IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) /. // /- 4^ 'V «'x %LJ' &( ^ 1.0 I.I In IM 2.0 1.8 11-25 11.4 IIIIII.6 W^'4 Oj^j Photographic Sciences Corporation 9? WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^^O i».WMw>i»>i A MANUAL OF ORNITHOLO( WINFRID A. STEA^^nS;^^^^ . », !S)t-J Being a Preliminary Study of the Classes, Or- ders, Families, Sub-Families, with an enu- meration OF THE Genera and prin- cipal Species, of the Birds OF North America. lOGETHER WITH A BrIEF SyNOPSIS OF THE SPECIAL Features of General Ornithology. designed for the student and all lovers of THIS most fascinating branch of science. suitable ALSO AS A SIMPLE, PRELIMINARY INTRODUCTION TO ANY OF OUR PRESENT WORKS UPON THIS SUBJECT. — IHOt-! 'i i- H 1G95 PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR AT THE ATLANTA UNIVERSITY PRINTING OFFICE, ATLANTA, GA. V-^ I ' QLt>73 .S77 \ COPYRIGHTED. &-^l'^^ TO ALL WHO ARE BEGINNING THE STUDY OF THIS MOST DELIGHTFUL SUBJECT. 1 Index to Genera. 1 Accipitei 88 Actiturus 108 Actodromas 108 Actodromus 107 ^chmophorus 136 ^gialites 191 ^giothus 63, 6t) ^salon 90 ^:thyia 122 Agelacus 68 Agelaius 68 Aix 121 Ajaja 110 Alauda 47, 48 Alca 138 Alcedo 79 Al'.e 138 Aliico 84 Aniazilia 77 Ainpe'is 58 Ammodramus 66 Ammodromas 64 Amphelocoma 71 Amphispiza 66 Anas 120, 121, 122 Ancy lochilus 107, 108 Anorthura 46 Aiious 132 Anser 120 Anteiior 91, 92 Anthus 48 Antrostomus 75 Aphriza 101 Aquila 92 Aramus 113 Archibuteo 91 Ardea 111,112,113 Ardeola. . 112 Ardetta 112 Arctonetl*. 123 Aristonftta 122 Arquatella 107, 108 Asio 86, 86 Astragalinus 66 Astur. 88 Astiirina 91 Atbene 86 Atricilla 131 Attagen 127 Atthis 77 Audubonia 112 Auriparus 43 Aythya 122, 123 Bartramia 109 Basilinna 77 Bernicia 120 Bombycilla 68 Bonasa 97 Qotaurus 112 Braohyotus 85 Bubo 85 Bucephala 123 Biidy tea 48 Buphagus 130 Buceo 91, 92 Butor 112 Butorides 112 Calamospiza 65, 66 Calidris 107, 108 Callipepla «7 Calothorax 77 Caly pte 77 Campephilus 82 Camptolaemus 122 Campylorhynchus 45 Canace 97 Caprimulgus 76 Carbo 126 Cardinalis 65, 66 Cardellina 52, 55 Carpodacus 63, 66 Catarracta 130 Catharista 98 Cathartes 93 Catherpes 45 Oentrocercus 97 Centronyx 64 Centroplianes 66 Centurus 82 Ceppus 138 Ceratorhina 187 Certhia 45 Certhiola 55 Ceryle 79 Chaetura 76 Chamsea 48 Chania^pelia 94 Charadrius. 101 Ghaulelasnius 121 Chen 120 Chondestes 64, 68 Ghordeiles 75 Cbroicocephalus 131 Chrysomitris 63, 66 Ciceronia 187 Ciclilopsis 58 Cinclus 41 Circus 88 Cistothorus 46 Olaugula 122,123 Coccygus, 80 Colaptes 82 Collurio 59 Collyrio 59 Columba 94, 96 Colymbus 135, 136, 188 Contopus 74 ConuruB 88 INDEX TO GENERA. Corvu8 71 Coturnicops 116 Coturnioulus 64, 66 Coturnyx 98 Cotyle 67 Creag;ru8 131 Creciscus .115 Crex 115 Crotophaga 80 Cuculus 80 Culicivora 72 Cupidonia »7 Curvirostra 63 Cyanecula 42 Cyanocitta 71 Cyanospiza 65 Cyaniira 71 Cyanurus 71 Cygnus : 119 Cymochorea. 184 Cj pseloides 76 Cypselus 76 Cyrtonyx 97 Cyrtopelicanus 125 Daflla 121 Daption 134, 135 Dendrocyciia 120 Dendrocygna 120, 121 Dendroeca 62, 53 Dendroica 53 Dendronessa 120, 121 Dichromanassa Ill Diomedea 134 Dolychonyx 68 Dysporus 124 Dytes 136 Ectopistes 94 Egretta 112 Elanoides 88 Elanus .. 88 Embernagra 65, 66 Empidonax 74 En^yptila 94 Eniconetta 123 Eremophila 47 Ereunetes 107, 108 Eriouetta 123 Erismatura 122 Erolia 107 Eudocimus 109 Eudites 135 Eudytes 135 Eugenes 77 Eiiphonia 56 Eiirynorhynchus 108 Euspiza 65 Falcinellus 110 Falco 88, 89, 90 Florida .. 112 Fratercula 137 Fregata 127 Fregetta 134, 135 Fulica 116 Fiiligula 122 Fiilix , . . . 122 Fulmarus 134, 135 Haleoscoptes 41 Gallinago 107, 108 Gallinula 115, 116 Gallopa vo 96 Gambetta 1O8 Garrulus 71 Garzetta Ill, 112 GelocheliJon 132 Geococcyx 80 Geothlypis 52, 53, 64 Geotrygoii 94 Glaucidium 86 Glottis 108 Graculiis 126 Grus 112 Guiraoa 65, 66 Gyninocitta 71 Gymnoltitta 71 Hffini;itopU3 102 Halisetus 90, 92 Haliplana 132 Haloeyptena 134 Ilarelda. 122 Harporhynclius 41 Helniintherus 53 Helininthotherus 53 Helminthophaga 53 Uelminthophila 53 Helmitheriis 52, 53 Helonaea 53 Heniconetta 123 Herodias Ill, 112 Hesperipiiona 62, 65 Hesperocichla 40 Heteroscelus 107, 108, 109 Hierofalco 90 Himantopus 102 Hirundo 57, 75 Histrionicus 122, 123 Hydranassa Ill Hydroehelidon. 132 Hylocichla 40 Hylotoinus 82 laohe 77 Ibis 1 10 Icteria 52, 64 leterus 69 Ictiuia 88 lonornis 115, lie iridoprocne 57 Jacana (See Pabra) 114 Junco 64, 66 Lagopus 97 Lainpronessa 121 Lampronetta 122,-123 Lanius 69 i tm^itiMsmmmti INDEX TO (lENKRA. Lanivirt'o Mt Laroiili's 131 Larus 131 Lepturus ]28 Lestris 130 Leucosticte «8, 66 Leucus 131 Limosa 106, 108 Linota 66 Lobipes 103 Loinvia 138 Lophodytes ... l;;3 Lophoplmnes 43 Lophortyx !I7 Loxia 66 I'linda 137 Macliet '8 iostri8 130 Mt'lanorpes 82 Melanetta 122, 123 Melanitta 123 Melt'agris 96 Melopelia 94 Melospiza 64, 66 Merganser 123 Mergus 123 Merula 40 Micrathene 86 Mioropalama 106, 107, 108 Milvulus 74 Milvus 88 Miiniis 40, 41 Mniotilta 52, 63 Molothrus PS Momotus 78 Mormon 138 Motacilhi 48 Mycteria no Myiadestes 42, 58, 59, 72 Myiarchus 74 Myiodioctes 52, C5 Myiodynastes 74 Myiozetetes 74 Nauclerus 88 Neocorys 49 Nephoecetes ... 76 Nettioii 121 Nomonyx !!]22 Notherodius 113 Numenius ,109 Nyctale ]]',', 85 Nyotea 86 Nyctherodias 112 Nyctiardea [ 112 Nyctidromus 75 Oceanites 134 Oceanodroma ! .... 134 Oohthodromus 101 CEdeinia 122, 123 (Estrelata 134 Olor ...A19 Ono(T()talus 125 Onychotes 92 Oporornis '52, 53 Oreorty X 97 Oreoscoptes 41 Ornithion /4 Ortalida [, 95 Ortalis 95 Ortygometra i!ll5 Ortyx 97 Ossifraga 134 Otiis []\[ 85 Oxyechus lOl Pagophi la 131 Handion jh)^ 93 Panyptila 76 Parra (also Jacana) 114 Parula 52, 53 Parus eg Passer . 64 Passer(!ulus 64, 66 Passerella .65^ tjij Passer ina , 66 Pedioecetes '. 97 Pelecanus 124, 125, 126, 127 Pelidna 107, 108 Pelionetta 122 Perdix 98, 116 Perisoreus 71 Perissoglossa 53 Petrochelidon 67 Peucaea , '04, 66 Peucedramus 63 Phaenopepla 68 Phaethon 128 Phaeton 128 Phainopepla 42, 58 Phaljenoptilus 75 Phalacrocorax 126 Phalaropus.. 103 Phaleris 137, 138 Philacte ... 120 Philohela 107, 108 Philomachus 108 Plioebastia 134 Pliopbetria 134 Pha>nicopterus 116 Phylloscopus 42 Pica 71 Picioorvus 71 Picoides 82 Picus ■ 82 Pinicola 63 Pipilo 65, 66 Pitangus 74 Platalea no Platea ! ! . ! 110 Plectrophanes 63, 66 Plegadis 109 INDEX TO OBNERA. Plotus 120 Podiceps 136 Podasocys 101 PodilymbUH 136 Polioptila 42, 72 Porziuia 116 Polyborua 90 Polysticta 122, 128 Poocaetes 64 Pcxvcetes 66 Poospiza 64 I'orpliyrio 116 Priocella 134 Prioflmis 134 Procellaria 134, 135 Progiie 57 Protonotaria 52, 63 Psaltriparits 43 Pseudo^ry phiis. 93 Psilorhinus 71 Ptiliogonys ; 58 Ptilogonys 58, 72 Ptycorhamphus 137 Puffliiu8 134 Py ranga 56 Pyrocephalus 74 Pyrrhiila 66 Pyrrhuloxia 65, 66 Querquedula 121 Qiiiscalus 70 Hallus 113, 115 Recurvirostra 102 Kegulus 42 Hhodostethia 131 Ehyacophilus 108 Khynchofalco 90 Ehynchophanes 66 Khynchops 132 Khynchopsitta 83 Rissa 131 RoBtrhamus 88 Salpinctes 45 Saxicola 42 Sayornis 74 Scardafella 94 Schcpiiiclus 107 Scolecopliagus 70 Scolopax 108 Scops 85 Seiurus .' 52, 53 Selasphorns 77 Setophaga 52, 55 Sialia 42 Sitta 44 Siurus 53 Sonuiteria 122, 123 Spatula 121 Speotyto 86 Sperinophila 85 Spheotyto 86 Sphyrapious 82 Spiza 66 Spizella 64, 66 Sqiiatarola 101 Starnnuias 96 Steganopus 103 Stelgidopteryx 57 Stelliila 77 Stercorarius 130 Stern 132 Sternuia 182 Strt'psilas 102 Strix g4, s5 Stiirnella 09 Sturiuis 71 Siila 124 Siirnia 86 Surniiim 85 Symphemia 108 Synthliborhainphus 138 Tachybaptes 186 Taohyciiieta 57 Tachypt'tes 127 Tanagra 56 Tantalops 110 Tantalus llO Telmatodytes 46 Tctr-«o 97 Thal:',8sarche 134 Thalasseus 132 Thalapsidromas 135 Thaliasseus 132 Thrasaetus 92 Thrasyaetus 92 Thryomanes 46 Thryothorus 46 Tinnunculus 90 Totanus 108 Tringa , 107, 108 Tringoides 108 Troohilus 77 Troglodytes 46 Trogon 78 Tryngites 108, 109 Turdus 40, 41 Turtur 95 Tyrannus .... 74 Ulula 85 Uria 138 Urile 126 .Urubitinga 92 Utamania 138 Vanellus 101 Vireo 69 Vireosylvia 59 Vultur 93 Xanthocephalus 68 Xanthura 71 Xema 131 Xenopicus 82 Zamelodia 66 Zenaida 94 Zenaidura 94, 96 Zonotrichia 64, 66 PREFACE. Having searched in vain for more than thirty years for a simple text-book to assist in the study of general — and es- pecially North American - Ornithology, the writer has de- cided, at length, to make one for himself. The work was planned some years ago ; and the following letter was written in answer to a communication anticipating, in a great measure, thc3« very pages, and will explain itself: "Wood's Hole, Mass., June 17, 1871. My Dear Sib: Your letter of the 6th has been forwarded to me from Washington, and in reply it gives me pleasure to authorize any use you desire of the material published in my work on the Birds of North I shall, of course, be gratified to have -u make whatever acknowl- edgment you may think best of the service r V..h you consider that this may have been to you. Very truly Yours, Spencer F. Baird." iv. PREFACE IV No one would attempt to study Birds successfully without ultimately referring to the works of this great man. Much of his material has been found a valuable help in the prepara- tion of these pages. The works of nearly all of our well-known writers of to- day, that were available, have been consulted, also, that noth- ing essential to a clear exposition of the subject mighi be omitted. I shall hold myself personally responsible for the material alone of which this work is composed, and not for typograph- ical errors discovered too late to remedy them. WiNFRID A. StEARXS. Atlanta, Ga., July 1, 1895. McaanaaKstflLiKjadaufeiBafla] INTRODUCTION We had penned " The History of Ornithology " as far as the name of Garrod before seeing a somewhat similar ar- rangement of Boldface type, for the name and date of the au- thor, in the Encydopcedia Briitanica. The system appears to be too useful to change, just because so excellent an authority has also employed it. The Ornithological Specialist will, doubtless, regret the briefness of the biographical references given under each name , but we are writing for the Ornitho- logical Student, who will, we hope, be pleased at the omis- sion of technicalities which would hinder rather than assist him. A wise teacher will know at once what lines to pursue in this investigation ; what portions may be used in the class room, and what to omit. The advanced student can judge for hin.self how to use the material here suggested rather than fully presented. The main text is intended as an introduction to general Ornithology, and to the study of individual spe- cies. The Glossary follows as a necessary explanation of the various terms employed in the previous parts. 1 * .M tmtmmmiSSli jsam wmmm SP' ERRATA. Page 5, line 19 from top, for make read made. The word Paosares should read uniformly Passeres, pages 24, 25, 37, 38, 142, on both sides of the accompanying table, and on page 159 Page 30, line 22 from top, for an read on. Page 32, line 7 from top, for Division (7 read Division A. Page 35, line 12 from bottom, for gate read gait. Pages 36 and 37 unfortunately slipped through the press without being read at all. Besides one or two wrong letters, on page 3(S, line 13 from the top, for accepted read excepted. In the last line on the page IIV should read VII. On page 37, line 7 from top, for tay read try; line 11, read Ilimming Birds; line 16 read Turkey.'*; line 19, forSUB-ORDER read SUB-CLASS; and line 23, read Diving Birds. Page 55, line 13 from the top, after the word change, add the word only. Page 57, line 21 from the top, for to this read o/this. The page numbers 154 and 156, as also the first line of page 154 (which should read ovrt/, rounded.), were dropped out by the printer and the error was not discovered until after the edition had been run oil', A few typographical errors such as preaeut for present on page 1, the 3d line from the bottom, and others, doubtless, occur occasionally throughout the work. THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY. — 0 0 When a writer attempts to present an historical account of some event or events, or a long procession of events, he must, of necessity, study deeply the writings of the chief actors in them. He does this, usually, in one of two ways — perhaps in both, namely: by investigating for himself the original writings, or by reading what persons of eminent authority in such subjects have said of them. The History of Ornithol- ogy and the Progress in Ornithology have been written and rewritten, both wholly and in part, times without number. I do not seek to do anything new in endeavoring to present a brief account of the principal actors upon the Ornithological stage, but wish simply to bring together, as far as seems neces- sary for our present purpose, an intelligible, brief history of the principal changes and additions as they have combined, to the present time, to give us the classification which we em- ploy to-day, imperfect as it is. To name all the different systems of Ornithology which 1 *■ -J THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY have appeared from time to time, during the past few centu- ries, would malie a volume almost in itself. Our intention is, in the main, merely to indicate the proper lines of study which one might pursue with advantage to become familiar with its history. It is more to assist the student than to furnish him with complete information. The progress which Ornithology has made, from its earliest inception until the present time, is very similar to that made by any of the kindred sciences. Each has begun with the lowest ideas of the real relations existing between men and things ; and each has advanced, as rapidly as the spirit of the times would admit, to its present standpoint. All along the line, however, have appeared special departures, as one might call them, where the old thought was left for, or incorporated in, a new and generally more complete one. These depart- ures have been, for the most part, so radical, and so noted for their truthfulness to nature, that the men who conceived them were and still are mentioned as masters in their departments. We note the progress of any great event more by the brilliant light which genius casts upon it, as if by special revelation from the unknown to the known, than by the petty wrang- lings of jealous rivals. Truth always clears itself in the end. No part of it was ever lost to the world through want of the means to spread itself abroad. When the mind of man is prepared for its reception, it will appear in all its beauty and fullness, and harmony of law, — until then we have but faint and disconnected glimpses of it only. A mas- ter mind will collate the disjointed thought and embody it in a grand harmonious expression of some vital, living Truth. Let us look briefly at this Progress of Ornithology as his- tory furnishes it to us : And here, as in other sciences, we can justly begin with the old Greek philosopher Aristotle, who was the first to give us any very definite conceptions of Birds, — but, though he separated the species and recorded their habits with considerable fidelity, his ideas were crude when viewed from the standpoint of our present understanding of THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 3 them. He tells us, for instance, that " some are carnivorous, others granivorous, and others omnivorous ; some are terres- trial and some aquatic ; and many migrate during the winter." This is good as far as it goes, but it does not go far enough. His " Peri Zoon 'Istorias " is full of practical suggestions and pleasing information. He was followed by Pliny [the elder,] who was rather a compiler than an original thinker and observer, though he filled several volumes with both com- ))ilation8 and original observations. It seems hardly fair to accuse him of a lack of originality in his work, though it be true, when it is remembered that he lost his life while investi- gating a volcanic eruption of Vesuvius. Pliny [the younger], is really an observant naturalist, though he tells a great many " fish stories." He amuses us with his account of the Os- trich, and says : " Their Hoofs are like unto Stags, with which they fight or skirmish, being cloven-footed, they are profita- l)le to them by laying hold of stones which they throw with their feet against those who follow them in flight." He also says : " The first distinction principally is made from the feet (jf Birds. For either they have hooked talons, or claws with nails, or are of the kind of having their feet closed with a film or web, as the Geese, and almost all aquatic birds. Those which have hooked talons only for the greatest part feed oi flesh." A curious and interesting extract is the following, re- futing the credited authority of to-day for this established " SUB-ORDER OsciNES J " it will be seen from this that Pliny THE YOUNGER and not Dr. Cabanis is the proper definor of this division. He says: "these birds which have crooked claws, do not at all assemble together, and which prey on themselves. And almost all of them soar or fly on high ex- cept the nocturnal or night birds ; and the larger birds the more so. They have all of them large wings, but a small body. They walk with difficulty. They seldom stay on rocks, the crookedness of their claws forbids it. Now we will treat of those according to a Second order, which are di- vided into two species, the OsCines and Amtes : the first of f 4 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY them, the Oscines, have a kind of singing, chirping, or tho like, the latter, snch as Eagles, a magnitude hath given a dif- ference to these. And so they proceed according to order." Pierre Belon, 1551-53, who may really be called the founder of Ichthyology, gives us our first really reliable information regarding the habits and lives of Birds, — yet his attempts at a classification would simply amuse us now, as for instance : " the rapacious birds form the first division, the waders the second, the swimmers the third, and the birds which nestle in trees or on the ground the fourth." This last division does not seem so absurd when we recollect the ancient belief that water birds built nests which swam upon the water wherein they laid their eggs and reared their young ; also, that as late as 1633 the common goose-necked Barnacle was supposed to bear within it the young of the Wild Goose. For all this-, Bei^on was a careful student of bird anatomy. Many of tl:c later naturalists regard his works with favor, and even the eminent Buffox quoted him frequently. About the same time with Belox, though a little later, appeared Conrad Gesner, 1585, whose work was hardly more than a compilation from the works of all of his predecessors, yet he was highly es- teemed in his day and by many even now for this very reason. Next appeared Ulysses Aldrovandi or Aldrovandus, 1599- 1640. He is more frequently called by the latter name. He was said by many to be the greatest naturalist of his tinu^. Three volumes of a work on Ornithology, with the classificji- tion of Bei.ox, and many new descriptions, treat of the sui)- ject in a very interesting manner. He was a great traveler, and appears, to some extent, in nearly all of the sciences ; but no real advancement in our knowledge of Ornithology seems to have been miKk' until Francis WiUoughby, 1678, and af- ter him John Ray, 1710, appeared, and gave scientific foim and accuracy to the hitherto scattered thoughts upon this great theme. Both were Englishmen ; both companions and trav- elers. WiLi.ouoHBY conceived the idea of a jreneral work upon all known animals and plants. He lal)ored hard, and, t THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 5 being rich, successfully for his time. With him appear the first gleams of systematic classification. He divides Birds into Land Birds and Water Birds, and each of these di- visions are separated into sub-divisions. His work was one of great merit. He died without publishing his volumes and his friend Ray saw Ihem through the press. Ray then con- tinued these subjects adding his own investigations ; he, also, died without publishing his results, these were published by Dr. William Derham, 1713 We come now to a lull of nearly a century in Ornithologi- cal writings, when the master mind of Linn^us appears. Carolus or Charles Linnaeus was a Swede, born at Ras- halt May 24, 1707, and he showed a remarkable fondness for Nature from a very early age. His way was full of difficul- ties, but he persevered, and the light which his genius threw upon science claims for him a position which will ever remain an exalted one. The divisions which he established were based upon form, and all those external and striking peculiar- ities even now make so prominent by many observers, and were as follows : Acoipitres, Picje, Anseres, Orally, Gaixinj^, and Passares. These orders were almost en- tirely characterized by the shapes of the feet and of the bill. LinnyEUS' works ran through many editions. The twelftli, 1766, was his last. The thirteenth, 1788, was compiled by John Q-melin. It might, even novv, be justly called in ques- tion as to which of the two were the better and more perfect. But the spirit of Linn^us had cast its spell over a subjcit which was, thenceforth, never more to remain inactive- M. T. Brunnich, 1754-63, wrote extensively upon Ornitho- logical subjects, though he gave us no definitely improved classification. He was of Danish extraction. Mark Catesby 1754-71, ranks high as an original investigator in our colonial Natural History. He described all that he could find of inter- est in our South-eastern Atlantic States. M. J. Brisson, 1763-69, proposed a classification based upon " the toes and their membranes, the bill, and the feathers of the legs." He 'J I i t'lvmvmmmi II 6 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY emphasized " descriptions and illustrations," and noted 26 or- ders and 116 genera, and more than 1300 species of birds. Jacques Schseffer, 1764, also proposed a system, he princi- pally " divided birds according to their feet." P. S. Pallas, 1767-80, published a work called Spicilegia Zoologica, which, with his other Ornithological writings, gave him great renown. He belonged to what is called the Linn^an School, and described species rather than presented new classifications. Then the Count Buffon, 1770, gave us, without classifica- tion, his then famous popular bird-l)iographics. The name of J. R. Forster, 1771, is often quoted as an Ornithological writer of repute, but more as a describer of species and a com- piler than as a systematic classifier. After Fobster a very important classification was proposed by J. Ant. Scopoli, 1777, based upon the " reticulation, scuteliation, etc., of the tarsal envelope." The name of Thomas Pennant, 1776-92> was a household word one hundred years ago. He was an Ornithological as well as a literary giant in his day. He is still a peer in " Arctic Zoology," and especially in Ornithol- ogy. His classification was followed in later years by Alex- ander Wilson. We are often indebted to the Germans for some of our best technical scientific discoveries. In the science of Ornithology this is also true : and now a German, BlasiuB Merrem, 1786, hands down to us a very injportant factor in our systematic classification, by bringing into prominence the shape of the sternum : the " AvES Carinat^. " having it prolonged and keeled, and the " Avp:s Ratit^ " having it fiat and smooth. These distinctions, first made prominent, were afterwards used only as minor, though none the less interesting, features in the formation of the higher divisions. Just why the peculiar ar- rangement of Birds used by Dr. John Latham, 1782-99, should have received so much attention, both at the time and even to within quite a late date, does not readily appear. He used, in the main, the system of LlKN.«U8 with a few correc- tions and additions of his own, and his general classification. THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 1 now almost worthless, was followed by writers for over a cen- tury. Latham was au Englishman. He laid a very credita- ble basis for a description of the Birds of the World, and di- vided them into 9 orders, (6 of Land Birds and 3 of Watkr Birds), 111 genera, and described over 4300 species; this was something magnificent for those days. The Abbe Bon- naterre, 1790, of whom we know very little, yet gave us very valuable additions to our classification. He proposed 12 clas- ses and 13 2 genera "according to the form of the bill and other minor distinctions." Several of his suggestions were made abundant use of by later writers. W. Bartram, 1791- 99, followed closely after Catksbv, and their names are inti- mately associated. They pursued a parallel course of studies. B. S. Barton, 1799, followed Bautram and Catesby, — but most of the writers since Dr. Latham's time were spe- cies discoverers and describers, and pleasing writers rather than systematists. At this sauie time the eminent M. de Lacepede, 1799, presented a classification for Birds making the FEATHERING or "bEARNESS OF THE TARSUS and tlie WEBBING OF THE FEET AND TOES his basis, — he Separated Birds into two great groups accordingly. The general char- acter of the ((rders remained unchanged. His system was a great advance towards modern classification. William Lewln, 1801, classified and arranged the Birds of Great Britain, though after Dr. Latham's plan. Ornithologists of to-day do not appear willing, it seems to me, to ascribe to poor La Vaillant, 1801, his proper due. The work which he did for this science, American as well as African, was sim- ply tremendous ; yet he died poor, and gave to others a chance to]reap where he had sown. The Frenchman F. M. Dau- din, 1802, published a work which became more popular, probably, than its author had ever anticipated. Constant Dumeril, 1806, in his Zoologie Aiialytique, put forth another system, but it soon gave place to that of J. F. Blumenbach, probably about 1804, who gave us a classification more nearly corresponding to that of Dr. Latham than almost 1 8 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY any which had appeared since the latter's time. It bears the author's personal impress, — and is still worth being referred to as an evident sign of progress by revertion to a previous classification with emendations to date. Alexander Wilson, 1808-14, published his North Ameri- can Ornithology, that Jioted exposition of the Birds of North America, just previous to the master work of Audubon. Originally there were nine volumes, of which the last two were completed by Ord. Wilson pursued the classification of Penxant. His work ran through several editions. Later several writers of note published their own revisions of it, es- pecially Bonaparte, Jameson, Jardine, and the late Dr. T. M. Brewer. If Ornithologists of to-day would emulate more the example of this last careful, honest, honorable, and painstaking Christian gentleman, there would be much more knotcledge of our Birds, and much less of some writers and of their too evident compilations put out under the guise of orig- inal matter, abroad in our land. Both Wilson and Audubon studied Birds not Books. As a result they are still quoted as authority in most Ornithological matters. Dr. Greo. Shaw, 1809-12, was another writer who reverted to a former author for his system of classification, and he cop- ied extensively from Linn^us ; on tlie other hand J. F. Stephens, who compiled the latter part of Shaw's General Zoology, really thought in advance of his time by anticipating many of the changes of later writers, — yet, on the whole, it is doubtful if his views were credited to him with the same generosity with which they were credited to those who followed out many of his ideas. Messrs. J. Wolf and B. Meyer (mo,) two German scientists, now revived the idea that Land and Water Birds, were the two great classes which separated, most successfully, the species, and they further furnished a somewhat new arrangement of 9 orders of the former and 2 of the latter. The Oscines, though the division was much more limited as to the species comprised by it than at present, were brought into prominence largely through their means. I THE HISTORY OK ORNITHOLOGY 8 Still another German, J. C. W. Illiger, 1811, now became prominent, and his work stands next to that of Linn.kus, in point of time, as regards scientific accnracy and valne. He brought together the results of all his predecessors, and at- tempted, successfully, a new departure as a basis for future advancement. His idea was of a system which should recog- nize more close affinities than had hitherto been apparent of Birds with each other. He did this by introducing the Fam- ily as a ttub-divmon of the Order. His system gave us not always the most perfect but, to the eye perhaps, the most nat- ural, arrangement. Of his 7 orders the 1st, The Scansoreti or Clivibera, contained 5 families ; the 2nd, The Avibulatares or Walkem, 11; 3d, The RapUtrea or Birih of Prey, 3 ; 4th, The Ranores or Heratahers, 5 ; oth, The Curmres or Runners, 3 ; 6th, The Grallatoren or Wadern, 8 ; and 7th, The NaiatoreH, or Smmmers, 6. Through Ili.igkr the idea that all Birds were more or less closely allied to each other by such character- istics as would separate orders into families, and families into still smaller divisions, until ultimately individual difference, embracing within it order and family itself, began to dawn upon the mind of scientists. Closely following Ilmgp:r came the Baron Geor2;e Cuvier, 1817, with his great work La Regne Animal. He was a man whose erudition is still the envy of the world. His work was preeminent in its day. The great majority of writers who preceded, as well as those who have followed, him have fallen far below his worth and penetration. Cuvjer and LinnvEUh go hand in hand, — the former correcting the ostensible and real errors of the latter. The basis of Cuvier's classification has been followed almost universally by the thousands who, since his day, have revelled in the broad field of Nature's creation. His special tribute to the chain of Ornithological classification which we are seek- ing to examine were investigations upon the muscular axat- OMV of Birds. He made prominent the singing muscles of the larynx, by which we separate the Insemoren into the Osci- nes or Singers, and the Clamatores or Screamers. He made 10 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY many important changes besides this. It was a great advance in our knowledge of the systematic relations of Birds. Next comes M. P. VieUlot, iaL7.23, reaUy 1805-23. His labors were noted for their descriptive value. He published a great deal, and, as he sought to popularize the science, his works proved very attractive and became quite widely known. C. J. Temminck, 1820, at the time Curator of the Royal Museum at l^eyden, then brought out his noted Manual of Ornithology, the second edition of which apptureJ at lli' above date. It contained an analysis of general Ornithology, and his arrangement of the different claspos of Birds — which was essentially a new one. It was for a tin), recognized as an au- thority, but being mainly a compilation from previous writers soon gave way for newer matter. He wrote a great deal be- sides this, praising Illiger but deprecating Vieillot. L. Oken, 1821, was a German Ornithologist of great note. He added a great deal to our knowledge of Birds. A treatise of his published in 1809 really foreshadows his maturer work in 182]. He speaks of " birds that are fed by their parents and those that run about at birth " in such a way as to leave no doubt but that he outlined our present division into Altri- CE8 and PrvECoces. Somewhat later his work was ta^en up by Ehrenburg. John P. Selby, 1821-34, is another ex- cellent writer who sought to popularize British Ornithology by his elegant volume. It was the best effort of his time and approached by few. Conjointly with Sir Wm. Jardine, he published several valuable works and uiany detached writings upon this subject. The latter conducted that eminently pop- ular and intensely interesting series entitled The Naturalists' Library. R. P. Lesson, 1822-34, was a most voluminous writer whose work ■ were constantly appearing. He seems to have both adopted >ii, (i! 1 and crew ted a now :;ystem, — but there seems to ap; ;.!■/■ lu pecial marka by which to show that any really new material became incorporated into the great fabric of our present classification. After Lesson there came C L. Nitzsch, 1829. He introduced the " carotid com- THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 11 !! KrNES," and describod so detinitely the " forms and positions of this artery " as to fully establish it as an evident factor in oiir present classification. 'William Swainson, 1827-31. Mr. SwAfNsoN probably did more tlian any other writer in his time to popularize science. His name is connected with many volumes upon ma-iy subjects. He was a careful and accurate naturalist. He prepared the gn N'r pari of the sec- ond volume of Arctic Zoology that on Bii-ls, for the careful execution of which he is speciallv known :i 'onjj Ornitholo- gists, in connection with Dr. John lichai son, who pre- pared volumes one and three of the san work. The name of John James Audub i. 1827-31, mar\s a new Ornithological epoch. His tt'orts i give t< the world a thoroughly reliable account of the Birds of No, 'h America will ever remain unique. These efforts prodaeed " 5 octavo I volumes of to-day is not les which has is Bynopsis, he ution of the states, " the MH'ts, to sat- i>IGESTIVE ire into his volumes of t xt and an elephant folio at) 435 plates : The ordinary " Audubon this, howevei", 'nit a smaller edition of 7 sprung from i In a small single volume sets out his vit vs regarding the general clti Birds of which : e speaks, although, as he ti location of the {. roups is not such as, in all isfy me." He studied deeply the A n atomv ok ORGANS of Birds, and introduced it as a new t various groups. Jan Van der Hoeven, 1828-33, [revised edi on, 1849- 50,] was a volumii, us writer, and is still a favorite th many for his apparent d< initeness of general classificatiiu ; but it is mainly a compil. tion, not always of the latest facts that might have been ob ained at the time, from previous writers with very little orij. nal new matter ; yet this was a better text book of general 'Zoology than it was at the time, or even now is, credited with leing. Thomas Nuttall, 1832-34. This searcher apparently after the same object as incited both Audubon and Wilson raised himself to eminence by popularizing his subject and reducing 12 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY .1 the price of his volumes, of which he published two — one of them on the Laud Birds and the other the Water Birds. His second edition of this work was a much more creditable one than the first. The recent revision of it by Mr. Montague Chamukrlain makes it. now, a most valuable and truly de- lightful book for all Bird lovers. C. J. Sundevall, 1835-56. We are indebted to this dis- tinguished Swede for a departure which gave to the classifica- tion of the present day a most decided feature. He crystal- lized the hints of Oken and the maturer judgments of Ehr- ENBERG by his definition of the groups Altrices and Prcecoces, and of the Birds which belong .in each. These groups are often regarded as of Sundevall's own creation. This is hardly true in view of the previous definite statements of the two gentlemen above named. Most of his work remains to- day as much of an authority as when he wrote it. Ornitholo- gists still follow closely his classification, and he is liberally quoted, though essential features of his work arc being modi- fied by later authors who are leading writers in this and other countries. He also made prominent the details in the use of THE WINGS AND THEIR COVERTS to separate his groups. C. Q. Ehrenberg, 1836, worked in harmony of thought with Oken, and the two are usually mentioned together. The latter ex- plained and solidified the work of the former. 'William MacGillivray, 1836-52, was a Scotchman, whose Hidories of Bntish Birds and Mammals has rendered his name famous in this country us well as abroad. He was much esteemed by Audubon, whose spirit of equity would justify to him a title to accuracy and reliability. We cannot lightly pass over the important labors of O. It. G-ray, 1837-49, whose Genera of Birds, as issued from the British Museum, as well as his other Ornithological writings, though following Cuvier largely yet with many important changes of his own, still forms, revised, a very important source of reference even to-day. His sys- tem was, however, much improved a little later by Vigors' N. A. Vigors, 1829-39, whose work centers about this period, f 'iwijt"i»wiw'«ffwiwwyw—"»'.i("'j" ■'.'"< ! THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 13 t wrote chiefly detached papers upon special subjetits, but for clearness of judgment and depth of thought he obtained through them a wide eminence. The systematic ending of family names in in.K is attributed justly to him. He formed a classification to suit himself and it was a good one, hoping, as so many of his predecessors had done, that he had estab- lished the true relations between Birds. He joined what had before been styled the norvinl and aberrant, groups, and, tak- ing the formation of the foot for clasping or non-claspim; as a basis, he changed the order of the orders so that the i2«p- tores and the Insessorea comprised the former, and the Ramren, the GrallatoreH, and the Naiatores the latter. He has been much noted by Ornithologists of the present day for many advanced ideas ; but his system still failed to establish perma- nent " typical " forms. Messrs. A. Gt. Keyserling and J. H. BlasiuB, 1840, are names generally associated together, although much good work was done by each individual sepa- rately. They really first presented us with an extensive use of the TARSAL COVERING and its various modifications as we now employ them in our descriptions. The scheme was af- terwards elaborated by Cabanis. Two other gentlemen now formed a valuable combination, investigating in a new field, these were P. J. Van Beneden, 1845, and Carl Vogt, 1851. Both were active in promoting those embryological inves- tigations which are now so generally adopted, and which were so fully and so clearly set forth by L. Agassiz. J. Cabanis, 1847, has really assisted our classifiers more than many are willing to acknowledge, though a great deal of the neio mate- rial which is credited to him is, in reality, the property of those who came previous to him ; thus he really perfected much hitherto rudimentary knowledge. He incorporated into his system the various markings of the tarsal envelope, and added to them the gradations in size of the principal primary quill feathers of both the wing and of the tail. He also used the characters of the " larynx iNFERtoR," said to be borrowed from Muller, a Dtinisb naturalist, We owe mtm -' ''iwJftybn |riiiiipiiWB>i|jWiljawi»W tl 14 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY him a debt of gratitude in assembling and perfecting the spe- cial characters brought forward by so many previous authors, and giving to us the whole in one continuous, comprehensive combination. We next come to Charles L. Bonaparte, 1850-57, who was an ardent enthusiast, and clearly stamped his opinions as regards obscure points in our classification. He proposed a system, which, though it added few new phases to those al- ready possessed, embraced faithfully the best suggestions of previous writers upon the subject. It was regarded, both at his time and for a long while after, in very high repute ; and from the number of species then known to science of exten- sive scope. It was used by the best wviters of the time in preference to the system of either Linn/, i s or Cuvier. His name, though generally associated with tlwit of Wilson has, however, a wide significance of its own. John Cassin, 1853- SS^really supplemented the work of Audubon by his histo- ries of Birds, for the most part those west of the Rocky Mount- ains. He also wrote a part of that fine work, The Ninth Vol- ume of the Pamjic Railroad Report, conjointly with Professor 8. F. Baird and Mr. Geo. F. Lawrence. P. L. Sclater, 1857, et sec. and O. Salvin, separately and together, added their voluminous writings to the cause of Ornithology. The former has especially given us a very valuable basis for fur- ther definiteness of sej)aration by his geographical regions. He divided the world into a given number of these regions, and portioned to each its avi-fauna. These boundaries have been enlarged, from time to time, until our present v/e\\- knovfn " fatmal 7'effions " or " faunal areas " have resulted. Professor Spencer F. Baird, 1858, was a gentleman de- serving of more than passing mention. He was, for many years, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, at Wash- ington, D. C, and a most able writer and zoologist. From his personal ability alone he would very easily have lead the cause of Ornithology in America, if not abroad also. In his position as head of an institution such as the Smithsonian 1 THE HISTORY OF ORXITHOLOCiY 15 then was, he took that lead naturally ; and the majority of writers since his day have largely compiled from him and his collaborators. He himself compiled largely : taking the best points from previous writers, he has added so many pertinent suggestions to his careful deductions from them that one can naturally and almost justly consider the whole matter as Mr. Baikd's own personal emanation. This is not done in any spirit of inju>3tice to others, for no one was quicker in giving credit for any material which he might have used of another person's than was he ; but his happy mode of presenting even the dryest technique makes one feel a master hand in all that he did. One is safe to be guided by the directing influence of the works of this truly great man. J. C. Byton, 1859-67, produced, to a large extent, the sys- tem which we very naturally look to Professor Richard Owen to adduce, namely : one based almost wholly upon the OSTEOLOGICAI. characters of Birds. Its importance is mani- fest at a glance. It has entered largely into our later classifi- cations, and in recent years become espr dly prominent. Professor Owen, Sir Richard Owen, V used many os- teological characters in a classification of i Js which he pro- posed, but its chief feature consisted in a .adical transposition of the whole plan of arrangement "s used up to this time ; a putting of the lowest Water Birds first, and following this in- verted order to the highest which came last, proved an inno- vation that became immensely popular at once, the more so as its appearance seemed to correspond with the recently largely adopted theories of evolution. It was something new, and had the impress of a great man. W. Lilljeborg, 1866, was a professor in the University of Upsala, Sweden, and him- self a Swede. What he has accomplished as a student of Or- nithology few have so far equalled. The basis of his struct- ure was what he called " irritahii.ity," or activity as we might perhaps better say. This, he contended, presented the fittest expression of Ornithological preeminence. On this pcale he placed the Thrushes first. Our present system is but r* 16 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY a modification of his most careful and excellent suggestions. Thomas H. Huxley, 1867, the eminent English scientist, in a system of Birds which he has tabulated in his volume on the Anatomy of the Vertebrate Animals, for the purpose of in- cluding the general field of fossil as well as recent Ornithol- ogy, has laid out a very comprehensive plan. He has com- bined and drawn deductions from former writers, changed many of the already existing relations of the characters, made prominent many osteological features, and taken for his two grand divisions the " Aven Garinatce " and " Aves Ratitai " of Merrem. He has also added a few special anatomical distinctions. Admirable as this system is it is a system rather for the scientific student whereby to study relations than for the every-day working naturalist or bird-collector. The prominence still given to the groupings of Professor Lillje- BORG speaks highly to its credit. A. H. Garrod, about this time, presented us with some very valuable features to add to our distinguishing characteristics between the various groups of Birds. He patiently worked upon the muscular relations, which had hitherto been of little import in classification. We are greatly indebted to him for his efforts in this direction. The magnificent work of Baird, Brewer, and Ridgeway, it is safe to say, will not soon be duplicated ; issued in five splendid volumes, it has really done for North American Birds a work of permanent good. It is both technical and popular, though rather expensive for the majority of students in this most fascinating branch of study. This work, with the indi- vidual Ornithological writings of these same gentlemen, has far out-distanced any modern competitors for Ornithological honors in America at the present day, at least as far as accuracy in scientific detail and reliability are concerned. Sevex-al very choice works upon Birds have appeared, from time to time, besides those we have mentioned above, some very recently, amongst which may be especially mentioned " Special Bulle- tin, No. 1," of the U. 8. National Museum, entitled. Life His- tories of North American Birds with special reference to their • THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 17 Breeding Habits and Eggs, by Captain Charles Bendire, and the various other National Museum and Government Reports. One cannot examine the Ornithological writings of such men as D'Orbigny, Bechstein, Sclater, Salvin, Elliott, Gould, Tschudi, Hartlaub, G-osse, Cassin, Hudson, and a perfect host of others, who have described thousands of spe- cies, without wonder and amazement at the amount of accu- mulated new material from which to draw new deductions and even a newer classification, which shall be more thorough and more accurate in detail than any that has hitherto appeared. The present revertion of writers of the present day to the systems of Lilljeborg and of Sundevai>l is evidence of their depth of thought, boldness of design, and definite con- ceptions of the general relations of both the higher and the lower groups of Birds. From the following selected List of Ornithological Writers write a composition upon, or short life history of, all or any of the persons indicated, and illustrate the peculiar manner in which they have become known to the world as Ornitholo- gists. Give name, place and date of birth, nationality, date of death, and the most prominent and important works or writings of each. Arrange the names in three groups : 1st. Noted Ornithologists with a world-wide reputation as such ; 2nd. Those whose works are well-known and an authority, but who were not Ornithologists but men of eminence in other departments, often, who made the study of Birds a recreation or of minor consideration. 3rd. Those whose names and works are generally little known and rarely cited, except upon some technical or obscure historic point. Encyclopedias and works upon Biography and Natural History will be the means through which to obtain this information. Agassiz, Louis, Bachman, Rev. John, Aldrovandus, Ulysses, Bierii, Nichol, Aristotle, Baird, Spencer F., Audubon, John James, Barrere, Pierre, i il!i,i."n'l.',!|llBIIU!I.i' IHWII" J 18 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY Barton, Benjamin F., Bartram, John, Bechstein, J. M., Belknap, Jeremy, Belon, Pierre, Bewick, Thomas, Blasius, J. H., Boie, F., Bonaparte, Charles Lucien, Bonnelli, Francois, Bowditch, Thomas E., Brandt, J. F., Brehm, Charles Louis, Brewer, Thomas M., Brisson, Mathnrin Jacques, Bruch, Notar L., Bruunich, Martin Thomas, BnfFon, Geo. Louis le Clerc, Cabanis, Dr. Jean, Cabot, Samuel, Cassin, John, Catesby, Mark, Cetti, Francesco, Cuvier, Baron Geo. L. C. F. D, Daudin, Francois Marie, Degland, C. D., DeKay, James E., Desmarest, Anselme-Gaelan, Des Murs, O., Deville, E., Donovan, Edward; D'Orbigny, A., Douglas, David, Dubu8, B., Dunn, Robert, Dumeril, A. M. Constant, Edwards, George, Elliot, D. G., Emmons, Ebenezer, Eyton, J. C, Faber, Fr., Fabricius, Otho, Fleming, John, Forster, J. R., Frankfort, A. M., Frisch, Jean L., Gambel, William, Gatke, Heinrich, Gerhardt, Alexander, Gesner, Conrad, Giraud, J. P., Gloger, C. L., Graelin, S. G., Gosse, Philip Henry, Gould, John, Graves, George, Gray, G. R., Gundlach, John, Hahn, Dr. Carl Wilhelm, ,,Haldeman, S. S., Hartlaub, Dr. G., Haymond, Rufus, Heerkens, G. N., Heermann, 4. L., Holboll, Carl, Hudson, W. H., Illiger, J. Ch. William, Jacquin, J. F. E. von, Jardine, Sir William, Jenyns, Rev. L., Kaup, J. J., Keyserling, A. Graf., MS#jil''^r •ymffflim^ lilli.lj.m ^ ^ 1 ' OF ()UMTH()LO(;V -ia I MAMMALIA or MAMMALS II AYES or BIRDS III REPTILIA or REPTILES IV BATRACHIA or AMPHIBIANS V PISCES or FISHES Wv liiivc ti> (leal only witli tlio GROUP AVES or BIRDS The Birds of the World are Neparated into two great Sl'B- (iliOUrS, — aceorriiiig as the Stkkmm oh Bueast-bon k is FLAT or KEEliKl) ill tVout. [The extinct species, liowever, belong to other divisions]. Tliey are, the I AVES RATITAE (Jjutin riitis, a raft). Sternum fi,at. Wings rudimentary and unfit for flight. II AVES CARINATAE (Latin carina, a keel [of a ship]. Sternum keei-ed. Pro- vided with true Wings. The first of these divisions embraces the Ostriches, Casso- waries, Emeus, and Birds of a similar nature. The second division comj)rises the majority of known Birds all over the World. In treating of the Birds of North America, we have, therefore, to do only with the CARINATE BIRDS for many years the great assemblage of the Birds of the World have l)eeu considered as belonging to three separate spheres of activity : 1. Those which live in the air, 2. Those which live upon the ground, 3. Those which live in the water. It has always been so diificult to form any real and stable divisions in this jwrtion of the Animal Kingdom (as in any other portion, in fact) — as one group often so insensibly drifts / 24 MAM'AK into anc.tlMT — that, milly, we have .-uine t.. unito these tsvM> into one, and shall speak hereafter only of the LAM> HIKDS and the WATER HIKDS. Nearly everv writer upon seientiHe suhjeets uses different names for the different divisions into whieh he separates his suhjeets. These names with one are often applied iu exa<-tly the reverse order with another writer upon the same subjeet. We shall endeavor to be consistent in our use of all terms. We will illustrate, then, the manner in whieh the various terms are used as follows : KINGDOM Animal, SUB-KINGDOM Vertebrate, GROUP Aves or Birds, SUB-GROUP Carinate Birds, CLASS (Carinate Birds have two classes, the Land Birds and the TVater Birds*. SUB-CLASS (the Land Birds only are thup divided, into Aerial and Ter- restrial Birds). The three Sub-Classes are usually designated as follows : I AERIAL BIEDS OR INSESSORES II TERRESTRIAL BIRDS OR CURSORES III AftUATIC BIRDS OR NATATORES Again, the Birds of Nouth America belong to ELF.VEN DIFFERENT ORDERS. F^ch Sub-Clash has its own distinct Orders, let us tabu- late them, then, together, SUB-CLASS I AERIAL BIRDS ORDER 1 PASSARBS or Perchers. 2 PICARIiB or Picarian Birds. 3 PSITTACI or Parrots. 4 RAPTORES or Birds of Prey. 5 COLUMBJB or Dove-like Birds. .w. .111.1 IJ.HaH!'"' :(> OF orxith()L()(;y 25 SUB CLASS II TERRESTRIAL BIRDS ORDER 6 GALLING or Fowl-Uke Birds. 7 G-RALLATORES or Wading Birds. SUB-CLASS III AftUATIC or WATER BIRDS ORDER 8 LAMELLIROSTRES or Duck.billed Birds. " 9 STEGANOFODES or Totipalmate Birds. 10 LONGIPENNES, Long.winged or Gnll-like Birds. " 11 P7GOPODES or Diving Birds. liCt Its fxaiiiim? these onlers more closely luid see in wliat respect they diflfer one from the other. The leading features of the different Orders of JJirds, and their necessary divisions into Sub-orders, may be shown aa follows, — though the Sub-oreclal sub- orders here. ORDER IV RAFTORES Latin raptor, n nibber. This order is so distinctive in its characters as to be readily told from any of the other orders, even without the aid of spe- cial characteristics. Like the Parrots, it has the bill^with a cere and with the upper mandible curving over the under, but mum I 28 MANUAL the ft'i't are never truly two in front and two beliind [(/yp>- dactyle), though one of the front feet in the Owls moves back- ward sutticiently for tliese birds to sit on a perch and clas|) their prey as they fly with two feet in front and two behind, thus appearing only to be zygodactyle]. The student of os- TKoi/KJY will find several distinctive characters exclusively pertaining to this order, and even in the different sub-orders. The Birds of Prey are usually separated into A THE NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY containing the Sub-order 1 STRIGIDES or OWLS B THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY containing the Sub-orders 2 ACCIPITRES or FALCONS HAWLS EAGLES 3 CATHARTIDES or VULTURES The Nocturnal Birds of Prey are at ouce distinguished from the Diurnal Birds of Prey, by the peculiar shape of the feath- ers about ami around the eye, by the bristly feathers about the bill, the reversible outer front toe, and the soft, fluffy plumage of the Owls (Nocturnal) compared with the clean-cut bill and <.ere, the tough-skinned feet, and the rough, hard plunuige of the Hawks, etc. (Diurnal) Birds of Prey. The Sub-orders are three. Sub-order 1 STRIGIDES or Owls Latin utrix, u screech owl; Greek striyx, u screech. The Owls are not easily mistaken for birds of either of the other sub-orders of this order. The radiating disc of feath- ers surrounding the eyes ; eyes large, soft, and watery ; the bristly feathers almost hiding the bill; the tomia of upper mandible without tooth or notch ; the nostrils partly in the horn of the bill and partly in the cere ; with reversible outer front toe ; legs feathered nearly or is further separated into. Tribe 1 Limicolie or Shore Birds, Tribe 2 Paludicolaj (Alectoridse), But this still leaves us the liimicolre to separate into still smaller divisions, both on account of their number and their peculiarities, until we become confused unnecessarily. [The old Sub-class Curhouks (What we now call Terres- trial Birds) or Runnern, contained aho our present Ordei- 6 GALi.iNiE. The Brfaipknneh are the extra-limital (h- triches, etc. and were included among the Gram.atorto. Our Order (5 Gali.in.k is aim the old Sub-class Hahorks (in- GF ORNITHOIXXJY 3a eluded also among our Terrestrial Birds). The present Order o CoiiUMB.*: moreover belongs to tliem. It was thus, for- merly, the great question of the day as to how to reco cile all these inconsistencies. By rejecting entirely the old systems and substituting the neio this now becomes possible]. The young student will notice how difficult it is to charac- terize, with any degree of exactness, the various divisions in Ornithology ; the difficulty will increase rather than diminish as he progresses. As he becomes familiar with the individu- als from which the characters of these divisions are drawn, however, the matter will appear to him in a new light, and his difficulties will decrease with experience. We now come to thejhird Sub-class, the Aquatic or Water Birds, usually called the Natatores or Stoiinmei'n. Estab- lished usage still separates these into what we may call. Division A ANSERES and Division B GAVIJE The latter (Division B) are called Ai/ruiCES, or Birds that rear their young in nests and feed them ; the former (Division A) are called Pk.w:m , jBaiiiii J ■ ' yBWi »(ifiw^w»' ji!(*iwiii)W*R7n!"*»*" ■ 42 MANUAL Gknkka, Saxkola, The Stonochats. Cyanecnla, The Blue-throat. Sialia, The Bluebirds (3 species). SuH-.iENERA, Thtre seems no good reason for any separation here into nub-genera. As the first two genera are each for a single species, Stasia alone remains, and this seem incapable of any further division. Sub-famUy e REO-XJLINJB Kinglets Bill very small and delicate, short, and straight ; nostrils more or less exposed; wing, straight, with a spurious first quill ; tail emarg'nate or almost even ; tarsus booted, and longer than the middh^ toe and claw. Species very small. Genkba, Phylloscopm, The Kennicott's Warbler. Kegulus, The Kinglets (5 species). SitB-mm OF ORNITHOLOGY 43 ed ; general plumage " lax," and very soft ; tarsus without distinct scutellw and longer than the toes ; long rictal bristles about the base of the short and compressed bill {bill less than the length of the head]. An instant's comparison of the bird with those which it resembles will show how necessary it is to frame a separate family upon its stable peculiarities. Genus, Chamaa, The Ground Tit and ally. [The position of this family, numerically, is liable to be changed, with perfect propriety, at any time]. FAMILY III FARIDAE THE TITMICE CHICKADEES Latin pnrvs, ». titmouae. As we progress in the enunciation of the characteristics of the /fwmVy groups, our difficulties increase rather than dimin- ish ; Strange as it may appear, the Titmice are allies to the Jays; most of our writers regarding their differences merely as a difference of size. There is no neceasity of attempting to divide the family into sub-families, as our North American species would fall naturally under a single sub-family : Bill .1 irt and stout, straight and somewhat compressed, tip straight and unnotched ; nostrils concealed by utiW feathers (not bris- tles) ; tarsus scutellate and longer than the middle toe ; toes stout for size of bird ; wings (primaries 10) with spurious Ist , Thryothorus, The Great Carolina Wren and allies (6 specieB). '.'riiglodytes, The House Wrens (3 species). Anorthura, The Winter Wrens, (3 species). Tclmatodytex and Chtothorim, The Marsh Wrens (3 species). SuB-OENERA, None, unless Thryomanes be considered a sub-genus of Thryothorus. In this family, as in several others, species are often trans- ferred by different writers, from one genus to another, without the use of specific sub-genera. A careful comparison of the toes of the two sub-families will show a marked difference which were hard to explain of either one alone. FAMILY VII ALAUDID^LE THE LAKES Lutin " (ihmda, the lark, 'a Celtic word, Viter .\ly great sotigstress.' " This is a small family made, apparently, originally for a single species. One or two varieties and one extra-limital species have crept into it, however. North America is noted for a great many of these peculiar one-specied families. The larks are noted for : The peculiarly shaped head horns or cre.sts, and the immensely lengthened hind toe nail — these alone would distinguish the family. They have, also : the tarsus scutellate ; wings long and pointed, 1st primary spuri- ous or svanting ; bill short, gtout, pointed; nostrils more or less concealed by tufts of feathers. The tail hardly enters into the composition of the family characteristics. Until re- cently the family admitted of but a single sub-family ; the re- cently inij)orted European Skylark, however, would naturally add a second sub-family. It does not seem necessary to allow this in the present instance : The main difference being in the presence or absence of a spurious l.st wing (juill, this is wanting in the European Lark. The different places in the families of l)irds which are given to the members of this fam- M OF ORNITHOLOCJY 47 ily, show clearly how difficult even yet it is to decide just where, avS a family, it belonsijs. We prefer to place it here, so that we may sliow the difference between it and its nearest al- lies the Titlarks. Xhe two sub-families into which this family are divided are, a CALANDRITINJB Shore Larks b ALAUDINiE Skylarks These are inisleadinj^, as the old and still much used name for our American Shore Lark was Alauda, and here we apply it exclusively to the European Skylark as Alauda arvensw; while now, though ])lacing our American Shorelark in the sub- family Calandrithxp. we do not use the name with a generic signification and say Calandrlta. It is, therefore, better to do away with sub-families entirely, and give the family two Gekeba, Eremophila, The True Larks (3 species). Alauda, The Skj'larks. ThouRh these names are often used as synonyms they arc quite distinct, FAMILY VIII MOTACILLIDAE THE WA.G- TAILS TITLARKS PIPITS Latin Molucilla, "The White Water Wagtail." The similarity, in many respects, of this family with the preceding (VII) places it, naturally, next in order. Those unacquainted with the species, except in name perhaps, readily confound them, yet they are radically distinct. They have : Bill short, slender, straight, and with noticeable notch at tip ; nostrils open {not concealed by feathers); wing without a spu- rious quill (primaries 9) and of about the same length as in the tail ; tarsus with scutella, and hind toe nail long and not much curved. A comparison of tlie ..pe- imens of these two families will show the distinct peculiarities of i'le tarsus and the toes and their clefts in each. The sub-families are each well defined. I * u 48 MANUAL Sub-family a MOTACILLINAE True Meadow Wagtails Tail not shorter than the wing, of which the 3rd quill is the longest. Genera, Motacilla, T!ie White Wagtail and ally. Bndi/tes, The Yellow Wagtail. Sub-family d ANTHINAE Titlarks and Pipits Tail shorter than the wings, of which the 4th and oth quills are the longest. Okneba, Anthm, The Titlark and the Pipit. Neocorys, The MiR.souri Titlark. (Synonym = Alavda.) Sui(-«EXERA, None. The members of this, as also of the preceding, family have been placed in so many different and peculiar situations, both in relation to themselves and to that of the other limHsorcH^ that it is best to leave a critical examination of them to the more advanced student. A few facts may be noticed, how- ever : In the present case, the two sub-families are perfectly justifiable, for, examining the different works on Ornithology to-day no one would consider the different yenera as belonging to the same family. This will appear more evident when we remember that the recent name of the genera of the Titlark was Alauda, the same as was formerly used for our present Shore Lark. This would give us a .synonym but not a sub- genm. It will be noticed, also, that the American Titlark is not the same as the European Titlark ; that the American Skylark (Shore I^ark) is not the same as the European Sky- lark ; and that the Skylark (whether American or European) is not identical with or even related to the Titlark (either Am- erican or European), notwithstanding the fact that so many of our writers will persist, wrongly, in placing them all in the same genu.'i Ai.AUDA. BuDYTKH is a distinct Motacilla. Botli are different from the other members of either family, — though we are not jjrepared to arrange ihem any differently at present 1f!V. ft,-Ka6>if >!:'..& a j«*S' sassusBBSBtwiiwsBsrj? OF ORNITHOT.OGy 49 FAMILY IX SYLVICOLIDAE THE WARBLERS Latin .S(7iv/, woods; culo, I itiliiil)il : sylvan. The group of" Warblers, or the American Wood-Warblers, as their name implies, are among the most interesting of" all the groups of North American birds. They are so exclusively American, and the species are so numerous, as to render them familiar, attractive, and not easily to be t<)igott«;ii objects of interest to every man, woman, and child throughout the length and breadth of our land. Tht>y occur, either as residents (dur- ing Summer mostly) or migrants, everywhere throughout North America ; and are also found in (,'entral and South America and the West India Islands. They form the greater bulk of what are known as the " migratory birds " ; and their movements are so extraordinary, so peculiar, and yet so regu- lar, as to be altogether inexplicable. The questions evolved in explaining their movements are so many and so involved that no one answer, or even set of answers, will account for all their actions. No rule can be set down for their occurring as either resident or migrant in any given area or locality, save that of actual observation ; and even this often varies, from some wholly unknown cause, in different years. Exam- ples are continually occurring of individual species which oc- cur 98 " resident and breeds " in one limited locality which do not 80 occur again within a radius of hundreds of miles in any direction. Further, — in some states a species may be a com- mon, even abundant, summer resident throughout the state, yet, in isolated places or towns perhaps, in the very midst of this abundance, the most strict search will often fail to detect a single individual of that species ; or they may be found only as " very rare migrants." Were this true of a single state, there might be some reasonable answer to the (juestion. Why is it ? But it is equally true of every state or section of coun- try in all North America. The question of the position of the Sylvicolidie among our other North American birds, is one very easily disposed of as being one merely of natural affinity. That of " what birds \ 60 MANUAL I' 5' It' I if «-j constittitf the family," though now settled with much cer- tainty, wa.s a much more ditticult one to decide. Should we enter into the tiuestion, as some authorities seem disposed to do, of what features of other groups hi other families do the individuals or genera of this family possess, we shall have our hand- at once so full that a separate volume would be needed to fully explain the relationship. We might give it the name of Sylvanoloov ; and to discuss this fully would involve a discussion of nearly iWO-thirds of all the species of Insessorial Ornitnology. The advanced student will soon diKiOver " like- nesses," as well as see in what lines to push his imjuiries. For the present, the young student had best seel: to know in what respect the included forms are like thetiiselves, then the resem- blance of individual forms to other and outside species will open to him naturally. We will proceed, then, to give the very difficult formula which characterizes the group. In General : Let the young student procure a specimen ol' a species of Sylvicolidaj, which he has shot himself or ob- tained from some museum or dealer or thorough, systematic ornithologist, and has been correctly named ; then, taking this as a model, proceed to make his own diagnonis (as it is called) of its characteristics. To do this almost any of the True Warblers will answer. When he has carefully written out all these evident characteristics, let him apply them to any of the other forms in the family. He will then find that, mth very Utile change, they will apply equally well to every specien of the Sylvicolidie. And that they will not apply, except wilh very great change, to any other family of North American birds. Then the characters of this family are, in the main, negative characters. In the above manner, only, have I been able to separate the group with any degree of satisfaction, either to myself or to others. In Particular : Size small ; bill short, conical, and abrupt- ly acute, even or very faintly notched at end ; tarsus, feet, and toes symmetrically regular and not, any of them, abnormally ileveloiied ; tarsus scutellate ; winjr anr' tail reirular and sym- .vi'-j-.-,^<*'j»» •*'' ^';.^.T'"as!Bii»!H,'iW"-'J"ig. OF ()RXITHOL()(}Y 51 Hititrical in length, shape, and outline, and are nut abnormal in shape or looks ; the tail is composed of 12 feathers, and the wing quills (primaries) of 9, and then- is no .spurious or half-sized 1st quill, that il^ (ujual in size to the other long quillEC. Only a very few of the members of this family vary from the form of the typical warbler. If left to his own course, a young beginner in the study of this group will, with- out doubt, pick out — from pure innate contrariness — these very forms and, thenceforward, can never nuike head nor tail of the group which will remain, forever after, an untangled mystery by reason of the disassociation of ideal. The typical Warbler, then, determines easily t/ili family from all others preceding or following it. The different indi- viduals composing it fall, naturally, into three sub-families. And here just a word about the positions which are now, and were formerly, occupied by the members, or I should rather say by the species and even genera, of this family. I shall dis- cuss as little as pus.sible what other writers do and say, or where they place this species or that ; our work is, if po.ssi- ble, to simplify and to liarmonize ornithology — not to tear it to pieces and so complicate it that nobody can make head nor tail of it. What if several of the genera were formerly cla.s- sified with other tamilies ? That is no reason why, in tne light of our present more perfect knowledge, we should not group together all tho.se species which present the closest tech- nical resemblances. This we have aimed at doing throughout the present work, rather than to speculate u|)<)n what older writers have incorrectly thought and said in i matter, 5 i ■ i 5 I I To assist the student in the better .se[)aralion of this family we repeat here, for reference merely, the excellent divisions made use of by Professor Baird in the " J'aeifie Railroad Re- port." So very little change will be required to conform the table to our present classification that the differences, if any, will become apparent upon very slight examination. As his family Sylvicolidoi embraces the Larks and the Tanagers, we will begin with his Sub-family Sylvicolimv. L -J I If. o2 MANUAL H i I m u "SYLVICOLIN/E. — Bill rather slender, conical, or depressed. Culmeii straight or convex. Hind toe shorter than the middle ; the claws all much curved ; hind claw not conapicuously loiijjer than the middle one. When the hind toe is lengthened, it is usually in the digit not the claw. Tertials generally not longer than the secondaries. It may be conveniently divided into the foUowina sections : A Rictus with short bristles or none. Mniotu,te.k. — Bill notched. Hind ♦oe longer than the lateral ones, its claw shorter than the digit. Wings pointed. Tail nearly even, spotted. Geothi,ype.k — Bill notched Lt-g.s very stont. Hind toe longer tha.T tne lateral; its claw eqnal to the digit. Tail unspotted. IcTEBiEi*: — Bill without notch, very stout, much compressed. Commi-ssure and culmen both much curved. Vebmivork.k. — Bill entirely without a notch; conical, slender, weak, .icutely pointed. Sylvicoi.e.- — Bill notched. Wings pointed. Hind toe equal to the lateral. B Rictus with well-developed bristles. Setophage-*;. — Bill depressed, broad, notched at tip." Mniotii.te.k cunthins the genera Mnioiilta, Parulo, and Protonoiaria. GEOTHi.YrK.K contains Geoihhjpis and Oporornin. Jctehiea; contains Ictefia. Vermivore.e contains Helrnitlieruii. SvLVicoLE-t: contains Stinrus and Dendrieca. SET0PH.\uE.fi contains Myiodioctes, Cardellina, and Setophaga. We will ourselves divide the family into 3 sub-families : Sub-famUy n SYLVICOLINiE True T?7arblerB Size small or not large; bill short, slender, and ronieal — typical of the family, in fact, and generally with rictal bris- tles; wings typical and longer than the tail excepting in Geothlypis ; tail nearly if not quite even and not conspicuously large or wide. (Hook of bill, and notch when present, very inconspicuous.) Nostrils free from bristles. The True Warblers, (this sub-family was formerly called Wood Warblers, in distinction from the Ground and Swamp Warblers of Audubon and other writers,) are, then, the most \ <:imfit^''' '-■ ''^.^W^W^W mmm mmm OF ()RMTHOL()(iY 53 Mm difficult of all the members of the family to Heparate into gf-n- era and sjieciefr, and to accurately determiae ; yet tliey are not so difficult as would seem at first .-.ikdit for all that. The ge- nus SiuruM (or Seium-^ as it used incorrectly to be called) alone would seem to stagger the noviviv'; most of our species the " dress " of the male differs from that of the female, and that of botii male and female from that of the \i>ung-of-the-yt.'ar bird ; again, the spring dress often differs from the fall dress, and both or all together from that of du summer or breeding plumage. In any event, the student hail 'ar better deal with vharactevH that will decide the genus and species, under any circumdanceM, than to fill his head with partial characters that cannot always be relied on. Genkra, Mniotilla, The Creeping Warblers (2 species). Parula, Tlie Blue Yellow-bucked Warbler (with 3 species). I'rotonotaria, The Prothoiiotary Warbler. Helminthfrus, (same as Helmintkoiherus and Ilelmiiherus) The Worm-eatiiift Warbler and alii'. Helminthophaga, or Uelminthophila, allies of the Tennessee Warbler (12 .species). Peucednimus, The O'ive Warbler. Dendr/pra (often spelled Dendroiva) The True Warblers (25 or 26 spei:is."). SittruK (wrongly Seiurus) The Oven Birds (4 species). Oporornis, The Coiinecticat Warbler and ally. Geothlypis, The Ground Warbler. \_Siurux, at one time regarded an almost typical thrush, agrees with the Warblers in nearly every important particular save that of size alone]. SuB-oENKRA, HeloticKo i.>- oftcn made a sub-genus of Helmintheriis, for the accommodation of Swainson's Warbler; Perissoglossa, often used as a dis- tinct generic name, is really a sub-genus of Dendrosca, and used for the Cape May Warbler. I mm 54 MANUAL The young student will have his hands full it' he attempts to follow the synonymy of the genera and speeies of this or of any other large family of North American Birds. The (jues- tion of to-day is, wlmt in ? not so much what used to be f Sub-family / ICTERIINiE Chats This sub-family seems to be framed for one genus and two species. It has been, by some authorities, put with the War- blers, from which it ditf'ers in its large size, huge bill (for a warbler), long and rather broad tail, short wings, and absence of rictal bristles of any kind. The commissure is strungly curved, and the whole bill much compressed. It is different from any of the other members of the family, and really ought to stand a})art from them. It might, witli j)ropriety, be called the " Mountain Warbler." Excepting the bill, it much re- sembles a very large GcothlypiH. It is, however, a true War- bler and has usually been always classed with the Warblers. Genus, Icteria, (2 species). \' I ;■ Sub-family c SETOPHAGINAE Flycatching Warblers The Flycatching Warblers are at once dihtinguished from the True or Wood Warblers. Their name implies their dif- ference, which is especially noticeable in the shape and size of the bill. In size they rescml)le the True Warblers, as also in shape and general appearance of the wings and tail. The nostrils are, however, quite covered by the long bristles at tt.<; base of the bill, the tip of which is strongly hooked and notched. The base of the bill is depressed and broad, «owic- whal like that of a flycatcher, and reminding one strongly of that bird. To a novice the illusion is complete, especially when these birds are actively employed in catching insects. Yet they are, except in this one particular, warblers strictly, and have nearly all of the characteristics of True Warblers. The Setophagime have been placed in various relations with the other birds of the family, though recent writer.-; agree, pretty generally, in placing them after the Iderihuc. OF ORNITHOLOGY 55 Genkra, Myiodioctes, The True Flycatching Warblers (5 gpecies). CarJclliiia, The Red-faced Warbler. Setopkaga, The Redstorts (3 species). Th(fge7ierie names of the Warbk-rs seem to be pretty gen- erally accepted, and to be without equivalents either in generic or sub-generic terms. The mere fact of a genera having a synonym does not necessarily give it a right to a place in our sy.ster.i without sufficient other reasons. Only when a species dift'ers essentially from the type of the genera, can it receive th. designation of suh-genfra. When two or more writers of equal merit differ in their naming, and reasons for naming, any given genera, and when each review the past field and state their reasons for the change, do we feel justified in giv- ing to both names a generic equivalence. This does not make either name a synonym of the other, strictly speaking, unless, by mutual or universal consent or a more complete knowledge of the species, one writer is proved right and the other wrong in his premises, or one for any reason takes the preference of the other. FAMILY X C0ERE6IDAE THE HONEY CREEPERS Derivation beems uncertain This family is distinguished at once from the last, which it very closely reseml)les, by the peculiar character of the bill, — and in this respect it greatly resembles the Gerlhiidoe, or Creepers. Though its generic name, Certhiola, is said to be a " diminutive of Latin certhia, a creeper," I can find no deri- vation for the family name. It belongs in the tropics, and is not usually regarded as strictly a North American native spe- cies. It might be rightly called the Creeper Warbler. Oknus, Certhiola. The exact position of this curious bird cannot be stated, at present, with any degree of positiveness, and authors have • placed it at different iimes in very different relations. It ap- pears to be a straggler here representing a single species. ! mm iBMMMBiMssaaaaaBSg?: liSM'ga'daeigEMiiaiiias-aiKiU'i^ 'WmmnnyMmMmm wmmpmimmmm. ,„- iiiiiiiiirri'iiiiiiiiirmMWiiiiiifffi'im^^^^^^ 56 MANUAL 1 :• •|i ! ^ It 1 i m FAMILY XI TANAGBIDAE THE TANA6ERS Derivation not certain. The latest German authorities saj' " from the Portuguese tangara " ; the iangarine is a species of orange, so may refer to the color ; the name of a city in Greece. This is another group for whose family name I can find no satisfactory derivation, and whose precise position would seem somewhat uncertain. It resembles both the Warblers and the Finches, and would seem to -stand, naturally, between them — but then where should we put the intervening groups ? Such families as this show the advanced student how unsatis- factory our present classification really is. The characters of the family are very marked : The form of the bill (like tliat of a finch or sparrow) with the peculiar tooth in the center of the edge of the upper mandible ; nostrils small, rounded, and basal ; tarsus scutellate ; and wings with 9 primaries. Being a tropical family the North American species are few. Genus Pyranga, The Tanagers (2 species). [Both Wilson and, Audubon give the genus name Tanagra, corresponding to the family designation]. Some writers place the Mexican straggler Euphonia in this family ; but others connect the Cmrebida! with the Tanagers by means of it. We see no reason for giving it any further special mention, it being an extra-lim- ital form. FAMILY XII HIRUNDINIDAE THE SWALLOWS Latin hirundo, o. swallow. The exact position of the Swallow family, like that of many others, is not, at present, satisfactorily settled. Some place it before and some after the Vireoa and Shrikes. It is one of tliose groups which, like a good many others, shows us how next to impossible it is to arrange the divisions of the B1RD8 in anything like a continuous line of ascending and descend- ing likenesses, and so give color to the tree-theory or rather tree-representation which is so often used to express the vari- ous relations and inter-relations of all groups of both Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms, i'or the present, we must be con- -irfffir^ m tlllllillHIMyiW* OF ORNITHOLOGY 57 tented with their present position. The peculiarities of the family are striking. Few could mistake the general appear- ance of a Swallow: The long, pointed wings; the delicate yet stiffened feathers of the tail ; the little legs, i'eet, end toes ; the short, wide and compressed bill, give the familiar features of a Swallow at first sight. More particularly, we have : wings of 9 quills, nicely graduated from the first, which is the longest, to the last, which is about half the length of the first ; tail usually forked more or less, outer feathers often very long ; bill short, broad, and compressed, with deep gape ; nos- trils various in the different groups and usually without rictal bristles ; feet small and weak ; tarsus scutellate (in front), feet weak but claws strong. The head and mouth resemble very strongly those of the Goatsuckers and Swifts. Genera, Hirundo, The Barn Swullow and allies (4 species). Cotyle, The Bank Swallow (2 species). Progne, The Martins (li species). Sub-genera, Iridoprocne, Tachycineta, Peirochelidon, of Hirundo ; and Stelgidopieryx of Cotyle. Note. — Stelgidopteryx often assumes the T : n of a true genus, but we do not think that its similarity to Co- tyle a ■': ,^ dissimilarity to the other-swallows will properly admit to this. FAMILY XIII AMPELIDAE THE WAXWINOS Greek ampelion, " a diminutive singing bird, species not determined, doubtless one of the ' Motacillce ' the ' Warbler tribe ' that frequent vineyards; hence the name ampelos, a vineyard." Were this family comprised of the Wav vings alone there would be little difficulty in disposing of it satisfactorily ; but the species which, for want of a better place, are associated with them render the whole group one very difficult to in, age, at least in respect to its position. It is pretty generall conceded to have three sub-families, which, however, agree in having the : bill short, stout, compressed, and wide at base, tip notched ; rictal bristles, if any, few and short ; basal portion of toes mt>re or less joined to each other. The species of the family are so few that they are easily studied individually. The common Cedar Bird is a good type of the group. To 1 ^' ■mmJI 'i i it I. \ ;; > K >■ 68 MANUAL trace the various positions which these species have, at differ- ent times, occupied would be a work for the specialist. We will not change them from their usual order. Sub-family a AMFELIN2! Waxwings. Always known by the even tail with its wax-like append- ages (except in rare cases and usually immature specimens). Genus, Ampelis, (2 species). [Synonym, Bombycilla]. Sub-family b (Ptiliogonidinae), (PtUogonydinae), and (Ftilogonatinse), have ail been used to designate this group, sometimes with and sometimes without other members of the family. Genera. Phainopepla, The Black-crested Flycatcher, (Occurs also un- der the namL'.s of PhcEuopcpla, Plilugomjs, and Cichlopsis, all valid as GENERIC specifications). Sub-family r MYIADBSTIN^ Genus, Myiadestes, The Townsend's Solitaire. It will be noticed, in the study of the individual, that Sub- family a is very distinct from the Sub- families 6 and c. As Sub-family o. Wings with first quill spurious or nearly so ; tail short ; frontal feathers extending beyond the nostrils, and rictal bristles absent. Sub-families b and c. Wings with first quill one-half (or nearly so) that of the other long quills , tail long ; Irontal feathers not extending beyond the nostrils^ and rictal bristles present. This combining of the Sub-families 6 and c, as above, usu- ally results in three genera : FtiliogomjH, Cichlopsis, and Myiadestes. The first two of these are, really, valid as distinct and sep- arate GENERA, and not as mere synonyms for each other, al- though often so used. The species of Sub-families b and c are, by some author- ities, still placed with the Thmshes or near them. a* ..^mMmmM^^M mmim^m OF ORNITHOLOGY 60 The affinity of any of the species of this family with the Flycatchers is, now, entirely out of mention ; though Myia- de"tes does somewhat resemble them, thus supposedly involv- ing the other members of the family, the relationship is much nearer to the Shnkes. We feel justified, however, in our pres- ent disposition of them. FAMILY XIV LANIIDAE THE SHRIKES Latin luniun, "an executioner." Bill very strong, stout, and powerful, — basal two-thirds greatly compressed and wide at the base ; tip hooked quite abruptly and distinctly toothed and notched ; tail long, and with each pair of feathers, from the center or longest ones, smaller than the preceding pair; primaries 10, the 1st about one-half the longest ; tarsus scutellate in front and on sides. •Genus, Lanius, (4 species). {Colltirio or Collyrio are synonyms). EAMILY XV VIREONIDAE THE VIREOS or GREENLETS Latin vireo, " a kind of bird, according to some the Green-finch." It is only within a few years that the Vireos have been sep- arated and isolated from the Shrikes. They were formerly made a second sub-family of, and secondary to, the latter. If we compare a Vireo witli a Shrike it will be readily seen that the former is a diminutive of the latter, to all appearances : The bill is smnller, more cylindrical and less compressed — though still notched and toothed — and the tail is not gradu- ated but even and short ; wing of 10 primaries, though the 1st is often rudimentary and somewhat displaced, and at other times very short and somewhat spurious (often called spurious) ; size small ; tarsus scutellate in front and not on the sides. Genus, Vireo, (16 species). SuB-OENEKA, Viveosylvia, and Lanivireo. Many of the Vireos formerly appeared under the generic name of Lanius, but this only serves to show their former con- nection with the Shrikes (.roper. : w H i 60 MANUAL Note. — Both the Shrikes and the Vireos would seem, at first, to resemble several other families, more especially the Flycatchers, but a few moment. ; conKuleration will convince one of the great srap t'aRt lies between the two, and show how distinct and indivivlual ihey really j;ro. i III FAMILY XVI litlNGILLIDAE THE FINCHES SPARROWS ETC Lativi Friiigilla, "the chftflinch." The Fnvgillido- are, wit'^out doubt, the largest and the most comj-'icx fimiily with which the student will have to deal> in his study of Ornithology, though the character of a Finch or of a Spatrmt would not easily be mistaken. Next to them, on the Americaji continent at least, come the Sylvicolidce, of which we have already treated. Their numbers are immense, their forms varied — often greatly and curiously so — and they are distriisuted so universally in almost every possible and conceivable location, as to render them, at once, among the most familim- objects of the animate creation in any given location. Sparrtws and Finches occur everywhere th*'ough- out North America, in greater or less numbers, at all times of the year : As migrants, replaced by distinct and separate spe- cies at different times of the year, as summer residents, and again as winter visitors and residents of still different species and varieties. All sorts of localities have their peculiar spe- cies. Their food is varied and almost anything that comes in their way, though, for the most part, consisting of grains and seeds. They are, generally speaking, gregarious — often go- ing about in immense flocks, especially in the spring, fall, and winter. Most of them are fine singers ; and their colors, with a few exceptions, are modest and somber. Tho family is well characterized, in general, by the old-time name for the group of " Conirostres " or cone-bills, or the cone- shaped bills. Though few people would mistake the general form, shape, and contour of a Finch or Sparrow, yet to define properly the family were a very difficult thing to do. It were I i J J ^''iilS^wS'^^S^SS? 'lifemWIljini OF ORNITHOLOGY 61 easier to say what birds were " fringilline " in their character than to give the reason therefor. It is as difficult, also, to say exactly v:here, in the natural sequence of the family, each spe- cies should be placed. There are species in other families, and even whole families, which so greatly resemble the Frin- gillidje as to leave the question still an open one, as to whether or no they should rightly be placed with them. We adopt, however, the seemingly best adapted definition for the whole group meagre and unsatisfactory as it is : Bill short, stout, conical, and tapering abruptly to the sharp- pointed tip from a base whose diameter, in either direction, is, very frequently, nearly if not quite as great as the length of the whole bill. The bill itself forms the best means of char- acterizing the family. Tarsus scutellate in front, undivided on the sides, and ridged behind ; wings with nine primaries only ; tail with twelve feathers : the size and shape of both, however, are subject to almost endless variations. The angle of the commissure at the base of the bill is often made the prominent 'characteristic of the family — but this does not seem as decided throughout all the species as the general cone shape of the bill itself The nostrils- are prominent but un- certain in position, shape, and general appearance and general surroundings ; the rictal bristles, also, are not constant. I have found it very advantageous to the student, in this group especially, as well as in many of the others, to have him or her secure one or several typical forms, then write out a careful analysis of their chief characteristics — even going into minute particulars. He can, with this as a guide, com- pare his other genera with it and note how they deviate from this type. The "^ong Sparrow, the White-throated Sparrow, or the Purple Finch, are good species for this purpose. The attempts to arrange this family into sub-famUies have been so intricate and unsuccessful that we shall not enter into a discussion of the question here. Professor Baird's 8e])aration of the Finohes is of espec'al ,r 62 MANUAL II- s i II !i interest and well worth a great deal of very careful study. It is not intended to be strictly scientific, being more a natural grouping of like with like ; yet it will not be very difficult to compare it with our present systems of classification, as, for the most part, the genera treated of and named are of the same equivalence as our present ones. " Family Fringillidce. I divide all the United States species into 4 sub-families, briefly characterizable as follows : — 1. CoccoTHRAUSTiN^. — Bill variable, from enormously large to quite small ; with the base of the upper mandible almost always provided with a close-pressed fringe of bristly feathers (more or less conspicuous) concealing the nostrils. Wings very long and pointed, usually one-half to one-third longer than the forked or emar- ginate tail. Tarsi short, 2. SpizellinvE. — Embracing all the jjlain-coloreij, sparrow- like species marked with longitudinal stripes. Bill conical, always rather small ; both mandibles about equal. Tarsi lengthened. Wings and tail variable. Lateral claws never reaching beyond the base of the middle claw. 3. PASSERKLLiNiE. — Sparrow-likc species with triangular spots beneath. Legs, toes, and claws very stout ; the lateral claws reaching nearly to the end of the mid- dle ones. 4. Spizin^:. — Brightly-colored species usually without any streaks. Bill usually very large and much curved ; lower mandible wider than the upper. Wings mod- erately long. Tail variable. Under sub-family 1 we have, A. — Bill enormously large and stout ; the lateral outline as long as that of the skull. Culraen gently curved. Genus, .Hesperiphona. *> ■^fJ -am OF ORNLTHOLOGY 63 B. — Bill pmaller, with the culnien more or less curved ; the lateral outliue not so long as the skuJl. Wings about one- third longer than the tail or a little more ; first quill shorter than the second. Claws considerably curved and thickened ; hinder one most so, and almost inappreciably longer or even shorter than the middle anterior one. Tarsus shorter than the middle toe. Lateral toes unequal. Genera, Pinicola, Carpodacus, and Chrysomitris. C. — Hind claw considerably longer than the middle anterior one, with about the same curvature ; claws attenuated towards the point and acute. Lateral toes about equal. Wings usu- ally almost one-half longer than the deeply forked tail. A. — Points of mandibles overlapping. Genps, Curvirostra. B. — Points of mandibles not overlapping. Genera, JEgiothus and Leucosticie. D. — Hind claw much the largest ; decidedly less curved than the middle anterior one. Tarsi longer than the middle toe. Lateral toes equal ; reaching about to the base of the middle claw. Hind toe as long or longer than the middle one. Bill very variable ; always more or less curved and blunted. Tail slightly emarginate or even. Wings one-half longer than the tail. First quill as long as the second. Genus, Plectrophanes. Unc r sub-family 2 we have, A. — Tail small and short ; wings considerably or decidedly longer than the tail, owing either to the elongation of the wing or to the shortening of the tail. Lateral toes shorter than the middle, without its claw. Species streaked above and below. A. — Thickly streaked everywhere above, on the sides, and across the breast. Wings pointed , longest pri- mjta fii \i yi ill- y K f 64 MANUAL maries considerably longer than the secondaries. Tail forked. Genera, Centruuyx, I'asserculus, and Pooccetes. B. — Moderately streaked abovo, on the sides, and on the breast ; the dorsal st- "iiks broader, the others fainter, than in the last. \V inps short, reaching a little beyond the base of the tail. Not much dif- ference between the primaries and secondaries. Tail short, graduated, and the feathers lanceolate, acute. Genera, Coturniculus and Amm.odramua. B. — Tail longer and broader ; nearly or quite as long, some- times a little longer, than the wings, which are rather length- ened. The primaries considerably longer t an the second- aries. None of the species streaked beneath, and the back alone streaked above. A. — Tail rounded or slightly graduated. Genera, Chondestes, Zonotrichia, Jnnco, and Pooapiza. B. — Tail decider" ly forked ; a li'rle shorter than the wing, sometimes a little longer. GiiNus, Spizella. C. — Tail lengtht led and graduated ; decided^ longer than the wings, i<'h are verv short, scarcely ex udiug ' i^vond the extreme base of the tail. Feet reaching .mt littl ond the middle of the tail. Species all streaked above ; mu .Ked or nearly unicolor ber-^ath. No white on wings or tail. Outor lateral t i' the longer. First 'luill not *he aortest f the primaries. Genera, Meh'^piza and Peucaa. D. — Tail rather short, and mi h graduated ; longer than the wings : the midrib more mc in. Culm i curved. Tarsus considerably longer tha i middl' toe. Out toe longer. But ic difference ' i the length »f the (juills ; the outer ones «^ M 1 OF ORNITHOLOGY 66 much rounded ; even the second quill is shorter than any other primary except the first. Genus, Emhernagra. Under sub-family 3 we have simply the genus Passerclla. Sub-fuiuilv 4 contains, A. — Tail decidedly shorter than the wings ; nearly even. A. — Bill elongated ; upper mandible rather deeper, or as deep as the lower. Feet large and strong. Genera, Calamospiza and Euspiza. B. — Bill stouter, and more curved abov ler mandible generally not so deep as the low er. eet smaller. Genera, Guiraca and Cyanospiza. B. — Wings and tail of the species about equal in size. Genus, Spermophila. C. — Wings much shorter than the tail, which in broad and graduated ; primaries graduated ; the first seldom longer than the secondaries. A. — Head crested. Prevailing color red. Bill red. Genera, Pyrrhuloxia and Cardinalis. B. — Head not crested. No red. Bill dusky. Genus, Pipilo." Th X'uiih American genera and species of the Fringillidoe, at least t\ )st prominent ones, may be briefly enumerated as follow!: : Genera, Hesperophona, The Evening Grosbeak. Pinicola, The Pine Grosbeak. J f ! ' 66 MANUAL t I ; ; ii ; Pyrrhula, The Cassin's Finch (or Bultinch). Passer, The House and Mountain Sparrows, [imported and Nat- nraliz( <\ from Europe,] (2 npecies). Carpodacus, The Purple Finches (S to 6 species). Loxia, The Crossbilln (3 species). Leucosiicte, The Rosy Finches (5 6\)< I's). Jigiothus, [suB-GENEBA, Linota,] The Linnets. Red-poles, etc. (5 species). Chrysomitris, The Vine Finch or Linnet. Astragali aus, The American Goldfinch and 6 others. Plcrirophanes, The Snow Hiintinn. Centrophanes, The Ijongspurs (3 species). lihynchophanes, The Bay-winged Longspur. Passerculus, The Savanna Sparrow (8 or 9 species). PoiecetcK, The Grass Finches (2 species). Coturniculus, The Yellow-winged and Henslow Sparrows or Buntings (4 species). Ammodramus, The Sea-side ancl Sharp-tailed Finches (4 species). Melospiza, The Song and Swnmp Sparrows (9 species). I'euccea, The Summer Finches, 1 7 species). Amphispiza, The Sage Sparrows (3 spi'<;ies). Junco, The Snow-birds (8 species). Spizella, The Chipping Sparrows and allies (7 species). Zonotrichia, The White-tiiroated Sparrow and allies (6 species). Clwiidestes, The Lark Finches (2 species). Passerella, The Fox Sparrows (4 species). Calamospiza, The Lark Bunting. Spiza, The Black-throated Bunting and ally. Zameludia. The Rose-colored Grosbeak and ally. Guiraca, The Blin Grosbeak. Passeriiia, The Nonpariels or Painted Finches (6 species). Pyrrhuloxia, The Texas Cardinal. Cardinalis, The Cardinal Red-bird and ally. Pipilo, The Towhee Buntings (12 sjn .ies). Embemagra, The Texas Sparrow. A comparisou of the most recent writers, in fact of a ma- jority of writers, for the past fifty years, fails to show any very great deviation from the above generic names — as to the form and spelling oi' the name. Many of the species as- signed lo these genera uie rare, and either Alascau, Texan, or Mexican forniH. Again, a few of them may be somewhat ques- tionable. A large number of them are, really, mere geo- ».'i" ''*«£','• i^P5^S^1^3i^S^S'Mr--^sr ^m^m^mm^r^^ OF ORNITHOLOGV 67 graphical varieties of some given tyj)e fci \ Taking all these facts into account, we can easily imagine, and in reality p/o'e, that nearly every genera possesses a typical representative of that genera. T^he shifting of species from one genera to an- other, though strictly in accordance with a commendable spirit sometimes unwisely persistently manifested however to ar- range the species thus ti/picnllif un Siffl'B'*;^!-' tr- u- er OB H- er, ir- as nd ke ice ad, 10- S> the igs ely ed. ib- md on. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) Y / o ^/ /. 1.0 I.I 1^ IsB 1111122 1^0 IIIII2.0 1.8 1:25 i 1.4 lllll 1.6 V <^ /} '^, '^ ^y Photographic Sciences Corporation 71 WEST MAIN STRICT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 {7\6) 1172-4503 I"!.**' '%^ 1. 1 r\^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques OF ORNITHOLOGY 81 FAMILY XXVI PICIDAE THE WOODPECKERS Latin picus, a woodpecker. The Woodpeckers constitute the last, really the first and characteristic, family of this order. Familiar, as well as pe- culiar, and universal, this group j)ossesses especial interest to all lovers and observers of our birds. Few have received more or more careful study and attention, or are more inter- esting, than the Woodpeckers. Various as have been the clas- sifications of these writers the simplest, as is often the case, have proved the best and we have come back to them. One family and a few genera serve well our purpose. Should we enter into a careful review and revision of the field of past and present systematists, it would occupy far too much space. — And every one knows what a Woodpecker is. They are found in all parts of the world (with one or two rare excep- tions). Their food is largely insect life — principally larva, or what the farmers often calls " worms." The tappings made in garden trees by these birds are usually made to se- cure some concealed grub, which would otherwise damage the tree much more if let alone. They appear to seldom touch or injure a sound tree. The ])rejudice against them which some, even very intelligent, farmers possess to-day is wrong and al- most wholly unfounded. They are eminently beneficial. In general the features of the family are : feet disposed in pairs, two being anterior and two posterior (zygodactyle) the " fourth toe " being reversed ; tail feathers acuminate with the shafts elastic and very stout, of twelve feathers, outer pair very small ; wings of ten prima;/ quills, the first being al- most spurious ; tarsus and toes with sciitella! in front, more or less reticulate behind — both tarsus and feet are, comparatively speaking, short, small, and weak, yet possessing remarkable strength and tenacity, the toes also are remarkably pliant, the claws strong, sharp, much curved, and very tough ; the bill is peculiar, being straight, stout, somewhat compressed, with an awl-like, truncate tip, and is a veritable chisel. The special study of this feature alone would be productive of much in- ^3 82 MANUAL terest. The tongue of most of these species sends terminal shoots around the base of the skull by means of which it can throw that member out to a very great length, and with its horny, rasp-like tip secure grubs and insects from far within the interior of the tree upon which it is in search of food. One genus has but three feet. The student will do well to make a careful and separate study of this family, and he will find his interest in it increaco as he progresses. The family is generally divided into three sub-families, but only one of them is exclusively Amei-ican. In conseciuence the family characteristics will stand for those of the sub-fam- ily PlCIN^. Genera Campephilu.% The Ivory-billed Woodpecker. HylotomuH, The Pileated Woodpecker. Picux, The Hairj' Woodpecker and 9 to 12 allies. Xenopicns, The White-hended Woodpecker. Picoides, The Three-toed Woodpeckers (3 species). Sphyrapiais, The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker (and 3 allies). Cetitiirtis, The Red-bellied Woodpecker (and 3 allies). Melanerpes, The Red-headed Woodpecker (and 4 allies), Colaptes, The Flickers (5 species). As these genera are all stable, and, at present, no sub-geneba or synon- ymy seems to be desirable, we shall not try to puzzle the student by at- tempting to account for old generic forms. The family does very well as it is. Picoides, alone, seems to depart from the family characterization. A study of its embryonic forms would be highly int'.rt'-iting. FAMILY XXVII PSITTACIDAE THE PARROTS Latux psitiacus, Gtex-k psHlake, a parrot; probably from thuir hisning or chattering {sizo to hiss). As there is but a single family of these curious birds, and a single American sub-family, moreover but a single genus, in referring back to the characterization of the ordkr, the stu- dent will find plenty of marks by which to determine the real position of the group. Until recently there were accorded us but a single species, now we can innumerate two genera and three species. They all conform to the same general type. The curious bill, hawk-like and yet not hawk-like ; the pe- culiar disposition and shape of tlie feet, being disposed in OF ORNITHOLOGY 83 pairs, two anterior and two posterior, the " fourth toe " being reversed (zygodactyle), as in the Woodpeckers and the Cuckoos, and few if any other birds, we can determine the specimens referable to this family with absolute accuracy. The general form of the Parrot is a familiar one. That parrots should be «o rare now in North America, when formerly so abundant at least in the Southern United States, is remarkable. The OR- DKR has anatomical peculiarities, also, which are fully as re- markable as their general appearance. It is one upon which a great deal of time may be satisfactorily used in study. We have two genera : Gknera Ilhynchopsitta, The Thick-billed Parrot. Conurns, The Carolina Parakeet and allj-. The above two genera and three species, owing to the paucity of forms in this ORDER, are included here, — one genera and two species occur South of the limits of the United States proper. Conurus caroliiiemis, The Cftrolina Parakeet, alor?- eprescnts the species common north of Mexico. TAMILY XXVIII ALUCONIDAE THE BARN OWLS "Italian alocho, some kind of owl," probably akin to Latin alucinor. otrange as the arrangement may a])pear, at least to the un- initiated, we find that the mai*^ ity of writers of to-day agree, almost unanimously, in sep: ap this curious Owl-anomaly from the great mass of Nocr^^^ val Birds of Prey by a separate and distinct family. Writers have for a long Avhile been aware that its peculiarities showed it to be different from the other Strigides. Until recently writers were in the habit of placing it last instead of first on the owl list. Its present place is not, as miglit at first seem to appear, from any desire to place all the owl species in a reverse order from the usual one. This new position results more from the fact that this species is more typical of the Universal Order of Strigides, perhaps, than any other of our North American species. Be this as it may, the general position as first seems now alnios*^ universally acknowledged. The single family, genera, and species, referring directly to our common American Barn Owl, is instantly recognizable. y 84 MANUAL Although \fe have styled our family Aluconid^, and our genus Aluco, it is the same as Professor Baird has styled, " Sub-family STRIGIN^E. — Typical Owls. Size medium, never very large. Head large ; facial disc perfect ; bill rather long ; eyes rather small for this family ; [Strigid^e, The Owls] legs rather long, fully feathered to the toes. Strix, Linn. Head large, without ear tufts ; eyes rather small ; facial disc perfect, and very conspicuous ; wings long ; tarsi long ; tail rather short ; toes ^nd claws rather long. This genus contains about twelve species from all parts of the world. Strix pratincola, Bonaparte The Barn Owl." Our present writers agree in making Aluco the name of the genera. FAMILY XXIX STRIGIDAE OWLS IN GEN- ERAL Latin strix, Grefck strigx, "a screech owl." This family has been characterized very fully under the Or- der and Sub-order Raptores. It is a family not easily mis- taken under any circumstances. The main difference between the Strigidce and the Aluconidoe is principally an anatomical one : The universal characteristics of the Owls remain the same, outwardly, with very little difference. 1 have given Professor Baird's characters for Aluco, but as he has treated it as a svb-famUy under a general heading of " Family Strig- iDyK," his family characters must necessarily include charac- ters which will answer equally well for both our Aluconidse and our StrigidaJ. This might prevent our using hin Family Strigidas characters for our Family Strigidse characters. And yet, as may be seen from above, the real difference is very slight and chiefly an anatomical one. So, as a purely chnical matter, we find ourselves in a real quandry for a proper diag- nosis for our present Family. Many writers make no sub- OF ORNITHOLOGY 85 families of our American Owls, but treat only with generic differences. Professor Baird's admirable classifications, however, are not old, and are still authority. As we have adopted one part of them we cannot do better than adopt the remainder, for the Owls at least. We shall quote the parts we borrow. Sub-family a " BUBONINiE! Horned Owls Head large, with erectile and prominent ear-tufts. Eyes 'argo ; facial disc not complete above the eyes and bill ; legs, feet, and claws usually very strong." Genera Buho, The Horned Owls (4 species). Scops, The Little Screech Owls (8 species). Asio, The Eared Owls (2 species). The present Asio stands for the recent Otus and Brachyotvs, while both of these latter generic names formerly received the generic equivalent of Strix. Neither of the three latter names seem to be used now either as a suB-oENUs or in the sense of our present genus Strix. Sub-family b "SYRNIN^ Gray Owls Head large, with very small and concealed ear-tufts, or en- tirely without. Facial disc nearly perfect ; eyes i^mall for the family of Owls ; wings rather short, or not .so long as in the preceding ; tarsi and toes generally fully feathered." There are both large and small Owls here as in (a). Genera Strix, (5 species). Nyctale, (2 species). It is now pretty generally conceded that at present the name Strix ap- pears appropriate as the genus for the five species which formerly went by other generic names. Some of these are still in good standing as generic, but whether they could any of them be called even .SH^-generic, or should simply remain as generic equivalents = synonyms, is a matter very much of individual opinion. We should doubt vcy much the propriety of using any of them in a .foft-generic sense. Professor Baird used the name Snr- niuvi for l)oth the Great Gray and the Barred Owls ; Professor Ridge- way used Strix for the Barred Owl and its varieties only. He used Ulula for the Great Gray Owl and its varieties. 9^ 86 MANUAL Sub-family c " ATHENINiE Bird Owls Size small ; facial disc very imperfect, or nearly obsolete ; tarsi generally partially or but thinly covered with feathers ; head without ear-tufts." These are all small Owls. CrENEBA Glaucidium, The Pi^my Owls (2 species). Mcrathene, The Elf Owl. Z^cotyto 'Sp/icotyto [wrongly]), The Burrowing Owls (2 species). As originally constituted this sub-family contained only Athene, (a .syno- nym for Speotyto ; ) and one species of Glaucidium. If we admit Micra- thene as a sub-oexfra of Glaucidium, which seems to us perfectly justifi- able, we still come within the prescribed limits of the st..>-family. Sub-family d " NYCTEININiB Day Owls General form compact and robust. Head moderate, with- out ear-tufts ; wings and tail rather long ; tarsi strong, which, with the toes, are more densely covered than in any other di- vision of this family." These are large and medium-sized Owls. {Sumia agrees well with Ado in point of size). Oenera Nyctea, The Snowy Owl. Sumia, The Hawk Owls (2 species). We see no reason why, with the above separating distinc- tions, the Family Strigid^ should very greatly perplex the student. It surely gives him all the elementary facts for a working elassification, at once correct and up to date. Upon this basis he will find it comparatively easy to enlarge his knowledge of the classification of the family, and to add much thereto from his own investigations. TAMILY XXX FALCONIDAE THE FALCONS HAWKS AND EAGLES Latin falco, Greek phalkes ; a falcon. The main distiuguishi..g characters of this family are much the same as in the Sub-order of the Raptores on page 29. We shall point out the differences in the Sub-families here so fully that there will be little need to enlarge upon the iamily. It would be a matter of some difficulty, indeed, to do other- wise. As some families are known best by the individuals *.«,? i OF ORNITHOLOGY 87 placed in them (as evinced in the Order Picari^.,) so others, like the Owls, Hawks, etc., are best known by their mih-fam- ilies. (And they, likewise, by the individuals placed in them). Many writers are now making a separate family of the Futh Hawk or Osprey ; perhaps the wisdom of this is as evident as that of constituting a separate family for the Barm Owl. As we treat the one we will so treat the other. In general : a Hawk, a Falcon, or an Eagle, are easily to be told at sight or with but very little difficulty. The general appearance is not easily to be mistaken. The hooked bill, the fierce eye, the head, wings, tail, and general appearance of the body, are all characteristic, and striking the eye at once give an unmistak- able impression. Even the dead bird and the dried skin bear with them the form, appearance, and general air of a dead warrier. The flight is powerful, and bears out well the gene- ral character of the bird. The foot of a Hawk is also a nota- ble characteristic — the sharp, curved, and strong claws could not easily be mistaken for those of birds of any other family. The Sub-families of the Falconid^e are as persistent and as well defined as in the Striqid^. The are as follows : Sub-family a CIRCIN^ Harriers The Marsh Hawk, our only representative of this sub-fam- ily so far, is a familiar and well-known bird. It differs mate- rially from any other of the hawks, ad yet approaches the Xites from which, on a first inspect.. i, it would seem to be • the farthest removed of any of the lesser hawks. It has the bill less powerful than the other species with which it was for- merly associated, and it is neither notched or toothed at the tip ; the tarsus is long and slender, and the feet and claws comparatively weak as well as slender ; cere prominent ; nos- trils large and oblong ; rictal bristles many, curving, and long ; head large ; face with a partial disc much as in the Otrlfi ; ears prominent ; wings long and pointed ; tail long and broadening towards the tip. The diflbrence in the plumage of the male and the female often confuses a novice into the sup- *^ All ■ 88 MANUAL position that be has discovered a new species — the male be- ing bluish in color and the female and young brownish — all have the rump white, this alone would characterize the sub- family and distinguish it from any other. GENU8, Circus, The Mursh Hawk. The old generic equivalent was Falco. Sub-famUy b MILVINiB Kites In most instances the Kites would be known at once by their long and often deeply forked tail, though a few species do not have the tail abnormally long. The tail and winp would alone characterize the sub-family. Compared with the C1RCIN.E : bill rather slender, weak, and not toothed at the tip • no facial disc ; bristles few or wanting altogether ; upper mandible sometimes barely notched the under one never; wings long and pointed ; length of tail varied ; tarsus not very long and feet small, claws slender -the whole foot weak. The student will find that the genera vary considerably araon^ themselves, yet all conform to the general Kite-like outhne. He will do well to compare his specimens and form his own diagnosis of the group in that way. Genera, Koatrhamus, The Everglade Kite. Ictinia, The Mississippi Kite. Elanus, The White-tailed Kite. Elanoides, The Swallow-tailed Kite. Sykonvms, (the most important ones): Milvus of elanus, ^nd Nauclerm of ELANomES. Several synonyms, hardly worth menuoning m the present connection, will doubtless occur to students of synonymology ; especally- that of Falco, which occurs for all four species. Sub-famUy c ACCIPITRIN-2B True Hawks We call the AcciPiTRlNiE the True Hawks in distinction from the Buteonin.e or the Buzzard Hawks. Both families are really " True Hawks," though why the latter family m so almost universally styled the " Buzzards " would be hard to say. To call them " Buzzard Hawks " might indeed be eminently proper, as they partake of the characteristics of both 'ill' OF ORNITHOLOGY 89 True Buzzards and True Hawks. The former are more prop- erly " Partridge or Chicken Hawks." The Accipitrin^ are slender built hawks, though in courage equal to Eagles them- selves. Their flight is swift and sure ; and they pursue their prey with a heedlessness and blind obstinacy, regardless of ob- stacles, that is often their own ruin. They often secure their prey only to dash themselves to pieces against some building, window, or other obstruction which lies in their path. In general they have : Bill short, stout, untoothed though cur- ved and of irregular outline (edges) ; nostrils oval, slightly oblonged, without central tubercle ; legs long and rather slen- der, scutellate, and rarely feathered ; wings short, concaved, and powerful, first quill short, third to fifth longest ; tail long' feathers broad, end of tail square, rounded, or often emargin- ated. The general appearance of being long and slender rather than short and stout distinguishes them at once. Genera, Accipiter, The " Sharp-shinned " Hawk (2 species). Astur, The Goshawks (2 species). Accipiter and Astur were both formerly classed with Falco, a moment's glance, however, will show the different appearance of the two families ; but, to look at the synonymy of our Hawks and Eagles, one would think that there was formerly but one family for all, t. e., Palco. Sub-famUy ./ FALCONINiB True Falcons The Falcom proper are historic birds, and their appearance is striking and unmistakable. They are found in all parts of the world, have been referred to by writers as far back nearly as the art of writing itself is known, and gives a character to the V ' , :3 family which is partaken of to a greater or less de- gree i y every individual in it. Yet they diflfer in appearance from the members of all the other sub-families. They have the bill supplied -with both tooth and notch, (the bill alone would characterize the sub-family and furnish a study in it- self, a single glance will give a better impression of it than pages of descriptive matter) ; cere prominent ; nostril circles with central tubercle and placed near the crown of the cere ; tarsus and toes rather short but very stout, and more or less' . W i-;i mmmm^' ^86 MANUAL fully reticulate, tarsus feathered, middle toe noticeably longer than any of the others, claws all stout, tough, and are sharp, iypical talons ; wings long, strong, pointed, and very power- ful, well fitted for an arrow-like, cutting flight, first four quih^ long and often emarginate on the inner webs ; tail short, fan- like, and rather powerful and strong. The whole bird gives one the general idea of its being the embodiment of concen- trated power, and it is fierce and relentless in its pursuit of its prey. There is properly but a single Genus, Falco. Sub-genera, Hierofalco, The Gryfalcons (5 species). [Falco, The Falcons proper (H species)]. , ^salon, The Merlins (4 species). Tinnunculm, The Sparrow Hawks (5 species). [T.fusci-ccervleacem is frequently called Ithynchofalcofusci-carulescens.'] These sub-genera are often given the rand of genera. Sub-family e POLYBORINiE Caracara Eagles The genus Polyborus, for which this sub-family has been framed, is a curious mixture of the Vulture and the Eagle, and through the. latter of the "Buzzard Hawks"; anatomi- cally, also, it is related to the Falcons ptoper. We do well, therefore, to give it a decided individual character. In Pro- fessor Baird's Report he has classed them as following the Fish Hawk (genus Fandion) which follows the Bald Eagle (genus HalMm) ; both of these, with Polyborm, are classed under the sub-family containing the Eagles. In describing Polyborm, he says : " Smaller than in either of the preceding genera of Eagles. {Pandion and Haliwtus.) Bill rather long, compressed ; cere large ; wings long, pointed ; tail mod- erate or rather long ; tarsi long, rather slender ; claws long, rather weak, and but slightly curved ; space in front of and the eye naked." These birds are evidently restricted to Southern North America, and may differ somewhat from the common South American species. Genus, Folijborun (2 species). in OF ORNITHOLOGY 91 Sub-family / BXTTEONINJE Buzzards or Buzzard Hawks Some of our writers make a distinction between tiie Buz- zuvdn or Buzzard HawkH, (placing them in different sub-fam- ilies,) and the Eagles, while others do not. While it is true that there are certain forms in either group that grade toward each other, the main body of each differ in so many particu- lars that we shall regard tl ''m as separate sub-families and treat them as we herewith do. The Buzzard Hawks are easily and naturally grouped to- gether, though having peculiarities of several of the other sub-families of the family. Their stout, robust, and heavy form and appearance stands out prominent against the longer and more slender form of nearly every rival. They differ from the Falconing, in that the nostrils are n i circular and have no central tubercle ; from the Accipitrin.k, in that the tip of the wings is formed by the third or fourth or fifth quill or any two or all of them, and that the tail is uniformly at least one-third smaller than the wings (in Ac("iPiT;tiN.E the sixth quill enters into the tip of the wings and the tail is equal in length to the wings), and the tarsus being short and stout and usually more or less feathered ; from the Polyborjn^e, by their general size and shape ; and from the Eagles by their shape, size, and general'y nubdiied figure and less fierce aspect, and from the fact that the extremities — bill, legs, feet, and claws, long-pointed wings and the tail — seem more in keej)- ing with the birds here enumerated than to be out of propor- tion [long, sharp, slender, and pointed] with the body, as in that group. An Eagle, however much it may resemble in certain features the Buteonin^e, would never, at secc.id glance, be mistaken for one of them. There are few mem- bers of the group that would not be immediately recogni \ as belonging to this sub-family. Genera, Antenor, Harris's Hawk. Buteo, The " Buzzard or Hen Hawks," (14 species). Archibuteo, The Rough-legged Hawks (2 species). Asturina, The Mexican Goshawk. 'i m mm 92 MANUAL Uruhiiinga, The Mexican Black Hawk. Onychotes, Gruber's Hawk. Antenor is merged in Buteo by some writers, we confess that we cannot see why in view of its record as a new genun. , Sub-family £■ AQXTILINJE! Eagles The Eagk» would be sufficiently distinguishable from the sub-family preceding them (the BuTEONiNiE) by their mere size aloue, provided mze were a proper character for so high a division as that of a sub-family. When we add the long, slender, faleonine shape of the body, and extremities even ; the strongly curved and sharp-pointed bill and talons ; the compressed basal half of the upper mandible — in distinction from the rather sho^-t, stubby, and slightly inclined to de- pressed base in the BuTEONiNiE — ; and the difference in shape of the feet in the two groups when spread out and the bird is standing upon them — in the Eagles the ends of the toes raising themselves considerably above the base of the tarsus ; we are satisfied that these sub-families are and should be made distinct. The North American families are few, and easily determined. CIenera, Aquila, The Golden Eagle. Haliaetus, The Bald Eagle and ally. Thrasaetus (or Thrasyaetus), The Harpy Eagle. TAMILY XXXI PANDIONIDAE THE OSFRETS Latin Pandion, a king of Athens. The OsprcyH or Fkh Hawks are made a separate family from the FAiiCONiDiE, (they are usually made a genm under the Eagles, which they very closely resemble in many particu- lars,) chiefly through the reversibility of the outer toe, (which is not reversible in the Falconid^,) and the curious plumage or rather state of plumage which these birds are known to possess. They resemble, in various ways, several groups : The bill is much like the Eagles, but shorter ; the wings like the Falcom, but rather heavier about the shoulders ; the body like the Buzzard Hawks, but more slender ; and yet all of its •jffr- OF ORNITHOLOGY 98 characters are so individual as to place it justly by itself, and and yet none of them seem to exactly resemble those of the other groups above alluded to. It is a family hard to define precisely, and yet a gli.iipse of the bird is sufficient to fix it at once in the memory. There is but a single genus and a single species common, at least in North America. Genus, Pandion, The Fish Hawk or Osprey. Though placed between the Falconiu.k on the one hand and Cathartid>e on the other, they can in no way be called a link between the two, as Paiir ■dion diflFers materially from any form of either. FAMILY XXXII CATHARTIDAE THE VULTURES Greek katharies, " one who purifies." The American representatives of this family are not diffi- cult to determine or to characterize. Their peculiar form and shape makes them at once conspicuous and easy of recogni- tion. There being no necessity in America for sub-fatuily di- visions, and but a limited number of genera and species, the familv characters will be the same as those enumerated under the SUB-ORDER heading on page 29. The fact that the feed exclusively, or nearly so, upon carrion, however, would not of itself prevent a strictly scientific or technical difiference ; it would be rather a peculiarity of the species. The bare space on the head and neck ; the curiously-shaped bill — long and weak and hooked at tip ; large nostrils ; and strong, long, and wide wings ; are enough to determine the family wherever it may be found. Oenera, Pseudogryphus, The California Condor. Cathartes, The Turkey Buzzard. Catharista, The Black Vulture, Carrion Crow. Vultur was formerly a generic equivalent for all of the above names, but it is now seldom employed. It is strange if these three species of Vultures, without va- rieties, be all that occur within our borders. One or two ad- ditional species (or varieties) may yet be found on our South- western borders, but they are still unrecognized. ill ii = ITS I 94 MANUAL FAMILY XXXIII COLUMBIDAE THE PIGEONS Latin culumba, a dove or pigeon. This is anotlier family whose characteristics would be the same as those of the sub-ordek ; but as there is but one sub- order, to obviate the necessity of falling back upon the order we will represent the family characters as of, primarily, a gen- eral domestic pigeon- or dove-like appearance ; the bill is not easy to describe, but the inspection of the bill of a domestic pigeon will give at once the main noticeable characteristic of the family ; the head is small, the body plump and compara- tively large (or full) ; the tarsus differs essentially in the dif- ferent Huh-families, as will be shown below ; wings long and pointed, broad and somewhat concaved at the shoulder (almost 'powerful and capable of l(»ng-continued flight) ; tail varying — rounded or almost square — and often with graduated feath- ers (showing most plainly from beneath) ; the plumage re- markably soft and somewhat greasy to the touch. In fact^ they are simply pigeons — wild pigeons, and dovcn — wild doves ; and conform in appearance much more satisfactorily than in exact definition. There are three sub-families : Sub-family a COLUMBIN2I True Pigeons Tarsus feathered and scutellate ; feet small ; tarsus short ;, wings rather long, flat, and pointed. Genera, Columba, (3 species). Ectopistes, The Passenger (Common Wild) Pigeon. Sub-family d ZrNAIDINJE True or G-round Povea Tarsus not feathered but scutellate ; feet medium in size ; tarsus also medium ; wings rather short, concaved, and barely pointed. Oekera, Engyptila, The White-fronted Dove. Zenaidura, The Carolina Mourning Dove and ally. ZenaidA, The Zenaida Dove. Melopelia, The White-winged Dove. ' Chammpelia, The Ground Dove (2 species). Scardafella, The Scaled Dove. Geotrygon, The Key West Dove. OF ORNITHOLOGY 95 Sub-family c STARNCBNADINiB Tarsus not feathered and reticulate ; feet large ; tarsus long; bill short and stubbed ; wings much concaved at shoulder. Gencs, Starneenas, The Blue-headed Dove. The above genera^ are, at present, almost uniformly stable and without synonyms. Zenaidura was not formerly used exclusivel3' for the Caro- lina Dove. Turtur was formerly used for several cf the Doves. Columha was an old generic name for nearly all of the above genera. The wings and tail vary so as characters that they can hardly be relied on except for generic distinctions. FAMILY XXXIV CRACIDAE THE CURASSOW GUAN Derivation uncertain. The Tex(i8 Gnan or Curassow is a bird most curious and in- dividual in its character. The single species recognized at present is made the type of a genus and a family, as well as of a SUB-ORDER, among the North Ameri(!an birds. Its position is, however, somewhat uncertain — being placed in the Order CoLUMBv^E by some writers, and in GALUNvf: by others. The student should be careful not to fall into the error, on this account, of regarding it as a " link " between these two orders as it has no such relation and could therefore occupy no such supposable place. The curiously " naked narrow streaks," — Baird {^G-ray) — of the throat (wattles absent); the naked tarsus (scutellate), and short hind toe ; the slender bill ; the crested head ; the curious shade of olivaceous of it? plumage ; and the short wings for the length of the bird [wing 8^ inches and length 23 inches] ; furnish sufficient characters to more than determine the family as well as its present single member. More species may doubtless yet be discovered probably in the South-western part of North America. Genus, Ortalis, The Texan Guun or Curassow. (Ortalida = also Ortalis). ■^BSM wgm mm.mM 96 MANUAL FAMILY XXXV MELEAGRIDAE THE WILD ' TURKEYS Latin Meleagris (Greek similar) " a Guinea hen." This family needs no special technical definition in order that the young student may identify its members. In the present instance the family, mb-family, and specific diagnosis would be the same. The curiously naked head and neck with its warty outgrowths (canincles), the fleshy " dew-lap " [or laps], the breast " tassel," the spurs of the male, and the general ap- pearance of the plumage, all bear indisputable testimony to the characteristics of the TurLys. We have at present but one genus, and two possibly three species. Genus, Meleagris, The Wild Turkey and ally. {Gallopavo = also Meleagris). FAMILY XXXVI TETRAONIDAE THE PAR- TRIDGE GROUSE AND QUAIL Latin ieirau, Greek tetraon, a heathcoek, moorfowl. This family is one of such especial interest throughout the length and breadth of our land that it is worthy of more than passing mention. Probably to no family, at least among the Land Birds, is more general attention drawn than to this one. The distinctions between the Groitse, the Partridges, and the Quail, are " fine points " in ornithological science ; and it is sufiicient here to say, that the scientific and the popular sig- nifications for the individuals in question are often greatly at variance. We shall endeavor to give the student only the cor- rect technical scientifix; equivalent for each species — and then peo- ple may call them what they please to suit their own conve- nience. This family constitutes the great majority of the Land Game Birds of North America — and its species are found North, South, East, and West : everywhere in this our grand old continent. The woods, the plains, the mountain regions, and the prairies, are alike inhabited by members of this family. Formerly, the Grouse and the Quail were made separate families j but this does not seem necessary, for the OF ORNITHOLOGY 97 difference between them is apparently greater than it really is. To make them mb-familiett under one family, seems more in keeping with the general scientific character of the separate individuals in question. As a family, however, they are very hard to characterize. The peculiar " plumage," or rather ■state of plumage, being its most constant character. The feathers are, for the most part, short, broad, elastic, soft, fine, yet remarkably strong and stout — this renders the plu- mage soft, close-fitting, water-proof, barely greasy to the touch, dove-like, and of a neat, trim appearance not possessed by any •others, in the same degree, whether Land or Water Birds. "We shall separate the members of this family into two mh- Jatniliea, as follows : i Sub-family a TETRAONINiE Grouse Tarsus wholly or in part feathered ; feathers extending also into the groove of the nostrils. The (Jronnc are of a much larger size than the Quail ; here size alone being another con- stant character. Genera, Canace, The Canada Grouse and 4 others. Centrocercus, The Sage Cock. Pediceceies, The Sharp-tailed Grouse (2 species). Cupidonia, The Pinnated Grouse and ally. Bonasa, The Ruffed Grouse (3 species). Lagopus, The Ptarmigans (3 species). Some of the species of Grouse have interchanged their genera, frequently, especially iu former years ; the old genus Tetrao stood then for almost any of the species. It is not at present used at all in America, but is confined to its proper European representatives. Snb-famUy d ODONTOFHORINJB Qnail Tarsus naked and scutellate ; nostrils unfeathered ; toes also naked ; size compared with the (rrouse small. Genera, Ortyx, The Common Quail and 2 allies. Oreortyx, The California Mountain Quail and ally. Lophortyx, The California Valley Quail and ally. Callipepla, The Scaled Quail. Cyrtonyx, The Massena Quail. ^m^mmmm^^SiMi^iMgmsaB^^KS^^^m^sss^m^m^^sss^mm 98 MANUAL The genus (European) Coturnyx, The Messina or Common European Quail, is not a true natice of North America but an introduced species, and very different from Cyrtonyx as above which is a native of the South- western United States. Regarding the family in general : The individuals among the Qimil also hai'e changed genera somewhat, in former years, but not to the same extent -as the Groune. Tetrao also included some of the Qiiaih. Perdix seemed to be the old favorite, however, but it is seldom referred to now. The above characters for these two sub-families are to be fully relied on ; the individuals themselves will furnish other points of diiference. The genera can be better characterized than the sub-families even, as each genera presents peculiar- ities in itself which do not, as is so often the case, combine to perplex the student with their similarity to each other in so many of their essential feetures. The above genera of both sub-families are stable and all we have at present. The gen- eric names of the sub-families have changed but little in the past fifty years, and are all probably good and stable. II l^ATKR BIRDS. -5-J«-»- The excellent diagnosis of the LiMicoLy*: given by Profes- sor Baird is so very useful in separating the different group- ings of this division of the Order — this sub-order, in fact — that we copy it for the student; who can use it fearlessly and freely to give him a comparative view of the familiea con- tained therein and of their connection with each other. He divides the sub-order into two portions, each of which con- tains their respective families of which a brief outline is given : " A. — Nostrils reaching usually to the end of the basal third or half of the commissure ; oval, short. Bill contracted about OF ORNITHOLOGY 99 the nostrils, where the culmen is more or less indented. Na- sal groove closed obtusely and abruptly, or shallowing out broadly to the end. Hind toe generally wanting; ; neck short and thick. CharadriDjE. — Bill rather cylindrical, as long as the head, or shorter ; the culmen much indented opposite the nostrils, the vaulted apex more or less swollen and rising, quite distinct from the membranous portion. Legs elevated ; hind toe rarely present, and then rudi- mentary ; the outer and middle toes more or less unit- ed by membrane. H^MATOPODiDiE. — Bill as long as the head, or twice as long, compressed ; culmen but little indented, and the bill not vaulted beyond the nostrils, which are quite basal. B. — Nostrils narrow and fissured, rot reaching beyond the ba- sal fourth of the commissure. The bill attenuated and linear beyond the nostrils, not compressed nor indented around them. The nasal groove running out into a narrow, acute channel to or beyond the middle of the jaw, just above the edge of the bill ; the forehead narrowed and depressed to the bill. Recurvirostrida. — Legs covered with hexagonal plates, becoming smaller behind. Anterior toes all connected more or less by membrsine. Bill much lengthened and attenuated ; the groove along the side of the upper mandible not extending beyond the mid- dle. Gums denticulated only at the base. PhalaropodidyE. — Feathers of breast compact, duck- like. Legs with transverse scutellae before and behind. Toes to the tips with a lateral margin, more or less in- dented at the joints, the hinder with a feeble lobe. Bill equal to or longer than the head, the lateral groove extending nearly to the tip. Scolopacid.e. — Legs with transverse scutellae before and behind, as in the last family, (except in Numeniem.) Toes not margined broadly to the tips, with or without *S(^^!p3^^if^ mmmassmmmk-'MMW'^mMf 100 MANUAL basal membrane ; bind toe generally present. Bill generally longer than the head, the groove extending beyond the middle." The above characters will aid the young student. He will do well, however, not to confine himself too strictly to them, without looking for other determining characteristics for his family problems in this most perplexing group of interest- ing forms. FAMILY XXXVII CHARADRIIDAE THE PLOVERS Greek charadrios, Latin charadrius, a plover. The vast extent, both as to territory and as to numbers, of the " Thohe Birds," as they are called, renders them at once a difficult and an interesting group of individuals to study. The varieties of classification to which they have been sub- jected, and the diversity of forms presented, are well calcu- lated to perplex the student, though they present a most ex- cellent field for research and careful investigation. We have, hitherto, been treating of the I^and Birds exclusively : We now enter what is known as the province of Water Birds. In the former case we found that the characters of the bill, the tarsus (rarely the toes and the wings to a small extent), and the tail, presented us with the main features of our classi- fication ; in the latter or present case, the feet — and toes — and the wings, added to the bill and often peculiar shape of the head, will furnish perhaps the most prominent and strik- ing determining characteristicp. The bill varies about equally in both divisions. Our first family, then, will be that of the Plovers. As our American representatives are included in a single sub-family, our characterization of them will answer equally well for sub- family or family diagnosis : Bill equal to or shorter than the head, somewliat Columbine in appearance at base, but more like a true bill at the terminal portion ; nostrils a long slit OF ORNITHOLOGY 101 deep in the soft membranous fossae, which are oblong and very prominent — nostrils at the extremity of the fossse — and gape very small ; tarsus reticulated ; hind toe very small or absent, middle toe much shorter than the tarsus, web at base cleft or not large ; wings long and narrowed, and reaching to or be- yond the tail ; tail rather short and nearly or quite even. General form rather plump and full. The genus Aphriza dif- fers somewhat from the other genera by combining with its four toes, which have no basal web, a tarsus scutellate instead or reticulate in front. The CHARADRIID.E are not exclusively " Sea Shore " birds, they are found inland as well where many of them breed. Genera, Squatarola, The Black-bellied Plover. Charadrius, The Golden Plover (.3 species). jEgialites, The Rin)?-neck Plovers (8 species). Podasocys, The Mountain Plover. , Vanellus, The Lapwing. Aphriza, The Surf Bird. Sub-genera, [?] Oxyechus for the Killdeer, and Ochthodromus for the Wilson's Plover, might easily be regarded as sub-genera of jEgialites. We should prefer such an arrangement rather than placing them as dis- tinct genera in a group whose members show such apparently natural affi- nities. We see no reason why other and older synonymy, which is now for all practical purposes discarded, need trouble us. FAMILY XXXVIII HAEMATOPODIDAE THE OTSTER-CATCHERS AND TURNSTONES Greek aimaaso, " to be bloody or blood-red," and pons, the foot ; = red-footed. This second family of our Water Birds, though by no means 80 difficult to characterize as the former, is none the less inter- esting. They are exclusively " Shore " birds, and wade to the depth of their rather long, slender legs for ghell-fish (bival- ves) which they open with their stout bills. The family feat- ures are well set forth in the table at the beginning of this portion of our work. It seems strange, perhaps, to set off' the few species here into siii-families, but they are sufficiently in- dividual to admit of it. mmm0^mmmssmsx^^^^9mi^^^mrw^y^iwmw h^mwsimmsmBimiwwmwm If 102 MANUAL Sub-famUy a HAEMATOPODINAE Oyster- Catchers Tarsus less than bill, reticulate in front, outer toes with a barely apparent membrane, no hind toe ; bill long, flattened, and prominent. Length over 12 inches. Genus, Hamatopua, (3 species). Sub-family b STREFSILAINAE Turnstones Tarsus longer than bill, scutellate in front, outer toes with- out membrane, hind toe present ; bill short and pointed and not prominent. Length under 12 inches. Genus, Strepsilas, (2 species). These genera are all stable and without synonyms that need annoy us. FAMILY XXXIX RECURVIBOSTRIDAE THE AVOCETS AND STILTS Latin recurvus. recurved ; rostrum, a bill. This is still another family whose peculiarities of structure at (jnce determine its members with very little difficulty. It is not, like the former family, divided into sub-families ; al- though the genera are very decidedly different from each other. The family, as a family, is at once known by the long, slender, and often extraordinarily recurved bill ; the long, small neck ; and the immense long, bare legs (tarsus and nearly the entire length of the tibia bare). Jieeurvi rostra has four toes with complete webs and long and strongly recurved bill, while Hi- muntopus has three toes almost wholly uuwebl)ed and with bill much shorter and almost straight. The previous table will give further characters. Although " Shore " birds they are more abundant inland hyfrcfih water. Genera, Recurvirostra, The American Avocet. Hlmantopus, The Black-necked Stilt. These two genera were forraerlj' merged in one, Recurvirostra. Their ^o- sition in the scale may at any time be changed, but the genera are stable. k OF ORNITHOLOGY 103 FAMILY XL FHALAROPODIDAE THE FHALAROFES Greek phalaris the "coot," pons ti foot; coot-footed. This small family is sometimes placed near the end of the Shore Birds rather than near the beginning. The position we give to it, near its larger allies, seems to ns more natural, and leaves nothing between the Snipes and the following order. The family contains three genera of one species each. The main characters of the family have been given in the previ- ous table, the other points of peculiarity are : feet lobate, toes with narrow membranes — with either plain or lobed edges ; tarsus thin but wide. The general appearance of these birds is much like that of a small Hundjjiper, but the plumage is trim, close-fitting, and like birds that spend the greater part of their time in the water, as these do. The bill differs con- siderably in the different genera, as do also the feet. The birds are small, and are to be found, often in immense flocks, just off shore all along our coast and rarely in inland waters. Genera, Sleganopus, Wilson's Phalarope. Lobipes, The Northern Phalarope. Phalaropus, The Red Phalarope. These genera are all quite stable, even hardly interchungeable, though all went formerly under the one name Phalaropus. FAMILY XLI SCOLOPACIDAE AND SANDFIFERS THE SNIFES Greek skolopax, Latin ncolopax, a woodcock or snipe. This family is, without doubt, the most numerous and the most difficult with which the young student M'ill have to con- tend among all the Water Birds. It is, in fact, at least third if not second in importance in the whole Class. The general resemblance of the species will at once show that they belong to this family, but there are a good many individuals that will cause very great trouble to the beginner. The table placed at the beginning of this division will, in a great meas- ure, help to remove the difficulties of identification ; yet much will remain to be done, even with that aid, in guiding the stu- iStMX ■immsmm^^m/mimmsmmmmmmi^mms^m'f%'^stit!!i»f ^f>l'l!'l'^ H' 104 MANUAL (lent in right directions. Thf members of the family are eas- ily dihi Mguished from members of any of the families which have gone before and the E(ti[», which are often wrongly made a *rt<6-family v ^his family, have decided peculiarities of their own at once prominent and stable. Perhaps the most important character of this and allied families is the bill. It is eminently adapted to the means employed by each individ- ual species for tlve ])rocuring of its food, and the legs and feet as well as the bill vary accordingly. The members of this family are, in a very great measure, gregarious and migratory. Nearly every locality, along both the Atlantic imd the Pacific coasts, has its restricted summer or breeding fauna of these individuals. They are of almost universal distribution : some being found along the sea-coast, some inland, and many in intermediate areas. People unac- quainted with the habits of our birds are often surprised to find sea-coast birds far inland ; but it is a well-known fact that many of our sea-birds, especially the snipes and sandpi- pers and gulls, follow up the course of our larger and even some of our smaller livers and, at certain times of the year, are abundant along the meadows and river banks hundreds of miles away from the Ocean. The True Snipes (and also the Woodcocks) are found, in fact, more often in the bogs and the ditches inhnd than directly along the coast. The more carefully the student studies the habits of this family, (as of (dl especially of migratory birds, in fact,) the more thoroughly will he become convinced that its members are influenced in their movements by well-defined laws, rather than chance as many seem to suppose. The laws which com- i)el birds to seek food — giving us e'lthp- exfnmve or limited migration — are entirely different from tho;s»; v/h'ch influence the domestic, seasonable, or daily econc u; o' t^u . same birais when inhabiting peacefully a region where food is abundant, and where they can act out the natural impulses of instinct. It v/as formerly supposed that, in a very great measure, this peculiarity of this species " happened," that peculiarity of thai OF ORXITHOLOGY 105 specii'x " chanct'd. " As we hecome daily mor<' iiul more ac- quaintoii with the habitH of our birds, we find that venj Utile " happened " by " chance " ; fixed Inws govern everything, we might say, but hu-k of food. When the food gives out, the bird breaks loose from all apparent rule to seek fooif ; when this is found its reyahir habits reduce it again to rule. The Trne Stiipea and the Woodcock have been •.)und, after a long study of their habits, to be creatures of fixed lawa and hnbitn. We are finding out, slowly, that these laws apply to other spe- cies as well. The more reason why the habitH of birds should be studied more than ever before, and with an intensity of in- terest that may discover to us more of these laws. We vetj- ture to predict, that each species will he found eventually to possess an individuality of habit not before suspected. Thus we see that each species seems adapted t its mode of life, and u little study soon brings order out of ci nfusion. Each gen- era groups itself according to similarity of habit as well a;* to similarity of structure. In the ScolopA' id.e is this especi- ally true. It is for the young student to iscover for himself what these habits may be. Before entering upon an enumeration of the genera of the ScoLOPACiD.B, it may be well to present to the student, for careful study, comparison, and general refer iice, the tables prepared by Professor Baird for this family. Though it pre- sents but a partial review of the family, and w is, like the pre- vious ones, prepared some thirty-five years ag its main feat- ures are still sufficiently useful to serve our p esent purpose in preparing for more extended tables if the stut lant wishes. " Family ScoLOPACiDiE. According to Bonaparte's arrangement, the ^ olopacidje are divisible into two sub-families — Scoloi acin^ and Tbinoin^ ; the former with one tribe, Scolopack.e ; the lat- ter with four, Tringin^, Totane^, Limosin^:, and Nu- MENIN^. The arrangement of Keyserling and Blasius and of \-\i '^mm>^mmm>>S'-'-.¥mimm!.smMS^ ' : -''swssm ' /^.;:.' "^^^^m ~'^M^^^Wf^»!^h-:^£f^^'^'^i''^-h M f 106 MANUAL Burmeister, however, seems more natural in associating Trin- QRM with ScoLOPACE^> under Scolopacinte. On this basis the two sub-families may be characterized as follows : ScoiiOPACiN.E. — Bill covered with soft skin to the sensi- tive, vascular, thickened, or laterally expanded tip, Uncovered portion of tibia short, stout. Body and legs rather stout. Neck rather short and stout. Toes generally cleft to the base, (not in Macrorhnmphwt and Micropalama, &c.) Gape of mouth very small, not ex- tending beyond the base of culmen. ToTANiN^. — Bill covered with soft skin towards the base ; the terminal portion hard, horny, and more or less attenuated. Body more slender. Legs and neck slender and lengthened. Toes generally with a basal web. Gape of mouth larger, always extending beyond base of culmen (except in Limosa.) Sub-family Scolopacin^. Bill swollen at the end, and covered almost to the tip with a soft skin, the edges only of the rather valted tip horny. The end of the upper bill generally bent a little over the tip of lower. The jaw bone iu typical genera finely porous, and perforated by vessels and nerves, imparting a high degree of sensibility to the bill, enabling it to find food in the mud. After death the end of the bill is usually pitted. Logs rather stout ; the naked portion of the tibia much abbreviated. The hind toe well developed and generally present ; the toes usu- ally without basal membrane, (except iu Macrarhamphm, etc.) Under the head of S(^(n.OPACiN^, as at present defined, I range two tribes with the following brief diagnosis • A. Scx)LOPACEiE. — Bill much longer than the head or than the naked leg ; the end of the upper jaw thickened and bent over beyond the tip of lower. Roof of mouth not excavated to the tip. A longitudinal furrow along the culmen towards the end. External ear placed be- neath or anterior to the eye. Tail banded ? B. TKiNOETfL — Bill shorter than the naked leg, widened 5ia_ OF ORNITHOLOGY 107 or rather spoon-shaped at the end, with the edges not bent over. Roof of mouth excavated to the tip. No groove along the culmen. Eye behind the ear. Tail without bands ? " Under " Tribe ScoLOPACEiE," he enumerates the genera Philohela, Gallinago, and Macrorhamjihus, which are practi- cally the same as our present genera. Under " Tribe Trinok^:," he enumerates the genera Trinffa, Cnlidris, Ereiinetef<, and Mieropahtmn ; and his genus Trinoa contains Tringa, ArqiutteUa, Erolia [our Anci/lochitus], Schrienielus [our Pelidnct], and Adodrainux, which also are very nearly the same as our present getiera. " Sub-family Totanin^. Bill as long as the head, or longer ; the basal portion cov- ered with soft skin ; the terminal portion (generally at least half) horny, and more or less attenuated and pointed in To- TANKiE. The lateral grooves of bill extending to the horny termiaal portion. The gape of mouth extending behind the base of culmen. Toes generally connected by a basal mem- brane. ^ The tail always with distinct transverse bars in North American species , except in HeteroHcdm. This sub-family appears to differ from most Scolopacin^ in the less degree of sensitiveness in the tip of the bill, which is more horny, and not covered by soft skin well supplied with nerves. The toes are almost always connected at the base by a membrane, this being the rule and not the exception^ as in ScoroPACiNvK. A. Tarsi covered anteriorly and posteriorly by transverse scutellse, except \n Hetevoaeelus ; finely reticulated lat- erally. Bill nearly straight, or bent a little upwards. ToTANEiE. — Bill nearly straight, about as long as the tarsus, attenuated. Bill not grooved for the terminal fourth. Gape of mouth extending beyond base of culmen. 108 MANUAL Li.iO.SE.K. — Bill longer thau the tarsus, curving slightly upwards towards the end, where it is thickened. Both mandibles grooved for nearly their whole length. Gape of mouth very short, not extending beyond the base of culmen. B. Tarsi covered anteriorly only by transverse scutella', reticulated laterally and behind. Bill curving consider- ably downwards from near the middle. NuMKNiEiE. — liateral grooves not extending beyond the middle. Bill thickened at the tip; longer than, the tarsus." Under " Section [Tribe] Totanejc," he enumerates the genera Si/mphemia, Glottis, Gambetta, lihyacophilm, Heterosoe- lu8, Tringoukii, Philomachvs, Actiturus, and Tryngitcs, all sub- stantially the same as they are at present. Glottis = part of Totanns [Florida Greenshanks]. His "Section [Tribe] I.imosk.i:," and "Section [Tribe] NuMENiEiE," are the same as our present representation. The arrangement as to the order of succession of the above genera are changed somewhat it our present diagnosis. Genera, Scolopax, The European Woodcock. Philohela, The American Woodcock. GaUinago, The True Snipes (2 species). Macrorkamphus, The Red-breasted Snipe and ally. Mivropalama, The Stilt Sandpiper. Ereunetes, The Semipalmated Sandpiper and ally. Actodromas, The True Sandpipers (6 species), Arguatella, The Purple Sandpiper and 2 allies. Pelidna, The Dunlins (2 species). Anrylochilus, The Curlew Sandpiper, IVini/a, The Knot. Caiidris, The Sanderling. Eurynorhyachus, The Spoon-billed Sandpiper. Limosa, The Qodwits (4 species). 5. viphcmia, The Willet. Totaium, Two species of " Yellow-Legs " ard ally^. Uhyacnpliiluss, The Solitary Sandpiper and ally. Tringoides, The Spotted Sandpiper. OF ORNITHOLOGY 10(» Machetes, The Ruff. Bartramia, Bartrani's Sandpiper. ■Tryngites, The Buff-breastod Sandpiper. Heieroscelus, The Wandering Tattler. Numenius, The Curlews (5 species). The above genera are almost uniformly constant. The old synonymy, and the transferring of species from one genera to another — in past years — has but little part in our present advanced ideas al)out this family. FAMILY XLII IBIDIDAE THE TRUE IBISES Latin and Greek, Ibis, the Ibis. The Ibim^, the SpoonbUlft, and the >Storhi, are all intimately related. Their relation is clo.se also to the " Shore Birds " and the Herom and their allies. Writers differ somewhat as to the exact positions of all of these birds, their order of mc- cession amongst themselves is also somewhat open to question. We will h\\o\w»Mm^K v.Mmm OF ORNITHOLOGY 113 FAMILY XLVII ARAMIDAE THE COURLANS Greek arasso, araito, " a clanginK, rinj;in};, rattling noise " implied. A very noisy bird. This curious form is at once known by its peculiarities. Professor Baird thus describes the genus " Aramus " which will do us equally well for a family diagnosis. " Bill elongated, much compressed, both mandibles decurved at tip. Gonys very long. Bill of equal width nearly from base to lip ; nostrils pervious, in the basal fourth of the bill. Head feathered to bill ; eyelids only naked. Legs length- ened ; tibia half bare ; tarsus longer than middle toe ; toes without basal membrane ; outer lateral rather longer than in- ner ; middle claws not pectinated. The tarsi are broadly scu- tellate anteriorly. The wings are broad and rounded ; the tertials ecjual to the primaries. The first quill is scarcely longer than the tenth, and sub-falcate. The tail is composed of twelve feathers." Size immense, length 2 feet or over. The affinity of this bird is curiously shown, by the fact that its South American kindred have received the generic name of Ardea, and both the South and the North American species have been styled Ralhia. (It has also been called Notkerodiua.) It is a bird of tropical America, and once se.-^n it is not easily forgotten. Genus, Aramus, The Courlan or Crying-Bird. FAMILY XLVIII FARRIDAE THE JACANA Probably Latin parra, " a bird of ill-omen," from its resemblance to the " lapwing." Another curious bird, for which a family has been formed, is the Jacana. This bird also is distinguishable at first sight. It resembles so many different families that its true position may well be a subject for further investigation. It resembles the Kailfi very closely in many respects. It has not until re- cently been classed with the North American birds. Its cu- rious bill and face shield ; its wing spurs ; its long, naked legs \ 114 MANUAL and feet ; long claws — nearly straight and pointed ; deter- mine the species at a glance. Its feet and light weight allow it of walking about on the pads of lillies and of other water plants, so that it looks as if it had the power of walking upon the water. Its body is small. It is really a South American species, but found occasionally along the tropical shores of North America. Genus, Parra, The Mexican Jai;ana. FAMILY XLIX RALLIDAE THE BAILS GALLINULES AND COOTS Probably French rale, "a rattling" noise, " rail, crake," referring to the rattling of their continued notes. We come now, once again, to a familiar and well-known family representatives of which occur over nearly the entire portion of North America, though principally shore-ward. They are dispersed to some extent throughout the interior of the continent. Nearly every shore-marsh and a great many fresh-water marshes hundreds of miles inland along our sea- board has its Mail fauna. The members of the family are eas- ily known at sight, and a single representative characterizes well the whole group ; although its special peculiarities easily separate it into three well marked and stable sub-families. The family characteristics are rather difficult to formulate, in spite of the unmistakable appearance of the bir is. Professor Baird's diagnosis of his " Tribe Pai.udicoi.^ " gives us well the features of our family, and is as follows : " Species living in marshes, with elevated bodies, much compressed laterally ; usually with longer necks than most snipe, with moderately long, strong, and stout bills also much compressed and covered at the tip by a horny investment ; the remaining portion membranous, with elongated nasal fur- rows, and narrow, more or less perforated, nostrils. The lores are feathered uniformly as in the Limicolje ; the rest of the plumage without the spotting of the snipes. Wings rather short, more rounded than pointed, and when folded do not m 1 OF ORNITHOLOGY 115 reach beyond the short, soft, and feeble tail ; in fact, seldom to its tail. The outer two or three primaries generally abbre- viated. The toes are very long, cleft to the base, thin, and generally with very long claws ; the same is the case with the hind toe, which is not only much longer than in the LlMic- OJjJR, but is generally inserted more nearly on the same level with the anterior ones, touching the ground for most of its ex- tent. The species pick up their food on the surface, and do not probe the soft mud in search of it." The Eaik are a curious family to study. They are peculiar. Their cry or scream is peculiar. Their shape, general appear- ance, method of life, food, nesting, and times of appearance and of disappearance in any given region is jieculiar. They do not resemble any other family — except casually ; and they might well be made, even, into a distinct sub-order, so indi- vidual are they. The Bails are divided into 3 sub-families : ■I Sub-family a RALLIN2! True Rails This sub-family is easily determined by having no so-called frontal shield at base of bill. The toes simple and without membranes. The compressed shape of the body is also noted in this sub-family. Genera, Rallua, The Marah Rails (5 species). Porzana, The " Crakes " (6 species). Crex, The " Corn Crake," [Land Rail]. Rallus and Porzana are, really, both Marsh Rails in distinction from Crex ■which is eminently a Land Rail. The distinction between the two former is not so evident. Various synonyms have appeared at times for all these species, bat they are pretty generally discarded now for those given above. Oallinula seemed to hold its own for the whole family formerly, as did also Rallus. Creciscus and Coturnicops still occur occasionally. Perdix is old ; and Ortygometra, recently discarded, had the support of many good authorities. Sub-famUy b GALLINULINiB aallinnlec Frontal shield present ; toes with narrow membranous mar- gins in Gallitmki, toes simple in lonortm. The Gallinules do differ from the Rails in other respects, but it iu hard to say 'mmmm 116 MA.NUAL just how without a careful comparison of the hirds. They ap- pear to set higher upon their legs, have rounder bodies, and to be stouter (more robust) everyway. Genera, Gallinula, The Florida Gallinule. lonornis, The Purple (Jallinule. Both Keiiera were formerly Gallinula, lonornis was also Porphyria. Sub-family c FULICIN2] Coots Frontal shield present, and toes with scalloped membranes. The body has none of that compressed shape so noticeable in a and barely seen in 6, but is rather the reverse as to pressure (f^ppressed rather than cojnpressed). This is an inland bird, and common all over the continent. It has a bi.igle genus and a single species. Genus, Fulica, The Coot or Mud Hen. FAMILY L FHOENICOFTEBIDAE THE FLAMINGOES Greek phoinikopieron (Latin similar), red-winged. The extraordinary bird for which this family is formulated has been placed by some writers wvb the Storks, the Cranes, etc., and by others with the Geese mA Ducks. By placing it between the two, yet not making it a subordinate portion of either, we overcome the difficulty as much as it seems to us to be possible. The Flamingo is a bird that could not be mis- taken for any other known species. Its immensely long neck and legs, its curiously formed bill, and its, size, place it at once. The adult plumage is scarlet with black ends to the wings. There are but few species and they occur in the trop- ical portions of the globe. Our species inhabit the Southern portion of North America, and build immense mud piles for nests — a curious study !n themselves. We have but one ge- nus and a single species. Genus, Phanicopterus, The American Flamingo. otu OF ORNITHOLOGY 111 FAMILY LI ANATIDAE THE SWANS GEESE AND DUCKS Latin anatinus, " pertaining; to a duck," duck-like. It may seem strange, to one not well acquainted with the species, that all of our North American Swanx, (u'cxe, and Ducks should be classed together in a single family. A little careful study, however, will show how constant certain char- acters are throughout all these birds, and that the deviation from the typical structure could not well command a higher recognition than that of Huh-family. Accordingly we separate the family into several groups or sub-families, and find that they fit in with a nicety that shows how well they merit such relative positions. Wherever one goes upon our continent, north, south, east, or west, — along the seacoast or in the in- terior— they find members of this family common and even abundant. Again, the number of species are so comparatively few that one would scarcely look for very extensive special faunas for special localities ; this would render the great ma- jority of these species of almost universal distribution — at least throughout North America. The few of specially local- ized occurrence are, usually, the rarer forms only. This family, as a family, is somewhat difficult of definition. Its main features are : Bill with series of plates (lamella;) ex- tending around the edges of both mandibles and fitting into each other, when the bill is closed, like teeth — general shape of bill, high and feathered (more or less) laterally at the base, tapering to a flattened and wide thin tip — tough, strong, and yet of somewhat elastic material, the end terminating with a horny shield or nail of various sizes and shapes in the dif- ferent species ; nostrils variously shaped and placed in the different sub-families and genera ; the short legs are feathered usually quite to the tarsus, which is variously scutellate or re- ticulated, toes fully webbed, sometimes somewhat incised, and hind toe simple or barely membranous ; wings moderate or long, pointed, narrow, strong, and elastic ; tail short, usually rounded ; body compressed, neck long, head large — compar- atively. Their anatomical characters are of special interest, wx-\9m^msm»mmimm^^s^s^w&!SMi:.^ms!mfm-am-r,ts^:i::~rr TTms^^^m>x'im\".J?sumi^:'>?ii^w:svmfPTf'^''!^. •spsr**-' i ;:1 118 MANUAL and should be studied separately. Their digestive organs are also worthy of special investigation and comparison. Professor Baird gives the following table which will greatly aid in the study of the higher divisions of the family : " A. — The teeth of the bill directed downwards, the lamellie composing one series only on the edge of the upper jaw. The rami of the lower jaw separated. Bill broad ; depressed at the end. A. — Tarsi reticulated, covered anteriorly with small hexag- onal plates, gradually becoming smaller and rhoraboidal laterally. Hind toe without free lobe. CvoNiNiE. — Neck very long. Bill high at the base; longer than the head ; of equal width to the rounded tip, with its narrow nail. Soft skin of bill generally extending to the eye. Tarsi shorter than the middle toe without claw. AnseriNuE. — Neck rather long. Bill high at base j as long as or shorter than the head, narrowing to the tip, which is chiefly formed by the large nail, liegiou in front of the eye feathered. Tarsi longer than middle toe without claw. B. — Legs with transverse plates or scutellse anteriorly, these becoming much smaller and more hexagonal laterally and behind. Tarsi generally shorter than middle toe without claw. Anatin^. — Hind toe without a broad membranous lobe attached. Tarsi not longer than the middle toe ; feet moderate. FuLiGULiN^. — Hind toe miih a broad membranous lobe depending from its under surface. Feet large. Nail of bill superior, gently decurved. Tail rather soft ; the coverts well developed. EuiSMATURiNiE. — Toes and feet as in the last. Nail of bill abruptly bent back from tip of bill, showing but little on upper surface of the latter. Tail feathers OF ORNITHOLOGY 119 rigid, spinous, and almost entirely exjwsed ; the cov- erts much abbreviated. B. — Bill liigh at the base, much compressed. The iamellre directed backwards as serrations. The upper jaw with two se- ries of teeth on each side ; the lower with one which fits be- tween the others. The nail of the bill compressed, much curved, forming the tip of the bill. Edges of bill nearly parallel. Legs with transverse plates anteriorly. Mkr'jiXvK. — Characters as above." Most writers do not make the Ekismatuijin.k a separate sub-family from the Fi'LKii'UX.E, otherwise the above table answers perfectly for our present classification. We shall unite the two into one sub-family, and call it the FuLrou- IJN.K. The/amity divides itself naturally into the following «H<6-familie8 : Sub-famUy a CYONIN-aS Swans The difference between the Sworin and the (icrse is easily recognizable. The size of the former, alone, would separate them ; add to this the naked loral spaces and there will be very little difficulty in telling them apart. Swans are still rare in North America, and our species are now reduced to four well-marked and constant forms. There is bii- a single genus, though writers differ in names ; some calling it Cyrjum and some Olor. Whichever form we admit, we must recog- nize the other as an equivalent synonym and not a sub-genus. Sivmw appear to resort more to inland and fresh waters than to the sea coasts, and to the extremes of the continent in arc- tic or sub-arctic rather than ordinary temperate regions. Genus, Cygnua or Olor, (4 species). Sub-fav^ly b ANSERINE Gteese The Geese are much better known throughout North Amer- ica than the Swam. They inhabit all portions of the conti- nent — inland and seaward, north, south, east, and west. The iJ aaasi. "T'MTW.Wrr^raKiL <:■ 120 MANUAL species are not many, yet they congregate in immense num- bers in favorable and favorite localities. Though, like the Ducks, they have the feathered loral sj)ace8 they are easily dis- tinguished by the reticulations of the tarsus — neither are the legs placed so far backwards which gives them a firmer wad- dle when they walk. The habits, in general, of Geese seem to be more periodic and regular than of the Ducks. The habits of the different species are not so well known as they should be, and here is a fine field for the working ornithologist. The different genera are well marked, and all of our species now pretty fairly characterized, notwithstanding their former con- fused state. Genera, Chen, The Snow Geese (4 species). Anser, The White-fronted Geese (2 species). Philacte, The Emperor Goose. Bernicla, The Canada Geese or Brants (7 species). DendroCiiC"'- [or Dendrocygna] The Tree Ducks (2 species). We shall not enter upon the old synonymy of this sub-family, yet a few points may be necessary. Anser was often used for both ansek and chen ; Anser and Bernicla were used interchangeably for bernicla ; and Den- dronessa for dendrocycna : this latter was formerly classed with the Ducks as Anas. Sub-family c ANATIN.2E River D ^cks The majority of this sub-family are easily recognized It is not so easy to draw the line between them and some of the duck-like geese and the Sea Ducks ; yet the arbitrary distin- guishing characters — for such they are in reality — are near enough to give us a fairly accurate diagnosis. The small size, the short neck [and legs], and the flattened, rather than rounded or compressed, shape of the bill uniting with the feathered loral spaces and scutellate, rather than reticulate, tarsus and simple hind toe (hallux), will greatly assist in the separation from the other sub-families, it were less difficult to define the difference between the Geese and Hirer Ducks, than that between the latter and the Sea Ducks. The River Ducks are, eminently, River Ducks. They frequent rivers, ponds, lakes, and inland waters generally. They seldom oc- 1 ! OF ORNITHOIX)GY 121 cur seaward to any very great extent, and prefer the shallow waters of marshy or overflowed lauds where they can procure a more delicate assortment of fine fresh plant and other food, suited to their taste, than their neighbors the Sea Duch, who secure their food almost exclusively by diving for it. The flight of River Ducks is generally high, light, and rapid ; while it is, on the contrary, low and heavy — though more often long-sustained than remarkably rapid — with the Sea Ducks. River Ducks are, therefore, very different from Sea Ducks. They might well be styled the more refined and aris- tocratic birds of the family. The genera are : Genera, Anan, The Mallard o>- Black Ducks (3 specieB^ Dajila, The Pintail Duck. Chmilelasmnx, The Gadwall Duck. Mareca, The Widgeons (2 species). Querqnedula, The Blue-winged Teal and ally. Kettion, The Green-winged Teal and ally. Spatula, The Shoveller Duck. Aix, The Wood Duck. Mallard hybrids (with other ducks) are not rare, some of these oflFspring prove fertile, contrary to the generally accepted rule. The above generic names seem to have come safely out of the former syno- nymic confusion. A few suggestions are still of interest. Anas formerly stood for almost anything and everything in the Duck family. The student will avoid a great deal of confusion by paying little attention to former uses of Netiiun and Qnerquedvla other than as given above. Various names ending in nessa, such as Dendronessa, Lampronessa, etc., have been used for the Woon Duck ; this will only show its formerly supposed kin- ship with the " Tree " Ducks (our present Goose form) Dendrocygna. Sub-famUy d FULIGULINJE Sea Ducks The Sea Ducks are eminently diving ducks. While the River Ducks do not seem to glide into the Sea Ducks, yet the Sea Ducks do seem to glide into the River Ducks, and then to glide out again as serenely as if thej' had never seemed to ap- proach them. We see, in this family especiallv-, the absurdity of what I call the liiNKAFt thkoky, or trying to arrange each species according to its likeness to the one before and the one foUowiny it. Sea Ducks love the Sea ; and are generally found 122 MANUAL singly or in large flocks far from land (one to three miles), where they sport in the water and feed at their pleasure at regular intervals of the day and in the evening. They often go about in immense flocks, feed to{;ether, and even breed in colonies. They fly long distanceG, but usually their flight is heavy. Their habits vary with the species throughout the sub-family : Some prefer the sea far out, some in shore, some the bays and inland parts of the estuaries, and a few are abund- ant in wholly inland and even fresh waters. The lobate form of the hind toe at once distinguishes the group, while both feet and bill are usually larger and stronger than in the River Ducks. The strong and compact " build " and size of this sub- family are in striking contrast to the HgM, svnfi " build " of the Kivei' Ducks. Genera, Fulix, The Blackhead or Scaup Ducks (3 allied species). JSthyia, The Canvas-back and Red-head Duck. Glangula, The Golden-eyed Ducks (3 allied species). Harelda, The Long-tailed Duck. Histrionicua, The Harlequin Duck. Camptolwmus, The Labrador Duck. Somateria, The Eider Ducks (6 species). (Edemia, The iScoter or Surf Ducks (4 or 5 species). Erismatura, The Ruddy Dnck. Nomonyx, The St. Domingo Duck. Polysticta and Lampronetta seem to be fairly sub-genera of Somateria proper ; the former being applied to Stellers Eider and the latter to the Spectacled Eider. Melanetta for two varieties of Velvet Scoter, and Pelionetta for two varieties of true Surf Ducks (species P. perspicillata and P. Trow- bridgii), stand for true sub-oenera. Erismatura seems tolerably constant. [There may he two species]. It has been made a separate sub-kamily, and may be still entitled to such consideration. JEthyia is not a sub-genera of Fumx, as some would sum to lead ns to suppose (also spelled Aythya), and Fuligula seems to be an old name for most everything, [as was also Anas,'] in the duck family. The Canvas- back has sometimes received the name of Arislonetta, as " Aristonetta vallianeria, Baird," in Professor Baird's "Birds of North America," (Ninth volume of the Pacific Railroad Report, p. 794). This name is a genuine relic — a curiosity. On the previous page (793) Professor Baird says, " should it be considered expedient [for reasons stated] to establish L of OF ORNITHOLOGY 123 for the Canvas-back a new gemis, the name of Aristonetta would be very appropriate, on account of the f;reat superiority of its flesh as an article of food." It is gi);nificant, however, that the Professor himself does not use the name (save as a synonym perhaps), but uses Aythya. Clangula and Bucephala appear to be used about equally for the Golden Eye, though preference seems to favor the former, at present. [Histrion- icus was formerly a ci.anoi'i.a, ^ but did not remain so long]. The EiDEK DrcKs seem to be curiously synonymed. Somaieria is really the standby for all of them ; yet the Steller's Eider has received, respec- tively, the names of Enivonetta, [Heniconefta ?], and Polysticta, as well as Somaieria ; The Spectacled Eider, the names of Lamproneita and Arc- tonetta, besides Smnateria ; four others have been classed as Somaieria proper — yet even here we are not allowed to rest in peace, as the name of Erioneiia is fnrther suggested for the King Eider. All of these names ap- pear to have been used as of cenkkic bank formerly. The hosts of old «ynonyms, besides these, now of no sort of practical use save as a matter of reference merely, is legion. The SuKF Ducks have been styled both (Edemia and Oidemia ; the syno- nym Melanetta is distinct from Melanitta used by Boie for perspicillaia. Sub-family e MERQ-INiB Mergansers The MergatiHent are evidently distinct from either the Sea Duclw or the River Duchi ; but whetlier they combine the characteristics of the former with the habits of the latter, or VICE VERSA, is not ut first so apparent. A careful examina- tion of these birds leads us to believe that they are more Sea Ducks with the habits of inland Water Ducks. As a sub- family they are at once distinguished from their neighbors by the shape and character of the bill ; the saw-like rows of sharp-pointed teeth at once proclaiming the iwsition of the bird. They are carnivorous ducks. They live upon fish, it is true ; yet they are rather scavengers than birds refined in their tastes and food. They were formerly classed with the Sea Ducks. The Mergansers, with their toothed bills, bear a not distant resemblance to recently discovered toothed fossil forms. There is but a single genus. Genus, Mergus, The Mergansurs (3 species). SuB-oENERA. LophodyteH is a sub-genera of mekuus, and is used for the Hooded Merganser — it is often accorded generic rank even. Merganser was an old-iashioned generic name, but it is seldom met with in modern writers. J 124 MANUAL FAMILY LII SULIDAE THE GANNETS The derivation of this word is very questionable. Latin sol, Welch sul, ? This is a small family and is not difficult to distinguish from all others. Tiiough at a distance it might easily be mistaker by a novice for a true Goose, near to it bears no sort of re- semblance. They are large, cumbersome-looking bodies with very little that is graceful or agile about thom or their move- ments. They are, on the contrary, fine swimmers; and are, to a very great extent, gregarious — living and breeding in large numbers in sj)ecial and favorite localities. Size large — length from 30 to 40 inches and extent of wings 60 to 70 (the average of both species) ; bill long, as long as or longer than the head, straight and slightly compressed, very stout at basQ and tapering to awl-shaped point which is a trifle decurved ; nostrils and groove very small ; gular sac present, but this also very small ; tarsus short and stout, toes long and slended and fully webbed ; wings long, pointed, and rather clumsy ; tail short and cuneiform. Gknm s, Sula, 4 species. SuB-(iENERA, Stila, The Common Gannet and 1 ally. Dysporus. The Booby Gannet and 1 ally. The Gannets are still all classed under .S'wZa by many writers ; they for- merly received the generic equivalent of Peleeanus. Thoufjh Dynporun was also used at one time for the Common (tannet, it was discontinued when it was found that that bird was really a typical Sula. FAMILY LIII FELECANIDAE THE PELICANS Latin pelecanus, Greek pelekinos, a pelican. The PeVwnnH require very little description for their deter- mination and identification. Their peculiar shape and size are familiar to u.s, at least through pictures, from our childhood. The enormous development of the gula sac, a membranous at- tachment to the lower mandible, alone would fix the species — and the family — indelibly in our minds. Tn size they vary from four and a half to five feet in length, and from six and a half to eight and a half in extent, The bill is very long, and very peculiar in shape and size — as to both upper . WR»j^Wi*«]6« n^iiHlC%0'n OF ORNITHOLOGY 125 and under mandible ; nostrils very insignificant ; wings very long ; tail very short ; tarsus short, stout, and reticulated, toes long and fully webbed. In general, excepting the bill and its accompanying sac, they greatly resemble imniense and slug- frish Gannets. The Pelicans are largely gregarious, preferring tropical and sub-tropical regions; yet there are few species known to science. Genus, Pelec.anna. 3 species. Profesaor Baird appears to have given ua two srB-.aVJlS».'*4(*J gefnim iwiiiHiWWiJiliiiitniJiii T" 126 MANUAL birds the same general appearance, when on land and in an upright posture, as in the anktf ami piiJfinH, with which they of- ten associate. They are fish feeders, expert divers, gregari- ous, and found all over the world. Gen'us, Phalacrocorax, (10 to 11 species). Graculus is a generic synonym, and Prof. Baird gives us what appears to be three sub-genera : Phalacrocorax, Graculus, and UHle. The old jren- eric appellations of Felecanus and Carbo are now seldom heard of. Carbo alone is still occasionally adhered to for its simplicity. FAMILY LV PLOTIDAE THE DAETERS Greek ploton, " a powerful swimmer." A more extraordiny bird than the Darter, or Snake Bird as it is frequently called, could hardly be imagined. It is one of Nature's curiosities. It is also known as the Anhinga or Water Turkey, is a native of tropical waters, and has but few representatives in any country. The common American spe- cies is a resident along the Gulf States, and a familiar object -in places where it abounds. At a distance, it might be mis- taken for a member of the Goose family but for its long, slen- der, straight yet pointed bill ; and for a large Heron or Egret, but for its short legs which are situated so far back upon its body. It has a slight pelican-like pouch which is naked, and very small nostrils. The wings are long and pointed ; and the tail, of moderate length, is broad and stiffened and com- posed of twelve feathers. The Darter might resemble a long- necked Cormorant, but it is of a more slight, neat, and trim appearance. They are swamp-dwellers, feeding upon reptiles and fishes for which they dive and swim with remarkable dex- terity. The habit of swimming with only the head above the water has procured for it the name of Snake Bird, as it then greatly resembles that reptile. Genus, Plotus, The Anhinga or Sni-ke Bird. FAMILY LVI TACHYPETIDAE THE FRI- GATE BIRD Greek tarhnpetes, swift-Hying. This is still another bird that could not, by any possibility. OF ORNITHOLOGY 127 be mistaken for any other species. The characterization of the Genus Tachi/peten, by Vieillot, as given by Professor Baird, is so apt that we quote it entire : " Bill long, broad at the base, the culraen concave, the un- guis much hooked and very acute, the sides grooved and com- pressed ; nostrils basal, linear, and hardly visible ; wings very long and pointed, first two primaries longest ; tail lengthened and deeply forked ; tarsi very short, strong, compressed, and feathered for half their length ; toes long and all united by webs; claws curved and rather small ; gular sac extending nearly to the end of the lower mandible and admitting of considerable expansion." Thus, in a word, the general appearance is of an immense kite-like bird with long, narrow, pointed wings ; long, forked tail ; rather long bill and neck ; short legs ; and a lean, atten- uated body. They are tropical birds and lonely wanderers about the ocean, far from land and high in air. Their power of wing — of flight — is scarcely surpassed by any other bird known. They breed, as do the Tropic Birds, in large num- bers together, on or near the ground along the coast. They are poor swimmers and divers and walk badly, but wing the strongest tempests far to sea and high in air. It might well be called the Water Eagle or Itobber. There is one species. Genus, Tachypetes, The Frigate Pelican, The Man-of-War Bird. Has been classed as Peleranii.i, [also Freijata and Affaoen]. FAMILY LVII PHAETONIDAE THE TROPIC BIRD Greek pheihon, —See the legend of Phaethon in Mythology. This is the last of these " Freaks of Nature," as one might almost call them, for which the Order STWiANOi'ODES is so noted. It is associated with the Man-of-War Bird, and very much resembles it in many particulars. Their habits are much the same, as are also their habitats : yet the one represents the Lion Binn-KiNG and the other the Dovk-Lamb. Tiie one the fierce, untamed, powerful- and skillful-winged scoruer and 1 128 MANUAL lover of the tempest ; the other the calm, gentle, — yet no less master of the air — Dove-like (.'ommander of the Sky, who views all below him with unmoved eye and unruffled breast, yet conscious of a power that guides him even in the fury of the storm. Thus the two birds pi(!ture themselves to my mind. The description of the Genus Ph.eton, of Linnteus, as given by Professor Baird, is : "Bill about the length of the head, strong, broad at the base, compressed, the culmen curved to the tip, which is pointed ; nostrils lateral, basal, and pervious, situated in a short groove near the ridge ; wings long and pointed, the first primary longest ; tail graduated, the two middle feathers ex- tremely lengthened and narrow ; tarsi short and stout ; toes rather long, all connected together by full webs ; claws small, curved and rather acuto." At a little distance the Tropic Bird does not look very un- like an immense Dove or Pigeon with two immensely long, streaming tail-feathers. A very little stretch of the imagina- tion would picture it as an object of veneration and worship throughout the splendid dominions, on festal occasions, of the Montezuman dynasty — this Gui.l-lik'e Hvs Bird. Genus. Phatkoii or Phceton, The Tropie Bird (2 species). (Formerly called Lepturus.) FAMILY LVIII LARIDAE THE GULLS AND TERNS Latia larus, Greek laros, " a ravenous sea-bird the Mew." This is the last large family with which we have to deal ; it is a large family, yet the singular regularity or conformity of structure which runs through all of its members renders it an exceedingly easy one of which to treat. With the exception of one or two species, the Gulls and Terns can usually be told at sight. They have, generally speaking, long and powerful though rather slender wings, and are capable of long-contin- ued flight and surprising agility. Their bodies are long and slender rather than short and robust. There is very little ijin!iii.ii!iji|.i jwiiuwtwu^iw.,4i.a,tU^yi.%IUJMUWUULi!,ul;i||i»MgwW«lll"MWWWBI SBgwiwa OF ORNITHOLOGY 129 difference in the general gull-like appearance of the dittercnt members of the different sub-families, though some of them display more agility of wing than others. The larger birds have an apparently slower and steadier motion while on the wing than the smaller species, yet this may not be strictly true — their larger size may only make it Kcein true. All the members of the family are remarkable for their habit of div- ing, from high in the air, for their prey, and will often remain entirely submerged for several seconds at a time ; yet, as a rule, they are not tlivin(/ birds. Their bodies are extremely bouyant while they rest upon the water, and they .swim with ease, grace, and facility. They are more or less gregarious, often flying together in flocks of many hundreds or even thou- sands. All their motions are full of grace, and even their walk has a sort of daintiness about it that makes it appear not altogether awkward. Although the sea and seacoast are their places of greatest resort they are not confined there alto- gether, and many species follow up tho larger streams and even occur far inland about lakes and }>onds and other large bodies of water. They are distinguished from their near al- lies the Petrclfi by the absence of the tubular nostrils, for whit^h the former are noted. There is no gular sac. The bill is long and dart like. The toes well webbed ; hind toe short, ele- vated, and free. The general color white or pearl-gray (blu- ish). In general appearance not unlike a Sea DovK. Professor Baird gives the following brief diagnosis of the four Sub-families of this Family : " Lestuidinje.— Racial half of upper jaw with a horny cov- ering, distinct from the tip, and under which the nos- trils open considerably beyond the middle of the bill. Bill abruptly and much decurved at the tip. Tail cu- neate. Body full, stout. LariNvR. — Covering of the bill continuous. Anterior extremity of nostrils generally reaching to the middle of the bill. Culmen generally decurved towards the lip. Body robust. Tail generally even. 1! 1 MmnMMH 130 MANUAL Stkrnin.r. — Covering of l)ill continuous. Nostrils opening in tlie basal third of the bill. Culmen gently curved to the tip of the lengthened and attenuated bill. Body rather slender. Wing lengthened. Tail usually deeply forked. KhynchoI'IN.k. — Bill excessively compressed, like the blade of a knife. Lower jaw much longer than the upper ; the point obtuse. Body slender ; tail forked." Sub-family a LESTRIDINJE Skua or Jager Gull The Hikua or Jai/er GuUx are most extraordinary birds. At first sight they resembl the smaller species of Hawks ; a sec- ond view of them makes them appear dark-colored Terns. The immense cered mandibles strengthen the former idea, and their graceful, powerful, and wonderful agility of wing and power of flight the latter. When viewed near to they appar- ently turn out to be neither, and the young student cries out excitedly, ' W' hat can it be ? ' The >Skum have been the sub- ject of a great deal of study and speculation. They have been variously classed by different writers and have received a large number of generic appellations, but have now been reduced to a eingle well-established genus. They are arctic-temperate rather than tropical-temperate species. The (jexus is thus characterized in Professor Baird's Report (p. 838) : " Sterco- rarius, Buissox. Bill rather strong ; culmen straight and covered at the base with a smootli cere, the end curved. Nos- trils linear and more open anteriorly. Wings pointed ; first quill longest. Tail of moderate length ; the two middle feath- ers elongated. Tarsi strong, and curved with prominent scales; claws sharp and much curved. Feet fully webbed ; hind toe short and but little elevated." Genus, Stercorarius, 4 species. There are, properly speaking, no sub-uenera, unless the name Megalestris for the Skua Gull (in distinction from the other three which are true Jagers) be such. The names Lesiris, Catanacta, and Biiphagus are only 8YN0NYMNR for Stevcorarius. OF OKMTHOIXMiY l.'il Sub-family b LARINJE True Gulls The Trw (Udh are too well known to need any extended introduction. Though some of the species are giants and oth- ers dwarfs, they all possess a similarity of appearance and of habit which at once characterizes them and binds them to- gether. They have little of the agile flash-like flight of the Skua's, and still less of the methodical scissor-like flight of the Terns. They are, rather, bold, powerful, slow-moving brigands, whose wild screaches send terror into the hearts of all smaller species, whom they seem to laugh at as if they con- sidered them much inferior beings. The sexes are alike as to plumage in the Gulls as well as in the Terns. The young are of different degrees of brownish or greyish-brown, and dis- tinctly noticeai)le even among the flying birds. They are two to three years in maturing, the plumage from very dark brown becoming lighter and lighter at each succeeding moult. A full and thorough study of the (inlU has never been made. We shall not attempt to characterize it further. Genera, harm, The Gulls Proper (14 or 15 species). Chroicocephalm, The Laughing ivnd Rosy Gulls (3 species). Pagophila, The Ivory Gull. Riaaa, The Kittiwakes (3 species). lihodustethia, Ross's Gull. Xema, Sabine's Gull. Creagrun, The Swallow-tailed Gull. Some writers do not recognize Chroicocephaluit »s differing from Larim — unless, perhaps, as a sub-oenus ; and, though the distinction is more nearly generic, yet really Hhodostethia is certainly a .si;ii-(iENr.s of Rissa. In the same way, if not really a distinct genus, Creagvus is a sub-oenus of Xema. The synonymy of this sub-family had better not be attempted by the young student, as he will find a strange tangle of Larus, Laroides, Leucus, Ai- ricilla, etc., and other v'exing suggestion-s. Sub-famUy c STERNINiB Terns The difference between the True Crutltt and the Terns is not technically so great as would at first seem. The general ap- pearance, however, is much more evident. The long, pointed wing, the strongly marked bend of the wing, and the length- P]MI!^eptl,H.iW.!IP.illlWii'.i'Wlgi|i'^ 132 MANUAL ened body, are all cliaracteristiits of the Term. They secure their food — usually fish — by darting upon it, from high in air, with the velocity and the true aim of an arrow from the bow of an expert archer. Most Ternit have a forked tail, so that one can generally tell them, even while yet in the air, from Gulls. They often occur a short distance inland, but seldom stray far from the seaooast or its immediate vicinity. 7mi.s are social birds and fond of each others company ; throw a dead tern even up high into the air and, if there be any liv- ing terns near, even if not in sight at the time, numbers will swoop down upon you in a moment. In general : Bill usu- ally hard, horny, even at the point, and sharp tipped ; the nostrils are always prominent and opening from one side of the mandible to the other and are oblong slits — more or less basal. Toes usually long compared to the short and weak tar- sus ; webs not quite full, and concave rather than straight edged. Even the young student, after a moment's examina- tion, will hardly mistake the Terns for the Gulls. Gkneka, Sterna, The True Terns (14 species). Uydrochelidon, The Black Tern and ally. Anons, The Noddy Tern. ScB-OENKRA, GelochcUdon for The Gull-billed Tern ; Thalasseus for the Caspian, Cayenne, Elegant, and Sandwich Terns ; Sterna [proper] for the Wilson's, Forater's, Arctic, Roseate, Trudeau's, Least, Aleutian, Sooty and Bridled Terns. The Sooty Tern is sometimes named Haliplana. The SYNONYMS are I nrdly worth mentioni.jt, being almost invariably Sterna, (Sterfivla [litiir Sterna] for The Least Tern,) and Thalla^aeus. Sub-family d RH7NCHOPIN2! Skimmers The bill of this bird alone Jistinguishes it from anything else in the bird kingdom, it is like a long, blunt pair of shears, with part of the top (the upper mandible) broken off part way from the tip which is then filed to a rounded point as it lay.s upon its fellow. Otherwise it is a true Tern. Only three species are, 1 believe, known to science ; one alone in- habiting North America. Gkni^s, Jihynchi'pK, I'lio Black Skimmer. J'MMAs • .-is^m^ OF OllMTilOLOCJY FAMILY LIX PROCELLARIDAE PETRELS 133 THE Latin procella, connected with a storm, .-toniethinK stormy, a storm bird. The Petreln, at least the True Petrels, may best he com- pared to the familiar eomiunn Dove or Pigeon : They are, in fact, Sm Pif/pom to all aijpearaiices when viewed from a little distance. Near to, the technical differt. je is much greater. Taken as a family, they vary greatly as to size. Professor Baird thus characterizes the family as a whole : " Bill much or less lengthened, compressed, and deeply grooved, appearing to be formed of several distinct parts ; the tip is strong, much hooked, and acute ; the nostrils open from distinct tubes, either single or double, and are situated at the base of the upj)er mandible." While the above is, probably, as accurate as the circum- stances will permit, we must look at the two sub-families, which diifer very materially from each other, for a better knowledge of the group. The hind toe is very smnll, and more or less elevated, even sometimes altogether wanting — at least for all practical purposes. They are strong swim- mers, and their flight ^ easy, not ungraceful, and capable of loi\ .inuance. 'i hey pick their food p from the top of . water, and are not divers. Their long wings and short tails, together with their curious habits of flying close to the water — probably rao-st of the time — render them conspicu- ous objects at sea. We know so little of the general habits of this family that anything nally new about them would be a boon to science ; they are worthy of a very special and careful study. We have two sub-families : Sub-famUy a DIOMEDEINiE Albatrosses The technical difference l)etween the Albatrosscn and the True Petrels is very evident, the shape and position of the nos- trils alone would distinguish them regardless of size. As a matter of fact, the Albatrosses are immense creatures : the Giant Fulmer alone approaching it partially as to size. The ngMMB 134 MANUAL nostrils are entirely separate and disconnected, and situate one on either side the mandible. They are found usually far from laud, and would seem to be nea-hlrdu in the truest sense of the word, seldom approachinj? land save for breeding purposes. Two genera are known to North America. Genera, Diomedea, 2 species. » Phoebetria, 1 species. Phochetria seems to be a proper genus, rather than a sub-genus, though often occurring under the generic name of Diomedea. I know of no syno- nyms : [Unless Thalasmrrhe, which is a sort of sub-genus of Diomedea, be one. It is used by Profes.sor Baird as is the name Phaebantia — both are used, however, rather as expressive of oenkuic peculiarities than in a sub-generic sense]. Sub-family d FROCELLARINiE Petrels The True Pdrclx are known at once by the curious shape of the nostrils, which have the appearance of a very short double-barreled gun saddled to the base of the upper mandi- ble. The general features of the Petreh are best studied, as are many other of the bird groups, by means of a " typical " specimen. Nearly all of the members of the group conform, with slight variations in each genus, to this typical specimen — and almost any one of the hub-oudku will serve as typical. Many families do not require this mode of study, a few do. The lilmpen of the nostrils, of the wings and tail as modified by the number of their feathers and the forked, even, or wedge-like, appearance of the latter, size of both wings and tail, and even the coloration of the various parts, all vary in the different species and genera. Genera, Ossifraga, The Giunt Fulmar. Fulmarus, The True Fulmar (3 species). PrioceUa, The Slender-l>illed Fulmar. PrioJinuH, Tlie Black-tailed Shearwater. Pvjpmm, 'V\\i'. True Shearwaters (10 species). CEstrelata, The Black-capped Petrel and ally. Daption, The Cape Pigeon. Halfiajptena, I'he Least Petrel. Procellaria, The Stormy Petrel. Oceanites, Wilson's Petrel. Vywocfiorea, Leach's Petrel and 2 allies. Ocennodroma, The Forked-tailed Petrel (2 species). Fregetta, The White-bellied Petrel. OF ORNITHOLOGY 135 or The synonymy of the PcU-ch, all things considered, is one apparently of strange inconsistency, and 1 would not advise the young student to bother much over it. Professor Baird added Dopfiou and Fm/s under the water, apparently without very great exertion. They only take wing when compelled to, prefer- ring to escape their pursuers by diving. They are easily dis- tinguishable when examined closely : The long, stout, com- pressed, straight, and sharp-tipped bill ; long, narrow, and lobed nostrils ; strong and loyg-pointed wings ; short, thick tail ; legs situated very far back making it difficult for them to walk on land ; toes all i)resent, webbed ; these features tell the 7vor>».s at once. They are usually spotted black and white above, and pure white beneath. Their curiously harsh and fiendish cry has struck terror into the heart of numy a camper- out quietly taking his first outing by the side of some cool inland lake or stream. There is but a single genus. Gknl's, Colymlnm, f) Hpecies. Tlie old-time Kudytcx or Enditrx are not now in nse e.vcc|it for references. FAMILY LXI PODICIPIDAE THE GBEBES Ijfttin piidcx l>utto.v, and pen foot ; Imtto.x-fooled. The GrebcH, though strongly resembling the Loons in v(>ry 1 II 13G MANUAL 41; many respects, arc yet easily told from them at a glance. 'JMiey were formerly classed as a sub-family of the divers, al- tiiough now made a distinct family. Their habits are, in the main, almost identical. The technical di{!^erence between the two families is easily seen by the apjjcarance of the feet-webs. The feet of the Loons being what are known as pobmiff, that is the membrane connecting them is smooth and entire (in- cised, cut into, or not) ; while those of the Grebes are lohnte, scalloped or lobed, and running down each side of each to'- nearly or quite to its base. Aside from this they are usually much smaller ; the bill blunter ; the wings more rudiment- ary ; the body feathers greasy or oily to the touch ; and the plumage not black and white spotted above and pure white beneath, but more or less brownish dusky all over. Genera, jEchmophortin, 2 species. Podicep.s, The Aniericaii Rod-nocked Grehe. Dytes, 3 species. Tarhi/baptcx, St. Domingo Grebe. Podilymbux, The Pied-billed Grebe. Formerly Podicej)s was used for all the Grebes ; later Podilymbus became a stable jjenera. Colymbux was also used for nearly if not quite all species of both Grebes and Loons. Other synonyms, now somewhat out of date, need not be mentioned here. The Podicepx criHtniiis, or Crested Grebe, so frequently cited by former writers, is not now recognized even as being a North American species. . FAMILY LXII ALCIDAE THE AUKS AND PUFFINS Derivation uncertain, perhaps like ahcdo or halinori, pertaining to the sea. The Auks and the Puffitw constitute the last family of which we treat, and they are, without doubt, one of the most inter- esting. To study them carefully and fully one must visit them in their home, the Arctic regions of both coasts of both con- tinents ; for there they make their home. The Auh are the lowest specimens of the bird kingdom the Pengvim excepted, and are placed naturally at the end of the bird kingdom ; why writers should be at such pains to reverse this apparently nat- ural order and put the lowest water birds fikst, thereby ren- OF ORNITHOLOGY l;57 dering it necessary to put in a reverse order every specimen and every group in the siib-kingdoni, in order to conform to what I call the ijnkau thkokv, we confess we are at a loss to imagine. The Axk-n are the least developed of the birds. Their legs are situated so far back that they walk and even stand with difficulty ; their wings arc rudimentary ; and their habits primitive. They seem to have little vitality save that of mere existence. They lay generally a single egg — seldom more, and often leave the sun to hatch that. They are emi- nently social, often assembling together in regular colonies; and, though stragglers are sometimes found a great way from home, they seldom stray far away from the main body of their as'sociates. As txfamly they are easily told from their neighbors in the same ORi)f:H by having but three toes to their feet, all fully webbed. The tail is short and of few feathers. The bill is variable in shape and often subject to seasonable, periodical, or sexual changes. They are confined to the sea-board, though severe gales often blow them many miles inland. When once on wing they fly well, but prefer the water where they are perfectly at home, swi r-'^-'^ig and diving with great facility. Their notes are har;.. \uC few. There are two well-defined sub-families, though they are scarcely distinguishable so very closely do they run into each other. Many authors make no sub-families, 1 believe. There is a great deal yet to learn of these sub-families, whose extremes are so f/wsimilar the ends that approach eacho ther so similar. Sub-family a PHALERIDINiE Puffins and allies fiKKKKA, Fratercnla, The Tnu- Pnllins (\i spei-ios). Lnmhi, Tlic 'I'til'tctl I'uflin. (.Wutorhlna, Tlio Horn-biUiHl Pullin. Simorhinchnx, The Crested and Whiskerod Auks. I'hnleris, The Parrot Auk. ('iceriiiiia, The Least Auk. I'ti/cnrhamphttx, The Aleutian Auk. - lettsaasEim-i mxuMiiiMmvuL 138 MANUAL Sub-family /; ALCINiE True Auks Xostrils naked and not rcaoliod l)y the feathering at the base of tlie bill. Gknera, Alle, Sea Dove, Dovekie. f Si/nfhlihor?Ktmj)hii.i, 2 species. Brachirhamphtis, 5 species. Uria, The True (luillemots (3 species). Lonrvia, The True Murres (4 species). Utamaina, The Razor-billed Auk. Alca, The Great Auk. The above generic equivalents for the Avka and Piiffim is correct, as the family is now treated by our best ornitholo- gists. It would be unwi.se to enter into a di.scussion of old relations and old synonyms. A very few of them may be mentioned only, such as Alen, PhalnriH, Ufamanin, and Uria, as being general names for the Auks ; Mormon tor the Puf- fins ; CeppuK and Cnlymbm for the Black Guiij.emot and its allies : Colymhux was also used for many of the other spe- cies of Guillemots. We have omitted, in the above pages, the discussion of a large number of Debatable Questions, especially concerning Individual Species and the admission of genera based upon them. We hope, however, that no essential genus has been left out. Subjects for Essays. Let the pupil WiUTK .\N Essay upon any of the follow- ing Subjects : 1 . The Migrations of Birds. 2. North American Birds found in Europe and other For- eign Countries. OF ORNlTHor/KiY i;j!) 3. European Birds foiiiul in North America. 4. North American Birds found in South America. 0. Soutli American Birds found in North America. 6. Where shall we draw the liine hetween the Nortli and the South American Avi-fauna V 7. The Avi-fauna of Central America -and its Boundaries North and South. 8. The Birds of the West Indies. 9. The Winter Residence of our North American Birds. 10. In the Nests of what Birds does the Vow Biim), J/o/o- fhriis (iter, lay her eggs and how many ".' 11. Double-yolked Eggs. 12. The Colors of Birds Eggs and how produced ? Is tliere a Law regulating them? 13. Changes of Habits amongst Birds. 14. A Theory of Albinism. Enunnjration of Species. 15. A Theory of Melanism. Enumeration of Species. 16. A Theory of Bird Growth. (Size in Old and Young, in Male and Female.) 17. Pneumacity in Birds. [This could be made a very inter- esting subject for OrUjlnnl investigation], 18. Coloration and Ornamentation in Birds. 19. The Theory of Flight in Birds. 20. Birds that Sing in the Night. 21. Birds that Sing on the Nest. 22. Curiosities of Bird Architecture. 23. Causes of Decrease (or Increase, if observed) in the Abundance of Certain Species of Birds in ditt'ercnt Years in the same Area. 24. Extinct Birds. 25. Faunal Areas. 26. Early and Late Arrival and Departure of Birds (in any given Locality) and probable Causes. 27. Variation in Size in Eggs of the same Species. 28. Derivation of Names fi'om Foreign l-angungcs. Any or all of these Topics can be enlarged indttinitely. itl -jT-T^TW^^rf'T- 110 MANUAL IMost of" tlioin can be restricted to North American Birds, or aj)plied to Birds in General. The number of Topics might be increased, also, upon careful consideration. The above, however, will be found to contai i Most of the leading Ciues- tions of the Day, as applied to Ornithological problems. An Enumeration of the ORDERS and FAMILIES of the BIRDS OF THE WORLD. I The present list of the Families of The Birds of THE World, following their respective Orders, is the result of over twenty-five years of careful study and reflection. The latest works upon the subject, in both the European and the English Languages are in my Library and have been faithfully examined. Besides the actual specimens in the Central Park and Vassar College Museums (in 1873), Amherst Col- lege, and the Boston Society of Natural History ; the magnificent collection of birds, both stuffed and in the skin, of Prof. H. A. Ward of Rochester, N. Y. ; a val- uable collection of about 2000 skins of birds from the East Indies, belonging to my brother the late William F. .Stearns, Esq. > f Orange, N. J. ; a collection of 800 skins from the same source, the property of the Rev. William 0. Ballantine of Ahmednagar, India ; besides many smaller collections from various parts of the world which have been opened to me and have been no less interesting. A discussion of why each family has been placed as it has, would occupy more space than can at present OF ()RNITH()L()(iY 141 be allowed in these pages. A hasty glance at the classification of an eminent English writer, in a recent work just come to my notice, strengthens my convic- tion that the linear theory of classification is no longer tenable. The idea of direct relationship, from the be- ginning to the end of the series, through similarity of common features — say of bill, wing, tarsus, etc., — which has occupied the mind of ornithologists for over two hundred years, has, by our latest and most emi- nent authorities, given place to what 1 will call, to coin a word of my own, The Cubical Theory of relation- ship and inter-relationship from a central point Aves. Groups of birds, more or less complete in themselves, are so far removed from each other that no recent or fossil forms supply the deficiency. Our ornithological ensemble is, therefore, not a linear one. As a very simple illustration : We have Land Birds and Water Birds, we have also Game Land Birds and Game Water Birds. We have Fowl among both Land and Water Birds. Then we have a host of peculiar forms that conform to nothing but themselves. In many ways does this cubical theory of distinct phases of Bird life peculiar in themselves and resembling noth- ing else, except in being a Bird, show itself throughout the whole Class. In the following list, the English equivalent for the Latin or Greek name has been faithfully translated ; though they do not seem always to fully apply, they are at present the best that we have tq offer, and often too familiar to be changed without good reasons. The student would find a great deal of advantage, also, in studying the derivation and meanings of names in Or- nithological nomenclature. A few names, bracketed Wifi WIXWI* PJMa'iWM*' 142 MANUAL but not included in the regular families or numbered, are yet made families by some authors. They may in time be given full Family rank, but not now. it has not been thought necessary to cumber these pages with Sub-Orders or Snb-Families. They are, to a very great extent, useless divisions in Ornithology in any event and seldom stable. The accompanying Tabic will serve as a diagnosis of 0?'ders and explain itself. These Orders are given in tlicir order \x\)Qx\ th back of the Table. Order 3 should read Macrochires. We may, at a later date, elaborate a diagnosis for the Families. Order 1. Passares — Sparrow-like Birds. 1 Turdidae True Tiirushes. 2 Troglodytidae Wrens. 3 ParidEe Titmice. 4 Chamaeidae Wren-tits. 5 Nectariniidse Sun- Birds. 6 Meliphagidae Honey-eaters. 7 Ccerebidae Honey-creepers. 8 Certhiidae Creeping Warblers. 9 Sylvicolidae True Warblers. 10 Muscicapidee Old World Flycatchers. 11 Ampelidae Waxwings. 12 MotacillidEe Wagtails and Pipits. 13 Alaudidae Larks. 14 Hirundinidee Swallows. 15 Laniidae True Shrikes. 16 Dicruridae Drongo Shrikes. 17 Vireonidae Vireos. 18 Oriolidae Orioles. 19 Icteridae American Starlings. 20 Sturnidae Old World Starlings. 21 Corvidae Crows. 22 Ptilonorhynchidae Bower Birds. A Classification for the Orders of the Birds of the World. Jaw lidiic provided with tcrdi. Ki. OiKtNTOUN'lTlIKS. Toothed Birds. c -«: c o liCgs set very fiir beliind, s(» thiit the iiird .■ositi(>ii 15. FY(i(>l'(li)KS.' tnuohinij the sole.s ot" the leel upon tiie jiround Runip-footccl. Front toes only connected liy ineiii- IIS. l,(>N(ilPKN'N'KS. l)runou.« weh Lontr-wintfed. Bill wHIiiihI cro.s.w seetion- nl liortiy i>latfs iilon^ the edjie.s. ; ,l//./o»/;- /«>-.•< connected liy mem- 12. STEfiANOPt H)KS. hraiious wel. Weh-footed. Bill irilli cross sectionnl horny plates nlon^t the edjtes I*- l'AMKM>Il{( >ST1{KS Plnted-hille.i. T3 ' I Winji developed. I Bill horny as far us the tip 10. CICOMA. i Storks. y Bill covered at liase with soft skin. H- dHALI-.K. Stilt-wnlkers. Winjrs rndiiiieiitary and unfit (or flifiht. .7. BKKVIPKNNHS. Small-winjffed. PC YounK ahle to rnii aliout and fly from time of hatching ^- KASOUIvS. Scratchers. Bill with horny sheath only at its arched tip !>. r()LrMB/K. Pigeon-like. 4. RAPTORKS. Bill with a cere at the haso. Feet «'»/ united in pairs Birds of Prey ~ I a I. J ii o V, ■r. 3- •' PQ = 2 ■'■ c c ^ S 1, (S r; * U j Legs and feet always cov- Feet noi ered with large plates united in | pairs I iiCgs and feet not clenrlv I pin ■ 1. PASSARKS. Sparrow-like. ,p,l ; :i. MACROCRIRKS. LoMg-Art(((/('i/. G. picr. Feet united in pairs Woodpeckers. Formation of palate hones desmognathous [united.] -■ COLCidhS. Cuckoos. Bill with a cere. Feet united in pairs. 5. PSITTACl. Parrots. ' Some authors use the name Ukinatokks for this Order its I'l/j/ojnit: is the mhiiic of a Reptile. i::^=rtMrAH'ri'sft^^mfifTf*r*W!m^^r>m^ ^«*- I 1. PASSARKS. Spnrrow-like. '2. COCCYGES. Cuckoos. 3. MACROCHIKKS. Long-AoHd out. Dine, a more or less circular, p •• j-iike arrangement of radiat- ing feathers, — shown especially about the eyes of Owls and other Birds of Prey. Divaricate, spreading out (or fan-like) from some common stem or centre. Dorsal, pertaining to the back. E. Elbow, the outer joint of the hnmerm. Elliptical, an oval about twice as long as wide. Emarginate, notched, cut into, as if a piece had been cut out. Epidermis, the outer layer of the skin. Epignathom, when the tip of the upper mandible is bent over that of the under. Epiphysis, (pi. epiphyses), the caps to the limb bones. Esophagus, the gullet, the channel leading into the stomach. Also spelled (Esophagus. Excoriaceous, a state in which the skin seems to come off in small scale-like ])artioles. •ii I'i 150 MANUAL ExKorferl, projecting beyond the rest. Extvrinr, upon the outside. F. Facial, pertaining to the face. Falcate, sharp and sythe-shaped. Fasciculate, covered with little bunches or tufts of fine and of- ten stiff hairs or feathers. Fauna, the birds (or other animals) of any given region : (dis- tinguislied from the Jloi-a or plant life.) Feathcm, true feathers have a .shaft (with an after-Hhaft) and a vcb : feathers may also be iloinii/, thread-like, hairy, or hriatly, (or real hrii^tlex). The so-called poirder-dovn of some birds is really a kind of feather. Femur, the thigh bone. Fibula, the outer leg bone. Sek Tibia. Filaments, small thread-like growths. FiHiiiroiitren, birds in which the bill is short and has a very wide cleft or (jape. (Swallow-like.) Flanka, the sides of the rutiiiK Flaps, See Dew-laps, fleshy outgrowths. Flattened, made flat — longer than wide or wider than long — given a flat surface anywhere [a word very common yet very indefinite.] Flexible, bending easily. Forficate, deeply forked. • Fomce, naml, the grooves in which the nostrils open, often called sulcAB (when very long). Frontal rcf/ions, the forehead. Fuliginous, sooty or smoke colored, smoky-brown. Fulvous, a tawny yellow color, yellowish-brown. Fuscous, a darkish or blackish-brown color. Fused, two or more portions of anything firmly united. a. Gape, the lint from the tip of bill to the angle of commissure. (ilobular, ronnd. Gonys, the point where the rami of the under mandible join. ^ mmmmKmmmm!mmam.i>mm-i.mmA.iiiLm..a. immmAHmtis OF ORNITHOLOGY 161 the line of the'gonys isoften distinct to the very tip of the bill J (they arc very variable in shape.) (yradnated, implying that the quills are graded or so arranged that each will be shorter than the one next to it. (iranivorouH, grain-eating. Granular, composed of small grains or granules. Gregarious, living or assembling together in flocks. Gula region, See Throat. Gullet, See Esophagm. H. Habitat, the place or region which any species peculiarly iu- abits. Hallux, the hind toe. //«wiw/ai,i/,'hard, tough, and flexible, like horn. Humerus, the bone of the arm from the shoulder to the elbow. Hybri(l'& cross between two ditlerent species. Hypognathons, in which the lower mandible is longer than the upper mandible. Twhrioate, furnished with scales or plates which overlap each other, similar to the shingles upon the roof of a house. fmmaculate, unspotted. ImpermonH, not apparently perimm or oj»en, shut up. Incised, cut into. fnnnnhpnt, where one portion lies upon another (when the whole surface of the toes or feet lie upon the ground when the bird is standing). Inferior, when below any given line or point, as inferior to the median line. Inflated, swelled out, distended. Insistent, — of bird's feet, when only the toes lie upon the ground when'the bird is standing (or of the hind toe when raised above a level of the others j.isi so much that only the end of the toe can touch the jjiound). Interior, within, inside of. m I 152 Jugulum, See Throat. MANUAL J. Keeled, having a raised, central ridge like the inverted keel of a ship. Knee, practically the joint of the femur and the Hlmla. LumeUce, thin plate or scale-tik- processes. Lamdlirostres, biids in which the bill is furnished with lamrlkc (Duck-like). Lanceolat:, shaped like the head of a lance. D rtfnx, the upper part of the trachea oi' windpipe, from the lower part of wliich proceed the laiiingcnl or the sing- ]\ig mu?cit's. X'i'Lir'T', p; -tsiiiing to the side or sides. [Kitxi:dmal, long, — in height. Idneor, like a line, long and narrow. iMhaic, furnished with a series of lobes or flaps along the sides of each toe. Lobes, fleshy outgrowths (of membrane). Longiroalres, birds in which the bill is long i)ut stout (Snipe- like). Longitudinal, long lengthwise. Loren or Tjoral regiom, the spaces between the eye and the base of the upper mandible, on either side of the head. M. Maculate, spotted. Malar, pertaining to the cheek. Mandibles, the upper and under sheaths of the bill. Mantle, — in gulls, etc., the upper surface of the wings and back taken as a whole. Maxillai-y line, the line at the base of the jaws or mandibles. [The word inaxillary is seldom used in Ornithology, being intercliangeable with manrf/We; it refers, really, to the secondary jaws of Insects.] Median, middle. ik\ , y-ff OF ORXITHOT.OCn' 153 I Metano, a bl«>:k viiriation oi' some diiforent colored plumage. Membrancu'x'nuH — membrane — covered with or having a niembrnne or «kinny covering. Mentum, the chin. MetooarpuH, that portion which lies between the carpvx and the phafanf/c'i. MdagnathoriM, a state in which the points of both mandibles cross ore another. Metamorphosis, a change of form, shape, or structure. Migrant, (Migration,^ (Migratouy,) the passing from one region to another at stated intervals, usually in both Spring and Autumn : cause — temperature, food, etc. Morpholoijy, treats of the forms of any given animal structure- Moult, the shedding of the old and the acquiring (»f the new plumage (occurs once and often twice each year.) Mucronnfe, abruptly pointed by a sharp, spiney shaft. N. Xasal, pertaining to the nostrils. Xape, See Neck. Neck, The, the neck of a bird is really divided into three re- gions : the f :viput, just back of the crown of the head ; the nenchal region, or nape ; and the Jiind neck or cer- rix. The nape is often spoken of as the back of the neck, and it lies between the occiput and the cervix, Neuchal region, Skk Neck. Nidifii, Nidificatioii, to nest, to make a nest, the process of nesting. Normal , regular, ordinary. Nide, naked. ^ ^ O. OhJupie, stanting, inclined. Oblong, longer than wide. Obtuse, not sharp-pointed (blunt). Occiput, See Neck. Omnivorous, the eating of all kinds of food indiscriminately. Orbital region, the region about the eye. .^■' MANUAL rd. Ovate, roiiiulor, but longer than wide. Ovoid, shaped like an egg, egg-shajjed. I I . i',t Palmate, weblied (the web may be more or less incised, or cut into, but always reaches to the base of the claws). Papilla;, little raised knobs. Paraynathous, birds in which both mandibles are of equal length. Patella, the little bone at the cap of the knee, the " knee-cap." Pedal regions, regions of the breast. Pectinate, furnished with teeth, like a comb. Pectoi'al, pertaining to the breast. Pennce, Pcnnate, Pennaccom, refers to the small feathers of a bird, often called contour or dovn feathers, which (!on- slitute tlie main part of the ]>lumage. Perforated, open from one side to the other, pierced by one or more openings. Pervious, provided with holes, opened. Phalanges, the fingers, or that ])art of the wing which an- swers to the fingers. Pinion, a feather, or quill, — thus often the whole wing. Plantigrnde, walking with the soles of the feet on the ground. Plume, a single feather, a small bunch of peculiar feathers. Plumule, diminutive of Plume. Podotheca, the naked part of the leg. Posterior, behind, (back of.) Postorhifal, behind the eye. Pra;coces, birds that run about and pick up their food from the time they are hatched. Pessirostres, birds in which the bill is short and well com- pressed, (Plover-like.) Primary quills, Primaries, the quill feathers of the last joint of a wing of a bird — often called the hand. Pubescent, covered with down, downy. PunctatCj covered with punctures, pitted. Pyramidal, pyramid-shaped. or ORNITHOLOGY p cut qual ap." of a con- le or an- il lid. :rom !om- it of Raohis, the shaft of a feather. Ridim, the inner of the two hones of the forearm. Rami, the brancjhes (upun the under side) of the under man dible. Recurved, curved upward. Reimges, tlie long, true quills of a bird's wing — and includ- ing the primaries, the secondaries, and the tertiaries. Remote, said of the hind toe when it is situated so far above the others that its tip cannot reach the ground. Reticulate, covered with very small j)late-lilve scales which are of various (irregular) sizes and shapes, not imbricated. RetroHB, directed backwards. Rictus, the line from the base of the bill to the point of the commissure, (inner angle of gape.) Rigid, stiif, inflexible, or not easily bent. Rostrum, the bill, the beak. Rounded, round, but not necessarily completely so. Ruf, a collection of feathers standing out at an angle from the rest of the surrounding plumage. Rufous, a reddish-brown color. Rugose, covered with irregular elevations — roughened irregu- larly, (having a surface resembling sandpaper but more irregular.) Rump, the region just above the extremity of the backbone and near to the base of the tail. S. Sagittate, arrow-shaped. Scabrous, roughened with scab-like scales. Scapuhries, the feathers springing from the shoulder-blade or Scajnda, (the shoulder of the wing.) Simrf, the dry external scales of the skin (or epidermis). SciUellate, covered v*'ith {jlute-like scales or scutella*, and gene- rally so arranged that one overlaps the other like the shingles of a house roof. Secondary quilk. Secondaries, the quill feathers of the forearm of a bird. 156 MANUAL Semipnhii'-te, partly- or hair-painiiite or webbed. Serrate, sh'v- ,',,;, -lil (having teeth like a fi" ah : whe any two different names are applied to the same okdkfj, fam- ily, (iENi'.s, or s i;ciE,s, or particular part of a bird, tlic one is called • i/nouym < ' the other, > ■ the two are n>jnonymous. It iclers especially to the scientific nu os for each individual species. T. ■ally Tarsus, the bone from the heel to the base of the toes the »i<'ta-tarsus). 'Temporal rcf/ion, the ngii,!. •)}' th'' temples. Tcnuirostres, h'u'ih \^ Sid o bill is long '"lender, and \ ith fihort f/ape {}] id bird-lik( ). ^^'mm^- OF ORNITHOLOGY 167 Terete, nearly oyliiulriral, having the transverse section nearly circulur. Terminal, at tlio oiid. Terrestrial, pertaining to the ground. Tertiary quills, Tertiaries, the quill feathers of the upper arm. Thigh, the thigii of a bird is represented by the/emi /or ihigh- bone. Throat, the throat of a bird is, really, divided into 2 regions : the upper or gula region, and the lower or jugulum. Thumb, the small outer bone of the wing, also called bastard wing or alula " liitle wing." Tibia, the inner leg bone (l)()th tibia and fibula are usually spoken of togetlier as the tibia in describing birds). Tom, the ciitting edges of the mandibles. Totipalmate, fully or wholly webbed (not incised anywhere). Trachea, the windpipe. Transverse, crosswise, up and down. Trifi,d, having three divisions or parts, divided into three parts. Trilobfite, three lobed. Trunc(i'<', cut or broken off at the top. Tubercles, small wart-like raised surfaces on the skin. Tubular, having the shape of a tube. Tumid, rough and uneved, swelled out, (with skin soft.) Turgid, rough and uneven, swelled out, (with skin hard.) Typical, a Type, a specimen best illustrating any given group or series, or series of groups. U. Ulna, the outer of the two bones of the forearm. Unguiculute, claw-like. Unguis, the nail (applied to the bill and sometimes the claw). Lppor tail coverts, upper wing ( owrtf- • the small feathers cov- ering the base of the tai' ving above; under tail coverts, under iring coverth, x{\ ^ame below. V. VauUeii arched (like the roof of the mouth). Vftsmih, , urnished ^ h little pits (like the extremity of a Snipe's bill). 158 MANUAL } -vt Vent, Sek Anus. Ventral i-egiona, the regions about tlie vent. Vermfik, capable of being turned either backward or forward. Vexillum, the web or v( in of a feather (each true feather has two of them). VilloHe, covered with fine hairs, hairv. W. W(.ittle«, of fowls, etc., — fleshy outgrowth-. Web, — oi' a feather — the flosely connected feathery ends of e«ch vexillum (vein or side) of a feather ; Web-footed, when the toes are connected, more or less, by a web or lobe (membrane). Y. Young-qf-the-Year, this expression is often used to signify " a young bird not a year old and moulting."— Ma ynard. & Zyyodmstyle, having two toes in front and two behind. J i OF ORNITHOLOGY 159 Systematic Arrangement. The History of Ornitholoij.v 1 Group Aves or Birds 23 Sub-group ^»e« Ratita 23 Sub-group Aves Carinahe 23 Sub-Class ^n'ai Birds or Insessores 24 Sub-Class Terrestrial Birds or Cursores 24 Sub-Class Aquatic Birds or Natatores 24 Order I Passares 25 Sdh-Order 1 Oscines or Singing Birds 25 Sub-Order 2 Clamatores or Screaming Birds 25 Order 2 Picarice 26 Sub-Order 1 Cypse/j or Swift-like Birds 26 Sub-Order 2 t'/(cij/i or Cuckoo-likf Birds 26 Sub-Order 3 Pici or Woodpecker-like Birds 27 Order 3 Psittaci 27 Order 4 Paptores 27 Sub-Order 1 Strigides or Owls 28 Sub-Order 2 Accipitres or Hawks 29 Sub-Order 3 Cathurtides or Vultures 29 Orders Columhie 29 Order 6 Galliha 30 Order 7 Grallatores 31 Sub-Order 1 Limicolte or Shore Birds 31 Sub-Order 2 Heriodioties or Herons 32 Sub-Order 3 Alectorides or Cranes 32 Order 8 Lamellirostres 33 Sub-Order 1 Phanicopterides or Flamingoes 34 Sub-Order 2 Anseres or Ducks, Geese, etc 34 Order 9 Steganopodes 34 Order 10 Longipennes 34 Sub-Order 1 Larides or Gulls and Terns 35 Sub-Order 2 Procellarides or Petrels 35 Order 11 Pygopudes 35 Other Systems 36 I. LAND BIRDS 39 Family 1 Turdidn; The Thrushes 39 Sub-family a Tvrdirue, True Thrushes 40 fc Jtfiwtmce, Mocking Thru Ins 41 r C/ncZirtCE, Dippers 41 1 160 MANUAL •'1, K d Saxicolinw, Chats 41 e /?e^M Knee, Kinglets 42 J Polioptilince, Gnat-catchers 42 Family 2 Chamceidce, The Wren Tits 42 3 I'arida, The Titmice, Chickadees 43 4 Sittldce, The Nuthatches 44 5 Cec^AnWo?, Thf Creepers 44 6 Troitfit^^^^^/mmSliillim^f^T-^iy^!Wi' -JtTS^'^ lES^H OF ORNITHOLOGY 161 41 42 42 42 48 44 44 45 45 45 46 47 48 48 49 52 64 54 65 56 66 67 58 68 58 59 59 60 67 68 68 69 69 70 71 71 72 74 75 76 76 76 77 78 79 Sah-^amWy a Crotophaginae, Anis 80 6 Saurotherinae, Ground Cuckoos 80 c Coccyginae, True Cuckoos 80 Family 26 Picidae, The Woodpeckers 81 27 Psitiacidae, The Parrots 82 28 Aluconidae, The Barn Owls 83 29 Sirigidae, Owls in general 84 Sub-family a Buboninae, Horned Owls 85 b Syrninae, Gray Owls 85 c Atheniiiae, Bird Owls 86 d Nycteininae, Day Owls 86 Family 30 Faleonidae, The Faloons, Hawks, and Eagles 86 Sub-family a Ch-cinae, Harriers 87 b Milvinae, Kites 88 c Accipitrinae, True Hawks 88 d Falconinae, True Falcons 89 e Polyborinae, Caracara Eagle.i 90 f Buteoninae, Buzzard Hawks 91 g Agidlinae, Eagles 92 Family 31 Pandionidae, The Ospreys 92 32 Cathavtidae, The Vultures 93 "i'i Vohimbida.e, The Pigeons 94 Sub-family « Columbinae, True Pigeons 94 b Zenaldinue, True or Ground Doves 94 c Siarnanidinae 95 Family 34 Cracidae, The Curassow or Guan 95 35 Meleagridae, The Wild Turkeys 96 36 2'eimm'i nm^.m" - ■ .jh:i!3i!VJi{jgjiaWW> ^jt^.'^if f -'H* i".'l"-'i'l»1.t)»,JJ?!'V. -~