino the deflections for three different dis-
tances between the centres of the magnets.

In the neighbourhood of tho magnetic polo tho results obtained
by this method are liable to large errors because of tho smallness
of the Earth's horizontal force, and hence one of the methods with
tho dipping needle should be adopted. The early Arctic voyagers,
Sir John Ross, Sir James Ross, Sabine, and Parry, all made use
of a dipping needle to determine the Earth's force as compared with
its value in London, determined by the same needle before starting
and after returning.]

[For methods of using tho dipping needle see Admiralty Manual
of Scientific Inquiry, p. 103 to 106.]

The absolute value of the Earth's magnetic force may bo deter-
mined by observing the inclination of the dipping needle, 1st,
under the action of the Earth's magnetism alone ; and 2nd, under
the combined action of magnetism and gravity, by attaching a
weight to the needle as in Fox's dip circle. (See Lloyd's
Magnetism, p. 95).

If F stand for the dipping needle employed to determine the
Earth's force ; if fl be the inclination of the needle F without the
weio^ht, 1} the inclination of the needle F with the weight, and vi^
the inclination of another needle which is deflected by the
needle F, and r the distance between their centres, R the Earth's
force, W the weicfht on the axis of radius a, then

Ra sin (d — v?) sin (« - ^i) = UW a

whereU = 23(i+| + i^).

TERRESrUI.Vr. MAGNLTISM.

701)

rairalty Manual

and 2nd, under

U depends on the distiincc bctwocn the cr'ntrcs of the Iwo
ncciUes, and its value will be dcleimiiied by using Iho ncodlo F as
a doflectof at three different distances.

Dr. Lloyd thus sums up the advanta<,'osorthis method (p. 1(X)): —

•• 1. It is applicable with ecpMl accuracy at all parts of the
globe.

** 2. It dispenses with the eniploynicnt of a separate instrument
for the detormiimtion of the nui;j;netic intensity, and with the
separate adjustments required in pluciii;; it.

" 3. The constants to be detcrminc<l, ?>., the magnitude of the
added weight, and the radius of the pulley l)y which it acts, can
bo ascertained with more ease and certainty than those with which
wo liave to deal in the method of vibrations, and are less liable to
subsequent change.

" 4. The observations themselves are less varied in character
than the usual ones, and may be comi)leted in a shorter time."

13. Magnetic Ohskuvations, made during the Ausxito-
IIuNGAuiAN Expedition, by Lieut. Weypreciit.

(From Tctermann's "Geograph. Mittheilungen," Jan. 1875,
and " Nature," March 18, 18T.'>.)

"In close connexion with the Aurora are the IMagnctlc disturb-
ances ; while these are in our regions the exception, in northern
latitudes they are the normal conilition ; there the needle scarcely
ever remains still at rest. This is the case with Declination as
well as Intensity and Inclination needles. As long as the ship
drifted, which was till the October of the second ypnr, it was, of
course, impossible to put up the fixed Variation instruments. We
did, however, often carry out absolute observations with Lament's
magnetic theodolite, but it was evident already in Nova Zcmbla,
that, in eonsequeuco of continuous disturbances, all these observa-
tions, without the contemporary reading of the Variation instru-
ments were of very little worth.

" In November 1873, as soon as it was certain that we were
anchored for the winter, I had some snow huts built close together,
in one of which the Variation instruments, in the other the
magnetic theodolite and the Inclinometer for the absolute observa-
tions, as well as the Astronomical instruments were put up. The
three Variation instniments for declination, horizontal intensity,
and inclination were supplied by Dr. Lament, the Director of the
Observatory in Munich, on the pattern of those instruments which
are in use there.

"After the first scries of observations, it was evident that the
earlier methods of observation, i.e., simple readings at certain
hours, at least in these regions, were worlldess, as they depended
merely on the accidental amount of the momentary disturbances.
They give neither a true mean, neither do they give a picture
of the movement of the needles. In former expeditions the
recorded observations arc much too far apart to render it possible
to draw correct conclusions on the magnetic conditions.

'* Under these circumstances I took quite a different course.
Every third day, at an interval of four hours, 1 caused minute

[.*^;35jB5^

710

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM,

readings for an hour to be taken at all ttu'ce instruments, and in
such a way that different hours were chosen in each day. Besides
this, we observed in order to obtain an insight into the whole
daily proceedings, twice in the month, at interval of 5 minutes
through 24 hours. To obtain the observations as nearly as
possible at the same exact time, the three instruments whose teL-
scopes were all fixed on the same axis, were read off one after
another as quickly as possible (on an average within 8 to 10
seconds). These observations were continued from the middle of
January till the end of April, in all 32 observation-days, and I
think that put together they will give a true picture of the con-
tinuous (changes as regards the direction and intensity of the
Magnetic forces in the Arctic regions."

" In order to confirm the connexion between the auroras and the
action of the needles, a second observer, independently of the
others, observed the changes and motion of the auroras. Absolute
determinations of the three constants were made as often as cir-
cumstances permitted, to control the Variation instruments.

" Apart from the Swedish Expedition, whose observations are
not yet published, Lieut. Weyprecht points out that his are the
first regular and simultaneous observations that were ever made
in the Arctic districts. Moreover, he thinks that all former obser-
vations were matle with the ordinary heavy needles, and that he
was the first to use the light Lamont needles. For observations,
however, under such conditions as the normal ones near the pole
prove to be, heavy needles are perfectly ^jseless ; even the com-
paratively light intensity needle of Lamont's theodolite oscillated
80 violently, on account of its unproportionally great moment of
inertia, and even with moderate disturbances, that the readings
became quite illusory. Almost on each magnetic day some dis-
turbances were so great that the image of the scale could no
longer be brought into the field of the telescopes on account of
deflection ; in order to ascertain also these greatest effects, Lieut.
Weyprecht constructed an apparatus by which he could measure
them at least approximately. He owns that as a matter of
course his observations could not possibly be as perfect as those
made at home, but thinks that it will be easy to modify Lamont's
instruments on the basis of his experience, so that on a future
expedition, where there is a greater staff of observers, results could
be obtained of any desired exactness. Altogether Lieut. Wey-
precht's party of observers, consisting l>esides himself only of
Lieut. Broscli and Ensign Orel, have taken about 30,000 readings
from their different magnetic instrmnents, and the principal results
are the following : —

" The magnetic disturbances in the district visited are of extra-
ordinary frequency and magnitude. They are closely connected
with the aurora borealis : the quicker and more fitful the motion
of the rays of the aurora, and the more intense the prismatic
colours, the greater are the magnetic disturbances. Quiet and
regular arcs, without changing rays or streamers, exercise almost
no influence upon the needles. With .ill disturbances the declina-
tion needle moved towards the east, and the horizontal intensity
decreased, while the inclination increased. Movements in an

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

711

luments, and in
;h day. Besides
into the whole
al of 5 minutes
s as nearly as
ents whose teL-
iad off one after
within 8 to 10
m the middle of
tion-days, and I
;ture of the con-
intensity of the

e auroras and the
endently of the
irorae. Absolute
e as often as cir-
itruments.
observations are
that his are the
were ever made
all former obser-
dles, and that he
For observations,
nes near the pole
3 ; even the com-
iodoHte oscillated
great moment of
hat the readings
tic day some dis-
scale could no
es on account of
test effects, Lieut.
10 could measure
„3 a matter of
IS perfect as those
modify Lament's
that on a future
vers, results could
thcr Lieut. Wey-
himself only of
it 30,000 readings
principal results

ited are of cxtra-
closely connected
fitful the motion
ise the prismatic
nces. Quiet and
s, exercise almost
mces the declina-
)rizontal intensity
lovements in an

opposite direction, which were very rare, can only be looked upon
as moveir.onts of reaction.

" 'Ihe instrument upon Avhich Lietit. Weyprecht placed the
greatest expectations, namely, the Earth-current galvanometer,
gave no results at all, through the peculiar circumstances in which
the explorers were placed. He had expected to be able to con-
nect the aurora) with the galvanic Earth currents. But as the ship
was lying two-and-a-half German miles from land, '^e could not
put the collecting plates into the ground, but was obliged to bury
them in the ice. Now, as ice is no conductor, the plates were
insulated, and the galvanometer needle was but little affected.
Prof. Lament had supplied these excellent instruments also ; the
conducting wires were 400 feet long. Later on, Lieut. Weyprecht
tried to obtain some results by connecting a collector for atmo-
spheric electricity with the multiplier of the galvanometer, but
failed, doubtless for the same reason."

14. Magnetic Survey of the North Polar Regions.

In the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1872, Part II.,
is contained a " Contribution " on this subject from Sir Edward
Sabine. It contains the Magnetic Survey of the region from
40° N. to the most northern limits for the three magnetic elements,
for the epoch from 1842 to 1845. The observations are arranged
in eight zones of successive 5^ of latitude.

The observations for Magnetic Force to ■which, prior to Gauss'
improvement, have always been expressed according to some
arbitrary scale having reference to the force at a dase station,
have in this paper been referred to absolute British units. The
arbitrary value which used commonly to be adopted for London
was 1'372, and for this the value in absolute measure at Kew,
viz., 10-28, has been substituted. From 1830 to 1869 the value
of Kew has been gradually increasing from 10*27 to JO* 31 units.

In the American Polar regions there is more than ordinary
difficulty in respect to secular change especially of declination ; but
the facts observed seem to point to a probable reversal in the direc-
tion of the secular change at some interval between 1818 and 1860,
such as has been proved to take place about 1842 at York Fort Ijy
the observations of Franklin, Lcfroy, and Blakiston. These chaiKTes
may be connected with the easterly progn^ssion in north-eastern
Asia, showing the approach of the present Asiatic point of maximum
force to the American continent.

Future researches alone can clear up those difiicultios.

Since the early part of the 1 7th century the dip on the coasts
of Norway and in the Spitzbergon Sea has greatly diminished ; in
some cases the recorded observation gave 80° and even 86° in
localities where the inclination is now 10^ less.

These valuable tables drawn nj) by Sir Edward Sabiae, and the
lines of equal declination, inclination, and magnetic intensity given
in the three maps, supply nil the information with regard to the

m^

absolute values of the

magnetic elements

in the Polar

regions

712

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

Tvliicli bad been obtained previous to tbe German and Swedish
Expeditions.

Sir Edward Sabine has shown that the theory of Halley, which
■was put forth in 1683, is the theory which is supported by recent
observations, viz., that " the globe of the Earth may be regarded as
" one great magnet, having four magnetic poles, two of them near
" each pole of the equator, and that in those parts of the world
" which lie near any of those magnetic poles the needle is chiefly
" governed thereby, the nearest pole being always predominant
" over the more remote."

The work of Hansteen, " Magnetismus der Erde," published in
1819, of which an abstract was published in British Association
Report for 1835 by Sir Edward Sabine, and this work of Sabine
just published complete our knowledge of the magnetic conditions
of the northern regions up to the present time.

The results which have been obtained are collected at the end
of the paper in groups for convenient comparison with the phenomena
which may be observed at future periods.

VIIT.— THE AURORA BOREALIS.

1 ■

1 . Observations of Aurora at Melville Island. (Parry's

First Voyage, &c.)

A brilliant display of Aurora seen on Jan. 15 is described by
Captain Sabine. It began with an arch nearly north and south,
a little east of the zenith. " Towards the southern horizon was
*' the ordinary Aurora, giving a pale light, appaiently issuing
" from behind an obscure cloud, at from six to twelve degrees of
« altitude."

" The luminous arch broke into irregular masses, streaming
*' in different directions, varying in shape and intensity, and
'* always to the east of the zenith, and Avas most vivid to the
« E.S.E."

" The various masses seemed to arrange themselves in two
" arches, one passing near the zenith, and a second midway
" between the zenith and the horizon both north and south, but
" curving toicards each other." " At one time a part of the arch
" near the zenith was bent into convolutions like a snake in
" motion, and undulating rapidly." The light was estimated as
equal to that of the moon when a week old. Besides the pale
light, which resembled the combustion of phosphorus, a very
slight tinge of red was noticed when the Aurora was most vivid,
but no other colours were visible.

On the next day it blew a fresh gale from N.N.W.

The Aurora had the appearance of being very near us, but no
sound could be heard. The Aurora was repeatedly seen on the
following day, assuming the shape of a long low arch, from 3° to
12° high in the centre, extending from south to north-west The
temperature at this time was —36° F.

in and Swedish

r Halley, which
orted by recent
y be regarded as
w of them near
•ts of the world
leedle is chiefly
}s predominant

le," published in
tish Association
■work of Sabine
;netic conditions

3ted at the end
h the phenomena

IS.

A.ND. (Parry's

) is described by
lorth and south,
?rn horizon was
larently issuing
ivelve degrees of

asses, streaming
I intensity, and
)st vivid to the

mselvcs in two
second midway
1 and south, but
part of the arch
ike a snake in
as estimated as
Besides the pale
phorus, a very
was most vivid,

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

713

1

w.

near us, but no
dly seen on the
Eirch, from 3° to
orth-west The

On Feb. 18 an Aurora is described as **of a pale yellow, at
" other times white, excepting to the southward, in Avhich direc-
" tion a dull red tinge was now and then perceptible."

The fresh gale which blew at the time from the N.N.E.
appeared to have no effect on the Aurora, which strenuicd directly
to windward, and this with great velocity.

2. Observations of Aurora. By Sir John Franklin.

Observations were made in Sir John Franklin's Expeditions for
magnetic declination and the daily changes of declination, and for
the dip.

Sir John Franklin sums up the results of his experiences of the
Aurora in the following general conclusions : — •

1. Brilliant and active coruscations of the Aurora 35orealis
cause a deflection of the needle almost invariably if they appear
through a hazy atmosphere, and if the prismatic colours are
exhibited in the beams or arches. When, on the contrary, the
atmosphere is clear, and the Aurora presents a steady dense light
of a yellow colour, and without motion, the needle is often un-
atFected by its appearance.

2. The Aurora is generally most active when it seems to have
emerged from a cloud near the earth.

3. When the Aurora is very active, a haziness is very generally
perceptible about the coruscations, though the other part of the
sky may be free from haze or cloud.

4. The nearest end of the needle is drawn towards the point
from whence the motion of the Aurora proceeds, and that its
deflections are greatest when the motion is most rnpid ; the
effect being the same whether the motion flows along a low arch
or one that crosses the zenith.

5. That a low state of temperature seems favourable for the
production of brilliant and active coruscations ; it Ijeing seldom
that we witnessed any that were much agitated, or that the pris-
matic tints were very apparent when the temperature was above
zero.

6. The Aurora was registered at Bear Lake 343 times without
any sound having been heard to attend its motions.

7. The gold-leaf electrometer was never affected by any ap-
pearance of the Aurora.

8. On four occasions the coruscations of the Aurora were seen
very distinctly before the daylight had disappeared, and wo often
perceived the clouds in the day-time disposed in streams and
arches such as the Aurora assumes.

A brilliant Aurora was seen by Dr. Eichardson on April 23,
while Lieut. Kendall, who was -watching at the time, by agree-
ment, at a distance of 20 miles off", did not see any coruscation.

[In his observations of the two kinds of Aurora, Sir John Frank-
lin agrees with M. Angstrom, who finds by the spectroscope that
the Aurora are of two kinds.

m

714

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

The results do not seem to agree with those arrived at by
Parry at Port Bowen, that the Aurora does not influence the
magnetic needle. At the same time, it must be remembered that
the Auroras at Port Bowen never exhibited the vivid prismatic
colours or rapid streams of light, so that Parry only saw that kind
of Aurora which, according to Franklin, does not affect the mag-
netic needle.]

> ;

- i

'.-.'i

' I

?

i

3. Parry's Third Voyage. — Winter at Port Bowen.

The Aurora was observed and recorded 47 times. It usually
consisted of an arch sometimes continuous, but more frequently
broken into irregular masses of light extending from W. to S.E.
(true). Its termination to the S.E. was not visible, as land inter-
vened. The altitude of a permanent arch seldom exceeded 15°, and
from this arch streamers were generally observed shooting towards
the zenith. "The lower edge of the arch was generally well
" defined and unbroken, and the sky beneath it appeared by con-
" trast so exactly like a dark cloud (to me often of a brownish
** colour), that nothing at the time of viewing it could well convince
" one to the contrary, if the stars shining therewith undiminished
** lustre did not discover the deception."

Note. — This description closely resembles the account of the
Aurora as seen by M. KoldcAvey in the Second German Polar
Expedition in East Greenland. {See p. 719.)

A few of the more important Auroras are described by Parry
(pp. 60, 61), one or two seen just over the land to the S.E. or S.
appeared as a single compact mass of brillant yellow light con-
stantly varying in intensity, as of numerous streamer-like clouds
overlaying one another. He says (p. 62), " While Lieutenants
Sherer and Ross and myself were a:^ miring the extreme
beauty of this phenomenon from the Observatory, we all simul-
taneously uttered an exclamation of surprise at seeing a bright
ray of the Aurora shoot suddenly downward from the general
mass of light, and bettvccn us and the land, which was there
distant only 3,000 yards. Had I witnessed this phenomenon
by myself, I should have been disposed 1o receive with caution
the evidence even of my own senses as to this last^^ fact ; but
the appearance convoying precisely the same idea to three
individuals at once, all intently engaged in looking towards
the spot, I have no doubt that the ray of light actually passed
" within that distance of us."

On several occasions during Auroras the gold leaf electroscope
was applied to a chain attached by glass rods to the sky-sail
mast head, with the pointed end of the last link considerably above
the mast head and 115 feet above the level of the sea, but not the
slightest perceptible effect was observed.

The variation needles, which were extremely light, suspended
in the most delicate manner, and subject to weak directive energy,
were never in a single instance sensibly affected by the Aurora,
although the needles were visited every hour for some months.

a

u

((

THE AURORA BOREALIF.

715

arrived at by
influence the
membered that
rivid prismatic
' saw that kind
fFect the mag-

r BOAVEN.

es. It usually
ore frequently
om W. to S.E.
I, as land inter-
^eeded 15°, and
looting towards
generally well
peared by con-
of a brownish
d well convince
a undiminished

account of the
German Polar

ibed by Parry *
the S.E. or S.
OAv light con-
aier-like clouds
le Lieutenants
the extreme
we all simul-

ieeing a bright
om the general
lich was there
is phenomenon
e with caution
las<- fact ; but
idea to three
Dkinjr towards
passed

ictually

af electroscope
the skv-sail
siderably above
'a, but not the

fht, suspended
•ective energy,
jj the Aurora,
le months.

From the 8th to the 14th of December, but especially on the
12th of December about 11 p.m., several meteors were seen passing
from near /3 Tauri towards the Pleiades. SucJden clianges of wind
occurred about the times of these i)honomena on the \2x\\ and i4th
of December, and Parry says, " There appeared to l)e an evident
" coincidence between the occurrence of the meteors and the
" changes of the weather at the time."

"Feb. 22, 2 a.m. — Aurora appeared in an areli from north to
west by compass, Avith bright streamers towards the zenith ;
the needle AA^as not affected in any Avay whatever."

4. Ross's Obsera'Ations of Auroka.
(Second Arctic Voyage.)

P. 223. Nov. 24, 1829.— Brilliant Aurora to the S.W., extending
its red radiance as far as the zenith. On the following evoninor
there Avas a still more brilliant one increasing in splendour until
midnight. "It constituted a bright arch, the extremities of Avhich
" rested on two opposite hills, while its colour was that of the
" full moon, and itself seemed not less luminous," with the dark
and somewhat blue sky behind it.

On Dec. 3rd, magnificent arch of an Aurora. The colour Avas
a light yellow, and it emitted rays; day calm and sky clear, Avith a
cloudy horizon.

Dec. I7th. — Another beautiful Aurora obscured by clouds.

Dec. 20th. — Brilliant Aurora with bright flashes

The observations Avere made in FeUx Harbour, lat. 69° 59' N.,
long. 92" W., where the declination Avas 89° 45 V,'., and dip, 89° 6o'.

At the magnetic pole, i.e., where all the declination needles re-
main in any position in which they are placed, tlie dipping needle
shoAved an inclination of 89° 59', in latitude 70° 5' 17", longitude
96° 46' 45" W.

In his account of his Antarctic A'oyage he says : *' Whilst our
" ships lay rolling amidst the foam and spray to Avindward of the
" berg, a beautiful phenomenon presented itself Avorthy of notice,
" as tending to afford some information on the causes of the
" exhibition of Auroral light. The unfi'equency of the appearance
" of this meteor during the present season rather surprised us ;
" and therefore, to ol)serve its bright light forming a range of
" vertical beams along the top of the icy cliff, marking and par-
" taking of all the irregularities of its figure, Avas the more
" remarkable."

Captain Ross suggests that this singular appearance Avas pro-
duced by electrical action taking place betAA'cen the vaporous mist
throAvn upwards by the dashing of the Avaves ngaiiist the berg,
and the colder atmosphere Avith Avhich this latter Avas surrounded.

From the observations of Captain Back, Avho observed a large
number of Auroras in 1833, and also from the observations of
MM. Lottin and Bravais at Bossekop, in Lapland (where tho
appearances Avere very frequent), as Avell as from those of many
other observers, it appears that the degree of disturbance of the

w^-^Sgi

716

TJIE AURORA BOREALIS.

ii : ^

,' i

^ *-'■

needle varies with the intensity of the Aurora, and that when the
Aurora is faint and diffused or low down in the horizon the mag-
netic needle is not disturbed at all, but on the appearance of beams
and brilliant and coloured streamers the needle is disturbed for
some minutes, and oscillates through several degrees.

It has also been noticed by several observers that a grand
display of Aurora is often preceded or accompanied by an extra-
ordinary motion of the needle to the westward. This has been
noticed at places which are far distant from one another, for
instance, by Sir Edward Belcher in Wellington Channel, by
Captain Maguire at Point Barrow, and by MM. Lottin and
Bruvais at Bossekop.

5. Obseuvations on Auroka. (McCliutock.)

In preface, p. xi., to the discussion of McClintock's Observations
in Smithsonian Contrib., vol. 13, it is stated that McClintock says
the beams of the Aurora were most frequently seen in the direction
of open water, or else in that of places where vapour is rising.
In some cases patches of light could be plainly seen a few feet
above a small mass of vapour over an opening in the ice.

It is also stated by Dr. Walker that the Aurora was seen by
him on more than one occasion at Port Kennedy between himseif
and the land about three miles off towards the W. or S.W.

This observation is in accordance with a deduction from an
examination of a large number of notices of the Aurora in the
voyages of Peter Force, published in Smith. Contrib., vol. 8, viz. :
— " That on the Atlantic Ocean and other open water the Aurora
" is most frequent and most brilliant."

Dec. 17, 18. Bright Aurora S. to N.E., lasting through the
night, followed by Aurora during the next night.

Jan. 9th, 8 p.m. Bright Aurora from West to East (magnetic).

Jan. 28, Dawn at 8.25 a.m. Sun's upper limb appeared at
11^ 25™, disappeared at l'' 0*", dusk at 3^ 45"*, showing the length
of twilight.

Aurora in the form of arches, sometimes double and treble,
patches and streamers seen frequently in February and March,
especially on Feb. 2nd, March 2ud and 6th.

Feb. 2, 10 p.m. Auroral arch in S.E., visible for one hour,
faint from S.E. to E.N.E., the extremities of the arch touching
[meeting ?] the horizon, the S.E. extremity was brightest, with an
occasional stream towards the zenith.

The Aurora seems often to have appeared in the S.^^ ^nd E. as
seen from Baffin's Bay, but sometimes also towards uio S.W.

Prismatic halos and parhelia also several times seen.

March 7. Double prismatic halo (red external) about the sun,
diameters 45° and 90° ; occasional inner halo of same altitude as
the sun (16°), and a portion of an inverted arch above the outer
halo.

On six occasions of Aurora in Baffin's Bay the electroscope waa
strongly affected, and on three occasions of Aurora at Port Ken-

THE AURORA BOREALI?.

717

that when the

J through the

nedy, when the Aurora extended from the horizon to the zenith,
the electroscope was strongly affected ; on all these occasions
the electricity was positive,

McClintock's Remarks on the Auroray p. 79.

On Dec. 18 the Aurora was visible in the morning until
eclipsed by the day-dawn at 10 o'clock ; afterwards very thin
clouds occupied its place, through which, as through the Aurora,
stars appeared scarcely dimmed in lustre. lie adds : " I do not
" imagine that Aurora is ever visible in a perfectly clear atmo-
" sphere. I often observe it just silvering or rcndcrino- luminous
" the upper edge of low fog or cloud banks, and with a few
** vertical rays feebly vibrating."

" Dr. Walker called mo to witness his success witli the electro.
" meter. The electric charge was so very weak that the gold
" leaves diverged at regular intervals of four or five seconds.
" Some hours afterwards it was strong enough to Jivcj) them
" diverged." The temperature ranged from —12° to — 2.j° F.

[These observations entirely agree with the observations of
M. Lemstrom on the First Swedisli Expedition in 1868, and M.
Wijkander on the Second Swedish Expedition in 1872-73.]

Dr. Walker's Account of the Aurora. — (Appendix to McCliu-
tock's Voyage of the " Fox.")

During our drift down Baffin's Bay (1857-58) the Aurora was
noticed on 43 nights ; of these, 18 were observed in a direction
where water or water sky ha<l been seen during the day. The
general direction of the remainder was between N.E. and S.E.
At times pulsations were noticed in the patches and bands of
light ; these were often contrary to the surface wind. Onco only
was there noticed a connexion between cirrus clouds and the
Aurora. Of the 42 Auroras obser^'ed at Port Kennedy during
1858-59, 24 were in the direction of a space of open water or of
the vapour rising from it.

On five occasions the Aurora was observed to cause an agitation
of the magnetic needle; once there was a deflection of 15°. Four
of these were when the Aurora was from south to north, passing
through the zenith.

A fine wire was attached to the foreyard-arm by insulated sup-
ports, and led to a snow house, with a connexion through the
floe to the water beneath. Here I was enabled to observe the
presence of free electricity in the atmosphere and the influence of
the Aurora on the instrument. There appeared to occur two
periods of minimum electrical disturbance, about 9 p.m. and
noon.

Observation of Aurora. By W. R. Grove.

Grove in his Correlation of Physical Forces (p. 448) says : —
" I remember about seven or eight years ago seeing an Aurora at
** Chester when the flashes appeared close to the observer, so that

718

THE AURORA llOREALIS.

'V ■ i

,.>!

** f!;learas of light continuous with the streamers could be seen
" between the houses of the town <ind myself like the portions of
" n rainbow intervening between terrestrial objects and the ob-
" server. I tried to ascertain if there was any reflection or other
** cause of optical illusion, but could not see it as other than a real
" effect ; I seemed to be in the Aurora."

6. The Aurora, Sir Edward Bklciier..

December 2ud. — An aurora was seen at 9.20 p.m. A light
narrow streak through the zenith, S. by E. true. Four cumulus-
shaped masses over the mast heads. Electrometer was not
affected.

From 4 p.m. to midnight there was great westerly disturbance
of magnetometer amounting to 137*80°, equal to 27*60° of deflec-
tion. At 8 p.m. it was 1 17 * 30° ; at 9. p.m. 1 16 * 50° ; at 10 p.m.
120*60°.

The barometer, during the interval between 8 p.m. and midnight,
suddenly changed from 29*86 to 29 * 65, rising again to 29* 90,
when the magnetometer showed 107 * 90° at 4 a.m.

On the 5th, 6tli, 9th, and 10th of December there were further
exhibitions of aurora, preceded or followed by slight disturbances
of the magnetometer.

On the 12th, at 3 a.m., the aurora was reported as very
brilliant. The magnetometer exhibited the most unmistakeable
signs of disturbance, moving instantaneously from 114° to 128°,
and up to 150°, returning at 4 a.m. to 117 ' 90°.

About the 14th and 15th of February 1853 the weather under-
went unexpected changes, the temperature rising as high as 2 * 5°
above zero. This was a day or two before the return of the sun,
and the magnetometer exhibited sudden and incomprehensible
disturbances.

<1

•H-

7. Dr. Hayes' Observations of Aurora.
Au?'oras.

In the winter of 1860-61 {i.e., when the 10 or 11 year in-
equality was at its maximum), only three auroras were seen and
recorded, and they were feeble and short.

Jan. 6, 1 1 a.m. Red aurora seen in the north from the horizon
to the zenith ; lasted about 15 minutes. Aurora seen again in
the evening.

Jan. 11. Heavy mist on the ice; 3 p.m., aurora to the west;
extended to the zenith ; lasted 10 minutes.

Feb. 16. An aurora at 9 p.m. in the west ; lasted 10 minutes;
25° to 30° high.

Last two auroras seen in direction of north end of magnetic
needle, over an area of open water present throughout the
winter.

could be seen

the portions of

;ts and the ob-

lection or other

ther than a real

[Ell..

p.m. A light

Four cuniulus-

)meter was not

erly disturbance

>7-60°of deflec-

50°; at 10 p.m.

m. and midnight,

again to 29 • 90,

1.

ere were further

ght disturbances

e ported as very
3t unmistakeable
ra 114° to 128°,

THE AUROKA BOKEALIS.

719

weather under-

s high as 2 • 5°

turn of the sun,

ncomprehensible

OKA.

or 11 year in-
were seen and

Tom the horizon
seen again in

)ra to the west ;

cd 10 minutes ;

;nd of magnetic
hroughout the

8. Observations of Aurora, by Captain Maguire. Point

Barrow, 18o2-o4.

The aurora was found to be connected with the movements of
the declination nce<lle ; the brighter the aurora, the quicker the
magnetic changes became, and from repeated observations it
appeared that " the appearance of the aurora in the sontit was
" connected with the motion of the magni^t to the e tst of the
" magnetic north, and if in the nortli to the %vcst of the same."

In addition to these disturbances, considerable irregularities
took place in the daytime, generally in the forenoon, and always
in cloudy and misty weather. It Avas no uncommon occurrence
for the magnet to go out of the field of the telescope, not return-
ing again for several minutes, and it was genei-ally to the east-
ward on these occasions.

Of 40 instances in which the deflection was beyond the scale,
30 were deflections to the east, and 22 of these were between
7 and 9 a.m., i.e., the time of the maximum easterly deflection ;
and six of the westerly disturbances were between 11 p.m. and
1 am., the time of the greatest westerly deflection.

The aurora was seen six days out of seven, and at the time of
the hourly observations on 1,079 occasions, i.e., nearly one-third
of the Avhole number of observations.

The aurora was very seldom seen between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m.,
but increased from 5 p.m. rapidly and pretty regularly until 1 a.m.,
then diminished in the same way until 9 a.m.

Not a single display of aurora occurred between 10 a.m. and
4 p.m. Thus there is a close resemblance between the display of
aurora and the westerly disturbances at Point Barrow.

9. Observations of Aurora made in the Second German

Expedition.

The aurora was of very frequent appearance, almost every
day, yet we have not succeeded well on account of cloudy
weather.

The aurora was always first seen in the south-east, i.e., in the
direction of the magnetic meridian.

After their first appearance remarkable changes took place in
the bands of light, which always stretched from west to east,
and often reached from the horizon to the zenith. The higher
the bands of light or streamers are above the horizon, the wider
they are.

The appearance extends by degrees over the northern half of
the sky, which at first w^as clear of streamers, and the beams now
reach their greatest brilliancy and are seen to converge toward
the magnetic pole, «.<?., in direction of dipping needle. The
phenomenon then fades away, first becoming paler in the west
and south.

The arc in the south-east remains to the last, and sometimes
another display follows from it during the night.

'^

720

THE AURORA DOREALI?.

t

^*

; jH9|

|f-':

^■H

».-T.'.' •'■

... ...r,

No fjrcatcr darkness than usual was ever observed before a
display of the aurora, Hiieli as has been observed in lower
latitudes for hours l)eforo a «li5play.

The <lark appearance between the display was absolutely an
effect of contrast.

A spectroscope showed only one clear lino at the limit of
yellow and ^rocn — the same lino which has boon so often soon.

Dr. Borgon says, " We have never soon a trace of the weak
" lines in blue and rod, which were observed so distinctly with
" the same spectroscope on October 25, 1870, after the return
" of the Expedition."

in accordance with this wo have never seen the aurora of any
other colour than that of <^reenish yellow.

Frequently durino; the aurora, observations were made to
determine whether there were any striking disturbances of the
declination accompanying the display. Only once, during the
term day of the 5th January, at same time with aurora, there
was an important disturbance, and another term day showed an
extraordinary disturbance of the needle, but there was great doubt
whether the aurora was the cause of it.

Exact and extended observations on tho simultaneous disturb-
ances of all three elements of the earth's magnetism within the
Polar regions as well as in mean latitudes would greatly add to
our knowledge of the aurora.

10. Observations of Aukora, made during the Austro-Hun-
GARiiVN Expedition, by Lieut. Weypreciit.

(From Petermann's Geograph. Mitti lungen, Jan. 1875.)

" The most beautiful and interesting phenomenon in these
parts, the only change in the solitude of the long winter night, is
the Aurora Boreal is ; no pen or brush can describe the glory and
beauty of this phenomenon in its greatest intensity. In February
1874 we had an Aurora that sti'etched like a grand broad stream
of fire over the zenith from west to east, and with the velocity
of lightning waves of light of considerable intensity in prismatic
colours darted from one side of the horizon to the other. At the
same time it lightened and flashed from the southern horizon up to
the magnetic pole ; it was the most magnificent firework display
that nature has ever here presented to our sight.

" 1 shall later give proofs, with data, that the intensity of tlie
Aurora phenomena differs in the different parts of the Arctic
regions independently of the geographical latitude, and that the
region in which we were is' a region of greatest intensity. In a
clear sky one could almost uninterruptedly see at least traces of it.
In the second winter I caused the officers who wei'C making
meteorological observations to keep an 'Aurora journal ;' this,
however, produced very little positive information, and was there-
fore discontinued.

" The phenomenon defies all dopcription and any systematic
classification, it shows constantly new forms and changes every

THE AUllOUA BOREALIS

721

:*rvc(l before n,
•V£(l in lower

i absolutely an

t the limit of
I often seen.
:'e of the Avcak
distinctly -with
ftei- the return

aurora of any

were matle to
rbancos of the
ce, (luring the
h aurorn, there
(lay showed an
was great doubt

aucons distnrb-
jtisni within the
1 greatly add to

AUSTKO-HUN-
ECIIT.

Jan. 1875.)

nenon in these
winter night, is
3e tlie glory and
In February
lid broad stream
ritli the velocity
dty in prismatic

other. At the
m horizon up to

rework display

Jintensity of the
Is of the Arctic
lie, and that the
Jintensity. In a
least traces of it.
]o Avere making
journal ;' this,
and was there-

|any systematic
changes every

instant. In spite of persevering and most eager endeavour, I
have never succeeded in describing the formation of the Aurora ;
the phenomenon is there, but how or whence it comes it is im-
possible to say.

" Speaking ([uito generally, three forms are distinguishable :
quiet regular bows, which rise from the southern horizon, and
moving slowly over the zenith pale at the northern horizon ; then
bands of liglit, which, twisted in themselves, change place and
form continuously, and either consist of decideil rays or ^elso of
light matter ; lastly, the phenomenon of the corona, i.e., the
direction of the rays from or towards the magnetic pole. Gene-
rally th«! colour is a powerful white with a greenish tinge ; when
the motion and intensity are gn.'ater, particularly when the flash-
ing motion of the rays takes place, the [jrismatic colours ofte:i
appear in con-siderable intensity.

" I spent much time and trouble on the spectral observations of
the Aurora, but the spectroscope we took with us was nmch too
small. I was never able to obs(!rvc more than the well-known
green line ; in comparison with the spectral observations of the
Swedish Expedition with more perfect instruments, ours are
worthlci-p.

'' Most of us u;:ulu ihe observaliuu that the Aurora was con-
nected with the state of the weather ; storms mostly follow
strong, and particularly the flaming Auroiv.. However the com-
parison of tiie meteorological data alone, can decide whether this
view is a right one. I myself have come to the conviction, with-
out being able to give any positive weighty reasons, but from
the observation of hundreds of Aurone, that the Aurora is an
atmospheric phenomenon, combined with the meteorological
conditions."

11. CoMPAmsoN of Auroras, Magnetic Disturbances, and
Sun Spots. — (Prof. Loomis.) (From the American Journal
of Science, vol. v., April 1873.)

A comparison between the mean daily range of the magnetic
declination and the number of Auroras observed in each year, and
also with the extent of the black spots on the surface of the sun,
establishes a connexion between these phenomena, and indicates
that auroral displays, at least in the middle latitudes of Europe
and America, are subject to a law of periodicity ; that their
grandest displays are repeated at intervals of about 60 years ; and
that there arc also othe]* fluctuations less distinctly marked which
succeed each other at an average interval of about 10 or 11 years,
the times of maxima corresponding quite remarkably with the
maxima of solar spots.

Professor Loomis gives reasons for thinking that in high
northern latitudes the inequality of auroral displays in difierent
years depends more on their unequal brilliancy than on their
frequency, and on this account, and because the observations are
only made in northern latitudes for single years occasionally, they
have been omitted in making the comparisons.

36122. Z Z

\¥^^'^9m

THE AURORA BOREAMS.

^ ';.

t , .

I

■'4

The portion of tho »>nrlli's jJiirfnoo solcctod for ooniparison lii-
cliidcs tho whole aron from which tlioio nro long continued sorloH
of observations, except from a f(>w places in the north, and tho
results of this comparison are shown in u plate givin;:^ the curve
for each of the three phenomena.

There is a very close correspondence of the curves, and tho
coincidence in the times of maximum and minimum is reniarkahle.
The auroral maximum generally occurs a little hifer than tho
magnetic maximum, an<l it appears that the connexion hetwcen
the auroral and magnetic curves is more intimate than hetweon
the auroral and sun-spot curves.

Date of Mivximum.

Date of Minimum.

Sun

Spots.

Miipnctic
Declination.

Auroras.

Sun
Spots.

Magnetic
Di't'liuation.

Auroras.

1778

1788-5

1804

1816-5

1829-5

1837

1848-5

1860

1870

1777

1787

1803

1817-5

1829

1838

1848-5

1859-5

1870-5

1778

1787-5

1804-5

1818

1830

1840

1850-5

1859-5

1870-5

1784

1798

1810

1823

1833-5

1843*5

1856

1867

1784

1799-5
Wantiuf^.

1823-5
Wantin;;.

1844

1856

1867

1784

1798

1811

1823

1834-5

1843-5

1856

1867

From the close connexion between the times of maxima and
minima Professor Loomis concludes — " That the black spot is a
•' result of a disturbance of the sun's surface, which is accom-
" panied by an emanation of some influence from the sun, which
" is almost instantly felt upon the earth in an unusual disturbance
" of the earth's magnetism and a flow of electricity, developing the
" auroral light in the upper regions of tho earth's atmosphere."

12. The Geographical Distribution of Aurora.

M. Petermann's Mittheilungen, vol. 20, 1874, IX., contains a
paper on this subject by Prof. Fritz, with map, from which it
appears that the northern limit of Auroras chosen by Prof. Loomis
nearly coincides, except in England, with the line of frequency
represented by 10 in Prof. Fritz's paper. This line in Prof. Fritz's
paper nearly passes through Toronto, Manchester, and St. Peters-
burgh. Prof. Loomis places it as far north as Edinburgh. On a
line across Behring's Straits and coming down below 60° N. in
America and the Atlantic, and passing just north of the Hebrides
to Drontheim, and including the most northern points of Siberia,
the frequency is represented by 1 00.

Within this another zone is drawn, indicating the zone of
greatest frequency and intensity.

This zone passes just south of Point Barrow, in latitude 72° N.,
and by the Great Bear Lake to Hudson's Bay, where it reaches a

THE AUUOKA IJOUEALIS.

723

pompniiHon m-
Dutiimed sorioH
north, nnil the
vinj: the curve

urvo.-', and the
is rcniiirknhle.
later than tl>o
icxion between
3 than between

iniiiunu.

L'tlC

ition.

1-5

1-5

ting.

I

5

7

Aurorus.

1784

1798

1811

1823

1834-5

1843-5

1856

1867

of maxima and

black spot is a

'hich is accom-

the sun, which

[sual disturbance

', developing the

atmosphere."

Aurora.

IX., contains a
1, from which it
IbyProf. Loomis
Ine of frequency
le in Prof. Fritz's
and St. Peters-

linburgh. On a

I below 60° N. in
of the Hebrides

[oints of Siberia,

ig the zone of

latitude 72° N.,
lere it reaches a

latitude of 6if, then on to the coast of Labrador and to the south
of Cape Fart'Wt'll, then btMidiiijj; sharper to the ncMlhward it passes
between Iceland and the Famo Isles near tn the North Cape, and
on to the Northern lee-sea to N«»va Senihia and Cape Tschelynskin,
and on just to the north of the Siberian coast to the south of
Kellett Land and Point Harrow. The grouping of the niag-mtic
meridians is very well shown in the map whiuli accompanies the
paper.

13. On a Dkkiniti: AuKAX<ii<:Mi:NTand Ouincuof the Appearance
and Puo(}UKSs of the Aurora Uorkalih, and on its Heioiit
al)ove the Suri'ace of the Kartii, by Kiev. James Fau«^u-
II arson.— (Phil. Trans. 1829.)

The following results had been arrived at from the observation
of a great number of Auroras in Aberdeenshire (lat. 57^ lo' N.)
in 1823, and were communicated to the Philosophical Magazine : —
" That the Aurora Borealis has iu all cases a determinate arrange-
" mcnt and figure, and follows an invarialde order in its appear*
" ancc and progress; that the streamers (pencils of rays) of the
** Aurora generally appear first in the north, forming an arch from
** east to west, having its vertex at the lino of the magnetic meri-
" dian; that when this arch is yet only of low elevation it is of
" considerable breadth from north to south, having the streamers
" of which it is composed placed crosswise in relation to its
" own line, and all directed towards a point a little south of the
" zenith ; that the arch moves forward towards the south, con-
" tracting its lateral dimensions as it approaches the zenith,
" and increasing iu intensity of light by the shortening of the
" streamers near the magnetic meridian, iuid the gradual shifting
" of the angles which the streamers near the east and west ex-
*' tremities of the arch make with its own line, till at length these
" streamers become parallel to that line, ai.d then the arch is seen
" as a narrow belt 3° or 4° only in breadth, stretching across the
" zenith at right angles to the magnetic meridian; that it still
" makes progress southwards ; and after it has reached several
" degrees south of the zenith again enlarges in breadth, by ex-
** hibiting an order of appearances the reverse of that which had
" attended ^'-i progress towards the zenith from the north ; and
" that the vi.ly conditions that can explain and reconcile these
" appearances dre, that the pencils of rays (streamers) of the Aurora
" Borealis are vertical, or nearly so, and form a deep fringe, which
"stretches a great way from east to west at right angles to the
*' magnetic meridian, but which is of no great thickness from
" north to south, and that the fringe moves southward, preserving
" its direction at right angles to the magnetic meridian."

A remarkable Aurora was seen on Nov. 22, 1825.

When first seen it had already formed two distinct and separate
arches in the north and north-eastern parts of the heavens ; the
continuity of each was only interrupted by a few detached masses
of low clouds coming, with a gentle breeze, slowly from the north,
and brightly illuminated by the moon.

z z 2

flL^

*> "'•"

724

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

1^ ' ■-

■■ 't

The most southerly arch approached within about 25° of the
zenith. It was abruptly terminated at its west extremity about
35° above the horizon ; as will be afterwards more particularly
described in discussing the question of the height above the earth.
This west abrupt extremity was a little to the north of the west.
Its east extremity was near the horizon in the north-east. The
streamers at the vertex of this arch were very short and compact,
and parallel to the magnetic meridian. From this point towards
both extremities the streamers gradually increased in length, and
being all directed to a point apparently 10° or 15° south of the
zenith, all formed angles with the general line of the arch, which
were more acute in proportion to the distance from the vertex.

The arch might be about 10° broad, and speedily moved south-
ward, maintaining a parallelism Avith its first position. Its lateral
dimensions became gradually contracted. The streamers near
the zenith shortened into dense bundles, like sheaves of light,
parallel to the magnetic meridian, and consequently at right angles
to the general line of the arch ; and those towards the extremities
gradually diminished the angles which they made with that line
and approached to a parallelism with it. At length after reaching
the zenith the arch became diminished in breadth to about 3° or 4°
and coincided in its whole extent with the prime vertical to the
magnetic meridian, and the light at its vertex exhibited a nebulous
or mottled appearance, and that of the extremities of long streamers
or pencils of rays, now parallel to the arch itself. I had no oppor-
tunity, upon the present occasion, to witness the enlargement of
the breadth again, and the unfolding of the parallel streamers at
the vertex, which I had observed in former arches Avhen they got
considerably beyond the zenith, for this arch gradually faded and
became extinct, about 10° or 12° southwards of the zenith.

I now proceed to the question of the height of the Aurora
Borealis above the surface of the Earth. In the paper in the
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1823, I had Inferred, from the
bright phosphorescent light of a cloud apparently under an
Aurora, that they were in contact, or nearly so, with each other.
Another similar appearance, of a still more decided character, in
the autumn of 1825, but the precise date of which I have not
noted, confirmed in my mind the justness of the' inference. In a
dark evenino", without moon, an extended mass of clouds stretching
alon'' the N. and N.E. quarter, not much raised above the visible
horizon, and having a clear sky above it, in which there was
playing a fine Aurora of vertical streamers with their lower ex-
tr'^rnities apparently touching it, was observed giving out at its
upper side a fitful but bright white light, more vivid and con-
spicuous amidst the darkness than if it had been illuminated by
the rising moon. Similar clouds in other parts of the horizon
exhibited no such light. It was impossible for a spectator to refer
the Aurora to a distance more remote than that of the mass of
clouds, or to believe that the former and the light of the latter
were not part of the same phenomenon. Mr. Otley (Phil.
Trans. 1. c.) appears to have witnessed a similar phenomenon.
** About 7 p.m. a dense cloud appeared in the horizon to the

THE AUKORA BOREALIS,

725

" N.N.W., bounded by n bright line, the rest of the heavens being
" starry. Presently beams of an Aurora began to shoot towards
" the Great Bear."

On the evening of Nov. 22, 182o, besides the small detached
clouds of the eastern and zenith part of the heavens coming slowly
from the north, another of quite different character extended
along the whole western part of the sky, to about 25° or 30° above
the horizon. It was one dense sheet of stratum, comparatively,
with the other clouds, very dark below, waved or furrowed from
north to south, and cut off at its cast side in an apparently straight
edge, trending nearly north and south. ]t was coming on very
slowly towards the east, and had before next morning prevailed
ever the other clouds, covering the heavens, and accompanied with
a fresh westerly breeze, after a frosty night which the 22nd of
November was. This large sheet of cloud was much more
elevated than the small detached ones, as was fully proved by
some of the latter being projected in perspective on its dark under
surface, and there appearing as white masses fully enlightened
by the moon.

Now the two arches of Aurora of that evening were abruptly
terminated at the points where they appeared over the eastern
edge of the large cloud ; and the abrupt terminations increased
their azimuth distances from the north as the arches came south-
wards, still appearing in their new positions over the cast edge
of the cloud. The lov.'er extremities of the streamers, which Avere
as long at these terminations as at any other parts of the arches,
appeared even in contact with the cloud, and 1 sometimes con-
ceived that they stretched before its eastern edge, but that part
being considerably illuminated ])y the moon prevented me from
being quite positive. Independently, however, of this uncertainty,
the appearances arc surely decisive of the fact, that the Aurora
did not extend into the region occupied by the westei'n cloud ;
and being seen over it at an angle not much higher than its own,
occupied therefore a region of nearly equal elevation above the
surface of the Earth.

I should have estimated the height of the phosphorescent clouds
above described as so much as 2,000 feet above the surface, or
twice the height of some of the neighbouring hills ; but while
the lower ends of the vertical streamers were at this height their
upper might be 2,000 or 3,000 feet more. I have seen the
Aurora, however, when the clouds certainly occupied a much
more elevated region.

[The additional observations made by Mr. Farquharson have
led him to think that the point to which the streamers are
directed is a little farther south of the zenith than he had sup-
posed, and that the luminous belt is sometimes a little broader
than he had estimated it at its maximum (o°). Also the extremity
of the zenith arch sometimes descends to the horizon. Another
observer describes a display as consisting of " a bow or arch
" of silvery light passing a few degrees south of the zenith, while
** waves of light seemed to run along the arch."]

.Jju. '

726

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

•I

?i

^;i'

: ?

1;^

Conclusions. — 1. The Aurora Borealis always presents itself
in definite and very curious relations to the lines of magnetism,
indicated by the needle.

2. The streamers in the direction of their length coincide with
the plane of the dip of the needle or nearly so, and that each
individual streamer is, in fact, parallel to the dipping needle.

3. They form a thin fringe, stretching often a great way
from E. to W., at right angles to the mngnetic meridian.

4. The fringe mo\es away from N. magnetic pole, by the ex-
tinction of streamers at its northern face, and the ibrmation of new
ones contiguous to its southern face.

5. The invariable regularity of its appearance, as seen by so
many observers, when it comes fully within command of the eye,
near the zenith, shows the apparent irregularities, when it is seen
either more northerly or southerly, to be only optical illusions.

6. The region which it occupies is above and contiguous to
that of the clouds, or that in which they are about to form.

14. On the Origin of Atmospheric Electricity, by J. Bec-
QUEREL, Senr., reviewed by M. de la Rive. (Archives des
Sciences, No. 41, 1871.)

According to M. Becquerel, Solar spots, which are sometimes
16,000 leagues in extent, appear to be cavities by which hydrogen
and various substances escape from the Sun's photosphere. But
hydrogen, which appears here to be only the result of decom-
position, takes with it positive electricity, which spreads into
planetary space even lo the earth's atmosphere and to the Earth
itself, always diminishing in intensity because of the bad con-
ducting power of the successive denser layers of air and of the
crust of the Earth. That would then only be negative, as being
less positive than the air. The diffusion of electricity through
planetary space would be limited by the diffusion of matter, since
it cannot spread in a vacuum.

That gaseous matter extends farther through space than the
distance which is generally assigned to the Earth's atmosphere
will be proved by the fact that Auroras, which are due to electric
discharges, are produced at heights of 100 and 200 kilometres,
where some gaseous matter must exist.

M. de la Rive agrees with M. Becquerel as to the electrical
origin of the Aurora, but considers that the Earth is charged with
negative electricity, and is the source of the positive atmospheric
electricity, the atmosphere becoming charged by the aqueouF
vapour rising in tropical seas. The action of the Sun, he con-
siders, is an indirect action which varies with the state of the
Sun's surface, as shown by the coincidence in the periods of Aurora
and Sun spots.

In the accounts of travellers in Norway we often read of their
being enveloped in the Aurora, and perceiving a strong smell of
sulphur, which must be attributed to the presence of ozone.
M. Paul Rollier, the aeronaut, who descended on a mountain

THE AURORA B0REALI9.

727

presents itself
of magnetism,

I coincide with
and that each
g needle,
a great way
dian.

ole, by the ex-
»rmation of new

, as seen by so
and of the eye,
when it is seen
;al illusions,
contiguous to
to form.

CY, by J. Bec-
(Archives des

are sometimes
which hydrogen
otosphere. But
esult of decom-
h spreads into
md to the Earth
the bad con-
air and of the
gative, as being
ctricity through
of matter, since

in Norway 1,300 metres high, saw brilliant rays of
across a thin mist wliich glowed with a remarkable light.

>f

space than the
til's atmosphere
e due to electric

200 kilometres,

0

the electrical
is charged with
five atmospheric
by the aqueoue
he Sun, he con-
the state of the
eriods of Aurora

ten read of their
% strong smell of
sence of ozone,
on a mountain

Aurora
^.v...... ....^ c ..^.„. ..„.,... ..g.... To his

astonishment, an incomprehe. sible muttering caught his ear;
when this ceased he perceived a very strong smell of sulphur
almost suflPocating him.

15. Observations of Aurora in Italy, during April 1871, by
M. Denza. (Archives des Sciences, No. 41, 1871.)

Auroras were remarkably frequent in Italy, as elsewhere,
in April 1871. On the 9th a remarkable Aurora was seen, occu-
pying an extensive region between Perseus and Cassiopea, and
lasting until midnight. During the day, at mid-day, there had
been a beautiful solar halo about 35° in diameter, changing from
white to red and other colours, followed by a thunderstorm, with
a falling barometer and the declinometer deflected more than
usual towards the east. On the morning of the 10th the decli-
nometer continued to be deflected, and at mid-day ninety-seven
spots were counted on the Sun's disc, whereas on the 9th there
had only been sixty-three.

On the 18th of April there was a similar Aurora, but consisting
of two phases, the second more brilliant than the first and lasting
through the day up to 10 at night. From this time until the
23rd of April the Aurora appeared every day, giving a reddish
tinge in the north and north-west. It made a brilliant contrast
with the zodiacal light, which at the same time shone out very
brilliantly.

On the evening of the 23rd the Aurora shone out brilliantly, at
first at 8.15 with a rosy tint about 20° on the horizon, then soon
after 9 o'clock it shone out very brilliantly for five or six minutes
and then waned. Before and after the display the northern sky
was covered with a reddish-Avhite light.

On the evenings when the Aurora appeared, the magnetometers
were agitated throughout Italy, and the disturbances ended by a
very violent agitation during the whole of the 24th of the month.
During this time numerous sun spots were observed at Rome,
Palermo, and at Moncalieri ; but the greatest number was observed
on the days of the Aurora.

There were also displays of Aurora seen at Moncalieri in June,
the most brilliant on June 18, which was accompanied by a very
violent magnetic disturbance.

[The winter of 1870 was remarkable, not only for the number
of Auroras, but also for their gi-eat brilliancy and their very
gi'eat extent. The third volume of " Nature " contains accounts
of several displays seen in various parts of the world.

The displays of Oct. 24 and 25 were remarkably brilliant in
England and in America, and the Aurora Australis was seen on
the same days at Madras ; yellowish- white and crimson beams
shot up from a bank of light in the southern horizon. These
displays w-'re seen in the daytime in England and America as

'!»

■"igniTn" -

728

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

"ft
4t

patches or coronas of ^vhite light vnih streamers stretching
upwards from them.

The spectra were observed by Mr. Alvan Clark in America,
and in England by Mr. H. R. Procter, who observed a red line
in the spectrum. These displays were accompanied by great
magnetic disturbances, and by remarkable Earlh-ciirrents both in
England and also on the Madras-Bombay lines in India.

Another brilliant display was seen at 6.30 p.m. and again at
7 p.m. on Dec. 19, 1870, in the Mcditcrranr'an, on the east coast
of Sicily. Towards the north, north-cast, and ca.?t brilliant pink
streamers shot up out of a bank of faint hazy light on the horizon.
The planet Jupiter was clearly seem through some of the most
brilliant streamers. The sky became covered with a pinkish-
mau>c colour. Toward the Avest a pale, steady white light, the
zodiacal light, was clearly seen during the evening. This dis-
play was followed in Sicily by a falling barometer and very stormy
winds, with thunder and lightning, and by verv destructive storms
in Italy, causing the overflow of the Tiber and the flooding of
the city of Rome to a depth which had been scaicely ever known.]

16. The Speotkum of the Alroka Borealis.

The following account of Professor Angstrom's paper on this
subject is taken from " Nature," Vol. 10, No. 24G (for July 16,
1874) :—

" It may be assumed that the spectrum of the aurora is composed
of two different spectra, which, even although appearing some-
times simultaneously, have in all probability different origins.

" The one spectrum consists of the homogeneous yellow light
which is so characteristic of the aurora, and which is found even
in its weakest manifestations. The other spectrum consists of
extremely feeble bands of light, which onl}-- in the stronger aurora)
attain such an intensity as enables one to fix their position, though
only approximatively.

" As to the yellow lines in the aurora, or the one-coloured spec-
trum, we are as little able now as when it was fn-st observed to
point out a corresponding line in any known spectrum. True
Piazzi Smyth {Comj)tcs Rendtis, Ixxiv., .597) bas asserted that it
corresponds to one of the bands in the spectrum of hydrocarbons ;
but a more exact observation shows that the line falls into a group
of shaded bands which belong to the spectrum, but almost midway
between the second and third Herr Vogel has observed that this
line corresponds to a band in the spectrum of rarefied air (Pogg.
Ann., cxlvi,, 582). This is quite right, but, in Angstrom's opinion,
is founded on a pure misconception. The spectrum of rarefied
air has in the green-yellow part seven bands of nearly equal
strength ; and that the auroral line corresponds with the margin
of one of these bands, which i§ not even the strongest, cannot be
anything else than merely accidental.

" Observations on the spectrum have not hitherto agreed with
cpch other j partly, perhaps, because of the Aveak light of the

rs strctcliing

: in America,
vci u red line
lied by great
rrents both in
diii.

find again at
ilie cast coast
brilliant pink
in the horizon.
3 of the most
th a pinkish-
hite light, the
ig. This dis-
id very stormy
ructive storms
lie flooding of
■f ever known.]

ALIS.

paper on this
i (for July 16,

ra is composed
spearing some-
it origins.
js yellow light
is found even
im consists of
;trouger aurora)
osition, though

•coloured spec-
st observed to
ictrura. True
ssorted that it

ydrocarbons ;

s into a group
almost midway

rved that this

THE AURORA BOREALIS,

729

Bed air (Pogg.
rom's opinion,
mi of rarefied
nearly equal
th the margin
est, cannot be

o agreed with
,k light of the

object, but partly also, it may be, on account of the variability of
the aurora. The red does not always appear, and when it does is
often so weak that it cannot be observed in the spectroscope. If
now it be assumed that the aurora has its final cause in electrical
discharges in the upper strata of the atmosphere, and that these
discharges, Avhcther disruptional or continuous, take place some-
times on the outer boundary of the atmosphere, and sometimes
near to the surface of the earth, this variability will easily show
in the appearance of the spectrum what the observations appear to
confirm.

" If we consider the conditions under which the electric light
appears on the boundary of the atmosphere, moisture in that
region must be set down as nil, and consequently the oxygen and
hydrogen there must alone act as conductors of electricity. Ang-
strom has tried to reproduce these conditions on a small scale.
Into a flask, the bottom of which is covered with a layer of phos-
phate, the platinum wires arc introduced, and the air is pumped
out to the extent of several millimetres. If the inductive current
of a RuhmkorfF coil be sent through the flask, the whole flask
will be filled, as it were, with that violet light which otherwise
only proceeds from the negative pole, and from both electrodes a
spectrum is obtained consisting chiefly of shaded violet bands.

" If this spectrum be compared with that of the aurora, Ang-
strom thinks that the agreement between the former and some of
the best established bands of the latter is satisfactory.

Liucs.

Of the aurora
spectrum

'^According to Barker
Vosel

<

»>

>>

„ Angstrom

»

Lemstrom

Wave-lengths.
431 470-5

— 469-4 523-3

— 472 521
426-2 469-4 523-5

428-6 470-3 522-6
427-2 470-7 522-7

Mean
Of the spectrum of the violet light

" In the neighbourhood of the line 469-4 Herr Vogel has more-
over observed two weak light bands, 466 • 3 and 462 ' 9. The spec-
trum of the violet light has also two corresponding shaded bands,
465-4 and 460-1.

" Should the aurora be flamy and shoot out like rays, there is
good reason for assuming a disruptive discharge of electricity, and
then there ought to appear the strongest line in the Hne-sijectrum
of the air, the green, whose wave-length is 500 • 3. Precisely this
has been actually observed by Vogel, and has moreover been seen
by Angstrom and others.

" Finally, should the aurora be observed as it appears at a
less height in the atmosphere, then are recognised both the
hydrogen lines and also the strongest of the bands of the dark-
banded air-spectrum, as e.g., 497*3. There are found also again
nearly all the lines and light bands of the weak aurora spectrum,
whose position has with any certainty been observed.

7«0

THE AUKOKA BOREALlSt

I?

si

■*!

" There still remains the line in the red field, the wave-length
of which, according to Vogel, may be valued at 630. Angstrom
has chanced to see it only a single time, while on various occasions,
when the aurora has shown red lights, he has found it impossible
to distinguish any lines whatever in this part of the spectrum.
The cause of this may be that while the red bands in the spectrum
of the negative pole are broad and very feeble in light, the corre-
sponding light in the aurora may be imperceptible in the spectro-
scope on account of the dispersion of the prism, although it
is strong enough to give to the aurora a reddisli appearance.
Angstrom does not venture to decide whether the red line ob-
served by Vogel coincides with the strongest of these bands, but
so much is at least certain, that it may coincide with more than
one of the bands in the red field of Plucker's air-spectrum.

" In general it may be thus assumed that the feeble bands in the
aurora spectrum belong to the spectrum of the negative pole, and
that the appearance of this spectrum may be changed more or less
by additions from the banded air-spectrum or the line-spectrum
of the air.

" But by this is not yet explained the one-coloured spectrum or
the origin of the yellow line. The only explanation of the origin
of this line which, in Angstrom's opinion, is in any way probable,
is that it owes its origin io Jluorcscnce or phosphorescence. Since
fluorescence is produced by the ultra-violet rays, an electric dis-
charge may easily be imagined, which, though in itself of feeble
light, may be rich in tdtra-violet light, and therefore in a con-
dition to cause a sufficiently strong fluorescence. It is also
known that oxygen is phosphorescent, as also several of its com-
pounds.

" There is therefore no need, in order to account for the spectrum
of the aurora, to have recourse to the ' very great variability of
' gas spectra according to the varying circumstances of pressure
' and temperature,' a variability which, according to Angstrom's
20 years' observations, does not exist. Just as little can Angstrom
admit that the way in which a gas may be brought to glow or
burn, can alter the nature of the spectrum ; since it is an esta-
blished fact in physics that the state of light and of heat which
puts a body into a glowing condition is unconnected in character
with that which produces glowing.

" Angstrom does not entirely deny the possibility that a simple
body by glowing in a gaseous condition will offer several spectra.
Just as one simple body can form a chemical combination with
another, and this body by glowing in a gaseous conditions, so long
as it is not decomposed, gives its own spectrum, so must it also
be able to form combinations with itself — thus to form isomeric
combinations — it being always supposed that it exists in the
gaseous form and can maintain itself in a glowing condition with-
out decomposition. In this way it is indeed possible to conceive
an absorption for oxygen which belongs to ozone ; but since
ozone, as is well known, cannot maintain itself in a glowing con-
dition, it is in vain to look for more than one spectrum of oxygen.

THE AUKORA 130REAL18.

731

There is, liowevcr, at least a possibility of obtaining several
spectra from sulphur, >vhile again with respect to carbon, which
cannot even be exhibited in a gaseous condition, a like assumption,
in the author's opinion, wants the support of experience."

17. Prof. A. S. IIerschel on the Spectrum of the Aurora.

The spectrum of the Aurora is no doubt in the main the same as
that of the pale blue light round the negative pole in an air or
nitrogen vacuum-tube, with the induction-spark passing through
it. There arc so many well marked lines in this spectrum that,

looking at Angstrom's representation of them, it is probably
owing to the insignificant appearance of that part of the vacuum-
spark that its proper spectrum has not been more frequently

studied with reference to the Aurora, as Angstrom seems to have
done by an experiment specially adapted for the purpose.

There are several forms or modes (apparently four or five) of
electrical discharge through rarefied gases.* When veiy much
rarefied, air transmits the electricity so as to discharge the
Ruhmkorff poles without u spark. In that state there is still a
glow of heated air round both poles, which increases in size and
length along the tube as the air pressure is increased, faster
round the positive than round the negative pole. This has been
accounted for by showing that the air offers far greater resistance
to the passage of electricity when it surrounds a cathode or
negative, than when it surrounds an anode or positively electrified
pole. The dilFerence becomes more obvious as the pressure and
density of the gas are increased. The negative glow shrinks into
a very small space, while the positive ])rush extends through
nearly the whole length of the tube, abolishing at last the dark
space that at very low tensions separates the two lights from each
other. At pressures not exceeding one or two millimetres the
positive glow is stratified ; but if the pressure is increased it
becomes continuous ; and if the air-pressure amounts to that of
^ or ^ an inch of mercury, or upwards, it again gathers into
somewhat larger light clouds ; and at about 1 or 2 inches of
barometric pressure a spark passes between the poles. This
spark is red; it scarcely diminishes the strength of the con-
comitant glow discharge; and it is far less luminous than the
white spark which begins to appear at 5 or 6 inches of pressure,
and may often be seen at first broken u]) along its length into
parts which are alternately white and red. The spectra, like the
general appearances, of these two forms of the spark are quite
distinct.

♦ An examination of these with revolving mirrors, by A. Wiillmer, at Aix
la Chapelle, appeared in the " Jubelband " of Poggendoi-flTs Annalen this year
at the same time as Angstrom's paper in that volume, which also contains
some other tracts (by A. de la Rive and others) tracing the effects of magnets
and of metallic vapours in augmenting the discharge through air.

fT"^'

732

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

H ■'

i't

i

if
-,.4!
4

I

ft

'I

I do not know if those several phases of the positive part of
the discharge have all been examined spectroscopically. They
pass into each other according to the shape and size of the tube
or flask, as well as the air-pressure ; and it is difticult lo say liow
much of each is concerned in those observations Avhich have been
made of air-spark spectra in comparison with the aurora. No
one, so far as I knoAV, has compared with it the 7ieffative-g\o\y
spectrum so fully as Angstrom has now done; and it seems very
probable that its peculiar fitness for the comparison has been
overlooked — the feat of filling n bottle with the negative glow
discharge being certainly a novelty ; if it is really true that ho
succeeded in obliterating the positive brush entirely in its favour.

The next remarkable novelty in the paper is tlie way in which
he proposes to account for the " citron " line of auroras ; for
there is evidently nothing of the kind in the negative glow, how-
ever well that answers to all the secondary facts of faint blue, red,
and greenish lines. If oxygen and its compounds arc (as has, I
believe, been lately shown) strongly jluorcsccnt^ Tait and Dewar
have also proved, as shown by some of their experiments this
year, that they also possess powers of phosphorescence — Geissler
tubes shining for some time after the spark has passed through
them, from the production of ozone during the discharge. When
one of the globes of a phosphorescent " garland " tube was heated
over a Bunsen flame, that globe which was heated did not shine
after the spark had passed, apparently because, as we know, a very
little heat is sufficient to destroy ozone. Whatever the way may
be in which the ozone or otherAvise electrified gas remains self-
luminous after the discharge, it seems very reasonable to suppose
some action of the same kind (perhaps, as Angstrom says, simply
fluorescence) as common in all auroras, and that this produces the
well-known auroral line.

Pocket spectroscopes can, of course, do nothing further to fix
the position of the citron line ; nor can they alone fix very
exactly the places of any of the fainter ones. But as every
Aurora shows this strong monochromatic light, it might be used
to bring out a row of punctures transverse to the slit, as a divided
scale in the field of view whereby to map the fainter lines, or at
any rate to recognise those which appear most frequently. For
this purpose they should be made large, and the slit should be a
wide one. For ordinary miniature spectroscopes, two holes on the
red and five on the blue side of the slit, -^-^ or -^-^ of an inch apart,
would suffice for recognitions and even for very useful measure-
ments. The jaws of the slit can be cut with a fine saw across the
middle about -^^^ or \ of an inch deep each w.ny ; and a piece of
copper foil, provided with the row of holes and a sufficiently wide
slit across it, can be fastened to one of them inside, opposite to the
crosscut and adjoining the edges of the spectroscope jaws.

Some other means maybe found of piercing the jaws of a pocket
spectroscope at regular intervals ; but, as a simple plan, I have
found this very eflBcient, in finer divisions, for laboratory use.
The holes are pierced at y^ of an inch apart ; and thirty of them

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

733

include the -whole visible spectrum. Sodiuin-lifrht, which is
common in laboratory flames, exhibits the punctures with ad-
mirable distinctness ; and each fifth hole being punched double,
the ycnie is very easily read off. There are ten holes on the red,
and twenty on the blue side of the slit. If the niochanical dilBculty
of perforated jaws could be overcome, nothing perhaps could bo
better suited for evamining auroras than a jiocket spectroscope so
prepared with a few close but clear and tolerably open holes on
each side of the slit.

The secondary auroral lines can only be seen (in small spec-
troscopes) with a pretty broad slit ; and the strength of the yellow
line mi^dit then prove embarrassing. I would abolish it, if so, by
a blue* glass nearly covering one half, and a red glass the other
half of the slit — the blue and red parts of the spectrum re-
spectively, not in its immediate neighbourhood, being freely trans-
mitted. The slit might also be made longer tlian usual for
auroral study.

I have been here supposing that special spectroscopes would be
provided for Arctic observers. But it is quite certain that much
may be done with common pocket spectroscopes without any such
provision. They should have adjustable slits and good dispersion,
as the secondary lines are faint ; and though abundant enough in
the blue to make the spectrum there pretty luminous, they can
only be individualised by varying the slit-aperture. On the only
occasion when I have seen this spectrum (in February 1872), they
seemed to run into each other, and presented a light so nearly con-
tinuous in the blue part that, although the slit of the Browning's
pocket spectroscope which I was using Avas extremely fine, and
was focused on the yellow line, no interruption or appearance of
lines could be made out. It was probably also through not opening
the slit that I missed seeing a red line Avhich another observer,
using a similar instrument and looking with me at the Aurora, saw
very plainly. Although its red colour was intensely brilliant, I
failed to see the slightest troce of light on the red side of the yellow
line. Had I opened the slit, or perhaps opened and closed it
alternately (as the yellow line, though fine, was still very bright),
the result would probably have been different.

I can confirm the appearance of the negative or " cathode "
spectrum which Angstrom gives, from the results of some exami-
nations of it Avhich 1 have lately made. On projecting the recorded
lines in wave lengths, there is a very exact agreement with the
chief lines and shadings as figured in the plate. Some fainter

o

lines, however, are visible, which Angstrom has, perhaps, omitted
purposely to avoid encumbering the drawing. During the years
1871 and 1872 there were several resumes of the Aurora spec-
trum, accompanied with new measurements, in Poggendorff's
" Annalen " and the " American Journal of Science " (by Vogel,
Barker, and others).

* Some care would be necesf^ary in selecting the blue glass, as these gene-
rally transmit a yellow ray closely corresponding with the auroral line.

i».

734

THE AURORA B0REALI!!«.

51.

I have endeavoured to condense the information on the Aurora

o

lines from An'ijstrom's descriptions of them in the annexed Table,
as a guide for further observation.

Professor Piazzi Smyth, Avho has given much attention to the
auroral spectrum, has publisliod, in the introduction to vol. xiii. of
the " Edinburgh Astronomical Observations," a set of simple com-
parison spectra, with notes of dcsitlci'ata, which would be of great
service to observers well furnished with instrumental means and
applying them to measurements of the Aurora ; and something
similar would very much assist observers using direct-vision spec-
troscopes to map their spectra, where auroras are frequent and of
great brightness, in high latitudes.

Positions and General Characters of Principal Lines in the

O

Auroral Spectrum, according to Angstrom.

Red

Yellow
or citron
'green

Greenish

blue or

blue.

ish I .3«.

I

1. Brightness 0 to 4 or 8. Wave-length 6300.
Relative position. Atmospheric absorption-line

a near C in the solar spectrum.
General description of sotirce and frequency. Seen

chiefly, if not only, in red auroras ; a clearly

defined line, sometimes intense ; no other red

line visible.

Identification with lines of electrical-air spectra.
Coincides with a red band in the negative-glow
discharge.
a. Brightness 25. Wave-length 5570.

Position. Second separable line in the first or

citron band of blue gas-flame spectrum.
Description, 8fc. The most characteristic auroral
line ; constant and conspicuous in all auroras
not divisible j sharp and bright.
Identification, SfC. Not identified ; possibly a
phosphorescent or fluorescent light emitted w^hen
air is subjected to the action of electrical
discharge.
3. Brightness 2 or 0 ? to 6 . . .
„ 0-8 (increases

with red line)

2 or 0 ? to 8

Oto4?

}

Wave-length 5225.
5170-5190.

>>

• • • • ■

5>

5000.
4820-4870.

Zc. „

Position. 3 and 3a closely adjoin the solar line
b and the second or green band of the blue gas-
flame spectrum. 3i is at ^ {b, F); and the
line or lines 3 c are near F.

Description, S^c, The first three are distinct lines ;

the first most frequently observed ; the second
and third less commonly; lines in the fourth
place (3c) noted by Alvan Clark, jun., Barker,

and Angstrom.

THE AURORA BOREALIP.

7«5

Full

Idcntifi cation, ^c. 3, 3 /> coincide with linos in
the negative glow, 3 /> that of nitrogen in the
nebula) ; 3 a with a conetant strong line in the
spark-dischargo. The latter and 3r, it may
be, are only seen in auroral streamers of low
elevation.

blue. /'• "T^z^"!::} "''"■'-'o'" ^<^o,.,7,o.

l4a. „ „ 4630-46G5.

Position. Middle and latter half of the third or
blue band in the blue gas-flame spectrum.

Description, ^c. A double band, consisting of two
lines; the first rather more frequently noted
than the second in auroral spectra.

Identijication, ^c. The principal line and its com-
panion agree well in position with the principal
band in the negative-glow spectrum.

Brightness 0-6. JVave-lenyth 4285.
» ••• „ 4110.

Indigo,

blue and

violet.

]'

Position, S}'c. 5 coincides nearly with G and with
the fourth or indigo band of the gas-flame
spectrum ; 6 is between Gr and H near the
hydrogen line h in the solar spectrum.

Description, Sfc. 5 is a frequent line, but some-
what difficult to see ; and, from its position, it
is possibly the limit of vision for pocket spec-
troscopes ; 6 was measured once by Lemstrom
at Helsingfors.

Ide7itification, S^-c. 5 corresponds exactly with a
strong band in the violet in the negative-glow
spectrum.

Remarks and Suggestions,

The general character of the subspectrum appears to be a series
of bright lines, bands, and shadings, more or less dimly visible
on a faint field of Hght in the blue region of the spectrum, the
greatest concentration occurring apparently most frequently at
about the positions stated above. They arise, according to

Angstrom, from discharges of electricity from the denser to the
more rarefied strata of the upper air, producing there on a great
scale what is seen in artificial discharges of electricity in rarefied
air as a blue cap round the negative pole. The appearance in
the aurora of only one red line in the place of the many rod
bands of the negative glow, scarcely less bright than the prin-
cipal one, is remarkable ; and fresh observations are very desirable
to confirm it, or to detect other red lines if they exist. Very red
auroras should be examined with a wide slit, covered (if of advan-
tage) with light-red glass to shut off all other light as much as
possible.

%

736

THE AURORA BOREALIS,

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Mixed with tho linos of
the ncy (litre ^low, Ang-
strom sinn)os('s that lines
of tho po.sitivoilisniptivc
spark orl)rus!i diHchargo
may ni)[)car in flushing
uuroras, especially near
tho ?)aso or nrch as
distiiif^-niished from tho
tops of th(! streamers,
giving to tiio subspcc-
trum a dilferent appear-
ance according to tho
strength and agitation
of the streamers : this
may perhaps ho trace-
able in tho appearance
and disappearance of the
lines 3 «, 3 r, and per-
haps of other faint
lines, whose positions
should be noted. Such
lines should also bo
searched for in quies-
cent parts, such as sta-
tionary auroral bands
and the tops of very
bright streamers.

A correct recogni-
tion of some one or
more of the lines de-
scribed above, other
than the citron line, is
however> of chief im-
portance in observing
with small spectro-
scopes, as tho leading
lines themselves must
supply the only stand-
ard intervals of com-
parison for eye-estima-
tions of such faint
spectrn.

<ri

eo

THE AURORA ROREALIS.

737

18. Comparison of other Spkctua with iho Arnon.v SrECTucM,
by T. R. Capuon.— (Phil. Mag., Api-il 1H75.)

For comparisou with n tahhi of Aiirom spectra given in
M. Wijkander'a paper {.see p. 742), a table of the results obtained
by other observers, as given by J. R. Capron, is added, togetlier
with the spectra of hydrogen and oxygen (Vogcl), and carbon
(Dr. Wattsj and J. R. Capron).

Aurora Links and Rands.

Observers.

ft
o

Grocn.

liluc.

a

Violet.

Vogol.AprilO,

1871.
Barker, Nov.

9, 1871.

Barker, Oct

14, 1872

:}

A. Clnrko, Oct.

84, 1870.
Backhouso,

1873.
Backhouso,

Feb. 4, 1874.
Hydrogen

linos.
Oxygen lines

Carbon (Dr.
Watts).

Carbon (Ca-
pron).

029-7

556-9

539-0

—

623-3

518-0

600-4

—

469-4

402-0

023-0

662-0

—

—

~

517-0

602-0

482-0

—

—

030-0

655-0
569-0

033-0
532-0

520-0-

606-0

to
499-0

403-0

to
486-0
485-0

474-0^

to [•

467-0;

—

006-0

666-0

—

—

616-6

501-6

—

—

402-6

—

557*0

—

—

—

618-0

498-0

4S3-0

—

464-0

—

555-6

542-2

—

—

618-9

600-8

—

—

403-2

—

560-3

—

—

—

619-6

—

483-4

—

—

—

662-2

—

—

—

518-9

—

482-0

—

—

—

660-8

—

—

—

619-3

—

482-6

—

—

431-0
435 -0
430-5

Mr. Capron generally agrees with the results arrived at by

M. Angstrom, but sees reason to question the statement that
"moisture in the region of the Aurora must be regarded as wi7."
Also he sees no reason for giving to the violet-pole glow any
special or distinguished place in comparison with the Aurora.
He considers that the fainter lines are partly due to the air-spec-
ti-um, in which H. lines play a prominent part, and the spark-
spectrum appears nearer the mark than the tube-spoctrnm ; and
that the remaining bands or lines (besides the phosphorescent
lines) may be due to phosphorus and iron.

For measuring auroral and other lines, a cheap and very
eflfective micrometer is constructed by making the whole slit-
plate of the spectroscope traverse the field with a fine micrometer
screw, a pointer or pointers being fixed in the Lje-piece.

Large aperture, both of prisms and lenses, is aimost indispensable
in observations of faint Auroral spectra.

19. Observations on the Aurora, by M. Lemstrom.

Description of M. Lemstrom's Spectroscope.

On a massive foot is fixed a vertical brass tube ; another brass
tube sliding within it carries a strong plate of metal, which can

86122.

3 A

■1*

738

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

1. 11

turn in a vertical plane about an axis at the top of the tube and
in a horizontal plane, by the sliding of the two tubes one in the
other. To this plate another plate is fixed by a vertical steel axis
about which it can turn, and the two are pressed together by a
screw and a circular spring. The upper plate carries a hori-
zontal ami of brass. Two prisms having a refracting angle
of 60° are fixed on this plate. Their bases are placed against a
vertical plate of metal with metal corners so that their bases form
an angle of about 166° '5. The prisms are enclosed in a square
box, which is fixed by screws. On one side of this box is a tube
carrying a slit, and on the other a tube with a telescope. An
arm of brass projects through the side of the box on the side of
the telescope, and a micrometer screw is attached at the end of it.
The rays of light entering by the slit fall on the lens and into the
tube, and are then refracted and dispersed by the first prism, and
afterwards internally reflected at the base of the second prism.
They then enter the telescope. The bases of the prisms are
inclined at an angle of 166° "5 to one another. By turning a
micrometer screw the prisms are turned slowly so as to bring any
ray into the middle of the field. The head of the screw is
graduated in hundredth parts, and the scale in intervals corre-
sponding to one turn. A reading of the screw determines the
place of a ray of the spectrum, and a comparison with other
scales or with wave-lengths may be made by fixing the relative
positions and taking the readings for a great number of known
lines of the solar spectrum.

The readings of the scale and the positions of the lines may be
determined by alternately illuminating and obscuring the scale
during the observation, so that the lines of the spectrum and their
positions in the scale are blended together.

Spectroscopic Observations.

In the first Swedish Expedition, 1868, some very remarkable
observations were made on the appearance of luminous beams
around the tops of mountains, and by the spectroscope M. Lem-
strom has showed that these displays were of the same nature as
the Aurora.

He mentions also that on the 1st of September, on the Isle of
Amsterdam, in the Bay of Smeerenberg, there was a light fall of
snow, and the snowflakes were observed falling obliquely ; all at
once there appeared a luminous phenomenon, which, starting from
the earth's surface, shot up vertically, cutting the direction of the
falling snowflakes, and the phenomenon lasted for some seconds.

The characteristic yellow line of the Aurora is seen in the light
on the tops of the mountains, and its intensity is constantly
changing, and its variations are such as to show that the light is
discontinuous. This line of the spectrum was also observed, but
was of feeble intensity when the slit was directed towards a lake
covered with snow, or towards a roof covered with snow, and
even in the snow all round the observer.

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

739

f the tube and
Libes one in the
rtical steel axis

together by a
carries a hori-
jfracting angle
>lacecl against a
heir bases form
>scd in a square
is box is a tube

telescope. An
X on the side of
it the end of it.
2ns and into the

first prism, and
» second prism,
the prisms are
By turning a
» as to bring any
of the screw is

intervals corre-
V determines the
'ison with other
:ing the relative
imber of known

the lines may be
curing the scale
ectrum and their

Ivery remarkable
1 luminous beams
l-oscope M. Lem-
same nature as

br, on the Isle of
Ws a light fall of
lobliquely ; all at
ch, starting from
direction of the
some seconds.
[seen in the light
ty is constantly
[ that the light is
Jlso observed, but
[d towards a lake
Iwith snow, and

M. Lomstrom concluded that an electric discharge, which could
only be seen by means of the spectroscope, was taking place on
the surface of the ground all round him, and that from a distance
it would appear as a faint display of Aurora.

At the end of his very interesting paper on the spectrum of the
Aurora and on his Lapland Expedition, M. Lemstrom sums up
the results obtained by himself and other observers thus : —

(1.) The phenomena of pale and flaming light which is some-
times seen on the tops of Spitzbergen mountains appear also in
Lapland, and are of the nature of the Aurora.

(2.) Phenomena of the same kind, although with some diifer-
ences, have been observed in other countries, shov.'ing that electric
discharges of the nature of the Aurora take place in other than
Arcti(? regions.

(3.) The spectroscope is the surest means of deciding the kind
of the phenomena in doubtful cases.

(4.) In Polar regions the electric discharge of thunder lies
lower in the atmosphere than elsewhere.

(5.) Earth currents which accompany the Aurora are not
induction currents produced by the Aurora, at least not in
northern regions.

(6.) In all probability the current of polar light would act on a
galvanometer, proA'ided the apparatus which collects the elec-
tricity is large enough, or placed high enough in the atmosphere.

(7.) As a rule, positive electricity comes down from the upper
regions.

(8.) The corona of the Aurora Borealis is not entirely a
phenomenon of perspective, but the rays have a true curvature.
(This is explained on the supposition that the rays are currents
flowing in the same direction, and therefore attract each other.)

(9.) In the Aurora spectrum there are nine rays, which in all
probability agree with lines which belong to the gases of the
air.

(10.) The Aurora spectrum can be referred to three distinct
types, wliicli depend on the character of the discharge.

20. Observations on the Electrical State of the Air during
the First Swedish Expedition in 1868, by M. Lemstrom.
— (Archives Sciences Physiques, &c., tome 41, 1871.)

Toward the end of September, at Southgat Strait, between
Danskow and Spitzbergen, lat. 79° 39' 7" N., long. 1 1° 7' E.,
betAveen mountains 300 metres (1,000 feet) high on the north
and south, the auroral light was seen on the outline of clouds on
the mountain, and about 10° or 15° above the mountain, in undu-
lating lines, presenting a diflfused yellowish light at their base,
from which vertical orange bands shot up, forming a series of
very prominent sharp points at the top. The crest of the moun-
ta'n became enveloped in mist with the wind from the E.N.E.
For some minutes after the cloud had passed, the crest continued

3 A 2

^

^SS#ii

^^s^iXmimit^

740

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

i'd

to be surrounded with a pale glimmer floating along the mountain,
and the spectroscope showed the existence in it of the yellow
light of the Aurora.

The next day, September 26, a similar effect was seen in the
south-west, but the phenomena seemed to be much farther off than
on the day before.

The next day (Sept. 27) a beam of yellowish- white light was
seen in the morning, and at 11.30 p.m. a faint glimmer was seen
gliding along the arete of the mountain, and, from the movement
of the mist, was evidently on the arete itself. The light appeared
for some seconds under the form of rays of a clear yellow of great
brilliancy, following the outline of the mountain.

At other times all the tops and highest ridges of the mountains
were enveloped with a pale glimmer, generally when they were
covered with a thin veil of mist, the light gradually dying out and
disappearing in the upper layers of the mist.

On returning to Tromso, an Aurora was seen on October 21,
which commenced in the north and became very brilliant.

The speclroscope showed —
(1.) A yellow line.
(2.) A very clear line in the blue.

(3.) Two lines of a hair's breadth, with very pronounced
horizontal striaB on the side of the yellow.

The light of the yellow line was very variable in intensity.

The relative places of the aurorsl lines were found to be —
(1.) The yellow line at 74-9.
(2.) The blue line at 65 '90.

One of the shaded lines at 125*0 and the other about 105*0.

On the entrance of the " Sophie " into the Norwegian Archi-
pelago on the evening of October the 18th, fragments of polar
light were seen scattered here and there in all the sky to the north
and to the east, which finished by forming a continuous ring around
the horizon.

Rays from this ring lengthened gradually and met together
suddenly about the zenith, forming during some instants a crown of
Aurora of perfect regularity, and presenting the brightest colours.

(p. 157.) I have observed on several occasions discharges
accompanied the electric light arising from scattered clouds or
from beds of clouds.

In these high latitudes it is not by the clouds only that electricity

discharged ; it is also directly by the damp air, as also takes

IS

place during winter in the temperate zone. We possess a great
number of direct observations verifying the existence of slow dis-
charges of this nature, and we have a remarkable proof of it in an
observation by M. Angstrom, who on one occasion has verified the
presence of the yellow line of the polar light nearly all over the
sky. If it is well established that the phenomena of the polar light
are due to the electricity of the air, it follows that its appearance
depends less on terrestrial magnetism than lias been hitherto ad-
mitted. This may exercise a direct action upon the electric dis-

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

741

charge already formed, but cannot contribute to its formation, which
must depend only on the conditions in which the different layers
of air are found. Although terrestrial magnetism has an influenc3
upon the position of the luminous arc of the Aurora, it is difficult
to admit with Hansteen and Bravais that the position of this arc
should be determined only by the magnetic pole. Thus, the summit
of the polar arc is rarely in the exact direction of the declination
needle. From 226 observations made upon the position of the
azimuth of the luminous polar arc we find 36 per cent., which give
for this position 30° more to the west ; 32, which give 10° to 20°,
7, 0° to 10°, and 4, 0° to 26° to the east ; from which it appears that
the position of the arc varies from 25° to 30° and more. Thesa
variations are too great to be explained by accidental perturbations
in the terrestrial magnetism, as much as about 6° to 7° more than
the greatest deviations in the magnetic declination.

We therefore think that terrestrial magnetism plays only a re-
latively secondary part in the phenomena of the polar light ; that
this part consists essentially in a direct action upon the rays of this
light, and in a movement of rotation exercised upon the rays, cir-
cumstances demonstrated positively by the experiences of M. de la
Rive.

(p. 160.) The experiments of M. de la Rive, which have shown
the influence of magnetism on the electric light in circumstances
nearly identical with those which the polar light presents, do not
at all furnish the proof that the rays of this light are really united
under this influence. The polar light considered as an electric
discharge gives the following results : —

(1.) An electric current arising from the discharge itself, which
takes place slowly.

(2.) Rays of light consisting of an infinite number of sparks, each
spark giving rise to two induction currents going in opposite direc-
tions.

(3.) A galvanic current going in an opposite direction to that of
the discharge, and having its origin in the electro-motive force dis-
covered by M. Edland in the electric spark.

To be developed, these currents require a closed circuit ; it is true
that in the phenomena of the Aurora, strictly speaking, it does
not exist, but it is not necessary, seeing that in this case the eartli
and the rarefied air of the upper regions are immense reservoirs of
electricity, which produce the same effect as if the circuit we^'o
closed.

According to the theory of M. de la Rive, the positive discharge
of electricity from the air to the earth produces a current which I
shall call the principal current. This is counterbalanced in pait by
the current due to the electro-motive force of the spark.

We see, by observations made with telegraph wires during the
presence of the Aurora, that sometimes one and sometimes the
other prevails, the first being in general predominant, the current
given by telegraph wires being more frequently from north to
south than from south to north.

(p. 163.) The cause of the clouds of the higher regions being

'S*

742

THE AUROEA BOREALIS.

discharged in the form of Aurora, and not in thunder and light-
ning, h the permanent moisture of the air. Hygi'ometric
observations made during the Expedition of the " Sophie " show
that the air is constantly saturated with aqueous vapours, which
are condensed most frequently in clouds, more rarely in rain. It
is clear that this layer of moisture, a good conductor of electricity,
causes a slow discharge.

M. de la Rive adds (p. 166) : — M. Lemstrom established by a
great number of facts that the Aurora is due to atmospheric
electricity, the presence of which in the Polar regions he has
proved, often in the region of the clouds, and sometimes nearer
the earth. He shows that this light is the consequence of electric
discharges, which in these regions, constantly charged with
moisture, operate slowly and continuously, instead of suddenly and
producing lightning as in the equatorial regions and mean latitudes.
He shows with reason that terrestrial magnetism, to which we had
attributed an exaggerated importance in the production of Aurora,
plays in this phenomena only a very secondary part. This consists
simply in giving to the luminous electric streamers a certain
direction which they are capable of taking as they are propagated
in a gaseous conductor.

The electric discharges which take place in the Polar regions
between the positive electricity of the atmosphere and the
negative electricity of the earth, are the essential and unique cause
of the formation of the polar light — light the existence of which is
independent of terrestrial magnetism, which contributes only to
give to the polar light a certain direction, and in some cases to
give it motion. This is] what I have always maintained, contrary
to those who believe they see in terrestrial magnetism, or rather in
the induction currents which it is capable of developing, the origin
of the polar light.

21. Observations on the Spectrum of the Aurora made by
M. AuGUSTE WiJKANDER and Lieutenant Parent, of the
Swedish Arctic Expedition in 1872-73, under Professor
Nordenskiold. — (Archives des Sciences Physiques et Natu-
relles, vol. li., p. 25.)

The Swedish Arctic Expedition under Professor Nordenskiold
have made some valuable observations on the spectrum of the
Aurora Borealis in Mussel Bay, on the north of Spitzbergen,
during the winter of 1872-73.

The instrument employed was a direct-vision spectroscope, con-
structed by Baron Wrede, and similar to that used by M. Lem-
strom in his observations on the spectrum of the Aurora. The
instrument consisted of two prisms, one of which sei'ves to refract
and disperse the luminous rays, whilst the other brings them back
to the first direction by total reflection. The prisms are so far
capable of motion, that the different parts of the spectrum can be
brought on the system of crossed spider lines placed at the focus
of the eye-piece. By a side opening and a mirror opposite to it
the spider lines could be uniformly illuminated when necessary ;

ider and llght-
Hygi'ometric
Sophie " show
vapours, which
i\y in rain. It
L- of electricity,

itablished by a
to atmospheric
regions he has
netimes nearer
ence of electric
charged with
of suddenly and
mean latitudes.
) which we had
ition of Aurora,
. This consists
ners a certain
are propagated

THE AUllORxV BOKEALIS.

743

regions

e Polar

;phere and the
nd unique cause
ence of which is
tributes only to
n some cases to
tained, contrary
sm, or rather in
)ping, the origin

RORA made by
Parent, of the
inder Professor
siques et Natu-

\v Nordenskiold
lectrum of the
)f Spitzbergen,

metroscope, con-
ed by M. Lem-
Aurora. The
lei'ves to refract
lings them back
risms are so far
sectrum can be
fed at the focus
br opposite to it
len necessary ;

with this arrangement the position of the faint aurora-lines could
be exactly determined.

For the wave-lengths corresponding to the hnes in the spec-

O

trum. Angstrom's values were made use of, and the wave-lengths
have been deduced from the readings of the micrometer screw by the
following formula, which is applicable to the rays from D to H : —

X= 0 • 00046489 + 0 • 000009o40(a — 1 0) + 0 • 0000004o64(a - 1 0)3
+ 0 • 00000002 1 84(a - 1 0)=^,

where a is the reading of the spectroscope, and x tlie length of
the wave.

Observations on the solar spectrum were made during the
autumn of 1872 and the spring of 1873, and they have shown
that during this period no change of the zero took place.

During the winter the instrument was tested by means of the
faint part of the flame of a candle. In a few experiments there
was an accidental displacement, probably because a small quantity
of dust or ice had penetrated into the apparatus, and in these cases
the values determined have been enclosed in brackets, and entirely
omitted from the final result. A variation of one-tenth of a revo-
lution of the screw corresponds to from 0- 0000019 to 0*0000007
of a wave-length in the part of the spectrum where the Aurora
lines occur.

The first table contains the numbers found by M. Wijkander
for the different series of lines grouped according to the different
days. The measures of the most brilliant ray of the Aurora are
not included in the table, since it is bright enough to be easily
determined by instruments of greater dispersive power. The
time when the Aurora was most brilliant was spent in observing
the other rays, and the brightest lines have been measured in the
intervals. The mean value found for the wave-length of the
brightest ray was 0- 0005572.

The following are the lengths of wave, with their means and
probable errors, taking the millionth of a millimetre as the unit :^

The following Table contains the measurements made by

M. Wijkander.

1872.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

October 24 -

536-46

• •

• •

470-77

428-54

»» » ■

531 -80

■ •

, ,

• •

468-78

« II " ■

, ,

• •

, ,

• •

470-77

„ 80 -

, ,

• •

, ,

a ,

487-13

468-88

»» » " "

, ,

, ,

,

• •

469-08

November 3

535- 46

526-89

623-76

• •

469-37

II « "

, ,

^ ,

524-07

■ •

• •

II »»

, ,

,

526 --28

, ,

, ,

December 5

535-46

527-99

524-85

498-85

407-80

436-65

427-86

11 II

537-46

5-28 -63

521-93

503 "20

, ,

426-60

tf n ■

■ •

530-23

522-69

496-29

, ,

, ,

1873.

January 18 -

• •

531-85

• •

497-31

463-29

429-02

II n '

••

527-68

••

502-26

••

• •

Moan

535-9

528-9

523-9

499-6

487-1

409-2

436-G

423-0

Probable Error -

+ 0-31

+ 0-51

+ 0-43

1

+ 0-91

••

+ 0-25

+ 0-35

744

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

n

The following table contains the measurements made by
Lieutenant Parent.

um

I

I

I

1872.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

November 3

527-8t

471T,!»

424-Cl

»> t> ■

628-47

4«7-80

, ^

>• i> '•

, ,

471-71)

• •

1* »» "

, ,

470-17

• •

4

537 •84

472-30

• •

8

, ,

522-39

487*37

471-79

430-89

>» *» ■

, ,

472-30

430-7&

• •

..

472-72

• •

29

, ,

4&S-98

■ •

i> *i *

,,

409-27

• •

December 5

• •

519-05

••

..

• •

Mean

528-05

620-72

487-37

470-87

428-76

Probable Error -

+ 0-14

+ 1-11

• •

+ 0-54

+ 1-68

[Seeing that the results obtained by Lieutenant Parent are so
near to those obtained by Mr. Wijkander, it seems probable
that they are quite trustworthy. If Ave take the mean of all the
results we get :

Mean, 535-9, 528*6, 523- 1,499-6, 487*2, 470-1, 436-6, 428-4.]

In these last experiments the crossed spider lines were not
placed very exactly in the focus of the eye-piece, and so these
have been omitted in making the final determination of wave-
lengths. But the agreement between the two sets of observations
shows the accuracy of the results.

The appearance of the Aurora was often observed on other
days with this spectroscope, when the light was too fuint to admit
of measurement. With every appearance of the Aurora, the rays
have always been visible, except 4, 5, and 7. These have been
seen several times, but have often been wanting, not entirely from
the faiutncss of the light, but probably from some change in the
nature of the electric discharge, still in that case no indications
have been found as to the conditions of this irregularity.

Between the rays 2 and 3 there are probably smaller lines,
which form with them a broad band of light of variable intensity.
In the same way the ray 6 spreads on the violet side of it into a
tolerably broad but somewhat indistinct band. After careful
search no red ray has been found, but at the same time no red
Aurora was ever seen in winter quarters.

The following table contains the different measures of the lines
of the Aurora which have been made with the greatest accu-
racy : —

Angstrom -
Vogel

Lemstrom -
■Wijkander -

550-71
629-7 557-1
550- 9
557-2

539-0

535-9

.. 523-3

.. I 523-5
5-2S-9 523-9

521-
518-9

501-
500-4
49G-9
499-6

487-

437-3

I

472
469-4 j ..
469-41 ..
409-2 |436-6

426-2
428-0

411-2

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

745

3 made by

7.

8.

)!t

421 -01

■^0

• •

71)

• •

17

• •

■50

, ,

71>

4^0-89

30

im-i^

72

• •

)8

• •

27

..

• •

87

42S-76

54

+ 1-6S

, Parent are so
seems probable
aean of all the

436-6, 428-4.]

lines were not
e, and so these
ation of wave-
of observations

rved on other
> faint to admit
urora, the rays
lese have be6n
»t entirely from
change in the
no indications
larity.

smaller lines,
iable intensity,
ide of it into a
After careful
} time no red

res of the lines
greatest accu-

4i .
2 |436'6

426-2
423-0

The results of the observations entirely agree with M. Ang-
strom's explanation of the origin of the rays. There are only the
relatively bright bands 528-9 and 535 '9, which cannot be ac-
counted for. The brightest gi-oup of iron lines is very near, but
does not correspond with them.

411-2

22. Observations on the Electricitv of the Am made in the
Swedish Arctic Expeditiox in 1872-73, by M. Auguste
WiJKANDER. — (Archives des Sciences Physiques et Natu-
relles, vol. li., p. 31.)

Many attempts have been made to discover the nature of the
electricity of the air in high latitudes, because of its great impor-
tance, especially with reference to the Aurora Borealis. But the
result of all these researches has been that not a trace of elec-
tricity has been found until the observations of MM. Bravais and
Lottin, in the winter of 1838-39, at Bossekop in Northern Nor-
way. On their way to the north, in experiments made on board
during the summer, positive electricity was collected by shooting
arrows into the air ; but in Northern Norway, and in the month of
October, at Bossekop, the experiments were repeated without any
result.

On February 25 five, and on March 1 eight, experiments with
kites were more successful, giving weak charges of positive
electricity.

The observers concluded that (ho air is charged with positive
electricity in those regions as well as in lower latitudes, but they
had also found that the air is a much better conductor of electricity
in those regions than elsewhere.

In the first Swedish Expedition in 1 868, M. Lemsti-om made
observations with an electrometer by M. Lament as well as with
a straw electroscope (Snow Harris ?), but these instruments were
not sufficiently delicate to detect the slight traces of electricity
which are found in these regions, and no traces were obtained.

In the second Swedish Expedition, 1872-73, a modification of
Tbomson's electrometer was made by M. Holmgren, who also
gave excellent directions for making the observations.

The Leyden jar of Thomson's electrometer was replaced by an
alcohol battery, the poles of which are attached to the quadrants,
the opposite ones being connected together. The necidle is in-
sulated from the quadrants an I is in connexion with the collect-
ing balL The whole was sealed almost hermetically by a brass
cover, and the air dried by chloride of calcium. In employing an
alcohol battery in place of a Leyden jar, the readings made at
different times were more nearly on a uniform scale ; but, for tho
better comparison of the different readings with the strength of
charge, an alcohol battery of 25 pairs was always connected up to
the electrometer, and its effect measured before each observation.

For the winter observations a special room or hut was built by
means of sacks filled with northern moss ( ?) at a distance of a

'm

74G

THE AURORA BOREALIS.

jy 9

pqs '

hundred metres from our abotle, and in one corner of it the
electrometer was placed on a pile of stonen, and in the opposite
corner the tube and scale. The collecting ap[)aratus could be
raised through an opening in the roof. At certain periods a pole
25 feet long was employed, which was supported by stays, and the
collector could be raised the whole heiirht of it. When the con-
duction of the air made it impossible to employ this method, the
pole was taken down, and the apparatus was only raised by hand,
the ball reaching about three feet above the roof. There were no
salient points which could have any disturbing influence. The
place of observation was a rather low island in Mussel Bay not
far from the 80th degree of latitude. There were no mountains
around which Avere at an elevation of more than three degrees
above the horizon.

The collecting apparatus consisted sometimes simply of a hollow
knob or ball, of about three inches in diameter, mounted on a rod
of ebonite five feet long, at others of a lamp also, which could be
screwed on to the top of the ebonite rod by means of a cross piece
of ebonite one foot long. The lamp consisted of a cup of metal,
with its edges pierced, in the middle of which was a reservoir
with a rim of metal to hold the spirit. From the middle of the
cup of metal a metal rod a foot and a half long projected vertically
downAvards, which could be screwed to the ball of the collector.

The lamp Avas lighted and raised, and, Avhen the spirit was burnt,
the lamp was loAvered and brought to the electrometer. When the
ball alone Avas employed, it Avas placed in communication Avith the
Earth by a metallic thread. However, in measuring the electricity
of the Earth the lamp with no spirit was often used, because of
the inconvenience of taking it off the ball. When there was only
a weak charge of electricity, constant contact Avas made betAveen
tlie collector and the electrometer in order to take the measure-
ments rapidly. In this case a cotton-covered copper Avire coA'ered
with paraffin connected the electrometer to the collector. The
thread was stretched along inside the roof attached to some sup-
ports by a thread, with as good insulation as possible, and so as
not to disturb the electrometer when the collector was rapidly
raised or loAvered. ScAeral experiments were made to test this
arrangement.

The observations were made by M. Wijkander and Lieutenant
Polander.

In the autumn of 1872 experiments Avere made to discoA'er
the electrical state of the air and of the Earth's surface, and there
were always feeble traces of positiA^e electricity in the air and
negatiA'e electricity in the ground. The free air appeared to be a
very bad insulator under the circumstances of the experiment.
The deviation produced by the battery ceased at once when it was
remoA'ed. This was not from any defect in the electrometer, for
the insulation was always satisfactory in a warm room. The
experiments below show that the insulation was also good in free
air when it was very cold.

XIIE AURORA BOREALIS.

747

ler of it tlio
tho opposite
tus could be
)crio(l9 a pole
»tayH, and the
hen the eon-
! method, the
ised by hand,
here were no
[luence. The
ussel Bay not
no mountains
three degrees

)ly of a hollow
mted on a rod
i^hich could be
f a cross piece
cup of metal,
as a reservoir
middle of the
■cted vertically
he collector.

►irit was burnt,
,er. When the
ation with the
the electricity
sed, because of
here was only
made between
the measure-
wire covered
loUcctor. The
to some sup-
|ble, and so as
ir was rapidly
e to test this

lid Lieutenant

In tho month of January 1873 other results appeared. The
experiments are given in tho order in which they were made,
and afterwards follow remarks on the meteorological conditions,
as well as tho temperature, which gives the best indication of tho
changes of weather.

The connexion lietween the electricity of the air and the
weather will appear from the meteorological observations: —

to good in free

Hour.

Charge from i

Temp.

Date.

Remarks.

Air.

Ground. Bf;

Jan. 21

h.

9

+ 0'5

-0-5

11

o
- 5

The deviation instantly ceased.

.. 22

11

+ 5

-0-6

22

+ 3

Heavy storm from S.S.W. to 8.

., 22

21

—

—

—

0

■ Botli ground nnd air are electriflod posi-
. tively. Deviation small.

,. 23

10

—

—

—

0

Feb. 6

11

+ 7

—

11

- 1

.. 7

10-lU

+ 0-5

-0-6

"—

-15

Good insulation. Tho lamp gave tho
electricity of Air +6.

.. 10

18

+ 12

—

—

-26

After strontr X.W. wind.

» 19

17

C + 8

-IS-)

-32

Good insulation. Groat disturbance, so
as to prevent measurement.

,, 20

10

(. + 15

-20 >■
-25)

7 to 8

-38

Good insulation.

.. 21

10

f + 12
1+14

-70)
-80 i

7 to 8

-31

25

IS

f +20
1+18

-40')
-46i

8 to 9

— 3.1

'The lonp polo was employed for tho first
. time for raising the Collector.

i> ^"

oo

f +10
1+13

-20-)
-26;

rOnce the lamp jiavo -12 for Air, after

» 26

14

5

-31

< having been raised for some time.

C Clear, except to tho west.

.. 27

10

r+25')
l + 30i
;+15

-35

Gto8

-33

Almost clear.

„ 27

13

-25)
-20 i

7 to 8

-34

f^ Strong mirage to the west. Clear sky.

(.+17

(, with stratus to west and south.

(■-9
I -10

-41)
-38)

r Repeated experiments. A slight mist

.. 27

21

7

-32

< began to rise in tho south, which an

(. hour later covered the whole sky.

„ 28

9

{:i§

-10]

-20i

8 to 9

-27

f Insulation not so good. Light veil of
I clouds. A few snow flakes.

„ 28

14

CB

-38 7
-35 j

8

-28

f Clear except to the East. Scattered
I nimbus c ouds.

.. 28

21

f-30
1-31

-61)
-53 j

7 to 8

-33

Entirely clear.

Mar. 1

10

f- 5
I- 7

-10)
-13 <

5 to 6

-33

Clear. Very little wind from E.S.E.

.. 1

16

:}?}

6 to 7

-31

(Wind N.E. Skycloudvto N.E.,N.,and
(. W., with nimbus and stratus.

.. 1

22

f- 1

(.- 3

:J]

3 to 10

-19

Cloudy.

., 2

10

6 to 7

- 7

Charge from battery instantly falls to
zero.

., 10

14

(•+22
1+24

-25 >
-30 j

7 to 9

-16

Good insulation.

„ 20

14

/ 0
I- 2

-35)
-40 J

7 to 9

-33

» 20

21

- 3

-46

6to7

-32

,. 21

11

- 5

-40

9

-32

Needles of ice floating in the air.

« 21

16

- 8

-38

8

-31

„ 21

21

-10

-45

-32

Wind tolerably strong from the N.W.

» 22

10

-16

-18

8 to 9

-27

Needles of ico in the air.

„ 23

10

- 3

-16

7

-32

Pretty clear. Needles of ice. Almost
calm. Some cirro-stratus.

„ 23

14

f+10-)
I +19 J

-30

—

-33

Almost clear. Tog over the sea.

.. 24

10

i - 91
1-6/

-29

7

-32

Do. Cirro-stratua to S.W.

'<>'M'

748

THE AURORA B0REALI9.

f

Date.

Hour.

Charge from

Temp.

Air.

Ground.

Bat-
tery.

Bomarks.

h.

0

16

- 9
(■+20)

-28

Oto7

-28

10

■ +18 [

—18

—

-33

15

f +30)
.+35.

-30

10*5

-31

1

21

+ 25

-30

"—

-31

10

-15

-12

8 too

- 7

15

—

—

—

- 6

10

+ 2

-0-5

3 to 4

-17

22

+ 1

—

—

-24

10

/- 6
- 6

-23)

-21.

6 to 7

-18

16

- 2

- 3

6to6

-10

-17
to-13

Mar. 2^1
„ 25

« 26
„ 25

„ 20
„ 20

„ 27

,, 27

„ 28
» 28

„ 30-31 — —

Clear and calm.

^Charge from air suddenly became -3-2,

•< probably the ball was touched by one

(. of the stays.

f Charge from battery disappeared quickly.

I Clear. Light E. wind.

Light S.S.E. wind. Clouds gather and
temperature is raised during the nixht
from -»iP to -15".

Cloudy and calm.

Charge from battery immediately dis-
appeared.

Wind N., with snow. Charge disappeared
instantly.

With lamp rapidly raised. Eain mixvd
with snow. Wind W.

Cloud and calm.

The air onco gave +1'6. A little snow.

Wind 8.E.
Several experiments. Charge instantly

disappeared.

A few more successful experiments were made until May 24,
but the charges instantly disappeared, although the insulation of
the instrument appeared to be as good as ever.

Observations repeated as spring came on, when the temperature
approached zero showed the same results as in the autumn.

There was great difficulty in keeping the electrometer in a good
state. The walls of the room allowed the wind and snow to
penetrate, and occasionally the instruments were buried in snow,
and the room torn with the violent storms.

The obseiTations agree in showing that the air conducts elec-
tricity very easily at relatively high temperatures, and to this is
due the absence of thunder and the existence of the Aurora.

This is said to be due to the moisture in the air in those
regions, but the same temperature and the same degree of mois-
ture do not produce this effect in lower latitudes. At the lower
temperatures — 20°, — 30°, and still lower, the air insulates better.
Generally the air is electrified positively and the ground nega-
tively. On several occasions the air could only be regarded as
itself holding a charge, and not as charged by induction from the
Earth.

At certain periods of spring, when the air insulated pretty well,
the groimd and the air were both charged with negative electricity.
A change in the electricity of the air was not a constant result
of greater cold, but when the temperature had been low for some
time the air seemed to have a tendency to be electrified negatively.

It seems that there is a very natural relation between these
facts and the Aurora, as far as conclusions may be drawn from so
few observations.

In the months of January and February Auroras were constantly

THE AURORA BOREALIS,

749

seen, nnd they were particulnrly numorous from 19th to 2Gth of
Februnry, then they censed, to rcappcnr on March 2nd ; at tho
eanie time changes were observed in tlio electricity of the air.
The observers were driven to the supposition that the negative
electricity, being deprived of the possibility of discharge by means
of the Aurora, could not fail to nccnmuhUe in tho lower layers of
the atmosphere, which are comparatively good insulators.

From March 2 to March 11, the Aurora reappeared: during this
time the air was a good conductor or, when it insulated com-
paratively well, was positively electrified. From March 11 the
Aurora entirely ceased, and then follows a period of comparatively
low temperature, with tho electricity of the air generally negative,
a period which lasted until the season when the light prevented
all further observations of the Aurora.

5 were constantly

m^

•^"""^

'5:.K

7oO

APPENDIX.

i

The chiff modern IVorks on Greenland, the Franklin
Archipelago, Sjntzbergen, Sfv.

1818. Sir J. Parrow. Chronological History of Voyages into the
Arctic Regions, &c.

1819. A. Fisher. Journal of a Voyage to the Arctic Regions in
1818, &c.

18iy. Copt. Sir J. Ross. Voyage for inquiring into the Probability
of a N.W. Passage. Baffin's Buy and Davis Strait. Ai)pen(lices by
MaccuUoch, Leach, &c. ; and on Meteorology, Soundings, &c. Two
editions, 4to and 8vo.

1820. W. Scoresby. Account of the Arctic Regions, &c. Green-
land and Spitzbergen.

1821. A. Fisher. A Journal of a Voyage of " Hecla " and " Griper "
to the Arctic Regions in 1819-20. Parry Islands.

1821. Parry's Journal of a Voyage for the Discovery of a North-
west Passage, &c. Parry Islands.

1823. VV. Scoresby. Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale
Fishery, including Researches on the East Coast of Greenland.

1823. Sir J. Franklin. Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the
Polar Sea in 1819-22, &c. America.

1824. Lyon's Private Journal during Capt. Parry's Second Voyage.
Parry Islands.

1824. J. D. Cochrane. Narrative of a Pedestrian Journey to the
Frozen Sea, &c.

1824. Sir W. E. Parry. Journal of a Second Voyage for the Dis-
covery of a North-west passage, 1821-23, &c. Parry Islands.

1825. Major-Gen. E. Sabine. Account of Experiments to determine
the Figure of the Earth. (Also a brief account of Capt. Clavering's
voyage to the Arctic Regions.)

1825. Lyon. Brief Narrative, Repulse Bay, &c. Hudson Strait.

1826. Sir W. E. Parry. Journal of a Third Voyage for the Dis-
covery of a N.W. Passage, 1824-25, &c. Parry Islands. Zoology by
Lieut. L. C. Ross; Botany by Prof. Hooker; Geology by Prof.
Jameson, &c.

1828. Sir W. E. Parry. Narrative of an Attempt to reach the North
Pole in 1827. Spitzbergen. Zoology by Lieut. L. C. Ross ; Botany by
Prof. Hooker ; Geology by Prof. Jameson, &c.

1828. Franklin and Richardson. Second Expedition. America.

1832. W. A. Graah. Undersogelses-Reise til Ostkysten af Gron-
land, &c. East Greenland. Botany by Hornemann ; Miscell., &c.

1834. Anon. Arctic Expeditions from England from 1497-1833.

1834. Sir J. C. Ross. The Position of the North-Magnetic Pole.

1835. R. Huish. The last Voyage of Capt. Sir J. Ross to the
Arctic Regions, &c.

1835. S. Braithwaite. Supplement
Voyage in search of a N.W. Passage.
Islands.

1835. Capt. Sir J. Ross. Narrative of a Residence in the Arctic
Regions during 1829-33, &c. Appendices.

to Sir James Ross's Second
Boothia Felix, &c. Parry

Franklin

►''oyages into the
otic Regions in

0 the ProbabiHty
Appendices by

lings, &c. Two

ms, &c. Green-
," and "Griper"
ery of a North-
Northern Whale
lenland.
the Shores of the

1 Second Voyage.

\ Journey to the

age for the Dis-

slands.

nts to determine

apt. Clavering's

udson Strait,
ige for the Dis-
Zoology by
ology by Prof.

ArPKNDIX.

751

Is

reach the North
loss ; Botany by

tys

America.

sten af Gron-

iscelL, &c.
n 1497-1833.
agnetic Pole.
F. Ross to the

Ross's Second
lix, &c. Parry

e in the Arctic

1835. R, Huish. The last Voyage of Capt. Sir J. Ross, for the
Discovery of a N.W. Passage.

1835. l-apt. Sir J. Ross. Narrative of a Second Voyage in search of
a North-west Passage, Ike. Apjiendices.

1835. M. de la Uo(iuette. Sur les Uecouvertes faites en Griinland,
&C.

1836. R. King. Narrative of a Journey to the Arctic Ocean in
1833-35, &c.

183(5. Sir G. Back. Narrative of the Arctic Land E.xpedition to
the Great Fish River, &c. America.

1837. W. A. (iraah. Narrative of an Expedition to the E. Coast
of (ireenland, &c. Translation by MacDougal. Appendix.

1H38. Sir (i. Back, Narrative of an Expedition to the Arctic
Shores, &c. America.

1838-10. P. (iaimard. Voyage en Greenland pendant 1835 et 1836,
&c. South Greenland and Iceland.

183f). F. von Wrangell. Reise auf dem Eismeere in 1820-24, &c.
Asia.

1839. K. E. von Baer. Sur la frequence des Orages dans les
Regions Arctiques.

1839. Capt. Fab vre. Retour en France de la Recherche; Rapport
sur la seconde Campagne au Sjjitzberg.

1840 and 1844. F. von Wrangell. Narrative of an Expedition to
the Polar Sea in 1820-23, &c. Siberia.

1843. F. W. Beechey. Voyage towards the North Pole in 1818,
&c. Spitzbergcn.

C. C. Rafn. Americas Arctiske Landes gamle Geographic,

Sir J. Barrow. Voyages within the Arctic Regions from

1845.

&c.

1846.
1818, &c.

1847. C. C. Rafn. Aper9U de I'ancienne Geographic des Regions
Arctiques de I'Amerique.

1848-56. Arctic Expeditions. A Collection of Papers relative to the
recent Arctic Expeditions, &c.

1850. Arctic Expeditions. Eskimaux and English Vocabulary.

1850. J. Washington. Eskimaux and English Vocabulary.

1850. R. A. Goodsir. Arctic Voyage to Baffin's Bay. Baffin's Bay
and Lancaster Sound.

1850. J. Rae. Narrative of an Expedition to the Shores of the
Arctic Sea in 1846-47. N.E. America and southern parts of Parry
Island.

1850. H. Kellett and others. The Arctic Expedition of 1849, &c.

1850. W. Scoresby. The Franklin Expedition ; or, Considerations
for the Discovery of our Countrymen in the Arctic Region.

1850. J. J. Shillinglaw. Narrative of Arctic Discovery from the
earhest Period.

1851. Arctic Searching Expeditions of 1850-61, &c.

1851. J. Mangles. Illustrated Geography and Hj-drography.
Wellington Channel Section.

1851. Sir J. Richardson. Arctic Searching Expedition, &c.

1851. W. P. Snow. Voyage of the " Prince Albert" in search of
Sir J. Franklin, &c. Baffin's Bay and Parry Islands.

1852. H. Rink. Om den geographiske Beskaffenhed af de danske
Handels-distrikter i Nordgronland, &c. Greenland.

1852-57. H. Rink. Gronland geographisk og statistisk beskrevel.
1852. Osborn. Stray Leaves from an Arctic Journal,^ Baffin's
Bay and Parry Islands.

.-•'1

752

APPENDIX.

t?l

1852. P. Force. Remarks on the English Maps of Arctic Dis-
coveries in 1850 and 1851.

1852. Additional Papers relative to the Arctic Expedition (in search
of Franklin) under Capt. Austin.

1852. Further Correspondence connected with the Arctic Expedition,
&c., in search of Franklin.

1852. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the Report
on the recent Arctic Expeditions in search of Sir J. Franklin.

1852. A. Petermann. The Search for Franklin. A suggestion, &c.

1852. P. C. Sutherland. Journal of a Voyage in 1850-51. Davis
Strait, Baffin's Bay, and Franklin Archipelago.

1853. E. K. Kane. Access to an open Polar Sea, &c.
1853. Greenland Eskimo Vocabulary, &c.

1853. C. R. Markham. Franklin's Footsteps ; a Sketch of Green-
land, &c.

1853. Kennedy. Second Voyage of the " Prince Albert." South
part of Parry Islands.

1853. W. H. Hooper. Ten Months among the Tuski, with an
Arctic Boat Expedition, &c.

1853. E. A. Inglefield. A Summer Search for Sir J. Franklin, &c.,
in the "Isabel" in 1852. Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay. Appendix
(Sutherland, Geology, Botany, &c.).

1853. E. K. Kane. The United States Grinnell Expedition, in
search of Sir J. Franklin, &c. S.E. Parry Islands. Appendices :
currents, meteorology, winds, &c.

1853. B. Seemann. Narrative of Three Cruizes to the Arctic Regions,

&c.

1854. J. R. Bellot. Journal d'un Voyage aux Mers Polaires, &c.
1854. Papers relative to the recent Arctic Expeditions in search of

Sir J. Franklin, &c.

1854. R. M'Cormick. Narrative of a Boat Expedition up the
"Wellington Channel in 1852, &c.

1854. C. Irminger. Arctiske Stromning.

1855. Sir E. Belcher. Last of the Arctic Voyages ; a Narrative of
the Expedition of H.M.S. " Assistance" in search of Sir John Frank-
lin, 1852-54 ; with notes on the Natural History, by Richardson, Owen,
Bell, Salter, and Reeve. Appendix ; Snow, &c. Parry Islands.

1855. V. A. Malte-Brun. Coup-d'ceil d'ensemble sur les difFerentes
Expeditions Arctiques, &c.

1855. F. Mayne. Voyage in the Arctic Regions.

1856. C. C. Ostergaard and others. Observationes Meteorologicee
per annos 1832-54 in Grcenlandia factae.

1856. E. K. Kane. Arctic Explorations : The Second Grinnell
Expedition, &c. Smith Sound, &c. Appendix : Nat. Hist., Physics,

&c.

1856. W. Kennedy. A short Narrative of the Second Voyage of
the " Prince Albert " in search of Sir J. Franklin.

1856. J. Rae. Voyages and Travels of, in the Arctic Regions.
Copy of a letter, &c.

1856. R. le M. M'Clure. Discovery of the North-west Passage,
1850-54.

1856. R. White. On the Open Water at the Great Polar Basin.

1856. S. Osborn. Discovery of the North-west Passage by the
" Investigator," &c. Southern part of Parry Islands.

1857. Lord Dufferin. Letters from High Latitudes, being an
Account of Iceland, Spitzbergen, &c.

:^3ii

AlM'KNOl.N,

Arctic Regions,

edition up the

ides, being an

1857. G. F. McDoiifjall. Tlie Voyage of H.M. " Resolute " to the
Arctic Regions, 1852-54. Pany Islands.

1857. M'Clure. Discovery of the North-west Passage.

1857. C. Petersen. Erindringer fra Polarlandene, 1850-55, &c.

1857. Armstrong. Personal Narrative of the Discovery of the
North-west Passage. Parry Islands (Botany, Hooker).

1857. S. M. Smucker. Arctic Explorations and Discoveries during
the Nineteenth Century.

1858. J. Brown. The North-west Passage, &c. South part of
Parry Islands.

1859. F. L. M'Clintock. Reminiscence of Arctic Ice-travel, &c.
In the Journ. Royal Dublin Soc. Parry Islands.

1859. F. L. M'Clintock. The Voyage of the " Fox " in the Arctic
Seas, &c. South-east part of Parry Islands.

1859 and 18(51. Sir J. Richardson. Polar Regions.

1860. E. K. Kane. Astronomical Observations made on the North-
west Coast of Greenland, &c. (" Smithsonian Contributions.")

1860. E. K. Kane. Tidal Observations in the Arctic Seas, &c.
(" Smithsonian Contributions.")

1860. P. Chaix. Explorations Arctiques, &c.

1860. I. I. Hayes. Arctic Boat Journey in 1854, &c. With intro-
ductory notice by Norton Shaw, and lists of Arctic Expeditions atid
Works. Smith Sound.

1860. S. Osborn. The Career, last Voyage, and Fate of Sir J.
Franklin.

1860. W. P. Snow. On the lost Polar Expedition, &c.

1860. J. Brown. A Sequel to the North-west Passage.

1861. J. Lamont. Seasons with the Sea Horses. Spitzbergen.
1863. C. Irminger. Notice sur les Peches du Groenland.

1863. D. G. Lindhagen. Geografiska Ortobestiimmningar i)a Spets-
bergen af Prof. A. E. Nordenskiold, &c.

1863. A. E. Nordenskiold. Geografisk och geognostisk Beskrifning
iifver Nordostra Delarne af Spctsbergen, &c.

1864. C C. Rafn. Reiiscignments sur les premiers habitants dc la
Cote Occidentale du Groenland, &c.

1864. C. F. Hall. Life with the Esquimaux, &c. Frobisher Bay
and Davis Strait.

1867. Dr. I. I. Hayes. The ojjen Polar Sea, &c. Smith Sound.

1867. O. Heer. Ueber die Polarliinder.

1867. H. Helms. Griinland und die Gnin lander, &c.

1369. Sir F. L. M'Clintock. Fate of Sir J. Franklin. The Voyage
of the " Fox " in the Arctic Seas, &c. Parry Islands.

1871. Hayes. Land of Desolation. South Greenland.

1873. Clements 11. Markham. Threshold of the vmknown Regions.
Notices of Arctic Discovery. East Coast of (ireenland, &c.

1873. J. C. Wells. Gateway to the Polynia. Spitzbergen. Recent
Plants, Insects, and Birds, Fossils, &c.

1874. Th. von Heuglin. Reisen nach dcm Nor d polar meer, &c.
Spitzbergen and Novya Zemlya.

1874. H. A. Markham. Whaling Cruise to Baffin's Bay, and
Rescue of the Crew of tlie "Polaris." Baffin's Bay and S.E. Parry
Islands. A])pendix : Instructions, &c., and Botany and Geology,

1874. Die zu'cite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt : The German Arctic
Expedition of 1869-70, under Koldewey; and Translation by II. Bates.
East Coast of Greenland. Appendix : N^at. Hist., Geology, Physics, &c.

1874. Arctic Experiences, containing Capt. G. E. Tyson's Drift on
Icefloe, and a general Arctic Chronology. Edited by E. V. Blake.

■'V:

001:^2.

754

APPENDIX.

li

The following Publications contain Information on Voyages
and Mattel's connected toith Arctic Discovery.

Allgemeine Historie. Ice and the Frozen Sea, vols, xviii.,
xix., XX., xxi. ; Spitzbergen, N.W. Passage, Cabot, Frobisher, Davis,
vol. xvii. ; Cranz, xix.

Voyages AND Travels. A.Fisher, vol. i. ; Freminville, vol. ii. ;
Sarylschew, Parry, vol. v. ; T. James, vol. x.

Churchill. Monck, vol. i. ; La Peyrere, &c., vol. ii.; T. Gatoube,
vol. vi.

Hakluyt. Gudbrandus Thorlacus, N. de Lima, vol. i. ;" Sunshine "
and " Northstarre," S. Cabot, J. Davis, Sir H. Gilbert, Zeno, vol. iii. ;
Rundall, vol. v. ; G. de Veer, vol. xii. ; White, vol. xviii.

Harris. Greenland, T. James, vol. ii.

PuRCHAS. N.W. Passage, vol. ii. ; W. Baffin, D. Blefkens, T. Edge,
R. Fotherbye, G. Weymouth, J. Hall, H. Hudson, W. Heley, Knight,
Iver Boty, '" North Pole," S. Cabot, vol. iii.

PiNKERTON. Backstrom, Maiipertius' Journey, PluflF, vol. i.;
Frobisher, vol. ii.

La Hari'e. Glaces, Climat, Mineraux, &c., vol. xvii.

"Account of Several Late Voyages," &c, F. Marten,
Spitzbergen, 1811 ; Greenland, 1711.

755

m!

INDEX or MANUAL, &c.

(This Index is complete only for Part I., §§ I. and II.)

Fluff, vol. i.;

F. Marten,

Abies alba ; 234, 538, 540.

Abilgaard, Dr. ; 342.

AcalephfE and Hydrozoa of Green-
land, Dr. C. Liitken on the ; 187.

Acanthia ; 502.

Acantliocephala ; 183.

Acanthonotus ; 153, 155, 504.

Acanthosoraa ; 155,504,509.

Acauthozone; 155.

Acaridaj -,514.

Acarospora ; 307.

Acarus ; 145."

Acephala; 130.

Acer; 384.

Acerates ; 383.

Achillea; 230.

Achnanthes; 517,530.

Achnanthidium ; 518.

Aclis; 127.

Acma; 137, 513.

Aconitum; 208,219.

Acorus; 382.

Acrostichites ; 386.

Actsea; 219.

Acthelmis ; 18G.

Actinia; 186, 511.

Actinida ; 186.

Adiantum ; 380, 386, 430.

Adoxa; 219,230.

iEga; 150, 165.

^gialitis; 101.

^giua; 159.

^Eolis; 125, 126.

jEolidia ; 134.

Agaricus ; 283, 526, 527.

Agarum; 239,277, 515,518, 519, ,520,
526.

Agomonema; 183.

Agrostis; 236, 251, 271.

Agrotis ; 1^ 2, 143.

Ahnfvldtia ; 520, 522.

Alaria; 239, 255, 267, 276, 521.

Alaska; 61.

Alauna; 149, 509.

Alca; 109, 110.

Alchemilla ; 210, 218, 228, 264, 269,
283.

Alcyonaria; 186.

Aleyonidium ; 139,140.

Alcyouium ; 139, 186.

Alder; 287.

Alecto; 510.

Alectoria; 255, 273, 285, 286, 287,

290, 2'11, 292, 297, 304, 527.
Alfred, King ; 62.

Alga>; 198, 262, 266, 314, 380, 396.
freshwater, of Greenland ; 280.

from Baffin's Bay, &c., Dr.

Dickie on some; 515.
from Cumberland Sound, Dr. G.

Dickie on ; 519.
of East Greenland ; 584.

from Greenland, A. Croall on

some ; 276.

from Greenland, Dr. Dickie on,

239.

from Smith's Sound ; 255.

some Hoothian ; 526.

Alibotrus ; 152.

Alicularia, 273.

Ahsma ; 382.

Allium ; 220, 234.

Aluus ; 208, 220, 233, 382.

Alopecurus ; 204, 220, 236, 251, 271,

515, 531,578.
Alpheus ; 147, 148, 504.
Amanita; 283.
Amathia; 157.
Amathillu ; 157.
Amaura ; 127.
Amelaneheir ; 228.
America, plants of East- Arctic ; 225,
Ammochares ; 174.
Ammodytps ; 121, 183.
Ammonites ; 546.
Ammothea ; 186.
Annuotrypane ; 171, 172.
Amorphina ; 190.
Ampelisca; 156.
Ampharete; 174.
Ampliicora ; 176.
Amphicteis ; 174.
Amphictenida; ; 174.
Amphiphora ; 530.
Amphipleura ; 530.
Amphipoda ; 151,563.
Amphiporus ; 179.
Amphlprora ; 320.
Amphipsora ; 519.
Amphithoe; 153, 154, 155, 157, 504,

509.
Ainphitliopsis ; 155.

3 li 2

756

IXDEX.

I- '

Ainpliitrltc ; 172, 174, 175.

Amphiura; 185.

Amphora ; 320, 518, 519, 530.

Analyses of Meteorites ; 443, 452,
463.

' of Rocks from Disko, by Dr.

Niiuckhoff; 457.

Analysis of Coal ; 353, 480.

of Cryoconite ; 395.

Anarrichas ; 119, T'S.

Anarta ; 143.

Anarthropora ; 140.

Anas; 112, 135, 260.

Anceus ; 150.

Andersea ; 480.

Andraca; 255, 272.

Androgyna; 124.

Andromeda; 216, 220, 231, 247, 370,
379, 383, 388, 472.

Androsacc ; 216, 220, 221, 233.

Aueimidium ; 386.

Anemone; 208, 218, 219, 225.

Angelica ; 265.

Anguilla; 121.

Animal life in the Parry Islands, Capt.
[M'Clintock on ; 498.

Annelida of Greenland, Dr. C. Liitken
on the ; 167.

some Arctic ; 136, 513.

Annelides ; 559.

Anomalocora ; 160.

Ariomozamites ; 387.

Anonyx; 136, 151, 152, 509.

Ansor; 113, 182.

Antedon; 178, 185.

Antennaria; 204, 219, 230, 247,525.

Anthobium ; 142.

Anthobothrium ; 181.

Antholites ; 385.

Anthomyia; 144,502,508.

Anthoxanthum ; 222, 237.

Anthozoa and Calycozoa, of Green-
laud ; Dr. C. Liitken on the ; 186.

Anthus; 98.

Antinoe ; 168.

Antipatharia ; 186.

Antipathes ; 135, 186.

Autliata ; 143.

Antonoii ; 157.

Apeibopsis ; 384.

Aphis ; 144.

Aphrodita; 167, 168.

Aplccta, 143.

Aporrhais ; 127.

Apns; 159, 196.

Aquilegia ; 211, 225.

Arabis; 203, 208, 210,218, 219, 222,
226, 244, 268,478.

Arachnida ; 145.

Arachnids from Port Kennedy ; 508.

• ftom the Parry Isles ; .'ibl.

of East Greenland ; 566.

Arachnophylliim ; 534.

Aralia; 383.

Araneaj ; 145.

Area; 132.

Archangelica ; 230.

Archaster ; 185.

Archiorhynchus ; 389.

Arctia; 507.

Arctic Alg£B, Dr. Dickie on some,

collected by Dr. Sutherland ; 515.

America, Lichens of; 291.

East America, flora of; 214,

— - — Asia, flora of ; 211.

Ascidia; 513.

Echinoderms ; 513.

Europe, flora of ; 209.

Fossil Plants ; 374.

Lisects ; 514.

Lichens ; 290, 522.

!Miocene plants ; 379.

plants. Dr. Hooker on some ;

524.

Dr. J. D. Hooker on the

distribution of; 197.

seas, colours of the ; 3 1 1 .

West America, flora of; 212.

Arctiida; ; 502.

Arctomia ; 298, 299.

Arctomys ; 500.

Arctostaphylos ; 216, 220, 231, 515.

A returns; 149, 510.

Ardea; 100.

Arenaria; 201, 204, 210, 215, 218,

219, 221, 222, 227, 245, 269, 514.
Arcnicohi; 172.
Argis; 146.
Argynnis; 142.
Argyrotoza ; 502.
AriciidiE ; 171.
Arion ; 124.
Aristerospira ; j 94.
Aristias ; 152.
Aristolochia ; 383.
Armeria; 204,233,249,261,264,270,

577, 580.
Arnica ; 230, 247, 264, 270, 525.
Aroidea) ; 235, 382.
Arpaeticus ; 76,315,510.
Artacuma; 175.
Artemisia ; 204, 205, 207, 213, 216,

219, 230,247,270.
Arthonia ; 2^0, 292, 298, 299, 310.
Arthrodesmus ; 517,519.
Arthropyrenia i 298,310.
Arthroraphis ; 309.
Arundo ; 387.
Arvicola ; 500.
Ascaltis; 191.
Ascandra ; 191.
Ascaris; 182, 183.
Ascidia;, 138, 513.
Ascortis; 191.

INDKX.

/o7

0,220,231, 515.

!49, 201,264,270,
[264, 270, 525.
[), 510.
5,207, 213, 21G,

Asellus ; 150.

Ashmead, S., on Plants from Smith's
Sound ; 254.

Asio; 97.

Asperococcus ; 239, 521.

Aspicilia ; 307, 308.

Aspidium ; 380, 478.

Aspidophorns ; 116,117.

Asplenium ; 386, 387.

Assasak Glacier ; 377, 423.

Astarte ; 131, 132, 136, 137, 410,
506, 511, 512.

Aster; 208,210,219,221,231.

Asterias ; 137, 184, 185, .504.

Asteridic ; 184.

Asterioidea ; 560.

Asteropliyton ; 185.

Astragalus ; 203, 208, 215, 219, 221,
228.

Atane beds ; 430.

Atane formation ; 387.

Atanekerdluk ; 369.

— - beds ; 376.

Atanekerdluk-stone ; 422, 435.

Atanerkudluk, Dr. R. Brown's sec-
tion at ; 472.

Athamanta; 209.

Atriplex ; 220.

Atropis ; 204, 220, 237.

Atrypa; 534, 542, 543, 545, 546,
548.

Atyliis ; 154.

Ancuparia ; 22 1 .

Auk, Great ; 32, 1 10.

Little; 109.

Aulacomnion ; 241, 254, 255, 27'i,
526.

Aulopora ; 534.

Aurclia ; 187.

Aurora, boreal and austral ; 465, 466.

Austin, Capt. ; 532.

Autolytus; 170.

Axiomice ; 175.

Axiotlica ; 174.

Azalea ; 248, 264.

B.

Bacidia; 299.

Bacillaria ; 530.

Baer,Von; 13.

Baffin's Bay, Cryptogams from; 253.

plants of ; 242.

Baiera ; 386.

Baird; 23.

Baker, J. G. ; 267.

Balanus; 136, 137, 138, 163, 192,

504, 511.
Bahcna ; 3, 6, 8, 69, 70, 82, 83, 90,

159, 500.

Bakcnoptcra; 3, 7, 8, 83, 84, 183.

Balsamiiicfc ; 227.

Bangia; 280.

Banks' Land, fossil plants from; 379.

Barbarea; 219, 221, 226.

Barbula ; 255.

Barrow and Davis Straits, some plants

from; 514,515.
Barrow Strait, Lichens from ; 522.
Bartlett; 42.

Bartramia ; 255, 259, 272.
Baitsia ; 210, 218, 222, 232, 264, 270.
Basalt ; 337, 338, 420, 437, 445, 449,

480.
Basking Shark ; 123.
Baumbauer ; 465, 466.
Bdclla; 145.

Bear; 15, 50, 322, 323, 498, 597.
Bear Island, fossil plants of; 376.
Beaumont ; 288.
Bccher ; 67.
Begbie ; 487.
Beilschmeid ; 210.
Belcher, Sir E. ; 501, 537, 539, 547,

551.
Bell, Prof; 36, 42, 57.
Bellerophon ; 534.
Beluga; 4, 7,8, 11,53,87,93.
Bembidium; 141.
Berenicea ; 192.
Berggren, Dr. ; 393, 396, 417.
Berkeley, M. J., on some Fungi ; 526.
Bernicla ; 112, 113.
Beroe ; 187, 505.
Beroidee ; 134.
Berzelius ; 443.

Bessels, Dr., on Polaris Bay ; 552.
Betula ; 204, 205, 220, 222, 233, 249,

258, 262, 264, 265, 270, 305, 382,

472, 577, 580.
Biatora; 309.
Biatorina ; 298, 309.
Biddulphia ; 320, 530.
Bidens ; 209, 219.
Bigenerina ; 192.
Bigsby, J. J., 488.
Uilimbia ; 298, 309.
Biota; 380.
Birch; 287.
Bird-lice ; 145.
Birds of Greenland, Professor A.

Newton on the ; 94.
Bittern ; 100.
Blaeberries ; 200.
Bladdernose ; 40, 04.
Blainville ; 36.
Blastenia ; 308, 309.
Blattidium ; 385.
Blennioidei ; 118.
Bleunias ; 500.
Blitum; 221.
Blood-rain ; 465.

758

INDEX.

^h^

Blowing of Whales ; 77.

Blnebacks ; 44, 49.

Bliiesicle ; 46.

Blumenbach ; 37.

Boeck; 164.

Bolbroe ; 87.

lioletus ; 283.

Bolivina; 192.

Boltenia; 134, 138, 144, 503, 513.

Bombus ; 142, 501, 502, 507.

Bombycidaj ; 502.

Bombyx; .501.

Bonorden, Dr. H. F., on the Fungi

of E, (Jreeuland ; 585.
Boothia, Plants from ; 523.
Boothian Fungi ; 526.

Lichens ; 527.

BopyridaJ ; 563.

Bopyrus ; 136, 150.

Boraginea; ; 232, 248.

Bos; S, 11,27, 55.

Boschniakia ; 232.

Botany of East Greenland, Dr. Buch-

enau on the ; 573, 580.
Botaurus ; 1 00.
Bothriocephalus ; 180.
Botrychium ; 238.
Botticnose ; 91, 93.
Botys; 143.
Bougainvillia ; 188,189.
Brachiella; 161.
Brachiopoda; 133,559.
Brada; 136, 172.
Brady, G. S., on some Ostracoda

from Greenland ; 161.
Bradyccllus; 141.
Bradycinetus ; 160, 510.
Branchial fringes of the Basking

Shark; 123.
Branchipus; 159, 196.
Brando, Prof. ; 325.
Bravais; 492.

Braya; 203, 205, 209, 213, 225, 514.
Bread made with Lichens, &c. ; 302.
Brewster, Dr. ; 340.
Briareum ; 186.
Brissopsis ; 184.
Brongniart ; 491.
Bromus; 216, 220, 237.
Brosmius ; 120.

Brown-coal; 335, 370, 379, 497.
Brown, Dr. ; 286,319, 370, 391,418,

434,483,519.

Florula Discoana ; 256.

Mammals of Greenland ; 1.

on the Cctacea ; 69.

on the discoloration of the

Arctic seas ; 311.

on the Geology of Noursoak

and Disco ; 467.

on the Pinnedia ; 35.

Robert ; 224, 238, 286, 295.

Briinnich; 94.

Bryopsis ; 255, 279, 304.

Bryozoa ; 568.

Brvum; 238, 241, 253, 254, 255,

272, 273, .526.
Buccinum; 128, 134, 13.1, 136,505,

506, 512.
Buch, L. von ; 489.
Buchenan, Dr., on the Plants of E.

Greenland ; 573.
Buchholz; 164.
Buellia ; 298, 309.
Hugula; 140.
Bulimina; 192, 193.
Bulla; 125, 196, .506, 512.
Buntings ; 99.

Bupleurum ; 207, 208, 219, 229.
Byblis; 156.
Byrrhus; 142.
Bythites; 119.
Bythocythere ; 166.

0.

Caaing Whale; 91.

Caberea; 140.

Cacospongia ; 190.

Calaraagrostis ; 210, 218, 222, 236,

251,271.
Calanus ; 161.
Calicia; 287.
Calicium ; 303.
Calidris; 102.
Caligus; 162, 178.
Calla; 220.
Calliope; 155.
Calliopius ; 154.
Calliphora ; 567.
Calliphlebaris ; 240.
Callistemophyllum ; 384,
Callithanmioii ; 240, 279, 520, 522,

526.
Callitvlche; 229.
Callocephalns ; 6, 8, 12; 41, 43, 45,

46, 52, 53.
Callophyllis ; 240.
('alophyllum ; 534, 543.
Caloplaca; 308.
Calotlirix ; 520.

Caltha ; 203, 215, 219, 221, 225, 525.
Calycozoa of Greenland ; 186.
Calypso ; 220, 234.
Campanula; 205, 231, 247, 264, 269,

576.
Campanula ria ; 189.
Campanularidse ; 568.
Campaspe; 126
Campbell, C. C. ; 484.

J. F. ; 484.

Campoplex ; 502.
Campylodiscus ; 320, 530.

INDEX.

759

le Plants of E.

218, 222, 236,

12; 41, 43, 45,

221, 225, 525.
id; 186.

247, 264, 269,

Cancellaria ; 127.

Cancer; 146, 148, 151, 153, 156,

ir)9, 160.
Candelabrum ; 188.
Canis ; 6, 8. 9, 11, 17, 34, 179, 180,

181, 182, 18.3, 499,500, 554.
Cantliocainptus ; 160,161.
Cape Farewell, rocks of; 349, 352.
Capelin ; 342, 409.
Capitclla; 173,
Capra; 8, 11. 28.
Caprella; 159,504,509,510.
Caprellina ; 165.
CaprifoliaceiE ; 230, 383.
Capsella; 225.
Carboniferous Arctic plants ; 374,

fossils ; 470.

rocks ; 537, 544, 545, 547, 548,

550, 593.
Carcharias ; 78.
Cardaniine ; 203, 205, 208, 219, 226,

244, 268, 514, .'525.
Cardiola ; 543.
Cardium; 132, 134, 136, 137, 361,

410, 511,516.
Carex ; 204, 205, 208, 210, 215, 218,

220, 222, 235, 236, 250, 271, 381,

515, 578, 580.
Carpinus; 379, 382.
Carpolithes ; 385, 387, 388.
Carringtou, Dr. B., on the Hopaticaj

of Greenland; 273.
Carruthers, W., on Caulopteris punc-

Carum; 219.

Caryophy]lea3 ; 227, 245, 574.

Cassandra ; 220.

Cassidulina; 192,193,194.

Cassiopeia ; 203, 204, 210, 218, 222,

231, 248, 258, 259, 264, 269, 515,

525.
Castalia; 170.
Castanea ; 382.
Castilleja; 216, 220, 2..2.
Castor ; 55.
Cat; 20.

Catabrosa ; 220, 237.
Catenipora ; 549.
Catodon ; 7, 8, 84.
Cattle; 27.
Caulinites ; 382.
Caulopteris ; 386, 388, 478.
Celastnis; 384.
Cellaria ; 140, 505.
Cellepora; 141, 281.
Celleporaria ; 141.
Celleporella; 141.
Cellularia; 140, 281.
Celluraria?; 568.
Cemoria; 130, 133, 138.
Cenomyce; 238.
Centridermichthys ; 116.

Centronotns ; 118, 163.
Centroscyllium ; 122.
Cephalopoda; 130, 134.
Ceraniiaceic ; 240, 520.
Ceraniium ; 279, 521.
Cerastium; 204, 221,227,245, 268,

;}21, 514.
Ceratias ; 117.
Ceratodon ; 272.
Ceratoneis; 519.
Ceratopogon ; 143.
Ceratophyllum ; 208, 229.
Cercopidiiini ; 385.
Cfrcoi)s ; 1 59.
Cerithiuui; 127.
Cerous; 179,414,500.
Cestodes ; 560.
Cestoida ; 179.
Oetaeea, J)r. Cope and Dr. ITaycs

on sonic ; 93.

food of the; 313.

of Greenland, Dr. Brown on

the; 69.
Cetochilus; 70, 161, 315, 316, 510.
Cetraria ; 238, 242, 253, 254, 265,

266, 287, 291, 292, 297, 302,305,

522, 527, 583.
Chaniaicyparis, 437.
Chffinocetus ; 92.
Chaitetes ; 543.
Chajtognatha ; 178.
Chffitomorpha ; 258, 520, 521.
Chajtopoda ; 167.
Chaitopterida! ; 173.
Cha;topteris ; 240, 516, 518, .520.
Chajtozyllis; 170.
Cha!tnra; 97.
Chalinula; 190.
Characeip ; 198.
Charadrius; 101, 180, 183.
Charybdea; 188.
Cbeilostonnita ; 568.
(,;heimatophila ; .507.
Chclyosonia ; 138.
Chen; 113.

Chcnopodium ; 220, 235.
Chik)Stomata ; 140.
Chimnio ; 484.
Chionobas ; 142.
CliionocoL'tes ; 140.
Chirodota; 184, 513.
Chironomus ; 143. 501, 502, 5o7.
Chiton; 130, 134, 137, 500, 512,

513.
Chlaain ; 405.
Chlora;midic ; 172.
Chlorospcrniepc ; 240, 279, 510, 520.
Chondracanthus ; 162.
Chondractinia ; 186.
Chondrophyllum ; 388.
Chone ; 175, 176.
Chonetes; 533.

X

' <

7(jo

INDKX.

Chorda ; '267, 277, ')-20.
Cliordaria j iiSO, 277, 520.
Clionlcdik'S ; 97.
Cliristianshaah, Botany of; 20O.
Clii'oococcaceic ; 282.
Chiysanthenium ; 20.5,205), 210,219,

230, 525.
Clirysaora ; 133, 1.34.
CluyKomelites ; 3S5.
Chiysosplenmn; 201, 204, 229,247,

525.
Chydfiiius, Dr. ; 190.
Cicada; 144.
Cicula ; 219, 230.
Cidaria ; 143.
CircsDa ; 207, 219.
Circumpolar land, II. II. IIoAvorth

on the rise of; 483.
Cimitulus; 13G, 173, 512.
Cirrhoteutbis ; 134.
Cirripcdia ; 103, 500,
Ciiroteuthis, 130.
Cistela; 142.
Cistelites ; 385.
Cistcnides ; 174.
Cladocera; 159.
Cladouia; 242, 253, 265, 275, 285,

287, 289, 291, 292, 297, 301, 302,

303, 304, 305, .o22, 527.
Cladophora ; 240, 255, 209, 285.
Clangula; 111.
Clarke; 89.

Claushavn, botany of; 261.
Clay-slate of S. Greenland; 331.
Clei'ppides; 155.
Cleta; 100.

Climate of Jakobsbavn ; 258.
Clio; 120, 133,315, 316, .507.
Clione ; 120, 136.
Clisiopbyllum ; 534, 543, 551.
Clitellio; 177.
Clitocybe ; 283,
Closterium; 282.
Clupea; 121.
Clymene; 173.
Coal ; 335, 353, 480, 552, 424, 420,

435, 478.
Coal of Parry Islands ; 544, 545, 548.
Coast-ite ; 302.
Coccinella; 142.

Cocconeis ; 319, 320, 518, 519, 530.
Cocconcma ; 283, 319.
Cochlearia ; 204, 205, 225, 244, 266,

268,514.
Coculites; 384.
Codfish; 83.
Coelenterata ; 56 i.
Coelospira; 368.
Cojuitts ; 534.
Ccunolophium ; 205.
Colaptcs ; 97.
Coleoptera ; 141, 385, 502, 507.

Colias; 142, 502.
Collema; 276, 287,

292, 29}, 303,

i>-^i.

Colond), Capt. ; 368, 476.

Colpodiiim ; 204, 205, 237, 252.

Columbella ; 129.

Columnaria ; 534, 542.

Colutea; 384.

Colymbetes; 141, .502.

Colymbus; 110, lei, 182.

Coniandra ; 233.

Coniarum ; 228.

Conipositu; ; 230, 247, 576.

Conchoderma ; 163.

Conferva; 240, 241, 279, 280, 281,

282, 516, 522, 526.
Confervaceic ; 584.
Conifera; ; 234, 380, 387.
Conlocybe ; 270, 303.
Conioselinum ; 219,229.
Conostomum ; 255, 272.
Contopus ; 97.
Conulus; 124.
Conybeare ; 535.
Cook, Captain ; 320, 480.
Coot; 100.

Cope, Dr., on some Cetiicca; 41, 93.
Copeland, Dr. ; 589.
Copepoda ; 100, 565, 500,
Copper, native ; 544.
Coptis; 225.

Corallina; 139,240,521,-522.
Corallinea;; 510.
Corallorrhiza ; 234.
(.'orals ; 533, 534.
Cordylura ; 144.
Corispernuim ; 208, 220.
Cormorant; 110.
Corncrake ; 100.

Cornicularia ; 238, 253, 254, 304, 305.
Cornus; 215, 230, 383.
Cornuspira ; 192, 193.
Coronula; 82, 103.
Corylus ; 369, 370.
Coscinodisciis ; 319,320,518.
Cosmarium ; 517.
Cottus; 181, .501, 505, 512.
Crakeberry; 287.
Cranberries ; 266.
Crangon ; 504, 509.
Crataegus ; 438.
Credneria; 431, 477.
Crenclla; 507, 517.
Crossostoma ; 174.
Crotalocrimis ; 534.
Crowberry ; 287.

Crucifertc; 224, 226, 244, 514, 573.
Crustacea, Arctic ; 136, 146,553,561.

of E. Greenland, Dr. Buchholz

on the ; 561.
of Greenhmd, Dr. Liitken on

the; 146.

INDEX.

701

292, 293,

303,

476.

5, 237, 252.

12.

>2.

, 182.

7,576.

279, 280,

281,

1 244, 514, 573.
5, 146,5.53,561.
1, Dr. Buchholi!

Dr. Liitken on

Cryoconite; 395, 4C1, 463.
Cryolite of Greenland, C. L. Giesccko

on the; 341.

of Greenland, J. W. Taylcr on

the ; 344.

; 329,468, 469.

Crypripediiim ; 215.

Cryptogamic plants from Baffin's Bay,

liobert Brown on the ; 238.
Cryptogamina ; 238.
Cryptograms from Greenland, M. .

Sadler on some ; 253.

198, 255, 268.

Cryptonemiacea) ; 240, 520.

Cryptus; 142.

Ctenodisciis ; 185,513.

Ctenophora; 187,501.

Ctenostomata ; 139, 570.

Cuciunariu ; 184,513.

Culex; 143, 144, 501, 502.

Cuma ; 165.

Cumacea ; 149.

Cumberland Sound, Alga) from ; 519.

Cupressinoxylon ; 380, 381.

Cupuliferas ; 382.

Cnrculiones; 142.

Ciirculionites ; 389.

Curlews; 104.

Currents, polar ; 363.

Curtis, J.; 501, 502.

Cuspidella; 189.

Cuvier; 36.

Cuvieria; 184.

Cyamus; 158, 159, 165,504.

Cyanea; 187,505.

Cyathophyllum ; 534, 542, 543, 548,

549.
Cycadacea; ; 387.
Cycadites ; 376, 387, 431, 477.
Cyclas; 385.
Cycloella ; 518.
Cyclops; 160, 161, 510.
Cyclopsina; 510.

Cyclopterus; 117,122, 162, 163, 500.
Cyclostomata; 139,568.
Cyclostomi; 122.
Cydippe; 187.
C^'gnus ; 113.

Cylichna; 125, 137, 196, 506.
Cylindrocystis ; 397.
Cymbalariaj ; 221.
Cymbella; 518,530.
Cynthia; 138.
Cyparissidiuni ; 387.
Cyperacea; ; 235, 250, 578.
Cyperacites; 381, 387.
Cyperus; 381.
Cyphocaris; 152.
Cypridina ; 160.
Cypripedium ; 220, 235.
Cyprina; 132, 540.
Cypselites; 383.

Cyrtoecras ; 548,

Cyrfodaria; 131,410,

Cystingia; 503.

Cystiphyllum ; 533.

Cvstophora; 3, 6, 8, 57,64, 181,

'183,414.
Cystopteris ; 238, 241, 252, 253, 272.
Cy there ; 166, 167, 192.
Cytheridca ; 166.
Cytheropteron ; 166.
Cytherura; 166.

D.

Dactylina; 255,262, 274, 2 9e), 305.

Dajus ; 150.

Delager; 391.

Danteites ; 386.

Daphne ; 383.

Daphuia; 160.

Daphuogene ; 371.

Darwin, C. ; 200, 207, 289, 464.

Dasychone ; ] 75.

Daubree ; 454, 455, 461.

Deadora; 507.

Decapoda ; 146, 562.

Decrease of glaciers; 407, 408.

Defrancia ; 127, 12f, 139.

Dckay ; 64.

De Laet ; 59.

Delesseria ; 240, 278.

Delphinapterus ; 181, 414, 500.

Delphinium ; 207.

Delphinns; 7, 8, 85, 91, 92.

Dentalina; 192, 193.

Dentalium; 196.

Denticula ; 519, 530.

Dendreeca ; 97, 98.

Dendrodon ; 513.

Demlronotus ; 125.

De Kance, C.E., on Arctic Geology,

&c. ; 553.
Dermaptera ; 502.
Dermatocarpou ; 310.
Derniatophyllites ; 388.
Deschampsia; 203, 204, 205, 209,

216, 218, 225, 237, 525, 581.
Desmacidon; 190.
Desmarestia; 239,2.55, 276, 515, 518,

520, 521.
Desmidea;; 282, 517.
Desmoulins; 83.
Desoria; 514,
Desseria ; 521.
Deuchars, A. ; 74, 78.

. G.; 48,

Deyeuxia ; 204, 208, 236.
Dewhnrst ; 73, 77.

762

INDEX.

Dianicsa ; 143.

Diantcii ; 505.

Diaiitlms; 209.

Diapciisia ; a.'3l, 248, 269.

Diaplmna ; 125.

Diiiptomus ; 1()(), 505.

iJiastopom ; 139, 509.

Diastvlis; 149.

l)iiiU)iiia ; 517.

Diatomacfic ; 70, 195, 241, 267, 28.3,

.•n.'j, ;U4, ;n5, ;ii7, ;ii9, .'joo, .*i«7,

462, 517,521, 529, 571.
Dickie, Dr. U., Alffa> from Cuniher-
land Sound; 519.

on Diatoms; 256, .315, .319.

on some Alfjic from JJaflin'.s Bay,

&c. ; 515.
on som(! AlgiP from Greenland ;

239.

on some Boothian Algx* ; 525.

on the Freshwater Algas of

Greenland ; 280.
Dicranum ; 2.38, 241, 254, 272, 273.
Dictyoi)hyllum ; 370, 386.
Dietyosipnon ; 239, 277, 520, 522.
Dietyota; 239, 519.
Dictyotaceffi; 277,520.
Didynodon ; 272.
Dimelaina ; 308.
Dineuiatura ; 1 02.
Diocus ; 162.
Dioica ; 126.

Diospyros ; 370, 379, 383, 388.
Diphyes; 190.
Diplocotyle; 181.
Diptera ;" 143, 502, 507, 567.
Disco, Dr. Brown on ; 467.
DiscoboU; 117.

Discoloration of the Arctic Seas, Dr.
Brown on the ; 311.

Nordenskiold, on the ; 318.

Discophora; 167, 187.
Discopora ; 141.
Discoporella ; 139.
Discorbina; 192, 193, 571.
Disko, Giesecke on ; 335.
Disticliium ; 272.
Distomum ; 182.
Divers ; 110.
Dodecabostricha ; 188.
Dodecatheon ; 233.
Dog; 17.

Dogs, skulls of Eskimo ; 555.
Dolabrifera ; 125.
Dolichopus ; 144.
Dolomite ; 496, 548, 549.
Dombcyopsis ; 384.
Donnet, Mr. ; 532.
Doris; 125.
Dorthesia; 144.
Dothidea; 380.
Douglasia ; 205, 215, 233.

Draba ; 201, 204, 208, 218, 219, 222,

225, 244, 208, 321, 514, 525.
Dracoci'phaluni ; 215, 232.
Drejer; 257.
I^rcpanopsetta ; 121, 183.
Dritt-dt'posits; 355.
Drift-wood ; 323, 492, 493, 494, 495,

.WO, .539, 586.
Droscra; 219, 227.
Dryandra ; .382.
Dryas; 204,228,245,204, 269, 514,

531, 581.
Drysdera ; 501.
Ducks; 111, 112, 322, 498.
Dufftjrin, Lord ; 63.
Dulburea ; 238, 298, 305, 522, 527.
Dulichia; 159.
Dumontia; 278, 516, 519.
Dunlin ; 103.

Dupontia ; 205, 237, 252, 525.
Durand, E., T. V. James, and S. Ash-

niead, on Plants from Smith's

Sound ; 254, 257

E., and T. P. James, on

I'lants from West Greenland
and Smith's Sound; 241.
Dust, Volcanic ; 464.
Dyanema ; 189.
Dynuis ; 149.
Dytisciduj; 141, 260, 502.

E.

Eagle; 96,

East-Arctic America, Plants of; 225.

East Greenland, fossil plants of the ;

377, 379.

Zoology, Botany, and Geology

of; 554.
Eaton, E. A. ; 592.
Eehinaster; 185.
Echinida ; 184.
Echinodemiata of Greenland, Dr. C.

Liitken on the ; 184.
Echinoderms; 136,51.3,560.
Echinoidca ; 560,
Echinorhync'aus ; 183.
Echinus ; 1.37, 138, 192, 260, 504,

511, 513.
Echiurus ; 178,

Economical uses of Licliens ; 300.
Ectocarpese ; 516,
Eetocarpus ; 240, 25.5, 277, 278, 320,

520, .521,
Edwardsia ; 186.
P^gedesmiude, Botany of; 259,
Ehrenberg, Dr. Ch, G., on Microzoa

from Davis Strait ; 194.
on Microzoa from East Green-
land; 570.

INDEX.

763

[5, 2(54, 269, 514,

', 252, 525.
lines, and S. Asli-
ts from Smith's

r. James, on
1 West Greenland
i Sound; 241.
1.

Plants of; 225.
il plants of the ;

iny, and Geology

192, 260, 504,

-lichens ; 300.
5, 277, 278, 320,

3f; 259.
T., on Microzoa
194.
'om East Green-

Eidor-duck; 111.

Eirene ; 188.

Elaclii.sta ; 239, 240, 277, 520,521.

Kla'apnus ; 215, 223, 3S3.

Elicofhiiris ; 220, 236.

Eleutherata ; 141.

Elymiis ; 216, 237, 252, 271, 478.

Elyna; 218.

Knil)eii/,a ; 180, 260.

Empetriim ; 204, 233, 249, 254, 258,

259,262, 264,266, 270, 472, 515,

567, 580.
Empid(max ; 97.
Enchyttffius ; 177.
Encrinites ; 533.
Enciiuurns ; 533, 534, 535.
Endocarpa; 287.
Endoearpon ; 291, 292, 299, 310.
Endoeoecus ; 310.
Enteromorpha ; 241, 255, 280, 281,

516, 520, 526.
Ent(miostraca ; 192.
Entozoa of Greenland, Dr. C. Liitken,

on the ; 179.
Eocene plants, place of; 370.
Eolirion ; 387.
Ephebe; 276, 292, 303.
Ephedoites ; 381.
Ephemera; 142.
Ephesia; 172.
Ephialtes; 502.
Ephydra; 144.
Epilobmm; 204, 219, 229, 246, 261,

263, 264, 269, 286, 514, 525, 575.
Epithemia; 283, 518.
Equisetaceaj ; 198.
Equisetum; 238, 253, 271, 272, 284,

374, 378, 380, 386, 478, 578, 580.
Ereutho; 175.
Ergasilus; 161.

Erieaceaj; 224, 231, 248, 383, 576.
Erigeron; 204, 205, 218, 220, 231,

247, 270.
Eriographididsc ; 176.
Eriophormn ; 204, 220, 236, 271, 515.
Erioptera; 144.
Ermine ; 28.
Erratic blocks ; 553.
Erysimiun; 219, 225.
Esehara ; 141.
Escharella; 140.
Escharipora ; 140.
Escharoides ; 140.
Eschricht; 3, 82, S3, 86.
Esperia; 190, 191.
Eteone; 169, 170.
Etheridge, R., jun. ; 470.

, sen., on some Arctic rocks ; 541 .

Euchone ; 175.
Eucope; 189.
Eudendrium ; 188.
Eudorea; 143.

Eudorella; 149.

Eulalia ; 169.

Euinastia ; 190.

KinitTcis ; 170, 171.

Kniiicida!; 171.

Kunoa; 169.

Kiinotiu; 283, 517.

Enoinphalus ; 533.

Enphiiisia; 218, 232, 249.

Kiiphro>yne ; 167.

Eupodisciis; 320, 530.

Eiipyrgus ; 184.

Eiuigastei- ; 507.

Eiirycyde ; 164.

EiuyteneS; 151.

Knsinis ; 156.

Eiistroii/ryliis ; 182.

iMithora ; 240, 278, 520.

Eutoca ; 205, 232.

Eutrcma ; 205,225.

Evcrnia ; 292, 522.

Evcrsmann, E. von ; 466,

Evigtok, Crylolite at; 341, 344.

-Tin-ore at; 348.

Evonynms ; 384.

Exocepliala ; 129.

Expedition to Greenland, A. E. Nor-

(lenskii)ld's ; 389.
Eyprepia ; 502.

F.

Fabricia; 176.

Fabricius ; l,ct passim.

Fagiis ; 379, 382.

Falco; 96, 181.

Fasciculites ; 387.

Fasciola ; 181, 182.

Favistella ; 534, 536, 543, 548.

Favosites ; 368, 534, 535, 543, 548.

Felis; 8, 11,20.

Fcneslella ; 534, 535, 551.

Fergusson ; 42.

Ferns; 386.

Fern-stem, fossil, at Ujarasusuk ; 388.

Festnca; 204, 205, 216, 220, 237,

252, 263, 271, 531, 578.
Ficns ; 382, 388.

Filices ; 198, 237, 241, 380, 578, 580.
Filifera; 190.
Fimbriaria; 273.
Finner ; 83.
Finsch ; 95.

Fir-trees in Parry Islands ; 538, 540.
Fish-leeches ; 178.
Fishes (Arctic) ; 500, 505.
Fishes of E. Greenland ; 555.
Fishes of Greenland ; 115.
Fistulana; 188.

^1

Ill

•Gi

INDKX.

Fliilu-IIi/;.Tii ; 172.

Flciniti,!-, Dr. .!.; 73, 8i», fto;].

Fli;,'lit, ])r. W.,<»ii tlii'Mi'tooritc'H from

(ircoiiliiiid ; 147.
Floe-iat ; 4J, 14.
¥UvVa loikw ; ;]:i7, 3.14, 33.'), ;J37.
Flora, I'rc'faci'oiis.ol'GiTt'uIunil J 38G.

of Aiileitsvik; 406.

ol'Kiist Ari'tic (in-oiiland ; ."»8().

Flonila DisfOiiiiii, by Dr. IJrown ;

2.56.
Flower, W. II. ; 3, .'iC.
Fliikfs ; 182.
Flu.stra; 140,281, .105.
Fluvialos; 234.
Fljcatelior ; 97.
Forainiiiift'ra iVoin Davis Strait niul

Uuflin's liny, Parker niul .lonos

on the; 15>2, l'.»3.
■ rolyeystina, ite. tVt)in Davis

Strait, Dr. Elircnl)t'r;,'oii ; 1!)4.

ofF. Greenland; .')71.

Forbes, E. ; 1S>2, 200.

Forchbanuner ; 364.

Forficula; 502.

Formica; 501.

Fossil Arctic I'lants, Prof. Ileer on ;

374.
Insects of Spitzbergen ; 595.

Plants of Fust Greenlaml ;

589.

Plants of Greenland; 308,374,

418.

Plants of Spitzberifcn ; 594.

tree ; 434.

Fossils, Arctic Silnrian ; 531.
at Pattorfik ; 410.

from Kennedy Channel, F. B.

Meek on some ; 38.
Mesozoie, of E. Greenland ;

589.
Fox; 10, 17,322,554.
Fragaria; 219, 221, 228, 384.
Fnigilaria; 518, 530.
Franklin, J. ; 485.
Franz-Joseph Land ; 596.
Fratercnla; 108.
Fraxinus; 383.
Frenelopsis; 387.
Fries, Th.; 210, 284, 285, 290,
Fringilla; 182.
Fritsch, Dr. ; 388.
Frog; 33.
Fuckel, L., on the Parasitic Fungi of

Greenland ; 585.
Fucus; .57, 192, 239, 25.5, 207, 276,

520,521.
Fuel; 200, 201, 200.
Fulica ; 100,
Fuligula; 111.
Fulmer; 107.
Fungi ; 198, 283, 380, 526, 58.5.

Ftisniina ; 551.

Fusus; 128, 129, 134, 135,605.

Fyfe, Dr.; 325, 3.53,480.

0.

(iadus; 119, 120, 122, 161, 163, 181,

183,500.
(iaimard, P. ; 36, 591, 592.
Galium; 208, 218, 219, 221, 230,

383.
(lallinago ; 1U4.
Galvina ; 120.
(iamniaracarthus ; 157.
Gannnarus; 41, 136, 151,153,1.54,

150, 157, 158, 503, 504, 509, 513.
Gannet ; 110,

Gardens in Greenland; 206.
Gare fowl ; 110.
Gasterostens ; 115, 161, 181, 182, 183,

501.
Geese; 112, 113,498.
Geniellaria; 140.
Gentiana; 205, 208, 209, 210, 211,

218, 220, 222, 232.
Geodia; 191.
Geolithia; 195.
Geological notes on IJafTin's Buy by

Koss and iMacculloch ; 324.
Geology and Natural History of Ken-
nedy and Kobeson Cliannels ;

321.
Gerstiicker, Dr. A., on the Ilymeno-

ptera and Dipteni of E. Greenland ;

567.
Goum; 219, 228.
Giesecke, C. L. ; 31, 74, 256, 267,

327, 33.5, 341, 349,368,417,421,

447, 467.
Gingko; 380.

Glacial conditions of N. W. Green-
land ; 356.

powder; 355.

Glacier of Assasak ; 437.

of Auleltsvik ; 389,

Glaciers, decrease of; 408.

in Spitzbergtn ; 404.

of Disco and Noursoak ; 4o7.

of N. W. Greenland ; 358, 361.

of Greenland ; 402.

Glauconome ; 158.

Glaux ; 220.

Glechonia ; 220.

Gleichenia ; 375, 370, 380, 387, 430,

470.
Geology of Davis Strait and Baffin's

Bay, Dr, Sutherland on the ; 352,

of E, Greenland bv Fr, Toulii ;

580,

I'S^i''

tNDKX.

7G3

r,l)l, ,V.):2.
18, 21<», 221, 2;»),

i; 157.

13G, 151, 15;i, 154,
5(13, 50-t, 5()'J, 5ia.

ilaud; 2«)0.

5,101,181,182,183,

498.

208, 209, 210, 211,
232.

on IJaffin's Buy l)y
iiUoch ; 324.
ural History of Kon-
)beson Channels ;

A., on the Ilymeno-
ni of E. Greenland ;

31, 74, 256, 267,
349,368,417,421,

s of N. W. Green-

376, 386, 387, 430,

Strait and Baffin's
•land on the ; 352.
land bv Fr. Touhi ;

Geology of (ireeniand, I'rof. Nor-

denskii.ld on tho ; 430.
.^— r. L. (Jiesfcki' on the ; 327.
of Noursoak and Disco, Dr. ]{.

Brown on tlie; 467.

of I'oIariM Hay ; 5.'»3.

of S|>itzl)erftt'n ;' 593.

of the Arctic Arehipehigo ; 53().

of tjje I'arry IslandH, Sic, Prof.

Ilati^^hton on the ; S42.
Geo))hi]a; 124.
Geothjypis; 98.
(lephyrea ; 167, 560.
(Jeranium ; 219, 221.
(Jlobigi-rina; 192, 193, 194, 195.
(ilobiocephalns ; 78, 91, 158, 163.
Giossata; 142.
(ilossozaniites; 387, 43(>.
(ilnnmcetc; 213.
(liyeora ; 171.

(ilycfria; 208, 216, 220, 237, 271.
Glyptostrobns; 379, 381, 387, 437.
Gniiphaliiim ; 210, 218, 222, 230,

247, 264, 270.
Gnats in S. Greenland; 406.
Gneiss of Greenland ; 329.
(inetuceu! ; 381.
Goat; 28.

Godhavn, botany of ; 264.
Godwit; 104.
Goes ; 165.
Gold; 552.

Gomphonema; 518, 530.
Gonatus; 130, 133, 182.
(ioodyera; 220.
Gordius ; 183.
Gorgonocephalus ; 503, 504.
Graah, Capt. ; 572.
(Jracuius ; 183.

Graminea; ; 236, 251, 381, 578.
Gramniaria; 189.
Grannnatopliora ; 320, 518, 530.
Grammonema ; .320, 518, 519.
Gramniostonnnn ; 194.
Graniinis ; 85, 87.
(iranite ; 327, 550.
Graphidea; ; 287.
Gniphis ; 292.

Graphite ; 355, 426, 427, 469.
Grasses; 262, 323.
Graves, old ; 415, 417.
Graville ; 76.
Gray, Asa; 216.

J. E.; 4, 60, 74,85,93.

Great Ank ; 32.
Grebes; 110.
Greenland, Algai of ; 276.

. Annelida of; 167.

Anthozoa and Calycozoa of;

186.

Cetacea of; 69.

Cryolite of; 341, 343.

(inenland, Diatoinactue of; 319.

Dr. Hooker on the Flora of;

217.

Dr. liiitkon on the Crustacea

of; 146.
Dr. Uink on the rocku and

minerals of; 496.
Dr. W. Klif,'ht on tneteorites

from ; 447.

Eehinodcrnis of; 1S4.

Ento/oaof; 179.

Fishes of ; 1 1 5.

— — Fossil Insects from ; 389.
Freshwater A Ijju! of; 280.

Fungi from ; 283.

Geographical divisions of } 467.

Gieseeke on tho Uoeks and

Minerals from ; 349.

Hepaticie of; 273.

Insects and Spiders of; 141.

Lielien-Hora of ; 284.

Lichens of; 273.

ManimalHof; 1.

Mr. Taylor on Plants of; 2 12.

Miocene Plants of; 368, 378.

MoUuseaof; 124.

Mosses of; 272.

( )stracoda from ; 161.

Plants from; 225, 239, 241,

524.
Polyzoaof ; 139.

Prof. A. Newton on the Birds

of; 94.

Prof. Nordenskiold on Mete-

orites from ; 439.

Seals of; 35.

Sea of the Dutch, &e. ; 312.

sinking of a part of; 482.

some Cryptogams from, col-

lected by Dr. Brown; 253.

Spongozouof; 190.

Tnnieataof; 138.

(ireenstone ; 333.

Grenier et Godron ; 210,

Greville; 257.

Grewia ; 384.

Griramia ; 255, 272.

Grey Seal ; 55.

Grisebach ; 210, 215, 231.

Grossularietc ; 229.

Ground Seal ; 40, 54, 55.

Growth of Lichen ; 288.

Gruncr, E. ; 461.

Gucrin ; 80.

Guillemots; 109.

Gulo ; 30, 499.

Gulls ; 105, 106, 107, 323, 498.

Gunelhis ; 501.

Gunner us; 123.

Gyge; 1.50.

Gymnandra ; 220, 232.

Gymnelis; 119, 501, 505.

766

INDEX.

\l ->i

Gymnobranchia ; 135.

GymnogongruH ; 526.

Gyranonoitriim ; 273.

Gyrinus ; 142.

Gyrophora ; 238, 253, 254, 296, 302.

Gyrostonium ; 292.

Hv

H.

Ilaeckel, Dr. E., on Sponges; 190,

570.
Hajmatoccns; 517,521,526.
Ha;matomraa ; 307.
ITacniutopinus ; 58.
lltcmatopus; 100. '
Ilaimobathes ; 136,162.
Haddo, Lord ; 287.
Hadeua; 143,502,507,508.
Hail, Meteoric matter in ; 464, 466.
Hakea ; 383.
Halcj'onellaj ; 570.
Halocium ; 189.
Halelmiuthidaj ; 173.
Halisetus; 96, 182.
Halichcerus ; 6, 8, 49, 54, 55.
Halicyclus ; 186.
Halicyou ; 42.
Halisarca ; 191.
Haloragea; ; 155, 229, 246.
Halosaccion ; 240, 279, 522, 523.
rialymeuiesc ; 516.
Halysitos ; 534.
Hamilton ; 42, 48, 83, 89.
Hannover ; 123.
Haploops ; 156.
Hare ; 22, 498.
Harelda; 111, 180, 183.
Harpacticus ; 160, 510.
Harpiua ; 156.
Harp-seal ; 46.
Harmothoe; 168.
Harmotricliuni ; 521.
Harvey, Trof. ; 282, 521.
Hayes, Dr. 1. I., Smith's Sound,

plants from ; 2C4.

on sonio Ceiacea ; 93.

4, 19, 23, 24, 26, 57, 63, 135,

257, 285, 386,390, 468.
Haughton, Dr. S., on the geology of

the Tarry Island, ike. ; 542.
Ileckla-IIook formation ; 593.
Hedera; 378, 379,383.
Hedysarum ; 228.
Heer, Trof. U., Elora fci'lis arotica ;

374.

on Arctic fossil plants ; 374.

— ~— on Cretaceous insects; 389.

Heer, Prof. O., on the Arctic Miocene
fossils; 378.

on the Cretaceous Flora of

Greenland; 386.

on the fossil plants of E. Green-
land ; 589.

on the Miocene Flora of Green-
land; 368.

388, 418,471.

lleer's Creek, section at ; 479.

Ilelenium ; 230.

Helicogena; 124.

Heliolites ; 534, 542.

Helix ; 124, 135, 487.

Helleborites ; 383.

Helmiuthophaga ; 98.

Heloniyza ; 144.

Helophilus ; 144, 502.

Hemerobius ; 142.

Heniiptera ; 502.

Henopomus ; 150.

Hepatiea;; 198, 242, 273.

Herpyllobius ; 162.

Herrings ; 83.

Heron; 100.

Hcsionida) ; 170.

Hesperis ; 205, 225.

Heterofusus ; 1 26.

Heterogaster ; 144.

Heteroglossata ; 130.

Heteronereis ; 171.

Heuchera; 211, 215, 229.

Hcughlin, Th. von ; 592.

Hiatella; 511,512.

Hieracium ; 220, 222, 231.
Hieracleum ; 207, 209.

Hierochloe ; 205, 216, 220, 237, 251,
262, 271,478,515, 525.

Himantidium ; 283, 320.

Himantolophus ; 117.

Hipparchia ; 502.

Hippocrene ; 188.

Hippoglossus ; 120, 122, 161, 162,

178, 182, 183.
Hippolyte ; 136, 147, 150, 163, 165,

504, 508, 513.
Hippomedon ; 152.
Hipi)uris ; 204, 229, 246, 262, 269.
Hirciuia ; 190.
Hirudinida); 167, 177.
Hirundo ; 97.
Histrionieus ; 111.
Holboil; 94.

Holothuridaj ; 178, 184, 560.
Hooded Seal ; 64.

Hooker, Dr. J. D., on plants from
Sniitirs Sound ; 321.

on some plants from Boothia ;

523.

on the distribution of Arctic

Plants ; 197.
— ~ 256, 257, 267.

INDEX.

767

n the Arctic Miocene

78.

Iretaceous Flora of

i; 386.

il plants of E. Green-

9.

ceue Flora of Green-

B.

471.

ctionat; 479.

I.
542.

., 487.
^3.
i; 98.

4, 502.
42.
2.
50.

242, 273.
.62.

J.

225.
26.
144.
; 130.
171.

1,215,229.
ron ; 592.
12.

222,231.

, 209.

, 216, 220, 237, 251,

515, 525.

83, 320.

117.

S8.

12*0, 122, 161, 162,

147, 150, 163, 16.5,

52.

229, 246, 262, 269.

7, 177.

II.

78, 184, 560.
,4.

D., on plants from
;1; 321.
)Uiuts from Boothia ;

itribution of Arctic
197.
67.

Hooker, Sir W. J., on some Plants

from Earrow Strait; 514.

295.

Homalo^yra; 127.

Homarus; 146.

Homeyer, A. von, on the Lepido-

ptera of E. Greenland ; 567.
Homo ; 180, 182.
Honckeneja ; 204, 227, 245.
Hordeum ; 208, 220, 237.
Hornera; 139, 569.
Hopkins, W. ; 364, 484.
Horuemann, Dr., on plants from E.

Greenland; 572.
Horse; 12.

Hot springs near Egidesmiude ; 259.
Honse-sites, ancient ; 413.
Howorth, II. H., on recent elevations

in the Cirumpolar region ; 483.
Humpback-whale ; 84.
Huude Islands, shells, &c. from ;

137, 166,192.
Hutchinson ; 211.
Hyaloia ; 507.
Hyahua ; 135.
Hyalodiscus ; 319, 320, 530.
Hyas; 146, 177, 508, 512.
Hydra; 188.
Hydractiuia ; 188.
Hydroida of E. Greenland ; 568.
Hydro ides; 176.
Hydrophorus ; 141.
Hydrophyllea; ; 232.
Hydrozoa; 187, 192.
Hydrurus; 282.
Hygrophila ; 124.
Hvgrophorus ; 283, 527.
Hymenelia ; 298, 299.
Hymenoptera, Arctic ; 142, 502, 507,

566.
of E. Greenland ; 566.

Hyperia ; 158.

Hypericum ; 219.

Hvperoodon ; 3, 7, 8, 92, 93, 158,

'l63.
Hypuea; 278.
Hypnum; 238, 241, 253, 254,255,

272, 273, 319, 582.
Ilypothyris ; 507.

I.

lajra ; 150.

Ice-bear ; 15, 554, 597.

Icolicrgs; 360, 404, 412.

lee, experiments on ; 359.

lee-iiords ; 403.

Iceland ; 13, 371, 372, 379.

flora of; 221.

Iceland, lichens of ; 289.

moss ; 302,

Icelus; 116.

Ice-scratched rocks ; 401.

Ichneumon ; 502.

Ichthyosaurus; 546,547,551.

lehthyobdella ; 177.

lemadophila ; 309.

Idothea; 149, 150, 410, 503, 510.

Idya ; 187.

Ifsorisok beds ; 376.

Ilex; 384.

Illajnus ; 368.

Illartlek, botany of; 262.

Illosporium ; 527.

Imputiens; 207,227.

Infusoria ; 195, 576.

luglefield; 368, 418, 433,468,471,

476.
Inland Ice of Greenland ; 390, 392.
Inopelis ; 387.
Insects and Arachnids fioni Port

Kennedy and Pond's Bay, Dr.

Walker on; 507.

and Spiders of Greenland, J.

C. Schiodte's list of; 141.

Arctic ; 322, 323, 501, 514.

Cretaceous ; 389.

fossil ; 370, 385.

from the Parry Isles ; 50 1 .

of Spitsbergen ; 594.

loida ; 1 70.
Ipsorisok beds ; 436.
Irideic ; 235.
Iris; 382.
Iron in rocks ; 459.
meteoric, used by the Esqui-
maux ; 325.

; 324,325,41.5, 438.

tools ; 416.

Isbister, A. K. ; 488.
Ischyiocerus; 157, 158.
Isidium; 297.
Isis; 139, 186.
Isodictya ; 190.
Isoetes; 238.
Isopoda ; 149, 153.
lulopsis ; 389.
Ivory of Nanvhal ; 91.

of Walrus; 61.

Ixodes: 514.

J.

Jakobshavn, Botany of ; 261.
James, Capt. ; 532.

T. 1'., on Plants from Smith's

Sound; 2-11, 254, 285.
Jamerron, Prof. ; 355, 532, 535.

^ni

'?S»

7CS

INDEX.

Jan Miiyen ; 48, 50, 61, 497.

.Jausen, Capt. ; 494.

Joanpauliii ; 386.

Jones and Parker on Foraiuinifera

from Davis' Strait and Baffin's

Bay ; 192, 193.
Juglans ; 370, 384.
Juncus; 204, 210, 220, 222, 2.]j,

250, 261, 264, 270, 271, 381, 515,

525, 531,577, 580, 581.
Jnnsi:ermannia ; 238, 242, 273, 520.
Juniperus ; 234, 287, 380,
Jurassic Fossils ; 589.

? rocks (altered) from Baffin's

Bay; 324.

of Spitzber/jen ; 593.

of the Tarry Islands ; 550.

K.

Kallymenia ; 278, 516, 518, 520, 522,

526.
Kalmia; 21G, 231.
Kane, Dr. K ; 4, 19, 23, 63, 241,

257, 446, 468, 483.
Keatos, T. W. ; 480.
Keferstein, W. ; 167.
Koilhiiu, Prof. ; 63, 491.
KoUia; 131.

Kemisak Island, plants from ; 572.
Kennedy and Kobeson's Channels,

Nat. Hist, of; 321.
Kennedy Channel, fossils from ; 368.
Kestrel; 96,
Killer; 85,
King-dnck ; 112.
Kirby, W. ; 501, 503,
Kirchenpauer, Dr. G. 11., on the Ily-

droida and Polyzoa of E, Green-
land ; 139, 568,
Kitchenraiddcns ; 55, 413, 414, 461,
Kittiwake ; 106,
Knorria ; 374.
Knot ; 103.
Kobresia ; 222, 236.
Koch; 210.
Koelrenteria ; 384.
Kunifi, C. ; 355, 532, 535, 536.
Koenigia; 233, 249,
Kome (Kook) ; 370, 418, 425, 430,

formation ; 386,

Kiirber, Dr. G. W., on the Lichens

of v.. Greenland ; 583,
Krabbe, Dr. ; 167, 179.
Kraus, Dr. Gr., on the Driftwood of

E. Greenland ; 586.
Krenitzin, Capt. ; 486.

Kroyer; 165.
Kryokonite ; 396,

KnplFer, Dr, C, on the Timicata of
E, Greenland ; 556,

L.

Labiata) ; 232.

Lacuna; 126, 134,

Lscmargus; 79, 122,

Laomidopoda; 151.

Lafol-a ; 189,

Lagena; 192, 193, 195,

L'lgenocetus ; 93,

Lap:enorhynchus ; 7, 8, 85.

Lagisca ; 168.

Lagopus; 100,

Lamellibranchs ; 130, 558,

Lamellidoris ; 125.

Laminaria; 239, 254, 255, 277,314,

515, 520, 521, 521;, .526.
Laraont, J, ; 3, 63, 492, 592.
Lampris ; 115,
Lange, J, ; 217,257.
Laonice; 173.
Laonome ; 175.
Lapwing; 101.
Larch ; 539, 586.
Laria ; 502,
Larix ; 209, 234, 586,
Larus ; 106, 107, 179, 180, 181, 182.
Lastrea ; 211, 238, 379, 380,
Lathyrus; 215,219,228,
Lanrentian rocks ; 324, 327, 541,
Lawson, Prof., M.A,, on Mosses ;

272.
Leach; 503,
T/cachia ; 130.
LcLcna ; 175.
Lecanora; 253, 255, 274, 275, 287,

290, 291, 292, 297, 298. 307, 527,

528, 583.
Lecidea, 254, 255, 275, 270, 287,

289, 290, 291, 292, 298, 308, 522,

528.
Lecidella; 583.
Leciophysma ; 299.
Lecotheciuni ; 298, 299.
Leda ; 137, 196, 410, 507, 517.
Ledebour ; 210, 211, 2H.
Ledum; 204, 231,248, 262, 265, 270,

302.
Leguminosa; ; 224, 228, 384.
Legnminosites ; 384, 388.
Leipoceras ; 173.
Lemming ; 20, 322,
Lentibularineaj ; 232.
Leontodon; 222, 231.

G.

., on the Tunicata of

; 55G,

L.

34.
122,

51.

93, ior>.

3.

s ; 7, 8, 85.

; 130, 558.
125.

), 254, 255, 277, 3H,
1, 521;, .520.

G3, 492, 592.

■, 257.

!G.

|4, 586.

7, 179, 180, 181, 182.
38, 379, 380.
219, 228.
s; 324, 327, .541.
M.A., on Mosses ;

255, 274, 275, 287,
I, 297, 298, 307, 527,

I255, 275, 270, 287,
292, 298, 308, 522.

99.

^98, 299.
410, 507, 517.
211, 21'J.
1,248,202, 2G5, 270,

24, 228, 384.
1384,388.

822.

I 232.
231.

INDKX.

709

Lopns ; 1G3.

Lepeophtheiriis ; 162.

Leperditia ; 533, 534.

Lepeta; 130.

Lepidiuni ; 208, 225.

Lepidodendron ; o74, 388.

Lepidonote ; 136, 168.

LepidonoUis ; 162, 107, lb8. .503,

504.
Lcpidoptera; 142,502,567.
Lcpigoniuni ; 227.
Lepralia ; 141.
Lcptobryum ; 272.
Leptogium ; 270, 303.
Leptophry x us ; 151.
Lepns; G, 8,22, 179, 500.
Lernasa; 161, 162, 163.
Lernasopoda ; 136,161.
Lesteira ; 162.
Lestrigonus ; 1 58.
Leucandra ; 191.
Leucaristc ; 175.
Leucon ; 149.
Leucosolonia ; 191.
Leucothoii ; 1 53.
Levcsen, Madlle ; 259.
Lias ; 546, 550.
Libocedrus ; 375, 380.
Lichen-flora of Greenland, Dr. W. L.

Lindsay on the ; 284.
Lichen-growth; 401.
Liehenporidaj ; 509.
Lichens, Arctic ; 198, 2G1, 273, 284.

from Barrow and Davis Straits,

llev. Ch. Babiugton on some ;
522.
■■ from Smith's Sound ; 255.

of E. Greenland ; 583.

of Iceland ; 289.

of Spitzhergon

Lievely, botany of; 204.

Liguria ; 209.

Ligustricuni ; 230.

Liliacea; ; 234.

Lilljeborg ; 3, 30.

Lima ; 513.

Limaoimi; 120, 134, 135, 507.

Limapontia; 126.

Liniatula ; 133, 137.

Limnaja ; 124, 134, 135.

Limnobia ; 507.

Limnophysa; 135.

Limosa ; 104.

Limosella ; 232.

Lindblom ; 210.

Lindsay, Dr. W. L., on Lichens from
Greenland; 273.

on the Tiichen-flora of Green-
land; 284.

Lindstriim, G. ; 395, 443, 444, 452.

Linota ; 99.

]iinna)a ; 219, 230.

36122.

Linuni; 208, 219, 228.

Liorhynchus ; 182.

Liparis ; 117, 178, 183, 500.

Li<|uidambaf ; 382.

Liriodendron ; 383.

Listera ; 2.34.

List of works on Arctic fossil plants ;

373.
Lithodes ; 1 46.
Litho^trotion ; 544, 548.
Littorina; 126, 134, 138, 506.
Lituites ; 533.
Lituola; 192, 193, 194.
Lloydia; 210, 220, 234.
Localities for coal in Greenland ;

480.
Loiseleuria ; 231, 270.
Longmuir ; 355.
Lonicera; 219, 230.
Lopadium ; 309.
Lophioidei ; 117.
Lophothuria; 184.
Lota; 120.
Lottia; 500, 512.
Loxia; 99.

Loxonema ; 308, 542, 543, 548, 549.
Loxosoma ; 141.
Lucernaria; 180, 187, 188.
Lumani; 175.
Lumbriconais ; 173.
Lunibriculus ; 177.
Lnmbricus; 171, 172, 173, 177, 178.
Lumbrinercis ; 171.
Lumpenus; 118, 182, 501, .505.
Lupinus ; 228.

Liitkcn, Dr. Chr., on the Acalepha'

and Hydrozoa of Greenland ; 187.

on the Annelida of Greenland ;

107.
on the A'ltliozoa and Calycozoa

of Greenland; 180.
on the Crustacea of Greenland ;

140.
on the Eehinodermatu of Green-
land; 184.
on the Entozoa of Greenland ;

179.
on the Fishes of Greenland ;

115.
on the I'olyzoa of Greenland ;

139.
on the Spongozoa of Greenland ;

190.
on the Tunicata of Greenland ;

138.
Liitken's works on Crustacea ; 165.
Luzula; 203, 204, 209, 220, 222,

235, 250, 271, 515, 525, 577.
Lyall, Dr. ; 368, 418, 471, 521, 524.
Lychnis; 203, 204, 210, 218, 222,

22."'), 227, 245, 201, 208, 514, .">••? 1.
I-ycodcs : \]i^, 501.

8 0

770

INDEX.

Lycodiiii ; 118.
Ljcopenloiv ; 267.
Lycopodiaceaj; 11)8.
Lycopodium; 238, 241, 253, 255,

271, 386.
Lycosa ; 145, 501, 508, 566.
Lyell, Sir C, on the existence of life

at great; depths, ; 195.

288, 3G2, 484, 489, 491.

Lynceus ; 160.
Lyngbya ; 280, 282.
Lvngemarken, flora of ; 264.
Lyonsia; 131, 137, 410.
Lysiauassa; 151, 152, 509.
Lysianassida; ; 563.
Ly thrum ; 219.

M.

JNI'Bain, J. ; 75, 92.

M'Clintock, F., on animal life in the
I'arry Islands ; 498.

94, 285, 288, 368, 418, 483,

507, 533, 542, 545, 546, 547.

Macclintockia ; 37 1 , 384.

jVIacculioch, J., on Geolo<>-Ical Speci-
mens from Baffin's Hay ; 324.

Llacken/ie lliver, fossil plants from ;
379.

Maclurea ; 548, 549.

M'Chire, Capt. ; 485, 537, 538, 540.

MacDonald, Capt. ; 55.

MacGillivray ; 56.

Maconia ; 131.

Macrocheilus ; 542.

Macrorhamphus ; 104.

IVIacroura ; 562.

JMacrurus; 120, 162, 178.

Madrcpora ; 139.

Magnolia ; 383, 388, 431, 478.

Maizo-bird ; 99.

Majantheniophylhnn ; 382.

Maldaiiida,' ; 173.

IMallophagu; 145.

JNIiillotus; 41,49, 121, 122,333,351.

Mahn ; 167.

Malmgreii ; 3, 13, 42, 58, G3, 107.

Mamma ; 126.

Mannnalia of i\ir Parry Ishuids ;
499.

Mannnals of E. (irocnland, I)r,
I'eters on the ; 55-1.

of Greenland, Dr. I{. Broun on

the; 1.

Manania ; 186.

!Mangelia ; 506.

Maps by Nordenskiuld and Brown ;

481.
]\Tarasinnis ; 526.
Marattiacoiv ; 375.

iSIartins, C. ,
Massalongia ;

Marchantia ; 273.

Margarita; 129,130, 134,137, 138,

.506, 512.
Markham, Capt. A. II. ; 321, 531, 541.

C. K. ; 323.

Marpanthns; 273.
Marryatt, II. ; 302.
Marsenina ; 126.
594.
307.
Meckelia; 179,
Mednsa; 134, 187, 188,189,313,315.
Met'k, F. B., on fossils from Kennedy

Channel; 368.
Meersia; 255.
Megama;ra ; 156.
Megaptera ; 7, 8, 84, 159, 163.
Mclampyrum ; 220.
Melanospormetc ; 239, 276, 515, 520.
Melanthacea- ; 234, 250.
Melicertum; 188.
Melinna; 174.
Melita ; 156.
INIelitaia ; 501, 502, 507.
Melitv,a; 188.
Melobesia ; 240, 254, 278, 516, 521,

522.
Melosira ; 76, 518, 519, 530.
Melville Island, plants of; 299, 525.
Menibranipora ; 140.
Menestho; 125, 135.
INIenyanthes ; 232, 383.
Meu'ziesia; 248.
Merganser ; 111.
Mergulus; 109.

Mergus; 111, 180, 181, 182, 183.
JMeridion; 283.
JNIerkia ; 215, 227.
]\Ierlangns; 120,500, 501.
Merlin ; 96.
Merlueeins; 120.
]\rertensia; 187, 232, 248.
Mesenteripora ; 139.
Metamorphie rocks; 327,468.
Meteoric Iron; 324, 325, 415, 438,
447.

particles in hail ; 464.

in snow ; 462.

Metoecus ; 158, 509,

INFotopa; 153.

INfetrosideros ; 388.

iMica-slate of Greenland ; 329, 330.

Micralyinnia ; 142.

Micra])liaiilcs ; 514.

Microcystis ; 282.

Mi('r(»gastcr ; 502.

JNIicroglu'iiii ; 299.

Alicromcga : 518.

iMiciupliiirii • 5()S.

Hicrosjiora ; 281.

Micidslonia ; 121.

IMiddcndurl', von j 21], 494.

INDEX.

771

130,

134,

137,

138,

A. II.

;321

,.531

541.

3.

02.

4.

)7.

<7, 188, 189,313,315.
fossils from KeiuitHly

i, 84, 159, 163.
J 20.

; 239, 276, 515, 520.
>:U, 250.

8.

J02, 507.

, 254, 278, 516, 521,

1 18, 519, 530.
plants of; 299, 525,
140.
, 135.
32, 383.

L.

80, 181, 182, 183.

27.

, 500, 501.

232, 248.
|l;$9.

;ks; 327,408.
324, 325, 415, 438,

hail; 4G4.
|\v; 4G2.
"OOO,

?8.

[■ciilaiul ; 329, 330.
•)

Miliola; 194.

Milium; 220.

Millepora ; 139, 505.

Minerals of Disco ; 335, 339, 340,

341.

of Groenland; 327, 496.

Minute Algte on the Ice ; 396.
Miocene Arctic Flora and Fauna,

Prof. Ileerou the; 368,376,378.

formation; 432, 471, 481.

formation and plants of Spitz-

berffen ; 594, 595.
Mirounga ; 64.
Mitella; 229.
Mites ; 322.
Mitra; 129.
Mitten, W., on somoBoothianLichens ;

527.
on some Boothlan Mosses ;

626.

on Lichens ; 285.

211,494.

Mnium ; 238, 255.

Modiola; 507, 511, 533.

Modlolaria; 132, 133.

Mobius, Dr. K., (m the Molluscs,

Echinoderms, and Worms of E.

Greenland ; 556.
Moelleria; 127.
Morch, Dr. (). A. L., on the Mol-

lusca of Greenland ; I 24.

on the Serpulida; ; 167.

Mollia; 140.

Mollusca; 136, 192, 505, 533, .595.

from the Parry Islands ; 511.

Molluscs from Ilunde Islands ; 137,
of E. Greenland ; 556.

of Greenland, Dr. Moroh on

the; 134.

Monocaulis ; 188.

Monocelis ; 178.

Monoculodes ; 155.

Monodon; 7,8, 11,69, 88,92, 159,

500.
Monolcpis; 205.
Monotis ; 546.
Montacuta; 131, 506, 511.
Montagu ; 91.
Montagua; )53.
Montia ; 222, 229, 269.
Moretoi ; 48 4.
Morse or Morsk ; 56, 57, 62.
Mosses of Greenland ; 255, 272, 526,

582.
Motacilla; 98.
Motella ; 120, 123.
Mougcotia ; 521.
Mountain-limeBtonc ; 593
Mouse ; 22,
Miiller, Dr. K., on the Mosses of E,

Greenland; 582.
Muensteria ; 380.
Mulgedium ; 23 1 ,

Muuna; 150.

Murchison, P, I., on Drift-wood and

rocks of the Arctic Archipelago ;

.536.

on ]{nssia ; 493.

Murchisonia ; 533.

Mnrex; 127.

Marie, Dr. ; 36, 57.

Murray, A.; 13, 23.

Mus; 2, 11, 13, 14, 20, 21.

Musca; 144,

Musci ; 198, 241, 255, 380, 526.

Muscicolous Lichens ; 287.

Muscidic ; 502, ,507.

Muscites ; 380.

Musk-ox ; 22, 322, 323, 498,

Mustela ; 6, 8, 28, 30, 34, 499.

Mya; 58, 130, 1.34, 136, 137, 361,

410, 487, 506, 511, .536, 552, 558.
iMyodes; 2, 6, 8, 12, 13, 20.
Myosotis ; 220, 221, 232.
.Myrica ; 220, 376, 382, 388, 438.
Myriochele ; 174.
Myrionema ; 240, 521.
Myriophyllum ; 229,
Myriothela; 188.
Myriotrochus ; 136, 184,
Myriozoon ; 140,
Myrmica ; 502.
Myrsiue ; 388.
Myrtophyllum ; 388.
Mysidse ; 1 65, 562,
Mysis; 148, 149, 504, 509.
JVIytilus ; 133, 134, 413, 506, 512.
Myto ; 149.
Myxine; 122.
IMyxicola; 176.
Myzostoma ; 1 78.

N.

Naidonereis ; 171.
Nais; 171, 177, 382, 504.
Nardosmia ; 203, 205, 216, 219, 230,

525.
Nardus ; 222, 237.
Narthecium ; 220,

Narwhal ; 11, 37, 57, 58, 87, 88, 90,
Nasturtiimi ; 219, 226,
Nathusius, H. von, on Dogs' skulls ;

555.
Natica; 126, 137, 410, 506, 513.
Nauckhotr, Dr. ; 425, 435, 450, 455,

457.
Naumbergia ; 220.
Navicula; 283, 320, 617, 518, 519,

530,
Noicra ; 131.
Ncbalia; 160, 504, 510, 56.5.

^ c 2

►7tr

772

INDEX.

Nebria; 141.

Nematoda; 182, .560.

Nematoideum ; 183.

Nematus ; 1 42.

Nemertea; ; 178.

Nemetus ; 507.

Nephrome; 274, 291, 292, 305.

Nephromium ; 292, 305.

Nephrops ; 146.

Nephthys; 169.

Nereis; 169, 170, 171, 173, .003,

504.
Nerine; 173, 508.
Neuropogon ; 255, 285, 286.
Neuroptera ; 142.
Newton, Prof. A., on the birds in

Greenland ; 34, 94, 592.
Nickel and phosphorus (meteoric)

in soils ; 467.
Nicolea ; 174.
Nicomache; 173.
Nilsson ; 4, 5, 36, 42, 55, 63.
Nitzschia; 320, 518, 530.
Noctiia ; 143.
Noctuida; ; 502.
Nodosaria ; 192.

Nonionina; 192, 193, 194, 195, 571.
Nordcaper; 82.
Nordenskiold, A. E., expedition to

Greenland; 389.

on the colour of the Arctic

Seas ; 318.

on the geology of Spitzbergen ;

592, 593.

375, 378, 449, 452, 462, 464,

468.

K. ; 462.

NordeaBft.iocldia ; 379, 384.
. Nordstrom, Dr. Th. ; 420, 443, 444,

449, 452.
Normaudina ; 276, 310.
Nostoc; 241,292,516,517,520,521,

526.
Nostochineaj ; 241, 516.
Notacanthus ; 116.
Nothria; 171.
Notiphila; 144.
Notomastus ; 173.
Notospermum ; 179.
Nourjoak and Disco, Dr. Brown ou

the geology of; 467.
Novya Zemlya; 37, 59.
Nucula; 132, 137,196,506,507,511,

517, 546.
Nuculana; 132.
Nullipora; 139, 192.
Numenius ; 104.
Numinullna ; 192, 193.
Nuphar; 219.
Nychia; 168.
Nyt'tea ; 97.
Nymphaja ; 384.

Nymphon; 163, 164, 503, 510.
Nylander ; 285, 286, 290.
Nyman ; 210.
Nyssu ; 383.

o.

Ocuus ; 184.

Octactinia; 186.

Octobothrium ; 181.

Octopus; 130, 134.

Odius; 153.

Odobscnus ; 56, 554.

Odontarrhena ; 205.

Odontella; 518, 519.

Odonthalia; 520.

Odoutidium ; 283.

Odontotremc; 292.

(Eborg, Dr. ; 417.

Q<]demia ; 111.

(Edicerus ; 155.

ffidobccnus ; 180.

Oersted, A. S. ; 167.

Oleandra; 386.

Oligobranchus ; 1 72.

Oliver, Professor D., on Plants from

Greenland ; 267, 268.
Olrik, C. J. M. ; 391, 418, 468, 471,

477.
Umatoplea; 179.
O'Meara, llev. E., on Arctic Diatoms;

529.
Omraaney, Capt. ; 532.
Onagrariea; ; 229, 246.
Onchidiopsis ; 126.
Onchocotyle ; 182.
Onelrodes ; 117.
Oniscus; 150, 151, 153, 154, 155,

156, 158,159.
Onisimus ; 152.
Onuphis; 171.
Ophelia; 171, 172.
Ophelina ; 171.
Ophiacantha ; 185.
Ophidium ; 500.
Ophioconui ; 185,511,513.
Ophioglypha ; 137,185.
Ophiolepis ; 185.
Ophiopecten ; 185.
Ophiophobis ; 185.
Ophiopus ; 185.
Ophioscolex ; 185.
Opliiostomum ; 183.
Ophiura ; 504, 510, 511, 513.
Ophiuirida) ; 185.
Opilio; 508.
Opiliones ; 145.
Opis; 151.
Oporabia ; 502.

64, 503, 510.
86, 290.

0.

81.
J4.

354.
05.
519.

J.

)2.

7.

167.

172.

D., on Plants from
67, 268.
; 391,418, 468,471,

., on Arctic Diatoms;

; 532.
I, 246.
6.
2.

,51, 153, 154, 155,

INDEX.

773

511, 513.
17, 185.

Id, 511, 513.

Opsonais ; 177.

Orca ; 3, 7, 8, 75, 85.

Orchidea) ; 234.

Orchis ; 205.

Orchomene ; 152.

Orcula; 184.

Origin of the Ovifak irons; 460.

Oritlijia; 164.

Orobaiichetc ; 232.

Orthis; 533.

Orthoccras ; 368, 533, 542, 543.

Orthoptera ; 385.

Orthotucnia ; 502.

Orthotrichnm ; 238, 255, 272.

Oscillatoriacea) ; 280, 282, 516, 520,

521.
Osmunda ; 370, 380, 386, 387.
Osprey ; 96.
Ostracoda from Greenland, Mr. G. S.

Brady on the ; 160, 166.
Ostrya ; 369, 382.
Othonia; 176.
Otiorhynchus ; 142.
Otocerys ; 99.
Otozamites ; 387.
Otus; 1.53.

Ovibos ; 2, 6, 8, 13, 22, 34, 179, 500.
Ovifak, meteorites, &c. from; 438,

447, 450.
Ovis; 8, 11, 27.
Owen, Professor R. ; 56, 499, 503,

551.
Owls; 97.
Oxalis; 219.
Oxyopes ; 501.
Oxyria; 204, 233, 249, 266, 270,

515.
Oxytropis; 203,205,215, 219, 221,

228, 525.
Oystercatcher ; 100.

Paars, Major ; 390.

Pagomys ■ 6, 8, 12, 40, 41, 43, 52.

Pagophila; 105.

Pagophilus ; 6, 8, 37, 43, 45, 46, 49,

55.
Paguriis; 146, 163, 508.
Palajmonidse ; 562.
Paliurus ; 369, 379, 384.
Pallene; 164.
PalmellaceBC ; 282, 517.
Panax; 388.
Pandalus* ; 148.
Paudion ; 96.
Pandora ; 511.
Pannaria ; 274, 290, 292, 298, 306.

Panoniya ; 131.

Pansch, Dr. A. ; 95, 554.

Papaver; 203, 225, 244, 254, 261,

263, 264, 268, 514, 531, 573.
Papiliones ; 142.
Papilionidca ; 502.
Parak'pis; 121.
Paramphithoi.' ; 153, 154, 155.
Parapleustes ; 153.
Parathemisto ; 158.
Pardalisca ; 156.

Parker and Jones on Foraminifera
from Davis Strait and Baffin's
Bay ; 192, 193.
Parlatore ; 210.

Parmelia ; 253, 254, 255, 274, 285,
287, 291, 292, 297, 305, 522, 527,
583.
Parnassia; 205, 207, 219, 221, 229.
Parrya ; 20.3, 205, 215, 216, 219,

226, 383, 514, 525.
Parry, Captain ; 485, 499, 500, 501,

503, 537.
Parry Islands, Animal life iu ; 498.

the MoUusca of; 511.

Flora of the; 224.

Parula ; 98.
Pasiphaii; 148.
Patella; 512.
Patellina; 192, 193.
Patrobus ; 141.
Payer, Lieut. ; 377, 589.

on Frrnz-Joseph Land ; 596,

598.
Peachia; 186.
Pecopteris; 370, 380, 386, 387, 470,

478.
Pecten ; 133, 134, 137, 361, 410, 507,

512.
Pectinaria; 136, 174, 512.
Pedeticus; 502.
Pedicia; .501.

Pedicularis ; 204, 205, 207, 210, 216,
218, 220, 231, 248, 249, 264, 265,
266, 270, 525, 577.
Pediculus ; 145.
Pegesimallus ; 163.
Pelerin ; 123.
Pelonaia ; 138, 513.
Peltidea ; 265, 290, 292, 297, 298,

305.
Peltigera ; 242, 274.
Peltogaster; 163.
Pempelia ; 143.
Peniculus ; 162.
Penium ; 282.
Penuella; 158, 163.
Pentamerns ; 533, 543.
Pentatcmia ; 385.
Penny, Captain ; 352, 355, 515, 522,

532.
Peristylus; 218,234.

774

INDEX.

W^'

rertiisaria" ; 287, 292, 308.

IVteis, Dr. W., Mammals and Fishes

of E. (iiei'ulauil ; r).">4.

4, 28, .Oti.

Petti grew ; 37.

Petrels; 108.

Pftromyzou ; 122.

Peyssonelia ; 240.

Pfaff, Dr. G. ; 45, 4;}.'>, 44(5, 470, 478.

Phaca ; 208, 21'.), 221, 228, 525.

Phoenoganis ; I'JH, 215, 254, 268, 380.

Phsesyle ; 143.

Phalacrocorax ; 110.

Phalsena;; 143.

Phalscnida) ; 502.

Phalangida; ; 508.

Phalaugiiim ; 145, 103.

Phaluris ; 220, 230.

Phalaropus ; 102.

Phallusia; 138, 513.

Phauerostomum ; 1 94.

Phascolosoma ; 178.

Pherusa ; 154, 155.

Philine; 125.

Philonexis ; 512.

Phippsia; 204, 205, 237, 252, 271,

515, 525.
Phleura ; 203, 210, 218, 222, 236.
Phlox ; 216, 232.
Phobetor ; 116, 162, 177, 501.
Phoca ; 2, 6, 8, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46,

53, 54, 55, 58, 64, 180, 181, 182,

183, 414, 500, 554.
Phoceena; 7, 8, 86, 87.
Pholoe ; 168.
Photis; 157.
Phoxichilidium ; 164.
Phoxichilus ; 164,503.
Phoxus; 156.

Phragmites; 220, 370, 379, 381.
Phryganea; 142.
Phryganeidffi ; 502.
Phryxus ; 1 50.
Phylline; 182.
Phyllites ; 384, 385, 388.
Phyllodoce; 136, 169,203, 210, 218,

222,231,270.
Phyllophora; 503,521,522.
Phyllopoda ; 159, 505.
Physalus ; 6, 8, 83.
Physcia ; 274, 292, 298, 3O0, 527.
Physema ; 125.
Physeter ; 84, 85.
Physophora ; 1 90.
Phytolitharia ; 195.
Pliytomyza ; 144.
Phytonomus; 142.
Picea; 215,234, 586.
Piezata ; 142.
Pilsc-whale ; 84 .
Pilidium ; 130, 137, 138.
Pim, Lieut. ; 537, 539.

Pingcl, Dr., on the sinking of S.-W.

(Ircunlaud ; 482.
ringuicula; 220, 232, 270.
Pinitcs; 381.
rinniitedia ; 35, 554.
rinimiaria ; 320, 530.
I'intiiil; 112.
rinus; 208, 234, 381, 387, 430,

5'J9.
I'iophiia; 144.
I'ipits ; 98, 99.
Pisidiuui ; 131, 135.
riacodium ; 255, 274, 289, 297, 298,

307, 527.
Planaria; 178.
I'laneru ; 370, 382.
rianorhis; 124, 135.
rian()rl)ulinii ; 193, 195, 571.
Flantago; 220, 233, 270.
rhiats, Arctic JMiocene ; 378.
(listriliiitiou of Arctic ; 197.

fossil, of (ircfnlaiul ; 308.

fossil, of 15anks' Land ; 538.

fossil, of Spitzbergen ; 594.

from IJarrow Strait, ike, SirW.

.1. Hooker cm simie ; 514.
• from Uootliia ; 533.
from E. Greenland; 572, 573.

frcmi (ircenland, &c., Sir W,

.1. llooktr on some ; 239.

from Parry Isles ; 531.

from Smith Sound, collected by

Dr. J}essels; .321.

from South Greenland; 579.

from West Greenland and Smith

Sound; 241.

of Baffin's Buy ; 242.

of Greenland, near and about

Disco Bay, Dr. 11. Brown on

thii ; 256.
PlanuHna; 194.
L'latanthcru ; 205, 220.
riatanus ; 378, 379, 383, 438.
Platybdella; 177.
Platycyamus ; 158.
Platyderus ; 507.
Platysma; 255, 292, 527.
Plcctrophanes ; 99.
Pleiirobranchia ; 187.
Pleurogyue ; 209, 232.
Pleuronectida? ; 120, 102,501.
Pleuropogon; 205, 215, 216, 237,

252, 321, 525, 531.
Pleurosigma; 518, 519, 530.
Pleurotoma ; 127, 128.
Pleurotomaria ; 546.
Pleustes; 154.
Pliny ; 48.
Plovers ; 101, 322.
PlumbaginesD ; 233, 249.
Plumularia ; 505.
Plusia; 143.

If sinkiiiji; of S.-W.

1^.12, 270.

■,'A.
r,30.

)4, MSI, 387, 430,

, 274, 289, 297, 298,

■*2.

135.

1)3, 19"), .'J71.

233, 270.

liouene; 37H.

I of Arctic ; 197.

rci'ulaiid ; 368.

aiiks,' Liind ; 538.

pitzbergen ; 594.

)w Strait, iStc, SirW.

V on sonic ; 514.

liu ; 533.

rcenlaud ; 572, 573.

enland, &c., Sir W.

■r on some ; 239.

y Isles; 531.

1 Sound, collected l\v

.'Is; .321,

I (ireenland; 579.

(ireenlandand Smith

!41.

]5ay; 242.

and, near and abont

y, Dr. 11. Brown on

220.
»79, 383, 438.

58.

\>[)2, 527.
|99.

187.
I), 232.

|l20, lf)2, 501.
]05, 215, 216, 237,

531.
\S, 519, 530.

', 128.

546.

l33, 249.

INDEX.

4 iO

rintelia ; 143.

I'oa; 204, 237, 251, 252, 254, 271,

321, 515, 578.
Poacites; 387.
roilicops ; 110.
I'ddoeenis; 157, 158.
I'odosira ; 320, 530.
Todosplienia ; 320, 530.
I'odozaniitL's ; 375.
Todura ; 145, 508.
rodurelhe; 514.
rogonatiim ; 253, 254, 526.
I'oiar B.'ar; 15, 40, 58, 498, 499,

554,
Polaris Bay, Dr. Bessels on ; 553,
"Polaris," Voyagi- of, Notes on
CleolofjfV and Natural History;
321.

Polenionium ; 204, 22.5, 232, 576,
58 1 .

Pollicita; 172.

Polyactinia ; I8(i.

Polybastia ; 298, 299.

Polybostricliiis ; 170.

Polycera ; 125.

Polycirrus ; 175.

Polycystina; 194, 195.

Poly^Mla; 215, 228.

Polygastrica ; 195.

Polyooniun ; 204, 208, 220, 233, 249,
270, 383, 515.

Polvmorphina ; 192, 193.

Polynoe; 1C7, 168, 504.

Polyonunatiis ; 502.

Polypodium; 237, 241.

Poivporites ; 380.

Polvsiphonia ; 240, 278, 516, 519,
520, 521, .522,

Polystemma; 179.

Polystiiduun ; 2.38,

Polystonu'llii ; 192, 193, 194.

Polythalaniia ; 195.

Polvtrichura ; 238, 241, 255, 265,
272, 273,

Polyzoa: 1.39, 192,568.

Porella; 141.

Porina ; 140.

Porphyra: 241,280,521.

Porphyrii's of South Greenland ; 332.

Porpoise ; 86, 87.

Port Kennedy, some plants from ;
524.

Port Keimedy, Temperature at ; 528.

PortulaceiE ; 229.

Pontia; 160.

Pontogeneia; 154.

Pontoporeia ; 151.

Pontoppidan ; 34, 57,

Populus; 215, 234, 369, 370, 378,
379, 382, 387, 388, 438, 478,

Potamilla; 175.

Potamorreton ; 221, 234, 3S2.

Polentilla; 2ol 204, 208,218, 219,
222, 228, 246, 261, 269, 514, 572,
575,
I'raniza; 150,

i'rasiola; 241, 280, 281, 516,
Triapulus; 1.36, 178.
Primitive limestuue • 333.

roeks ; 327,335,341,468.

i trap; 333.

I I'rimula; 2o7, 210, 220, 233.
I Proeeilaria ; 107, 181.

I'roetaporia ; 125,
' I'l-odiietii-^ ; 54.3,551,552.

Proetus; 533.

I'roteoide.'i; 388.

I'rotoeoeeiis ; 398,517, 523.

Protomcdeia ; 157.

Pfotojiteris ; 388.

I'rotuia ; 1 77.

Pruii'.'Ua; 220.

Vvmnis ; 207, 215, 228, 369, 384,

I'seudurca ; 3.

I'silemallns ; 163,

J'silopilum ; 272.

Psolus; 184.

Psora; 309,

Psoroma ; 307.

Psychopliora ; 502, 507,

Ptiirmiea ; 208, 209, 216, 230.

rtarmigan ; 100, 322, 399, 498.

Pteuoglossata ; 125.

Pteraster; 185.

I'teris; 380.

Pterophylluin ; 387,

Pteropoda ; 126,

Pterosjiermites ; 384.

Ptilidium ; 242, 273.

Ptilota ; 240, 279, 520, 522.

Ptychophyllum : 5.33,

Pulfinus; 108.

Puilasok be(U ; 377, 422, 438,

Pulex ; 144.

Pnlvinulina; 192, 193, 194,571.

Punotaria ; 520.

I'upa; 124, 135,487.

Purpura; 129.

Putorius ; 34.

Pvenogonida ; 145, 103, 164, 566.

Pylodexia; 195,

Pyral'<li'P; 14;^-

Pyrenopsis ; 290, 292, 299, 303.

Pvrenothea ; 310.

PVrethrum; 205,219, 230.

Pyrola; 204, 220, 221,228, 231, 248,

2«>9, 515, 576, 579.

Nr.

770

INDIOX.

ms

Q-

(iiialc, Mr. ; 4G'.>.

tiiK'dius ; 142.

(iucen-Mariji Valley, j)Iants of; 372.

(iiKTcus ; 370, ;37'), ;J82.

(iuinqiu'loculiiiu ; Il»2, 193, 194, 19.j.

(iuoyia; 188.

R

Jtachiglossata ; 128.

■Kuconiitriuiii ; 241, 2.j5, 2G.>.

Kaia ; 122, lti2, 182.

Kails; 100.

Kalfsia ; 520.

Karaalina ; 287, 292.

Kamphoiuj'ia ; 144.

IJangifer ; G, 8, 23.

Ranunculus ; 203, 204, 205, 208,
210, 219, 221, 222, 225, 242, 261,
208, 514, 525, 531, 573, 579, 581.

Rat; 21.

Raven ; 99, 399.

Kazorback ; 83.

Razor bill ; 109.

Redpolls ; 99.

Red Rain ; 4G5.

Red Snow ; 238.

Redwing; 98.

Reefkol; 366.

Regulus ; 98.

Rehiiller; 92.

Reindeer ; 23, 498.

Reindeer-moss ; 301,302.

Reinhardt; 2, 34, 82, 92, 94, 115,
146.

Reniera; 190.

Retepora ; 141.

Retinite; 430.

Rhabdonema; 319,320,518,519,530.

Rhamnns ; 370, 379, 384.

Rhexophiale; 309.

Rhinanthus ; 232.

Rhinodina ; 308, 583.

Rhipidoglossata ; 129.

Rhizocarpon ; 309.

Rhizoclonium ; 520.

Rhizolenia ; 530.

Rhododendron; 207, 231, 248, 261,
263, 264, 270,

Rhodomelacea) ; 240, 278, 520, 521.
Rhodophyllis ; 278,521.
Rhodospermesc; 240, 278, 516, 520.
Khodostethia ; 105,

Uliod} moniacu) ; 240, 255, 267,279,

520, 526.
Kims ; 348, 388.
Ithyiiclioaella; l.'J3, 220, 355, 368,

5.);}, 534, 53.'>, 5 42, 589.
Uhyuchota; 144, 385.
Rhytidosonius ; 142.
Rhytisiuu ; 380.
Kibes; 219, 221, 229.
Richardson, Sir .1.; 94, 216, 485,

499, 500, 501, 5.}2, 592.
Kif'Uol ; 366.
Right-Whale; 70, 86.
Kiiik,])r. 11.; 1, 52, 352, 369, 391,

405, 410, 418, 433, 447, 467, 469,

471.
on the Rocks and minerals of

(jlreeiilaud ; 496.
Kise and fall of (Jreenhind ; 483.
Itising and sinking of the ground ;

409.
Rise of land around tJie North pole ;

483.
Rissa; 106.
Rissoa; 127, 137.
Rissoella ; 127.
Rivularia ; 516, 526.
Roek-nosed Whale ; 80.
Rocks and Minerals from South

Greenland, Giesecke's list of; 349.
Rocks and Minerals of Greenland,

Dr. Rink on ; 496.
Recks, Ktheridge, R., on some Arc-
tic; 541.
Rocks from South Greenland, Ur.

Vrba on some ; 590.
Ror^. -^lus; 83.
Rosa; 219, 221, 228.
Rosacea) ; 228, 575.
Rosalinu; 194.
liosmarus ; r>G,
Ross, J. ; 446, 499, 500, 503, 524,

532.

J.C. ; 499, 500, 501, 503.

Rossia ; 130, 505.

Rotalia; 195.

Rotten Ice; 314, 519.

Rubiacesc ; 230.

Rubus ; 203, 215, 218, 219, 221, 228,

384, 572.
Rudolph, Dr. ; 258, 447.
Rumex ; 218, 233.

S.

Sabclla; 173, 174, 175, 176.
Sabellides ; 1 74.

Sabine, E., on Meteoric Iron, used
by the Esquimaux ; 325.

40, 2.Vi, 267, 27'J,

J3, 220, 355, ;368,

12, 58;>.

:}85.

12.

i2'.».

J.; J)4, 21«, 485,

.■52, 5y2.

8(5.

52, 352, 3G9, 391,
433, 447, 467, 469,

cs and minorals of

i.

i-eouliind ; 483.

ig of the ground ;

id the Nortli polo ;

26.

e ; 80.

erals from South

sucke's list of ; 349.

rals of Greenland,

t96.

, K., on some Arc-

tli Greenland, Dr.
590.

128.

[99, 500, 503, 524,
f)00, 501, 503.

il9.

|218, 219,221,228,
), 447.

INUK.X.

4 i7

Sal.iiRsE. ; 94, 210,362, 500,503,524.

Saddleback ; 46, 49, 65.

Sahinea ; 146, 504.

Sadler, J., on Honie Arctic Crypto-
gams ; 253, 256.

Sajnuris ; 177.

Sagina; 205, 208,227.

Sagilta; 178, 512.

Sagittaria; 382.

Salaeia ; 189.

Salishurca ; 376, 387.

Salix; 204,205,207, 210, 211, 213,
215,216,218, 220, 222, 234,249,
250, 254, 264, 270, 379, 382, 438,
472, 478, 515, 525, 531, 577, 580.

Salmo ; 121, 122, 161, 181, 182, 183,
501, 505.

SalHola; 383.

Salter, J. W., on Arctic Fossils ; 355,

531,

552.

175, 176.

jtcoric Iron, used
; 325.

Salticus ; 50 1.
Sanderling ; 102.
Sandpipers ; 103.
Sauguisorba; 219, 228.
Santalaeeu) ; 233.
Sapindus ; 388.
Sarcocyphus ; 242, 273.
Sarcopluiga ; 144.
Sarraceuia ; 215,226.
Sassafras ; 376, 383, 388.
Saussurea ; 205, 213, 216, 220, 231.
Saxicava; 58, 131, 134, 136, 137,

361,409,410, 487, 506, 511,536,

559.
Saxlcola; 59, 98, 180, 183.
Saxieolous Lichens ; 287.
Saxifraga; 203, 204,205, 209, 213,

215, 218, 219, 225, 229, 246, 247,

254, 264, 269, 514, 515, .525, 531,

575,579,581.
Scalaria ; 125, 506.
Scalibregma ; 172.
Scapania ; 273.
Scatophaga ; 144, 502, 508.
Scheuchzeria ; 220.
Schistocephalus ; 181.
Schizonema ; 241, 320, 518, 530.
Schmidt, O.; 190,570.
Sciara ; 144.
Scione ; 175.

Scirpus ; 208, 220, 236, 271.
Scissurella ; 130, 137, 138.
Sclerophylliua ; 386.
Scleropteris ; 386.
Sclerotium ; 380.
Scolecolepis ; 173.
Scoloplos ; 171.
Scomberoidei ; 115.
Scope! us ; 121.
Scoresby, on the colours of the Sea ;

312,313,318.
2, 13, 51, 73, 74, 76, 420.

Scott, K. II.; 368, 37), 418.

Scrag- Whale; 82.

Scrophularia ; 220.

Siropliulariacua ; 577.

Scrophuhirineie ; 232, 24;?.

Scurvy-grass ; 266.

Scymuus ; 79.

Scytonemeu) ; 398, 516, 521, 526.

Sea-buttonis, Arctic ; 365.

Sea-dog ; 41.

Seal-fishery ; 67.

Sea-horse ; 56.

Sea-pig ; 86.

Seals; 35,41, 80, 322, 498.

Sebastes; 117, 122, 161, 162, 163,

181.
Section at Atano ; 431.

at Atanekerdluk ; 430, 432,

435.

at Hkkorfat ; 427.

at Hare Island ; 339.

at Ilecr's Creek ; 479.

at Kome (Kook) ; 429.

at Kudlisaiet ; 339, 479.

lower part of, at Atanerkud-

luk ; 430.

near Godhavn ; 338.

Sections at Evigtok ; 345, 346.
Sedum ; 204, 218, 221, 229, 259, 266,

575, 579.
Selaclms ; 122, 123.
Selagines ; 386.
Senccio ; 203, 216, 219, 221, 230,

525.
Sentellaria ; 220.
Sepia; 88, 512.
Sepiola ; 130.
Sequoia; 369, 370, 371, 375, 376,

379, 381, 387, 430, 431, 437, 438,

477, 590.
Sergestes ; 148, 165.
Serpula; 138, 176, 177, 192, 513.
Sertularella; 189,190,568.
Sertularla; 134, 188, 189, 192, 505,

568.
Service-tree ; 287.
Seseli ; 230.
Shale and slate ; 425.
Shark; 134.
Shearwaters; 108.
Sheep; 182.
Shepherdia ; 233.
Shore-lark; 99.
Sibbaldia; 218, 222, 269.
Sibbaldius ; 83.

Sideritic shale, with plants ; 475.
Sieversia; 203, 205, 215, 228, .525.
Sigalionidaj ; 168.

Sigillaria ; 388, 425, 435, 470, 478.
Silene ; 204, 215, 227, 245, 254, 264,

268.
Silenium ; 162.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

<0

.V^

1.0

I.I

145

|50 — -

2^ |25
2.2

2.0

1.25

IJ^I^

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Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

^:avv^

%

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) £72-4503

0

^

'1^

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INDEX.

!h>l

i \

Silurian rocks ; 855, 368, 532, 537,

r>42, ri47, 5r.o.

Siinploearia ; 142.

Siniuiia; 144, 501.

Sinkiiif,' of S. W. Greenland, Dr.

Vmpt'l on ; 482.
Sinnifik Iteds; 377, 422, 437.
Siphonact'oc ; 27!>.
Siphonodcntaliiim ; 130.
Siphonostonia ; 172.
Siphonostomuni ; 13(5.
Siplionot'ootcs ; 158.
Sipluinc'ulata ; 145.
Sipunculidii; ; 107, 178.
Sirosiplion ; 510.
Sis.vmbiimn ; 211, 21il, 221, 225.
Sisvrincrhiiini ; 235.
Skenea; 127, 134.
Sketch of the Meteorites; 440.
Skuas ; 1()7.
Skulls of Dogs; 55.5.
Slate and Shale ; 425.
Suiilacina ; 220, 234.
Sniilax; 382.
Smith, Dr. A. ; 123.

Dr. L. ; 460.

Spartina ; 208, 237.

Specific gravity of sea-water ; 364.

Spectrum of aurorip ; 467.

Spergula ; 218.

Sperm-whale ; 85.

Sphacclkuia ; 277, 520, 522.

Sphecria ; 380.

Spha!rococcoidcffi ; 240.

SphiLM'odorum ; 172.

Sphicrophoria ; 144.

Sphaerophoron ; 265, 276, 2<t2, 297,

303, 527.
Sphagnum; 241, 272.
Spheuopteris ; 375, 380, 386, 545.
Sphyropicus ; 97.
Spiders of Greenland, Schitidte's list

of; 145.
Spiders, Arctic; 322, 501, 514.
Spio; 173, 512.
Spiochactopterus ; 173.
Smith, G., on some Fungi from

Greenland ; 283.
Smith Sound, I'lants of; 225, 241,

321.

rocks of; 354.

Snipes ; 104.

Snow, meteoric particles in; 462.

Socarnes ; 151.

Solaster ; 185, 511, 513.

Solidago; 216, 219,236.

Solieria; 255.

Solorina; 274, 292, 294, 305, 527.

Somateria ; HI, 112, 180, 183.

Somniosus; 122, 150, 161, 162, 181,

182, 186.
SoDchus ; 220, 231.

Sorbus ; 267, 384, 526.
Soundings, Arctic ; 365.
Sparganium ; 208, 221, 235, 382,

388.
Sjuonidtc ; 173.
Spiophanes ; 173.
Spinea; 208, 209, 219, 221.
Spiraiithcs; 215, 235.
Spirifer; 368, 533, 543, 544, 551,

552.
Spirilliua; 192, 193.
Spirorhis; 136, 137, 138,176, 177,

.504, 513.
Spitzbergen ; 13, 35, 42, 43, 47, .50,

52, 54, .58, 61, 66, 72, 74, 79, HI,

13.5, 196, 198, 203, 209, 210, 221,

224,241, 272,295, 312,318,371,

372, 374, 375, 377, 378, 379, 404,

415, 418, 492, .590, .591, 593.
Splachnum ; 255, 582.
Sponges, calcareous and soft ; 570.

siliceous ; 570.

si)iculcsof; 195,571.

Spongia ; 505.

Spongozoa of Greenland; 190.

Spm-astatia ; 298, 299.

Sporo(Ouiacea! ; 239, 515,520.

Springer ; 50.

Spruce Fir ; 540, 544.

S(|ualus; 122, 134.

Stiuamaria; 274, 287, 290,291,292,

307, 527.
Squamarieai ; 240.
Scpiatarola ; 101, 183.
Sipiilla; 159.
Snichys ; 220, 232.
Staphylinus ; 142.
Starling ; 99.
Staurastrmu ; 2S2.
Stauroneis; 283, 319, .320, 518, 519,

530.
Staurothele ; 310.
Steatite; 468.
Steenstrup, Prof. J. ; 13, 14, 36, 165,

450.

Dr. J., on the branchial fringes

of the Basking Shark ; 123.

K. J. V. ; 468.

Stegocephalns ; 153, 509.

Stellaria ; 204, 205, 215, 218, 219,

227, 245, 2.54, 263, 268, 478, 514,

525, .531,574.
Stemmatopus ; 64.
Stercorarius ; 107.
Stereocaulon ; 253, 254, 255, 275,

285, 289, 292, 206, 304, 527, 533.
Stoma; 105, 179.
Steruaspis; 173.
Sterope; 160.
Stichseus; 118, 161.
Stichaster; 185.
Stictse ; 287, 292, 298, 305.

INDEX.

770

543, 544, 551,

, 138, 17G, 177,

^7, 290,291,292,

9, 320, 518, 519,

13, 14, 36, 165,

branchial fringes
iiig Shark ; 123.

509.

215, 218, 219,
3, 268, 478, 514,

254, 25.5, 275,
, 304, 527, 533.

Stlgnuuia ; 374.

Stimpson, Dr., on some Arctic Marine
Invertebrates ; 135.

Stingl, J., Hocks of E. Greenland ;
589.

Stoniias ; 121.

Stoiiiobraeliium; 189.

Stone implements ; 413, 417.

fetrephodes ; 534.

{>trei)silas ; 100, 180.

Streptopiis; 221.

Striatelhi; 530.

Stromatopora ; 549.

Strong} loeentrotiis ; 184.

Stropliodonta ; 368.

Strophomena ; 368, 533, 534, 542.

Sturnus ; 9.

Stylastra:a ; 551.

Suberites ; 190.

Subsidence and elevation ; 409.

Subularia; 219.

Succinea ; 124, 135.

Suctoria ; 144.

Sula; 110.

Sulphur-showers ; 465.

Surf- scoter; 111.

Surrirella; 320,518, .5.30.

Sus ; 22.

Sutherland, P. C, Geological and Gla-
cial I'henomena of Davis Strait and
Baffin's Bay ; 352.

on some Arctic Ascidia and

Echinoderms; 513.

on some Arctic Molluscs ; 511.

137, 166, 239, 256, 314, 468,

514, 515, 522, 532, 536.
Swainson ; 94.
Swallow; 97.
Swan ; 113.
Swift; 97.

Switzerland, ice of ; 402.
Sword-fish ; 85.
Sycaltis; 191.
Sycandra ; 191.
Sycinula ; 191.
Sycon; 191.
Syenite; 332, 591.
Syllis; 170,512.
Sylon; 163.
Syncoryne; 188.
Synechoblastus ; 303.
Synedra; 283, 320, 518, 519, 530.
Syuistata; 142,
Synoicum ; 139.

Syringopora; 368, 534, 543, 551.
Syrphida; ; 502.
Syrphus ; 144.
Syrrhoo ; 153, 156.

T.

Tabellaria ; 283, 530,
Tachina; 502.
Ta-nia; 179, 180, 181.

Tienioglossata ; 126.

Tajniopteris ; 430.

Talitrus ; 154, 192, 503, 504.

Tauaoetum ; 219.
Tanypleurus ; 162.

Taiiypus ; 143.

Tape-worms ; 179, 182.

Taraxacum; 204, 231, 247,270, 321,
.525.

Tauria ; 1 58.

Taxites; 379, 380, 438.

Taxodium ; 370, 375, 378, 379, 381,
437.

Tayler, J. W., minerals from Green-
land ; 351.

on the Cryolite of Evigtok ; 344,

468.

on tin-ore at Evigtok ; 349.

Taylor, James, on plants of Baffin's
Bay ; 242.

Teals; 112.

Tectura; 130, 133.

Tecturella; 126, 172.

Tegmr, A. T. ; 14,471.

Telethusa; ; 172.

Tellina ; 131, 134, 410, 506, 511.

Temperature at Port Kennedy, Dr.
Walker on the ; 528.

Teras; 143.

Terebella; 175, 512, 513.

Terebellida; ; 174.

Terebellides ; 175.

Terebratella ; 133.

Terebratula; 133, 544, 545, 559.

Terebratulina ; 133.

Teredo; 130, 1.34.

Tern; 105.

Terricolous Lichens ; 287.

Tertiary basalts; 421.

Tessarops ; 158.

Tetraplodon; 241.

Tetrabothrium ; 18.

Tetrastomma ; 179.

Textularia; 192, 193, 195.

'J'halassidroma ; 108.

Thalictrum ; 207, 225, 268.

Thalloidima ; 309.

Thallophytes; 242.

Thamnolia; 275, 291, 297, 304.

Thaumautias ; 189.

Thecophora ; 190.

Thelepus; 175.

Thelidium; 299.

Themisto ; 136, 158, 504, 509, 565.

Thersites; 161.

Thlaspi ; 208, 219, 221, 225.

780

INDEX.

I.

K .

Thomson, T. ; 350.

Thorcllia; IGO, 565.

Thniciu ; 131.

Throsher-Shnik ; 78.

ThuiU's ; 375, 380, 387.

Thyasira ; 131.

Thysanopoda; 148,562.

Thysanura ; 145, 508.

Thymus ; 203, 218, 232.

Tiaropsis ; 189.

Tilia; 375,384.

Till deposit ; 367.

Tineao; 143.

Tinodes; 502.

Tin-ore at Evigtok, J. "VV. Tayler on
the; 34'J.

Tinunculus ; 96.

Tipula; 143, .'502, 5U7, 508.

Tiron ; 156.

Tisbe; 160.

Tofieldia ; 234, 250, 270.

Toraopteris ; 177.

Toninia; 298,309.
Torell, Dr. ()., on animal life at
great depths; 195.

3, 19,418.

Torcllia; 380.

Torreya; 387.

Tortrices; 143.

Tortricida; ; 502, 507.

Tortula ; 272.

Toiila, Dr. Fr., on the Geology of E.

Greenland ; 586.
Toxoglossata ; 127.
Toxopneustes; 184.
Trachynema ; 188.
Transition rocks ; 327.
Trap-formation ; 333, 334, 336, 337,

353, 420, 423, 472, 497.
Tiavisia; 172.
Trematoda ; 182.
Tnassic rocks ; 593.
Triblionella ; 530.
Triceratium ; 518,519.
Trichechus ; 2, 6, 8, 11, 12, 56, 414,

500.
Trichobranchus ; 175.
Trichocera ; 144.
Trichodectes ; 145.
Trichoptera ; 142, 502.
Trichostomum ; 238.
Trichotopis; 127.
Trichotropis ; 512.
Triciitalis ; 220.
Trifolium; 221.
Tiiglochin ; 220, 234.
Triglops; 116.
Triloculina; 192, 193, 194.
Tringa; 103, 180.
Tripe-de-roche ; 301, 302.
Trisetum ; 237, 252, 261, 271, 525.
Triticum ; 220, 237.

Tritonia ; 125, 134.

Triton! urn j 128, 129, 134, 410.

Tritropis; 154.

Trochammina; 192,193.

Trochus ; 129.

Troglodytes; 98.

Trofjosita; 385.

Trollius ; 205.

Trophon; 134, 506, 512.

Trophonia; 172.

Troximon; 231.

Truncatulina ; 192,193,194.

Tschmermuk ; 458.

Tiibipora; 139.

Tubularia; 176, 188, 281, 505.

Tiibulipora; 139, 281.

Tubuliporidaj ; 569.

Tnnicata of East Greenland ; 556.

of Greenland, Dr. C. Liitkcn

on the ; 138.

some Arctic ; 503.

Turbellaria ; 1 78, 560.
Turbo; 512.
Tardus; 98.
Turner; 92.
Turnstone; 100.
Turritella; 127, 137, 506.
Turrites : 205, 218, 219, 226.
Tuitonia; 131, 134.
Tyndaridea ; 521, 526.
Typha ; 208, 220, 235.
Typhacese ; 382.

u.

Udonella; 178.

Ulnus; 382.

Ulonata ; 142.

Ulothrix ; 28, 516.

Ulva; 238,241, 255, 280, 520,521,

522.
Ulvacea; ; 241.
Umbellifera; ; 229.
Umbellula; 186.
Umbilicaria; 255, 275, 287, 290,

291, 292, 297, 301, 306, 522, 527.
Unicorn ; 88.
Unio; 487.
Uraster; 511, 513.
Urceolaria ; 254, 292, 308, .522, 528.
Urgonian stage ; 375.
Uria; 109, 179, 180, 181, 183, 514.
Uromyces ; 283.
Urouoctes; 119.
Ursa stage ; 374.

Ursus; 6, 8, 15, 30, 414, 499, 554,
Urtica ; 215, 233.

•J, 134, 410.
193.

512.
193, 194.

I, 281, 505.
II.

cenland ; 556,
Dr. C. Liitken

503.
50.

', 506.
219, 226.

26.
35.

INDEX.

781

), 280, 520, 521,

275, 287, 290,
, 306, 522, 527.

I, 308, .522, 528.
181, 183, 514.

414, 499, 554,

Urticina; 186.

Usnca ; 238, 287, 290, 292, 304.

Ute; 191.

Utricularia ; 220, 232.

Utriculus ; 125. .

Uvigerina; 192, 193.

V.

Vaccinium ; 204, 207, 210, 215, 220,

231,248,266, 269,472.
Valeriana ; 215, 219, 230.
Velutina; 126, 506.
Vanellus; 100.
Venus; 131.
Veratrum ; 220.
Vermes of E. Greenland ; 559.
Verneuilina; 192.
Veronica; 203, 210,218,220, 222,

232, 264, 270.
Verrucaria; 255, 286, 287, 290, 291,

292,298, 299,310.
Vertigo ; 1 24.
Vertumnus ; 153.
Vesicaria; 218,226,244.
Viburnum ; 207, 208, 219, 230, 383.
Vicia; 221, 228.
Viola ; 204, 21.5, 219, 221, 227.
Vireosylvia ; 97.
Virgulina; 192, 571.
Vitis; .383.

Yitriua; 124, 134, 135, 265.
Volcanic dust ; 464.
Yolutomitra; 512.
Von Baer ; 289.
Vulpes; 6, 8, 17.
Vrba, Dr. K., on some Rocks from

South Greenland ; 590.

w.

Wagtail; 98.
Wahlenoerg ; 210.
Walckenaera ; 508.
Walker, Capt. J. ; 65.

Dr. D., on Insects and Arach-
nids from Port Kennedy and Pond's
Bay; .507.

on the temperature at Port Ken-
nedy ; 528.

95, 215, 216, 285, 368, 418,

471, 505, 533, 552.
Wallace, Dr. ; 4, 35, 37, 44, 50.
Wallieh, Dr. G. C, Dredgings at
Goodhaab; 512.

Wallieh, Dr. ; 503.

Walrus; 11,56,57,75,409.

Warbler; 97,98.

Wartha, Dr. ; 480.

Weissia; 241,272.

Weisstoin ; 327, 329, 301.

Wellington Channel, Alga; from; 515.

Wells, Capt. ; 78.

Wells, .I.e.; 594.

Whale; 70,313, 316,317,319, 336,

409, 492, 495, 552.
Whalebone ; 72.
Whale-fishery; 82.
Whale's food; 76, 315.
Whale-oil ; 74.
Wheatear; 98.
Whelks; 135.
Whimbrel; 104.
White-coat; 46.
White Whale ; 86, 87, 90, 93.
Whortleberry ; 287.
Whymper, K. ; 14, 366, 370, 391, 407,

418, 433,468,471,472,486.
Widdringtonia ; 381, 387, 430.
Widgeon; 112.
Willow ; 259, 262, 263, 287.
Wohler ; 453, 455.
Wolf; 34, 322, 498.
Wollaston, Mr. ; 325.
Wolverine ; 30.
Wood, fossil ; 538.
Woodpecker ; 97.
Woodsia; 211, 238, 241, 252, 272,

51.5.
Woodward, Dr. S. P. ; 137.
Woodwardites ; 380.
Wrangel, Von ; 494.
Wrens ; 98.

X.

Xanthium ; 267.
Xanthocephalus ; 99.
Xanthoria ; 306, 307, 308.
Xema; 105.

Xenobalanus ; 158,163.
Xiphias ; 79,
Xylographa ; 292.

Y.

Yoldia; 132, 196,410,507.

J'

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ill.,

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if!

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782

INDEX.

Zaus; IGO.

Zamites ; 370, 375, 887, 430.
Zaphrentis ; 308, 548, 551.
Zeller, G., on the Alga) of E. Gieen-
laud; 584.

Zetes ; 164.
Zigadenus ; 234.
Zodiacal light ; 465.
Zonolrichia ; 99.
Zooiitharia ; 195.
Zostira; 234.
Ziiigibt'ritos ; 388.
Zizyphus; 384.
Zygodactyla ; 181).

:^

783

ERRATA ET CORIUGENDA.

•f*fq;o il33j nftoi' Itno 6 from the tf»p, iutwrt Modiolaria fnba, 0. Fabfi
-1^3; lino — S, t'ur dsHdruHolu** luud (JentPOHotHth —

44?^ — t; 2,/o;' TC^'thti'it j h«/ C-ythwer-

-l*+5 — ,y- ao, for Vhi)i\lula ruiXll Ctiiruiluta.

it

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r),^w«» its Tempci'iitii regions read Ti'inperato Gfccalanih

„ 34, for Ek'ocluii'is read Hlacocliaris.
„ 43, for l*<)l()ff()iiiiiiu rctid Polygonum.

220,

220,

221, „ 39, for Pulamo(/cton read Votntmnjeion,

221, bottom Wild, for Sehuuzeiiu read SeheuoUzeria.

230, line 32, for Artfmi-sia read Artemisia.

236,
238,
241,
25.5,
255,
2r,7,
272,

>>

»

32, for Sehenclizeri read Scheucbzeri.

4, for Cistopteris read Cystopteris.
3^, for Racomitrum read Racomitrium.
14, for Aulac'oniium read Aulacomniimi.
2Ci, for Plocodiiim re(t<l I'laoodium.
7 iVom bottom, in note,./J<r Scoreby read Scoresby.
10, foi' Atidrecea read Andrcea.
273, in the heading, for moshks read LicuiiNS.
279, lino 1, for Holosaccion read Halosaccion.

282, „ 13 from bottom, for Ciiuooesccack.e read CunoocoCCACEiE.

283, in heading, add ALOyE after fkesiiwatkk.
308, line 3, for Rinodina read lihinodina.

310, „ 22, /or Arthopyrenia ?<'f/rf Arthropyrenia.
375, in lieading, for vucio read auctic.
-aS<^), line iO,yi>r-LaMtfH!a I'nW IjU.'tUivr
498, „ 8,_/o/- vol. X. read vol. !., 1857.
508, in the first footnote, read. The Hadena and Tipiila next following

came from Pond's Bay ; but it is not clear whether the Arachnida

came from Pond's Bay or from Port Kennedy.
513, line 10, for Seppula 7ead Serpula.

519,
576,
582,
583,
587,
592,

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30, for Arthodcsmus read Arthrodesmus,

5 from bottom, for Pedum read Ledum.
25, for Spachnum read Splachnum.

8 from the bottom,, /or subuletorum read sabnletoruni.

1, at top,_/br Eudopyrenium read Eudopyreuium.
11,/or Nordpolarmer read Nordpolarmeer.

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rrintefl by Geoiigb E. Eyuk and William Spottiswoouk,
Printers to the Queen's most Excellent Majesty,

For Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ,

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