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A.S. ; William Wai-lack, LL.D., late Professor of Mathematics in the University of Ediiihurgh ; and ('ai>taiii Clarkvck Dalryaiim.k, Master-Attendant at Madras. 3d Edition marly ntult/.— In three volumes. No. IX. HISTORICAL VIEW of the PROGRESS of DIS- COVERY on the more NORTHERN COASTS of AMERICA, from the Karliest Period to tiie Present Time. By Patrick Fra.seb TvTLER. F.R.S. A: U.S.A. With DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES of the NATURAL HISTORY of the NORTH AMERICAN RK(JIONS. By James Wilso.v, F.R.S.E. & M.W.S, To which is added an Appendix, eoiitaininp Remarks on a late Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, witli a Vindica- tion of Richard Hakluyt.— 2d Edition.— In one volume. No. X. ''FHE TRAVELS and RESEARCHES of ALEXAN- ^ DER VON HUMBOLDT: Being a condensed Narrative of his .lourneys in the E(ininoctial Regions of America, and in Asiatic Russia ; together with Analyses of Iiis more important Investigations. By W. Macoilmvray, A.m., F.R.S.E., itc— .'kl Edition.— In one volume. No. XI. j IFE of SIR WALTER RALEIGH: Founded on Authentic and Original Documents, .some of them never l)efore pub- lished : Indudinu; a View of the most important Trans;ietions in the Reigns of Elizabeth and James 1. ; Sketches of Hurleigli, Essex, Secretary Cecil, Sidney, Spenser, and other Eminent Contemporaries: With a Vindication of his Character from the Attacks of Hume and other Writers. By Patrick Fraser Tytler, F.R.S. and F.S.A. — .'kl Edition nearly rcaily. In one volume. No. xn. "l^UBIA and ABYSSINIA: Comprehending their Civil History, Antiquities, Arts, Religion, Literature, and Natural His- tory. By the Rev. Michael Rvssell, LL.D. — 2d Edition. — In one volume. i irf« tamir Antiquities, ligion of Mo —the Calipl ment and R pression of Cu.stoms of t tory. By A AN HIJ "^ ofPEl •letailed Vie^ and the Chai including a I R. Fraskr, the Himala,' f IVESc to LiNJ Nivtural Hist By \N. Ma( UISTOI ^^ RAR^ tions, Antiqi and Natural one volume. AN HISl of CHI. tiire. Religion •■ourse with Ei the Imperial ( Witors; Stiite e Present State of Society, Religion. Literature, Arts, and Conmiercc. With Illustrations of their Natural History. liy Andhkw Crichton, LL.D., Author of the History of Aral)ia, ^\(f p»~ f »->..V^»«. V ^ I* ' ^ ■i( i^^ Ml iRTican fe ',' n ;;^^ % <'^r ^ii;. lUNT ffi iitid 'UINCK iv llis- If each ill and State 'rincj- . 8. E. IIamks i'KO- I mw«.v»*» / 1 \ iSil A mi; Kit" \ > " « t « • /••.!-| '"V ;>. • 1 >. ;i! n<. l^ ♦ )' M lii.'i vj^:! ,•••'?' »:t^S' 1*1 il !'• L 1& ci K r r r ^ >'OKTiIiI3':K>' r OASTS or ••1..".^ ^- m-%4 .s*^ 0^' SO lUiifUill V 711, / ,• i.-*F. '^■, OA Oiieiiit 1 i I 4 ^^4 In ^C>rY-^*y ,ito K .1 M T .V /" // .1 r /r A Y:^/^^^'*'"a '^^^*^ mo I,niiMr'ri>t I'iU til' (Irrcii I.V> liU HMt I IIO r o (• A' ./ ;v SOUTH OI-.OIUMA.VN |«, no 7« «M> AO '"'Ij^i^ff^s:^^ ^ ^^\df.,^ A >» V ^ \ \ V/T-, ,,V'"^'^ /l/.iW. //.•"/.•,,<"" 7A ;<» I' "^ 1*\ , uo***^ <4?'''/mif/'' "/' >«' '<;^^ /'kj V' r!oItiinbiaR,> ^--:3V-,.,-i.ii^: ^" ISO I.oii^liiiloWcilt 1'20 of OrrciiMrifli . IIU »<) no 4t(> / ii-.l j.v""\\\n^il K.liii'' tOi ^: t 't -r-: ■t/. ■'i.'^ -i:"t W'SJ-i V J 1 r-;i- !^ ; il ' )■, "'S-V ."?* I' I -' t : -( SW***.-^! ■^A.: BRITISH AMERICA. VOL. III. CA^CAnKS ON HOAR-FKKsr RIVKK. OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH. V: •A ^ ^ // AN HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF BKITISH AMERICA; COMPREHENDINO CANADA UPPER AND LOWER, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, NEWFOUNDLAND, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, THE BERMUDAS, AND THE FUR COUNTRIES : TflRIR HISTORY PROM THE BARLIBST SETTLEMENT ; THE STATISTICS AND TOPOGRAPHY OF BACH DISTRICT ; THEIR COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, A.Vn FISHERIES ; THEIR SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITION ; AS ALSO AN ACCOUNT OF THE MANNERS AND PRESENT STATE OF THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES ; TS WHICH II ADDBD, A FULL DETAIL OF THE PRINCIPLES AND BEST MODES OF EMIGRATION. ' BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY, BY JAMES WILSON, F.R.S.E. & M.W.S. R. K. GREVILLE, LL.D. AND PROFESSOR TRAILL. SIX MAPS BY WRIGHT, AND TEN ENGRAVINGS BY JACKSON. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. IIL 'f> .i EDINBURGH : OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT ; AND SIMPKIN, MARSHAi.L, & CO. LONDON. MDCCCXXXIX. . "f. '?.'fl N- HUD! Outline a Discov —Hud France North- Settlen HUDSO N kKTERED IN STATIONERS HALL. Printed by Oliver *c Boyd, Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. f > )/ \ Hearne a tain Ba BayCoi ee-chol Arrest* Dease HudsoE tution a H Valuab Modes Moose- VOI CONTENTS OF VOL. III. CHAPTER I. Hudson's bay territory : early discovery and settlement. Outline and Boundaries — Mountain Ranges— Risers and Lakes — Discovery by Cabot and Hudson — Button — Bylot — Fox — James — Hudson's Bay Company — Their Settlements — Contests with France — Voyages by Knight — Middleton — Moor and Smith — North-west Company — Harmon's Account of their Trade and Settlements, Page 13 CHAPTER II. Hudson's bay territory: recent discovery and PRESENT state. Hearne and Mackenzie — Parry, Franklin, and Richardson — Cap- tain Back sent in search of Captain Ross — Aided by the Hudson's Bay Company — Reaches Great Slave Lake — Discovers the Thlew- ee-choh — Winters on the Lake — Voyage down the River — Arrested by Ice — His Return — Successful Voyage by Messrs Dease and Simpson — The North-west incorporated with the Hudson's Bay Company — Privileges of that Body — Its Consti- tution and Management — Indian Tribes within its Jurisdiction — Valuable furred Animals, Beaver, Martin, Fox, Otter, &c. — Modes of -catching them — Principal Stations — York Fort — Moose — Montreal — Fort Vancouver — Claims of the Americans— VOL. III. a 2 r >"; » ii ,.* ',M n ■1*''- t\/. liff •*''Iif 10 CONTENTS. Settlement on tlie Red River — Import of Furs — General Course of" the Trade, Page 54 CHAPTER III. I ON EMIGRATION TO THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. Advantages of Emigration — Classes of Emigrants — Prospects of a Settler in the middling Rank — Choice of Land — Situations best suited for him — Estimates of Expenses and Profits — Modes of obtaining Credit — Terms of Government and the Companies — Emigration of Half-pay Officers — Of distressed Farmers — Of Persons of Capital — Of labouring Settlers — Advantages of their Situation — Their means of purchasing and clearing Land — Pauper Emigrants — Parties sent out by Government — Military and Naval Pensioners — Plan formed by Mr BuUer — Obser- vations— Conveyance of the Emigrant — Modes and Expenses of Passage — Outfit required — Of Journey into the Interior from Quebec — From New York — The Canada and British American Land Companies — Comparison between Canada and the United States — Observations on Lord Durham's Statements — Numbers of Emigrants for the last Seventeen Years — Quarters to which they went — Emigration to Nova Scotia — New Brunswick — Prince Edward Island — Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay, ..98 CHAPTER IV. GENERAL SUMMARY. General Retrospect — Extent of British America — Proportion cul- tivated— Produce — Exports of Timber — Fishery — Agricultural Products — Imports — Shipping — Intel ior Communications — Those proposed by Mr Buller — Others suggested-^- Wei land and St Lawrence Canals — Population — Different Classes — Church AMERICAN CONTENTS. 11 Establishment — Political Constitution — Proposed Union of the Colonies — Other Sugj^estions — Proceedings on the Boundary Question — A ward accepted by Britain — Rejected by the American Senate — Various Negotiations — Encroachments by American States and consequent Dissensions — Violent Proceedings of Maine — Threatened Hostilities — Temporary Adjustment, ... Page W\i CHAPTER V. NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL ZOOLOGICAL PRO- DUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. The Quadrupeds—The Birds— The Reptiles— The Fishes— The Insects, 221 CHAPTER VI. SOME ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. Plants deserving particular Notice in tlie natural Orders — Ranun- culaceae — Podophylleae — Nymphaeaceae — Magnoliaceae — Umbel- liferffi — Araliaceae — Grossulaceae — Vitaceae — Sarraceniaceae— Cornaceae — Aceraceae — Rosaceae — Leguminosae — Betulaceae — Juglandaceae — Piatanaceae — Ericaceae — Vacciniaceae — Composi- tae — Coniferae — Orchidaceae, 304 CHAPTER VII. GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. General Geological Sketch of British North America — Lakes— Rivers — Barrow's Strait — Melville Island — Prince Regent's Inlet — Melville Peninsula — Upper and Lower Canada — New Brunswick — Nova Scotia — Cape Breton — Prince Edward Island — Newfoundland, 331 »J ■iM 12 CONTENTS. APPENDIX. Narrative of the Expedition of Messrs Deasc and Simpson along the North Coast of America, under the Employment of the Hud- son's Bay Company, Page 355 Copy of Letter from Governor Simpson to Messrs C. W. Dease and Thomas Simpson, 35fi To the Governor and Council of the Northern Department, Ru- pert's Land, 369 Expedition of 1838, 372 Index, 377 ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. III. Map of Northern Coasts of America, To face the Vignette. Vignette — Cascades on Hoar-frost River. HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF BRITISH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. V.?. HudsorCs Bay Territory : Early Discovery and Settlement. Outline and Boundaries— Mountain Ran^res — Rivers and Lakes — Discovery by Cabot and Hudson — Button — Bylot — Fox — James — Hudson's Bay Company — Their Settlements — Contests with France — Voyages by Knight — Middleton — Moor and Smith — North-west Company — Harmon's Account of their Trade and Settlements. There still remains to be described a region of British America, fer surpassing in extent the settled and occupied parts. It stretches in length from the eastern coast, in about 66° W. long., to the Russian boundary, in 141°, being seventy-six degrees of longitude, which, in the sixtieth degree of latitude, will make about 2600 miles. The breadth, from 49° north latitude, the boundary of the United States, reaches to the northern limit of Ame- rica. The dimension, in this direction, will therefore be twenty-one degrees, or nearly 1460 English miles ; but so much space is occupied by inland seas, that it is scarcely possible to estimate its superficial extent. A'Oli. III. A Ij 'I! 14 Hudson's bay territory : In fonncr volumes of the Ca])inct Library, whicli illustrate the career of discovery in the Arctic regions and on the coasts of America, there will ])e found de- 8'jril)ed particular portions of this vast and in many respects interesting territory. It now remains to exhibit a complete and connected view of it, adding a fuller ac- count of those geograpiiical and historical details which before could only be slightly noticed. The most imj)ortant natural division of this wide ter- ritory is formed by a highland range, commencing at the Atlantic, and running towards the west between the Canadas and the 1 1 udson's liay possessions. Although it vises from 1500 to 2000 feet above the sea-level, it by no means presents a mountainous or even hilly appear- ance. The sides slope upwards in a very gradual man- ner, usually terminating on the summit in an extensive marshy plain ; and it is only when they border on rivers and lakes, particularly the northern shores of Huron and Superior, that broken and rocky cliffs arc exhibited. After forming the uj)pcr margin of these great lakes, it follows a winding line, generally north-west, passing northward of the source of the Mississippi, and east of Lake Winnipeg. Finally, taking a direction almost due north, it divides the waters which fall into the Arctic Ocean from those which flow into Hudson's Bay. It is here reckoned about 2500 feet high, and displa3's on the western side a very steep precipice. The lofty chain of the Rocky Mountains, running north and south, separates the main body of this territory from that on the west, bounded on the other side by the Pacific. This region, in general, may ])e divided into three portions, strikingly distinct in surface and aspect. The first is the prairie country, on its southern limit, from Canada westward to the Rocky Mountains, and inter- sected by the boundary of the United States. It is tra- versed by streams of long course, which roll sluggishly over its flat surface ; and their banks, for a considerable space, being frequently oveiilowed, are alluvial, covered with rich herbage, and capable of high cultivation. At a EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 15 distance from the water, the soil becomes thin and steril, and timber extremely scarce, so that even the natives have not erected any fixed habitations. The country, however, will doubtless one day supjxjrt a numenjus j)oj)ulation ; but at present, witli the exception of tlu^ settk'ment on the Red River, it is only tenanted by tribes of tierce and independent savages. The game consists chiefly of buffaloes, which roam in vast herds over th(^ wide open plains. The wolf, the lynx, the fox, and various kinds of deer, likewise inhabit it ; l)ut the bea- ver and martin, the most valuable species, do not find here their appropriate food. Another and much more extensive division consists of the wooded countries, extending around Hudson's Jiay, westward to the Rocky Mountains, and nortlnvard to the Arctic Ocean. The severity of the climate precludes tlie prospect of their ever becoming the seat of much improvement ; the trees being mostly of the pine species, tmd towards the northern boundary of a very stunted growth. All these tracts, however, abound with animals yielding those rich furs which form at present the only exportable produce of this part of America. The western territory, between the Rocky Moun- tains and the ocean, is much less extensive, generally steep and rugged in the vicinity of the first great bar- rier, but more level as it approaches the sea. The cli- mate from April to October is delightfully temperate ; but during the rest of the year it is rainy, though frost or snow seldom occurs. Many tracts are fitted for yielding in abundance whatever can minister to the use of civilized man. The furred animals are found in great numbers and of the same species, though, from the mildness of the climate, of somewhat inferior quality to those of ithe wooded countries. The ocean, however, yields one not elsewhere known, the sea-otter, clothed in a skin of [extreme richness, for which there is a regular demand in the Chinese market. These regions are traversed by some large streams. Tlie [Peace River, which rises in the Rocky Mountains, flows IfJ HUDSON 8 DAY TERRITORY : I' first in a westerly direction, and then, after receiving tlie Atliabaf'ca or Klk, falls into the Great Slave Lake. Thence it issues under the name of the Mackenzie, and jiroceeda northwards on the eastern side of the dividing ridgo, till, after a run of not less than 2000 miles, it dis^ip- pears in the Arctic Ocean. The Saskatchawan, from the same chain, holds a long course througli the prairie countries, while the Assinihoine rises in that territory, and both pour themselves into Lake Winnipeg. The surplus waters of that great expanse arc conveyed into Hudson's Bay by the Severn, which on this account is considered a continuation of those rivers. From the eastern side of the ridge, the Churchill or Missinnippi, and the Nelson, flow into the hay ; while the Coppennine River rolls north, through a naked and rocky tract, and the Thlcw-ee-choh north-east, through a chain of large lakes, both into the Northern Ocean. The western district contains the great river Columbia, navigable 1200 miles from its mouth ; also the Fraser, flowing from the same declivity into the Pacific, and each receiving nu- merous tributaries. Through the wooded countries, in an oblique line from south-east to north-west, extends the chain of great lakes, Winnipeg, Athabasca, Slave, and Great Bear. To these may be added, though on a smaller scale, Clinton-Colden, Aylmer, and Garry, near the course of the Thlew-ee-choh. Most of these natural features will be found described by Mr Tytler, in his " Discovery on the more Northern Coasts of America," or in subsequent parts of this chapter. Hudson's Bay was repeatedly visited, at an early period, by English navigators, though for a long time solely with a view to that great object of discovering a north-west passage. It appears that Sebastian Cabot, in 1517, first penetrated to this gulf, but did not view it as an en- closed sea, being convinced, that if the commander, Sir Thomas Pert, had persevered, he might have reached the coast of India or China. This voyage, however, was lost sight of ; so that when Hudson in 1610 sailed through the straits now bearing his name, and found a EARLV DISCOVKBY AND RETTtEMKNT. 17 wido op(»nexi)ansc',it\vftH consulorod a now discovery, and named froiu hiui rrvnim llud.son, " the Hudson Sea." Nor VN' IS it yet Tfco^nised tm a bay, })ut was viewed with hope 08 (f'»rt of the Pacific, and leading directly to the eastern coasts of Asia. The iiavis:ator, however, havint^ been compelled to winter within the atraits, where the erew were exposed to severe sufferinu^, a violent nnitiny arose anicmg them, when he and several of his adherents were exposed in a little boat on this inhospitable shore, and doubtless perished. Only a few of the sailors, after enduring many calamities, made their way home, covered with a dark cloud of suspicion of havimj been at least passive instruments in the crime to which their leader fell a victim.* Notwithstanding the disastrous issue of this expedi- tion, it had opened vast prospects, to which as yet there appeared no limit. The long and intricate strait had seemed to expand, not into a bay, but an ocean ; and as the tatal winter had been i)assed on the eastern shore, no opposite boundary had yet been traced. Under these encouraging views, Sir Thomas Button in 1G12 was sent out with two vessels, having as guides Bylot and Abacuk Pricket, both companions of Hudson. No regular or official narrative of his voyage was ever pul)- lished, being withheld, as Fox suspects, for some sinis- ter purpose. Briggs sixys he applied to Sir Thomas for his journals, and was promised a perusal of them, but was disappointed in consequence of his going to the Con- tinent. Fox, however, got possession of those drawn up by other officers in the vessel, which afford some idea of tlie leading incidents. Having sailed in May, Button arrived in a few weeks off Cape Farewell, where he was detain- ed some time by ice. He extricated himself, and en- tering Hudson's Strait, penetrated to Digges' Island, where he spent eight days in putting up a pinnace, which he had brought out in frame. Here a party land- I: k<'. l!/'" * See a fuller narrative in Polar Seas and Regions, chapter vi. ft** -k* \ ' t I-*'' ■I hi! !H 18 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY ('(1 and began to collect a species of birds called by them willocks, which were found in numbers sufficient to have laden a boat ; but being attacked by seventy or eighty savages in tv o large canoes, they found it necessary to lire a musket, by which one was killed, when the others, amazed at the report and execution, took to flight. Soon after, however, a number of seamen having landed to procure water, the natives rushed from an ambush, and completely surprised them. Five were put to death, and one escaped by his dexterity in swimming ; but it is manifest that just ground of provocation had been given, the English having taken four of their boats, and returned only two. Sir Thomas, leaving this shore,applied himself to the object Oi' his voyage, and having passed a lofty cape in 64° 10', beyond which an open sea appeared, he named it Hope's Advance. After some time land appeared on his right, which he called Carey's Swan's Nest, being part of Southampton Island ; but it opposed no obstacle to his progress. He held on, full of sanguine hopes, till there appeared before him, in 60° 10', a long line of coast, running north and south, and barring fur- ther advance. Struck with dismay, he gave it the gloomy name of Hope Checked ; and soon a severe stoi*m, with the advancing season, left only time to consider how lie might find winter quarters. After ranging southerly for a considerable space, he came to the mouth of a broad river, which he named Nelson, and where the Company have established their principal factory. The ship was prepared as well as possible to pass the dreary months ; being barricaded by large piles of fir trees and earth. The crew do not appear to have suffered seriously from hunger, having killed a species of bird which they call white partridges, in numbers amounting by report to 1800 dozen. Nor was the river completely frozen over till the 16th Februaiy, being preserved open by occasional " warm and thawing days." Three large fires were kept constantly on board of the vessel ; yet the sufferings of the men from cold were most intense, and a considerable EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 19 by them it to have or eighty essary to le others, ;o flight. ig landed ambush, to death, ; but it lad been oats, and 3,applied passed a appeared, me land s Swan's opposed sanguine )', a long ring fur- ompany hip was lonths ; Ih. The number of them died, amoi.g ./hom the master was one. The water did not begin to open till the 21st April.* As soon as the ship was free from the ice, a question arose how they should best promote the objects of the voyage. One llubbart advised to penetrate up the river, and see how it was inhabited ; but this evidently could contribute nothing to the main design. Another, there- fore, proposed to proceed southward till they should find, as he expected, a tide flowing from the westward ; then " to bend their courses against that flood." It was finally decided to seek a passage between the newly-discovered western shore and the land to which they had given the name of Carey's Swan's Nest. They proceeded, there- fore, through the wide opening since called Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome ; but pursuing an east and north-east course, instead of keeping in the mid channel, they soon lighted upon Southampton Island, and were much troubled to see the land " troul away southerly," appre- hending that the sea in which they sailed was nothing more than a bay. The writer of the notes, however, who seems to be Sir Thomas Roe, says, " I cannot find this proved, nor is it by any thing herein written, and for other things known." liutton, in fact, attempted to clear this Imrrier, and get again into the open sea ; but after sailing some space, he came in view of another shore fol- lowing exactly the same direction. Then, it is said, he became assured of what before he only doubted ; that this coast joined the western one whicli he had quitted, and that the Welcome was enclosed by land on all but the southern side ; still, says the writer, "I do otherwise believe." It was in truth a premature conclusion ; but the commander having decidedly adopted it, thought only of returning to England, which he reached in the autumn of 1018. f In the following year an expedition was sent out un- •4'' '" m • North-west Fox, or Fox from the North-west Passage (4to, London, 1635), pp. 118, 119. t Ibid. pp. 12U, 12t), 128. In I t I, J ji II i\ ill I u il.[ j^li 20 Hudson's bay territory : der Captain Gibbons, who had accompanied Button ; but having suffered himself to be entangled by ice in a bay on the coast of Labrador, he did not even enter the straits, and returned without effecting any thing what- ever. The adventurers at home, — Digges,Wolstenholme, and Jones, — did not allow themselves to be discouraged. In ] 615, they despatched the Discovery under the command of Bileth or Bylot, who, as a seaman, had distinguished himself in the three preceding voyages. He was accompanied by Baffin, a very skilful mariner, on whom devolved the task of relating the incidents ; but, being in this respect somewhat unlearned, he has not executed the task quite so well as could be wished. They sailed in April, and on the 6th May saw the coast of Green- land, in the vicinity of which numerous mountains of ice were tossing. One was 140 fathoms above water, and the portion beneath was supposed by some to be seven times larger. Soon after, they descried the main body of the ice, which Baffin advised to sail round ; but the captain thought if they pushed into the middle, it would gradu- ally dissolve and give way before them. The consequence was, that in the evening they were fast amongst it, thirty leagues from any shore. They remained thus impeded till the 23d, during which time Bylot had determined to spend twenty days or upwards in examining Davis' Strait ; but, on finding himself clear of " the thick ice," he resumed his intention of proceeding to Hudson's Bay. On the 27th they saw a promontory, which proved to be Resolution Island, and two days afterwards were fairly within the straits. Making their way as they best could, they discovered land, or rather " a company of islands." Casting anchor near one, they saw a multitude of dogs strangely howling and barking ; and a party approach- ing the shore in a boat observed also tents and canoes, but " people they saw none." Baffin then landed and mounted a hill, whence he descried a canoe with fourteen men, to whom he made signs of friendship. These were returned, yet so as to show them " fearful of EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 21 us, while we were not willing to trust them." A tiode of exchange was devised, such as has been reported of the earliest traffickers. The English left within their reach some knives, beads, and other trifles ; then withdrew, and on their return found a supply of whale-fins and seal-skins, which they carried off. There were five tents covered with seal-skin, and thirty-five or forty dogs " of a brinded black colour, looking almost like wolves." They were yoked to sledges, as practised by the Green- landers, whom this people greatly resembled in their houses and clothes, but " both less neat and artificial ; their manners also more rude and uncivil." On the 19th June they were again enclosed with ice, yet the weather as fine as possible, and the water so smooth that they could make observations for the longitude as steadily on shipboard as on shore. Being liberated on the 27th, they pushed forward and came to Salisbury Island, and thence to another, or rather a group, which they named Mill, from the violent and continual grind- ing of the ice. Strong currents ran between the shores, and the water drawing the ship one way and the ice another involved her in great danger, to avoid which they were obliged to make a circuit. Continuing to press westward, though in the face of opposing winds, they missed Nottingham Island ; but on the 11th July came in view of land, being the eastern coast of South- ampton Island. One cape bore so promising an appear- ance, while the weather had become highly favourable, that they gave it the name of Comfort ; but this senti- ment was soon " quailed," when, on endeavouring to find a passage on the farther side, they saw the coast stretching to the east and north-east, leading to the im- pression that this was merely a bay. Bylot concluded, therefore, that his mission was ended, and thought only of returning. In repassing the Straits, he came to the spot on Digges' Island repeatedly noted for the immense number of the birds called willocks ; and he observes in fact tliat he might have taken many thousands.* ^North-westlKox, p. 137-149. Purchas, vol. iii. p. 836-842. P Wm iy- I ■f i'il 1 't I" 1 'll 22 Hudson's bay territory : m \ ... Bylot returned with the decided belief that no pas- sage westward was to he hoped for within Hudson's Bay. The zeal of the adventurers, however, not being in any degree cooled, he and Baffin were equipped next year to attempt one by Davis' Strait. On this voyage, which does not relate to our subject,* they discovered a large circuit of coast before unknown, but received the fullest impression that the wide sea round which they had sailed was only a bay, to which the name of Baffin has ever since been attached. The discouraging accounts brought home by this expedition chilled for a consider- able time the disposition for maritime adventure. This spirit, however, as long as any hope remained, failed not from time to time to revive. On delibe- rately considering the subject, it appeared evident that Hudson's Bay was very far from being completely ex- plored, and that space still remained in which there might be a wide passage westward. Luke Fox, an enterpris- ing mariner, with some pretensions to wit and letters, describes himself as the prime mover in this new enter- prise. He declares that he had not been importuned to it either by noble or gentle, " but had been itching after it ever since 1608," when he applied to go in capacity of mate to John Knight. He was rejected as unqualified, and owns that " his ambition had then soared a pitch higher than his ability," but he studiously improved himself by voyages to different parts of Europe. He also sought acquaintance with the officers who returned from the western expeditions, carefully examining them as to all that had been done and was to do. Having gained much information from Thomas Sterne, globe-maker, through whose hands passed all the narratives and maps brought home by the successive navigators, he then formed his plan and communicated it to Mr Briggs, the cele- brated mathematician, who warmly encouraged him, but unfortunately died before the completion of the arrangements. Sir John Brooke, however, invited him • See Polar Seas and Regions. EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 23 'W 4 to his table, supplied him with money, ami finally intro- duced him to the king, for whose aid a petition was pre- sented. It was seconded by Sir Thomas Roe, just re- turned from a Swedish embassy. His majesty cordially consented, and having sent for Sir John Wolstenholme, " tliis voyage's never-failing friend," appointed him to make the arrangements. Fox, receiving the choice of any ship in the public service, selected one of eighty tons, and collected a crew of twenty men, none above thirty years old, " of godly conversation," and who had been out already " on these frost-biting voyages." Two " beardless younkers" were added for steering the boat ; and the vessel was completely equipped and pro- visioned for eighteen months. In the instructions it was ordained that daily prayers should be read ; that no pro- fane expressions should be uttered, nor any disrespectful to the sovereign ; " that no man speak any doubtful or dispiriting words against the good success of the voyage, or make any doubt thereof, or make any question of the skill or knowledge of either superior or inferior officer — also, there shall be no grumbling about victuals."'* The merchants of Bristol in the same season fitted out a vessel, of which they gave the command to Cap- tain James. It was rather in rivalry of tlie London one than in concert with it ; and hence the king, though he affi)rded his countenance, contributed no funds. Fox sailed on the 5th May 1G81, taking the route of the Orkneys, which he passed on the 16th. On the 13th June, he was in the latitude of Cape Farewell, which was hidden by a dense fog. On the 21st, when off Cape Warwick, in Lumley's Inlet, he was beset, and his pro- gress arrested by ice and currents. Some advised to seek a harbour ; but he spiritedly resolved to " ply the ice in sea-room," remembering Gibbons, and because in the open water he could day and night snatch any opportunity of proceeding, which in port he could not. When beset by fog and night together, he made himself • North-west Fox, pp. 1(19.172, 204. |##^ mi ft': '■ ml,: Ml lit ill' I ;; hi m ,! li !' 24 Hudson's bay territory : fast to a piece of ice. Next day the sun had mounted ten degrees before it could peep through the mist ; then they had a fair calm hot day, yet were still enclosed. A strong gale having afterwards risen, an ictbcrg proved ad- vantageous as a drag to moderate their spied. He says, " this prodigious thing we call ice is sometimes moun- tains high ;" but here there were no pieces larger than a great church ; while most of them were not more than ten feet above, and one and a half under water : their ex- tent varying from a perch to two acres : " these are they that do enclose you." On the 26th " the sua rose clear," making " a cold virgin day ;" but in the evening the exhalations became so thick, that they could not distin- guish mainland, bays, or straits, the gUmmering reflec- tion of the sun having formed the ice into varied and uncertain shapes. The bergs still lay so thick on every side, that " he knew not what wind to pray for, to quit liimself of them ;" but on the 80th the heat became intense, and began rapidly to dissolve these masses, which being loosened, tossed about in a dangerous manner. On the 8d July, however, an open sea appeared ; " the sun licked up the fog's dew, and made a shining day," and having an almost unobstructed run, on the 10th he reached Salisbury Island, near the inner mouth of the straits. Next morning he was enclosed again, but " with haling, sailing, pulling, and towing, got clear." He was embarrassed by the compass " having almost lost its sen- sible part," and was absorbed in conjecture whether " the cold benumbed it as it doth us ;" or whether it was acted on by minerals h\ the adjacent mountains. On the I7th he passed Digges' Island, and on the 21st came to Carey's Swan's Nest, but found there no swans ; the shore exhibit- ed only " strange moss, quagmir«'5 and watej plashes."* From this point Fox's disco\ cries were understood to begin, and he says he had been instructed to proceed thence N.W. by N. till he reached the west coast, then diligently to search all round for a passage. On the 27th, ♦ North-west Fox, p. 182. 200. EAHLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 25 M after some deceptions, he saw land, but which was dif- ficult to approach from the number of rocky islands, A boat's crew landed, and found a number of dead bodies deposited in sepulchres, and covered with long wooden boards well smoothed and fitted. Fox did not attempt to seareli the head of the Welcome, and indeed, since the time of Button, the impression seems to have been gene- ral that it was closed all round. He steered southwards, keeping near the coast, though the islands rendered this difficult and dangerous. His survey was in vain, and on the 7th August, having reached Nelson River, he put in to refit. Having renewed two masts, and set uji his pinnace, he stood out to sea ; and here he met James, whose ship he oddly describes as " taking her liquor as kindly as ours, and her nose no sooner out of the pitcher than her nebe, like the duck's, was in't again." He invited his rival on board, and hospitably entertained him, though he declares he considered this the worst spent time during the voyage. James is described by him as a good mathematician, but a bad seaman, who is said to have exultingly declared he was on the way to the Em- peror of Japan, — a tone with which his own narrative scarcely accords. Fox proceeded in his researches, and having passed an immense range of coast without finding a single western opening, while the direction for a long way had been almost due east, he gave up all hopes of a passage in this quarter. He determined, as the last chance, to return to Nottingham Island, at the inner mouth of the straits, and sail thence due north, instead of the western course followed by Bylot, who had thus struck upon Southampton Island. Leavmg the coast, therefore, he sailed directly north-east, across the broad expanse of the bay. Its vast extent was proved by the heavy swell, and he soon encountered a sea so high and grim as " though it had in fury overthrown all lands." He was obliged to break up the pinnace, which was only a drag to his stem, the men in it being pitifully wet.* * North-west Fox, p. 201-227- i 26 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY : • ! III!! m\\ 1 On the 7th September, he passed Cape Pembroke, near Carey's Swan's Nest, and soon made his way into the channel soiiglit for, and now ])earing his name. He sailed along its eastern shore, and observing two con- spicuous points, named one Charles' Promontory, the other Cape Maria, " in a most bounden and dutiful remembrance of my king and queen." Having passed two capes named after Lords Weston and Dorchester, he notices with emotion tliat lie was within the Arctic circle, and soon after the latitude of G(j° 47' is announced as his " farthest." This impoiiant resolution is men- tioned without any exposition of motives, or pretext of an impassable barrier. The journal for some days back had recorded that tlie land lay hid in snow ; that the ship's sides, and the very steep- tul)s were frozen ; and that " most of the crew were ready to fall down with the rest, that were down already." In short, it appears that both he and his men lost courage at the idea of plunging farther into the regions of perpetual ice, and spending a winter on those inhospitable shores. It was not, he says, till they got out to the open ocean, that any genial warmth was felt, and the strength and spirits of the sailors began to revive.* At home, however, com- plaints seem to have been made that his conduct had in no degree answered expectation, and that having car- ried out the necessary supplies, he might at least have spent the winter in Hudson's Bay, and renewed the search next spring. He observes, in vindication of his proceedings, that less expense would be incurred, and the ship and people put in a more efficient state by win- tering in England, and going out again next season.t But this last project does not appear to have been seri- ously entertained ; and certainly it was never acted upon, either by himself or in any other quarter. James meantime was pursuing his rival voyage, which w^as entirely fitted out by the Bristol merchants ; but the king made no hesitation in giving him a letter North-west Fox, p. 228-243. t Ibid. pp. 250, 251. EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 27 to tlie Emperor of Japan, in case lie should reach the shoresofthatmonarch. Ilavhig sailed on the 2d May 1631, he was, on the 4th June, in the vicinity of Greenland, and islands of ice began to encompass him. He seems to have been fearfully appalled, and, as hinted by Fox, to have scarcely possessed either the skill or courage needful to brave those formidable obstacles. Tlie vessel, he says, struck many fearful blows : they wrought night and day, and broke all their poles in keeping off the ice. On the Gth they were assailed by masses still more huge and extraordinary : the shallop was dashed to pieces^ and the ship narrowly escaped the same fate ; however, " she forced herself through, though so tossed and shat- tered as I think never ship was." On the I7th they imagined they heard the sound of breakers, but it proved only ice, against which the waves were dashing with a liollow and hideous noise. The fog was piercing, and froze on the sails ; the compasses became useless. How- ever, amid all these troubles, he came in view of Reso- lution Island, the entrance of the straits ; which, it ap- pears, were not passed without many casualties. Having struck on a rock, they thought all over, leaped on a piece of ice, and betook themselves to prayers ; but as the water happily rose, their vessel was carried clear over. Their alarm was not less when, as the season advanced, the icebergs began to break with a most terrible thun- dering noise, and there was one, along with which they verily thought to have gone to pieces ; but " God was more merciful."* They made their way, however, through the straits, and on the 15th July were between Digges' and Notting- ham Islands. After passing that of Mansfield, the allow- ance of bread was reduced, and they pushed eagerly for the west coast, seeking to reach it in about 63° N. lati- tude. Soon, however, they were arrested by dense fogs and islands of ice. The men began to murmur that they could get neither back nor forward, and doubted if i, 1 « ,1 . f 3 * Harris's Collection of Voyay;es, vol. iL p. 407-409. 7 28 HUDSON S HAY TERRITORY I tti ^. i Ml they would even find land to winter upon. These gloomy musings continued till the 6th August, when the sea became clear, a good wind sprung up, and they sailed rapidly across the bay. On the 11th, land appeared nearly in the desired position, but as James seems to have had no idea of looking northerly for the passage, he proceeded directly south. On the 13th, there was again an alarm of striking upon rocks, but " in this dreadful accident it pleased God to send two or three swell- ing seas, which heaved us over." On the IGtli, he passed Nelson River ; and on the 20th, in latitude 67°, named this country tlie principality of New South Wales, a title which still partly continues. On the 20th, he met Fox, and notices their intercourse, without any particulars. On the 4th and 6;a September, a more dreadful storm than ever assailed them, when the ship " did labour most terribly in this distraction of winds and waves." The overwhelming sea, he says, made them feel like Jonah in the whale's belly ; and their distress was " most miserable in this so unknown a place." The storm abated ; but on the 12th, through the negligence of the watch, who hua fallen asleep, the ship struck violently, and appeared to have received her death- wound. They hastily conveyed some tools and bread into the boat, " to prolong, for a few days, a miserable life ;" however, after striking a hundred blows, in five hours she was got off. Being then assailed by another storm, they found shelter on an island.* The question of wintering came now seriously under consideration. It was vain to think of farther attempts at a passage this season ; but, ignorant how near he was to the bottom of the bay, he hoped to reach a more southern and milder climate ; for here, though the lati- tude was only 62°, the rigging froze during the night, and it was needful each morning to shovel away half a foot thick of snow. The vessel, moreover, was so leaky, the crew so weak and unable for constant pumping, as • Harris's Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 410-414. EARLY DISCOVERY AND 8E1 ''LEMEN'i.. 29 made it scarcely possible to steer farther through «i» unknown sea. On tlie 1 3th, however, they made t' t attempt, but were soon in such jeopardy, that " they began to prepare to make a good end of this miserable tonnented life." They nevertheless succeeded in run- ning into a sheltered sound, and after some further attempts, fimally determined to take up their quarters tliere. The arrangements seem to have been made with judgment ; and James's narrative, being the first that detailed an Arctic wintering, excited great interest, and is said to have furnished to Mr Boyle the chief materials for his " History of Cold." They found themselves on an island, to which was given the name of Charlton. The hunters, sent round in search of provisions, found only one deer, which they had to drag twelve miles ; but seeing no trace of savages, they could sleep in greater security. The victuals being examined, were found in good condition, proving the honesty of the steward, and a weekly survey wiis ap- pointed. A small house, too, was erected for the sick. The ship, during a heavy gale, being nearly driven out to sea, they remembered the fate of Sir Hugh Willoughby, and determined, after taking out the provisions and stores, to sink her ; an object which was effected more slowly than they wished, by boring holes with the carpenter's auger. She had previously appeared like a huge piece of ice in the form of a vessel. While engaged in this work, the men could hardly recognise each other under the icicles which covered their hair, ^'aces, and clothes. Their noses, cheeks, and hands were as white as paper ; and it became necessary to cut their hair close to prevent more serious consequences. Their sack and vinegar required to be cut like wood with a hatchet ; and they had for some time been confined to melted snow- water, a drink by no means salutary, when they were lucky enough to find a spring which never froze. Mean- time, strenuous exertions were made to erect a comfortable habitation. They had reared three structures, the chief of which was twenty feet square, formed of trees rudely TOL, III. B \ k Wi^ i I ' , 30 Hudson's bay territory : m ii' WW cut and fuHtcned togctluTjiuul covered witli hftils on tlic in- side. Tlu! hearth wuh in the middle, and tlie ))eds ranged in a double tier round it ; their spare eh)the8 iurnishing canopies and curtains. Twenty feet from this was a smaller house for cookinp;, and for the main ])ody of the crew to sit hi. The third was the storehouse, and being without fire, was completely buried in the drift. Thus he says they seemed to live amid a heaj) and wilderness of snow ; however, by shovelling and beating, tluy con- trived to form a track three feet deep, by which they could go in and out.* On the 22d November they had lost the gunner, " an honest and strong-hearted man," who was much re- gretted. The others kept their health wonderfully till the end of February, when the dreadful forerunners of scurvy appeared ; aching joints, loose teeth, and diffi- culty of eating ; and two-thirds were soon under the surgeon's care. These symptoms became constantly more severe and general, yet the men were under the pain- ful necessity of going some distiincc for fuel. The lum- berers were sometimes obliged to crawl a mile through the snow on all-fours till they came to a tree ; then to set fire to the trunk before they could cut it down, and afterwards drag it to the house. In going to the ship the cold was found still more intolerable. The surgeon, who was " a sweet-conditioned man," every morn- ing cleared their teeth, picked the putrid flesh from the gums, bathed their benumbed limbs in water boiled with plants ; after which they could endure the fatigue and exposure, though they returned as ill as ever. Thus, however, " they went through their miseries." Their house was hung with icicles, the clothes and beds were covered with hoarfrost ; the cook's tubs during the night were frozen to the bottom ; and when one sidt was warm, the ice on the other was an inch thick. The smoke from the green wood was often intolerable, and made them look like chimney-sweepers. * Harris's Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 414-420. m ■!'ii EARLY DISCOVERY AM) 8ETTLKMENT. 31 In Janimry the sea wjvh coiu[)l('tely frozen over. Ah me reason of the intense eold which was here expe- {rieneed he mentions the numhfr of shaUow hays in which Ithe ice is early formed, then hrokon and HoutiMl out into 'he main, wliere the pieces collect and aecuniulato over iCftch other, till it ^ein the entire predominance'. On the loth of April the snow fell deeper than at any other time of Ithe year, and was also moist and in hirge flakes, instead of bein^' as formerly like dry dust. On the Tilth the master and two men priferred to sleep on hoard, rather than " to {hear the miserable groans and lamentations of the sick lall night long." About the middle of this month, though Ithe frost was scarcely at all abated, and only Ave could jeat their ordinary food, it became necessary to begin clear- |ing the ship ])y digging the ice out of her. They cele- )rated May Eve when it arrived, — " choosing ladies' lames, fixing them in their caps, endeavouring to revive themselves by any means." On the IHth the carpenter lied, " making a very godly end," and much regretted, " both for his innate goodness, and the j) resent necessity For a man of his quality." Soon after word was brought that the body of the late gunner was appearing above the ice ; and when dug out, it was found as entire as dien first committed to the water ; the flesh on the )ones only slipping up and down like a glove. On clearing out the shij), they had great satisfaction m finding her completely uninjured, the ice within lind around having seemingly i)rotectcd her from every llhock. They found, also several butts of wine, beer, and ^ider, " which God had preserved for them." The sun )ecomingvery powerful, rapidly dissolved the ice, which ^id not, however, form streams of water, but exhaled as melted, leaving the remaining mass as it were honcy- )mbed. Notwithstanding strict search, they could find ^either herb nor leaf that was eatable till the 31st May, '^hen some green vetches were discovered, and adminis- ^red to the sick. The crop proving abundant, they rere eaten in every shape, raw with bread, boiled with ^il and vinegar, and the juice bruised into their liquor. !.'■.•( t :'/'•'* Ji 32 HUDSON 8 BAY TERRITORY : IT m w I I : i: I i k Such was the effect on the invalids, that in a few days their teeth were fastened, the flesh on the gums hecame firm, and those formerly unable to move could walk abroad. Yet their state was chequered by some new troubles ; for while the heat during the day was intolerable, at night it froze an inch thick ; and the sultry air brought forth in myriads flies of various descriptions, which he supposes to have lain dormant through the winter, with bloodthirsty mosquitoes, causing a torture which appeared to them often worse than the cold. An old flag was cut into bags to envelop their heads, yet nothing could pre- vent their faces from being all over pimples. As the trees, through heat, became dry like flax or hemp, a fire caught them while James and another were in the country ; it ran along the ground like a train of gun- powder ; and it was only by almost preternatural flight and leaps that they reached the shore.* Meantime the aspect of the waters was carefully watched. The frozen surface began to crack with a frightful noise, and the pieces being tossed about and thrown upon each other, navigable channels were gra- dually formed, though the ship, no longer moored among ice, was exposed to fiesli dangers. By the VMh all her holes being i^topped, she was found perfectly fit for sea, and preparations were therefore made for departure. Besides the gunner and carpenter they had lost another man ; not a great number under such circumstances : and they were all now decently interred. A large tree was formed into a cross, to which were fastened pictures of the king and queen doubly cased in lead, while beneath were placed the royal arms, and those of the city of Bristol. On the 1st July they took a last view of the island, got into their boat, and soon reached the ship ; but finding it impossible to steer north-east across the bay, they were obliged to follow the vvestern shore, till they came to lat. 61°, when they stood for Carey's Swan's Nest, which they reached on the 22d August. • Harris's Collectiun of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 421-425. EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 33 During these six weeks, they had storms and ice conti- nually beating on them, and were constantly as it were in the jaws of death. On arriving at Nottingham Island, James determined to make another attempt at discovery in the open sea to the north-west ; and though the men showed themselves strongly indisposed, they at last con- sented. The frost, however, had become so intense, that ice was formed two feet thick, and did not melt under the strongest influence of the sun. There liso appeared reason to apprehend that they might not be able to pass the straits, but be obliged to spend another winter, for which they were wholly unprovided. The captain there- fore called a meeting of the master and men, and with a sorrowful heart, as he declares, but with their unanimous approbation, determined to return. On the 3d Septem- ber he reached Resolution Island ; by the 8th he was clear of the straits, after which no more ice was seen ; and he steered direct for England.* Although these voyages were all abortive as to their primary object, they laid open the great extent of Hudson's Bay, and conveyed some idea of the valuable furred animals by which its shores are tenanted. Yet so exclusively were the English intent on the India passage, that it was reserved for a rival nation to dis- cover the benefits which might be derived from esta- blishing a colony. A Frenchman named Grosseliez, hav- ing penetrated thither from Canada, made a survey of the country, and laid before his court the plan of a settle- ment. Finding it recf 'ved with unmerited coldness, he procured an introduction to Mr Montague, our ambassa- dor, and through him to Prince Rupert, whose active mind embraced the suggestion with ardour. In June 1668, the adventurers sailed in a vessel commanded by Zechariah Gillam, and reached in September a river then called Nemisco, to which they gave the name of Rupert. They wintered there, and found the frost not so intense as was expected, being nearly over in April, while, in • Harris's Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 426-430. i:):. m iW ■lil ' 'W- 4 k 34 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY : Ui' '■ Juno, wlicn tlicy left it on tlioir return, the weather had become extreniely hot. Upon the report made by this party, the prince and a niiniber of other noblemen and gentlemen subscribed a capital of i;iO,500, and obtained a charter, securing to them the exclusive trade and admi- nistration of all the countries round Hudson's Bay. They immediately sent out Mr Charles Bayly, who formed a settlement on Rupert's River. Others were established on Moose River in 1674, and, four years later, on the Albany. By 1685 they had added two more on the Nel- son and the Severn, and in 1690 their affairs were in such a flourishing condition, that they determined to triple their original stock, thereby raising it to £31,500.* The French court no sooner learned that the establish- ment so lately tendered to their acceptance had been occu- pied by a rival power, than they repented of their neglect ; and Colbert, now at the helm of affairs, and eagerly devoted to the interests of commerce, was particularly anxious to redeem this error. A claim was advanced, on the ground of prior occupation ; and Grosseliez, already detached from the English service, was sent out in 1682 with another officer. He not only laid the foundation of a factory on Hayes River, but in the following spring surprised the British one on the Nelson, taking Gillam d prisoner, and carrying him to Canada ; and yet soon after, by means not very distinctly stated, our countrymen again became masters of all these stations. In 1686, however, amid profound peace, the Chevalier de Troyes marched thither and suddenly took the Rupert, Hayes, and Al- bany factories. These movements do not seem to have attracted much attention in Europe ; but when the war of 1688 broke out, hostile operations were carried on with greater ardour. During 1693-4-5, the different settlements were successively taken and retaken. In 1696, the English had recovered almost the whole ; but in the following year, a squadron from France de- • Robson's Account of Six Years' Residence in Hudson's Bay (8vo, London, 1752), Appendix, pp. 5-7, U, 4-1. EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 35 en occu- fcatcd the Hudson's Bay ships, and took all the forts except Albany. The treaty of Ryswick leaving things in statu quo, this state of possession continued till the peace of Utrecht in 1713, by which the various posts were restored to Britain.* The Company seem now to have applied themselves with extraordinary activity to extend their trade. In 1720 they greatly extended their capital ; the forts were repaired and enlarged ; and stations were formed in the interior. Thus things went on smoothly till 1749, when a question was agitated in Parliament as to the propriety of continuing their monopoly. They were accused of neglecting the improvement of the country and the ex- tension of commerce, and particularly of having taken no vigorous steps, as required by their charter, for the discovery of a north-west passage : but after a long in- vestigation the legislature saw no ground to disturb them in the possession of their privileges.t The charge, however, of neglecting the interests of geographical knowledge was still zealously pressed by some individuals, who asserted that they not only showed extreme indifference on the subject, but in fact anxiously checked discoveries which might have shaken their mo- nopoly. This imputation appears to have been greatly exaggerated, if not altogether unfounded. Expeditions through Arctic seas and over frozen plains involve much expense and hardship, and, as long as the Company were struggling hard for their very existence, could not reasonably be expected. At length, in 1721, on the ur- gent representation of John Knight, one of their gover- nors, they engaged in an enterprise having this object in view ; fitting out two vessels, commanded by Bar- low and Vaughan, while Knight himself took the chief direction. Their plan was to proceed northwards and endeavour to find a passage up the Welcome ; being provided with a portable house and an ample stock of provisions for the winter. No very great alarm was Robson, Appendix, p. 8-13. t Ibid. pp. 13, 44-47. 36 HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY iiiii': m MM m% ! I . ' \ ii ) therefore felt at their not returning the first year ; but when another elapsed, although a few cherished sanguine hopes that they had reached the Pacific, and were now on their way homewards round Cape Horn, anxiety be- came general. Captain Scroggs was despatched in the Whalebone to search after them ; but having arrived late he returned without any discovery, or, it is alleged, very diligent investigation. All attempts were then given up as hopeless, and yet, after the lapse of forty years, the sad secret of their fate was disclosed. Two whale-fish- ing boats having gone into a harbour on Marble Island, near the entrance of the Welcome, perceived a large space of ground overspread with memorials of the dread- ful catastrophe. Anchors, cables, bricks, guns, and other articles, for which the natives knew no use, had been lying exposed during that long period ; and on stricter examination, some remains of the two houses were traced, and at length the hulls of the vessels were seen beneath the water. Hearne afterwards met some aged Esqui- maux, who recollected, and could give him the particu- lars of this tragical event. They had seen the party arrive very late in the season, having apparently suffered many hardships, and the ships much damaged, yet ex- ertions were immediately made to erect the house. The natives did not remain on the spot during that winter, but visited it again the following spring, when they found the original number of fifty much reduced by severe sickness. The survivors were actively employed, doubtless in attempting to equip their ships anew ; yet at the end of summer they were found still there, re- duced to only twenty by the pressure of severe want and illness ; but as the Esquimaux remained in the vicinity during this winter, supplies of their coarse provision of train oil and blubber were gladly accepted. The natives removed in spring to another pai-t of the coast, and after- wards returning found only five, subjected now to the last extremity of famine. These, having purchased some seal's flesh and blubber, devoured it with an imprudent avidity wliich proved fatal to three of them. The two others EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 37 survived many days, during which they were wont to go to the top of a neighbouring rock, whence they gazed long and wistfully towards the north and east in hope of succour, and on seeing none, often sat down together and wept bitterly. One of them at length died, and the other, while attempting to dig his grave, fell down and expired also. This melancholy result threw a damp on the public mind, and a considerable time elapsed without further effort. In 1737, however, the project was revived with the greatest enthusiasm by Mr Dobbs, a gentleman of intelligence and property, and possessing much influence with government. At his urgent entreaty, the Com- pany fitted out two vessels ; but no record has ever been published of their proceedings, which do not appear to have been pushed with very great activity, since they did not reach' beyond lat. 62° north. The Directors seem to have been disposed to let the affair rest ; but Dobbs* dissatisfaction was extreme, and greatly heightened by correspondence with Captain Middleton, an officer long in their service. He loudly charged them as so intent on the preservation of their monopoly that they studi- ously checked discovery along their coasts, regardless even of the rich mines and fisheries which it might have opened. He appealed, therefore, to the Lords of the Admiralty, who, after long solicitation, granted the Furnace bomb-ketch, which was placed under the com- mand of Middleton. He sailed in 1741, wintered in Churchill River, and on 1st July next year began his ex- pedition. Although no voyage perhaps ever excited more interest and discussion, no distinct or connected narra- tive of it has ever been furnished ; he merely commu- nicated to the Royal Society extensive tables of his observations on latitude, longitude, variation, and me- teorology.* The other particulars we must glean from tlie discussions of Dobbs and of others who ranked as hia 'v'','i*" '< * Philosophical Transactions, vol. xxxviii. p. 127; vol. xxxii. p. 270; vol. xUi. p. 167. ■m i ^. ,1 38 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY I r If.! iiilli '11 t 1 % Ill j'lr m II! jir' opponents. It appears that he proceeded directly up the Welcome, till, reaching latitude 05°, he turned a hold headland, and found himself in a deep sound or bay, which he termed the Wager, erroneously applying to it the word river. lie ascended it fifty or sixty miles, but without finding any large opening or tide from the westward ; and two smaller soimds, Deer and Savage, were also examined with as little success. The search in this channel was then given up, and returning to the open Welcome, he again steered northwards. A fair pro- montory, bending to the north-west, excited the most san- guine feelings, and was called Cape Hope ; but in less than a day a gloomy reverse took place. Finding him- self in a bay enclosed on every quarter, to which he gave the name of Repulse, he turned to the eastward, where he was soon arrested by what he terms the Frozen Strait, barred by ice fr'>m side to side. By a survey made from a high mountai . ■, it appeared not less than sixteen or eigh- teen leagues in length, by six or seven in breadth, filled with shoals and islands of various size, joined together by large masses of ice. A strong tide ran through it, but this he conceived was only that which entered by Hudson's Straits and found its way hither by a circuitous channel. Upon these grounds, Middleton pronounced that there could be no passage, or at best a very narrow one, block- ed up almost the whole year with ice. Dobbs, however, was most reluctant to acquiesce in this conclusion, and his suspicions were kindled into a flame by communications from the surgeon and clerk of the ship, who undertook to show him "the discoverer's pranks." On their autho- rity, joined to that of others, he arraigned the captain as having received a bribe of £5000 from the Company, and of going to seek the passage with a fixed resolution not to find it. These charges were unfounded ; for Middleton's conclusions were in the main confirmed by Sir W, E. Par- ry, though he showed perhaps somewhat too peremptory an assurance and impatience of contradiction. However, Dobbs succeeded in persuading the public, and kindling in the Parliament and nation an enthusiasm hitherto un- 'I |H EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 39 paralleled. A committee of leading persons undertook to raise £10,000 in shares of £100 each. The legislature sharing the general zeal, voted to the oubscribers a reward of £20,000 in case of their object being attained. The captains were to receive £500, the mates £200 each. The necessjiry funds being thus provided, two ships were built, the Dobbs of 180, and the California of 140 tons, placed respectively under Captains Moor and Smith. Mr Ellis went as the agent of the committee, to make draughts and observations, and to give advice as to the general course. To him we are indebted for the best account of the vo^^ige, including important remarks on the country and climate. The Wager Inlet was pointed out in their instructions as the most hopeful quarter, being desired to push boldly through it, and after pass- ing the narrow part, and getting into the open sea, to steer south-west, when, if they met an opposing flood- tide, they might be sure of having passed the most northerly cape of America. They were then to direct their course into a warm latitude, if possible as low as 40°, and tliere take up their winter quarters.* On tlie 20th May 174G, the vessels sailed from Graves- end, and on the Gtli June were in Kii-kvall bay. On the 21st, four days after clearing the Orkr .ys, there arose a dreadful alarm from fire having broken out in the cabin of one of them near the powder magazine. This, it is observed, gave occasion to all the varieties of sea elo- quence, crying, swearing, praying, scolding ; yet amid this clamour, the proper measures were taken, and the ship and lives were saved. On proceeding westward, they were first surprised by the great quantity of drift-wood, next by the lofty islands of ice ; and the approach to these last was announced by severe cold, and by fogs so low- that they sometimes left the mast-head clear. On the 8th July they entered the straits by Resolution Island, and were soon among the Savage group, where they met a party of Esquimaux, of whom a description is given closely • il .*;•; ' f '! • ■Ii Ellis' Voyage to Hudson's Bay (8vo, London, 1748), p. 106-118. 1 ( , .!!• m I: 40 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY corresponding to that of Ross and Parry. A brisk traffic was immediately commenced, which is admitted to have been very profitaljk', the other party stripping themselves almost naked, in order to find materials. The season was extremely unfavourable, and two of the Company's ships had been lost upon the ice ; hence it was the 19th August when they reached Marble Island, and the weather was then so rigorous, that they determined to make no attempts that year, but to winter in Nelson River. On this coast they were struck with the prodi- gious height of the hills, the sides of which were rent and shattered into deep caverns. The streams flowing from the rocks were red and green, from the impregnation of copper and other minerals. Their voyage southward was incommoded by blustering snow, sleet, and fogs.* On reaching the vicinity of York Fort on Nelson River, the expedition were much disappointed at be- ing received by the governor in a manner extremely rude and unfriendly. He declared, that having received no instructions on the subject, either from the Company or the government, he must decline giving them any aid ; in fact, he obstructed their views in every possible way. Circumstances, however, having placed them under the necessity of providing for themselves, with or without his concurrence, they began to prepare a mansion which they named Montague House, twenty-eight feet long, eighteen broad, and containing two stories six or seven feet high. By the beginning of November, the cold became intense ; Hayes River was completely frozen over ; and their bottled beer, though wrapt in tow and kept near a good fire, became solid. Nevertheless, fortified with a beaver robe reaching to the heels, two or three pairs of blanket- socks, and shoes of moose or elk skin, they were able to bear its utmost severity. They now bestirred themselvesto procure a supply of food for winter. The game were chiefly hares and rabbits, for which snares of wire were found very useful, not only taking the animal, but protecting it ■ ■■■^■■^111,. - . — . .- . .1 II — —I I — ■., ,M,M II ■ — • Ellis, p. 120-147. agair pres( Chris made a hoi spire( ino' adhe with of CO EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 41 against hcasts of prey ; and whatever they caught was preserved by the cold perfectly sound till April. After Christmas, the frost reached its utmost intensity. They made a fireplace six feet long, and threw on it at once a horse-load of wood, yet though those close to it per- spired, the ceilings and walls were frozen. In the morn- ing, that part of the hedclothes which touched the walls adhered to them, and the breath covered the blankets with hoarfrost. When a door was opened, the stream of cold vapour rushing into the rcom was converted into snow. Spirits under proof, becoming perfectly solid, broke the containing vessels ; and this mass, when melted, was found mere water. The whole strength was con- centrated in a small portion, which, however, on being properly diluted, was found quite palatable. Spirits of wine assumed the consistence of oil. A man grasping an iron ring, had his hand made fast to it ; a glass con- taining brandy was on several occasions frozen to the lips or tongue ; and a finger having been imprudently thrust into a bottle to serve as a cork, could not be ex- tricated without a part being severed.* Two casks of brandy were allowed to the sailors at Christmas, which was celebrated with their usual wild and thoughtless revelry. To this, though perhaps without sufficient reason, Ellis imputes the appearance speedily after of the scurvy, under its most malignant form ; and by the middle of February it had carried off three of their number. The real nature of this dreadful disease, and the powerful effect of vegetable acids in its preven- tion and cure, were still almost unknown. Tar-water was the only remedy from which they observed any good effects : yet they learned, that by the use of spruce- beer, the residents in the fort preserved perfect health, and had not buried a man in seven years. The settlers continued throughout estranged and hostile towards the exploring party, and endeavoured to prevent communi- cation between them and the Indians. Ellis, howsver. til • Eliis, p. 150-180. :l( 42 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY I 'i! :Ji I contrivetl to sec a good deal of tliis pcoi)lc. They ap- peared to liini honest happy rovei'H, ])reterriiig their country to all others under the sun. Tlic attacliment hotwecn parents and children is peculiarly strong, yet does not save the fonnei, when infirm and unable to fol- low the long wanderings of the tribe, from being fonnally put to death. Tiie father is said to require of his off- spring this last office : " When they have dug his grave, he goes into it, converses and smokes for some time, drinks perhaps a dram or two, and intimates that he is ready. Two of them then take a thong, which they put round his neck, and draw it on opposite sides, till he dies by strangulation, when they cover the body with earth, and erect over it a kind of rude monument."* The spring seems to have approached earlier than in James* more southerly station, for about the middle of February the weather became changeable, with occa- sional thaw. In March it was very inconstant, and much water was formed, insomuch tliat they l)cgan to dread one of those floods which sometimes suddenly break up the ice, roll along and bear down every thing that op- poses their fury. Such a tempest might ha\ e loosened the ships from their moorings, and occasioned much da- mage ; they escaped it, however, as the ice melted imper- ceptibly away. On the 16th May, the frozen surface of Hayes River burst, and floated gently down ; on the 29th, by the aid of a high tide, they worked to the mouth of the creek ; and on the 2d June, with great labour, made their way into the open sea. Steering northward to- wards the Welcome, they discovered, in lat. 64°, Ches- terfield Inlet, From a breadth of three or four leagues at the entrance, it increased to six or seven, and con- tinued to be considerable ; but the water becoming fresher and shallower proved it to be a mere inlet. They then returned to the open Welcome, and about the middle of July began their examination of the Wager, the entrance of which w^as about five miles broad ; • Ellis, p. I81-2U0. EARLY discovehy and settlement. 43 ])iit the tide ran through it like a Hhiicc, at tlie rate of nine miles an hour ; and the water boiled, raged, and foamed, with extraordinary violenee. After passing Siivage Sound, however, they found it l)roader, and i)ro- ceeded more easily. On the evening of the J31st they heard a tremendous noise, hut from a ([uarter too distant to be then reaehed. The surrounding scene was most striking, huge cliffs hanging over head, while waterfals, dashing from rock to rock, formed icicles in rows like the pipes of a great organ ; and huge fragments, detached from the mountain-tops by the expansive power of frost, lay scattered around. In the morning, the ai)i)alling sound was traced to one stupendous fall, sixty yards broad. Above was a rocky strait, only navigable for the boat at high tide ; the l)ottom could not be reached by a line of 140 fathoms ; and though the water on the surface was fresh, a bottle let down to a certain depth brought it v^p salt. On the 3d August, at nightfall, the strait became shallow ; and in the morning it was seen to end in two small unnavigable rivers, one from a lake in the south-west. It was thus fully ascertained that the Wager afforded no hope of a western passage.'"' On their return into the open sea, various opinions were agitated. One party, whom Ellis, according to his own declaration, strongly supported, remarked that the tide from the north was greatly the strongest in the Wel- come, and was much more likely to come from the Arc- tic Sea than by the circuitous route supposed by Mid- dlcton. They proposed, therefore, that the Dobbs should thoroughly examine Repulse Bay, w^hile the California diligently surveyed the adjacent coasts. This proposal was rejected by the majority, who, as he suspects, had become tired of labour and hardship, and impatient to return home. They agreed, indeed, to make a search as they passed round Carey's Swan's Nest, — a most unpromis- ing quarter ; yet when they came there, a council being called, the definitive resolution was formed to bear away '''M • Ellis, pp. 203-209, 250-258. :|;,-^iil I' 44 Hudson's bay territory : for England, where they arrived on the 14t]i Octoher. "We can find no record of the manner in which the dis- appointment of liigh-ruised hopes wuh received, either by Mr Dol)bs or the pul)lic. It certainly appears that no attempt was made to achieve what tlic present ex- pedition liad failed in ; the interest of the public was cooled ; and the search after a north-west passage was for a considerable time suspended. An interesting account of this climate and country was reported to the Royal Society in 1770 by Mr Wil- liam "Wales, a man of science sent thither to make astronomical observations. Having sailed from England in the end of May 1708, he came on 6th July abreast of Cape Farewell. Here he was astonished by the masses of drift-wood, and then by the view of an island of ice as high as the main -topmast, its sides and summit adorned with spires, and the whole indented in the most singular manner. When surrounded by these and the ripplings which they caused, while a strong gale be- gan to toss the vessel among them, it was impossible for him to avoid a painful sense of danger. On the 23d, having passed Resolution Island, he entered the straits. The northern shore is described as strikingly composed of very lofty naked cliffs, not now covered with snow, but with numerous torrents dashing furiously down their sides. Icebergs still abounded, both within and at the en- trance ; but he could not think with Middleton that they came from Greenland, or remained unmelted for years. They appeared to him produced on the wild coasts of the bay ; and being chiefly frozen snow, a single summer would be sufficient to dissolve them. He makes the re- mark, since fully confirmed, that ice, after the sea water has been washed off, is entirely fresh, the salt having been thrown out in the process of freezing. He met parties of Esquimaux, whose dress and habits he describes exactly as Lyon and Parry have done. " Some," he observes, " call them treacherous, cruel, fawning, and suspicious ; if they really deserve that character, they are the most EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 45 complete hypocrites that nature ever formed." Tliey [appeared to him open, generous, and unsuHpcetini^ ; lial)le indeed to tits of pasHion, l)ut soon reconciled. |juds?ing: of them hy their iniplemcntH he thouglit them 'xcelh'd hy few pcopk' in a genius for the arts.* Wales landed and spent the winter at Churchill Fort, then the chief settlement. He could not discover an jre fit for cultivation in the whole country around, which consisted of bare rocks, loose gravel, and marshes, the latter producing a long grass which was cut for the [•attle. Fir trees alone grew to any size ; the others were mere bushes, yielding however delicate l)erries. LUgust he describes as the height of the amall-hird sea- )n, when j^oung geese, ducks, curlews, and plovers abounded. In September the first of these passed to the buthward in large flights, and many were caught. Oc- tober brought partridges and rabbits, chiefly in the up- )er country, to which a party went out, lodged in tents of leer-skin, and brought in a large supply. By the Gth Jovember the river was frozen over, and a glass of )randy in the observatory became solid. When, however, small vial was sealed up, by the cork being covered rith water, which instantly froze, this spirit continued [iquid during the whole winter. The air was now ilent and void, or only relieved by the occasional flight of solitary crow. As in other instances, the bedding was rozen to the boards, and they could scarcely sleep an jour for the cracking of the beams through the expan- pve power of frost. From the same agency, reports ^ere often heard among the rocks as of nuuierous heavy mnon fired together, and splinters were thrown to an mazing distance.t By his meteorological table, it ap- Jars that the greatest fall of the thermometer occurred January, when it was 45° minus, or 77° below the (■eezing point ; it was, however, seldom lower than W linus. There was a constant haze on the horizon, and * Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ix. p. 102-111. t Ibid. p. 118-125. VOL. III. m^i H 46 HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY I'll; i: when the sun rose, two long streams of red light ascended with him. These were then inflected towards each other and met, forming a parhelion, which seemed to have its source in two other parhelia. In winter, when the solar orb never emerged from the mist, these three luminous arches went all round the horizon. About the middle of March the thaw was sensibly felt ; on the 23d April the ground began to appear ; and on the 26th they had their first rain. Towards the latter end of this month the spring-goose season began ; and in May the weather was really agreeable. Near the middle of June the river broke up, and yielded abundance of fine salmon, with the delicate small fish named capelin. July afforded radishes, lettuce, and tur- nip-tops, the latter of which they used for greens. He met a good many Indians, and was on the whole much pleased with them. He admits that they are revenge- ful, though the most honest creatures he ever saw, kind and friendly to each other and to Europeans ; ignorant, but clever at repartee. He sailed on the 2d September, and in passing through the straits observed few islands of ice, and none in the Atlantic ; whence he derived a confirmation of his opinion as to the speedy melting of those singular masses.* The Company soon after became exposed, from a new quarter, to a very formidable rivalry. While Canada was under French dominion, the fur-trade, as already ob- served, had been caiTied on from thence with consider- able spirit by a class of adventurers called the coureurs du hois ; who, having pushed their excursions far into the interior, had come into partial collision with the Com- pany's servants. This, however, from the limited extent of transactions on both sides, was not very serious ; and the conquest of Canada in 1759 put a period for some time even to this competition. But similar operations were soon commenced by a number of persons, princi- * Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ix. p. 125-133. W EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 47 pally from the Highlands of Scotland, whose hardy and adventurous habits were well suited to such pursuits, and who, after acting some time in their individual capacity, threw their stocks together, and, in 1783-4, formed the North-west Fur Company. This body became very prosperous ; and from their central establishment at Mon treal, extended operations to the remotest quarters of America. Their capital, amounting in 1788 to £40,000, had before 1799 increased threefold^ and probably was afterwards much farther enlarged.* The best account of the way in which this trade was ma- naged, and of the mode of life led by the Company's agents, is that given by Daniel Williams Harmon, a citizen of the United States, who served them many years as a clerk, and afterwards became a partner. On the 30th April 1800 he set sail from La Chine with a squadron of thirty canoes, divided into three brigades, to each of which one or more pilots were attached. These barks were steered by Canadian voyageurs, the most skilful in the world for guiding a boat through the many perilous rapids. Like sailors in tropical seas, they had certain stations, where they claimed the right of duck- ing every new passenger, unless, to their great satisfac- tion, he chose to purchase exemption by giving a few bottles of spirits. Harmon, havmg embraced this alter- native, witnessed a complete brightening of the doleful aspect worn at parting from their relations. At these rapids it was rather alarming to see the numerous crosses erected for persons who had been drowned ; at one sta- tion there were fourteen, at another thirty. It was the 13th June before they reached the Grand Portage on Lake Superior, 1800 miles above Montreal ; and here they found a fortified enclosure, containing a number of slight wooden tenements, surrounded by palisades. A general meeting was held at this season of the pro- prietors and clerks from the interior, bringing the pro- * Mackenzie's Voyages from Montreal, &c., with Preliminary Account of the Pur-traoe (4to, London, 1801), Introduction, pp. vii. xvii. xxii. ?*s itJ] ^u:'- V rH-|«:H. ; t( 48 Hudson's bay territory liif ^1 1. 1. t! i?:-:l,;!i» iii' (luce of their annual trade, and receiving articles where- with to renew it. The occasion was celebrated witli much mirth and a grand ball, at which the ladies be- haved with greater propriety than our author expected, tliough it is admitted that during the festivity a drunken squaw stabbed her husband, who died in a few minutes. Mr Harmon proceeded to Lake Winnipeg, and expected to liave gone on to the Saskatchawan ; but a new post was formed on Swan River, of which he was appointed to take charge. He had here an earnest of future hard- ships by spending a day, the first time in his life, without bread. Having received a pious education, he was scan- dalized at seeing no observance whatever of Sunday ; the people carrying on business, playing at cards, and following other sports, exactly as on other days. On re- monstrating, he received for answer, that there could be no Sabbath in the north-w 38t country. He observes, at the same time, that though emergencies might occur fron the natives coming in, to render some traffic inevitable, there was in general no obstacle to its being spent in a strictly religious manner. In fact, he found leisure to read the Bible and other religious books more carefully than he had ever done before.* We believe there has been much amendment in this respect ; and before the author left the country, several of his friends had concurred with him in adopting the most serious views of religion. Mr Harmon draws a picture, seemingly with painful truth, of the excesses then committed by the natives ow- ing to the practice of making spirits a leading article of traffic. " To see a house full of drunken Indians, con- sisting of men, women, and children, is a most unpleasant sight ; for in that condition they often wrangle, pull t\acli other by the hair, and fight. At some times, ten or twelve of both sexes may be seen fighting each other promiscuously, until at last they all fall on the floor, one * Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North Ame- rica. By Daniel Williams Harmon (8vo, Andover, United States, 1820,) p. 25-61. EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 49 upon another, some spilling rum out of a small kettle or dish which they hold in their hands, while others are throwing up what they have just drunk. To add to this uproar, a number of children, some on their mothers' shoulders, and others running about and taking hold of their clothes, are constantly bawling, the older ones through fear that their parents may be stabbed, or that some other misfortune may befall them in tlie fray." On the arrival of a large party, there usually commenced a ball (or, as he says, rather bawl), consisting in mock fights, loud shrieks and cries, continued in most cases till three-fourths were unable to stand. It was commonly closed by a succession of fights, when serious outrages were committed, of which the perpetrators in their so1)er moments bitterly repented. On one of these occasions an Indian strongly attached to Mr Harmon stabbed him with a knife, which penetrated through his clothes. Next day he cried bitterly at having nearly killed " liis father," whom he reproached for not having tied him, on seeing he had lost his senses. The dread of such in- cidents, as well as the clamour, rendered it impossible, while these scenes lasted, for the Company's servants to shut their eyes ; and sometimes after passing one sleep- less night, the arrival of another party exposed them to a similar inconvenience. We shall hereafter have occasion to observe, that under the management of the existing Company, an entire stop has been put to these pernicious excesses.* Mr Harmon describes with much feeling the extremi- ties to which he and his companions were often reduced, owing to the uncertainty of the means whereby food was conveyed to them. On the borders of lakes and rivet's, fish afforded a resource ; yet ice and other causes rendered it precarious, and they were sometimes glad to collect again those which had been thrown away and were almost putrid. On the prairies, the buffalo present- ed an excellent and the moose-deer a delicious food ; * Harmon, pp. «2, 71, 72, 92, D3, 100, 112, 119, VMi. ■•'■% M* i. t f'/ ", Iv ■: . '. 50 Hudson's bay territory : m m ■ lip 'H ii ;'■! \ if ' f* and there one or two Indians were usually engaged to hunt for them ; but these wayward purveyors were liable to superstitious impressions, which often paralyzed their exertions. One, on whom their main dependence rested, conceived the idea that the bad spirit had determined to kill him, and for that purpose watched continually at the door of his cabin, out of which nothing could induce him to stir. Another individual complained that when he was rushing against a deer or buffalo, the malignant demon raised such a cry behind him, that he durst not proceed. Mr Haraion, thus threatened with starvation, thought some artifice excusable. He wrapped a small portion of drugs in a paper, and desired him, when he heard this fearful sound, to throw it over his shoulder without looking back, when it would fall into the mouth of the bad spirit, and that then he himself should dart upon his prey. The hunter returned quite delighted with the charm, which had fully succeeded, and brought with him a fine fat moose. Still, on repeated occasions, our author found famine staring him in the face ; and boiled beaver-skins were sometimes his only resource. At one time he was reduced to rose-buds ; but that elegant diet, besides being very unsavoury, was in respect to nutriment so little better than nothing, as scarcely to support exist- ence. Sometimes, amid the most extreme want, the ar- rival of a moose or a buffalo placed him in luxurious plenty. The natives, who had not the same resources, were not unfrequently, in the depth of severe winters, reduced to the most fatal extremities ; and cannibal- ism, to which they do not seem to have been impelled by ferocity, was then too often resorted to. The author saw a woman who was said to have partaken, in the course of one winter, of the bodies of fourteen of her kindred.* The Indian tribes who wandered over the wide prairies adjacent to our author's station were chiefly those who l:)ear the names of Crees and Assineboines. From the great abundance of game they derived an easy subsistence, and never S( • Harmon, pp. 86, 94, 95, 96, 110, 177. EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 51 are described as an extremely happy and contented race. They were in general disposed to be friendly with the Company's servants, from whose trade they derived great advantages. To their loss, it is true, they were supplied with ardent spirits ; but they also obtained guns, pow- der, axes, and other implements of iron, without which, having quite disused the bow and arrow, they could scarcely have subsisted. They had, through the same channel, acquired a breed of horses, which had multiplied to such a degree as to be in the possession of almost ever}^ individual, and to have become an article of trade. Thev never sold one, however, without regi-et, and on such oc- casions the owner was heard whispering apologies to the animal, that necessity had compelled this parting, but not to be cast down, as the first opportunity would be taken of stealing him back, — a promise which, without strict watch on the part of the purchaser, was punctually fulfilled. When Mr Harmon visited one of their camps, he was almost overpowered with hospitality, being ob- liged to go successively to six or seven entertainments. Yet there was always something perilous in this inti- macy. Not only in their drunken fits was life repeat- edly threatened and attempted, but as, in a case of sup- posed injury, the vengeance was directed alike against the perpetrator and his friends, the latter were often struck by an unpremeditated blow. Our author learned once that every arrangement had been made to kill him by an Indian who supposed himself wronged by one of liis intimate acquaintances ; and he was orly saved by the honourable feelings of another who had received him as a guest. Some painful instances were observed of European children, carried off or left in infancy, who had been so completely trained in the customs of savage life, that they could not by any means be recalled to civilized habits.* Mr Harmon, who seems to have commanded the con- fidence of his employers, was latterly transferred to some * Harmon, pp. 67, 70, 71, 101, 111, 122, 140, 141, 337. •). '■:r: •• r-t:. 'S. ' !l 52 Hudson's bay territory : 3''i'Mlii ^ I I Hi.. of their remoter stations. In 1 808 he crossed the Portage la Loche, or the ridge which divides the two great river- systems ; and, like subsequent travellers, he considered the view thence of the Clear- water Valley the most en- chanting he had ever beheld. After visiting Fort Chi- ])ewyan, the centre of all the transactions in the Atha- basca region, he proceeded up the Peace River to Fort Dunvegan, agreeably situated amid fine plains. Here he received visits from Messrs M*Leod, Fraser, and Stuart, on their way to and from the establishments lately foraied by the Company in New Caledonia, on the west- ern side of the Rocky Mountains ; and he himself in 1810 went to spend some time in that district. He was struck T)y the great height of those mountains, exceeding any he had ever seen, and also with the numerous streams which, coming from their farther side through a single narrow pass, unite to form the Peace River, whereby their waters are conveyed to the Northern Ocean. Nor was it till he was quite on the opposite declivity that he found any flowing towards the Pacific. He was employed rt several forts situated on large lakes in that wild country. The Indian people in the neighbourhood, named Car- liers, combined with the general character of the North American savage some peculiar features. They were yet in a happy ignorance of ardent spirits ; though curiosity, it is said, led a number of them on a great festival day to see the Canadians get drunk. This mortifying scene they contemplated with great attention ; but when the state of complete inebriation arrived, *hey were frightened, and ran to hide themselves in corners. Seeing afterwards those who had made the greatest noise fall perfectly still, they imagined that they had recovered their senses, and become ashamed of their extravagance. For some time they would not believe that the English had fa- thers or mothers, but supposed them to have come down from the sun or moon. They still viewed them as pos- sessing supernatural powers, and when about to depart on a hunting excursion, w^ould come and make large offers on condition of good weather being secured during thei EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 53 their adventure. They imagined that Europeans, by merely looking in their books, could cure a sick person though at a great distance, and often made earnest appli- cations to this effect. Nothing astonished them more than the movements of a watch and their correspondence to those of the sun, which they could account for only by its being part of that great luminary, or at least in inti- mate communication with it. They had not the grave and serious character observed in those on the other side of the mountains, but, when they came to the forts, kept up a perpetual chattering ; and notwithstanding their de- sire to please the whites, nothing was more difficult than to check their tongues any considerable time. Their rage for play seemed to exceed even the usual savage bounds, so that they would make a boast of having lost all they had, and being obliged to cut off part of their clothes, and even to strip themselves naked. The attach- ment between husband and wife was very strong, and a man has been known to commit suicide on the death of his partner. In this connexion strict fidelity was exacted, but to the unmarried females a culpable license was allowed. Their only domestic animals were large dogs, wiiich were employed in carrying burdens, and were the objects of great regard, being often called their children, and after death lamented in a manner somewhat corresponding. Their chief diet is salmon, which swarm in the western rivers, and during the sea- son afford them food in abundance."^ In 1819, Mr Harmon, after having resided eight years on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, returned and spent some time at his native place. He afterwards resumed his occupations in the fur-trade, but left his journal, which his friend Mr Haskel of Burlington pre- pared for the press. * Harmon, pp. 169, IJO, 175, 191, 195, 197, 289, 293, 295, 335. J !. A :u .1 .• t ( F 54 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY : CHAPTER II. Uudaon^s Bay Territory : decent Discovery and Present State. Hearne and Mackenzie — Parry, Franklin, and Richardson — Cap- tain Back sent in search of Captain Koss — Aided by the Hudson's Bay Company — Reaches Great Slave Lake — Discovers the Thlew- ee-choh — Winters on the Lake — Voyaj^^e down the River — Arrested by Ice— His Return — Successful Voyage by Messrs Dease and Simpson — The North-west incorporated with the Hudson's Bay Company — Privilejj^es of that Body — Its Consti- tution and Management — Indian Tribes within its Jurisdiction — Valuable furred Animals, Beaver, Martin, Fox, Otter, &c — Modes of catching- (hem — Principal Stations — York Fort — Moose — Montreal — Fort Vancouver — Claims of the Americans — Settlement on the Red River — Import of Furs — General Course of the Trade. It behoves us now to notice those more recent voyages of discovery which, though undertaken with a view to the north-west passage, have had for their chief result the exploration of the boundaries and remote geographical features of British America, The way had been pre- pared through inland expeditions by the two rival com- panies. In 1771 Samuel Hearne, employed by that of Hudson's Bay, descended the Coppeimine River, and found it terminating in an unknown part of the Arctic Ocean. In 1789 Sir Alexander Mackenzie, one of the paiiners of the North-west Fur Company, went down the larger stream which bears his name, and made observa- tions which left little doubt of its opening into another portion of the same expanse. That enterprising gentle- RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 55 man also penetrated in 1793 across the Rocky Moun- tains, and reached the coast of the Pacific. These observations were sufficient to remove the im- pression which at one time prevailed that America pre- sented an unbroken continent stretching towards the pole ; and the proofs of an ocean bounding it at no very high latitude, gave again some probability to the existence of a passage to India by this route. The British go- vernment, therefore, after the close of the European war in 1815, engaged in a series of spirited attempts which had this object in view. Captain Parry succes- sively penetrated into the Polar Sea, and discovered a range of large islands, to the south of which were exten- sive coasts, of which he could not perceive the bound- ary. Captain Ross, in an adventurous voyage fitted out by himself and his friends, ascertained that these coasts belong to a large peninsula named by him Boothia, and which terminates to the south in a narrow isthmus, connecting it apparently with the continent ; though there has since appeared room to suspect that the whole may compose one large island. Captain Parry, in an- other voyage, explored the northern shores of Hudson's Bay, and discovered the strait of the Fury and Hecla, leading thence into the Arctic Ocean. Meantime, Captain Franklin and Dr Richardson, in two land journeys chequered by interesting events, examined a large extent of the northern coast, including the whole of that be- tween the Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers, with a considerable space east of the former and west of the lat- ter. Captain Beechey, from Behring's Straits, approached to within 150 miles of Franklin's most westerly point. These expeditions and discoveries were chiefly made along the remoter limits of British America, and have been fully narrated in former volumes of this series.* Out of these expeditions arose another conducted by Captain Back, which issued in the discovery of an ex- * See Polar Seas and Re^^^ions, chapter vii., and Ty tier's North- ern Coasts of America, chapter iv. '. "^1 >• il '■i?i ■-^^IP^t 56 lIUnSON R BAY TERRITORY I % ■!1 ' 'I ■!.l tensive inland tract, watered by a large river and nume- rous lakes. As this is more intiniatclv connected with our present suhject, and has not l)een touched upon hi any of our former vohmies, a fuller detail of its results may l)e gratifying to the reader, and necessary to com- plete his knowledge of British America. Captain Ross s canoe, RECENt DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. H? the vicinity of which a considerahle river was knouii to rise, and to flow in a north-eastern direction, so us pro- hahly to reach the ocean near the quarter vviiere Captiiin Ross and hiM party were imagined to remain in (hirance. It was supposed, that before winter tiiey might, in a liglit canoe, reach tlie sea, gain all possible information, and form their plans for next summer. They were then to push direct for the point in Regent Inlet where the wreck of the Fury had been left, whicli Captain Ross had proposed to visit, and avail himself of the al)andoned stores. Should no trace of him be found, they were to search all the surrounding shores, erecting signals to attract the wanderers, anil direct them where relief Would be found. Should this their primary object fail altogether, it was hoped they might add to the stock of geographical knowledge, and perhaps, by penetrating from the mouth of the river to Cape Turnagain, explore a great part of the unknown coast.* The expedition sailed from Liverpool on the iTtli February 1833, and after a somewhat boisterous passage, during which they observed several formidable icebergs, reached New York on the 27th March. In that city the greatest anxiety was manifested to promote their object. The Hudson River Steam-boat Association proffered the use of their fine vessel the Ohio to convey them to Al- bany. At the British consul's they met Messrs Wash- ington Irving, Audubon, Webster, and other eminent men, who expressed a deep interest in their success, and their departure was cheered by more than a thou- sand spectators. They soon reached Albany, but their journey thence was very tedious, in a large wagon, over a very indifferent road, and it was not till the 9th April that they arrived at Montreal. Here, though kindly received by all the authorities, they met with some troubles. Two of the men from England showed a disposition to shun the service, which Captain Back imputes to fears inspired by the very sympathy which * Captain Back's Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition (ttvo, London, 1836), Preliminary Chapter. h- ^ ^' i ■ fM It 58 Hudson's bay territory : t rK^'i they Imd excited ; hut Mr King tliinks they had hecn treated too familiarly, and forgot their place. An at- tempt was made, hy sending them forward to a distant l)ost, to retain their services ; still it was thought advis- able, with Lord Aylmer's permission, to accept the offer of four soldiei"M as volunteers. Several Canadian voy- agenrs were also engaged ; but Mr Keith, agent for the Hudson's Bay Comj)any, counselled them to make the main selection from among the regular servants at Nor- way House, where much hardier men would be found. At the hotel where they lodged, a peiformanco being given by the Bohemian brothers, a number of evergreens l)rought in to adorn the apartment took fire, and the house was consumed so rapidly, that many of the au- dience were obliged to escape by the whidows ; luckily the baggage had been sent forward, but the only service- able barometer was lost. On the 26th April they left Montreal, and sailed up the Ottawa. Some friendly aid was afforded by the steam-vessels ; but the numerous rapids caused deten- tion, and tried the firmness of the young hands, two of whom deserted. Proceeding along a small stream, they entered the Nipissing Lake, and thence by the Riviere des Fran^ais descended into Lake Huron. Being detained by fogs and contrary winds, they did not reach the Sault St Marie till the lltli May. Here Mr Bethune, the Company's agent, informed them that the despatches sent to Mr Simpson, the resident governor, owing to the obstruction of the floating ice, had preceded them by only eleven days, — an unfortunate circumstance, whence a difficulty was apprehended in making up their complement of men. Here provisions for five weeks were laid in, and many civilities, as well as some supplies, were received from the American commandant on the opposite side of the river. The party now sailed along the northern bank of Lake Superior, not without some risk from fogs and squalls. The rocky border, in many places above 1000 feet high^ always aflforded coves into which they could RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 59 run ; but they often sou^lit to nvoid a winding bay by steering directly from point to point, in tlio course of whidi they gotsonie frights and duckings. On the 20th, under a salute of six guns, they entered Fort William, where Mr M*lntosh, by Governor Simpson's direction, had prepared two excellent light canoes, wiiich it was necessary to use instead of large ones, in order to move along the narrow and obstructed rivers. The baggage and stores being nicely divided into pieces, and distri- buted as equally as possible, they began to ascend the shallow stream Kameni3tiquoia,on wliicl they saw with iistonishment that stupendt us fall whic' has been con- sidered second only to Niag ira. Ila' Ing passed a port- age over the dividing ridge, the S vannah conveyed them into Rainy Lake, whence they reache^^ ana rosse*! the Lake of the Woods, and then came : ' Fort Alex- ander, at the southern extremity of L kb Winnipeg. Here Captain Back waited four ^ lys for G^ -rnor Simpson, who came on the 10th .?un^ accompanied b^ Ilia lady, whose affection had led her to sliare the hard- sliips of a voyageur life and a northern winter. That gentleman, with the intelligence and benevolence which mark his character, had r de the most active preparations to promote the objects of the expedition. He himself was obliged by ill health to return to Eng- land, but every resource possessed by the Company was placed at their command. Pemmican, owing to a migra- tion of the buffaloes, wa. 'unfortunately scarce ; though orders had been sent to coi < cct it along the whole line of route. He concurred with Mr Keith, that the best place for obtaining volurLer recruits was Norway House, by hastening to v^iioli they might intercept the different brigades of boats on their way to Hudson's Bay. Somo difficulty was apprehended in inducing the men to en- gage ; but Messrs Cameron and Christie, chief factors, were to be intrusted with this task, for which they were considered extremely well qualified, and Mr Charles, long employed on the banks of the Slave Lake, was to give all the benefit of his local knowledge. Mr ;ir u|: HH M. ■ Jr'P Pf ill 1 f't A ' . ^ 1 m ■•I 60 Hudson's bay territory : hi Simpson sent also a letter addressed to four individuals of standing in the service, inviting any one of them to join and act under Captain Back, with the assurance of immediate promotion, as well as of an additional ,£100 a-year while employed. Every desirahle arrangement was thus made ; yet the impossibility of accomplishing the main object during the passing season could not but be foreseen more fully than ever. Captain Back nevertheless was most anxious to trace the course of the Great Fish River, so that he might fonn precise plans for descending it next summer. He therefore pushed forward, and reaching Norway House on the l7th June, found the officers of the Company eager to render every service, though the men showed some backwardness, and were disposed at least to drive a hard bargain. Even when engaged, an insur- mountable obstacle arose from two of their wives. One, endowed with Amazonian powers, applied her fists with such force and perseverance to the ears of her husband, that he soon submitted. Another, an interesting girl of seventeen, assailed her partner with such tender sobs and embraces, that she equally gained her object. Two being thus wanting, Mr King was sent forward with the heavy equipments to Cumberland House, where the leader, in a light canoe, expected to overtake him. The former had a very hard voyage, working his way through a succession of little lakes and branches of rivers, and passing nineteen poi*tages, as well as innumerable rapids. He had received peremptory orders not to break upon the precious store of pemmican which was to be their dependence on the voyage, and to subsist the men solely by fishing ; but this resource was so very deficient, that they suffered severe privation, and at one time had only the alternative of famine, or of violating the solemn in- junction. He had no spirits ; and, though fully admitting the dangers of indulgence, he could not help thinking that an occasional dram would have cheered his people. He was delighted, however, with much of the scenery, particularly a reach of the river Missinnippi, bordered by RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 61 undulating hills and dense forests. Both Back and he were, like Hannon, enchanted at the view from the summit of the ridge, where it suddenly descends on the western side by a precipice of more than 1000 feet. For a space of tliirty-six miles, the Clear-water River was seen meandering through a plain covered wuth luxu- riant woods, and diversified by two parallel ranges of liills. Having reached Fort Chipewyan on the Athabasca Lake, Mr King, agreeably to his directions, descended the Great Slave River to Fort Resolution, which stands on the lake of that name. Here he found instructions and a guide to lead him to its eastern extremity, where a ])lace had been fixed upon for the winter residence. He had to encounter a good deal of difficulty in tracing the winding course of this great sheet of water ; but at length, from the top of a lofty rock, saw, amid the dark green foliage, the framework of a building, which he concluded could be no other than that which he sought. Accordingly he was there welcomed by Captain Back, who had already arrived. This officer in about a week completed his party, though for that purpose he M-as obliged to accept the services of one of the natives.* On the 28th June, he embarked with a motley group, composed of " an Eng'- lishman, a man from Stornoway, two Canadians, two metifs (or half-breeds), and three Iroquois Indians. Babel, it was said, could not have produced a worse con- fusion of inharmonious sounds than the conversation they kept up." Nothing particular occurred till at the Pine Portage he met Messrs Stuart and M'Leod, two of the gentlemen to whom he bore the governor's invita- tion. It was the latter he most desired to join him, both as an intimate friend and as a person eminently qualified for the service ; and to his great satisfaction, Mr M'Leod, though in bad health, most cheerfully complied. At Fort Chipewyan, and still more at Fort Resolu- tion, the most diligent inquiries were made of the In- W^ M ;'<'i^ ti- ' pt;- • Back, chap. ii. King, pp. 4-12, 26, 72-127. VOL. III. D 1 ■ fc 1^ mm :«': 62 Hudson's bay territory : t f I ,1 fir. i!!! •I s i 41 dians as to a river communication with the sea. The jj^eneral statement was, that from the eastern point of the lake there were two streams holding a course nearly parallel, — one called Thlew-ee-choh, the other Teh-Ion. The first was both difficult and dangerous, broken by rapids, and passing through a country destitute of trees, shelter, and game ; while the other was of easy navigation, amidst wooded tracts well stocked with animals. They were represented too as falling into the sea not far from each other. The Teh-Ion was therefore recommended aa every way the more eligible ; yet Captain Back receiv- ing, on the whole, the impression that it must flow east- ward into Chestei-field Inlet ; so that, as the more rug- ged Thlew-ee-choh could alone be depended upon for leading into the Arctic Sea, he determined to brave all its perils.'^ The question, however, still remained, where the river was and by what route to reach it. The only distinct light was gained from an Indian named Maufelly, who had been there in his youth, but now retained only very faint and wavering recollections. To his guidance, nevertheless, they were obliged to trust. In sailing along the northern shore, they passed an extensive range of very bold and perpendicular cliffs ; and on one of the loftiest of them was seated a majestic eagle, which, " unscared by our cries, reigned in solitary state the monarch of the rocky wilderness." At length the}"^ suddenly opened on a small bay, at the bottom of which a splendid tall, up- wards of sixty feet high, rushed in two white and misty volumes into a dark gulf beneath. The scene was of * he most picturesque and romantic gmndeurjf and Mau- felly declared that this stream, named the Hoar-frost River, would lead them to the great one sought for. The captain, therefore, disregi\rding the significant looks of his companions, determined to ascend it ; and Mr M*Leod now proceeded to the most easterly point of the lake, to rear a winter habitation for their reception. * Back, cliap. iii. t See Vignette Title-page. RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 63 The ascent was attended with all the expected difficul- ties ; it being necessary to drag the canoe over a slip- pery rugged steep, through trees and underwood. After passing two falls, they ^;ot her afloat, and enjoyed a short respite ; but two move soon occurred. At length, after clambering over fallen trees, through rivulets and across swamps, they came to an open space, desolate and craggy, estimated to be 2000 feet above the water which they saw beneath. They had then a descent so precipitous as to be even dangerous. Rapids following in quick succession obliged them to be almost constantly light- ening the canoe, and hauling it with a line ; and their toil was rendered tormenting by the stings of innumerable sand-flies and mosquitoes. Temporary repose was at last found on the tranquil bosom of a small lake named Cook, connected with a stream barred by fifteen small rapids, all of which were cheerfully encountered, as the ladder to their grand object. It opened into a larger lake named Walmsley ; but after an intricate navigation among numerous islands, they came to the end of it without flnding any further channel. Maufelly announced a simi- lar and much larger expanse, but was greatly puzzled how to reach it. Scouts, however, being sent in difi^erent directions, discovered a chain of small detached lakes, which they became convinced would conduct to the one in question ; and starting with the first dawn, they carried the boat in one day over no fewer than fifteen portages. Next uiorning, after a continuance of similar labour, they found a small stream leading eastward, and after some perplexities mounted a hill, whence they had the satis- faction of looking on a clear body of water, bounded only by the horizon. It was the north-eastern branch of a great lake, afterwards named Artillery ; 'md they soon found themselves in the channel of a river flowing in the wish- ed-for direction. After only four rapids, it opened into anot^ er lake still more extensive, subsequently deno- minated Clinton-Colden. Coasting along its western shore, they were somewhat bewildered by bays and islands, of which last many were so large that they t •'■■:■ i >.. ■'.. . ' if' '''.'iff.... ■• HI ■'! ■ ...j ■ i • • ■ i 4 .1 ■'} .*■! 1i-'f 'M mm, m'* 04 Hudson's bay territory : were not unf reqiiently mistaken for the main land. The aiipearance, however, of numerous sandhills, convinced Maufelly, from recollections which had survived the lapse of so many winters, that they could not now be far from the rise of the Thlew-ee-ch(jh. The lake for some distance near the shore began to be crusted with thin ice ; while the mosquitoes and flies, their tonnentors, lay like a black cover on its surface. Yet the mountainous aspect of the coast tended rather to discourage their hopes, till from a conical hill they discovered another immense lake, which they named Aylmer, abounding in large islands and in bays from ten to fifteen miles deep. On the opposite side it had quite the appearance of an inland sea ; for, with the exception of some dark spots pro- nounced to be islets, the horizon was composed entirely of sky and water, gilded by the brilliant rays of a setting- sun. Maufelly confidently predicted that in the vicinity of its banks would be found the desired spot ; and though he still groped in uncertainty, there was no choice but to confide in him. At length he descried some sand- hills which had left traces in his memory ; and after ascending one, hastened down, saying, that in an adja- cent bay he had discovered a spot fixed in his earliest associations as the scene of his father's exploits ; and that it contained the source of the Thlewrce-choh. The cr.noe therefore being lodged in the bay, a party was sent forward to search for that stream. As their return was dela^'cd. Captain Back himself mounted one of the emi- nences, and thought he perceived a ridge, at the head of which springs were rippling which might contribute to form the river. The messengers at last appeared, with the happy assurance that these with others gave rise to a small Jake, out of which issued a current, which was doubtless the one sought for.* The canoe was soon dragged over the height, and launched upon its bosom ; and in de- scending its course for about t\\ elve miles, it was found to spread into a larger lake, and to receive two tributaries, • Back, chapter iv. RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 6: .') when there remained no doubt that, sweUcd by continued accessions, it would spread into a noble river. Unfortu- nately there appeared no certainty as to the point wliither it would lead them. But the season was advanced ; a suc- cession of rapids was before them ; and Ijlue mountains in the distance gave warning that others still more for- midable must be encountered. It was therefore necessar v to be content with what liad been achieved, and to regain their winter quarters. They retraced their course witli little difficulty along the chain of the great lakes. At the end of that named Artillery was the river Ah-hel- de^y, which led to their destination ; but its navigation was so difficult, and their bark so shattered, that they abandoned it and proceeded on foot. The path was ex- tremely rugged, and at the highest part a scene appeared to which Captain Back had seen nothing in the old world bearing any resemblance. It was not alpine ; the eye wandered over endless lines of round-backed rocks, with their sides rent into the most eccentric forms, like a stormy ocean suddenly petrified. The only vegetation consisted of a few tawny and pale-green lichens ; and the stems of mountain-pines scathed by fire presented a mournful aspect. They endured much fatigue, as wtII as torture from flies and mosquitoes, till they reached the end of the lake, and discovered the framework of the house which Mr M'Leod had been employed in rearing.* This mansion, completed by tlie 5th November, of wooden logs closely cemented with common clay and sand, was fifty feet long and thirty broad, divided into four apartments, with an open hall in the centre to which the Indians were admitted. Notwithstanding every preparation, the winter proved very distressing. The deer at this season had been accustomed to leave the high open tracts called the barren grounds, where they can scarcely be reached, and to seek the shelter of the woods, where they fall a prey to the natives ; but in consequence of a course of mild weather, they ^■■:/.M I- 'T'm I • Back, chapter vi. ! ■ , < ;i 66 Hudson's bay territory : i!»r P^ remained still in those inaccessible tracts. Attempts were made to supply the deficiency by fishing ; but the spawning-time, according to M)* King, had been allowed to pass, and though different bays and small lakes were tried, the produce was extremely scanty, while many of the nets were lost. They were, on this account, obliged to place themselves on a reduced allowance, and also to encroach on their stock of pemmican, though scarcely adequate to next summer's expedition. The Indians, deprived of their ordinary resources, clustered round the fort, and threw themselves entirely upon our country- men. Though they could be allowed only what was barely sufficient to preserve them alive, the males showed ex- treme fortitude, never letting a murmur escape their lips ; but their pallid visages, meagre frames, and sunken eyes, fully told what they endured. The moans of the chil- dren, arid the hollow and sepulchral wail with which the mothers attempted to sooth them, were most dis- tressing. A similar deficiency had been experienced for two successive seasons, throughout these remote dis- tricts ; and during the last, forty of the chief hunters had ]3erished by hunger, and fears were entertained of many who had not been heard of. We suspect they have ac*- quired too much the habit of depending on the English forts, where in general they are supplied in these exi- gencies. So much have they come to consider this their right, that when disappointed, they allow themselves to be hurried into the most violent deeds. Having been once harshly refused at a northern post, they surprised in the woods three of the Company's servants, and shot tv/o ; then rushing to the house, they found the superintendent in bed, and instantly murdered him. They v:ere, how- ever, ultimately hunted down, even by their own tribe. The limited bounty of the present party was received with gratitude and kindness, the only suspicion being excited by the operations at the observatory, which were by some suspected to be magical, and to have the effect of driving the animals away ; nor were even the voya- geurs exempt from this impression. The captain, how- m RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 67 ever, having jestingly asserted his object to be directly contrary, and this being immediately followed by the capture of a bear, their doubts vanished. It is alleged that, though by exerting greater activity and going to a dis- tance, they might have fared tolerably well, they preferred hanging on for their miserable allowance. They sought to eke it out by cutting off and roasting portions of their deer-skin robes, thus depriving themselves of a most m'- cessary protection agahist the period of extreme cold, during which many of them perished, both around the fort and in remoter quarters. Augustus, Captain Frank- lin's Esquimaux guide, having set out from York Fort to join them, died on the road. In February the thermometer sunk to 60°, and some- times even to 90° below the freezing-point, and the rigour of the weather became remarkable, especially in the latitude of 63°. With a large fire in a small apart- ment, the heat could not be raised above 12°. Ink and paint froze, and boxes of the best seasoned wood split. The skin of the hands cracked, and opened in gasht s. When the face was washed near the fire, before it could be dried, the hair was clotted with ice. All living beings disappeared, no sound but that of the passing wind broke the awful stillness.* On the 25th of April, while the party sat conversing, a loud and sharp rap was heard at the door, and with- out waiting? permission, the person burst in, saying, " He is returned, sir!" — '* Who, Augustus f — " Captain Ross, sir ; Captain Ross is returned !" On demanding the authority, it was in his hand ; a packet had already been delivered containing a number of letters, with newspa- pers, reporting this event, which had caused such a deep and joyful interest in Britain. Instructions were also received from Sir Charles Ogle directing Captain Back to turn his whole attention to discovery, especially on that part of the coast between the farthest point reach- ed by Captain Ross, and Franklin's Cape Turnagain. 4i I- a» • Back, chap. vii. King^, p. 171, et seq. • I . i- 68 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY ! To this object, therefore, all their enthusiasm was now turned. The clay was passed in a state of feverish ex- (jitemcnt ; and though the strictest temperance usually ruled the establishment, this happy occasion was cele- brated by a generous bowl. It was now considered that for their more limited ob- ject, one boat with a crew of ten men, all experienced voyageurs, good hunters, and inured to the most trying situations, might be sufficient. Such a bark was now building on Artillery Lake, and thither the pemmican and baggage were dragged in successive loads. On the 18th May, a solitary goose appeared, the harbinger of summer, followed before night by five more, and in the next three days by many other birds. Towards the end of the month the heat became oppressive, the thermo- meter standing in the sun at 106°, being 176° higher than on the l7th January ; and the snow was fast melt- ing. Mr M*Leod proceeded forward with a select party to bring down animals and fonn them into caches or hoards, concealed from the view of hungry wolves and Indians, yet indicated by certain signs to the advancing party. Finding it impossible to keep the house open on this desolate spot, they secured as well as possible the l)ai)ers, drawings, and stores ; then blocked up the doors and windows to prevent intrusion.* On the 7th June Captain Back set out with four j^ersons, each loaded with ninety pounds of pemmican ; and after three days of laborious tracking over rocks and swamps, they reached the lake. As that expanse was still covered with ice, the boat was placed upon wooden runners to be drawn over it by two men and six fine dogs ; but the surface, instead of being smooth, presented a bed of sharp angular spikes, the walking over which was most painful and difficult ; and the runners were soon so peeled or otherwise injured as to render their de-p struction inevitable, unless protected by some durable material. There was nothing within reach but an iron • Back, chapter viiL RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 69 saw, which was cut into slips and attached to them. Disappointed by Maufelly and another Indian who had promised to act as guides, they groped tiieir way by a somewhat imperfect recollection ; however, they suc- ceeded without any material deviation in reaching Clin- ton-Colden Lake. The caches were tolerably abundant ; in one day they found eleven animals, tliough several were musk-oxen, the flesh of which had a flavour almost intolera))le. The men indeed at one time ex- pressed a resolution rather to starve than eat it ; but this was altogether scouted by their leader, who, to take away all pretext, adopted it as part of his own allowance. These supplies enabled them to keep the pemmican untouched. They had also some extremely bad weather, particularly on Midsummer-day, when they saw in tlie northern sky, accumulated in one black mass, all the horrors of a hyperborean winter. Hail, snow, and rain in ceaseless succession assailed them, and were followed by a wind so violent as to overturn the tent. Frequent showers and increasing heat so softened the ice, that both the boats and themselves were dragged along with great difficulty, not without danger, or at least fear of sinking. However, on the 27th June, they reached Sandhill Bay, delighted with the certainty that they were within a few miles of the stream that would con- vey them to the Polar Sea. The joy thus inspired was considerably damped next day, when the boat, which it was necessary to convey from the lake into the river, was found composed of such soft materials, that it could not be dragged over a rocky portage. The crew were therefore ordered to carry it ; a severe task, which tried their strength to the utmost, and was the more distressing from the fear that it might be often repeated. At length, through many obstacles from ice in the lakes and rapids in the stream, they reached their former station, and met Mr M'leod with his party. He astonished them by his skill in the rifle, which is said to have equalled that of a Kentuckian, and by which he had provided largely for their wants. It was H ; :4^ ilii 70 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY now sottlcd that he should return, prepare winter-fjuar- ters, fix on a good fishing-station, and meet the return- ing expedition at the end of Septemher.* The bark now began its voyage down the Thlew-ee- choh, with a load fitted much rather for a smooth sea than for the rugged and broken channel which it had to encounter. Twenty-seven bags of pemmican, with ma- caroni, fiour, and minor articles, weighed about 3360 lbs., exclusive of rigging and stores, and a company amounting to ten. The burden was indeed gradually reduced by consumption, and still more by caches depo- sited at different points with a view to their return ; but the progress downwards, nevertheless, was not unattend- ed with difficulty. On Lake Garry, a great expanse at which they arrived, they were startled by the view of extensive fields of ice, stretching to the utmost limit of vision. Hence, their farther advance seemed at first to be completely arrested ; but by following narrow lanes of water, and by cutting through the ice or lifting the boat over it, they slowly worked their way. The most se- rious obstacles were found in the rapids that interrupted almost every channel. Of these they had been fore- warned by the Indians, who described them as in fact utterly impassable, and added that all of their country- men who made the attempt had perished. Indeed, Cap- tain Back conceives that nothing short of an almost superhuman bodily strength, joined to skill and long experience, could have enabled his two steersmen, M*Kay and Sinclair, to vanquish the obstacles. The question was also started, how the boat once down could ever be got up ; but their leader did not allow this con- sideration at present to disturb them. In the first great rapid it was seen to sweep over the eddy with the ease and buoyancy of a seafowl ; but this descent was soon followed by one both longer and much more appalling, in which the water had the force and velocity of a torrent. The boat having been lightened. Captains Back * Back, chapters ix. x. RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 71 and Kin^ Haw it flyini^ with the speed of an arrow, and soon hidden from view hy foam and rocks. Tlieir agi- tation was licightened by what sounded like a wild shriek, but on running forward it proved to be the triumphant whoop of the crew at being safely landed. Some time after they encountered a succession of cas- cades, nearly two miles in length, and making an entire fall of about sixty feet ; and it wtis only by alternately elevating and lowering the boat that the gulf below wan at length gained. Elsewhere they had to pass a range of sunken rocks, over which the surges foamed and boiled with impetuous fury. They were next involved in a singular combination of fall, rapid, and eddy, where the bark was acted upon by such conflicting forces, that prudence ceased to be of any avail. It is supposed to have been only by a mistake of the directions given even by the skilful steersman, that she was saved from destruction. But Captain Back's greatest alarm was at a place where it was found necessary to dash through a range of breakers. He and Captain King had taken a station where they could see the boat issuing from be- tween the rocks ; but after a long time had elapsed, and they were sinking into utter despair, they learned that tlie crew hi.d found a narrow channel, over which the bark was lifted, and the perilous passage thereby avoided. All this while the main question continued to be, whether the river would lead to the Arctic Ocean, or to Chesterfield Inlet in Hudson's Bay. For about a hundred miles it continued to hold a favourable course towards the north-east, then opened into a long lake, named Beechey, only about seventy miles from Back's River in Coronation Bay, the point of all others they were desirous to reach. The lake, however, to their great disappointment, took a turn south-eastward, a direction which the river followed for a considerable space with little variation. But again they were cheered by its re- suming a north-east course, which lasted nearly as long as the former one. Next followed a chain o f ' great lakes, — t^.' U 72 Hudson's hay territory : U ' Pclly, Garry, and Macdougall, — throuii^lioiit which, and for Home space heyoiul, the course varied very little from due east, and they arrived within ninety-four miles of Chesterheld Inlet. To counteract thisunfav()ural)le im- pression they were relieved hy the view of distant streams stretching northwards ; and, after some time, were con- tinned in the hope that the river had decidedly taken this direction. Following it some distance, they at length ciune to a spacious lake, which they named Franklin, and soon after regaining the channel, they were gratified hy ohserving on the top of a hill a numher of figures running ahout with great rapidity. 1'hese proved to he Esqui- maux,— a welcome sight ; for where they were the sea could not be far distant. But the utmost caution was necessary ; for they might he, and as it proved really were, entire strangers to Europeans, and had seen com- *ng in this direction only the Indians, their mortal ene- mies. They began by raising wild yells, brandishing their arms, and nwking expressive signals with the view of forbidding the English to land. Captain Back, how- ever, going on shore alone without any visible weapon, deliberately walked up, and, making a friendly move- ment with his hands, called out Tima — Peace ! 'J'hey in- stantly flung down their arms, returned his salutation, and uttered many unintelligible words, which however were construed to be friendly, — a feeling which was soon estii- blished by the presentation of buttons, fish-hooks, and other trifles, in preference to the dangerous gift of knives and hatchets. They appeared on the whole superior to the tribes formerly seen, cleaner in their persons, and the females of so agreeable a cast of countenance that the men called them " bonnie-looking creatui'es." The in- tercourse continued to be good-humoured and easy ; they were delighted at having their portraits drawn, and their names written down ; and they assisted to drag the boat over a portage which had baffled the efforts of the crew. They had heard nothing of Cap- tain Ross, but assured their visitei"s that the very next day they would reach the sea, and find a coast running m • '• RECENT DISCOVERY ANI> PRESKNt STATE. 73 • for a c()nsi(leml)le way towards the north, then suddenly turning south and streteliin^ tar in tliat direction. This [)rediction was soon fultiUed ; for next afternoon, July 21), they descried a bold and broad headland, the aspect of which was decidedly maritime, and from its ini|)ortance they gave to it the name of Victoria. Soon after, the shores widened in such a manner as showed that they were at the mouth of the Thlew-ee-ehoh, afcer a course of 600 geogra])hical miles through an iron-ribbed country, without a single tree on its banks, forming five lakes, and })roken l)y eighty-three rapids. After pass- ing the headland and observing a picturesque waterfal, they siiw the shores receding, yet still forming a bay, the eastern part of which showed open water as far as the eye could reach. The western, along which they specially desired to sail with a view to reach Point Turn- again, was heavily encumbered with ice ; ])ut they hoped soon to find a place whi'nce they could pull across to it. Their prospects were now considered highly fa- vourable, as, sui)posing only a moderate rate of going, the object of their voyage might be accomplished in ten days. After passing, however, a rocky cape 800 feet high, named Point Beaufort, the drift ice collected in great masses ; and, on ascending the height, a solid body was discovered connecting both shores. This forced on them the gloomy conviction, that if their destination were reached at all, it could only be by slow and labori- ous efforts. On the following day indeed (81st July) . the action of a southerly breeze cleared the coast they were on, producing fourteen miles of open water, but a movement in that direction would have carried them quite out of their desired course, and the bay becoming broader would only have been more difficult to cross. They therefore halted till the ice should make a more fiivourable opening ; and, in fact, next morning a nar- i"ow lane appeared, by which they worked their way to the western shore. A bay was reached, supposed in the mainland, but found afterwards to be in an island separated by a narrow channel, and named Mon- .'v'7', • ■ n . .? ' 74 Hudson's bay territory : N' • '•i - it '■1i IP ••.'« treal. The ice however, closely packed, barred all advance along this shore, and rendered it necessary to drag the boat on land, where they were detained for several days. This coast too was low and swampy, which, with' frequent rains, so moistened the fern and moss collected for fuel, that a fire could not be kindled. They were thus debarred from even the comfort of a warm cup of tea, pemmican and cold water becoming their only repast. On the 5th August, while moving south-westward in search of a passage, they reached the mainland, and passed a large opening named Elliot Bay, without seeing a single particle of ice ahead ; but this must have been an optical illusion, since, on pushing towards the north to take advantage of it, they became entangled in drift ice, which was evidently the advanced guard of the main body. Their progress being thus arrested, a party made an excursion fifteen miles along the coast to a point where they found a number of Es- quimaux encampments, and whence they saw a distant appearance of mountains and open water. On the 7th, a heavy rain and strong south-east wind dispersed the ice with a celerity which quite astonished those not accustomed to Arctic navigation ; the bay, throughout its whole breadth, appearing clear, and the boat advancing at the rate of five miles an hour. The western shore continued low, and became more and more desolate ; but the opposite one showed a bold and .mountainous range, which, however, at the end of six- teen miles, terminated at Cape Hay, to the north of which no land was discovered ; and according to infor- mation obtained from the Esquimaux, there appeared reason to believe that the coast there rounded away to the south-east. At length their enemy, the drift-ice, collecting again, obliged them to run ashore at a naked sandy point, which they named Ogle. On ascending a hillock, they saw the land stretching south-west, and forming a deep bay, bordered by high ground much cum- bered with ice ; yet the surface of the sea was chequered by some streaks of open water. In the afternoon of the 10th, afal couj SOI 'II : ■•'I > RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 75 '«) ed a fall of rain made a little farther opening, and in a zigzag course, partly by portage partly by lifting, they advanced somewhat more than a mile ; but at this point a strong north-west wind drove the ice ashore in large perpendi- cular pieces, which not only dashed against the beach, but overspread part of the coast. As usual during such detention, a land expedition was sent forward. After a march of fifteen miles, they reached a green hill named Mount Barrow, and descried a bay fifteen miles wide, the north-western extremity of which they named Point Richardson. On the 13th, favourable prospects were re- peatedly afforded ; but at length the ice came rushing in with such force as to place the boat in danger, for which reason it was drawn across a narrow isthmus to the other side of Point Ogle. Captain Back began now seriously to reflect on his situation, as the season, in this inclement region, might already be considered very far advanced. New ice was be- ginning to form on the shores and bays, while that of the preceding winter was only partially dissolved. The period, indeed, had elapsed, in which he had hoped to reach Cape Tumagain ; to make the attempt now seemed very hazardous ; and still less could he reasonably expect to bring back his crew in safety, and achieve the arduous ascent of the Thlew-ee-choh, The spirits, and even the health of the men, were visibly sinking under so many fruitless exertions. Some idea was entertained of a party attempting to roach Cape Tumagain by land ; but this was considered utterly impracticable, from the swampy nature of the soil, in which, at every step, they sunk mid-leg deep. They could, consequently, have tra- velled only a few miles a-day, and any one attacked by sickness must have been left to perish. The country, too, was destitute of fuel, and almost of water. The determination to return immediately was therefore an- nounced to the men, who received it with a satisfaction which marked the depression of spirits and despondency to which they had been yielding.'"* * Back, chapters x. xi. m %- : 76 HUDSON S BAY TERRITORY lifi i'^' T On entering the river, they soon came to the spot where they had met the Esquimaux, who at first were looked for in vain ; and when at length they were des- cried, nothing could induce them to approach. The amicable feelings excited during the former interview had seemingly given way to their jealousy of strangers. Another large party was met, who, on seeing the English, fled howling behind the rocks. An attempt was made to attract some of them by friendly gestures, and it was thought with success ; but a man was soon seen follow- ing and making a loud noise, throwinghimself into wild contortions, and imitating the growlings of a bear ; and it became evident that this was the conjuror of the tribe, who was seeking by such charms to induce the imme- diate departure of the strangers. The ascent of the river was tedious and laborious, though not quite so diffi- cult as they had anticipated. On the 16th September they reached its highest portage, and next day had the satis- faction, according to appointment, of meeting their friend Mr M*Leod, who had been long and anxiously watching their return. Their passage through the smaller waters was easily effected ; but the ascent to Slave Lake by the river Ah-hcl-dessy, proved extremely laborious. They were at length obliged to abandon tlie boat, and they in vain endeavoured to secure its stores by a cache fror i the wolverines. Loading each man with seventy -five pounds, they began their march, and fortunately found the ice on the small lakes quite strong enough to bear them. Two very picturesque falls, which they named Anderson and Parry, were passed on the way to Fort Reliance. On their arrival on the 27th of September, an active fishery was commenced, and such a stock of food pro- vided as secured them against the distressing scarcity endured in the former winter. The Indians departed southward, leaving them in their cold and solitary man- sion ; and in their room came eighteen white wolves, "bony, and gaant, and grim," who prowled constantly round the establishment, using every stratagem to gain a livelihood out of it. They amied particularly at the RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 77 dogs, and succeeded in seizing one, but were beaten off before they could devour it. They hesitated not to make food even of the bodies of such of their own comrades as were shot ; but having lost five, and finding little or nothing to be got, they removed to another station. Captain Back had formed a plan for penetrating from Lake Beechey to the river of his own name in Bathurst Inlet, conveying thither the materialsof a canoe, in which he might proceed to Ross's Pillar, and then to Point Ricliardson. But on inquiry amongst the Indians, he could not gain the smallest information. In this state of uncertainty, he considered the issue of the undertaking as very doubtful ; while it would require one or perhaps two more seasons, a fresh set of men, and also a large addi- tional expense, which he did not feel himself authorized to incur. With deep regret he renounced this plan, and prepared as soon as the weather should permit to turn his face homewards ; and beginning to move on the 21st March, he reached Fort Chipewyan on the 10th April. Some casual detentions occurred, but no serious obstacle, directions having been left by Mr Simpson that he should be provided with every accommodation. On the Oth August he arrived in the vicinity of ]\Ion- trcal ; since quitting which he had travelled 7500 miles, including 1200 of discovery. He proceeded direct to New York, where he embarked on the I7th August, and on the 8th September landed at Liverpool.* Whatever truth there may have been (and it seems lished, for on the 9th July 1837 the party reached the most distant mouth of the Mackenzie River, in longitude 13(3° 36' 45" west. On the 20th they were in Foggy Island Bay, the farthest point reached by Firnk- lin, and descried a range of mountains, which the obscurity of the weather prevented him from seeing. Their voyage of discovery now began. They passed a bay fifty miles broad, and discovered a new branch of the Rocky Mountains, which they named Pelly, from the governor of the Company. Their course then led along a low shore, composed in many places of frozen mud, on which \vere seen the mouths of several large RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. 79 rivers. At length tlic water became so shallow and encumbered with ice, that ihey could not advance a1)ove four miles a-day. Near a cape, therefore, which, from the resident governor, they named George Simpson, it was found necessary to end the boat-navigation ; and Mr Thomas Simpson, with a party of live men, undertook the rest of the journey on foot. They proceeded, mak- ing use of their portable canoe for the crossing of vivcrs, and on coming to the mouth of a broad inlet, ol)taine(l the loan of an Esquimaux oomiak. On the morning of the 4th August, they came in sight of Point Barrow, which they reached in the course of the same day. The ocean, extending to the southward, presented so inviting a prospect that, had such been tlieir object, they would not have hesitated, in their skin canoe, to have made for Cook's Inlet. On the (Jth they set out on their return, and on the 17th again reached the mouth of the ^lackenzie. The narrative of this important voyage having been obligingly furnished to us by the Company, is inserted at full length at the end of this vol umc. Althougli the rivalry of the Nortli-wcst Company had the effect of inspiriting and extending the trade, it was carried by them in many respects beyond the legitimate limits, not scrupling at open violence and bloodshed, in which both Europeans and natives were alike sufferers. The distance from all tribunals, as well as from tlie re- straints and regulations of civilized society, left room for no law but that of tlie strongest. Never, perhaps, was a more furious contest waged between two mercantile bodies, destructive alike to the interests of both, and most demoralizing to the savage aborigines. At length the North-west Company, in consequence of their overstrain- ed exertions, became involved beyond tlieir capital ; and being obliged to yield to their rivals, they obtained in 1821 an honourable capitulation. On transferring all theu' property and means of influence, the principal partners were admitted to shares in the Hudson's Bay Company, v/h(; look the inferior officers into their service. Thus these two concerns were united, with much advan- ,f the ])uffalo('s, wliic'li roam in vast herds over those wide plains. They liave ae((uire r w. 8f) HUDSON S WAY TERRITORY pany, therefore, have proliihited the latter operation in all their settlements, and allow only the other and less injurious mode of eapture. The skins are divided into parchment^ or those of tlie old animals ; and ships ('niph)ytd in the tiwlo of the western territory, that, namely, whieh stretelus alon^ tlie sliores of tlu* Paeific Oeean, leave the river Thames in tlie month of November, and saihng round Cape Horn, arrive ut Fort Vancouver in the following' May. In the return voy- age a similar order is obsi-rved. Consulting the eonvi-- nience of the trade und tlie jjeriodieal nature of tlu; pre- vailing winds, the sliipju'vs leave IS'ootka Sound and thr mouth of the Columbia, towards the elose of the year, and reaeli London about the l)eginning of summer. It is thus manifest, that two vessels must J)e employed in {lecomplishing the exchange of an annual cargo. As to the principal commodities obtained in these distant re- gions, it may he observed, that they are in general the same as those on which the Hudson's Bay Company set the greatest value in other parts of their territory. Tlu* skin of the sea-otUn- has always brought a high price, being esteemed the most precious sj)ecies of peltry to be found on the western borders of America. The best market for it in former times was China ; but until the East India trade was thrown open, no inducement was presented to Britisii ships to carry a cargo thither, not being allowed to load in any port of that empire. Hence the North-west Company for several years chai-tered a ship from Boston, through which they carried on the traffic ; but of late, owuig to the causes already assigned, the savage mode of capture and the devastation com- mitted by private interlopers, the quantity has become so small, as no longer to repay the expenses of such a voyage. The following is an account of the furs exposed for sale by the Hudson's Bay Company in December of the four years 1834-6-6-7 : — I' •, • ••; i 1 96 irilDSON 8 IlAY TERRITORY : i ^ St 0) • 1^ ^^--8 ;; COJ tn •J Fl t>«»o s u cii -5 9 ou. iS^i t^ fa «5«5we<5 8^ acv 00 oT w «c •71 r: i>i- n tCt-i oi c5 1 •^ •(N I ?! «i (N .:2S8 « Ifl' «o ?i (N oSS«^ FJ -"t "-I <5j Ml—" (N tC(M 5- O) o< 5> f* < Ol g eo (N nOi !>.»-. :; }<£ IM I 3 ' ^ »-« (N s i-H In. (N 1^1 0:5 J;:^ TO . B t e o I I m Si bD — 9 « ^ i« « «3 5? lu) in i^. • ® «n 8 x> a •■: - o" a n es B o 5 .e- Sin — § C in ■f ^- gr- ow E«r eflr- OJ= ll •o o a i s o RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. J)7 The value of furs, which arc mostly articles of luxin}-, varies in an extraordinary manner with the changes of ftishion. Mr M*Ciilloch, on good authority, states that the price fluctuates in the course of a simple year from 100 to 300 per cent. ; and we are assured that tliis raii^^e is often exceeded. The following has heen obligingly furnished to us hy the Company as the average prices of each description in the stiles of 183(5, which are consi- dered as affording a good general idea of the coui-se of tlie trade : — Beaver, [mrchment, per Fox, kit. ttkin, . . i:i 12 i; Musquash, cub, . 0 12 3 Bear, coat, per lb. 0 12 0 Fislier, Martin, per skin, . 0 IT) () Lvnx, iViink, Utter, sea, . . U 10 0 land, . .13 « Wolf, Fox, silver, . 10 0 0 Wolverine, ... cross, . . 1 12 « Badger, ... red, . . 0 10 0 Swan, ... white, . 0 9 0 Racoon, xo 3 0 0 0 r> 0 Ui (» 0 14 !l I {) 0 0 2 (i 0 « 4 0 fi U 0 3 0 0 i\ n 0 2 !l The following view of the shipping and the ottieial value of the trade for a series of years, is compiled from the Colonial Tables for 1834 :*— Years. Shijjping. Kxportn. Imports. Inwardv. Outward B. British and Irish I'ruducc, fuc Ki)ieii{n pri>ilui'«Ac' tshipn. Ton!). 8bip«. Tons. 1825 11,294 2415 35,902 182« < . > • . • , 18,421 2172 44,1!)1 1827 2 m 3 am 23,149 4188 51,171 1828 3 832 4 104H 35,119 4932 ,^i4,9t>0 182!i 3 mn 3 1274 60,036 7815 60,522 1830 1 322 3 7m 81,899 8244 32,857 1831 4 12BH 3 915 49,653 6207 66,672 1832 3 886 5 1707 36,326 4144 39,378 1833 . 2 673 31,890 2806 7,173 1834 5 1551 3 878 48,209 6058 64,225 • p. 115-122. I ■. , . , 'f.. 1 . ' '. • '1 < ,» ' i ^ 1 i 98 ON EMIGRATION TO THE CHAPTER III. v,m t On Emigration to the British North American Colonies, Advantages of" Kmigration — Classes of Emigrants — Prospects of a Settler in the middling Rank — Choice of Land — Situations best suited for him — Estimates o\' Expenses and Profits — Outfit re- quired— Modes of obtaining Credit — Terms of Government and the Companies — Emigration of Half-pay Officers — Of distressed P'armers — Of Persons of Capital — Of labouring Settlers — Ad- vantages of their Situation — Their means of purchasing and clearing Land — Pauper Emigrants — Parties sent out by Govern- ment— Military and Naval Pensioners — Plan formed by Mr Buller — Observations — Conveyance of the Emigrant — Modes and Expenses of Passage — Of Journey into the Interior from Quebec — From Nevp York — The Canada and British American Land Companies — Comparison between Canada and the United States — Observations on Lord Durham's Statements — Numbers of Emigrants for the last Seventeen Years — Quarters to which they went — Emigration to Nova Scotia — New Brunswick — Prince Edward Island — Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay. Emigration obviously gives birth to the most import- ant of the relations which subsist between Great Britain and her North American colonies ; and without entering into any abstract views on the principle of population, we cannot hesitate to consider it as a process which, for many years and even ages, must be mutually beneficial. Britain can conveniently spare every season not less than .50,000 or 60,000 of her inhabitants, retaining a suf- ficient number for every useful purpose, and with much advantage to those who remain behind. The adventurers, too, will form on the other side of the Atlantic a great and fiourisliing people, imbued with the laws, letters, BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 99 manners, and all the acquirements which have raised their native country high among the nations. A portion even of our supei'fluous capital, which sometimes seeks employment in distant and even chimerical objects, might be very advantageously invested in the culture and improvement of those valuable colonies. Admitting, however, the national benefits of emigra- tion, it remains a very important question, what are the individuals or classes to whom it affords advantages sufficient to compens ('/* ••-w.. I H- 100 ON EMIGRATION TO THE indeed the more important branch of the subject ; but as the latter will lead us to view it under a greater va- riety of lights, we shall most conveniently direct our first attention to it. No one, who has made any observation on the present state of this country, can have failed to observe the extreme difficulty which the middling classes find to support their place in society, and particularly to enable their sons to succeed them in stations of well-remune- rated cmi)loyment. The reduced scale of the army and navy, and the rigid economy now introduced into all the departments of the government, have withdrawn many former sources of income. Manufactures and trade, even when prosperous, can be carried on with advantage only on a large scale, with low profits upon an extensive capital. Hence there remain only the learned profes- sions, with the officers and clerks employed by banks, insurance companies, and similar establishments ; and, in these pursuits, the increase of population and the num- ber thrown out from other occupations cause an eager competition. This is increased by the general diffusion of information among the inferior classes, many of whom, by merit andaddress, compete successfullyfor these higher apj)ointments, — a state of things which may be, on the whole, advantageous, as securing for national purposes a greater degree of talent ; but it obviously increases the pressure on the middling ranks already severely felt. Among the numerous young men, however, thus languishing for want of employment, there are proba- bly not a few who possess or could command a small capital of from £500 to £1000, and who have the degree of judgment and industry requisite to superintend the labours of agriculture. It becomes then an interestmg question, whether Canada affords the means of attain- ing that independence, and earning those conveniences, which their native country denies to them. On this subject, and every thing connected with it, a great variety of opinions prevails ; but on comparing all to- gether, we shall state grounds for concluding that, with .;i '■' BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 101 a due degree of skill and perseverance, the emigrant in this rank will find the means, not indeed of rising to wealth, but of placing himself in a comfortable and independent situation. The cultivator in Canada stands in very diflfercnt circumstances from either the proprietor or farmer in Britain. He obtains an estate in full and perpetual property for a smaller sum than the annual rent which he would here be obliged to give for it. After paying this price, however, he must expend at least three times as much in clearing and bringing it into a state of cultivation. Even then it will not yield him rent ; it will be merely a farm for him to cultivate, with the very important advantage indeed of its being wholly his own, and no landlord to pay. The taxes also are extremely light, when compared to those which press on the English farmer. But in return for these benefits, he must give to his servants considerably higher wages, and will even have no small trouble in pro- curing them on any terms. What is worse, he obtains for his produce much lower prices, and even these with difficulty, because the supply of grain and provisions in a region so wholly agricultural must more and more exceed the demand within the country itself. These commodities, indeed, will always find a market among the dense population of Britain, to which they are now admitted on payment of easy duties ; and, in point of fact, the price must be finally ruled by what they will sell for here. After paymg the expense of transportation across the Atlantic, added to that of conveying them from the place of production to the ports of Montreal or Quebec, there is little prospect that the finest wheat of Upper Canada will permanently bring in this country more than 50s. per quarter. Deducting the duty, os., freight, 10s., carriage from even a favourable situation in the interior, 8s., we have only 27s., or about 3s. 4d. per bushel left to the cultivator. Under these circumstances, it has become a pi^evail- ing opinion, and maintained by many as an indisputable ](;2 ON EMIGRATION TO THE m I'H iiifixim, tliat a Canadian proprietor cannot cultivate with advantage by means of hired servants, but must himself i)erfonn the full task of a common labourer. Those only are represented in the way of well-doing wlio have constantly in their hands the axe or the j)lough, whose ladies are seen milking the cows, churning, and performing the humblest menial offices. We must frankly say that, if such be tlie necessary lot of a settler in Canada, we cannot but concur with Captain Hall in thinking it unfit for the class now under consideration. Can it be supposed that ;i young man, accustomed to refined society, should renounce friends and country, and remove to a remote land, not to improve his condition, but to reduce him- self to the level of a common labourer l How can he expect a fair partner, accustomed perhaps to value somewhat too highly the immunities of a refined so- ciety, to share with him so hard and humble a lot ? We most readily admit that the labouring classes have within their reach the best blessings of life, and are often happier than those called their superiors. Still the desire of exemption from bodily toil, and of enjoy- ing a portion of the conveniences and elegances of life, i;^ natural, and has a salutary effect in stimulating to activity and invention. The lively author of the " Back- woods," a zealous advocate of the working system, admits the hardship of a young gentleman, employed " to chop down trees, to pile brush-heaps, split rails for fences, dressed in a coarse over-garment of hempen cloth called a logging-shirt, and a Yankee straw hat flapped over his eyes." We cannot help thinking, that this ingenious lady is somewhat too severe on those of her ow^i sex who, w^ithout her internal resources and powers of reflection, could not accommodate themselves to the hard and dreary life consequent upon this system. In short, we may observe that if land in Canada will pay nothing but the mere manual labour put upon it, it is fitted only for the peasant settler, and can never afford an income for a person of better rank. This opinion h '. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 103 seems confirmed by the jud^-ment of the learned lady herself, when, after an experiment of three years, she concludes, thatTor a gentleman a small income is almost indispensable, — a good one desirable ; this last a case not very likely to occur.* Notwithstanding these weighty authorities, we do not hesitate to assert that in farming on sueli a scale as will remunerate a person in the middling rank, his devoting himself to constant bodily labour is not only unnecessary, but decidedly injurious. It is admitted, we suppose, that, in our own country, upon an extent of 150 to 200 acres, the tasks of planning, arranging, in- specting, and finduig a proper market for tlie produce, jifford very full occupation to a single individual. But in a Canadian farm, all these operations are much more arduous and difficult. The business cannot be reduced into the same fixed routine ; a greater variety of produce, both in grain and live stock, must be reared ; servants, less steady, and oftener changed, require much stricter superintendence ; markets are not found without more difficulty, and at a greater distance. To perform all these functions carefully and well, on a property of this extent, must, we apprehend, keep the owner's hands very full. To attempt to combine with them the daily task of a common labourer, seems to ensure their being executed in an imperfect and slovenly manner, and consequently the whole concern greatly mismanaged. The newly-arrived emigrant is indeed told that the other is the approved mode, and that if he wishes to thrive in the country he must follow its customs. The funda- mental principles of rural economy, however, cannot be changed by the interposition of the Atlantic. The ori- ginal settlers in Upper Canada were mostly of the less opulent class, who could cultivate their lots only by the labour of their own hands. A few of them, who, by extra- ordinary exertion, have risen to some degree of wealth. • Backwoods of Canada, pp. 178-184, 282. Sliirreff, p. 348. Talbot, vol. ii. p. 241. Hall's Travels, vol. i. p. 323. i .,' 1 w 1 1 1 ■ t 1 1 1 ■'■'f r .1: 'f. ■' * •!' -1 h' •' 't J- . ' ft ' ;m 104 ON EMIGRATION TO THE retain still probably their primitive habits and maxims, and represent their success as connected with the hard personal labours which they then underwent. These are held forth as the models to be followed by the young cul- tivator. But a general rule cannot be founded on a few cases where peculiar energy and activity were displayed. With an average allotment of these qualities, such as we are generally entitled to expect, the union of the intellec- tual and directing with the manual and operative depart- ment can rarely succeed. We are convinced that a person of competent judgment, devoting himself wholly to the fonner, would raise on the same ground a considerably larger produce than one who, exhausted by daily toil, should follow only in a rough way the mechanical rou- tine observed among his neighbours. He would thus create a surplus applicable to his own profit ; and we are convinced that it is only by the exertions of such a class that any improvement can be expected in the sys- tem of Canadian culture, which is admitted on all hands to be at present exceedingly defective. In estimating, however, the plans and views of such a settler, several circumstances must be taken into con- sideration, and, in particular, the situation of his proper- ty. The Canadian districts are classed under two heads. The first, called the Bush, comprehends those situated in the depth of the forest, where towns and markets are distant, and reached only by roads which are almost impassable. To compensate the obvious disadvantages of this locality, settlers obtain a greater choice of good land at a considerably lower rate ; a party of friends or neigh- bours can cluster together ; and they have every prospect that sooner or later the communications will be much im- proved, that villages will spring up in their vicinity, and their estates be thereby raised in value. These considera- tions may justly weigh with certain classes of emigrants, but for those now under consideration they are far over- balanced by the disadvantages. In such a position, there is much greater difficulty in procuring hired labour, while its price must be higher, because the workmen BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. lOi) im- tra- its, fer- lere lur, len are not only fewer, but more generally aim at having land of their own. Hence the expense of clearing ground in the several districts has been stated as differing to the extent ')f £2 an acre ; and while the cost of raising the produce is thus augmented, its price or money value is greatly diminished. Cash indeed is scarcely ever seen in the remoter parts. It may at first view seem singular that there should be abundance of commodities worth money, and yet not able to procure it ; but we may observe, that gold and silver jvill purchase any thing in every quarter of the world, while the products of a landed estate are of value only on the spot ; the mer- chant, therefore, may give goods produced in tlie same vicinity, but he cannot give money. Connected with this want is the impossibility of procuring many of the elegances and luxuries of life, portions of which have by the middling ranks come to be viewed in the light of necessaries. Mr Pickering mentions that tea, when sold at Buffalo, cost 4s., at Port Talbot 6s. per lb. Salt at the former place was 9s., at the latter £1, 2s. 6d. a barrel. The settler may have plenty of food and homespun cloth, but almost every other commodity will be beyond his reach. These observations are not indeed to be understood in their utmost rigour, for in every district a certain amount of money, or at least of foreign articles, may be obtained in exchange for the surplus produce. The merchant, however, in fixing the value, makes a large deduction on account of the long and difficult conveyance ; and besides, as he carries on trade on a small scale and without competition, he exacts high profits, and has the farmer a good deal at his mercy. Commercial transactions in all the country districts of America are usually carried on by an mdividual named a storekeeper, who keeps an assortment of all the commodities likely to be wanted, and receives in return the produce of the cultivator. This mode of proceeding still farther supersedes the necessity of employing cash as a medium of exchange. Compared to the various disadvantages now stated, the gentleman settler, who must take with him a cer- <^'' ' I t ■ . »i ,ti' '. 1 106 ON EMIGRATIOX TO THE , ■ -r i v» ■• h^: tain amount of capital, ought not to regard even a con- siderable difference in the j)rice of the land, because, as already observed, it foiTns the smallest part of the out- lay requisite for bringing it into a productive state. With regard to the contingent expectation of a futurt^ rise in value, this can only take place upon the low original price, and therefore can never be of very great amount. Besides, along with the general advance of the country, the settled districts, and those in the vici- nity of towns, will acquire also an additional value. At all events, a rise in tlie land is of little importance to liim, if it ceases to be his, — an issue to which a long course of heavy expenses and scanty produce is very likely to lead."" We have thought it the more necessary to dwell upon these considerations, as they seem to have escaped a large proportion of the opulent settlers recently attracted to- wards Canada. Under the influence of vague and spe- culative hopes, they have made it their ambition to plunge into the extreme west and the heart of the bush, and seem to have imagined that the farther they placed themselves beyond every vestige of culture and civilisa- tion, the greater advantages did they secure. A letter in 1834 states that almost all the emigrants of capital were hastening to the London District, a territory per- haps the most decidedly woodland of any in Canada. Settlers in these wilds encounter peculiar and extreme hardships, being deprived of every accommodation to which they had been accustomed, sometimes even in want of common necessaries, and in danger of starvation. At different times pork, flour, or tea are wanting, when the weather cuts off all communication with the store ; and the ox-wagon, in travelling thence with supplies, is often so shaken that the contents are strangely mingled. Rice, sugar, currants, mustard, are jumbled together ; and the next pudding perhaps proves to be seasoned i;5 '*',■ •SliirreflP, pp. 363, 380-387. Backwoods^, p. 211. p. 76. Counsel for Emigrants, pp. 39, 43, 0*2, 81, 95. Pickerinjj;, BRITISH NORTU AMERICAN COLONIES. 107 with pepper, and even rappee. However, while their money lasts they can make their way, and clear a certiiin portion of land, which yields in plenty the rude neces- saries of life. But they have no means to recruit their exhausted purse, or secure any supply of the comforts and elegances to which they had been accustomed. If, in anticipation of prosperity, they liave incurred any extent of pecuniary obligation, their situation becomes extremely embaiTassing, and may issue in the cntke loss of their property. Important, however, as a marketable situation appears, it ought by no means to be procured by any great sacrifice Jis to the quality of the land ; for, as Mr Talbot justly states, it is vain for a cultivator to be near a mai'ket if he has little or nothing to carry to it. It has been already mentioned, that after paying the original price, a mucii larger sum, nearly equal in every case, must be expended in bringing the land under cultivation. Thus there is little difference between the cost of good and bad soil, while the former only, under existing disadvantages, ever can remunerate the settler. It is a grievous tiling, as Mr Shirreff observes, to incur heavy labour and expense in clearing a spot, and then find it worth little. The settler, therefore, who brings with him a certain araount of capital, practises a most wretched economy when he hesitates to pay such an original price as will secure both a good situation and good land. If a small sacrifice must be made, it should rather be on the former. A larger produce will pay for a small addition on the cost of transport, and time may remedy the one evil, but will never make a bad soil good. Some sacrifice of this kind may often be necessary ; smce, as Mr Fergusson remarks, on the immediate banks of lakes and rivers it is not un- frequently light and sandy, whence arises the necessity of going somewhat into the interior in order to find the more valuable description.* In consequence of the views now stated, it becomes a • Backwoods, p. 124. Shirreff, p. 171. Fergusson, p. 270. f : I ', f,%. 108 ON EMIGRATION TO THE r: ' In ' A I ''■ liiglily important question what are the market or Cfush districts (as they are sometimes called), in contradistinc- tion to those in the bunh. In regard to Canada, the to- pographical details already given must throw important light on the subject ; and to these some general obser- vations shall now be added. The shipping ports of Mon- treal or Quebec form the central points, by proximity to which the advantages of all sites in either province are to be estimated ; and next to this is a location on navigable waters having a ready communication with them. The banks of the St Lawrence between these two cities are occupied to a considerable depth inland by the French seigniories. Land, however, in the vicinity of Montreal may still be procured, having the advantages of a ready market ; but from this very circumstance it cannot be purchased under a price varying from £10 to £20 an acre, a rate beyond the reach of most emigrants. It may be rented indeed at 10s. or 12s., and Mr ShirrefFis of opinion that farming may there be carried on with advantage ; but in a country where land may be obtained in full property at so cheap a rate, the British settler is not likely to be content with this dependent tenure.* His object, there- fore, must be sought somewhat farther in the interior. The parts of the Eastern and Johnstown districts along the bank of the St Lawrence enjoy perhaps the best situa- tion as regards proximity to market of any in Upper Ca- nada ; and their advantage in this respect will be further improved on the completion of the canal now in progress for overcoming the obstructions in the navigation of that river. This tract, however, labours under the very serious draw^back of being decidedly inferior in soil and climate to the more western territories. The former deficiency, it is true, will appear from our topographical survey to be by no means universal, the idea having been in some measure suggested by the rugged aspect of the imme- diate banks. Matilda and other districts appear to con- tain a considerable extent of fine land yet unoccupied. • Sliirreff, p. 354. in ii BRITISU NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 101) The climate operates chiefly to prevent the. raising of wlieat 80 fine as to hear the cost of transportation to Kurope ; hut this is of less moment since live stock has hejafim to he considered the more profita])le hmncli. On the whole, therefore, we incline to thinlv that settlers of capital, in their eaj^emess to push westward and into tlic hush, have bestowed too little attention on this por- tion of territory. The banks of the Ottawa on ])oth sides as far up as Hull, and includinnr those of its tributary'' the Ridcuu, appear to possess similar advantages. Some demand for produce is also made by the lumberers who pass to and from the upper tracts on this river. The soil and climate seem to call for nearly tlie same obser- vations as have been made on the two preceding districts. The shores of Like Ontario, including a space vary- ing from ten to twenty miles inland, afford good sco])e for a settler of moderate capital. This territory, thougli not uniformly fertile, contains a large extent of excellent soil with a comparatively mild climate, and as tlie rigorous season is shorter, winter wheat even of fine quality may be produced. Toronto and Kingston, now considerable towns, present a ready market, through the medium, too, of respectable merchants, who are known to deal on liberal terms. The river Trent and the Rice Tjake might perhaps be viewed as enlarging the sphere of eligible settlement somewliat beyond the limits now stated, but w^e could scarcely recommend to a gentleman to go far beyond Peterborough. The vicinity of the city first mentioned, and the goodness of the road called Yonge Street, may indeed carry the range a little farther in that direction ; though we doubt whether it would be advisable to go to the remoter shores of Lake Simcoe. Gore District, when it passes Burlington Bay, must, we suspect, be considered as mere bush. Beyond Ontario, the shores of Lake Erie, even since the completion of the Welland Canal, cannot be recom- mended without some hesitation. The distance from VOL. III. G »■ ', .'M'-v ■■.■ ^1 lit 110 ON EMIGRATION TO THE i* ' IB. k r " ' mi '' I 11 t J i !f Montreal becomes great, and as the goods could scarcely be conveyed without translupment, the tolls of three canals must be paid. At all events, it is only the lands closely adjoining this great lake that appear to aft'ord a profitable site for the more opulent settlers ; for the interior of the London District, including evt'n the banks of the 'I'hames, must still, we suspect, be classed with the bush-territory. Mr Shirretf found that wheat bore a very low price there, and that it was moreover difficult to be procured. The shores of Lake Huron must also ])e included under the Siune description. It ought, however, to be o])served, that these limits may be considerably modified by the great works men- tioned in the commercial chapter as being contemplated for extending the communications of Upper Canada. These unfoitunatcly are now at a stand for want of means ; but if the j^lans of Lord Durham be carried into effect we may hope to see them all accomplished on an augmented scale. It will be proper to consider under this view the Eastern Townships of Upper Canada. Their situation is peculiar, owing to the banks of the St Lawrence and of the Richelieu being occupied by the French seigniories, having a tract of inferior ground in their rear. The townships are thus thrown much inland, and theii* products can be brought to market only by a land-car- riage varying from 60 to 120 miles. The roads too have hitherto been bad ; but the British American Land Com- pany have been employed in making a very good one from Port St Francis to Sherbrooke, and in improving the others. The evil also is much mitigated by the circumstance that cattle, which form the main staple of this territory, can convey themselves to market, and, even if killed, the salted meat contains much more value in the same bulk than grain. Yet we should hesitate in advising settlers of the more opulent class to proceed farther than Melbourne and Shipton on the side of Port St Francis, or beyond Shefford if proceeding from Montreal. Here they will find good land, which, DRITISU NORTU AMERICAN COLONIES. Ill when the promised improvements are completed, will not he much more than titty mikvs from a port on the St Luwrence. With regaid to the (»th«'r colonies, every thin;j[ connected with emigration will be treated sepa- rately at the close of this chapter. Several individuals well ac([uainted with Canada have formed esthnates of the profit likely to be secuird from cultivating a farm in that country, and although these calculations do not possess the precision which could be wished, it may be advantageous to notice them before producing one, which we shall attempt to found on data generally admitted even by conHictuig parties. Mr Talbot, who for five years carried on farming operations in the London District, has given an outline which rests apparently on his own experience, ile supposes that out of 500 acres 100 are cultivated ; and assuming that three servants will be necessary, he reckons that forty acres well managed will raise food for them and a family consisting of eight members. Of the remaining sixty he considers that the same number may be laid out in wheat yielding twenty-five bushels an acre,, which, at 2s. 6d., will produce £125, lie allows no- thing for the remaining twenty ; but to this we shall not object, as twenty-five bushels an acre is perhaps a liberal allowance. The wages of the three servants would amount to £90, leaving £85 for clothing and other supplies ; from which premises we are surprised to find him draw- ing the conclusion, that it is as well to leave land unculti- vated as to work it by means of hired labour.* From the hundred acres thus improved he has derived a plentiful supply of food for a family of eight persons, besides a surplus in money. The latter is no doubt very small ; but we may observe that the calculation is founded on the returns of a bush farm in the London District, and consequently supposes wheat worth only 2s. 6d. per bushel. If we substitute 3s. 4d., which we have shown will, in all probability, be the minimum in a better situ- '* 'I *l * Vol. u. pp. 240, 241. 112 ON EMIGRATION TO THE ation, we shall have an additioii of £41. With the dif- ficulties of the same position there seems connected the impossibility of cultivating more than a lundred acres ; but if we add thirty-five, eight of these will be a large allowance for the food of the man and labouring cattle om])loyed on it. Then, according to his estimate, two- thirds of the remainder, or eighteen acres, would produce 4.50 l)usliels of wheat, which, valued at 3s. 4d., would amount to £75. Allow £»30 for the man's wages, and there will remain £45, which added to the £35 and the £41 makes £1 1 0 ; a very adequate provision where the ground yields fo()d,tlie forest supplies fuel and materials for a habitation, and where the female members of the household may be expected to fabricate some portion of clothing. Mr Pickering, an experienced fanner, who spent .some time in Canada, has formed another estimate, pre- senting the subject in a much more flattering light, on which, however, we cannot advise the emigrant to place full reliance. He supposes that a settler shall purchase a farm of 200 acres, seventy of which are cleared, and that the work is to be all performed by contract, which, with seed and other expenses, will amount to 563 dollars. The produce he states as follows : — Twenty acres of wheat, 18 bushels per acre, sometimes 30, at J dollar per bushel, . ... Ten acres of clover seed, at 2 bushels per acre and 7 dollars per bushel, . .... Six acres of Indian corn, 20 bushels per acre, 150 bushels at h dollar, ..... Thirty store pi^s for fattening' next season, Thirty fat hoi>^s, woi|rliinfr at least 200 lbs. each (or 1 barrel), 'M) barrels at 12 dollars per barrel. Six cows, butter and cheese for summer, A yoke of fat oxen ()0 dollars (besides a cow or two killed for tho house), ..... Twenty lambs, 20 dollars,— 20 fleeces, 20 dollars, Geese,— feathers, — eggs, — fowls, &c. One year's farm produce, . . . 1045 Ditto expenses, ... . 56i Surplus, dollars, . . . 482 Mr Inches having with the utmost severity attacked this estimate, substituted another which wears indeed a 270 140 75 3H0 f;o ♦;o 40 10 BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 113 the (lif- cted the 1 acres ; I a large ig eattk' te, two- produce ., would nd there 1 makes id yields bitation, 3ld may ?• o spent ite, pre- ight, on to place )urchase •ed, and which, dollars. 0, at liars 270 140 Is at el), for m) 3H0 ♦iO ro 40 10 r045 482 tacked leed a very gloomy aspect* Unfortunately his calculation, as well as Mr Pickering's, is rendered extremely compli- cated by his including the original outfit on a farm par- tially cleared, whereas the object of our inquiry is to ascertain what the settler's permanent situation will be, after his land has been brought into regular cultivation. As the cost and difficulty of the first establishment will be made a separate question, we shall throw out every charge on both sides that is not strictly annual. Mr Inches in- sists that the expenses will not be less than 1007 dollars, nor the ])roduce more than 276, creating to the farmer a loss of 731 dollars. But it is manifest that, though he has succeeded in cutting dowTi several of his opponent's items, he has in many of his strictures gone greatly too far. In regard to the outlay, he reprobates the system of doing every thing by contract as inconvenient, precarious, and even impracticable, and decidedly prefers that of hired servants. But he certainly proceeds beyond the proper limits when he requires four labourers, including the owner and an able-bodied son (whose wages too are charged as expenses), upon a farm of 200 acres, and that partly under siieep pasture. According to every other estimate which we have seen, two men would be suffi- cient, being considerably more than are employed on the same extent of land in England. Mr Inches insists that 150 dollars must be expended for corn and hay to cattle, not adverting to the fact that Mr Pickering has devoted to this purpose four acres of grain and eight of thnothy grass, for the produce of which he makes no money claim. Throwing out, for the reason above stated, the girdling of trees and the interest on purchase-money, as temporary expenses, we shall, on comparing together the two state- ments, attempt to substitute the following : — Dollars. Seed (iVIr Pickerinji^), Tear and wear of stock fMr Inches), Salt, . Wajjes of two men, Tiieir board, 30 10 22» 14G ivri#!l ^HS • ■■i HEfT !'• i>, 1 RKol'i ' 1 « *m Bi<; t HRK ^'f, t ..■• •^' H\ ^, ^■, , J- V . IB ^^s?^^ i\i' ;#] ^Bnv V ■ * « w ^<-; K. Kir ^, • » 1^ mm J* %m 467 '-■ I ■ 114 ON EMIGRATION TO THE ml if'. U :•» > 'I 1 i ' ) The estimate of produce is treated by Mr Inches with still ^'eater severity ; but unluckily his chief arguments are founded on the peculiar case of a settler entering on a new farm, and on the improbability of his finding it in a desirable state of preparation. This hypothesis, it is obvious, limits the question to a single year. On future occasions the colonist will have the means of an*anging these matters as he judges best ; and proceed- ing on this ground, we may remark that wheat seems not too highly rated at ^s. 4^d. a-bushel, while the pro- duce of eighteen bushels for land fully cleared and in good order is very moderate. We shall not, therefore, disturb these items. The clover-seed is a very odd article, and nothing that we have met with elsewhere could give an impression of its being a Canadian staple ; but we cannot by any means concur with Mr Inches in sweeping it away altogether, and treating the ten acres as if they had been lying waste. Even on his own view, the outgoing tenant would surely leave them sown or planted with something ; and, therefore, we are entitled to assume a produce of at least 100 dollars. The thirty jtore-pigs are justly rejected as not being saleable pro- duce, though fitted to become marketable stock next year. As to the thirty fat hogs, it is insisted that time has not ])een allowed for their growing to so portly a size, — a statement which can only have reference to the particu- lar season. The allowance of food for them, however, seems scanty, being only 200 bushels of pease, which gives about six to each hog, while Mr Pickering himself con- siders ten necessary to fatten one, and to keep it throiigh the winter. He adds, no doubt, that these animals get their living in the woods and pastures during the sum- mer, and also during the rest of the year when nuts are plentiful, which sometimes happens ; still this vague con- tingency does not seem to justify him in allowing only one bushel for winter food. We suspect that on the ave- 3'age eight bushels for feeding and fattening is the lowest that can be reckoned, and hencp the number of hogs must be reduced to twenty-five. Mr Pickering's own autho- f 1^ BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 115 Ml acres rity in another place is then quoted for making these ani- mals produce only 166 lbs. histead of 200 ; for though the latter is generally stated as the weight of the Canadian hog, yet as a good deal must be rejected in making up a barrel of prime pork, the former seems a fair estimate. Lastly, it is maintained by this agricultural critic, that salted pork, instead of 12 dollars, brings only 9| ; and allowing for the expense of conveyance, we doubt if more than 1 0 can be safely reckoned upon. The value of this article therefore will, on these grounds, fall from 360 to 200 dollars. Mr Inches strenuously rejects the 60 dol- lars for feeding and fattening ; yet, as in ordinary years six calves must be produced, while twelve acres of oats and grass, with a portion of vegetable ground, are allowed for fitting them for market, it seems fair to allow, that this return may in some way or other be drawn from the cattle. The corrected estimate will then stand thus : — Wheat, Ten acres clover or other crop, Indian corn, Pork, Four last articles, Expenses, Or about £70. Dollars. 270 J 00 75 200 170 815 467 This is a small income, even with the addition of a slender allowance of beef and vegetables ; but the extent of land appears much too limited for the mode of culture which we are now considering. The produce too of 12 acres in sheep pasture seems very miserable, being only 40 dollars, or about l7s. per acre. If the produce cannot be considerably increased, the ground ought to be ap- plied to some better purpose. Mr Fergusson has lately transmitted an estimate, which on other grounds represents Canadian fanning un- der a very flattering light. He supposes a settler going out with £500 sterling, or £600 currency, to purchase ;kv ■■ 1 ■;«;.•■ . ! ': 1 if < » .' ^-■^^ii'l \ in i 116 ON EMIGRATION TO THE 200 acres, for which he pays £200. He then traces his career in a manner which, though given somewhat at length, we shall copy, as it includes many instructive details. FIRST YEAR. Tlie purchase-money of 200 acres, at 4 dollars, or £1 currency per acre, .... £200 0 0 A log-house, . . . . . 50 0 0 Some furniture for loj^-house, . . . . 20 0 0 Barn, including stable and cow-house, . . . 50 0 0 Houseliold and other expenses till after harvest, 30 0 0 Clear, fence, and sow 50 acres with wheat at £4 per acre, 200 0 0 £550 0 0 On the 50 acres of wheat he will have 25 bushels per acre, which, at 4s. 6d. per bushel, is . . £281 Deduct expense of harvesting, . £35 5 0 Household and otlier expenses, . 46 0 0 81 5 0 5 0 ! i| Clears the first year, £200 0 0 if ii SECOND YEAR. He expends this year as much of the £200 as will clear 37o acres more, which, at the same rate as last year, will be £150 0 0 The other £50 he has for purchasing a team of oxen, and household expenses till after harvest, . . 50 0 0 £200 0 0 tl! This year he has the original 50 acres and the 37.1 cleared this season, all in wheat, the seed for the 50 acres to be debited against the ensuing crop. «7^ acres, at 25 bushels at 48. 6d. . . . £492 3 9 Expense of harvestina;', &c. . £61 10 5 Seed, as above, for 50 acres, at 1 bushel per acre, at 4s. fid. . . . .115 0 Household and other expenses, . . 39 8 4 112 3 9 Clears the second year, £380 0 0 BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. llj THIRD YEAR. All having been hitlierto done by contract, there has now to be charged the expense of stocking the farm, and servants' wa^es and board, ..... £'2lU') 0 0 Wlieat seed for lilh acres, at 1 bushel per acre, at 4s. 6d. . " . . . . 19 lli }» Grass seed for 25 acres, at 'ds. per acre, . . 3 lo U Assistance during harvest, . . . . 20 0 0 Household and other expenses, . . . 52 1 !{ • £3}]0 10 0 Has the same crop as last year, but not at so much expense in thrashing, and iiis own servants assisting. 87 A acres in wheat, .... £492 3 9 Assistance in thrashing, &c. . £35 0 0 Household and other expenses, . 37 3 9 72 3 9 ■'■: 'Jo ' Clears this year, £420 0 0 FOURTH YEAR. He clears 62.^ acres more, making in all 150 acres cleared, which is sutficient on a farm of 200 acres. He this year plants some potatoes, sows turnips, &c. on that part of the 50 acres first cleared not in grass. To clear, fence, and sow 62^ acres, . . £250 0 0 Erects a tlirashing-machine, . . . 80 0 0 Builds some houses for feeding stock, . . 20 0 0 Household and other expenses, . . . 30 0 0 Sundry improvements about the house, . . 40 0 0 £420 0 0 ..■■*- Has this year the 37.} acres formerly cleared, and the 02 .j cleared this year, in wheat, 100 acres at the same rate, The other 50 acres valued at Deduct for household and other expenses. £000 0 0 At the end of the fourth year he has his farm paid for, stocked, and £000 currency in his pocket. Could this Le realized, farming in Canada would in- deed be a mine of wealth ; but the golden castle has been assailed by Mr Shii-reff, and we fear completely £562 10 0 120 0 0 £682 10 0 82 10 0 ■'. • ! 'i ; \i '' \'\ 118 ON EMIGRATION TO THE demolished. Mr Fergiisson, it is observed by this writer, has taken four successive crops of twenty-five bushels an acre from the same ground, — a result the expectation of which is quite chimerical. He has made wheat bring 4s. Od. a bushel, though it has to be conveyed about 100 miles to Lake Ontario, where he admits the price to be only 4s. 3d. He draws a crop from the land the same year in which it has been cleared, though by every ac- count it cannot yield one till the following season. He has forgotten too, during twelve months, either to pay his servants' wages, or to supply food to them or his cattle. With reference to these errors and omissions, Mr Shirreft'has fonned a calculation, according to which, at the close of the four years, the expenses would have exceeded the produce by £822 ; consequently the settler, instead of having in his pocket £600, would have been £222 in debt. Enormous as this discrepancy is, the au- thor has so fully made good his point, that we can scarcely find a single criticism to make on his estimate. He has indeed charged the seed wheat at 4s. 6d. when he has shown it to be w^orth only 3s. 9d. ; but, in return, he has forgotten, except in one instance, to supply the charge of 9d. a-bushel for carriage to Lake Ontario. He retains the expense on the thrashing-machine, though he seems to think it useless ; while, on the other hand, he has not introduced any equivalent for the omission, in the fourth year, of wages and food. It is to be con- sidered, however, that the settler has been allowed for the support of his family upwards of £300, which, had he been doing nothing, would have gone far to dissipate his small original capital. Moreover, to meet the debt of £222, he has a crop on the ground, which Mr Shirreff does not refuse to estimate at £450, — a sum sufficient tc clear off his burdens, and place him in an independent position. That gentleman, accordingly, estimates the land, with buildings, stocking, and furniture, at £750. Let us now, proceeding upon the data which Mr Shirreff has made to pass through so severe an ordeal, endeavour to measure the annual income likely to be BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 119 derived from a Canadian property of this extent. Tlie estimate shall be formed in money, though much of the produce will of course be consumed at home, and a large portion of the surplus bartered with the neighbouring storekeeper. We presume that in fully cleared land, originally good, 22 bushels an acre of wheat alternat- ing with grass may be considered a moderate crop ; and, for reasons above stated, we cannot venture to encourage the expectation of a higher price than 8s. 4d. a-bushel. Supposing then that half the ground, or 75 acres, is sown with wheat, we shall have 1650 bushels, value £275 The other half in grass, at the rate claimed by Mr Fergusson and allowed by Mr Shirreff, . 180 'J'he 50 acres left in wood, as they supply fuel, ma- terials for repairs, and food for hogs and cattle, may be estimated at . . . .30 £485 ■ ' t' , ■I: ,.< had sipate debt lirreff ent tc ndent the 50. L Mr •deal, to be s It is observable, that the above method of cropping, which we have adopted in order to avail ourselves of the best authorities on the subject, may probably be varied Avitli advantage, especially in the second portion of the land, much of which may be profitably laid out in oats, pease, and other grain for fattening cattle. Indeed, the opinion is becoming prevalent, that the latter branch is more gainful than the growing of wheat at its present low rate. We have seen, after a sweeping reduction upon Mr Pickering's estimate, that the ten acres of pease employed for feeding still yielded £4, 10s. each, while we value our wheat crop at only £4, 8s. 4d. Upon the whole, therefore, though we should hesitate to en- courage the settler to expect more than the return now stated, it may we think be considered a moderate esti- mate. We have now, however, to deduct the expenses of cultivation. The heaviest article are the wages of ser- vants, of whom we shall allow four, being more than is usual ill England for the same extent of land, and nearly %. W f M tl: ■J! i! ! if' A' V «i '4; :• ^|ii 'j| 120 ON EMIGRATION TO TUB con-esponding with Mr Talbot's allowance of three for 100 acres. The usual wages £27, . £108 0 0 They have also their board ; and tliough the articles of subsistence are cheap, yet as they must liave wheaten bread and ani- mal food twice a-day, we acquiesce in Mr Inches' estimate of 7s. currency per week, or about £10 sterling per annum. Food for four yoke of oxen and two horses, Keeping up this stock by purchase or breed- uig, say ..... Seed for wheat, 75 bushels at 3s. 4d., Seed for grass at 3s. an acre (Fergusson and Shirreff), ..... Wear and tear, double Mr Inches' allowance for 70 acres, Salt for cattle, 04 0 0 37 10 0 15 0 0 12 10 0 11 0 • • • . 13 0 4 10 0 0 Produce, £265 15 485 0 0 0 Income, £219 5 0 Thus, reckoning upon moderate prices, and chiefly upon statements made by writers inclined to take an un- favourable view of the subject, we seem to have ground for concluding that a competent income may be earned by the Canadian proprietor. Two hundred pounds a- year, we presume, will, as all the necessaries of life are extremely cheap, be reckoned about equal to three hundred in Britain. Luxuries, such as wine, tea, and coffee, are loaded indeed with somewhat heavy mer- cantile profits ; but having paid scarcely any duty, they are, unless in territories very completely hush^ still lower than in this country. Imported clothing is higher, but its use may be in some measure diminished by domestic manufacture, of which the materials are cheap ; and in a retired situation the necessity for ap- pearing in full dress will be only occasional. The wages BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 121 !:; *,; of house-servants are high, yet not such as to reJuee the settler to the necessity of (lispensing witli such as- sistance ; and their lahour may sometimes })e employed for furthering the operations of the farm. A young man who desires to form a judgment how- far such a mode of life will suit him, must be warned not to carry out the ideas of rank and dignity which are connected with the possession of land in Europe. Here, according to feudal ideas not wholly extinct, it was anciently combined with power ; and still, from the large rents paid fin* its use, it generally confers wealth without lal)Our, the enjoyment of splendour, and luxu- rious ease. But in America this species of property has never implied hereditary influence ; and it yields income, in most instances, only by hard personal labour or an active superintendence. The few wealthy men of which it can boast have acquired their riches by acting as merchants and storekeepers, and these are, on the whole, the persons of greatest consequence in the coun- try.'"" But though landed estate does not ensure those factitious distinctions, there are important advantages of which it can never be divested. It is attended with a degree of independence seldom enjoyed by the middling classes in Britain ; for here, farmers, with a heavy burden of rent and taxes, which they must make good amid many uncertainties, are always liable to come under th'.» power of their landlords. Salaried officers too may be exposed to insult, and even the loss of their situations, through the caprice of employers or superiors ; whereas a proprie- tor in the colonies, if he can draw a subsistence from his lands and keep clear of debt, is scarcely liable to any vicis- situde. He is removed indeed from the society of his friends ; but this, unless as to oecasionab visits, is usu- ally the lot of professional men even in our own country, who must accept employment wherever they can find it. Again, he can never return to reside in his native land, — a privation which, to those who have spent the best part * ShirreflF, p. 387- *^'> f.'^.' •' . if:^'-y': ■ 'M ,} ■■^■r- • •■ .■-■-i.t ■ ■Sil ..ii !l I 122 ON EMIGRATION TO THE ^11 1: Hi If) i .!■- ii m ( i ~ ■m 1 1 ' of their lives abroad, is in a great degree imaginary ; and, aided by the improving means of communication, he is not debarred from the possibility of seeing his rela- tions at home. In regard to society in Canada, if he has followed the advice of not going far into the bush, he will find it as good as it is usually met with in the rural parts of Britain, or even in provincial towns. The foregoing estimates have been made with the view of ascertaining what income may be expected from a Canadian farm, after it is cleared and placed under regular cultivation ; but the momentous question, by wliat means and resources the emigrant is to bring it into this condition, still remains to be considered. It must not be concealed that his tiisk will be arduous ; and if he is to perform it, as is here supposed, by hired labourers, a certain capital will be requisite. Two hun- dred acres of land, of good quality and in an eligible situation, cannot be purchased for much less than £200. He must erect some kind of habitation, though at first a simple one, and have certain faiin-offices, in | lements, and labouring-stock, which will require at least i)100. He must also have the means of subsistence till he is able to draw it from his fami ; though this, it is presumed, dur- ing his noviciate, will be managed with the strictest eco- nomy. But the hardest part of the task remains ; for the dense forest which covers his ground must be cut down before a single blade can grow upon it. This process, with the addition of fencing and sowing, is averaged at £4 an acre, which, with reference to the requisite space of 150, would amount to £600 ; the remaining fifty being ad- vantageously allowed to remain in woodland. It is true that tills process may be gradual, and that the increasing produce of the improved portions will afford means for clearing the remainder ; but as there is also to be paid out of it the subsistence of the emigrant, the expenses of cultivation, and the additions necessary to the stock of the enlarged farm, the improvements must be far ad- vanced before any surplus can be expected. Mr Shirreff has foimed an estimate of expenses and '; BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 123 produce in such circumstances as are now supposed, per- haps the most correct to which we can refer. Hi; cal- culates that the former will exceed the latter in the first year by X'59G ; in the second, by X()8() ; in the third, by £035 ; in the fourth, by £822 currency, or about i,'740 sterling. This is the maximum of outlay, and the clearing being then completed, the entire pro- duce, after deducting the expenses of culture, will go into his pocket. Nearly the same result will be ob- tained by the following view : — Price of 200 acres, . . £180 0 0 Log-liouse and furniture on the most economical scale pssible, at first ; barn, cow-house, and yoke of oxen, 100 0 Clearinjj, fencing, and sowing 100 acres, . 400 0 Subsistence for a year and a half, supposed in the case of a young settler during this probation to be on the most moderate scale, i|50 a-year, . . 75 0 0 0 0 £755 0 0 "We suppose that the partially cleared portion will afford subsistence, the expenses of cultivation, and the neces- sary additions to the stock ; and that, when the hundred acres are rendered productive, strict economy being still observed, they will afford a surplus by means of which the settler may improve the remaining fifty. According to these estimates, £750 is the sum neces- sary to enable a young settler to pay his way in bring- ing under culture a property- of the extent now specified. As many, however, to whom emigration is desirable, may be unable to command so considerable an amount, it becomes interesting to inquire if arrangements can be made either for procuring advances or delaying pay- ment, till the land is brought into a sufficiently pro- ductive state to clear them off. There are three modes by which this may be effected : — 1. Credits on the price of the land ; 2. Borrowing by mortgage upon it ; 3. Obtainmg loans from the merchant or storekeeper. 1. In almost all cases when land is sold in Canada some credit is allowed, with the view of enabling the settler to draw the whole or part of the price from the P'%'' . .•1 •I; .<(; ,,t .-., I , 124 ON EMIGRATION TO THE L-' x'*i ! Iiiii' ' ''il';'' ii:!;^ i 11 ! il' ■I m. i! i;! I'M iiiiri; pnKluce of the ground when Imnifjlit iindpr cultivfttioii. Jielore coming, however, under the ohligations required, it will he ndvisa))lc for him seriously to consider the terms. The granting of Lmd in this colony hy govern- ment was for a long time an ohject of gross ahuse, large lots heing hestowed, from mere favour, u])on individuals who were neither aide nor inclined to turn them to any account ; hut Lord Goderich, having formed the laudahle resolution to ])ut an end to this system, went perhaps to the opposite extreme. In his letter of 7th March 1831, he directed that land should, in every case, he dis- posed of hy sale, on the following conditions, namely, that one-fourth of the purchase-money slumld l)e paid im- mediately, and the remaining three-fourths at intervals of half a year. If any failure took ])lace hi these stij)u- lations, the pro])erty was to be forfeited, and resold hy public auction, — an arrangement which was confirmed by instructions received from Mr Spring Rice in August 1834.* In the colony, however, these credits seem from the first to have been held as quite nugatory, — it being utterly impossible to make the land in a year and a half yield three-fourths of the purchase-money. In all the notices which we have seen as issued by authority, the interval of a year is allowed betwt>en each instal- ment, so that the whole may be paid at the end of three.t Even these terms appear altogether unsuitable ; and we cannot help being suq)vised that government should have attempted to enforce them, when we find Lieutenant- colonel Cockburn stating that seven years are the ear- liest date at which the instalments can be paid out of the land.;}; It seems the more to be regTetted, as having given the appearance of an official sanction to those de- lusive reports, spread by sanguine individuals and sup- ported by a few fortunate instances, whence the settler was led to expect returns enabling him not only to sub- sist, but to pay up in that short period the whole price ! ,ifli' • Emigration Papers, printed August 1834, pp. 3, 4, 15. t Backwoods, p. 328. Shirreff, p. 360. X Report of Select Committee of 182(5, p. 148. . imiTlsn NORTH AMERICAN COLONTKS. 125 mtion. [uircd, pr the ^vorn- , larj?e adiiJils to any ,iiorhn]>s Murclj 1)C (lis- Iv.that lid im- itervals ^, stipii- sold 1)V 1 firmed August s seem »ry,— it jir and In all liority, instal- hree.t nd we (I have enant- le ear- lout of (laving- )sc de- Id sup- settler to sub- price |15. of the land. Fn)m the most sober statements, and the best authenticated results, we are convinced that the reapinL? of tiie fourth crop is, j4:enerjilly speakinu:, the very earliest j)eri< A at which an histalnient can be paid out of the produce of the ground. It is only a very small portion of his j)ropcrty that the settler can have cleared at the end of the first year ; and out of its scanty cro])S Iio has to draw his own subsistence, the exj)cnses of the farm, and those of cutting down an additional f[uantity of woodland. For these; purposes it is manifestly inade- quate ; how, then, can he possibly pjiy a large sum of money ? The demand for a considerable instalment at the outset is reasonable ; but wlien this is made, and an obligation retained on the whole land, which can scarcely fail to receive at least some improvement from the hands of the occupant, the most complete guarantee is provided against ultimate loss.* We ought, however, to observe, that these regulations have by no means been carried into any rigorous practical operation. On the contrary, it is stated in the last General Report of the Commissioners on Gricv- anccs,+ that they have never been enforced in a single instance, and tliat an immense arrear has thereby accumulated, lint this fact does not remove the ol)jec- tion. Government fixes terms which cannot possibly be fulfilled, and thus finds itself in numerous instances un- able to act upon them. It thereby becomes almost im- possible to do so in any case, and advantage is probably taken of this relaxation by persons who are not under the Siune necessity, " You cannot," says Mr Sullivan, " attempt to eject a whole community .";|; To remedy * Since writing the above we find our opinion confirmed by Mr Baillie, survej'or-general of New Brunswick, and by Mr Shore, thirty-five years resident there, one of vvliom considers three or four years, and the other five, as the earliest periods at which an instal- ment can be expected. Lord Durham's Report, Appendix B- p. 154, § 1716; n. 151), § 17H8. f Printed February UV37, p 23. See also Appendix B to Lord Durham's Report, p. 113, § 1U06. X Appendix B, p. 110. VOL. 111. H I ■ ■i ■^-.A' 126 ON EMIGRATION TO THE .!».''; II*' IIIMl! :=!M: 1: 'rii! !!ii: ;rt this the commissioners recommended that lands should be sold only for re^idy money, which was carried into effect by Lord Glenelg's order of February 1 837. The United States had already adopted this system, which was certainly found consistent with the most rapid colonization of their western territory. Their credits formerly were of the same description as those granted by tlie English government, and had issued in a similar accumulation of large arrears. Still we have seen how important it may be in many cases for individuals who undertake the arduous task of Canadian settlement, which can be profitable only on a somewhat considerable scale, to obtain a certain extent of pecuniary indulgence ; and in a country where capital is so scarce, credit can only be procured on high and often ruinous terms. We are not, indeed, disinclined to agree with the com- mittee that the mode of conducting sales on trust, and the collecting of small arrears, is a task extremely ill suited to a government, and should rather fall into the hands of chartered bodies and capit^ilists, as is actually the case in republican America. Unfortunately the British companies have proceeded on the same errone- ous system, exem]>lified by the ministers of the crown, of which Ave fear they are reaping the bitter fruits. By fixing, in the first instance, temis which they mast depart from in numerous instances, all regularity is lost, and it becomes difficult and invidious to enforce them in any particular case. We are not aware that any fair trial has been given to the method of granting and rigidly enforcing conditions which could really be made good out of the land. We may except the announcement, in June 1882, of grants to poor settlers of fifty acres at 5s. an acre, pr-yable by four instalments, beginning only at the end of three years. This plan was adopted by Sir John Colborne under the pressure of the great immigra- tions at that period ; but Lord Goderich, though he sanc- tioned it as a temporary measure, expressed a decided aversion to it as a permanent arrangement. Not finding it mentioned, therefore, in the most recent reports, we li: tl : '18 le crown. BRITISH NORTU AMERICAN COLONIES. 127 cannot encourage any one to go out under such an ex- pectation. Surely there is no reason for confining it to this restricted and ahnost eleemosynary footing, while credit, as we have endeavoured to show, is often more urgently wanted by those who undertake cultivation on a larger scale. The Canada Company are somewhat more liberal, requiring only a fifth part to be paid down in the first instance, and the remainder by five successive instal- ments at the end of each year. Tliis, however, accord- ing to the views just stated, cannot be considered satis- factory, for three payments will on this principle be re- quired before, agreeably to our estimate, the first should have become due. Mr Shirreff, accordingly, and other writers state, that the settlers have been to a great extent unable to fulfil their engagements to the Company ; and we in fact learn, from undoubted authority, that their ar- rears are very extensive. It was stated to us, that the directors scarcely viewed them in the light of a debt, and were not at all disposed to press hard on a settler whom they considered as doing well, and making such a progress as afforded a fair promise of ultimate payment. Even wlien they had formed an opposite opinion, tliey studiously avoided ejecting him by violent moans ; but, granting a liberal allowance for what he had done, and, putting a sum of money in his pocket, persuaded him to depart. The class, however, of whom we are writing may feel reluctant to place themselves under the power of any body of strangers, however respectable. To avoid this danger, it will be requisite to pay at the outset not only tlie original fifth, but the first three instalments, tak- ing credit only for the last two, amounting to thirty-two pounds in the hundred. Even this migiit be some ob- ject ; though it will be necessary to recollect, that as tlie settler does not obtain his titles till the whole debt is liquidated, he will of course be precluded from raising money by mortgage on the land. The British American Land Company have gone some- what farther. After requiring an original payment of '^U ■»■ '. ■'.1 : '■■ n «.*. '" .n '^1 u \«'M ".'n ^1 &. Ii !i;1 • ill 'ii,i' :!;;ir 128 ON EMIGRATION TO THE one-fifth or one-fourth from the poorer settlers, they allow the rest to he cleared by six annual instalments. Still tliis does not come up to our idea, and as their operations have only commenced, they have not yet had any expe- rience as to the result ; hut Mr Bruyeres, tlie secretary, expressed to us his conviction, that the colonists would find little difficulty in making out annual payments so small, were it only by the produce of their personal labour. This of course applies only to the working class of emigrants ; and even in their case we question if the Company will not be somewhat disappointed. In that event we have little doubt that they will act in the same liberal manner as their sister association ; and hence the settler may be allowed to take credit from them for three of his instalments, amounting to £40 in the hun- dred. There remain still the clergy reserves, which are brought into the market on more liberal terms than any of the other lands ; for after the preliminary payment, the remainder is allowed to be settled by nine annual instalments. Although this arrangement also proceeds on the absurd ground of supposing that the settler can draw any amount out of his very first crop, yet if he pays three portions of the price, he will still retain sia^, or more than the half, payable at dates when he may reasonal)ly expect to derive them out of his produce. It appears, in fact, that this has been a favourite mode of purchase, and that in about ten years 466,000 acres were sold for £317,000, of which, however, only £117,000 were received.* Land may be obtained from private proprietors who have purchased or obtained grants of more than they are able to occupy ; and such persons are generally willing to give liberal credits, holding a security over the property, which must be improved to a certain extent. They are accused, however, of demanding high prices, in the ex- pectation of their lots increasing in value with the ex- tended cultivation of the country. • Lord Durham's Report, Appendix B, p. 107. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 129 Another mode of enlarging slender means is by bor- rowing on mortgage, especially after a partial cultiva- tion has rendered the land more saleable. Good security can be given in Upper Canada and the Eastern Town- ships, where property is registered and held on clear titles. Money, however, is scarce, and interest of course high. The legal rate is six per cent. ; but much more is said to be occasionally demanded. Perhaps an emigrant having friends and a good character at home, might find indi- viduals who would grant a loan on the same guarantee, and even consider it a profitable investment. A third resource is found in the storekeeper, who in all the country districts of America carries on in the manner already described the whole trade of buying and selling. To obtain a profitable employment for his capital, he is willing to make considerable advances on the security or the crop, and even of the land. This is the most usual mode of obtaining credit ; but it is obvious that beyond a very limited extent it must prove dange- rous and even fatal. The cultivator who once comes under the power of such a person, finds himself bound to deal with him exclusively, on his own terms, and under disadvantages which may render all his future efforts abortive. Where, however, the settler stands much in need of the means of enlarging his operations, this expedient may be in some degree unavoidable. From these observations it will be obvious that credit cannot be procured in Canada without difficulty and on liigh terms. It would therefore be extremely impru- dent in the emigrant to undertake the cultivation of land, relying principally on such assistance. It would even be very desirable to carry out with him the sum necessary to pay all his expenses, which we have esti- mated at £750, with perhaps a little reserve to meet contingencies. If, however, he can muster only X'SOO, it appears that by one or other of the above means he may contrive to extend his resources, till he brings the requisite portion of his ground into a state of produc- tiveness. ..' ' ' 1 llM 1 .?! .<", ^iiii 130 ON EMIGRATION TO THE Among the inducements to emigration, an assurance is usually held out in the most confident terms, that the settler will be thereby relieved of every anxiety as to ])roviding even for the largest family. To prevent him from going out under any such delusion, we would ob- serve that, for the class ^t present under consideration, this advantage is to be understood only in a very modified sense. He can certainly give his children employment as labourers on his ground, and after his death the pro- perty may be divided among them in small portions ; but this, we presume, is not what he would consider an adequate provision. If he wishes to enable them to live in the manner that he himself does and to which he has accustomed them, he must be in a condition at their outset in life to put into their hands a certain sum, the amount of which may be estimated from the above statements. He may, indeed, if they are set- tled near him, give them much aid in regard to stock and sulisistence, and thus lighten their expenses ; but unless he can bestow upon them a clear sum of at least £".300, they cannot begin the world with any ad- vantage. To do this for several sons requires an accu- mulation which in Canada is by no means easy, and yet if the necessity for it be kept steadily in view through life, and advantage be taken of every favourable year, it will be found by no means impracticable. In parti- cular, we would notice the occasional occurrence of sea- sons of scarcity in Europe or America, wdiich raise the prices much above that moderate estimate on which we have calculated. Such in fact has recently been felt in the latter country, and has been experienced from time to time in Britain. Another important question for the settler is, whether he should purchase a spot of complete woodland, or one that is wholly or partially cleared. The latter, of course, bears a much higher price ; but as the former cannot be rendered ])roductive by hired labour much under £4 an acre, good land well situated and improved is fully worth £5, The emigrant, therefore, who carries out BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 131 capital, may as well give this sum at once as pay for removing- the wood from new land ; and l)esides, he will thereby escape the dreary and harassing task of a first settler, and begin immediately to draw i)roducc from the soil. From embarrassed circumstances or the love of change in many proprietors, a choice of spots, partially at least ]>rought to this condition, may be had in every part of Upper Canada and the Eastern Townships, on lower terms than they could be otherwise obtained. But this course is attended with one danger, which must be carefully guarded against, we mean the chance of imposition, in which many Anglo-Americans are said to be rather unscrupulous. Another evil almost certain is, that from overcropping and tlie neglect of manure, the soil will be found in an exhausted state. Mr ShirrefF, though he derides this fear, elsewhere admits that the robbing system is universal. He urges, however, that the restoration of the most exhausted land is easier than the removal of a dense forest ; but the means may not be so accessible, and at all events the expense of this restora- tion should be carefully calculated. According to Mr Buclian, the manure which ought to have preserved the fertility of the soil, and may now renew it, will be found scattered in unsightly heaps around the premises. But the settler should not rest satisfied with this probabi- lity, but take care that it be actually fulfilled. There is a numerous class of gentlemen settlers, con- sisting of military and naval officers, who, at the end of the war, were reduced to half-pay. To them, with the ideas of refinement and elegance which they must have formed, the rearing of a family in this country upon ill 00 or even £200 a-year, is felt as approaching to penury. Emigration is nevertheless recommended to such persons, and is encouraged by their obtaining without payment a grant of land proportioned to their rank and length of service. By the latest regulation, a field-officer who has served twenty-five years receives an allotment valued at £300 ; twenty, £'260 ; fifteen or less, £200. A captam having served twenty years receives £200 ; fifteen or less, "* v.. ' ■ ■ , \ •W', >.;•■, i.-i>V .(""••. \ -;% ' -s '.''.•■ ..♦ >.> i- ;.fi?;vU> ':; 'IS.: ijt-'v ^.•' ?.>i-''^;^-^ ■ i- '■;. ■'i.i ■ it ! ,:-i|P :• ''ii:.'' . ■ . i til ,.(11. m ihiii'i'; 132 ON EMIGRATION TO THE ill' ^ii'l ^ III :,t ■! I'll il *■!;•* ,^ M , -'HI ■Ji , ,,,... ,;l;iiiii- ill! m i)160. A subaltern liaving served twenty, £150 ; seven, or less, £100. An emigrant of this order enters on his career with superior advantages, having no purchase- money to pay, and receiving annually a certain income in cash, that scarce and valued article ; yet without a small capital, he will find it very difficult to clear any great extent of ground, or draw from it a liberal revenue. At the same time, although he should only be able to improve forty or fifty acres, he may, after paying the expenses of cultivation, obtain abundant food for his family, while the forest will present materials for rear- ing a suitable habitation, and securing a stock of fuel. Thus supplied with all the necessaries of life, he may spend his half-pay on conveniences and luxuries. Such was the case of the gentleman who reported to Captain Hall, that while in Britain nearly liis whole income went for food, he might now spend it all in clothing and other accommodations. We fear, how- ever, that this class, led away by erroneous and ex- travagant expectations, are sometimes impelled by a spirit of enterprise to plunge too deejjly into the bush. Being told, that in order to prosper they must work with their own hands, they seize perhaps with alacrity the axe and the harrow, but, it is feared, without drawing much benefit from this personal toil. A bush life and a peasant's task must be very foreign to the ideas and habits of such a settler. At a distance, they may allure by an aspect of romantic adventure ; but when the novelty is over, and day after day passes in dreary mo- notony, remote from all the enjoyments and accommo- dations of civilized life, his situation becomes more and more trying. The wealth expected to be found in the forest proves a chimera ; his extensive property is only a waste of woodland, which he has no means of turn- ing to account ; the price of every thing, except the ne- cessaries of life, is higher ; and his income therefore does not go nearly so far. It would surely be more rational to occupy a smaller spot in a better locality, where he would border at least on the confines of social existence. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 133 0 ; seven, ers on his purchase- income in it a small any great revenue. 3e able to lying the d for his J for rear- k of fuel. 1, he may luxuries, ported to lis whole it all in 3ar, how- and ex- led by a the bush. ist work alacrity without A bush the ideas ley may r^hen the fary mo- L'commo- lore and in the is only )f turn- the ne- )re does rational lere he istence. The vicinity even of the small towns, especially th'^se northward of Lake Ontario, such as Col)urg and Peter- borough, afford society such as he has been accustomed to, and the same means of enjoying life as would be found in any retired situation in Britain.* We have still to notice anotlicr case, that of persons somewhat advanced in life, pro])ably with families, who have practised farming, but have fallen into distressed circumstances, or at least are unable to earn a livelihood under the existing pressure of rents and taxes. For them Canada is frequently pointed out as a resource, though without due consideration. Such individuals have been inured to habits and modes of conducting ope- rations very different from those to which they must ac- commodate themselves in that distant country. Besides, the expense of transporting their families and maintaining them two or three years, till the land becomes produc- tive, is extremely heavy. This class too are often in- clined to go into the bush, partly perhaps through an idea of the cheapness of land ; and yet, unless their means be so extremely limited as to preclude every prospect be- yond a bare subsistence, this course will not only render the change exceedingly dreary, but ultimately increase all their difficulties. The task of cutting down the forest with their own hands must be almost impracticable ; on which account, where circumstances at all admit, a spot in an accessible situation, and even partially cleared, ought to be preferred as at once the most convenient and the cheapest purchase. We cannot here omit Mr Shirreff's testimony to his emigrant countrywomen, whom he describes as admirably discharging the duties of their new life, and bearing its hardships with greater for- titude than their husbands.t Here he appears at first view to contradict the authoress of the " Backwoods ;" but probably the classes were different. He met chiefly * Emijrration Papers, 1834, p. 13. Hall's Travels, vol. i. p. 333. Backwoods pp. 182-184, 194. t Pagelti5. I -,■ :*{ •, ' .H '-.!• :<'''*'?V'.' ''-•'>.\ V "■''..'.if: ^Jl i'(l ''''I \ .^'i'''!- •!;li''i|: r ' . «?:? '8 Mm\ 134 ON EMIGRATION TO THE witli ladies who liad accompanied their husbands under the trying circumstances above stated, and who, with a f( eling of duty and sympathy congenial to the sex, souglit to supj)ort them under misfortune ; while her acquaintance was with the wives of officers who had come out under the more illusory expectations of gayety and good fortune. There remains still another class, small in number, yet gradually increasing, of men who possess consider- able ca])ital, and who seek to employ it with advantage. From the scarcity of money profits are high, but great activity, caution, and judgment are requisite in order to secure them. Some have carried on agriculture on an extensive scale. Mr Philemon Wright, for in- stance, near Bytown on the Ottawa, has cleared 3000 acres, employs 03 labourers, makes 1100 tons of hay, and has 750 acres in grain and roots. The Messrs M'Donell of Gananoqui, too, cultivate a farm of 1200 acres ; and these examples seem sufficient to refute the assertion of some that in Canada farming cannot be un- dertaken unless on the very smallest scale. At the same time the circumstances already mentioned will render it difficult, and in most cases impracticable, to go beyond tlie extent on which our calculation was foraied. A large capital with a view to procure wealth must be employed chiefly in mercantile transactions. In the cities such busi- ness is conducted nearly as elsewhere ; but in the country it is almost wholly carried on by storekeepers in the man- ner fomierly described. The smallest capital on which a etore can be advantageously set up is stated at ^£1000. The profits are generally understood to be very large ; but as they are obtained by numerous transactions, often with embarrassed individuals, they are not realized without difticulty and under disagreeable circumstances. Those rude manufactures, which from their bulky com- modities must be practised on the spot, appear to afford an advantageous return. These are chiefly flour and aaw mills, distillery, brewery, and of late iron works. The purchase of large blocks of land and the retailing it BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 135 great out to smaller settlers may yield an amj)lc profit, but it is an occupation which rcipiires much attention and care. High interest may be obtained for money, and much more than the current rate is often received in the way of mortgage from landed i)roprictors ; but here, too, great circumspection is necessiiry.* It is now tune to consider the case of the more nume- rous division of labouring or peasant settlers. This last tenn is not here used in its ordinary English sense to express the lowest grade of rural labourers, but in the acceptation which it bears on the Continent, where it indicates a class of small pro])rietors tilling the ground with their own hands. Such persons are common in the northern countries, and in Sweden form even an order in the state. Such in Scotland, too, were the little lairds, once numerous, and not yet wholly extinct ; such probably in England were the body called yeomen. In a crowded and continually increasing population of twenty-four millions there must be many individuals to whom this situation, accompanied with independence and abundance, may afford a most favourable change compared with their present condition. Small working farmers, formerly to be seen in all the mountainous tracts of Scotland and England, and still in most parts of Ire- land, can no longer make head against the improved class employing capital on a great scale. In the latter country the desire to have a piece of land has reduced the size of farms till the occupant can with difficulty obtain a miserable subsistence out of the meanest portion of his produce. Young men of various ranks, having from illOO to £200, may wish to raise themselves above the order of common labourers, yet cannot in this country turn it to such an account. Tradesmen and artisans, too, of a higher description may by the severe pressure of competition be able to earn only a scanty and precarious livelihood. Even in the common class of workmen, an . f - !• * Picken, p. 307. Fergusson*s Second Journey. ShirrefF, p. 387. Counsel for Emigrants, p. 63, Backwoods, p. 179. ■r't i !- ' ■■« .-i I' i •I •■ n I r If.'. *- !"• i:|l li'' I!..; ■ 11 ' '" 1 rK'l)! fl' 136 ON EMIGRATION TO THE aspiring lad, conscious of the energy and perseverance necessary to encounter many difficulties, may find his condition improved on the other side of the AtUmtic. Individuals in their decision will of course consult their own advantage ; but, for the public, emigration can scarcely go too far, ])ecause, as we have already remark- ed, out of the vast i)opulation of the empire, 6(),()00 and upw^ards could annually be spared, with a sensible im- provement in the condition of those that remain. In estimating the prospects of this class of emigrants, we shall, as before, consider first the situation of the settler after he has effected the dealing of his land and has only the common laboui*s of a farm to undergo. As this is the point at which he aims, the primary question must be, whether when attained it will form a desirable condition, and we will then endeavour to lay before him the somewhat arduous steps by which alone he can reach it. In this estimate we must begin wuth an inquiry relative to the extent of land which it might be prudent to undertake ; and on this head we should concur with Mr Shirreff in naming fifty acres. If the settler clears and then cultivates thirty-five of these, he will do as much as can be generally expected from the personal exertions of one individual ; for to dissipate his scanty funds or incur a load of debt in the purchase of lots which he can never improve, is a process which would infallibly involve him in embarrassment and ruin. The only exception seems to be where there is a family of sons, whose co-operation may enable the father to clear larger portions, which may afterwards be divided among them. Mr Talbot indeed asserts, that owing to imper- fect cultivation, 100 acres form the smallest quantity on which a Canadian family can subsist. But with every deference to this gentleman's local knowledge, we find in his own statements a complete refutation of his assertion ; for of a party who went out with him, some had cleared only ten acres, and none more than thirty, and yet all were satisfied ; whence it is clear, that even nRTTISII NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 137 tliose whoso portion was smallest must have derived from it a toloral)lo subsistence. Anotlior imi)()rtant ([uestion is the situation host fitted for these less opulent emii^rants. We have arL,aio(l that the do})th of the forest or hn.sh is very unsuital)le for those who are to cultivate on a large scale and hy hiri^d labour ; but to those \A\o are to clear the j,^round with their own hands, and subsist chiefly on its produce, the same objections do not apply. The hi<^h rate of wages affects them not ; they may even with advantage occasionally avail themselves of it ; whik; the low money- value of tlieir surplus ])roduco, and the enhanced charge for luxuries, are to tlieni secondary considera- tions. In return, they obtain e(pially good land at a much lower rate. They may oven ])ossess some collateral ad- vantages ; for coming, as often iiappens, in consideralde parties from the same neighl)ourhood, they may cluster together, enjoy each other's society, and hence in some degree carry their country along witli them. In such a district too they may afterwards obtain space for their children to settle in their immediate vicinity. We shall now suppose the colonist established upon this footing, having tliir(y-five of his acres cleared, with fifteen left in wood for fuel, fences, and other purposes. Ten acres of wheat, yielding only fifteen bushels an acre, will produce 150 bushels, which can be made into 1900 quartern loaves, being above five for every day. Five acres of pease or Indian corn will feed ten hogs yielding 1600 pounds of pork, or rather more than four pounds a-day. Seven acres in pasture, with two or three in oats, turnips, or potatoes, will support the cattle meant for the yoke or stall, milch cows, and sheep sufficient to supply dairy produce, wool, and some variety of animal food. A spot may also be set aside for fiax. He will then have ten or eleven acres to raise produce for sale or exchange, and the piice, even at low bush-rates, will enable him to procure a certain proportion of foreign luxuries and commodities, and even to put a few pounds into his pocket. Besides, it is probable that in the course ' '^•'" ■ '* I V ;»^ V ^ ',>"•• 138 ON EMIfiRATTON TO THE "f 5 J..., thi irli hi] <; ^> i i| 1 \ . 4; ' i ! * \ 1 i ■•!. t , •Ji= ( t ' T - .. -^ • - .1 If 1 ii 1 .' ,'1 l^~1 of a limited luimlxT of years the improved communicn- tioiKs will ^MTJitly raise the vuhie of this jmrt of his crops. His land, hou^ht it may he with less than i'20, may with its stock l)e now estimated at nearly i*2(M). It is evident that a degree of success considerahly short of this must ]>lace the emigrant in a state of inde- pendence and ahundance very superior to that of the lahouring classes in Great Hritain. AccordinL;Iy, among all those who have made even an aj)))roach towards it, there a])pears a general sentiment of satisfaction with their condition. Mr Talhot was accompanied hy eighteen settlers with their families ; they had hrought with them seve- rally I'rom £20 to i,'3(H) ; and in five years they had cleared from ten to thirty acres eacli, having among them .58 cows, 70 young cattle, and 115 sheep. Not one, it is true, had any tiling in the form of cash, yet all were perfectly contented, and of each it could he said — "•' He eats his own ham, his own cliickens and lamb, He shears his own Heece, and he wears it." Captain Hall made a very strict investigation into the condition of the individuals conveyed from Ireland in 1825 ; and though they were reluctant to own the extreme poverty endured in their native country, all acknowledged their present comfortahle circumstances, and the ohligations they owed to those wdio had effected their removal. " The settlers in the woods," says Mr Pickering, " appear to he the most independent and contented people in their way I ever met w^ith." Thomas Adsett, one of the Sussex emigrants, says, " All farmers that I see is independent and has plenty, and I wish tliat the poor people in England had the leavings of their tahles that goes to the dogs and hogs." The author of the '* Backwoods" saw several persons who had taken lands from the Canada Company who were satisfied with their prospects. She descrihes in a pleasing manner the aspect of the country through which she passed on the St Lawrence above Montreal ; being delighted with " the BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIKS. 139 neatness, cleaiiliiicHH, and comfort of tlie cottages anld, knitting and singing as blithe as hirds." She was told, '^ Kvery little dwelling you see has its lot of land, and conse- quently its Hock of sheep ; and as the children are early taught to sj)in, and knit, and help to dye the yarn, their ])arents can afford to sec them well and comfortably clothed. Many of these farms you now see in so thriv- ing a condition were wild land thirty years ago, nothing but Indian hunting-grounds. The industry of men, and many of them poor men that had not a rood of land of the ir own in their own country, has eftected this change." Even Mr Shirrelf, who has made it his study to dispel the illusions that mislead the emigrant, fully admits that, though he " cannot hold out an immediate or ultimate prospect of great wealth, every person may obtain all the necessarios and most of the true comforts of life in the fullest abundance, unlia- rassed by the cares of the present or apprehensions of the future." * From these testimonies it seems impossible to doubt that the settler in Canada, when he has brought his land under cultivation and is clear of debt, is in an enviable situation when compared with the labourer in this country, and even with the tradesman who has only a precarious employment. It must not be con- cealed, however, that he has a hard probation to pass through, and one which requires much patience and perseverance. He who performs labour for wages reaps its fruit at once ; but he who undertakes to render the forest productive must sustain nearly two years of severe • Talbot, vol. ii. p. 198. Hall, vol. i. p. 285-29-.. Letters From Sussex Emij^rants, p. 45. Backwoods of Canada, pp. 46, 47, 105. Slurreff, p. 349. Pickerinjr, p. 104. . . , / I [ . i r.\ m I'rt ;■ t '■- ■!■■ mil •jeijS; IIP I ;" 'I '1:0' \yl' '!i 'vf!f|;; 140 ON EMIGRATION TO THE toil before he can derive the slightest benefit from his exertions. As during two or three more the labour must continue equally hard, while the produce is only slowly increasing, he ought, before he engages in this tedious and sometimes discouraging enterprise, care- fully to ask himself whether he possesses the requi- site energy and perseverance. It may be proper also to forewarn him that in almost every instance the first impressions of the country are unfavourable. The earliest letters written by the Sussex emigrants have not been published ; but by the subsequent one of Simeon Titmouse it transpires that their former com- munications had all borne a gloomy character, though he adds, it was merely because the writers knew no better. Mr Menzies remarks that he had never known a person who had been less than six months in Canada who did not most deeply regret having come ; on the other hand, he was convinced there was not one in a hundred who after living there a year or two would voluntarily quit it. We shall now, as formerly, endeavour to estimate the capital which would be necessary to carry the la- bouring settler without any hardsliip beyond the un- avoidable toil of clearing and cultivating his ground. The calculation is for a married couple, with three children ; if the family is smaller, several of the items will be diminished in proportion ; but we do not conceive that any colonist would attempt to establish himself in the woods without a wife or other female relative. .i.i' . k.' 'I ''1, , I £20 0 0 13 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 Fifty aores, say at 8s. an acre, A yoke of oxen, sled, and chain { Mr Talbot), A plough (Mr Pickering), Harrow-teeth, hoes, and axes (Mr Talbot compared with Mr Robinson and Mr Pickerin}^), • . Mr Inches gives an enumeration, which may be useful, of other implements, viz. : — Spades, shovels, dunjr-fbrks, hay-forks, implements for cleaning- grain when thrash- ed, bags, horse-cloth, ropes for carts and for fastening horses, &c. auger, hand-saw, adze, pick-axe, hammer, shlngle-axe, nails, gimlets, iron wedges, bill-hooks Carryforward, £'67 0 0 ::v'ii, i..;v 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. Brought forward, £37 for underbrushing, grindstone, file, scythes, sickles, sneds, wheelbarrow, roller, and other little articles, which he estimates at about £10 ; but as he is rather prone to exaggerate, and our scale is so much smaller than Mr Pickering's farm of 200 acres, with seventy cleared, allow .... He demands also, and seemingly not without reason, a cart:, which he values at £12; under the same view allow a small and light one, A log-house suited to this class of settlers (Mr Talbot), A few articles of furniture; Mr Talbot allows £2, but we could not accuse him of extravagance if he made It . . • • • * Provisions for a year and a half, or 550 days. We shall, with Mr Robinson, allow a pound of flour and one of pork daily for each of the two adults, and half that amount for the three children. This will require about ten barrels, which, however, could doubtless be now procured at somewhat lower rates than he estimates, viz. £l for flour and £3 for pork, . , Add some potatoes, meal, sugar, &c. Some fresh clothing must be necessary before they can either make or purchase any with their produce (no- where noticed), .... Medical attendance, Mr Robinson, £1; Mr Buchanan, 10s, ; we would ratlier allow for the chance of its reaching .... Seed, ..... 141 0 0 4 0 0 0 10 0 0 3 0 0 40 3 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 . _ 1 0 0 Total, £107 10 0 To this must be added the expense of conveyance not only to Canada, but to that part of the country in which he is to establish himself, — a sum which, though it must vary according to circumstances, will probably raise the whole amount to £130. It is true that several of the articles, as a cow, plough, cart, will not perhaps be at first wanted, or even conveniently kept ; yet, con- sidering how small for some time must be the produce of the farm, and how heavy the claims upon it, we cannot, with some writers, encourage the expectation, that it will soon afford the means of purchasing these necessary implements. A hundred and thirty pounds, then, appears the smallest sum with which an emigrant can get on comfortably, and without any other hardship than that of cultivating the ground with the sweat of his brow. VOL. III. I ■ U' :■■ ! • i *■: '<'.!■- . V '■■ml a i m M. 'I 'I m^- ■i ^1 ! > i ^''ii' I'' '' i Mi: ;,.l' i!!,!!' I!)! 1 if'i i 142 ON EMIGRATION TO THE ■t •• As this sum, however, is not within the reach of many to whom emigration is desirable, it becomes at this stage an important question, whether there are any resources by which the deficiency can be supplied. As in the case of the more opulent emigrants, the labour- ing order of settlers can also obtain land on credit upon paying a small proportion of the price. Nearly all the same observations made in the other case will apply to theirs ; though the latter, even as compared to the extent of their possessions, must be content with a smaller amount of disposable produce, and submit to greater difficulty in converting it into cash. Yet, as they have little or no expenditure, it does not seem probable that, after the struggle of the first years is over, they will find much difficulty in paying annually a few pounds. This will be easier if the creditor accepts it in produce, which in most cases he can transport to a market more conveniently than the proprietor. The terms of the Canada Company have been considered objectionable ; but we have found reason to believe that they are en- forced in a lenient and considerate manner. By this arrangement, however, the emigrant saves only a small part of the sum which we have calculated as necessary to establish him in his Canadian farm. He may have only £80, £60, £40, or evei^ £20, nay, he may have landed without a sixpence ; yet even in this last case, those acquainted with the country assure us, that it is still possible for him to work his way to independence, and even to wealth. Mr Boulton had known many who arrived in a state of such entire desti- tution as even to find it necessary to beg a meal from him, yet in several years they were in comfortable cir- cumstances, and could command credit to some extent. In fifteen or twenty years some of them had become men of property, members of the legislature, part of the aristocracy. These no doubt are instances of parti- cular energy and good fortune ; but Mr Fergusson broadl}-- lays down the maxim, that " no sober, steady, industrious man, with expectations and desires under bHitish north American colonies. 143 reasonable control, ever yet lived to repent his removal to Canada."* The resource by which the emigrant is enabled to compensate the scantiness or even total want of funds, consists in the high wages of labour. This circumstance, inconvenient to the rich, but so highly advantageous to the poor, is the combined result of the abundance of fertile land and the thinness of population. Hence every man seeks to cultivate ground of his own, and looks with disdain on a servile condition, which is sub- mitted to only by those who are beginning the world, or have been unfortunate in it. This scarcity of hands is particularly adverse to manufactures, which, as far as possible, must be imported from abroad. There are, how- ever, some articles too bulky to bear the expense of conveyai'c^ 'vhich must be constructed on the spot at whateve: .*( , Circumstances and the want of com- petition j)ut it out of the power of employers to be fastidious ; so that a degree of skill which could not sustain the active rivalry which exists at home will not preclude full employment in the forest-land of America. He who can put a great deal of work through his hands, though in a rough manner, is the best fitted for that country. The different branches of carpentry, which necessarily includes house-building, arc perhaps the most extensive. The work of the smith must also be wanted ; while the necessity of fitting clothes affords room for the tailor and the shoemaker. Men are re- quired for working in saw and flour mills, also in distil- leries, breweries, and manufactories of iron, which the bulk of the article, and the abundance of materials, render profitable in spite of high wages.t There have usually been some great public works going forward, and this branch of employment was lately very exten- sive, through the improvements undertaken by the legis- • Report of Select Committee, p. If). Fergusson's Second Journey, p. 27- •f Fergiisson, p. 369. Mackenzie's Sketches, p. 351. Counsel for Emigrants, p. 80, ■^-^.M' ■ 'i '■' ' Mil* i .•,.'.,»V* k ,7; Vvr \i '■';'•»,?< . , ' . i • I ..iii, 'P;{5l 11.' t, »• B' ,'.' f ,■■(,'' 'i li 1;! liil ;', iii ■ill ]44 ON EMIGRATION TO THE lature of Upper Canada, as well as by the Land Company in the lower province. These have been suspended by the pressure of tlie times, but if the plans suggested by Lord Durham and MrBuUer shall be fully carried out, this kind of employment will soon be more abundant than ever. Those newly arrived, indeed, from being unaccustomed to such labour, do not obtain as high wages as the natives ; but, after a little practice, their superior steadiness will secure them an equal or even a greater remuneration. The most extensive branch of industry, however, has hitherto been that of farm-labourers. There has always been a number of persons who had brought out or acquired capital with './hich they could employ one or more, and who, from the circumstances above stated, were obliged to pay high wages. These indeed are not equal to those gained in the skilled trades ; but the emi- grant has meanwhile the great advantage of being ini- tiated into colonial agriculture, which must be conducted in a manner of which there is no precedent on an English farm. So important is this benefit, that we think it an excellent advice even to the settler who carries out pretty large funds, to hire himself two or three years, during which he will become acquainted with the country, and better qualified to arrange his future plans. The situation of a labourer is, no doubt, exposed to an evil every where felt throughout Canada, except in the immediate vicinity of large towns ; we mean the difficulty of getting payment in money. " Money or cash," says Titmouse, " is hard to catch," and wages paid wholly in this shape are said to be much prized. In the most favourable circumstances, the rule of payment seems to be half money and half goods, — a fact which is considered by Mr Shirreff as barring com- pletely the prospect of rising to the rank of proprietor. Mr Talbot, on the other hand, reasonably observes, that the operative can let his wages run up, and then take them in provisions and stock, which will be as useful as money.* * Letters from the Sussex Emigrants, pp. 12, 20. Shirreff, p. 384-386. Talbot, vol. ii. p. 216. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 145 To raise, however, by personal labour the sum neces- sary to a successful occupation of land must require a very considerable time. The active and intrepid settler is usually unwilling to wait so long ; and as soon as he can pay an instalment and have a little to begin with, he fixes on a spot of ground, though he still works for hire during the seasons when there is an extra demand for labour. He is thus enabled, besides supporting liimself, to pay part of his advances ; and it is a course which must be followed, not only by the most indigent, but more or less by all whose capital falls short of the amount indicated in our previous statement. Mr Somer- ville observed many who, having attempted to begin with £50 or upwards, soon became embarrassed, and were obliged to relinquish the undertaking. This double work, for himself and others, must be very severe, and will try the settler's patience by the slow progress which it allows him to make towards his favourite object. In a few years, however, he is seen to lift his head ; his farm begins to yield him a subsistence ; and if he still labours for hire, it is either to pay the price of his purchase or to complete his stocking. Such is the desire in that country to acquire landed property, that even those who work as tradesmen usually make this their ultimate object ; and as in all the districts, though wages be high, employment is not constant, they usually purchase a lot of ground, and spend their leisure in clearing it. If they enjoy a run of work, they can afford to pay others for performing this task. Great variety appears to mark the 1 settlers ; for while some force their way to independence and even to opulence, others remain steeped in poverty and involved in debt. Mr Somerville mentions several who possessed one or two hundred acres, without being able to draw from them a bare maintenance. Writers here generally agree in throwing the blame upon the settler himself, who, no doubt, lies under peculiar temp- tations to slacken in the severe exertions at first required. Habits of intemperance, which are too preva- ot of the Canadian 1\V', 'm • ■ j *,'•■■■ * j; 146 ON EMIGRATION TO THE lent, are apt to beset him. and in numerous instances prove his ruin ; perhaps even the gloom and difficulties of liis early situation may be apt to drive him to this fatfil expedient. Emigrants, therefore, before entering on their toils, ought diligently to prepare their minds for passing through a long series of hardship ; and when once engaged should cheer themselves by the prospect of that comparative ease, abundance, and comfort, by w^hich it will be finally crowned."^ Various estimates have been formed of the progress Avhich a settler can make in bringing with his own hands his land into a productive state. According to one letter, a first-rate axeman will hew down an acre in five days ; but the European colonist, even after some experience, requires eighteen. This is independent of logging and burning ; and, considering the many other objects that claim his attention, Mr ShirrefF regards six acres as the utmost that he can reasonably be expected to accomplish in a year. Even this seems a feat which few can perform. Lieutenant-colonel Cockburn con- siders three acres as much as can be done the first year ; and Colonel Talbot, when, along with Sir Pere- grine Maitland, he surveyed Mr Robinson's settlers, thought it satisfactory that they had reached this num- ber. The emigration of 1823 amounted, at the end of three' years, to 477, which at the usual rate of five to a family, would give ninety-five labouring settlers. These had in three years cleared 778 acres, or about eight each, and were considered as having done well. Mr Tal- bot's people, as already mentioned, had in five years cleared variously from ten to thirty acres ; the lowest not having exceeded two acres a-year. One bar to their progress is the contented indifference which is apt to creep upon them when, having secured an abundance of necessaries, and feeling little desire for elegance or luxury, they seek their principal enjoyment in indolence. Mr Talbot mentions that it is not uncommon for a • Kdinburgh Qiiarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 215. Counsel lor Kmi^rauts, p. 49-t)2. SlxirrefF, pp. 388, 389. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 147 1. young Canadian, when he has chosen a suitable helpmate, to go into the bush and obtain a lot of land on credit. He labours unremittingly, early and late, till in six or seven years his debt is paid off, and he is established in some degree of comfort. Then his exertions relax ; he falls into habits of idleness and dissipation, neglects his property, and becoming involved, is obliged to go deeper into the forest, and commence anew his laborious career.* It may here be observed, that a family of sons newly grown to manhood, and assisting their father, will make a little fortune to him ; and the united efforts of the family may in a short time clear . large space of ground. At this stage, indeed, each may be expected to form an establishment for himself ; and it may be remarked, that the provision for children is anticipated with greater confidence in this than in any higher class. Bred in active habits, a young man, with a little aid from his parents, is generally able to make his own way ; or if he fall back into the class of well-paid labourers, it does not involve any very material loss of caste. Another important modification is that of pauper emi- grants sent out by the public, at once with the view of im- proving their own condition, and of relieving the country from the burden of supporting them. This measure, which, during periods of distress, has been repeatedly adopted on a large scale in each of the three kingdoms, is likely to be still more extensively resorted to in the case of Ire- land, in consequence Of the disclosures recently made respecting the extreme poverty of its lower orders. The tenants, too, on its very minutely subdivided farms seem peculiarly fitted for Canada, as they must possess a little knowledge of husbandry, and even some habits of foresight beyond the mere day-labourer. Accordingly, notwithstanding the severe reflections of Mr M'Taggart, Irish emigration, so far as hitherto reported, has been decidedly successful ; and the removal of so many de- pendent families at once effects a most happy change in * Report of the Select Committee, pp. 9, 148, 292. Shirreff, p. 385. Talbot, vol. ii. p. 99-103. ■ ^■-'i '1'-' ■..■'•»■■;," i if • ^- '■ : >;■ ■■ , ■ ^ . •,.•'« . *! ■;5 1 < 1 i ' . ■■■ 1 :1 'ii ; ''-^i 1 1 ■■ •(■ •H ^-■'.'••i ■^ ill ^di I • :! H^H ' '1 ^^H ^^1 ' ,11 w ! ■'1 1' Ill ii..' 'k I I I 148 ON EMIGRATION TO THE their own condition, and affords the only means of in- troducing at home a hetter s^'stem of managing land, as well as more comfortable habits of living among the lower classes. Government have at different times aided in the carry- ing out and settlement of emigrants, and have even con- templated doing so on a greater scale ; but, following the principles laid down by Lord Goderich in 183], no actual assistance has been given, nor free grants made, except in very special circumstances. Such grants, it appears, had been often abused, or retained with merely speculative views, till the improvements around them should enhance their value as objects of sale. It was therefore considered most eligible that the poorer emi- grants should begin by working at the high wages which the country affords, and thereby raise funds to purchase land and locate themselves upon it. All tliat Ministers undertook was to appoint agents at the several chief towns to receive and direct them, and, if greater numbers should arrive at any time than could find occupation, to supply employment on some public work. During the great migration of 1832, no doubt, when 35,000 proceeded to Upper Canada, Sir John Colborne, finding it impossible to dispose of them all, was obliged to spend not less than £13,286 on their maintenance, — an act of benevolence which was sanc- tioned by government, though it very far exceeded the authorized sum. The amount was reduced in the fol- lowing year to £6000 : in 1832, the number to whom aid was afforded by landlords and parishes was 4988. Under the circumstances in which this kind of emi- gration takes place, a strict economy is very specially called for. When Mr Robinson undertook to establish his colony in 1823, he found that the expense of settling 568 amounted to £12,539, or £22, Is. 6d. for each. But that gentleman, after conducting thither the larger num- ber of 2024 in 1825, calculated that a family of four could be conveyed across the Atlantic, supported fifteen months on wheaten bread and pork, supplied with all the w BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 149 necessary implements, and even with a cow, for about £60. Mr Buchanan reckons that this sum might be reduced to £40. He conceives that, to a poor Irish family, oatmeal, potatoes, and herrings, may in a great measure supersede pork and wheat-flour ; and that a cow cannot be fed on the land till after some time, when the settler, if lie exerts himself, should be able to purchase one ; but this we suspect is exacting rather too much. An emigration of 167 families from Lanarksliire was effected at a cost of £11, 3s. 7d. for each individual. They did not, how- ever, receive food or implements. In the case of paupers and of labourers conveyed at the expense of parisiies, it is generally considered enough if they be enabled to reach a spot where they can obtain the good wages of the coun- try. With this view, it is only necessary to pay their passage, and let them have two or three pounds in their pocket on landing. This sum should be intrusted to the agent for emigration in this country, who will give an order on his correspondent in Canada ; for if given here to the individuals themselves, there is great danger that it will be squandered on the passage. In this way they may be conveyed for £6 a-head.* There has been a peculiar class of emigrants consist- ing of soldiers and sailors enjoying pensions for past services, which they had been induced to exchange for grants of land, with a sum of money to locate them- selves upon it. This experiment, never perhaps very promising, has been attended with but limited success ; for such persons are usually somewhat advanced in life, with questionable habits, and little likely to possess that patient industry which can alone ensure success in sucji a career. Of 1700 who went out in 1832, Mr Buchanan reports that many loitered, spent their money, and be- came dependent upon charity ; a number, predisposed by intemperance, died of cholera ; and about 100 re- turned to the United Kingdom. By Mr Spring Rice's • Report of Select Committee, p. 217. pp. vi. vii. Returns 1836, p. 15-17. Picken, Appendix, i.'.. ^"^' • < :lX' '1 ' *;■ ■W 1 ' 'ilft '• ■., .6 ' is ■;-f! ' . ; ^ \ m ' ■ '' ' t; •f .:i! 1 1 150 ON EMIGRATION TO THE I i.- f- I •■'i" ( '1 ; ' 11^ i j ■i' ■' letter of 12th July in»34, the syHtcm of granting lands to discharged soldiers is ordered to he discontinued.* We are now called upon to consider the plan of emigration and settlement proposed by Mr BuIUt in his able Report formed under Lord Durham's direction. We must trust to the candour of those eminent indivi- duals if, in doing justice to the diligence and talent with which the design is framed, we should as to some parti- culars feel obliged to express our dissent. The greatest evil, in the eyes of Mr Duller, arises from the fact, that vast tracts of land have been granted on various pretexts to individuals who, refusing either to improve or to sell, continue to retain them, in con- templation of the augmented value which they may hereafter derive from the progress of settlement. With- out entering into details, it may be stated that these lots considerably exceed the amount of those actually settled and cultivated. Such grants not only remain as dead stock, but intercept the intercourse between the settled tracts, and render the roads and other communications, on which the welfare of the country essentially depends, much more expensive. It is proposed, therefore, to impose a tax of 2d. per acre on all lands thus retained in a wild state, and, in case the payment in money should be inconvenient, to accept portions of the ground itself, in lots of not less than 100 acres, at the rate of 4s. per acre. The produce of this impost, joined to that of the sales of land and timber, is proposed to be employ- ed, first, in carrying out, under the auspices of Govern- ment, an extensive system of emigration, then in form- ing railroads, canals, and other communications, without which the finest soil, from the want of anv means of conveying its produce to market, is of very inferior value. As the mere annual amount of these funds, however, would only enable the improvements to make a limited and tardy progress, he proposes to raise at once a large loan on their credit. Thus the works * . - - I r ■■««■ I I " * Returns, Emigration 1833, p. 6. Emigration Papers 1834, p. 8. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 151 f 4-i 4, p. 8. might be commenced at once on a great scale, and their good effects speedily come into operation ; while to pre- vent the ahuses incident to such operations when carried on by Government, it is suggested that a central com- mis ion should be formed in England to act in concert with commissioners in the colonies, who shall be bound to })ublish frecjuent reports. In regard to the disposal of government-lands, Mr Bullcr concurs with the late commissioners in thinking that they ought to be sold only for ready money. He advises, however, that no restriction should be enforced as to the quantity purchased at one time, whether by an in- dividual or a body. Such regulations are so easily evaded as to be nugatory ; and besides, the acquirement of large blocks by companies and capitalists, who open roads, erect mills and ])ridges, and prepare the land for occu- pation, has been the principal means whereby settlement has been extended in the United States. But he does not recommend the system of auction, because it has been found to create great delay and inconvenience to the settler, who, after an expensive survey, is often dis- appointed of the spot he has fixed on. Nor does it ap- pear on most occasions, either in Canada or the States, to produce much above the upset price. He therefore prefers a fixed rate, at wliich any one may procure the lands which remain unsold ; and this, after much con- sideration, he proposes to fix at 10s. an acre. Such is the outline of Mr Buller's plan, which, on the whole, appears to us extremely judicious, and which we should be happy to see carried speedily into effect, though much, no doubt, will depend on the manage- ment of the details, which in the hands of a high official department are too often misconducted. The selection of the public works is a most momentous point, espe- cially after so many failures in those from time to time undertaken by the British Government. We are sorry to add that several of those proposed by Mr Buller him- self appear to us not exempt from this censure ; but in- tending in the following chapter to take a full view of \ ■ i • %f . . i ..'4. *m:3 .... 1 ■ r" ■ ^ ''L t'l ,i viti . ■ ■ {II ft m\-^4. 'f'l •ill. ' Mi 'a! l! If- v\ b 1 'ttft^^F til J52 ON EMIGRATION TO THE this very important subject, wc shall reserve our observa- tions. The only point on wliich we shall now take leave to dissent is the price of 10s, proposed to be asked for the crown property. The pul)lie lands of the Union, put up at ij dollar (6s. 3d. sterling), have of late produced little or nothing higher ; and yet it is well known that though more distant from market they possess a superio- rity in point of climate as well as of soil, and are the object of more extensive competition. Besides, it seems to be admitted that the wild lands in Canada have no chance of l)ringing this price at present ; but it is held out that tliey will readily do so when the projected communica- tions shall be completed and the adjoining properties settled. We may observe, however, that in the western states of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan, vast improve- ments of this nature have been carried on for years, and many millions expended, without producing such an effect. In locking up these lands, too, from settlement by a prohibitory price, with the speculative view of a rise in tlieir value, would not Government be following the very example so much reprobated in individuals, and add to the evil of keeping unimproved blocks interposed between the cultivated districts 1 The expected rise moreover appears to be very doubtful. From some cause which we cannot fully explain, the price of such lands in the United States, instead of advancing with the progress of settlement and the eager competition for their acquirement, has been constantly falling. Be- fore 1820 the minimum was two dollars, allowing indeed some credit ; and in that year the system was adopted of selling by auction for ready money at the upset price of 5s. 6d. sterling. For some time higher terms were realized, but these gradually fell, till in the great speculating year of 1836, when upwards of twenty millions of acres were sold, the average did not exceed the upset price of 1^ dollar.* ■ ■ ■■-^— ^y^™ ■ ■■"■■» ■^■. ■-■l^l■■ , -, , ■■-■ . ^i.w.i I ■■ I —■■■I ^1 , ^ ■ * Official Account in the American Almanac for 1839, p. 101. BRITISn NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 153 1 We apprehend that Mr Bullcr Ims Ihh'Ii led into a great error as to the extent of erovvn huids, espeeiiiUy in Upper Cuniida. He ohservcs that its surveyed terri- tory amounts to l7,66Ji,544 aerea, of which 1(),.5()(),525 have heen granted, leaving 1,147,010, whieli he and Lord Durham ap])ear to consider as the whole amount that Government has now to dispose of.* But in fact the tracts surveyed and formed into townships constitute only a small proportion of its immense extent. Tlu part thus laid out in the central districts cannot ext 'cd a third of the large space reaching northward from Lju :e Ontario to the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, the reniaind-r o^*-* whicii is perhaps not much siiort of all the lands already granted. Of this tract some detached portions hordcring on Lake Huron were pointed out to the rej)orter, hut do not seem to have attracted his attontion.t Moreover, ;'V- yond these last-mentioned houndaries towards the n( rth and west is a region still more extensive. Mr Bouehette, whose accuracy stands so high, estimates the area of Upper Canada at 141,000 square miles or 90,240,000 acres, leav- ing upwards of 70,000,000 acres still open for locati u. In the part, too, assigned to Lower Canada, vast tracts extend northward from the Ottawa to the height of the land belonging to Hudson's Bay. The unsurveyed territory may thus be said to be in a practical sense in- exhaustible ; and being in a lower latitude '^:^n 48°, it is all in a climate admitting of culture, anu is so per- forated by great rivers and lakes that communications can without any serious difficulty be T .rmed through- out. We by no means recommenc^ ^ aut such operations should be immediately undertaken, but rather that, ac- cording to Mr Buller's plan, die districts now imperfectly occupied should be previously filled up. But these facts, which ought doubtless to be taken into considera- tion, seem to leave no ground for a churlish or stinted distribution. There remains still an important branch of informa- • Report, p. 77 ; Appendix B, p. 8. •f- Appendix B, p. 111-316. ., .^ ■ ' I -'I • ■• tt < « .'■*■-■•, 1 . 'it ■'• 154 ON EMIGRATION TO THE ■m !! .ili'Miiiii.ijiir li^:;:. '('-' :« tion, which respects the means of conveyance to the settlement, and the expenditure which must be incur- red in this removal. These particulars might seem to have belonged more naturally to an earlier part of our investigation ; yet we conceive they will be better under- stood after having explained the different classes of emi- grants, their localities, and the accommodations which in our view appear indispensable. The task is arduous, and must absorb a certain portion of the funds destined for the great undertaking ; though from tlie large scale on which it is now taking place, and from its having be- come a national object, the expenditure has been reduced to the lowest possible limit. At all the great ports, — London, Liverpool, Bristol, Leith, Greenock, Dublin, Cork, Limerick, and Belfast, Government have named agents, who do not indeed supply any funds, but afford to the intending emigrant every information of which he can stand in need. We begin by assuming that in almost every instance it will be deemed important to expend as little as possible upon the removal ; and provided comfort or even health be secured, state and luxury may well be dispensed with. The steerage passengers obtain a place on very easy terms in the vessels destined for the timber- trade, many of which go out in ballast ; the rates being generally from £2, 10s. to £3 for adults. According to the statement made by our Leith correspondent, two children between the ages of seven and fourteen are charged as one adult ; between one and seven, three are counted as one ; under a year old they go free. This charge, however, does not include provisions, the captain furnishing only berths, water, and fire. The store laid in will of course be according to the habits or means of the pas- senger ; but it must be calculated for the longest period which the voyage is likely to last, leaving in ordinary cases a surplus, which may be consumed after land- ing. The law requires seventy pounds of biscuit or other food from grain ; but this is generally considered too small. Mr Buchanan recommends for a family of BRITISU NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 155 five,forty-eight stone of potatoes, two and a half hundred- weight of oatmeal or flour, twenty pounds of butter in a keg, one gallon of molasses, twenty pounds of bacon, fifty pounds of herrings in a keg, one gallon of spirits, and some vinegar. These, he thinks, may be provided in Scotland for £5, m England for £7 ; but our corre- spondent reckons the outlay at not less than 30s. a-head. When provisions are furnished the passage-money is nearly doubled ; and there is also levied at Quebec an hospital-tax of 4s. 6d. sterling, which is usually paid to the captain. In this case, as before, two children under fourteen, anr three under seven, are only charged as one adult. The cabin-passage from Liverpool to Quebec varies from X15 to X'20 ; but at Leitli, Greenock, and Aber- deen, it is only £10 or £12. Our Limerick correspon- dent states that from thence it does not exceed £8, 8s. These rates include provisions ; but in many instances it is in the choice of families to take a separate ca])in, in which case they can supply themselves. Mr Magrath, whose establishment consisted of nine, hired the cabin for £50 and provisioned them for £20. A great proportion of the emigrants to Upper Canada now prefer to go by the w^ay of New York ; but, though the passage is considerably shorter, higher rates are charged, owing to the want of accommodation from the timber-trade. The steerage passengers pay from £3, 10s. to £4 without provisions. Those in the cabin at Liver- pool pay from £20 to £25, but in other ports consi- derably less, even so low as £12, 12s. In the magnifi- cent packets which sail from the Mersey the fare is thirty-five guineas, but in return for tiiis sum every species of splendour and luxury is enjoyed. Mr Fer- gusson engaged a state-cabin in one of them, and was thereby enabled to convey a family of ten with a man- servant to New York for £212.* * The information here given is chiefly from communications by well-informed individuals to whom application was made by us at the principal ports whence vessels sail for America. I; y '1 i '., ■ ' 1 ■ « ; ' *, ( 1 ' . ' <* ' ,* '.^ " J ] ■ ■■ ■ \ '/•«• J-:.: .<:-:■ ' -.t 5-*., j/il» 4 I; : , ''f.f ■■;. . . , ':'« -l-fl! M h: I 'ni I I'llii:;: I ■ :iH! 156 ON EMIGRATION TO THE *^'v^5 ■*'i ,,.4 11; iiSil iii!i:il'i'^ ^■/■l ■r§ 1^-;^' fI;H. m .1: ** '*'i ■ i i'' ^ Emigrants should if possible leani the character of the captain with whom they are to sail, otherwise they may suffer severely. Some shipmasters have furnished provisions, and particularly water, both deficient in amount and of bad quality, by which the health of the passengers has greatly suffered ; while others have de- manded the hospital-tax for every child at the same rate as for an adult, and after engaging to go to Montreal have stopped at Quebec. On information being given to the emigration-agent, every exertion will be made by him to obtain redress : and we are bound to add, on the assurance of Mr Buchanan, that the complaints of this kind in 1836 were uncommonly few.* It is also important for the emigrant to consider what supplies he should take with him ; for while all manu- factured goods are in the colony both dearer and more clumsily made than at home, articles of great bulk and delicate fabric are carried out at a heavy expense, and in the frequent changes of conveyance, damage can scarcely be avoided. Furniture is very cumbrous, and from the abundance of wood it can be had in Canada at once cheaper and much better adapted to a forest residence. Nearly the same may be said respecting bulky articles composed of iron. Glass and porcelain can' hardly escape accident ; but on the other hand, of every kind of wearing-apparel and bedding, a stock fitted to endure some time may be carried out with great advantage. This last indeed is indispensable, not being usually fur- nished on shipboard. Bocts and shoes are particularly recommended, beini, in the colony ill made, of leather imperfectly tanned, and not at all durable. If a cultivat- ed understanding leads the settler to wish for books, a better choice and at cheaper rates will be found at home. The same may be said of every object connected with art or science. The artisan should take his tools. Those fond of gardening ought to carry the seeds of plants and vegetables, which can scarcely be had there ♦ Returns 1836, pp. 12, 13, 22. 2 :« BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 157 of good quality ; yet it ought to be considered whether a settler is likely to find much leisure for these recrea- tions. On the whole, he ought to be on his guard against drawing too much on his func's before going to a place where money is at once so rcarce and so valuable.* Having landed our emigrant in America, we must conduct him to those parts of the interior where he will procure land or find employment. Generally speaking it is necessary to go to a considerable distance, and this jour- ney in most cases is more troublesome and perhaps fuller of incident than his sea-voyage. Upper Canada has hitherto been the prmcipal resort, and the Newcastle and Home districts the nearest points. Many vessels now proceed at once to Montreal ; but supposing the emigrant to have landed at Quebec, there is a daily pas- sage to the fonner city in comfortable steam-ships, — the cabin-fare £1, 6s., the steerage 4s. 4d. and sometimes so low as 2s. 2d. From Montreal to Kingston there are two modes of proceeding, — one along the St Lawrence, the other by the Ottawa and the Rideau Canal. On the fonner the more wealthy passenger engages a seat in the coach, which, alternately with a steamer, conveys him to Prescott, where, having passed the obstructions on the river, he performs the rest of the journey by steam. The whole is managed by individuals called forwarders, to whom a fare of ten dollars is paid ; and the time oc- cupied is two days. The expense of living is Is. 8d. each meal, and the luggage is charged 2s. 4d. sterling per cwt. for all above fifty pounds, which are allowed to each passenger. The traveller of a less opulent class takes a passage in one of the canal-boats, which ar». from fifteen to twenty-five tons, and mostly open ; the fare to Prescott, 140 miles, being 4s. 4d. Thence he can go in the steam- vessel to Kingston, paying for a place in s '^i ' 1 .- I'il'./'iA, ?F''-;/r' ( '. • ":*;1. • Backwoods, pp. 179, 180. Murray's Emigrant's and Travellnr's Guide, p. 10. Statistical Sketches, p. 13-16. Magrath, pp.2t), 27. VOL. III. K ."i'" ' 19 1 1i 1. \>'' !!■;!; \: 14^ ,v:|i|i/ liidiiil Ul IMI J 58 ON EMIGRATION TO THE tlie steerage 2s. 2d. These rates are of coui'se exclusive of provisions, which he must carry with him. The tran- sit occupies six or seven days. On the Rideau line the first class of travellers are conveyed by coach to La Chine, the rest mostly by steam. This route requires four or five days, but leads through a variety of agreeable scenery, — the fare is £2, 12s. including provisions. The second class proceed through the canals in decked boats, and pay 9s. without any allowance of food. As they are sheltered from the weather, this mode of travelling is considered for them the most commodious. From Kingston the emigrant finds a cheap con- veyance by steam to the whole circuit of Lake On- tario. If his destination be the Newcastle District, a vessel conveys him to Cobourg, 100 miles, for 13s. in the cabin, or 4s. 4d. in the steerage ; and if he goes to the Home or more western districts, he is carried to Toronto for an additional 13s. or 2s. 2d. From Toronto steamers proceed daily to Niagara or Hamilton, and the charge is 8s. 8d. or 4s. 4d. steerage. From Niagara he may be transported by coach or wagon to Chippeway, whence steamers ply to every part of the shores of Lake Erie. From the former place to Detroit, 350 miles, the first style of travellii'g costs £2, 12s., the second only a fourth of that amount. The stranger who contemplates the purchase of land will probably find it necessary to spend some time in making arrangements at Toronto or some other town near the intended spot ; and during this period his ex- pense will vary according to circumstances. Mr Magrath reckoned that a family of nine might reside a fortnight in lodgings at Toronto for £13. There is then the charge of conveyance to the locality selected by him, which will be more or less according to distance, quantity of luggage, and the state of the roads. From Hamilton to London, fifty-six miles, the regular fare by wagon is stated at 19s. 6d. — thence to Goderich 15s. 2d. Two or three parties may lighten tlie expense by hiring a vehicle BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 159 in common. Mr Magrath states that the transport of his family to the London District cost £8.* The route is now to be traced from New York to Upper Canada : and from that city the traveller is con- veyed up the Hudson to Albany at rates which vary, but are always moderate. Mr Fergusson paid 9s. cabin-fare, with 2s. 3d. for a handsome dinner. The steerage is 48. 4d., sometimes only 2s. 2d. At Albany commences the great Erie Canal, a branch of which leads to Oswego on the southern shore of Lake Ontario ; and the distance, 200 miles, may be performed for 18s. 4d. without provi- sions. The cabin-passenger, whose way is somewhat shortened by the Schenectady railroad, pays £1, 14s., for which he has a good table. From Oswego, steamers constantly ply to all the towns on the lake at the same moderate fares as from Kingston. He, however, who is destined for the most western districts may proceed the whole way along the canal to Buffalo, 363 miles, for £3, Os. 2d. cabin, £1 , 8s. lOd. steerage. Mr Fergusson conveyed his family, which consisted of ten, with every comfort for £50, 12s. We have finally to conduct the settler to the Eastern Townships, the route to which by Quebec is so short and easy as to constitute one of their chief recommendations. The Montreal steamer readily conveys him from Quebec to Port St Francis, a distance of ninety-one miles ; and here the American Land Company have prepared a good inn and little cottages, which may be temporarily occu- pied as lodgings. From Port St Francis a coach sets out daily and arrives late in the evening at Sherbrooke, in the heart of the Townships ; the fare being £1, 6s. Two persons may hire a caleche, or light spring-wagon, with one horse, which will make the journey in two days, the hire eight dollars, with about Is. for each meal, and 9d. for bed. Four may have a French cart for six dollars, exclusive of expenses, and, for the same sum, nine cwt. of baggage will be conveyed. • Murray's Guide, pp. 17, 18, 21-25, 34, 41-43. ^m: . if .'•■■.',■ . ■ ' •■* ;' .■ • '* i^ :h : ,>W- ■ 'I' t 'i J 'I I i •|: ■■•..•1:1.1 t I lii i*!iii:Eih >4i it;. li. 1 1; ''!;• ' "'i ! i If If 1 ^ :4 1. li 1' il i!" * ' •J' jH' ''jjl- 1 yjH 1 i 1, 160 ON EMIGRATION TO THE From New York, Montreal or the Townships may be reached hy the canal from Albany to Lake Champlain. At its northern extremity is the port of St John, whence a railway now leads to La Prairie, separated from Mont- real only by the channel of the St Lawrence. Those destined for the Townships stop at Burlington about half-way along the lake, whence a land-route of ninety miles leads to Stanstead, and another of thirty-three to Sherbrooke. A stage runs this way twice a-week. It forms, however, so circuitous a journey, when compared with that from Quebec, that it cannot be recommended except under peculiar circumstances.* The land companies forai an important feature in the domestic economy of Canada, particularly as regards emigration. Each of them has purchased from govern- ment a large block, for which they pay by successive instalments, and then retail it in small lots, suited to the means of the different classes of emigrants. To se- cure profit to themselves, they exact of course a large increase of price ; but besides granting a pretty long credit, they afford aid and sometimes even advances to the emigrant. They also make roads and other commu- nications through the territory ; which operations have been carried on by the Canada Company in the upper province, and by the North American Land Company in the lower. The former were established by royal charter on the 19th August 1826, under the Act 6th Geo. IV. cap. 75, by which they are entitled to all the privileges of a cor- porate body, and to hold lands in any part of his ma- jesty's dominions. They immediately contracted for the purchase of 1,384,413 acres of crown and 829,430 of clergy reserves ; but as government found that they could not alienate the latter portion, they allowed them as a substitute to select 1,100,000 acres on the eastern shore of Lake Huron, making in all 2,484,413 acres. * Letters from Eastern Townships, published by American Land Company, pp. 6, 7. Murray's Guide, p. 50-55. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 161 The crown reserves consist of detached blocks of various sizes, scattered throughout every part of the province, the most important being that composing tlie township of Guelph, in Gore District. For the whole they stipu- lated to pay £348,000, by annual instalments varying from £15,000 to £20,000 ; but of this sum they were al- lowed £45,000, to be employed in roads and other im- provements. In pursuance of this arrangement, the Company at the end of 1836 had paid up to government £185,000, and had expended £20,000 in improvements. They had sold in all 670,000 acres. The amount of sales during the year just named was 50,030 acres in the tluron tract, at the average price of 10s. 8d. ; and 40,077 in other quar- ters at 12s. 4d. This, with some town lots, raised their in- come for the year to £52,000.* They have since paid the instalments for 1837 and 1838, notwithstanding the severe check caused by the insurrection ; but their sales in the lat- ter year did not exceed 13,299 acres, of which 7618 were in the Crown reserves, 254 in the Guelph territory, and 5427 in the Huron tract. In the two former the prices varied from 15s. 9d. to 10s. lid., in the last from 13s. 7d. to IDs. 3d. They consider that there is now nothing in the state of the country to discourage emigration, which they expect to take place on a great scale next year. The extensive transfer made to the Company has been o])jected to chiefly on political grounds ; yet Mr BuUer allows that settlement has proceeded on their lands more rapidly and regularly than on those of the crown.t The American Land Company were of later origin, and their operations have taken place in a different quarter. They contemplate extending their transiictions to various parts of British America, but as yet have con- fined them to the Eastern Townships of Lower Canada. • Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 113, 114. Summary of last annual re- port in the Morninjr Chronicle of March 30, 1837. The statement given in this and other public prints was, we believe, not sanctioned oy the directors ; but its correctness has not been questioned. i- Appendix B, p. 10. '•I •■•i " ■ I*: il'-;.;'"l)^'j ^i < acquiesce in the conclusion, tliat by those who can overcome their reluctance to place themselves under a foreign government, more wealth may l)e obtained in the States. We confess, however, that the author of the " Tour through North Ameriea" appears to us to labour under a bias on this particuhir head ; though we must add that his statement of facts is so candid as to attbrd the means of refuting his own flattering arguments. In the first place, we may observe, that Illinois, to which his oliservations specially apply, is a most com- plete bush territory, more remote from markets than even those distant parts of Canada which he considers on that ground as unfit for emigration. Its produce can reach New Orleans only by about a thousand miles of river navigation, and must there make a large circuit to the Atlantic States, where the market is usually low. If, as he seems to suppose possible, the route of Upper Canada should be preferred, whence Illinois is also about a thousand miles distant, its comparative remoteness will become still more palpable. Accordingly the prices are so miserably small, as to preclude all chance of any re- turn for capital invested in its soil. At Springfield, in the most flourishing part < .f the country, he found wheat selling at 37^ cents (is. 9d.), and Indian corn at 10 cents (not quite 6d.) He dazzles the reader, indeed, by his estimate of the produce of 200 acres, of which 160 are cleared, and whence he expects that 1600 bushels of wheat and 6-400 of Indian corn may be obtained. As he has not, however, ventured to convert these large amounts into money, we shall do it for him on his own data. £140 0 0 14« 13 4 1600 bushels wheat, at Is. 9d. . 6400 do. Indian corn, at 5^d. £286 13~4 Allow the same expense as on our Canadian farm ^see p. 120), althoug'h the waives are stated to be higner, and there are ten acres more under culture, . 265 15 0 Profit, £20 18 4 Tliis estmiate, we presume, will dispose of the ques- • 'i- ■4:'i^MM / ■■ ■ ' ' a f ■ ' '" ':^: .-•■ill II m Ah: m^ 166 ON EMIGRATION TO THE tion in repnrfl to gentlemen settlers, or those who culti- vate })y hired luhour, and expcet to enjoy some of the elegances of life ; and it is worthy of notice that all foreign manufactures and luxuries are much more heavily taxed. One writer states, that a man might pay the expenses of a journey frcmi New York to Toronto, by merely huying two suits of clothes at the latter town. The exorbitant tariff, indeed, is in process of reduction ; yet a protecting duty, as it is called (heavy when com- pared to that levied in Canada), is still to be retained. Our author himself admits the hal)itations in Illinois to be extremely poor ; and a British settler in Michigan treats as ridiculous the idea of a lady or gentleman living there, observing that a female servant is not to be procured on any terms. Mr Shirreff perhaps might still maintain that, for the labouring settler, Illinois is beyond comparison prefer- able ; but we glean from himself some particulars which make this not quite so manifest. He admits, for instance, that agricultural employment is not always to be found westward of the Alleghany ; and this might well have been suspected, as the prices of produce seem insufficient to enable the proprietor to pay for any extent of hired labour. The only immigrants, therefore, who can work their way in this district are those who can exercise trades suited to it ; and even these employments, being limited to the small towns and villages, cannot maintain a very numerous body. This author dwells much on the low price of land, which he represents as uniformly offered to all purchasers at 1^ dollar, or 6s. 3d. per acre. This plan of putting the same price on the best and the worst ground ap- peared to us very singular ; but we soon found from his own statement, that when a tract has been sur- veyed for settlement, the sale is advertised, and the lots are put up and sold to the highest bidder. The sale is continued from day to day, as long as any bidding con- tinues ; and it is only the land for which no one will offer any thing that is thrown open to the public at the BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 1()7 low price he mentions. The system of requiring pay- ment on the spot, so highly Hj>j)r«)ViMl J>y Mr Shirretf', certainly possesses some advantages, though it may not always suit the |)oorer settlers. There is, hesides, reason to 8usj)eet, that at these great sales almost all the good land is l)ought up hy speculators, who retail it, on credit perhaps, hut at greatly advanced prices, to the culti- vator. We observe accordingly that an emigrant in Michigan was unable to procure a suitable lot for less than three dollars an acre. The nature of the surface in Illinois, consisting to a great extent of prairie, is considered to have a vast superiority over the heavily timbered plains of Canada. The settler, it is said, escapes the severe labour of cutting down the forest, and can bring his ground much sooner into full cultivation. We suspect, however, that the land possessing this advantage is much more limited than is here supposed ; and a prairie surface is generally wet, fit only for pasturage. Carey and Lea state the extent of the dry prairies at only 1,200,000 acres, or about a thir- tieth part of the entire surface. Besides, the absolute want of timber for fuel, fences, and implements, is a more irremediable evil than its excess. Hence, as our author hbnself observes, settlements are established only along the edge of the forest, and even the distance of half a mile from it is considered as approaching an incon- venience. Moreover the prairie land, entangled with strong roots of grass, must be broken up by a heavy ploughing with six oxen. This Mr Shirreff supposes may be executed by contract for two dollars, — an esti*- mate which appears to us very singular, when we find Mr Pickering reckon common ploughing for corn in Canada, a country of cheaper labour, at the same rate. It is also a disadvantage for the poor emigrant, that this operation must be paid for in hard cash, which perhaps he has not ; while the clearing of the forest, though a heavier task, can be executed with his own hands. Nor do the Americans themselves show any such decided preference for prairie, but resort in equal proportion to i ' y;, ; --ItFii i • ' \ ni <4 • if A^.vi^: . J68 ON EMIGRATION TO THE VJ,-^f !'■• ?,'; llili ■i the heavily timbered district of Michigan. Between 1821 and 1831, Illinois increased from 55,000 to 157,000 ] Michigan from 9000 to 81,000. In 1886, a greater quantity of land was sold in the latter than in the former.* Since writing these remarks, we have found views nearly similar to those of Mr Shirreff advocated with considerable eloquence under the high authority of Lord Durham. Being, however, unconvinced by his lord- ship's statements, and dreading that they may produce effects which he himself might regret, it may be neces- sary to examine them with some attention. His lordship dwells strongly on the contrast presented on the opposite sides of the frontier line. " On the American side, all is activity and bustle ; the forest has been widely cleared ; every year numerous settlements art formed, and thousands of farms are created out of the waste ; the country is intersected by common roads ; canals and railways are finished, or in the course of for- mation, all of which are crowded by people, and enli- vened by numerous carriages and large steam-boats; every village has its schoolhouse and place of public worship. But on the British side of the line, with the exception of a few favoured spots, where some approach to American prosperity is apparent, all seems waste and desolate. A widely scattered population, hardy and industrious, but poor and unenterprising, are separated from each other by tracts of intervening forest, without town;i and markets, almost without roads, living in mean houses, drawing little more than a rude subsistence from ill- cultivated land, and seemingly incapable of improving their condition." He mentions as customary in the East- em Townships, that travellers make a circuit through the territory of the States in ordv,i to obtain the benefit of their roads. Major Head, in travelling along the New Brunswick frontier, could always tell on which side • Shirreff, pp. 250-252, 377, 399, 421, 435, 447. Counsel for Emigrants, pp. 52, 53, 54. Carey and Lea, Geography of America (8vo, London lii23j, pp. 296, 3l0. BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 16^) of the line he was, from the obvious superiority of tlie Americcan settlements. We do not mean to dispute these facts, or the acti- vity of the republicans, coupled with the advantage of their municipal institutions. But the comparison seems unfairly instituted between infant settlements and others which have ])een the growth of centuries, and fed by a long-continued stream of immigration. Lower Canada, when conquered in 1702, contiiined about 60,000 French inhabitants, all located on the great rivers, beyond which they have never mo7ed. The southern frontier, whose backward state is particularly al'uded to, was then a complete desert, and, according to Lord Durham's own information, the Government adopt- ed the bad policy of keeping it so, as a barrier against the States. It is only within a very few years that British settlers have been invited, or even permitted, to occupy the country. How, then, could it ever stand a comparison with the New England states, the most im- proved in the Union, and which have been advancing upwards of two centuries. New Brunswick, again, in 1783 was an unbroken forest, in which, till seven years ago, only a few troops of refugees and disbanded soldiers could be persuaded to fettle. This small number natu- rally preferred the coast and water frontage, and scarcely at all penetrated into the deep inland frontier. Upper Canada, in 1783, was equally desolate, and was only slowly peopled by veteran troops and American squat- ters till 1824, wdien the great tide of immigration set in towards it. The difference along its border is ad- mitted to be less perceptible ; and it may be observed, that the picture of villages, towns, and even cities Avith fine churches and great hotels, springing out of the desert, is realized only upon the great Erie Canal, — the most important commercial v/ork perhaps existing, be- ing the only channel for the industrious products of several millions of people. Buffalo, the key of this in- tercourse, could not but surpass Montreal, which supplies the wants of a population comparatively trifling. I ■ (a 1H''i i ■^•i •■i''lll *,••■■ I < 1 i|'')l Mil I' ! -I v^ i'' ■ if M''' k nB, 1- - ' \ jij! || i'';^ ii}' ■f ': ^il 't^_. .., ^' B^ i rt'li ;H. i,'*' ■ ■ ' .•;.^ !? I'i ;■*"! t; m 1' \ P: •':^ \m 'r ,■ m '* ,|';»..- ;|;- 1'- n J! ■ ' :'■''■ ..iifi V.-, , * 0f%l:l i: mm 'S hi 1 ' t r:*' iil!';^: ^HfiiHiilt" mm X.'iV: 170 ON EMIGRATION TO THE The proper comparison evidently is between the British settlements and the new states recently formed in the western territory of the Union, — Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. We have shown, even from observers who viewed them with a favourable eye, that they as yet realize nothing of that brilliant picture so imposingly drawn by Lord Durham ; but that the habitations, and all the accommodations of life, are rude and poor in the extreme. It may be important to add the testimony of Mr Hall, an American citizen, just returned from a tour in those states. Even the long-settled and improved one of Ohio, he observes, exhibits " neat villages, extensive farms, and valuable improvements, alternating with rude hamlets, solitary log-houses, and masses of un- broken forest. The exterior development, as presented to the eye of the stranger, is new, rough, and uninviting. Wealth and labour have been employed, with great energy and success, in reducing the wild land into culti- vated fields, in bringing the resources of the country into operation, and in providing the comforts of life ; but few expenditures have been made for ornament and luxury. " Passing westerly through Indiana, Illinois, and Mis- souri, there will be found still less appearance of im- provement. Generally speaking, the settlers in these states continue to reside in their primitive dwellings ; and hence the log-house and the rough worm-fence are the chief objects of human construction that meet the eye. There is an abundance, even to profusion, of all the necessaries of life, but none of the luxuries, and few of what would be called comforts by those who are unaccustomed to the habits of the country."'^ His lordship and Mr Buller nave represented the im- migrants to Upper Canada as so miserably disappointed, that more than half their number have removed to the United States. This is inconsistent with the statement of Mr Hawke, the chief emigrant agent, who ought to be the best judge, and who asserts that at least three- fourths remained, though a considerable number were ' — — — — ■■ ■ ■ --_ ■ ■ . .1-1 - — ■■- ■■ ^1 1 * Quoted in Athenaeum, February 1839. si 'j " BRITISU NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 171 attracted by the public works carried on beyond the bor- der. Lord Durham endeavours to controvert this testi- mony by a calculation,* which does not, however, appear to us conclusive. The population, in January 1830, was 200,000, and is supposed to have risen in 1838 to 400,000. The first number is reported to have increased by births at the rate of 3 per cent, per annum, which shall be admitted, though large for a country represented in so depressed a condition. The immigrants by the St Lawrence were 105,000 ; and these, too, it is said, should have increased at the same rate. Considering, however, that only about a third were females, and that the unmarried settlers, amid the difficulties of their location, were not likel} for some time to risk a matri- monial union, we do think that if, in the first years, they kept up their numbers, it was the very utmost that could be expected. Fifty thousand are then claimed as probably coming by New York ; and thus we shall have — Orij^inal number, Increased by births, Immigrants by Quebec, by New York, 165,000 50,000 200,000 54,000 ^15,090 1H9^00" 54,000 415,000 Re-emigrated a fourth, Should be, . . • Thus are we supplied with a result differing very little from Mr Hawke's statement, even if the hypo- thetical number of 400,000 wer j taken as correct. Sir Francis Head, however, supposes 450,000 ; and our impression would be something intermediate between these two estimates. Lord Durham adduces, as a striking proof of the su- periority of the Union, the comparatively high price of land. So far as this relates to the old and fully peopled states, it follows as a matter of course ; but when he extends it to those newly formed, as Miciiigan (oddly ■ ij. . i - K' .'■In : ' W'' ;■;?...:. •S ■■"•*.'■; * i ^i -•*■'.»• -■•,r/^ Report, pp. 66, 67. u 11 m )t ' ■ ,«tr ^'it: ijii'^j mm 172 ON EMIGRATION TO THE classed with New York) we suspect that he proceeds on very imperfect information. An official report gives the whole number of acres sold in that state, down to 30th September 1887, as 8,894,000, for which were paid 11,186,000 dollars, making the price per acre under 1 dollar 15 cents, or about 6s. sterling, which would be considered low in Canada. The stationary price of wild lands in the latter country is adduced as a striking proof of stagnation and inferiority ; yet it appears that such lands in America have not even remained station- ary, but have been progressively falling.* It is indeed not a little curious, that while Lord Durham exalts that country for the high price of its land, Mr Shirreff recom- mends it for the cheap rate at which it can be obtained. The following is a statement of the number of emi- grants from 1821, when the great tide began to flow into Canada. The list, dowTi to 1828 inclusive, professes to include the whole number who went to British America, of whom, however, the Canadian provinces attracted by far the greatest proportion. We suspect, too, that this part of the table is by no means so complete as the rest. 1821, • • • • 12,470 1822, • • • 11,282 1823, • • • « 8,133 1824, • • • , 7,311 1825, B ■ • • . 8,741 1826, • • • 12,818 1C27, • • • • 12,(>48 1828, 12,084 182!», > • • (t 15,945 1830, 28,000 1831, • « • 50,254 1832, 51,746 1833, • • • 21,752 18;i4, 30,935 1835, • • « 12,527 183«, 27,722 1837, . • • 3 21,901 Total number, 346,269t * American Almanack 1839, pp. 101, 102. Report, p. 7^. •{• Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 547. Returns, Emigration 1833, p. 3. Ditto, 1837, p. 9. 2 rest. Iturns, BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 173 The following is a comparati/e statement of the quarters whence these emigrants came during the last nine years : — England and Wales Ireland Scotland Hamburgh and Gibraltar Nova Scotia, Newfound- land, West Indies, &:c... . Havre de Grace 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1B34. 183.5. 1836. 1837. 1 ! 3,565 6,799 10,343 17,481 9,61418,300 34,133 28,204 2,643 2,450 5,354 5.500 15 123 451 424 546 5,198 6,799 12,013 19,206 4,196 4,591 345 339 3,047 7,108 2,127 225 12,188 5,580 12,590 14,.538 2,224 1,509 235 274 485 .. Total.... 15.945 28,000 50,254 51,746 21,752 30,935 12,.^)07 27,722 21,90l| It will thus appear that considerable fluctuations have taken place in the tide of emigration. In 1831 and 1832 it was at its height ; but the ravages of the cholera in the latter year, the influx of a number somewhat too great to be immediately disposed of, and the contradic- tion of tli,e flattering reports previously circulated, caused a signal re-action. In 1884 these impressions .subsided, and an increase took place, though not to the former extent. In 1835 there was another fall, partly perhaps from the same causes as before, and pro- bably also from the flourishing state of trade at home. In 1836 the numbers were again augmented, and chiefly consisted, so far as England was concerned, of set- tlers from the agricultural counties of Norfolk, Suflblk, and Hampshire. In 1837 the amount was somewhat diminished, though still nearly double that of 1835. The reduction from Eiigland was 6608, from Scotland 715, but these were partly compensated by an increase of 1948 from Ireland. They were generally in excellent health ; none had perished by shipwreck, for in the only two vessels that were wrecked the passengers were all saved. A large proportion, too, were in good circum- stances, and carried out considerable property. A great rise has also taken place in the number of emigrants to New York, a considerable portion of whom doubtless VOL. III. L •g-t' s . .1, V,' ■ - ; <» . ii Vi ^* .'Ml- !.v; ■.'"»*> .•I'll ! • * « ■ /» ■ ■ i.H 11»'' ■^-■^m V ,.( M t '■■■m I'?r U^ V. I • %i:y 174 ON EMIGRATION TO THE remain in the States ; but many also choose this as the most speedy and commodious route to Upper Canada. The arrivals there were in 1829, 11,501 1834, . . 26,540 1830, . . 21,433 1835, 16,749 1831, 22.(i07 183«, . . 59,075 1832, . . 28,283 1837, 34,000 1833, 16,100 '^ In 1833, when 16,100 landed at New York, Mr Hawke calculated that at least 6000 came thence to Upper Ca- nada. If the same proportion were preserved in 1836, the number would exceed 22,000, and in 1837, 12,000. Mr Buchanan, in his official report published at the beginning of 1838, anticipates that the unhappy insur- rection, having been speedily and completely crushed, would be no bar to the emigration of that year. He has been mistaken ; for the vague idea of Canada being in rebellion has almost completely deterred settlers, the number of whom did not quite amount to 5000 ; though, according to the most exact statements, the alarm seems to have had little foundation. The monied interest no doubt suffered from public commotion and the con- dition of the market in the United States ; but the agri- cultural population were scarcely any where affected. Even in Lower Canada the movements were confined to the French portion of the district of Montreal ; the East- ern Townships, where nearly all the British are located, remamed in perfect tranquillity. In the Upper Province there was only a rapid flight, and then some border in- roads, almost instantly suppressed. The settlers sustai^ied scarcely any inconvenience, except from the call to arms, to which they so nobly responded, and where victory was obtained with little loss. The only thing to be now appre- hended are certain marauding attacks on the immediate frontier, which is almost completely settled, while the stations for emigrants, bemg considerably in the interior, may be considered perfectly secure. From different quarters we can collect the distribu- tion of the new settlers who arrived at Q,uebec in the m ■ 1(1 BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 175 s as the Canada. 540 749 075 000 ' Hawke pper Ca- in 1836, 12,000. i at the )y insur- crushed, ;ar. He da being settlers, to 5000; ,he alarm 1 interest the con- the agri- affected, nfined to he East- located, Province order in- sustai^io'd to arms, tory was ►w appre- nmediate ivhile the interior, distribu- )ec in the years 1832, 1834, 1836, and 1837, throughout the various parts of the province. Lower Canada. Quebec, . ... Three Rivers Eastern Townships, Montreal, Ottawa, .... Upper Canada. Eastern Districts, Midland and Newcastle, Home, .... Hamilton, Guelph, and Huron Tract, 6000 Niagara, .... London and Western, United States, Died (mostly ot" cholera). Returned, The emigrants of 1837 consisted of 11,740 men, 6070 women, and 4082 children. There came out on their own resources 20,330, and by means of parochial aid 1571. The ports in England whence the settlers of 1837 chiefly sailed were, in the order of importance, Liver- pool, Lynn, London, Yarmouth, Plymouth, Hull, Ports- mouth, and Bristol ; in Ireland, Cork, Dublin, Belfast, Sligo, Londonderry, Limerick, and Waterford ; in Scot- land, Greenock, Leith, Aberdeen, Cromarty, Glasgow, and Dundee. We shall now proceed to consider this subject in reference to our other American dependencies. 1832.* 1834.t lB3(f.t 1837. {} 4500 1500 1000 400 450 350 200 3(M> 750 640 6000 1500 4000 1200 1500 1000 500 400 9(^0 800 4000 1000 3600 3000 fiOOO 2650 1500 1800 7500 8000 3000 2000 6000 2660 1400 2500 3000 3300 1500 2000 8500 4600 2000 50(10 3346 3485 4973 15011 2350 800 88 li2 850 350 67 • • • NOVA SCOTIA. Emigration does not form nearly so important a ques- tion in this as in the more western colonies ; for while there is a smaller proportion of good land, the best and most accessible parts are more generally occupied. According to Mr Haliburton the people consider that • Returns, 1833, p. $ Returns, 1836, p. IL 10. + Backwoods, p. 341. § Ibid.1837, p. 11. * 1 L ■^'- ' ' !>• ... , ■•4 i'! '.V ' ■^ '..'•■••' ''■ uv?l m--/ •y^ jAf;:,", ■^> 176 ON EMIGRATiOP' TO THE it i ¥ ,''ii ■?-,r;|i Mil I they can fill up the country with their o^^^l increasing ])opulation, and feel no anxiety for any accession from abroad. Yet ample space still remains, since not more than 400^.000 acres are under cultivation, and though 5,7'50,000 acres have been granted, only about four millions are disposed of. Of these, it is true, not above an eighth part are supposed lit for agricultural opera- tions. Crown lands, however, are purchased at an easy rate, sometimes 2s., and never exceeding 3s. ; not- withstanding, in the recent tide of emigration Nova Scotia attracted comparatively little notice. The British American and New Brunswick Land Companies con- template extending their operations thither ; but as they have not yet begun, no arrangements have been made or agents appointed to facilitate the location of settlers. We have nowhere found any statement of the annual number. The Passenger Act in 1835 yielded, as fomierly noticed, £160, which at 5s. a-head would imply only an arrival of between 600 and 700 fi*om Britain, reinforced probably by a few from the adjoining settlements and the States. The public lands sold be- tween 1834 and 1837 averaged 17,500 acres annually.* \V': NEW BRUNSWICK. Considered with respect to emigration this country pos- sesses a great and increasing importance. In point of soil and climate it surpasses any other colony, except Upper and some parts of Lower Canada, and yields little even to the most favoured spots in those territories. It is not, indeed, penetrated by a connected chain of inland seas like the St Lawrence and the lakes, yet its rivers are numerous, several of them very considerable, and, being more rarel}' broken by falls or rapids, can be navigated almost to their sources, first by vessels of some magnitude, then by barges and canoes. The population * Lord Durham's Report,, Appendix B, p. 127. BRITISH NORTII AMERICAN COLONIKS. 177 attracted Ly the lumber-trade creating a necessity for a large import of agricultural produce, docs, and during a long time will continue to afford a ready market for all that can be raised within the colony. The passage, too, is somewhat shorter and cheaper. The fare from Lon- don is stated to be from £4 to £5 with provisions, or from £2 to £3 without ; and from the outports somewhat less. The cutting, sawing, and shipping of the timber afford employment to a large number of able-bodied lah ^urers as well as mechanics. The ignorance that pre- vailet^. ar to ^he coasts, and the gloomy expanse of its forests, prove ted it for a long time from attracting mueli notice on me part of emigrants ; but within the last ten years these impressions have been removed, and it has drawn a continued succession of large bodies, chiefly from Ireland, There seems, however, no reason why persons possessing a moderate capital should not find there as well as in Canada a profitable investment. Ir fiict this class appear to be turning their eyes to the coun- try, and provision will be made for their reception. Mr Baillie, commissioner of crown-lands, has put forth a statement much dwelt upon by Lord Durham, that most of the emigrants going to that country do not remain, but proceed on to the United States. There is reason to think that the report must have been made somewhat inadvertently when we find the same gentleman asserting that between 1830 and 1837 there were sold 1,330,000 acres of crown-lands, and that most of the purchasers had settled upon the grounds. The increase too of the inhabitants between 1824 and 1834, from 75,000 to 120,000, seems too large to be produced without a con- siderable accession of strangers.* At St John is an emigrant-agent, where new-comers can obtain every necessary information, and have submit- ted to them plans and surveys of land, both crown and private, in almost every variety of situation, condition, and price. Those partially cleared, with suitable buiid- V-.^i N I". *:•'.,■- :^>;;:ii|jr;iil '::.;.;'!^. ■; ;.H|, :>*.'* - V;, ►« M .' ;: , ■' 11)1 ■ '"' :■::■,■ 1 ■I'i ' ■ , ■ ' * Appendix B, pp. 154, 155. ■ul *y> J ♦ 4 i • l< V I I' I i-.:. m ON EMIGRATION TO THE ings, can he had at from £1, 10s. to £2 an acre : and Mr Wedderhurnc mentions tliat at St John he can treat for various spots rated at from illOO to £600. The lowest price of uncleared Government lands was 3s. 6d.,and even when put up at 4s. Od. a considerahle advance was often obtained. The terms have hitherto been, as elsewhere, payment in four annual instalments, the first at entry ; hut by the order of 18th February 1837, it appears that ready-money will be in every instance demanded, and the minimum is now only 2s. 6d. The process of clearing is the same as in other colonies, and on similar grounds is reckoned to cost from »■ ■ ' ^ • li.li J 84 GENERAL SUMMARY. m Ji- ''A n ^ .4 tive, 90,000 of these may be deducted. The whole, however, of Upper Canada, Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick, and Prince Edward Island, may fairly be in- cluded, since, though there are certain waste tracts in them, they possess, ui)on the whole, rather more than average fertility. We shall then have — Lower Canada, Upper Canada, . Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince £dward Island, Square TSTHes. 11 o, 000 141,000 15, mm 25,900 2,100* 2997000 The area of Great Britain and Ireland is only 121,853 square miles, not much above a third of that now stated, so that the transatlantic portion of the empire, at present considered only as an appendage, may one day be much the more important of the two. If from the vast surface of these provinces we turn our attention to the proportion actually cultivated, a striking proof will be afforded of their infant state. The following may be given as the most recent account : — Lower Canada in 1831, 2,065,000, say now Lpper Canada in 1835, Nova Scotia, .... New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Acres. 2,200,000 1,308,000 400,000 250,000t 100,000 4,258,000, making only 6650 square miles, or little more than j^th of the whole. It is obvious, therefore, what vast scope is still afforded for industry and an increasing T^opulation. The staple of the colonies as they advance in improve- ment must be agricultural produce, to be disposed of in exchange for manufactured goods and foreign luxuries. As yet this export is not of very large amount, being lessened by the successive arrival of emigrants, who ♦ See vol. i. pp. 242, 286; vol. ii. pp. 115, 228, 257^ -|- Vol. i. pp. 283, 330. Lord Durham's Report, Appendix B, pp. 129, 147, 169. GENERAL SUMMARY. 185 must for some time be consumers ; but there can be no doubt that it will ultimately take the lead of every other. The colonists seem hardly treated in having a duty of 5s. imposed on their wheat, in addition to the heavy freight across the Atlantic ; there being no reason why they should in this respect be less favourably dealt with than Ireland. The supply would only in- crease gradually with the augmenting population of the United Kingdom ; nor would it be attended with that uncertainty which is a serious objection to any depend- ence upon foreign import, while, in return, a sure mar- ket would be opened for the manufactures of England. Timber is a product at present of first-rate import- ance, though it must gradually decrease with the pro- gress of cultivation. The stock, however, is so immense that ages must elapse before it can be exhausted. Inde- pendently of the favour this trade enjoys in Britain, a demand is rising in the Atlantic states, which, being gradually denuded of their own forests, are expected to afford a permanent and increasing market. Throughout these colonies manufactures must for ages remain confined to a few bulky articles. Under the head of Canada have been enumerated almost all that are at present of any importance. The commerce of British America has already been treated at considerable length when considering the statistics of its different provinces ; but there still ap- pears room for some general statements, wliich may exhibit the whole under one view. Wood and lumber in various forms comprise as yet the most important branch. The mode of procuring and preparing them, with the encouragement afforded to the sale in Britain, have been already described. Canada still yields the largest and most valuable supply ; New Brunswick, wiiich ranks next, is little inferior ; and Nova Scotia with its adjacent islands, though much lower, is still considerable. The following table exhibits the value of each description exported during the four years from 1832 to 1835 inclusive : — r^'^1 it V4 [-n : ♦• ■ . li'i 1 ■•flit 186 GENERAL SUMMARY. Oak timber. Pine Elm Ash, birch, &c Masts, yards, die Oars Deals, planks, boards, &c. Shingles Lath wood Staves and headings Other sorts 1832. £49,341 413,5«2 2(>,7.'M) 18,lf« 23,177 3,804 314,931 8,162 8,712 99,119 3,542 1833. £51,111 344,015 12,157 56,236 14,470 3, UK) a37,303 9,316 7,320 110,594 4,673 1834. £50,641 494,298 2,!>73: 5(5,476 20,544 4,055 398,237 10,154 7,247 187,49i1 5,524 ia35. £40,.'{57 592,510 16,439 38,467 18,743 2,427 359,229 3,217 11,495 154,575 6,928 Total £963,309 £960,386 £1,237,639 £1,249,387 Of these different kinds the timber, understood to be in log, goes almost exclusively to Great Britain and Ireland. Of that which is sawn into deals, boards, and planks, the West Indies take nearly a half, as well as a large proportion of the masts, oars, staves, headings, and all the shingles. The amount sent to foreign countries is inconsiderable. The fishery, which fonns the next article, decidedly rivals the timber-trade, especially when we include the capture of seals, which in mercantile language is con- sidered a branch of it. Cod, dry.. . wet.. Herrings . Mackerel.. Salmon ... Other fish. 1832. 1833. 1834. Train oil Seal skins. Total fish . Produce of fishery. £447,654 £591,844 £545,654 43,569 2,693 3,602 12,748 6,133 1835. 29,393 34,056 6,074 3,751 2,929 1,598 9,977 9,235 8,381 6,277 £504,408 £645,761 248,064 242,412 40,352 27,911 £792,824 £916,084 £614,299 205,26(» 30,414 £849,973 £566,054 47,139 3,565 2,825 14,965 7,318 £641,866 265,976 44,321 £952,163 The dry cod is so important an article, and the quar- ters to which it is exported so various, that we shall exhibit the principal countries under a tabular view. 1832. Great Britain Ireland Portugal Spain, with Gibraltar Italy British West Indies Brazil Other States of South America... £18,342 13,246 106,406 51,090 50,631 152,418 44,391 1833. £25,028 25,796 86,520| 114,414| 80,808 187,306 48,724 1834. £19,972 14,923 181,682 69,066 71,748 146,022 26,181 7,300 1835. £24,126 19,117 186,609 91,380 26,686 167,645 31,282 9,661 1835. £40,357 5Jh2,5lO 16,439 38,467 18,743 2,427 369,229 3,217 11,495 154,575 6,928 9 £1,249,387] od to be in d Ireland, lanks, the proportion 3 shingles, siderable. decidedly nclude the ige is con- 4. 1835. 654 £566,054 ,569 ,593 ,(502 ,748 ,133 47,139 3,5651 2,825 14,965 7,318 ,299 i,260 1,414 £641,866 265,976 44,321 ),973 £952,16j d the quar- it we shall ar view. 34. J,972 4,923 1,682 9,066 1.748 6,022 6,181 7,300 1835. £24,126 19,117 186,609 91,380 26,586 167,645 31,282 9,651 GENERAL SUMMARY. 187 The wet cod, herrings, and mackerel, are sent mostly to the West Indies, with a proportion, however, to the United States, which forms the chief market for salmon. The train-oil is brought almost entirely to Great Britain and Ireland ; but of the seal-skins, a full half is taken bv the States. The articles next in importance consist in the produce of land, such as grain, live stock, and salted provisions. These, for reasons already noticed, are not yet of first-rate consequence, nor have they even within the last few years been increasing ; though, it is obvious that, if the colo- nies continue prosperous, they must become the most valuable of all. Wheat 1832. 1 1833. 1 1834. 1835. £12,100 2,903 74,877 468 17,959 878 4,497 7,099 725 £177,434 1,942 57,4.%- 1,046 31,543 4,221 610 2,043 £174,745 1,212 93,304 1,581 47,958 1,970 3,\m 933 653 £325,522; £99,411 1,4{J8 43,223 1,254 19,915 9(i4 4,265 33 461 Other grain Wheat flour Other flour or meal Heef, pork, bacon, &c Hread and biscuit Butter and cheese Horses. Cattle, sheep, hoga Total £276,275 fl71,014 £121,506 The wheat is exported almost exclusively to Britain ; the flour, other grain, and salteO v*o visions, to the West Indies. A large stock of horses, -oo, was in 1835 sent from Nova Scotia to the United States. Small quantities of beef and pork are sometimes procured from the latter country and re-exported. There are several other articles of considerable value ; such as ashes, shipped from Canada to Great Britain ; coal and gypsum, from Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and New Brunswick, to the United States ; and salt from the last-mentioned colony, sent to the same quarter. The amount has been given as follows : — Ashes... . Coals.... Gypsum. Salt Total. 1832. 18a3. 1834. £201,717 27,870 16,269 13,312 £259,168 £174,468 £108,307 32,350 34,224 7,617 21,660 23,250 4,850 £248,659l£158,067 1835. £181,506 23,930 16,980 7,173 £229,589 ;-il:' •»o. .•*5 ■ /> ■ . *' ::i. >h'M 188 GENERAL SUMMARY. .» ^E. Sugar, rum, and similar produce obtained from the West Indies, are re-exported in small quantities to Britain, other parts of Europe, and the United States. We may now fonn a general summary of the exports for the period just specified. Timber Fishery Produce of land Ashes, coals Miscellaneous. . 1832. £963,. %9 7!»2,H24 2m, \m 159,313 1833. 1834. €950,385 £l,237,63f) 91«),()H4 849,973 325,522 248,f559 172,887 171.014 158,(167 194,325 Total A'2,450,889 £2,613,537 £2,611,018 £2,706,694 1835. £1,249,387 952, 1(W u\,m\ 229,589 154,049 The countries to which the principal exports took place were these : — Great Britain £1,428,598 Ireland 210,546 Portugal 107,78(5 Spain , with Gibraltar 52,470 Italy 55,457 British West Indies a07,449 United States 129,278 Brazil 46,124 Other States of S. America Various ' ia32. 1833. £1,. 376,333 287,593 87,086 124,944 85,287 434,536 131, 8a3 i 50,766 23,186 35,109 1834. £1,429,768 291,673 185,025 70,628 77,348 3WJ,36l 95,787 26,017 7,301 41,110 1835. £1,479,177 240,818 193,-394 94,893 30,531 446,500 149,212 37,206 10,176 24,787 The imports, as we have had frequent occasion to observe, are exceedingly various, including almost every article beyond the common necessaries of life. The leading branches are manufactured goods of all descrip- tions, almost exclusively furnished by Britain ; tropical produce, chiefly from the West Indies ; wine and other products of the more southern climates, usually intro- duced through the medium of England or Gibraltar. Lastly, though grain and provisions are generally an export staple, yet Newfoundland and New Brunswick, subsisting almost entirely by fishery and the timber trade, are obliged to import large quantities. The sup- plies drawn from the other colonies do not appear in the returns, which comprehend only what is obtained from Britain and Ireland, from Hamburgh, and the United States, GENERAL SUMMARY. 189 Mantt/acturcd Goods. Appurcl and slops jtookH Ilrass imd copper Ciibinct wares Cundles ('o|)|H>r, sheet, &c I.'ordagu Cottdim Kartlien and China ware. Fiiiliiiig tackle (■lass Linns (lunpowder Hiiberdasliury Iliirdware and cutlery . . , Hats Hemp Irun, liar and pig . wrought Leather Linens Musical instruments Painters* colours Silk Soap Stationery Woollens Tropical Produce, Coffee Dye and hard woods . . Gum Senegal Indigo Molasses Pepper and pimento . . Rum Sugar, raw refined, British. Tea Tobacco and snuft' Olive oil Brandy, Geneva, «&c. Wine.^ Grain, Provisions, ^c. Beef, pork, &c Beer and ale Bread Butter Grain, tiour, &c P'ruit Live stock Potatoes Coals Train oil., Salt Tallow.., VOL. III. I(t32. IHai. £♦55,1)79 ij,i7y 4,(>iM! 9,445 i2:m 7,44!) «4,!X)2 27,»7,MH 1!),7<>!) 51, 7«!) 378,58.} 27,.'j;«» 28,320 90.758 2,!)J.-)7 41,885 ;«{8,137 £l,8;n,().'>9 £9,f)21 5,327 19,.520 5.781 80,074 5,128 235,285 122,073 2(),«)4!) 14(),01() 21,401 £67(>.tt75 £7,310 55,559 9!),53!) £162,408 £5!),973 10,(M)2 2,.J0!) 7,227 12,.^{.3 13,074 54,780 28!).!).")4 21,218 22,!)77 91 ,287 2.22() 3,0!)2 70,4!)!) 82,!MJ2 2;{,145 4,7<»3 .34,8!)8 8!),47(i 54,;{72 6!),8!)1 1, !).■)(; 14,564 71,01!) 24.2;« 31 ,5!)5 219,149 1835. i'l,413.')77 £74,791 11,879 2,417 6,275 11.89( 10,173 47,77!) 4!)3,119 22,0<5<) 23,771 105, .MJS I, cm 3,547 90,(;04 82,!«n 25,455 2,147 39,713 81,681 18,. 324 114,.381 3,1«)2 16,279 «6,774 28,lO:i 31,(;64 3!)4,811 £1,831,«K)1 £8,786 4,054 2',.'i91 67,86!) 3,20!) 1!K),474 118,6ri<) 44,570 240,3}t3 19,.'588 £700,180 ~£4;689 82, .324 111,414 £1!)8,427 £80,227 7,1(»5 59,089 2!),.325 234,7<)a 29,69!) 2,500 £442,713 £20,541 21,3.33 .31,!J50 13,736 £87,560 £108,a')6 6,!)!)7 86,!)!)8 41.647 270,!»49 19,650 1,6.39 5,!)42 £.542,178 £13,744 10,508 3',io7 «6,779 3,!«)5 v.njm 112.8!)1 36,(MI8 150,565 18,6!)5 627,860 £6,682 42,'M) 79,003 £128,585 £89,898 5,7.'»3 78,372 25,.'J{)4 217,455 20,.5!K) 1,872 3^54 £442;!)94 £24,655 8,132 38,683 12,518 £83,988 £22,587 .34,755 3(5,4.55 6,023 £9!),820 £5,804 4,133 5,(545 79,51! 2,819 228,223 111,!HI6 35,.577 104,974 24,287 602,887 £3,495 (52,995 72,560 £139,050 £71,132 5,10fJ 60,283 31,309 2(M»,081 15,.339 771 1,782 £385,806 £17,894 18,!)59 40,326 6,811 £83,990 M • ■''1.,, 4v ■V ■ i^*\ .'■■M »♦ w- h ■ U\.-\ 190 GENERAL StlMMARY. The following oxliihitH a Huimnury of the ahovc : — Manufarturod ^ttods Tropical product* 18.32. 1833. IH34. 1 8:1.5. £1.870.924 070,87: £1.8.31.6.59 7(M).|80 £1,41.3,577 027,8fM» 128,585 442.9!M 99,820 187,.580 £2.9(MI.4I0 £1,831.001 002, KH7 139,050 3H5,8()(; 270,!/'-') Wino, Af 102,408| 198.427 442.7 1.3( .542.178 87..V»<): 83.!W8 217.240 2'i.3.473 £3,457,720 £3.579,905 Grain, firoviMionH, Ac ('oalH, salt, Ac MiM!C'llanuoiiH £3 319,724 Countries from wliic •h imported : — Britain 1832. £2,209,fi.53 21.114 45.174 1.3.207 40,2(il 6.409 10.f;95 145.575 437,807 8,091 380.081 3.'M)H 19.828 4.5,898 1H.^3. £2,207,2.35 53.084 21.9.3,3 118,115 19,788 .30,557 6,579 7,019 239,282 3.55,310 7,753 413,058 8,000 0,2.34 18,458 18:m. 183.5. £2,3.30.24.1 44,704 I8,i(;'j 14,122 10,93N .56 2,6M .54,237 8,77« 271,l l.W.d.V) 3h:),so(; i*:»:»i!i.7i4 lipping cra- ide between :\vRrd8. Tons. 487,5'ifi 4'21,1(>5 61G,71C _ lists in their nucli larger : 199,628 tons twards.+ J9-154; 1833, 6. A recent parlianicntrtry paper allows tlie ttinount of shipping built in liritLsh Anierieu t'ruin 1U14 tu 1U37. Years. VCM.ll. Toannxi'. Ycitri. Vfsitclii. 4r,'i TuiuiHge. IHU 83 9,.TS.1 |H2fi 77,.'i75 iHlft I.V) lfi,.')2(J IH27 4IH •;i,(iou IHUI 2«M r^.llH 1«2« .177 i:>,247 INI7 VYi ir,,44 IH.W 'MM 4.\o;{7 \Hti i;J7 12,212 \HM :vM .'.I.KiS 1H2:» l>M UM.-J.') iM;r> ;jo() r>»,7H7 mi •2.^2 3!>,4(;!> ]h:v] 337 .")«,! W IH-Ja 422 (;;/,»)!(; ih;j7 370 (;(l,(i72 There is perhaps no olyect at present of so great ini- portaiiee for the advaneenient of industry in tlie eolonies as tlie formation of roads and other means of internal coniiiiunieation. Nearly the whole water froiit.ige, to u considi'rahle depth inland, has now been oe(;upied ; and the iniiahitants of the interior traets, from their remote situation, are ineapable of proeuring in exehange for their produee the luxuries or even the comforts of life. This evil, however, throiii^h the efforts of modern inge- nuity, may be almost completely remedied by the con- struction of canals and railways ; and the strong recom- mendations of Lord Durham and Mr liuUer give reason to lioj)e that such works will erelong be commenced on an extensive scale. Yet it is impossible not to look with some degree of apprehension to these undertakings, wlien we recollect the Grand and Royal (canals in Ireland, the Caledonian in Scotland, and the Rideau in Canada, on which enormous sums have been expended with little or no practical benefit. PJven the Wt-lland and the Ship Canal of the St Lawrence, though spirited attemj)ts in an infant colony, were premature, and accordingly remain yet incomplete. The La Chine Canal and the La Prairie Railroad are perhaps the only similar works in that country which have been of much real use. The danger arises not merely from jobbing, though this cannot be too carefully guarded against, but :j<: ■• t . . 4; f * " » 1 . ; ': •*' •. . i.-L. J 1 ! ;■'» It ■• ,^ ;i; ;H ■> lilli iiHii 192 GENERAL SUMMARY. also from the influence of popular assemblies and ardent .patriots, who are not always good judges of what will benefit industry. Works of an imposing aspect, of great extent, connecting distant parts, and overcoming vast obstacles, are those which rouse enthusiasm and afford a subject for eloquent declamation. There is then but little leisure to discuss the humble but all-unportant question, what traffic is likely to pass along the line. We feel the mo/e alarmed, too, as some such impulses appear to have suggested certain of Mr Buller's recom- mendations, and which, for that reason, we shall take leave to sift somewhat carefully. The most extensive is the proposed railroad from Halifax to Quebec, which has, we presume, been sub- stituted for that lately projected from St Andrews, in New Bnmswick.'"' The distance may be about 700 miles, and the expense must considerably exceed one million sterling, while there is great reason to doubt whether any benefit would be reaped at all commen- surate to this expenditure. There cannot be much com- merce between two countries, of which the productions are nearly identical, the one having scarcely a surplus article of which the other has not also more than enough. It appears to be supposed, indeed, that Halifax would thereby become an outport to Quebec, and that ship- masters, to avoid the tedious and somewhat dangerous circuit by the St Lawrence, would prefer landing their goods on the Atlantic coast, to be forwarded by railway to the latter city.t We cannot help suspecting, however, that the merchants would incur some delay, and even a small risk, to have their goods brought close to the warehouses, and unshipped under their own eyes, rather than have them landed at the distance of 700 miles, conveyed over that long space in carriages, at all seasons of the year, and then put on board again to cross the St Lawrence. In an agricultural view, nine-tenths of the line are of no value ; and though some scattered settle- • Lord Durham's Report, Appendix B, p. 35. -f- Report, p. 114. GENERAL SUMMARY. 193 ments might spring up in consequence, this woukl he in direct opposition to Mr Bullcr's plan of condensing the population, and filling up the thinly peopled districts, already occupied by colonists. It would also l)e very unjust to lay heavy taxes on the proprietors of those lands, not that emigrants might be brought thither, but rather that they may be carried away to new and remote regions. Another scheme which has been favourably received, is that proposed by Mr Shirreff of Fitzroy, of a navigable communication between Lake Huron and the Ottawa, combined with the improvement of the upper part of that river."* These, no doubt, are important objects, and may be realized at a future period ; but any attempt to accomplish them at present seems wild in the extreme. There is not, it is probable, on the whole line of the proposed navigation a single human dwelling, except a few Indian wigwams ; nor is there, perhaps, a cul- tivated field within a hundred miles of either end of it. Supposing a few settlers to be drawn into this vast wilderness, the alluring them thither would, on the grounds above stated, be contrary both to policy and justice. In regard again to commerce with the infant states of the north-west, it would be easy to show, that any expectations under this head must be altogether premature. A railroad between Lakes Ontario and Huron is also mentioned. Such a work will unquestionably be of essential importance, and that, too, at an earlier period than either of the others. But at present the shores of the last-mentioned expanse are little better than a desert. It may now be expected that we should endeavour to suggest what might be considered as the lines really useful for opening up districts still languishing for want of communication. We shrink not from this task, for which the minute inquiry requisite for preparing the chapters on topography have in some degree prepared us. ^^x 1: ■ .'." r •1 ■ J 't ^ I .. (V*; .. ,, ',*w';. ' r' * .* . . ,1 'f m • Report, Appendix B, pp. 36, U6. ]»■ 1 r: ft •'^ iH'. \v !!•': 194 GENERAL SUMMARY. 1!^' We do it, however, with great diffidence, as without re- gular surveys made for the express purpose, the adap- tation of a country for such ohjects can never be fully ascertained. One important question not very easily decided is that which relates to the comparative advantage of rail- ways and canals. So far as we can form a judgment, the former may be said to supply the more rapid and com- modious conveyance, and also to be in general the more easily constructed work. But a canal seems to afford a much cheaper mode of carrying a great bulk of heavy goods ; and for this reason it is still used in preference, even since the rival communication has been formed be- tween the same points.'' Where two great waters are to be united, a canal has also this advantage, that the cargoes can be conveyed in a single vessel from the shores of one to those of the other without the expense and risk of being landed and reshipped. But at all events, of whatever nature the channels of intercourse may be, they ought to be numerous, simple, and practical, rather than splendid and costly. We should likewise prefer to see employed upon them American engineers, accus- tomed to combine cheapness with utility, rather than Europeans ambitious of producing a magnificent work with a proud disregard of expense. With regard to Lower Canada, the most important line, we presume, would be an oblique one from Quebec to Montreal, on the southern side of the St Lawrence, as nearly as possible half way between the river and the frontier. At St John it would connect itself with the La Prairie Railway, and by means of Lake Champlain secure a communication with the United States. It ap- pears to us that this would open the country much more completely than one from north to south, as proposed by Major Head,+ while its benefits could be amply diffused by lateral communications. The hilly nature of many * M*Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Railroad, •f- Lord Durham's Report, Appendix B, p. 72. GENERAL SUMMARY. 195 of the tracts would, no doubt, oppose obstacles and re- quire modifications ; and in these circumstances a railway might be the more easily formed, and perhaps prove more convenient. The staple, being live-stock, is less bulky than grain, and more difficult to convey by water. A speedy mode of travelling between the two capitals would also be exceedingly beneficial. The eastern districts of Upper Canada enjoy consider- able advantages, having the St Lawrence on the one side and the Ottawa on the other. Yet a railroad from Montreal, running midway between the two till it should strike the Rideau, would be of obvious benefit to the inland townships, and afford, at the same time, a direct and rapid conveyance to Kingston. In the three central districts it would be an object of the greatest importance to form lines stretching from the border of Lake Ontario northward into the interior. The Midland is well cultivated along the sliore, but the inland part is less known, partly, it may be, from the want of a good communication. Some one ought unquestionably to be formed, though our knowledge of the country is too limited to enable us to determine what should be its precise nature or line. The Newcastle District is of more importance, having many fine townships, chiefly in the interior. About twelve miles from Port Hope is Rice Lake, and beyond a long chain of smaller and closely contiguous ones. It would seem that the best communication here would be accomplished by short canals connecting these waters with each other and with Ontario ; for while one vessel would serve to convey produce from the remotest of them, railways could not fail to lead to much inconvenience in landing and reloading. The river Trent issues from Rice Lake, but its course is very winding, and terminates in the intricate shores of the Bay of Quinte, so that we doubt both whether it would repay the expense, and also if it would be expedient at present to incur that of a double line for the same tract of country. In the Home District it would be most desirable to i ■ R|-i ^-iil i i < ill •Hi I 196 GENERAL SUMMARY. i;» m connect Toronto with Lake Simcoe ; and for the reasons jist stated, there seems to he a great advantage in accom- plishing this by a canal, which at no distant period might be carried on to the Georgian Bay on Lake Huron, where it would open up a vast extent of land for location. In regard to the London and Western Districts, th^re is an obvious call for a communication westward from the extremity of Lake Ontario. A railroad in this direc- tion, as well as to Lake Simcoe, was planned and indeed voted by the Assembly, but never begun, we believe, for want of funds. Without expressing any decided opinion, we take leave to suggest the question whether a canal, connecting itself with the navigation of the Thames and by a short cut from that river with Great Bear Creek, would not be more advantageous. It might be ultimately carried to the main body of Lake Huron ; and as the staple of ail those districts is grain, a heavy and bulky article, great advantages would arise from this continuous navigation. These works would, we think, place every part of the Canadas within a moderate distance from water and railway conveyance. The cost would not probably much exceed a million sterling, while the entire length would not be greater than that of the single railway proposed between Halifax and Quebec. They would require, however, to be followed up by good common roads ; and as the formation and management of these would be peculiarly liable to all the evils incident to public undertakings, there would be a great advantage in securing, as the basis of the fund for defraying the expense, a local contribution among the owners of land. With respect to the roads lately made throughout the Highlands of Scotland, the course taken by Govern- ment was to double every sum raised for the purpose among the proprietors, and under this system most ex- tensive benefits have been conferred on that tract of country. It is true that where a wild district is to be newly opened, there must be roads before there can be GENERAL SUMMARY. 197 settlers to aid in making them ; but, according to Mr BuUer's opinion, in which we incline to coincide, the preparatory step would be most successfully taken by companies or capitalists, whose eyes would be en- lightened by personal interest. Hence it is perhaps desirable that such persons should take the lead and be merely seconded by Government. With respect to the other colonies there appears not room for so many observations. Nova Scotia, owing to its peninsular form and small breadth, stands much less in need of such works, while its rugged surface would render the task extremely difficult. The completion of the Shubenacadie Canal is a matter of obvious import- ance, to which we may add the cut from St Peter's Bay in the Bras d'Or, Cape Breton. That of Bay Verte is desirable, but rather, it should seem, for mercantile than for agricultural purposes. The wants and capabilities of New Brunswick on this head are not much known. Generally speaking, its sea and river frontage is not filled up to a great depth, and there is yet little call for throwing open the interior. Short communications leading inland from the lower course of the great rivers seem at present most required, nor does there appear any objection to second in some degree the efforts of the Land Company established in that province. It may be proper, before concluding, to notice those immense works undertaken by the Government of Upper Canada, and still unfinished. We have already expressed our regret that the large sums expended on them should not rather have been laid out on less ambitious but more practical objects. However, as they are in great part executed, it is unfortunate that they should be allowed to remain wholly useless by being incomplete. Lord Durham has indeed recommended in the strongest terms that they should be finished by means of a loan raised by the British Government on the security of the future tolls. He even anticipates that the whole of the im- mense traffic which now passes along the Erie Canal will then take this new channel and enrich Canada hnmensely . 4t- ■ i.< W'i "'• :. ':., ,/, w If: t -i '*'-, IW- -V" 1)1 II! I 1,1; M! 198 GENERAL SUMMARY. This conclusion we suspect to have been formed under the influence of representations niade by some of those sanguine patriots who, as already observed, are so apt to mislead on such occasions. Tliey maintain that Montreal, being somewhat nearer to Lake Erie than New York, will then be generally preferred by the Americans ; for- getting that a vessel after arriving there is still far from the ocean. At the same time we do not mean to express any doubt that the works would ultimately pay. In- dependently of the growing produce of Upper Canada, as soon as Cleveland, Detroit, and other towns on Lake Erie shall rise in importance, their merchants will more and more prefer the employment of the largest vessels which can pass through these canals, and thus make the en- tire voyage direct to the Atlantic states, and even to Europe, without any need of transhipment. It were much to be regretted, therefore, if those works were not to be kept up in their present state, which yet cannot be done without some annual expense. If, then, it shall appear probable that, when completed, they will yield a return in any degree equivalent to their cost and the low interest at which a loan guaranteed by the British Grovernment might be raised, the aid of the imperial treasury might be afforded with great advantage. To present a general view of the population of the North American colonies, we shall here give, in regard io each, the date and amount of the latest census, and in another column the probable number at present, allow- ing for defects and subsequent accessions. Lower Canada. Upper Canada Nova Scotia Cape Breton New Brunswick Prince Edward Island. Newfoundland... Total, Latest Census. Date. Number. 1831 1835 1827 1834 1833 1836 511,917 336,461 123,848 18,700 119,457 32,292 70,957 1,213,632 Probable pre- sent Amuunt 660,000 42Q.(m 170,000 28,000 130,000 40,000 75,000 1,523,000 GENERAL SUMMARY. 199 Of this niimher about a third arc of French origin, being in Canada called habitans, in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick Acadians. The basis of the British population was fonned by military settlers, ])ut never rose to any great amount till the influx of loyalist refugees from the old colonies after their separation. The citizens of the United States have more recently en- tered and squatted in considerable numbers along most of the frontier districts. The greatest accession, however, has been derived from immigration, which, since the be- ginning of this century, and particularly during the last twenty years, has poured in a continued stream, fill- ing with people extensive regions that were formerly desert. A population of a somewhat rude and peculiar character was created at an early period by the fishery in Newfoundland, and another more recently by the tim- ber-trade in Canada and New Brunswick. In each of the provinces there still remains a handful of native Indians. The habits and character of these different classes have been treated at some length under the respective heads. One of the questions at present most agitated in the colonies is the important one which respects the provi- sion for religious instruction. It is discussed with con- siderable warmth in the Canadas, where, as already observed, a large allotment of land, which circumstances are now rendering of great value, has been set apart for that purpose. In 1830, fifty-seven rectories, with parishes corresponding, were established in Upper Canada, whereby it was alleged that the English church had been erected into a dominant establishment. The points in dispute are, first, whether the ministry should be supported, as in the United States, on the voluntary system by the contributions of the hearers, or whether provision should be made by the state ; and then, in the latter case, on what religious persuasion the endowment should be conferred. As to the first question, this evi- dently is not a place to enter upon the discussion of it ; and if the voluntary principle were adopted, all inquiry i4' 1- «'■ ■ L- l| :•:*;-■.■!.' GENERAL SUMMARY. 205 Ever since tlir era of the indopendoncc of the United StfttcH, it has been ell ^toiuary with numerous politicians to con.sidor the sf* fWiratiou of colonies from the mother country tis ./ result depending' only on time, hut which must arrive at no very distant period. We incline to think that in this ease due allowance is not made for the ^^reat (lifforence of circumstances. It is needless to dwell now on the |j;ro8s errors of which the British Govennncnt is univci-sally aUowed to have been guilty, and the difftculty with which many Americans were pirsuaded to join the insurrection. It is still more important to observe, that the main body of that people were sprung from ances- tors whose derivation from England was only matter of history, liaving taken place two centuries before, and under circumstances not particularly calculated to rivet tlu'ir affections to her. The case was the same in the Spanish settlements, wliich, besides, were grossly mis- governed l)y a tyrannical oligarchy. But in our present colonies, a majority of the inhabitants (the French pail excepted) have recently left Britain, and retain an attachment to her, rendered only more deep and tender by the separation. They have, accordingly, amid some discontents, shown the very reverse of any disposition to sever the connexion ; and the same cause is likely to operate with augmented force for several ages. It may also be observed, that space is becoming every day a less important element in human affliirs. Steam navigation has already reduced America to less than half the dis- tance ; and continued improvements will probably ren- der it no longer difficult for a people having a common origin, language, and manners, to form one nation, though placed at the extremities of the globe. Some able writers have contended that colonies are of no real use to Britain, and that their withdrawal would be no detriment. Without disputing that, though deprived of them, she would still be great and pros- perous, it may yet be observed, that extensive kingdoms, if well governed, possess many advantages. They have greater means of defence against foi-eign aggression ; VOL. III. N k- •. ^ i f in fl• *; .«] li;^ I'llJii 208 GENERAL SUMMARY. difficulty in finding a sufficient number of natives to undertake the office, there would be no want of British statesmen ready to become candidates for the honour of supplying their place.* It would not be proper to close this chapter without giving some view of the late important transactions re- lative to the boundaries of British America. In our introductory noticest we stated the outlines of the ques- tion now pending, and observed that, though of little immediate importance, the rapid progress of colonization would soon enhance its interest, and might render it a ground of serious dissension. We scarcely expected that in the brief interval during wliich this work was passing through the press, our prediction would be so amply fulfilled. The ambitious spirit which animates the people of Maine, joined to the project of a British rail- way from St Andrews to Quebec passing through the territory, has given to the discussion a profound political character, augmented in no small degree by the turbu- lent impatience of the local authorities. From the extensive papers on this subject laid before Parliament, it appears that the British Government, as soon as the award was pronounced by the King of Hol- land, intimated their acceptance, though we were there- by deprived of all the territory south of the St John, and allowed little more than a third of the country originally claimed. But notwithstanding this accession on the part of the English cabinet, Mr Preble, American ambassa- dor at the Hague, protested against the decision, alleging that his majesty had acted not as an arbiter but a me- diator, and instead of deciding between the two boundary lines, had suggested one differing from either. He imme- diately went home ; and, after visiting Maine, proceeded to Washington in order to support his opinion ; but there * Mr Haliburton, Bubbles of Canada (8vo, London, 1839, pp. 322, 323), treats this project with hostility and even derision, but does not state any reasons, without which we must decline yieldinu^ to his authority, though respectable. He admits that it is a iiivourite idea with the aspiring' voung men in the colony. t Vol. i. p. 40-43. GENERAL SUMMARY. 209 he found a strong indisposition to allow the subject tu involve the States in a dispute with Great Britain. It was represented that Maine had secui'ed the most ex- tensive and fruitful part of the territory, and that if she attempted to support her claim by arms she was likely to sutFer much more than the whole was worth. To save, however, at once her honour and interest, it was suggested that in room of the ceded tract, a grant might be made of a million of acres in the western country, and the proceeds of them, when sold, placed in her trea- sury. The representatives of the state strongly asserted their claim ; but nevertheless, on considering all circum- stances, they expressed their willingness to enter upon an amicable negotiation on that basis.* While every thing was thus in a friendly train of adjustment, the senate of the United States, by an in- judicious vote, rejected the award, and directed the government to re-open the discussion on the sunple basis )fthetreaty of 1783.t The executive are understood to have been a good deal chagrined by this decision ; and Mr Livingston, the foreign secretary, in addressing Mr Bankhead, our am- bassador, did not conceal that it had been contrary to his and the President's opinion. No choice, however, was left to them but to resume the negotiation, which he promised should be conducted with the sincerest desire to bring the question to a speedy and satisfactory conclusion. Even if they could not agree as to the original line, it was hinted that another might be found more convenient to both parties than that designated by the arbiter. Lord Palmerston in reply expressed his great surprise and regret at tliis decision, but stated that if Mr Living- ston's plan were submitted to him, and an assurance given that due powers had been procured from the state of Maine, he would be ready to enter into the negotia- tion in the most friendly spirit. J The American secre- • North American Boundarv Correspondence, A, p. 1-6; B, p. 173-180. . 1- t Ibid. A, p. 11. + Ibid. A, p. 13-17. J ' * « i'..4 m lit. i' ^ ' i _ it If . 210 GENERAL SUMMAKr. m\i tary proposed that a new commission should be formed, consisting of an equal number of each nation, with an umpire named by a friendly power. These were to investigate the ground anew, and endeavour to find a boundary really corresponding to the treaty of 1783. This, considering that the la])orious efforts of a former commission had proved abortive, he admitted to be dif- ficult. He thought, however, better hopes might be entertained if, instead of proceeding due noiili according to the strict terms, they should diverge more or less westward, and in that direction seek the highlands de- scribed in the official deed. The British negotiators replied that their government could not, without ex- treme reluctance, agree to a new commission after the unsatisfactory result of the former. The failure appear- ed evidently to have arisen from the treaty being con- ceived in ignorance of the real features of the country, to which consequently it was wholly inapplicable ; and this opinion, confirmed by the arbiter, precluded the hope that the most diligent search would ever find a boundary which did not exist. They therefore expressed an earnest wish that the senate would consent to revoke its decision, or that some conventional line suited to both parties might be proposed. Mr M'Lane, however, now American secretary, intimated that this last course was impossible until after an attempt had been fairly made upon Mr Livingston's new principle, and till the consent of Maine should be obtained. Lord Palmerston, on finding matters in this state, intimated that he would no longer object to a commission, provided certain pre- liminary points were understood, of which the principal was that the tributaries of the St John were not to be considered as streams falling into the Atlantic ; conse- quently there could be no room for any search northward of that river.* Although, according to our view, this principle was quite sound, it could not be acceptable to the other party, since any line south of the St John * North American Boundary Correspondence, A, pp. 23-29, 36-39, &c. GENERAL SUMMARY. 211 was necessarily less advantageous to them than the one which they had declined. They demanded, therefore, that this point with the others should be left to the decision of the proposed commissioners.* The affair had thus come to a very hopeless point, and more than a year was consumed in discussions without any advance being made ; tliough there was still on both sides the profession of an eager desire to adjust it amicably. Lord Palmerston, in October 1835, proposed that they should proceed upon the impartial principle of making an equal partition of the disputed country. Yet, however ft\ir this proposal might appear in the abstract, it could scarcely be acceded to by the Americans, as being more unfavourable to them than the one which they had rejected, and taking from them territory which the British had already agreed to cede. On the other side they had the assurance to propose that the St John from its source to its mouth should be made the boundary. Had this suggestion been adopted, they would, upon waving their claim to a barren moun- tainous tract, have gained the province of Charlotte, one of the finest in New Brunswick, densely peopled with British settlers. Our foreign secretary, in peremp- torily rejecting the proposition, could not help express- ing his wonder that it should ever have been made.t Amidst such fruitless negotiation seven years were spent without a single step being made in advance ; and during this period the state of Maine, which found itself checked in its plans of colonization, showed the most violent marks of impatience. In 1831, an act was passed by its lopal rulers incorporating the township of Madawaska, which is situated not only in the disputed territory, but in that part of it awarded by the umpire to Britain. This was followed up by an order from a justice of peace in Penobscot, that the inhabitants of that place should assemble and elect municipal officers and representatives. The mandate was seconded by • North American Boundary Correspondence, A, pp. 47, 82, 83. t Ibid. pp. 88, 92-96. ♦ ^K;?- . '♦;. • ■■'■ »'. ^' 4 'I' UAa\' In til! |n' ';;ijt{j m *''• 'I'l III m 212 GENERAL SUMMARY. agents, who went privately among the people, assuring them that as they were now American citizens, it was both their duty and interest to comply ; and many of their number being French Acadians, and extremely ignorant, were easily induced to yield obedience. On learning these proceedings, Sir Archibald Campbell ap- prehended four individuals who had been more than usually active, and brought them to Fredericton, where they were condemned to pay fines of £50 each. The legislature loudly complained of this decided measure, and even ordered a body of militia to march towards the frontier, but at the same time agreed to await the decision of the general government, to which they appealed for redress. Mr Livingston, however, at once made known to both parties the determination of the executive not to sanction any such interference while the negotiation was pending. The Governor of Maine then stated in explanation, that the act sanctioned by him was meant to be quite general and prospective, and that the proceedings founded upon it were merely the unauthorized act of a few rash individuals. The Ame- rican secretary, having transmitted this statement to the British ambassador, with assurances that such conduct should in future be prevented, solicited, with the view of allaying irritation, that the prisoners might be libe- rated. Sir Archibald Campbell, in a very conciliatory spirit, complied with his request, and the affair was, for the present at least, amicably composed. In the course of 1833, discussions arose about the right of cutting timber on the Aroostook River by citizens of Maine and Massachusetts, and also about a road begun by those states, intended to reach to that river, and whicb ill fact had already been carrf; d Ijeyond the disputed frontier. After mutual explanations and concessions, this affair was in like manner settled.* In 1835 some collisions took place in that portion of * North American Boundary Correspondence, B, pp. 9-12, 16, 19-22. GENERAL SUMMARY. 213 portion of I the contested land which borders on New Hampshire. On the banks of Indian Stream, one of the upper branches of the Connecticut, settlers from difterent quar- ters had located themselves, and even formed a kind of provisional constitution. The authorities of the state just mentioned, on receiving a charge against Enos Ro- well, resident in this district, seized and lodged him in prison. On complaint being made to Mr Forsyth, then American secretary, he called for an explanation from the governor, who alleged that his people had long held peaceable possession of the land, and therefore con- sidered themselves entitled to maintain their jurisdiction till the question should be determined. He stated, as a justification of his conduct, also, that Luther Parker, an occupier in the same territory, had been arrested and car- ried to Sherbrooke, under a warrant from a magistrate in Lower Canada. While these matters were under dis- cussion, a more serious outrage occurred. Blanchard, a resident in the settlement, under authority from a sheriff in New Hampshire, arrested one of its inhabitants ; upon which Mr Rea, a magistrate in the district of St Francis, issued a warrant to apprehend Blanchard himself. This was duly executed ; but the constables employed were pursued by a considerable body of armed men into the British grounds, and even to Mr Rea's house, where the prisoner was rescued. The magistrate, while strongly remonstrating against this violence, was attacked, his officer wounded, himself carried off and held for some time in confinement. Voluminous affidavits were pro- duced on both sides, in which defence and recrimination were mingled ; in reference to which Mr Fox justly ob- served, that the territory along the line had become the asylum of vagabonds from either country, and no regular jurisdiction could, in the present unsettled state of the question, be exercised in it. Lord Palmerston closed the discussion by directing a general remonstrance to be made to the American Government on the unfortunate consequences which must follow a recurrence of such proceedings, and a declaration that his majesty's minis- ii* ... -M* :r--- a » I. ■ ■i,. •I 1 m. K .'*-\ I' I ■ 214 GENERAL SUMMARY. ters would feel it their duty, by all means, to protect his subjects from aggression.* The people of Maine became more and more restless ; and in 1837, the legislature having ordered a census of the state to be taken, Ebenczer Greely was instructed to take the numbers in Madawaska. He not only exe- cuted this commission, but used every means to induce the inhabitants to consider themselves subjects of the United States ; assuring them that, out of the share of the surplus funds of the general government, about to be granted to Maine, each head of a family would be pre- sented wdth three dollars. Sir John Harvey, now gover- nor of New Brunswick, despatched a messenger, who, after vainly calling upon Greely to desist, made him prisoner and brought him to Fredericton ; where he was kept indeed in very slight confinement, being even allowed, on account of his health, to walk about the town. The American cabinet made loud complaints upon this occurrence, pretending that the simple enumeration of the people could not be considered an act of jurisdiction, or contrary to the understanding between the two coun- tries. The British negotiators strenuously maintained the contrary ; but after a detention of about two months, the period of the commission having expired, Greely was set at liberty. Shortly afterwards he returned with the intention, formally announced in a letter to the governor, of completing his survey ; upon which the solicitor-general went to the spot, and in vain warned him to desist, on penalty of being taken into custody, for which he declared himself fully prepared. The same gentleman then proposed that he should return, and state that he had been forcibly interrupted, tendering a certificate to that effect ; but the other refused to desist on any footing except that of being again placed in con- finement. The wonted discussions were again renewed ; and Maine even threatened, according to a preconceived design, to send another agent, supported by an armed * North American Boundary Correspondence, B, pp. 86, 93, &c. 118, 142. GENERAL SUMMARY. 215 force, which must have produced a warlike collision. Fortunately, Mr Forsyth, the American secretary, ])y a vigorous interposition of official power, averted this vio- lent measure ; and after the lapse of a little time, the ferment having suhsided, the governor solicited the re- lease of Greely, with which, on an understanding that no further steps were to he taken. Sir John Harvey thought it expedient to comply.* Ahout this time, a remonstrance was made on the subject of the railway projected between St Andrews in New Brunswick and Quebec, the proposed line of which passed in part through the disputed grounds. The British Government had encouraged this undertaking, and even subscribed £10,000 towards its execution ; but on a complaint being laid before Lord Palmerston, he at once, in the most conciliatory manner, agreed to suspend this important work till the settlement of the boundary question. + In March 1838 the representatives of Maine, on the report of a committee, passed resolutions expressing their determmation to rest satisfied with nothing short of the entire. demands made by their country. They rejected the proposal either of the award or of a conventional line, and insisted upon a new survey, which they were per- suaded would establish their right to the whole of the Disputed Territory. They further declared, that if the general government, which had already voted 20,000 dollars for the purpose, should not, by itself or in con- junction with Great Britain, set one on foot by the first of September, they alone would take this step. J This violent and restless disposition, during ' the slow progress of the negotiation, impelled the people of Maine to measures more determined, and which threatened to lead to a much more alarming collision than had occur- red at any period of this long-protracted discussion. The Aroostook has been already mentioned§ as a con- • North American Boundary Correspondence, B, pp. 5{}-61, 66, t Papers B, p. 49-51. + Ibid. p. 189-192. § Vol. ii. p. 236. ■i. ,t- m-l ■> i 216 OENERAI. SUMMARY. it... \l 4\' ■il, ' !t.v K . IF' sidcrablc river, flowing through the Disputed Territory eastward to the St John, and having on its banks some extensive forests. The question as to tlie right of owner- ship did not, as was observed, prevent British hunberers from exercising upon it tlieir rude vocation ; and tliis class, nowhere very mild or orderly, being here released from the restraints of law, were little disposed to brook any check upon their operations. Whether these wood- men became more active in their proceedings, or wliether the Americans displayed a greater degree of jealousy, there is no doubt that an extraordinary ferment was ex- cited at Augusta in January 1839. The most regular course would have been, to remonstrate with Sir Jolm Harvey, and propose some mutual arrangement for pre- venting the trespass, which was not dieged to be commit- ted under his sanction ; or, at most, to refer the grievance to the general government, to which the constitution in- trusts all transactions with foreign powers. But de- spising such conciliatory views, the cry arose that Maine should herself proceed to action, and forcibly redress her own wrongs. Governor Fa'riield, sharing this disposition, proposed to the Assembly tliat a land-agent should be sent with an adequate force to accomplish the object now stated, and on the 24th of the month a vote to this effect was readily passed. The party thus employed, finding the lumberers un- prepared for resistance, soon drove them beyond the frontier. Those daring spirits, however, following the bad example set to them by certain Americans, broke open a Government magazine, supplied themselves with arms, and returned to the scene of action. They had then no difficulty in repulsing the intruders, seizing the person of Mr M'Intyre, the agent, whom they carried to Fredericton. The indignation of the citizens of Maine was instantly raised to the highest pitch, and it was de- termined to send a considerable force into the debateable land. This resolution was forthwith executed ; and the trespassers were either driven out or made prisoners ; which last fate befell Mr Maclauchlan, warden of the dis^ GENERAL SUMMARV. 917 trict, who, witlioiit any knowledge of the affair, wa.^ e- turnin^ from a tour of inspection. The British governor, on k^arning this transaction, fvit himself called on to take a decisive part. He addressed a letter to Fairfield, refen'ing to an agreement understood to have heen made between the two governments, to the effect that as long as the claims to the territory in question were undecided, it should remain under the exclusive jurisdiction of England. He therefore de- manded the immediate evacuation of the country thus forcibly occupied, and the lii)eration of Mr Maclauchlan and the others, timt they might be tried by English law. He farther proposed, by placing a boom at the mouth of the Aroostook, to prevent future depredations ; intimat- ing, at the same time, that unless these requests were complied with, troops would advance to enforce them. Fairfield made an answer, not only breathing defiance, but denying in direct terms the existence of any such agreement as that referred to, and calling upon Sir John to state where or when it had been concluded. The truth is, this claim seems to have been made without due consideration, or probably without a full understanding of the instructions received from home ; for no mention of this supposed compact occurs in the whole course of the correspondence. On the contrary, after the rejection of the award, Mr Livingston wrote : — " Until this matter shall be brought to a final conclusion, the necessity of refraining on both sides from any exercise of jurisdiction beyond the boundaries now actually possessed must be apparent.* To this Mr Vaughan, directed by the colonial secretary, replied : — " He is further to assure the secretary of state, that his ma- jesty's government entirely concur with that of the United States, in the principle of continuing to abstain, during the progress of the negotiation, from extending the exercise of jurisdiction within the Disputed Terri- tory beyond the limits within which it has been exer- — — 1. 1 „ . ■ - * Boundary Correspondence, A, p. 14. N'lt ■ - . 218 GENERAL SUMMARY. t.v \'. *r II.Wf lii In 'I «!: |i' I'll? ciscd by the aiitlioritics of either party."* It is some- what 8uii)rising that the American negotiators, wliilc boasting of their careful research into the documents, never lighted upon this j)assage so decisive in their fa- vour. Tliey dwell merely on tlie al)sence of any positive agreement, and on tlie repeated remonstrances made by them respecting English acts of jurisdiction. At Washington, an extraordinary sensation was ex- cited by the report of these proceedings. The Presi- dent sent a message to Congress, describing the occur- rences, justifying the conduct of Maine, and strenuously denying the claim of exclusive jurisdiction ; at the same time recommending that, by some pacific arrangement, all strong measures should be averted till the British cabinet should have an ojipoiiunity of stating its senti- ments. The reports made by committees of both houses concurred in the same views. That of the representative body hinted that Maine would have acted more properly in referring the whole affair to the general government, yet admitted that the pretensions of the English would equally have precluded negotiation with either party. Congress being about to rise, authority was given to the president to place the country in a state of defence, levy- ing if necessary 50,000 volunteers. He was also em- powered to send a special mission to London, with the view of bringing matters to a speedy adjustment. A correspondence, at the same time, was opened be- tween Mr Fox the British ambassa'dor, and Mr Forsyth the American secretary. The former, supporting Sir John Harvey's claim, referred, as a thing well known, to the agreement respecting the exclusive jurisdiction ; and the other party, denouncing this as a " grave error," called upon him to produce evidence in support of it. Mr Fox, evading any direct reply, lamented that the two governments should be found thus at variance, and promised to communicate Mr Forsyth's views to the ministry at home. After some discussion, however, the * Boundary Correspondence, A, p. 22. OKNHUAL SUMMARY. 219 B error. two negotiators agreed in signing a joint memorandum, according to wliicli Maim^ should withdraw iier unucd force, and some mutual arrangement be made for the prevention of trespass. General Scott, meanwhile, wa» despatched to the frontier to take the coiumand of tho troops, and to exert his utmost diligence in prcventmg warlike collision. This treaty was not very acceptable in Maine, where 800,000 dollars had been voted, and 10,000 militia order- ed out, to support her claims. Sir John Ilarvcy, how- ever, had not proceeded to action, having merely station- ed a force to prevent the Americans from advancing. General Scott, on his arrivid, proposed that mutual de- clarations should be signed by the governors of New Brunswick and Maine ; the former bmding himself that he would not, for the present, attempt to take military possession of the territory ; the latter that he would withdraw the troops recently marched into it. Both parties, in the mean time, were to hold the por- tions of which they were in actual possession, but merely with a civil force sufficient to exclude trespassers. These terms were accepted, first by Sir John Harvey, and then by Governor Fairfield, who immediately disbanded the newly levied militia, and sent orders to those who had entered the district to withdraw. Thus the threat- ened collision was averted, and the affair left to be settled by the federal government and the British ministry. Considering the disposition of both these parties, there seems little doubt of an ultimate arrangement on a pacific basis, though it may not be achieved without some difficulty. In the event of any fresh survey, the discrepancy of opinion respecting the rivers falling into the St John must, it is evident, preclude any result in which both can acquiesce. There seems no chance then of an amicable settlement, except by submitting the whole question to another arbitration. In that case, Britain would be fully entitled to demand that the new award shall be accepted, on whatever grounds it may be given, and that no attention shall be paid to any objec- H ,-'. . 41!- A ill! -''*;':^ •■ ilHI I 220 GENERAL SUMMARY. tion on the part of the people of Maine, who at present will listen to no decision which does not put them into possession of the whole territory. A considerable time must, however, elapse ere these arrangements can be completed, during which increas- ing inconvenience and irritation may be felt from tlie district being left waste, and all improvement prevented. We cannot, therefore, help suggesting, whether some agreement might not be entered into, by which each party, in the mean while, should exercise full jurisdiction over the portion assigned to it by the award of the Dutch king. The evils just stated would be thereby remedied ; and even were the negotiation to be indefinitely prolong- ed, this compact might, by prescriptive use, gradually be- come permanent. ''T' ZOOLOGY. CHAPTER V. Notices regarding the principal Zoological Productions of British America. The Quadrupeds—The Birds— The Reptiles— The Fishes— The Insects. , ' .« • V In a former volume of our series, closely connected both in subject and locality with our present disquisi- tion, we entered at considerable length into the Natural History oi the northern regions of the new world.* A large proportion of the zoological productions of British America are there described ; for, as nature draws no sudden lines of demarcation between the animal inhabit- ants of two contiguous regions, so, in describing, as we have already done, the zoology of those vast territories which lie to the northward of the forty-eighth parallel, from the northern portion of Lake Superior to Melville Island, and from Newfoundland and the Eastern Cape, of Labrador, westward to the peninsula of Alaska, we unavoidably included many important features of the natural history of botii the Canadas. Our political di- visions of states and empires do indeed so seldom accord with the true and more characteristic divisions of the physical geography of nature, that we cannot correctly view the distribution of animal life with any reference to our artificial boundaries, because the latter bear no necessary relation either to the influence of climate or the development of organized beings. Thus lUiger, in * See Progress of Discovery on the more Northern Coasts of America, with Descriptive Sketches of the Natural History of the North American Regions. —Edinburj^h Cabinet Library, No. IX. VOL, III. O ",♦ 222 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL j.:;C m- i .1 4 "V i4m 1 l! ill ■ 'i ..It 111 I! r'-iii;;! II!! !ii' 'ili'l, W, ii! Jim his well-known essay on the geography of birds, has erred in viewing those creatures according to their dis- tribution among the five great divisions of the world, — because, as Humboldt has remarked, all these continents, with the exception of Europe, being extended from the temperate to the equatorial zone, the laws of nature cannot manifest themselves when we group the pheno- mena according to divisions wliich are arbitraiy, and depend simply upon the difference of meridians. Our present observations, then, must be taken in con- nexion with and as supplementary to our more extended sketches of the North American zoology contained in the volume just referred to ; for we deem it worse than use- less to repeat the history and description of animals, — inhabitants of Canada and other southern portions of British America, — which we have already characterized as natives of the adjoining though more northern regions. We commence as usual with the class of quadrupeds, Avhich may be said to assume additional importance hi countries where fur-bearing animals are justly regarded as among the most valuable productions of nature, and where vast tracts of territory are unfit for the ordinary purposes either of pastoral or agricultural occupation. None of the monkey tribe inhabit any part of British America. Indeed, we believe, they do not advance farther north than Mexico ; tlie increasing coldness of the climate preventing their migration even into the warmer parts of the 13 nited States.* The bats, shrews, and shrew moles, have been noticed in our former volume. It is certain that several true • Although in Europe we liave apes on the rock of Gibraltar (36th parallel) no quadriiraanous animal has been observed in the new world to the north of the 29th degree. The most northern species are the howlinj^ monkeys (genus Mycetes), and those belonging to the genus Hapale. Both these genera, according to Lichtenstein, are represented in North America by species which occur in the warm tracts by the seashore, as well as in some of the interior val- leys of Mexico. — See Abhandl. der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1827. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 223 moles inhabit America ; but whether, as Dr Harlan and others suppose, any of them is identical with the com- mon mole of Europe, has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Some specimens in the museum of the Zoological Society of London differ from our species in being of smaller size, with a thicker and shorter snout. They were brought from America, but from what precise locality is yet unknown. That singular subterranean animal the long-tailed star-nose (^Condi/lura longi-cau- data)f is believed to inhabit the borders of Lake Supe- rior ; and the radiated mole of Pennant (C. cristatUy Desm.), is found in Canada and the United States. There are probably three or four different kinds of bears in North America ; but neither the grizzly bear, the barren-ground bear, nor the great polar species, in- fest the countries with which we are more immediately occupied, although the last named occasionally travels as far southwards on the coiist of Labrador as the fifty-fifth parallel. However, the black bear ( Ursus niger Ameri- canus) is well known in Canada, and is found wherever wooded districts occur, northwards to the shores of the Arctic Sea, southwards as far as Carolina, and w cstwards across the continent to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, Although this species is the least carnivorous of its kind, yet Dr jL*'cliardsoi: informs us that its strength and agility, combined with its great tenacity of life, render an attack u})on it very hazardous, and its pursuit has always Ijcen considered by the rude inhabitants of the northern regions as a matter of the highest importance. Tliey previously propitiate the whole race of bears by sundry ceremonie;:;, and when an individual is slain they treat it with the utmost respect, address it as a near relation, and offer it a pipe to smoke. This veneration has no doubt arisen from their admiration of the skill and pertinacity with which Bmin defends himself, and it is both curious and interesting to observe how the same feeling is exhibited by various tribes of people, speaking different languages, and inhabiting separate countries.'"' We know from •^ * Fauna Boreali- Americana, part i. p. 17. ■U -^ - * I! ' !tl ,;. .|l^!| ;( "ii i fi 224 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL Regnard that the chase of the bear is regarded ]jy the Laplanders as among the most solemn actions of their life ; and Leems tells us that they never address that ani- mal familiarly by its proper name of Guourhja, but call it " the old man in the fur cloak," because it has the strength of ten men and the sense of twelve. Bear- danceb, in which its movements are imitated, are well known among the recreations of the North American Indians. Alexander Henry, who travelled in Canada and the adjoining territories in the years 1760-76, has furnished us with some valuable and curious remarks regarding the black bear of the new world. While on the banks of Lake Michigan, in the month of January, he observed the trunk of an enormous pine tree much torn, as if by the claws of one ascending and descend- ing. He next noticed a large opening m the upper por- tion, near which the smaller branches were broken off. It was agreed that all his retainers should assemble together next morning, to assist in cutting down the tree, as from the absence of tracks upon the surround- ing snow, it was presumed that a bear had for some time lain concealed within. The tree measured eighteen feet in circumference. Their axes being very light they toiled all day, both men and women, like beavers, till the sun went down, by which time they had got only about half way through the trunk. They renewed the attack next morning, and about two in the afternoon the monarch of the wood reeled and fell. For several minutes after the first crash every thing remained quiescent, and it was feared their labour had been spent in vain ; but just as Mr Henry advanced towards the opening, out came an enormous bear, which he immediately shot. No sooner was the monster dead than his assistants ap- proached, and all took the head in their hands, stroking and kissing it repeatedly, begging its pardon a thousand times, calling it their relation and grandmother, and re- questing it to lay no blame on them, since it was truly an Englishman who had put it to death. " If," adds Mr Henry, " it was I that killed their grandmother, they ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 225 were not themselves behindhand in wliat remained to he performed." The skin was taken off, and tlie fat found to be in several places six inches deep. When divided into two parts it formed a load for two persons, and the fleshy portions were as much as four men could carry. In all, the carcass must have exceeded 500 pounds weight. As soon as they reached the lodge the head was adorned with various trinkets, and laid upon a scaffold, with a large quantity of tobacco near the nose ; and sundry other ceremonies were gone through in the course of the ensuing morning, after which they made a feast of the flesh. According to this author it is only the female bear that makes her lodging in the upper parts of trees, — an instinctive practice by which her future young are secured from the attacks of wolves and other car- nivorous animals. She brings forth in the winter season, and remains in her lodge till the cubs have acquired some strength. The male is said always to lodge in the ground, under the roots of trees. '^' In the latitude of Go° the winter sleep of the bear continues from the beginning of October to the first or second week of May ; but on the northern shore of Lake Huron the period is shorter by two or three months. In very severe winters, numbers of them have been ob- served entering the United States from the northward, all extremely lean, and accompanied by scarcely any females.t Now it is well known that bears never retire to their winter dens until they have acquired a thick coating of fat, and that in remote districts they couple in September, when in good condition from feeding on the wild berries, which are at that time mature and abundant. The females then retire at once to their holes, concealing themselves so carefully that even " the lyncean eye of an Indian hunter very rarely detects them ;" but the males, exhausted by the pursuit of their mates, require ten or twelve days to recover their lost ■ Henry's Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, p. 142. i* Pennant's Arctic Zoology, vol. i. p. 60. • f m l''' 1 *"•' ■• • U : It. ' ' • i- i ^'' ■ i" : f'- • V- ■ '" 'fi'tk 4 ■fi"fi i (: V %'"' », ■ ■'- i' : (.: ■ ^ 1 -' , 1 •■ : *' * I' ■ p. . ' , - ■; ' ■•' C ^' *: i'l » , ., „_ i;- ' *f. i ¥ ^ J '1 J i* i ' M"f-\. f ' "■■■«'•% :;"^';"i' \' ■ ■^•i^. ■ • fJ ■ '* ■ ■ r 4' I- h *.. Ht^ 226 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL fat. " An unusually early winter will, it is evident, operate most severely on the malea, by preventing them from fattening a second time ; hence their migrations at such times to more southerly districts."* It is an error, however, to suppose, as many do, that the black bears generall}'^ abandon the northern districts on the approach of winter, the quantity of skins, as Dr Richardson ob- serves, which are procured during that season in all parts of the fur countries, being a sufficient proof to the con- trary. The females bring forth about the beginning of January, and are supposed to carry for about fifteen or sixteen weeks. The number of cubs varies from one to five according to the age of the mother, who begins to bear long before she has attained her full dimensions.t The next animal we have to notice is the common racoon of North America {Procyon lotor), a fox-like creature, with tli gait of a bear. In a state of nature it sleeps throughout the day, and prowls about during the night in search of fruits, roots, small birds, eggs, and insects. It also frequents the seashore when the tide has ebbed, for the purpose of preying on Crustacea and shell- fish. Although, according to M. Desmarest, it extends as far southwards as Paraguay, it must not be confounded with another species, the crab-eating racoon, properly so called (P. cancrivorus), which is more truly charac- teristic of the southern portions of the New World. The common racoon occurs as far north as Red River, in lat. 50"^. Its fur is used in the manufacture of hats. This well-known animal is often seen in this country in col- lections of wild beasts. Linnseus bestowed upon it its specific name of lotor, from its frequent habit of dipping its food in water. The existence of badgers in America seems to have been a questio vexata among several of the naturalists of last century. BufFon at first doubted their occurrence in that continent, and the New York animal described by M. Brisson under the title of Meles alba, has since * Fauna Boreali- Americana, part i. p. 17. •i Ibid. 'W^' : IS an error. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 227 proved to be merely a white variety of the racoon ; but the former naturalist afterwards descri^^ed a true badger, said to have been received from Labrador, under the er- roneous name of carcajou. Now the true carcajou is the wolverene {Gulo luscus). It has since, however, l)een satisfactorily ascertained, that a species of badger, distinct from the European kind, is extensively distri- buted in North America. Its existence in Labrador, as presumed by the great French naturalist, is still doubt- ful, but it is known to inhabit the prairies which skirt the rocky mountains, and the vast plains of the Missouri, although its southern range has not been well defined. It is frequent further north, in the neighbourhood of Carlton House, on the banks of the Saskatchawan, as well as on those of the Red River which flows into Lake Winnipeg. These districts, in fact, are so perforated by innumerable badger holes as to prove a serious annoy- ance to horsemen, especially after a fall of snow. These excavations are only in part dug by the animals them- selves, the majority being merely enlargements of the burrows of marmots, which they not only dispossess but devour. The American badger is of a mottled or lioary gray colour above, and whitish on the n ider sur- face. Its fur is very soft and fine. It is iuV^ more car- nivorous than the European species, and, at least in the more northern districts, passes the winter in a torpid state. We include this animal in our present enu- meration, because M. Desmarest informs us that " il en est venu en France, qui avaient ete pris au Canada."* The true carcajou or wolverene is well known in that country, and is spread over the whole of the northern portions of America, from the coast of Labra- dor to the Pacific Ocean. It is generally supposed to be synonymous with the glutton of the north of Europe, call- ed rossomak by the Russians, of which the history, as handed down to us by Buffon, and copied by most ensu- ing writers, is nearly as imaginary as was that of the sloth prior to Mr Waterton's observations. But whether • Mammalogie, p. 174. f '. - ' M^'' 228 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL i Baron Cuvier is correct in his belief of this identity or otherwise, the wolverene of America is described by Dr Richardson as a carnivorous animal, which feeds chiefly upon the carcasses of beasts that have been killed by accident. It possesses great strength, and frequently annoys the hunters by destroying their hoards of provi- sions, and demolishing their martin-traps. It is sly and suspicious, and will rarely enter a snare, but rather pulling it cautiously to pieces from behind, it scatters the logs of which it is composed, and then carries off the bait. It also preys on meadow-mice and marmots, and occasionally on such quadrupeds of a larger size as have been disabled. The wolverene is supposed to do more damage to the small fur trade than all other vermin put together. It will follow a martin-hunter's path round a line of traps extending from forty to sixty miles, and render the whole useless by eating off the partridge- heads or other baits. Though not fond of the martins themselves, they never fail, as it were from sheer spite and mischief, to tear them in pieces, and bury them beneath the snow. Foxes are often seen to follow the wolverene that they may benefit by his wastefulness. Next to the polar bear this animal is one of the most northern of all known quadrupeds, — its bones having been picked up on Melville Island, nearly in latitude 75°. We are not well acquainted with its southern range, but Dr Harlan describes it as an inhabitant of Canada, and of the uncultivated parts of the United States, where its depredations are often experienced by the Indians.* The preceding species, that is, the bears, racoons, and gluttons, belong to the tribe of carnivorous quadrupeds called Plantigrades f so named because in walking they place the entire sole of the foot upon the ground. But we now enter upon the Digitigrades, which also derive their title from their peculiar mode of locomotion. The heel does not touch the ground, and the act of walking is per- formed as it were upon the toes. The whole race of dogs, cats, and martins, may be named as familiar ex- • Fauna Boreali-Araericana, p. 60. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 229 amples. Like most of our attempts, however, at a general arrangement, founded upon a single attribute, we find the principle somewhat imperfect in its applica- tion, or at least admitting of exceptions in relation to the character prescribed, in so far as several species might be adduced which truly agree with their digiti- grade congeners in their prevailing features, but approach the plantigrades in their mode of locomotion. Tixe genuine digitigrades, however, are among the most active of their tribe ; and as agility is an almost in- dispensable adjunct in the habits of a truly carnivorous creature, we find that these light-footed kinds are at the same time the most exclusively flesh-eating of all the ferine order.* The first subdivision of the tribe corre- sponds to the old genus Mustela of Linnaeus, and includes all those small, insidious, slender-bodied animals which in Britain are usually named vermin, such as weasels, pole- cats, and others, — the vermiyiium genus of Ray. They are extremely bloodthirsty and destructive in proportion to their size, and destroy great quantities of game in woods and fields and moorish mountains, — committing also cruel ravages in poultry -yards and other domestic en- closures, especially of our remoter country dwellings. The occurrence of our common weasel (^Mustela vul- garis) in North America, has been, like that of the badger, a disputed point. Although it is described by Dr Harlan as " abounding in the Atlantic states,'" it is omitted by Dr Godman in his American Natural History, and the Prince of Musignano regards the so-called com- mon weasel of the United States as merely the ermine in its brown or summer coat. Both species, however, are described by Dr Richardson as indubitable inha- bitants of the New World. Weasels, agreeing in all respects with those of Europe, have been killed by Cap- tain Bayfield on the borders of Lake Superior. They become as white as ermines during winter in the fur countries. The last-named animals, which we call stoats {^M. erminea), are well known in British America, occur- * Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7tli ed. vol. xiv. p. 108. .. "•. , ^».* . > i tit- 230 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL f^» ; . ' yi 1 i4 i .' .*,, Ill ring from the most noi-them limits of the continent to the central districts of the United States. Although with us a shy and furcive creature, and seldom ap- proaching nearer to liuniau dwellings than to poultry- sheds and pigeon-houses, yet forced, we may suppose, ]»y the greater rigour of the climate, it often domesti- cates itself in the hahitations of the fur traders, and may be heard the livelong night pursuing the white-footed mouse (^Mus leucojyuf/)* The lamented Captain Lyon has described to us the manners of a captive ermine : " He was a fierce little fellow, and the instant he ob- tained daylight in his new dwelling, he flew at the bars and shook them with the greatest fury, uttering a very shrill passionate cry, and emitting the strong musky smeii which I formerly noticed. No threats or teasing could induce him to retire to the sleeping-place, and whenever he did so of his own accord, the slightest rub- bing on the bars was sufficient to bring him out to the attack of his tormentors. He soon took food from the hand, but not i ntil he had first used every exertion to reach and bite the fingers which convej'^ed it."t The vison, or American minx, is another species of this genus (ilf. vison), well known in Canada and the northern and middle states. It greatly resembles the Musteld lutreola of Pallas, an animal remarkable for its amphibious habits, and very common in Finland and other parts of the north and east of Europe from the Icy to the Black Sea, but not, as Erxleben erroneously supposed, a native of the New World. The American animal is the minx- otter of Pennant. Both species prey much on fish, reptiles, and aquatic insects, and the latter is easily tamed. " One," says Dr Richardson, " which I saw in the possession of a Canadian woman, passed the day in her pocket, looking out occasionally, when its attention was roused by any unusual noise." The fur of the vison, though fine and short, is not at present held * Fauna Boreali-Americana, p. 46. •j- Private Journal, p. 107. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 231 in much esteem. This species ranges almost as far north as the "Oth clc. m h) 3' 238 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL able value in commerce. The lynx of the north of Europe (Felis borealis, Temm.) is of an ashy-gray, vary- ing to brown and hoary, the fur being extremely full ; and naturalists are now inclined to recur to the opinion of Pennant, that the Canada lynx (jP. Canadenm, Geoff.) and that species are identical. According to Dr Richardson, the American breed are timid crea- tures, incapable of attacking any of the larger quadru- peds, but well fitted for the capture of the hare, on which, it is said, they chiefly prey. They make a poor fight when surprised by a hunter on a tree ; for though they spit like cats, and set up their hair in anger, they are easily killed, even with a slender stick, by a blow across the back. They are excellent swimmers, and have been seen to cross the arm of a lake two miles in width. Their flesh is wliite and tender, though rather flavourless, and is used as food by the natives. From fifteen to twenty thousand skins of this species are pro- cured annually by the Hudson's Bay Company. Several other lynxes inhabit North America, but do not, so far as we know, enter the countries to which our present work is restricted. The amphibious family of the camiyorous order of quadrupeds, such as the seals and morses, are so imper- fectly known even in Europe, that we can scarcely as yet look for any very accurate information regarding the American species. Calocephalus lagurus of F. Cuvier was transmitted from Newfoundland by M. de la Pilage, and the leonine seal {Stemmatopus cristatus) is known to descend much farther south on the Atlantic shore than elsewhere, one having been taken near New York. It is described as a distinct species by Fischer, under the name of mitrata. The gigantic walrus (Trichechus rosmarus) makes its way southwards along the coast of Labrador as far as the Magdalen Islands, in the 47th parallel. The order which contains the pouched or marsupial quadrupeds is assuredly among the most remarkable in the zoological kingdom. They are distinguished by the -J:;j IS order of ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 239 peculiar and premature production of their young, the majority of which are born in a state comparable only to tliat exhibited by the foetal condition of other animals soon after conception. Thus the Virginian opossum, when first brought forth, does not weigh above a single grain, though its parent is as large as a full-grown cat ; and the gigantic kangaroo of New Holland, which occa- sionally attains to the weight of nearly 200 pounds, produces a pair of young ones each about an inch long. Incapable of voluntary movement, destitute of distinct sensation, and with the external organs in a rudimentary condition, the feeble offspring becomes attached (in a manner and by means as yet but scarcely known) to the mammse of the mother, and adheres to them continu- ously till such time as it has attained the ordinary capabilities of a new-born creature ; and even long after that period, it continues to seek repose and refuge within its parent's lap, which for that purpose is providently furnished with an ample pouch, within which the nip- ples are contained. Two spiral bones attached to the pubis, and interposed between the muscles of the abdo- men, support the pouch, and are found to occur at the same time, not only in the females of certain species, in which the bag is scarcely perceptible, but also in the males, in which it does not exist. In their geographical distri- bution, these singular quadrupeds seem confined entirely to Australia, North and South America, and one or tw(» islands in the Eastern Seas. They are entirely unknown in Europe, Africa, and continental Asia. Tlie genus DidelpMs contains the most anciently known of the marsupial tribes, and is peculiar to America. The spe- cies are distinguished by the general name of opossunu: They are nocturnal animals, resembling martins in their habits, though less active in their movements. Their intelligence is said to be very limited ; a fact in curious conformity with the entire absence of all folds or con- volutions of the brain, and according with the theory of M. Desmoulins, that the intellectual faculties are in the ,? * ',!! ( i^ii 1* 'i'': ! ■^ yi: •• - " '■*■.' : «' ^ .•■y% •. r,i. Irdil r.' M"'^ ■J .^ ■ 5i* <*■ 'Vl '•■■»■ 240 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL mu m' mm- V^- K 4V. ■^H IS .|'u ■fii: I ill! direct ratio of the extent of the cerebral surfaces.* They dwell ill woods, where they climb the branches of trees, feeding on birds, eggs, reptiles, insects, and fruits. They enter farmyards, and commit great damage by sucking the blood of poultry. One of the best known of this genus is the Virginian opossum (Z). Virginiana, Penn.), which is spread over a great extent of country from Paraguay to the great northern lakes, and abounds in the middle states. It lives in fields and woods, and often enters houses during the night, in search of domestic birds or other prey. It brings forth upwards of a dozen at a birth, which at first do not weigh above a grain each. They adhere to the teat instinctively, and continue attached to it till they are as large as mice and become covered with hair. The first or inner gestation lasts about six-and-twenty days, and the excluded young continue in the pouch nearly twice that term. Azara has seen them carried along by their mother, by means of their little tails, all twisted around that of their parent. Dr Harlan informs us that this species is sluggish in captivity, and by no means ferocious. It captures its prey by artifice rather than by chase ; and the tail being prehensile, or possessed of the power of grasping, enables it to suspend itself from the branch of a tree, from whence it sometimes falls upon and seizes its unsuspecting prey. When disco- vered, it seldom attempts to escape ; but its cunning in simulating death, with a viev^ to avoid destruction, is proverbial. Though a flesh-eating animal, it is in a manner omnivorous, and is extremely fond of persim- mons and apples. The flesh of the female is used as food, and when roasted bears no inconsiderable resem- blance to the flavour of a young pig. The male emits rather a strong odour.t * See Tiederaan's Icon. Cereb. et quer. Mammal, rar. tab. 5, fiiT. 9; and the article Cerebro-Spinal of the Diction, classique d'Hist. Nat. t. iii. p. 3fil. •j- Fauna Boreali- Americana, p. 120. m- t,Mi ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 241 We now enter the order Glires, or gnawers, of which the genera confine themselves chiefly to a vegetable diet, by which is meant not only leguminous plants, but grain, grasses, fruits, nuts, and other productions of the earth. They derive their name of gnawers from their mode of eating, which consists in the reduction of their food by a continuous action of the front teeth into very small particles, instead of tearing it like the car- nivorous tribes, or grinding it by a lateral motion, as practised by the ruminating kinds. Among the Kodentia, or gnawers, the lower jaw is so articulated as to admit, in addition to the vertical movement, which necessarily obtains in a' . the higher animals, of a motion back- wards and forwards, but not lateral ; and in beautiful adaptation to this structure, the raised plates of the molar teeth are placed transversely, so as to act in more direct opposition to the confined horizontal movement of the jaw, — thus aiding the power of trituration. A few of the species (with more sharply tuberculated molars) are somewhat carnivorously inclined, aiid seve- ral of the murine kinds may be said to be nearly omni- vorous. Of these, through the unintentional agency of man, many have become colonized in countries most remote from the places of their origin. The Rodentia are creatures of a timid disposition, and of habits for the most part nocturnal. The majority of hybernating animals belong to this order. The most remarkable species are the beavers, — ^genus Castar, Linn. Naturalists have not yet succeeded in establishing any distinctive characters between the gre- garious beavers of North America and the few isolated pairs which still establish their less republican dwellings along the banks of a few great European rivers, such as the Rhone, the Rhine, and the Danube. The latter description have a somewliat paler fur, and are of rather smaller dimensions. The best history of the American beaver is that given by Hearne ; which, however, we shall not here record, as we have already had occasion '.'^ 1 i f • I 242 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL ■ < '■»'■ .■* '' - i: ^ 1 \ 1 h-:, .....t b' 'f; to quote it in a former volume of our Cabinet Librarj'.* "We shall only add the curious particular, that when beavers intend to erect a new habitation, although they seldom begin building it till towards the latter end of August, like good carpenters they fell the wood early in summer. Dr Richardson informs us that the flesh of tliese animals is much prized by the Indians and Cana- dian voyagers, especially when roasted in the skin after tlie hair has been singed off. The enjoyment of this expensive luxury is of course restrained as much as possible by the fur traders. Beavers pair in Februar}-, caiTy their young about ten weeks, and bring forth from four to eight cubs by the middle or end of May. Pennant fixed the limit of their geographical distribu- tion in a southerly direction about lat. 80°, not far from tlie Gulf of Mexico, while Mr Say, a more recent writer, assigns as their boundary in that direction the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi, about seven degrees farther northwards.t In the higher latitudes their extension seems restricted by the absence or deficiency of wood, — the districts called the barren -grounds not yielding enough, even of willows, for their subsistence. But where other circumstances are suitable, they are in no way deterred by the intensity or long endurance of cold, many being known to occur as high as latitude 68°, on the banks of the Mackenzie, the largest and best wooded of all the American rivers that discharge them- selves into the icy basin of the Polar Sea. The Iroquois are the greatest beaver-catchers in Canada. Great injury, however, has resulted from the indiscriminate capture of old and young, and the too frequent trenching of the same dams. It is known that in the year 1743 the amount of their skins brought into the ports of london and Rochelle exceeded 150,000, besides a considerable quan- • Northern Coasts of America, p. 334-336. f The late Mr Bartram is stated by Dr Harlan to have indi- cated (in his MS. notes) two species of beaver as inhabiting the United States ; viz. the " great beaver of Canada," and the " lesser beaver of Florida and Carolina." ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 243 tity introduced illicitly into Great Britain ; while in 1837 the importation into London, from more than four times the extent of fur country compared with that formerly possessed, did not much exceed 80,000.* The musk-rat, or musquash of Canada, has been de- scribed in our former volume. The Indian hunters spear this kind through the walls of its mud house. It is the only one of its genus as yet distinctly known, and may be characterized as an animal of amphibious habits, mea- suring above a foot in length, with a thick flattish body, a short head, indistinct neck, thighs hid in the body, very short legs, and large hind feet. It extends over nearly forty degrees of latitude, from 30° to 69° north, and feeds chiefly on vegetables, though not averse to fresh- water muscles during the summer season. It is ex- tremely prolific, sometimes bringing forth three broods in a single season, but is often checked in its numbers by a great mortality which ensues at uncertain intervals from some unknown cause. They also frequently de- vour each other, when reduced to famine by the freezing up of the swamps from which they are accustomed to derive " moist nutriment." The ArmcolcB or meadow-mice are frequent in America, although some authors have assigned them exclusively to the ancient continent. We shall here mention only A. Fenn^ylvanica of Mr Ord, a species which greatly re- sembles our short-tailed field-mouse (^.o^re*^i«), with which some regard it as identical. It is common in the United States, and extends northwards through Canada as far as Great Bear Lake. It multiplies with much rapidity in the neighbourhood of the trading posts, and seeks shelter in bams and outhouses, where it accumu- lates hoards of grain and seeds. It is also very fond of bulbous roots, and is injurious to river plantations, by making holes in the banks. The lemmings (Genus Georychus, Illiger) scarcely differ from the preceding except in the shortness of their •^ III ■ — — — iwi * Encyc. Brit. xiv. 138 ; and Fauna Boreali-Americana, i. 108. .«;*'t M J:' ir 244 11 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL 1 »*■ k • * ,1 ■ -, it'- ■■( , it,' 1 1 U ears and tail, and in their larger and stronger claws, by wliich they are well fitted for digging under ground. These animals are rather characteristic of districts lying to the north of those witli the natural history of which we are here engaged, — the Hudson's Bay species being indeed one of the most northerly of known quadruped . It does not appear to have l)een as yet met with in the interior parts of th^ country, but inhabits Labrador, Hudson's Straits, the coast from Churchill to the ex- tremity of Melville Peninsula, and the desolate islands of the Polar Sea. Its natural habits are but imperfectly ascertained , but Ileame states, that it is so easily tamed, that, if captured even when full grown, it will in a day or two become so reconciled to captivity as voluntarily to creep into its master's bosom. It has no external ears, and scarcely any tail, and (a character by which it pro- bably stands as yet distinguished from all other known animals) a pair of claws upon the middle fore-toe."'*" The genus M us, though still of great extent, is now restricted to the rats and mice properly so called, an omnivorous and troublesome race, which, though not indigenous to America, have pertinaciously followed man in his almost universal migrations, and have now colonized extensively throughout the Western World. Indeed, wherever European nations have won their way, tiiese small but adventurous creatures have accompanied the merchant or the mariner ; and from the forlorn set- tlements of the fur traders of America to the populous cities of the south of Asia, their sly and furtive habits have been the source of equal annoyance. We must therefore now view them in their character of cosmo- * " Les deux doigts du milieu," says Baron Cuvier, " aux pieds de devant du male out I'air d'avoir les ongles doubles parceque la peau du bout du doi^t est calleuse, et fait une saillie sous la pointe de I'ongle — conformation qui ne s'est encore rencontree que dans cet animal " — Regne Animal, i. 208. Dr Richardson, however, informs us that the lower layer of the claw appeared to him to be not an enlargement of the callus, but rather of the same substance as the su- perior portion or nail proper. See Fauna Boreali- Americana, i. 133. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA, 245 politcs, and as deserving under that character of a brief notice in the present work. The common or brown rat of Britain (^Mus decumnnim) is usually regarded as an animal of eastern origin, a native of Persia and Hindustan, whieli made its appear- ance in the western countries of Europe only during tlie earlier half of last century. It is a bolder and more powerful species than its predecessor the black rat, which it is alleged, on no well-founded evidence that we know of, to liavc nearly extirpated. It was unknown even in the maritime towns of France prior to 1750, and accordmg to Pallas was not observed in Russia or Siberia before the year 1766. About that period they were seen to ad- vance in great bands towards the embouchure of the Wolga, and in the towns of Astracan and Jaitzkoi- Gorodok, appearing to come rather from the western desert, that is, from the European side. It is now well known in America, and is very common in Lower Canada. Dr Richardson, however, was infomied so lately as 1825, that it had not then advanced much be- yond Kingston in Upper Canada. Dr Harlan states, on the testimony of an eyewitness, that it had not pre- sented itself in the United States any length of time previous to the year 1775. The black rat (^Mus rattus) is an animal of smaller dimensions than the preceding, with a less head and sharper muzzle. It is equally omnivorous, but not so productive. Its original country is still more doubtful. Ancient writers make no mention of it, and the prevailing belief is, that it made its way into Europe during the middle ages. Though now comparatively rare in Britain, it is still the prevailing species in several portions of the ad- joining continent. Dr Harlan is inclined to believe that this species was indigenous to the United States, but he does not state the ground of that peculiar opinion. It was very numerous there between sixty and seventy years ago, but has become rare along the Atlantic coast since the arrival of the brown or Norway species. It is found, however, though by no means frequently, in the • i 1 't '- ■ ■ ■* /■; .■ ■■>,•'' '■■\ ■ 246 NOTICES UEGARDTNO THE PRINCIPAL I' I Western States, having, like the native Indians, receded before its European invaders.* It has not been ob- aerved in any part of the more northern fur eountries. Our common domestic mouse (Mu« rnusculus, Linn.), though originally an imported species, is now >\ell known both in Canada and the United States. The long-tailed field-mouse (3/. .sylvaticus) of Europe seems represented in America by Mus kucopus, a prying noc- turnal creature which does great mischief in gardens and maize plantations. It also dwells in human habitations, and is very generally mistaken for the British domestic mouse by our residents at Hudson's Bay. The genus Gerbillus contains species peculiar to the warmer regions of the Old World. They may be de- scribed as long-footed rats, allied in many respects to the jerboas, with which indeed they have been fre- quently confounded. The genus Meriones, F. Cuv., was formed by separation from that just named, and contains species distinguished by the greater length of the hind legs, the nakedness of the tail, and the existence of a very small tooth in front of the molars of the upper jaw. These latter are American, and the best known among them is that called the jumping mouse of Canada, described as a jerboa by General Davis. It is an animal of the dimensions of a mouse, with a very long tail, and of the most extreme agility, as the following extract will serve to show : — " The first I was so fortunate to cfttch," says General Davis, " was taken in a large field near the Falls of Montmorenci, and by its having strayed too far from the skirts of a wood, allowed myself, as- sisted by three other gentlemen, to surround it, and after an hour's hard chase, to get it unhurt, though not before it was thoroughly fatigued, which might accelerate its death. During the time the animal remained in its usual vigour, its agility was incredible for so small a creature. It always took progressive leaps of from three to four, and sometimes of five yards, although seldom above twelve or fourteen inches from the surface of the — *. — - i»- — ■ — — - — - — — . , — ^i- » * Fauna Boreali- Americana, p. 149. ■ i Zf>OLOOICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 24? ^rass ; but I hftvc frequently observed others in shrubby places, and in the woods, anion^; phiuts, where they chiefly reside, leap considerably hi^dier. When found in such places it is impossible to take them, from their wonderful agility, and their evading all pui-suit by boun ■'.; '■ > ■ -J- 1-- "■■ , ■.. ^ Nl» 4-. -•■ ?!IM1 ''••"-IM-fft 1 lu. .. It k*' 'U I ■ V* ,: ', :* »i 'I 1 Mv ^'1 I' ••,1 250 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL marked by alternate bands of black and white. Dr Ricliardson describes it as a lively restless creature, very troublesome to the hunters, and often provoking them to destroy it on account of its angry cheruping noise, by which it is apt to alarm the other inhabitants of the forest. "When the snow disappears many small collec- tions of hazel nuts, from which the kernel has been ex- tracted by a minute hole in the side, are found on the ground near the holes of this species. It scarcely ever ascends trees by its own free will, but makes its nest in holes on the edges of rocks, and Mr Say informs us that its domicile is filled with an extraordinary assemblage of the burs of xanthium, branches and other portions of the large upright cactus, and small branches of pine trees, and other productions, sufficient in some cases to fill a cart. This kind is rather characteristic of the more western territories of America, and is well known on the Rocky Mountains, near the sources of the Arkansas and the Platte. It has, however, been found at the south end of Lake Winnipeg, in lat. 50°, and is common throughout the woody districts as far north as Great Slave Lake. In conmion with the hackee, already noticed, it is named Le Suisse by the French Canadians, an appellation which, says Father Theodat, arose from their skins being i-ayed with black, white, red, and gray, and thus resembling the breeches of the Switzers who formed the Pope's guard. The black squirrel (Sciurus nige7', Linn.) is not un- common on the northern shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, but is not supposed to extend further north than the 5()th parallel. It has by some been regarded as only a black variety of *S^. cinereus or capistratus, but Dr Harlan says it is distinguished from the dark- coloured individuals of the latter species by the shortness of its tail, and from those of the former by the softness of its hair, and by its nose and ears not being regularly white. We may add that in its geographical distribu- tion it extends farther north than either of the other two. The gray squirrel, however, is also found in Canada, ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 251 i common although probably less abundantly than in the Union. " The}^ inhabit Pennsylvania," says Dr Harlan, " and most parts of the United States ; they appear to retire before the intrusion ..^ a smaller species (^S. Hudsonius). In 1749, a premium of threepence a-head was offered for their destruction, which amounted in one year to £8000 sterling, which is equal to about 1,280,000 individuals killed." The flying squirrels, so called, belong to the genus Pteromys of Cuvier, and are characterized by an exten- sion of the skin, which extends laterally from the fore to the hind legs, and thus by acting as a parachute, or rather as an inclined plane, affords great facility in the act of leaping. We believe there are two or three species in North America. Pt. volucella is common in the United States, and occurs occasionally in the southern parts of Canada. It was erroneously named polatoiiciie by Buffon, from the Russian word polatucka, which ap- plies to a European species. The American animal liv^s wellin captivity, is frequently brought aliveto ourshores, and is even said to have bred at Malmaison in 1809, The Severn river flying squirrel (P^. sabrinus) nearly res(!mbles Pt. volans of Europe. It is a Canadian species, and has been observed at Penetanguishine on Lake Huron, as well as at the more northern locality of Moose Factory, James's Bay. It does not, however, seem to extend farther north than lat. 52°, at least in tlie east; m .1 !. I1fl''t> ^'- 1 I-"'*' 'i 11 »J! :]^* ^ ! ■■'■ ^ ' I rir-* fl 252 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL with such rapidity that the scarcity of museum speci- mens has heen attributed to the facility with which it escapes pursuit by passing through the soil. It casts up mounds of loose earth, which have no exterior opening, and vary in dimensions from the diameter of a few inches to that of several yards. Mr Say observes that the habits of this creature are so entirely subterranean that it is rarely seen, and many persons have lived even for years surrounded by their little edifices without having ever observed the singular beings by whose labours they are produced. A more northern animal, apparently of the same genus, is described by Dr Richardson under the title of mole-shaped sand-rat. It inhabits the banks of the Sas- katchawan, lives entirely under ground, and throws up mounds like molehills, ])ut much larger. In winter it probably sleeps some months, or confines itself to its old galleries, as the ground must be then too severely frozen to admit of its working. It is found only in sandy banks, and its food is presumed to consist of roots; at least, however much it may resemble our European mole in its other habits, it can scarcely prey on earthworms, as these do not exist in the districts it inhabits. The same traveller was informed by a gentle- man who for forty years had superintended the cultiva- tion of considerable pieces of ground on the banks of the Saskatchawan, that during the whole of that period he had never seen a single worm.* The Canada porcupine (Hystrix dorsata) has been sufficiently noticed in our former volume, wheie we have also characterized the various species of hares which inhabit North America.t On the history of these then we need not here dilate. The countries with which we are at present con- cerned do not, so far as we are infonned, produce any animals of the pachydermatous or thick-skinned order. Two imported species, however, of great value, are now * Fauna Boreali-Americana, note to page 204. •j- See Northern Coasts of America, p. 340-343. n speci- which it casts up opening, w inches that the esLD. that even for it having OUTS they the same le title of f the Sas- hrows up . winter it self to its ) severely d only in consist of nible our L'cely prey istricts it a gentle- e cultiva- tnks of the period he ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 253 well known, viz. the horse and the hog. There are no wild horses in British America, although herds of these animals, descendants from the Spanish stock of Mexico, abound on the vast prairies which extend westwards from the Mississippi. Domestic ones are regarded as objects of great value by many of the wandering tribes of North American Indians, — " for they are not only useful in transporting their tents and families from place to place, but one of the highest objects of the am- bition of a young Indian is to poasess a good horse for the chase of the buffalo, — an exercise of which they are passionately fond. To steal the horses of an adverse tribe is considered to be nearly as heroic an exploit as killing an enemy on the field of battle ; and the dis- tance to which they occasionally travel, and the priva- tions they undergo on their horse-stealing excursions are almost incredible. An Indian who owns a horse scarcely ever ventures to sleep after nightfall, but sits at his tent-door with the halter in one hand and his gun in the other, the horse's fore-legs being at the same time tied together with thongs of leather. Notwithstanding all this care, however, it often happens that the hunter, suffering himself to be overpowered by sleep for only a few minutes, awakes from the noise made by the thief galloping off with the animal."'^" Neither is the hog indigenous to any portion of Ame- rica ; but the European settlers now possess many of the domestic varieties, some of which, Dr Harlan states, have been allowed to run wild, and propagate in the western forests. These emancipated hordes have even in a measure regained both their native ferocity and their original characteristics. Their ears in many in- stances have become erect ; and when attacked by bears or other enemies, they unite together for common safety, and forming themselves into a solid triangle, the strongest males with their front to the enemy, the young collected in the centre, they present so formidable a phalanx as to deter the onset even of the most determined foe. • Fauna Boreaii-Americana, p. 231. VOL. III. Q • • • . i »- ' '*, ■ * «l ,f „t .^•v ' • s^to'i^M ( ..« ■ ■fyM : '4:''r'^' ill ■■■^ •lift '■■'i ! yrmh >':h '■ 4'- . * ? ff- < ■'*'. 4 .r 254 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL I «1 't .!■:■ in'*" The deer tribe of North America has been already treated of in some detail in our volume on the Northern Coasts. We need scarcely recall the reader's attention to these magnificent animals, of which the species, though greatly diversified in size and aspect, are all remarkable for their graceful forms, their light but strong pro- portions, and the energy and activity of their general movements. They have long been regarded with great interest by the human race, not more as constituting noble objects of chase, than as affording the choicest subjects for the larder. The genus seems distributed over all the gi'eater divisions of the earth, with the ex- ception of New Holland ; and its numerous species have in recent years been arranged in many groups, not neces- sary to be here named. Two remarkable species, the rein-deer and the elk, seem common to the northern parts of Europe and America, — ^five or six are peculiar to North America, — about an equal number charac- terize the New World, to the south of the equator, — while a still greater variety inhabit China, India, and the great eastern islands. The generality of deer vary in colour according to age and season, and are moreover subject to those peculiar constitutional changes known to physiologists under the names of albinism and melanism^ — the former term being applicable to the white or pale- coloured varieties, the latter to those of a darker hue. A white stag is however of extremely rare occurrence, and M. Desmoulins has remarked the singular cir- cumstance, that this variety is found more frequently in equatorial regions than in the colder countries of the north, — a proof perhaps that the intensity of light and heat are but secondary causes in the production of animal colours.'"' The elk or moose-deer (Cervus alces) is the most gigan- tic of the genus. Although formerly found as far south as the Ohio, it now seldom occurs even in the more northern parts of the Union, and the Bay of Fundy may - -I -* I a 1111 I I - II - - ,- ■ * Encyc Brit. vol. xiv. p. 158. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 255 be regarded as its southern boundary on the eastern coast. Small herds inhabit Canada. The rein-deer (C. tarandus) is another familiar species common to both the New and Old World ; but it is remarkable that while the nomadian tribes of the north of Europe have reduced it to a state of domestication, in which it is of the most essential service to those forlorn tribes, neither Esquimaux nor Indian has in any way availed himself of its capability of being thus reduced to servitude. We are not specially informed how far south this animal extends in America, although we believe that New Brunswick forms its southern boundary on the Atlantic coast. Pennant assigns the northern parts of Canada as its most southern range. Dr Harlan does not state on what authority he regards it as an inhabitant of the state of Maine. Charlevoix, whose work was published some sixty years ago, informs us that in his time it was so unusual for the rein-deer to advance even as far south as Quebec, that he never knew of more than a single instance of its occurrence there. The solitary specimen he alludes to, on being pursued, had precipitated itself from Cape Diamond, and swimming across the St Law- rence, was killed by some Indians encamped on Point Levi. It is still well known, however, both in the island of Newfoundland and in Labrador, and under a more northerly parallel stretches quite across the conti- nent as far as the Pacific shores. There is no reason whatever for supposing that the European representative of this species ever existed among the mountains of the Pyrenees, or in any of the southern countries of Europe,* although we doubt not it extends to a lower latitude than the 60th parallel, its usually supposed boundary. Julius Caesar, while stating truly the fact of the female rein-deer being provided with horns (an uncommon cir- cumstance in the females of this tribe), records that it was an inhabitant of the Hercynian forest, that • See " Note sur la pretendue existence du Renne en France •lans le raoyen age," in Ossemcns Fossiles, t. vi. p. 119 (4th edit. 1B36). •">. .'i*-> ^ •.-»* 'v'fltf 71!. v-J; '■M 256 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL '•«^ ''t V* IK mr b*'. " boundless contiguity of shade" which is supposed to have extended as far as the Uralian Mountains ; and in truth, a vast quantity of rein-deer bones are still found in the sandy banks of the Oleina, a stream which flows into the Wolga, about forty wcrsts below Sarepta. Pal- las observes that the steppes to the east of that river were of old clothed with forests, and herds of wild rein- deer are still found among- the pine woods which extend from the banks of the Oufa, under the 65th degree, to those of Kama. Indeed they are said to proceed even farther south, along the woody summits of that prolonga- tion of the Uralian Mountains which stretches between the Don and the Wolga, as far as the 46th degree. The si)ecies thus advances almost to the base of the Cauca- sian Mountains, along the banks of the Kouma, where scarcely a winter passes without a few being shot by the Kalmucks, under a latitude two degrees south of Astra- can.* This remarkable inequality of the polar distances in the geographical positions of this species, according to the difference of meridian, is of course dependent on the laws which regulate the distribution of heat over the earth's surface, as explained by the illustrious Hum- boldt, t We cannot, however, withoiit an undue digres- sion, enter into that interesting subject in this place. We shall merely mention the well-known fact, that physical climates do not lie, as it were, in bands parallel to the equator, but that the isothermal lines recede from the pole in the interior of continents, and advance to- wards it as we approach the shores. It thus follows that the farther any northern animal is naturally removed from the ameliorating climatic influence of the ocean, the more extended may be its range in a southerly direction. The red-deer of America, as described by Mr Warden and other authors (Cervus Canadensis, Gmelin, (7. stron- gyloceros, Schreber), is quite a distinct species from the animal so named in Britain, being about a fourth larger, * Encvc. Brit. vol. xiv. p. 159. •f* In the Meraoires d'Arcueil, t. iii. lifj ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 25? and farther distinguished by the extreme shortness of its tail. It is also a much more stupid creature, — at least so says Hearne. It was imported into this country a good many years ago under the name of wapiti, but we know not if any now survive. We introduce its name here on account of its being frequently called the Canadian stag, although in truth it does not seem to exist along the Atlantic coast of America, but is confined to the more western territories. It is well known among clum{)6 of wood along the plains of the Saskatchawan, — living in small families of six or seven combined. Two male wapitis were once found near Edmonton-house, lying dead, their horns firmly locked within each other. They had probably been fighting for the females, and thus died martyrs to their love of gallantry. The flesh of this American red-deer is coarse and dry, being very deficient in the usual juiciness of venison. It is also very slightly prized by the native tribes ; chiefly, however, on account of its fat being hard like suet ; but its hide is reported to possess the unusual quality of not stiffening inconveniently when dried after being soaked with moisture, — in this respect excelling the leather made either from moose or rein deer. A fine specimen of this animal is preserved in the Philadelphia Museum. It lived nearly thirteen years in the posses- sion of Mr Peale, and measures seven feet seven inches from the extremity of the muzzle to the base of the tail. The length of the horns is three feet ten inches. The Cervus macrotis, or great-eared stag, more usually called the black-tailed by American writers, does not occur in Canada. It inhabits the most remote north- western territories of the United States, and does not extend beyond 54°, in which parallel it is never seen to the eastward of longitude 105°. We may here state, that the beautiful roe-deer (C. ca- preolus) so well known in Scotland, and extensively though somewhat sparingly distributed over what may be called the central zone of Europe, is not found in any portion of the New World. The animal there known : - ' • ^ r » « '1 .' .t" * - 4. ^ ''* ■J :.W.- i m , ■■■;*' ■.. ■ ' ^ - if[ ■ • ■■ I ■ u 258 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL 1l ^! : r ,< 1. '■ ?t- by the corresponding name of chevrieul to the French Canadians, and of roebuck to the Scottish Ilighhinders in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, is the long-tailed or jumping deer (C. kucurus, Douglas). Those remarkable animals the Rocky Mountain goat {Capra Americana), and Rocky Mountain sheep {Ovis montana), do not inhabit the districts of country with which we are now engaged. They are both described, however, in our former volume, — as are likewise the l)ison (^Bos Americanus) and the musk-ox {Ovihos mos- chatus):^ We here close our account of the quadnipeds of British America. The Cetacea or whale tribe, having the whole " world of waters" at their command, probably spread over a vast extent of liquid space, and the same species may thus occur on the coasts both of Europe and America, but the actual facts of their geographical distribution are sparingly known to naturalists. Dr Harlan, how- ever, has enumerated fourteen species of this great order which are supposed to occur along the coasts of North America ; but Dr Richardson is of opinion that this list, b}' striking out the synonyms and other corrections, may be reduced to ten. In the present state of our knowledge of these great marine monsters, and " nothing being less certain than their identification with Euro- pean species bearing the same names," we shall not here attempt any illustration of their history. Tlie resemblance which the ornithology of North America bears to that of Europe is shown both by the similarity of generic forms where the species differ, and by the actual identity of at least one hundred species. According to the system of C. L. Bouapartet there are thirty-six different families of birds in Europe and thirty-four in North America. Of the European fami- * Northern Coasts, &c. p. 348-356. •\ Geographical and comparative List of the Birds of Europe and North America. 1838. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 259 lies there are four which do not occur in North America, viz. Meropidffi (bee-eaters), Upupidie (lioopocs), Cryp- turidae (the quail-like genus Ortygis), and rtcroclidai (sandgrouse). Of the North American families there are only two which do not occur iu Europe ; viz. Trochilidaj (humming-birds), and Psittacidse (parrots). There are 246 genera of birds in Kurope and 218 in North America. Of the European genera there are 100 which do not occur in North America, while of the North American genera there are 81 which do not occur in Europe. There are 603 species of birds in Europe and 471 in North America. Of the European species there arc 403 wliich do not inhabit North America, and of the North American species there are 371 which do not inhabit Europe. We shall here exhibit a list of the species common to both continents. ORDER RAPTORES. Aquila chrysaetos Surnia t'linerea Halieetos leucocephalus Buteo lagopus Naucierus lurcatus Faico gyrfalco Nyctea Candida Syrnium cinerium Brachyotus palustris Uiula nebulosa ORDER INSESSORES. Cotyle riparia Plectrophanes Lapnonicus Bombycilla ^rrula Plectrophanes nivalis Parus bicolor Cory thus enucleator Struthus hyemalis Loxia leucoptera Linota borealis Erythrophrys Americanus Linota linaria Lagopus albus ORDER RASORES. Lagopus mutus L. rupestris ORDER Squatarola Helvetica Strepsilas interpres Tringa maritima T. canutus T. rufescens Pelidna subarquata P. cinclus P, Schinzi GRALLATORES. Pelidna pectoralis Calidris arenaria Actitis macularius Actiturus Bartramius Catoptrophorus semipalmatus Macroraraphus griseus Phalaropus fulicarius Lobipes hyperborcu^ 260 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL OUDEIl NATATOKES. ^1^'- •i.i. 'T: Chen hynerlwreus Anser albifrons Bornicla Icucopsis Bornicia brenta Ana-s boschus Chaulelasraus strei)eru8 KliyndiuHpis clyjjeata Somuteria iiuilissinia S. spectabilis SStellaria (lis|)ar Oidemia j)c-r()icillata O. f'uHca Fuli^ula marila Clari|fula Burrovi C. liistrionita Harelda {j^lacialis Mer^us albellus Merjjai.acr castor M. serrator M. cucullatus Plialacrocorax carbo Sterna hirundo S. arctica S. Doujralii Meffalopterus stolidus Thalasseus cantiacus Gavia eburnea Xema Sabini X. atricilla Hissa tridactyla Kossia rosea Larus {^laucus L. raarinus L. leucopterus },. ar^entatus Lestris pomarinus 1^. Uichardsoni Prf)cellaria ^lacialis Puffiniis Anglorum P. obscurus P. cinereiis Tbalassidroma pelagica T. Leachi T. Wilsoni T. Bulweri Podiceps auritus P. cornutus P. rubricollis P. cristatus Colymbus glacialis C arcticiis C. septentrionalis Uria Troile U. Brunswieki U. ti^rylle U. Maudtii Mer^lus Alle Mormon arcticus M. glacialis Utamania torda Alca impennis To the preceding species we should feel inclined to add the common European magpie (corvus pica), upon the supposition that C. Hudsonicus is not really distinct I'rom it, and one or two hawks (such as Falco atrica- pillus), though designated by different names, exhibit an extremely close resemblance to certain of our indigen- ous species. Indeed Dr Richardson's latest catalogue of the birds of North America contains about sixtv-two species more than we have here named as common alike to Europe and the Western World ; but as these are now regarded as distinct (we presume upon mature deliberation and the most ample opportunities of obser- vation) by the Prince of Musignano, we have freed our list from their enumeration. ±1 ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 261 In regard to the birds of Canada, and of those other portions of North America to which our present vo- lumes are devoted, \vc do not lind that even a sin^^le species is characteristic of or exclusively confined to the countries in question. If permanent residenters in these intermediate territories, then they occur also either in those more northern regions which we have on a former occasion attempted to describe, or they are well known in the United States, to the natural pro- ductions of which we shall erelong direct the rcmler's attention in a work now under preparation. By aiiy lengthened disquisition, therefore, on the ornithology of British America in this work, we should bo o})liged either to repeat the observations given in a preceding volume of our series, or to anticij)ate those which may Im) more fully and suitably stated when we come to treat of the feathered inhabitants of the Union.* But that the general reader may Ije enabled to form some idea of the ornithological productions of the southern parts of our own America, we shall here avail oui'selves of a tabular view which exhibits the amount of species in each family of birds from the latitude of Philadelphia to the banks of the Saskatchawan, includ- ing a range of fourteen degrees, and distinguishing those which breed in each district from such as pass onwards to more northern climes.f * While writing the preceding paragraph we have had the plea- sure to receive from Mr Audubon the fifth and final volume of' his u-uly delightful " Ornithological Biography, or an Account of tlie Habits ofthe Birds of the United States." We rejoice to see from the concluding lines of his introduction that he has prepared, and is just about to publish, a " Synopsis of the Birds of Nortli America," — a manual wliich we doubt not will prove of the highest interest and utility to every student of ornithology. -|- The table was constructed by Dr Richardson from C. L. Bonaparte's " Specchio comparative delle Ornitoloj^ie di Roma e di Filadelphia," Dr Emmons's '* List of the Birds of Massachu- setts," and the " Fauna Boreali -Americana." See Sixth Report of tlie British Association, p. 191. ^^'\ i' th'*" ¥. 262 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL m Families. Philadelpliia. 1 Lat. 4U (leg. .\. 1 Miissachusetts, Lat 42l deg. N. .laskatchawan. Lat. .54 deg. N. . Breed. 1 5 3 5 8 9 6 16 4 6 7 2 4 1 1 5 2 2 1 2 8 6 3 4 3 • • • « 4 Pass. Tixt*^. Pa»B. Breed- Para. Vulturida? 1 10 6 2 32 1 16 "i '4 h 3 4 19 3 4 28 6 5 7 10 8 7 5 5 15 4 14 2 7 6 2 5 1 1 7 2 1 1 3 7 2 5 2 1 • • 8 i2 3 2 4 14 1 14 1 2 1 • • • • 'i • • 1 2 15 3 3 19 5 3 2 4 ■ • 11 9 8 6 11 3 15 6 8 6 2 1 1 4 2 1 5 *2 11 2 3 14 6 3 6 1 3 1 • • 2 3 1 3 • • i • • • • "i i4 3 16 1 io of li- St £ ( Falconidae Strigida; Laniadsc Merulidse Sylviadae Ampelida? Fringillidae Corvida? Sturnidae Picida; Cuculidae Certhiada; Trochilida? Halcyonidae Hirundinida! . Caprimulgidae " Columbida! -e Q J Pavonidae Order Order Or Natatores. Grallatores. Ras Tptraonidaa r Tantalidae Ardeida; ScoloDacida* Rallida? Charadriadae C Anatidae Colymbida; AlcadaB Pelecanidae Larida; 1 118 163 126 113 146 62 From the preceding table it will be perceived how great an increase in the number of breeding birds takes place as we proceed northward ; while the amount of permanent or stationary species is diminished. In the environs of Philadelphia 44 species are permanently resi- dent, and these, with 71 which arrive from the north to take up their winter quarters there, raise the amount of w^interers to 115. In summer 74 additional species arriv^e from the south (for the purposes of nidification), which with the 44 first mentioned make an aggregate of 118 ikatchawan. t. 54 cleg. N. ed- Fam. 1 i 3 9 1 B .. \ 6 2 11 3 3 1 15 5 6 , , 8 • • 6 ! • • •• 2 1 , a 1 • • 4 1 2 • • .' 1 5 •i • ■ • • 2 • • 11 14 2 , , 3 3 14 16 6 1 , , 3 t . 6 10 i4r> 62 lived how lirds takes jmount of In the mtly resi- le north to imount of Icies arrive In), which Ite of 118 ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 263 breeding species. The remainder of the species contained in the Philadelphia Fauna consist of 48 birds, which merely pass through the district in question during spring or autumn, in their way to or from their breed- ing quarters ; the total amount of species, whether per- manent or migratory, being 281. In the Massachusetts list there are 241 species, of which 126 breed within the limits of the state. Dr Richardson and his party de- tected 208 species on the banks of the Saskatchawan, and of these 146 were breeders, while the permanent species and winter visiters did not exceed 26 or 30. It will be observed that the Alcadce are entirely wanting, owing no doubt to the inland position of the chief points of observation, — Cumberland and Carlton Houses. The reptile tribes are but sparingly distributed over the remoter parts of North America ; and in both the New and Old World they are known to augment in number as we advance towards the equatorial regions. Thus, while Sweden produces scarcely a dozen snakes and lizards, about three or four frogs, and not a single tor- toise, the temperate parts of Europe yield above forty snakes and lizards, and several of the tortoise tribe. In Scandinavia, however, although the species are so few in number, the individuals are much more abundant than in Britain ; from which we infer that it is rather the want of strong continuous summer heat than the intensity of our winter's cold, that is unfavourable to the production of reptiles in our cloudy clime. Several species, however, even in sultry latitudes in America, are subjected by their peculiar position to the influence of severe cold. The Axolotl, for example, a peculiar species of Mexico, occurs in the chill waters of lakes in that country, elevated 8000 feet above the level of the sea ; and the salamander (a water newt) of Europe is frequently found frozen up in ice in early spring. M. Dufay, indeed, has remarked as a singular circumstance, that those very animals of which it was once fabled '>,'^'' fi '1 1 i; ^i^'l£:;::|i]^ U 'M ]« .:*/i-i: ■k ■'' ■i"\ 264 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL -^li m U'. .■«.% they could withstand the fiery flames, are in reality endowed with the almost equally surprising power of resisting frost, so generally fiital to the life of reptiles.* The reptilia of North America are believed to be all specifically distinct from those of Europe ; one or two vagrant turtles, probably carried almost unconsciously by oceanic currents, forming no legitimate exceptions. It may be here observed, that the representatives of tropical groups attain to a higher latitude in the Old World than the New, Emys Europcea being found in Prussia, while the most northern of the fresh- water tor- toises of America is an emys which frequents the river Winnipeg, in the 50tli parallel. The great alligator of North America (^1. iucius), not occurring higher than latitude 32^° N., does not fall within our present range. Some of the ophidian tribes, or snakes, spread into the fur countries as far as the 55th parallel, where the mean heat is about the freezing point, but where the tempe- rature of the three summer months is at least 66° of Fahrenheit, — little less than the summer heat of the Mexican table-lands. They are of course torpid during winter, and certainly among the most singular features in the general economy of the reptile race may be num- bered their power of enduring long-continued abstinence, and the lethargic state, infinitely more profound than the winter sleep of quadrupeds, into which they yearly fall. In Europe the isothermal line of 82° passes through the North Cape in lat. 71° 10^' N., and thus a few ser- pents, such as Coluber beruSy reach Norway. So also lizards (^Lac. ocellata, or a species regarded as identical with that beautiful reptile) exist as far north as Kamt- schatka, thcagh in America none of the Saurian order parses to the north of the 50th parallel.t The Batra- chian reptiles, however, are capable of enduring a more rigorous temperature, as both frogs and salamanders are known to reach 67° on the banks of the Mackenzie, where the mean temperature is not above seven or eight * Encyc. Brit, vol six. p. 126. t Report, p. 199. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 265 degrees of Fahrenheit, and the whiter cold sometimes descends to more than 90° below the freezing point.* We may judge from these facts of the range of tempera- ture wliich the reptile class endures, especially if taken in co.^nexion with the statement of Spallanzani, who relates that living frogs have been observed in the ther- mal baths of Pisa, at a temperature of 116° Fahren- heit.t For reasons analogous to those already stated regard- ing the winged inhabitants of British America, we shall also postpone our notice of the Canadian fishes, as of these, few if any are entirely restricted to that country, and even the maritime kinds in the hii>her north are known to occur along the coasts of the United States.:|; * Report, p. 202. -|- The reader will find various contributions towards a more per- fect knowledy^e of the reptiles of North America, chiefly by Messrs Green, Say, Harlan, and Gilliams, in tiie " Philadelphia Journal of Natural Sciences, "the " Lyceum of Natural History of New York,"" •' Silliman's Journal," and other American publications. Dr Har- lan's " (ienera of North American Reptiles, and Synopsis of the Species," contains a summary of these papers; and more recently, Dr Holhrook of Charlestown has commenced a " North American Herpetology." A work of wider scope, the " Erpetoloj^ie *^iene- rale' of M. M. Dumeril and Bibron may also be consulted with advantage, and a list of the species is given by Dr Richardson in tlie Report recently referred to. ij: Many species of American fishes are described by M. Le Seuer in the *' Journal of the Academy of Sciences of Philadel- phia," in the new series of that Journal called the " Transactions of the Philosophic^'. Society," and in the " Museum d'Hist. Nnt." •of Paris. The " J'ransactions of the Philosopliicctl Society of New York " contain a paper on the fishes of that state by Dr Mitchell, and a Synopsis of tliose of the Ohio was published by M. Rafi- nesque-Smaltz. The third volume of the " Fauna Boreali-Ameri- cana" is devoted to the fishes of the northern parts of the l^ew World; and a catalogue of the species, with a few observations on the families and genera, has been published by Dr Richar(ls<^)n in the Sixth Report of the British Association. The great work fHis- toire Naturelle des Poissons), by the late Baron Cuvier and M. Valenciennes, of course contains whatever American fishes were known to these authors up to tiie period of publication (by the last named) of the thirteenth volume, which contains the commencement of the family Lc.lroides, '%:^^' '.'i -ft'!': fit J. m. 11 : ■'' 1 1 M^i .: m ;.1i' I •^ ;:j^'^^''mi. •H'J f•;, ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCflONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 271 )rax narrovver expedition, chiefly about lat. 54° ; while in that same latitude, as well as in 66°, a great many exam])los were observed of that well-known British insect Oiruimm.s orinomum. It is believed to be very common in Nortli America, although it has not been noticed by Mr Say, )ior collected in Canada by Dr Bigsby, nor in Nova Scotia by Dr Macculloch or Captain Hall. Another Britisli species, (J. nigrita^ likewise occurs in the same country, and examples of the genera Cartonotus and Pctcilus arc well known there. Our common Amara, A. vu/garh-^ occurs in the north-eastern districts, as well as among the more distant Ilocky Mountains. Many species of tlu; genus Ilarpalua were found abundant in lat. 54°, and two British insects, Lopha quadrimaeulatu and Bembidimn impressurn, were frequently caught in the course of a journey from New York to Cumberland House. Tlie latter insect seems rather generally spread, and was taken in Canada by Dr Bigsby. " In England," says Mr Kirby, " it has been rarely met with ; the only known British specimen was in the late Mr Marsham's collection, and is now in Mr Stephens's." According to Olivier it is found on the banks of the Seine, near Paris, and it is mentioned as a Swedish insect by Gyllenhal, and as occuning there on the sandy shores of lakes, Avhere it is remarkable in warm weather for the celerity of its movements. Mr Drummond observes regarding the American variety, that it runs in the sand with great agility, and frequently flies when attempted to be taken.* Linnaeus had long ago remarked regarding his ('arabus mlox (supposed to be identical), that it ran and flew with the greatest velocity of any Coleopterous in- sect,— a circumstance, as Mr Kirby remarks, which, as well as its large eyes, proves its title, in common with E/aphrus, to claim some affinity with the Cicindelidft. Of the genus Elaphrus, a new species named EL in- termediuSf has been taken in Canada. It resembles our A7. cupreus, but is quite distinct. * Fauna Boreali- Americana, part iv. p. 59. 'NV m •':'C'i''«i 'U .4i^^ jf'l ! •' • it' ,( i ,<<■■■ ■*r> 27 ^72 NOTICES REr,ARi)TNG THE PRINCIPAL -I 1^ i Of the watcr-lu'ctlcs, several species of ('olijmhetes have been collected by Dr Macculloch in Nova Scotia, none of wliich, liowever, are identical with those of liri- tain. Some new Dtftisci wore taken by an expedition in the countries to the north of Canada, and the channel- necked (lyrinus, 6'. impre,smcollh, has been described as a recent acijuisition in our provincial territory. It re- sembh^s oiir G. iriariimx, but is much larger, and is sufficiently distinguished by the deep furrow or channel which runs ([uite across the prothorax. Two British s])(cies of tlic genus also occur in North America, — 6'. aneii.s, wliich is found in Canada, and G. mirmtus^ of which a single s})i'cimen was captured in lat 05°. The singular aurifonn shape of the antenna? of these insects induced M. Latreille to form the genus into a family group along with Parnn.s, under the title of Otiophori ; but at a future period he made it to approximate the Dytlscida'^ — thus correcting the error he had previously committed of confounding, as Mr Macleay observes, a relation of analogy with one of affinity. The Gyrinidse ai'e natives of almost all the regions <;f the earth. They live in siK'iety, and several species are extremely com- mon on our ponds and ditches by the wayside, swimming; Hat ui)on the surface, with their shining backs above water, and chfising each other in intersecting circles, or darting about in more irregidar gyrations. They fly well, and transport themselves with ease and rapidity from place to place, but when persecuted on the water always prefer to escape by diving. Of the Staphylinidte or brachelytrous insects, we are acquainted with no great number from the countries now under consideration. In their habits they some- what resemble the Silpha? and Necrophori. They have usually a large flattened head, strong mandibles, short antenna, and a thorax as wide as the abdomen, which is long, naiTow,and generally depressed. The elytraare very short and truncated, although they still suffice to cover the long narrow membranous wings, which, when not in use, are compactly folded. The upper portion of the seg- •■••■)• "'olymbeien va Scotia, )se of Bri- peximatc the I previously observes, u he Gyrinidtt irth. They •eniely com- p, swLmminj; :)acks abovi> ^ circles, or They fly md rapidity n the water sects, ^Te arc he countries they some- They have idibles, short len, which is lytra are very ffice to cover when not in onoftheseg- y.OOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMHUICA. 273 ments of the abdomen being much exposed, is of a firm consistence, contrary to the usual character of that part of the ])ody among the coleoj)terous tribes. From the ter- minal segment of the abdomen two vesicles are protruded or withdrawn at the will of the insect, and from these, when irritated, a subtile vapour makes its escape with a strong odour of sulphuric ether.* " Though most of the micropterous s})ecies," Mr Kiri)y observes, " have a fetid smell, yet there are some exceptions to this among them. One species (^S. HumH;ole)if<^ Kirby) related to S. micans, Grav., which I once took, smelt precisely like a fine high-scented ripe pear; another, 0,vf/telu.s nutr.sit/uus; like the water-lily ; a third, (). rngOKUs^ like watcT-cresses ; and lastly, a fourth (K fuscipe-s), like s^itfroji." The species in general usually occur under stones, in earth, and excrementitious substances. Some live in mushrooms and fungi, or in rotten wood, while a few of the smaller species are found on flowers. They are all swift, .-ictive, and voracious. We shall now name a few of the North American kinds. Poiderus riparius, a well-known British insect, occurs in lat. 54°, where are likewise found sciveral s})e<-'ies of iMthrobium, of which L. bieolor of Gravenhorst is well known in Canada. Philanthus politus was taken in Wova Scotia by Captain Hall. Of the genus Stapht/linu^; properly so called (^St. crysuru.s, ICirby), was captured in the last-named country. It resembles our St. hyhri(Lu,s and rnacnlosiLSy but is well distinguished by its golden tail and breiist. It is one of the smallest of the genus, measuring about five lines and a half. Creophilus rUlo- sm, Kirby, an insect which has been taken in England, occurs both in Canada and Nova Scotia. It greatly re- sembles our common C. maxUlosus, The family Elateridoi corresponds to the ancient genus Elater of Linnseus, and diflfers from the Buprestidte, among other characters, in the posterior style of the * Art. Entomologj-j io Encyclopaedia Britauaica (7th ed.), vol. ix. p. 130. \ r-M\ '1 •\ («.!• Tit H I ...- t^t ; I* . * J 'i 'i'^lVt •' •''id'' ., >( ■••■•' r ■#■*! * m % IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) h // {./ '% :/. f/j 1.0 I.I 1.25 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 U 111.6 V] <^ /2 ^^^ :> > y >^ Photographic Sciences Corporation \ 4. ^^ 'i^ 1^ v^^ #^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 274 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL m D- '! pra'stemum being prolonged into a sliarpish point or spine, laterally compressed. Tlie use of this organ be- comes obvious after studying the movements of the liv- ing insects. The legs are so short, that when these creatures fall upon their backs, which they frequently do while dropping from a plant upon the ground, they can only assume their natural position by bringing the projecting point of the prsBstemum into sudden contict with a groove placed in the front of the mesostemum. In their early state these insects do great injury to field and garden produce, and the destructive grub, so well known under the name of wire-worm, is the larva of an elater. Some of the American species are remarkable for their phosphoric splendour, and are often seen twinkling like still's among the leafy herbage when the shades of night have fallen upon the dewy forests. If several ancient nations were worshippers of the sun, and regarded holy light as a divine effulgence, we need scarcely wonder that in remote times, when natural pheno- mena were but inaccurately observed, every manifestation of a supposed celestial principle should excite the wonder as well as the admiration of mankind. We consequently hnd many exaggerated accounts of these mysterious nocturnal lights, although the natural phenomena whiclii tliey exhibit are in themselves of sucli singular beauty as to need no aid from fictitious ornament to render them deserving of our most attentive study. However won- derful may be the effect produced by the glow-worms and other fire-flies of Europe, their splendour, according to Humboldt, cannot be compared in richness to those innumerable scattered and moving lights that in Ame- rica embellish the nights of the torrid zone, and seem to rej)eat on earth, along the vast extent of the savannahS, the spectacle of the starry -ault of heaven.* How beauti- fully does Dr Southey, in his Madoc, describe the effect produced by these woodland insects on the minds of the first settlers in the Western World : — Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. ix. p. 142. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 275 point or >rgan bc- [ the liv- en these equently ind, tht y iging tho n contiict mum. In iield and ;11 known an ehitcr. for their kling like s of night [)f the sun, ', we need iralpheno- nifestation he wonder isequently nvsterious ena which beauty as Inder them ever won- [ow-worms according to those ,t in Ame- ,d seem to .vannahS, ow beauti- the eflFect linds of the " Sorrowing we beheld The night come on ; but sotm did nijjht display More wonders than it veii'd ; inniimerous tribes From the wood-cover swarm'd, and darkness made Their beauties visible : one while they stream 'd A bright blue radiance upon Howers that closed Their gorgeous colours from the eye of day ; Now motionless and dark eluded search, Self-shrouded; and anon, starring the sky, Rose like a shower of fire." Most of the elateridffi are recognised by their narrow, elongated, and somewhat flattish forms. We have not fewer than sixty British species, arranged, according to the modern views, under not less than twenty genera. Several of the more southern groups contain large and imposing species, but the majority of the North Ame- rican kinds arc, like those of our own country, more re- stricted in their dimensions, — seldom exceeding half an inch in length. Several species, belonging to various genera, are natives both of Canada and Nova Scotia, and of these Perimecusfulvipes may be mentioned as also British. Of the brilliant Btiprestidce, tlie greater proportion is found in warmer and more genial countries than those now under consideration. These insects are clearly dis- tinguished from the elaters by never leaping : they all walk slowly, but fly well during dry and sultry weather. When an attempt is made to seize them they drop as if dead towards the ground, doubtless with a view to con- ceal themselves amid the subjacent herbage. Several of the minor species are found on flowers, but the majority occur in forests and among depots of timber. The ab- domen of the female is furnished at its extremity with a coriaceous or homy conical appendage, composed of three pieces, constituting the terminal abdominal rings, and which may be regarded as a species of ovipositor, by means of whicn she places her eggs in safety within dry or decayed timber, in which the larvae dwell. Tlie perfect insects not unfrequently make their appearance in countries where they were never seen before, having been involuntarily transported in foreign wood, while in the state of nymph or larva. The Buprestidep are ;^i^'^:l^■,i:: 1*^!^ 1 :.':>> Jll H I'- . 27? NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL "«iJ very common in South America and other sultry regions ; hut they decrease in numbers as we advance north- wards into temperate regions, and altogether disappear in colder climes. Scarcely a score occur in Britain, {md of these we are not aware that even one has yet been found in Scotland. Professor Klug informs us, that in the Berlin Museum there are upwards of 500 species of the Lmna?aD genus Buprestis. A few, such as B, linmta and fasciata of Fabricius, are found in Canada and Nova Scotia, while others occur as far north as lat. ()5°, {is well as westward among the Rocky Mountains. The two first named countries produce a few species of the genus Trachys. The Malacodermi of Latreille are distinguished from the preceding by their bodies being of a soft and flexibl(^ nature. A British insect, Necrobia violacea, was taken abundantly in North America by our exploring party. It is said to live on carrion, and is richly adorned for so foul a feeder. The species seem widely distributed ; for while that just named is common alike to Europe and the Western World, N, ruficoUis is found in Europe, Africa, and the East Indies. Of the soft- winged beetles, the genus Telephorus is also well known in North America. These insects abound in meadows during the summer season, especially on umbelliferous plants ; but one of the most remarkable incidents in then* history consists in the frequency with which they are carried into the upper regions of the air in great quantities by violent winds, — thus in their descent giving rise to what are sometimes denominated insect showers. To the Malacodermous division also belongs the re- markable genus Lampyris, which contains the insects commonly called glow-worrns. The beautiful light which emanates from these creatures constitutes their most inte- resting attribute. The bubstance from which tho lumi- nous property results has been the subject of frequent experiment and observation.* It is obviously under * Regarding the luminous properties of the {^low-worm, and the nature of its Ue^ht, see Ann. de Chimie, t. iv. p. 19, Phil. Trans, for 1810, and Kirby and Spence's Introductioa, vol. ii p. 423. • t regions ; e north- iisappear itain, jukI vet been IS, that in species of B, lineata nada and IS lat. ()5°, iins. The jies of the Lshed from od flexibh^ was taken ring party, rned for so ibuted; for Europe and in Europe, ;cd beetles, in North ,ws during lus plants ; icu* history ,re carried tantities by •ise to what igs the re- the insects light which • most inte- tho lumi- Lf frequent ly under [orm, and the IPhil. Trans. p. 423. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 277 the control of the animal, which, when approached, may frecjuently be observed to diminish or put out its light. The only species with wliich we are acfiuainted from British America is Lampyris eoruscUy Linn. It occurs in Canada, and has been taken at least as far north as lat. 54°. It was originally described by the great Swedish naturalist as a native of Finland and Russia, on the authority of Uddmann, but has not since been found there ; and Mr Kirby conjectures that the hitter may have mistaken an American for a European specimen. Various well-known wood-eating insects, belonging to the Malacodermous group, are found in North Ame- rica. Such is a species of Anohiuin, nearly related to our British A. striatum, and described by Mr Kirby under the specific name o{ foveatum.'^ This genus was instituted by Fabricius, and was probably named from avajSiov, resuscitated, the species being remarkable for their pertinacious sinmlation of death, and their re- iissumption of activity so soon as they deem themselves restored to safety. In the larva state they are extremely injurious to old furniture, in which they perforate numerous round holes, from which practice they have received from the French the name of vrillette, or little gimlet. They resemble small, soft, whitish maggots, with six short minute legs. The singular superstition of the death-watch has arisen, in a great measure (though other insects share in the mysterious calling), from a species of this genus. It is believed that this ticking sound, sufficiently solemn amid the stillness of a sick- cliamber to those who through the long-enduring dark- ness " watch for the morning," is nothuig more than the signal call of the sexes of these insects to each other. It closely resembles the eifect produced by a slight tapping on a table with the finger-nail ; and where the insects are abundant, they may easily be in- duced to make their mysterious ticking in answer * Fauna Boreali- Americana, part iv. p. 190. ■-'<•■ ^<\ ■■■' J.'^hi' »>i '.««'; It ■'> *i'^ If*: ■ m i' N^ I !^N ■^iJ i! il ! 'If 278 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL to tliat imitative sound. Tlicy produce it mechani- cally, by beating their little heads against the plane of their position. " He that could eradicate this error,'* says the quaint Sir Thomas Brown, alluding to the death-tick, " from the minds of the people, would save from many a cold sweat the meticulous heads of nurses and grandmothers." * Of the important genus Necrophorns, we find N. vehitinus, Halli, and Hebes, in Nova Scotia. The sin- gular habits of the Necrophori have long attracted the attention of European naturalists. The most marked peculiarity in their manners consists in their habit of interring small animals, such as mice and moles, for the purpose of depositing their eggs in the decaying carcass. To effect this operation, they remove the earth from beneath the dead body, which sinks into the hollow, and is afterwards covered with the looser or upturned soil of the excavation. Their sense of smell, like that of many other insects, is extremely delicate, and no sooner has any small quadruped perished than one or more of these gravediggers make their appearance, and in a few hours the corpse is interi'ed. There are seven British species of this genus, which contains in all about thirt}'- species, the whole of considerable size, and of which the majority are native to Europe and North America. The less numerous genus Necrodes is more extensively distributed ; species being found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, North and South America, and New Holland, They are usually seen along the seashore, and on the banks of rivers, beneath seaweed, carrion, or such like. A South American species (iV. Surinamensia, Lat.) has been taken in Nova Scotia by br MaccuUoch. Of the genus Oiceoptoma, Leach (^Silpha, Linn.), a good many occur in North America. Of these, 0. Lap- ponicum is a native of Canada. In the Old World, it abounds in the huts of the Laplanders, devouring what- • Pseudodoxia Epidemica. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 2/0 ever it can lay its jaws upon, whether flesh, fish, or skins. 0. Americanum is a larger species, with brownish black elytra, and the shield of the thorax pale reddlsli yellow. The sides of the elytra, as fii*st observed by Mr Kirby, are resplendent with a lustre between bronze; and gold. It occurs in Nova Scotia, in common with Reveml other sjjecies. 0. Canadensis was kiken on doiul fish on the shores of Lake Huron by Dr Bigsby. Two British insects, belonging to separate families, Peltis ferrugineu and Nitidula ohscura, were tiiken in tlie course of Dr Richardson's journey to Cumberlan,: y>,\i\ ;)I1 ;! I?.' .■ ">, , 280 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL k'l. r.'!( . IV-' 1.1 -" "»>J ^^ -s ■\i: } IK \, n i'' small size inhabit India and Africa, although (ratiicr an unusual circumstance) the largest kinds occur in temperate regions. They are almost the only copro- phagous or dung-eating insects found in New Holland ; a circumstance which Mr Macleay attributes to the absence from that great insular continent of all the larger her])ivorous mammalia not of the marsupial kmd, Trox arenariua, a British insect, occurs in Nova Scotia. Of the family Rutelidae, we find PelidnoUt, punctata in Canada, near Lake St Clair. It is the only species known to the north of Mexico, and the genus itself is peculiar to America. The new genus Camptorinay Kirby, nearly allied to Serica, Macleay, is found both in Canada and Nova Scotia, which likewise produce a species of each of the genera Diplotams and Rhizotrogus. Of the genus DichelonycMy Harris, the species, as far as yet known, seem confined to the northern parts of the New World, at least Mr Kirby knows of none to the south of the province of Massa- chusetts. The tyj>e of the genus is Mehlontha linearis of Herbst. D, virescens and teatacea occur in Canada. The magnificent genus Cetonia, of which Dej can's Catalogue contains 125 species, is chiefly characteristic of the Old World, and the majority of such as occur in America are found in Mexico. C. Julgida, however, has been taken ijj Canada at Lake St Clair. Several species of Trichius are found both in Canada and Nova Scotia. The heteromerous section of the Coleoptera consists of those groups which have five articulations to the first four tarsi or foot-joints, and four to the hindmost pair. All these insects feed on vegetable substances. The first we have here to notice belong to the family Melamma of Latreille, a group composed for the most paiii of blackish or dark-coloured species, a character from which they derive their general name.* They * From fiiXasy blacky and ffSi/nuf body. • 'm (rather ;cur ill copro- jUand ; to the all thi^ [irsupial n Nova *elidnoUi he only le genus illied to ra Scotia, \i genera nfincd to ilr Kirby f Massa- linearis anada. Dejean's acteristic occur in lowever, Several md Nova consists the first lost pair. ZOOliOfJICAL PRODUCTIONS OP nRITTSIT AMRRICA. 281 are usually apterous, with the elytra as it were sol- dered together. The eyes arc ohh)nu:, ftnd l)ut slightly elevated ; a feature which, according to M. Marcel de Serres, indicates nocturnal habits. All these insects mologist, 5 Melon of i unicolor not aware though v. species of ^vard and jvements. along the J growth, asects are ive effects iwallowed I hy dark k greenish charaxjter- latives of i,twenty- \merican, European n. certain linstead of ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 283 cantharides, or combined with them. Tlieir larvte are supposed by some natundists to be parasitical on the bodies of winged insects, chiefly Hymcnoptera. Two new North American sj)ecies were taken by (»ur ex])lor- ing expedition in lat. 0.5°. They have been named M. nigra and impresm by Mr Kirby.* The tetramemus section of the Coleopterous order is composed of numerous and importiint grou|)s, distin- guished by possessing four articulations to ail the tarsi. Thcrhynchophorous or snout-bearing lieetlesarif among the most rcmarka])le of Coleopterous insects, whether we consider their great amount of species, the splendour of their external aspect, or the occasional ravages which they commit in our forests, fields, and granaries. Above .'3000 species are now known to naturalists, and even in Britain alone we can muster above 500 indigenous kinds. They are, in a general way, recognis fk'inale nonth of She first )f several L'gument, beneath velopc is n oblique jrain. A ;le egg is osed by a :)ur of the which is ;erm of a ins may, immersed .re. The •vours the ', a single emselves ,c season, |d weevils id settling irse of not many months, destroy between one and two hundred millions of grains.* In certain American countries, to the south, however, of those on which we are here intent, the larva of a large species of Calandra (6*. jmlmarum), called ver pnl- minte by the colonists, forms a favourite article of footl, and is frequently fried and eaten, both by Indians and Creoles. It lives in the heart of palm-trees. Of the genus IlyloUiiM^ of which the larvee are very destructive to fivs, wt lind a new species captured in Canada by Dr liigsl)y, and named //. confuima by Mr Kirby ; and the same observer has also possessed himself of several Attelnbi. A variety of Apotomus ovatus. Fab., occurs near Lake St Clair. Of the genus Anthribu«y usually found on old wood, though some inhabit flowers, the banded species. A, fasviatus, is a native of Canada. The singular genus Chlamt/ff, of Knoch,t so named from its presenting the aspect of a coat of mail, is re- presented in Canada by Ch, plicata of Olivier. It does not measure more than two lines in length. Nothing is known of the history or transformations of these insects, all of which, so ftir as yet ascertained, are natives of the New World, especially of Brazil, a country remark- able for its entomological riches. The upper surface of their bodies is extremely rugged and unequal. In a state of repose they draw their legs and antenna? into the closest contact with the body, and, when not in motion, would with difficulty be recognised as living creatures. They are still comparatively rare in collec- tions, although above 160 species are now known to naturalists. The last of the rhynchophorous genera to which we shall here allude is that called Bruchus. The species deposit their eggs in the yet tender germs of leguminous plants, of our most valuable grains, such as coffee and palms, where they often occasion infinite damage. The .jj |,. ■.*'4- ■ • ■Mm -mmH \ W: * Encyclopaedia Britannica, toI. ix. p. 17«^. + Neue Betrage zur Insectenkunde, p. 122. VOL. III. S 286 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL In if' ■ ■mm fcitii! "f ;TT' ' 'i insect, when issuing forth in the perfect state, detaches a cap-shaped portion of the epidermis, and produces those circular holes so often seen in peas and heans. Such is a small species called B. pisi, which has been known to commit great injury in North America. Several insects belonging to wood-devouring genera, of the family Xylophagi^ Lat., such as Cis, Tomicusy Apate, and Hylurgus, were taken in the course of Dr Richardson's expedition, but chiefly in countries north- ward of Canada. We have now to take a glance at the Capricorn or long-horned beetles, which abound in the wooded regions of all warm countries, — their larvae living in the interior or beneath the bark of trees. These larvae are of a soft consistence, pale in colour, large anteriorly, with a squa- mous head furnished with strong mandibles, but without any other projecting portions. They are extremely de- structive to the larger forest trees, piercing them to a considerable depth in all directions. A certain number gnaw the roots of plants. The abdomen of the female, in the perfect state, is terminated by a tubular corneous oviduct ; and several species produce a sharpish sound, by rubbing a portion of the thorax against the pedicle which attaches the base of the abdomen. Lister calls it (luerulous, while Dumeril compares it to the braying of an ass. It is by reason of this peculiarity that Prionus coriarius is called the fiddler in the German States. Of this numerous and gracefully formed family some are nocturnal, and frequent old woods and the trunks of ancient trees ; others occur on flowers, or among flower- ing shrubs and hedges in blossom, and are richly gilded and adorned with various colours; — while all are re- markable for their elongated bodies, their lengthened limbs, and their long and deHcately formed anternise. Several of the species (such as Prionus gigas) are among the largest of known insects, measuring above half a foot in length.* The larva? of P. cervicornis, wliich * Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle, tome xiv. p. 282. w it : ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 28'/ detaches a luces those i. Such is L known -to ing genera, ?, TomicuSy urse of Dr tries north- apricorn or [)ded regions the interior are of a soft tvith a squa- but without ctremely de- r them \o a tain number ' the female, liar corneous irpish sound, the pedicle ister calls it ^e braying of ihat Prionus States. Of lily some are le trunks of ..ong flower- •ichly gilded all are re- lengthened |ed antennffi. ?) are among ibove half a )rnis, which xiv. dwell in the wood of the gossam pinus, are used as food by certain tribes of the human race. A Euro- pean species, P. coriarius, is one of our largest British insects. The larva lives in the decaying trunks of oaks and birch trees, but undergoes its metamorphoses under ground. We shall here name a few of the capricorn beetles which occur in Canada and Nova Scotia, and are no doubt more extensively distributed over other portions of British America, as well as through some of the ter- ritories of the United States : — Monocharnus confusor and marmorator ; Callidium agreste, collare, and dimidia- tum ; Clytus undatuSy lunulatus, fuscufi, lonyipes ; Rha- gium lineatum ; Pachyta liturata ; Leptara chrysocoma, subpubescens, erythroptera, Canadensis, tenuior, brevis, seniivittata, and gulosa. Of the small phytophagous or her])age-eating beetles of Latreille's family Cyclica, we are acquainted with several species in British America. For example, the g^ius Cryptocephalus, in which the head seems as if it were plunged vertically into an arched or hood-like thorax, so that the body, when viewed from above, ap- pears as if decapitated, yields us two Canadian kinds, 6'. pubescens and notatus of Fabricius. The genus Eumol- pus is there represented by a species, well known also in Europe, Eu» vitis, of which the larva, according to GeofFroy, is extremely destructive in vineyards. The beautiful and highly adorned genus Chrysomela, so named from two Greek words which signify an apple of gold, although of great amount in species,* and ex- tensively distributed over the Old World, seems compa- ratively rare in North America. We, however, find a United States species, Ch. Philadelphica^ spreadmg both ^f ■ ■ '^ - "' ~ ■ ■ I I . ■■ . ■ ■ I ■ — I.- . I .1. ■ , ... . . ,— , • Cotnte Dejean was many years ago in possession of 120 species, and it is known that his collection has since been much augmented. Even in Britain we possess above thirty species, exclusive of four- teen kinds of Phaedon, and six of Melasoma, which are closely allied in their areneric characters. — Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. ix. p. 184. '1 f.-i-'iilii , .„ •■■ iyiji-td ill ^iri-iji-^l *:.tr H'i*^ III Ipy i'U;- ■•^: I.*- ^ir 288 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL into Canada and Nova Scotia, while a nearly allied but distinct kind (OA. conjinis, Kirby) has been lately taken in the latter country by Captain Hall. Another new species, Ch, Bigsbyana, was captured in Canada, and a well-known British insect (Ch. 10. punctata, Steph.) was taken somewhere in the course of Dr Richardson's ex- pedition. The genus Phaedon, which closely resembles Chrysomela, produces three British species in America, viz. Ph. adonidis, raphani, and polt/goni, of which the former two occurred in lat. 54°, the last in Nova Scotia. Phaedon vitellincp, which forms the genus Phyllodecta of Kirby, is also found in our American provinces. The more active genus Altica is distinguished by its leaping powers. The species are of small dimensions, and occur in great numbers during the spring, in humid places, where they are extremely destructive, both in the larva and perfect state, to potherbs and other garden produce. A. nemorum, called by farmers the fy, and blackjack, attacks the turnip crops, and is calculated to have caused a loss in a single year in Devonshire alone of not less than £100,000." Two new species (perhaps the fewer novelties in this line the better) named A. vicina and puncticollis, have been lately ob- served in British America. Several GaleruccB, and at least one species of Hispa, occur in Canada. Of the ^ttiily Eupoda of Latreille, one of the princi- pal genera i^ these northern countries is Donacia; insects ^vhich are frequently bronzed or gilded in their aspect, and are in many cases covered over by a minute silky down, which seems to preserve them from the ac- tion of water. They are found on reeds and other aqua- tic plants, and are often submerged by the action of the wind and waves. The genus is extensively distributed over the continent of Europe, of which it may be re- garded as characteristic, for few are found in the other quarters of the ancient world, and their occurrence in our British American possessions exhibits one of the • Introduction to Entomology, vol. I p. 185. allied but ;ely taken ,ther new da, and a ;eph.) was •dson's ex- resemblt'S I America, which the ova Scotia. yllodecta of 2es. shed by its dimensions, g, in humid ve, both in ther garden the fly, and 3 calculated Devonshire new species the better) n lately ob- \ucce, and at 185. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 289 many features of resemblance between the entomology of those countries and that of the temperate parts of Europe. Britain alone produces above twenty species of Donacia, and about fifty different kinds in all are now recorded by naturalists. D.femoralis, affinis, and emar- ginata, were taken by Dr Macculloch in Nova Scotia, — />. proxima and cuprea are Canadian species, — and Z>. flavipes and hirticollis have been found as far north as latitude 65°. The beautiful and extensive genus Coccinella belongs to the aphidiphagous or aphis-eating group. These in- sects, familiarly known under the name of lady-birds, are distinguishable from the preceding genera of Chry- somela, &c. by the amount of the articulations of the tarsi, which never exceed three. The under surface of the body is very flat, the elytra convex, so that the general form is hemispherical. The larva; feed on Aphides, and are extremely useful in the destruction of these grega- rious insects, the superabundance of which so greatly deteriorates so many vegetable substances. Although such are the prevailing if not universal habits of the nu- merous species observed by European naturalists, it ap- pears that Boscr, in describing the C. horealis of America, mentions that it is extremely injurious to the leaves of the melon plantations, and other species have been al- leged to injure the crops of lucerne and cinque-foils. Dej can's collection contains above 100 species, distri- buted over almost every quarter of the known world, and several species occur in Canada and still more north- em countries. Sach are C, episcopalis, tredecim-punc- lata, tridensy quinque-siynata, quinque-notata, tricuspisy and incarnata. Of the great order Obthoptera, includng locusts, grashoppers, &c. we have scarcely any knowledge, so far as concerns the British American species. The order itself is much less numerous than that with which we have been hitherto engaged, and prevails chiefly in the warmer climates of the south. Thus, while Great Britain produces nearly 4000 beetles or Coleoptera, our indige- ^1■'.-'': . Mffl) m :i' If !? .:i^:• n J. m ■ 290 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL w. gn It* : i i: nous lists scarcely number more than sixty orthopterous species. The few American kinds taken by our ex- ploring party, such as Locusta leucostoma and verrucu- lata, and Acrydium graiiulatum, occurred immediately to the north of our Canadian territories. Of the order Nkuroptera, the only North American species reported on by Mr Kirby are a small dragon-fly, Agrion puella, well known in Britain, and Perla bicau- data, likewise a British insect, which in America reaches as far northwards as latitude 68°. The neuroptera in general are insects of an elegant deportment. They fly with great lightness, and are frequently adorned by a variety of colours. The wings are usually naked and transparent, and pervaded by a delicate network or reticulation. But in the genus Phryganea, Linn, the wings are veined in a peculiar manner without reti- culation, and in some degree resembling those of Lepi- doptera, and being moreover covered by short hairs, the species have been removed from the other Neuroptera under the ordinal title of Trichoptera* Of these Phry- ganidse Limnephilus nebulosus and femoralis occur in high latitudes in North America.t The order Hymenoptera is more numerous in these northern countries than either of the two preceding. As it contains the wasps, bees, ants, and ichneumons, it is of more direct utility to man than most others, in as far as it yields us those two invaluable insect products, — wax and honey. We shall here notice a few of the species taken by our expedition, although the majority of these occurred in countries considerably to the north of Canada. A single specimen of a curious British insect, Cirnbex femorata, was taken in latitude 05° ; the larvse of some of these, it is said, will occasionally spout out a greenish liquid at their tormenters to the distance of a foot. A new species of Trickiosoma, T, triangulum^ occurs in * Linn. Trans, xi. 87, note. •j" Fauna Boreali-Araericana, iv. 253. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 291 lis occur in Canada, as well as further north, where we likewise find T. lucorum (a British insect) of Dr Leach. Mr Stephens some years ago found in the neiglibourhood of London a fine insect which he named Sireoc hizonatius. It lias since been taken in British America, and may be inferred to have been imported into Britain in the larva state concealed in the timber of Canadian pines. An- other large insect of the same genus, S, juvencusy wliich extends into the north of Europe, was taken in America in latitude 65°. These creatures usually inhabit the pine forests of cold and rather mountainous coun- tries, and fly swiftly with a sonorous buzzing sound like that of an humble-bee. Specimens of Fhcenus jacu/^itor were captured in the latitude just named. Of the American ants we shall merely name Formica fusca (the fsmall black ant of Gould), as a species with which we are also well acquainted in Europe. Although no true bee occurs in the Western World (that is, none belonging to the restricted genus which contains our garden or honey bee), except by importa- tion, we find there our common wasp, Vespa vulgaris, 01* an insect so greatly resembling it as to be regarded by Mr Kirby as a mere variety. Three other species, V, borealis, marginata, and maculata, spread as far north as latitude 65°. Among the American AndrenicUs we also find, as might be expected, several of our British species, such as Halictus rubicundus and A ndrena varians, Steph. Of the Nomadian bees belonging to the group called Ouculince (so named because, cuckoo-like, they deposit tlieir eggs in the nests of other bees) we find Nomada Americana in the countries to the north of Canada. The genus occurs also in Asia and Africa, although the majority of the species are at least characteristic of Europe, if not peculiar to it. Our own impression was that several occurred in the New World ; but Mr Kirby informs us that the species just named is the only one he ever saw from that continent. Of the humble-bees, however (genus Bombus)^ a great •'3 ;i 4i ii^i r^Wii 292 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL I''' ■■ ' '. ':'i>,' -^i w • f^^ IF ! 4* ■ I , ■ :. , • •',■. ;'.! ...-^- jlll number of species are found in the northern parts of America. A wood-frequenthig kind, B, sylvicokiy makes a near approach to the British B. sylvaruniy while a ground-species, B. terricola^ is closely allied to our well-known B. terrestris, but the whole upper sur- face of the abdomen is clothed with yellow hairs, ex- cepting the first segment and a nearly terminal band, which are black. The wings are embrowned. A British species, B, Derhamellus, is taken as far north as latitude 65°. There are few associations of our child- hood, it may be confidently remarked, more deep and enduring than those connected with the pursuit and capture of the beautiful insects of this genus, many of which are remarkable for their size, and the rich con- trast which they exhibit of velvet black and crimson, with bars of brilliant yellow. This splendid attire, however, saves them not from being rudely handled ; and who remembers not the day when a hink, or little box of moistened clay, was made to contain as many captives in proportion to its size as the Black Hole of Calcutta? The regime of the community of humble- bees diff^irs from that of the garden or honey bee in so far as it is dissolved on the approach of winter, resem- bling in this feature the economy of wasps. It consists of males, distinguished by the smallness of their size, their feebler heads, their narrower mandibles terminated by two dentations, and their frequent difference of colour ; — of females, which are larger than the other individuals, and have spoon-shaped mandibles ; — and of workers, of which the mandibles are likewise spoon- shaped, and the size intermediate between the two pre- ceding kinds. Of these workers Reaumur was the first to distinguish two varieties, — one comparatively large and strong, the other smaller, but more lively and active. This singular fact has been since verified by Huber the younger. According to the observations of the Genevese observer, several of the workers born in spring couple during the month of June with males sprung from a common mother, and §oon afterwards ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 293 lem parts sylvicoUif sylvarurriy f allied to ipper sur- liairs, ex- linal band, wned. A IV north as our child- •e deep and (ursuit and IS, many of le rich con- id crimson, idid attire, [y handled ; nk, or little in as many ack Hole of of humble- ey bee in so nter, resem- It consists f their size, terminated [ifference of .. the other [es ; — and of jwise spoon- he two pre- ^as the first Ltively large lively and verified by observations orkers born with males afterwards deposit eggs, from which, however, males alone are pro- duced. These latter couple witli the females which are born towards the end of the season, and which, continu- ing through the winter in a pregnant state, become each the founder of a colony in spring. In the mean- time all the others perish, without excepting even the smaller females. The workers, then, though in com- mon with those of the garden-bee often called neuters, are in fact females, but of smaller size than the more regular mothers, and with the productive faculty im- perfectly developed. These observations have been made in reference to the British and other European kinds, but they also apply, we doubt not, to the identical or analogous species of the Western World. No sooner has the genial influence of spring penetrated the mossy cells where these more ponderous matrons have enjoyed their winter sleep, than they rouse themselves from their repose, and wing their dubious flight in search of tlie first opening crocus or other garden flower ; or if remote from man, and destined to boom amid wild up- lands or other pastoral wastes, the flowering saughs (^Salix caprea), which so often skirt the edges of our mountain-streams, and beautify the crystal waters by the reflection of their golden blossoms, afford them a sufficing food. What lover of nature knows not how, even amid steril solitudes, a few bright sunny days call into life and beauty many fragrant flowers, not long unvisited by these glad labourers, who erelong settle in some fit abode, and lay the foundations of a future city. The suctorial or haustellated orders in Entomology (by some regarded as a separate insect class) differ from all the preceding in the structure of the mouth, — having neither mandibles nor maxillae, properly so called. They live by suction, and are provided with a tubular articulated rostrum, cylindrical or conical, curved inferiorly, or directing itself along the breast when in a state of repose, but in most cases capable of extension for active service. The different parts of W «i ,iv «l1 I '■■■!#* iii.i 294 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL '^^ ^ t** -' f V /4' . k^ ' %- u- Y t- IP rfe-# J- > which this sucker is composed no doubt represent the mandibles and maxillse of the masticating orders.* Of the hemipterous genus Pentatoma, or wood-bugs, several species were taken by our expedition in their journey from New York to Cumberland House. P. car- nifex is found in Nova Scotia. Almost all these insects exhale a disagreeable and penetrating odour, which con- tinues to emanate for some time from whatever sub- stance they have touched. A pleasant narrative is given by De Geer regarding a species of this genus, several speci- mens of which he found on a birch tree, each followed by a little troop of thirty or forty young ones, which seemed to accompany their mother as chickens do a hen, and were watched over by their parents with fond solicitude. Now this is a very anomalous fact in the history of in- sects, which are scarcely ever personally regardful of their offspring, although they instinctively deposit their eggs in situations admirably adapted for the preservation and support of the future larvae. Specimens of the genera Edessa, Miris, and Aradus, were taken in the course of Dr Richardson's journey to Cumberland House, and as far north as lat. 65°. The genus Gerris consists of insects of an elongated form, and usually of a blackish colour, which are met with on the surface of still waters, on which they seem to advance by starts. They are widely distributed over the earth's surface, and even identical species possess a very extended range. Thus our British G. rufo-scu- tdlata and lacustris are both common in North America, and the same may be said of Corijca striata of Dr Leach. Tlie NotonsctcB, properly so called, are distinguished by the singular habit of swimming upon their backs, with their bodies somewhat inclined, their heads being ele- vated during their upward progress, and the contrary while they either rest suspended at the surface, or de- scend towards the bottom of the pool. They are ex- triemely fierce and predaceous, — in absence of other food • • See Savigny's Mem. sur les Animaux sans Verteb. ZOOLOGICAI< PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 295 snt the i-bugs, n their P. car- insects eh Con- or sub- is given al speci- owed by I seemed len, and ilicitude. :y of in- irdful of 3sit their servation is of the ;n in the ,d House, elongated are met hey seem uted over possess a rufo-scu- America, )r Leach, lished by icks, with 3eing ele- contrary ,ce, or de- ly are ex- other food — — . w jrteb. cruelly seizing upon and devouring their own young. We are not aware that the British American species are identical with those of Europe, at least the only speci- men taken by our expedition is a new insect, described by Mr Kirby under the name of N. insulata. The genus Cercopis, of which the larvce usually inhabit a white foam frequent on the stalks of various plants, and known by the familiar name of frog-spittley furnishes our only northern example of the homopterous section of the hemipterous order, — G. marginelln of Fabricius having been taken at Carlton House in spring, as well as in the districts nearer Hudson's Bay. We now arrive at the sj^lendid and universally admired order Lepidoptera, which contains the butterflies, sphinges, and moths. These insects are distinguished by four membranous veined wing&, covered by innumera- ble close-set scales, which frequently exhibit the most brilliant colours.* We need not, however, dilate upon any thing so well known as the general aspect and cha- racter of these richly adorned creatures. The first section, called Diurna, contains the butter- flies, properly so called. They are never seen on the wing except during daylight, and in a state of repose they usually hold their wings erect. Their antennse are almost always terminated by a club or knob. From the earliest periods of natural history, the elegant forms and exquisite colours of these insects have never failed to excite the zeal and admiration of collectors. They occur in all quarters of the world — from the frozen shores of Greenland and Spitzbergen, to high southern latitudes — but the tropical regions of Asia and America * The foilowinar table may serve to illustrate the difference be- tween the most laboriously elaborate work of art, and the most or- dinary productions of nature. The numerals represent the amount of tessellae, or distinct pieces, in every square inch : The Sussex pavement contains . . H A modern mosaic picture . . . 870 The wing of a butterfly expanded . . 18(»,736 The same in the chrysalis state . . 931,808 A^'M =3!;:^ # ■:!! ■•■\-i'ji ■•'It' 1 ! >!• « M f 1 l"^^' ■7* ,^3 m 296 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL f'^' "• are the most productive of large and splendidly coloured varieties. Nevertheless the temperate countries both of the Old World and the New are productive of many species of great beauty, — a few of which, from " the far west," we shall here briefly notice. The occurrence of such as are identical with those of Europe is not the least in- teresting feature observable among the Lepidoptera of North America. The first Canadian species we have to notice is Papilio TurnuSy a large and beautiful butterfly, which has what may be called its centre of dominion within more tropi- cal climates, although it continues to be met with for several degrees to the north of the great lakes. Our European Colias edusa likewise occurs in British Ame- rica,* and the Canadian territory is adorned by Argynnis Cybele, Myrina, and Aphrodite. Our famous Camberwell beauty, Vanessa Antiopa,ha3 been taken both in Canada and Nova Scotia. In Britain the eggs of this species are supposed to lie dormant (like the seeds of many plants) for several seasons, at least Mr Haworth conjectured this to be the reason of its showing itself in the perfect state at rare and distant intervals. Until a comparatively recent period it had not been seen in England for nearly forty years. That it is of a hardy nature, however, may be inferred, not only from its northerly position in America, but from the fact of Mr Samouelle having, in the spring of 1820, captured an English specimen which must have survived the rigour of the preceding winter. Our beautiful Vanessa Atalanta is generally distributed over North America, One of the most remarkable examples of a widely or rather universally extended distribution is presented by an insect of another genus, Cynthia carduiy commonly called the painted lady. This butterfly is found over great portions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and • According to Mr Burchell, this insect also inhabits the south of Africa, and Mr Swainson has seen examples from the Nepaul Moun- tains. ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 297 is as fumiliarly known in the central islands of the vast Pacific Ocean, as among the flower-gardens of England. Yet how frail and feeble are its gaudy wings, and how vainly would they now serve as the means of transport to those " sea-girt isles" from any of the greater conti- nents of the earth ! We agree with Humboldt that the migration and distribution of organic bodies can no more be solved as problems in natural science than the mys- tery (>{ their original creation ; and that the task of the philof '»j»her is fulfilled " when he has indicated the laws in aciordance with which Nature has distributed the forniH of animal and vegetable life."* We have received tke interesting insect last named from Nova Scotia, and a nearly related species, (J. Hunteriy extends into Canada. Of the extensive genus Hipparchia^ a new Canadian species, taken by Dr Bigsby, is described by Mr Kirby under the name of //. nephele, and several specimens have been taken considerably further north (at Cumberland House, lat. 54°) of another j)reviously unknown lepi- dopterous insect, H, discoidalis. Of the beautiful Ly^ ccenidce, Thecla Augustus^ Lyccuna dorcas, and Polyom- matus Lucia, were likewise taken in lat. 54°.t The second principal division of the order Lepidop- tera is callod Crepuscularia, We would naturally infer from the name, that the species are observed chiefly during the morning and evening twilight, yet many may be seen darting from flower to flower during the prevalence of bright sunshine. The principal contents of this group belong to the Linnsean genus Sphinx, so denominated, we believe, on account of the peculiar attitude assumed by several of their caterpillars, which at times bear some resemblance to that fabled monster of antiquity. The perfect insects fly with great velo- city, sometimes producing a humming noise, occasion- ed, it is probable, by the rapid vibrations of their * Personal Narrative, vol. iii. p. 496. •j- For these, and other newly discovered species, see Fauna Boreali-Americana, part iv. p. 29o. '4M '^ ^:i ^:\m ^" ■f'^]" ii^Si'' .'Ji; 298 NOTICES nEGARDINO THE PRINCIPAL W A « .. »i i'' .'1 .i'f •/^' '! - ■ ; H , .•'. ■'■' 1 wings. Their trunk, which is usually very distinct, is in a few /j^reatly elongated, and, instead of nettling upon flowers like bees and most otlier insects, they are generally observed merely to hover over or in front of the gorgeous petals, and to extend their long tubular suckers towards the nectaries. Of the ]iritish American species, we sliall here name Smerinthus Ceriftyif a new insect, which Mr Kirby regards as the American representative of our S. ocellntus, Deilepliila intermedia is another of the western sphingido?, which seems to take its place as it were between D. Knphorbict and Gnlii of Europe. Of the smaller Zyga^nidie, Ahjpia Macculbchii may bo mentioned as a previously undescribed species, which occurs both in Canada and Nova Scotia. Sesia rufi- caudis of Kirby is likewise a Canadian insect. The great group called Nocturna is composed of a vast assemblage of species, known under the familiar name of moths. It corresponds to the old and undivided genus Phalffina of Linnseus. The wings, with a few exceptions, are bridled in repose, by means either of a bundle of set®, or a strong bristle, which, projecting from the anterior margin of the lower wings, is received into a peculiar process of the under surface of the upper pair. The antennse are setaceous, or become gradually narrower towards the extremity. They are frequently feathered or pectinated, especially in the males, in which sex likewise they are usually of more ample size. The females of a few species have no wings, or but the merest rudiments of those parts. The chrysalids are of a rounded form, without angular points. These insects, as their family name implies, are but seldom seen upon the wing till after sunset, and many of them continue their flight throughout the mild and dewy nights of summer until the morning twilight, which, exposing their defenceless forms to many and cruel foes, warns them to seek the shelter of their leafy homes. By the sides of still waters, and the fringed margins of sombre woods, by dingle and bushy dell, or among the rocky peaks of gray and ghostlike crags, we ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OP BRITISH AMERICA. 299 net, is upon crally r^cous )vvurd8 ea, wc whu'h live of r of the ,cc as it pc. Of nay l)0 , which m mfi- of a vast ar name ndivided :h a few ;her of a rojeeting received lie upper gradually equently in which ze. The but the ids are of are but nd many mild and twilight, nany and iieir leafy lc fringed dell, or crags, we have often watched tlieir airy evohitions throughout those solemn hours in whicli wo so usually steep our •senses ii) oblivion, — but during which millions of happy crcatiirea revel in undisturbed delight, fulfilling their glad vocation, and if not " hynuiing their Maker's praise" audibly with choral songs, yet not the less ex- hibituig their enjoyment of that pervaduig goodness which is over all his works. Wiiat a stream of happy life is ever flowing on by day and night, in spite of all that darkens the primeval brightness of this dim spot " which men call earth !" What a countless throng of rejoicing creatures, unoppressed ])y either sin or sorrow, are ever bursting into existence, peopling the midnight air and lonely moorish waters, glittering amid burning deserts, or holding glad communion under til*' leafy canopy of the umbrageous woods ! What innumerable and infinitely varied forms of insect-life are destined to spring up and perish, for ever unseen by human eye, yet nevertheless performing an essential part in the gracious scheme of God's omnipotence, — that great and solemn mystery — creation ! " 0 Lord, how manifold are thy works ; in wisdom hast thou made them all." During tlie brightness of the day-season, the noc- turnal Lepidoptera conceal themselves in tangled vege- tation, on the shady side of walls and other buildings, beneath the cover of large o'erhanging leaves, or in the crevices of the gnarled bark of ancient forest-trees, and other sombre places. So astounded indeed are the greater number by the " garish eye of day," that when discovered by a sharp-sighted and sun-enjoying entomo- logist, they may be taken prisoner without an effort to escape. A few, however, present exceptions to this general rule, the males of Bomhyx zigzag, for exar^^ ^e, flying fearlessly throughout the entire day, in spite of the brightest beams of " glorious Apollo," and search- ing so intently for their fair but sluggish females, as not seldom to sacrifice their lives to whatever wayward wing and homy beak may dart upon them, " spoiling the sense of that nepenthe — love." 4^ '"W «.*i Ii-: m "f 300 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL ^1 "■" f* 1 'i'.H 1- 1. si The nocturnal species which we have here to indicate as inhabitants of British America are extremely few. Two new spocies of Callimorpha^ C. ParthenitB and vir- guncula, are described by Mr Kirby. The latter called ** the Little Maiden," has the primary wings black with pale pinkish rivulets, forming rays at the apex ; the secondaries are yellow spotted with black, and the thorax is yellow with five black spots. The expanded wings measure an inch and a half. It was taken in Canada by Dr Bigsby. Another Canadian insect, like- wise new to naturalists, is the red striped Lithosia, L. miniata. It is of the colour of red lead, with three stripes upon the primary wings, the apex of the second- ary pair, and the centre part of the abdomen slate- coloured. A large Ctenucha (Ct. Latreillii, Kirby) occurs both in Canada and Nova Scotia, and the former country produces the rectangular noctua {Plusia rectan- gultty K.), of which the primary wings are ash-coloured, divided with black, and marked by a rectangulai sub- ramose silvery spot of snowy whiteness, forming, Avhen the wings are made to approach each other, a quadran- gular area " resembling a picture in a silver frame." A well-known British species, Plusia gamma, distin- guished by a pallid silvery signature in the disk of the primary wings resembling the Greek letter gamma, or the Roman y, has been taken in Canada, while Nova Scotia produces another species as yet unknown in the old country, called Plusia fakif era, or the sickle-bearing Plusia. A very protean species which we often see in Britain, P. iota, the V. d'or of the French, occurs over a wide extent of British America. In the Nova Scotia specimens, Mr Kirby informs us the discoidal spots are silvery, while in those from Canada their lustre is rather of a golden hue. We have next to offer a few brief notices regarding the order Diptera, or two-winged insects, of which the common house-fly affords so familiar an example. Many tribes of this extensive order occasion us frequent annoy- ance, not only by sucking our blood when we by no 2 ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 301 idicate ( few. id vir- called k with K ; the ad the panded iken in ;t, like- osia, L, h three second- n slate- Kirhy) 3 former % rectan- joloured, liar suh- ig, Avhen madran- 6)) •aine. J distin- ik of the jiima, or lie Nova n in the bearing ,en see in TS over a a Scotia Ispots are llustre is Regarding ^hich the Many , annoy- re by no means desire the exercise of such phlebotomy, but also by laying their numerous eggs on the living bodies of many domestic animals, and on whatever fleshy viands, especially if uncooked and somewhat tainted, they can attain to. In summer more particularly, when the process of corruption is the speediest, these insects are in their prime of health and vigour, and buzz alK)ut in- cessantly, ever on the watch at pantrv -doors or windows, or wherever they may hope (forewarned by emanation) for a proper nidus for their future young. Yet not- withstanding this disgusting interference with our pro- perty, they may be regarded on the whole as serviceable when we indulge in a more enlarged view of their depredations. Their gluttonous larvse rapidly consume all animal matters in a state of putridity, which, if left at large, would affect the air we breathe with many pes- tilential odours. The first genus we shall notice is that called Culex, the species of which are so well known as gnats and mosquitoes. They are extremely troublesome towards evening, especially in the vicinity of moist or marshy places. They are greedy of blood, and in their insidious search for food they persecute both man and beast, not only sucking our life- stream, but instilling a poison which, though feeble in effect from its extreme minute- ness, yet often produces pain and inflammation. Al- though abundant in Italy and all the warmer countries of the earth, gnats are nowhere more frequent than amid the barren wastes of North America. The females, who it is alleged alone are blood-suckers, deposit their eggs in water to the amount of many hundreds, and the larvffi are consequently very plentiful in all stagnant pools in spring and summer, where they may be seen when undisturbed suspended from the surface with their heads downwards. At this time they breathe through the caudal extremity, but in the nympha state, during which they are still aquatic, the respiratory organs are placed upon the thorax. On assuming the psrfect form, the thin exuvia of the nymph serves as a VOL. III. T 302 NOTICES REGARDING THE PRINCIPAL K ■ ■ m '■ ' \ -#tJ il ^^*" support, by means of which the imago or completed fly sustains itself for a time upon the surface of the glitter- ing waters, being for it *• A shell of ample size, and light As the pearly car of Amphitrite That sportive dolphins drew." A North American mosquito (and there are probably many others) is described by Mr Kirby under the name of Culex punctor. It is a small species, measuring little more than a fourth of an inch in length, the general colour black, with the legs and nervures of the wings testaceous. Of the genus Tipula (the species are known in Eng- land by the name of Harry Long-legs, while in Scotland they rejoice in that of Jenny Nettles), we shall mention of American kinds only T, pratorum, of wliich the head and trunk are slate-coloured, the prothorax has four brown stripes, the abdomen is yellow, with three longi- tudinal lines, and the apex brown, the legs and antennse are testaceous at the base, and the wings clouded. The genus EmpiSf of which we have nearly thirty species in Britain, is likewise well known in North America. Their early history has not been clearly de- temiined, but in the perfect state they seize upon other flies and suck them to death. E. luctuosa and genicu- losa were taken in countries to the north of Canada, where also a well-known British insect belonging to another genus, — we mean Bomhylius major, — was not unfrequent. A smaller species of that genus (5. pyg- nuBUs, Fab.) is also found in the same country. Of the genus Tabanus Mr Kirby names T, affinis and zonalis, both new species, as natives of the New World, while the kindred genus Chrysops, so called from the beautiful brilliancy of its golden-coloured eyes, is there represented by Ch, sepvlchralis, — a dismal name for an insect which continually bears along with it two lamps of living light. Of the Syrphid€B, a common Scotch insect, Sc€eva ribesiif is known in British America ; and of the Mus- ZOOLOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. 303 •leted fly B glitter- probably the name ring little le general the wings n in Eng- 1 Scotland U mention li the head c has four hree longi- id antenna ided. tirly thirty in North clearly de- upon other tnd genicu- of Canada, jlonging to ^ — ^was not as {B. pyg- intjy. Of affinis and few World, d from the es, is there Lame for an two lamps cida Mr Kirby describes two new spec'^s, M. cadci- verum and mortisequa. The latter seems to be the representative of our Musca vomitoria. That singular and anomalous British insect Hippobosca equina has been captured in our American possessions ; and, lastly, an enormous flea, named Pulex gigas, was taken in our northern territories, but we are not in- formed by whom. • Hi' |sect, S€€Bva )f the Mus- m mi •(■( f%\ ■ "■ BOTANY. CHAPTER VI. if. 4': Some Account of the most Interesting Plants belonging to British America. Plants deserving particular Notice in the natural Orders— Ranun- culaceBB — Podophylleae — NymphaBaceae — Magnoliacese— Umbelli- I'erae — Araliaceae — Grossulacese — Vitaceae — Sarraceniaceae — Cornacese — Aceraceae — Rosaceae — Legiiminosae — Betulaceae — Juglandaceas — Platanaceae — Ericacea? — Vaccihiaceae — Composi- tsE — ConiferaB — Orchidaceae. As it would be scarcely possible iii any general account of the flom of the British Possessions in North America to separate the United States on the one hand, and the Arctic Regions on the other, we shall, after a few brief observations, proceed at once to notice under their re- spective orders those plants which are of prominent interest. One of the most striking features in the vegeta- tion of the United States and of Canada, as far as they can be conjointly considered, is the number of species belonging to the genera Solidago, Aster, Quercus (oak), and Firms (fir). It is also distinguished for the many ])lants contained in the orders or natural families, Orossulacetp, Onagracecp, Hypericacece, Aceracece, Betu- Inceit, Juglandacea', and Vacciniacece ; and for the pre- sence of the peculiar families, Podophyllece, Sarracenia- veee, and Hydraphyllacecp. There is, on the contrary, the climate being considered, a remarkable paucity of Cruciferce and UmbellifercE, and, what is most extraor- dinary, a total absence of the genus Erica (heath), which covers so many thousands of acres in correspond- ing latitudes in Europe. SOME ACCOUNT OF BRITISH AMERICAN PLANTS. 305 RANUNCULACE^. This family belongs chiefly to Europe and North America, one-fifth of the whole being found m the former, one-seventh in the latter. In the British Possessions we find many genera with which we are fimiiliaf , such as Clematis, Tlialictrum, Anemone, Uepatiai, Admiki, and Ranunculus. There are in fact only two with which the European botanist is unacquainted, Hydnt^- tis and Copths. Of all the species of Clematis, which iU'c found in the United States, C. Virginiana and C, mrti- cillaris alone pass the northern boundary. The first has been long cultivated in England as a climber, and es- teemed for the delightful fragrance of its blossoms. Nine species of the beautiful genui^ Anemone have been collected in Canada or to the northward. The young buds of one kind serve as food for the marmots. ^4, nemorosa, the graceful companion of the hyacinth ancl primrose in our own copses, is likewise a native of Ca- nada, and was even found by Drummond and Douglas on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. Hepatica ti'iloha, the liepatica of our gardens, a Euix)pean plant, whose blue, white, or pink flowers expand along with the crocus and the snowdrop, is a frequent ornament of the Ca- nadian woods, flourishing also in the secluded valleys on the eastern declivity of the Rocky Mountain ridge, as far north as latitude 55°. It is the snow-flower of the Americans. The yellow-root (^Hydrastis Canadensis), resembling in its habit some of the herbaceous brambles, yields a fine yellow dye. About twenty kinds of Ranunculus are known, several of them being identical with common European species ; especially R, sceleratus, celebrated with otliers of the genus for a highly acrid property. Employed as an epispastic it miscs a blister in an hour and a half, and is used by beggars in this country for the purpose of forming artificial ulcers. ,*r: ■r; if w m ■• \ i'\ ''M PODOPHYLLEiE. This is an exclusively American order. The May-apple fi' m Mi. 'I 1:"< te";' ai'f 'li 306 SOME ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING (Podophj/llam pdtatum) grows in large patches in moist situations, and is an herbaceous plant with a single peltate and palmate leaf; the fruit is a green berry, called May-apple by the early settlers. The root is said ])y Barton to be one of the safest and most active cAtliartics known. NYMPHJEACEiE. Few examples of this order occur in Canada : none in fact but Nymph^a odorata, the doubtful N. minor, Nupfiar lutea, kalmiana, and advena. Nymphcea odcrntn is fragrant, as its name implies, and takes the place of the white water-lily of Europe, cradling its beautiful flowers on the bosom of small lakes and slow streams. It is abundant in the neighbourhood of Quebec, and Dr Richardson found it in Upper Canada. The seeds of the plants belonging to this order being farinaceous, are in India and other countries roasted and eaten. Lindley mentions, on the authority of M. Fee, that the stems of Nympha'a alhn are l)ettcr than oak-galls for dyeing gray : it is said that they have been also employed for tanning leather, and even that a very tolerable beer has been prepared from them. All the species of Nuphar are yellow, and are known by the name of yellow water- lilies. It is remarkable that no representative of this family has hitherto been discovered in South America. MAGNOLIACE.E. The only member of this splendid family which reiK'hes the Canadian boundary is the tulip-tree (Lirio- deridron tuUpifera), so named from the similarity which the flowers bear to a tulip. It is a large and ornamental forest-tree, growing to ^L ^ height oi seventy or eighty feet, with a trunk four teet or more in diameter. The foliage is of a pale green colour and very singular, the leaves being angular and truncated or cut off, as it were, at tlie extremity. Two varieties are described, commonly known in America by the names of white and yellow poplars. The wood of the former is of good quality for n moist i single L berry, root is 5t active a : none \ minor, I odorntn place of beautiful streams. ;, and Dr ;ds of the IS, are in Lindley ! stems of inggray: r tanning has been iphar are [w water- e of this iiericac ly which 3e {Lirio- kty which Inamental )r eighty ler. The liar, the it were, )mmonly |d yellow lality for PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 307 building purposes, but that of the latter soft and brit- tle, and chiefly used by the turner. The bark of the root is said to furnish, m common with that of Magnolifi glauca, a tonic medicine of great value. UiMBELLIFERiE. Of the forty-six species recorded in Hooker's Flora Boreal i- Americana, only twenty-six can be held to come within the limits of British America. This is remarkabh', for the order is an extensive one, and chiefly distri- buted in the higher parts of the northern hemisphep[^ Europe is indeed the metropolis of the order ; but many species probably remain to be discovered in Americii. In the large island of Newfoundland we are acquainttMl with only four of these plants. The properties of the UmbelliferfB are not unknown to the Indians : some are employed medicinally, and others as food. The root of Seseli triternatum is said by Pursh to be, when roasted, one of the most agreeable vegetables. The roots and young stems of Heracleum Umntum are eaten by tlu; Chenook Indians in the north-western parts ; and accord- ing to Dr Richardson, the Canadian voyageufs, and the Cree Indians, who call the plant Pehpoon-alitic (flute- stem), also use the young stems as a pot-herb. Tribes living on the banks of the Columbia boil the tops of Ferula Nuttallii, as we do celery, in their soups. ARALIACEiE. The only plant in this small order which calls for par- ticular notice is the gin-seng (^Panax quinquefolmm). The Chinese word gin-seng, which signifies the figuit; or representation of a man, seems to have been applied to this vegetable, because the root occasionally divider in such a manner as to bear a fanciful resemblance to the human form. This species of Panax is herbaceous, scarcely a foot and a half in height, and towards the upper part of the stem arise three quinate-digitaUi leaves, from the centre of which springs the flower- stalk. The root is fusiform and fleshy, and is the part w :ni. i ' *'> til .1 1 i ™'i| '. i\ 4 mm ■A fi ■■.A", ■M ^ HI i\ ■I fl •1^ hi km Mi Mm m r- ■1 i i ^ih -lit n 1 • ■•■ r |)r I i* !"i >••., |r|,, ' ■ ', if'- m §■ 308 SOME ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING chiefly valued. We are informed, that among the Chinese many volumes have been written upon its vir- tues ; and that besides the name already mentioned, it is known by several others expressive of the high esti- mation in which it is universally held throughout the celestial empire ; two of these appellations are, Tfie pure spirit of the earthy and The plant that gives immortality. It is considered almost in the light of a general specific, but from its costly price is beyond the reach of the poor. Mountainous woods in Tartary are mentioned as the place where it is produced in the greatest abundance. In 1709, the emperor ordered an army of ten thousand natives to collect all the gin-seng they could find ; and each pei*son was to give him two ounces of the best, while for the remainder payment was to be made in silver, weight for weight. It was in the same year that Father Jartoux, a Jesuit missionary in China, prepared a figure and accurate description of the plant, in which h6 bears testimony to the beneficial efi^ects of the root. He tried it in many instances himself, especially when ex- liausted by fatigue, and always with the same result. His pulse was increased, liis appetite improved, and his whole frame invigorated. According to Osbeck, tlie inhabitants take it frequently in their tea or soup ; and Jartoux adds, that the Tartars use the leaves even as a substitute for tea itself, and that he himself preferred them decidedly for that purpose. Judging from the ac- counts before us, we should say that the Chinese were extravagant in their ideas of the virtues of this herb ; but that it is undoubtedly a cordial stimulant, to be com- pared perhaps in some degree with the aromatic root of Meum Athamanticum, so much esteemed by the Scottish Highlandei*s. It has nevertheless disappeared from our materia medica. Early in the last century, gin-seng was discovered in North America, where it has a very extensive range. The American plant seems in all respects identical with the one indigenous to China, and the prepared roots were at one time exported to that country in large quantities, and purchased by tlie inhabit- G ng the its vir- oned, it gh esti- .out the riie pure ality. It jific, but he poor, d as the undance. thousand ind; and the best, made in year that )repared a which h6 root. He when ex- iQ result, [d, and his ;beck, tlie ioup ; and even as a preferred ,m the ac- tnese were [his herb ; Ito be com- Inatic root Id by the isappeared century, tiere it has iems in all ihina, and led to tliat lie inhabit- PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 309 ants as the genuine drug. This branch of commerce, owing, it is believed, to some mismanagement in the mode of collecting and preparing the root, gradually fell otf, tmd at last ceased to exist. A species of gin-seng very much resembling the one which we have been describing, ami named by Wallich Panax pseudo-ginseng^ is found on the Sheopore mountains in Nepaul. GROSSULACEiE. The genus Kibes containing the gooseberry and tlie currant, — two of the most agreeJble and wholesome fruits of temperate regions, are particularly abundant in North America. Twenty-two species are described in Sir W. J. Hooker's Flora, of which ten come within our prescribed limits, liibes oxycantlwides, found through- out Canada, produces a red or green fruit, which xMr Drummond considers, in regard to its fbivour, equal to the common gooseberry. R. rubram, our common km.1 currant, is frequent, and extends even to the mouth of the Mackenzie River. R.prostratum, likewise alwunding in Canada, has rather large red fruit ; but we have no account of its qualities. Some of the most interesting American species of this genus occur on the north-west coast, or among the Rocky Momitains ; and although it is not our province at this time to consider the vegeta- tion of those regions, we trust tliat a passing notice of their productions will not be unacceptable, when it con- tributes to illustrate our subject. One of the most re- markable plants of the genus Ribes, R. stamineum, was discovered in North California by the venerable Menzies ; but was not introduced into our gardens, where it is known by the name of fuchsia-flowered gooseberry, before 1829. The petals are included within the flne red calyx, which, with the singularly exserted stamens, give the plant its showy appearance. R. Menziesiiy another goose- berry from the same country, is conspicuous for its large and beautiful flowers ; while R, bracteosum, a cur- rant discovered by Dr Scoular at the confluence of the Columbia with the ocean, is equally distinguished by 14 •r". m m m 1 ' { f: li ;l -? M Hi % W3. m m tosition on the Rocky Mountains. ACERACFJE. North America is one of the most prolific stations of this small order. Some of the species of Acer (maple) form large, ornamental, and vfiluable trees. A. maero- phyllum, discovered on the north-west coast by Menzies, reaches ninety feet in height and sixteen feet in the cir- cumference of the trunk. A. Pennsylvanicum^ called the striped maple, from the white lines on the bark, is a favourite food for horses and cattle, which browse on the young shoots towards the end of winter. The moose- deer also feed upon them in severe seasons, and the tree has thence acquired the name of moose-wood. The sap of several species of maple abounds in saccharine mat- ter, and yields a large quantity of sugar. The kinds in most esteem for this purpose are A, dasycarjnim (white or soft maple), A. nigrum (black sugar-maple), and A. sacctmrinum (the sugar-maple) ; the last two yield- ing the greatest quantity of sugar. The value of this article was early known to the American settlers ; and even at this time it forms an essential comfort in the household economy of the distant emigrant. The process by which the sap is obtained is extremely simple, nothing more being necessary than to bore a hole in the tree and conduct the flowing liquid by means of a hollowed piece of wood into a vessel beneath. Wliatever quantity of sap I'lli 1 M •\ , .;;;»i 4^ 'A II. rt- 111 •if, ii 314 SOME ACCOUNT OP THE MOST INTERESTING be collected, it must be boiled down the same evening, a« it is liable to be spoiled by fermentation in the course of a few hours. The operation now mentioned is gene- rally performed in a \ery primitive way, and is well described by the intelligent authoress of " Backwoods of Canada." — " My husband, with an Irish lad, began collecting the sap the last week in March. A pole was fixed across two forked stakes, strong enough to bear the weight of the big kettle. Their employment during the day was emptying the troughs and chopping wood to supply the fires. In the evening they lit the fires and began boiling down the sap. It was a pretty and pic- turesque sight to see the sugar-boilers with their bright log-fire among the trees, now stin-ing up the blazing I>ile, now throwing in the liquid and stirring it down with a big ladle. When the fire grew fierce, it boiled and foamed up in the kettle, and they had to throw in fresh sap to keep it from ruiming over. When the sap begins to thicken into molasses, it is then brought to the sugar-boiler to be finished. The process is simple ; it only requires attention in skimming and keeping the mass from boiling over, till it lias arrived at the sugar- ing point, which is ascertained by dropping a little into cold water. When it is near the proper consistency, the kettle or pot becomes full of yellow froth, that dimples and rises in large bubbles from beneath. These tlirow out puffs of steam, and when the molasses is in this stage, it is nearly converted into sugar. Those who l>ay great attention to keeping the liquid free from scum, and understand the precise sugaring point, will I>roduce an article little if at all inferior to muscovado," We liave dwelt rather at length upon this subject, as it illustrates in some degree the ic ources which the settler finds in the vegetation by which he is surrounded in the commencement of his labours ; and there is perhaps no time at which men differ more from each other than on such occasions, in the ingenuity they exhibit, and in their readiness to discover and enjoy in the wilderness sub- stitutes for the comforts and elegances of civilized life. ning, jiiTse gene- well vooda began e was arthe ig the )od to es and d pic- , bright )lazing t down boiled irow in the sap i to the pie ; it ng the sugar- ;le into |stency, I, that These les is in ise who |e from it, will Ivado." :ct,aait settler in the liaps no ;han on their sub- Id life. PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 315 A moderate tree of the sugar maple is said to yield without injury twenty to thirty gallons of sap, j&x)in which may be extracted five or six pounds of sugar. This article is generally very hard, compact, and heavy, with a dull appearance and scarcely any grain ; but tlie quality depends upon the care bestowed in tlie pre- paration. Tile lady whose authority we have already quoted, after making a series of experiments, found tliut by purifying the sap, observing certain rules in the l)oiling, and in draining off the molasses, the sugar was light compared with its bulk, well crystallized, tasting exactly like sugar-candy, and lit for any purpose. Nor is sugar the only product obtained from this valuable tree. Strong and excellent vinegar is made from it, as well as good wine ; and, with the addition of hops, sound and pleasant beer may be had at a very trifling expense. ROSACEiE. America is not rich in the " Queen of Flowers." There are only ten species enumerated in Hooker's Flora, three of which occur in Newfoundland, three in Canada, and three on the Saskatchawan and to the northward of that river. The remaining species (Itosa cinnamomea) Dr Scoular discovered on the shores of the Columbia. Brambles are more numerous, the same work containing twenty-one kinds. The common rasp- berry of Europe (^Rubus IdcBus) is described by Pursh as a Can lian plant ; and Torrey, on the authority of Nuttall, says that it is indigenous throughout the upper province and on the borders of the lakes of the St Law- rence ; but Hooker leaves it out of his Flora Boreali- Americana altogether, having no reference to it even as an erroneous synonyme. By his observation, however, that R. strigosus seems to hold the place of R, Itkeiis, it may perhaps be inferred that he does not consider the latter as a native, in which we think he is correct. Several of the American brambles produce desirable fruit ; such as R. strigosus, called the red raspberry ; R, occidetUaiis, the wild raspberry or tliimbleberry ; and R. trivialis, J^iv M' fi'vS' cii- M* Ml 316 SOME ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING % ♦ •f *1 ■- F' .■ » the dewberry. Of 7J. specfabilis, a prickly shrub six to ten feet high, growing in North-west America, Douglas says the fruit is large, oblong, yellowish- white, and well flavoured. The cloudberry (R. Chamcemoriis), whose fine orange fruit fomis the most delicious preserve of our Scottish Highlands, is not unfrequent in Newfound- land, Labrador, and from Lake Winnipeg to the shores of the Arctic Sea. Two of the American brambles are highly ornamental, — one of them (jR. odoratus) has been cultivated in our shrubberies for the last century under the somewhat absurd name of flowering rasp- berry ; the other {li, Nutkanus) is of more recent intro- duction from the north-west coast. The former has large crimson flowers, and the fruit, never we believe seen in our gardens, is large, yellow, and of a fine honey flavour ; the flowers of the latter are white, but equally remarkable in point of size. Above thirty species o^ Poteri- tilla (cinque-foil) are known to exist in the northern parts of America, and we find also many other genera of the order with which the European botanist is familiar, — Fragaria, Sibbaldia, Dryas, Geum, Agrimonia, Spircca (of which there are eleven species), and others. In the Pomacece, which Professor Lindley now con- siders a sub-order of Bosacece, are some of those fine hawthorns which adorn our pleasure-grounds. Here "we have also the genera Pyrus and Amelanchier. A. ovalis occurs throughout Canada, and is plentiful, as Dr Richardson informs us, on the sandy plains of the Saskatchawan. " Its wood, named by the Crees Mee- 6'assquat-ahtic, is prized for making arrows and pipe- stems, and is thence termed by the Canadian voyageurs bois de fieche. Its berries, about the size of a pea, are the finest fruit in the country, and are used by the Crees under the name of Meesasscootoom-meena both in a fresh and dried state. They form a pleasant addi- tion to penmiican, and make excellent puddings, very little inferior to plum-puddings." Amyydalea, another sub-order of Rosacea, contains among other genera the cheri-y {Cerasus), Seven or 5 I six to )ouglas id well whose lerve of vfound- iiores of Dies are us) has century ig rasp- nt intro- mcr has ; believe ne honey t equally ofPotev- lem parts era of the imiliar, — Spiraea now con- lose fine s. Here ohier, A. rntiful, as ins of the Irees Mee- and pipe- voyageuTS a pea, are 3d by the leena both Lsant addi- igB, very , contains Seven or PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 317 eight kinds belong to the British Possessions, but none of them produce fruit to be compared with the common cherry of Europe. 6'. depressa, a low shrub, bears the sand-cherries of Pursh, which are said to be black, with an agreeable flavour. C, Virgimana affords an interesting illustration of the effect of climate upon vegetation : in the southern states it is a noble tree, attaining one hundred feet in height ; on the sandy plains of the Sas- katchaw^an it does not exceed twenty feet ; and at its northern limit, the Great Slave Lake, in latitude 62*^, it is reduced to a shrub of five feet. It is the Tawquoy- meen-ahtic of the Cree Indians, and the fruit of it, term- ed Tawquoymeena or choke-cherry, is not very eatable in a recent state, but when dried and braised is used with pemmican. C. hyemalis is the black choke-cherry. There seems to exist no little confusion about another species, C. Pennsylvanica, which we cannot attempt to cleai* up in this place. According to Pursh it very much resembles the wild cherry of Europe, small and agreeable to eat ; on the other hand Dr Torrey considers them " scarcely edible." Then Hooker agrees with Ton-ey in viewing this and C. borealis of Michaux as the same species ; but Pursh says of the cherries of the last-named tree that they occasion such an astringency in the mouth as to have acquired for them the name of choke-cherries, which does not at all agree with what he himself reports of C. Pennsylvanica, LEGUMINOSJE. The Flora Boreali- Americana contains 125 legumi- nosce, thirty-two of which are new species. But although this order is eminently rich in plants of the highest value in the arts and in domestic economy, few of those which are indigenous to the northern parts of America possess any interest except in a scientific point of view. Many of the species described in the above-mentioned work belong exclusively to the north-western parts, — the genus Hosackia, for example, various Trifolia, and all the Lupins but one. On the Rocky Mountains, and in TOL. III. u i' 11^ m lit- 'ij; iiHdtli Hii H ■4 I': •>: 'mm W m i i ■t: 318 SOME ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING the regions north of the British settlements, are alone found many beautiful kinds of Phaca, OocytropiSy and Astragalus. It is deserving of notice, that of the total number of legaminoscB above recorded, no less than seventy-one are included in five genera ; viz. twelve species in Trifolium; thirteen in Phaca, of which nine are new ; ten in Oxytropis; sixteen in Astragalus, of which nine are new ; and twenty in Lupinus, of which the greater part have been recently described by Douglas, Lindley, or Hooker. Baptisia tinctoria, a frequent plant extending from Canada to the southern states, affords a considerable quantity of an inferior kind of indigo. Hedysaram Mackenzii is the liquorice mentioned by Mackenzie in his voyage, and it appears to grow abun- dantly every where between the Saskatchawan and the Arctic Sea. Dr Richardson found a large quantity of the root in the stomach of a bear killed on the seashore, along with the remains of a seal and several marmots. DETULACE^. Although there are few American plants in this small order, and they are for the most part well known, they occupy too important a place in Canadian economy to be passed over in silence. The most useful are the birches, of which six kinds may be enumerated. Betula lenta, known by the names of black birch, cherry birch, sweet birch, and mountain mahogany, is a large and grace- ful tree, affording timber of great value. B. pumila, B, nana, and B. glandulosa, are all dwarf shrubs ; the last, not above two feet high, and often much less, some- times furnished the only firewood that could be obtained by Captain Franklin and his adventurous companions. The most celebrated American birch, however, is B. papyracea, the canoe-birch, so called from the use made of the bark in the construction of the Indian boats. It extends from the shores of the Hudson in New York to a considerable range of country northwards of Canada. The bark is obtained with facility in large pieces, and is sewed together with the tough and slender roots of some riNG are alone ropiSy and f the total less than iz. twelve ivhich nine ragalus, of !?, of which oy Douglas, ^uent plant ites, affords [ of indigo. ;ntioned hy grow ahun- w^an and the quantity of the seashore, 1 marmots. a PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 319 of the pines. Bark-canoes, or " canots du nord," arc so essential to every exploratory expedition in these regions, and are so admirably adapted by their lightness to overcome the impediments offered to the navigation of the lakes and rivers by the peculiar features of the country, that we make no apology for introducing a description of them from the pen of an American writer : Although they are made nearly on the same model, yet there is great difference in their speed, burden, and soundness, according to the skill manifested in their construction. A canoe of this kind is generally con- structed of ribs of cedar bent so as to impart to it its proper form, the ends being secured to a band that forms the superior edge of the vessel and acts as a gunwale ; ever these ribs the birch-bark is laid in as large pieces as possible, generally so that there shall be but two longitudinal seams, and two or three transverse ; be- tween the bark and the ribs very thin splints of cedar are placed so as to prevent the bark from splitting ; all the joints are sewed with long threads obtained by splitting the roots of a tree called by the voyageurs epinette, and which is probably a spruce. To this thread the term watap used by the Chippeways is applied by the Canadians ; the seams as well as the cracks are covered with pitch made of the gum of the epinette ; this is applied hot, and renders the canoe water-tight. In this manner a little vessel is obtained very well calculated for travelling on these waters, as it will carry a burden of upwards of three thousand pounds, and when any obstruction in the navigation is encountered the cargo may be discharged, and the canoe easily carried by two men. Those which we used were thirty feet long by about four feet wide in the middle, and perhaps thiiiy inches deep. A number of transverse bars serve to keep the canoe in its proper shape. The seats of the paddlers are suspended to the gunwale. The bow and stern are sharp and turned upwards. The great objection that attends the use of bark-canoes is the difficulty of keep- ing them water-tight. It requires the greatest atten- :'1; ri "r^:illN ■ ik ^i -Will '1 «i- ^' nm\ ill'! :;>: ■i . t 'J -i ,1 i .« ,1 1 ii ix ^ lijlai ■•. .1 !1 ^ 4 «l] n w III i^ 320 SOME ACCOUNT OP THE MOST INTERESTING »-n . . I ; ■ a, f . If ■' . ,*.**. ■" ; 1' .' f)' '■.■ y. '*' JvL. '. 'li . m. tion to prevent them from touching a rock or even the shore, as they would otherwise break ; hence they are never brought near to the bank ; two men keep the canoe afloat at a distance, whilst the rest of the crew load or unload her ; the canoe is unloaded every night, raised out of the water, and left on the beach, bottom upwards. This is also occasionally done when they stop during the day ; it affords an opportunity of allow- ing the canoe to dry, otherwise the bark absorbs much water, and becomes very heavy. All motion on the part of those on board is to be avoided, as it causes the pitch to crack, and renders the canoe leaky."* From birch-bark the Indians also manufacture a variety of vessels for domestic purposes, capable of hold- ing water or other liquids. Baskets of the same material they nament very tastefully with patterns worked in dyed quills. The wood of the canoe-birch is in such request on the Saskatchawan among the Cree Indians, for making sledges, that, according to Dr Richardson, it has become scarce. The inner bark of the alder, we are informed by the same author, is used by the Crees both as an emetic and also for obtaining a yellow dye, JUGLANDACE^. North America is the principal station of the Walnut tribe ; but of the ten species of walnut and hickory, both formerly considered as one genus, Pursh does not expressly give more than a solitary species to Canada, viz. Juglans cinerea (the butter-nut or oil-nut). Five others, however, are said to grow in New England, and it is probable that most of them will be foimd to extend northward. We have, in fact, received three species from the neighbourhood of Montreal. Only two of the American Juglandacece are retained in the genus Juglaiw — the true walnuts : the rest are called hickory- • Keating's Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St Peter'3 River, vol. ii. p. 72. INO even the they are keep the the crew jry night, li, hottom hen they T of allow- ^rhs much an on the causes the ufacture a ble of hold- ne material •ns worked -birch is in g the Cree ling to Dr Iner bark of lior, is used obtaining a the Walnut nd hickory, rsh does not to Canada, nut). Five England, be found to jeived three Only two in the genus led hickory- Source of St PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 321 nuts, and belong to the genus Carya of Nuttall. The wood of all the species is e wtremely valuable, and the fruit of several highly esteemed ; especially that of C, olivcuformis (Illinois nut), which has a very thin shell, G. sulcata (Springfield nut), and C. alba (shag-bark hickory), the kernel of which is very large. C\ porcina is the hog-nut, producing very small and uncommonly hard fruit. The tough wood of the last-named species is split into narrow slips, and converted into good and durable brooms. PLATANACE^. Platanus, the only genus in this order, contains four species, one of which, P. occidentalism is found in North America, from Canada to the southern states. The proper English appellation is plane tree, but in th€ south it passes imder the name of sycamore ; while in the midland states it is called water-beech and button- wood ; and in our possessions cotton- tree. In the fertile valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi, Michaux says that the undivided trunk attains an elevation of sixty or seventy feet, with a diameter at the base of from ten to sixteen. It is theretbrr in regard to di- mensions, one of the finest fore^ o-trees of America ; but as its wood is soft and of little value, it is only esteemed for its beauty. ERICACE^. Here we find many of the most lovely ornaments of the " American border" of our gardens : — Andromedas, Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and Kalmias. Among the Andromedas of Canada, are A, tetragona, a beautiful little shrub only a few inches high ; A. polifolia, well known as a native of our own country, and A, racemosa, a graceful plant producing abundance of fragrant flowers in long racemes. Three species only of the superb genus Rhododendron inhabit Canada. One of them is E. maa4- mum, the finest of the American kinds : that variety of it which has been called purpureum may be almost !.'*i,V ■m i 4\ ' 'il '« km t "J ■ Ifi ■» <■ • N^' 322 SOME ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING compared with the tree-rhododendron of Nejiaul, as it is sometimes found twenty feet in height, with a trunk from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter. The large and copious flowers of this species render it one of the most attractive plants in the country. The two other species, JR. nudijiorum and the sweet-scented R. viscosum, are known in gardens as Azaleas, but in a scientific point of view are true Rhododendrons ; the only real Azalea being the little alpine A. procumhens of our Scottish Alps, found also in Newfoundland and Labrador. Three species of Kalmia belong to the Canadian flora ; two of them, K. glauca and K. angustifolia, delight in bogs, growing much in the same manner as the sweet gale (^Myrica gale) of the British Islands. The third, the elegant K. latifolia, known by the name of calico-bush, rises on the sides of stony hills to eight feet in height ; Torrey says, that on the Catskill Mountains it attains even twenty feet. The only remaining plant which claims to be no- ticed in this tribe is Ledum palustre, a low shrub, with terminal heads of small white flowers. It grows very extensively in Newfoundland, Labrador, and in the more northern regions, where it has received the name of Labrador tea, and is frequently used as a substitute for tji^t article by the Canadian hunters. Being found in a dwarfish state on the shores of the Polar Sea by Captain Franklin's party, they were glad to try the decoction, and pronounced it to be refreshing, notwithstanding the smell, which much resembled that of rhubarb. It is one of the most remarkable circumstances in American vege- tation, that no true heath has been discovered in any part of that continent. VACCINIACR^. North America is richer than any other part of the world in the whortleberry tribe. Pursh describes twenty-five species of Vaccinium. Sir W. J. Hooker has fourteen in his Northern Flora, eight of which come within our assigned limits ; but it is extremely probable that several other species remain to be discovered. The ING il, as it is unk from large and the most species, R. tre known t of view being the Ips, found species of them, K. 1, growing e {Myrica iie elegant jh, rises on it ; Torrey ven twenty IS to be no- ihrub, with rrows very in the more le name of bstitute for found in a by Captain decoction, landing the It is one irican vege- sred in any )art of the describes J. Hooker /hich come hy probable }ered. The PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 323 bilberry or blaeberry of England and Scotland was found by Drummond, near the height of land and Columbia Portage ; and our V, Vitis Idaa is frequent, as well as V, uliginosuniy in the more northern parts. As native fruits, V. Pennsylvanicmn and V.frondosum occupy the place of the bilberry, although the fruit of several other kinds is eatable. The European cranberry (^Oxycoccus vulgaris) occurs in Newfoundland, and appears to be scattered throughout Canada to the Arctic Sea. But 0. macrocarjms is the cranberry of America, and produces a large beiTy, which is collected in great quantities for sale as well as for domestic consumption. COMPOSURE. The Flora Borcali-Americana contains about three hundred species of this, one of the largest orders in the vegetable kingdom. Seventy-three of these are new species, and about one-half of the whole number are indigenous to the British Possessions. Few of the more northern American Compositoi are remarkable for their properties ; only a small proportion are said to be medi- cinal. Eupatorium rotimdifolium and E. perfoliatum are tonic ; the latter especially is, according to Pursh, exceed- ingly bitter, and has been used from time immemorial by the natives in intermittent fevers. It is generally known, he says, by the name of thorough-wort or bone-set. Prenanthes serpentaria, or lion's foot, is considered a specific for the bite of the rattlesnake. The beautiful Liatris squarrosa and L. scariosa are also esteemed for possessing a similar virtue, and pass by the name of rattlesnake's master. Solidago odora, one of the golden- rods, is said to be occasionally used as a kind of tea. Pursh even states that " the flowers, gathered when fully expanded, and carefully dried, give a most agree- able substitute for tea, which for some time has been an article of exportation to China, where it fetches a high price." We fear this Canadian beve rage has ceased to please the Chinese palate. A curious fact is mentioned by the same author, of one of the rag-warts (Senecio ^.i, .'I'ji' < I :t '\ m If Pi ■ ■" ^.*i1 ■"■/J ill." ■ / 'i;.t J*- f^l ' . }♦,« ■«'» 1 tJH^^I 1- ■»'*,'■. ■"■'^1 1/ ' ^ M 324 SOME ACCOUNT OP THE MOST INTERESTINO hieracifolius). He observes, " This is one of the plants which spring up in the most remote western countries, when the land is cleared of timber, particularly when the brushwood is burnt on the ground ; from which circumstance it is generally known by the name of fire-weed. I have frequently found it covering a square piece of cleared land, when there was not a single plant to be found in any other place for a considerable dis- tance round it." In the geographical distribution of the American Compo8it(By the genera Solidago (golden- rod) and Aster are most conspicuous. In the former the colour of the flower is always yellow ; and there; are twenty-eight species in Hooker's Flora. Of Asters there are no fewer than forty-six kinds in the same work, eleven being quite new, besides several others now comprehended in the genera Eurybiay Seriocarpui, Tripoliumy Galatella, and Townsendia, CONIPER.E. The fir tribe has for many years excited a great degree of interest in this country ; and amateurs, as well as professional individuals, have been assiduous in their endeavours to introduce new species and ac- climatize the more tender kinds. Although their efforts have not in all cases been attended with success, the value of some has been more distinctly ascertained. The larch in particular, long underrated as a timber- tree, is now considered in a commercial point of view as best calculated for forest-planting in sub-alpine districts. The fir tribe abounds in North America, there being upwards of twenty species of Pinus, of which one-half are natives of Canada, Nova Scotia, or Newfoundland ; and these we shall briefly proceed to notice. Pinus halsamea (balm of Gilead fir, or Ame- rican silver fir) grows to the height of fifty feet, and is an elegant tree, resembling the silver fir of Europe* but is said to be inferior to it for the purposes of ship-building. The resin of this species is the common Canada balsam ; and we are informed by Mr Lam- NO le plants >untriea, ly when n which name of ; a square gle plant rahle di»- bution of (golden- le former and thcrti Of Astere the same ral others riocarpuSf d a great .ateurs, as assiduous IS and ac- lieir efforts ccess, the lertained. a timber- it of view iub-alpine America, PinuSy of Scotia, or roceed to or Ame- feet, and f Europe> rposes of common iMr Lam- PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 325 bert, that it is often substituted for the balm of Gilead, which is the product oiAmyris Gile'idensis. P. Canaden- 9is (hemlock spruce) is a beautiful and very largo tree, bearing some resemblance in its foliage to the common yew, and producing cones scarcely larger than a liazel- nut. The bark is said to be valuable for tanning leather. This species is found on the highest moun- tains, as far south as Carolina, and from thence to the most northern regions of Canada. P. nigra (black or double spruce) occurs on mountainous tracts, from Carolina to Nova Scotia, and, according to Dr Rich- ardson, terminates, together with Betula papyracea, in latitude 65°. The bark of the trunk and branches is blackish : the wood is put to various purposes, and is sometimes used in boat-building. P. rubra (Newfoundland red pine) grows chiefly m that island. Nova Scotia, and about Hudson's Bay. It attains a height of thirty feet, but we are unacquainted with the quality of its timber. P. alba (white spnice) flourishes from lat. 43° northwards, and abounds in Nova Scotia and Canada. Its growth is nearly equal to that of the European silver fir, one hundred and forty feet in height. The cultivation of this tree ia particularly recommended by Wangenheim, not only on account of its large size and useful timber, but be- cause it delights in situations unfavourable to the pro- duction of other kinds. Lambert observes, that it is one of the most ornamental of the Abies tribe (those having single, not fasciculated leaves) ; the branchy feather down to the ground, and the leaves have a beautiful and peculiar glaucous hue. From the young shoots of tnis and the two preceding species is obtained the resinous extract from which the well-known spruce- beer is made . The bark of the white spruce is used for tanning, and good turpentine is obtained from it, Dr Richardson remarks, that it is the meenahic of the Cree Indians, and the most northerly tree that came under his observation. " On the Coppermine River, within twenty miles of the Arctic Sea, it attains the height of ■^ tt -? q T ;: • n i i! ' i; «| ]*•■ i» ] m ft ,1 '»<■■: 5'j ;. vv. I nV* ■> ^ r '■■■ ' -^■ 326 SOME ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING twenty feet or more. Its timber is in common use throughout tlie country, and its slender roots, denomi- nated v'fitapehy arc indisj)enHa1)le to canoe-mnkers for sewing the slips of hirch-bark together. The resin which it exudes is used for i)aying over the seams of the canoes, and canoes for teni[)orary purj)ose8 are fre- quently formed of its own bark. It is the only tree tliat the Ks(juimaux of the Arctic Sea liave access to while growing, and they contrive to make pretty strong bows by joining pieces of its wood together."* Pinus resmom (])itch j)ine) grows in Canada in close forests, and is distinguished for its great height and re- markably smooth red bark, whence it is often called red pine by the French population. It yields a large quantity of fragrant resin, but the wood does not ap- pear to be much valued, ])eing too heavy to serve as masts ; and Michaux states that it has been found to contain too much sap to be good for gcnornl purposes, Pinus Bank&'iaria (Labrador scrub, or gray pine) in- habits cold, barren, and rocky situations in Nova Scotia, Canada, and Hudson's Bay. Pursh says, that when growing among the barren rocks, it is a small straggling tree, scarcely eight feet high, but that, in more favour- able situations, it attains a considerable size. This must be the fact, for Lambert mentions its extreme knottiness as the only objection to the timber being converted into good masts ; and Dr Richardson has the following notice of it in his Appendix to Franklin's Narrative : — " This tree occupies dry sandy soils, to the exclusion of all others. It is a handsome tree, with long spreading flexible branches, generally furnished with whorled curved cones of many years' growth. It attains the height of forty feet and upwards in favourable situations, but the diameter of its trunk is greater in proportion to its height than in any other pines of the country. In its native situation, it exudes much less resin than the Pinus alba. The Canada por- Richardson, Appendix to Franklin^s Narrative. use omi- 8 for resin ns of D fre- f tree CSS to )retty ler. close id re- called , large ot ap- Tve as and to rposes. le) in- Scotia, when ipgling avoiir- This :treme being las the mklin's I, to the with lished rowth. irds in Irunk is other exudes Ida por- PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 327 cupinc feeds on its bark ; and the wood, from its light- ness and tlie straightness and toughness of its fibres, is much prized for canoe timbers. Tlie Canadian voy- agcurs term it cypress, the Crees ooskartawuc-ahtk. It occurred on our route as far to the northward as lat. 64° ; but it is said to attain higber latitudes on the sandy banks of Mackenzie's River." P, StrohiLs (wbitc or Weymouth phie) is found in the greatest perfection between the forty-second and forty-fifth degrees of nortli latitude. It is the largest species on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, being sometimes two hundred feet high, and the trunk five feet in diameter. It is also the most useful species. Wangenheim men- tions that he saw, in the dockyards of Plymouth, " two masts for seventy-four gun ships, which measured one hundred and eight feet in length, and a roller tliat was every where three feet in diameter. Such a tree must have been two hundred feet long, and five feet or more in diameter."* The wood is somewhat hard, very fine, and works straight, smooth, and shining. It yields a fine resin, capable of being converted into good turpentine. The principal forests of it in the British Possessions, according to Lambert, are on the shores of Fundy Bay and Casco Bay, and from the extreme northern side of the river St Lawrence towards Montreal, and the shores of Lake Champlain. Pinus pendula (black larch, or hack-matack) is repre- sented by Pursh as growing in low cedar swamps ; by Wangenheim, in cold mountainous situations. It is a beautiful and large tree, with weak and drooping branches, but generally resembling its invaluable ally, the larch of Europe. The buds are black, and yield a fine turpentine ; the cones are smaller than those of the European species ; the wood is excellent and durable, and the bark useful in tanning. Pinus microcarpa (red larch) inhabits the shores of Hudson's Bay, and resembles the preceding so much, that Michaux re- * Lambert's Monograph of the genus Pinus. i ,«■! I m m !!5 H' --«v »t % r; III Mi';'! mc.- ■)■ ., *, 328 SOME ACCOUNT OP THE MOST INTERESTING garded them as one species. The red larch, however, is now clearly established as a distinct kind. The cones are much smaller, and of a fine purple colour ; but we find no account any where of the quality of the timber. Dr Richardson met with it in " swampy situa- tions from York Factory to Point Lake in lat. 66° ; but in the latter place it is very dwarfish, seldom exceed- ing six or eight feet in height. It is named by the voyageurs Vepinette rouge, and by the Hudson's Bay men, juniper. Its Cree name is wagginawgan (the tree that bends)." Before we leave this interesting tribe, we cannot re- frain from devoting a few words to a pine discovered in Northern California by the late Mr David Dou- glas ; a noble tree in itself, and the most splendid vegetable production on the western side of the Rocky Moun- tains. It covers large districts, not, however, forming dense forests, but scattered singly over the plains. The trunk is remarkably straight, and clear of branches for two-thirds of its height : Mr Douglas measured one specimen which had been blown down by the wind, which he observes was certainly not the largest he had seen, and the dimensions were as follow : The entire length, two hundred and fifteen feet ; the circumference three feet from the ground, fifty-seven feet nine inches, and at a hundred and thirty-four feet from the ground, seventeen feet five inches. " The cones are pendulous from the extremities of the branches ; they are two years in acquiring their full growth, are at first upright, and do not begin to droop, I belie'^'^e, till the second year. When ripe, they are about eleven inches in circumference at the thickest part, and vary from twelve to sixteen inches in length."* A remark- able circumstance is mentioned in connexion with this tree ; — when the trunk is partly burned, the resin which exudes becomes as sweet as sugar, and is used as a substitute for that article by the natives. The seeds — **» -■■■, — ,, ■ »> .1 I. p ■ . * Dougl. in Linn. Trans, vol. xt. p. 498. 3ver, The our; f the dtua- ; but ceed- f the J Bay , (the ot re- 3vered Dou- retable Moun- jrming . The hes for pd one wmd, had entire erence nine om the Hes are ; they are at j-e, till eleven id vary mark- ith this which ed as a e seeds tie e PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. 329 are also roasted for food, and made into cakes and laid by for winter consumption. The author just quoted has bestowed on this truly magnificent pine the name oiLam- bertiana, in honour of Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq., the author of the splendid monograph on the genus to which it belongs. The following species, some of them noble trees, are also indigenous to North-west America : — P. inops, Sabiniana, Menziesii, nobilis, Douglasii, gran- dis, and lasiocarpa, ORCHIDACR^. Canada is not rich in orchideous plants ; but some of them are of great beauty. Arethusa ophioglossoides and the sweet-scented A, bulbosa have large and delicate purple flowers. Cijmbidium pulchellum is equally hand- some ; and the solitary blossom of the little Calypso borealis is one of the gems of the northern flora. But the most conspicuous, both for size and singularity, are the Cypripedia — the ladies' slippers, or mocassin-flowers of America, — and four species are indigenous to Canada. One of them {Cypripedium spectahile) is a large plant, two or even three feet high, with one to three very large flowers, having the lower lip white, with red veins and crimson spots within. C. Arietinum^ on the contrary, is scarcely more than a span in height, and the flower is said to have a very singular appearance, resem- bling a sheep's head, when viewed in front ; the two lateral sepals representing the horns. We shall here close our botanical notices ; not be- cause our materials are exhausted, for even the mosses and lichens which abound in the more northern regions are full of interest. Some of the former are exceed- ingly beautiful ; especially those belonging to the genus Splachnum, specimens of which exist in the exten- sive and valuable collection published by Mr Drum- mond, assistant naturalist to the second over-land Arctic expedition. Various kinds of lichen are capable, by due preparation, of being rendered edible ; and they who have • '■ mi Ui - '* 'f " 4: •' ^/ ^•,- 4 1^* '«»' ; iS* i ^ ■! i !' r , . ' r » 1 ** ; R /^" ^ r- ^ ji :tv •^ "'• ' * 330 PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. perused the affecting narrative of the sufferings of Cap- tain Franklin and his gallant party, on their return from their first journey to the Arctic Sea, will remem- ber that it was on several species belonging to the genus G^^rop/iora, called tripe de roche by the Canadian voyageurs, that they depended, under God, for their very existence. The barrel of meal wasted not, neither did the cruse of oil fail. " We looked," says Captain Franklin, " with humble confidence to the great Author and Giver of all good, for a continuance of the support which had hitherto been always supplied to us at our greatest need :" and he was not disappointed. |l '* '-''• I'i - . I s ■ GEOLOGY. CHAPTER VII. Geological Sketch. General Geological Sketch of British North America — Lakes- Rivers — Barrow's Strait — Melville Island —Prince Regent's Inlet — Melville Peninsula — Upper and Lower Canada — New Bruns- wick— Nova Scotia — Cape Breton — Prince Edward Island — Newfoundland. It is not easy to give a general character of the geology of regions so vast, and so different in the climate of the several parts, extending from the shores of the Frozen Ocean to the confines of the United States of North America. A great portion of this territory is thinly peopled by a few barbarous native tribes, and seenis incapable of becoming available for the permanent re- sidence of civilized man, from the rigour of its climate and the nature of its surface. Its more southern por- tions, however, including the two Canadas, New Bruns- wick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Newfoundland, have of late rapidly increased in a population of Euro- pean extraction, and acquired importance from the pro- duce of their industry and enterprise. The general surface of these countries has been suffi- ciently indicated in the preceding portion of this work, and we shall now offer a general sketch of its geological features. Extensive primary formations stretch along the western side of Baffin's Sea and the coasts of La- brador ; they thence extend to Newfoundland, and have been traced by Captain Bayfield along the northern shores of the Gulf of St Lawrence. They reappear on the eastern coast of Nova Scotia ; but the main body of that formation continues to skirt the St Lawrence, and, U';' li i'iftl ' ll I ii «!■! I ; ! \im 332 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. fj. . r " r ' i « i m. 3> forming the intricate granitic barrier of the Thousand Islands at the outlet of Lake Ontario, it sends one branch through the state of New York to join the primary for- mations of the Alleghanies, while a second, leading westward, touches the northern shores of Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior, and constitutes an extensive chain of low hills which seldom attain an elevation of 600 feet above the general level. Thence, inclining to the north, primary formations skirt the eastern banks of that singular series of rapids, streams, and lakes termed Win- nipeg River, and forms the eastern shores of the great lake or inland sea of that name. The general breadth of these primary formations is not well ascertained ; but where Captain Franklin crossed from Hudson's Bay to Lake "Winnipeg, the primary district was not less than 220 miles wide. From the last-mentioned lake they incline a second time to the west, as far as Lake La Crosse ; when, again turning more northward, they pass along the eastern shores of Lake Athabasca, stretch to Slave Lake, where they appear in M'Tavish Bay at its south-eastern extre- mity, and are continued to Fort Franklin on Bear Lake. In latitude 66°, the primary rocks approach within 200 miles of the mighty chain of the Rocky Mountains ; but to the north of Bear Lake they seem to be concealed under rocks of transition and of secondary formations. The vast chains of the Rocky Mountains are extremely diversified in their structure ; but if we consider that portion which w^as several times crossed by the late lamented botanist Mr Douglas, near the sources of the Columbia, as a specimen of their structure, we may de- scribe them as consisting of three parallel longitudinal ridges, the breadth of which he computed at 116 miles, sixty or seventy of which present a most desolate and rugged region, in which the traveller is in no small danger of starvation. The nucleus seems to be granite, covered by gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate ; the eastern flanks presented the ordinary secondary formations ; but he described the western side as very steep, and, especially in the second valley of the Columbia, as bear- 6 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. 333 isand •ancli /-for- ading tario, msive ion of to the ►fthat Win- it lake f these where ) Lake m 220 incline ; when, eastern where I extre- T Lake, in 200 s; hut cealed ations. remely er that e late of the ay de- tudinal miles, te and small granite, eastern ations ; p, and, as hear- ing evident traces of terrible volcanic convulsions and eruptions, though no active volcanoes were seen. Gneiss is the most abundant constituent of the pri- mary districts ; granite is the next in consequence ; the third is mica slate ; but true primary clay slate is a rare occurrence. The granite is chiefly red, but the variety in which talc, chlorite, or steatite take the place of mica, termed protogene, occurs in abundance in the vicinity of Slave River ; and syenite occasionally occurs amid the common granite. The primary chain may be considered as separating the vast and fertile plateaux of the Mississippi and Mis- souri from the extensive but barren wastes that decline from the primary ridge to the shores of the Frozen Ocean ; among the more recent strata of which, to the east of Cop- I)er Mountains, granite and gneiss occasionally crop out. The largest portion, however, of British America con- sists of newer rocks. Of the formations described by Werner under the name of rocks of transition, the range is not extensive. This formation occurs in con- tact with the primary rocks in Melville Island, in several other points in the Arctic Sea, in the countries border- ing on the Sea of Hudson, and in Nova Scotia, where it chiefly appears as quartz rock, sandstone, greywacke, and gi-eywacke slate. Similar rocks were observed by Dr Richardson on Point Lake, on Coppermine River, and on Hood's River ; and when those inhospitable regions are more carefully explored, it is not improbable that the members of this formation will be found very generally to lie in immediate contact with the primary rocks. If, however, we may be permitted to consider the rocks of transition merely as the oldest series of secondary groups, then we might conclude that second- ary formations of sandstone, limestone, clay slate, and sliale constitute by far the greatest part of the vast re- gions now under consideration. On this view, secondary rocks would form two vast plateaux on the North Ame- rican continent ; one extending from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the primary spine already described ; VOL. HI. X " "^ im S !'»'>''' ^1 1' |';;j( ;H ^t.'i: '^1 , n\4 :■ v^h^ m ' ^^^- ■ fh ■ •TV H ', '*'iiii H ' Ii''' ' 1 -Hi ' M ■' ''^1 ^1 ''li^l^ ■ W\ 1 ' ,'t\\-:\ii' m ■■'0 M^ ■ 1 3 -^H i^\- , , '.lU; : : ''H: ■ • "■!;!; .■'-'*' ""* i ■■■■■^ i •■ « 1'^ , •■ ■ '':'ni ■ ' . iM '; ' i! ' '-'Tiii' \ " • liii i:' K 11 ■! ■ : !, \i^'t ' 1 ■ ' ''1 'i 'r 1 '' ^ f' i \ 1 ;, )M'i 'i « ■" ■ 1- INI 1 •h %, 334 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. -.( .• d .'/ I.' y, hi ■:■•■■■' pl'.i' '..■^• m^ ( . :f^fi'M^ ..i .-« ■•- the other from its southern side, and the basins of the great lakes over the valleys of the Missouri and the Mis- sissippi, even to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, The researches of Drs Bigsby and Richardson, of Captains Franklin and Parry, have shown the identity of the limestone of Lakes Erie, Huron, Winnipeg, the Sas- katchawan, and of Cape Parry and Barrow's Straits in the Arctic Sea, by the identity of organic remains. The encrinites, orthoceratites, corallines, and terebratulae seem to prove that it is of the same era with the carboniferous or mountain limestone of England, and this is further confirmed by its being covered by bituminous shale, and sometimes flinty slate, especially on the shores of the Arctic Sea, on Clearwater and Elk rivers, and by the occurrence of considerable coal formations on Mackenzie River, between it and the Rocky Mountains, and on the Arctic coasts and islands, which appear to overlay this limestone. It must, however, be admitted that the magnesian character of much of this limestone, and its generally occurring in nearly horizontal strata, might induce c ne to refer it to the second secondary or mag- nesian limestone. Thus beds of a limestone, often bituminous, alternating with clay, marly sandstone, imd alum slate, occur on Bear Lake at the mouth of Dease River. Similar strata are found on the Elk, Slave, and Mackenzie Rivers. The occurrence of gyp- sum and salt-springs there would lead to the inference that these rocks belong to the new red or variegated sandstone fonnation, which probably also extends along various parts of the Arctic coasts. The abundant occur- rence of an efflorescence of sulphate of soda, about twenty miles north of Carlton House, between the two branches of the Saskatchawan, and the numerous salt-springs, indicate the existence of a rock-salt formation connected with the new red sandstone of those parts. The wood- coal or lignite formation of Mackenzie River is very remarkable. Four beds of wood-coal were observed inter- stratified with pipeclay, gravel, sand, and a friable sand- Jitone, in cliffs of 120 feet high. These sometimes have GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. 335 3 of the he Mis- 0. The [Japtains ^ of the the Sas- jtraits in IS. The ulae seem oniferous s further »us shale, shores of nd hy the Mackenzie s, and on ,0 overlay d that the le, and its ata, might •y or mag- jne, often sandstone, mouth of the Elk, |ce of gyp- } inference ivariegated ends along [ant occur- jut twenty [o branches ilt-springs, connected 'he wood- er is very irved inter- iable sand- times have spontaneously taken fire, and appear to have burnt for many years. Similar appearances were observed by Richardson at Traill Point on the Arctic Ocean, lat. 70"^ 19' N. Here, and for several miles along that coast, the cUfFs are composed of bituminous alum shale ; in the interstices of which ai'e found much pulverulent alum mixed with sulphur, and layers of that wax-yellow- coloured variety of alum, tenned rock-butter, accompa- nied by crystals of selenite. Beds of coal occur on the south and north branches of tlie Saskatchawan, and on the east branch of the Peace River, where they are now on fire, and also on the upper part of Elk River. The p'_ eclay on the Mackenzie is said to be occasionally eaten in times of scarcity by the natives. The sandstone of North America appears to belong to three distinct eras ; the old red sandstone ; a sandstone associated with gypsum, as in Nova Scotia and on Elk River, which belongs to the new red sandstone ; and a crumbling white one, which is soft, occurs in thin strata, and overlays the lignite just mentioned. The Floetz Trap formation appears to be very widely distributed. The bases of the Copper Mountains present a greenstone amygdaloid, abounding in prehnite and native copper, copper glance, and purple copper ore. It lies on the old red sandstone, or on a clay slate of the transition formation. The prehnite is the usual indication of the copper, and they appear to form veins in a trap abounding in felspar. Another range of trap- hills occurs ten miles north of the Copper Mountains, and about twenty miles from the Arctic Ocean. This green- stone forms the east side of the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, and appears in veins and beds in various other parts of Northern America, especially at Bloody Falls on Coppermine River, on Lyon Inlet, Cape Wilson, Teni Island, Whyte's Inlet on Cockbum Island, Cape Ken- dall, and other points on the Arctic Ocean. Tertiary deposits, if we except the newest floetz trap, have not yet been investigated ; but the alluvial depo- sits in the Northern Ocean, especially at the mouth of Iji* ' ■« m ■ :m ■ ■^: i' ■ h '. -.1 1 m m fi . 1 ^H 4 in ■ :m ill. '■ 't f ■ ;'^- 1 'U-^v ■ .,1 1 1 ■ H , 1 ' ^1 '■ i * .' ■ 3. <':. ■ 1 ■ H .r< ' M > ') ' 1 '■ ^M MM' ^1 d'U 1 ■ « ! ' ' ' '1 1 • I.V i • '1 ■'m . ill \v ^, ii m /•^ ' 1 i i \ 1 y M i 1 '■■ 1 , .'i^;. ;j * • ^J t i] >■ m 4 ' ■^^i 1 \ ■ 'Jii t * 1 :■ •■■[: i i '1 336 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. h • <-•. ll' 4 I 1 Mackenzie River, and on the great northern plateau of Ameriea, are of large extent, consisting of sand and gravel. Clay also frequently occurs on the northern coast, but is rather sparingly distributed on the coasts of Baffin's Bay. Gravel and clay, with l)oulders, cover an extensive tract to the west of Hudson's Bay ; and granite boulders and tmnsported masses of hornblende, porphyr}'^, syenite, and limestone, are found every where in the countries explored by Parry, Ross, Franklin, and Richardson. On the shores of the Arctic Sea enor- mous blocks have been transported by floating ice ; and similar efitcts may be traced on the great fresh water lakes from the same cause. One of the most remarkable geological features of North America is the number and extent of its Lakes. — If we commence with the most northern of these. Great Bear Lake, we find, at no great distance from the Arctic Ocean, a vast reservoir of fresh water, irregular in figure, but with a diameter varying from 100 to 150 miles, and of such a depth as to exhibit a blue colour. The surface of this lake appears to be no more than 200 feet above the level of the sea ; and as its depth far exceeds that measure, the bed of this lake must be below the surface of the ocean. A chain of minor lakes connects it with the still more extensive Slave Lake, the length of which is 200 miles, with a breadth of 100. From the communication between them, they seem to be nearly on the same level. A second chain of lakes and rapids conducts to Winnipeg, a lake of scarcely infe- rior dimensions. A third chain of smaller lakes and rapids leads the traveller, in a south-east direction, to Lake Superior, the most northern of the three prodi- gious expanses of water designated Lakes Superior, Hu- ron, and Michigan, which, taken together, have not inappropriately been designated as the inland sea of North America. The first branch, or Lake Superior, has , a length of 360 geographical miles, a breadth of 140, and a circumference of about 1500 miles. Its coasts are gene- rally rocky ; in some parts it is 1200 feet deep, and its GEOLOGICAL SKKTCH. 337 medium depth may be taken at 900. It is remarkable for the transparency of its waters, wliicli it owes to its rocky margins and the little earthy matter carried into it by its tributary streams. Lake Superior connnuni- cates with Lake Huron by the Strait of St Mary, a channel varying in breadth from one to two miles. Lake Huron has a length of 240 mih's, a l)readth of 220, and a circumference of 1000 miles ; it commu- nicates with the Michigan by a short gut, four miles wide. Lake Michigan is 200 miles by 55, and has a circuit of 900 miles. It lies wholly in the United States. The whole supei-ficies of these three lakes is computed at 72,930 square miles ; the altitude of their general sur- face is 640 feet above the sea, while their depth shows that their bottoms are considerably below that level. This immense collection of water is on a higher level by 300 feet than the basin of the Upper Mississippi, and might create some idea of danger to the fertile ter- ritory watered by its streams, were that country sub- ject to earthquakes ; for, " should earthquakes disrupt the intervening barrier, the waters of the great inland seas would sweep those plains with a devastation quite unparalleled in the history of our planet since the de- luge of Noah." " Lake Erie is a comparatively shallow lake, communi- cating by an irregular channel with Lake Huron. Eric is 265 miles long, and has thirty-live of mean breadth. Its depth in no part exceeds 270 feet, and seems to be rapidly diminishing from the quantity of earthy mate- rials carried into it by numerous rivers. Another lake, the surface of wdiich is 300 feet below the surface of Erie, communicates with its eastern ex- tremity by the River Niagara, which, after flowing in a full stream for twenty- one miles, is precipitated over the far-famed cataracts of Niagara in a single leap of 160 feet in height ; it thence flows through a rocky chasm to Queenston, where there is a sudden lowering of ■*i ; Encyclopaedia Britannica. ri ?i» .•' i- V- ?■•! v! • nr \'\ ' M ''■ mi I '-V i t ''( h • 5 i : i ■:■■■■ • 338 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. tlie level of the country ; and, after passing through a flat region for seven miles farther, it mingles with Lake Ontario, another fresh water sea, 172 miles, in length and 59| in hreadth. This lake is ahout 300 feet deep, and its bottom is fully as low as tliat of the Gulf of St Lawrence, and about the same le el as the bottom of Lake Huron. The whole area of these five last noticed lakes cannot be less than 80,000 square miles. The appearance of the country tends to show that the falls of Niagara were once at Queenston. In the period since they became known to Europeans, they are supposed to have receded towards Lake Erie ; and, in the lapse of ages, should the disintegration of the soft lime- stone continue, by the opening of the eastern barrier a large mass of the waters of the inland seas may over- whelm a portion of the fertile plains of the State of New York and of Lower Canada. Rivers. — The St Lawrence is one of the noblest rivers in the world. At its mouth it is not less than ninety miles in breadth, and is navigable for ships of 600 tons as high as Montreal, 560 miles from the sea. Two hun- dred and sixty miles above its embouchure, it is still eighteen miles in breadth ; at 400 miles, opposite to Quebec, it narrows to 1314 yards, but again expands ; and, even at Montreal, it is still about three miles from shore to shore. It is more difficult to state its length, because ' some geographers place its source in Lake Superior, considering the vast expanses of Ontario, Erie, and Huron as mere appendages to this river ; but it appears to us that the geographer should, with the native, limit its origin to Lake Ontario, which will still leave itaconrse of 700 miles. Several considerable rivers fall into Hudson's Sea ; of these, the Albany, the Severn, the Hill, the Nelson, and the Churchill are the chief. The Nelson is a fine river, and carries off the waters of a vast extent of territory ; especially if we consider the Saskatchawan as one of its branches. The Saskatchawan is an immense river, hav- ing its sources in the Rocky Mountains, and after dilat- ing in the plains into a succession of small lakes, termi- GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. 330 I', t rough a ies with miles, in >out 300 ,t of the I as the liese five ire miles, LOW that In the they are id, in the oft lime- barrier a lay over- e of New est rivers m ninety 600 tons 'wo hun- t is still posite to ids ; and, am shore , because Superior, id Huron ;o us that origin to 00 miles. ( Sea ; of Ison, and me river, 3rritory ; >ne of its ver, hav- ter dilat- s, termi- nating in Lake Winnipeg ; but there seems to bo an- other branch sent off from these lakes, which conducts a portion of its waters into the Nelson ; so tliat these two, running in the same direction, may probably bo con- sidered as a single river. Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers have a general course, almost at right angles to the Saskatchawan. The former rises in the primary chain between Slave and Great Bear Lakes, and i*un- ning almost north, pours its waters into tlie Arctic Ocean. The Mackenzie is a much more magnificent stream, forming the great outlet of Bear Lake, and, in- clining toward the chain of the Rocky Mountains, after a course of at least 700 miles, terminates by immerous channels in the same sea. The only other stream we shall here notice is a tributary of the St Lawrence, below Quebec, the Saguenay, a rapid broad stream, of mode- rate length, but remarkable for its depth. The reports of its profundity are probably exaggerations, arising from the difficulty of obtaining soundings in a deep and rapid river. After this general sketch, we shall proceed to describe more minutely the geological features of some of the districts which have been most accurately examined, commencing with the most northerly. Barrow's Strait. — The whole northern shores of this arm of the Arctic Sea appear to consist of hori- zontal strata of floetz limestone and sandstone, which frequently present grand mural precipices. The cha- racters of this limestone and its fossils seem to assign it to the carboniferous limestone formation. Prince Regent's Inlet, on both shores, exhibits the same limestone ; but at Port Bowen this formation is covered by beds of gypsum and thinner slaty limestone, probably belonging to a newer series of rocks. Byam Martin's Islai' d appears to be the summit of * a primary mountain rising thrci^li the secondary rocks ; and similar rocks occur around Winter Harbour, on Melville Island, where granite, gneiss, syenite, and it .1 ■»i,. 'li^ t'. I \l I / I'. ' 340 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. hornblende rocks occur on the surface. This island is 130 miles long, and from forty to fifty in breadth ; and, from specimens which we liave inspected, compared with the descri])tions in Captain Parry's Voyages, we should be disposed to refer the limestone, sandstone, and coal to the older coal formations. Encrinites and trilobites abound in the limestone, and occur also in the sand- stone ; in the shale are ar])orescent ferns, and plants like those of the coal formations of Great IJritain. The coal in general is brown, with streaks of bitumen. In a specimen of ironstone from this locality was found a new species of avicula. Newer trap rocks seem also to occur in this island. Loftv sandstone cliffs constitute Cape Dundas, its western i)romontory. The peninsula and chain of islands stretching south- ward from Cockburn Island to Hudson's Sea were chiefly discovered and explored in Captain Parry's se- cond voyage. This tract has but little elevation ; sel- dom rising to 1000, and never exceeding 1500 feet. The hills in general are rugged and naked, the valleys nar- row and abru})t, the soil scanty, and frozen to the depth of a foot for the whole year. Such a country can have no springs, and but little vegetation. Cockburn Island presents granite, gneiss, and clay- slate ; and at Whyte's Inlet a secondary greenstone is found. In the strait of the Fury and Hecla, the prevailing rock is granite and quartz rock ; but Amherst Island consists of greyw^acke slate, grey wacke, and a species of red quartzy sandstone. Primary liocks constitute a large portion of IMelville Peninsula and the contiguous islands. The following simple minerals occur in the granite and gneiss of that region : — Rose quartz, in Lyon Inlet, coast noi*th of Cape Wil- son, Winter, Rendezvous, and Liddou Islands. Actynolite, in Lyon Inlet and Barrow River. Epidote, in Lyon Inlet, north of Cape Wilson, and Winter Island. Ii:!«i OEOLOaiCAL SKETCH. 341 Precious garnet^ in Winter Island, Lyon Inlet, Fivc- Ilawser Bay, and Safety Cove. Schorl^ in Winter Island, and north of Cape Wilson. Banjl, in Winter Island, in small crystals. Iron glance, in Winter Island. Magnetic iron, on coast north of Cape Wilson. Iron pgritea, in Winter Island and Cape Wilson. Graphite, in Winter Island, Fivc-IIawser Bay, north of Cape Wilson, and on Barrow River. The variety of granite tinned protogene, in which chlorite takes he T>lacc of i. uca, occurs in Lyon Ink't and in Winter Islard. Mica shite is foun^^ in omparatively small (juantity ; and, in the opinion oT Profc ir tii meson, seemhigly siihordinatc to the gneiss form .'on ; which last consti- tutes the principal part of lie Arctic lands visited by Captain Parry. Som ' it passes ..to clay slate. It contains several of th • sii ^ple minerals in tl-o ohove list. Clay slate is much less frequent than mi(?n siate. It is chiefly found in Winter Island, Richards' liay, on the coast north of Cape Wilson, and in Bouverie Island. Chlorite slate is moi abundant in those regions than the two last rocks, and, besides several of the minerals already noticed, was found in Winter Island to contahi indurated talc and red iron ore. Hornblende rock occurs in Lyon Inlet, Safety Cove, Winter Islai/'. Five-Hawser Bay, and Tern Island. It occurs as priniitive greenstone at Neerlo Nakto, and con- tains many of the simple minerals above enumerated. SerpeiUine occurs in Lyon Inlet, Moylo Bay, Winter Isla !C, Liddon Island, Bouverie Island, and Neerlo Nakto. Primary limestone is found in Five-Hawser Bay, Lyon Inlet, Barrow River, and Cape Wilson. The chief embedded minerals are — Crystallized mica, in Winter Island and Barrow River. Augite, in the same localities and Lyon Inlet. Precious serpentine, in Winter Island. SphenCy with titanic iron, in Winter Island. it. m ■i ' .<• H '^ ^\ t 'J! ^i' iil I k ■' iJ 11 M 348 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. 1 - ,s • ■ 1 w' m , * ' J IV '■ fe , ■ •1*' ■ii 1 A I :. ik.' W, .-'' ' ■* V'., • i i-' ..« ii. J.. • ••■' m^:- p '^>' , ¥■ t ! ^ ] ^r .##4. jgstjj^', ^ * * R' ' *' ^ Bk 'Ml river and numerous less considerable streams, which abound with sturgeon and the genus salmo. The part of the province contiguous to Nova Scotia consists of mountain limestone and new red sandstone. We do not know whether coal has hitherto been found in New Brunswick ; but the vicinity of the coal formation of Nova Scotia renders this by no means improbable. The clay slate of the southern Canadian ridge extends into this province ; but the greatest part of it is still an un- explored forest, though rapidly augmenting in wealth and population. Nova Scotia. — The geology of this remarkable penin- sula has been better detailed than that of any other part of British America, — first by Messrs Jackson and Alger, in the Memoirs of the American Academy, and after- wards by Mr Abraham Gesner, in a work published at Halifax in 183G. Nova Scotia is about 380 miles in length by 100 in breadth. It is traversed in a direction from south-south- west to north-north-east, by three ranges of low hills, which, though usually dignified with the name of moun- tains, seldom attain an elevation of 500 feet above the sea. Along the southern coast extends the first range, composed of primary rocks, worn into numerous inlets, coves, and bays. The rocks are chiefly granite, gneiss, and mica slate. The granite has usually black mica, and the concretions are so large as sometimes to be raised in vast slabs of pure quartz. In the vicinity of Annapolis, it contains crystallized man^^anesian gar- nets ; and fine specimens of rock cryriial are common, especially on the river Paradise. Gneiss covers the granite on the flanks of the valloys, and is sometimes succeeded by mica slate, covered by a clay slate, which around Halifax has the characters of primary clay slate. This primary district extends from Cape Canseau on the north-east to Cape Sable on the south-west. It is deeply indented with creeks and bays, and presents a gloomy, steril aspect of rugged rocks, seldom rising into lofty precipices. The primary range does not, at i GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. 349 an average, extend, on the surface, above ten miles from the coast ; but toward Cape Sable, in Shelburne county, this formation has a breadth of twenty or thirty miles. Granite and gneiss, however, crop out in various points through the newer fonnations, as we shall presently find. Parallel to this district, and immediately reposing on its rocks, lies the clay slate formation. This is a very extensive formation, stretching almost the whole length of the province, except a small district along the Bay of St George, occupied by sandstone. It has a breadth vary- ing from twenty to forty-five miles. This clay slate formation is connected with true greywacke, and some- times contains encrlmtes and a species oicalymene ; show- ing that ;it should be considered as belonging to the Wernerian rocks of transition. For our own part, we consider the transition fonnations as but the oldest mem- bers of the secondary rocks ; and without this admission the designation of tertiary is not perfectly appropriate to the strata found above the chalk ; but if we consider the rocks of transition as a distinct class, the rocks superim- posed on the chalk ought to be denominated quaternary. Encrinites and trilobites are m Europe confined to lime- stone, which has been generally considered as belonging to the mountain limestone, or to the oolitic series. But here they are found embedded in the greywacke slate. The clay slate district presents ridges of granite and other primary rocks, in various parts of the country, especially norih of Halifax, and in the districts of An- napolis and Pictou. It is in both these districts that the rich beds of iron ore are found for which Nova Scotia has long been remarkable. These beds of iron glance and brown iron ore crop out at the surface, and seem to extend through the northern part of the clay slate formation. The iron ore of Pictou is red, and brown iron ore ; that of Nictau is a magnetic iron. This ore has the same direction as the slate, that is, from south-west to north-east, and is considerably inclined. It contains the same fossils as the slate ; viz. anomites, terebratulites, cardites, encrinites, and trilobites. The VOL. III. Y .'11 ! J I I • < t 1 1 h 1 t I i I ■?:! ■r;< '■' 1 I i|:, « ') I* :': < ; n i > h«"' > t.': I. 350 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. trilobites, we have seen, arc very similar to Cahimene Blumenbachii, which is so common in the island of Goth- land, in the Baltic. The identity of direction and of organic remains have induced several geologists to con- sider the iron ore of St Clements, Nictau, and Pictou as portions of the same bed ; although the extreme distance of the points where it has been traced is 250 miles. The iron ore has been wrought at three different places, but after some time again abandoned ; perhaps from the great expense of labour and the quality of the iron : an ore with such abundance of organic remains is very probably contaminated with phosphoric acid, which renders iron brittle. At New Glasgow mines, in Pictou, a fine iron hsematite occurs, in which crystals of aragonite and sulphate of baryta occur. At New Philadelphia, in the same district, veins of vitreous cop- per ore, from two to four inches in thickness, have been found. This copper ore is now wrought, and affords about 79 per cent, of copper. A lignite found near that place often exhibits crystals of carbonate of copper, and of red oxide of that metal. The new red sandstone district is very extensive : it extends in a narrow track along the valley of Annapolis river, from the harbour of that town to a large arm of the sea termed the Basin of Mines. At the southern angle of that bay it suddenly turns eastward to beyond Windsor, passes parallel with the south-east coast for about sixty miles, declines to the north-east, through Hants, Colchester, and Pictou, till it reaches the sea at Antigonish, and covers the whole of the province north of the line just now indicated, extending into the adjacent province of New Brunswick. In this formation very important quarries of gypsum and limestone are dis- tributed, particularly around the Basin of Mines. These valuable minerals mark the formation to which the sandstone belongs. The gypsum is often on the sur- face ; at other times it occurs on the banks of streams, and I shores of the basin in beds in the sandstone ; on the banks of the Shubenacadie it is very abun- ^,» f , \ i GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. 351 dant ; and on the St Croix River it forms an elevated ridge several miles in length. It ahounds in tliose circular cavities often found in gypsum. Hitherto no fossil salt has been discovered in Nova Scotia, though these rocks evidently belong to the formation of wliich that substance is a member ; but salt springs occur near Antigonish, on the coast of Nortliumbcrland Strait. The gypsum is extensively worked, and exported to tlic United States, where it is used as a manure. This sub- stance is found to be well suited for meliorating the soil in that cjuntry, and is sent off in immense quantity for that purpose. The gypsum is accompanied by subordinate beds of floetz limestone, which is also economically employed. Extensive beds of rich marl are found, and are employ- ed in agriculture ; but the importance of these substances seems yet scarcely appreciated by the colonists. The gypsum, marl, and limestone are chiefly found on the south-east side of the Basin of Mines. They are either wanting or scarce in the valley of Annapolis and King's County, as also toward the northern side of Pictou. But to compensate for this deficiency in the latter, coal- fields commence, and are numerous and rich on the north side of the Basin of Mines, from Merigomish, southward of Pictou, through the whole of Cumberland county. The order of superimposition of rocks observable throughout Nova Scotia is granite, gneiss, mica slate, greywacke slate, a limited deposit of old red sandstone or greywacke ; then succeeds the mountain limestone, on which are deposited the coal formation ; and, finally, the new red sandstone and its beds of gypsum. The coal measures appear to form considerable troughs or distinct fields in the older rocks. The coal strata vary in thickness from two inches to thirty feet. At the Albion Mines there are ten strata of coal, the main seam of which lias a thickness of twenty-four feet of good coal. The coal-fields are often traversed by trap dykes, and V }' li .1 >; t t 1) ■' 'J li .(.' T 19 1. ,^,v si 4 352 GEOLOGICAL RKETCII. .^ '\ it I' ! ■,-v">- sometimes open fissures of vast depth arc said to occur in them. The dykes occasion faults and slips as in other localities. In the new sandstone and in the coal heds lepidendra arc frequent, and, in the former, petrifactions of conifera? have occurred. There has not yet been any unequivocal proof of tertiary hods traced in Nova Scotia ; but there is a very singular line of trap fonnation running on the south- east side of the Bay of Fundy in one uninterrupted chain from the Basin of Mines to Brier Island, a distance of 130 miles, with a mean breadth of six miles. It is cut at three points by Grand Passage, Petit Passage, and Annapolis Gut ; but the whole seems to be one vast mass of trap superimposed on the sandstone, through the strata of which it has risen during some mighty geological convulsion. Nothing can exceed the magni- ficence of the bold and wave- worn trap cliffs along this interesting coast. We would particularly direct the traveller's attention to the grand detached needles of Cape Split, to the south side of Partridge Island at the entrance into the Basin of Mines, to the stupendous pre- cipices which flank the entrance to the harbour of Anna- polis, and also to the trap cliffs of Cape d'Or, which have an altitude of 400 feet. The trap is, generally speaking, a greenstone amygdaloid or a trap tuffa, often containing beautiful specimens of analcime, mesotype, stilbite, albite, laumonite, chabasite, heulandite, thom- sonite, hornblende, and chalcedony. The rocks at Part- ridge Island, along with albite, afford good specimens of yellow opal and crystals of apatite. At Sandy Cove the trap often contains beautiful specular iron, hardly inferior to the ore of Elba ; and very pure amethysts occur in other localities in this rock. On the eastern dde of Cape d'Or the cavities of the amygdaloid are often filled with beautiful translucent crystals of analcime, or with delicate intermixtures of crystals of stilbite and calc spar. The trap of Brier Island assumes a columnar form. l! GEOLOGICAL SKKTCII. 353 and approaches to the nature of basalt. Trap rock oc- curs also on the opposite side of the entrance into tlie Basin of Muu-s opposite to Cape Blomidon. It is impossible not to be struck with the similarity between this part of Nova Scotia and tlie trap of the Faroe Islands, both in the magnihcence of the clitfs and the individual minerals contained in the trap. Detritus and travelled Idocks of granite are found over many parts of the peninsula. Cape Breton is a valual)k' island about 100 miles in length by 60 in breadth. Its surfaco is undulated with low hills, and it is nearly divided into two islands by a remarkable gulf or arm of the sea of a very irregular figure. It appears, from the imperfect accounts we have of its geology, to consist chiefly of the new red sandstone and coal formation. Its coal strata are not inferior in quality and thickness to those of Nova Scotia, and they have the advantage of almost reaching the surface. A principal bed of fine coal lies only eight feet below the mossy soil, and the (juantity is enormous which might be raised at a small expense. Besides the usual fossils of coal districts, ferns and lepidendra, many fossil animal remains occur in this island. Accordhig to Mr Ilaliburton, the remains of extinct mammifera occur in Cape Breton ; among which he describes an enormous skull which evidently belonged to a fossil species of elephant, — a circumstance wiiich ought to excite no surprise when we reflect on the vast collections of their bones in Siberia and Behring's Straits. St John or Prince Edward Island is of an ex- tremely irregular figure, extending along the north coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick from east to west, about 135 miles in length, with a mean breadth of twenty miles, but between Richmond and Halifax bays it is not above three miles broad. The coasts are much indented. It has a rather flat surface and a fertile soil. Its mineralogy has been very little ex- plored. The prevailing rock is the new red sand- stone, which forms the contiguous provinces. But it is ' t i1, :i;i 'I •! ;! !•; It Ij ■ i ■1 t^4 ( '.. M ■- n. 1.^. I.. I " 354 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. without the gypsum, the coal-ficUls, or the iron mines, wliieh fonn such important productions in Novu Scotia and Cape IJreton. NEWForNDLAND IS an immense island, 880 miles in length l)y a])out 1(50 in mean breadth, chiefly valuable on account of the [)rolific swanns of cod-fish on its rocky coasts. From the meeting of northern aerial currents with the warmer air impending over the waters of the Gulf Stream, it is the chosen region of fogs. The coasts frequented by JOuropeans, and the interior explored by the journeys of Mr Cormack (Edin. Phil. Jour, vols x. xviii.), would seem to present the same rock fomiations as Nova Scotia, — granite, gneiss, mica slate, and quartz rock, overlaid by limestone and the coal formation. Beautiful serpentine occurs in the centre of the island. The coal formation is on the western coast ; and the salifcrous stratii are indicated by gypsum, red marl, and numerous salt-springs in the vicinity of North Barrasway River, a little to the north of the coal-fields. The coal is of a good quality. The soil in general may be repre- sented as barren, fertility being in a great measure con- fined to the coasts. The interior is much intersected by swamps and lakes, or shrouded in unexplored forests of dwarf pine and birch, which are however confined to the plaiiS and valleys. The western portion of the island, which is mountainous, is rugged and naked, ex- cept in the sheltered bays. But those hills scarcely form chains, and do not attain any considerable eleva- tion. The eastern districts are low, sometimes pic- turesque, from the intermixture of rock, wood, and water ; and this division of the island is traversed from north to south by successive ridges of low rocky hills. ,5- 1. . ^ „il ,' ' wm ^^j i %^ i/' APPENDIX. u I * I i ti Ji ,,4 I NARRATIVE •it' OV TUR EXPEDITION OF MESSRS DEASE AND SIMPSON ALONft THE NORTH COAST OP AMERICA, UNDER THE EMPLOY- MENT OP THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY. ,' i [extracted from minutes op COUNCIt., 1836.] The delineation of the unexplored portions of the Arctic Coast, westward of Mackenzie's River, and eastward of Point Tumagain, being an object that has for a long time excited the most lively interest in the public mind, and has called forth the energies of many enterprising and scientific men, whose exertions have nevertheless been unsuccessful, it is Resolved, 79* That an expedition be fitted out for that pur- pose by the Honourable Hudson's Bay Company, to consist of C. F. P. W. Dease and Mr Thomas Simpson, with a party of twelve men, and that they be provided with such craft, pro- visions, or other supplies as may be required to accomplish that desirable object, agreeably to the plan submitted by those gentlemen to the council. Resolved, 80. That the gentlemen in charge of the districts and posts of Athabasca and 3Iackenzie's Riv r comply with any demands whatsoever connected with their respective charges that may be made upon them by C. F. Dease, or, in his absence, by Mr Thomas Simpson. i1'" !i, .1 •' ,1 V 1 !:, I.. 5 > r*'': 356 APPENDIX. Copy of Letter from Governor Simpson to Messrs C. W. Dease and Thomas Simpson. Norway House, 2d July 1836. Gentlemen, — By the 79th and 80th resolutions of Council of this season, copies of which are annexed, you will observe that we have determined on fitting out an expedition forth- with, for the purpose of endeavouring to complete the survey of the northern shores of this continent. 2. This object has, for a great length of time, excited the most lively interest in the public mind, and has baffled the exertions of many enterprising men, among whom the names of Parry, Franklin, Ross, and Back, have of late years appear- ed conspicuous ; but I trust that the honour of its accom- plishment is reserved for the Hudson's Bay Company, through your exertions ; and in selecting you for so important a mission, we give the best proof of the high opinion we entertain of your abilities and qualifications for such an undertaking. 3. The expedition, consisting of twelve men, is now placed under your direction, and you will be pleased to cok.duct it without delay to the Athabasca country, and to pass the ensu- ing winter at Fort Chipewyan, or Great Slave Lake, as you may consider expedient ; although, in my opinion, Great Slave Lake would be the preferable winter ground, in many respects, as regards the objects of the expedition. 4. At the opening of the navigation in June, you will pro- ceed by boat down Mackenzie's River to Fort Norman, and there leave four men, with directions that they proceed from thence to the north-east end of Great Bear Lake, and there erect buildings, establish fisheries, and collect provisions for the accommodation and maintenance of the party during the winter 1837-1838. 5. You will there go down to the sea with the remaining eight men, and endeavour to trace the coast to the west- ward to longitude 156° 21'' (N. latitude 71" 23' 39"), whence Captain Beechey's barge returned. Should your progress along the coast be obstructed by ice or fog, as Sir John F'^nklin's was, you will either put the boat in a place of security, and proceed on foot with all your party, or leave four men with the boat for its protection, while you go along shore, carrying a sufficient quantity of provisions with you for the journey. It is desirable to take observations as frequently and to survey the country as accurately as possible, without, APPENDIX. 357 however, losing time on your outward journey, in waiting for the appearance of the sun, moon, or stars, which are frequently obscured by the dense fogs that prevail so nmch on that coast, but devoting as much time to these objects as the season and the state of your provisions will admit on your return. G. At the most westerly point you may reach, you will erect, in a conspicuous situation, a pillar or mound, and leave de- posited in the earth, at its base, a bottle hermetically sealed, containing an outline of the leading circumstances connected with the voyage. 7. In suggesting that the boat should be left in the event of your progress being obstructed by ice or fog, I beg it to be understood that that ought not to be done, if there be the least probability that by perseverance you may succeed in getting her along shore, as the preservation of the boat I consider to be highly essential both to the accomplishment of the voyage and to the protection of the party ; but if there be m possi- bility of getting on with the boat, I beg to recomm.'nd that you provide yourselves with axes and cordage, to make rafts for crossing rivers, and some parchment, sheeting, and oil- cloths, to make a couple of small canoes for the conveyance of the party, should it be found impossible to cross the rivers on rafts, and in order to secure your retreat in the event of the loss of the boat. 8. Should you not be able to accomplish the voyage or journey during the season of open water, and that you fall in with friendly Esquimaux or Indians, as many of the party as can be maintained may remain with them so as to complete the survey in the course of the winter or spring ; in this, how- ever, you will exercise your own discretion, and be guided by circumstances. 9. It is exceedingly desirable, however, that you should return by open water, so as to pass the winter at the establish- ment to be formed at the north-east end of Great Bear Lake, in order to make the necessary preparations for another voyage of discovery to the eastward, at the opening of the navigation in summer 1838. 10. The object of that voyage is to trace the coast from Franklin's Point Turnagain, eastward to the entrance of Back's Great Fish River ; to that end you will haul your boat across from the north-eastern extremity of Great Bear Lake to Coppermine River before the winter breaks up, and at the opening of the navigation proceed to the sea, and make A > :'ii :, . : I •!iJ 1 "1 i: :■) ; V ^ I M ' t •< a 1 J 1?L t 358 APPENDIX. r ■ as accurate a survey of the coast as possible, touching at Point Turnagain, and proceeding to Back's Great Fish River, if the strait or passage exists which that officer re- presents as separating the mainland from Ross's Boothia Felix ; but should it curn out on examination that no such strait exists, and that Captain Ross is correct in his statement that it is a peninsula, not an island, you will in that case leave your boat and cross the isthmus on foot, taking with you materials for building two small canoes, by which you may follow the coast to Point Richardson, Point Macono- chie, or some other given spot that can be ascertained as having been reached by Captain Back ; and you will be re- gulated in determining whether you will return by Great Fish River or by the coast, by the perigd of the season at which you may arrive there, the state of the navigation, and other circum- stances. 11. In order to guard against privation in the event of your returning by Great Fish River, it will be advisable to make arrangements at Great Slave Lake that a supply of provisions, with ammunition and fishing-tackle, likewise babiche for snow shoe lacing, be deposited at l^ake Beechey, or some other point of that route. 12. Should you be unable to complete the voyage to the eastward from Coppermine River in one season, you may, as suggested in reference to the other voyage, take up your quarters with the Esquimaux for the winter, so as to accom- plish it the following season. 13. In making your arrangements for both voyages, I have to recommend that a considerable quantity of pemmican and flour (not less than 100 pieces) be provided for voyaging pro- visions, and that you will be supplied with materials for con- structing small canoes, leather for shoes, and snow shoe netting, likewise with ammunition, axes, crooked knives, fishing-hooks, net thread, backing and setting lines, and with wa^m clothing for yourselves and the people. 14. The necessary astronomical and surveying instruments are provided to enable you to take observations and to make surveys, in which you will be as accurate as possible ; and you will be pleased to prepare a full and particular journal or nar- rative of the voyage, likewise a chart of the coast, and to take possession of the country, on behalf of Great Britain, in your own names, acting for the Honourable Hudson's Bay Com- pany, at every part of the coast you may touch, giving names APPENDIX. 359 to the different headlands, mountains, rivers, and other re- markable objects you may discover. It is also desirable that you make a collection of minerals, plants, or any specimens of natural history you may fall in with, that appear to be new, curious, and interesting. 15. You are hereby authorized to avail yourselves for the use of the expedition of any assistance whatsoever you may re- quire, at any of the Honourable Company's establishments you may touch at. or have communication with, either by letter or otherwise, and the gentlemen in charge of these establish- ments are hereby instructed to meet all demands you may make upon them. 16. In the event of any accident occurring to prevent either of you from proceeding on this mission, the other will be pleased to follow up the object of it, and to avail himself of the assistance, as a second in command, of any clerk of the Com- pany he may find within his reach, and such clerk will be pleased to act in that capacity accordingly. With fervent prayers for your safety and success, I re- main, gentlemen, your most obedient servant, (Signed) George Simpson. To THE Governor and Council of the Northern Department, Rupert's Land. Fort No7vian, Sept. 5, 1837. Gentlemen, — We have now the honour to report the com- plete success of the expedition this summer to the westward of Mackenzie's River. The preparatory arrangements were fully stated in our for- mer despatches. On the 1st of June we quitted Fort Chipe- wy/-.n with two small sea-boats, accompanied by a luggage-boat, and the hunters engaged for Great Bear Lake visited the Salt Plains, and arrived at the Great Slave Lake on the 10th, where we were detained by ice until the 2 1st, The same cause pro- longed our passage across that inland sea, and having been for two days stopped by a strong contrary wind at the head of Mackenzie's River, it was the 1st of July when we reached Fort Norman. Our Indians cast up the following day, and the crews and cargoes were finally divided and arranged. Our boat-builder, John Ritch, received his instructions to proceed immediately with a fisherman, two other labourers, and the hunters, to Great Bear Lake, and at its north-eastern extre- .-'i i i! • * ! I: : -ii A I ; M i i ( I \ i 11 ii 360 APPENDIX. mity to erect our winter-quarters, and lay in a stock of provi- sions against our return from the coast. We then took our departure, and on tlie 4th reached Fort Good Hope. There we found an assemblage of Hare Indians and Loucheux. The latter informed us that three of their tribe had been killed and a fourth desperately wounded by the Esquimaux in the pre- ceding month, which at once put an end to our intention of procuring an interpreter from among them, although several volunteered to accompany us in that capacity. They at the same time earnestly cautioned us to beware of the treacherous arts of their enemies. On the 9th of July we reached the ocean by the most westerly mouth of the P.Iackenzie, which Sir John Franklin sought for in vaii). It is situated in latitude C«° 49' 23" N., longitude 136° 3G' 45" W., and perfectly answers the description which the Esquimaux messengers gave of it to that ofticer when they came to apprize him of the in- tended attack by the JMountain Indians. We had not pro- ceeded far to seaward when a party of nineteen men came off to us from Tent Island. We gave each of them a small present, —a, practice which we continued throughout the voyage, and employed our vocabularies to the best of our ability and their utter astonishment, to explain the friendly feelings of the whites towards their tribe. Being a lively and communicative people, we in the course of the season acquired greater facility in our intercourse with them, and when words failed, we had recourse to signs, so that we seldom experienced much difficulty in making ourselves understood, or in comprehending their mean- ing. When indulged, however; they invariably became trou- blesome and daring, and tliey were ever on the outlook for plunder. On this lirst meeting they made several unsuccess- ful attempts in that way, and it was no easy matter to induce them to return to their camp after we had tinished our business with them. They told us that they wished to accompany us to our encampment, where they would have soon been joined by fresh parties, and we had a shallow and dangerous naviga- tion before us that night. We therefore peremptorily ordered them back; but it was not until we tired a ball over their heads that they veered round and paddled off. A storm soon after arose, but we made the land in safety the following morn- ing at Shingle Point, latitude 69°, where we were detained until the 11th. The thermometer had already fallen to 48° of Fahrenheit, being 30° lower than on the evening we left the Mackenzie ; and instead of the bright and beautiful weather I I* I: APPENDIX. 361 *' iviga- •dered their soon morn- ;ained 8° of ift the ther which we enjoyed in our descent of that noble stream, we were now doomed to travel in cold dense fogs, which enveloped us during nearly the whole of our progress along the coast. But though they perplexed and retarded, we never suffered them to arrest our course, nor did we ever, throughout the voyage, en- camp but when compelled to do so by ice or contrary winds ; and to this line of conduct may, under Providence, be ascribed the early and successful accomplislmient of our undertaking. In the afternoon of the 11th of July we reached Point Kay, where we were detained by a compact body of ice occupying Phillips' Bay until the 14th. There we were visited by an- other party of Esquimaux, whose tents were pitched at no great distance from us. They inhabit the country bordering upon Babbage River, and informed us that, except when flooded by the melting of the mountain-snows, it is an insig- nificant stream, not fifty yards in breadth. Of this we had ocular proof in a clear day on our return. A handsome flora was collected in this neighbourhood, and some fine specimens of tertiary pitch coal. Having at length fovmd a passage through the ice across Phillips' Bay, we reached Herschel Island the same evening (14th July), and had intercourse with other parties of the natives, who were pretty numerous along this part of the coast. We found on the island the skul'i of a whale eight feet in breadth : and whalebone is every where an article in extensive use among the natives, especially for the making of their nets and the fastenings of their sledges. We continued our route before an easterly wind along and through the ice with very little interruption, till 2 a. m. of the 17th, when an unbroken pack, extending to seaward, made us seek the shore in Camden Bay, near a considerable camp ot Esqui- maux. As soon as the fears of the latter were removed, an amicable meeting took place, and having made them the usual presents, we purchased a good many of their mouth ornaments, weapons, and water-proof boots, which last proved of great service in preserving the health of the party. These people informed us that they have two sources of trade : the first and most regular with their countrymen, who come annually from the westward ; the other with the Mountain Indians, who carry fire-arms, and travel a great way across land from the direction of the Russian settlements. They showed us the knives, iron kettles, beads, and other things thus procured, which we have no doubt are of Russian manufacture. Their means of repay- ment appeared to us very limited, consisting in seal-skins, u\ :1 M'j l'l^\ » ! ••'a 'I ■a .' 362 APPENDIX. - », whalebone, ivory, and a few inferior furs ; viz. wolverenes, foxes, and musk-rats. A pair of indifferent beaver gloves was pur- chased from them, which they had probably procured from the Mountain Indians ; for we saw no other symptom of the exist- ence of that valuable animal near the coast, though it doubtless abounds at some distance up the large wooded rivers, which we subsequently discovered. In the afternoon there appeared a narrow lane of water stretching outwards, and we imme- diately embarked. We had advanced about three miles from the land, when the ice suddenly closed upon us before a strong north-east wind ; one of the boats got squeezed, and it was only by throwing out the cargo upon the floating masses that she was saved from destruction. By means of portages made from one piece to another, — the oars serving as bridges, — the cargo was all recovered, and both boats finally hauled up on a large floe, where we passed an inclement and anxious night. Next morning the gale abated, the ice relaxed a little around us, and by a long circuit we regained the shore, about a league to the eastAvard of our fomier position. There we were detained till midnight of the 19th, when a favourable wind enabled us to round the body of ice at a distance of four miles from the land, and, continuing, carried us on the 20th into Foggy Island Bay. There we were stopped by the ice and a violent north-east wind nntil the 23d, having, on the preceding day, made an in- effectual attempt to weather Foijit Anxiety, in Avhich we nar- rowly escaped with a thorough drenching. The latitude ashore was TO'" 9' 48". From this situation we had the satisfaction of discovering, during a clear afternoon, a range of the Rocky Mountains to the westward of the Roman?.off chain, and not seen by 8ir John Franklin ; but being within the limit of his survey, we called it " the Franklin range,'* as a just tribute to his character and merits. On the 23u wc again set sail, rounded the pack of ice wJrich extender' six miles to seaward from Yar- borough Inlet, then abruptly turning in, we supped near Return Reef, and the survey commenced. Return Reef is one of a chain of reefs and islets which run for twenty miles parallel to the coast, at the distance of about half a league, affording water enough within for such light craft as ours. The mainland is very low. From Point Berens to Cape Halkett (named after iwo members of the commit- tee), it forms a great bay fifty miles wide, by a third of that depth, which, in honour of the deputy-governor, was named Harrison's Bay. At. the bottom of this bay another pic- 6 ^M>-'1»' APPENDIX. 363 us. turesque branch of the Rocky 3Iountain chain, tlie last seen by us, rears its lofty peaks above these flat shores : we called them Felly's Mountains, in honour of the governor of the Company. At their base flows a large river, two miles broad at the mouth, which we named after Andrew Colville, Esq. This river freshens the water for many miles, and its alluvial deposits have rendered Harrison's Bay so shallow, that it was not till after a run of twenty-five hours, during which we had repeatedly to stand well out to sea, that we could effect a landing on a grounded iceberg, nine miles to the south-west of Cape Halkett. A north-east gale kept us there the whole of the following day. The country extending towards the moun- tains appeared to consist of plains covered with short grass and moss, the favourite pasture of the rein-deer, of which we saw numerous herds. Next morning (2fJth July) the tide rose nearly two feet, and enabled us safely to cross the shoals. Aft no great distance from our encampment we passed the mouth of another large river, one mile wide, whose banks were thickly lined with drift timber. We named it the Garry, in honour of Nicholas Garry, Esq. Cape Halkett forms the extreme point of a small island, separated from the main shore by a narrow channel too shallow for boats. Its situation was found by observation to be in latitude 70° 47' 45'' N., longitude 151° 55' 30" W. It appears to be a place of resort to the Esquimaux ; for we found a spot where they had been building their baidars last spring. We suppose them to have been part of a very large camp which we saw in the bay of Staines' River, as we sailed past the east end of Flaxman Isiana on the 20th July ; that this camp was composed of the western traders of that tribe on their annual journey to meet tlieir eastern brethren at Barter Island ; and that we missed them on our return, be- cause they were then dispersed along the rivers, lakes, and iu the skirts of the mountains, hunting the rein-deer. From Cape Halkett the coast turned suddenly off to the W. N. W. It presented to the eye nothing but a succession of low banks of frozen mud. The ice was heavy all along, but there were narrow channels close to the shore; the soundings in these averaged one fathom on a sandy bottom. In the evening we passed the mouths of a considerable river, which was named after William Smith, Esq. From thence, for about nine miles, the coast line is formed of gravel reefs, near the extremity of which, at Point Pitt (called after another member of the committee), the land trends more to the westward. The ice I ■; .1 '- i 1 I '< i I! i • ! ''1 i id ]\ 1 1 H in 364 APPENDIX. m\ V»»-, . lay much closer here, and numerous sunken masses adhered to the bottom, which obliged us to search for a passage out from the shore. The night was dark and stormy, and we were in considerable danger : one of the rudders gave way ; but we at length effected a landing on a floe near an immense rein-deer pound. This was ingeniously formed by the Esquimaux with double rows of turf erected on a ridge of ground that encloses a hollow terminating in a lake, into which the unsuspecting animals are driven and there speared. The vegetable soil in this vicinity was barely four inches in depth, beneath which the clay was frozen as hard as rock, so that our tent pickets could not be driven home. The men ha(' to go a good mile to find a log or two of drift-wood for fuel, the Sv ;rcity of which essential article is doubtless the chief cause cf the w^.-'t of in- habitants along so great a portion of the coast Ve were detained at this place till the following afternoon (27th), when the ice opening a little enabled us to resume our route. It blew a cutting blast from the north-east, and the spray froze upon the oars and rigging. Point Drew, called after Richard Drew, Esq., is the commencement of a bay of consi- derable size, but extremely shallow, and much encumbered with ice^ in pushing through which the boats received several blows ; and we had on this, as on many other occasions, good cause to admire their excellent workmanship. To seaward the ice was still smooth and solid as in the depth of a sunless winter. We named this bay after Chief Factor Smith, as a token of acknowledgment for his zealous and unwearied efforts to promote the interests of the expedition. At midnight we came in sight of a sharp projecting point, over which rose the peaks of some lofty icebergs that were at first mistaken for lodges of the natives. To this well-defined point we gave the name of Cape George Simpson as a mark of sincere respect for our able and worthy governor. It was destined to be the limit of our boat navigation ; for during the four following days we could only advance as many miles. The weather was foggy and dismally cold, the wildfowl passed in long flights to the westward, and there seemed little prospect of our being able to reach Point Barrow by water. Boat Extreme is situated in latitude 71° 3' 24" N., longitude 154° 26' 30" W. Variation of the compass, 42° 36' 18" East. Under the above circumstances, Mr Thomas Simpson un- dertook to complete the journey on foot, and accordingly started on the 1st of August with a party of five men. They mS • adhered to je out from we were in ; but we at se rein-deer imaux with hat encloses nsuspecting able soil in leath which tent pickets a, good mile ;ity of which w„^t of in- \Ve were 27th), when ir route. It J spray froze called after )ay of consi- en cumbered nved several asions, good seaward the of a sunless Smith, as a earied efforts midnight we ich rose the mistaken for we gave the ncere respect led to be the ur following weather was long flights of our being )at Extreme 26'30"W. Simpson un- accordingly men. They APPENDIX. 365 carried with them their arms, some ammunition, pemmican, a canvass canoe for the crossing of rivers, the necessary astrono. mical instruments, and a few trinkets for the natives. It was one of the worst days of the whole season, and the fog was so dense that the pedestrians were under the necessity of rigidly following the tortuous line of the coast, which for twenty miles formed a sort of irregular inland bay (being guarded without by a series of gravel reefs), the shore of which was almost on a level with the water, and intersected by innumerable salt creeks, through which they waded, besides three considerable rivers or inlets which they traversed in their portable canoe. They found at one place a great many large wooden sledges, joined with whalebone, and strongly shod with horn. Mr Simpson conjectures that these vehicles were left there by the western Esquimaux, already spoken of, on their eastward journey, to be resumed again on their return when winter sets in. The tracts of rein-deer were every where numerous. Next day the weather improved, and at noon the latitude 71° 9' 45" was observed. The land now inclined to the south-west, and continued very low, muddy, and, as on the preceding day, abounding in salt creeks, whose waters were at the freeznig temperature The party hvd proceeded about ten miles, wlien, to their dismay, the coast turned suddenly off to the south- ward, forming an inlet extending as far as the eye could reach. At the same moment they descried at no great distance a small camp of the western Esquimaux, to which they immediately directed their steps. The men were absent hunting, and the women and children took to their boat in the greatest alarm, leaving behind them an infirm man, who was in an agony of fear. A few words of friendship removed his apprehensions, and brought back the fugitives, who were equally surprised and delighted to behold white men. They set before the party fresh rein-deer meat and seal oil, and besought them for to- bacco (tawaccah), of which mtn, women, and even children, are inordinately fond. Mr Simpson now determined to adopt a more expeditious mode of travelling, and demanded the loan of one of their oomiaks, or family canoes, to convey the party to Point Barrow, with which, from a chart drawn by the most intelligent of the women, it appeared that these people were acquainted. The request was joyfully complied with ; four oars were fitted with lashings to this strange craft, and the ladies declared that our party were true Esquimaux and not " Kabloonan." Before starting, the hunters arrived, and were VOL. III. Z 1'. 1 1 I: % ■ji 1 i I 4 366 APPENDIX ft . likewise gratified with tobacco, uwls, buttons, and otlicr trifles,. Deasc's Inlet is five miles broad at this place, yet so low is the land that the one shore is just visible from the other in the clearest weather. It now again blew strongly from the north- cast, bringing back '.he cold dense fog ; but the traverse was efl'ected by aid of the /ompass. The waves ran high and the skin-boat surmounted tliem with a buoyancy which far sur- passed that of our boasted nortli canoes. The party encamped on the west side of the inlet. The banks there were of frozen mud, ten or twelve feet high ; the country within was ])erfectly flat, abounded in small lakes, and produced a very short grass, but nowhere had the thaw penetrated more than two inches be- neath the surface, while under water along the shore the bottom was still impenetrably frozen. Not a log of wood was to be found in this land of desolation ; but our party followed the ex- ample of the natives, and made their fire of the roots of the dwarf-willow in a little chinmey of turf. Next morning (August 3) the fog cleared for a while; but it was still bit- terly cold, and the swell beat violently on the outside of a heavy line of ice which lay packed upon the shore. To v/eather this was a work of danger ; but the good qualities of their boat, after a severe trial, carried them safely through. The land ran out for five miles to the northward, then turned off to the N.W., beyond which, at Point Christie, the latitude 71° 12' 3f>" was observed. From thence the coast trended more westerly for ten miles, forming two points and a bay, which Mr Simpson named after Chief Factors Charles and Rowand, and Chief Trader Ross. The party then came to what appeared a large bay, where they halted for two or three hours, to await the dispersion of the fog, not knowing which way to steer. In the evening their wish was gratified, and from that time the weather sensibly ameliorated. The bay was now ascertained to be only four miles in diameter. The depth half-way across was 1 j fathom on a bottom of sand ; that of Dease's Inlet was afterwards found to be two fathoms, muddy bottom, being the greatest depth between Return Reef and Point Barrow, except at ten miles S. E. from Cape Halkett, where three fathoms were sounded on our return. After crossing Mackenzie's Bay, the coast again trended for eight or nine miles to the W. N. W. A com- pact body of ice extended all along and beyond the reach of vision to seaward ; but the party carried their light vessel within that formidable barrier, and made their way through the narrow channels close to the shore. At midnight they passed let .S. . : APPENDIX. 367 the mouth of a fine deep river, a quarter of a mile wide, to which Mr Simpson gave tlie name of the llcllcvue, and in less than an hour afterwards the rising sun gratified him with the view of Point IJarrow, stretching out to the W. N. W. They soon crossed Elson Bay (which, in tlie perfect cahu, had acquired a tough coating of young ice), hut had much difficulty in making their way througli a hroad atul heavy pack that rested upon the shore. On rcacliing it, and seeing the ocean extending away to the southward, tlicy hoisted their fiag, and with three cheers took possession of their discoveries in his ma- jesty's name. Point Barrow is a hmg low spit, composed of gravel and coarse sand, whicli the press\ire of the ice has forced up into numerous mounds, that, viewed from a distance, assume the appearance of huge houlder rocks. At the spot where the party landed it is only a quarter of a mile across, hut is broader towards its termination. The first object that presented itself, on looking round the landing-place, was an immense cemetery. The bodies lay exposed in the most horrible and disgusting manner, and many of tliem ajipeared so fresh that the men be- came alarmed that the cholera, or some other dreadful disease, was raging among the natives. Two considerable camps of the latter stood at no great distance on the point, but none of the inmates ventured to approach, till our party first visited them, and, with the customary expressions of friendship, dissipated their apprehensions. A brisk traffic then began, after which the women formed a circle, and danced to a variety of airs, some of which were pleasing to the ear. The whole con- duct of these people was friendly in the extreme. They seemed to be well acquainted with the character, if not the persons, of white men, were passionately fond of tobacco, and when any of the younger people were too forward, the seniors restrained them, using the French phrase "C'est assez!" which, like " ta- waccah," they must have learned from the Russian traders. They designate the latter " Moonatagmun ;" and a respectable- looking old man readily took charge of a letter addressed by Mr Simpson to them, or to any other whites on the western coast, containing a brief notice of the proceedings of the expe- dition. To the northward, enormous icebergs covered the ocean ; but on the western side there was a fine open channel, which the Esquimaux assured the party extended all along to the southward ; and so inviting was the prospect in that di- rection, that, had such been his object, Mr Simpson would not ■ i • 1 "■'E fi IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^O ^.^.% %^ il v.. ^ .

374 APPENDIX. .•li»lmientH, .'IW. Popu- lation and Htato of society, .'i.'Vl. Local divisions, .TTk'*. IHrch tree, natural history of, iil. 31H. Jlarli of, 31!). Birds of British America, natural history of, iii. 2r)H-2<)3. Bonavista, Bay of, Newfoundland, ii. 2!>7. Botany of Britisli America, iil. 304- XHK See British America, bo- tany of. Bras d'Or, a pulf of Cape Breton, ii. 17!), 1«2, 1B7, IHH. Britisli America, its extent and boundaries, i. 17-20. Cieneral as- fiect, 15). Emigration to, iii. *M- H2. General summary, lB.3-220. Extent and proportion cultivated, 183. Agricultural produce, 184, 187. Timber trade, IB."*. Fishery, 186. Tables of exports and im- ports, 186-1!K). Shipping, 1!M>, 191. Interior commimications ; canals, railways, and roads, 1!)1-1{)8. Po- pulation, 198. Church establish- ment, 199-202. Political consti- tution, 202. Proposed union of the colonies, 203. Other suggest- ions, 204-208. Boundary question and claims of the American states, i. 40-43 ; iii. 89-93, 208-220 ; award accepted by Britain, luit rejected by the American Senate, 208 ; va- rious negotiations, 209; encroach- ments by the Americans, and con- sequent dissensions, 211-215 ; vio- lent proceedings of Maine, 215 ; threatened hostilities, 216 ; tem- porary adjustment, 219. British America, maritime provinces of, ii. 102-113. Situation and ex- tent, 102. Fisheries, forests, 104. Early voyages, 105. Vovage and adventures of Sir Humphrey Gil- bert, 105-112. French voyages, 113. British America, botany of, iii. 304- 33. Iiegumino»H',317. Br- tulaccjT, 318. Juglandact-H", 32(». PlatanaccR'; Kricaccjr, 321. Vac- ciniacea?, .322. (.'omitosita', .'J2.3. Coidfera*, .324-329. Orchidaccff. mosses and lichens, .329. British America, (ieology of, iii. .'{.31 -.'{54. General sketch of its geological features. .'J.3I -.'139. Lakes, .^'^<}. Hivors,.'i'U«. Barrow's Strait, Melville Island, '.W. Labrador, 34.'J. Upi)or and Lower Canada, ,'M.')-.347. New Brunswick, 347- Nova Scotia, :W\-:Vul Cape Bre- ton, Prince Edward Island, 35.'J. Newfoundland, .354. British America, Zoology of, iii. 221-;«I3. (iUADRiiPKDS, 222-25*1. Moles, bears, 22.'}-220. Hacoon, badger, 22(5. Wolverene, 227. Weasel, ermine, 229. Vison or n»iiix, 2.30. Martin, pekan or fisher, 231. Skunk. 2.32. Otter, 2:«. Wolf, 2.'14. Fox, 2.35. Dog, 2;»). Puma, lynx, 2.37- Seal, 2.38. Opossum, 2.39. Beaver, 241-24.'J. Lemming, 24.3. Hat and mouse, 24.'{-247,251. Marmot, 247. Squir- rel, 249-251. Horse, hog, 25.3. Deer, 254-25JJ. Whalk tril)e, 25JI. Birds. 2.')8-26.3. Reptiles, 263. Insects, 266-.30.3. British American Land Company, i. 272, 274-276 ; iii. 110, l.W. Their terms of sale of land, 127. Pur- chases and sales of land by, 161- 164. British North American colonies, on emigration to, iii. f)8-182. Sec Emigration. Brock, Cieneral. surrender of the American force to; his death, i. 187. Brockville, Upper Canada, i. 296. Buffalo, mode of hunting, iii. 87. Buller, Mr, his views of emigration and settlement, iii. 150,151. In- ternal communications proposed by, 191,192, 197. Burlington Bay, Lake Ontario, i. 319. Button, Sir Thomas, his voyage to Hudson's Bay-, iii. 17. Bylot and Baffin's voyage to Hud- son's Bay, iii. 20, 22. By town, Upper Canada, i. 300. Cabot, John, discovers the cocti- iNi)i:x. 379 ncnt of North Amcricft, i. 97 ; ii. 277. Cabot, HolmHtliin, illHcovery of Hud- son's lliiy I)} . i. W ; iii. Ifi. Caimdii, it» houiulnricH utui extent, i.H). (}unomlfuatiiri>», 21. Iwikcs. 2l-2i]. Rivore, 2<{-2>l. Falls of Niiiufiira, 2(l-;«;. Clinmtu, .Ui. Teniperaturt' and seasonH, .'J7-4(t. Nativo IntlianH, 44-!Mi. Canada, history of, undtTthe French, i. !>7-17^' Karlifst diwovurlt's of theFnRlisliand French, ifj. Trans- actioHH of Cliainplain, lni-i;ut subsequentlyrestored, 121). Karth- quakes, 141. Succession of ur(»ver- nors ; peace of Utrecht, 141-1<)7. Proj^ress and prosperity of the co- lony, lulation, i. 17!'. Invasion of tlie Americans ; tiieir fruitless attempt against Quebec, 181, 1H2; they finally evacuate the province, 18.3. Division into Upper and Lower. 1H;J, 287. Ob- tainsa representative constitution, 18.3. House of Assembly, rise of internal dissensions, 184. War with the United States, 18.'i-l!K); peace concluded, li)9. Dissensions re- newed, l!>y. Petitions to the kincf, 2(»2, 209. Increased discontent, 2 (rovenunent under the French, 77- British arrangements ; division into Upper and Lower ; represen- tative constitution, 78-80. Reve- nue, 80-82. Military force ; jus- tice, 82. Uoflcctlonn on the pro- posed new constitution, JI.3. Kn- mity of races; iKJst mode of ap- peasing it, 84-8»». Fxecutlvo governtncnt ; its collision with the a»Hend)ly, 87-89. Origin of the late disturbances, JMI. Reme- dies suggested, 8y-!»l. Views of Sir Francis Head, 91. Distinction between foreign and intenial af- fairs, 91-!»4. Fxecutive council, 94. Repres«uitative assembly ; its defects ; best mode of raising its character, !».')-98. Legislative coim- cil, !>8. Proposed union of tho l)rovince8 ; its advantages ; dan- gers to be guarded against, 98-101. .Municipal institutions, 101. Canada, liOwer, topography of, i.241- 28.3. Boundaries and extent ; sur- face, 242. Division into districts, 24.3. Quebec District, 244-2.'>7, 277- 281. Trois Rividres District, 257- 2-,\K 270-272, 270, 277. Montreal District, 2.'i9-27o, 272-274. St Fran- cis District, 274-277. Bathurst Dis- trict, 2!)9. Ckntral Division, .'JOI- .312. Midland District, .'102. New- castle District, ■'J0.'5. HomeDistrict, ;i09. Westkrn Division, .312-.'«0. Gore District, 314. Niagara Dis- trict, 319. London District, 323. Western District, .32(;. Summary of statistics, 330. Geology of, .345-.347. Canada, commerce of, ii. 13-52. Export trade, I.'K30. Agricultu- ral produce, 13-19. Ashes, 19. Timber, 21-26. Fisheries, furs, and peltries, 26. Manufactures, 27-30. Ship-building, 30. Import trade, ,'{0-40. British manufac- tures, 31. East and West India produce, .34. Spirits and wines, 36. Miscellaneous articles, 37. Trade with the United States, 39. Mo- ney and exchanges, 40. Weights and measures ; banks, 41. Tariff of duties, 43. Inland communica- tions, canals, and railways, 46-51 ; 380 INDEX. ,t; H ►■ Mr ■ '; .' ' ' '" i;^'^ ( i' > _ « i , 4 i'li ^^ra t i? ' . . »51 iii. 191-198. Effects of the progress of trade, ii. 51. Canada, agriculture of, i. a31-352. Climate, 331, 338. Forest, mode of clearing ; ashes, 332-335. Soil ; cropping, 335-342. Rearing of live-stock, 342. Horticulture, 344- 346. Maple sugar, 346. Agricul- tural processes, 347. Hunting and fishing, 349-352. Canada, social state of, ii. 53-76. Dififerent classes, 63. French iia- bitans, 53 ; their mode of living, 57 ; religious and moral charac- ter, 68. Manners in Upper Cana- da, 60. Mode of living, 61, Na- tive Indians, 62. Hurons of Lo- retto, 65. Other tribes, GG. Effects of Protestant convei'sion, 67-69, 73. Government expendi- ture on native tribes, 70. Their present iress and mode of living, 71-73. Means of religious instruc- tion, 73. Education, 75. Canada Company, i. 29.3, 294, 298, 299, 308, 315, 318, 323. Their terms of sale of land, iii. 127. Establishment ; purchases and sales ofland by, 160, 161. Canals and railways, ii. 46-61 ; iii. 191-198. Suggestions for, 193-197. Comparative advantages of canals and railways, 19^. Canoes, Indian, i. cj ; iii. 319. Canseau, Cape, Nova Scotia, ii. 178. Gut or channel of, 179, 186. Cape Breton, Island of, ii. 133-136. Extent and situation, 17.9. Soil and climate, 180. Early occupied by the French, 181. Population, 182, 209. Chiefly settled by Scot- tish emigrants, 185, 187, 188. Set- tlements in the interior, 187. Geology ; coalfields, 181 , 182, 194 ; iii. 353. Commerce and shipping, ii. 200. Tables of exports and im- ports, 205-208. Acadians, 212. See also Nova Scotia. Capelin Bay, Newfoundland, ii. 294. Carleton county, Bathurst District, Upper Canada, i. 300. Carleton county. New Brunswiclt, ii. 233. Cartier, Jacques, his expedition up the St Lawrence, i. 98. Cataraqui or FortFrontenac, i. 144, 151, 158, 169. Central division, Upper Canada, i. 301. Chale'ur Bay, i. 281 ; ii. 240. ChamblyCanal, Lower Canada.ii. 51. Champ' ain, Samuel, ascends the St Lawrence, i. 101-104. Founds Quebec, 103; and Montreal, 111. Aids the Algonquins against the Iroquois, 104-110, 117-120. Voyage up the Ottawa, 114. His death, 131. Champlain, Lake, i. 106, 193; iii. 160, 194. Charlevoix, his account of the state of Canada, i. 167-170. Charlotte county, New Brunswick, ii. 236. Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, ii. 263, 264. Chatham, town of. New Brunswick^ ii. 237. Cliats, Lake des, in the Ottawa, i. 2(J6, 299, 301. Chaudiere, Lake, in the Ottawa, i. 266, 299, 301. Chaudiere, river and fall, Lower Canada, i. 277, 278. Cliebucto, Nova Scotia, receives the name of Halifax, ii. 136. ChedabuctoBay.Nova Scotia, ii. 178. ChignectoBay, Nova Scotia, ii. 173. Chipewyan, Forts, on Great Slave and Athabasca lakes, iii. 61 , 78, 88. Chippeway, Upper Canada, i. 197, 321. Cliippeways, an Indian tribe, ii. 67, 68. Churchill, Fort, Hudson's Bay Ter- ritory, iii. 45, 88. Coalfields in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, ii. 173, 181, 182, 194; iii. 351. In New Brunswick, ii. 231, 251. Coburg, town of, Upper Canada, i. 306. Cockburn Island, iii. 340. Colborne, Sir John, i. 236. Colchester District and townships. Nova Scotia, ii. 172. Columbia, River, iii. 16, 95. Terri- tory on ; claims of the Americans, 89-93. Conception Bay, Newfoundland, it 295. Coppermine River, Hudson's Bay Territory, iii. 16, .'m, 372. Croque Harbour, Newfoundland, ii. 298. Cumberland county. Nova Scotia, ii. 173-176. Fort, 174. Cumberland House, Hudson's Bay Territory, iii. 80. D. Dalhousie, Earl of, i. 200-202. Dartmouth, township and town. Nova Scotia, ii. I.''>8. De Calliires, vicei'oy of Canada, i. 162-164. Dease and Simpson, their expedition along the north coast, iii. 356-372. Governor Simpson's letter of in- structions, '6b(j. Arrival at Great \J indp:x. :m Slave Lake, 359. Mouth of Mac- kenzie River, :W). Esquimaux, 36()-.'}70. Cape Halkett, 3G5. Uoat Extreme, IVi-i. Point Harrow, 3(>7« Return to Cape llalkett. 3()5. To Fort Norman on Maeketizie River, .'371. Second expedition, 372-37G. Reach Coppermine River, 372. Cape Franklin, 373. Vinw of Victoria Land, 374. Return, 370. Deer, natural history of, iii. 254-258. Hunting of, i. .S50. De Monts, first settlement of Nova Scotia hv, i. Kll ; ii. llM-122. Detroit Ri'ver, i. 24,314, 327. Fort, 170, 1«7. Town, .'«(). Diamond, Cape, Lower Canada, i. 245. Dog, natural history of, iii. 236. Dundas county. Eastern District, Upper (lanada, i. 294. Dundas, town of, Upper Canada, i. 315. Durham county, Newcastle District, Upper Canada, i. 303. Durham, Earl of, governor-general of British America, i. 236-238 ; iii. 163. His statements on emi- gration, 168- 172. Proposition for a legislative union of the colonies, 203, 206. See liuller, Mr, and Canada, political state of. Du Sud River, Lower Canada, i. 279. Duties, tariif of, in the Canadas, ii. 43. E. East Main Fort, Hudson's Bay Ter- ritory, iii. 88. Eastern division. Upper Canada, i. 291. Eastern District of, i. 292 ; iii. 108. Education in Canada, ii. 75. In Nova Scotia, 218. In New Brunswick, 255. In Prince Ed- ward Island, 273. In Newfound- land, 326. Ellis' account of Moor and Smith's voyage to Hudson's Bay, iii. 39- 44. Emigration to the British North American colonies, iii. 98-182. Advantages of, 98. Classes of emigrants, 9.9. Prospects of a settler in the midciling rank, lOo- 104. Choice of land, 104-106. Si- tuations best suited for him, 106- 111. Estimates of expenses and prolits, 111-123. Modes of obtain- ing <;redit — terms of government and the companies, 123-128. Coun- sels for emigrants, 129-131. Emi- gration of half-pay officers, 131- VOL. III. 133. Of distressed farmers l.TJ. Of persons of capital, I'M. Of labouring settlers, l.'{5. Advan- tages of th'Mr situation, 136. Their means of purchasing and clearing land, 140-147. Pauper emigrants, 147. Parties sent out by Oovernment, 148. Military and naval pensioners, 14!». Plan of emigration formed by Mr Bul- ler, l.'iO. Conveyance of the emi- grant, 153. Modes and expenses of passage, 154. Outfit required, 156. Journey into the interior from Quebec, 1.57, 159. From New York, 159, 160. Canada and British American land companies, 160. Comparative advantages of Canada and the United States. 164-168. Observations on Lord Durham's statements, 168-172. Numbers of emigrants, 172-175. Emigration to Nova Scotia, 175. To New Brunswick, 176-179. To Prince Edward Island, 179. To Newfoundland, 181. To Hudson's Bay Territory, 181. Enfume Cap, Cape Breton, ii. 18.), 187. Erie, Lake, i. 24, 170, 193, .314, .322- .328; iii. 337- Erie Canal, 169. Erie, Fort, Upper Canada, i. 188, 197, 1!W, 322. E.>i»iuimaux. ii. 303-307, 328 ; iii. liG, 72, 76, 360-370. Essex county. Western District, Up- per Canada, i. 328. F. Fergnsson, Mr, his estimate of ex- penses and profits to the Canadian settler, iii. 115-117- Fisheries of the St Lawrence, Cha- leur Bay, and Gaspe coast, i. 281 ; ii. 26. Of the lakes of Canada, i. 351. Of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, ii. 197. Of New Bruns- wick , 229, 2.50. Ot Prince Edward Island, 269. Of Newfoundland, 276, 308-31.3. Of Labrador, 3(H». Fishes, American, note, iii. 265. Flax and hemp, production of, in the Canadas, ii. 18. Fogo Island, Newfoundland, ii. 2{»7. Fort George, or Newark, Upper Canada, i. 189, 196, 321. See al.so Niagara, town and fort. Fox, Luke, his voyage to Hudson'.s Bay, iii. 22. Fox, natural liistnry of, iii. 2.3.5. Eraser, Colonel, his settlements in Lower Canada, i. 280. Fredcricton, New Brunswick, ii. 232, 255. tj A 382 INDEX. ■mi' 5 ■..'^ . t . l^^'.'. ' . * I French habitans, Lower Canada, ii. 53. Their personal appearance, 54. Mode of living, 57. Religious and moral character, 58-G(t. Prontenac, Count de, viceroy of Canada, i. 145, 151, 162. Frontenac county, Midland District, Upper Canada, i. 303. Fundy, Hay of, i. 42 ; ii. 167, 170, 225, 226. Fur trade, and fur-bearing animals, i. 40, 146, 161, 168, 171, 258, .302; ii. 26, 2.')9; iii. 15, 81, 83. 85-87, 95-97. See also British America, zoology of. G. Gait, to^vn cf Upper Canada, i. 317. Gananoqui, river and lakes, Upper Canada, i. 291, 2;)6. Garry, Lake, Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. 70. Gaspe District, Lower Canada, i. 281,282, General Mining Association, ii. 195. Geology of British America, iii. 331- 354. See British America, geo- logy of. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, his voyage and adventures, ii. 105-112. Trans- actions in Newfoundland, 108. Final catastrophe. 111. Gin-seng plant, iii. .307-309. Glongary county, Eastern District, Upper Canada, i. 293. Gloucester county, New Bruns- wick, ii. 240. Goat Island, Niagara Channel, i. 30, 31,34. Goderich, town of. Upper Canada, i. .326. Good Hope, Fort, on Mackenzie River, iii. SJl. Gore District, Western division. Upper Canada, i. 314. Gosford, Earl of, i. 212-220. Great Bear Lake, iii. 16, 78, 336. Great Slave Lake, iii. 16, 56, 61, .336, 3.'}9. Grenville Canal, Lower Canada, i. 268; ii.47. Guelph, town of. Upper Canada, i. 316, 317. H. Haldimand county, Niagara District, Upper Canada, i. 322. Halifax city. Nova Scotia, first set- tlement of, ii. 136. Important as a naval station, 1.50. Its situa- tion, progress, and population, 153, l.'>4. Description, 154. So- ciety, 1.57. Dalhousie college, 218. Halifax District, Nova Scotia, ii. 1.13, 158, l.W. Halton county, Gore District, Upper Canada, i. 315. Hants county and townships. Nova Scotia, ii. '17I. Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, ii. 296. Harmon, Daniel Williams, his ac- count of the trade and settlements of the North-west Fur Company, iii. 47-.53, 92, 9.3. Hastings county, Midland District, Upper Canada, i. 305. Hayes' River, Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. 42. Head, Sir F. B., governor of Upper Canada, i. 214, 229; his resigna- tion, i. 240; ii. 91. Home District, Central division. Upper Canada, i. 309. Horticulture in Canada, i. 344-346. Hudson's Bay Territory, early dis- covery and settlement, iii. 13-5.3. Outline and boundaries, 13. Mountain ranges, 14. Kivers and lakes, 15. Discovery of the bay by Cabot and Hudson, 16. Voy- ages and adventures of Button, Bylot, Fox, and James, 17-33. Hudson's Bay Company esta- blished, 33-35, AG. Contests with France, 34. Voyages by Knight, Middleton, Moor, and Smith, 37- 46. Rivalry of the North-west Company, 46. Hudson's Bay Territory, recent dis- covery and present state, iii. .54- 97. Expeditions of Hoarne and Mackenzie, 54. Of Parry, Ross, Franklin, Richardson, and Beechey, 55. Expedition of Cap- tain Back, 55-77. Of Dease and Simpson, 78, 355-376. Indian tribes, 83, .360-371. Fur-bearing animals, 81, 85-87. American claims, 89-93. Red River settle- ment, 94. Emigration, 181. Hudson's Bay Companv, iii. 33, 35, 46, 56, 57, 79-82. Its privileges, constitution, and management, 82. Indian tribes within its juris- diction, 83-85. Principal stations and forts, 88-94. Exports and imports, shipping, 94-97. See North-west Fur Company. Hull township, Lower Canada,!. 267. Hunting, Indian mode of, i. 64-56, 118. Hunting in Canada, 349. In Newfoundland, ii. 328. In Hud- son's Bay Territory, iii. 81, 86, 87- Huron, Lake, i. 23, 118, .30!); iii. 337. Huron tract. Upper Canada, i. .325, 329. INDEX. 383 llurons, a native Indian people, i. 76, 77, 95, 123, 14U; ii. 66. Exertion of the missionaries among,— attack by the Iroquois, i. 134. The remnant flee to Que- bec, 136. I. Indians, native, inhabiting Canada, 1. 44-96 ; ii. 62-73. Tlieir condition and pliysical cliaracter, i. 44-48. Bodily strength, 48, 49. Dress and ornaments, 49-64 ; ii. 71. Painting and tuttooing of the skin, i. 52-54. Modes of subsistence— hunting, 54-59. Habitations, 59. Canoes, ij{}. Social condition, 61. Division into tribes, 61, 68, 95. Marriages, 63-65. Rearing of children, 65-67. Their intellectual character, 67-71- lleligious ideas, 71 > 75. Import- ance attached to dreams, 73. Ma- nitou or guardian angel, 74. Ideas of a future state, 75. Reverence for the dead, 77- Superstitious rites and ceremonies, 78-81, 105. Mode of Avarfare, 81-87, 119. Treatment of prisoners, 87-91 , 107- Treaties, 91, 132. Amusements, 92-95. Eftects of protestant con- version, ii. 67. Indians of Nova Scotia, 132, 214. Of Newfound- land, 326-328. Of Hudson's Bay Territory, iii. 83-85, 360-371. Inland communications in the Ca- nadas, — canals and railways, ii. 46-51 ; iii. 191-198. Insects of British America, natural history of, iii. 266-303. Iron and iron-wares, in the Canadas, exported, ii. 28. Imported, 33. Iroquois Indians or Five Nations, i. 95 ; ii. 63, (J6. Wars with the Algonquins, i. 104-120. Treaty with the Hurons, 123. Renewal of war, 127, 131. Their hostile irruptions, 134, 137-142. Alliance with the English, 146. Contests with the French, 149-161. Pacifi- cation efl'ected, 162. Jacques Cartier River, Lower Ca- nada, i. 2.57. James' voyage to Hudson's Bay, iii. 26-33. Jesus, Isle, Lower Canada, i. 263. Johnslo wnDistrict , Eastern di v ision , Upper Canada, i. 294 ; iii. 108. K. Kamouraska, Lower Canada, i. 280. Kempt, Sir James, governor of Canada, i. 203. Kent county. Western District, Up- per Canada, i. 327. Kent county, New Brunswick, ii. 240. King's county. Nova Scotia, ii. 170« King's county, New Brunswick, 230. King's county. Prince Ed- ward Island, 265. King's Posts' Company, Lower Canada, i. 255. Kingston, Upper Canada, i. 25, 287, 303. Kirk, Sir David, takes (Quebec, i. 129. Reduces Port Royal, ii. 12.5. Knowles' Harbour, Nova Scotia, ii. 160. L. Labrador, ii. 299-307. Fishery, 287, 300, 302, 312, 313. Settlements, 300, 301. Establishments by the Moravian missionaries, 303-307. Esquimaux, 328. Geology of, iii. 343. La Chine Canal, Lower Canada, i. 27, 264; ii. 47; iii. 191. La Have Bay, Nova Scotia, ii. 160, 162. Lake of the Woods, i. 18. Lanark county, Bathurst District, Upper Canada, i. .'JOO. La Prairie, Lower Canada, i. 269 ; iii. 160. Railroad, 191, IJM. Larch and spruce Hrs, iii. 324-329. La Tour, his possessions in Nova Scotia, ii. 125-128. Leeds county, Johnstown District, Upper Canada, i. 29(5. Lennox and Haddinuton county. Midland J>istrict, Upper Canada, i. 304. Levi, Point, Lower Canada, i. 175, 245, 250. Lewis and Clarke, their expedition to Columbia River, iii. 93. Lincoln county, Niagara District, Upper Canada, i. 320. Liverpool, Nova Scotia, ii. 16.3. London District, Western division. Upper Canada, i. .323. Town, .325. Long Sault cataract. Lower Canada, i. 268. Louisbourg, Cape Breton, taken by the British, i. 175; ii. 133, 162. Ruins of, 184. Iiundy's Lane, battle of, i. 197. Lunenburg county. Nova Scotia, settled by Germans, ii. 144, 160, 211. Town, 161. Its trade, 162. Lynx, natural history of, iii. 237- M. Mackenzie River, Hudson's Bay Territory, iii. 16, 78, :m, XH), .'360. M'Nab, his settlement in Upper Canada, i. 299-301. ;,4>'; 3VA l.NDEX. r '1 ):>■ Miidiiwjiskti, New Brunswick, ii. 254. River, Ujtper Caiiailu, 291. Mtthone i»uy, Nova Scotia, ii. IGU, 1(J2. Manitou, the giuirdian spirit of the Indian, i. 74, 84. Manitoulin Island, Great, Upper Canada, i. 23, i;«>; iii, .'WfJ, Manufactures of tlie Canadas, ii. 27-.TO. Britisli, imported, 31. Maple sugar, niainifacture of, i. 34() ; ii. 2!) ; iii. lilli, lilA. Mannot, natural history of, iii. 247. Martin, a valuable furred animal, iii. B«). Natural history ol, 2.'}1. May, IJenry, shipwreck and deliver- ance of, ii. 3.32-3;j.'). Megiintic county, Q,uebcc District, i. 278. Melville Island, Arctic Ocean, iii. .•i;«). Michigan, Lake, i. 24 ; iii. 337. Micliillimakinac, Fort, i. 144, l.W, 170. Taken by the liritish, 18G. American attack, repulsed, 19!). Micniac Indians of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, ii. 214. Middlesex county, London District, Upper Canada, i. 324. Midland District, Central division. Upper Canada, i. 302, 3(13. Minas Basin or Bay, Nova Scotia, ii. 170, 173, 1!)(». Mineral products of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, ii. 194-197 ; of New Brunswick, 2.50. Mingan Isles, Gulf of St Lawrence, iii. 344. Miramichi River, New Brunswick, ii. 225. Magnificent forests on its banks, 238 ; great conflagration of, 239. Missionaries among the native In- dians, i. 133-138; ii. 64, fi7-70. Mo- ravian brethren, 303-307. Mohawks, an Indian tribe, i. 139, 142 ; ii. 67. Money and exchanges in the Ca- nadas, ii. 40. Montcalm, Marquis de, reducesForts Oswego and NVilliam-llenry, i. 174. His death, 177. Montmorenci, Falls of, i. 245, 252. Montreal District, Lower Canada, i. 259-270, 272-274. Montreal, city of. Lower Canada, founded by tlie French, i. 111. Its progress, 131, 169. Becomes the centre of the fur trade, 171- Capi- tulates to the British, 178. Taken, and afterwards evacuated, by the Americans, 180, liW. Description, 259-263; ii. 50. [A statement re- garding the harbour of Montreal more recent than that given in volume i. pages 262, 263, will be found in volume ii. page .^O.] Montreal, ishiiid of, i. 131, 2.'»9. Moose i"'(>rt, Hudson's Bay ToiTi- tory, iii. 88. N. Nain, the seat of the Moravian mis- sionaries, Labrador, ii. 304. Navy Island, Niagara Channel, i. 233, 23",. Nelson River, Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. 16, 18, 4(», 3;i8. New Brunswick, history and de- scription of, ii, 224-241. Its extent and boundaries, 224. Soil and cli- mate, 225, 242. Settlement and progress, 22(5 ; iii. 16.9. Division into counties, ii. 227. Statistical table, 228. County and town of St John, 228-2.'JU. King's county, Uueen's county, 230. Sunbury county, York county, 231. Carle- ton county, 2.33. Charlotte coun- ty, 23(). \\'estmoreland county, Northumberland county, 2;J7. Conflagration of the forests, 239. Kent county, Gloucester county, 240. New Brunswick, industry, com- merce, social and political state of, ii. 242-256. Agriculture, .soil, and climate, 242-245. Timber-trade, 245-249. Mode of collecting the timber, 246. Saw-mills, 247. American and Baltic timber, 247- 249. Fisheries, 250. Minerals— coal and gypsum, 250. Conmierce — exports and imports, 251. Recent improvements, 252. Population, 2.53. Religious instruction, 254, Education, constitution, revenue, 255. Military defence, 256. Emi- gration, iii. 176-179. Geology, 347. New Brunswick Land Company, ii. 232, 242 ; iii. 178, 179. Newcastle District, Central division. Upper Canada, i. 305. Newfoundland, ii. 275-328. General description of, 275. The Great Bank, 276. Discovery of the island, 277. Early fisheries, 278. First at- tempts at settlement — colonies by Lord Baltimore and others, 281. Persecution of the ttshermen, 28.3. Contests with France, 284-286, 289. Extension of the fishery, 286-289. Eftectsofthe American war; subsequent events, 287-290. Statistical table, 291. Cod fishery, mode of conducting it, 308-311 ; produce, 311. Seal tishcry, 311- INDEX. 385 313. SiiInioM tisliery, 313. Ai;ri- cultiire, 31.'>. Coinmuroo, 314. Tables of imports sind exports — shipping, 315-31/. J' ronch ;ii.(l American ritihts of HftliitiK, 317- 3-22. Poi)uliitioii— society, 322-324. Ciovernmeiit — I'opresenlative as- sembly, 324. Keveiuie, 32.5. Reli- gious professions — education, 32"), 32(>. Native Indians, .32«)-323. Emigration to, iii. 101. Geology, .3.54. Niagara River or Ciiannel, Upper Canada, i. 2.'», 2>t.'l. Description of tlie Fails. 2}t-;«J ; iii. .3.37, '5.3.1. Niagara District, Western division. Upper C^anada, i. 31!>. Niagara, Fort, i. 14!), 17». Stormed by tlic Hritisli, V.Hi. Town, .321. Niciiol townsliip, Upper Canada, i. 313. Nicolet river and town, Lower Ca- nada, i. 270. Nipissing, Lake, Upper Canada, i. 117, 3(»i); iii, .'Wf). Nipissings, un Indian tribe, i. 115, 117. Norlolk county, London District, Upper Canada, i. 324. Norman, Fort, on 31ackenzie River, iii. 33, .371. Nortimmberland county, Newcastle District, Ui)per Canada, i. 306 ; Northumberland county, New IJrunswick, ii. 237. Northumberland Strait, ii. 257. Nortli-west Fur Company, iii. 4fi. Harmon's account of their trade and settlements, 47-.')3, 92, 93. In- corporated with the Hudson's Bay Company, 7^. Nova Scotia, general description and history of, ii. 114-151. Extent und limits, 114. Surface, moun- tains, and streams. 115. Soil and dimato, 117-119. First settlement by the French, 122. Captured by the English — made a grant of to Sir William Alexander, 123-126. Order of baronets created, 124. Ceded to the French, 125. Con- tests among the proprietors, 12(). Taken by Oliver Cromwell and again made over to France, 127, 128. Conquered by the New Eng- landers, 12.9. Annexed to the ]iritish crown, 1.30. Wars with the Indians, 132, 137. Settlement of Halifax, l.'KJ. War with France, 1X1, 139. Expulsion of the Aca- dians, 139. Emigration from New England— return of the Acadians, 144. Representative assembly granted, 145. Peace with the In- dians, 146. Its state during the American contest. 147- Intliix of refugees. 149. Progress in wealth and prosperity, 15((. Succession of governors, 151. Nova Scotia, topographical descrip- tion of, ii. 152-183. (ieiicral divi- siins, 152. City and district of Halilax, 1.53. Cnunty of Lunen- burg, 160. (iut'cn's county, 163. Sholi)urne county, l(i4. Aima- l)olis county, 167- Kini;*scountv, 170. Hants county, 171- Col- chester District, 172. Cumber- land county, 17.3-17<). I'ictou Dis- trict, Sidney county, coloni/ed by Scottish emigrants, 176, 177. Nova Scotia, industry and commerco of, ii. 189-203. Agriculture, chief I)nHhicts, modes of culture, 139- 191. (ieology — minerals, coal, ironstone, gypsum, 194-1!>7 ; iii- .*143-;J53. Fisheries, ii. 197. Tim- ber trade, 199. Conunerce and shipping, 200. Tables of import and export, 202-208. Emigration to, iii. 175. Nova Scotia, social and political state of, ii. 209-223, Pojjulation— state of society, 209-21.5. Anglo-Ameri- cans; Scots, 210. Acadians ; Ne- groes, 212. Indians, 214. Religi- ous professions, 215. Education, 218. PoUtical constitution — house of assembly, 219; judicial esta- blishment, 22(1. lievenue and expenditure, 221. Military de- fence, 222. O. Ontario, Lake, i. 25, 310 ; ii. 48 ; iii. 109, 33^1. Opossum, natural history of, iii. 239, 240. Orleans, Isle of. Lower Canada, i. 103,245,251,254. Ottawa, River, i. 27, 113, 265; iii. 109. Ottawa District, Eastern division, Upper Canada, i. 2!»7 ; Ottawa ])rovince, Lower Canada, i. 264- 268. Ottawas, an Indian tribe, i. 75. At- tacked by the Iroquois, 1.39, 16.3. Otter, sea and land, iii. 15, 81, 95. ' Mode of capture, 87. Natural I history of, 233. j Ouse River, Upper Canada, i. 313. j Oxford county, London District, i Upper Canada, i. 324. Passjunaquoddy Ray, New Bruns- wick, ii. 23(). w ■■ I,, -4< .' 4- ' . 4, ../■'■;! :i Ef '■ ■■-» ' ^^ I.* 386 INDEX. Peace River, Hudson's Hay Terri- tory, iii. 15, 52. rhipps. Sir William ; liia unsuccess- ful attaolf on Quebec, i. 154. Pictou District, Nova Scotia, ii. 176. Coal and ironstone, 19(5. Settled by Scotch emigrants, 210. Town, 17<>, 2()0. Pine-tree, natural history of, iii. 324-329. Plane-tree, natural history of, iii.321. Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, ii. 29fi. Pointo aux Trembles, Lower Ca- nada, i. 108. Pointe des Cascades, ctitaracts of Lower Canada, i. 2G4. Population and Statistics of Lower Canada, i. 282, 28a Of Upper Canada, 287, 288, .130. Of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, ii. 209. Of New Brunswick, 228, 253. Of Prince Edward Island, 271, 272. Of Newfoundland, 322-323. Of the Bermudas, ;i54. Of British Ame- rica, iii. 198. Port Hood, Cape Breton, ii. 185. Port Hope, Upper Canada, i. 308. Port Royal, afterwards Annapolis, Nova Scotia, ii. 121-123, 125, 129, 130. See Annapolis. Port St Francis, Lower Canada, i. 272, 274 ; iii. 159. Prescott county, Ottawa District, Upper Canada, i. 298. Prevost, Sir George, governor of Canada, i. 185-199. Prince's county. Prince Edward Island, ii. 266. Prince Edward county. Midland District, Upper Canada, i. 305. Prince Edward Island, ii. 257- 274. Situation and extent, 257. Surface, climate, and soil, 257- 259. Its discovery, 259. Early settlement by the French, 260. Capture by the British — plans to colonize it, 261. Name changed from that of St John, 262. Suc- cession of governors — local divi- sions, 263. Queen's county, 263. King's county, 265. Prince's county, 2()6. Emigration to, iii. 179 ; Agriculture and produce ; ii. 267-269. Timber trade, shipping, fisheries, 269, 270. Exports and imports, 270, 271. Population, 271, 272. Constitution, revenue, 272. Religious instruction, edu- cation, 273. Geology, iii. 353. Q. Quebec District, Lower Canada, i. 244-257, 277-281. Quebec, city of. Lower Canada, founded by the French, 103. Taken by the English, but after- wards restored, 12J). Unsuccess- ful attack on, by the English, 154. Its state under the French, 167. Taken by the British, 177- Fruitless attempt upon • by the French, 178. Besieged by the Americans, 181, 182. Description, 245-250. Queen's county. Nova Scotia, ii. 163. Queen's county. New Bruns- wick, 230. Queen's county, Prince Edward Island, 263. Queenston , Upper Canada, i. 32, 321 . Quinti?, Bay of. Upper Canada, i. 26, 280, 304, 305. R. Racoon, natural history of, iii. 220. Railroads in the Canadas, ii. 49 ; pi ejected, or suggestions for, iii. 192, 193, 195. Red River settlement, iii. 15, 94. Religion, professions of, in Nova Scotia, ii. 215. In New Bruns- wick, 2.54. In Prince Edward Island, ;J73. In Newfoundland, 325. Provision for instruction in, in Canada, ii. 73, 74 ; iii. 199-202. Reptiles, natural history of, iii. 263. Note, 265. Resolution Island, Hudson's Bay Territory, iii. 20. Fort, 61. Rhododendron, natural history of, iii. 321. Rice Lake, Upper Canada, i. 306, .307 ; iii. 109. Richelieu, or Chambly River, Lower Canada, i, 269; iii. 110. Richibucto Kiver, New Brunswick, ii. 240. Richmond Bay, Prince Edward Island, ii. 206. Rideau Canal, Upper Canada, i. 285, 295-300 ; ii. 47 ; iii. 158, 191. Rideau Kiver, i. 291 ; iii. 109. Ristigouche River, New Brunswick, ii. 241. Rocky Mountains, iii. 332. Terri- tory east and west of, i. 18 ; iii. 14, 52, 83-85, 89-95. Rupert's House, Hudson's Bay Ter- ritory, iii. 88. Russell county, Ottawa District, Upper Canada, i. 298. Russian Territory, on the north-west coast, iii. 93. S. Sable, Cape, Nova Scotia, ii. 125, \m. Sable Island, 1. 100; ii. 110, 165. sl s| »' rj Lower Canada. K'« /r«nch, 103! pn^ish, butafter- r .'^^•, Unsuccess- ' '>y the English, Jnder the French, f the JJritish, 177 m upon by the Besieged hy the ^ ^»d. Uescription, Nova Scotia, ii. >unty, NewBruns- .Canada,!. 32, 321. l/pper Canada, i. istory of, iii. 22G. <^anadas, ii. 49 . ggestions for, iU. ent, iii. 15, p4. )ns of, in Nova Jn New Bruns- A'rince Edward JVewfoundland. or instruction in, .74; iii. 199-202. istory of, iii. 263. Hudson's Bay Port, 61. ^ tural history of, Canada, i. 306, ?IyRiver,Lower few Brunswick, Prince Edward >er Canada, i. ; Iii.. 158, 191. 'J .• Jii. 109. ew Brunswick, i. 332. Terri- f» 1- 18 ; iii. 14, son's Bay Ter- ijva District, 8. he north-west otia, ii. 125, IJO, 165. INDEX. 387 Sajfiienay, River, Lower Canada, i. 102, 254, 255 ; iii. .'),'«>. Salmon River, in Lower Canada, i. 275. In New Brunswick, ii. 231. Saskatchawan, River, Hudson's Bay Territory, iii. 338. Scatari, island of, ii. 18.3, 187. Seal, natural history of, iii. 238. Selkirk, Earl of, his settlement on Red River, iii. 94. On Prince Ed- ward Island, ii. 2(52. Senekas, an Indian tribe, i. 147, 149. Severn, River, Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. 16. Severn, Fort, 88. Shefford county. Lower Canada, i. 273. Shelbume county. Nova Scotia, ii. 164-1()(5. Sherbrooke, Sir J. C, governor of Canada, i. 199. Sherbrooke countv, Lower Canada, i. 274. Town, 272, 274 ; iii. 162. Shipbuilding in the Canadas, ii. 30. In New Brunswick, 24.9. Shirreff, Mr, his estimate of expenses and profits on Canadian farming, iii. 117-119, 122, 131, 133, 139. His view of the comparative advan- tages of Canada and the United States, 164-168. Shubenacadie, river and canal, Nova Scotia, ii. 153, 158 ; iii. 197. Sillery, Lower Canada, i. 137, 252. Simcoe county, Home District, Up- per Canada, i. 310. Simcoe, Lake, Upper Canada, i. 302, 309; ii. 67- Simpson, Fort, on Mackenzie River, iii. 88. Simpson, Mr, resident governor of Hudson's BavTerritory, iii. 58, 59, 78, 83, 90, 93, 3;)6. Southampton Island, Hudson's Bay Territory, iii. 18, 19, 21. Spirits and wines imported into the Canadas, ii. 36. Squirrel, natural history of, iii. 249- 251. St Andrew, town of, New Bruns- wick, ii. 23'i. St Anne, rivers and towns, Quebec District, i. 257, 279. St Anne's Bay, Cape Breton, ii. 187. St Charles, river and lake. Lower Canada, i. 246, 2.52. St Clair, river and lake, i. 24, 347. St Croix River, New Brunswick, i. 18; ii. 121, 236. St Eustache, Lower Canada, i. 227, 263. St Francis, Lake, in the St Lawrence, i. 26. River, Lower Canada, 270. District, 274-270. 7 St John, Lake, in the Raguenay, i. 2.54. St John, island of, reduced by the Engfish, ii. 1.34, 143. See l^rinco I'idwiird Island. St John, River, New Brun.swick, i. 43,281; ii.225, 2.'M. Falls of, 2^5. County and town, 228-230. St John, Newfoundland, ii. 284-2W), 292. Its trade, — exports and im- ports, 2!)3. St Joseph and Drummond Islands, Lake Huron, i. 23; iii. IWu St Lawrence. Kiver, i. 26-28, 242, 246, 264, 270, 277, 279; iii. 338. Fish- eries of, i. 281. St Louis, Lake of, in the St Lawrence, i. 27. Full of, 114. St Margaret's Bay, Nova Scotia, ii. 160. St Mary's Falls, Upper Canada, i. 23. St Mary, River, Nova Scotia, ii. 179. St Maurice, river and town, Lower Canada, i. 258. St Paul, a rocky islet, Cape Breton, ii. 186. St Peter, Lake, in the St Lawrence, i. 27, 258, 272. St Pierre and Miquelon Islands, ii. 2!a Stanstead county, Montreal District, Lower Canada, i. 27.3. Stormont county. Eastern District, Upper Canada, i. 293. Summers, Sir George, his expe 1' r * * •» f \ >'< II Tobacco, oiiltivation of, in tho Ca- iiiulus, {. 'M-2 ; ii. IX. Toronto, foriin-rlv York, tlio rai>it,al of rpiierCaiim'la, i. a."), 2H7, '-iW. Taki'ti, and iiltciwanlM'vauuatcd, by till' Americans, IH!). TournitMit, Cape, Lower Canada, i. 243, 2.W. Tracy, Marquis do, viceroy of Cana- da, i. 142. Track" and commerce of tbc Caxa- DAH, ii. l.'J-.W. Export trade, l.T.'MI. lmj)(>rt trade, 3(i-4(». JNIoney and exchanfres, 40. VVeiuIitsand mea- sures, 41. Hanlxs, 41. Tariff of duties, 4;J-4(i. Trade of Nova S<:oTiA and Capk IIkkton, 2(M». Tal)k's of import and export, 21. Trent, Hiver, Upper Canada, \.:V)X Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, ii. 2fK!. Trois Rivieres, or Three Rivers, Dis- trict, Lower Canada, i. 2.57-2.0!), 270 272, 270, 277. Town, 258. Tulip tree, iii. .'i(K». IT. Fnfrava Ray, Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. »!). United States and Briti>}i America, boundary (juestion of, i. 40-4.3; iii. 20K-220. Respective claims to territory on Columbia lliver, tt!)-!).3. Terms of sale of lands in United States, 152, Kki, 171? 172. Vancouver, Captain, survey of the western coast by, iii. !(2. Vancouver, Fort, on Columbia River, iii. !)(>, Vaudreuil, Count de, governor of Canada, i. 1(J4-17'>. Victoria Ifeadland, Arctic coast, iii. 73. Victoria Land, 374. W. Wager River, Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. 42. Wales, William, his account of the climntfi of Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. 44-4<;. Wallace township. Nova Scotia, il. 17-'). Walnut tree, natural history of, iii. .3jo. Weasel, natural history of, iii. 22f). Weights and mcasuresin the Cana- das, ii. 41. Welland River and Canal, Upper Canada, i. 25, 313, .32(1, .322; Ii. 4»; iii. 191. Wellinuton, Fort, Upper Canada, i. 2J».'). Wentworth county, Ciore District, Upper Canada, i. 31!>. Western District, Western division, rpper Canada, i. 32fi, 327- Western division. Upper Canada, i. 312. AVestmoreland county, New Bruns- wick, ii. 237. AN'heat and Hour trade of the Cana- «las, ii. 14-lH. William-Henry, town of, Lower Ca- nada, i. 2(!!». Windsor, Nova Scotia, ii. 172. Wiimipeg, Lake, iii. KJ, 332. Winter Island, Arctic Ocean, geo- logy of, iii. 340.:i42. Wolf, i. '.ml. Natural history of, iii. 2;M. Wolfe, General, leads the attack against Louisbourg, i. 174 ; ii. 142. Attacks (iuebec, i. 175. His death in the moment of victory, 177- Wolverene, or carcajou, natural his- tory of, iii. 227. Wright, Philemon, his settlement on the Ottawa, i. 2(57. Yamaska, River, Lower Canada, i. 270, 272. York county, Home District. Upper Canada, i. 310. York county, New Brunswick, ii. 231. York, l-'ort, Hudson's Bay Terri- tory, iii. 88. York, town of. Upper Canada, i. 287, 311. See Toronto. Z. Zoology of British America, iii. 221- 303. See British America, zoolo- gy of- THE END. Printed by Oliver Sc Boyd, Twecddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. ( Bay Torri- a Scotia, ii. storj' of, iii. of. iii. 229. 11 tiie Cuna- mal, Upper m, .322; ii. r Canada, i. re District, rn division, 327. er Canada, N^ew Pruns- if the Cana- , Lower Ca- i. 172. 332. )eean, geo- history of, the attacit 174; ii.I42. 1 1 is death »ry, 177. natural his- ttloniont on • Canada, i. rict. Upper rk county, Bay Terri- Canada, i. ca, iii. 221- rica, zoolo- i