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—"^WfiWiii '^.-..aai^

'TiiMiiiiin .

INSTRUCTIO:^^S

I'On THE

r» ■>,

EXPEDITIOJf WW AW THE NORTH POLE

FJ!O.M

HO]^f. GEO. M. ROBESOX,

SECRETARY OF THE NAVY.

WITH

AN APPENDIX FROM THE .\ATIONAL ACADEOT CP SCIENCES.

In

f

WASHINGTON;

GOVERNMENT PRINTI
1871.

NG OFFICE.

ri'.if

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EXP

I

Sill

States

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ioned,

111 and .

of the

ceed ii

yard ii

ceed t

west c(

St. JoL

oil the

ber

f^5

(or Liv
abore i
the De
you -svil
Pohir
eithe

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of lier
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111 eoini
supply .
uieasun
purpose
Ilolsteii

INSTIJUCTIONS

TO

CAPTAIiV C. F. HALL,

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE AOKTH POLE

BY

HON. CtEO. M. ho be son,

SECItETAKY OI' TIIK XA\Y.

Xavv Department, June !), 1S71.
Sir : Ilavin- boon iippoiiitcd, l)y tho rmsidciit of the United
States, toniinauder of the expedition toward the Xoith Pole
and the steamer Pohu-is havin- been fitted, eqni])ped, provis'
loned, and assigned for the pnrpose, you are placed in com-
mand of the said vessel, her officers and crew, for the purposes
of the said expedition. Ilavin- taken command, von will pro-
ceed in the vessel, at the earliest j.ossible date, from the navy
yard in this city to New York. I^rom ^'ew York vou will pro-
eeed t- the first fiivorable port you are able to make ou the
west coast of Greenland, stoppin-, if you deem it desirable, at
St. Johns, Newfoundland. From the first port made by you
ou the west coast of (ireenland, if fartiier south than IJolstein-
berff, you will proceed to that port, and thence to Goodhaven
(or Lively,) in Uie island of Disco. At some one of the ports
abore referred to you will probably meet a transport, sent by
the Department, with additional coal and stores, from which
you will supply yomself to the fullest carrying- capacity of the
Polaris. Should you fall in with the transport before makiu"-
either of the ports aforesaid, or should you ol^tain information
of her beino- at, or having landed her stores at anv port south
of the island of Disco, you will at once proceed to put yourself
ju communication with the comn.ai.der of th.c [ransi)ort, and
•'^"PPly yourself with the additio:.rl .stores and coal, taking such
measures as may be most expedient and convenient for that
purpose. Should you not hear of the transport before reaching
Dolsteinberg you will remain at that port, waiting for her and

L -

*)f

Pi-

,v<»iir supplies, as loi:j>' as the ()l>j('('t of your expedition will pei-
init ,vou tt» delay for that purpose. Afler waitiri.^' as |(»ii;: as is
safe, under all tlit^ eircuinstaMces as tiiey may present (heiu-
selvt's, you will, if you do not hear of tho transport, proceed to
Diseo, as above i>rovided. At Disco, if you hear nothin{,'ol
the transport, yon will, after wail in;;- as Ion;-- as you deem it safe

supply yourself, as far as you mav be able, with suel

I supplies

and aitick's as y(»u may need, and proceed on your expedition
without further delay. From Disco you will proceed to Uperna
vik. At these two lastiunned places you will ]iroeure do;n's and
other Arctic outlits. Jf you thiidc it of advanta^ic for the [)ur-
l»ose of obtaining' do^s, ^:e,, to stop at Tossak, you will do so.
From Uperuavik, or Tossak, as the casu uv.xy be, you will proceed
across ^lelville Bay to Cai)e Dudley Di^'/^es, and thence you
will make all possible pro;;ress, with vessels, boats, and sledges,
toward the .North Pole, usin^' your own .iud,uinent as to the
route or .(Uites to be [)ursiu'd a'.d tiu' locality for ea(di winter's
quarters. Ilaviu;4' been provisioned and eipiipped feu- two and
a half years, you will pursiui your exploraticms for that period ;
but, should the object of the expedition reipiire it, you will con-
tinue your explorations to such a further length of tinu' as your
.supplies may be safely extended. Should, however, the main
object of the expedition, vi/, attaining- the position of the
Xortli Pole, be accomplished at an earlier period, you will return
to the United States with all convenient dis[»atch.

There beinin' attached to the exiiedition a scientilic depart-
ment, its operations are i)res(!ribed in accordance with the iidvice
of the National Academy of Sciences, as recpured by the law.
Ao-reeably to this advice, the char;;v and direction of the scien-
tific operations will b(^ intrusted, under your command, to
Doctor Eniil Bessels ; and you will render Dr. JJessels and his
assistants all such facilities and aids as may be in your power
to carry into effect the said further advice, as ^iven in the
instructions herewith furnished in v conununi(!ation from the
presiiU'iit of the Xational Academy of Sciences, It is, however,
important that objects of natural histiuy, ethnology, ^c, tSrc,
which may be collected by any person attached to the expedi-
tion, shall be delivered to the chief of the scientific dei>ait-
ment, to be cared for by him, under your direction, and con-
sidered the property of the Government ; and every i)ersou bo
strictly prohibited from keeping any such object. You will
direct every qualified person iu the expedition to keep a private

.l'-».Ml u ,1... p,oo,o.s,s Of tlH. ..x,M.li,ion, :„Ml ...for on it
.'vn.ts, ob,Horv..i,oMs, :.,Hl .v,m.,Us, of any nntnr. Ml.n.sn. •<•
I'H.s.. ..onrnals sl.all I,. <.onsi,h.n.,I ,.onli,l,.n(i,.l ;,,,,, I v'
n<M-son ot ,..,. tln.n tin. wri,,.. Onin-so jonnn I o v

<i-nnn.l of o,M. h of tlM> wri.ns l.is Jounun, wl.iHMt is h^^^^^^^^
l.at .iM.n th. nronls of tl.. ...xpo.li.ion a,, pnhlisln.,1 h"

:;:;?'• ••'7' '•';'•--'•' >""-ls «. I,.. retnmnl t.!
"'''\'^r'''^<''''"J>ti'.Mor,I.<. (;ov,..nMn.nt; bntoa

r^al or parts <,r l.is journal as n.ay l.„ „s.,l i,. ,,,1 rL^^
<m ^v.II us,., <-yory opportunity to detonnino th. position of

=•'• -MH-s, l..a,Ilands, islancls, ^,., tIuUin.s ol- Jas^ ^
M.un.l.nos, obsorv. ti^U-s and nuT-nts, and n.ak. ail su,.]. su,'

You will oivc spcM-al writr.M. .linrtion.s to tl.o sailino. an.l i,.,.

-...., tlu..xpnli, ion. Mr. N.(X
''."^'1 of IM' s,-u.nt,li<- dopartn.c.nt, Dr. K. lU.ss,.ls;tliat in re
ol yourd<.ath or <li-l.ility-u .ontin^.n,,- w. sinc.r I t n
nn.y not nr.s._tl,.y shall .-onsult as to th. propri.tvand . n
"-;ol c.nrry,n^n.t,>tMrtl,n.<.m...t tl.o Ibn^oin. i.iltru t s
wln,.l. . lu-n. ur^. n.ust, i," possihh, ho dono. ^^he "u U ^

tl.nr n>nsutntnn.s, and tin. reasons tI.orelbr,nu,stl.
y.t,n,., and kept as part of the records of the'expeditio
ny even , however, Mr. Ibuhlin^ton shalljn Le of ou^
''<■'• 1' or d.salMhty, eontinue as the sailing, and iee muster Id
<-.)ntrol and d.reet the n.ovenients of the vessel- n, 1 >

nosselsslndl in sueh ease, eontinue as eh::;:;;,rt^;^^^
.Upartn.ent, d.reetn.o- all sled«e .journeys and seientitic pe^
.on. In the possd.le eontin^eney of their non-agreenS
as to the eourse to be pursued, then Mr. ^b.ddinoton shal ,s

u.ne so e chmjeund con.n.and,and return with the expedi i^."
to the United States with all possible dispatch '-^^'^^'t'*^"

lou wdl transmit to this Department, as often -is onnm-
•n.uty otters reports of your pro^-ess and re ults oi '^
•soareh, detad.n,. the route of your proposed advance At th
Most promn.ent points of your progress you will erect cons,
nous skeleton stone monuments, depositiu-^ near each' c"
<^dance wdh the confidential n.arks agreed upon, a ^nd^ .^^
u>cord ot your progress, w ith a description of" tl e route uc

6

which you ])roiu>s<' to lulvaiKM', inakiiiy; I'licho.s of provisions
&(;., if .vuii (U't'ia fit.

In the evt'Ut of tlie 'lecessity for finally abandoniiif,' your
vessel, y(m will at onee euileavor to reach localities fVeriucntcd
by whaliuf? or other ships, iiuikiii;; every exertion to semi to
the United States infornuitiou of your i)osition and situation,
and as soon ns i)ossil»le t(» return with your i>arty, presciv iny.
as far as rnay be, the records of, and all possible objects and
siteeiniens collected in, the expedition.

All persons attached to the expedition are under your conv-
niand, and shall, under every circuinstance and condition, be
subject to the rules, regulations, and laws ji^'overning the disci-
pline of the Navy, to be nioditied, but luit increased, by you as
the circumstances may in your judgment rcipiire.

To keep the (jbvernnient as Avell informed as possible of your
projjress, you will, after passing (Jape Dudley Digges, throw
overboard daily, as open water (U* drifting ice may permit, a
bottle or snudl copper cylinder, closely sealed, containing a
paper, stating date, position, and such other facts as you may
deem interesting. For this ]uupose, you Mill have ])repared
papers containing a re<juest, printed in several languages, that
the tinder transndt it by the most direct route to the Secretary
of the Navy, AVashington, United States of America.

Upon the return of the exi)edition to the United States, you
will transmit your own and all other records to the Depait-
ment. You will direct Dr. Bessels to trant'.mit all the scientific
records and collections to the Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington.

The history of the expedition will be prepared by yourself,
from all the journals and records of the expedition, under tlu^
suiierx ision of the Department, All the records of the scien-
tific results of the expedition will be prepared, supervised, and
edited by Dr. Bessels, under the direction and authority of tlie
president of the Xational Academy of Sciences.

Wishing for you and your brave comrades health, ha])piness,
and success in you- daring enterprise, and commending you
and them to the protecting care of the God Avho rules the uni-
verse,

I am, very respectfully, yours,

GEO. M. ROBESOy,

Secreta ry of the Xa vy.

CiiAs. F. Hall,

Comm<(n(lii>(i E.rpctJltion toivayd the yorth Pole.

ice

APPENDIX.

LETTER OF riJOF. JOS. IIENRV.

{I'lmthiit of the XdlioiKtl Jrademy of ScUiictK.)

WITH INSTKllTIOXS FOR THE SMENTIFIC OPERATIONS OF THE

EXPEUITI'J.X.

Washington, D. ('., June «), 1871.
Silt: In accordance Mith the law of Congress antliorizinft'
the cxpcditiou ibr exph.ration.s Avithin the Arctic Circle, the
s(!ientilic operations are to be jncscribed by the National Acad-
emy; and in behalf of this society I respectfully submit the
following remarks and suggestions :

The api)ropriation for this expedition was granted by Con-
gress principally on account of the representations of Captain
Hall and his friends as to the possibility of improving our
knowledge of the geography of the regions beyond the eight-
ieth degree of north latitude, and more especially of reaching
the Pole. I'robably on this account and that of tiio experience
Avhich Captain TTall had acfjuired by seven years' residence in
the Arctic regions, he was api)ointed by the President as com-
mander of the expedition.

In order that Captain ITall might have full opportunity to
arrange his plans, and that no impediments should be put in
the way of their execution, it was proper that he should have
the organization of the ex])editiou and the selection of his as-
sistants. These privileges having been granted him. Captain
Hall early a])pointed as the sailing-master of the expedition
his friend and former fellow-voyager in the Arctic Zone, Cap-
tain Buddington, who has spent twenty-five years amid polar
ice; and for the subordinate ]H)sitions, persons selected espe-
cially for their experience of life in the same regions.

It is evident from the foregoing statement that the expedi-
tion, except in its relations to geographical discovery, is not of
ii scientific character, and to connect with it a full corps of sci-
entific observers whose duty it should be to make minute in-
vestigations relative to the physics of the globe, and to afford
them such facilities with regard to time and position as would

ir

M

8

be iirccHMiuy to tlio full siioocssoC tlu. „l,j(rt of thoir o,";iiii.
/atioii, woiil<l inati'iially iiitcrlVru with tlio views t'litcitirjiuMl
by CaptJiiii Ilall, and tli<> piiiposo for wliidi tlio appropriation
was i'\ i<l('iitiy iiitciMJcd by ('uii^frcss.

Alllioii-h tile special (.bjects iiiid p(M'idiar or;,'aiiizalioii of
this expedition are not primarily of a Hcientilie eharacter, yet
many i>henoniena may be observed an<l sjH'cimens of natural
history be inei(h'nlally eollei-ted, i)artienlarly durinf,Mlie lon'o'
winter jyeriods in wliieli the vessel ninst neeessiuily remain
stationary; and tlierelbre, in order that the (.pportnnity of oh
tainin;;' sueh resnlts nii-jht not bo lost, a eommittn- .,f the
National Academy of Heienees was appointed to prepare a
series (»f instnietions (,n tln^ ditferent branches of physics and
natural history, and to render assistance in procurin;;' the scien-
title onttit.

(Jreat dillienlty was met with in obtaining- men of the ]. ^per
seientilu' ac(inirements to embark in an enterprise which must
nee^'ssiirily l>e attended with mnch privation, and in wiiich,
ill a measure, science must l»e subordinate. This dilhculty was,
however, hiii)i)ily obviated by the olfer of an aeeomplisln'd [.hy-
sicist and naturalist. Dr. K. IJessels, of Jleidelbery', to take
chai'^(! of the scientilic; operations, with sueh assistance as
eoidd i»e afforded him by two or throe intellif;'ent youii;;- men
that ini;4ht be trained for the service. Dr. JJessels was the
scientillc director of the (lorman expedition to Spitzber^^en
and Nova Zenibia, in 18G!), durinj;' which he made, for the Ikst
time, a most interestin,u' series of observations on the depths
and currents of tlie adjacent seas. From his character, acquire-
ments, and enthusiasm in the cause of science, he is admirably
well (pialified for the arduous and laborious otlico for which he
is a volunteer. Tlie most important of the assistants was one
to be intrusted, under Dr. Uessels, with the astronomical and
magnetic observations, and such a one has been found in the
person of Mr. ]}ryan, a j^raduate of Lafayette College, at Easton,
Pennsylvania, who, luuler the direction of Professor Ililgard,
has received from .Mr. Schott and Mr. Keith, of the Coast Sur-
vey, practical instructions in the use of the instruments.

The Academy would therefore earnestly recommend, as an
essential condition of the success of the objects in which it is
interested, that Dr. liessels be appointed as sole director of the
scientitic operations of the expedition, and that Captain Hall
be instructed to alford him such facilities and assistance as may

9

!•«• iiccossiiry lor flir siH-iiil <>l)j.'cf,s under his cliai-v, iiiid which
'"■''"<" ilic<»ni|.;.|il)h. with the prominent i.le;i of (lie ori-inal
<'nterpri.se. ''

As to the ronte to he pursued with the^wafest |u-ol.ahility of
i<"ii<'hin- tlie I'oh', either to tlie oast or west of (Wwnhuid,"the
Academy t<ul)cars to make any su--estions, Captain Hall hav-
in- (h-linitely com-lmh'd that tlie mute thron-h Mallin's Hay,
the on<> with which he is nn)st familiar, is that to he ad..pteil.'
One point, however, should he specially ur-ed m.on Captain
irall, namely, the (h'termination with the utmost scientifie pro-

'■'■^ 'ossihl,. of all his -eo-raphical positions, and especially of

tiM' ultimate northern limit which he attains, Tl viden<-e of

. the {.enuineness of ev.'ry determination (.f this kind should be
"Hide aiijiarent beyond all (|uestion.

On the return ofthe evpcditioii the collections which luavbe
"""l«' '" '>"li"'^il liist.u'v, v^ic., will, in accordance with a law of
< 'ou-ress, bo deposited in the National Museum, umh-r the care
ot the Smithsmiian Institution ; and we wouhlsu--.-st that the
scientilie records he discussed and prepared for publication by
Dr. ilessels, with such ussisfimce as he niav reipiire, under the
<l"vction of theXational Academy. The importance of refnsin-
to allow Journals to be kejit exclusively for private use, or coF
Iccthuisto be made <.ther than those behmjiin-f to the expedi-
tion, is too obvious to need sjiecial su<ij;'estioii.

In littin- out the expedition, the Siuinisoniau rnstitutiou has
nff.mled all the facilities in its power in ])rocurin- the necessary
apparatus, and in fiiniishin- the outfit for uiakinj; collections
in the various depart nieists of natural history. The Coast Sur-
vey, under the direction of J'rofessor I'.'in'e, has contributed
astronomical and mayiietical instruments. The Jlydro^iraiihic
Ollice, under Captain AVyman; has furnished a transit'instru-
uient, sextants, chronometers, charts, books, &c. The Signal
Corps, under (Jeiiei'al :\ryer, lias supplied anemonieters, tlier-
niometers, aneroid and niercurial barometers, besides detailing
a sergeant to assist in the meteorological observations. Tlie
members of the committee of the Academy, esi)ecial!y Pro-
fessors Baird and ililgard, have, in discussing with Dr.JJessels
the several points of scientific investigation and in assisting
to tram his observers, rendered important service.

The liberal manner in Avhicli the Xavy Department, under
your direction, has provided a vessel and especiallv litted it out
for the purpose, with a bountiful supply of provisions, fuel, and

4

ii

10

all oilier requisites for the success of the expedit
the health and comfort of its nieuibt

lou, as Well a>

, , I'S "^vill, we doubt iu)t, meet

th( approbation of Congress and be highly appreciated by all
persons interested in Arctic e.\i)lorations.

From the foregoing statement it must be evident that the i)i().
visions for exploration and scientific research in tiiis case are
as ample as those which have ever been made for any other
Arctic expedition, and should the results not be commensurate
with the anticii.ations in regard to them, the fact caunot'be
attributed to a want of interest in the enterinise or to inade-
(puK-y of the means which have been aiforded.

We have, however, full confulence, no^ only in the ability of
Caitain Jlall and his naval associates to make important addi
tioiis to the knowledge of the geography of the ])olar region,
but also in his interest in science and his determination t") do'
all in his ])o\ver to assist and liicilitate the scientitic o])erations.

Ai>pendedto this letter is the series of instructions prepared"
by the committee of tlie Academy, viz: the instructions on
astronomy, by I'rofessor Xewcomb; on magnetism, tides, .S:<-.,
by Professor J. ]<:. Ililgard; on meteorology, by Professor
Llenry; on natural history, by Professor IS. pVEaird ; on geol-
ogy, by Professor Meek; and on glaciers, by Professor Agirssiz.

1 have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient ser-
vant,

JOSEPH HENRY,

Prcsi'lent of the Xational Academy of Scieuccs.
Hon. Gkokge 3r. Kf)i}ESO\,

Sccretari/ of f/tc Xftnj.

INSTKUCTIONS.

(iEMIRAL DIKECTIOXS TN KECiATJH TO THE Mr>DE OF KEEP

ING KECOIJD.S.

Records of <>hserratio)is.—U is of the first importance
that in all instrumental observations the fullest record be
made, and that the original notes be preserved carefully.

In all cases the actual instrumental readings must be recorded,
and if any corrections are to be applied, tiie reason tor these
corrections must also be recorded. For instance, it is not sullli-
cient to state the index error of a sextant; the maiiiicr of ascer-

11

f taining it and the readings talceii for the purpose must be

recorded.

Tlio iog-boolc should contain a continuous narrative of all
that is done by the expedition and of all incidents which occur
on shipboard, and a similar journal should be kept by each
sledge party. The actual observations for determining time
latitude, the sun's bearing, and all notes having reference t(!
mapping the shore, soundings, temperature, &c., should be
entered in the log-book or journal in tlie regular order of occur-
rence. When scientific observations are more fully recorded
m the notebooks of ihe scientific observer than can be con-
veniently transcribed into the log-book, the fact of the obser-
vation and reference to the note-book should be entered.

The evidence of the genuineness of the observations brought
back should be of the most irrefragable character. Xo erasures
whatever, with rubber or knife, should be made. When an
e'.itry re.piires correction, the hgures or words slumld be merely
crossed by a line and the correct figures written above.

[J. E. H.J

ASTRONOMY.

Astronomical oh.scrvatiom.—Om^ of the chronometers, the
mo.st valuable, if there is any difference, should be select^ as
the standard by which all observations are to be made, as far
as practicable. The other chronometers should all be compared
with this every day at the time of winding, and the compari-
sons entered in the astronomical note-book.

When practicable, the altitude or zenith distance of the sun
should be taken four times a day— morning and evening for
time; noon and midnight for latitude. The chronometer or
watch times of the latitude observations, as well as of the time
observations, should always be recorded. Each observation
should always be repeated at least three times in all, to detect
any mistake.

When the moon is visible, three measures of her altitude
should be taken about the time of her jiassage over each car-
dinal point of true bearing, ami the chronometer time of each
altitude should be recorded.

As the Greenwich time deduced from the chronometers will
be quite unreliable after the first six months, it will be neces-
sary to have recourse to lunar distances. These should be

•■:('

12

)ii(

iisuivd fioin tho sun, in prcloieiicc to a stiir, w]

])iiU'tical)l(' lo do so.

K" a sextant is used in obsorvat

I on over it i.>

diameter of tlie sun or moon sliould be tal
t'.vo Tor index error.

ion, a measure of tlie sei

Ill-

ken every dav o

Tlie observatioi

IS ai

Ivii

o(" tlie jxirt

■e by no means to be i»retermitted wl

)iX in port, l)eeaus(i tiiey will help to eorreet

tl

leii

le position

The observations should, if convenient, be tal

standard cln'onometer that the ol

nieiit of observation to an assistant at the el

is to note the time. If this is not found

Ivon so near the
)server can sio-iuil the mo-

a eoniitarinj-- watch is used, the watch-ti

ironometer, wjio
convenient, and

me and the comparison

)e carefidh

of the watch with the chronometer should both 1
recorded.

The observations made by the main party should be all written
down in full in a continuous series of iu)te-books, from which
I hey may bo copied in the lo- I'artieular care should be exer-

cised in always recor.liny- the placr, dafc, and limb of
moon observed, and any other ])articul
complete uiiderstandiim' of tlu' ol>servati

sun or
irs necessarv to the

on.

(S.

X.J
Obscrrafinns at irintcr (/lutrters.—'nw astronomical transit in-

rvatory. A meridian

strumeiit will be set up in a suitable obsi

niai'k should be established as soon as practicable, and the

strunieiit kept with constant caro in the vertical plane i

throu-;']! the mark, in order that alio!

to bear on (h'termininj;- the (h'viati

nierhlian of the phuies. The transits of

HI-

)assnu

)servations may be brouj^ht

on of that plane from the

circumpolar stars, on

lose of stars near the ICquator,

both sides of the Polo, and 11
should be frequently observed

.Alooneulminations, includin-'' the .transits of both first and
.second linil)s, should be ob.served for the det
tude indeiiendently of tiie rates of the cl

ermination of ]onr>i-
ironometers. Twelve
transits of each limb is a desirable number to obtain— more, if
practicable. ]f any occultations of bright stars by the
moon are visible, they should be likewi.se observed.

The ob.servations for latitude Mill 1

)e nuule with the sextant

le

and artilicial horizon, upon stars both north and south of tl
zenith.

All tlic chrononu'ters of tlie expedition .slioukl be compared
daily, as nearly as practicable about the same time.

1

Wlu'iiover a piiih- leaves th iiiiaiieut station Ibi- an ex-
ploratioii ami iiiiiiie.liately iipd as retiini, its clu'oiiometer
should be compared with the staiidanl ehrououieter of the
station.

OhserrafioiiN dnrin;/ slahjc or boat journnj-i.— The instninieuts
to be taken are the small Casella theoih^lite, or a pocket sextant
and artificial horizon, one or more chronometers, and a prismatic
compass, for taking- magnetic bearings of the sun. In very high
latitudes the time of the sun's meridian altitude is not read-
ily determined ; it will be advisable, therefore, to take altitudes
when the sun is near the meridian, as indicated by the com-
pass, with regard to the variations of the compass, as derived
from an isogonic chart. The time when the observation is
taken will, of course, be noted by the chronometer. xVltitudes
should be taken in this way, l)oth to the south and north of
the zenith; they will enable the traveler to obtain his latitude
at once very nearly, without the more laborious computation
of the time.

The observations for time should be taken as nearly as may
bo when the sun is at right angles to the nuuidian, to the east
and west, the compass being again used to ascertain the i»roper
direction. This method of proceeding will call for observations
of altitude at or near the four cardinal points, or nearly six
hours apart in ime.

When the party changes its place in the interval between
their observations, it is necessary to have sonu; estimate of the
distance and direction traveled. The ultinuite mapi)ing of the

route will mainly depoul upon the astronomical observations, but
no pains should be spared to n)ake a record every hour of the esti-
mated distance traveled— by log, if afloat— of the direction of
the route, by compass, and of bearings of distant objects, such
as peaks, or marked headlands, by which the route may be
plotted.

Incaseof a fewdayshaltbeing made when a very high latitude
has been reached, or at any time during the summer's explora-
tions, a special object of caro should be to ascertain the a(;tual
rate of the chronometers with the party. To this end, a well-de-
fined, fixed object, in any direction, should be selected as a
mark, the theodolite pointed on it, and the transit of tlie sun
over its vertical observed on every day during the sojourn at
the place. If the party be onl.\ provided with a sexiani. then
the same angular distances of the sun from a fixed object

-i'

H

')*:

14

should be observed on successive days, the ai.-les beiii- chosen
80 as to be Ijetween 30° and 4.jO. For instance, set the sex
taut successively to 40°, to 40o 20', 40o 40', &c., and note the
time Avhen the sun's limb comes in contact ^vith the object
The same distances will be found after twenty-four hours, with'
a correction for change in the sun's declination. The 'suns
altitude should be observed before and alter these observations
and its inagiietic bearing should be noted, as well as that ot
the mark. The altitude of the mark shouhl also be observed,
if ])racti(;able, either with the sextant or clinometer, but this
is not essential. rj p^ jr ;

MAGXETISM.

On the voyage and sledge-journey, at all times when trav-
eling, the ilecliuatioH or variation of the compass should be
obtained by observing the magnetic bearing of the sun, at
least once every day on which the sun is visible. On ship-
board or in boats the azimuth compass is to be used ; on land
the small theodolite will be found preferable.

"When afloat, no valuable observations of the magnetic clip
and intomlij are practicable. On the sledge-journey the dip-
circle may be carried, and when halts are nnido loiiger than
necessary to determine the place by astronomical observations,
the (lip and relative intensity, acqording to Lloyd's method,
should be ascertained.

At winter quarters, in addition to the above-mentioned ob-
servations, those ofahsolutc horizontal intensity should benuule
with the theodolite magnetometer, including the determination
of moment of inertia. Also with the same instrument the abso-
lute declination should be determined.

The least that the observer shoidd be satisfied with is the
complete determination of the three magnetic elements, namely,
declination, dip, and horizontal intensity. At one period, say
within one week, three determinations of each sliould be made.

It is advisable that the same observations be repeated on three
successive days of each month during the stay at one place ;
and that on three days of each month, as the 1st, -Llth, and 21st,
or any other days, the variation of the declination-magnet be
read every half hour during the twenty-four hours; also that
the magnetometer, or at least a theodolite with compass, re-
main mounted at all times, that the variation of the 2ieedle

15

may be obscrvod as often as j.racticablc, and ospoeially wlien
uiMi.snal displays of axrova bomilis take idacc. ' •

In all eases the time, which forms an essential part of the
record, should be carefully noted.

Xot lon^r before starting- on a sledge-jonrnoy from a winter
station, and soon after returning, the observations with tlie
loaded dipping needles for relative intensity should be re-
peated, in order to have a trustworthy comparison for the
observations which have been made on the journey.

FORCE OF GRAVITY.

As the long winter aftbrds ample leisure, pendulum experi-
ments may be made to determine the force of gravity, in com-
parison with that at Washington, where observations have
been made with the Hayes pendulum lent to the expedition.
The record of the Washington observations, a copy of which
is lurnislied, will serve as a guide in making the observations.
Special care should be taken while they are in progress to de-
termine the rate of the chronometer with great piecision, by
observations of numerous stars with the astronomical transit
instrument, the pointing of which on a fixed mark should be
frequently verified.

OCEAN PHYSICS.

l)eptJis.~Sox\u<\mgs shoufd be taken frecpiently, when in mod-
erate depths, at least sufficiently often to give some indicMtion
of the general depth of the strait or sound in which the vessel is
afloat at the time. If an open sea be reached, it should be (con-
sidered of the greatest importance to get some uieasure of its
depth, and since no bulky sounding apparr-tus can be carried
across the ice barrier, the boat party should be provided with
1,000 fathoms of small twine, marked in lengths of 10 fathoms.
Stones, taken on board when the boat is launched, may serve
as weights.

Bottom should be brought up whenever practicable, and
specimens i)reserved. Circumstances of time and opportunity
must determine whether a ilredye can be used, or merely a
specimen-cup.

Temperature of the sea sLo id be observed with the '• Miller
protected bulb thermometer" made by Casella, near the sur-
face, about two fathoms below the surface, and i.'oar the bot-
tom. When time permits, observations at an intermediate

If*: :J'j

^■■

. i

I

JiJil

16

(leptli should he taken. These ol).servatioiis have a partieulir
beariii- on the general ciieuhitionof the ocean, and are of '^vt'nt
iui])oitance. ''

T,V/(..v.— Ohs(«rvations of hif?h and h)\v water, as to time and
height, shouhl be made eontinuously at winter quarters. The
metliod a(h)i.ted by 1 )r. 1 fayes is reeoinmemh'd. It consists of a.
graduated st.df anchore<l to the bottom, directly under the" ice-
hole," by ii mushroom-anchor, or heavy stone and a chain,
which is kept stretched by a counterweight attached to a
rope that passes over a ])ulley rigged overhead. The readings
are taken by the height of the water in the "ice-hole." in the
course of a few days' careful observations the i)eriods of high
and h)w water will becouu^, sutliciently well known to predtct
the turns api)roximating from day to day, and subsecpuMitly,
observations taken every live minutes for lialf an hour, al)()ut'
the anticipated turn, will sullice, provided they be contiiuied
until the turn of the tide has beconui well marked.

Tidal observations taken at other points, when a halt is
made for some time, even if continued not longer than a week,
will be of special value as alfording an indication as to the
direction in which the tide-Avave is progressing, and inferenti-
ally as to the proximity of an open sea. If, as the expedition
proceeds, the tide is fouiul to be later, the indication is that
the ()pen sea is far distant, if indeed the channel be not closed.
But if the tide occurs earlier, as the ship advances, the proba-
bility is strongly in favor of the near aiiproach to an open, deep
sea, communicating directly with the Atlantic Ocean.

In nudcing such a comparison, attention must be paid to the
semi-monthly inequality in the time of high water, which may
be approximately taken from tJie observations at winter quar-
ters. Observations made av the same age of the moon, in dif-
ferent places, may be directly compared.

AVhen the water is opt;!, the tide nuiy be observed by means
of a graduated pole stuck into the bottom; or, if that cannot be
couveniently done, by means of a marked line, anchored to the
bottom, and tioated by a light buoy, the observation beiug
taken by hauling uj) the line taut o\er the anchor.

Ciarcnts.— it is extrenudy desirable to obtain some idea of the

currents iu the open polar sea, if such is found. No special obser-

A-atious can be indicated, howevei-, except those of the drift of

icebergs, if any should be seen.

lJen,siti/.~T\ni densify of the sea- water should be frequently

irc'iit

Tlie

*?r

■1"'

17

to the 1 onith dc'CMM.al. AVI.eiu'vor ])ra(!ticabh', wafor sl.onhl be
brou«I.t „p fn>n, niftWont depths, a.ul its do, sity onto 1 T o
siH'<.u„ens shonhl be preserved in careluIly.seaU.d bottled m^ h
a^vjew to the subsequent detennination of their ZH!:::^

[.I. K II. \

METEOROLOGY.

The expe,lition is well supplie.l Avith n.eteorolo-ieal insfrn
"-.ts, all the standards, with the exception of thH e "a
1 n-om..tors,nianulaeture,l by (J.sella, and con.pared it he
standards of the Kew Observatory under the dh- n " iv"
Mssor IJaltour S(..vart. Dr. JVssels is so t^.n.iliar wil , , e
of n.strun.ents an.l so well acquainted with the pr ,• X ,f

sh. 1 therefore merely call attention, by way of renien; bm.ce
to tlH>, several points worthy of special notice "'''"^"^••"^^''
iV.,,>..«,,,, The reoisters of the ten.pera'ture, as well as of
.0 baron.eter, d.rection of the wind, and moisture of the ' tmos
pl.ore shouhl, in all cases in which it is possible be n lo i
-Ml when that cannot be <lone they sUom^^':^^^:'':
o two, three, f^nu-, <,r six hours. The (on.pera ^^^ !

The n.ininK^Mi tenM>erature of the ice, while in winter nu.r
tors, should bo noted from time to tin.e, perh,ns .t m .
<k'pths, also that of the water beneath ^ ^ ^"^"''"*

The ten.perature of the black-b.db thermometer in vacuo
exposed to the sun, and also that of the black-bulb free t the
.should be frequently observed while the sun is on the me li u '
and at «.ven altitu.les in the forenoon an<l afternoon e!!

h'tnr^""'^^'"'^^^ "^"^^'^'^^^ ^'"'^ -^-'^^- ^'-~:

i:xpmments should also be made with a thennometer in the
oeus of the sdvered mirror, the face of which is di ec d to

the sky. For this purjmse the ordinary black bulb ! !

ter n,ay be used as well as the nake^'i^nlb tl :^2,^ r^'!;;;^
bormon.e er thus placed will generally indi^-ate a ow I- t^^

pora ure than one freely exposed to radiation fronx he rou d

IM

2 r

m

18

Compaiisou may also bo maile betwtHiU the tonipcratiire at
diilerent diHtunces above the earth, by susin'iidiug thenaciiie-
tcrs on a spar at ditleront lu'iH'hts.

The temperature ot'deei)soiindiii;''8 shouUl be taken with tht-
thermometer with a yiiard to obviate tlie pressure of tin-
water. As the tendency, on aeeount of the revohition of the
earth, is eonstantly to delleet all currents to the riglit hand ol
the observer lookinjjdown stream, the variations intemiteraturc
in connection with this fact may serve to assist in indicating the
existence, source, and direction of currents.

The depth of frost should be ascertained, and also, if possi-
ble, the point of invariable temperature. For this purpose,
augers and drills with long stems for boring deeply should be
provided.

rressuye of air. — A series of comparative observations should
be made of the indications of the mercurial and aneroid barom-
eters. The latter will be atfected by the variation of gravity
as well as of temperature, while the former will recpiire a cor-
rection due only to heat and capillarity.

As it is known that the normal height of the barometer
varies in ditt'erent latitudes, accurate observations in the Arctic
regions, with this instrument, are very desirable, especially in
connection with observations on the moisture of the atuu)sphere.
since, to the small quantity of this in northern latitudes, the
low barometer, which is observed there, has been attributed.
I think, however, it will be-found that the true cause is in the
rotation of th< earth on its axis, which, if sufdcieutly rapid,
would project all the air from the pole.

In the latitude of about 00, there is a belt around the earth
in which the barometer stands unusually high, and in which
violent fluctuations occur. This will probably be exhibited in
the projection of the curve representing the normal height of
the barometri(!al colunui in different latitudes.

Moisttire. — The two instruments for determining the moisture
in the air are the wet and dry bulb thermometer and the dew-
point instrument, as improved by Ifegnaidt. But to determine
th(^ exact quantity in the atmosphere in the Arctic regions will
require the use of an aspirator, by which a given quantity of
air can be passed through an absorbing substance, such as
chloride of calcium, and the increase, of weight accurately ascer-
t!dned= It may, h<t\vever, be readily shown that the amount is
very small iu still air.

db.

A will

ure, and

the ice,

tun^ tha

The ii

exhales

be obvia

Arctic A

the deck

a jKit.

teniperal

within 01

of the di

The vi

importaii

e^'er, are

more soi

into the

diminish

it exists,

increases

nomena c

Winds.

regularly

velocity

at which

tion ; the

time of (

clou<ls ; t

and the il

force and

of the wii

sists of t

lOo. Tht

be not to{

the feath

direction

can be ob;

refer to tl

arisen on

In acco:

in his woi

19

A wind from ii inoio, .soutlunn liititiMl(« will inCToaso tlic inoist-
iiro, aiul uiiiy f-ive rise to thf^s. Somctiiiies, from oi>(Miiii{.s in
tlic ice, vapor may be exlialcd from water of a higher tempera-
ti!r(^ than the air, and bo immediately precipitated into fo<>-.

The inconvenience which is felt from the moistnre which
exhales with the breath in the hold of the vessel may, perhaps,
bo obviated by adoi)tin{,' the infrenions expedient of one of tho
Arctic voyaffers, viz, by making a number of lioles through
the deck and inverting over them a hirge metallic vessel like
a ]Ktt. The exterior of this vessel being exposed to the low
temperature of the air without would condense tho moistnre from
within on its interior surface, and thus serve, on the principle
of the dilfusion of vapor, to desiccate the air below.

The variation of moisture in tho atmosphere performs a very
important part in all meteorological changes. Its etfects, how-
ever, are probably less marked in the Arctic regions than in
more southern latitudes. The first efiecfc of the introduction
hito tlie atmosphere of moisture is to expand the air and to
diminish its weight; i)ut after an equilibrium has taken place,
it exists, as it were, as an independent atmosphere, and thus
increases the pressure. These opposite etfects render the phe-
nomena exceedingly complex.

Winds — As to these the following observations are to be
regularly and carefully registere<l, namely: Tho average
velocity as indicated by Robinson's annemometer; the hour
at which any remarkable change takes place in their direc-
tion ; the course of their veering ; the existence at tho same
time of currents in different directions as indicated by the
clo^Kls ; the time of beginning and ending of hot or cold winds,
and the direction from which they come. Observations on tho
force and direction of the wind are very important. The form
of the wind-vane should be that of which tho feather part con-
sists of two planes, forming between them an angle of about
lOo. The sensibility of this instrument, provided its Meight
be not too much increased, is in proportion to the surface of
the feather planes. Great care must be taken to enter the
direction of the Avind from the true meridian, whenever this
can be obtained, and in all cases to indicate whether the entries
refer to the true or magnetic Xorth. Much nncertainty has
arisen on account of the neglect of this precaution.

In accordance with tlie results obtained by Frofessor Collin,
in his work on the resultant direction of the wind, there arc

^^:tu^

i-l-

20

iiitlMMioitlMTiilirinisi.li(.iotliiresy.stein.sioii«Iilyn,m..simii.]iii'-
with Uw (lillcnMit zoims, viz, the tinpiiiul, in wliidi thcrcsiiUant
in(»(i(.ii is toward tlu' wr.st, tlic^ fciniu'iah', towaid the east
and (he Arctic, in wliich it is ayain toward tln^ west. '

In tlic discnssion oral! tlu' (thscivations Mm^ variation of tiu'
tcnipcratnrc and tin; nioistnrc will appeal in tlicir connection
witii the direction of tiic wind. Hence the iniportain-e of sininl
tane(Mis observations on these elements, and also on the atnio
sphei'ic pressure.

Pirripitatioii.—TUo e.\i»edition will be fiirnishe<l with a nnni-
ber of rain-fian^cs, the contents of which should be nieasiued
after each sjiower. JJy invert in«;' and i»ressin-' them down-
ward into the snow, and subse(|ueutly ascertainin;;', by melt-
iuin' in the sanu' vessel the amount of water produced, they
will serve t(» j-ive the precipitation of water in tlu', form of snow.
The (h'pth of snow can be measured by an ordinary measuring,'
rod. Mudi dilliculty, how(>ver, is sometinws experienced in
obtainin-;- the depth of snow on account of its driftin<;', and
it is sonu'tinu's m)t easy to distinguish whether snow is actu-
ally falling? or merely bcinj;' driven by the wind.

The character of the snow should ])e m)ted, whether it is in
small rounded masses, or in re.i^ular crystals; also the condi-
tions under which these different forms are i)roduc,ed.
'The form ami Aveiyht of hailstones should be noted, whe-
ther consisting of alteriiato strata, the number of which is im-
lM)rtant, of Uoccnlent sim)w, or solid ice, or agglutinations ol'
angular crystals, whether of a spherical form, or that of an oi)-
hite spheroid.

The color of the snow should be observed in order to detect
any organisms Mliich it may contain, and also any sediment
'which may remain alter evaporation, whether of earthy or
vegetable matter.

Clou<ls.~Thc character of the clouds should be describee' and
the direction of motion of the lower and the higher ones regis-
tered at the times prescribed for tlu^ other observations. Since
the expedition is well supplied with photographic apparatus,
frequent views of the clouds and of the general aspect of the
sky should bo taken.

Atirom.—Exevy phase of tlie aurora borealis will of course
be recorded; also the exact time of first appearance of the
meteor, when it assumes the form of an arch or a corona, and
when any important change iu its general aspect takes place.

«.

I

21

Thp innftiu'f ic beai in- of the crown of tlio nirli, m»l its altihulo
iit ii Kivcn time, nIioiiM l.c taken ; also if it moves to the south
of tho obsc-rvcr, tlie tinu^ wlioii it passes tlie /.enitli slioulU bo
noted. The tirix^ and position of a <"oiona are very inipoitaiit.

Two distiiiet arelies have sometimes been seen eoexistin<i_
ono in the east and tlie other in ||.,. west. In such an exbMti-
tion tlie position and crown of each arch shouhl be <h'terinined.
I)ra\vin;>.sof the anroia, with coh)red crayons, are very desir-
able. In h)wer hititndes a (hirk segment is nsnally oi>served
beneatli the arch, the oecurrenco of which, and the <h'<.ree of
darkness, shonhl be re-istered. It also sometimes happens
that a sadden precipitation of moisture in the form of a hazi-
ness is observed t.. cover the face of tiie sky dnrinj;' th(> shoot-
ing- of the beams of the aurora. Any appearance of this kind
is worthy of attention.

Wav(^ motions are sometimes observed, and it wouhl be in-
teresting to note whetiier thes(. are from east to west or in the
contrary dirccticMi, and whetiier they have any rehition .o the
direction of the wind at the time. The eoh)rs of the b.'ams and
the order of their changes may be important in forming a
theory of the cause of the i)henomena. Any simihirity of
appearance to the plienomena exiiiliited in (Jeissler's ttd)es
should bo noted, esi)ecially whether there is unythin- like
stratification.

The aurora should bo frequently examined by the spectro-
scope, and the bri-;lit lines which may bo seen carefully com-
pared with one of Kirchotfs maps of the solar spectrum."

To settle the <piestiou as to the tiuoresconce of the aurora
and its eonse(iuont connection with the electric dis(;har«-e, a
cone of light leHected from the silver-plated mirror should be
thrown on a piece of white ])aper on Avhich cliaractters have
been traced with a brush dipped in sulphate of quinine. J]v
thus condensing the light on the i)aper, any tiuorescence which
the ray may contain will be indicated by the appearance of the
previously invisible chara(^ters in a green (!olor.

Careful observations should be made to ascertain whetiier tho
aurora ever appears over an expanse of thick ice, or only over
hiJid or open water, ice being a non-conductor of electricity.

The <iuestion whether the aurora is ever accompanied with a
noise has often been agitated, but not yet apparently definitely
settled. Attention should be given to this i)oint, aiid perhaps

'm

r

22

the ii'siilt iiiiiy Itc rciidcivd iiinic drniiitc 1>\ flic use of two our-
triiin|»('t.s, (itic ii|)|)lic<l to cacli car.

Acronliiinr to Hanstopri, the aurora coiisistM of liiiiiinuiis
Immiiis, naralh'l ^o tlio tlippiii;? iwcdln, wliit-li at tiic time of tlii>
fonaatioii ul' t]n\ <-()roiia am slioofiii^ up on all sidns of tlin oli
server, and also tho lower pin-tioiis of tin s(! In'anis are j,'eiierallv
invi.silile. It is, tlien^fore, interest in;;- to ol)serv(! whether the
auroial beaniM uro over interposed ln'tweeii the observer and a
distant ininintain or vUnul, esi)e(Mally wiien lookin}^ (.jtiicp to
the east or west.

The elVeet of the aUrora on the nia;,nietisni of the earth will

be observed by abnormal motion of the ma^-netie inrstrii lus

for observing;' the declination, inclination, and intensity. Tin.
elfecit, however, may bo more strikinKl.V exhibited by means of
a j;alvant)meter, inserted near one end of a Ion;;' insidated wire
extended in a straij;lit line, the two extremitii's of which are
connected with plates of metal plnn<,'ed in the water, it may
be through holes in the ice, or immediately connected with the
^Toiuul.

To ascertain Avhether the elfeet on the needle is dne to an
electrical cnrrent in the earth, or to an inductive action from
without, perhaps the followinj;- variation of the precediii;; ar
ian;;ement would servo to givo some indic^ation. Instead of
terminatinj;' the wn-e in a jdate of metal, plnn<,'ed in the water,
let each end be terminated in ;i lar«e metallic insulated surface,
Kueh, for example, as a large wooden disk, rounded al the edges
and covered with tin-foil. If the action be purely inductive, the
neodloof the gal vauometer inserted, say, near one oiulof the wire,
would i)i'obably indicate a momentary cnrrent in one dirccition,
aiidanotheriuthe()pposite,at the monu'Ut of theeessatiou of the
action. For the purjmse of (tarrying out this investigation tlie
Smithsonian Institution has furnished tin >'\jieditiou witli two
reels of covered wire, each a milo inlengtli, oi'c of whicli is lo
be stretched in the direction, i)erliaps, mi t'. miigneti(' meri-
dian, and the other at right angles to it. It would be well,
however, to observe the etl'cet with the wires in \arious din^c-
tions, or united in one continuous length.

TJl(Ttri('ih/.—Vvom the small rmount of moisture in the at-
lu .'Sphere, and the consetpu'ut insulating capacity of the latter,
.'.I ' sturbances of the electrical eciuilibrium will be seen in
the iVeqtient production of light and sparks on the friction and

m

23

:i;,'itiiti()n of all i)iirtially iioii-coiHlnctiii;,' siiltstaJiooa. Any un-
usual ncciinciu'cs of tliJM ki!i(l, such as clcclrical discliaryos
tVoiii pointed lotls, IVoiu Hm' ends of spars, or IVom tlic linf^ors
of tlio obsi'i'vcr, slionlu \w recordi'd.

Ari';,adar soiics of ohscivations should be uuidc on the char-
a('t«'r and intensity of tlu' clcctiicity (»f the atniosphcn^ by
means of an electrometer, furnished witii a polished, iusuiatod,
inctallic ball, several inches in diameter, and two piles of I)e-
luc to in<Iieato the eharacter of the electricity, whethei -f or
— ; ami also supplied with a scale to measure by the diverj;-
cncy of a needle the decree of intensity. This instr'uneut «"in
be used either to imiicale the electricity of t!ie air l>y induc-
ti(ui or by conduction. In the tirst case it is only necessary to
elevate it above a nornnd plane by nu'ans ol a tli^'ht of steps,
say eiyht or ten feet, to touch the ball at this elevation ami
aj^ain to restor(^ it to its llrst jxtsition, when it will be found
chai<;-ed with j'lectricity of the sana- character as that of the
air. Or the ball amy be brou^jht in contact with the lowi'rend
of an insulated nu'tallie wire, to the ui»i)er end of which i.s
attached a li.i^hted piece of twisted i)aiter which has l)een
dried after previous saturation in a solution of uitiate of lead.

Thunder-storms are rare in the Arctic, rejuions, although they
spmetinies occur; and in this ease it is important to observe
the j)oint in the horizon in whicii the storm-cloud arises; also
the dii'cction of the wind durinj^tho ])assa;;'e of the storm over
the jdace of the observer; and also the character of the li<,dit-
nin<>' — whether zijy-zaj-', randfied, ov direct; also its direction —
whether from cloud to cloud, or from a cloud to the earth.

Optical pIicHomnia. — Mirage should always be noted, as it
servi'S to indicate the ])ositiou of strata of greater or less den-
sity, which may be produced by open water, as in the case; of
lateral nura<;e, or by a current of wind or warmer air alony the
surface.

The ])o]ari/ation of the li,yht of the sKy can be observed by
means of a polariscope, eonsistiu;;- of a plate of tourmaline with
a slice of Iceland spar, or a crystal of nitre cut at ri<,dit an;;les
to its oi»tical axis, on the side farthest from the eye. AVith this
simple instnnnent the fact of polarization is readily detected, as
well as the plane in which it is exhibited.

Ilalos, parhelia, corona', lumim)us arches, and glories sl-.ould
ill be noted, both as to time of appearance and any peciili-

24

arily of coiulitiou of the atinosi)l.oro. Soi.io of tlu-s,. „i.,>
uoumia hiivc been soeu on tlie siufjicc of tlu' ice "bv fl. '
roJieetioM of the sun's beams, from a surface (,u which crystals
J'"<> '>"•'•. K.n.KMl by the free/.ino. of a fo«- sinu.Itaneouslv wi,U
usMMilar appearance in tlie sky, the f.nnier bein- a continui
tion, as It were, and not a reflection of the latter.

In the lalitude of Washin-ton, inunediatelv after the sun
has sunk l)elow the western ]iori/,)n, there fre.jueutly appcu-
taint parallel bands of colors just above the eastern 'in.riz.m
which may very ])ossibly be due to the dispersion of the li-ht
by the convex form of the atinosi.here, and also, at some tinu's'
shj-htly colored beams crossin- the heavens like meridi„,s'
and conver-in-;- to a point in the eastern horizon. Any ippUr'
anee of this kind should be carefully noted and described '

.1/r^mr.v.— Shooting stars and meteors of all kinds sln.uld be
observed with the spectroscope. The direction and lenofh of
their motion should be traced on star-mai)s, and espe.ial atten
tion -iven at the stated periods in Auj-ust and Nov.'mb.'r V
remarkable disturbance of the aurora has been seen <lurino- the
passaov of a meteor through its beams. Any pheiu.meuon of
this kind should be minutely describe<l.

Ozone— Tho expedition is furnished with a (puiutity of ozone
test paper, observations with which can only be rend'eivd com-
parable by projecting against the sensitized paper a ..jven
quantity of atmospheric air. For this purpose an aspirator
should be used, which may be made by fastening together two
small casks, one of which is filled witii water, with their axes
parallel, by means of a piece of plank nailed across the heads
through the middle of which is passed an iron axis ou which
the two casks may be made to revolve, and the full cask may
readily be placed above the empty so that its contents may
gradually descend into the latter. J)uring the runnhig of the
Avater from the upper cask, an ecpial (piantity of air i.s drawn
through a small adjutage into a closed vessel and made to
impinge upon the tesf.pai)er. The vessel containing the test-
paper should be united with the aspirator by means of an India-
wibber tube.

MisoeUancoiiN.— The conduction of sound during still weather,
through the air over the ice, throught he ice itself, and through
the water, may be studied.

Evaporation of snow, ice, and water may be measured by a
balance, of which the pan is of ;i given dimensiou.

I-

sel

ii)

Expornnents on the resistance of water to tVeezmg in a con-
imed space at a low tcn.perature, may be nuule witli small bomb-
sl.ells closed with screw-plno-s of iron. The fact uf the liqTii.litv
ot the water at a very low temperature may be deternuned by-
he percnssmn of a small iron bnllet, or by simply inverting- the
shell, when the ball, if the li.piid re.nains unfrozen, will be found
at the lowest point. It miyl,t be better, however, to en.ploy
vessels ot wrouoht iron especially prepared for the purpose,
since the porosity of cast-iron is such that the water will be
forced throuf-h the pores, e. r,., the lower end of a gun barrel,

which, t,omthesmallnessofitsdiametei-,willsustainanimmense
pressure, and through which the percussion of the inclosed bid-
let may be more readily heard. Water, in a thin metallic ves-
sel exposed on all sides to the cold, sometimes givc-s rise to
hollow crystals of a remarkable shape and size, projecting above
the level surface of the water, and exhibits phenomena worthy
ot study. '*

Experiments maybe ma<le onregelation, theplasticiiy of ice
the consolidation of snow into ice, the expansion of ice, itscon-
.Inct.ng power for heat, and the various forms of its crystalli-
zatiou. Ihe ellect of intense cold should be studied on potas-
snin., soduun, and other substance^, especially in relation to
their oxidation.

Tiie melting point of mercury should be observed, particularly
as a means of correcting the graduation of thermometers at low
temi.eratures. The resistance to free/ing of minute drops of
mercury, as has been stated, should be tested.

Facts long observed, when studied under new conditions,
scarcely e\er fad to yield new and interesting results. f,J. 1 1. 1

NATURAL IILSTOllY.

Ohjoets Of natural history of all kinds should be collected,
and m as large numbers as possible. For this purpose all
on board the vessel, both of.icers and sailors, should be re-
ijuired to collect, upon every lavorable opporiunitv, and to
dHner the specimens obtained to those appointed to have
cliarge of them.

Zniihf/jj.-The terrestrial mammals of Greenland are prettv
wi-ll known, but it is still desirable f .tt a series, as complete as
possible, of the skins should be preserved, great care being
taivcu to always indicate upon the label to be attached the

f*

26

sex, iind probablo a}?o, as well as tlie locality and dato of r'M])-
turo. Tlio skeleton, and, Avlien it is not ])ossihle to yc't this
complete, any detached bones, particularly the skull and at-
tached cervical vertebra', are very desirable. Iiiterestin<? soft
parts, especially the brain, and also embryos, are very import-
ant. I^' it should l)e considered necessary- to record measure-
ments, .hey should be taken from s])('cinn'iis recently killed.

Of walruses and seals, there should be collected as nnuiy
skeletons as possible, of old and younj-- individuals ; also skins,
especially of tJic seals. Notes should be made rejiardinj^' the
habits in ,!;eneral, food, i)eriod of copulation, duration of jicsta-
tion and time of miiiration, it bciny desirable to Iind out whether
their migrations are jjciiodical.

Of the Cetacca, when these are too larj-e to be taken on board
the' vessel, the skull and cervical vertebra', the bones of the
extremities and penis, and whatever else may be deemed
Avortiiy of preservation, should be secured. All the animals
should be exanuned for ecto and ento-parasites, and the means
by which they become allixed to the aninnds noted.

^'oUect carefully the species of jV//fK/r.s', {lemmuu/s,) Arefomi/.s,
and .'hT/Vo/^f, so as to determine the variations with locality
and season. The relationshi[» of two kinds of foxes, the nine
and white, should be studied to determine their specific oi'otiier
relationship. Any brown bears should be carefully collecte<l,
both skin and skeleton, to determiiu' whether identical or not
Avith the Old World Cr.sits ttirtos.

Ileference has ;dready been made to the seals and cetaceans:
of these the I'Im-a cristata, the white whale, (Ikliiffd,) and the
Monodoii are i)artieularly desired.

What has (wen said in regard to the mammals will ajtply
e(pudly well to tlie bii<l.<\ skins and skeletons bein<;- ('(jually
desirable. It is especially important that the//T.s7/ colors of tlie
bill, cere, j;iinis, eyes, and feet, or caruncles, or bare skin, if
there be any, should be noted, as the colors of these parts all
chanf;e after the i>re])aration of a specimen.

Of bii'ds, the smaller land species are of the <;reatest inter-
est, and complete series of them should be s'atliered. Tlie
northern range of the insectivorous species should be especially
inquired into. The arctic falcons should be collected in all
their varieties, to ascertain whether there are two forms, a brown
and white, distinct through life, or whether one changes with
age into the other.

curetl.

k'(!.

27

In.iuiiy slK.uld 1.0 (lircetod to the occurrence of nmilcla hu-
(■op.s,.s, A,mr cincnuis, or other hirgc ffray seesc, niid the Camp-
fohvtuHs Lahmdora, iiiul a lar^e iminl.cr of specimens, of the hit-
tor especially, should l.o obtained. Jiidood the j,^ooso and ducks
Sonorally should form subjects of special oxaniination. Anions?
the LnrUlcv the most important species is the Lants rossii or
h'ltodofttefhia rosea, scarcely known in collections. A large num-
ber of skins and of e-.<is will be . valuable ac(piisition. Lnnis
rhnnicuH is also worthy of bcin- collected. The Alcida' should
be carefidly examined for any new forms, and in(iuiriesdirect<-d
iu regard to the .l/('(( l»q)cnniit.

Of all birds' eggs an amjde store should be gathered ; and
th(^ skeletons of UwArcfir rapfoyes ixml the .V^(^aVo/Y.v generally.
It will be a matter of much iini»ortance to ascertain what is
the extreme luuthern range of the continental species of i>irds,
and whether, iu the liighest latitudes, the European forms
known to occur in (Jreenland cross Dalliu's IJay.

Kggs and nests of bii'ds, in as large iniiidVrs as ])ossil)le,
should be procured, great care being takcui, however, in all
eases to identify them by the parents which mav be shot, ami
some portion, if not all of tliem, preserved, if not recognized
by the eoUector. All the eggs of one set should be marked
with the same umnber, that they mny not be separated ; the
parent bird, if collected, likewise receiving the sanu' number.
It should also 1)0 stated, if known, how long the eggs have been'
set upon, as incubation influences very much tluMr color; the
situation of the m\st also is very im])ortant. Xotes on' the
jnanner of nesting, localities selected, and other peculiariti(>s
of breeding, should be carefully kept; whether thev arc
polygamous, whether there are struggles between the males,
ami the manner in which the old birds feed their voung; aii<l
whether these remain helpless in the nest f<n- a given thne, or
whether they accompany the ])arents from birth. A Jfmrnal of
the arrival and departure of the migratory sjx'cies should also
be ke])t, to iind out whether those which leave latest retain
earliest, and rice versa.

Of lishes that are obtained, the best speeiiaens should be
photographed, the fresh colors noted, and then thev should
be preserved in alcohol or carbolic acid.

Among the lishes the ^almonida', Cottlda; Cadidn' and Vlii-
peuhr, will be of most interest, and good series should be se-
cured.

#f

¥

28

Tho tciTcstriiil inferior imiiiial.s slioiikl be all collected, e;icli
class ill its ai)i)r()i)riatc way.

Try to get hu^ic of insects, and observe tlieir life, svliether
tbey are well a(liii)te(l to tbeir snrrouiulings; for in i.roi.ortioi,
to tbe insects are tlio nninber of insectivorons aninuils, and
for tliat reason tlie stru'-f-ie ibr life would be mmv ener^ictie
and, tberefore, oidy tbose insects wliich arc best adapted h> (lie
conditions will survive.

Inferior marine animals are usually collected by two metliods,
viz, witli a pelagic net and by a dredj>'. IJoth Uiese methods
slionld be empbtyed whenever practicable. Especial attenlion
shonld be paid to the larva', of which sketches should be
uiiide. The results of the dred<;iny- shonld be noted in blanks
printed for this purpose, the specimens to be preserved as their
constitution recpiires. :\In]ler's licpior, glycerine, sohition of
alcohol and sugar, tS:c.

It would l)(i of i)ecu]iar interest to stndy the sever;il dee])
regions, admitted by Forbes and otliers, to' ascertain if in the
Arcti(! regions the intensity of color increases with tin; dei»tii, as
has been stilted to be the c;ise with red and violet, which, if trne,
would be jnst tbe contrary to m hat is observed in tlie temper-
ate and tropical regions.

Of shells two sets should be preserved, one dry and the, other
with the animal, in alcohol ; the dry shell is necessary from the
fact that the alcohol, by the acetic acid prodnced, is ajit to
destroy the color.

It is particularly important to get as fidl a series as ])ossible
of the members of the smaller families, with a view to tiie pre-
paration of monographs.

Tliere shoidd be paid as much attention as possible to the
fauna of fresh-water lakes to ascertain whether they contain
marine forms, as has been found to be the case witii some of
those in Xortb America, Scandinavia, Italy, and other coun-
tries. From this, important conclnsions regarding the rising
of tho coast may be arrived at.

liotany.—Vhiutfi are to be collected in two Avavs. Of each
species some specimens should be i>nt in alcohol to serve for study-
ing the anatomy; the others to be dried between sheets of blot-
ting paper. Thelocality of eadi specimen shonld be iM)ted, also
its situation, the character of the soil and lu-ight above the sea,

29

tl.e season, and wlu'tL.T tl.oiT is heUotro,mmus, .^o &, j,,
tl.e «onc;ral i.otos ti.ere should 1,. reiuarks ou tl.e horizontal
!in<l voitical distribution.

(JEOLOGV.

The most in.imrtant point in the olleetion of o,,,]„...ical
SDeunjeijs-whether they consist o,' n.ks, nunerals,^- i;;;.i,s
-IS, tha on breakin- or dio-jno. them from the matn\ or
bod, each uulividnal speein.eu should be earefullv wrapne.l
seimratelv in pbabk, but stron.^ paper, with a label desio,, t ,.1
he exact locality from which it uas obtaine.I. If t.o ;:r uunv
1.CM18 of rock (sandstone, linu^stone, clay, marl, or other n.a.erial)
occur ar the loc-abty from which specimens are taken, the lal,el
s^.ou d a so have a nun.ber on it corresponding to the particular
H'd m wluch ,t was found, as desi,„mted in a secti.n! nnule on
the spot in a uote-book. Tigs shouhl be done in or,h>r that
he specunens from each bed may be separated from those
i<»nnd ,n others, Mhether the beds are separable bv ditfer-
<;nces ol con.position, or by difterences in the groups of fossils
found ,u each; an.l it is, n.oreover, often important that this
care should be obserxed, even when one or n.or(> of the b(.,ls
are ot inconsiderable thickness, if .s„ch beds are ciiara.'teri/ed
>>-lH-cuhar tbssils. For in such cases it olleu happens that
Mhat u.ay be a mere scan, at one phu-e ,nav repres.mt an
important formation at another. . i .

«l)ocimens taken directly fron. ro.-ks in j.lace are, of course
nsuallymore instructive than those found loose; but it often'
I'nppens that much better specinums of fossils can be found
a ready weathered out, and lying detaclu-d about an outcrop
ot hard rock, tliau can be broken from it. These .-an Qenerallv
be referred to their place in the section noted at the' localitv
by adhering p,>,tiou.s o^" the nuitrix, or from tiuding nu,re or
CSS perfect examples of the same species in the beds in place •
but It is usually the better plan to note on the labels of sm-h
.spccnuens that they were found loose, especially if there are
any evuleuces that they may have been transported from some
other locality by drift agencies.

All exposures of rocks, ami especially those of limestone,
should be carefully examined for fossils, for it often happens
that hard limestones and other xocks that show uo traces of or-

m

30

giiiiic icniaiiis on tho natural snrCacos, (covorod, as thoy ofton
are, Avith lichens and mosses,) will be found to contain fossils
when broken into. In eases Avhere fossils are found to exist in
a hard rock, if time and other circumstances permit, it is de-
sirable that it should be vigorously broken -with a heavy ham-
mer provided foi" that purpose, and as nmny specinuMis of the
fossils as possible (or as the means of transportation w ill per-
mit) should be collected.

Fossils from rocks of all aj>es will, of course, be interesting-
and instructive, but it is particularly desirable that organic re-
nniins found in tlu^ later tertiary and quaternary formations
of these hiyh northern latitudes, if any such exist there, should
be collected. These, whether of animals or plants, would throw
much light on the question respecting the climatic conditions
of the polar regions at, or just preceding, the advent of man.

Specimens illustrating the lithological character of all the
rocks observed in each district explored should also be col-
lected, as well as of the organic rennuns found in fossiliferous
beds ; also of all kinds of minerals. Those of rocks and anior-
])hous minerals should be trimmed to as nearly the same size
and forui as can conveniently be done — say .'5 by 4 inches wide
and long, and 1;^ inches in thickness. Crystalline nunerals ought,
of course, to be broken from the nuitrix, rather with the view
of i)reserving the crystals, as far as possible, than with regard
to the size or form of the hand specimens; and the same remark
applies equally to fossils.

On an overland journey the circumstances may not aJicai/sho
such as to allow the necessary time to wrap carefully and label
specimens on the spot where they were collected ; but in such
cases mimbers or some other marks should be scratched Avith
the point of a knife, or other hard-pointed instrument, on each,
by means of which the specimens collected at different times
and places during the nuirch can be correctly separated, la-
beled, and wrai)ped when the party stops for rest.

All specimens should be ])acked tightly in boxes as soon as
enough have been collected to fill a box, and a label should be
attached to each box indicating the particular district of country
in which the collections were obtained. For this purpose empty
provision boxes or packages can generally be used.

In examining sections or exposures of rocks along a shore
or elsewhere, it is a goixl plan to make a rough sketch in a
note-book, tli

3

Clay.

4

Shnlc

3

Clay.

2

Saudt

1

Lime

5 I Ui

I,

nus ;

la-

•^ 1

Siic riox 1.

J

Clay.

S feet.

4

Shiil.'.

i
7

tVct.

U

Clny.

j li feet.

2

Sandstone.

13 feet.

'

I.inic.st()ii(>.

10 foot.

Tlicii on the same or followino-pnoos, more particular descrip-
tions of the nature and comi)osition of tlie several beds should
be written, referring to each by its number. Sections of this
kind should be numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, iu the order in
which they were observed, and the specimens from each bed
ought also to be numbered on its label so as to correspond
That is, speijimens from the lowest bed of the tirst section
should be, for instance, marked thus : " Section No. 1, bed No. 1 "
and so on. The name of the locality, however, should also as
already suggested, be written on the labels as a provision
against the possible loss of note-books.

It generally happens that an outcioi> will show only n part
of the beds of which it is composed, thus :

5

Unexposed.

\. 10 feet.

7 feet.

8 feet.

4

Liiiicstoiie.

3

-
Uuexpo-scd space.

2

Limestone.

11 feet.

^

.Saiidstdiic.

1.") feet.

In such a case the facts should be noted exactly as seen,
without any attemj.t to guess at the nature of the material
that may till the unexposed .spaces; but, generallv, bv compar-
ing difterent sections of this kind taken in the. same iegi(m,
the entire structure of a district may be made out.

The dip and strike of strata should also be carefully ob.served
and noted, as well as the occurrence of dikes or other outbursts

nf

32

of i^uooiis roclvs, and the olUrts of the liiftcr on tlio (•(.iKif-uoiis
.strata.

All cvkIciiccs ()(■ the olcvatioii or sinking' of coasts sliould
likewise be earefiill.v oliscvved and noted.

lOspeeial attention should he nivon to -lacial idieiK.ineiia of
every kind, such as the formation, sizi', movements, i^vm'. of
existinj;' j-laciers, their nbradinyand othereireels uiM)n the s'uh
.jaeent roeks, their formation of moraines, ^:e. ; also, the forma-
lion, extent, and movements of ieeberys, and their jiower of
Iransportin.n' masses of roek, t.\:e.

At Cape Fra/.(>r, b(>t\veeii latitude MP north and lon;iitade
70° west, ])r. Hayes found some upper siluriaii fossils in a hai'd
i^ray limestone. This roek doid)tless has a rather wide exten-
sion in llie eonntry referred to. as other e\i>lorers have bron-hi
Silurian fossils from several loealities farther sonfhward and
-westward in this distant northern re.i4ion. Hlionld the partv
visit the locality from Avhich ])r. Hayes collected his specinu'ns.
it is desirable that as comi>lete a collection as possible should
be obtained, as most of thos(! found by Dr. Hayes Mere lost.

For makin,y-,n('olo;4ical observations, and collectin<4-;;'eolo;i^ical
specimens, very few instruments are required. F<u' determin-
ing (he elevations of mountains, and the .general altitude of the
<'ountry, a baronu'ter is sulliciently accurate. For local eleva-
tions of less extent a pocket level (Locke's) should be ])ro-
vided. Taju'-lines are also nseful for measurin-i- vertical
outcrops, and other puri»oses; and iif>ood pocket-compass is in
dispensable. The latter should have a clinometer attached.

A .u'ood supply of well-tempered cast-steel hammers should
also be provided. They should be of various sizes and forms.
and oujiht to be made with lar^e enough eyes to receive stout
handles, of whi(,'h a yood munber, inad(^ of well-seasoned
hickory, should be jirepared. Chisels of dillerent sizes should
also be prepared of well-tempeicd steel.

A ])()uch of leather or st<mt canvas, with a stra]) to i)ass over
the shoulder, will be found nseful to carry specimens for short
distances. m.\ jj. 3[ i

GLACIERS.

The progress of our knowledge of glaciers has disclosed two
sides of the subject entirely discoi-nected with one another, and
recpiiring different means of investigation. The study of the
structure of glaciers as they exint nc '•' the phenomena

33

connected witli their fornnition, Miaintenance, and niovennMit,
consiitiiie now an extensive cln-.pter in the physics of the
;ilohe. On the ulher hand, i( has heen ascntained tinit .liiacieis
had a much \vi(h'i- lanye ihirin;;' an eailier hnl neveitlicless
<-ouii»aratively recent -■eoh»<'icai period, and iiave produced
dnrini;' tiiat period plienonicna wldcli, tor a lonj;' tinn-, were as-
crilx'd to (ttin-r a;;encies. In juiy in\ csti^^atioii of i;!acierH
nowadays, the stn(h'nt slnnild l<eep in mind distinctly these
two sides of the snl.ject. lie ou-Id also to renicndier at liie
outset what is now no lon<;('r a mooted point : tliat, at dilferent
times diirin-- tin- glacial period, tiie accnmnlations of ice eover-
iuii l\v<H'v or smaller ai'cas of tiie earth's surfac<' have iiad an
cver-varyinu- extension, and that whatever facts are ohserved,
their valne will lie increased in i>roportion as the chronolooi-
cal element is k(>[)t in view.

From the physical jioint of view, the Arctic Expedition, un-
der the command of Captain Hall, nniy rendei- science -reat
.service should Doctor Hessels hav(^ an opportunity of compar-
in}>- the |)r<'sent accinuulations of ice in the Arctic re-ions
with what is known of the ••laciers of the Alps and other
mountainous regions. In the Alj)s the glaciers are fed from
trou<;hs in the hi<;her re<;ions, in which snow accumulates dnr-
in«j;- the whole year, hut more largely durin;^' winter, and by a
succession of changes is .gradually transtbrmed into harder and
harder ice, nu>\ ini;' down to lowei' regions where glaciers iie\-ei'
could have Iteen Idrmed. Tlu' sim>w like accumulations of the
upper re<>i(»ns are the materials out of which the compact
truusparent brittle ice of the lower .glaciers is maih'. What-
ever snowfalls upon the j^laciers in their lower ranj^c during-
winter nu'lts away durin.n- summer, and the .ylacier is ehietly
fed from above and wastes away below. The water arisinj;-
from the meltinj;' of the snow at the surface contril)ut<'s only
iiulirectly to the internal economy of the .ylacier. It would be
superfluous heiv to rcliearse what is known of rlie internal
structure of j;l;u'iers and of their nu>vement ; it may be found
ill any treatise on f>laciers. Xor woidd it Ix; of any a\>iiiil to
discuss the value of conflict in-i' views concerninj'' their motion.
Suflice it to say that an Arctic explorer may add .i^reatly
to our knowled<;e by statinji' distinctly to what extent the
winter snow, falliuy upon the snil'ace of the ^reat .ylacial
fields of the Arctic, melts away durinu summer iuid leaves
bare an old icy surface covered with fragiiients of Jock, sand,
3 V

IM

t

34

(lust, &('. SiH'Ii Mil iii(|iiiiy will Inicli lis in what \\i\\ tlic
;iiviit iiiiisscs <»r ice wliich pour into tiic Arctic occnii inc
loniicd, iiiKl liow tlic supply lliiit empties ;iiiiiiiiill.v iiihi the
Atliiiitic isicplciiishcd. If tiuMviiitcr siutws do not melt cutirch
ill the lower p:irt of llie Aivtic j^liici<'rs(luiin.: summer, these f-la-
cieis must exliiliit ii much more rejiiihir stratilicatioii than tlic
Alpine glaciers, and the successive falls of snow must in ilicni
be iiKlicated more distinctly by hiyors of sand and dust than in
in those of the Al|>s by the dirt bauds. Observations eoiiccinin-''
the amount of waste of the filaeiers l»y evapcuation or meltiii';',or
what 1 have called ^(/</^»//o// of the surface dm inj-' a fiivcii time
ill ditlereiit parts of the year, would also be of ^^rcat interest as
bearinji' "l^'n the hyfiroinotric condition of the atmosphere.
A jiole sunk siifliciently deep into the ice to withstand the
elfects of the wind (Mmld be used as a nu'ter. But it oii.nht t(» be
sunk so deep that it will serve Ibr a period of many months
and rise hioh cuoii^h not to be buried by a snow-storm. It
should also be ascertained, if possible, whether water oozes
from below the glacier, or, in other words, whether the ;;la-
cier is tro/en to the ^iroiind or sepaiated from it by a
sheet of water. If luacticabie, a line of poh's should be set out
with reference to a rocky ])i'ak or any bare surface of rock, in
order to determine the motion of the ice. It is a matter of deep
iiitei<'st with reference to (piestions coniuMted with the luriner
jiTcaler extension of <j;laciers, to know in what manner Hat
sheets of ice move on even {ground, <'xhibitiii<j;' no marked slope.
It may Ite possibl(> to ascertain, after a certain time, by the
change of position (tf poles sunk in the ice, whether the motion
follows the iiKMpialities of the surface or is determined by the
lay of the land and tlu! exposure of the ice tt) the atinosi»heric
agents, heat, moisture, wiml, v\;e,. It would be of ^leat interest
to ascertain whether there is^ any motion during- the winter
season, or wlu'thei- motion takes place only during the ])eriod
when water may trickle through the ice. The polished sur-
faces ill the immediate vicinity of glat-ier ice exhibit sucli l(>gi-
ble signs of the direction in which the ice moves, that wherever
ledges of rocks are exjiosed the scratches and furrows upon
their siu'face may serve as a sure register of its jn'ogress; but
before taking this as evidence it should, if ])ossible, be ascer-
tained that such surfaces actually belong to the area over
which the adjoining ice moves during its expansion leaving
them bare in its retreat.

35

Tho Avoloo,-,,,! !,«vnc,v of j-lacicrM will ii,» .Knil.t ivcivc inMi-
tioiial ..vKl.-i,,,. In,,!, „ v'.nvM oxainination oC fl.is point ir. tli,.
Airti,T,.o,„„s. A i..ovii.j.slM.(.f <,rir,sstn.t<-lm,uov..rii iorI<v

smhiro, Icav.'s sucl. nnmislahihlo i.ia.Ks of its ,,,ss ,. thi.'t

r<..-k,v s,ufa.-...s ul.icl. l.ave o.mm' Imm-i. ,/lonofnl, if J ,„,v thus
oxprnsM rl.c pcrnliar ucti.Mi of ir,- up„„ rocks, viz, tl„. uhni,,.-'
polisluM- s<.rat<-lm,o', nvooMw^, ..imI (nmnvin- of t h.-ir sarfac."
(•an n..v..,- In- n.istak.-n for an.vtl.inj;' ,.|s,., an.l n.av cNrrvwh.-n'

In; m-of,nn/,.,l h.v a practir.-.i .ye. Thcs,. n.arks, in (.onn.Tt

with transpo, tc.l loos.- .naL-riiils, drift, an<l ImmiMhs, mv is-

akai.lo (.vi.l.Mi,-,. of t\w ^Mvat extension which ojiu-i.-.s once
I'iHi. Fint iiere i( is important to Wiscriminate between two sets
<>» <iicts, whicl, have ^■eneraii.v been c.mfonnde.l. In the i.rox
i.nit.v ol .'xistin- j-h.ci.-rs, th.>se marks and these materials have
a direct relation to tlie inesent sheet of ice near bv. It is i.liin
for ...stance, that the polisln-d s,„ faces about thi' (Jrin.sel, and
the h,os,. matc.ials i.vin«' b..(ween tbe j^iacn-r of the Aar an.l
tho Hos,,ice, are the work of the glacier of the Aar when it
extended beyond its present limits, and step l»v step its .-reater
oxtn.s.on ...ay be traced <lown to Meyrin«ei,, aud, in .-oum-ction
with oth«.r -h.cio.s fromotluM' valh-ysof the IJernesc Ob.'riand
It ...ay be facked as fa.' as Thiu. or Her.ut, when the relation'
to the Alps becomes .-omplicat.'d with featu.es imiicati..- that

the whole valleyofSwitmland, between the Alpsandthe-In.a
was once occupied by ice. < )n the other hand, the.v are evident
si«..s ol the former preseuce of local f-lacie.s in the Jura, as, for
n.stauc.., ou the D.mt de Vaulion, which .nark a later (>ra in the
history ot glaciation in Switzerland. Xow the t.aces of th<>
tornuT existence of extensivi, sheets of ice over the <-outi..ent
ol ^orth America aiv everywhere most plai.dy s.rn, but no one
has yet undertaken to dete.-mine in what ivlation these ulaciat.-d
surtac.'s of past ayes stand to the ice lields ,»f the j.ies.Mit day
111 the Arctics. The scientific men connected with Caj.iaii.
Malls expedition would render science an in.porta.it service if

they could notice the tre.Kl and bearinoof all the -lacial scratches
they may observe upon (h-nudated surfaces wheivver they land

Itwouldboadvisable forthem, il' possible, to breakotr fragments
ot such .i-laciated rocksand mark with an arrow their bearin- It
would be e<pially important to ....tice how tar the loose materials

l.el)bles,boulders„ste.,ditrerintlicirn.ineralooi,,dcharacterfroin
the surface on which they iv.sl , an.l to what extent th.'v are tlx-m-
selves polished, rounded, scratched, or furrowe.l, and also what

36

is tin* iiiitmc (tf tlic cliiy <»r .siiiMl wliidi holds tliMii to^jctlicr. It.
would Im' pill liciiliirly iiitficstiii;;' to Iciiiii liow liii' tlicn- arc
!iii;>uliii' l»oiil»l('rs iiiiioii}; tlu'sc loose iiiiitciials, iinil what Is
their )>ositioii witii ictfrciicc to the cotiipiM'tod <li'it't iiia<h* up oK
rouudi'd, polished, aud sta'atehed pehlilesaiul houhh'is. Should
au (tppoituiiity occur of tiaciu;;" the loose luatcrials of auy lo-
cality to some rock in situ, at a ^ireater of less distance, aud
the iiatui'e of the niateiials should h'avi' no (h)uht of their
identity, this would att'oi'd an invaluable indication of the direc-
tion in whicli the loose materials liav«^ traveled. Any indica
tion rclatiu;;- to the dillcrences ol level anionji' siu'h materials
would add to the value of the ohservation. I have purposely
av(U«h'<l all theoreti<!al considerations, and only called attention
to the liM'ts which it is most important to ascertain, in order to
have a statement as unbiased as possible.

fL. A.j

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