CIHM Microfiche Series (Monographs) ICI\AH Collection de microfiches (monographies) [il Catiadian (natitiiM for Hiitorle*! MIcrorapraductioiM / Imlitut Canadian da mierorapraduetlon* Materiquaa 1995 TMhnical and BJMiographie Notn / NotM tachntquts at biUiographiquai Tha Imtituta h« attamptad to obtain tha batt original copy availabta for filming. Faaturas of thit copy which ntay ba blMiographically imiqua, which may altar any of tha imagas in tha raproduction, or which may significantty changa tha usual mathod of filming, ara dtacfcad balow. Colourr' eovan/ Couvartura da coulauf D □ Cown dumiid/ J Couvartura anoommagaa D Covart rastorad and/or laminattd/ Couvartura rastawia at/ou paMicuMa Covar titia mining/ da couvartura manqua □ Colound nupt/ Camt fiofraphiquts n eoulwr □ Colottrad ink (i.«. ottiar thai Mu* or blw Encra di eoultw (i.i. •utra qm Mwa on □ Colourad pl«tH wid/w ilhmrnioin/ Planctm tt/ou (Hustratiom an coulaur D ry\ Tight bindlnf may black)/ Bound with othar matarial/ RaliA avac d'autm documann aloni iniafior matfin/ La ratiura larria pain caiiaar da I'onifera ou da la diiMnian la loof da la marti intfclaiHa □ Wank laaiai addad dwHif rattotatlon may appaw KHhin tha tan. Whanam poHlMa. than kan Man onittad ffon filninf/ Ion d'una raitauration apparaiiiant dam la tana, mah, lonqua aala talt ponifela. eaa pifai n'om D Additional eommantt:/ ConHnanlairat uiMMnMntairat: L'Inttitut a microfilm* la maillaur axamplaira qv'il lui a Mi poniMa da M ptocurar. Las dMails da cat axamplaira qui sont puit-«tra uniquai du point da vua raproduiia. ou qui pau«ant axigar una modification dam la mMioda normala da f ihnafa sont indkiuis □ Cotourad pagas/ Patas da coulaur n; □ Patas rastorad and/or laminatad/ Patas lastaurias at/ou pallicuMas [~r| Patas diseolaurad. stainad or foxad/ n 0 □ Quality of print sarias/ Oualiti inttals da I'imprassion □ Continuous paiination/ Patination continua 0lneludas indaxlasi/ Comprand un (das) indax TitIa on haadar takan from: / La titra da I'an-itta prooiant: □ TitIa pata of issua Pata da titra da la □ Caption of issua/ Titra da dtpart da la lisraison □ Masthaad/ '"'°n and 12 cubic feet is Wri!!K!°°*'f^''*=«P't«'°f which 2.200 mmion^;U°',ro^';;.°;,,trr *^^ "" which they import in round ^umbLSl°"^ "^ at a cost of about 250 million doUa^sSSr/" acreage of 100 million acres beL init^ffl • ^°'^^ duce. even under carefuTma„aSnTfr;^r ^'°- more than two-thirfs of their n^" fZ ^. !j^ "uS tit^ral^^ StaZ'^nd'-S sumption. arelS^ing ^o f^lT"! -'"^'^ «"- forest resources, which frefoTtL f^'" °" *"'' "•ughly exploited *' ""^* P^"-* "^'•ely : soo'miXpirofloS'Sii-^-'T^"* "^ ^-^ ' could secure w*/t F.l«. '°" """"^ ^^'^ ^«<1 ! a little less thin cSeeTofi'^^r'r' "^"'^'' the area suoooseH t^tl ^ ^* *""'^'" f*"" acre. suffice BuS!°„f>" ^^* "°"" ^-"P'y ««/WpXtio„^niK7"^"'*^**^^^^"f™"> miUion acres at ErP !^ !^^? "°* ""-^ *^ 260 .continuous'pSdtLT H^^^tnTorfT" ^°^ .3 an urgent necessityjor^.^ra? 1^"^ I First ha««y recognized as of value or even as History of Forests and Forestry. personal property, the forest appears an undesirable encumbrance of the soil, and the attitude of the settler is of necessity inimical to the forest: the need for farm and pasture leads to forest destruction. The next stage is that of restriction in forest use and protection against cattle and fire, the stage of conservative lumbering. Then come positive efforts to secure re-growth by fostering natural regeneration or by artificial planting: the practice of silviculture begins. Finally a management for continuity — organizing existing forest areas for sustained yield — forest economy is introduced. That the time and progress of these stages of de- velopment and the methods of their inauguration vary in different parts of the world is readily under- stood from the intimate relation which, as has been pointed cut, this economic subject bears to all other economic as well as political developments. At the present time we find all the European nations practicing forestry, although with a very varying degree of intensity. The greatest and most universal development of the art is for good reasons to be found in Germany and its nearest neighbors. Early attention to forest conservancy was here in- duced by density of population, which enforces inten- sity in the use of soil, and by the comparative difficulty of securing wood supplies cheaply enough from out- side. On the other hand, such countries as the Medi- terranean peninsulas by their advantageous situation with reference to importations, with their mild climate and less intensive industrial development, have felt this need less. Introductory. - w ISI^ ""* '*"' '^''y '*^*'«' ^"d originally heavilv timbered countries of the Scandina^n iSa and the vast empire of Russia are still hea^SoiteS 01 their administrative methods anH .„^, aooeal to mo tt,= ■ • , '^"'*'^ a™ measures may appeal to us. the principles underlying them as well THE FOREST OF THE ANCIENTS. The forest was undoubtedly the earliest home of mankind, its edible products forming its principal value. Its wild animals developed the hunter, the chase first furnishing means of subsistence and then exhilaration and pleasure. Next, it was the mast and, in its openings, the pasture which gave to the forest its value for the herder, and only last, with the development into settled communities and more highly civilized conditions of life, did the wood pro- duct become its main contribution toward that civilization. Finally, in the refinement of cultural conditions in densely settled countries is added its influence on soil, climate and water condiuons. Although there is no written history, there is little doubt that these were the phases in the appreciation of woodlands in the earliest development of mankind, for we find the same phases repeated in our own times in al' i.ewly settled countries. ^.s agriculture develops, the need for farming gro md overshadows the usefulness of the forest in all these directions, and it is cleared away; moreover, tVaUgichaUe tits AUtrtkunu. by Adgdst SllDlKSTlCKKf!, 1886, 3 vols., pp. 863. i« a mott painstakingr compilation from orifc-inal sources of note* regard- ing the foiest conditions and the knowledge of trees, forjsts and forestry among the ancients. Contains also a full bibliography. Die IVaUmrlhtduiyt ier Ramer, by J. TauRlo. collects the knowledge, especially of arboriculture and silviculture, possessed by the Romans. Forstmssemchajllicht Leitlunren der AUgriecheti, by Dr. CnLOROS in Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1885, pp. 8. Archeologia forestau, Dell 'antica storia e giurieprudeneia Jbreatttle in Italia, by A. Di Bbr.'..vosr, 185a Forest Conditions. 9 M population remains scanty, a wasteful use of its stores forms the rule, until necessity arises for grater ««^ .n the exploitation, for mor^ rational diS ttonal reproduction of wood as a useful crop. Correspondingly forest conditions change from the dense y forested hills and mountain slopes duZ the age of the nomad and hunter to the "enclaves^' or patches of field and pasture enclosed by the foresJ of the first farmer., then follows the oj^ning up o Ae valleys and lowlands, while the hill a^d mour'ain SeTe of' ooTT- *° '°r ■ ^"' '^"^'>'' -*•> the i" crease of popu_ation and civilization in valleys and P ajns. a reduction of the forest area and a d^e^ of forest wealth results. aecrease 1. Forest Conditions. While we have many isolated references to forest condiuons and progress of forest exploitatio^aX tf.e ancients m the writings of poets and historians these are generally too brief to permit us to gain a very clear picture of the progre^ of forest his^ except in isolated cases, they furnisu only ghmpses' allowing us to fill in the rest to some xte/t 1^2 That the countries occupied and known to the an well-wooded there seems little doubt, although X the drier regions and on the drier limestone soils, the fo est was perhaps open, as is usual under sud. con! ditions, and truly arid, forestless regions weS al^ found where they exist now. Although it has W I!; ^Jmm 10 The Forests of the Ancients. customary to point out some of the Mediterranean and Eastern countries as having become deserts and depopulated through deforestation, and although this is undoubtedly true for soire parts, as Mount Lebanon and Syria, generalization in this respect is dangerous. We know, however, that by the llth century before Christ, in Palestine, Asia Minor and Greece, especially in the neighborhood of thriving cities, the forest cover had vanished to a large extent and building timber for the temples at Tyre and Sidon had to be brought long distances from Mount Lebanon whose wealth of cedar was also freely drawn upon for ship timber and other structures. Although about 465 B.C. Artaxences I, having recognized the pending exhaustion of this mountain forest, had attempted to regulate the cutting of timber, the exploitation had by 333 B. C. progressed to such an extent that Alexander the Great found at least the south slope exhausted and almost woodless. The destruction by axe and fire of the celebrated forests of Sharon, Carmel and Bashan is the theme of the prophet Isaiah writing about 590 B. C; and the widespread devastation of large forest areas during the Jewish wars is depicted by Josephus. In Greece, the Persian wars are on record as causes of widespread for^t destruction. Yet in other parts, as on the Island of Cyprus, which, originally densely wooded, had rapidly lost its forest wealth during Cleopatra's time through the development of mining and metallurgi- cal works, ship building and clearing for farms, the kings seemed to have been able to protect the rem- Forest Conditions. jj s ^' »!?"■ """"-—"■"- "- ana ot the Synans flSO R r i „uu . . "•'-• ^ that other considera o„s t2d thJ°"^ !' "^^ "^ nuded hills and scare ty of buUdinST ^'"?"'- ^"- parts are mentioned at^he en^oArtV^H" '"''"'" before Christ, and that L nej foVj:*' '^"'"'"^ use of timber resources had arriJ^ conservative the fact that when (167 BC UhT^ "^ ^^'^^'' ^^^ Macedonia under thlif ^ ^^ ^""^"^ ^^'^ ''^°"8ht t-ber inVetLst^fS ^th^-^ °^ ^'"•'' prohibited. Although at fhT. .• '^^* =°""try was forests we,, stjqut Jt^^rit •' ''T" '*^'^ under the system of '^17^3; fo;\h'"' *'"* pasture and fnr f^k^ i • . ^""^ "'^ "^st and B.£'''thrC°her„"V° '"°'°''" "'■'^"'"^ (»»-"' 100 when it 2S B C Tr-""/'""'^ "«^^ sion; but soon after . 1 f , "' '^"^ ^"""^ P°»«- the Pyrene^ran Ive r r '"'''' '^'^ ^'"^ing from of ^iiverT.: 2r^^Ts:T'V'^''' the cause of rerH... !. f ^^^ """" °' ""'"ers, 12 The Forest of the Ancients. I ! While through colonization, exploitation, fire and other abuse, the useful forest area was decimated in many parts, the location of the Mediterranean penin- sular countries was such that wood supplies could bf readily secured by water from distant parts, anc the lignarii or wood merchants of Italy drew their supplies even from India by way of Alexandria; they went for Ash to Asia Minor; for Cedar to Cilicia; Paphlagonia, Liguria and Mauritania became the great wood export countries. It is interesting to note that a regular wood market existed in Rome, as in Jerusalem, and at the former place firewood was sold by the pound (75c per 200 lbs., in Cicero's time). At the same time that the causes of devastation were at work the forest area also increased in some parts, recovering ground lost during wars and through the neglect of farms by natural seeding; much less by active effort, although planting of trees in parks, vineyards and groves was early practiced to a limited extent. 2. Development of Property. As to development of forest property we have also only fragmentary information. Nomads do not ', 'ow soil as property. When they become settied farmers the plowland, the vineyard or olive grove and orchard are recognized as private property, but all the rest remains common property or no- body's in particular; and even the private pro- perty was not at first entirely exclusive. Hence for a long time (and in some parts even to date) the ex- clusive property right in forests is not fully established. Property Conditions. owner „ight p^vent undesfrabreTu^^^t^rf /" mg his property if it was enclos^ The' .7 T of hunting grounds for private u2 came in ? ^'"'" only in later Roman timeT Tut w^l ^'^'f ' planted orothenvise.like the •WdI'?^h"epSn tangs and the nemora of the '^omans and cllt^ were early a part of the p.^v^te prol^v „f ^' •'""' and grandees from which others weTSded '^""" in early times i^o'tie "o ^s or^s' theT' '"' co^S;i::^^::^';^i'J--'entsl«,to .ods: holy groves .1^1^:^^:.^^ ^^^ m Palestine the forests were lef to th"f T""*'' restricted use of the Israels '''' ""' ""' 14 The Forest of the Ancients. I ! Out of religious conceptions and priestly shrewdness arose church property in farms and forests among the Indian Brahmans, .the Ethiopians and Egyptians, as also among Greeks and Romans. It appears that the oriental kings were exclusive owners of all unappropriated or public forests. This was certainly the case with the princes of India and of Persia, and such ownership can be proved defini- tely in many other parts, as in the case of the forests of Lebanon, of Cyprus, and of various forest areas in Asia Minor. That in the Greek republics the forests were mainly public property seems to be likely; for Attica, at least, this is true without doubt. While the first Roman kings seem to have owned royal domains, which were distributed among the people after the expulsion of the kings, the public property which came to the republic as a result of conquest was in most cases at once transferred to private hands, either for homesteads of colonists, or in recognition of services of soldiers and other public officers, or to mollify the conquered, or by sale, or for rent, not to mention the rights acquired by squatters. The rents were usually farmed out to collectors (pi^licani) or to corporations formed of these. Livy, however, mentions also State forests in which the cutting was regulated, probably by merely reserving the ship timber. That occasionally single cities and other smaller municipal units owned forest properties in common seems also established. Private forest properties connected with farm Restrictions in Forest Use. 15 estates existed in Ethiooia in A,,k- Greeks and among the RnmJ . u^' ^""""^ *•>« in their colonies 'EspedaZ" f '"""^ T "^" «« connected with small and I '^ ' '^°°^' ^"^""^ into which probabrlsttlT "'"'" ^'"^""''^) regardmg the conditions under whiVh tf,«„ 3. Forest Use. Restrictions in the ukp nf i.,„„j In the frontier forests reserved fnr d^f • poses, timber cutting was^oTwdi: .'tn"dT„Z holy groves set aside by private or nuhl.V d i • 16 The Forest of the Ancients. the pagan, and retained the restrictions which had preserved them. Thus the cutting and selling of cypress and other trees in the holy grove near Antioch, and of Persea trees in Egypt generally (which had been deemed holy under the Pharaos) was prohibited under penalty of five pounds gold, unless a special permit had been obtained. In Attica as well as in Rome the theory that the State cannot satisfactorily carry on -iny business was well established. Hence, the State forests were rented out under a system of time rent or a perpetual license, the renters after exploiting the timber usually subletting the culled woods merely for the pasture, except where coppice could be profitably utilized. The officials, with titles referring to their connection with the woods, as the Roman saliuarii or the Greek hyloroi (forestguards) and viUici silvarum, the over- seers, both grades taken from the slaves, had hardly even police functions. Forest management proper, i.e., regulated use for continuity, except in coppice, seems nowhere to have been practiced by the ancients, although arboriculture in artificial plantations was well established and occasionally even attempts at replacement in forest fashion seem to have been made deliberately. Not only were many arboricultural practices of to- day well known to them, but also a number of the still unsettled controversies in this field were then already subjects of discussion. The culling system of taking only the most desirable icinds, trees and cuts, which until recently has char- acterized our American lumbering methods was SUvicultural Practice. j^ for game co^^r ""^""^""^ *as to be established of the iack of natuL X^" ""i:*°°^ ? ^^'^^ practice existed was based m^^l ^^*^^er forestry vations and was ^ughUn T j; °r'"'''"'="' "''-- « a part of farm prSti,^ ''""'^ °" agriculture wi^'r^'^icrwiSts''^^"'^. ^" -"-^- for the puri^ of ^^^7 •'''"!!?^'''=^"y Practiced with ches^°i^°:2«rrj^r''^^'-p-'-''y plantings of trees for cl,« '"^»««'«'» denoted the cidertaTy for S^ foliat .f!^'^^ °' <''^^' -"<» i"- vogue in mode/n iZy "" '"*''' ''^' ^*^" '« were gradually prepared ^H ••'"""'"«' ^''^ fom for their purX ""^ '""'"^■"«d in proper -a^ed^Krti.^L^.rastTta!'"" ^^I^'"^'^-"^ tHe n.ld climate .ro^^^'^^i:^^ TI 18 The Forest of the Ancients. readily without requiring much care, even conifers (cypress and fir) reproducing in this manner. The oak coppice was managed in 7 year rotation, the chestnut in 5 year, and the willow in 3 year rotation. Yield and profitableness are discussed, and the practice of thinnings is known, but only for the pur- pose of removing and using the dead material. Forest protection was pooriy developed: of insects little, of fungi no knowledge existed. Hand-picking was applied against caterpillars, also ditches into which the beetles were driven and then covered; the use of hogs in fighting insects was also known. That goats were undesirable in the woods had been observed. Some remarkable precocious physiological knowledge or rather philosophy existed: it was recognized that frost produces drought and that a remedy is to loosen the soil, aerating the roots, to di ain or water as the case might require, and to prune; but also sap letting was prescribed. Against hail, dead owls were to be hung up; against ants, which were deemed injurious, ashes with vinegar were to be applied, or else an ass's heart. Curiosities in wood technology were rife and many contradictions among the wood sharps existed, as in our times. Only four elements, earth, water, fire, air, composed all bodies; the more fire in the com- position of a .wood, the more readily would it decay. Spruce, being composed of less earth and water but more fire and air, is therefore lighter than oak which, mostly composed of earth, is therefore so durable; but the latter warps and develops season splits because on account of its density it cannot take up readily and resists the penetration of moisture. Forestry Literature. 19 vention, was already practiced; cedrium (cedar oin being used as well as a tar ^^ I- • ^^^°^^ °"> seawater fnr IZ ""'^"^ ""^ 'mmersion in seawater for one year, to secure greater durability. 4. Liierature. As regards literature we finrl ;„ i- , . attTr.V''" '*°'"^"'' '''^'^^^ ^ ""-"ber of historians B.C.), also De re rustics, in three book, Lh r/ ,n =,v K I ■■'' ^™° '" his Georgica records K t' , T ^ "■ •*"■»'"• "» (»" ' tains 20 TTie Forest of the Ancients. Only a few references which exhibit the state of knowledge on arboricultural subjects among the Romans as shown in this literature may be cited, some of which knowledge was also developed in Greece and found application, more or less, through- out the Roman empire from India to Spain. Nursery practice was already well known to Cato, while Varro knew, besides sowing and planting, the art of grafting and layering, and Columella discusses in addition pruning and pollarding (which latter was practiced for securing fuelwood), and the pro- priety of leaving the pruned trees two years to re- cuperate before applying the knife again. The method of wintering acorns and chestnuts in sand, working them over every 30 days and separat- ing the poor seed by floating in water, was known to Columella and, indeed, he discusses nursery manage- ment with minute detail, even the advantages of transplants and of doubly transplanted material. The question whether to plant or to sow, the prefer- ence of fall or spring planting with distinction for different species and localities are matters under his consideration; and preference of sowing oak and chestnut instead of transplanting is pointed out and supported by good reasons. Pliny, the Humbolt of the ancients, recognizes tolerance of different species, the need of different treatment for different species, the desirability of transplanting to soil and climatic conditions similar to those to which the tree was accustomed, and of placing the trees as they stood with reference to the sun. But, to be sure, he also has many curious Forestry Knowledge. 21 1*!^': ^' i°' '"'*^"'^ ^'' ~""««' t° set shallow rooted trees deeper than they stood before, his adS not to plant during rain, or windy weather a^d his s„7lrr °" ''' ''- °^ ^"^ ■"-- 'n- While then the ancients were not entirely without 3.1v.cultural knowledge, indeed possessed mucTi than ,s usually credited to them, the need of a forest pohcy and of a systematic forest management in X modern sense had not arisen in their time; "he mM c .mate reducing the necessity of fuelwoo,^ and tS access.b,hty by water to sources of supply for natal Su-c^rnTttomf " '^^'-^ *^ "^ ^°r ^ori:; There is little doubt that some of the agricultural and s,lv.cultural knowledge and practicV of the Romans found entrance among the German tribes who espec^uy the Allemanni, came inT cole rng^trutur """^ --"'"-' ? Hi i GERMANY. It is generally conceded that both the science and art of forestry are most thoroughly developed and most intensively applied throughout Germany. It must, however, not be understood that perfection has been reached anywhere in the practical applica- tion of the art, or that the science, whico like that of medicme has been largely a growth of empiricism IS in all parts safely based; nor are definitely settled forest policies so entrenched, that they have become immutable. On the contrary, there are still mis- managed and unmanaged woods to be found, mainly those in the hands of farmers and other private owners; there are still even in well managed forests Baidc. a dozen or mo» earlier hietorie. of foreelry in Germany ^mfrf whch date tack ,o «,e beginning „, «,« ,9^, century U,L.™Z' e^L modem compilations, namely: » "™ "wo exceilent m DcutscHani. by August B.rnhardi. 1872-75. 3 Vol. iniH ""^"T which treat, eepecially e.ten.ively of politicj'and II:™-; 'ZZl. '^Z^i beanng on the development of forestry • and luesuon. na» mj a P^''tm''4ZS°^~'"'(°'^""'"''" ""'"*''-*. by Adam Schw.*,. K.^L K •'/ .?^ pp.. wh.ch appeared „ a .econd edition of Bernhardt-. h..tory, abndrmg the political history and expanding the forestry pirt Thi. volume ha, b^„ mamly followed in the following pLntatioToT t^/ JubW. In condensed form this history is al«, to be found in Lo.Ev's H.^k IT For,l^,stn^h^f,. 1888. Vol. I. pp. imiO H'ndhuch der arl'te'lTe'ST';'' "^T." '"" '"" "' ''"'^°'' """"" " ™"n,erated. These Statistics and DescHption. 23 practices pursued which are known not to conform to theoretical ideals, and others which lack a Z »^.ent.fic foundation; and while the general po icy of conservative management and of State inter^ln tair; the^'^T"^ ''''''''^' ^"^ -S° atta,mng the result are neither uniform throughout the vanous States which form the German Federation nor positively settled anywhere. In other words th^ history o forestry is still, even in this most adva^ce^ country >n the stage of lively development. menHn r *"'^'"' °- ^°?'"^ '^' ""'^^"^ "^ '^s develop- ment .„ Germany is of greatest interest not only be- cause h.s art has reached here the highest and most intensive application, but because alfthe phaseTo development through which other countries have trieS S' '" mT"^ '^ "°' """'' °f '^' °ther coun- tries of the worid have more or less followed German example or have been at least influenced by £rman th: ^helToft^™^ ^^" ''-" -'""^^ '" the^fact'T." r ■■ ''*' "u^ '''^*°"'=^' background is the fact, tha* Germany has never been a unit that rom ,ts earliest history it was broken up into many ndependent and, until modern times, only loose"y associated units, which developed differently t aT'Kr''"'""""'"'^^'^^"'""- ThisaccoU: also for the great variety of conditions existing even o^day in the 26 principalities which form the (^ZTn empire. ^-^^inan Politically, it may be mentioned that out of the 24 Germany. very many independent principalities into which the German territory had been divided, variable in number from time to time, the 26 which had preserved their autonomy formed in 1871 the federation of States, [.nown as the German Empire. Each of these has Its own representative government including the forest administration, very much like the state governments of the United States; only the army and navy, tariff, posts, telegraphs, criminal law and foreign policy, and a few other matters are under the direct jurisdiction of the empire, represented in the Reichstag, the Bundesrath, and the Emperor. The 208,830 square miles of territory,* which sup- ports a population of about 60 million people, still contain a forest area of a round 35 million acres (26% of the land area) or .61 acre per capita, which although largely under conservative management has long ago ceased to supply by its annual increment (somewhat over 50 cubic feet per acre) the needs of the popula- tion; the imports during the last 50 years since 1862 when Germany began to show excess of imports over exports, having grown in volume at the average rate of 10% to now round 380 million cubic feet (45 miMion dollar,) or neariy 15% of the consumption. Ihe larger part of Germany, two thirds of the terntory and population is controlled by modern Prussia, with a total forest area of 20 million acres- Bavana comes next with one seventh of the land area and 6 million acres of forest; the five larger states of Wurttemberg, Baden, Saxony, Mecklenburg and Hesse^^occupyingj^ether another seventh of the • Th. .uti«i„ i„ ,hi. book do not p««l to b. -o« tl— vp^mtti^^ar Slaiictics and Description. 25 territory with 5 million acres of forest. The bdlai.^^ of the area is divided among the other 19 states Fifty per cent, of Germany roughly speaking, is plams country, the larger part in the northern and eastern territory of Prussia; 25% is hill country mostly m West and Middle Germany; and 25% is mountam country, the larger portion in the southern states. There are at best only five species of timber of high economic general importance, the (Scotch) pine which covers large areas in the northern sandy plain and the lighter soils in the south ; the (Norway) spruce and (Silver) fir which form forests in the southwestern and other mountain regions and represent, in mixture with broadleaf forest, a goodly proportion in the north- eastern lowlands; the (English) oak, of which botani- cally two species are recognized; and the beech. The last two are the most important hardwoods found throughout the empire, but especially highly developed in the west and southwest. In addition there are half a dozen species of minor or more local importance, but the five mentioned form the basis of the forestry systems. The history of the development of forestry in Ger- many may be divided into periods variously. Bern- hardt recognizes six periods; Schwappach makes four dmsions namely, the first, from the eariiest times t the end of the Cariovingians (91 1), which is occupied mainly vith the development of foreet property con- n^Z"^'}^^ '^~"**' *° ^•'^ '""^ °f 'he Middle Ages (1600), during which the necessity of forest manage- n i\ 26 Germany. ment begins to be sporadically recognized; the third to the end of the 18th century, during vhich the foundation for the development of all branches of forestry is laid; the fourth, the modern period, accom- phshmg the complete establishment of forestry methods in all parts of Germany. For the later histonan it would be proper to recognize a fifth period from about 1863, when, by the establishment of experiment stations, a breaking away from the merely empiric basis to a more scientific foundation ol forestry practice was begun. For our purposes we shall be satisfied with a division into three periods, namely: first, to the end of th- middle ages, when, with the discoveries of America and other new countries, an enlargement of the world's honzon gave rise to a change of economic conditions- second, to the end of the eighteenth century, when Change of political and economic thought altered the relation of peoples and countries; third, the modern penod, which exhibits the practical fruition of these changes. I. Trom Earliest Times to End of Middle Ages. Many of the present conditions, especially those of ownership, as well as the progress in the develop- i I - ment both of forest policy and of forest management III can be understood only with some knowledge of the early history of the settlement of the country • j^^well known, Aryan tribes from central Asia Settlement of Country. 27 had more than a thousand years before Christ begun (Celtic) or Gaelic race which had gradually come to S''thr:'V' "''°"^; ^-- Spain. norThern° sTands rr " ''^Wf ^'™^"^ ^'"^ '^' British islands. They were followed by the Germani (sud- posed^y a Celtic word meaning neighbor or brotft about S B c"- t°-r^^^^ '' ''' S'-'' ^a IM B^ T. ' '" ^^"^^riand and Belgium about 100 B.C. These were followed by the Slovenes SWaks. or Wends, crowding on behind, disputing and talang possession of the lands left ree by of conquered from the Germani. Through theTe m^gr^^ Uons by about 400 A.D.. the whole of Western tribeTf'T' *° •'"^^ ^^ f""y f-°P'«l *ith these tnbes of hunters and herders. The mixture of the dfferent elements of victors and vanquished led to ^fL f r '"^ '^ """^"^"K' "amely the free, the unfree (serfs or slaves), and the freedmen-an im! porunt d.stmct.on in the development of property 1. Development of Property Conditions. The German tribes who remained conquerors were composed of the different groups of Franks, sLons Thunngians, Bajuvarians. Burgundians, e C, each composed of families aggregated into communal ^urst), organized for war, each in itself a s^ialisti and «:o„om,c organization known as Mark, own ng a territory m common, the members or Markgenossel 28 Germany. forming a republic. Outside of house, yard and garden, there was no private property; the land sur- rounding the settlement, known as Allmende, (com- mons) was owned in common, but assigned in parcels to each family for field use, the assignment first changing from year to year, then becoming fixed. The outlying woods, known as the Marca or Grenz- wild, forming debatable ground with the neighboring tribes, were used in common for hunting, pasturing fattening of hogs by the oak mast, and for other such purposes,, rather than for the wood of which little was needed . In return for the assignment of the fields the free men, who alone were fully recognized citizens of the community, had to fulfil the duties of citizens and especially of war service. Only gradually, by partition, immigration and uneven numerical development, was the original Mark or differentiation into family associations destroyed and a more heterogeneous association of neighbors substituted. At the same time, inequality of owner- ship arose especially from the fact that those who owned a larger number of slaves (the conquered race) had the advantage in being able to clear and cultivate more readily new and rough forest ground. Those without slaves would seek assistance from those more favored, exchanging for rent or service their rights to the use of land; out of this relationship a certain vassalage and inequality of political rights developed. Under the influence of Roman doctrine, a new aspect regarding newly conquered territory gained recognition, by which the Dukes as representatives of the community laid claim to all unseated or un- Property Conditions. 29 occup.ed the lower Rhine country. Atout 5TO A D the.> Mart In th ""^^T^'^^ '"'"^^'f ^y taking to the westward hnft) , ^ conquest mainly mate „ 772 hT' "T '' f ^ "°' ^"^^ """'' Charle- united, but it was only when the dynlst of Ch 'T" ^eS;^:5S^;«n:i--ee There were then five tribes or nations, each undeTlu ■;*'„ Miis^m^Mi 30 Uermany. own Duke and its own laws, comprising this new kingdom, namely the Franks, Suabians, Bavarians baxons on the right, and the Lorainers on the left oank of the Rhine, while the country East of the Elbe nver was mostly occupied by Slovenians. With Clovis began the new order of things which was signalized by the aggrandizement of kings, dukes and barons. In addition to the rule regarding the ownership of unseated lands there developed, also under Roman law doctrine, the conception of seignorial right t.e.. the power of the king to jurisdiction over his property This right, first claimed by the duke or king for himself, is then transferred with the territory given to his friends and vassals, who thereby secure for themselves his powers and jurisdiction, immunity from taxes and from other duties, as well as the right to exact taxes and services from others, the favored g.-owing into independent knights and barons. The forest, then, originally was communal property and the feeling of this ownership in common remains even to the present day. Indeed, actually it remained in most cases so until the 13th century, although the changes noted had their origin in the 7th century when the kings began to assert their rights of princely .supenority. ' In these earlier ages, the main use of the forests was for the hunt, the mast and the pasture, and since wood was relatively plentiful, forest destruction was the rule. Those who became possessed of larger pro- perties through the causes mentioned tried to secure Ban Forests. 31 3j "H increased value of th • J which especially t^::c^:r::J'' '^^''^''''^'''^-^ These often became freprf™ "^^ ^^"^ utilized or iabor, and acqu^J^jlH^rrf ""' ■" P^^*"" P^perty. out of which deveIoS\f "^"''■"« '" the W« or rishts of user, the *3? ^^e so-called servi- a Lmited right to use the n """ °^ ^^e Romans With the developm nt o7 n!"' °' ^"°"'-- naturally also devefop^ tht ThT'^f ''"''^^'^ "-ere huntmg on such lands thi i^"?!"^ Preventing the Th.s exclusive right to the chT^^ ^" '^^" "'^'■" "se. n-ejj as a part of the p o^eny'fTh I"' "^ ''"'^ ---o^- ■n the 8th century, wheTth^ t- ^ """^^ ^"^ barons under penalty of L^re "nt ^h?l'°'l'^'^ '^^P^- d'cfon) of 60 shillings be^nTim "^i"^ * *"" ""t^r- passers. Indeed, by L end TfT^ "P°" ^^e tres- word Forst (.»«r..i;XS If^u' '''' ^"t"ry the been used merely to denote th?.. ""'" *''^" ^ad exclusively used to desTgnate !„^^ ' '"°'^"y '^-« 'and (the latter being^^S T ""^.f^rily ^ood- but any territory in which trhutthaHt" °' '"^"^^• . This nght to reserve the rL ^ ''^" reserved. '«. to establish ia„/r.U It \t"'' '^^ ''^''ing, that tended by the kings to terrrj" ^l ^^'^ ^^"'"ry ex- the right to the chal: Sj ™ ^'°"^"^ '° '^em. doctnne a regal right over fnv ™ « '° ""^ '*'""«" 'conception fields I nd pLure '^ '"'i''- ^nder this ^nd whole villages wit'hd ' i^^J """^ *-'-«. mforested" grounds. The Nor^''^'"J^"'^ '^"me w; th a passion for the chase^T '''"^^' '™bued !:'dely, especially i„ Engknd ,h?r"^ ""'^ "^^t =PP-n« and the New I^^s^b^i^™ in^^ 32 Germany. territories, the inhabitants of which were placed under special "forest laws," and adjudged by special "forest courts." Presently the king's right of ban was granted with the land grants to his barons and to the clergy. Ban- forests also grew up through owners of properties placing themselves and their possessions under the protection of kings or bishops or other powerful barons and giving in exchange this hunting right, and in various other ways. At the same time the headmen of the Mark (Obermarker, Graf, Waldgraf), who from being elected officers of the people had become officials of the king, began to exercise, by virtue of their office, the jurisdiction of the king, and declaring the ban for their own or their friends' benefit, excluded the Marker from their ancient right to hunt and fish freely over the territory of the Mark. While in this way the freedom of the communal owners was undermined, the institution of banforests had nevertheless its value in that it led to forest pro- tection, restriction in forest use and restriction in clearing, all this, to be sure, merely for the benefit of the chase. Special officers to guard the rights of the king, forestarii, chosen from the free and freedmen, and also superior officers, foreslmasters, were instituted, to administer the chase and enforce the restrictions which went with it. Gradually, with the loss of property rights, there came also a change in the political rights of the marker or commoners, through the large barons interfering with self-government, assuming for themselves the position of Obermarker, appointing the officials, and (ili^y'VAi-P ■§ ■4 ■" Feudal System. 33 i^uing strict forest ordinances to regulrte th ■ cutting of wood; finally, the original right which belonged to every commoner of supplying himself with wood material became dependent upon permission in each case, and thus his title to ownership became doubtful Undoubtedly also through the influence of Roman institutions with which the Franks under their Merovingian kings came into dose contact, there arose that social and political institution which be- came finally known as the feudal system. By the grants of lands which the kings made out of their estates to their kinsmen and followers with the understanding that they would be faithful and render service to their masters, a peculiar relationship grew up, based on land tenure, the land so granted being called a fief or feud and the relationship being called vassality or vassalage. This vassalage denoted the i rsonal tie between the grantor and grantee, the lord and the vassal; the lord having the obligation to defend the va^l, and the vassal to be a faithful follower of his lord, similar relationship arose from the surrender by landowners of their estates to the church or to other powerful barons, to be received back again as fiefs and to be held by them as tenants in exchange for rent or service. In this way a complete organiza- tion of society developed in which, from the king down to the lowest landowner, all were bound together by obhgation of service and defence, both the defence and semce being regulated by the nature and extent of the fief. Finally, all kinds of property of what- ever nature, as well as official positions which would give an income, were subject to be treated as fiefs. 34 Germany. The obligations of the recipient were of various nature, but finally service in army or court became ^•«,T" k""' ^'''"t5 ""^ *° '^^ "^'^^^ °f knights mter) or barons, while the fiefs to the small farmer gave rise to the class of peasants ,Bauern, this name appearing first in 1106 under Conrad II) The fiefs of the higher class, while at first given only to the individual, became early hereditary and hereditarjj succession to estates and oflices generally became the rule. Primogeniture in the succession to the estates did then not as in England prevail in Germany; instead, either tenancy i. rommon, or else equal division among the sons was practised. As a result the very many small principalities came into existence in the 14th and 15th centuries, these gro" ing smaller and smaller by subdivision. The first to institute the p.imogeniture rule by law was thp house of Brandenburg (in the 15th century) In addition to the class of peasants and knights there came into existence a third class, the burghers t^^^^ *'' "'" °' ^""^^'l ' '" the begin„?ng o/ he 10th century, towns were built with walls and towers for defence against the encroachments of the Huns, who endangered the eastern frontier Mark In order to encourage the settlement of these towns, any slave moving to town was declared a freeman; and duHw'f' f"" ^'"^ '■'P"''"*^^= ^ft« °f 'and, in- cluding forest areas, were made to the cities, and the development o industries was encouraged in every way. These cities, favored by the kings, and, having become nch and powerful, in the later quarrels of the kings with the lawless nobility, gave loyal support Cities and Colonization. 35 with money and arms. In return for their loans the btill other property conditions arose when, under Otto the Great (960), colonization of the eastern country beyond the Elbe was pushed. I„ these calT su d^dtftrt'°" "" ^''^^"*' ^'^''-^'^ *^-"- nr , T "'^ P''"' °*"^'« i" the king's forest secured nghts of user in the nearest royal forest. By the end of the period, due to these various de yelopments, a great variety of property co"dl ions ■n forest areas had developed, mos't of whL co„Se to the present t.n.e, namely royal properties wh"ch by the end of the eighteenth centu.^ and "re Sn nmg o the nineteenth were in part to become st^L" TeTa?''- ^"J"'" '"'' '"""'y possessions unde^ separate junsd.ct.on, with or without entail and mostly encumbered with rights of useT-^^kl possess.ons (held independent of rent or seS mumcpal possessions owned by citv cnrJ^Z communal properties, the remnLrof TtaTk: SLTof thrs:r ^™^'^^- -"'^- ^-- pe«vcInHl-''^T^ ^'■°"' '^^ °"«'"^' ~""n""a' Pro- per y conditions d.d not, of course, take place without fnctjon, the opposition often taking shap^ in peTint,' revolts: hundreds of thousands of'thesTbei^ wS L w7"r''' *° "'"^^^ ^heir commons, fo^S and waters free to all, to re-establish their literty to il^i 36 Germany. hunt, fish and cut wood, and to abolish tithes, serfdom and duties. 2. Forest Treatment. As stated, the German tribes which settled the country were herders and hunters, who only gradu- ally developed into farmers while the country was being settled. At first, therefore, as far as the forest did not need to give way to farm lands, its main use was in the exercise of the chase and for pasture, and especially for the raising and fattening of hog.; the number of hogs which could be driv-n into a forest serving as an expression of the size of such a forest. Oak and beech furnishing the mast were considered the preferable species. It is natural, therefore, that wood being plentiful and the common property of all, the first regulation of forest use had reference to these, now minor benefits of forest property, as for instance the prohibition of cutting mast trees, which was enforced in early times. The first extensive regulation of forest use came however, from the exer- cise of the royal right of the ban and merely for the avowed purpose of protecting the chase. Real forest management, however, did not exist the forestarii mentioned in these early times being nothing but policemen guarding the hunting rights of the kings or other owners. The conception that wood on the stump was of the same nature as other property and Its removal theft had not yet become established : quta non res possessa sed de Ugno agitur" (wood not being a possessed thing), a conception which still per- vades the laws of modern times to some extent. Forest Treatment. 37 continued even into the i 7th and isfh ^ "^ to app.opHate forest ,and withoVXa't ^X tralS 1T^ 7""""'P ^°"ditions, which we have the SlavrSe E:IS«.?''^L°'°"'^^*■°" ^"""^ fo/"t?e^lrili'^' '''^'''°" °f '""^ Mark forest begins would eadt1e«"°" '"" ""''"'"'' """^"^^^ tion rthe lol "?^"^8^"'^"t and less devasta upon in X lTs'l'"H°r "" "^^ '"^"^'«' thVorince^rnH K , . *''^ ^°''^' ordinances of r 38 Germany. merely wiS^fereLl to th'"^"'f ^^'^' ''°*-«^- we find a..ad?ZLr t rr^eTa^r,^; ^•- The charcoal industry is favors! T^ut of /'•'■ transportation of its product^ h.t- ^^^^ under special Precaution "^Slc Se.in'^TndT °"'" for potash is forbidden ThTrT! ? *""■"'"« with ..gard to the young gr^w^^'""",'-^"'^'"^ goats are excluded. ' ^"'^ ^'"^P ^nd therrthTrrr<:c:i'co;drt'" ""■ '"""^^ ^-'^ "- -^ of this kind is found at Alt^n ," f"""'""8 restriction^ !f^;^>%:ta- -M^tS^^ First Plantings. "T"'e in the 12th and iifk . stnctive and regulatfve ortriT t '""^"' «' . allowing the wood to grow uo ■' 't "^ P^''^^' m the 14th century the ZTi^^' P'^^^''^', we find certain strip^'^.^^^t^^'^e reforestation of a of this order we have no r^o^ li . [ ^^^ ''=^"ti°" executed plantation on Z!^'- "' *••* ^'^^ actually Nure.4, -"rer^hrt^rafCj^'^ ^''^ °' burned area were sowed wirh n- ^'^ ^"^» °f and there is also a re^rd T^ P"ll«P™ce and fir; harvested. I„ 140^?^ ^ '" ^'^''^ ^^'^ crop was Main followJi'tittcamp.r' ,°- '■""'^^°« °" "« ber« seed dealer, Jh^ corr« '!^"*^ °" "^^ N"'*""- who was invited Tgo to ^T '""' " "«^« «"d to proceed. Hesowe^ln . ""°" ^°' ^^^^'^ how boles, but expre^fhe on •'"\°'^"'' *° "»•="« clear -ot be transSS Sr°relii"o'':h'''T~"'^ the moon for his operation" ^ °" "'^ P'^'*'*^ »' fn>m the cloister and cS.of^l'*"!f '° '' """"K in 149, to reforest annui^Tso*' "'"'? ^^ Natural regeneration by Joo^ ^"^ *"" oak. general practice and prov^ Tw*^ ""'' '" ""'te f-lwood production. "T^fstsJet^f^ '"°"^'' ^^^ standards was also freouenHvn." ^ ''°PP'« *'th 30 or 30 to theTcrTS .?™''"*^' "•« "tandards. acre, being reserved for the lord " 40 Germany. In the timber forest, the unregulated selection system was continued generally through the period, although in 1454 we find in the Harr Mountains a transition to a seed tree management, a few seed trees or groups of seed trees being left on the other- wise cleared area, somewhat in the manner of the French methode d tire el-aire. Toward the end of the 15th century we find here and there a distinction made between timber forest, where no firewood is to be cut, and "leaf forest" which is to serve the latter purpose, and is to be treated as coppice. Toward the end of the period we find, however, various provisions which are unquestionably dictated by the fear of a scarcity of timber. The discovery that pasture prevents natural regeneration led to a pro- hibition of pasturing in the newly cut felling areas. In 1488, we find already a diameter limit of 12 inches — ^just as is being advocated in the United States now — as a basis for conservative exploitation, the dty of Brunswick buying stumpage, and in the contract being limited to this diameter, and in addition obli- gated to leaye 15 oaks or aspen per acre for seed trees. Attempu at regulating the use of a given forest by division into felling areas are recorded in 1369, when the dty forest of Erfurt, 286 acres, was divided into seven felling areas. It is questionable whether this referred to a coppice with short rotation or whether a selection forest with seven periodic areas is meant. We see, then, that the first sporadic and, to be sure, crude beginnings of a forest management in Germany Second Period. 41 may be traced back to the 14th and 15th centuries; but it took at least 250 to 350 years before such management became general. Outside of the information found scattered in forest ordinances, instructions and prescriptions of various kinds there is no forestry literature to be recorded from this period except 'le single book, published about the year 1300, by an Italian, Petrus de Cres- centiis, which was translated into German. It was merely a scholastic compilation on agriculture and allied subjects, mostly cribbed from old Roman writers and without value for German conditions. II. First Development of Forestry Methods. (Period 1500 to 1800.) The period following the middle ages marks the gradual changes from the feudal system to the modem State organizations and to considerable change of ownership conditions and forest treatment. Various causes which led to an increased develop- ment of industrial life were also instrumental in hastening the progress of forest destruction. At the same time, during this period the germs and embryonic beginnings of every branch of forestry, real forestry policy, forestry practice and forestry science are to be noted. By the end of this period, preparatory to more modem conditions, we find organized technical forest administrations, well developed methods of silviculture and systems of forest management. 42 Germany. 1. Development of Forest Property Conditions. A number of changes in the conceptions of political relations, in methods of life and of political econoaiy brought further changes in property conditions on the same lines as those prevailing in the 14th and 15th centuries. These changes were especially influenced by the spread of Roman law doctrine regarding the rights of the governing classes; by the growth of the cities, favoring industrial development and changing methods of life; by the change from barter to money management, favored by the discovery of America, by other world movements, and by the resulting changes in economic theory. Through the discovery of the new worid and the influx of gold and silver that came with it gave im- petus to industry and commerce of the cities; the rapid increase of money capital increased extrava- gance and induced a desire for amassing wealth, which changed modes of life, changed policies and systems of political economy. The fiscal policy of the many little principalities was dominated by a desire to get a good balance of trade by fostering exports of manufactures, but for- bidding exports of raw materials like forest products, also by forbidding imports, subsidizing industries, fixing prices by law, and taking in general an inimical attitude towards outsiders except in so far as they sent gold and silver into the country. This so-called mercantilistic system, which saw wealth not in labor and its products but in horded gold and silver, had also full sway in England under Decadence of the Mark. 43 Cromwell, and in France under Colbert's influence. This fiscal policy, which was bent upon bringing cash into the country, led, under the direction of servile officials, to oppressive measures. A reaction naturally followed, when it was pointed out that the real wealth of a nation lies in its natur.a resources and m its labor. But this so-called physiocratic doctrine had little practical influence except to prepare men's minds for the reception of the teachings of Adam Smith at the end of the period. The doctrine of the Roman law, deified by the jurists and commentators, undermined the naiional conceptions and institutions of free citizenship and of eidsting property relation? courts, legislation and administration were si-'-'ect to their sway, and this influence lasted, in sj of reactions, until the end of the 18th century. Jnder it the doctrine of the imperium— the seignorage or superior power of the princes (Hoheitsrecht)— was further developed into the dominiutn terrae, i.e., superior ownership of all the land, which gives rise to the title and the exercise of the function of "Landesheiren," masters of the land, and confers the privilege of curtailing and even discontinuing private property rights. To sustain their position in each of the state units, a restriction of the autonomy of churches and cloisters, of the Mark and of the vassals became needful to the princes. This was secured by taking the first under their protection, by making themselves Obermarkers, and by changing vassals who held office in fief into employes (Beamte). For a time the three privileged classes of prelates, knights and burghers, combined 9m m 44 Germany. in the Lapdstand or Landtag, participated in some of the functions of government, especially in raising and admimstenng taxes, but by the second half of the 14th century the princes had become absolute, and die I «'°^7« of the fi«'*«i'^«^A< was firmly established. iJ ^,T" *^'* doctrine, the historic position of tile Mark IS perverted and instead of being the common property of the people, it becomes the property of tile pnnce, on which he graciously permits the usu- fruct; for, forest, pasture and water (Wald, Weide, Wasser) are res publicae, hence ownerless and at the disposal of the king. Through tiiis new construction of relationship, as well as tiirough tiie same machi- nations and tricks which the princes as Obermaerker or headmen of the Mark had employed during the toregomg period in usurping power, and partiy tiirough voluntary dissolution was the decadence of the social economic and political organization of the Mark gradually completed. The original usufruct of a property held in common is explained in the Roman sense as a precarium or servitude, arid from being a right of the whole organiz- ation bewmes a right of the single individual or group of individuals. In this way the socialistic basis of tiie Mark IS destroyed. Through the exercise of the ForsthoheU, i.e., the superior right of the prince over all forest property, by the appointment of the officials instead of their ekction, by issuance of ordinances in short, by the usurpation of the legislative and police power the political power of the Mark is broken and the Thirty Years' War completes the breakdown; the pnde of the burgher and the peasant is gone, their Changes in Property. 45 autonomy destroyed and their economic and political organizations sink into mere corporations b!^ on land tenure, which, according to Roman doctrine come under the regulation of the State or Prince. The nobihty move into the cities and leave the administration of their estates to officials who are constantly pressed to furnish the means for the ex- travagant life of their masters. These in turn harass and oppre^ the peasantry, who finally become bonds- men, Gutshonge (bound io the glebe) and lose their by which the changes, social and economic, progressed Reforms in this situation of the peasantry began for =^? ^"""' u ^''^' ''•"^ '^»^^'= was aLlished for all those who could purchase their houses and farms from the gentry. As few had the means to do r„'v '^"t^"^ ** "'^''°° "^ « Ptoleteriat, hitherto ^rd had to feed his impoverished bondsmen from Which he was now absolved. Changes in forest property in particular were brought about by the increase of princely property through tu^T'u^'^f' °' «^'^'™"« *he seignorage. frir^f n- ''i''' ^^"^ ^^''' War otnerlL tracts falling und« this right were plentiful. In addition, whereverjwaste lands grew up to wood, they were claimed^by the princes: "Wenn das Holz dem Ritter reicht an den Spom Hat der Bauer sein Recht verlom." When wood has grown up to the spur of the knight, the peasant lias lost his right. 46 Germany. Some additions came from the secularization of church and cloister property, and others by the slices which the princes as OlDermarker secured from the Mark forests by various artifices. It is these proper- ties which m Prussia were turned over by the King used by the landed gentry to increase their holdings especially at the expense of the Mark from which fn their capacity of Obermarker they secured portions by force or intrigue. The peasants' forest property-the Mark forest- had by the 19th century been almost entirely dis- membered part having come into the hands of the th? M?I! T- P**" ""^^"^ ^'^ 'J'^ided among the Marker, and part having become corporation forest m the modern sense. i^riuon Partition had become desirable when the restric- Uons of use which were ordered for the good of the forest became unendurable under the rigid rule of appointed officials, but the expected im- pro^ement m management which was looked for reXed"'"'°° ""'^ ""^^'^ ownership was never • ^f'^^*i:«7hirty Years' War the free cities were impovenshed and their autonomy undermined bj Roman doctrine. From free republics they became mere corporations under the supervision of appointed officials, and experienced decadence in political as well as material directions. Hence, no ^crea^ fn city forest took place except through division of the Forest Conditions. 47 Mark forest in which cities had been ccw)wners, and through seculanzed properties of cloisters. The worst feature, from the standpoint of forest treatment, which resulted from these changes in property conditions and relationship, was the growth of the permcous servitudes or rights of user, which were either conferred to propitiate the poweriess but dangerous peasantry, or evolved out of the feudal relations. From the 16th to the 19th centuries these servitudes grew to such an extent that in almost every forest some one outside of the owner had the nght to use parts of it, either the pasture, or the litter or certain classes or sizes of wood. ' These rights have proved the greatest impediment to the progress of forestry until most recent times, and only within the last few decades have the majority of them been extinguished by legal process or com- promise. 2. Forest Conditions. Under the exercise of these various rights and the uncertainty of property conditions, the forest con- ditions naturally deteriorated continuously until the end of the 18th century; the virgin woods were culled of their wealth and then grew up to brush, as is usual in the United States. Every forest ordinance began with complaints re- garding the increasing forest devastation, and pre- dicted a timber famine in view of the increasing population, increasing industry and commerce, and hence increased wood consumption. Especially along the water routes, which furnished the means of ■^.W'P^ 48 Germany. Z o 1" !^T ''"°"' ™^"'''=' than the exploita- tion of the fmber proved the pasturing of cattle the removal of the litter, and above all. the fires ' L m« T^ '^. '^^" '" •* ^"^""J: y«. as late as 1778. the necessity of keeping the rides or fire lan^ open m the forests of Eastern Prussia is justified by t'u^neT"' '"t""*'^™" '"^^ still^onstantly recumng fires could not be checked." At another place ,t .s stated that "not a single acre oHore^t could be found in the province thlt ha" not b^n bum m Wer or later times," and that "the p^l" are st.ll too much accustomed to the ruthless ^ of fit«, so that no punishment can stop them." Other causes of devastation were the Thirty Yeare' War, the wars of the 18th century, and the loss of rr M t '%f "" ** P^"i^after the colp^ thTT'- " '^^P'-edations were increased by ?rieto« 7 '° '*^^"8«= themselves on the landed pr<^ K S "PP'^ions to which they were sub- by the landed gentry, did much damage to the youne the nobjhty who mostly abandoned countryYor town had to be met by increased exploitation. fo.S't 1' Ti °^ "•^"''•Idle ages the ,«luction of forest area had proceeded so far that it was generally beheved desirable to restrict the making of cleaS S.^1nd if th"eT:""' ^^"^' '" the'northeastem parts and m the distant mountain districU. f^^cj^^f i«ireic^: ::afflr f;t.m..'^Mri .r Restriction in Forest Use. 49 f.l"i* J"**'"?^ .population increased the need for f^ !r« """"" '"*'"^^^ •"« °' the existing 8^rf ""^T', ^"empted until the end of the 18th century, the forest had to yield still further. 3. Methods of Restriction in Forest Use. All ordinances issued by the princes to regulate the management of their properties contain the prescrip t^on, that permission of the Landesherr is necessary for deanngs, and that abandoned fields growing u^ Z wood are to be kept as woodland; this partly for S.m^^?'.''\'*'^ ^°' considerations of the chase. St.ll, Frederick the Great in colonizing East Pru^ expressed himself to the effect that he'cared more"; ,^e «^" u' T^' ^"'^ '"^"'""^ •>■« °'fi<='"^« to colon- ize especially the woods far from water, which entailed even more waste of wood than where means of tran^ porution allowed at least partial marketing Improvident clearings proceeded even under his ™.gn on die Frische Nehrung between Danzig and Pillau and surted the shifting sands of that peninsufa tent of ■^'"^ °' ^' knowledge as regarfs the ex- tent of casting supplies or of tiie increment, and with r iZr "^"^'~^'^^°"' ^' '-^ '-" '^^-- tioI°!nT °" %th'=atening timber scarcity, regula- tion in the use of wood was attempted by the f^est ordinances, even to the extent of forbidding the hanging out of green brush to designate a drin Jng Jrin I "t".".'"*' °' ^^y trees,-^imilar to ouf mTtr^T A ^"""^ ^'"'^ "«^"^* ""^ "« °f Christ- mas trees. A diameter limit to which trees might be ^ • iJi) 50 Germany. permitted to be cut, was also frequently urged. Regulation of forest use did not confine itself to the princely properties alone, but, in the interest of the whole, the restrictions were extended to all owners. These restrictions were directed either to the practice in the exploitation of the forest or in the use of the material. In the latter direction the attempts at re- ducing the consumption of building timber are of special interest. Building inspectors were to approve building plans and inspect buildings to see that they were most economically constructed; that repairs were made promptly, to avoid the necessity of more extensive ones; that new buildings replacing old ones were not built higher than the old ones. In Saxony, as eariy as 1560, it was ordered that the whole house must be built of stone, while elsewhere, the building of stone base walls and the use of brick roofs instead of shingles was insisted upon. Even the number of houses in any community was restricted. Fences were to be supplanted by hedges and ditches. Economies in charcoal burning, in potash manufacture for glass works, and in the turpentine industry were prescribed, and about 1600, the burning of potash for fertilizer was forbidden entirely; but these laws proved unavailing. Even in fuel-wood a saving was to be effected by using only the poorer woods and windfalls, by instituting public bake ovens (still in use in Westphalia), by improv- ing stoves, restricting the number of bathing rooms, etc. The consumption of fuelwood seems to have been enormous, for we find record of 200 cords used by ^.^^J Regulation of Wood. Use, and Trade. 51 one family in a year and of 1,200 cords or more used by the Court at Weimar during the same time. The substitution of turf and coal for firewood was ordered in some sections in 1697 and again in 1777 but practically not until J 780 did coal come in as a substitute. Tanbark peeling was also forbidden, or only the use of bark of trees soon to be felled was allowed. For cooperage only the top-dry oak; for coffins only soft-wood, or, according to Joseph II of Austna, no wood, but black cloth was to be used. In some parts of the country the use of oak was restricted, even as early as 1562. For regulating practices in the forest the restric- tions often took only the general form of forbidding devastation, without specifying what that meant. Then, besides establishing a diameter limit, and regulating pasture in order to protect young growth, excluding sheep and goats entirely, an attempt was made to secure at least orderiy procedure in thefellings Foresters were to designate what was to be cut even for firewood. Marking irons and hammers were employed for this purpose by the middle of the 15th century (usually two markings, by forester and by inspector to check). And this designation by officials extended even into the private forest, where finally no fellmg was allowed without previous permission and designation by a forester. The use of the litter by the small farmers had grown to a large extent in these times and it was thought desirable to stop it, but this aid to the poor peasant was so necessary tha only regulating the gathering of it could be insisted upon. 3 i i:i w i I ! m S3 Germany. ,,1""?' ^ "»<^«»t°«l thatall these variousattempts at secunng a conservative forest use were by no meL, general but refer to circumscribed territory ^d rc::Xire.''"''''^^^^''^^'"'°"-'''"°--"""« 4. Development of Forest Policy. besStlll'^*'""'"^."^ '^' '«* «°t"n^ '-« find, oSnf * P^scnptions against wasteful use, and orfmances regulaung the management of the pr,> ^rtes of the pnnces, definite forest policies in some secuons, having in view forest preser^tion and im! providmg wood at moderate prices Between the years 1515 and 1590, most of the which had the force of general law exercising police hmcdons over private forest property, although i^ 1720 The objects in view with this legislation were entirely of a material kind: the conservation of r^ o the chase, it was to secure a conservative use of S.nTrh" r "'" ^ """"* f"-^^' »"cedev*t^ tion of the latter would require the former t^te drawn on «travagantly; it was to stave off a timbw famine and in certain localities to assure particu- Sr T' S"*"^""' =°n'^io« m^de to the pri* leged and influential classes of forest owners. By .he end of the 18th century, this forest police owing to the uncontn>lled harshness and the grS^g Government Supervision. 53 C^ A ^}^ '"'^'^ °'^'='*'^ ^ become the most hated and d.stasteful part of the administratioT .oT % !?""'"' °' *''* protective influence of forest cover d.d not enter into this legislation; this ^ ment belongs to the 19th century Yet reboisement of torrents had already in 1788 I^IT^^"^ r ' T"'^'- Public me^sure fn GeSi tTZ: "?'' ^'^''^^ '^°^'' '" th. direction ^ not begun until nearly a century later. tunes had been very considerable, doubling, trebling center S™"""' V""' «"'* ''^" °f^»>7S I^ thT;.f .'""''^"'''"'^'^ *''^*"»«' °f the time led. therefore, to attempts to keep prices low bv ore! -nbmg rates for wood and in general by rltricti^ and regulatmg wood commerce. «tncting This was done especially by interdictinir sal* f„ ollf"' J°r''"« ^^^ f""" the smZeSo? paS'th°e tL7^\ "" °' '"'' ^•^'y "-y Pri"«- M«u' T •'e^'^'opment of trade was consider tS^fm^r'?''"'''^"r^'"'°- So-tim'a.^ w^te^K :rn.ri5r .^estrr^- er^rorrsr^th^.?,--^^^ - - -- lishSt 1r'" •"'*"■ ^''^^^'^e"' ""'trol were esub- hshed .„ large cfes. and the amount of wood to b^ used ^r cap. a prescribed, as in KoenigsberTIlTM) In Berlin, m 1766, a monopoly of the fue wS 54 Germany. market was rented to a corporation, excluding all others except by permission of the company. This was in 1785 supplanted by government administra- tion of the woodyards. Another such monopoly was created in the "Nutz- holzhandelsgesellschaft" (Workwood sales agency) for the export trade of building materials from Kur- mark and Magdeburg, which had prior right of pur- chase to nil timber cut within given territory, the idea being .- provide cheap material for the industries. This, too, came into the hands of the State in 1771. In Prussia, to prevent overcharges, the Jews were excluded from the wood trade in 1761. The exercise of the Forsthoheit (princely super- vision), originating in the ban forests, and favored by the mercantilistic and absolutist ideas of the 17th and 18th centuries, gradually grew until the end of the 18th century to such an extent that the forest owners themselves were not allowed to cut a tree without sanction of some forest official, and could not sell any wood without permission, even down to hop-poles, although the large landed property owners vigorously resisted this assumption of supervisory powers. Much discussion and argument regaixling the origin of this right to supervision was earned on by the jurists upon the basis of Roman law doctrine and It was proved by them to be of ancient date The degree, however, to which this supervision was developed varied considerably in the diflferent parts of the empire, according to different economic con- ditions The interference, and the protection of forests appeared more necessary, where advanced Government Supervision. 55 civilization and denser population created greater need for it. We find therefore that the restrictive policy was much more developed in the Southern ard Western territories than in the Northern and Eastern ones, where the development begins two centuries later. The oldest attempts of controlling private forest property are found in Bavaria (1516), Brunswick (1590) and Wurttemberg (1614). Here, forest proper- ties were placed either entirely under the supervision of the princely forest administration, or, at least, permission for intended f»Mings had to be secured! Later, these restrictions were considerably reduced in rigor (Bavaria, 1789). In Prussia, private forest property remained free from government interference well into the 18th century. An edict by the Great Elector, in 1670, merely inveighs against the devastation of forests by their owners, but refrains from any interference; and the Forstordnung of 1720 also contains only the general injunction to the owners not to treat their forests uneconomically. But, in 1766, Frederick the Great instituted a rigid supervision providing punish- ment for fellings beyond a special budget determined by experts. Soon after the French revolution, however, unrestricted private ownership was re-established. Church and cloister property had always been severely supervised, similar to the Mark and other communal forest property, under the direction either of specially appointed officials or the officials of the l'r,".'*'„ /'"ally- in some sections ( Hesse- Kassel, 1711; Baden, 1787), the management of these com- 56 Germany. ™u„al forests was entirely undertaken by the govern- thi°sS^et'J'\*'^"''5 "' ''«• *e foresters of In 1749, a special city forest order olacerf fh» ^^ S fottt:^'^^"" ''^ "'^ ^-^ 'y *-<= p- 5. Personnel. Although all this supervision was nr«k.Ki the woods fell naturally to the «hn™ „f »i, ! and forest euar ! whn k Vu ■ °' *''* huntsmen wood, h!^ . ^y *''*"■ practical life in the Personnel. 57 the direction of aii established huntsman, who taught them what he knew about the rules of the chase while by questioning woodchoppers, colliers, etc' and by their own observation the knowledge of wood- craft was acquired. At the head of affairs stood the so-called cameralists or chamber officials, men who had prepared them- selves by the study of philosophy, law, diplomacy and political economy for the positions of directors of finance and State administration. Rather ignorant of natural science, and without practical forestry knowledge, their efforts were not always well directed. They deserve credit, however, for having collected into encyclopaedic volumes the empiric knowledge of the practitioners or Holzgerechten, and for having elaborated it more or less successfully. In this work they were joined by some of the professors of cameralia and law at the universities. By the middle of the 18th century the hunters had so far pown in knowledge and education as to be able to produce their knowledge in books of their own Quite a hterature developed full of acrimonious war- fare of opinions, as is the rule whe,« empiricism rules supreme. Notable progress, however, rame only when hunt- ing w s placed in the background and more or less divorced from forest work. 6. Devdopment of Silviculture. In addition to the restrictive measures and attrmpts a mere conservative lumbering without much thought of reproduction, there were as eariy as the 16th I i 68 Germany. e\\ Owing to differences in local conditions and differ- ence m necessities, thi. development varied greatly m vanous sections as to the time it took place The Western and Middle country practiced as early Z the 16th century what in the Eastern country did not from'wh" h " T- ''"'"^- '^''^ f°-«' -finances of Thl Z^^^""^^ °"'' ''"°^'«'8e or inference of these conditions, prescribed, to be sure, many things that probably were not really put into practice a Natural regeneration was at first merely /awred without the adoption of any very positive measurt «nth.n the year, so as to give young growth a chance of establishing itself, by removing the brush so L not to smother the young growth, by keeping out cattle from the young growth (Sch;nung) ^ ?nvH« K. '"'.''°"' '""'='' P'''"' As eariy as 1524 and 1529, we have record of a conscious attempt to secure a reproduction by leaving ten to thirty seed trees per acre; but the r«.ult wa! Development of Stiviculture. 59 disappointing, for this practice, being applied to the shallow-rooted spruce, produced the inevitable result, namely, the seed trees were thrown by the winds. This experience led to the prescription (in 1565) in the Palatinate to leave, besides seed trees, parts of the other stand for protection against wind damage; later, wind protection was sought by leaving parcels standing on all four sides, giving rise to a checker- board progress of fellings or a group system of repro- duction, which by the middle of the 18th century had developed into the regular strip system, applied in Austria (1766) to fir and spruce, and in Prussia (1764) to pine. And this marginal seeding method remained for a long time the favorite method for the conifers. To avoid long strips and distribute the fellings more conveniently, v. Beriepsch (in Kassel) recom- mended (in 1760) the cutting in echelons (curtain method, Kulissenhieb), which insured better seed- ing, but also increased danger from windfalls, and was never much practiced, the disadvantages of the method being shown up especially in the Prussian Forest Order of 1788. • ^1 ^t ^""l """ °' *'"' ^^* ""'"'y i' was recog- mzed that the wind danger would be considerably reduced by making the fellings progress from East or Northeast to West. The conception of a regular properly located felling series was first elaboraTed in the Harr mounuins in 1745 by von Langen, who a^so accentuated the necessity of preserving a wind mantle on exposed situations. Both of these pro- positions reappear in the Prussian Order of 1780, :.%^* « 60 Germany. according to which fellings are to oroceerf in » k ^ ,. of twenty to thirty-five r^s froSffo W«t ' hardwood haTS tl T '"'""^'"^ ""P^-^^'y »' ^^e (1569. etc ) ^th an in?*'^' T?^' "** ^'""^'^'^^ crept softwoods of wti, :^^^ *^°'"''' ""° ''h'^h ^««». st'irtrutS^SthrlntoTaoe'^"'"'^*^ " extensive scale are ofr^orf ^"^ °" ''""' *" to tlatS''?e"i2' """"^ ''"'" ^°^ -«=•> - f°-' managed in eighty year rotation, the city forest Development of SilvicuUure. 61 ment became qmte general after the middle of the 18th century, but in the last half of the 19th centur^ ^ was generally ^placed by the true high S rnanagement under nur^etrees, the experiences v^U the natural reproduction of conifer forest ha^n^ proved the advantages of this method. * rhe primitive beginnings of this so-called Femel method; are found, in 1720, in Hes!» n»r^ * j. where Oberforstmeister von Minnige^e p™^ njgula, ellings progressing from north to^hl^ which all material down to polewood size (inXtion or vrpn forest) was to be removed, excepf^Lor a number of clean boles, one every ten to S p^^ being left for seed and nursetrees. The Zd r^^ m reproduction stimulated owners of adS 4u£ to imitate the method (1737) J^'^ng estates The observation that in beech forest the young croo 7^1^ ^ i"^""" " °» «"dden e^'POsure led to young crop was knee-hiirh and tt,» * when the crop was high*' ^ *' """^ ' '="'*^''8 This method spread rapidly and was furth., ^ veloped by the addition (in iVorrXtto^" f T\ i»ri 62 Germany. cutting to secure a desirable seedbed, and by leneth- emng the period of regeneration and elaborating oSer detail, so that, by 1790. the principles of natur^Ire fully developed in Western Germany. In other parts, hardwood forest management was of iS '"'"r?- '^' P'"-- Forest OrdiL'ce i hS 'ITrf-'^'' "'"' ^"^''■■'^^■■"« the selectio" Zl • V;.^ ^^'^'^""^ "^'"'^' regeneration, as prac- bced m the pmenes. not applicable; while the Austrian Ordmance of 1786 recognizes only clearing followed by plantmg as the general rule. teLfjT*'''-^'^'"T'^- ^'"'°"8h sporadic at- tempts at sowmg and planting are on record as eariy as the beg.„„mg of the 14th century, extensive arti^ thflsT^T" u" ""* '"^" ""*" 'he middle of tVJlTurdevlS^'' '-' •"-'- — Among the hardwoods, the oak was the fi«t to rece,ve special attention. By the middle of the 1 6th century the forest ordinances gave quite expHcit .nsrucUo„sforpIantingoakintheso-canedH«/I^« a combination of pasture and tree growth such^t found to-day in the bluegrass region of Kentuck; the remnants of these poor pasture woods with thei; gnarly oaks have lasted into modern times. m the forest ordinance of Brunswick (1598) orders are given to plant on felling areas: "every ful farme sha 1 every year at the proper time set oJt ten yolg oaks every half farmer five, every farm laborer ^hree well taken up w.th roots (wildlings). and plant them m'WM'^^:w Development of SUvictdture. 63 in the commons or openings at Martini (November) or Mitfasten (Easter) and cover them with thorn brush (to protect them against cattle). About that time it was, indeed, incumbent on every marker to sow annually five oaks, or plant several young seedlings for every tree cut and to lend them a few years; and the custom existed in the low country -afterwards (1700) introduced by law in Saxony- to plant in celebration of certain occurrences— a kind of orftorffoj^-especially to celebrate the marriage day in order to be married the bridegroom had to prove that he had planted a certain number of oaks, which m Prussia (1719) had to be six, besides six fruit trees. Ihe existence of this custom, now long forgotten, has given nse in the United States to the story that this IS the method by which the German forest is main- tained. The method of collecting and keeping acorns over winter was well known in 1579, as is evidenced by the Hohenlohe Forest Ordinance, which advised fall sowing, but, if that did not prove successful, to pre- pare the ground in summer, leave it through the winter and sow in the spring. While, in eariier times, sowing seems to have had the preference, at a later period planting was practiced, at first with wildings, but as eariy as 1603 we find mention of oak nurseries. The Prussian Order of 1720 ordered the foresters to plant oaks m the openings before Christmas, for which they were to be paid, if the trees were found alive after three years. The growing and culture of oak also interested Frederick the Great, who ordered I ! «4 Germany. its extension everywhere. Very explicit and correct rules for growing and transplanting them, and some to which we would not subscribe, were given in the books of the 18th century. Among the planting methods we find, in 1719 and again in 1776, one similar to the ManteuflFel method of planting in mounds. Wh^'- oak culture was especially fostered in North- wester r Germany, the cultivation of conifers first received attention in the southwest, and in the same manner which was inaugurated by the Nuremberg seed dealer in 1368. A new idea, introduced in the Palatine Forest Ordinance (1565) and in the Bavarian Forest Ordinance (1568), was the prescription, to soak the seed before use and sow mixed with sawdust or sand, bringing the seed under with brush or iron rakes. Carlowitz (1713) taught well the methods of collect- ing, extracting and keeping the seed, and even pro- posed seed tests. The seedbeds were to be made as for carrots, dense sowings to be thinned, and the thinnings transplanted into nursery rows, the seed- beds to be covered with moss and litter to protect them against heaving; he also discusses the question of cost. The adaptation of plant material to different sites— conifers where oaks are not suitable— was also understood (Bavarian Forest Ordinance, 1683). As long as the old method of extracting the seed in hot stoves or ovens prevailed, conifer sowings gave but indifferent results. In the pine forests of Prussia, during the second half of the 18th century, the method of sowing the cones on large waste and sand barrens, where the sun would mmn^Mmi n . :'.* Development of Silviculture. 65 make them release the seed, was practised, and More Bremontier had written his celebrated nUmoire sur les dunes, sanddunes had been recovered with pine plantations in Germany in the manner which is stil' in vogue. The planting of conifers came into practice mjrh later, and then it was mostly done with wildlir-: Opmions differing as to the value of sowing or planti.ir It was erroneously held until the 19th century thai planting was less successful and too costly in com- parison with the small harvest yield, which necessi- tated cheapness of operations. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that planting of pine was resorted to, but merely for repairing fail places in sowmgs and natural regeneration, and then with a ball of earth (1779), using a hollow spade,-a costly method. The cost of a certain plantation made in 1751 18, however, reported as less than $3.00 per M in 1770 as low as 70 cents per M. To cheapen the operations the labor was exchanged for wood, pasture or other materials or advantages. In Prussia, in 1773, all recipients of free wood had to do service in the cultures; in 1785, every farmer had to furnish a certain amount of cones or acorns The method, lately adopted in Russia, came into vogue in Prussia in 1719, namely, of charging, besides the value of the wood, a toll to be paid into the plant- ing fund (about 7% of the value). This method was also imitated elsewhere. The use of the WaUfeldbau (combined farm and forest culture) was also inaugurated for the purpose of cheapening the cost of plantations (by v. Langen il u 66 i],! H, ■ i Germany. in 1744) when the great movement for reforestinir wastes and openings began, the tree seed S ^ some tr" *=""" ^^ """^^ °^ ^*- ^-^ - for 1200) were inaugurated in Brunswiclc by v. U„L don hfrit -"i'''- ''^ ^'"-'^" forest'admS- tion had attained to entirely modem planting plans and annual planting budgets. It was no wonder that the fear of a timber famin- and the apparent hopelessness of brining .^1" ment mto the existing foi^t conditions cS" anxiety and a desi« to plant rapi, gro^rs, suTt S l!;^ ''• ^"^"' "'''''= ** P'^"ting of the mite Birch became so general in the beginning of the IsVh century that a regular betulomanif is i^ordS co'l sponding to the incipient catalpomania in thfuS At that time, to be sure, firewood was still the main concern, and the use of these rapid grow „ ' spec.es had some justification. But whe™ bifcTwa! mixed in spruce plantations iu baneful effecu con nethL!" *^""""* °^ "•' ^P'"« ^P« '^"d injuring ite neighbors were «x,n recognized, and much trouble w^ expenenced ■„ getting rid of the unwelcome add itio" in ms"t"T: " "' ^^u '^" ''^°"«'" f™-" America m-Hnf ' f u ? ""^ °' '^^ *'"*» recommended in the middle of the 18th century and was much plant^ until .iartig pointed out that the expectatL. frlm >t were entirely misplaced. f^^^^ations Irom Of course no building material could be expected from these species, hence the larch, also T^S if] ^%^:ik^L^ . . Development of Silviculture. 67 ^wer, was transplanted from the Alps (1730 in Harz mountams), and its use was extended, as with us to conditions for which it was not adapted It was principally a desire for novelty and perhaps for better^pecially foreign things, that led^o the fhrr. °^f°7^American species in parks during the first half of the 18th century. But, although U: J/"". Wangenheim's very competent writings on the Amencan forest-flora and on the laws of natu- rahzafon (1787) stimulated interest in that di,«:tio^. the use of American species for forest planting was not maugurated till neariy 100 years later., with the smgle exception of the White Pine (P. sirobus). of which large numbers were planted. 7. Improvement of the Crop. Thinning of stands had been practiced eariy in the 16th century not for improvement of the remaining Ml th T " •" '*^"'" '"""" """•="*'• ^'though in 1531 the observation was already recorded that thin- "' In Z m"^ """ '*'""'"'«' *••* "■"'''"'"8 e^wth. in the 17 h century, opposite views, or, at least doubts as to Its usefulness were expressed in the forest orfers, and sometimes thinning was even forbidden. Even in the 18th century some of the prominent foresters, Doebel and Beckman, were op,^sed " it nd a though others favored the operatiol, the pracJ fee of ,t remained limited. ^ theoiy of thinning, by Berlepsch. who advised taking out the suppressed trees when the sound poles were clear of lower and middle branches: he also accent" f ,. 68 Germany. ated the financial argument of earlier returns and increased value of the remainder. About the same time, Zanthier recommended two j thinnings, namely, for conifers first in the thirtieth , , to fortieth year and again in tne fiftieth year, for I jj broadleaf forest first in the forty-fifth and again in i J! the eightieth to ninetieth year. i j In 1765, the financial gain from thinnings is figured [I ''y Oettelt, and the possible reduction of the rotation I due to thinnings is recognized by Leubert in 1774. Just as the thinning in polewoods arose from the need of earlier utilization, so the weeding of young ^ growths was done for the purpose of getting material j for withes to bind the grain, etc. I ' The removal of coppice shoots in oak plantings was practiced in Prussia in 1719, and the thinning of too dense sowings was advised by Carlowiu in 1713. Yet much later, even such an intelligent man as Oettelt inveighed against the weeding out of the birch in spruce sowings because "nature prefers variety, with which preference it is not good to interfet*," This was in opposition to v. Langen (1745), who prescribed for the first time regular cleaning or weed- ing, especially the removal of the softwoods, aspen and birch, and of coppice shoots from seedling forest. It was also known that this weeding is best done "in the full sap, "in order to kill the stocks. 8. Methods of Regulating Forest Management. Organized forest management was slower to develop than silvicultural methods. The fir»t attempts to bring order into the progress of fellings took the form Methods of Forest Organization. 69 of dividing the whole area into a ceertain number of felling areas (12. 16, 20, 30, etc.), several ordinances dating from the middle of the 16th and 17th centuries containing prescriptions to that effect. It is doubtful whether the numbers of these areas mdicate years of rotation, in which case they could only have applied to coppice, or whether they indicate penods of return in selection forest, although the historians seem to jump to the former conclusion The area division practiced by v. Langen in the Harz mountains (1745), who prescribed the division of larger districts into fifty to sixty, of smaller districts irto twenty to thirty felling areas, also leaves it doubt- ful, whether the areas corresponded to an assumed rotation or to a period of return. At first, the division was not into equal areas, for no survey existed, and its object was simply to localize the cutting and provide orderiy progress. The sub- division was made in the mountain country by follow- ing the topography, valleys and ridges, while in the plain the hnes opened up for purposes of the chase (to set up nets), called Schneisen or GesteUe (rides), bound- ing square areas called Jagen, Quadrat, Stattung, were used for the limitation of the felling areas. Most commonly, however, largely due to absence of sur- veys. the ordered division did not materialize, but existed only on paper. With more exact measuring of areas, and with the conception of a rotation or longer penods of return, it was recognized that the Inequality of the sites or soil qualities, especially in mountain districta, produced very unequal felling budgets. To overcome this I Iti I ''I 70 Germany. inequality, Jacobi, in Goettingen (1741) introduced proportional felling areas, making the felling areas on poor sites permanently larger. Similarly, v. Langen and Zanthier attempt to secure equal annual returns without slavishly holding to the geometric division, merely making sure that the total area be cut over in the predetermined rotation. The first attempts to introduce a regulated manage- ment by making a volume division the basis is recorded from the Harz mountains in 1547. This method, based on very crude estimates although upon very fair forest description, was continued into the 18th century. In the last half of the 18th century all these crude methods were improved, and applied on extensive areas. In 1785, Zanthier combined area and volume di- vision, determining the felling budget on each felling area by counting and estimating the trees and calcu- lating how many trees could be used annually under a sustained yield management; the area division being used only as a check or means of control. A very considerable advance was made by Oettelt, (who surveyed ar.d regulated the Weimar forests in 1760) in the elaboration of details and establishment of proper principles for regulating the felling budget. In his forest description he introduces for the first time periodic age classes, usually six, but of uneven length: Young growth, below twelve years; thicket, twelve to twenty-four years; polewood, twenty-four to forty years; clear timber, forty to fifty; medium timber, fifty to seventy-five< mature timber, seventy- five years and over. Methods of Forest Organization. according to age, quality, i„eT^em lof""*^ "'"" so as to secure equal annukl buZts th? '. 'T'"'"' ranged into seven or eialTf "^^^'^ *« stands were each into as r^y°:::^uZT.r^: ^T ^""^ years in the age class- if « '"« areas as there are absent, he extendi tkltTrf ""' ^^' '^'^^^ ^^^^ ciass until the VoulglrV fg it^hV" ^'^ °"'^- and by varying the cut fr^,; ^ ^ P™'^'' ^^e stands he tried to evenlu^the f^f '° """^ *■'" '"^ budget he determinl^ bv ' ^?^'''- '^'"^ ^"'"""e -nts. This rhti'^wnre'rr r^^^"-^- advanced and required tT. '"'*'^^«'^' ""ich too far find imitator, at td^r ™"'' ""^hematics to thet'Sr:^ If •'^r ^'^° *°° ~-P'« for theiess. by 790 he h^! r% "' °' "^ ^«'«"-- "^^er- 800.000 acres 7n SHesL He H"-^"i° ""'"^"^ ""J- districts, the districrinto"\Stt "" '"'° classes, and used an -.1 k , ""anagement division for detm,T„ing t' nr'T"'""^' "- distinguished qua^; of 3^„H ;^ ''"''«^*- «« and made four site cLi'^Th , """"^ "' ^'■'«' found by means of Mm„t . ""^ "' '''^'^' he the inciiment n orteTto fi r:.'° '^'^'''' ""' '"''^^ harvest, when it could blVet tJ^' ^"'"'"^ ^"^ a^iven budget the^tnd'TwtTdrt t'Z^ ""' a=i1o"u^.d"i^:rrr-"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ---i.^tL£";^t2^"- I m 72 Germany. femng^areas was the .ost natural and most easily est^ffoS **' '^'^"' ^ ^° *°°'' « '=°n-de«ble inter- Z ^e Sut7 r"'""' " '""^ ^"'='' ^" ^"^ division on a rotation of seventy vears Lnir r "'"'*•"« a^' "l\\^">Pf undertook the direction. Not ti^of tr. . '" "T-" ^^^-^'"^ 'he short rTt^. tnW^- ^!!" ^ "*"'• ^^ *™"e«' t° have each dt tnctdmded into two working blocks, and by cutting ^ er^tely .„ these, managed to double that rotation H.S successor, Hennert, in 1788, devised a new methc^' a«;r;?a"t'ilT r °' ^ """"^^ °' annuarS„1 ^^^- K^"^""^ °' *•"* ^'^tion when at least the ^nodic budget could be equalized. A value or money r«!lpr"""°" °' ''"^ ^^'""« ""d^- waTZ For easier handling, the forest was divided into small <»mpartments or Jagen and a cla^^^SoHf f^vs;co=ar/^^.rv^rstra„Tr' ."::krten:.^edT;r- "^--"--^ the felling ^rbydt^lS^t ^".^1 the number of years it must last until the ntTw« ready S.nce no attempt was made to secure "Vrol^ age class gradation, the method failZrf » ^"^ "^ conditions for the next roS ''"''*' '° ""P"'^'= Some 600,000 acres were regulated accorting to this plan m Prussia, probably very superficiX Methods of Forest OrganizatioH. 73 In 1789, Bavaria also ordered a division into annual fellii^ areas. In all these methods of regulating the yield or budget, the area played the main role, the volume being only a secondary consideration. The first elaboration of a pure volume division was made by Beckman in 1759. He estimated stock on hand by trees and guessed more or less at the incre- ment allowing 2.6, 2, and 1% for the different sites, and then made a year to year calculation of stock for 125 years. How the felling budget was finally deter- mmed is not known. Two methods were simultaneously devised in WUrttemberg in 1783. which form the transition to the son order to utilize more of the body-wood and the r:^: '" '''' -' «"^ --p-p"'"- -hi^t: ence" T^Z'^Tu- t' '"^""^'"^ ''^ '""^ "^--""fer- and for the f^ "!^ T ""^"'"^ ^''^ « chain, was ZZ^'-^'^ '^'^^" ''^'^ "'^ — diamete; in t.7T^' "'' '!!""^ ''"*"• '^'^'^ advice is found winTerT. "'""^ °''^'"'"'"' *'"^'' ^^-commend mostly wmter felling, stating the proper beginning and end of the season by the phases of the moon the rule being that aJl white wood, for example conifers be^ and aspen should be felled on the increase or wS .t is dere^\rL'"'''"^"'"«= ''"*^°PP-'becau- mJLn P ^"""^ " "^* 8'"°'^"'. at the waxing moon. Prescription was also made sometimes r" Forest Utilization. 79 garding the time by which the removal of the wood from the felling area was to be finished (May to June). Means of transportation were poor up to the end of the period; snow, as in the United States, was in the Northern country the main reliance for moving the wood. River driving, both with, and without rafts was well organized; various systems of log- slides were developed to a considerable extent ; in one place even an iron pipe, 900 feet in length, is re- ported to have been used in such capacity. Originally, the consumer cut his own wood, but in the middle of the 17th century special wood-choppers appear to have been employed, for, in 1650, mention IS made in Saxony of men, who, under oath to secure honest service, were organized for the exploitation of the different classes of wood. A system of jobbers came mto existence about this time, something like the logging bosses in the United States (Holzmeister) who were responsible for the execution of the logging job. The organization of wood-choppers went so far that, in 1718, we find in the Harz mountains mention of an Accident Insurance and Mutual Charity Associ- ation among them. The sale of wood was at first carried on in the house ; later it became customary to indicate in the forest the trees to be cut or the area from which they should be cut by the purchaser, and finally they were felled by the employes of the owner. For a long time, persisting mto the 18th century, the sale was by area, and this method developed the necessity of surveying; at the same time, however, sales by the tree and by wood 1 80 Germany. an offences agamsr the forest laws were adj^dS.' 11. Fnrest Administration. The a>.ministration of the differpnf fr.r»=* which the princes had aggreSt^ jf^' "^'^'"^ time was at fir=^ o ^ ^KKregated in the course of hotve™7edt''r''' °'?^"'^^''°" °' --- ". (^^.w.-.«) at tieT^d.td'JiEt Jad^:-:; Methods of Forest Administration. 81 officials under him, who were called together periodi- cally for reports and discussions. Until the middle of the 18th century all those em- ployed m the forest service, at least those in the supenor positions, had also duties in connection with the ch^ the head official of the hunt being also the head of the forest service; and hunting had usually supenor claims to forestry. The men were supposed to be masters of the two branches, i.e., to be familiar with the technique of the hunt and of forestry (Hirsch- gerecht and Holzgeruht). The higher positions were usually reserved to the nobility until (during the 18th century) the Cameralists came into control of the admrnistration; and with them, under the mercanti- hstic teachmgs, the apparatus of officials '30 in- creased. These men usually possessed wide, but not deep knowledge of matters bearing upon their charges. In Prussia, m 1740, the forest service was at least in part combmed w.th the military service, Frederick the Great mstituting the corps of riding couriers for the carrying of dispatches who were selected from the forest service, an institution which persists up to date m the corps of Feldjaeger, while the sons of foresters were enlisted m a troop known as Fussjaeger (chas- seurs). A new era dates from the middle of the 18th century when the connection with the hunt, the mili- tary organization, and the preferred position of the nobihty were at least in part abrogated, and a more technical oigamzation was attempted. The cause tor this change was the increase of wood prices, which made a more technical management desirable, and 82 Germany. also a deer ase in the passion for the hunt. Still, although the forests in Bavaria were declared, in 1780 to 1790, to be of more importance than the hunt, and the two services were distinctly separated, the head of the hunt still ranked above the ..,>ad of the forest service. In Prussia, the professional men became early inde- pendent and influential, and by 1770, an organization had been perfected which excelled in thoroughness and simplicity. The salaries of the foresters con- sisted originally mainly in a free house, use of land and pasture rights, their uniform, and incidental emoluments, such as a toll for the designation of timber etc. Later, when everywhere else a regular money management had been introduced, the absence of a cash income and general poverty forced the foresters to steal and extort; and the bad reputatioii established in the last part of the 18th century, as well as the bad practice, persisted until the 19th century. The lower grades in the service were exceedingly ignorant, and their social position, consequently, very low. Their main business was, indeed, simple, and consisted in the booking of the cut, issuing permits for the removal ■ and the sale of wood, and looking after police functions in the woods. Yet, by 1781, we find regular planting phins submitted in the Prussian administration, and, in i 787, felling plans are on record. The administration of justice against offenders in the forests was until the end of the 18th century in charge of the head foresters, and only then was trans- ferred to law officers. Theft of wood, as in olden days, was considered as a smaller offense than other thefts, Firestry Education. 83 except if it was cut wood. In the beginning of tlic period, the judge had wide latitude as to amount of the fine to be imposed, but in the 17th century more precise fines were fixed, and in the 18th century, a revision of the fines brought them into proportion with the value of the stolen wood; a choice of punish- ments by fines, imprisonment or labor in the woods was then also instituted. 12. Forestry Education. The course of education for the foresters until the middle of the 18th century was a simple one and mainly directed to learning the manipulations of the chase, training of dogs, tending of horses, setting of nets, shooting, etc. Two or three years' life with a practical hunter were followed by journeying and working for different employers, woodlore being picked up by the way from those that knew. When in the 18th century the need for better woods knowledge became pressing, the few really good forest managers were sought out by the young men who wished to secure this knowledge. In this way, a number of so I 88 Germany. w „li were Johann Georg von Langen and his pupil. Hans Dutnch von Zanthier, both of noble family, and better educated than most of their contemporaries, and both engaged in the organization and manage- ment of Harz mountain forests, namely, those of the Duke of Brunswick and of the Count of Stolbere- Wernigerode. The former, without occupying himself directly with literary work, laid down in his expert reports and in his working plans many instructions which form the basis for orderiy management and silviculture far ahead of the times. Zanthier, writing considerably (especially Kurzer systematischer Grundriss der prak- hschen Forstwissenschaft, 1764), is also notable as the founder of the first forestry school (at Wernigerode), Another of this class of better educated practi- tioners, and co-worker with the former two, was wn Lassberg, who in 1764-1777 organized the Saxon forests. An interesting incident in the life of the last three men is their journey to Denmark and Norway, whither they were called to organize the management of the forests connected with the mines. Another prominent forest manager of the last half of the century, whose literary work is to be found only in various excellent official instructions, among which IS one for the teaching of foresters, was the head of the HMsian forest service, a nobleman, v. Berlebsch Of the cameralists who helped to make forestry literature, six or seven deserve mention. These, men of education and polyhistors, were either at the head Forestry Literature. 89 of affairs, or else professors at universities, where they included forestry as one of the branches of political economy. The credit of the first really sysL>.matic presenta- tion of forestry principles and rules, as developed at the time, belongs to Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser, a pupil of von Langen, who served in various princi- palities, and finally with the Prince of Taxis. In his Principles of Forest Economy, published in 1757, which for the first time brought out the economic importance of the subject, he discusses in two volumes divided into nine chapters the different branches of forestry. A mining engineer, /. A. Cramer, came next with a very notable book, "Anleitung zum Forstwesen" (1766), which, although not as comprehensive as Moser's, treats the subject of silviculture very well. Equal in arrogance and opinionated self-satisfaction to any of the empiricists with whom he frequently crossed swords, was the Brunswick councillor, von Brooke, who, as an amateur, practising forestry on his own estate, developed the characteristic trait of the empiricists, namely, a profound belief in his own infallibility. He produced, besides many polemic writings, in which he charged the whole class of foresters with ignorance, laziness and dishonesty, a magnum opus in four volumes, entitled " True bases of the physical and experimental general science of forestry," which is an olla podrida of small value. Less original, but more fair and well informed, a typical representative of the cameralists, was /. F. Stahl, finally head of the forest administration of 90 Germany, in the field of forestrv hf ■^*°"8:'' «" amateur «any valuable aS^',e;Z„^r' ^^^^ ^"'^ '''' his administration P^^"Pf°"^ evolved during forestry journal ^ ^'^ ''"""^^ '^e first caSStJ^.trofThr^''^^ '^" ^- ^- *"' many of the pXs^™ ' *^™?" ""i^^^ities, and motion. Beclcan/Std^^^ur""" '^^^ author of?;"k .; t ™r ""'f *""'"^'*'«' -- devotesrixtyKJnepag^rri; *'•.'" ''''«* •>« system of foi^trT^th ?^'^^''«'*~™P'«te forestry writ^^' * '^'^'^^ f^°« »" known book in mi ^ ih°l^"''™' P""''''*^ « t«t- treated. ^"""^ '°"*' ^^'^V was well a-'ieil'^S;.:^^^''!^^""'"'''^'" '" Austria, nent of the A^ a„H ^t''"'*' **» '^^ ">«" P"""}- full of p«^tiS^„"^^'' * ^"'P'^hensive work '^ ««rf Forsakonomxe, nebst Anhang von Forestry Literature. 91 Sr"'**" H<,;a,rfe„, von Torf und Steinkohlen, While at first the ephemeral writings, espedaUy the polemic ones of the empiricists, found room in literary fo°lTr."f T^'"«'' ** "^ °f « Professronal journal first found expression in 1763, in Stahl's AUgenmnes okonomisches Forstmagazin, which ran into twelve volumes, and contains many articles important to the history of forestry, and is especially rich in its references to foreign literature. Two continuations of the magazine under different «litorsh.ps were of less value. But von Moser's Forstarchtv. running from 1788 to 1807 with its thirty volumes is an authority and a historical source of the first rank. , otj^'^ characteristic literature of the last half of the 18th century consisted in forest calendars in which advice as to monthly and seasonal procedures in the forest were given, Beckman and Zanthier being among III. Dbt'elopment in the Nineteenth Century. The last hundred years or so has seen in Germany the development of fully established forest poIici,» and the complete organization of stable forest administrations, based upon thorough and careful recognition of the principles of forest manage- ment and intenwve application of silvicultural nwtnod*. 92 Germany. 1. Changes in Property Conditions. about cha^n^rrltlt "c^^anTSs'^'";? 'r""' b«n. a„ attHburofn- ritit^rrLtr?; the reconstruction period of IHOfl f„ lai s j ■ "' after^h^ Napo.eonirwt:^.r S Jhi^rcllJ lo.t their «.g„,orage (Undeshoheit ip« >4 a^ Changes in Property Conditions. 93 with the loss of the princely dignity, the obligation of carrying the expense of court and administration naturally falling away, these properties became in most cases purely individual property of the former pnnces. r'?o!o'""?''"' ""'" ^^^ revolutionary movements of 1848 and even later, was this divorce of the state Idea from that of the person of the prince everywhere accomplished, nor was it carried through without many bickerings and quarrels between the princes and the representatives of the people, who claimed this domamum for the state. In the larger states all this domanial property was finally declared state lands, while in the smaller principalities a partition of the land between the princes and the state took place, or else a relation was established by which a part of the revenue resulting from the state lands was secured to the princes. An increase of the State's property came also during the first decade of the century through the abolish- ment of cloisters and secularization of church pro- perty generally, the lands of both Protestant and Catholic church institutions being taken by the State. Curiously enough, at the same time that the idea of state forest was being realized, the changes in economic thought which f ,ught the principle of individualism to the fore gave rise to a movement to sell the state properties. This movement was inspired by French doctrines, whose influence was at the time veor strong, by the teachings of Adam Smith who held that the sute is not fit to conduct business, and 04 Germany. not been for the „S fo. k^ '^ '? "' ^^ " '' ^ad the French wars ^ft ^ '"'''=''' ^ « '^"It of to provide a ready meil, f c P^Perty seemed In Prussia Sr ^f",. ^'^/"^ *° ^^"^« f"nds. was wideT'dScussS f .""" °' 'T' *''"^ "^^-^ use of important .^^!.T- ? *° mamtain for the administration ^i^i^l^TLlt^' ^,%' '"^^^ department, prevented thZ ™"'^".°f ""e Treasury memberment. ?t widuf. v''"!!°" °' ''"'^ 'J'*- in character betWfarm T^T **"" *^" '^'^^^^''^ forest property took nl»~ fu ^^' **'^* of "leasure/b^rwere m^'r'vll'T'* "^^*=' ^ f^^ -undingoiflj: ^,™tfott"p^" f ""^^ °^ •ervitudes, or else in oh/, ? l'^ "^ '^ "^ P^^'"* »» •oil to far^ use it n^. *"" "^^"^ ^Kncultural -te properS^'are^'o-rerc^"- ^ ^^^^^ encury. when existing communities were Changes in Property Conditions. 95 made part of thfe large political machine and changed Sih^"°?r ^"'^ '°^^' '° ""^"™ P°"tical muni. apal.t.es The ownership conditions, however, were not_^.mphfied, but as before, remained ext^mely tOKlay. The majonty of it had been finally divided among the Marker in the first decade of the centu.^ and the few remaining parts became independent o the political organization and now exi- . merely in the form of appurtenances to certain farm property knowii as Genossenwald (association forests) I„ addition to the variety of communal ownerships ex- n^-rl; ** Pf^°« Period- «ome new communal properties originated from the granting of land in li ™h^'"I!:J' ^""^ '"^'"*^°" °' ^^-^^'^d^. whereby an undivided property (Interessentenwald) in which sometimes even the state rt-tains an interest, came into existence. .v?^ """"icipal property of the cities had become Mther the property of the entire community or of that part which constituted the real citizenship, or pLS ^ " ''^'' °^ "*'^^"' °^ *^ '"""'°- The incumbrances which had grown up with regard to forest property under the name of servitudes\„d which so much retarded the development of better forest management continued into this period, and although through the influences of the French revo- lution a desire had been stimulated to get rid of all curtailments of property, some have persisted to this day. Indeed, for a time an increase of these 96 Germany. s^tudes took place, due to the carelessness of forest oftcials in keeping unjustified use of the forest in check when anaent usage of these rights of user was Claimed and new servitudes were established. In Ba.varia, it became at last necessary (1852) to positively forbid the further establishment of new servitudes or rights of user. Laws having in view the dissolution or buying out of these rights were issued in -Bavaria in 1S05, and in Prussia in 1821 pving the right to forest owners whose properties were so encumbered, to call for a division of interests; but as at first the only way to settlement was by ex- change for definite parcels of forest property, the progress m the abolishment of these rights was slow y^o^ T^u^"''^"^^ '"^ permitted (as in Saxony,' 1832). At the present time, the state forest adminis- trations have mostly got rid of these servitudes, or thJ^K P'°8'essed so far in their regulation that they are now rarely impediments to forest management. These peaceable adjustments of the rights of user constitute the last act of freeing property soaally and economically. •^ f i 2. Forest Conditions. In spite of the sporadic efforts which had been made to bring about the recuperation of forest areas during the 18th century, the conditions of the forest at the beginning of the new century were most pitiable; the division of the Mark, by which the peasants be^me individual owners, profited little, and led to devas- tation rather than to improving the condition of the property. In addition, export trade in wood had Forest Conditions. 97 become brisk, and the financial depression, a result of the French wars, led to increased exploitations, which, with the improvement in means of transporta- tion, progressed to the more distant forest areas, and enlarged the waste area. Especially in the more densely populated parts of the country, the deforested area widened, and large wastes with poor young growth increased in all directions, in the same manner as now in the United States. The alarmists had good cause for renewing their cries, and, around the year 1800, a considerable literature sprung up on the sub- ject of the threatened timber famine. It is interesting to note that at that time the Catalpa played a role, at least on paper, as it does in our own day, being recommended as the only means of staving off the timber famine. A renewed betulomania spread widely over the country. In North Germany especi- ally, great efforts were made to replant the denuded areas and to change the coppice areas, fit only for firewood, to coniferous species, pine, etc., by which eventually a great change in the forest type from the original mixed forest to the pure forest was effected. 3. Personnel. The great change which led to improved conditions, during the first half of the century, was pre-eminently due to the knowledge and intelligence of a group of men, six in number, competent foresters, who com- bined the high grade education of the Cameralists with the practitioners' knowledge: Hartig, Cotta, Hundeshagen, Koenig, Pfeil and Heyer. These men built, to be sure, on the shoulders of their precursors Germany. of the century in which they were hom k . The first two mentioned were older than the rest torestry. Bom about a year apart, both educat^ at universities, they excellpH ;„ wL • . "^*^ practical dir^dons " ^'^ ^'"^''^'^ *"d GeorgLudwig Hartig (1764-1837), studied at the cal man and organizer, as a writer, and as a teacher In literary direction his work lav nnf L ^?"^.'^- Not less than thirty separate publications attest his assidmty. Among them stands pZr^t Mtat .Jk- teacher he began h s work bv estal ishing a masterschool (1789-1 7nn ^t v W :7iV""r '" ^S-d' aa-arZTs tuT«I atlL n^'^"-^°'''' administration, he lee- walde had been established, until his death firm b^^.^ considered as having established on a firm basis the forest administration of Prussia- and many of the things he instituted still prau" t Leading Foresters. 99 organizing the service, he introduced fixed salaries, he reheved the foresters from financial responsibilities of officials, whereby the temptation to fraudulent prac- W .K ?f """" '^"'°^^' "'"^ ^^ '^"«1 instructions for the different grades of foresters; and every part of th^ work was all his own. In regulating the forest Zl°l uT ^ ^"''"'°P^ '^^ ^"l"™* ^'otment Tl^ J^ ' ,^°*'''*''' P^"^"' t"" cumbersome to be readily applied to large areas. Toward the end of his hfe, his work was not entirely successful, and he lost prestige m his later years. Heinrich von Cotta (1763-1844) studied at the Uni- versity of Jena, and afterwards practiced in Thuringia (796). In 1811, he was called to Saxony, as director L^ . ^r*'": '"'''*"' ^^ ^'^ transferred his school, at Tharandt, which in 1816 was made a state institution and is still flourishing. In that year he was made the director of the Bureau of Forest Manage- 7^1- f ""*'«• ''" ^^^ ^-"'"^"t in the thfee directions o practical, literary, and educational work but he excelled Hartig in originality, developingTw pnnciples and thought. Being a good plant-physi- ologist and observer of nature, he developed new tlJ" ^''viculture, especially with refer^ce to methods of thmmng, and his "Anweisung zum Wald- bau written ,n the simplest, clearest and most force- iay TnThe fiT; M^""'" """''>' °' ^^^^^ *" ^^^ th. in . ,1 °^ '°'^'' management he became the inventor of the area allotment method and the originator of the highly developed Saxon forest 100 Germany. management. As a teacher he excelled in clearness exposition, wealth of ideas and geniality ' Of an entirely different stamp was the third of the 8^t masters Johann Christian Hundeshagm (1783- ite?;o);;l° '''"? ""'^'^'^ '-^ Heidelberg, became after some years of pracitce. professor of forestry at Tuebmgen, m 1817, and at Giessen, 1825. He ^s a representative of the theoretical or philosophical of forestry. be.ng highly cultivated and imbued w hh Z k'nowl^' '"'""•. "'^ ^"* -- t° ^y^'emaTi e the knowledge in existence and extend it by means of exact experiments. In forest organizatioT he invented the well known formula meth^ or '' rationa 2 „n. °''^'^''"«'^"'"«*'"^«^t«-"d became ali ^e^ *tL H :"" °' ^r^"' ""^^"^ (^826) which he brin^t. .K^'""' °^ measuring forestal forces." tL f "'ii' ^rr""""' °f '»°*'^"> ^°«"tific forestr;. Ihe fourth of the group, GotOob Kdnig (1776-1849) was a pracitioner without a univetsij^ JucaZ who had enjoyed the teaching and influence of CotU lu^foL't"''^"'-'^ " "^'"""^ ^ *^ ''-d of the a SvS^If ^''">'"f ^^ti°"- He also founded here sUte Tnln/T '"''r'' ^'''**' '" ^830- became a state institution, and is still in existence. K6nie e^Tr°tl '".^ contributions to the scieSfi? T^ij. mathematical side of forestry, develop^ ing forest mensuration and statics. In this latter branch he was the forerunner of Pressler and of the modern school of finance. In his '•Anleitung zur fS' *"" ^?^''^ ""' ^^^ ^ «=°«P'«'e account o forest mensuration and in the part devoted to fore^ valuation he develops the first'^il rent SmuJ S Leading' Foresters. 101 the methods of determining the cost value of stands His Forest Mathematics" (1835) in which he intro- duces factors of form and many other new ideas was an original contribution to science. Very different in character from these four leaders was the aggressive, sharp-witt^-" Friedrich Wilhelm Leopold Pfetl (1783-1859), who, w.chout a university education, and in spite of his poor knowledge of mathe- matics and natural history, advanced himself by native wit and genius. After a brief period of em- ployment in private service, in the province of Silesia he accepted the position of professor of forestry at the Beriin University, in 1821, in conne.tion with Hartig, with whom, however, he was at sword's point. It was at his instigation, with the assistance ■ I'Z """^■'It' that the school was transferred. '"a1^-?' i? Eberswalde, Pfeil becoming its director. While Hartig was a generalizer, Pfeil was an indi- vidualizer, free from dogma, and most suggestive; LZ '!^/^^"f.^ fighter. Critical in the extreme and prolific in his hterary work, he domineered the fores ry literature of the day by means of his Kritische Slower, a journal of much import and merit. 1866), a thoroughly educated man, combined the nST"t '^''*-°'; '" *'•' University of Giessen h ,7- ^^t ^T^'?^ management of a forest district, but in 1834 abandoned the latter in order to devote himself entirely to literary work. He was one of the hi T,l T.' ^y^t^m^ti^ expounders, and both his Waldbau (silviculture, 1854) and his Walder- tragsresdung (forest organization, 1841) are classics 102 Germany. 1906 in two volumes, has been brought up to date by Professor Hess. He devised one of the rawt ra K,.«^ methods of forest organization, and. fmS wnh the „ec^.ty of basing forest management on exact scientific inquiry, instead of on empiricism alone he formulated instructions for forest "tot" investigations, a subject which his son. Gustav Heyer elaborate into a science. ^ ' 4. Progress in Silviculture. Natural regeneration continued to be the favorite method well into this period, and. fo- a long timf selection forest and coppice were all that was Jown o"rsSte::L"^Lr^°^^'--^ "-"'-" The only way in which a transition from the gener- ally practiced, unregulated selection forest to Thi. ^rsonnel of underforeoters. was to formulate into ^n easily intelligible prescription the necessary niks allowing tije least play to individual juUen Th« was done by Hartig when he formuIatS^ h s eight "General Rules" (1808) which coindde^aS closely with the teachings of Cotta. Since the^ rules represent in brief and most definitely the tatui a tt'Sr^ """"l^^r °" "»'"-' '^— S Mm ' """' "^ '""""^ *° '^»-'«'« *em (I) "Every forest tree which is expected to oro- eT V.^'^ ""*"^ regeneration must t7d enough to bear good seed. Hartig's Rules. 103 (2) " Every district or stand which is to be replaced by a thoroughly perfect stand by means of natural regeneration, must be brought into such position (density) that the soil may everywhere receive sufiicient seeding. (3) "Each compartment must be kept in such con- dition density) that it cannot, before the seeding takes place, grow up to grass and weeds. (4) 'With species whose seed loses its power of germination through frost, as is the case with the oak and beech, the compartments must be given such a p<«ition (density) that the foliage which after the fall of seed covers and protects the same cannot be earned away by wind. (5) "All stands must be given such density tha the germinating plants in the same, as long as they are still tender, find sufficient protection from their ""J^^.c"^' *8^°"* "««' °f the sun and against cold. (0) So soon as the young stand resulting from natural regeneration does rot any longer require this motherly protection, it must gradually, through the careful removal of the mother trees, be accustomed to the weather, and finally must be entirely brought into the open position. ^ (7) "All the young growths, whether secured bv natural or artificial seeding, must be freed from the accompanying less useful species and from weeds, |f ^these in spite of all precaution threaten the better (8) "F- .m every young forest until it is full grown, he suppressed wood must be removed from time to time, so that the trees which are ahead or dominate lOi Germany. Kr„« ts *• ""^ •"'"' "»» "V.,, oW »„.■• "^ "* '°"" •»■» » « further developed by Butlar (1845), who introduced the practice ofden^ sowing in the seed beds. He also invented a„T gemous planting iron or dibble, a half cone of in^^ which was thrown by the plan.ei with great nrecil^n' first to make a hole and then to closeT TWs "^ dS'th'meth:^' f """t *''"'' ^'^'^- ^'"«~^'' in m ^ T- ^"^ '"°''" ^y h" name of planting m mounds, which is especially applicable on wet sSu It was not until 1840 that transplanting of ^^l^: '■^g pmes with naked roots became general Th, widespread application of this latteTsy^temtsuJS I^ to th^Tf M- K '"'' ^"^"' '"'"'^ growth, a^ ducine ther!^ ""'"' °' ""^ P'"^ f°^«^ts, intro- aucing thereby most intensively all the danirera ■ncident to a clearing system and' pui. Sores' wh^ch 108 Germany. are avoid«l by the mixed forest, namely, insects frost and drought. "««ccs, A practice of planting spruce in bunches, origi- nally twelve to twenty plants in a bunch, had been m e«,stence smce 1780. This practice incr^sed until in .!',. P '*" '" .""^ '" '^' "^'^ mountains and m eastern Prussia, although the bunches have been reduced so as to contain only from three to five plants the object of the bunching being to make sure tha one or the other of the plants should live. Much discussion as to the merits of this method took place between the old masters, Cotta favoring the small bunches upon the basis of a successful plantation of his own, Hartig and Pfeil opposing it, but finally weakening Since 1850, however, the practice of setting out single plants has become more general th..uT°l^°"' *^ '"discriminate application "of the shelterwood method to the hardwoods and of the clearing method to the pine set in during the last quarter of the 19th century under the lead of BurT hardt and Gayer. These advocated return to mixed forest and to natural regeneration with long periods approaching a selection forest. Gayer esj^ci^ professor o silviculture at Munich, became ^e fore- most apostle of this school. Yet even to this day, the principles of silvicultural treatment under the many different conditions remain unsettled. On the whole however with the financial question assiduously brought forward, the clearing system ha. made most progress, and the selection system has neariy vanished, bemg replaced by the group method and k shelt^ wood system. sneiter SUvicidtural Practice. 109 A number of special forms of silvicultural manage- ment applicable under special conditions have been locally developed, without, however, gaining much ground and being mainly of historical value. Among these may be mentioned Seebach's Modified Beech J:>"ft, which consists in opening up a beech stand so as to secure . egeneration, merely to form a soil cover lea.^ng enough of the old stand on the ground to dose up m thirty or forty years. By this treatment the large mcrement due to open position is secured without endangering the soil. Similariy the Storied or Two-nged High forest, was applied to the manage- ment of oak forest in mixture with beech. In a few ocalit.es also, on limited areas, a combination of forest and farming (Waldfeldbau) has been continued and elaborated, besides the more general use of coppice and coppice with standards. According to the statistics for 1900 the following dis- tnbution of the acreage under different silvicultural methods prevailed throughout the empire: Deciduous Coniferous -.. „ . Percent. Percent. Total Forest 32.5 67.fi High Forest 18.4 eo.l selection Forest 2.3 74 Coppice g g _ Coppice with standards . . 5. _ «nn.~"'~"'f°-''*^ °^ ^^'""^ ^8% is pine and 30% spruce, prevails in Eastern and Nuddle Germany, de" nlTn '^u°^^'"'='' ^^° '^ °'^^' the baLce principally beech, in the West and South no Germany. m.-.hil '°""' °*" *" »"'i" »tei™ the first tL„";s: xsLifr^rrvr and there b^fe hfs t^e Hr "'/''f "* "^^^^ mainly to the remnll T'.l *'°"''"^'* •""'^^1^ dead and dyTng su^reLl L""''"^^**'^ ^P"^'-' especially emphktic Th^l '^ '^^""^"^ "^^' ''«'"8 crown cover Ex^oi th""'' 1"' *° '""'^^"P' '^e provement cutS^ thL ^h '^ ^"^'"^ °' ''»■ begin until the fitifth. •'""'"«' *^^« "°' '<> leaved forest but t T'^'*'' ''^^^ '" '•>« ^road- thirtieth S. '""■''" '" '^^ ''^-"tieth to thJ^^t^nSct^f t?"" °" ^ •''°'°«^-' ''-- a spedal co„Wburo„iSirV?tr''\'"f '''''''" the thinning repeated a, 1 . «"t'«Pated, and to die; but he a^o rl™ u' ""^ ''^""'^''^^ "^8'" of the app.i«tiot:SX,^7-^-' ''*^'^'*^ mis cultural measure on account Thinning Practice. m ^vii'rT"''- ^"T^'y =n°"8h. he recommends sit« lr"""^"fi^' """'^'*y °f *'^^'i°8 different s^^and spec.es differently in the practice of thin- mngs_ Hundeshagen accentuates the financial result and the fact that the culmination of the average yield .s secured earlier by frequent thinnings. Heyer W lates the "golden rule:" -'Early, often. m'S re"" but ms.sts that first thinning should not be ma.^e unt.1 ti,e cost of the operation can be covered by the S,nh '^^^"T^"^^- P^POsitions to base the phil! Snds'rler'th"""' °' *"'""'"« °" experimental grounds rather than on mere opinion were made as eariy as 1826 to 1828, and again from 1839 lim fn rirL""""? °^'°^^^*^ associations, until.' m 1860, Brunswick and Saxony inaugurated the first more extensive experiments in thinnings. The ^o representatives of forest finance, Koenig and Pussier, pointed out, in 1842 to 1859, the^reft X otTV/ '"r^ ■" ^ «"^"- managfmSt f one of the most important silvicultural operations for secunng the highest yield. "P^rations In spite of the advanced development of the theory because of the impracticability of introducing inten ^ve management. Only lately, owing to improve- ment in prices and the possibility of markedng the tTditurr' rK'*^"^ ^"""^^ '° j-S L generally the advantages of the cultural effect. Within the last thirty or forty years, great activity hasTn ■mi 112 Germany, (le bas) was int JuS.i' ''""*^ ""'* ^''^ "•"« "op The physiological reasons for the oracticp «f .k- Wagener, "T^th Ls^^ ^'TJ; ,"^"^' «°^««'-^' the very active discuL": rthTsuKTaTei:' "'' :»" :«;i'::t^^nf ™""-^ ^-"^°^^^ and eape^riTs^vetrlhin'nlr*'""-"' *""»"'"«« The prop<«^itiorX' r„ "7^^^^° ""'^■ -ran-'^ac^Lt:;"'' " ^•'^ -air intdT;: however:"™^ r:^^ STld" if j^r^/^ - • in 18S0, advocated th = „ , ®^' ^^^ J^K^r while ka since 1811, and Cotta beginning to organize the Saxon forests in tie T"J^'- J^' "'''^°^ ^"P'^y^^l by Hartig, iLTf ^"^ T°'"™" ^"°""^"*' ''^d been already formulated and its foundation laid by Kregtine and rnveTf^t'°p^' "^"'« -^""^ *° •'-^ ^'S the invenuon). But it was reserved to Hartig to build up this method in its detail, and to formulfte dea ' and preasely Its application, as well as to improve Ind'tht^'T' 'T*. ^"""^^' '=^^"'^«°" °f -""! a su-vev'"'^".5,°'-^''''' *"'''^" "'^ '"«*''°d involved !nH r V '"'f''^«'°"- a construction of yield tables Princl "';''°" °' ""^"""^ P'^-' - which th" pnncple according to which the forest was to be managed during the whole rotation was laid down for each district. The rotation was determined d" vided into periods, finally of twenty yea^aS'the periodic volume yield represented by Lutknds was distnbuted through all the periods'^^f the rotadon ■n such a manner as to make the periodic felling hud- gets approximately equal; or, since the tendency to eTs:^ n ,rTi'°" ^^^ -ogmzed - in. crease of the felling budget toward the end of the rotation was considered desirable Cotta based his system of forest organization uoon u"e?e?orifr '' ' ^^^^"^"' S^hilche:7l7%); >t relied pnmarily upon area rather than volume ■■^:! 114 Germany. division This method was later on (1817), called by him Flaechenfachwerk (area allotment). It dSS !^*JJ?^/'.^" 'T P*"°^" '"'^ ^°^ a«as for each Cotta had himself formulated a method of his own which combined the ar^a and volume method. The vdume being the main basis and the area being merely u»^ as a check While Hartig dogmatically and per^ sistently earned out his difficult scheme. Cotta was open-minded enough to improve his method of regu- S^rVL'f*' '" "^^ ^"«'"^''»« -^ ^''"'^■ .^ f I " ^^''^'tzung, he comes to his final posi- I^?o°tl^r°*^- ' T"^""^ ^^'^ *"ti'«'y °n the area allotment, using the estimate of volume simply to secure an approximately uniform felling budget He laid particular stress on orderly procedure in the sub- division and progress of the fellings. He did not ^^rS.''^^T"' ^°''^"« P'^« '''"<1'°8 f°^ the entire rotation, but merely prescribed the principles ot the general management, and, after 1816, he con- Si^. 1 'f°^ °^ ^""'"8 ^"<1 planting P'ans only to the next decade. s h ■"« A similar method, making a closer combination ot h£r,f". ^''^ allotment, now known as the com- bined allotment in which the area forms the main Sbedh?i:r'r ."•'"? ^'^ '^'""« ''"^K^ts, was pre- scnbed by Klipstein in 1833. This, also, confines the Z^! " J°. *' ^''' '""'^ °f *^ station and for this period alone makes a rather careful statement of the expected volume budget; a new budget is then to be determined at the beginning of the next period. This Idea of confining the budget determination to a Normal Stock Methods. ng generally applied in nrart?-^ j '™ °"«* new theories were advanced whfch 1^ 1 .hJr''''' r "rrt^is r ""^'^^ ^ ^^ -^ normal stoc.'^Sredtr-r.iXs"* ^ to ns a „st.-ned yield manageme'^. w:nv;,We? woodsn,anag^\'f3u1SiTd'"?H'T T^^^ which is still the basis of f„!r* • ""^ '"*■'« '^ea- and explains ^^t:r.::Z7^:^A\^^-^'' when Andr6 <^n^?H '° f.' ''^ ''^^ ""«' 1811 Hartig-s n,e^XTi^raL"''weT:'t"'^* that, simultaneously SXaus^/"' ''°'''^'=''' this method, Paulsen a787)n!, '"''^"'^°" °^ thefeUingbUetTarl. .^^ T'^'* '° determine and normal yIeS and t v" m""" "°™^ *''"'' of the kind msi h, j u^'^''* '^'''^ (">« fi"t ment to normaf s^oJk fnV' '?™'^"'°" °^ '»<='*- ^»L Mies, ^.S)-^ on medium, and 1 nor sites. ' " '^■°/o on poor 116 Germany. be considered the foundation of the later develop- ment by Carl Heyer (Felling budget- I + ^~^"). Based upon the normal forest idea, a number of methods were elaborated which, because of their em- ploying a mathematical formula for the determin- ation of the felling budget, are known as formula methods; they are, indeed modified rational volume divisions. Hundeshagen has the mc^it of having first clearly explained the basis of these methods, and himself developed a formula, of the correctness of which he was so convinced as to designate his method as "the rational" one. Two other formute were brought into the world by Koenig (1838-1851), but the credit of the most complete elaboration both of the principles of the normal forest idea and of its practical applica- tion belongs to Carl Heyer. The principles of his method are briefly: First determine upon the period of regulation during which the abnormal forest is to be brought nearer to normal conditions; the length of this period to be determined with due regard to the financial requirements or ability of the owner and to the conditions of the forest. The actual stock on hand is then determined and the total increment, based on the average increment at felling age of each stand, which will take place during this period, is added. Deducting from this total what has been calculated as the proper normal stock requisite for a sustained yield management, the balance is avail- able for felling budgets which may be utilized in annual or periodic instalments during the period of Financial Methods. ^y years. ' '° ^ ""^^^^ every ten » b. 1«t.r,„».5 by ftf °"S °' ">■ ""■ •" that- ;= , I . . so-called index per cent mined rate TrslcErThe T"'"'' ''^"^"''^^- Principle wereespeciat pL;I ;„rof°''*n °' '"'^ matics at Tharan'dt. iSo ri^andT;^ "'*" "WW m.«ted i„ fo„, productlor oTL r, ■ hi* 118 Germany. While these men pleaded for a strict finance calcu- lation, such as is properly applied to any business making financial results the main issue, the defenders of the old regime, which sought the object of forest management mainly in highest material or value production, advanced as their financial program the attainment of the highest forest rent as opposed to the highest soil rent. They neglected and derided the complicated interest calculations which have to take into consideratoin uncertain future developments, and were satisfied with producing a satisfactory balance, a surplus of income over expenses, no matter what interest rate on the capital involved in soil and forest growth that might represent. At the present time these financial propositions are still mainly under heated discussion. In actual practice, the various state forest adminis- trations, with the exception of the Saxon one, con- tinue to rely upon the older methods in regulating the management of their forest properties without refer- ence to financial theories. This is largely due to momentum of the practical existence and application of these methods in earlier times and the difficulty and impracticability of a change. Just now, however, several of the State administrations are preparing to radically revise their working plans. In Prussia, the instructions for working plans of 1819 formulated by Hartig were improved upon by his successor, Oberlandforstmeister von Reus: (1836), and these instructions formed the basis of the work of forest regulation until the end of the 19th century. It is a periodic area allotment with only a Methods of O^arhation. ng summary check by volume. The v.t -king plan is age classes, the calculations of yields and soedfic period and are revised every six years develo^'L^""";:'?' "'''"^ "^^ systematically developed, and, as the larger part of Saxon forests is dairf"' ' T"' '."^ '""^^ location'f :;: Classes forms a special consideraUon for the proeress merit was left to summary estimates, and the are- d.™ beca„,e entirely superior. The original fdea is ofml^'"' "'"'^ ^"^""^ •" the maCmSt .s of more importance than the actual determLatfon and equalization of yield still pervades the S caTcuLt th'"" '''"■ ^" ^"^'"''^»'- been LtT hS f .u' '■°'^"°" ^"'^ determine the felling budget on the principle of the soil rent, at least a f corrective of the annual budget, and n gen^raUo lean towarfs Judeich's sUnd management ment mS '^f ' ^""°"' '^'^""«^' ^ ^""P'^e allot- ^ogueTnXt T r^ ""'•""^ ''^'^ -">« into vogue in 1819; but ,at the present writing (1911) an Sun'i "Th':' ""^'"^ --^anization' h^ Ln n^^ frLit """"^ '"~^^™ '<»«- «"d especially inuch freedom of movement, even to deviation from In'^WnT ' °f sustained yield, is allowed. In War teraberg. where, in 1818 to 1822, a pure thff 1 u 1?'""'^ ""°""^"' '"'tbod was begun he felhng budget being determined in a generaVT; for the next two or three periods, and mo« p,«ciI2y 1^ »' 120 Germany. for the first decade, without attempting more than approximate equality. thJ altotlT '":l™"'°"«^«--« ;»"ed, which abandon the allotment method and restrict the yield regulation to de^gnating felling areas for the first S isafi ^^''«"' "h^e the forest organization began in 1836 upon the basis of volume allotment, a change was made m 1849 to an area allotment, s mplifyZ .oni?,? M^f '""" ""'^''"^ «'^ the Lcula Sit IS: ""^"^' ""''''' ""■'"^ -^ ^''"P^-^ rnll^"'^^".*''^" '''^' t''^ schematic allotment eTr fe:'^tlmro"f t^ ""°^ f""^' ^"P"-*-" '»" « account Tth-'^r"^' '^'"^ ^"^ --^ probably on account of the.r simplicity in application. The im- provement in their present application over the original methods as designed by Hartig and Cotta! sufficiently accurate calculation and provision for the proper felling budget for the present 6. Forest Adtrinislration. About the middle of the 18th century the recog- nition of the importance of forestry leZto a «ver- anceof the forest and hunting interests, and itb^me hands of somo more or less competent man-a state forester-usua ly under the fiscal branch or treas-'y department of the general administration. Fully organized forest administrations, in the modern sense however, could hardly be said to have existed S ''»_. Forest Administration. 121 this as well as of other reLms ''^"^'°P"'«"' "f The present organization of the larire Pm. • independent agents *"** ""''^ WOrttemSHn ISS^ ""^' "°* ""'" ^««^- ^^^ '" prior Hgrt"oTtr„X:j;rtrS ^^""^; """^ a bas.s for appointment were abolished, and^i^stel" 122 Germany. of Cameralists, educated foresters came everywhere to the head of affairs. The lower service, which had been recruited from hunters and lackeys, and which was noted for its low social, moral and pecuniary status, was improved in all directions. The change from incidentals in the way of fees, and natural in- stead of money emolument for the lower grade fores- ters, (which had been the rule, and still play a role even to d£.te), to definite salaries, and the salutary change of methods in transacting business, which Hartig introduced, became general. With the de- velopment and improvement of forestry schools, the requirement of a higher technical education for posi- tions in State service oould be enforced. Yet only within the last twenty-five or thirty years, has the ranking position of forest officers been made adequate and equalized with that of other public officials of equal responsibility, and still later have their salaries been made adequate to modem requirement. The central administration now lies in the hands of technical men (Oberlandforstmeister) with a council of technical deputies (Landforstmeister) all of whom have passed through all the stages of employment from that of district managers up. This central office . or "division of forestry" is either attached to the department of agriculture, or to that of finance, and has entire charge of the questions of personnel, direc- tion of forest schools, of the forest policy of the ad- ministration, and the approval of all working plans, acting in all things pertaining to the forest service as % court of last resort. The working plans are made and revised by special commissioners in each case. n Forest Administration. 123 or, as in Saxony, under the direction of a special bureau, with the assistance of the district manager. Upon the basis of the general working plan prepared by these commissions, an annual plan is elaborated by the district managers with consultation and ap- proval of the provincial and central administration. These plans contain a detailed statement of all the work to be done through the year, the cost of each item, and the receipts expected from each source. This annual working plan requires approval by the pro- vincial administration, which is constituted as a deliberative council, consisting of a number of Forst- meister with an Oberforstmeister as presiding officer. The tides of these officers, to be sure, and the details of procedure vary somewhat in different states, but the system as a whole is more or less alike. The district manager or OberfOrster, now often called Forstmeister, has grown in importance and freedom of position, although his district has grown smaller (mostly not over 25,000 acres), and, being one of the best educated men in the country district, he usually holds the highest social portion, although his emoluments are still moderate. He holds many offices of an honorary character, as for instance that of justice of the peace, and the position of states' attorney or public prosecutor in all cases of infraction of the forest laws. These forest laws are still largely local, i.e.. State laws, although the criminal code of the empire has somewhat unified practice. Curiously enough, wood on the stump is still not considered property in the same sense as other things, so far as theft is concerned; the stealing of growing I f »-J! ill m Germany, timber i, not even called theft, the word used in the a^mst forest laws, ,t ,s punished by a money fine ma n^l of the T*""^"" *^ ^"^ ^^'"^ °' ^-'o'"" m^! .1 / "^^""^^^ suffered. This money fine may be transmuted into imprisonment or forest labor but corporal punishment, which still preS r^n • ^ T ''^■■y 8^"*'^' ^"d rampant durine t»e beg.nmr,- of the century, but impr^ement "n Has now reduced it to a minimum. eveHfL'"^ ""'" '^'' '"« administrators and even the forest owners acted at the same time as prosecutor, judge and executioner, and onlj 171879 w^ th.s condition everywhere and entirel/changL and mfractmns against forest la-.vs adjudg^ bJ re'LThf °' '^"' """^""^ "-tings^rlted times for the prosecution of such infractions. Nevertheless, the court proceedings in forest matters a simpler cheaper and more ready disposal of te d mony and witnesses, and quicker r.tri^tio„! wh ch oritTffl'' """r^ ^""^ '"""^h having Iv ry thlf.^ '^ ' confiscated tools employed in the for«r "^'f' '~'"'°" °' '^^ underforesters and the until all charges of incompetency and .mmorality Restrictions in Forest Use. 125 which were not undeserved even until past the middle of the nineteenth century, have become reversed- the forest service being morally on as high a plane as all the departments of German administrations. 7. Forest Policy. ti^^nlV^^T- ^^" °^ *•'" '='"*"^ the old concep. t.on o Forsthohett-^upetior right of the princes to superv.se and interfere with private propeS'- changed mto the more modern conception of the police unction of the state, and. by 1850. after the revolutionary period, the seignorage of the princes had .Pas^ away. The issue of forest ordinances Jhe ast in 1840) was replaced by the enactment of forest laws which, since the establishment of representative government, has become a function of legislatures The tendency to restrict the exercise of private La^Z "' '^''u '^" "^''''«' •'y *h« theories of Lausezfatre and the teachings of Adam Smith, and as a consequence, all the restrictive mandates of the mnr. f?^' -^-^nces had been weakened and had tTfnfll ' '"'"'°.'''^"''- Especiallytheattempts to influence prices and markets had neariy if not en- tirely vamshed during the first decade. Only for the state forest, it was still thought desirable to predeter! mine wood prices, or at least keep rates low because wood was a necessary material for the industries. Jt».^r^ "'T'"''* ""*"• P^'^'^P^ ""der the lead of Hundeshagen (see above), the propriety of securing the highest sou rent was recognized as the proper aim when the practice of selling wood at auction ^orde to secure the best prices became the rule 126 Germany. The regulahons regarding export and import be- tween the different States, which had been enacted under the mercanUlistic teachings of the last century (see page 52), and the many tariffs which impeded a free exchange of commodities, lasted for a long wh,le ,nto the 19th century, and were not all abolish ed unt.1 1865. when under the lead of PruJia the North German Federation instituted the ZoUverein (lanff alliance) which abolished not only all tariffs between the States of the Federation, but also tariffs on wood products against the outside world. Import duties were, however, again established in 1879, and the policy of protecting the established organized forest management against competition by importa- tions from exploiting countries has been again and again recognized as proper in the revision of tariff raSLds '^'"'^'^ ^'^'^^^ ""^^ °" '^^ government During the first decades of the century, the supply Heil (1816) laughed at the idea of a wood famine, there was good reason, prior to the development of railroads, of coal fields, of iron and steel manufac- tures, etc., for discussing witii apprehension tiie area and condition of supply and the extent of the con- sumption. Nevertheless, the attitude of tiie state toward private property was much more influenced by the economic tiieories then prevalent, which taught the Ideas of private liberty to which the French Revolution had given such forcible expression. With the change of municipal communities from mere assoaations witii common material interest into State Supervision. 127 unite or parts of political or state machines, also inde- pendence m the management ot their property was Z™ ' 'IliT-'' °^ ''•' °"- ^^'^'^^ons ^ich had circumscnb^ this nght fell away. Curiously enough during the French domination under Napoleon, die new masters forgetting the spirit of the revolutionary penod, introduced the prescriptions of the old French ordinance of 1669 which restricted the use of com- munal property to the extent of excluding the owners entirely from the managenmet of their pro- perty, and placed it under government officers. After the French withdrew, this method, of course, collapsed, although It probably had an influence on the fi^l shaping of forest policies in these respects. Alto- ^"»K 'i« '^ *^' '"'''' ''^"^'y °f •''^'oric development in the different parts of Germany that it is not to be wondered at that one finds a great variety of policies still prevailing not only in different States but in different localities of the same btate. At the present time three different principles in the relations of the state to the corporation fot«ts may be recognized, namely, entire freedom, excepting so far as general police laws apply, which is the case ^%^T' ^^ corporation forests in Prussia (law of 1876); speaal supervision of the technical manage- ment under approved officials with proper educati^. which IS the case in Saxony, most of Bavaria, the Prussian provinces of Westphalia, Rhineland and baxony, and in some of the smaller states; or lastly, the absolute administration by the state, which pre- vails ,n Baden, parts of Ba.aria, provinces Hesse- Nassau, and Hanover. The tendency, however, in i 128 Germany. modern times appears to be toward a more strict interpretation of the obligation of the state to prevent mismanagement of the communal property. Private forest property, which during the preced- ing century had bt;n largely under restrictions, first under the application of the hunting right, and then under the fear of a wood famine, became in the first decades of the century under the influences already mentioned, almost entirely free, all former policies bemg reversed; indeed Prussia, in 1811, issued an edict insuring absolutely unrestricted rights to forest owners, permitting paj tition and conversion of forest properties, and even Uenying in such cases the right of interference on the part of possessors of rights of user. This policy of freedom was also applied, although less radically, in Bavaria, except as to smaller owners, ''"he result was, to a large extent, the increase of ex- ploitation and forest devastation, creating wastes and setting shifting sand and sanddunes in motion. The reaction, which set in against this unrestricted use of forest property, resulted in Prussia not in re- newal of restrictive measures, but in the enactment of promotive ones. The law of 1875 sought improve- ment by encouraging small owners to unite their properties under one management; but the expecta- tions which were founded on this ameliorative policy seem so far not to have been realized. This promotive policy has especially since 1899 found expression in the institution in many pro- vinces of information bureaus, which give technical advice, make working plans, secure plant material and give other assistance to woodland owners. State Supervision. 129 A new relation, however, of a conservative character arose by the establishment of the entail, i.e., a con- tract made by the head of the family with the govern- ment under which the latter assumes the obligation of forever preventing the heirs from disposing of, dimmishing, or mismanaging their property. As a result of this arrangement, many of the larger private forest properties are forced to a conservative manage- ment, not as a direct influence of the law, but as a matter of agreement. The condition of state super- vision of private and communal forest property at present prevailing is expressed in the following state- ment of divisions by property classes of forest areas of Germany, which shows that at least 63.9% are under conservative management: lotal Forest 34,769,794 acres. Crown forest 1 gor State forest qi Qor Corporation forest 16. 1?' Institute forest 1 gw Association forest 2.29^ Private forest (10.4% entail) !46.5% Until the beginning of the present century, the pro- tective function of the forest had played no role in the arguments for state interference, but just about the beginning of the century cries were heard from France that, owing to the reckless devastation of the Vosges and Jura Alps by cutting, by fires and over- grazing, brooks had become torrents, and the valleys were inundated and covered by the debris and silt of 130 Germany. the torrents. A new aspect of the results of forest devastation began to be recognized, which found excellent expression in a memoir by Moreau de Jonnis (Brussels. 1825). on the question "What changes does denudation effect on the physical condition of the country." This being translated into Gennan by W^enmann. was widely spread, being interestingly wntten, although not well founded on facts of natural history and physical laws. Nevertheless, sufficient expenence as regards the effect of denudation in mountainous countries had also accumulated in south- west Germany and in the Austrian Alps, and the necessity of protective legislation was recognized This necessity first found practical expression in the Bavarian law of 1862, in Prussia in 1875, and in WUrt- temberg in 1879. But a really proper basis for formu- lating a policy or argument for protective legislation outside of the mountainous country is still absent, although for a number of years attempts have been made to secure such basis. 8. Forestry Science and Literature* The habit of writing encyclopaedic volumes, which the Cameralists and learned hunters had inaugurated in the preceding century, continued into the new one and we find Hartig, Cotta, Pfeil and Hundeshagen each writing such encyclopaedias. Carl Heyer began one in separate volumes, but completed only two of them Even an encyclopaedic work in monographs by several 1L> ■ Literature on Silviculture. i3x 7^Z ''^^ ""''"t^ken as early as 1819 by /. Af Buhsle,n who with his successors brought out W teen volumes, covering the ground pretty fX While .n the earlier stages the meager amount of knowledge made it possible to compL ^ wLk mto small compass, the more modem encydopSfi olLorey Piirst and Dcmbrowski arose from 'he otr s.te consideration, namely, the need of gilg a com ex. '""'" °' ''' ''"^' -^ orj^:jz Since 1820, monographic writings, however became more and more the practice. Among the v2.^es which treat certain branches of forest:^ monJg S S the works of the masters of si Jculture'S and mddle Germany, and of PfeU, referring more so Dy the South German writers, Gwinner ri834^ o„j Stu^ (1849). In 1855, H. BurZ'J^l^S^^^t h.s classic Saenund Pflanzen a new methSIf^" men , namely, by species., and after 1850, whenX tZ^T'^l °' «*"""' ^"^'-'^^^ had been ac^^! Sm^' "L^ *''"""*"* ^y '^'^'^ became fr^^nt Of more modern works on general silviculture eEt Z^mm'w ^* "'r °^ ""^ p-ticesti":; - f I w f^m-jfj : Germany. x ' all directions. The text books at present appearing seem to be justified by or intended mainly for the l^\. .',!!!?'' T'^ '■"^'y f°^ *•»« practitioner. Such a text book is that by Weise. But the latest nC 'T',,*° ^'^''^"''•"•^' literature by Wagner (1907). and Mayr (1909) are works of a new order, utilizmg broader ecological knowledge Other branches than silviculture were similariy first treated in comprehensive volumes and then in mono- graphic wntings on special subjects of the branch. Ihe literature on forest utiUzation covering the whole field was enriched especially by Pfeil, Koenig, Gayer, and Furst. The first investigation into the physical and technical properties of wood was conducted by G L Harhg himself, followed by Theodor Hartig and the subject has been most broadly treated by H. NoerdXmger (1860). In later years, SchwappacJs mvestigations deserve special mention. The question of means of transportation gradually became also a subject capable of monographic treat ment and a senes of books came out on locating and bmlding forest roads. Braun issued such a b<^k in 1885 for the plains country, and Kaiser (1873) fo- the mountains, also MuUhausen (1876), whohad been wmmissioned to locate a perfect road system over the demonstration forest at the forest academy of Muenden. Only within the last quarter of the cen- tury were railroads introduced into the economy of forest management. The first comprehensive book on the subject of logging railroads was issued by :>loetter (1903) furnished in his compact style the iMriii""MHii««'t'l;li am Literature on Forest Utilization. 133 uujecu Decame so important both tn n,« farming population and to the forest J^l"^' being robbed of its natural fertil Sir thl^f ""^ definite basis for reeulatin., ertinzer, that a more ^^^'tr^S^i^rs.itf.:::^-''--^ =X'"^rrftsr""-"'^^^^^^^^^ the transit geneXX-'-'^hr^ '^ ^^^^^^ table. At this oerionTif *^ ^^ ~""^™ ^"d P'ane the imporin methods oM^'^ '"' "^^ '-"ing S--r (1858) and by ^.l;/ a^'^^^^^r -- -et by no longer occudv a nlZ! • , " ^'"' '"''J«=' ^°^ Pledge of it^r„gtLl?--J-at-. the ^h?htr^;'';;t"s'itrr"/-~..^^ with forest orSlnZtion h ^^ '^""^ '" connection I iCioawi^j^-^,^ iU Germany. although many unsolved problems are still „n^ and by Hartiir in lRn« c,i_- "-otta, in I804, 1019 '~"K. in 1BO8. Schemer and ^icA/cr are in 1813 mentioned as inventor, nf rt,« c """*^ .^^ ■" forest measure" orcLTplr T,l ■'*"' ""'^"'^' caliper to their mod^^'^Lel^ Z'ZT:::^^ ^- As a special development for measuring d^a "»»» " fee .bo™ ,ra„„i, .^ „^ ^^1,^ F^IIb^"* to fl^,«/«M (1812) ffl^/™ ^^"°" « C'-edited occupied theSes Sth^S*"/""^, ^"-'^ »'- -'"0/ or true fo™ St^f ^X'^ot" °' *"* one-twentieth of the height a ■ "'*' *•■«» at ^ >ately ^„ ^'uTeS^b^X^t T ^'^ German, under the name of f '"^^' »" Austrian two measured diameter !nl;r„ ''"°^-*- "'--'^ diamtei: t^ J^Sf wrll";^ °^"- °^ -^"« extent in the 18th centurTr^^^ '" "^ *° "^^e - 1804. and. in mvXZLhTjT'' '"'='' '°^ '--h normal tables which werhoteverb^l?' ""-!'«' assumption of a conical L^ 7 ll ^^ "P"" the perfected volume Ub^bt ,W^ *' '^^^ ^'"»»« ficaUon into five growth d^™!"""! f-'^'her classi volume tables for CI andl^T ^''''^' ^"Wished 1840. published volu^ta£„°?r '"^'^^ ^d- '» for entire stands per"cr?clt..frl k' ""«'" *'*«' ^ut and density; using'^he^t^Z ^"^ ''^'«'' ^^1^^ he had developed in 1M5^"h '"*"" ""'"'«'• which is interesting toTote tW .K "°'^ "''^ '''""ity- It Sr^/-- -cie^fo^'rTdvrj- -e ^--e.,made^a„rrgetX"--;r ::i% 136 Germany. they were used in all parts of Germany and. trans- lated into meter measurement by Behm (1872), are stil generally in use. although new ones based upon further measurements have been furnished by Lorey and Kutttze. ' For arriving at the volume of stands, estimating was relied upon long into the nineteenth century alljough HossfeU m 1812. introduced measuring and the use of the formula AHF. in which A was the measured total cross-section area of the stand, H and F the height and form factors, the latter being at that time still estimated. He first made form classes for the same heights, but. in 1823. simplified the method by assummg an average form factor for the whole stand. Even m 1830. Ke (1886), Senft (1888), and of Gw- fap Heyer, whose volume (Lehrbuch der ForstUchen Bodenkunde und KlimatologU, 1856), well records the state of knowledge at that time. But only since then has this field been worked with more scientific thoroughness by Ebermayer, Schrmder, Weber, WoUny 'i'^Lo^^ ^'»«»», whose volume on Bodenkunde (1893) may be still considered the standard of the present day (newest edition, 1910). The question of the climatic significance of forests 18 one which first became recognized as capable of solution by scientific means when the movement for forest experiment stations began to take shape and . .^ ^ Literature on Forest Policy. 143 the systematic collecting of observed data was at- tempted. Most of the problems are still unsolved. With the aspects of political economy in reference Zf^^ P°'«^.the foresters had occupied themselves but httle, leaving the shaping of public opinion to the Camerahsts, whose influence lasted long into the century. These produced a good deal of literature in the early years of the century when the question of retammg or selling state forests was under discussion, T^:r^u'- *''^":''"'='«=« °f the teachings of Adam Smith, their opmion was mostly favorably to sale Only gradually was the propriety of state forests ™^gn.z^ by them, till finally the leading economists, Rau, Roscher and Wagner, took a decided stand in favor of this view. .v5* 'c?""" "^*"'^"y ""^^ f°' ^tention of the ^sting State properties, but one-sided mercantilistic Thr J^^mires^'""'"^^'-*'- ^^'^ -"" II|«fe*,W, as early as 1821. advocated the theory which IS now becoming a practice, that the state shouW not only retain but increase its present forest property by purchase of all absolute forest soil for the pu^ of reforestation. The erratic and radical Pfeil a^ was found with the Cameralists on the opSte °de he side o? ;h '' T' ^' '^'^ "''^^'y «°"« o-«^ t° the side of the advocates of state forest, declaring anyone who opposed them fit for the lunatic asylum visToThr.^ "'"'""r""*^ '^^ «K"^'"K the super- vision by the state of private and communal fore^s. ihe pohtical economists were inclined to reduce, the If I i t: ^- 144 Germany. foresters to increase supervision, excepting again Pfeil in his earlier writings: he modified his views later by recognumg supervision as a necessary evil. Cotta who was inclined to favor free use of forest property sought to meet the objections to such free use by mcreasmg the state property. The main incentive urged by the earlier advocates of state supervision was the fear of a timber famine This argument vanished, however, with the development ol railroads, and was then supplanted by the argu- ment of the protective functions of the forest, a classi- fication into supply forests and protective forests suggestmg differences of treatment. Nevertheless, the belief that absolute freedom of property rights in the forest is not in harmony with good political economy— a belief correct because of the long time element involved-still largely prevails. The difii. culty, however, of supervising private ownership, and the advantages of state ownership find definite expression in the policy which Prussia especially is now following, in acquiring gradually the mismanaged pnvate woodlands and impoverished farm areas for reforestation, making annual appropriations to this end. Many other states also are beginning to see the propriety of this movement. On the whole the systematic study of the economics of forestry has been rather neglected by foresters, although the subject was discussed by eariy writers Meyer, Laurop, Pfeil, and in modern times by R. Wa>er Lehr and Schwappach ("Forstpolitik," 1894) Ihe latest comprehensive volume on this subject comes from Endres (1905). Forestry Education. X46 9. Means of Advancing Forestry Science. During the century, the means of increasing know- ledge m forestry matters have grown in all directions- schools, associations, journals and prolific literature arprl^.^"""""^ estab.ishn,ent''of the pSr tJtirTfl '1^''°°'' ''^'"^ ''"«*" *° t^ke shape at were found n th k ''"'"^' ""' " """'^" "' -^-h were found .n the beginning of the century as private mstitutions. were usually either of short duration or dther 'S '"1° t'^.n '"^''^"'■°"«= they became either middle schools" for the lower service, or else as at H^fn ..^ ""r:^'«"'^^ "continued to do service, as at Heidelberg, G.essen, Leipzig, Beriin, etc., but fhn ,thV? "'°f/ °"""P'^ ^y Cameralists (al-' though Hartig in 1811 filled a chair at Beriin) and were intended for the benefit of such rather thknof professional foresters, the education of the latter wS had their beginnings in private schools. Both the« Th. fi . K- 1^^*^'^ P^^ *''^°"8h many chan^? i Berlin H'.,"r '^^ "^^^^^^ *-« ««'ablishS withtl. '•''''' ''^^''' ^*^*^' '" 1821, in connection Tf fori. T'*^- "."'"' P'"' '^^^ the onlyprofessor of forestry subjects, the other subjects being ta^t byother university professors. The fact that in fh absence of railroads a demonstration forest was not e^. y accessible and perhaps the friction b'tleen Eberswalde, in 1830, with two professors till Si » * SI- liisr ^m 146 Germany. when a third professor was added (now 16 with 8 assistants!). At the same time the lectures at Berlin were continued by Hartig, until 1837. In Saxony, Cotta's private school became a state institution in 1816, the forest academy of Tharandt, with six teachers (now 13), and later, in 1830, an agricultural school was added to it. In Bavaria, a private school was begun in 1807 at .^chaffenburg. It was made a state institution, divided into a higher and lower school, in 1819, but was closed in 1832 on account of interior troubles and inefficiency. It was re-opened and re-organized in 1844 with four teachers, and was intended to prepare for the lower grades of the service. Meanwhile the lectures at the University of Munich, supplementing this lower school, were to serve for the education of the higher grades. A reorganization took place in 1878, when a special faculty for forestry was estab- lished at Munich, with Gustav Heyer as head pro- fessor. This was done after much discussion, which is still going on throughout the empire, as to the question whether education in forestry was best obtained at a university or at a special academy. The present tendency is toward the former solution of the question since railroad development has re- moved the main objection, namely, the difficulty of reaching a demonstration forest. Nevertheless, Prus- sia retains its two forest academies Eberswalde and MOnden (since 1868) for the education of its forest officials, the other state academies being at Tharandt and Eisenach, while chairs of forestry are found at the universities of Tubingen (since 1817), Gieaaen ,lll# ^.%^, Experiment Stations. 147 (since 1831), and Munich, and for Baden at the poly- techn.cumm Karlsruhe (1832). For the lower grTd« 1 vTh °^"''' ''"' "' ^^ «="-'« esUblish^ by L 1910" frTT ^V" ^™^'^' S •" B«-«ria) tinned and .h °° ^' Aschaffenburg was discon- ttnued and the entire education of foresters for Bavaria left to the University. Although as early as 1820, Hundeshagen had insisted upon the necessity of exact investigation to fo^l basis for improved forest ,r agement and esp^lj da^rated the fi^t instruction for such .nvestigSs which he expected to carry on with the aid of prac- titioners the apathy of the latter and the troubleLme times pnor to 1850 retarded this powerful mea^^f advancing forestry. During the decade from Tm to 1870, however, the movement for the formation of .Srr'-'''^°"' '"" ^•'^'^' '"« «"' -' b^4 Iriln . '\^°"y' 1862, by establishing nine sutions for the purpose of securing forest meteor! heprtblems of the removal of litter; and in Bavaria ami also for the study of forest meteorology Int TiT^' "'"^ °^ '^^ P^°'''«"' °f thinnings. B^ ate vT y^'-T; "^'1 P<""'«1 out more'elater! ately the necessity of systematic investigations, and a plan for such had been elaborated by a committee Tsrem o?' ''" '^™"" '"'"'^'''^ AL^iX 'r a system of experimentation as organized in modern Umes secured (1872). The various states estabS ■ndependently such experiment stations, but at the '\n ^\i^.ym^w^mm^ 148 Germany. same time a voluntary association of these stations was formed for the purpose of co-ordinating and plan- mng the work to be done. Forestry associations instituted merely for the purpose of propaganda, were apparently not organized. Ihe first assoaation of professional foresters appears to have been formed as the result of Bechstein's con- ception, who proposed in connection with his school (170S at Gotha. 1800 at Dreissigacker) the form- ation of an academy of noted foresters. As a result - a Socteiat der Forst und Jagdkunde was formed, in which all the noted foresters joined with much en- thusiasm, and, in 1801, a membership of 81 regular and 61 honorary members was attained. At the same time the official organ Diana was founded (1797) in which the essays of the membere were to be printed after having passed four censors. Two sessions were to be held annually. This much too elaboraf; plan for the then rather undeveloped education and de- ficient means of transportation defeated to some ex- tent the great object. By 1812, it was thought necessary to divide tiie academy at least into a north- ern and southern section, and for the latter an addi- tional journal, edited by Uur^p, was instituted. The interest, however, decreased continually, and by 1843 at Bechstein's death, the academy was abandoned ' At the same time, there had sprung up a number of local associations in the modern sense. The first in 1820, composed of the foresters and agriculturist^ of Nassau; the next, in 1839, of the foresters of Baden and, by 1860, nine such local societies of forester^ ^Wm^ Associations and Magazines. 149 Dresden AfH,,*^- , .""^^^"^"ne). meeting at 1839, the South GeSn^S^rs'^i^ti'^VH peripatetic congresses were held eve^one ^ Z Congress of Foresters nS ^ m-*^' ^"''^' ^"«»" there^ter A ri" Iay be r^og! ttfic ba'is ""'"""^'"' ^"'' "'-^ '' - - ""o- scien- 1 ■:;IW i m ii AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. ,0^^""*"^'' neighbor to the southeast, and until 1866 a member of the German Empire or Federation Wgely settled by Germans and hence swayed by German thought, developed forestry methods on much the same lines as the mother country. Yet there are diflferences to be found, due to diflFerence in eco- nomic development, and there is for the United States perhaps more to be learned from Austria in the matter of mtroducing forestry methods, especially as lately practiced in Bosnia-Herzegovina, than from any other country, for economic conditions are in several respects alike. The interest in the forest history of Austria lies ^tir ForattnckicUt OtiUrrmhs. by BINDER VON KRRIRRI CTirtio V^/^T *'^J";:.'' "'•'t^- ^ KARL SCHINDLER. 1B8S .nd ^^J^Jt f"^ "*■ °'"'^"' '" »"••"' ''««*il with hbtoricd d.U . lW*J2rlf" ""'-"' ''~^™»-^. . voU., b. L. D.-,xz. ALBERT V. BEDO. 18SS. i. Miry". "*•"**" J'»-«r<*«*^ by I~U..h«l„.j„bd«<,f ,h.t.,,.c™tt„.ij „i.tcnceof Hun,.™ F,>.t^„„: Political History. jgg although in some ml • / • ^'^" countries, been long in Sen*^ '"'^"^'"^ management has of forestry in Austl '"^ ^«^' *« condition ment which mit of the r '"'' '"c ^^«^ "' '^^^^'''P- long before; b""n tL tt^Ta" ^'^'f ''^'^ "^ been made that both 1' ^ " *"'^'' P''°8^«s has if not Juke on thi ,^"1P'^'=^'*''*^»d"«arly German'^gh^i'"'^ ""^ "^'" "''" ^°^ "' *"«" va^?Ti:2:^:j;'';^;£7---ag.at power, composed of unrelated ^.~ . ^^"'"''= people speaking diffe^ i ^ °' '^"'**' ^"^ wideiy diLentVS: er'ThrwerSdT aggregated under one head „rT!- f ^ "^"^ Hapsburgs. who as LSes 'f A "^. ^^""'^' '""^ the elective oositin^ l^P'J} 5 "^"^^"^ occupied generation" ^d after t^"",r ^""f ™" f°' '*-™' 1806. retain^the ^hl and l^IL"^'''^ ^""P''*' '» perors of Austria °^''** '^emselves Em- ■■II . 1 .jdl 1 Jl»# ^mit'HM n 154 Austria-Hungary . to^! K"" °i """^^^ ^°"" ^^^^"^ ^ joined in ^26 ^H ^'*°"""'°"' '''' '''^'^°» °f •'« people east M^ Hul" ""•'"''''°"' '" '««^^' -'"' -t least 50% Hunganans, is a national unit with a nafonal language (Magyar), while all other Ls have m their composition preponderatingly Slavish Wulat.on, although German elements have "he ascendancy more or less everywhere Not less than 10 different languages are spoken -ong the forty odd million people' of whoTthe otSTe^^itirg^rr • - «— f^mThV ^'T^' ""^ '^^^'^^ tri*^ P-^ in thr^ L • h' ^""' *^ ""^"8 «'°""d of the three races, and during the first 1,000 years after S2„ ^' ^^''" '°™^ '^•^ buiof the German empire against the eastern invaders who were m succession, the Slavs, the Huns, the TuTfa." With he unexpected election of Rudolph of Haos dS Tc ''""''"r "'^ '' ^'"^" -"--'on? t" the o The Aust?aTp" ^•""^"''' '" ''''• '"« ^"""dation Ault^a h. frr"" ^ ''''^- 'T''' Archduchy of Austna he secured by conquest in 1282, and around this nucleus all the other territories were from t"me to time, aggregated by the Hapsburgs through marriage, conquest, or treaty. At one tim^ thei™ ut extended over Spain, the Netherlands, stitzer a„d Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. Switzerland. Jr^ ^.'^'"t'on of Fmnds II. in the year 1806, pre- pared the separation from Germany, although Aus- Forest Conditions. jj. its place anrvJc^i" rl''*','"'''^°'P"'-^ German councils Bva^"*"^ '*"='"'^«^ ^'""'n the new dua^mp J^of SriaT ' "'*' """«^^- provinces of Bosnia and H«J, • ^ Turkish inhabitants anHs *"«„""'^"8°^"« '^ith 1,250,000 placed under Austnv/ '''"^'^ '""^' «"* ""e^ly in im incor^SLT^r^r^ar--'^^-^^^^^^ vei•t;^reSSet^nra1:d1." *^'' --* <"•- ment, we should fiESrtSt,'7°"f'T'°P- and uneven develoDm^^oJf '^ '^'"'"'"'^""^ hernia. MoraviarndSfeilr!'?'- ^""^ '" fo- ment has lone C, nr!!^ "°'""**'"*'^« "-anage- Gahda andTn H^earT '^' "" ** Carpathians^ rule, and in otherTZ "^'^ «Ploitation is still the 3tiII await deXS "" ""'"""^"^ ''>'^' ^-^ diffT^n^^'evSoS'^Hl* '^h"^^" -^^"^ '"« Moravia and the S,;l Northwest with Bohemia, longest, and the TonLTunl" °' '''""• """^ '"« the Northeast, Ga&riith the T' "I^"^^""*-*,- -ns. still large.. eith^r'I^ii^rti^Te- i|^ auifx-ae- 156 Austria. Danube lands or Austria proper, with the Vienna forest and the forests connected with the saltworks in Upper Austria and Styria, under some managiement since the 12th and 16th centuries respectively; the Alp territory, including Tyrol and Salzburg, parts of Styria, Karinthia and Krain, much devastated long ago, and offering all the problems of the reboisement work of France; the Coast lands along the Adriatic with Dalmatia, Istria and Trieste, which, from ancient times under Venetian rule, bring with them the in- heritance of a mismanaged limestone country, creating the problems of the "Karst" reforestation which has baffled the economist and forester until the present time; the two new provinces east of this region, Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose rich forest areas have only lately begun to be treated under modern con- servative ideas; and finally Hungary with a great variety of conditions in itself. The large forest per cent, (a little over 24,000,000 acres or over 32% of the land area) is due to the mountainous character of the country, the Alps occu- pying a large area on the west and southwest, the Carpathians stretching for 600 miles on the northeast, various mountain ranges encircling Bohemia, the Sudetes forming part of the northern frontier, and the Wiener Wald and other lower ranges being dis- tributed over the empire and bounding the fertile valleys of the Danube and its tributaries. At least 20 per cent, is unproductive. The climate in the northern portion of Austria is similar to that of southern Germany; in the south- ern portions to that of Italy, while Hungary par- ^.m^imm ta i • Development of Property, takes of the characteristics of a continental plains climate with low rainfall and extreme temperature ranges. In addition to the tree species found in Germany there are of economic value four species of pine (Pinus austriaca, cembra, pinea, hahpe..As), two oaks {Quercus ilex and suber), and the chestnut (Caslanea vesca). Conifer forest is prevailing in Austria (with 82%), deciduous forest in Hungary, mostly beech and oak (with 75%); 27% being oak in pure stands. The following pages refer to Austria proper, Hun- garian conditions being treated separately further on. The value of the total raw product exported from the Austrian forests (some 180 million cubic feet) may be estimated at over 50 million dollars annually. 1. Properly Conditions. On the whole, property conditions developed not unsimilariy to those of Germany. There were free- men and serfs to start with, developing into barons, peasants, burghers; there were ban forests, royal domam, forests of the mark, and private properties; nghts of user or servitudes and all the methods and conditions that were developed in other parts of Europe are also found here, only perhaps differ- ing in time and rate of progress in their develop- ment. As a result of gradual changes, the present distri- bution of property resulted, in which the State owner- ship is comparatively small, namely, in Austria proper not more than 7.3% (with 2.8 million acres of which neariy one-third is unproductive land), while private ilf' 'iiiJ ii ^ m 158 Austria. ownership represents over 58.6%. Of this, 34% is in large landed estates, among which those of the princes of Liechtenstein and of Schwarzenberg with round 350,000 acres and 290,000 acres respectively are the largest; and 25 others with from 50,000 to 230,000 acres may be named. By the middle of the 19th century, at least 75% of the forest area was in large compact properties, a guarantee for the possibility of forest management; the industrial development of the last decade has, however, led to considerable ex- ploitation. 'In upper and lower Austria and in the Alpine regions small private ownership prevails. The communal forest comprises 13%, entailed forest 8%, and the rest belongs to church and other institu- tions. These so-called FondsforsU are in part under government administration. 2. First Attempts at Forest Control. The oldest record of attempts at an orderiy manage- ment in any part of the empire seems to date back to the 12th century, when the city forest of Vienna had been placed under management. During the leth and 17th century this property appears to have been managed upon the basis of careful surveys and estimates. We also find a definite forest organization in the forests attached to the ducal salt mines in Styria by 1524, and the dams, canals and water works for floating timber developed by 1592 through Thomas Seeauer were the wonder of the times. In 1524 also, Archbishop Mathaus Lang of Wellen- burg issued a forest ordinance which was full of wise prescriptions, probably little heeded. A forest ordi- mmEMKm:iamm:j'jm^Mmm». Early History. jgg nance of J599 refers to burning of tops and care of young growth in fellings. Generally speaking, as in Germany pro-, loiest ordmances were issued from time to time, ut dukes under the theory of the Forsthoheit a^J-^ u, hmued temtories and attempting to :c,ui.t, Icr... use. No uniformity existed. The iron industry in the more norr'-ern p.. had led early to a more conservative use o( properties for fuel, and since the mints v... property the dukes had a special interest in *hei' servation. rii"t tn^C''' '■"'"°'^' '"^"^"y '" S'y"^- the regal eariy to the reservation by the dukes of whatever o^st was not fenced or owned by special grant for the asserted by them m some of the private forests to all the forest produce beyond the persona; requirement of the owners, for use of the mines at a small tax; and what other private property existed was burdened by innumerable rights of user. The exercise of theS nghts, and the warfare against irksome restriction^ led to widespread illegal exploitation and devastation such an'' "7^ 'I *'' ''"' ^^"^"^y ''^d P^°-^ed °o such an extent that in Tyrol associations for protec- n°e "'yT **:? .*°"^"'^ --« «'-ady then in^xist- one ;h;n^ ? V ''™'""'^' "^^"'"y populated, with one-thmi of its area unproductive and one-third Jmes ""'''"'"' exploitation continued unril recent In Krain, which was unusually well wooded, forest 1 li/tti 'J |^^!«=Hi^.^;W- 160 Austria. reservations were made for the use of the mines and furnaces in 1510 and 1515, these reservations com- prising alt forest lands within a given radius. The balance was mostiy divided among small owners, whose unrestricted, unconservative exploitation con- tinued into the latter half of the 19th century. In Styria, nearly one-half wooded and one-third unproductive, a regulated management was attempt- ed as early as 1572, and by subsequent forest ordi- nances of 1695, 1721 and 1767 devastation was to be checked. But the resistance of the peasants to the regulations and the inefficiency of the forest service were such that no substantial improvement resulted. In Galicia, unusually extensive rights of user in the crown forests led to their devastation, and the at- tempts to regulate the exercise of these rights by ordinances in 1782 and 1802 were unsuccessful. The forest area along the coast of the Adriatic in Istria and Dalmatia had furnished shiptimber even to the ancients. The Venetians becoming the owners of the country in the 15th century declared all forests national property, reserved for shiptimber, and placed them under management. They instituted a forest service, regulated pasturing, and forbade clearing. The oak coppice was to be cut in 8 to 12 year rotation, with standards to be left for timber, etc. A reorganiz- ation of this service with division into districts is recorded in the 16th century, when Charies V, in 1520, instituted a "forest college," i.e., administration! But the district officers, capitani ai boschi, being under- paid, carried on a nefarious trade on their own account, and by 1775, the whole country was already ruined » in^'Ttif- Variety of Forest Control. 161 stopping of abuses. ^ ^ ^^ ^""^ ^''^ The game result followed the ine™*. ^ ■ 162 Austria. the Northwest territory sought to check the ir„provi- dent forest destruction. A further wholesome influence on private forest management was exercised by the tax assessment re- form m 1788, when not only a more reasonable assess- ment but for the first time a difference was made in taction of managed as opposed to unmanaged woods and the epoch-making fertile idea of the normal forest was announced (see p. 115). At the same time the huntmg privileges and other burdens, hampering forest properties were abolished, and mesaures for the extmguishment of the rights of user enacted. 3. Development of Forest Policy. As appears from the foregoing sketch of eariy attempts at forest control, no uniformity existed in the empire, each province being treated differently and the regal rights being applied differently in each case. Originally the regular circuit or district governments had charge not only of the management of State forests but also of the forest police and the relation of the managemejit of communal forests. This supervision was exercised by the political adminis- tration, often without technical advisers, and the different provinces had developed this service very vanably. While in some provinces no special effort was made to look after these interests, the laws re- maining mainly dead letters, in others a better system prevailed. In Styria, for instance, in 1807, five forest commissioners and 20 district foresters were employed • but this organization was of short duration. A loose Protective Forests. ,-- for the e.pi„* Snt^ fol^^ ^d ? ^T^ '*'' year 1814; but onlv =f/ u ''*'^' f™™ the of 1848. and wLn hetl'ere flJ^"'?' '^'^- forcibly called ettent on toX f '^^^ ''*•* of things was the necesstv of "r^^f^^^n^ state In 1852, such a genera \w ""^ -^"^ni-ed. planting all the fo^f L- ^'^ ^"*"«'' ^up- ceptionf). ^' ordinances (with minor ex- tinSLVerbe:;;^ intreT" 'h ^^■■" ■" ^°-' ^'- The former are^u.h ? ' ^"'^ Protective forests. tions, e.g., on sand d^n» u ^' ^P*^'^' '*«tric- slopes. Thedan'eiwhTchth '"^ °' ''''''"'' '"^ more of an indirSt or h"i, '^ ^"^ *° P"*^*"* being d"ced by the"r ^sm'n '" ""'"''' '""^ ""'V P"^ to manage Ws p^pTrtv '3; '^ °^""' ^'"^ ^""^^^^ while the'Ln fo'r^^"^ riV*'"^' ^'^^^^^ns. order and are nwre !t^VM ^ '°"^*'' °' '"'igher trolled by th7 author^^es Th h T" ''"""^ ~"- forest and the o^rin;- , ''^'^^tion of a ban management depend, Sfini" ^'^ -"--ative assisted by e.pe^sX e I873" "'' °' ' """"'■^^'°" The execution of the law however, being left to ihmf JTIfj 164 Austria. the political administration of the provinces, jealous- les between imperial and provincial governments, and fear of resistance and ill will of forest owners pre- vented a strict and uniform application of the law Hence, from time to time, we find ministerial rescripts and special provincial legislation to secure a more energetic enforcement of the law. At first, the reform had reference mainly to the Alp distncts, which had suffered the most, and, in Tyrol at least, an organization was created in 1856 which was to manage the State forests, supervise the manage- ment of corporation forests and exercise the forest police. Not unUl the years 1871-74, however was a similar service extended to other portions of the empire, but at the end of that period the entire empire had been placed under the administration of a "forest protective service." an organization quite distinct trom the State forest administration. In 1900, there were placed under this service neariy two million acres of protective, and somewhat over 100,000 acres of ban forests, but some 5 to 6 million acres of pnvate or communal forest was under some other restrictive policy. In 1888, this service consisted of 14 forest inspectors, 00 iorest commissioners, 63 forest adjuncts and 80 assistanu and forest guards; in addition 252 special appointees and officers of the State forest adminis- tration were doing duty in this service, so that alto- gether nearly 500 persons were then employed in carrying on the protective forest policy of the State. In 1910, there were 388 technical attaches to the pro- vincial authorities employed, and 124 on reboisement Reboisement Work. ^^ technical advice anT^L^Sr' '°^^™-"t by protection, and in the ^!J- supervising forest In 1883, the f"„ctt„?o 'th "" °' ^'^ '"^^ '^-«" tended "to instruct and e„i organization were ex- forest culture, and to 1 "^^ ^°''^^' °'^"e" in be so managed .'Th^s^^rh °:!f ''^^'"^-'^l ^o that, while at fir^t mu^h ^f .^" «> ^*«f«tory forcement of the l^u,- """"P'^'"' ^8»'n«t the enl ask co„stanti;tr^:„ir '^^"'- °'^"- - J^^'^StLJl^f-^tr upon this o^n. different parts of the emnTr^tvu*'' ^PP«"ble to recognition of P^:ST^Zt1,^.^r' "''°" *^ working plans regulate the ,^n '''' ^nctioned Prestation and empKme„t of ^^""'"'- ^°'^''"« «=- these are obligatory'^C"^°jLT'*'r' '°'^'^" '" Austrian forest area i^mTna^ !['''^"*««%°f 'he A special reboise. "nUawlS thf 7°*"* P'^"'- structive torrents was thl . , ^"nction of de- hy floods in Ti^I a^iSrin'^ ' °' """^"^' ^-"^ge for this legislation wasSdh' '" '^^- "^"e basis French of Demon Jy's ^"^ " '""''ation from the of mountains. C'^'r^^. °» ""e reboisement sequent report by thel '"'*.'" '^' ""'J « «"b. "imilar to that of the French ''""'°'' '" '^- ^ law. r! •1. I J^ 'f i E ■ i i -^ 1 IM Austria. subventions fro, i the State. The contributions of the State have averat ed from 40 to 60%, of the provinces 20 to 50%, the in erested parties having contributed 30% of the round d -e million dollars expended on this work by 1901. In 1910, the contribution to the melioration fund by the State had grown to 1.6 million dollars. At the same time, for the regulation of the lower rivers an appropriation of $1,350,000 was made, of which $400,000 was to be used for reforestation work. This work as well as the reforestation of the Karst (see p. 17^) under the laws of 1881, 1883, 1885, is carried on by the forest protective service. On the whole, the forest policy of Austria tends toward harmony with forest owners and liberation of private property. By reduction of railroad freights, which are under government management, by aboli- tion of export duties, by reasonable tax assessments, etc., the wood export trade (now exceeding 30 million dollars) is favored; by the extinction of rights of user under liberal laws improvement in forest maa^ement is made possible, the Emperor setting a good example by having renounced, in 1858, his superior right to forest reservations in the .\lp districts. The best exemplification of the spirit of the Austrian forest policy and of the methods of forest organization and administration is to be found in the administra- tion of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina de- scribed in a volume published in 1905 by the veteran Austrian forester, Ludwig Dimitz.* 'Dir M^liclttn Vtrkiltmtf uHtl Eimriclittmtin Bttmrtu Hud dtr Htnr- ttviH,. LuDWM OiHiTi, Viauu, IBOi, pp. ««, So tomtrt gurtorir, Vol. ill, p. U3. Bosnia-Herzegovina. ^o-. Here ,the Austrian government has in the short time .nto th'^f" "''^"' '" """«*"« -deny Jd t io™ nto the forest management. Until 1878. these coun ^n^ were provinces of Turkey and we^Ia^uX Au^tnan suzerainty ^ ,„,, „, ^^^ Russo-Turldsh War. The Turks had already attempted a manaee ment of the forest lands, which were in thetTntS eS unc['' 'r"- Z™-"^ conditions S entirely unclear when the Austrians assumed the by~r Th'"* """'""^ ''^ «"* *° »^-"'S aL ofTr T, '"'""^ '^""^'* '" '^°^^^ « forest area of 6.3 million acres, 51% of the land area of which probably all but about 1.5 million ac^i t private or communal property; half of the^Le about 100 million cubic feet is the annual increment. 4. State Forest Administration. The State domain in the first half of the 19th cen- ^ n iLT T lr- '""^ '° " ""'"^ °^" 3 million acres in 1855. In that year, about one-half of this secure the States indebtedness of $30 000 000 =.rw between 18«, and 1870 further saTesTdS the domain to about its present size of 1.8 million acres productive forest. In 1872, however, a new pol cj and the present organization were instituted Before 1849 the forest properties which the Crown or Sute owned in the various territories were not number of separate provincial or territorial forest ■li _Jt__m^^m J3JmZ.Sm 168 Austria. I administrations existed which were often connected with mining administrations and were placed under the Minister of Finance. These, under the influence of the educated foresters issuing from the newly established forest school, had, to be sure, been much improved; nevertheless the Cameralists, as in Ger- many, were at the head of affairs and kept the techni- cal development back until after the revolution of 1848, when the acccession of Franz Joseph I brought many reforms and changes in methods of adminis- tration. A ministry of Soilculture and Mining was created in that year, and, as a branch of it, a forest depart- ment, separated from the department of the Chase. To the head of this forest department was called a forester, Rudolf Feistmantel, who elaborated an organization. But, before much had been accom- plished, the Ministry and its forest department were abolished (1853) and the forest domain again trans- ferred to the Ministry of Finance. Feistmantel returned in 1856 as Chief of the forest division in that Ministry, and his organization of the forest property of the State into forest districts under forest managers and into provincial "forest direc- tions" was perfected. Matters, however, did not thrive, and, only when public attention and indignation had been aroused by a policy of selling State property, a change of attitude took place in 1872 which led to the present organization. This places the State forest adminis- tration in the Department of Agriculture, with an Oberlandforstmeister" and two assistants as su- ■w:fZ' jfe..ii/ ,« Alps and Carpathian mountains at an elevation above 2,000 ^irj'L." vT^' r'"'*"*^" "*" ""^' ^ 8°«» showing. Since 1885 ,t has been the policy to add to the State 5. Progress of Forest Organization. cilTul^'^^'r'^"^ '''""' '"'^°"^'"'« '° ^'fi^l prin- ciples have been prepared for most of the State ^r^^lZi " '' '^ ''"'■ """"^ «2% was under regulated management. The progress made in bringing forest areas under organized management varied greatly in the different provinces. In northeastern Austria, the first methods of regu- lated management consisted, as in the neighboring :.|i.i 170 Austria. temton^ of Gennany i„ a simple division into felling l^in?h. "i"'" °^ "'" "'"^^^'^ ^'^ ^^ follow^ S this L"t°.:2""*"" ''"'^'"^' -^ '" l-th - fZd „e to S *^^'"'P™ved upon by allotment ..Tj. ' ~nce laio, the method of the Austrian Moravfaa';::i^L;a """''"""« "^^'-^ "^ Progress of Forest Organization. jyj munal property), mostly regulated hv area and volume method ^ ^^'^ ''>' ^ combined of working plans Such a I^k'' "'^°'' '" *he matter deals with volume Sles'L^d^'",""'"°""^"*hor for determining the stSk R ? ?'" ^'^ "'^'h°ds stowed away in a cupbTrd and k^' •'^"^ P'^" -'^ counselor IT^^JSJ "l::^^,' '" 1830. forest si'niiar plan he had TZt ZT^ '° ^^P'^ « mission for a trial was gT^ eT h '""^'^'''^« P«- ever, the organization ^fZ^ ^ "^""tmued, how- using Hundeshagen v"u^ ^TLlt^*" k""'" '«^8' forest, and volume allotment o^th. '"Jj" ^'«^''°n under clearing system * ^'^^ '^n^ged ac/eVhaTfor"a1i;t^rr*^ ^^^ °^ ''•^ thorough forest surver,^n?H'"?""°"^ '"'««-' made in J7I8-20, re"L"n frsz «? h"°" ■^'"^ for the shelterwood sv=^™ ■ ,V„„ ' ^"'^ regulated «> yea«, thel;:fh Jt^ '^^. ^J'"'" the last again, until in 1882 thT ^"^"' ^^^'n and based on normal sSkpZT"' ''"'*"^" '"^'^od in this p„,vince 50% of th?f '^ ^'^ ^^P"^" Since P-Perty and cTr/nf ftr^wT^"'"^-- managed without systema Hr- ' . ^""^ "^"^lly working plans repr^tt^' " t"'' '^^ ^^^° ""^er «Pable of such m:rgem':„T '" "^'^ °' '''^ -- the atXs riut:^^ t^ -" -'^s are situated, with these date back fo^r^^'")""* '"" -connection MKTCCOPY nSMUTION TBT OMtT (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHAKT No. 2) lii|2A ■tt III Ik IM 12.0 LLL L" ^|U 11.6 ^■t Uojn S(rM( Rochntw, Nmm Torti UWO USA {718) «3 - 0300 - PhofM (7tfi) 3M - 3M» - F« 172 Austria. were, by 1888, placed under working plans of modern style. Over 50% of the forest area of this province is so regulated. One of the most modern working plans based upon Pressler's soil rent theory and a most intensive silviculture, is that of the Baron Mayr- Melnhof on his estate Kogl. These details are merely brought forward to illus- trate the great variation both in the progress of deve- lopment and in the present conditions in different parts of the empire, similar differences being found in other portions. Suffice it to say that in round numbers about fifteen hundred thousand acres are managed under more or less intensive working plans, and of the balance seven million acres are farmers' woodlots on which only silvicultural treatment is necessary. 6. Development of Silviculture. The necessity for conservative forest use and refores- tation did not arise as early in Austria as it did in Germany. It was not until the middle of the 19th century that this necessity became apparent in most of the provinces, when German experiences in silvi- culture could be readily utilized. In Bohemia, the clearing system with artificial reforestation, mostly by seed, had been introduced at the beginning of the century for the conifer forests, planting as a rule being resorted to only in fail places. For this planting, wildlings were mostly used. In the broad-leaved forest, the selection system, and to some extent the shelterwood method, were largely followed. The strip system was also much employed, and, as Karst Problems. ^73 the ast 50 years, ylvicultural theory and practicf more is that of the "Kar^t " , ,: ^ waste land« in f»,„ ■' ^ "^""^ ^PP''«1 to the Trie, J n '"°""ta"n and hill country of Is^ria t^" L?n'JZAH''°"*r«^° ^"^ ^^J--' te": co^n^rjr!:: eSats i' L^rsf-^n clt;s^fndlS^'"oS- ^^^^-"--^orSwU nuded. natural reforestation being preventTbVthe^ .rpf::Tdr:s--:^--r-p of Trfesteln'r^s"' H /"'"^^'^ "^^ "'^^^ ''y 'he city rpn^^ ^l^^'- """ ^"''"^" government, acting upon representations of the Forestrv A«^- /• . "^ ;o encourage and ^^^^^^2:;::^^^ 'orested lands for a period of year., by technical ifli: I : ti k t>9 174 Austria. advice, and by assistance with plant material and money. By this move, so much land was withdrawn from pasture and taxation that opposition was aroused amonp the cattle owners, which led to additional legislation during the years 1882 to 1887, and finally to the creation of a commission charged to select the lands which in the interest of the country required reforestation, and empowered to enforce this improve- ment within a given time, the State expropriating the lands of objecting owners. At the same time, the Commission brought about the division of pasture lands which WLre held in communal ownership. By 1909, of the 75,000 acres selected by the Com- mission as of immediate interest 15,000 acres had been planted, mostly with Austrian Pine, at an aver- age cost of $8 to f 16 per acre, the cost including stone enclosures for the plantations, to protect them against cattle and fire, and the repairs, which sometimes equalled the original expense. In addition, some 60,000 acres of natural growth were brought into productive condition merely by protection. While this activity refers to the northern portion of the coast region, the Karst of Dalmatia farther south, being oak country, was mainly recuperated by protective measures. Here, in 1873, the pasturing of goats was forbidden on areas of over one million acres in extent which were found capable of reforestation. In 1876, the partition of communal holdings was ordered, and portions were designated for forest use, to be planted. As a result of t.Sese measures, neariy 400,000 acres have been recuperated. Forest Schools. 7. Education and Literature. 175 thluJTn ^Tf"^"^^' '" "^"^^"^ ^"' established bv p7Z^ r""''^'^' ^"^ ^^*°*'^^^ °"« '" Moravia by Prince Liechtenstein, these two being the largest o es T? " """'*"" ^" '^'- «"°'her prS orest school was opened in Bohemia, and at the same time the state institute near Vienna came nto .^"t ence Th.s was, in 1813, transferred to Marilbrunn and after vanous changes in the character of th^ teaching, was, in 1867, raised to the dignity of an academy with a three years' course. In 1875 it wis transferred to the Hochschule fiir BodenkulL^t Suit on .nh Tl"^"^ *° ^^" "'^ ^^^^' ^'="t"5c 7^'Zl Th ""'"^ """^ '^^cr.Uure by a three years course. The course was, in 1905, increased to four st!fdent, T^ *" ^"^" ^~'" '«^^ '° 19«4- °ver 2,600 S'o^ aV; S Tv^'To Se"""'^.*^^ ^''^^"-' are employed ""'"''"'^ ^"*' instructors ti Jr/"f- '"''" ^"^^^ °^ '°™^^*'^^' ^^'"^'s were from t.me to time opened in addition to the private oZ werefou„"d:i"'?p?"t"-'^^"'^ ""^"^'^ -"-'"•• were founded at Eulenberg (1852), Weisswasser (1855) ateSl'°^"*^'^'''''^"'^'"''^^«('«''')'-'-^^^^^^ latter the course is two years in the PolisI' language and one at Bruck (1900), where the course is three^;ars For the education of guards, three ForstwarVschooIs were mst-tuted in 1881 and 1883. one each for S : ■j I 1 '■ ' 1 A 1 m 1 176 Austria. Styria and Galicia, where, in an eleven months' course, ISforestguardsateachreceiveinstruction. Inaddition there are five schools of silviculture where the course is one year. Besides these schools, courses in forestry of shorter duration are given at three other institutions. Besides these schools, the promotion of forestry science is, as in Germany, secured by forest experi- Tient stations, which came into existence as a result of the earlier deliberations of the German foresters. The first proposition to establish such a station was submitted in 1868, but its establishment was delayed until 1875, when such a station was instituted at Vienna in connection with the school there. The results of the investigations are published from year to year and have enriched the forestry literature in the German language with many important contributions. A very active association life exists in Austria, largely due to the influence of the many large private forest owners. Curiously enough, the first attempt at forming a society of foresters in Bohemia was sup- pressed by the authorities, probably for fear of revo- lutionary tendencies, and the effort simply resulted in a literary or reading association to obviate the need of private purchase of books. Not until 1848, the very year of the revolution, did the Bohemian fores- try association become a fact, and, under the leader- ship of the large forest owners among the nobility, it has become the strongest in Austria, issuing a bi- monthly association journal from the beginning. Another strong local association which dates its be- ginning as a society for agriculture back to 1770, is Forestry Associations. 177 section, and h"v^S'™°*^'„«^«ty '" 1850, first as a Austria. I„T852 ^T ""TI ""^""' '^"^^ «^«' '» ation was \VZ, Xh"S fs^t '"^r ^'- tionof aquarterly "uL h^H^^" 'he publica- Parts of the empire TuXaldTrrT"" ^"■ed to flag, the attendance at the m^t nt h ''' smaller and smaller, and finallv fL ^ • ^^^"^ abandoned after a rival tK a *^ assocition was gress, had been" rganS n 1874'^^^^'^ ^°"- foresters; and their arriX . ^ P'"^^^'""^' in hterar;, labors but 1 1^" " ""' ""''^ '° ^ ^""""^ ciition toVe'^itL";trt;L'T.;:.;rL"°? '"^'- in^provr^ieSattTan^prtir^^"' ^^"'^ '- -h lat^r r tE £r;, :::^^^ gress ,s nofceable since the middl^'of thel:t Stu'^; ■(■'■ .■si ■ :'^- vU 1 A. .- :. 1 ■ 1 p 178 Austria. and the Austrians are vying successfully with the Germans in this direction. The names of FioceU, Pokomy, Bohm, Wiesner, Molish, Willkomm, Hempd and Kerner in the direction of forest botany, Wessdy, von Lorenz-Libumau, FaisttnanUl, DimUz, Wachtl (Entomology), ZJomirowW (encyclopedia 1886),£*»«r, Janka (wood technology) Guttenberg (forest mensur- ation and regulation), von Seckendorff, Schiffd (forest mensuration), Cieslar, Reuss, Bdhmerle, Hufnagl, Marchet, and many others are familiar to all German readers. In addition a very considerable literature in the Bohemian language is in existence, some in the Italian by Austrian authors, and some in the Slavonian. The magazine literature began with publications by various forestry associations which became active after 1848. At the present time weelky, monthly, bi-monthly, quarterly, yeariy and iiregular pu. cations to the number of not less than 14 in German, in addition to several in Bohemian, may be counted among which the monthly CentralblaU fur das Gesammle Forstwesen, in existence since 1875, and the weekly Oesterreichische Forstzeitung, since 1883, are perhaps the most widely known. HUNGARY. Hungary is mainly a fertile plain, traversed by the Danube and Theiss, an agricultural country, with the forest confined to the hilly portions, to the mountain- ous southern provinces of Slavonia and Croatia, and to the Carpathians, which bound it on the north and Conditions in Hungary. 179 east. Nevertheless, while wood in fh- „i • • the total forest area .includ^tha oftt!^'^'"' tioned provinces is hut l.v^V ? *"^ *^° ">«"- P;oper.';a.er2S(i^tcrs\SV"r^^"""^ of shifting sands anH »u .1 ^1^^' ^""^^ a^^eas rivers, swamp"' Vrtt t^ii'Lrf'" '"' "'"^'^ interspersed withVheheavvhU.^ ''K°^«'^t'°". are clay-soils. ^ '''^^'^ P«'"^ and compact Stat owrie? ''' '' '"""°" ^"- °^ f°-t the chul^hr I ■ ^"' ^'T^'-ations somewhat over 20^ chu«:hes, cloisters and other institutes 7 \v Lfl^' balance, over 13 millm., , "tuies /.^^, and the The administratio'l^r the"!^ "^ ^"^ P"^^'^'"- Department of Agricu ture hT.f "''' " '" *''« the control of the mmtl^ '^^ T'."" '"" ""^^^ All but the Private W. '^'''°^'' departments. *. .r«. 1. under ""SJ' " ■''T' *" ■»" million cnWc ta J™5i ^ "^ "" "" '«» n.i«l,borh<»d " sJ^n ;'°™" >"""' "~ '" *• of admmistration art larirplv .n^ j matters -~tion.^'-?rrs^;-^£ The forests, which had been for the most part the ;! m 180 Hungary. property of the kings of the Arpad dynasty, had by them been turned over from time to time in dona- tions to the churches, cloisters and to colonists, so that when the Hapsburgs succeeded on the throne m 1626, only a small portion remained undisposed, and this became State property. In the forests which were necessary for the working of the royal mines and furnaces, an attempt was early *" ^fcf!?"'^ systematic treatment under an ordin- ance (1566) which gave instructions as to the order of fellmgs, the reservation of seed trees, etc. But otherwise, the government did not make much effort at regulating forest use until the middle of the 18th century, and then, largely owing to military consider- ations, urged by General von Engelshoffen com- manding on the frontier against the Turks. The planting of forests for defense was ordered (1743) by Mana Theresa, but this order was probably never executed. About this time, however, movements of reform in vanous directions are noticeable. Complete working plans were made for the Kremnitz forest in 1750, and for the Schemnitz forest in 1763. The forest ordin- ances of 1770 and 1781 and the law of 1791 attempted to regulate the use of communal forests, and ordered the reservation of devastated forest areas. Other egislation followed in 1807, designed to arrest the further extension of shifting sands. Although, since 1809. forest inspectors had been employed to look after the execution of the forest laws, mismanagement and forest destruction by pro- miscuous cutting, pasture and fire remained the rule Forest Service and Policy. 181 an. Vth the advent of the railroads, in ,850. increased J^ untnt iTerr"" ^"^.-'-Pts at i„. new r^g.-„e had arrived andTnT'"','^"'^^ ^"'^ '^e P-ible to pass a ^^11 ^hich f th "h""^"^ present conditions. "" *''* ''^s's of A general forest law h»,} u^ th.s was superseded in 1858 bvThrr' '" ''^■- Austrian law of .852. But in 1870 f"°" "' "'^ .z«l fo.st pohcy and ^rZ'S^^ri^lr'^^' the State interests were nU^I^ J *"^' y^^''- tration of the Deplnme^t '^f ^'.^^"'« "''""■"- technical forester at the hTadrr^?''!!'"''" ^''^ ^ assisted by four section .V 1 ^^^'''^"dforstmeister), State forest ad^S^^ti telV th^T- °' ''^ tion of corporation forest, ^n f \.^ adrainistra- working pCs. and oTeX^h he*'' ''^'"^^*'°" "^ forest insperfors havinr' • ^ assistance of 20 of all foren laws Oth.™'^T°" "^ *''« ^«^"tion German admil^tt rtho^JV--! f^^"- of for purposes of execu^nrth "^ ''^''' ^''^^P* 'hat committee. comS ^ thr ''™*T'^" ^°'^' ^^^^. , ::l i'il .iJil 182 Hungary. ■ ■{<' ft' having been stripped, and no new clearing* may be made on such soils. Mountain forests, Which are Claras protection forests (around one million acres or 5.4% of the forest area so classed), as well as en- tailed properties, must be managed according to working plans approved by the forest department. The declaration of protective forests was to be made by a commission within five years of the enactment of the law. New planting for protective purposes could also be ordered, and this under certain condi- tions may be done by the interested, i.e., protected parties, which may associate themselves for this purpose. Violations of this law are liable to be pun- ished by a fine for each acre, imposed annually as long as the offense continues. Two-thirds of the whole forest area is thus more or less under State supervision and working plans for over 12 million acres have been or are to be prepared by the government. An area allotment method with a normal forest formula as a check has been mostly employed in this work, which IS by no means as yet completed. To promote forest planting several nurseries have been established by the government, from which around 10 million plants are annually distributed free of charge, and subventions for reforestation of wastes are also granted annually. It is interesting to note in this connection that more than 170,000 acres have been planted to Black Locust, which is managed as coppice for vineyard stakes. In 1884, a special fund for the purchase of forest land by the State was instituted by turning all moneys received from eventual sales of forest land into that E4ucation and Literature. 183 fund. Another fund for forest fm^, mulated by placine four fif?^ /T °''^'"^"' " accu- purpose. TheTfund, V '"^'^ ^"~"''' f*"" 'hat fast, the foreXr. ^fur .rre-'r T about $120,000 ''^"' "^'"8 only variruf;;: Xt:"'*" ■" ^--. there exist i„ shifting LriaX'Z^^rr, -"^ --tes and since 1788, legislation h, ^ deforestation. Ever habihtatio; oTthei"^Lt'"''"P*^ '° ^^'^ - re- some 600 squared" e?' /^sTr Tt "^" '" ^" beginning was made in the n.tt t systematic of the Magyars under .h»%\°" ^^^ "^'f^'d" similar to X^^^I 'n/Tu' ''"^*°^ ^'''*"/«'. 1842. the totalXn,' ? ""''^'•ta'""? in France. Bj^ acres. JV mTZ: PT^ ^''.^'-"^ ^^.OOo' forested, and parts ofr/ ^'"^ ''^'^ ^"^ re- yield profits. Tut even to^a 1'°"' '"' •^^" *° areas in a desert coSo?"^"''' "'"'^ "^^ ^*"' '^^^ Hu'ng^s^r;iito?r.ri"r '^'"^- «»rf seine Kultur, des^riL^ nT^'f ' ^'"^^""^ and methods of r;clamrtL„ n? .v^' ""^ P""°P'«« Most of the H,^'*"^.*'"" of shiftmg sands. written in the mS"1" '"""^ "'^'^^"- ^-e 'he rest of the 3 ""*"*«"' "* '"accessible to ^^Z SateTcfarfr ^° "^^ ^-«^ Inspector Fii,VS/e^ T/'r, "' ''»«• ^^en FoJ and wrote a foresrSteX"""^ ^"^^^ -"-' Th.s effort was followed. i„ 1806, by introducing the I m1 uf 184 Hungary. banya), a German forester Wilkins filling the chair while a special forest school was established at Her- mannstadt in 1817. «nlth 'T*7 ^°"'^' ^' Schemnitz were enlarged on^ l^M °t '■'^-*''«^"-'^^ '" 1846 and again in 1872; one of the changes being the use of the Hungarian anguage in its instruction, which had originally been m German. In 1904. the course, which was 3 years^d only optionally 4 (one year for engineering education) was made 4 years for all. and is obligatory for a nigher grade State oflScials. In Croatia-Slavonia. which is in many resoects separately administered, an agricultural and fore^t^ rots.""''" " '^"*' ^""'^"^^ ^"^ - ""^^-y^" For the lower service four schools of two-year course, have been established by the government the instniction being given by practitioners, and some of the students receiving free tuition. loofi 'v'^' «Periment station was established in 1898; .t issuM a quarteriy magazine. Irdtszeti Riser- i«elt, in which its results are recorded. ,f^ ""l^""" '"'^^''y awociation was formed in 1866; It issues a monthly journal, distributes pam- S?r i^":rmr '°^ "'"^P' "^°'*' "-• -d "With ^ZiTi '• ^" ""'^'^ ''8«»* '" »•"= work of « orm. A separate forestry association, which also Tn CrS^ia' """ ' '" *'' "''"^ '^"«"»«^' ^^^ SWITZERLAND. ^or2:;"rrs r^s,:^;- ■•- ^^^ deve.op„e„t o. 16,000 square m«es Sh °^' "^ «°'"«what less than '- in the fact that trireoll" *" '^P'^' nation of republics, h^ olZu^l" l"'"'"' "" '«<^'- occupying an Alpike mofnf • ^''^"^^' ^""^ that, veloped a uniaue r„ """"".t^'" ~"ntry. it has de ment, Gennan'inflSeS?he"H ^°"''" """" -"*'- try methods, outside "Tth. ^ "^.^'oP^^nt of fores- struction of 18lTa„d in itV "°' """' *''« «c°"- A very good brirf .t., 7 _^ ' — '"ugii ine nucleus ■* XT good brirf .ui«n.«,. » *Zr f n •'^' "•«» ■««•■ """M™.™! of Ihi. ™„.ri„S. I'M 186 Switzerland. of its political existence dates back at least 600 years, when, in 1291, the people of the three forest cantons, Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, formed their first league to resist encroachments on their rights by the church and by the feudal barons. The country became settled, similarly to Germany, by Germans, and especially Burgundians, a free people ; but when the control of the Obermarkerover the free communities began to ripen into feudal superi- ority, it found resistance in the forest cantons, and these formed a league to fight the duke of Hapsburg, who partly as feudal lord, partly as Reichsvogt, the emperor's repi-esentative, claimed obnoxious rights. Through admission of neighboring lands and cities to the league, the number of confederates had by the middle of the 14th century grown to eight, and when, by the battles of Sempach (1386) and Nafels (1388), the Austrian Hapsburg supremacy had been permanently destroyed, the number of allies grew, and, by conquest and annexation and otherwise, their territory attained nearly the present size by the middle of the 15th century; the war against feudalism being the cause for this growth. These various small republics, however, always formed a part of and owed allegiance to the German Empire, although they resisted the arms of the Em- peror as Archduke of Austria— until, with the peace of 1499, this connection became entirely nominal. The final st>paration from the German empire and acknowledgement of independence was not pronounced until the peace of Westphalia, in 1648. Political Conditions. 157 The league of cantons was only a very loose r„„ federation without any central powlr alAo^r djet, to which each canton sent a^dLte had V esn^Slv wh ^- •" '^'"'^ ^^t^"y divided, It must not, however, be understood th»* *i. pe^nts in the diffe.nt canto"s t^r^n.^ ,* .^ rthriflT' 'r""'T ^'* ">« excepfW republ^ th °"'' *'''''' ''"^ t'"'y democratic ^^s^Set^^s^^::^-- ;^orory%i:x;^;rr-^-"-"^^^ was reserved to Napoleon to proclaim the Helvet an sX T74daV "'r'''^' '" ''''■ ^'*- ^"- fall of NlJ^^r ^ 7 ^ constitution fell with the ofTrh ^f '^^''°"' '" *hich the I rmer sovereignly adopted bemg once more revised in 1874 Stat- o?""? " '^'r^.'^'^ '"'° ^» •""■>« -nd 6 half «ates or cantons, which a«. a unit towards foreigl 188 Switzerland. powers, but have as much independence among them- selves as each of the United States, each self-govern- mg. A parliament {Bundesversammlung) of two chambers— the Nationalnth of 145 members corres- ponding to the House of Representatives, the Standes- rath with 44 members, equivalent to the Senate- represent the interests of the whole federation. The administration of the cantons lies in the hands of the "great" and "small" councils, with an executive ministry of three members chosen for two years by the former council. The administration of the Bund is in the hands of the Bundtsrath of 7 members, elected by the parliament, which also elects one of the mem- bers as president for one year. The Referendum, which, if 30,000 voters demand it within 3 months, requires reference of any law to the direct vote of the people is used as a check on legislation. Although the larger part of the population of 3 million people is German, parts of Switzerland are French, and other parts Italian. From this brief statement of the political develop- ment of the country it will appear that the develop- ment of forestry must also have varied. 1. Forest Conditions and Property Rights. Topographic and soil conditions necessarily had also their influence on this development. In the plains, the plateau, and the hill country, the distinc- tion of forest and field as it now exists had been in general attained in the 15th century, while in the mountain country, forest destruction began only in the 18th century and continued till the middle of the Forest Conditions. jgg 19th century, stimulated by the development of the meta, ,„d„,try and the improvement ^„ meal of ^ulted and we find a variation in forest area from 99^ «^n. feudal conditions were not allowed to ga^^ pretty neariy'SUn\ IL'Tof ^^^ '^'' ship is stiU largely commuS; nfa^yTr? T TJ S;:cf "'• *'" "^""^'^ "^ highest'foST^p:, i^° -ch owning none. U is also";orL:5^hrcom" i 11 n 190 Switzerland. munal property is constantly increasing by purchases from private holdings. 2. Devdopmenl of Forest Policy. No doubt, in some parts the first beginnings of care for forest property and forest use date back even to Roman times. Chariemagne had his forest officials here as elsewhere, and the number of ban forests seems to have been especially great, some 400 "bann- bnefe," documents establishing them, having been collected at Bern. The first forest ordinance regu- lating the use of a special forest area in Bern dates from 1304. But the first working plan seems to have been made for the city forest of Zurich, the so-called SMwaU, in 1680-1697, and to this day this corporation property, with its intensive and most profitable management, is the pride of all Switzerland. The Bernese cantonal forests were firat surveyed and placed under management from 1725 to 1739, and fully regulated by 1765. An excellent forest code for Bale was drawn up in 1755 by Bishop Joseph William; and in 1760, through the propaganda of the two scientific societies of Zurich and Bern, the teaching of forestry was begun, and forest organization in the two cantons secured in 1773 and 1786. The canton of Soleure (Solothurn) was the first to start a regular system of instruction, two citizens from each woodland district being given the opportunity to qualify themselves as foresters. Each canton had, of course, its own laws protecting forer property against theft and fire; in the latter respect especially great care was exercised and burning Early Development. jjj century, when with i iLLtST"L°' *?•? ^'^^ trade the value of for«f P*'"^ P^ ™°dern life and cantons issut/r^^LSK^.r^^^' ^"^ -- clearings. regLtrp'st^--^^^^^^^^^^ export to other v!Il:.™7 forbidding wood famine being d^aS But' ""."^T' " ''^"' ''""^^ a central power would have to b^ 0"^^ T.''^"* thority to regulate the use at least of the J ""f ^"^ In 18fl7 th^ o J . °' t"e alpine forest. " l»S7, the Bund ordered an investieaHnn of !k moun, f„,,,, .„ ^„ ^^^^^^ this wrrn; L i! 'vemfalrpr-ntS tl"^-"?^ -•-' ^-^"- - same time, a^n a^r ^ot f^rwlltde t^ ■Ml 192 Switzerland. the forestry association for reforestation and engi- neering works in the Alps. This grant was changed, in 1871, by voting an annual credit of $20,000 to be expended by the Bundesrath for similar purposes. The floods of 1868 brought such distress in certain cantons that contributions from all other parts were required to assist the flood sufferers; and $200,000 of the collections were appropriated for reforestation. Finally, in 1874, through the effort of the forestry association, it was determined to create a central bureau of forest inspection for the whole Bund in the Department of the Interior, and an article was in- serted in the constitution declaring the superior right of oversight by the Federation over the water and forest police in the high Alps, at the same time pro- posing to aid in the engineering and reboisement work necessary to correct the torrents, and to take measures for the preservation of these works and forests. The result was the installation of a federal forest inspector with one assistant, in 1875, and the enact- ment of a law, in 1876, which determined the area within which the federal government was to exercise supervision. The execution of the law was, however, left to the cantons— the jealousies of State rights as against federal rights being even more strongly de- veloped in Switzeriand than in the United States. Each canton proceeded in its own way, or neglected to proceed, and hence no uniform progress in applying the law was made. Indeed, not a single prescription of the law was applied within the prescribed time, although again and again extended, and even to-day some cantons have not yet complied. Stubborn Present Forest Policy. j^ ^P^^sidon to the .aw continues even to date insole their employ^^'tb^Ll f""""^ ''"'"«^ '°««'«»- and theobje^on to th.- '^""^'"^"t of the law- who lookei on them as H '""^'°i;'"'"' ''^ ">« --"tons. held Its own examinatinn. f„ / ' ^*'^'' "^"t™ that year a smnS w^ enac^t^:.'?''"'^'^' ''"* '" Within the federan/suZ.^n2,t -^'°Vment as a compromin difi?^''"^"' ^° that finally «--edpa£urewl^s.tStiS'^--^-- extendl^y T^X^l^T ^"'^^ ^ ^ line. This limitation was 'movT- ^ ~" ""'''"K tion of the Counc." aTd r^r '.'" ^898, by resolu- by which the fSare.e,drof ''' '^""^'''"tion, PoHce was extended over theTholf ^'"'^^ ""'* ^"^'^^ to carry this into effect w.t .^'°""*'y' ^"'^ « "11 1802, a revised law f -ntroduced. Finally, in Prese'nt fS ZTJ^ ^^*^'"-^''-« ^""y ihe ininii:tstfXtv,:r'T °j ^" ^-- >-'- for^ts as well as the p 'bl' "e Stat""'^'"^ ""^^'^ <"■ corporation forests R.^l u ^"'' communal differences in the manner of Ih"' ''"" "'" '"^''"^tive entiation of ownS 1. " ' ' ' ^''^''■ ditions was torsade bv t^"' ^""^ '°'--' -°"- years. ^ ^^ the cantons within two '11 w i 194 Switzerland. The forests are to be divided into protection and non-protection forests (by the cantons with sanction of the Bund), the former being such as are located at headwaters or furnish protection against snowslides, landslides and roclcfalls, floods, and climatic damage. Most of this segregation had already been made and mapped in consequence of the law of 1876. In 1904, 71% of the total forest area had been classed as pro- tective forest; nearly 80% of the communal, and over 60% of the private forest property. All public forests are to be surveyed and their cor- ners permanently marked by the cantons according to instructions by the Bund, the latter furnishing the needed triangulation survey, and inspecting and re- vising any older surveys free of charge. The surveyed public forests are to be fully regu- lated according to a sustained yield management, under working plans made according to instructions by the Cantons, to be sanctioned by the Bundesrath. For the unsurveyed forest areas at least a provisional felling budget is to be determined, as nearly as possible representing the sustained yield. In protection forests the working plans must conform to the objects of these forests, and clearings in these are as a rule forbidden. The filings are to be made under direct supervision of foresters, and, after being cut, the wood must be measured. Sale on the stump is forbidden, otherwise no interference in the management is intended. Up to 1902, under the law of 1876, working plans for 540,000 acres had been made, In 1907, 90,000 acres of State forest, and over one million acres of corporation forests were under working plans. Present Forest Policy. jgg For other than protection forests tt,. i a number of restrictions. suchT^. f*,^''.P'°^'^«^ ture woods may • ,t he JZ ^ • ^^""''"'K- Pas- permission o^Te J^t^sS "".r •'*'"'" '-^y to be subdivided Sut crsTntt r'^ '''^ ""' government, except where twTn^ '^"'°-'*' have joint owneishin n!. u '"°'* communities with such p^Son Zh? ^^ '° "^ ^'"^ ^''^Pt nguishid by7e clnto^^r'^' "^^ '^ f°^°Wy ex- appea. to the Bund^"S «°v«n,ment. but under ^o be the rule, t.^^'^ui^::^ ^S"^'''''' ^"= by spedal permission. By 1^2 ^ ° ^ *?^" ""'^ already been soent In « f- '^^J ^^^ WOO.OOO had rights of s.s^taSrff '•''' '•"^*-"' portation roads etc^ ""^°' "^ *'^"''- -:;?tTe?.r„^^-^;i-r-^^^^^ Permissi^of fhe fST °' ""^""^ «*P' ^y ■ng pasture woods^! Govermnent. of diminish- user.Vhe preJiS; of dr°^'"""*"' "^ "«''*« °f inestabHsL/rnVo firSl^rn'^xl.^'^""'* --ment is obh«ed to in.u^T:LlJ:n7T^ the Bund paying for ZL? J"^%^ '^«^'' "™^. operation, ft emLwers 'h. 1 "'^"'*'"« ^"'='' «^ enforee such ^"^TatTv. "°" °' *''^ ^""d to co-operative management of protection ;i f 'i u "i p t * ' 1 t. '« ill 196 Switterland. forest areas in specially endangered localities as at the headwaters of torrential streams. Otherwise, in the non-protective private forests, only the pro- hibition of clearing except by permission of the cantonal government, the obligation of reforesting felling areas within three years, and of maintaining existing pasture woods is ordered. Whereever on private properties conversion of forest into farm or pasture is permitted (after report of the forest ad- ministration of Canton or Bund) an equivalent refor- estation of other parts may be ordered. Wherever by the reforestation of bare ground pre' active forest areas can be created, this may be ordered, the Federal or the Cantonal government contributing towards such work; or else, if the owner prefers, he may insist upon having his ground expropriated by the Canton or other public corporation; the federal government assisting in the first case to the extent of 30 to 50% of the cost, and in establishing new protection forests to the exteut of 50 to 80%. Before 1902, under the law of 1876, some 16,000 acres hao been reforested and put in order at an ex- pense of over one million dollars, the federal govern- ment contributing just about fifty per cent. In 1910, the area of planted protection forest had grown to 25,000 acres. Besides the various restrictions with provisions of penalties for disobedience (from $1 to $100 for each transgression) and enforced execution by cantonal government, I !:ere are a number of directions in which the Federal Government makes contributions for the purpose of encouraging conservative management. Present Forest Policy. 197 For the salaries of the cantnn.i i,- l , 20 to 35 per cent. ^r^^^^J^'t/t:!^' ^"'"''''' Poration and co-ooerativc Tw' i° *^^J"ehtr cor- 26 per cent., for ^'^ lower /^;^"°" "^''''^ « '» cent. The Federat^Trl^^": errfh' *° '° ^' one-third in the acddenH^S^^^^ of fott^offic' "' a minimum salary of thp «« ■ i . officers; proper education b^inl 1,H !^. ^"^ '^ ^^^r the latter the fL«L? conditions. To secure In 1901 thf flL .^" P«scribed conditions. «2a.O0O, namely ,9 SS'for^f''"''°''"'*'°" *^ office; J26,000 to;a^s^,lrief!/"''^*T^"^'^''^ 3am\rr„foS:;srttr- r^ ^"^ m nistrations li ;= ^^- 7 '""■■ ^o"*** ad- havetoSc^LToS? '''*,^, '"'^«" -" to come. BrmOth.^ST^'y^"'' «""«"■■"« altogether contribL |2 SlS ^""T"^'" "^'^ towards the execut S of S '" *''" ^^ ^"^^"^ ministrative offic^ *^* '^''' """'^^^ 'ts ad- poSriSrr'2cir:°^"ir"^'°- OJ 1876, somewhat n,!^'fiLi^^^*^ *'* *''« 'a'^ namely/aTorr.tdiSnl^thrn''' '^" °' ^«^2' Interior with nn»V • M ^* Department of the assistant ^"'^"°'' ^""^^^ ^"^I^tor and three The Cantons have thpir n»™ j • . 1 r; r ,1 d 198 Svntterland. vanously OberfOrster, Forstinspektor, Forstmeister, Oberforstmeister). Bern has three co-ordinate Forst- inspektor. The Cantons are or are to be districted into forest circles (Forstkreise) the subdivision to be approved by the Bundesrath, and some are further subdivided into ranges (UnterfOrsterei). These forest districts, from 7,500 to 45,000 acres each, are to be managed by properly educated and paid foresters elected by the people. The eligibUity depends upon an examination, the theoretical part of which is con- ducted by the forest school, the practical part, after a year's practical work, is conducted by a commission of foresters, after completion of which the candidate becomes eligible; the election being for three years, and re-election being usual, unless Uiere are good reasons against it. In 1003, there were employed as administrators or managers 119 State (Cantonal) foresters and 33 Communal foresters, besides 11 Federal forest officials. In 1909, tiie total number had grown to 193, besides 1091 under-foresters. to whose salaries die Bund con- tributed. The State foresters are allowed to manage neighbouring communal properties. 3. Forestry Practice. The timber forest is the most general form of silvi- cultura! management. Selection forest with 150 to 200 year rotations is practised in the Alps and in the smaller private forest areas. Shelterwood system in compartments is in use in other parts (with a rota- tion of 60 to 80 years in the deciduous, and 80 to 120 years in conifer forest), supplanting largely the clear- Administrative Features. 199 verted into tim^r forest "I^ "7''^'"^ ^" '^ ~n- instructions. P^e See KT ''°'^ by cantonal confined to the oSw ^^^ '■""''' ™"' "«"^"y holdings. In some of i m w ^"'^ ^'"^" P^vate territo'^ it isTLt s^^ S'^.^br ^'^ '^^^"^'^ C/-^|.) according to F^J^U pattern '' "'^*'°"" but thinning operas L'^"*°"^ ^epilations, except where locTl Set for inf '""'"^ "^«'^'«1- then, advisable. .i^^fL!Zi';:Z SSf ""^"^ where th- annual yield fmm Z • ^^ "* country, 30% of the total rat^e!r;^efd "'"'^ "^^ '^P'^-"' to natural r^geTe:;^ t^'^ '?"" '='^^""8 ^^^tems and from pur^ to^:, t hte""^^'" '°-*>- provisions of the working pfal' ^"^ «'=""^' ypxz£ rtrs^^ff ^-- ^- « cub. ft. for the corDoralfonV ''• *"^' ^"^ anthe public fores,^Tr"u?d 4?"ut k" '""^^ '°' good showing as yet So far fh. M '~"°' ^ ^""y for yield tables and for a tateme n° T°" °' "'"'^"^' «tock on hand in the countrvaM. '""""""' ^""^ cient, although in 18^2 Pf, ^^^ ^'"^ "'" '"'"ffi- annual prodm It S^ r™\^"doIt estimated the feet, orKbL fU't acr'"*" "^ '"""°" -"- 200 Switzerland. Only for the intensively managed city forests of Zurich and the cantonal forests of Bern are more accurate dat? vailable. In the latter, the State forests yield „„ cubic feet in the plateau country, 73 cubic feet, in the middle country, and 76 cubic feet in the Jura, while the communal forests of that canton yieM 15, 66 and 56 cubic feet respectively. Prices f r - wood are higher in the low country than the average m Germany and have been steadily rising for the last 40 years, especially for coniferous saw material which at present brings stumpage prices of 12 to 15 cents. Owing to these high prices the gross yield of some Swiss forests is the largest known in Europe; the city forest of Zurich, exhibiting yields of f 12, and the city forest of Aarau as much as f 14 per acre on the average, although in the Alps forests the gross yield sinks to $3 and $4. The more intensively managed city forests mentioned spend on their management $6 and even $7 per acre, while most of the State forests keep their expenditures within $2.50 to $3.50, and in some places down to $1.50 per acre. The net yields vary therefore for the State and communal forests of the plateau country between $3 and $6.50 for some of the city forests from $6.50 to $8 and $9. Swilzeriand has long ago ceased to produce ite wood requirements, and imports 'ron, g to 9 million dollars annually of wood and wood manufactures. 4. Education and Literature. For the education of the higher forest officials the Federal government instituted a two year course at the Polytechnicum at Zurich which was founded in Education and Literature. 201 mS Thrr'^^'"^' '" '^' ■■"^'^^ to three branches arSe he rt"'"'^'J"^^^--^ ave.a..„, i„ .He neJht'^oli^r^H^TyVv ""'^"'^ eh-gibility 0^ r„dMr r'-"' ^^^^'O". tests the positions For th l!, ' ^°'"^""^^ "°* «''<='"ded, for cation. TheTnumhIr "^'"T ""^^ «^'»°°' «d"- more than 25 TW^ hf"", \^' '^^^ ^«' ^"^ "« ally conduc ed ^cu^ Z"^" '"*'''"*«' ^P<^- foresters- courses asTe, as aH"^";"^ .""^^'- coun^ which the Bund tlbsidi^es '""'' """'''^ sciLTndtt"aXh''"'= Zurich- school, forestry endow-d LtrarpIlfT"'^"^^""'^ ^^ ^ '^^U- sever^l.MK?:- *' Experiment Station, with several substations and an annual budget of J O^C ! J tl i '1 1 ! ■ i ' ' • i 202 Svritzerland. work. Schweiterische ZeUschrift fUr das Forsfivesen (begun 1850) is its organ, with Dr. Fankhauser as editor. In 1898, an association of underforesters with a special organ, Der Forstwirth, came into existence (526 members in 1902), and several cantonal foresters- associations are also active. In the literature, which is largely in German, with some French and Italian volumes, : able wo H have appeared and real advances in forestry science especially with reference to management of mountain forests are due to Swiss writers. Id 1767, the SocUU d'Economie de Zurich published a foresters' manual, and during the first quarter of the nmeteenth century. ZfcAo**e and Kasthofer devAoped silviculture in the Alps. LandoU, in 1860, published the results of his investigations (under the order of the Bund of 1857) into the forest conditions of the Alps, and contributed other volumes along similar lines He was succeeded by the now venerable Dr J Coat as Inspector-General of the Bund (still active at 90 years of age), who also contributed to the science of mountain reboisement and in other direc- tions. The work on the management of the City forest of Zarich by its long-time manager Meisttr is classic. Under the active direction oi Anion BiihUrior many years, the publication of (now under Dr. Engler) MUtheilungen der eidgenossischen Centralan stall fiir das forstltche Versuchswesen, since 1891, have become im- portant contributions to forestry science. In the direc- tion of wood technology the name of L. Tetmajer who IS conducting timber tests, should be mentioned ■ FRANCE. tice has been almost as w5m ! ? ""^'^y P'^c- preceding Teutonic clu't^f" '''^'°'^ « "" ^^e Germany's neighbor to the West h. , . however, forest pohcies anH • ^ evolved, No compete monomoh... k: , . 1 ' ' L. F A. M»uRr, i„ .,4^, j^ ^ Ch. GuYor, /:>»»,>,— Ulr,^!;. "'" »"• >"•"• of historic deveLmT, -HL ..'2i'<:„4~r.uh^,«:T''" "" '-"" ^'-"- '8*,.. pp. ,^ 204 France. although the early history of forestry in France was largely analogous to that of Germany. Indeed, until the end of the ninth century, the two countries being undivided, the same usages existed more or less in both, except that in the Gallic country Roman in- fluence left a stronger imprint, Gallia having been long under the dominion of Rome. The fact that France has for nearly a thousand years been a unit, while Germany has until recently been split up into many independent principalities, did much for uniform, albeit less ambitious, develop- ment in forestry matters. Most of the forest policy as it exists to-day was inaugurated during the monarchical regime, which came to an end in 1871. Since that year, a republican form of government, with an assembly of 584, a senate of 300 members, under a President elected by the legislature for seven years, has been in existence. The country is principally a plain, mostly below 1200 feet in altitude, sloping to the north and west; the mountain ranges (Pyrenees, Alps, Jura, Vosges) are confined mainly to the south and east boundaries, with secondary ranges (Cevennes, Cdte d'Or, Au- vergne, etc.,) in the southeast part of the country. Of the 204,000 square miles of territory, just about 18 per cent, is wooded, which, with a population of nearly 40 million, leaves only about .6 of an acre per capita. In its present condition this area does not produce more than one-third of the home demand, which re- quires on the average an import in excess over export to the amount of about 25 million dollars (1^33 million Forest Conditions. 205 quarters of the production being fuel S ' ^ ine distnbution of forest area ;= „ varying from 3.5 to 56 per cent In thi? ""'T'' partments. Only about M^nfM ^"°"' ''"■ on the mountains l5 if ?„ ' ^'^^ " ''^^^«' the plains ^° ^'" ^°""'^' ^""l 60% in to'HuirUS"ho::^er'"a^f Sr ^'^r'"^ Me^£;^U"^r?Lr;;s ^" ^----^ ful^'Sr^ V?"'' .^'"^°^' •^•' -"d ash, etc.. occupy Only 25% of the forest area is timber forest 38^ ■« copp,ce. and 35% coppice with standards 2^ Sri;rtr=trzrt:r^™r^°'^? Of the 227 million acres, hardly more than , u f 1 fit 206 France. one-third, belonging to state and communities, are placed under the rigime foresHer, i.e., supervised and managed under working plans. The larger area is under coppice. Three-fourths of the communal and one-sixth of the state's timber forest is managed under selection system. Combinations of farm and forest culture (sartage and furetage) are stUl quite extensively prac- tised. The production of saw-timber under these practices is naturally small. Of the 40 cubic feet of wood per acre produced in the better class of managed state and communal properties, only 10 cubic feet are saw-logs, and if the private forests were taken into consideration, the average product, on the whole would appear still sn- •:er, the private properties being mostly small, poorly managed, and largely coppice Neither the owners, nor their managers and guards have, as a rule, any professional education although the means of obtaining it ^jdst in the schools at Nancy and Barres. Blessed for the largest part with a most favorable climate and with rich soil of tertiary formation, the diHiculties in forestry practices experienced by other more northern and continental countries are hardly known. Hence many practices which are successful in i-rance might m Germany prove disastrous, and such yidds as some of the oak forests show, unattainable The greatest interest for the forester attaches to the methods of conversion of coppice into timber forest, to the extensive areas reforested during the I-st century, which probably exceed 3 million acres, and to the reboisement work in the mountains ,5"-'3!Lf, Properly Conditions. 207 1. DevOopmenl of Forest Property. . f^ '" A"*tria, private ownerehip of forest oronertv '^ nT L^TSrrv''"^ '""^ propeTt;rsSr side of h^?v • * '^°'"^"' '"""'^ the forest out- side of holy groves as communal property. After the conquest, all the unseated lands, esp^alwZ extensive mountain forests, were decia e^ S 'stS or .mpenal property-more than half the whol t^. tory-and were managed as res publica by he a^. mimstrators of public afiairs. AnVwhile later ^th ^a,SXm^'^ German hordes, property co^ditl^ ^ snaped themselves somewhat according to their wavs ierS^e^I^Si— '- - '--o-re fo^r' T) "'"^ ""''^^ ^ G^''<= s.igneu";,„^; a former chief, now proprietor, his tribesmen and the Lrtne ,v'h 7"r """^ population b^omi'^g serfs as their property and divided among them-the first private property-; another third was ^t^uT^ by the seigneur and utilized by means of the S:^ ihts ofT ^""t"^' '"* "^"^"y «'- burdenTb^ rights of user on their part; and the last third ^Z common property of the community at large, ^"e onginal fr^e communes or Mark (vicus) so that fivZ diftrent property classes were in exirtenc" "'' Alan. V '^t"'"^,^^ the Teutonic tribes, Suevi Alan., Vandals and Burgundians, overwhelm the 1 ' 1 Jl I'' 208 France. Romans, who had for 500 years kept the Gallo- Celtic population under their rule; and these were followed by Visigoths and Franks, who in turn took possession of the country. The conquerors did not drive out the Gallo-Romans, but merely quartered themselves on them under the euphemistic title of "guests," assuming to themselves two-thirds of each estate, and leaving the remainder to their "hosts." On these lands, undoubtedly, similar economic and social institutions were developed as in Germany. Com- munal ownership under these was at first developed to such an extent that the Salic laws declared all trees which were not reserved by special sign as subject to the use of all and any of the Markers. But later, as in Germany, the socialistic Mark was followed by the feudal system with its ban forests and the creation of great landed proprietors or lords. When Clovis, the king of the Franks, in the first decade of the 6th century defeated the Visigoths and took possession of the country (see p. 29), he found communal forests of the villagers (vicus), property of seigneurs (equites), royal forests and State forests, remnants of Roman origin. The latter properties and much of the Mark forests he claimed for himself and divided two-thirds among his vassals; but the larger part of the other third became also gradually property of the nobility and church, so that, by the 12th century, only a relatively small royal property remained. Afterwards, the royal or State property grew again in various ways, as the power of the kings grew. In 1539, Francis I declared the same in- alienable. But neither himself nor his successors paid Development of Property. 209 heed to this self-imposed prohibition and. whenever financal troubles made it expedient. they^iS of some of their holdings. apposed Ch!L*?v"""^"'! °^ ^^^ (^'' -^^ ^<"^i«s), King Charles X again declared the domain of the crown l^"' tL.^'T*'^'^^ ""' '''™^'f '" the same™ ^^Z., ^"^'.'^ne^ed the ordinance of non- a^.e„at,o„ and restored some of the last parcels to the domam by the exercise of the royal right. Him! «lf and h,s successors, however, continually brX that of the seigneurs grew. Similarly to what han- pened m Germany, the church property was taken by machmation or force to increase^he hofdini o" tangs or seigneurc. Nevertheless, at the beSn^ of the revolution in 1789. the royal domain compS not more than 1,200,000 acres, producing a ne^r of ups and downs, continuous changes of policv aclases and decreases of the property untirS the inauguration of the republic, in lV71,compara^ve stability was secured. i^o'auve In 1791. after the revolution, the royal property became national domain, and by further sSSn o1 S'Z"'"''^' r^ "therwii attained^ a :" was Srw"""- ' u *''" '^^ °' 1^»1' ^ distinction was made between the inalienable domain which ompnses roads, canals, fortresses, harbors etc aS the alienable national domain, including the f^^st domains. To this national domain was added, by 210 France. the law of 1792, the forest property of the refugees of the revolution which was, however, later for the most part restored or indemnified. Finally, when, by the treaty of Basel (1795), the French frontier had been pushed to the Rhine, the total state forest had grown to around 6,500,000 acres, nearly one-third of the total forest area. But, through sales and otherwise, this area had, by 1815, been reduced to 3,200,000 acres, and during the period until 1872, the area had been further again reduced to less than 2,500,000 acres. At present (1905) it comprises 2.9 mil- lion acres, or less than 12 per cent., of the total forest area, 55 per cent, of which comes from the original royal domain, 22 per cent, from original church property an-1 23 per cent, from recent acquisitions, secured under the laws of reboisement of mountains, sand dunes, etc. The communal property developed largely in a similar manner as in Germany, from the Mark, and through the feudal system, with its rights of user as a result. In the twelfth century, the grandees or seigneurs were active in colon'/ng their domains, acquired as fiefs or otherwise, with serfs and others, giving them charters for villag ? with communal privileges and rights. Under this method, another kind of communal forest property grew up, by written instruments or contracts, in which limitations and reservations of rights are imposed by the seigneurs. One of the most usual conditions of the contract was the prevention of clearing or sale; at the same time a new set of rights of user, this time on the part Communal Property. 2II of the seigneur, brought new complications. One of the worst features originating in the 14th century as an outgrowth of feudal relations, was "the right of the third {trmge), which gave to the seigneur, when- ever he wished to exercise it, one-third of the property free of all nghts of user. In this way, the communal area was dimimshed. until, in 1667, the widespread abuse of this right led to an ordinance abolishing it. Lr'' 7^^^'' '^-^^'^blished by the ordinance of 1669 m all cases where the forest had been gratui- tously ceded by the seigneurs, or when the remaining two-thirds was deemed sufficient for the needs of the ^^1'h ^°* .""'" ^^^°-^^^2 was this exorbitant right finally abolished. 170Q 1" ""'growth of the revolutionary doctrine of 1793, the most radical legislation decreed presumptive ownership by the mu.icipal corporations of all lands for which the claimant could not show a deed of pur- chase excluding any title acquired as a result of feudal relations. The day of revenge of all old wrongs had come, and, appeal to justice being useless, the municipalities increased their holdings freely Al- though later legislation attempted to arrest this public theft and to restitute some of the stolen pro- perty, much of the communal forest area of to-dav consists of this kind of ill-gotten property. Another method of increasing municipal properties was by exchange of territory for the rights of user. Efforts to get rid of these rights, which g , up as described and to prevent their extension were insti- tuted much eariier than in Germany, Philip of Valois expressly forbidding such extension as eariy as 1346 id t 212 France. Nevertheless they continued to grow so that, by the middle of the 18th century, they were as general and afforded as great a hindrance to forest manage- ment, as in Germany. The ordinance of 1669 also provided for the extinction of these rights, apparently without much success, and the troublesome times after 1789 increased their number. Only when the orderly regime following the reign of Napoleon gave rise to the Code Forestier (1827), was a systematic attempt for their extinguishment by the cession of territory and cash payment begun, and by this time the extinction may be considered practicallyconcluded, at least for the state and communal property. Private property, not seignorial, was but little developed before the 16th century; after that the frequent sales by the kings and barons gave rise to small forest owners, so that, by 1789, over 10 million acres were in such possession. During the 19th cen- tury this grew by purchase, by cessions, and by re- forestation of waste lands to double that amount, not less than two million acres being added by the latter cause alone, while some decrease came from clearings. In 1905, private holdings comprised 15 million acres or 65 per cent, of the total; the communal and institutional forests 4.8 million acres or 21 per cent., leaving for State forest 2.9 million acres, or a little over 12 per ce.it. of the total of 22.7 million acres. Twenty-two per cent, of state and communal pro- perty is, however, waste land, and such areas in pri- vate hands may be six timi s as large; there being alto- gether between 14 and 15milli... acres of wastelands. Early Methods of Administration. 213 2. Develcpf^:nt of Forest Administration. In thf eailier times, and, indeed, into the 18th century, the most important use of the forest was in the mast from oak and beech for the pigs and pasture for the cattle, besides firewood, for which mostly the soft woods were used. This was given free from the royal domain, and the administration consisted mainly in regulating this use. The main incentive for the regulation of forest use on the part of the king were the interests of the chase. Towards the end of the ninth century, special forest officers, forestarii, are mentioned in Charle- magne's celebrated capitularium, which describes m detail the administration of the public domains These were, to be sure, only lower rank officials, workmg under mayors, intendants and the count (comes), who was the administrator and soon inde- pendent arbiter of the royal domain as well as of the administration of justice in general. His office early became hereditary. The first mention of "forest masters" (maitres des eaux etforits) dates back to 1291, and later ordi- nances mention higher officials. But the credit for a full and detail organization and regulation of management belongs to Charles V, the wise Valois in his ordinance of 1376. This organization, after various changes, by the end of the 16th century, under the reign of Henry IV, took about the following form: Under a general superintendent of forests, titulary head of the forest service, a number of grands mattres, generaux reformaUurs des eaux et f arils, some 17, were ■ 1 ■ i' - 1 1 { 1 i i t France. appointed by the King to watch over tl.e conduct of the mattres and gruyers, officers in charge of the forest districts (mattrises). All of these officials had their deputies and lieutenants under various designations (procureur du rot, greffier, gardemarteau, sergen du garde, etc. A stamping hammer (kept by the gardemarteau) was employed for marking trees which defined the boundaries, or which were to be reserved in the fellings. In addition to these regular officers there were em- ployed a great number of capitaines des chasses whose functions, as the title indicates, related mainly to the chase. The function of the forestmasters did not stop with the supervision of the use of the forest and sale of wood, but included also the jurisdiction of all misdei.ieanors and crimes committed in the royal, and later, in all forests. They became thus gradually a privileged class of immense power. Graft and sale of offices became the order of the day. Sometimes the offices were made hereditary, and again were limited to three or four years' tenure, in the endeavour to break up the shameful practices. For nearly three centuries all efforts at reform were failures. The method of prescribing the rules and regula- tions during the 12th to 17th century was by ordi- nances like those issued by the German princes; the first ordinance on record being that issued by Louis VI in 1215. These ordinances usually appeared under the name Lefait des eaux etforlts (the matters of waters and woods), curiously enough thus suggesting the relation of the two. The latter term was used exactly like that of the German Forst, designating the reserved Colbert's Reform. 2IS I'.T^'?'^^^' ^}': ''^"' ^'■"^ '"^' » "^ to designate actual woodland (silva). In 1376, Charles V. in his endeavor to build up a na^^. agamst England, made reservations for naval timber and also issued the ordinance of Melun, a general forest code, the provisions of which lasted largely until the reform of 1669. In 1402, the many ordinances, often contradictory were codified under one text and another codification was made under Francis I in 1515. „f In '^^ f^'^^^ °' *•'" ^^'^ ^""'"^ '^^ devastation of forests had progressed so far, and the abuses in the management of the royal domain had becomesoevident that Louis XiVs great minister, Colbert, was induced to make the historical remark "France will perish for lack of woods." Again the needs of the navy was the pnme mcentive of the vigorous reform which he instituted after a most searching investigation. The result was the celebrated forest ordinance of 1669 For this purpose he appointed, in 1662, a commission I 1^^"°..°"^ investigated conditions but was clothed with power to reform the abuses which it might discover For this work he selected four trusted men outsjde of the forest service, to whom later more were added, and gave them the aid of technical ad- visers, among whom Froudoir seems to have been most prominent. Colbert himself gave close attenfon to his work of reform. As the first act. the commission recommended the ceasing of all cutting in the royal forests, and, after deliberation and consultation with mterested parties through eight years, the final law was enacted, a masterpiece whose principles and ;'i til 216 France. prescriptions to an extent have persisted into the 19th century. The commission from time to time made reports, giving their findings in detail, and these form a most interesting record of conditions prevailing at that time. As one of the liistorians (Joubain) puts it, "the commissioners did not recoil before long hours of inspection nor high influence, they neither hesitated to declare against, nor prosecute, great and small alike, nor to pronounce a most serious sentence." A thorough cleaning up was done and a complete re- organizatioiT secured. By this ordinance, three special courts of adjudica- tion in matters pertaining to the forests were estab- lished, with special officers whose duties were care- fully defined, namely the courts of the Gruries, of the Maitrises and the Tables de Marhre. The first named, lower grade courts took cognizance of the lesser offences, abuses, wastes and malversations, disputes in regard to fishing or chase, and murders arising out of these; gruries being the woods belonging to in- dividuals in which the jurisdiction and the profit from such jurisdiction belonged to the king, or at least to the seigneurs. The courts of the maltrise referred to the forest territory placed under adminis- tration of the mattres partkuliers (Forstmeister), and were established near the many royal forests as courts of appeal in forest matters. A final appeal could be made to the tables de marbre (courts of the marble table), which also decided on the more weighty ques- tions of proprietorship by whatever term held, and especially civil and criminal cases relating to the eaux etfortts; the wrong doings in the discharge of official Colbert's Reform. 217 duties {abus), contraventions to tlie orders and regu- lations misdemeanors or depredations {delit); and all kinds of fraud not included under those cited (malversations). The whole country was divided into 18 arrondisse- ments of grandes-maitrises des eaux et forits and these were divided into 134 maitrises, each under a mattre parttcuher. with a lieutenant, a garde-mirteau, a garde giniral, two arpenUurs a ' a number of gardes A financial branch for the hauuling of moneys, and the judicial branch represented by the three courts de- scribed above, completed the organization, which lasted until the revolution, albeit some details were changed soon after its enactment, and the offices became again purchaseable and hereditary. The sale of royal forests was again forbidden, penalties being provided for the eventual purchaser, ihett and incendiarism were severely punished and specific rules of management were estab- lished. Clearings could only he made by permission even on the part of private owners. The methods of sale and harvest were determined. The prescriptions of older ordinances were renewed to the effect that at least 13 to 16 seed trees (baliveaux) per acre in the coppice, and 8 seed trees in timber forest, were to be reserved in all forests without exception. Private owners were not to cut these seed trees before they were 40 years old in the coppice, and 120 years in the timber forest, while in the public and chureh forests these seed trees were treated like reserves. Similarly, the prescription that no woods were to be cut before i •IM 218 France. 10 years of age was revived from former ordinances, the time later (1787) being increased for public forests to 25 years. Also the obligation to keep one-fourth of the forest in rese-ve, which Charles IX had decreed in 1560, was renewed for the public forests (those belonging to corporations and other public institu- tions). For the fir forests of the mountains, which had become important as furnishers of ship masts, special regulations were issued, and the mast timber reser-'ed for the crown. There was lively opposition to the enforcement of these prescriptions, especially where they interfered with property rights, nevertheless they persisted until the changes brought about by the revolution of 1789. Certain prescriptions, as for instance the exclusion of sheepherding were never enforced, and this practice continues even to-day in certain sections. As a result of the reform, however, the revenues from the royal forests trebled in 20 years. During the 18th century, several famines occurred and led to the encouragement of extending farm operations at the expense of the for^t, notably in the sixties, when among other similar efforts some 200 families returning from Canada after the English conquest-were colonized in the forests of Poitou. At that time, also the "declaration" of 1766 exempted those who cleared land for farm purposes for 15 years from all taxes. As a result of this invitation some 760,000 acres were cleared, and the practice o' clear- ing for farm use continued until the middle of the 19th century. In this way, by inconsiderately ex- m^mjm^m Revolutionary Influences. 219 posing soil whicli would not everywhere be found adapted to farm use, wastes naturally existing were greatly increased. '="'-"ng were The revolution brought with it sudden and dis- astrous chang^. The law of 1791 abolished not only the jurisdiction of the mattrises. but removed a^l restraint and thereby inaugurated widespread des- St .^"'•.'^^^^^tation of forest property against which legislative attempts of the republican govern- ment were entirely powerless Not only did the peasants take advantage of the disorder, and the mumc.paht.es cut their reserves without hindrance but extraord.nary fellings in the state forests were necessitated by the needs of the navy and the ex- chequer. In 1801. after various previous attempts at organ.zat.on, Napoleon reorganized the service, w.th five adm.n.strators, 30 conservators, 200 in- spectors and 8,600 inferior officers. At that time it appears that the revenue from the public forest dom;in amounted to $6,000,000, a sum justifying such elabo- rate orgamzabon. But otherwise the methods of l-olbert s ordinance were revived. Devastation, how- ever, continued. Incompetence in the service, was again introduced when in 1811 half the number of oflicil was recruS rom superannuated army officers. In 1817, the whole nT.'^^'TTu'^"'''*'*''^"'^ '^' P'-'P^'-ties placed witLt. ' °^*" '^^"' "^''"'^ °f '•"•^ government without any technical knowledge. The old order of things was however, re-established in 1820. and soon a^ter tiie final organization which has lasted to date was effected. mi ■':i , H fiTi li M 220 France. 3. Development of Modern Forest Policy. ■ Iv \^^^' * """'"'^■°n composed of foresters was instituted to revise the ordinance of 1669, which, here and there modified, had continued to be valid, except during the revolutionary period. The result of the work of this commission was the Code Forestier (1829) which IS the law of the present day. I„ it, principles are laid down under which the state, communal and other public forests are to be managed. All forests submitted to the rigime forestier, namely, the state and communal forests and those belonging to public institutions, are entirely managed by the state forest administration, the communities or other public forest owners paying for the service not to exceed 9 cents per acre, or 5 per cent, of the revenue. All jurisdiction and execution of forestry laws is in the hands of the ofKcials of the Forest Administra- tion. The foresters of the state have the exclusive responsibility of making and executing working plans without interference by the municipalities after the plans have once been submitted and approved by them. The corporations have not even the right to appoint their own guards, all such being appointed by the prefects of the departments upon recommend- ation by the forest department. If^^^i'T- '""^"'' P^rf"^™"! by the purchaser, (the wood being sold on the stump), are supervised most rigorously, making even the smallest deviations from the conditions of the contract sale, which other- wise would only entail the payment of damage, punish- able by fine; and the responsibility for any trespass Code Forestier. 221 whkh apDlv to1« ^'''•. "'"" ^'^ prescriptions pXr wX' ° f "^^'^ properties, have sheriff's By special law of 1893, the sett7neTL '".'^• 200 ^rds Of a wood is fo^rirnlltnaTCtT v^i tle^""'^'""^"' °^ '"^««'-- °f these I^"" ac^5o;iz^L?rrs--^^ 35=nSriS?:L;tS:^^B 'i i! l': i i 1 ij 222 France. The supervision of the communal forests which had, mdeed. existed since the 16th century was by no means an easy task. The opposition to it which had always existed and was, in earlier times, justified by the incompetence and graft of the officials, continued even after fhis justification of it had ceased. Thanks to the tact and efficiency of the officials of the modern penod the opposition has been largely overcome, and, thanks to the progress made in enforcing these ngorous laws, their necessity has almost vanished, and, at present, relatively few infractions need to be myestigated and punished. Moreover, the rigor of the ongmal law was somewhat abated by the law of 1859 There are, however, voices which proclaim that the supervision by the government is not as thorough as It should be, and that the conditions of the com- munal property have deteriorated. While the supervision of the management of co.i.- munal property is mainly based on fiscal considera- tions, the Code forestier also authorizes the ad- mimstration to interfere in the management of forests whose influence on the public welfare can be demon- strated. In order to assure the possibility of such interfer- ence, every private owner who desires to clear land IS required to advise the government of his purpose, when the administration can prevent such clearing If deemed necessary to prevent landslides, erosion and torrential action, to protect watersources, sand dunes, /or dt^ensive purposes at the frontier (!), and for public health. Otherwise, the management of private forest is unhampered. Administration. 223 pnation mountain forests or m« f • ? ^ ^"P^" for reforestation fo "l? sake of l^f'" "T' "'"^^^ and preventing torrendal daLge ^'^^"^^'""« "'^'" wafe:.ttiXLrf^rt°"^"^" '° -"-p-^e on Which accor^LT?o'r?r;tt^",t"T ministrat on mi^ht tr.,-w.A i • ^"^""^'^ '"e ad- -I. .. 1- than Jio"" '^y""'"" by v„l„„,„, under charge of Tcnl , wnservations, each German o£fo stm£te~L:''"'^^'^"^ »° "^^ divided into Cheffer^^Zi^l^ "^ ^^ain sub- in each conservatfrwhlhltSlT-r •" '"^'^^ , I |fi. 224 France. inspectors and some 20 assistants. The forest dis- tricts or cantonments (ranges) finally are under the direct charge of Gardes ginlraux (162), with the assistance of Gardes giniraux stagiaires (67) and underforesters or guards (Bngadiers) (3,650)- altogether a personnel of over 4,400 officials. While this is a larger force per acreage, yet the expense for personnel per acre is less than one-half that of the Prussian forest administration, and one-quarter of that in several of the other German state admini- strations. In 1909, a reorganization was effected improving to soaie extent the salaries. The legislation of 1909 also further strengthens State influence by placing certain private properties under the control of the Administration, and allow- ing the latter to undertake the management of private properties at the request of owne " r a considera- tion. The budget for 1911 places the total expenditure for the Forest Administration at 3 million dolls rs (98 cents per acre), of which 950,000 for reboisement and other improvement work. The receipts for the last five years have averaged near 7 million dollars, so that a net result of $1.60 per acre seems attained, con- sidenng the expense of reboisement as new invest- ment. 4. Work of Reforestation. The most noted work of the forest administration, and one for which it deserves high credit, has been that of the reclamation of waste lands, of which, in Work of Reforestation. 225 theAlpinedistSt'atult^rr''"'; ""^"^ '" become celebrated ^ '^"' "' '882, has reforestation by state rnm ?'"''''■ ''"'' "^day encouraged by'le^! :;,•,""?". ""'^ """"''= «f-' years, has restorXdl2h^'^ T^ "'^ '^^' -""y of ground which hid h. .''""'" ^■""''■O'^'a^es There are fou'r^n e"r Xn7 Jn" ''™'""''°"- which systematic effort in fi I, "^^^ •''"^"' '1 made, namely, the 3 dun ,''r"'°" ''=''' ''^-" I-andesofSouthwestrrnFrln \t ^^"™">' ""'' ^^e Sologne; the hmrto^es "f cL""'" '''^'"^ °^ ''^ mountain slopes in the Cs aSTur:.«A"S3:'"'' '"^ arrnVSiTcre^thtrr "^^"^ ™"'-- in Southwest France a on' h" '°*'' °' ^"^""^ 250,000 acres, the^ brin. th ^" '"'"' "^ "^"'V having for a lonrtimT^ ^' ""^^ '""P"^*^"' ^"d pastures and fields ^ '"'^\"«"«1 the adjoining by dunes was origLl ; ~ef ' h'V^'"' °'^'^"P'-^' created by deforestation '' '"^ *'"' "^^^ '^'='■- tiofw'fmidi'iy'trrr ^"^"""'^ ^* -f— from that S on s^r. H ,?"'"'^ °' ^ ^"'^. -"d into existencT ButTe tf " """" "'""*'"«« "^-"^ reforestation was be '„ ' , T'^*'"" °^ ^^^'^"'^'ic by 5.^«<,„,,V, who in 178^ ' "J "°'"'"^ ^^P°« "eerof thedepartmlto b1?" • "' "'"'"^ ^"«'- P tment of Bordeaux, a sum of $10,000 ',tm^W9^m3M^^rst: 226 France. to be employed in ascertaining the possibilities of draining the Landes by means of a canal, and of fixing the dunes. As a result of this beginning, the method for their recovery having been, by 1793, ex- perimentally determined by Brfemontier, 275,000 acres of moving sand have been fixed during the last century. The revolutionary government, in 1799, created a Commission of Dunes, of which Br^montier was made president, and annual appropriation of $10,000 was made, later (in 1808) increased to $15,000. In 1817, the work was transferred to the Adminis- tration des Fonts et Chaussis. The appropriations were increased until, in 1854, they reached $100,000 a year, and in 1865, the work being nearly finished, the dunes were handed over to the forest adminis- tration. There being still about 20,000 acres to be recovered, this was achieved in 1865, when 200,000 acres had been reforested at an expense of about $2,000,000, and an additional expense of $700,000 to organize the newly formed pine forests — Pirius marititna was entirely used. These, at present, with their resinous products and wood are furnishing valuable material. An unfortunate policy of ceding some of these forest areas to private and communal owners, who claimed them as of ancient right, and also of sales was inaugurated just as the planting was finished, so that at present only 125,000 acres remain in the hands of the state. The returns from the sales, however, reimbursed the cost of the re- boisement in excess by $140,000, so that the state really acquired for nothing, a property, now estimated to be worth $10,000,000. 'mm:wMj^ ..w Reforestation Work. 227 containing 2^0^ ^^-^f S"'" '"/''»'-- marshes, on which a noor i -""^ **"''^ »"d the idea of xmr^r^Lt^- f*"*"^^^)' conceived and at hfs ow'Sse'ir!^ '^ -'-station, in the worst maSrvH^r"*^ """"^ ^'^O" acres success of Sis pSt^Ln'n vL'"' •"""''"«• "^he 1855. the refo est^ a.^a h 7 """"'°^'' ""'^' "^ This led, in 1857 to?^» *'°'^" *° ^"■'^ »"«"• for^station of theVrtsof XT^' °' " '"* ^^^-ing as well as by he ^m2 v t °^"^ ''>' '''«^ ^t^te time undertek „e 'f """""'"«• 'he state at the same roads and mX r 5a"n^ f r'f ''"« ^ "^"^ "' charge. The comm.!^.v ' forestation free of of th; recIaim^Ti^^ • '!7"^ *"°^«1 '° sell a part of which less than S (So'' """"°" ''°"""' 250,000 ac..sb3onp?gtoTr'*p'^ ,'« '°"=" '''« private owners imiTatfn ° E^ """ ^*^° *° '892, m.na. worlc, altorhr„etl/°^^S^"^:"'' ~- at over j400^'oJ5"hrr""' ."■''" *^» ^''''■'»««1 ca.c.lati„grir-^^^ wn im I* 228 France. a 75 years rotation, which was fig:ured at $2.50 per acre, with a production of 51 cubic feet per acre and 200 quarts of resin (at $3). An estimate of recent date places the value of the recovered area at $100,000,000. Centrally located between the valleys of the Loire and the Cher, near Orleans, lies the region of La Sologne, a sandy, poorly drained plain upon an im- penetrable calcareous sub-soil giving rise to stagnant waters; this region too had been originally dense^ wooded, and was described as a paradise in early times; but from the beginning of the 17th century to the end of the 18th it was deforested, making it an unhealthy, useless waste. By 1787, 1,250,000 acres of this territory had become absolutely aban- doned. About the middle of the 19th century, a number of influential citizens constituted themselves a committee to begin its work of recovery, the Director General of Forests being authorized to assume the presidency of that committee. As a result, a canal 26 miles in length and 350 miles of road were built, and some 200,000 acres, all non-agricultural lands, were sowed and planted with Maritime and Scotch Pine, the state furnishing assistance through the forest service and otherwise. A set-back occurred during the severe winter of 1879, frost killing many of the younger plantations, which led to the substitution of the hardier Scotch Pine for the Maritime Pine in the plantings. The cost per acre set out with about 3,600 two-year old seedlings amounted to $5.00. An >l %•■•' Reforestation Work. 229 estimate of the value of these plantations places it at, not less than $18,000,000, so that lands which 50 years ago, could hardly be sold for $4.00 per ace now bring over $3.00 as an annual revenue. In the province of Champagne. South of Rheims, a fnTu °. bI "'"«-«o"e wastes of an extent which m the 18th century had reached 1,750,000 acres is found. About 1807, the movement for the recovery of these wastes began; first in a small way, gaining strength by 1830 after some sporadic experiment! ^^:JZ^^ possibility of reforestation, and to^ay over mm acres of coniferous foi^t (mainly Aus^ tnan and Scotch Pine), largely planted by private mcenuve, are in existence, the better acres being larmed. It is interesting to note that land which 50 years ago was often sold without measurement by distance, as far as the cry would carry." and rarely for more than $4.00 per acre, is to^lay worth over PiV.W at a cost for planting of less than $25.00. The stumpage value of a thirty years' growth is figured at S'"0(i^°i'r' *"' *"'"' '•'"^' ^"- " -^"«i « ?10 OOaooo, with net revenue from the 200,000 acres at $^.uo per acre. France is unfortunate in having within her territory, although «, httle mountainous, the largest propor- tion of the area in Europe liable to torrential action. Not less than 1,462 brooks and mountain stream, have been counted as dangerous waters in the Alps hi* T?*' ""•* '•" ^"""^ mountains; or two- thirds of the torrents of EutDpe. An area neariy I'M ■! n 230 France. 1,000,000 acres in extent, of mountain slopes, is ex- posed to the ravages of these waters by erosion. Here the most forcible demonstration of the value of a forest cover in protecting watersheds was furnished by the results of the extensive forest destruction and devastation which took place especially during and following the years of the Revolution. Long ago, in the 16th century, the local parliaments had enacted decrees against clearing in the moun- tains, with severe fines, confiscation and even corporal punishment', and these restrictions had been generally effective; but during the Revolutionary period all these wholesome restrictions vanished; inconsiderate exploitation by the farmers began, and the damage came so rapidly that in less than ten years after the beginning of freedom, the effect was felt. Within three years (1792), the first complaints of the re?"'t of unrestricted cutting were heard, and, by 180? ey were quite general. The brooks had chan^ i to torrents, inundating the pla-ns, tearing away fertile lands or silting them over with the debris carried down from the mountains. Yet in spite of these eariy warnings and the theoretical discussions by such men as Boussingault, Becquerel and others, the des- tructive work by axe, lire and over-pasturing pro- gressed until about 8 000,000 acres of tillable land had been rendered more or less useless, and the population of 18 departments had been impoverished or reduced in number by emigration. A young engineer, Surell, was the first to study the possibility of coping with the evil and proved in his .^ . Reboisement Work. 231 S^r r„dt'"''^'''J" '^^' ''' ^^'^*^°" to forest cover and the n«d of attacking it at the sources Li, . ' -l"* '''" P°"*''=^' ^^^"t^ following did no" promote .ts extension, until, in 1860, a s^ial law charged the Forest Department with the Son oT extmgu.shing the torrents. There were ^ZZ^ two categories of work, the one, considered ^gS pubhc mterest being designated as obligatorr tS other w.th less immediate need being fac^tativ^- the terntones devastated by each river and its affluents were kSw„r"' "' ^"°""^ "^ *° ^ --"S were known as perimeters. In the obligatory peri- meters, private lands were to be acquired by tK state by process of expropriation, the communal p^I aTr t°he ach' '" ' '""f """"'^ ''>' *"« state and after the achievement of the recovery were to be restituted on payment of the expense of the wor^ or else the corporatic- ould get rid of the deb" bv ceding one-half of its pi.perty to the state "" to a"s^;t .'^7;;*''-\»^7"'ete«,the state was simply to assist in the work of r^very by gratuitous dis- tnbution of seeds and plants, or even by money sub- ventions in some cases. It appeared hard that the poor mountaineers should have to bear all the ex^nse was heard. In response to these complaints in 1834 a law was passed allowing the substitution ^oddTg mstead of for^t planting for at least part ^ he perimeters, with a view of securing pastures; bu thi method seems not to have been successful and wL mostly not employed. I- 232 France. Finally, by the reboisement law of 1882, the com- plaints of the mountaineers were properly taken care of by placing the entire expense of the reboise- ment work on the state. The attitude of the moun- taineers, which was at first hostile, due to the restric- tion of the pasture, has been overcome by the bene- ficial results of the work, and now the most hostile are ready to offer gratuitously their territory to the Forest Department. Wherever necessary the state has bought territory, and from year to year has in- creased its holdings, and continues to acquire land at the rate of 25,000 to 30,000 acres per year, the budget of 1902, for instance, containing $1,000,000 for this purpose; that of 1911, only $40,000. Altogether the state had, up to 1900, acquired 400,000 acres, of which 218,000 have been planted, and it is estimated that about 430,000 acres more will have to be acquired. The total expense, outside of subventions to communities and private owners, up to 1900 has been over $13,000,000, of which some- what over $5,000,000 was expended for purchases. It is estimated that round $25 to $30 million more will be needed to complete the work. Of the 1,462 torrents there were in 1893, 163 entirely controlled, and 654 begun to be "cured." Among the former, there were 31 which 60 years ago were considered by engineers incurable. It is estimated that, with the expenditure of $600,000 per annum, the work may be finished by 1945. The names of Matthieu and Demontzey, especially the latter, are indelibly connected with this great work. Lately, however, Briot in his classical work Les Forest Practice. 233 Alpes francaises criticizes severely as improperly extravagant the large expenditures in places where the result does not warrant them, and proclaims as Illusory some of the methods adopted. 5. Forestry Science and Practice. h.y"l!i!. *^ J.®* """^'''y' ''''^'^^" regulations had been issued regarding forest use were merely of admmistrative or police character and had nothing to do with management or silviculture, except per- haps so far as the number of baliveaux, reserved rees to be left^ might be considered as bearing upon the subject. The riformateurs who were from time to t.me appointed had to deal only with judicial ques- tions and abuses; and usually the ordinances referred only to special forests, but in 1563, the Table de marbre of Paris issued instructions which were to serve m all forests. A futile attempt to secure statistical knowledge of the forest domain was made, apparently with a view to regulation of the cut, by de Fleury, the chief of the forest sen-ice in 1561. In default of data from many of the mattrises, a provisional partial order to regulate the cut was issued in 1573, which remained '" Jl ^ '•""'''^ y**"' *"d was regulariy dis- regarded, extraordinary cuts being made without authority and with the connivance of the officers _ An ordinance of 1579 describes the deplorable con- dition of the forests at length, and calls for statistical data, but again without result. A number of further ordinances also made no impression upon the callous and corrupt officials of the forest service 'A\ ■ » -f iT 'ii ifll^ «.* ! J ' ii ■' i .,-cr.Ai 234 France. A first class attempt to secure more conservative forest use and to regulate the cut was made by Henry IV in instituting a commission, and, as a result of its report, issuing his general order of Rouen, in 1597, a highly interesting document giving insight into con- ditions and opinions of the foresters of that period. It also remained without any result whatsoever. Repeated replacement of the higher officials had no more effect than the issuance of ordinances. Not until Colbert's vigorous reform in 1669 came a change in conditions. Meanwhile, some forestry notions had been de- veloped : a sequence of felling areas in the coppice, and hence an area division, an idea of rotation and of the exploitable age (10 to 20 years, although some- times down to 3 and 4 years), the leaving of over- wood, which became obligatory in the royal domain, and a kind of regulation of its age (40 years— too short according to one writer of the time to furnish valuable trees), and some proper considerations of its selection. In the timber forest, the fellings proceeded by area in regular order from year to year, leaving a pre- scribed number of marked seed trees, at least 6 to 8 per acre, on such areas as were outside the rights of user and removed from the likelihood of depreda- tions; the felling age being at least 100 years, under the notion that the oak, the most favored species, "grows for one hundred years, keeps vigorous but stands still for another hundred, and declines in a third hundred." Sowing of acorns on prepared ground was also ordered in the 16th century, and per- r ^t^^^^-^xm'^ Silvicultural Practice. 235 although objections wire raLl"' TT """'"' as impeding the ch J A Seter Z V' '""" reserved all oak and beech twXt in """J"""'' at.x inches from the groutrheU^VrhTrZ Even improvement cuttines rcall«i Vr-l "t " "' record in Normandie, ma"nlv fo fh ^^''^ ^"^ °" ting out softwoods ind reeine tt '""''""' °^ ■="'- reproduction, repeated In de^L r^n's l"f ^ thmnmgs assumed the character „f , "?^- ^ater, and. indeed, received ^heTarouS^ "^ s.rr s-^-vr r " - - cu.tureT«st^ ifln^^^^^^^^^ "ha ""L°' ^"^■■ generally and very stric ly^aTri^^^'^r ^" "^7 during the 16th centurv \v^ , T: ^P«aaliy the royal domain br^S J'th TatSf '"'? "' practice in the woodsfthe area ^f fh "'"-"^ *••" creased by clear cutting 1?.k ^^ ''"PP"* •"- forest, anrby Colbe "s tL "^"'^ °' '''' *™''^^ had wellnighL';:^ "forg;^^^^^^^^^ ""'^''^ '"•-'^«^«« -.e Of ^the LrSrifsLVof J r ii„tl to make working plans and prescri JhlprS"'"* The prescriptions had reference both tnT, ".ent and silvicultural practice. ^^^SCb^t" m i-i \< I'll I 236 France. ((tat d'assiette) was prescribed annually by the grand mattre for each garderie (district), and felling areas were also, sometimes, but not always, definitely located. Besides, extraordinary fellings might be ordered. The garderies were divided into triages (now called cantons), management classes or site classes under different rotations, and the fellings proceeded in each triage in sequence. In each felling area, as had supposedly been the practice, at least 8 seed trees per acre, and generally 16, besides those under the diameter limit, were to be left — the method d tire et aire. Intermediary fellings — thinnings — were avoided and frowned down upon, probably because of the abuses to which they had given rise. Meanwhile their need grew more and more, especially in those places where the felling method did not produce satisfactory re- generation, and softwoods impeded the development of the better kinds. To improve the chances for valuable regeneration and to keep the softwoods down, the foresters proposed the reduction of rota- tions from 100 to 50 and even 40 years, and, as with each felling the number of reserve trees had to be left, the forest assumed a form resembling the coppice under standards. In the coniferous woods of the mountains (fir), which in Colbert's time appear almost like a new discovery to his reformers, the selection forest with a diameter limit (e.g., 6 inch at the small end of the 21-foot log) was the method most generally in vogue, and is still to a large extent the method in use, but Silvictdtural Practice. 237 somewhat better regulated and modified, sometimes tion and a stnp system were tried, and even a .rrouD select.o„ with a regeneration period of probabr25 to 30 years and an exploitable age of 100 years was practised in the 18th century. ^ ' Buffon in 1739, proposed a treatment for the pmenes to secure natural regeneration by cutt ng one-th.rd to one-half, leaving 40 to SO ^^ed trees ^\^^'u^^^ °"''^'"^' (1780) considers Sectfon method best for larch and pine as well as fir by s°oling"" ""''' "'^ °^'' '^ -^'^^ -•'^°^"-^' While system and orderiy progress of fellings n selection forest had gradually been esub! hshed. dunng the revolurion this was laTe^y disregarded and unconservative fellings became'^ . ^H^^'-'a ^T^^ ■'''""'"'■' published in 1770, gives J^ r V^' *'"'"^ °f f°^«try at that ri^e 1 appears that for timber forest, mostly royal w^s thaTfdlilJ'"'' ^r I" "^ °" *« ^y^' domain; Qua itv S .r' ''^"'!'"' ^^'=°^d'"8 t° -P^cies, soi quahty and the most advantageous yield. To f^cili- a":: :r:r"' ^ ^"''^''^•='^' ■=-''- -^ *'•'' -" i The prescription of Colbert's ordinance to leave a certain number of seed trees, no matter fo what r20 1^"°"''^" °' ^°'' "' '-'"™^*^ "ad as carry a 1520 been pointed out as faulty by one of the grand •i! mi i liSi II i- - f i 238 France. a m tL :r '^ "^'l"'' "''° ''^'^ recommended l^T^ successive fellings. This prescription apphed pretty nearly uniformly as a matter oHaw removed from the officials all spirit of initiative and des.,« or requirement of improving upon it No knowledge beyond that of the law las'^equ red of them, hence no development of silvicultural rne^J! resulted during the 17th and 18th center The S InT : T "If '""'"« ^^^^« ^--' into undeJrTbt and branchy "wolves." injuring the aftergrowS^^ or else were thrown by the wind or died, and mTny of the areas became undesirable brush. Not u„"n the first quarter of the 19th century was a Jha^ge •n this method proposed through men who imS new idoas from Germany. "nported When the inefficiency of the methode d lire et aire was recognized, the only remedy appeared to ieTn a clearing system with artificial reforeTtarion fre^^ ' mended by R^umur and Duhan^el); andind^Z ordinance of 1669 recognized the probable nS^shv of filling up fail places in that manner ^Z success of the plantings in waste lands does not selm to trwr"''' ''°"' '""'=•' «''*^-'°" °f this me^c^ to the felling areas. As late as 1862, Clav6 com gaining of the conditions of silviculture rPrar and of the.ignorance regarding it, refers to the clearing system as mSthode aUemar^, the German meth J The shelterwood system, la rr^ithode du reenT^e^e- mj» , which was introduced in theory from Germany '^^i'^r.'" ^^2^' ^^ hardly applied mftTthe rn^de of the century. Indeed, the p'romuljatl of this superior method cost Lorentz his position in 1839 Thinning Practice. 339 ■"Ks of the munici^? anrf '=^^'^«^"* ^he hold- election forest st^^Uotv" ^"""T °^"«=". ^"d the the State forestsT he m^tho^°"f ''r?"' '^'* ^^«" '" Partments. being still^^ °f jhelterwood in corn- found in practrce ' ""'''' '^■^'="««i°n than 'ar is the develoUVt of'^^ew'^^lTL'^^ gardmg the operations of fh^n ^"^"^'^^ 'd^s re- lation of theTrop "trthlZ'lT' '"^/''^ '^"^^-"- the nurse crop (lebaTd ''"^' ''^rvest (fe Aa«0 and fation of the otJattirr^! '?'^ ^"'^ "-e differen- «eemstohaveS*°r;fi^; ' *""' "'"^ ^' '* *«^. seems to have be^n 1|. J thinnings, at least, advanced his thSlsTn a " "^ "^ ^"«f°"- ^^o France, i„ 1774 and X^ ""°"' '° '''^ ^^^demy of the value of th nnbgs rd ' ''"^ '^''^'' ^*P°^'"°" °f Nevertheless. tS^p-ir^r;:;,^""-^^^^^ Md V.„„„„ d, p^.,| a_3 J^I^^"""""- '"''•o^ Giiiot (177m ".If , 240 France. or exercised only in longintervals, whileotherwisesilvi- cultural practice is excellent, especially in the coppice Most valuable lessons may be had especially from the experience in converting coppice into timberforest At the International Congress of Silviculture, con- vening m connection with the Universal Exposition in 1900, supposedly the best home talent was repre- sented, but it cannot be said that anything new, or striking, or promotive of the art or science transpired The desirability of establishing experiment stations ?ooo\ ^^^ °"^ '" existence at Nancy (established in 1882), and the desirability of constructing yield tables still required arguments at this meeting. In the direction of forest organization, it is suted by Clav« that in 1860 only 900,000 acres of the State tn^ ''^'^ ""''*'■ " '■«8"'ated management, namely d80,000 acres in timber forest and 520,000 in coppice with standards, leaving about 1,500,000 acres at that time still merely exploited. The same writer states that of the corporation or communal forests hardly any are under management for sustained yield, and private forest management is not mentioned in this connection Even to-day less than one-thiitl of the total area is under systematic control. In 1908 still about 14% of the State foresU wer« without working plans, and 15% in selection forest. The method of forest organization employed, out- side of the crude determinations of a felling budget in the selection forest, is an imitation of Cotta's com- bined area and volume allotment, with hardly any attempt of securing normality, introduced in 1825 Characteristic, and diflfering from the German model Forest Organization. 241 L'n^Lwh"'" °L^"f "y ™"°«ting in each district {canton) the penod.c felling areas {affectations) onThp holdmg over of one quarter for reserve I^d l,lh rotations-only apparently based o^Z • ^. umB r..*,^,. ..• »;»«"=""y oasea on maximum vol- ume production, amce the statistical dau are scal^l 6. Education and Literature. In the earlier times the service established was as we have seen often, nay mostly in incompetent I^ds the offices of forestmasters were DurchTLhl. ran'thrt- T '^"f -^' ^^ ^^^^^ in all these, higher professional knowledee wa, .m ^^7]. ?;, rrv '"^ -'-^^--:; last^ lon^r „ L, ■■ ^"^"^ counterparts, but The first, and up to the present, only forest «:hool. ' H m 'H ^^1 kib"A^»a&aM 242 France. came into existence after a considerable campaign, directed by Baudrillart, Chief of Division, Adminis- tration G«n6rale des Forgts, and professor of political economy. His campaign in the Annates Forestiires, the first volume of which appeared in 1808, and in other writings as in his Dictionaire des eaux et forits (1825), led to the establishment of the forest school at Nancy in 1825. The first director of this school, Betjiard Lorentz, having become acquainted with and befriended by G. L. Hartig, and his assistant, afterward his son-in- law and successor, Aiolphe Parade, having studied under Cotta (1817-1818) in Tharandt, this school intro- duced the science of forestry as it had then been de- veloped in Germany; but later generations under NanqueUe, Bagneris, BroiUard, Boppe and Puton, imbued with patriotism, attempted in a manner to strike out on original lines. As a consequence of the "unpatriotic" German tendencies of its Jirst directors the continuance of the school at Nancy was several times threatened, there being friction between the administration of the school and the service, which in 1844 came to a climax, agents m the service being employed without preparation in the school, a condition which lasted until 1866. Even- to date an active service of 15 years is con- sidered equivalent to the education in the school for advancement in the service. In 1839, Lorentz was disgracefully displaced, in spite of his great merits, because he advocated too warmly the application of the superior system of regeneration under shelterwood to replace the coppice Forest Schools. 243 state College at ColnTnt'iiry.t?""'"^'*' respects the two cases appear m{* L '\ ""V^' successor of Lorpnf» kT- . Pt*"^'- Parade, the heretical dSt^Stas^^tlt "^ "''' *"« «-« 1847. a most T.^^ZT^\^ r"*' ^"'^ •" launched which threatening^ .f "^ '"^P^'ature was This conditiriasW unt I P '"i"""""^ ''^ «'=''°°'- when Nan,:urT,Z^' l^^ t^Ih '" T ' and steered in more peacefu t,? u** '^'"^' all ideas at reforms ^nrf ^"^ ''5' ^^"''""K wiseimprovingthe^Lr^ '""°rf°"». but other- ducin, t'he th"ifdt:it tuthe" t"' ^"'^ '■"^■ cnfcized and in difficulties untniLo ' '^ '""'='' his succes«>r, free from ZZl^Zi^''^ ^^1^' '-The' "h' r "^'^*''°"» -re etc "ed ^« " ""^ admitted ' It has 12 p^ofe L' twot T"^' ""'""^ each for natural »cien«.m,!^ ■ for forestry, two law, soil PhysSslXgSrS'Sr"^'^''^"'- and for German A thn«, military science '» tb, CM. of ih, sut. CoU«. ., cZJTif ■ 'f'«T«<«''o» (Mint „«, »1 !l t'l,! 11 244 France. to government employment; indeed, the first paid position as garde ghtiral stagiaire is attained after two years study and before leaving school. For several years, (1867 to 1884) Englis! tudents preparing for the Indian service received their in- struction here, and 380 foreigners have received their education in this school sin»;e its foundation. For the education of the lower grades, an imperial rescript ordered the establishment of several schools, which were, however, never organized. In 1863, were proposed, and in 1868, opened, four schools, where efficient forest guards were to secure some knowledge that would assist them to advancement; three of these schools persisted until 1883. In 1873, an additional school for silviculture for the education of under- foresters was organized at Barres-Vilmorin, where annually a limited number of students are per- mitted to enter. This institution has persisted to date. The French forestry literature has never been pro- lific, and to this day occupies still a limited amount of shelf rocm. The first book on record is a transla- tion of the well known volume of the Italian, Peter de CrMcentiis, translated at the instance of Charies V in 1373. In the 16th century we have reference to an encyclopaedic volume, probably similar to the German Hausvater, by Oliver de Serres, Thtatre d'AgricuUure et Mesnage des Champs, in which a chapter is devoted to the foreste. During the 18th century, just as in Germany the cameralists, we have in France a number of high class writings, not by Literature. 245 Micheaux appearing t^T^ ^^'"''' ^"'^°" ^«d the AcademJ of pfaiS^r/r? *'-^"«™tt«l to scientific bJyornJn^'Ju^ ^"^^^' '''^'^'^ ^nd recommended tlie c^«- r '^«/<'r«fe, in 1721, timber forelfs ^ ^"^^^^"f th"'"'-" '"'"'^ '"'» evident that his words Je^ litZ^L'"' '' " Academy. z>«A„^ (in msrST^J^r' ^^ the recommendation of Rfe„m..,u^' J ^^ '^'^^ts de la Physique des ArbrW^ Z f ^"*^ ^"'^ ^~^ siderable lining wht'^^r'^'t'' """ '"^^^ ^on- in 1739 and after n«s«ntff' **:" ^'^' "«'"-^''st, try subjects f ul ' of TSenTn ' •'"'"'°'" °° f°^-- ^«i«*, another one ofScl ^''- ^''''»''« * of the conservatJ^7sl^r''T'^"'*''«°"« (1790, 1791) on ^e °" "^"^ '"*'" t'^" niemoin, timber forestekw1^fch^,rfr"u °' ~PP'«= -"d was well develoiJ Buf r ' *u"°'^ °' 'hinnfag, -r.ee the. ^^ „„f „* haTgel'n^ur ^'^ ° ^^ tion to app,«date these wnV '"^aent educa- tion of JP, witiU ^^J:J;^-^ 7 ii^h^ excep. forth any contributions to X M^ T ^ "°^' '° '"^ng the 19th century ri803t«!.'T ^"'^ ^«' "»til P«iic volume in rij^i-ri' ^Lf^' ^"^y^"" which was followed in 180% K ^^^ *^ ^<'^«^. 'ation of HartS ^^^''^^^.•"^^^'"^^ns- Professor of pofticaftn • ^'^ ^^ Baudrillart, in 12 volumeT r^aS 3;.?° f'- P^'^-he^' '---'' ■--^^^^^orSt.it^.^-r^:^ ■.\ li !!! :{li H 4\9r 246 France. brought out treatises on forest management, which mclude all branches of the subject. According to Huffel, the foresters of this period (Louis XV and XVI) were of superior character, and forestry m France the first in the world; the writings of French authors were being translated into German and studied by foreign foresters. He has to admit however, that the majority of these authors were not really members of the forest service. In 1836 appeared Parade's, Cours EUmentaire de Culture des Bois, an excellent book, recording the teachings of Hartig and Cotta. This seems to have been all-sufficient until 1873, at least. Such things as yield tables are still a mere wish, when Tassy wrote his Etudes, etc., in 1868, while de Salomon a little later reproduced Cotta's yield tables, and to this day this needful tool of the forester is still almost absent, at least in the literature of France. Nanguette, BroiUard, Bagnens, Puton, Reuss, Boppe, all directors or pro- fessors at the forest school, enriched the French literature by volumes on silviculture and forest management, and Henry on soil physics. He also translated from the German Wollny's Decomposition des matures organiques. It is claimed by Guyot that a truly "French science" (!) of forestry dates from BroiUard's Cours d'amSnagement in 1878. Demont- zey's Reboisement des monlagnes, 1882, is a classic volume. Of more modern book literature may be mentioned three voluminous publications, namely TratU des arbres by MouiUeferl (1892-1898) in 3 volumes, and TraiU d'fxploilation commerciale des bois by Matthey in two volumes, and Guyofs. Qmrs de Jf-HT-^ ^wm,A LiUrature. 247 title /nc^^f^rr/tfTaf^rfhi?^^^^^ in 1903. published by /acj«<,/ interest fro. ^he ^^7'^ J"^- °' ^^^ not only the develonm»n7 FJ ^'^*' tracing silvicultural and ^a„a«l '■'* ""''"^ ''"' "^ published 1904-1907 '" ""'^ ^"'"'"es a chemist a„'d manX/i IT^^'^*'^^^^^ vestigations reeardinir th. a ^^' ™<^e in- wood growth afdt^ht irof1eS^^°" °» Ibe-X;^-'^^ "'^'*"- '^^ -" fou-^i^r inStetTolfryrthe^'""'^^-- ^-^'^. forestiAres. begu^n !m8 S" ^T' '" "'^ ^""^^ 'iteratu™. be^de thT i2 ^ '^ "^* "^ ^"^'*'" a^odations.amo^gthihh.R'i """""^ '""^'^ de FrancheComtTetSt. K .""'*'" '^'^ '^ Sod«t6 a prominent rank '''^ ^°' ^ '°"« ''«« taken wf ha^ srsir- r ^^'■^''- and forestry associations nf . f . " '"augurated, Among tZ r^Tou4°V^!.f "«- abound, ation with some 16.00o"em^^' in sTk"" T^' active by writing out xyri^rj ^!'*"*=''*^ " B "ut prizes and promoting waste ■' i A '■ I If:; iili 248 France. land planting. Through its agency some 4000 acres W ^^J'^T^. !*'' '''°' ~"«= ^ """«ri« furnish- ing plant matenal. An active Section of Silviculture in the SocUU des AgnculUurs some time ago absorbed the forestry assoaauon and is also doing practical work in t^ dm^tion most needed, improvement of forestry practice among private woodland owners. 7. Colonial Policies. The French possess extensive colonies in Africa. Asia Amenca and Oceania, covering not less than four million square miles with over 90 million people t^Z 1 T^"" f * '""*' **"y ^^^'^ extendedTme features of their forest policy, notably in Algeria, Tunis. Indo-China and Madagascar. fitfJ^'l"'^^'''}' ''^ conquered in 1828, is about four- fifths of the size of France, but only 5.5 per cent. IS forested. Besides the desert, there ^e ^o torest regions, the northern slope, the so-called Tell abutting on the Mediter -anean, which, with 20 pe^ cent forested, contains the most valuable forests of ?i^tu\ ''*"°"' "^^^ °^^' '""^ Aleppo Pine; and ^ *«^ *^*^" '° *•'* '«"'''• ^ '^Pon of steppes with about 6%Jorested. mostly with brushwood. The adjoimng Tunis also contains some 2 million acres of CoT'oak'^" °' "^'^^ ^"^"^ ^*^ *•= ^^"^'''^ Although the population does not exceed 5 million, import of wood from Sweden and elsewhere to neari; one million dollars in amount is necessary. The first advance of civilization led to wide-spread destruction ftm Colonial PoUeies. 249 intsSf;^,i?e'"' -. fire and p... ^<^^^e^T:tZ"^S:- ''^ «r"-ac.s Of the property of the ^du^ *« mussulman's empi«s. ==e7.r„"^''" «-^^^^ other. (1.25 milli^ t^)'^"'";™"- °"tright, and parties. At first, the^tter I ^" '"''' '° P"^^^ Ploitation of the corlToLl .^i*^' ^^'^ '^' ^"r ««- mended to M ye^^^^ L " =^'?' '^^"^ '«t- by fir^-^ incentirto alw tr""^'' ^°' ''^'"^^^ 1870. the fire damage VaWn^J^ *° "■"' "»«' i» areas burned afte/!L ^^ ^°"'*' °"'^"""»' all the contracto.^ Lre^hlL '^i^'^^^^y ceded to volved. and th^ o"he7tl^^h-T**'''' ^« ^"^ 'n- d'tionsofpaymen^Tth. I ""^ *^'^' «>n- pven away. ^°"^ States were wa;"L?t^S^uT'■^tr'r^^^"*^^°'-■'« powere between mihtL ""(""""ate division of The fire ravages oTfsn^^T"* °' conditions, -on under ttdSn'^,?4^°-f -^aniz- i^oSSt^S'boLl IT; r/- '--- of 'oresu are being ruined, especially IH'i. I''' 250 France. by pasturing, the mean, allowed the administration being too niggardly measured. The Forest Code of the home country and .pedal laws enacted from time to time appU^. tTIa mm.stration of the state and communal foL 1 d-rectiy under the home department and is ^^IZ m similar manner. A re-organization and a special forest code for 1827 T^ °" *' ^'""*' P"°°P'^« °f the Code of 1827. The most interesting features are the provision ore tsT"'"°" '"' "''''"" '° *^ "^t^ d""-" o" and the rigorous forest fire legislation, which permits he reatmento ncendiariesasinsurrectionists^aki Indl'^-r?i'°r^^"''"*>'°f*''«'°'««t°fficials, and provides the forcible establishment of fire lines (ndes) between neighbors. In the forests placed under the forestry rerime pennits from the governor-general are rSii^^; t I^. °'-*'' ^•^™'"-'^-tion of these parties, Ae state receives ten per cent, of tiie gross yield Reforested hilltops or slopes and sand du^arT 1 heved from taxes for 30 yeam. burnt areas for 10 yLrs. In the other African possessions, unregulated ex- Ploiution of the topical forests, large^^ f^ by- products, hke caoutchouc, kola, and fine furniture woods, IS still the order of the day, except in m2. t^car which with 25 to 30 million acre, of tropical forest area was, in 1900, provided witi. a forest ser- vice, which IS under the Minister of Colonies. Here !i! ' I ti Colonial Policies. jSl of less than 7^J^t ~r """' ^' ^" """"^' '«« cessions run from g To^""' P""" y*^^" The con- acres or more 7l^ .• f y«a«- ^d on 12,500 2,500 acres pJZ , "^ °"^ y^"' '°' every t^dedto^hecraiLr^"L'"°°' """^ «"^^ «« >"- user exerciX'Xr' '° "^'^*^ ^""^ "^hts of andofCamLiaim n""'' ^"^ "'"''°" ^^™«. and Cochin-S-La^m t„™"'°" 'T *="" '^ ^*^»«»' to a forest service Mrh° T^' """ ""'^ ^PP'°^ch people, some Ss'i.roVcutfftT^ftL'' ™""°" (nme-tentlis fire woodl an • °f «^ood were cut tion was confined to del^^.J ' '''"=" *^P'«'a- tration. howeveV ill J^^- ^L"^' ^he adminis- imprac icabrrrn J^""^""^ mefficient, and under i3sued1^^ :^^ trZe"T ""^"^ ^''''' -- witl, little hindrance ' '^^^^t^'-" Progressed -es. consists irre;;:L;teT:L--,P-t my .^ ■ \-mi .-w m 252 France. be cut by government agents, and a permit for their removal. The State forests are of two classes : Reserves in which all cutting is forbidden, only some 200,000 acres; and those in which licenses to cut may operate. Such licenses are given for one year and for a price of 100 piastres. The villagers have free use of the less valuable woods, their only obligation being to assist in protection against fire and theft. A real forest service was not instituted until 1901 a director with four assistants being placed in charge under the Department of Agriculture. Until recently reports of the deplorable condition due to absence of technical management reached the outside, but lately (1911), the Governor-General discussing the situation not only speaks approvingly of the forest service, which on the two million acres under its immediate management had, by 1909, trebled the revenue, but talks of extending its activities to planting up waste places in order to secure favorable water conditions for irrigating lands. The rest of the colonies are being merely exploited. jri RUSSIA AND FINLAND. While Ge m.r-, and ^cance were forced into the adoption of . ,r.^ ^ polic .s l',-. .gh necessity, after the natural J- xl, ha. ler. la,,, , destroyed or devas- tated. Rusfia 6tf.rt..J upon conservative forest manageoient .r^. heir.^ 'ht iay of absolute neces- sity setuierl to ■ liVf. arnvei. Indeed, ever < - •: y Russia is one of the largest and increasingly growing e . ort.r of forest products in the world. Its aix., .; expon having grown in the five «wit of A»ncultu„, MiniMty of Cnwn Lukl>. .t WorfZ rT^ » "epart. ««i»rei» ««U, ud Re^rim by O. Gi«..«att«d thrairi, th. 0»m.. aw pp. "»~M iM-umt, by N. C. FMnmiKnii, UO), '■' < i 1:1 ; - ~, U! i j 254 Russia. I years, 1903 fo 1908, from 4 to 6 million tons and from 36 to 62 million dollars. A vast territory of untouched woods IS still at her command, representing roughly two-thirds of the forest area of Europe. The vast empire, second only to the British empire m extent, gradually acquired since the 15th century occupies in Europe (including Finland) somewhat over 2 million square miles with over 120 million in- habiunts, and in Asia somewhat over 6.6 million square miles, with only 30 to 40 million people. Until 1906, when as a result of a revolution, a kind of representative government was secured, the he- reditary Czar was ostensibly and by title an autocrat governing with the assistance of four great councils and 12 ministers, but in reality the government was in the hands of a bureaucracy and court cabal, to a large extent corrupt, and hence the many good laws and institutions of which we read, may not always be found executed in practice as intended. The European section of the country is divided into 98 govemmente or provinces, each under a governor, who is, however, largely dependent on the central power. The large territory of Siberia is divided into three governor-generalships, much of it as well as of the other Asiatic provinces, is still un- organized, undeveloped and unexplored, or at least httle known. Originally used mainly as a penal colony for cnminal and political exiles, since the completion of the great Trans-Siberian railway, the country has been peopled by Russian farmers. Both European Russia and Siberia are in the main mw- Forest Conditions. 255 v^t plains, the former sloping northwestward from L th/lT"*^."V" '•" ^' '""^ f^" the Caucasus m the South, and the latter from the Altai. Lyan and Yablon. mountains north to the Arctic Ocean Both sections exhibit in the southern ranges the effert^o^ con^nental climates, prairie and plafns count^Tthe frrt^'r .'" f "°'''^'"' '^"K*'^ *»»« 'Effect Of an arctic climate, short hot summers and long, severe winters: tundra and swamps. 1. Forest Conditions and Ownership. Both the forest area and the ownership conditions vary very much throughout the empire. RuS statistics are very unreliable and are based on esti" mato rather than enumerations, and vary from year So little is known of conditions in Asia, where Russia occupies a territory three times as large as its Europ^n possessions, that we can dispose of them bri^^ There exists a vast forested area, almost unknown as to Its extent and contents, or value. This area i. mainly located in Siberia, and although its exten! but It IS also known that its character is very variable .t devastated, and much of it in precarious condition, fires h-ving run and still running over large portions destroying it to such an extent that in sever^of the province, within the forest belt, the question of wood supplies IS even now a troublesome one. The natives rZ,^T'^^ '^y"''' """^ ''"vastation difficult to control. The railroad ha, only increased the evil. ,; i m ffl k li b 256 Russia. Here, in Siberia, the first attempt at a managemenJ was made in 1897 in the government forests, which are estimated at over 300 million acres; in addition about 400 ;.iillion acres have been declared reserved forests. Not one-third, however, even of the govern- ment forests is well stocked and less than 4 million acres are under some form of management. In European Russia, the forest area comprises about 465 million acres, or 36% of the land area. The population being now over 120 million (neariy one- half escaped from serfdom only since 1861), the forest area per capita is only about 4 acres, somewhat less than in the United States, half of what is claimed for Sweden and Norway, although seven times as large as that of Germany or France. It will be seen, therefore, that Russia, although still an exporting country, has reasons for a conserva- tive policy, even if only the needs of the domestic population are considered, which alone probably Cfinsumes more than the annual increment of the whole forest area; and the consumption is growing with the growth of civilization as appears from the increase of wood consuming industries, which in 1877 showed a product of i million dollars, in 1887, of 12>^ million, in 1897, of 6j million dollars. This assertion, that the era of over-cutting has actually arrived, may be made in spite of the stated fact, that in the northern provinces only two-fifths of what is supposed to be a proper felling budget, is cut and marketed, and that other most uncertain estimates make the cut 17 cubic feet per acre of pro- ductive forest area, and the annual growth, on itill Forest Conditions and Exploitati ton. 257 more uncertain basis, 31 cubic feet* Tl.. As in the United States the Earf an^ wi . P" «. o, 40 per «... of u,. «B,^''Jf° ^ ?*';"= f«- -r » cubic fM An ntuuto of Hi. cut i. th. ^^ ""f' "Jr ISO miUio. w« „.. I~»»u hoUu,n„u, »cubicXn^^'^,i~'' ""* " ""*= *«• ■■■> 1- P« «~. bri.n 0,. JJ S, tlH.:!!."'.*' ■""*• *««• «th M cubic ft« ~u.J< :00 -OUo. doU« for.,^p^"7,'? ™»li; "^" cubic f«, ,JI .«V- '~"*«^::rc.^b:-;r r/biS" ^°^ ""-^ - •• •» |l...ric. w„ 8.5 emu, -hSr«u» n. It ■'t^Si™' '»*'"'*• Vi..uta r..«u, to 18.4 p., c«„. Th.Tl~ ^rri^.* ■* ""*■ "^ •*« ««« ;f 258 Russia. The two most northern provinces of Archangel and Vologda, in size equal to all Germany, are wooded to the extent of 76 and 89 per cent, respectively, and the 14 northern provinces together contain nearly one-half the entire forest area. Here the forest covers 64 per cent, of the land area, and nowhere below 20 per cent., and the acreage per capita ranges from 3 to over 200. These largely unsettled provinces are the basis of the active wood export trade, and, as in the similarly conditioned areas of North America, the territory is devastated by fires, which sweep again and again over large areas without check. Southern Russia (excepting the Caucasus, is largely prairie or steppe, forest cover sinking below 20 per cent, on the whole, down to 2 per cent., and less than one-half acre per capita. Altogether, one-half the country and three-fourths of the population are, with less than 14 per cent, of the forest area, exposed to a dearth of timber. The northern forest, the most important economic factor, is composed largely of pure or mixed coniferous woods (74%), principally Norway Spruce (34%) and Scotch Pine (29.5%) with only slight admixtures of larch and fir, and more frequently White Birch. Open stand, comparatively poor development, and slow growth, characteristic of northern climate, re- duce its productive capacity, while frequent bogs and other natural waste places outside of those pro- duced by mismanagement reduce ite productive area by not less than 20 per cent. Property Conditions. 259 Toward the south, deciduous species are more frequent, oak finally becoming the prevailing timber and formmg forests, with beech, maple, ash and elm as admixtures. As the plains are approached pure deciduous forest mdicates the change of climate. The forest of the Caucasus is principally of coniferous composition. There are six classes of forest property: the govern- ment domain; the apanage or imperial family (crown) forests; private forests; peasant or communal forests- institute or corporation forests; and forests of mixed ownership m which government and private owners participate. The larger part of the forest area of European Russia IS in control of the Crown or State, namely, T^a" 27\"""'°" ^«^'^- or a little less than two! thirds of the whole, and a similar amount in Asia, besides the so-called apanage forests of 14 million acres set aside for the support of the court. Especi- ally the northern forest is in government controUn some governments (Archangel) the entire area; 67% of the domain forest lies in the two governmente of Archangel and Wologda. Ill the less wooded districts State property, is in- significant The area under government control in Europe and Asia is estimated in the official report for 1908 at around 957 million acres. This is, however, 71 M,.^" *""= "^P^'^y °f **^ Sute; only about 260 million acres are so claimed, the larger balance ir h T-,L'° "!i'"°" ''"'' *'•''='' ^^ *° ^ apportioned to the liberated peasants, 200 million acres in which ; , wk u n i !J ilMfi 260 Russia. the government is only part owner, or the ownership is in dispute; and the rest is only tem|x>rarily placed under the management or surveillance of the adminis- tration. Yet, 60% in Europe and 13% in Asia is exclusive State property. In 1907, the area in Europe under working plans of the Forest Administration, however, was only 48 million acres, 86 million having been examined for working plans. Of the State property in Europe 34% is spruce forest, 30% pine, and 26% mixed conifer forest; altogether 88% of coniferous timber. The Asiatic area is also over 80 per cent, coniferous. The apanage or crown forests, the yield of which goes toward maintenance of the imperial family, com- prise about 16 million acres, or 3.4%. Private forest property to the extent of over 100 million acres (23%) is most developed in the Baltic provinces and along the Vistula. Mining corporations and other insti- tutes own about 7 million acres. The peasamts, who until 1861 were mere serfs and had no ownership of any load, being supplied with their necessities by the landed proprietors, still largely supply themselves in the northern provinces by the exercise of rights of user from the public domain on designated areas. In the central and southern pro- vinces, farm and forest land, the latter to the extent of nearly 40 million acres, were given to them in communal ownership. As stated above, about 170 million acres classed as government domain still awaits partition and cession to the peasants. Early Development. 2. Dtodopmenl of Forest Policy. 261 sJ^i '*~r^ "^ ^''*"**''" *° *« wood* as a special property dates from Michael, the founder, and Alexis, the second of the house of Romanoff the HeTtwa^T'if ''"''■••" '^'^' "^^ '^"- •" «*5 hI LT^^V^^^'H *° '"^'''^^^^ W^t^« civilization !S,rK .'"'"*''• ''°^^^^^' *° '"=8"'atmg property unJefinL "h"'f '° *"'' '™' "'' -mained'somewhat undefined the forest, as elsewhere, being considered -ore or less public property. He issued d^s^ ownership, or at least granted exclusive righte to the "om^r'"T''''''"'"'^""^''^°-^" 'he ban! torests. Soldiers alone were permitted to help them- ^lves,evenmprivateforests,tothewoodthey,^ui^ Pmection against theft and fire was also pn,\^ded ,nl i! P*^"*«' ^^e ^erfs. were bound to the glebe ^n^t 1 T^' "° P™'^"^ "Khts, being Sai?: tamed by the bounty of the seigneurs. v.^l^'i'"'^'*^: ^"^ ^^'-'**'"« Peter the Great who ,n hi, travels in Germany and other EurooSn countne, had, no doubt, been imbued with id^W conservatism, inaugurated in Uie end of tl^e T?^ and beginmng of the 18th century a far-reacC restrictive policy, which had two objects ifSew namely economic use of wood, which he had "eaml^' to hun^"' °" "L """'P *''"'^^' ''hich his desire L^de"^f' """' ''"'"*^- ^' '°'^'» f- 35 miles undTtt """'"" "'7 •'^•"*^ '" *«"• ="><» placed tratn „fT""T °' '*" "'*'" "'^""'^ ^dLnis- tration of Crown forests. In the«. banforests. the 1 :;it:i 5 .-•. t i - i , 1 I 1 262 Russia. felling of timbers fit for ship building was Minute regulations as to the proper use of wood for the purposes for which it was most fit were prescribed, and the use of the saw instead of the axe was ordered. These rules were to prevail in all forests, with a few exceptions, and penalties were to be exacted for con- traventions. This good beginning experienced a short setback under Catherine I (1725), Peter's wife, who, in- fluenced by her minister, Menshikoff, abolished the forest administration and the penalties, and reduced the number and size of banforests. But the entire legislation was re-enacted within three years after Catherine's death (1727) under Anna Ivanovna's reign, and many new prescriptions for the proper use of wood were added and additional penalties enforced. At this time, under the influence of a German "forest expert," Fokel, the increase of forest area by sowing oak, etc., in the pooriy wooded districts, was also inaugurated; and this planting was made obliga- tory, not only on the administration of crown forests, but also upon private owners, who in case of default were to lose their land and have it reforested by the forest administration. To Fokel's initiative is also to be credited the celebrated larch forest on the Gulf of Finland. These restrictions of private rights and the tutelage exercised by the forest administration were abolished in teto by Catherine II, in 1788, and although it was reported by the admiralty, concerned in the supply of shipbuilding materials, that as a consequence tiie IS forbidden. I of ivonrl for jw:&QI«^-A^-r 1*711 ■ ,.I\ '^■\>\ si Modem Development. 263 cutting, especially of oak timber, was proceedinR rapidly, no new restrictive, but rather an amelior: he offering of pnzes for plantations in certain locali^ ties by the provincial governors. Upon the abolishment of the serfdom of the oeas 2a' "^^' ^'"^"^"^ "• '" ^8«3, lands, both ^rm and woodlands, were allotted to them, and in this partition, in some parts as much as 25 to 60% of this fo^st property was handed over to them, tnmedi! ately a general slaughtering, both by peasants and by the private owners, who had suffered by losing "^rorredlfsL^' ^^' '"^"---'- '-- Servitude^ or rights of user also prevailed in some districts and proved extremely destructive By 1864 complaints in regard to forest devasta- tion had become so frequent that a movement for reform was begun by the Czar, which led to the pro- mulgation of a law in 1867. followed by a number of . S?vl -^J^' "^« '*«=ade, designed to remedy the evils This was to be done by restricting the acreage that might be felled, by forbidding clearings and by giving premiums for good management and plantations^ Finally, in 1875, a special commission was charged with the elaboration of a general order whch, after years o; hearing of testimony and of de- liberation was promulgated in 1888, a comprehen- sive law for the conservation of forests, private and otherwise, which m many respects resembles the Frwch, in other respects the Swedish conservation I 264 Russia. The devastation and its evil consequences on waterflow and soil conditions had been especially felt in the southern districts adjoining the steppe, and these experiences were the immediate cause for the enactment of the law, which, however, was framed to apply conditionally to the entire European Russia. The law makes an interesting distinction between "protective," "protected" and non-protective, or unprotected forests, as well as between different ownership classes, and it makes distinction of four regions as to the extent of its application. In the far northern governments, densely forested (60%) and thinly populated, only the protective forests are under the operations of the law. In the Caucasus also, none of the restrictions of private property ex- cept in protective and communal peasant forests are to apply, perhaps because the forest area (averaging not over 17%) is there largely owned by members of the imperial house and by nobles. In certain districts adjoining the northern zone (with 37% forest) also only the last two classes of forest, namely protective and communal properties, with institute forests added, are subject to the provisions of the law. The rest, a territory of over one million square miles with only 12% in forest, is subject to all the provisions of the law, which is remarkably democratic in treat- ing State, imperial and private forests alike. This law declares as "protective forests," to be managed under special plans prescribed by the Crown forest department, those forest areas which protect shifting sands and dunes, the shores of rivers, canals Protective Forests. 265 m and other waters; and those on the slopes of moun- tains, where they serve to prevent erosion, landslides and avalanches. Conversion of these protective forests to farm use is forbidden, and the use of a clearing system in forest management, as well as pasturage and other uses supposed to be detrimental, may be interdicted, and the method of management may be prescribed. An instruction regarding the execution of the law promulgated in 1889 prohibited clear cutting in conifer forests, permitting only selection forest, and in especi- ally endangered localities only the use of the dry wood and such trees as interfere with natural repro- duction. "Protected" forests are those which are located at the head waters and upper reaches of streams and their affluents. Here the rules as regards clear- ing, mismanagement, reforestation and pasture ap- plicable to the non-protective forests, prevail, except that dearing may be prohibited or permitted, if the committee deems it not dangerous owing to the small size of the clearing. In forests, which are not protective forests, con- version into farms or clearing with the sanction of the committee is permitted, if thereby the estate is improved, e.g., if the soil is fit for orchards and vine- yards. Such clearing may also be allowed if the soil is fit for temporary field use, but in that case the area must be eventually reforested. Clearing is also per- mitted, if another formeriy farmed parcel of the same size has been reforested at least three yeare prior to the proposed clearing; or if in artificial plantations iri i HI li Iti m:^xd^^^MM^ :i!Mm^m:iMmjs^M£j^m I'tXOCOn IBOIUTION TBI CHART (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2) A /1PPLIED IfvHGE loe 1653 Caat Uom Str«M (716) 482 - 0300 - Phon. (7t6) 2M-5M9 -fa« 266 Russia. the growth is not yet 20 years old ; also in a few special cases where property boundaries are to be rounded off, roads to be located, etc. If after six months from the time of the application the committee has not forbidden the clearing, it is considered as permitted. It is also forbidden to make fellings which prevent natural regeneration, and the running of cattle in young growth is prohibited. Private owners are not required, but are permitted, to submit working plans, and if these are accepted, they are exempted from any other restrictions. Such plans may be considered as accepted if the committee does not express itself within one year. All clearings made in contravention to the committee's decision must be replanted within a prescribed time or may be forcibly reforested by the committee The most interesting feature, because thoroughly democratic, is the creation of the local forest pro- tection committees, which are formed in each pro- vince and district, composed of various representatives of the local administration, one or two foresters in- cluded, the justice of the peace or other justice, the county council and two elected forest owners, in all nine to eleven members, under the presidency of the governor. This committee is vested with large powers. It decides, without appeal, what areas are included in protective forests and approves of the working plans for these as well as for the unreserved foreste; it de- termines what clearings may be made, and exercises wide police powers with reference to all forest matters working in co-operation with the Forest Administra- Ameliorative Policies. 267 tion, which latter has the duty of making working plans free of charge for the reserved foreste, and. af trJ^^Z "^r^"'" f°' '^^ P"^^'« unreserved forests. Owners of the latter ar*. however, at liberty aST^ '. '• .°''" P'^"^ ^"''J^t to approval fhr^I tT r"""""' °' '""^ '■°^^^' Committees lies UnH^\ aV ™™"^ '° ^''^ ^'"'«ter of Crown lands and Minister of the Interior. In case the owner refuses to incur the extra expense ansmg from measures imposed upon him, the domain ministry may expropriate him, but the owner may recover within 10 years by paying costs with 6% nterest in addition to the sale price. In addition to the above cited and other restrictive measures, some ameliorative provisions are also found All protective forests are free from taxes forever- those artificially planted also for 30 years Some of the best forest officials are detailed to give ady.ce gratuitously to forest owners (forest revisor- mstructors) and prizes are given for the best results 0 SI vicultural operations. At the recommendation of the Forest Committees, medals or money rewards or other distinctions are given to the forest guards and forest managers of private as well as public forests. Plant material is distributed free or at cost price, and working plans for protective forests are made free 01 charge. The Imperial Loan Bank advances long term loans bv S'?; ^^'=1 .T" ''"^"^ ^"^'^"K P'^"« ""-de by the State, which insure a conservative manage- ment. In 1900, over 7,000,000 acres were in this way mortgaged under such management. \> ': <''i\ 268 Russia. The minutest details are elaborated in the instruc- tions for the execution of this most comprehensive law. How far this la'v is really executed and what Its results so far have been, it would be difficult to ascertain. It is, however, believed that it has worked sabsfactorily. By 1900, 1.5 million acres had been declared protection forests, nearly 2 million protected or over forests, and nearly 100 million private and communal forests had been placed under the regime In 1907, the total area under the regime had grown to over 136 million acres. Of private forests, 18 million acres in 6015 forests were beuig managed accoitling to working plans made or approved by the forest committees. In these plans, usually, the strip system or seed tree system with natural regeneration under 00 year rotation for conifers, and at least 30 year rotation for broadleaf forest, is provided. In 1903. the application of the law was extended to the Caucasus, the Trans-caucasian and other southern provinces, but in the absence of suitable personnel and in a half civilized country, no result for the im- mediate future may be anticipated. The surveillance of the execution of this law lies with the assistance of the Forest Committees, in the hands of the State Forest Administration. This latter, centralized in the Department of Agri- culture, consisu of a Director General with two Vice- Directors and a so-called bureau of forests with seven division chiefs, a number of vice-inspectors and assist- ants. The local administration in the governments IS represented by the Direction of Crown lands with a superintendent or supervisor and several" inspectors. :iiv. Forest Administration. 269 The crown forests, divided into som, ^260 adminis- trative units, are under the administration oTsT- mtendents. with foresters and guard, of ^v^a, hJh^ «^°'"; "^"^''^ comprised, in 1908, about 3790 a t7et;t' """^f ° "' "•'°'" '" ^"^ -"'-' office II mTS"^- '"i?^"' ^°'^ '°*^^ °ffi°als some ^0,000 of whom are educated underforesters the Z "'%^"^^8e. and inadequate. Although foirvT*"" ''°'" '•'" ^"» ™»'°" ^cres of State tTe Z ofthe'offi' T'^"''''!!"" '^'"« "«^' « ">"«°n^ to fi^l f u^'' " *'"^'' ^* *° «'">«»* force them to find means of subsistence at the cost of their charJT Perhaps nowhere else is there so much mach^fr^rd Nevertheless, progress is being made in gradually mprovmg matters, and the forest property or at Si ' T '^^}^'-- -ore and mo^^luable from the domain forest was only $500,000, by 1892 In X^'?^" '°, *i°'°«'-o«'- by 1901 to $2Z,m,m, lSlnTon^'-°^'^i "^""'^ «^-^ "S aollars worth of free wood. In 1908, the deoartment spent over half a million dollars on planting and S" mg natural regeneration. Timber is sold as aTut to contractors by the tree or acr*. and a diameter l.m.t ,s almost the only restriction. In 189?Tow- "^er, an arrangement was made by which the lumber man was obliged to reforest, or at leas to ^^ a" certam tax into a planting fund, and a part ^yTent •1:1 270 Rtissia. of $2 to H per acre as guarantee must be made before cuttmg This order has. however, remained mostly a dead letter, the buyer preferring to allow his guaran- tee to lapse. In 1906. there stood $3,000,000 to the credit of this planting fund, and only half of it had been applied. Meanwhile the unplanted area in- creases, smce natural regeneration generally proves a failure. 3. Education and Literature. The attempts at forestry education date bsck to the year 1732 when a number of foresters were im- ported from Germany to take charge of the forest management as well as of the education of foresters each forstmeister having six pupils assigned to him.' 1 his method failing to produce results, the intefest in ship timber suggested a cour^ in forestry at the Waval Academy, which was instituted in 1800. Soon the need of a larger number of educated foresters led to the estabhshment of several separate forest schools one at Zarskoye Selo (near St. Petersburg) in 1803 another at Kozlovsk in 1805, and a third at St Petersburg in 1808. This latter under the name of the Forest Institute absorbed the other two, and trom 1813 has continued to exist through many viciss..- tudes. Now. with 15 professors and instructors and an expenditure of nearly $250,000. and over 500 students. It is the largest forest school in the world It prepares in a four years' course for the higher positions in the forest service. "The history of this Forest nstitute is practically the history of forestry in Russia. ' Education and Litcature. 271 A second school at Novo-AIexandria, near Warsaw l^^Tf^ '■" ''""• ^" *•>«- schools aTfnTe In addition to these schools, chairs of forestry were m Moskau and m the Riga Polytechnic InstituTe after iutri,!"" r°"f'^ '"''°°''^ *«^^ established alter Austnan pattern for the lower or rrddle service rangers and underforesters; their nu^.ber 1^^^' havmg been .ncreased to 30 and, in 1908, t^ 33, with ZJ^ T- ^"^ "' *^««"« «^hools iA the tTui f '. \"''"'" """•'^^ °f th« «*"dents are IdmiLS'^ • "In'^'' '''' ""^"""^ ""-"ber of those admitted bemg 10 to 20 at each school. The course .s of two years- duration, and is mainly dir^tTd ^ p^c^cal work and theoretical study in^ilvS turl The totel expense of such a school is about $3 3OT of wh.ch the State contributes $2,500. the toS ex" penditure, in 1908, being $84,134. A number of experiment stations were established o" c"::;?a'nr °T ^°""'^^ "^ ^•'•^ Admimstit^ of Crownlands and a very considerable and advanced of the higher forest service. and ^ssopromychlenny Veslnik, the fi,«t bi-monthly he latter weekly, besides several lesser ones, keep the profession informed. ^ thl^Z^'^ '" '"''^"f ^^'«' 8«"^^«' societies for the encouragement of silviculture. Probably the fu- ; i^ si i 272 Russia. oldest, which ceased to exist in 1850, was the Im- perial Russian Society for the .Advancement of Fores- try which was founded in 1832. It published a magazine and provided translations of foreign books, among which the Forest Mathematics of the noted German forester KOnig, who also prepared yield tables for the Society. (See p. 135.) A society of professional foresters was founded at St. Petersburg in 1871, another exists in Moscow, and recently two associations for the development fo forest planting in the steppes have been formed. Among the prominent writers and practitioners there should be especially mentioned Theodor Kar- lowilsch Arnold, who is recognized as the father of Russian forestry. He was the soul of the forest organiz- ation work, for which he drew up the instructions in 1845, and as professor, afterwards director, of the Institute for Agronomy and Forestry at Moscow since 1857, he became the teacher of most of the present practitioners. Finally he became the head of the forest department in the Ministry of Apanages where he remained until his death in 1902. He is the author of several classical works on sUviculture, forest mensuration, forest management, etc.. and m conjunction with Dr. W. A. Tichonoff, published an encyclopedic work in three volumes. In the first volume, Russland's Wald (1890), which has been translated into German, the author makes an ex- tended plea for improved forestry practice and de- scribes and argues at length the provisions of the law of 1888. In 1895, he published a history of forestry Literature and Practice 273 in Germany, France and Russia. Of other promi- nent foresters who have advanced forestry in Russia we may cite Count Vargaci de Bedemar, who made the first attempt to prepare Russian growth and yield tables m 1840 to 1850. Professor A. F. Rudzsky, who was active at the Forest Institute until a few years ago, developed in ms volumes especially the mathematical branches and methods of forest organization. The names of Tursky, Kravchinsky and Kaigodorov are known to Russian students of dendrology and silviculture, and among the younger generation the names of Morotov Nestorov, Orlov, and Tolsky may be mentioned. It IS well known how prominent Russian investi- gators have become in the natural sciences, and to foresters the W'ork of the soil physicists. Otozky and Dokuchaev would at least be familiar. 4. Forestry Practice. While then a very considerable activity in scientiPc direction exists, the practical application of forestry pnncip es is less developed than one would expect especially in view of the stringent laws. So far not much more than conservative lumbering is the rule Generally speaking, the State and crown forests are better managed than the private, many of which are being merely exploited; and in the northern de- partments large areas remain still ini-cessible Some notable exceptions to the gent al mismanage- ment of pnvate forests are furnished by some of tho8« owned by the nobility, like those of Count Uwaroff with 150,000 acres under model managementTJa ■' nn 274 Russia. German forester, and of Count Strogonoff with over 1 000 000 acres under first-class organization with a staff of over 230 persons. in^fulW^"""' :-^^"i^^ti°n was first attempted 1840. By this i.me some 100 milhon acres have come under regulated management, half of the area te.ng government forests. The method of regulation em allotmen accordmg to Cotta. In some regions a 6rtT4"o^::^^'' '"'l """P-'^^nts, ranging from 60 to 4,000 acres 3ach, according to intensity of ex- po tat.o„, has been effected. It is estimate! that at the present rate of progress it would take 300 years to complete the work of organization. feIMn.'r'rtK '"'*'"^ '' "*"' "^'8«'y employed, a fel mg budget by number of trees and volume being determmed m the incompletely organized areas; whilf a clearing system with artificial reforestation is used LnmJ'^r ''^'°'"P''*" yield calculation has been made. The rotations employedare from 60 to 100 years for timber forest, 30 to 60 years for coppice In the pineries the strip system in echelons is mostly n vogue, the stnps being made 108 feet wide, leaving four seed trees per acre, and on the last strip, which IS left standing for five years, this number is iLIatd to eight which are left as overholders. This me hod, according, to some, setms to secure satis- factory reproduction. To get rid of undesirable species, especially aspen and birch, these are girdled In spruce forest, 50 to 60 per cent, of th tL are left in the fellings, when after three to four years Polish Conditions. 275 3 million dol£ ''""' *''^" '■^"^"'"^ below furnishing the means. ^ P' ^^^^ whis;rst:t"™rotrf^r^'"'^^°^ some time indeieT nt ir^r "" ^" organized and placed ,.0^1; *if ^^' "^^^ ■■«- St. Petersburg l^ . '''^ ''*"*'^' bureau at the mcitt'ftiv o r^ ''' '°"^'^ "' P°'-'' -e market and high prit C^Z"* \"''' ^'* «<^ rapidly increJng, wou d How'^T^' "'"^'' ^'« "°- ment, the stinging o, " ,H • ""'-'^^ '"""^8«- moral tone of the J^: "'^'"'-^'^t.on, the low practice have retTrS^ 'ong established bad methods. The S^ . ,. TSd "' """^^ over 4.5 million acres and m 1 ^ comprise treated than the State fn-C ^ "°' '""'^'' ''^"er restrictive poHcy they Lave VV^T' °' ^"^ the last 20 years. ""''^ ^^ 25% i„ i. ) ) - ii'! " 'J: ij i. M 276 Russia. Considerable efforts have been made towards re- foresting the steppes in southern Russia, first as in our own prairies and plains by private endeavor, but lately with more and more direct assistance of the State forest administration. This planting was begun by German colonists at the end of the 18th century, but without encouraging results, although over 25,000 acres had been planted by the middle of the 19th century. Since 1843, the government has had two experimental forest reserves in the steppes of the governments of Ekaterinoslav and Tauride, on which some 10,000 acres have been planted; the originator of this work being von Graff, a German forester, whose plantations, made with 8,000 plants to the acre, are still the best. Later, the number of plants was reduced to one-half, and the results have not been satisfactory. Altogether, planting on large areas on soils unfit for the purpose and by wrong methods has produced porr results. At present the policy is not to create larg( ' odies of forest, but to plant small strips of 20 to -■') yards square in regular distribution, which are to serve as windbreaks, and the result has been satisfactory, especially in the government of Samara. There are now annually 2.000 acres added to these plantations, The reclamation of shifting sands and sand dunes has also received considerable attention and, to some extent, the reboisement of mountain slopes in the Crimea and Caucasus. Of the former, some 10 million acres are in existence in European Russia, and in the province of Woronesh alone each year 100,000 acres are added. For 50 years sporadical work in their Planting in Plains and Sand Dunes. 277 recov / was done. Not until 1891 anH isoo u bail: °""'" °"^-''^^' ">^ '°-> gov/mmentX While rational forest management, as we have seen « far from being generally established, the gov^n^ ment tnes at east to prevent waste and to pfve the way from exploitation to regulatrj management. FINLAND. Ri2:S?tmi„°"'^ °' ''""^"'' '" ^"^^ "-*-«* of pTnt '* *™ •"^^"ne respects independent of Russia n>r:«tsfv: rtsis^ir '^'^^^" -^ °^ a wood producer thr kussS, ^3 Z^Tp'orL^ -r-rSoir^-r-H rZufcr^ ""• °^ '*^ '^^^^- -'^ '- -timSr; Settled in the 7th century by an Aryan tribe, the F^nns, congeners of the Magyar, who subdued Z abonganal Laplanders, Finland became by c^^uSt llH. ! . ; 1- d 1^ ^i 1 ri 278 Finland. in the 12th century, and remained for 500 years, a province of Sweden. In the wars between Sweden and Russia; parts of this province were conquered by Russia, and finally, in 1809, Sweden lost the whole; but the Finns succeeded in preserving national unity and partial independence under a constitution, adopted in 1772 and recognized by the Czar. Finland stands very much in the same relation to Russia as does Hungary to Austria, the union being merely a personal one: the Czar is the ruler or Grand Duke, but the administration is otherwise largely separate from that of the empire, under a Governor- General, appointed by the Czar, and a Senate of 18 members at Helsingfors, with a national parliament of the four estates, nobles, clergy, burgers, peasants, which convenes every five years; the Czar having the veto power over its legislation. The War Department of Russia, however, is in charge of military affairs, and other departments seem to be under more or less supervision of the Russian administration. Lately repressive measures are threatening or have nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy. Of the 145,000 square miles of territory, nearly 50% is occupied by lakes and bogs, marshes or tundra; less than 9 million acres (9.7%) is in farms, and 37.5 million acres or 42%, is forestland, actual or potential; The major part of this is located in the northern and eastern sections, where the population is scanty, agriculture little developed, and sand soils prevail. Beyond the 69th degree, forest growth ceases, and naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth partakes of the character of all northern forests. i Forest Conditions. 279 Not more than 2.5 million acres, mostly in the south- western sections, are actually under cultivation ;the population being short of 2.5 million. The rigorous climate makes a large consumption of fue wood necessary, and, since houses are also mostly built of wood, the home consumption is over 32 cubic feet per capita. Over 10 million cubic feet of pine are consumed in making tar, and a like amount for paper pulp. The total cut is in the neighborhood of 370 million cubic feet, four-fifth of which comes from private forests of the middle and southern area, and over one-third of it is being exported. I ^uM,™""- ^ generally is a tableland with occasional ow hills. The forest consists principally of pine, the latter a variety of the Scotch Pine (or species?), called Kiga Pine which excels in straightness of bole and thrifty growth, and of spruce (10 per cent, of the whole, mainly in the southeast). Aspen, alder and birch, especially the latter, ate considered undesirable weeds, and fire is used to get rid of them where coni- ferous aftergrowth is desired, although bireh is also employed for fuel, bobbins and furniture, and aspen for matches. Basswood, maple, elm, ash and some oak occur, and larch {Urix sibirica) was introduced some 160 years ago. Long, severe winters and hot, dry summers pro- duM slow growth, the pine in the north requiring 200 to 260 years, in the middle sections 140 to 160 years to grow ;o merchanuble size. Fires, used in clearing, have from time to time run over large areas and have nearly killed out the spruce except in the lowUnds. but the pine being more \\ I 1.'i 280 Finland. resistant has increased its area and in spite of the deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well. Originally the forest was communal property, but in 1624, Gustav Vasa declared all forest and water not specially occupied to belong to "God, King and the Swedish Crown," although he allowed the usufruct to the people free of charge or neariy so. These rights of user are still the bane of the forest adminis- tration. Being left without supervision it mattered little who owned the land, the forest was ruthlessly exploited. Later, the rights of user thus originating were bought off by ceding lands to the peasants. Not until 1851 did an improvement in these con- ditions occur when a provisional administration of the State forests was provided in connection with the Land Survey; but a rational organization materialized only after an eminent German forester, v. Berg, Director of the forest school of Tharandt, had been imported (1868) to effect a reconstruction. His advice was, however, only partially followed, and the organization was not perfected until 1869. Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the administration developed, because it could not at once show increased profits, and the personnel whici. had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the large" districts into which the State property had been divided were still further enlarged, and to this day, improvement in these respects has been only partial. The State forest area, situated mainly in the north is stated as between 36 and 45 million acres (variable because of clearing for farms and new settlements). Administration. 281 but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors and much other waste land, which reduces the produc- tive forest area to about 12 million acres (35%), leaving 65% of the productive forest area to private ownership. This State forest was divided (1896) into 53 dis- tricts, the districts being aggregated into 8 inspec- tions, and the whole service placed under a central office with a forest director and 5 assistants under immediate control of the Senate. The forest guards numbered 750, their ranges averaging 50,000 acres, while the districts average 600,000 acres and several contain as high as 2.5 million acres; the Forstmeister in charge may live sometimes 200 miles from the nearest town and 60 miles from the nearest road. His function is mainly to protect the property, to supervise the cutting and sales, and to teach the people the need of conservative methods. In spite of this insufficient service, considerable reduction in forest fires and theft has been attained. Beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire, and conservative lumbering of the State forest, positive measures for reproduction have hardly yet been introduced, both personnel and wood values being insufficient for more intensive management. At present, with a cut hardly exceeding 100 million cubic feet, the revenue is still almost nominal, say 1600,000, and hardly the annual growth is cut. Selection forest is, of course, the rule, but since no trees are marked and cut less than 10 inch diameter at 26 feet from the ground (!), at least the possibility for improved management will not be destroyed m i 282 Finland. when, through the exhaustion of the private forests and increased wood prices, more intensive manage- ment has become practicable. in^^Vn''^ '"^'■''" '" «°°^' ^ "='^^""8 ^yste"! with 100 to 160 year rotation is practised; on the clearings about 20 seed trees are left, and after 6 years the natural regeneration is repaired by planting. This latter method is especially prescribed on the government farms. These form an interesting part 01 the State property, some 900 small farms with woodlots aggregating over 500,000 acres, mostly in the southern districts. These came into existence in the 17th and 18th centuries, being granted as fiefs to officers of the army as their only compensation. They reverted .o the State and are rented for terras Of 50 years upon condition that the woods are to be managed according to rules laid down by the State department; and special inspectors are provided to supervise this work. This system, in vogue since istw. at first met with opposition on the part of die renters on account of the impractical propositions of the department. At present the department manages many of these woodlots directiy, as well aii those which the clergy have received in lieu of emoluments. Since 1883, a corps of forest surveyors has been occupied in making working plans based upon diameter accretion at the curiously selected height of 25 feet from the ground. A commission was also instituted some years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in the State domain with a view of disposing of the latter preparatory to improved management of the remaining forest area. Restrictive Policies. 283 The State has also in a small way begun ) =K=„i,.»„ f ' "T -"■'." " """" "^y "^Kun to purchase absolute forest soils in the southern provinces with a view to reforestation. The private forest areas, located in the more settled southern portions are found mostly in small parcels and in peasants hands, although the nobility also owns some forest properties, but the size of single holdings rarely exceeds 1,000 acres. These areas are mostly exploited without regard to the future, furtnshmg still four-fifths of the large export, and according to competent judges will soon be exhausted Although attempts have been made from time to time to restrict the use oi private forest, practically little has been accomplished, and such restrictions as have been enacted are hardly enforced. adfoinV'T i"^ '° ^!f^' ^°'^^' '='"^""8 ^ong waters adapted to fishing, and orders the leaving of seed trees or providing otherwise for regeneration," if more than 12 acres are cut at one time. The method of utilizing the ground for combined forest and farm use, which is still frequently practised, . was forbidden on the light sandy soils of the pineries or was otherwise regulated. Forest fire laws are also on the statutes. Propositions for further restrictions, made in 1891 were promptly rejected by the parliament. Educational opportunities are offered in the Forest Institute at Evois, first established in 1862 as a result of V. Berg s visit, p.nd re-organized in 1874. It accepts new students only every second year for the two years- course. It has had a precarious existence, being left M ■■' fi ni,- If; I! 284 Finland. I sometimes without students, and is naturally not of a high grade, practical acquaintance with woodswork being Its main aim. Since 1876, a school for forest guards and private underforesters has been in existence, where 6 students are annually accepted for a two years' course. In addition there are two instructors provided by the government, wandering teachers who are to advise private owners. Premiums are paid for the best managed woodlots on the government farms. The Finnish forestry association, which is in part of propagandist nature, was organized in 1877 It supplies, besides an annual report, other forestry literature, and employs an experienced planter to direct efforts at reforestation. A forestry journal (quarterly) is also published, and a professional literature is beginning to start into existence. It may be of interest in this connection to cite a rough calculation made by Dr. Mayr of the available material in European Russia and Finland combined wmch he places at 4,500 million cubic feet, and of which he considers one-half available for export. It IS impossible to prognosticate what position Russia and Finland, together the largest wood pro- ducers in Europe, will take in the future world com- merce, and how rapidly better practices, for which the machinery is already half started, will become gener- ally adopted. At present, especially in Russia proper, the general corruption of the bureaucracy IS an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement THE SCANDINAVIAN STATES. Under the name of Scandinavian States we mav comprise the countries of Sweden. Norway Tnd Demnark wh.ch were settled by the same group J C^nnan tnbes the so-called Norsemen; they origi- nally spoke the same language, which only later became more or less differentiated. The setdement of the country by these tribes seems to have been accomplished in the main by the end of the 8th c^n" tury; and the separation into the three several king- ^?^l^i!!illiJ?!2!!L^^i:^!!^^^ during which m»t of ,..«„,. conJition. with l,i.to„j „1t». *"■ * ""• *"" * "•'* A vny rood idol ia detail of the wood trade of <:.^ latol into EnjlUh i. ST ' '"*' ""P^ ^ »" Mm. «»diH„™ aad dau':::f .htt«t!7m:::lr""™' *■'" • •-« •-»'"' °f on;::::^5trF^:sS:,:'^^^j=;'™'^".«'»».-ui".cha^^ »^2=^rr.o-ISS ■? "--^^^^^ jr^-.«w..d»a.tH.^^S!^rs^*;^,-:z'.^^^^^^^^ •«~.T.u.th.,;S:r ^^^ *''*^' ">' °- '•""«• •«». w„ „ot l«B(bn.SriiiiPoie.trv Quarterly vol III . J-, ^ ••**"'"'* ■'"'•'''eMii. Quarteriy, toI. IX . UI^ZTTw ™- '"• P- «W Md another (briefed in •am. TO. IX. p. 19) pve. e.t..^ ,.„^^ ^,;^, condition, in Sweda^ ii-iM ih 286 Scandinavian States. time they were sometimes united, or at least under one ruler, sometimes at war with each other, and always torn by interior dissensions borderine on anarchy. In 1397, by the Calmar convention, a more per- manent union into one kingdom was effected between bweden, Norway, and Denmark under Margaret the Semiramis of the North." After another period of variable fortunes, Sweden, about 1523, became an independent constitutional monarchy under Gustav Vasa, and Norway remained joined to Denmark under Frederick I. Sweden then started on a career of conquest, being almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and espeaally with Russia and Poland, whereby, especi- ally under Gustavus Adolphus and the adventurous Lharles XII, her territory was greatly enlarged. With the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt (1720 and 1721) she came into more peaceful waters but permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained until the election of Bernadotte. one of Napoleon's admmistrators, to the kingship, and by the peace of Kiel, in 1814, Sweden became a constitutional heredi- tary monarchy in the modem sense. At the same time, Norway was taken away from Denmark and ;^, 'u * ""'°" *'* Sweden, which persisted until 1907, when a peaceful separation took place by the action of the Norwegian people. The union has always been hateful to the Norwegians, although only the king and the department of foreign affairs (in which Norway was represented by a delegation from Its Council) were in common, all other matters Conditions in Sweden. 287 of administration being separat > as well as the parlia- ments (Storthing in Norway, and Riksdag in slSen). iZT'A . ° r^l''^^'^'^ n°t only Norway but England, losing both these countries shortly after Lis fn'?h 7Z^°''' ^^ ^''"'"" °' '""'^'^ °f its territory L '^"I'^f'!*"^^' and. in 1814, was separated from Norway Originally an elective monarchy, largely dominated by the nobility, the crown in im becfme hereditary and absolute, and Sweden did not become a constitutional monarchy until 1849. ir, n This I SWEDEN. t interest : i country is of greate large in forestry matters, Inn ''^ ""! If ^^'* ^''^'^^'^ °' *°°d and has'oniyTust fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest 7^^'^A^'- u^ '^^ °^ ^^^ P™™^* t° bring about which other European nations so much rely Sweden, with 172,876 square miles, occupies the Til'lTrT' °' '''' Scandinavian peninsula It IS not like Norway, a mountain country, but the greater part consists of low granitic hills. The moun- tain range (Koelen) which forms the boundary to- wards Norway falls off in a long slope towards the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic sea, the coast being a broad level plain, with a series of islands, larger or ™ h£C"'"^ '""^ °"^" ^°^^* "- -^ f°-ng an The country is cut into numerous water sheds, tiie r '■ 288 Sweden. many rivers (called elfs), furnishing means of trans- portation, expanding frequently into lakes (sj6) in the upper reaches, and falling with cataracts into the lower plain, giving rise to fine water powers. Eight per cent, of the total area is n lakes. Only 12 per cent, of the land area is in farms. The forest area with neariy 50 million acres, occupies neariy 48 per cent., leaving 40 per cent, waste land or otherwise occupied. Half of the population of over 5 million pursues agnculti- while iron manufacture and the lumber industry occupy one-quarter. Of the three main divisions of the countn', the southern, GOtaland, is richest in lowiands and agricul- tural soils, and, as it has also a favorable maritime climate, farming is the main industry. Here, a popu- lation of 50 to 60, and in parts up to 190 per square mile is found. Beecn and oak are here the principal trees, with spruce occasionally intermixed. In the central part, Svealand or Sweden proper, the forest region begins, witii pine and spruce, pure or in mixture, covering the granite hills ana plateau- birch and other hardwoods, oak, beech, elm, basswood and aspen being found in die river valleys; but the third division, Norrland, is tiie forest region of com- raeraal importance, the seat of the extensive export trade. It is a vast, almost unbroken forest country witii hardly more than 3 people to the square mile m the northernmost part, called Lapland, Laps and Finns forming a not inconsiderable part of the popu- lation. Pine and spruce are the timber trees, with White Birch mtermixed. Towards tiie northern boundary Forest Conditions. 289 irthweste-n •dt of bi- 1 ares The 'he c limatt: nvere, plays an important rdle i„ the ec. ^K^v ot Sweden, not only because it cov such a and favorable composition (81^ conii-r because it has long been a prominent sourr- Especially after the abolition of the En n duties,inl866,andoftheSwedish export dut, had restricted trade, in 1863, did a rapid -, ,,^^ ,„ wood exerts take place, until in 1900, it . mounted to over 54 million dollars (of which 12 millicn for woodenware), being the leading export article anc representing over one-half of all exports. In addition to this export which may represent at least a round 300 million cubic feet of wood, there are about 250 million cubic feet of pulpwood and 150 million feet used for charcoal, besides the domestic fuel consumption. The total draft on the forest may area bu ■'ime. port hich "rtdse in r^l 1 if; 1 ' ; •I i ' i ■ n LI i •P ji ' ■ > 200 Sweden. be estimated to come near to 1,200 million cubic feet which is believed far in excess of the annual growth, much of the nearly 50 million acres of forest area having been devastated o\- deteriorated by axe and fire and being located in a northern zur.e where the growth is slow (1 inch in 12 to 15 years). According to others, the cut remains below the increment by about 25 per cent., the latter being figured at 25 cubic feet per acre. In the State forests, to be sure, mostly located in the more northern tiers, the cut is kept between 6 and 7 cubic feet effective, but here a waste of sometimes 40% is incurred in the exploitation due to the difficulties in tran-^port. 1. Property Conditions. It was Gustav Vasa who, in 1542, declared all un- cultivated lands the property of tlie Crown. Parts of them, however, were given to colonists, and these as well as the resident population had t ' ; right to use the neighboring forest to s-pply their needs for wood and pasture. By the continued exercise of this right, the forest came to be considered commons, proprietary rights remaining long in doubt. Finally, a division came about, some of the lands becoming the pioperty of the parishes, others of smaller dis- tricts (the hundreds), others again encumbered or unencumbered property of the State, and some re- mained in jOint ownership of State and private in- dividuals under various complicated conditions. The State now owns somewhat over 16 million acres, of which, however, only 70% are really forest, and controls more or less 4 million more, of which Property Conditions. 291 1^1 ^'""^ '"'' ""^ ecdesiast-cal benefice, and ac^ n StT7 '° P"W>c institutions, and 2.7 million acres in State farms, which are rented rhS'^K^IV''" !'"'= •'^^ P"""«d a policy of pur- chase, which has added over 500,000 acres (at $7 per acre to the domain. Lately, this policy has fou^ considerable opposition. In this wa™ by reforesting and by settlement of disputed titles the State proper"? .n absolute possession of the government has grown by nearly 5 per cent., to 10 million acres. thi"«;w K** ^^^ ^"i^'^ '°'^'' ^'^^ "^ to belong to the State, but m order to attract settlers these were fj'l- .u"'"'^'*'' ^°' '^^" °*" »^- from 10 to 100 times the area which they had cleared. This ( umbermen), until the law of 1873 intervened, re s^nctmg the settlers to the usufruct alone, the go^ern- r„H ,• ^^"ff ^^8^ °f 'he cutting of wood for sale and hmumg the cut to a diameter of 8 inch at 16 feet Jrom the base. This interference with what was supposed to be K "f '«,^™''. to have been resented, and has S.! Tf "' P'^'^''^''' •" '^^ ^''^"<* °f « sufficient \ Ji ^"""If ^"^'■'^^- Nevertheless the law was extended to Westerbotten in 1882. In other provinces. Wermland, Gestrikland. etc S !w r ™PP'y themselves with charcoal from State forests. But about the middle of the 19th cen- oarte ^^,!!: Tl^ *° ™"'°^^ development in other titl • T *u' !f°"''°''^^ '^'"•^ unremunera- fve^and , .re abandoned, their owners continued < ! 292 Sweden. I ■fil L L to hold on to the forest privileges, and by and by exercised them by cutting and sawing lumber for sale, or even by selling the forest areas as if they were their properties; and in this way these properties changed hands until suddenly the government began to challenge titles, and commenced litigation, about 1896. Grants of certain log cutting privileges on govern- ment lands were also made to sawmills in past times, usually by allowing sawmillers to cut a ceruin number of logs annually at a very low price. In 1870 these grants, which were very lucrative, were modified by substituting the right of an increased cut for a stated number of years at a modified price, after which the grant was to cease. In 1900, there were still some 300,000 acres under such grants. No wonder that under these circumstances the valueof the State forest property was, in 1898, assessed at only $1 .60 per acre .he net income being $1 ,680,753, or about 12 cents per acre; the expenditures for ad- ministration, supervision, and forest school amount- ing to $423,659, to which should be added an undeter- mined amount for the participation of the domain bureau, the agricultural department and provincial governments, all taking part in the forest adminis- tration. Many of the towns and country districts (haerad) have received donations of forest areas from the Crown, which have been a considerable source of revenue to them. The parish of Orsa, e.g., realized from its forest property some 2.5 million dollars, and other similar results are recorded. Property Conditions. 293 These communal and institute forests of various descnption comprise somewhat over 2.6 million acres, or 5.5%, and are placed under management of local committees, with the governor of the province as chairman. The management consists in selling stump- age of all trees over 13 inches in diameter 5 feet above ground, to be cut by the purchaser under regulations In the years from 1840 to 1850, the government sold to English wood merchants considerable tracts of timberland, and in the latter part of the 19th century, as the sawmill industry expanded, many mill firms acquired wood-cutting leases for 50 year terms for prices which were often realized from the .u^\ '"o^""" *"' '^'"'^'■- ^' P'*«"t "onger 'eases than for 20 years are prohibited by law. The diameter limit of 12 inches, 18 or 20 feet above ground, was usually the basis of the leases; and as the owners could then lease away other sizes, it might happen that 2 or 3 persons besides the original owner would have property rights in the same forest. Of late years many of the mill owners have endeavored to get nd of the resulting inconvenience by buying the fee-simple of the land. This movement has resulted in the aggregation of large areas in single hands or more often in the hands of large mill companies. By the acquisition of these properties a certain amount of cultivated land is usually included, which is then left to the former owner at a nominal rent provided that he pays the taxes on the whole; thereby creating a class of renters in lieu of owners of farms The area thus privately owned, mostly by sawmill companies, must be over 25 million acres; the total 1 1 $: i fl; ' 1 i 1 i ; \ ' ;* • i ' ^\l I'M I fli I. ', 1 294 Sweden. private forest area, which includes the bulk of the commercial forest, is about 30 million acres (61.3%), unreclaimable waste lands swelling the figure to over 50 million. 2. Development of Forest Policy. From the times of Olaf TratSlja, the first Ch-istian king of Sweden (about 1000 A.D.), who gained fame by the part he took in exploiting the forests of Werm- land, down to the 14th century Sweden suffered from a superabundance of forest. Nevertheless, by the end of that century restriction of the wilful destruction by fire was felt necessary, and an ordinance with that object in view was promulgated. It is questionable whether this order had any effect in a country, where the homestead law provided, that a settler might take up "as much pasture and arable land as he could make use of, twice as much forest, and in addition on each side of thi- homestead as much as a lame man could go over on crutches without resting." Not till 1638, do we again find an attempt at forest conservancy, this time in the interest of supplj of charcoal for the iron industry, by the appointment of overseers of the public forests. The first general forest code, however, dates from 1647, which among other useless prescriptions made the existing usage of planting two trees for every one cut obligatory, and this provision remained on the statutes until 1789. In spite of this and other, re- strictive, laws, exploitation by the liege lords and the communities continued until, in 1720, a director of Early Development. 295 forests for the two southern districts. Halland and Bohus, was appointed, and, at least in this part of the country, the execution of the laws was placed under a special ofScer. This appointment may be considered the first germ of the later forest department. A policy of restriction seems to have prevailed dunng the entire 18th century, although it is ques- tionable whether the restrictions were enforced since there was no personnel to watch over their enforce- ment, and the governors, in whose hands the juris- diction lay, had other interests, more engrossing. A law, enacted in 1734, restricted the peasant forest owners in the sale of wood from their own properties, and, in 1789, this restriction and other supervision was extended to those of the nobility. It appears that soon after this a considerable senti- mental solicitude inside and outside the Riksdag was aroused regarding an apprehended deterioration of climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of further forest destruction— in the light of present ex- penence a rather amusing anticipation. These jere- miads, however, after an unsatisfactory attempt at legislation in 1793, led, in 1798, to the appointment of a commission which reported after 5 years of investi- gation. A new set of forest regulations was enacted as a result in 1805. In further prosecution of these attempts at regu- lating forest use a commissioner. Prof. F. W. RadloflF, was sent to Germany, in 1809, to studv methods em- ployed in that country. Long before that time about 1762, some of the iron masters, owning large vm 296 Sweden. forest areas had imported a commission of German forest experts (among them von Langen and Zanthier the same who had done similar work in Norway and Denmark) with a view of systematizing the forest use; but apparently without result. After much discussion of Radloff's report, and con- sultation with the provincial governors, who suggested the propriety of different plans for different localities new legislation was had in 1810, 1818. 1823, and new regulations for the crown forests were issued in 1824 Yet at this very time not only the partition of the communal forests but also the sale of town forests was ordered; and this policy of dismemberment lasted till 1866, over 1 million acres having been sold by that time. Nor was any diminution in wasteful practices to be noted as a result of legislation, and it seems that, while on the one hand restrictive policies were discussed and enacted, on the other hand unconserva- tive methods were encouraged. Indeed, in 1846, the then existing restrictions of the export trade were removed; apparently a reversion of restrictive policy had set m, and exploitation increased, in the belief of mexhaustible supplies. On the other hand, encour- agement of reforestation was sought by giving boun- ties for planting waste land and for leaving a certain number of seed trees in the felling areas, also by paying rewards for the best plantations; all without result Meanwhile a check to the wood trade had occurred through the imposition of exorbitant customs duties by Great Britain, and at the same time the govern- ment imposed an export duty to discourage export from Norrland, and this was not abated until 1857. •m pi Ml-- Administrative Reform. 297 A further project of forest supervision was attempt- ed through a report by a new commission appointed m 1828, which formulated rules for the control of public and private forests, and recommended the establishment of a Central bureau for the manage- ment of forest affairs, as well as the organization of a Forest Institute, for the teaching of forestry. This Institute was established at Stockholm in 1828, but, instead of organizing the bureau, the director of that mstitute was charged with the duties of such bureau. Again for years, committee reports followed each other, but led to no satisfactory solution of the prob- lems. In 1836, however, a forestry corps (skogstaten) was organized for the management of the State forests under the direction of the Forest Institute, and, as a result of persistent propaganda, the central bureau of forest administration (skogsstyrelsen) was created in 1859 with Bjorkman at the head, charged with the supervision of all the State, royal, communal and other public forests, and the control of private forest use. The law of 1869, however, did not settle upon any new policy of control over private forest properties. Again and again, forest committees were appointed to propose proper methods of such control, but not until 1903 was a general law enacted, which was to go into effect on January 1, 1905. Previous to this, locally applicable laws were en- acted. In 1866, a law was passed which referred only to a particular class of private lands, namely those forests of Norriand which the Sute was to dispose of U II 1i ill i 298 Sweden. for ground rent, or which had been disposed of and on which the conditions of settlement had not been fulfilled. In 1869, a law applicable only on the island of Gotland provided a dimension limit, and that in case of neglect of regeneration on private fellings the owner may not cut any more wood for sale, until the neglect had been remedied. Exactly in the same manner as the homestead and other colonization laws in the United States have been abused to get hold of public timber lands, so in Sweden large areas of government land had been taken up for sittlement, but actually were exploited. It was to remedy this evil that in 1860 an examination of the public lands was ordered with a view of with- drawing portions from settlement and of making forest reservations. The royal ordinance of 1866 re- sulted, which was to regulate the cutting on settled lands and in such new settlements as were thereafter allowed. Here, private owners at first were allowed to cut only for their own use, and the new law prescribed the amount of yeariy cut and required the marking of timber designed for sale by the government omcers. This "compulsory marking" or "Lapland" law with a dimension limit, was, in 1873, extended to all private forests in Norbotten, and in 1888, to Vester- botten. This law limits the diameter to which fell- ings are to be made (8 inches at 15 feet from base), and if the cutting of smaller trees is deemed desirable for the benefit of the forest these are to be designated by forest officials. Consenation Boards. 299 The law for Gotland was renewed in 1894, adding a reforestation clause, the governor . eing authorized to prohibit shipping of timber under 8 inch diameter, and that not until new growth was established; or at least no new fellings may be made until this condition IS fulfilled. The same law applies to sand dune plantations in other, southern districts. Altogether one-quarter of the private forest property was in this manner subjected to restrictions, until the pre- sent conservation law came into existence. This law, of 1903, which became operative in 1905 was the result of a most painstaking, extended canvass oy the legislative committee, appointed in 1896, which reported in 1899, and of a further canvass by the Director of Domains, who reported in 1901 A large amount of testimony from private forest owners sawmill men, provincial and local government officials etc., was accumulated, and it may be reasonably ex- pected that this new legislation will be more effective than most of the preceding seems to have been. The law requires in general terms the application of forestry principles in the management of private woodlands. For this purpose, a Forest Protection Committee, one for each province, is constituted which has surveillance over all private forests, an institution similar to that existing in Russia. The Committee, or Forest Conservation Board consists of three persons who are appointH for three yea-s, one by the government, one by the County Council, one by the managing committee of the County Agricultural Society. In addition, where the communities desire, elected Forest Conservation i li 300 Sweden. Commissioners may be instituted to make sure of the enforcement of the law. The Board secures the services of an expert adviser from the State forest service paid by the government but leaves to the Board discretion as to the interpretation of the law which is for the most part expressed in general terms, to secure conservative management. Hence differ- ent Boards have worked in different ways, but gradu- ally all are coming to similar methods, and all apply persuasive means rather than force. The law requires regeneration, but does not pre- scribe det^l methods as to how re-growth is to be obtained, leaving these to be determined by the Board in consultation with the owners. If no agree- ment can be arrived at, or if the measures stipu- lated are not taken by the owner, the Board may enforce its rulings by Court proceedings, in which in- junctions to prevent further lumbering, confiscation of logs, or of lumber, or money fines may be adjudged. The time of contracts for logging rights is reduced from 20 to 5 years. Short courses of instruction to forest owners, and the issuing of popularly written technical publications (Folkskrifter) is one of the efficient methods of securing the result, which seems to have been attained in the few years since the law is in operation, namely in arousing such interest that opposition has become very small. An export duty (4 to 8 cents per 100 cubic feet of timber, 8 to 14 cents per ton of dry wood pulp) is levied for the purpose of carrying out the law the export duty amounting to over $160,000, and a more general export duty is under contemplation. Potest Admittistratinn. 301 The management of communal forest is to be placed under the State forest administration, the corporations paying 1.6c. per acre; but this feature does not seem entirely settled. Protective forests under special regulations are established at the alpine frontier and on the drift- sand plains, which are planted up, 3. Forest Administration and Forestry Practice. The central forestry bureau as it exists now was organized in 1883 as the Domain Bureau in the De- partment of Agriculture with, at present, a forester as General Director, and under it a forestry corps (skogstaten) (reorganized in 1890) which has charge of the public forests, and also of the forest control in the private forests where such control exists outside of the Conservation Boards. For the purpose of this administration the country is divided into 10 districts, each under an inspector (or Sfverjdgmdstare) ; the dis- tricts are divided into ranges (revir), now 90, each under a chief of range (or jdgmdstare) with assistants and guards (kronojdgare); the nomenclature of the officers suggesting the hunt rather than the forest management. In addition, 6 forest engineers are employed on working plans, engineering works, and in giving advice and assistance to private owners who pay for such service. When it is stated that the ranges in the northern provinces average over 300,000 acres of public and 400,000 acres of private forest; in central Sweden 150,000 acres of public and 145,000 acres of private forest, and in the southern provinces nearly 55,000 302 Sweden. acres of State and communal forest, it will be under- stood that the control cannot be very strict. The net revenue from the State forest during the last 30 years has increased from $300,000 to $1,750,000. The management of even the State forests can only be verj' extensive. The State still sells mostly stum- page, rarely cutting on its own account. The lumber- ing is carried on very much as in the United States by logging contractors, and the river driving is done systematically by booming companies. Selection forest is still the general practice, now cften improved into group system, although a clear cutting system with planting has been practised, but is supposed to be less desirable, probably because it entails a direct money outlay or else because it was not property done. A seed tree management preferred by private owners for pine seems frequently not successful. Of the State forests 90% are under selection system, and of the private forest 60%. In the southern provinces where planting is more frequently resorted to, 2-3 year old pines and 2-5 year o d spruces, nursery-grown, 2,000 to the acre, are gener- ally used or else sowing in seedspots is resorted to, which IS more frequently practised in the midd:e country. Some 10,000 acres were, for instance, planted by the forest administration in 1898, at a cost of $2 per acre, and the budget contains annually about $20,000 for such planting. That private endeavor in the direction of planting, has also been active, is testified by a plantation of oyer 26,000 acres, now 35 years old, reported from Fmspong Estate. :L...t^iv,.«-lt' Silvicultural Practice. 303 Complete working pUns are rare even for the State forests a mere summary felling budget being deter- mined for most areas, the trees to be cut being marked Under mstructions issued in 1896, working plans for the small proportion of State forest management by clearing system are to be made. In these an area allotment method is employed with rotations of 100 to 150 years. Forest fires are still very destructive, especially in northern Sweden, although an effective patrol system greatly assisted in some provinces by watch towers' has reduced the size of the areas burnt over. The coniferous composition and the dry summers in the northern part together with the methods of lumber- ing are responsible for the conflagrations. In this direction too, the activities of the Conservation Boards have been highly useful. 4. Education and Literature. Among the propagandist literature, which had ad- vanced the introduction of forestry ideas in Sweden >t IS proper to mention the writings of Israel Adolf oj i,trom, who after extensive travels in Germany established the first private forest school in 1823 and was instrumental in securing the establishment of the State Forest Institute in Stockholm (1828) vail" ^^^''^ *° education a most liberal policy pre- At the Institute the tuition is free and in addition 4 students receive scholarships of 250 dollars per year; appointment to assistantships follows immedi- ately after promotion, and in 10 years the position of ,' ]' T1 n h w ^ ^ ^1 1 i J It 'ii,,..,, 304 Sweden. jagmastare may be attained. The number of stu- dents IS limited to 30. The director of this school IS also general adviser in forestry matters. Besides the director, six professors are employed. The course at this school is two years of 11 full months. There are now a higher and a lower course, the former requiring previous graduation from another preparatory forest school, either the one at Omberg (founded 1886), or that at KJoten (1900), where a one-year course, mainly in practical work, is given. For the lower service there are not less than 6 schools in various parts of the country, each with one teacher and assistants, managed under a chief of range. In these, not only is tuition free but 10 pupils receive also board and lodging; the course lasting 8 months. These schools prepare for State service, as well as for managers of private forests. A forest experiment station was organized in 1903, an independent institution in the Domain Bureau! under the direct charge of a practitioner. Every third year, a commission is to determine what work is to be undertaken. The appropriation, which so far IS hardly f5,000 per annum, will not permit much expansion. The first number of its publication, Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsdksanstalt, was issued in 1904, and work of a superior character has been accomplished since then. That a forestry public exists in Sweden is attestec by a forest association with an organ Skogsvards Foremngens Tidskrift, which was founded in 1902. Literature and Education. 305 This journal is really the continuation of an earlier magazine, Tidskriftfor Skogshushallning, a quarterly begu.i in 18«9 and running until 1903. A forestry association for Norrland alone which also issues a yearbook, was organized a few years ago. A peri- odical for rangers, etc., is also in existence under the name of Skogsvdnnen. In 1902 also, there was formed a lumberman's trust to regulate the output, which the forest owners pro- posed to meet by an associated eilort to raise stumpage charges. The attempt of the lumbermen to restrict the cut in 190£ was, however, a failure, for the export of that year was 10% larger than the previous year It IS expected that the new law will have the ten- dency of decreasing the cut and of inaugurating a new era in forestry matters generally. NORWAY. Originally divided up among a number of petty kings, Norway was brought under one rule by Harold >n 863; and united to Denmark in the 11th century becoming gradually a mere dependency. Its later political fortunes and changing relations with Den- mark and Sweden have been referred to on p. 286 The history of the forestry development, however has preceded more or less independently of the other two countries. Norway, occupying with 124,445 square miles over one-third of the Scandinavian peninsula, is for the most part a mountainous plateau with deep valleys and lakes. Its numerous fjords and water ways make HI' 306 Norway. accessible < ,uch of tiie :■ tenor mountain forest, yet a large par- ^f 'he inlp.nr' area still remains inaccessible and trackle,='-. More than 75% of the country is waste land and water; only 3% in farms, leaving for the forest area 21%, or httle over 17 million acres. According to latest data (1907) from this productive area a further 2 million acres must be deducted as non-producing The distribution of this forest area is most uneven The bulk and the most valuable portion of it is found in the south-eastern corner around Christiania in eight coiinties, in which the forest per cent, exceeds 40 to 50, with conifer growth (pine and spruce) up to the 3 000 foot level. Again in the three counties around Trondhjem a large and important forest area IS located at the head of the fjords. But the entire western coast and the higher elevations are devoid of valuable forest growth and the northern third of the country (north of the Arctic circle) is mostly heath and moors with only 7% wooded, mainly birch growth of little commercial value. The commercially important forest area is, there- fore locally confined. It is estimated that one-half of the territory has to import its lumber, one-quarter has sufficient for home consumption, and the excess Which permits exportation is confined to the last quarter. This export, mostly in logs and staves, which amounts to neariy 20 million dollars (40% of the total export) half of it woodpulp is estimated to represent only one-fifth or one-sixth of the total cut which is stated as about 350 million cubic feet, or at the rate of 23 cubic feet on the productive area while i^ Forest and Property Conditions. 307 in the southern LtricSr„dinth'"'\'' "^"''^ ^^^^ 12 cubic feet. '''^ northern not over in the world-where iL r^ northernmost forest years, with NoTwav W. " ^°"''' ^^° ^o 200 these two specirfLS™;,--J„V:f%^^^' growth ; oak, ash, basswoJlanH I *''^ ^'"■«^' -"y. and Whit; B^:;:tirAtr,urur ^'^-'''- sw^irarnHticrn" ^"^ ^^"^ '■■- - ■•" the rights of u.r Sh ^ to^^Z'' "' ''' '""«• retained by the tKarker JZi Ti?^ ^ g'-^^ng, were -ns (./a.Li;::^i:V,:tl' --"-l state corn- by these rights, siniilar t^ !? ^ ^ ^"'^"'"'^'^ From the end o the mh ? '"^'"°"' '" Sweden, century it was th'X'o? ^ r"*''' "[.the 19th these commons wheCer theil . ^ *° '"^'^^ °^ and the best of tZZntillt^' "^\'°-' property of the districts (bnd^^ZlnJ ''''''^'^- c.ty and village corporationfrr e,r^LT''"'''' dis^crill^tten-s' S'^ '" '"« "-^ern --^thisha.,y2mii:iri:-^£^%i [■! ' ill I ! 308 Norway. of these productive acres half a million consists of encumbered commons from which the State receives hardly any income. The district commons or com- munal, and other public institute forests comprise around 7,800,000 acres (46%) ; but here again only 580,000 acres are productive. The balance then, or a full one-quarter is in private hands. Export trade in wood had been very early carried on, and had been considerably developed in the 13th and 14th century. By the middle of the 17th century the coast forest of oak had been cut out by Dutch and English wood merchants who had obtained log- ging privileges under special treaties of 1217 and 1308, and by Hanseatic cities, especially Hamburg entering this market in the middle of the 16th century. There are records which would make it appear that at least some of the now denuded coast was forested in olden times. The development of the iron industry increased the drain on these supplies, which forest fires, insects and excessive grazing prevented from recuperating. As early as the middle of the 16th century we find attempts to arrest the devastation by regulating the export trade and supervising the sawmills, forbidding especially the erection of sawmills intended to work for export only. In the 17th century, various commissions were ap- pointed by Christian IV to make forest reconnais- sances and elaborate rules for proper forest use. In 1683, Christian V issued a forest ordinance increasing Administrative Development. 309 the number of forest inspectors instituted by his predecessor, and giving in detail the rules governing forest use. many of which proved impractical In 1725. a commission, the socalled forest and sawmill commission, was appointed to organize a forest servce. It functioned nntil 1739. when the hrst Generalforstamt was established and the first attempt at real fores: management was made. This came mto existence through the efforts of two famous German foresters. J. G. von Langen and von Zanthier who -vith s,x assistants were called in from the Harz 3"*?'^ ^'' ^'r ^ft^"^^'-ds to Denmark and Sweden), durmg the years 1736 to 1740. to make a forest survey and organize a management. De- scriptions and instructions were elaborated in German and the service was largely manned by German "wood foresters (holzforsterne). The strictness of the de- partment which had been organized after von Langen's departure in 1739. made it, however, unpopular, and, in 1746, It was abolished, von Zanthier returning to his country, the sole survivor, the other assistants having succumbed to scurvy. The administration was again placed in the hands of a commission which continued till 1760. .n^r'^K*" ^7"''' '^°""^««d with mines remained under the administration as instituted, and those belongmg tothe copperworks of Roras continued under its forest inspectors until 1901. In that year, 1760, another shortlived attempt to organize a forest administration was made, but the new organization did not fare any better and was superseded in 1771. Then followed an interim 310 Norway. regimen, during which the general government and district officers were in charge. The old orders under which forest use had been regu- lated remained mostly in force until in 1795 all the reasonable and the unreasonable obstructions to export were removed. The sawmill privileges, under which English lumbermen held large areas for long terms and devastated them without regard to the impracti- cal regulations, were, however, i •- ended until 1860. The wood industries were then ren.ved entirely from restrictions, and forest destruction progressed even more rapidly with the increasing facilities for trans- portation. This final cessation of the destructive policy was the outcome of a campaign which started once more with a forest commission instituted, in 1849, to take stock and make new propositions. This com- mission reported in 1850, and pointed out not only the necessity of terminating the sawmill privileges, which was done in 1854, giving time till 1860, but also very wisely accentuated the need of technically edu- cated foresters if anything for forest recuperation was to be done. To meet this latter want, young men were sent to Germany at government expense to study forestry. Some 10 or 12 men were educated in this way during the next decade and thereby the basis for a technical forest management was laid. In 1857, the first two professional foresters, Mejdell and Barth, were placed in charge of affairs under the Interior Department, and when in 1859 a new commission was charged with organizing a forest service, these two men were ^-•^t- Administrative Organization. 311 members. Gradually an organization took shape under the direction of these two forestmeisUrs^^ forest policy war established by law, placing the State domam and other public forests under an efflc! tn,e management, making provision for the extinction the mismTn°" "'''%°' ""■■ ""'^ ^'^° ^^ ^"^"-ng the mismanagement of private forests. Ihe forest service, as now constituted after a re- orgamzafon m 1906, is in the Department of Agricu!- ture under a d.recor {Skovdirector) and 4 ForstleiZr or mspectors with some executive officers under outside fhllT^r ""'^'"^''^ '" '"^^ Public forests outside the State domain. The ranges are so large sometimes several million acres, and many of thfm so inaccessib e that only the most extensive manag" men is possible; the officials being poorly paid and o7a%?or • ''' "^"— ^ " -- - Besides a "forest engineer." who is a public lecturer the officers of the foiest department are underThe management, under contracts somewhat similar to the present practice of the U. S. Forestry Bureau the owners agreeing to follow the advice Since 1860, the State has begun to purchase forest whettrtTT"" '" '""^ '°^"«^ districts and Where, for protective reasons, it is desirable. In late years, regular appropriations of $15,000 to J20 0fln were annually made for this purjis^. 1 L '^^ ordinary grants. In this way. the cut-over Unds, '1 |f ■ - ■ : 1 312 Norway. neglected by their owners, are cheaplj^ acquired by the S^ate. Besides its own planting, the State assists private owners by advice and money grants and plantmaterial in reforesting their waste lands. The communal forests are under government supervision; they are usually worked under plans and under supervision of foresters with a view to supply the needs of the community. Only when the area IS more than sufficient may they obtain the right to cut for sale outside of their parish; on the other hand all fellings may be prohibited by the government, if this IS found desirable. As regards private property there seems to be little or no supervision, although the law of 1863 had declared Kulturplight and Kultur- tvank, I.e., the duty of reforesting, but it had not de- fined that duty, and the law remained a dead letter. In 1874, a special commission was charged to con- sider the forest policy which the public welfare re- quired. The commission reported in 1879 with pro- positions, which were submitted to the officials of the department and the district. A new proposition was worked out and submitted in 1882, but it was pigeonholed until 1891, when the forest administra- tion brought in not a general law but one merely for- bidding the export from Nordland. Tromsoe and Finmarken, the thinly forested northern provinces Finally, in 1893, legislation was had enabling muni- cipalities to protect themselves against destruction of forests needed for their p.otective function. This gives to them the right to formulate rules which are to prevent devastation, as for instance a diameter limit for felling, or reforestation of clearings. But Forest Policy and Education. 313 the costs of such restriction must be borne by the the other half being paid by the State. The Dro cedure to determine the protective quality of forests In 187«"'r"' '"^'^^''y •'""^ '^'' 'he law unuS in 1878, however, a committee of private owners formed jtself, to fix the sand dunes, whichthhth: State subventions started work the following year _ Many of the State forests are so burdened with nghts of user, which were granted to help in develop forest administration and the conditions of the State property are most unsatisfactory, and theappHcafon of silviculture greatly circumscribed The silvicultural system applied is most generally sttem"'r 1 ""°" '""'' °' "" ^PP^°-h ?o group fre V M '""^ "''°" ^°'""*^^ reproduction en tirely. Management is much hampered by rights of user to certain dimensions, and in the more d fan districts by the difficulty of disposing of any bu the unknowT" Th" T'"'" -«--tion is stiU almos unknown The stumpage is sold and removed by the buyer and the axe is still mainly used. Higher forest schools there are none, but three ^hools for the lower grades had existed for some tfme the firs having been established in 1875 at Kongsbergi one of tnem was abandoned in 1889. Forestry is al«, taught at two farm schools. Until recently the higher class foresters had to get their education in Germany, or in the Swedish Forest ! I t^^ 314 Norway. Institute at S xkholm; but in 1879, a chair of forestry was instituted in the Agricultural college at Kristiania. In 188i, the first forestry association was formed, which by lg<)8 had over 500 members, and then was re-orgal■!^ed with a special view to elevate private forestry practice. It has now (1907) 1,500 members, and employs a forester paid by the State, to give professional advice, and works with State aid It has set out over 50 million trees besides sowing 8,000 lbs. of seed. It publishes a journal ridskrift for Skogsbruk, and a Yearbook. There is also another journaU ForstUgt Tidskrift, and a professional Society of Foresters. Altogether forestry is not yet on a high level in this country, but the subject is now being brought even into the primary schools, and the efforts to improve conditions are widespread. DENMARK. Forestry in Denmark is of interest especially on account of the intensive methods developed on small areas, and of the efforts at reforestation of sand dunes, moors and heaths. Greatly curtailed in area when, as a result of the war of 1864. Prussia detached the provinces of Schles- wig and Holstein, Denmark now has an area of 15 360 square miles with 2.5 million people (or 163 to the square mile).rt is largely a farming country, 80 per cent, being productive, only 6.3 per cent, of it, or less than 600,000 acres being under forest, and this also mostly on soil capable of farm use; hence an import Forest Conditions. 315 of over 7 million dollars worth of wood material is required. In addition, there are about 75,000 acres of heaths and other v/astes in process of reforestation. Especi- ally on the island of Sjalland, on which the capital Copenhagen, is situated, the forest area is now in- creasing by planting. The balance, or nearly 20 per cent, of the land area,consists of heaths, moors, peat- bogs and sands. Half the forest area is located on the islands, and as these represent about one-third of the total area, they are twice as densely forested as the peninsula of Jutland. This latter along the north and west coast for 200 miles represents a large sandbank with extensive sand dunes, shifting sands, heaths and moors, a desolate almost uninhabited country of sterile downs, called Klitten, the recovery of which has been in progress for a hundred years. According to some,this once bore a coniferous forest, more likely it was never forested. While originally beech was and is still the predomi- nant timber ((60%) with considerable additions of oak (7%) and other hardwoods, a conifer forest of spruce and pine, covering more than 20% of the forest area, has been established by planting. This planting has been mainly done on the dunes and sand- wastes, and in the reclamation of the extensive heaths and moors or peat bogs, especially in the northern Limf jord district, which occupy one-sixth of the unpro- ductive area. As was natural, the forest stocking on good farm ;(: 1 i ; ■ fi i :.M :^.....'^.i3aL.L^m:i-4^;ri*iir'.:^ j I 316 Denmark. land had to yield early to plow and pasture. Attempts at conservative use of the forest area date back to 1557 when Christian III issued a forest ordinance directing his vassals or liege lords to permit the peasants to secure their domestic wood requirements at a cheap rate, but not to permit cutting for sale or export, and reserving to himself all returns from such sales. There were also regulations for the pasture, especially as to goats, and for the use of the mast, which then formed more than one-quarter of the income, from the royal forests. In the 18th century the need of forest management was recognized, and in 1762 the two eminent German foresters, von Langen and von Zanthier (see p. 88) were invited to visit Denmark and Norway (see above) with a view of organizing such management. In 1760, eight young Danes were sent to von Langen in Wernigerode to study his methods for three years, and these with the two German foresters returned in 1762, and under the direction of von Langen organ- ized the Seeland forest areas and started the first plantations of conifers, which are now the pride of Danish foresters. In 1781, the State forests were altogether placed under an organized administration. By the beginning of the 19th century the reduction of forest areas had progressed to such an extent that, in 1805, a law was enacted providing that the then existing forest area containing beech and oak should be maintained as such forever, or at least that for any new clearing an equivalent area be planted to forest. This law was perhaps the result of a journey Development oj Forest Policy. 317 in 1S02, to Germany made by two leading officials of the forest department, German influence through Cotta and Hartig being at this time visible every- where. Other restrictions in the disposal of peasants' farms or woodlands and in the manner of farming the large estates (otherwise than by renting to farmers), were also enacted in order to secure stability of the peasant class. It was at this time that the accumulative taxing of landed estates now under heated discussion in Great Britain, was used effectively to break up the aggregation of landed property and changed the country from one of baronial estates to small farmer's holdings. In this reform movement the name of Count Reventlow, Chief of the State forest department, appears as the leading spirit. The forest area, which until 1820 was on the de- crease, has since that time increased steadily, and is especially now increasing through reforestation of waste lands. At present, most intensive forest management is practised in the State forest as well as in the com- munal and private forest areas, which latteras stated, are largely in farmers' wood lots since the law forbids the union of small farms into large estates. There is little communal property, and large private estates are also rare. The State owns about 24% of the forest area or 142,000 acres, of which one third is nonpro- ductive or otherwise occupied, and one third con- sists of coniferous plantations. Excepting in the beech forest, most of the timber is of the younger age classes, below 60 to 80 years, and it is anticipated that the cut 318 Denmark. 1 t will have to be reduced, and the import of wood and woodenware increased. Artificial reproduction is the most general silvicul- tural practice except in the beech forest which is re- produced naturally after preparation of the soil and sowing acorns for admixture at the same time, spend- ing altogether f 12 to $15 per acre in this preparation. Since 1880, thinnings have been based on the idea of favoring final harvest trees somewhat after the French fashion; they are begun in the twentieth to thirtieth; year and are repeated every three years, iided by pruning. Then in each subsequent decade the return occurs in as many years as the decade has tens. Especially in the direction of thinnings, the German practice and even tlieory is outdone, the thinnings being made severer and recurring more frequently. More than a hundred years 3go the State began the reclamation work of the dunes and heaths, but it pro- gressed more actively only since the sixties of last century as a result of legislation had in 1857. In 1867, a special Dune Department was instituted, and through the effort of a State engineer, Capt. Dalgas, an association was formed for the reclamation of heaths and moors. A small subvention of $600 started the work of the association,initsusefulcampaign under the advice of Staats planteur (State forest planter) Jensen Tusch. The State subvention now amounts to about forty thousand dollars annually, and the success of the association has been such that it has become almost a fad for large land owners and others Education and Literature. 319 to buy up these waste lands and have them planted through the agents of the Heath Association. The planting is mainly of spruce in plow furrows at a cost of $10 to $12 per acre; 60 to 80 year old stands of earlier plantings testifying to the possible results. In the last 40 years nearly 200,000 acres of heath have been planted, of which over one-half are to the credit of the association. For the education of the higher grade foresters a department of forestry (now with two professors) was instituted in the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural High School at Copenhagen in 1869, with a course of five years including one and a half year of practical work. This education is given free of charge. The Heath Association educates its own officers, in- cluding in their subjects the management of meadows and peatbogs. A Forestry Association, composed one-half of forest owners, with its organ Tidskrift for Skowaesen, in existence since 1888, and a valuable book literature, in which the problems of the heath are especially fully and authoritatively treated, places Denmark in the foremost rank in the forestry world in these particulars. Among the prominent contributors are to be men- tioned, besides Reventlow and Dalgas, P. E. Miiller, well known by his discussions of the problems of moor soils. From 1876 to 1891, he issued a magazine, in which Oppermann contributed a history of Danish forestry. The latter author also, in co-operation with Hauch, published in 1900 a Hand-book of Forestry. n ^jjfci* THE MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS. Geographically, and to some extent climatically, the three peninsulas of the Mediterranean Sea, the Iberian, Italian, and the Balkan, are situated alike. Their people, if not in race, are in temper and charac- teristics, and in their political economy more or less alike. They represent the oldest civilization in Europe, and in their long history have been frequently in collision with each otlier. Their forests, through centuries of abuse, are wherever accessible, in poorest coiidition. Long-continued political disturbances, which have prevented peaceful development, and poverty, have been the greatest hindrances to economic reforms like the recuperation of forests, which require sacrifices. Ancient rights of user, and the necessity of politicians to respect them are also re- sponsible for the fact that, while praiseworthy at- tempts in legislation have been made, execution has b'ien usually lagging behind. The accessibility to sea, permitting readily importa- tion, the temperate climate, the simple life and ab- stemiousness of the people, and the lack of industrial development have made the deficiency of wood material less felt than it would otherwise be, but the detrimental influence of forest destruction is being repeatedly experienced in floods and drouths. There is probably no more potent cause of forest lU \Ww Slavish Countries. 321 devastation in all this section of the world than the pasturing of the woods, especially with sheep and goats. While Italy is now a united country, and only two peoples, Spain and Portugal, occupy the Iberian peninsula, the Balkan peninsula is occupied by eight separate peoples, if we include all the country south of the Danube River and East of the Carpathian Mountains. illli^ TURKISH AND SLAVISH TERRITORIES. The Turks for centuries warred with, had under vassalage or otherwise controlled, and misruled all the Slavish States, as well as Macedonia and Greece — a territory of around 170,000 square miles and 16,000,000 people— until, by the Congress of Beriin (1878), ending the Russo-Turkish war, these States were recognized as independent kingdoms, namely Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Roumelia, and Rou- mania, while Bosnia-Hercegovina was placed under Austrian administration (see page 155 and 166). With the exception of Roumania, these people are still in the lower stages of civilization, the countries undeveloped, the forest still serves largely for the mast and pasturage, probably less than 24 per cent, of the country being forest covered, mostly with deciduous trees, oak, beech and walnut, etc. Roumania alone has systematically taken advan- tage of her freedom from Turkish rule in ueveloping a modern civilization, and can also boast the beginning of a forestry system. w 1 1 i 1 i ; 'I f - i I ! . !. 322 Turkey and Slavish Countries. Roumelia, comprising Macedonia, Albania and Thrace, the Turkish possessions in Europe, with 67,000 square miles and 5,000,000 people, contain large areasof untouched forest (not less than 5,000,000 acres in Mace- donia alone*) with valuable oakand walnut, which have remained unused owing to their inaccessibility and the undesirability of developing them under Turkish rule. Where accessible, the forest is maltreated or destroyed. Bulgaria, to wnich, in 1885, East Roumelia was *"*'^''^'*'"'^"** "°* ^^'^^ ^^^^ ™'^3 and over 4,000,000 people, independent under a German prince as king since 1879. The forest areaf of 7.5 million acres (30 per cent, of the land area), mostly deciduous (oak, beech, walnut, etc.), and largely con- fined to the mountains, is one-half in communal owner- ship, one-sixth in private hands, mostly small wood- lots, and one-third State prpperty; but ownership rights are still much in doubt, and until 1869 the State forests were freely open to the use of all, when some sort or regulation of the cut according to the needs of different communities was attempted. Since within 10 years such rights of user establish ownership, end- less litigation has resulted, until in 1883 a law was enacted ordering ihe stoppage of rights of user, sub- stituting money payment (10 per cent, of value), and another restricting the diameter to which the most valuable export timber, walnut, may be cut. Changes in detail were made in 1897, but political exigencies, absence of an adequate organization, and other un- • LKntellc, Rapport lur Im ror«u it U MscMoiiu, IM. Slavish Countries. 323 developed conditions have largely prevented enforce- ment of these laws, and rough exploitation continues in spite of the nominal State control. Owing to inaccessibility of many of the agricul- tural districts to the wooded mountains, a large im- port was necessary, but lately export almost equals the import, and indeed the export of walnut has in- creased fourtc .fold in a few years. The forest ad- mmistration is vested in a bureau under the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, with a chief, an in- spector general, and two assistant chiefs. When it is stated that in 1905 the entire budget for forestry was $150,000, theinefficiency of the service is apparent. Senia, a kingdom with 19,000 square miles and 2,000,000 people, has over 42 per cent, (five million acres— according to others only 32%) still in un- touched forest, with valuable oak and walnut, the forest being mainly used for hograising. Over 36% is State forest, over 43% communal and institutional forest, leaving about 20% in private hands; but, just as in Bulgaria, property conditions are still somewhat unsettled. Like Bulgaria also on account of the uneven distribution of forest area, lack of transporta- tion and systematic development— a large part of the population are more cheaply supplied by importa- tion, which amounte to near one million dollars. Curiously enough, by the law of 1891 only the wood cut from State and church forests could be exported free of duty. This export duty was abolished in 1904, and the first attempt was made by the Minister of Agriculture to bring order into the forest adminis- tration by importing German foresters. I ; ! I I ! ».-^ym 324 Roumania. The law of 1891, with various subsequent additions and changes, placed private forest property located on exposed mountain slopes or on shifting sands, or on bogsoils under government surveillance, and re- lieved plantations made under direction of the govern- ment of taxes for 10 years. Roumania* with 50,000 square miles and neariy 6,000,000 people, under the capable administration of a Hohenzollem prince. King Charles, was in Roman times as Dacia felix one of the most prosperous provintes, half of it hilly and mountainous, the other half in the rich alluvial valley of the Danube, now largely deforested. The hill and mountain country was until the end of the eighteenth century still well wooded. A rapid depletion then took place by the demands of the Turkisn markets, until now not quite 17 per cent, (according to others 18 or 20 per cent.) of the area is forested, and multifarious rights of user, whi-h made commons of tht 'oods, have naturally led to widespread devastation in the accessible parts. In 1847, the National Assembly attempted regulation of the cut and of the rights of user, but with little effect. In 1894, the total area had decreased to less than 5 million acres (according to others 6.7 million acres), of which two-fifths is in private hands, two- fifths State property and Royal forest (formeriy, until 1863, in the hands of the monks), the small balance belonging to communities and institutes. In the higher mountains, fir and spruce with some pine and larch form the forest; but broadleaf forest, especially •av fi,r,ttriHKk^Uel,n VtrKiUtnitn Rummnim. Von Mihul Vuili«:u. INI. Ntlm no- lafiria Jt Rtummit. in StoliMcm tidnrihr Shaulin. ISOl fl*f m Organization. 325 contractors were inaugurated" condS "hit a certain number of seed trees per acre be left Th. was little enforcement of this r^ ^^'^ ^^^'^ The first comprehensive law organizing the St»t» en^^S^-ntssrTl"^ ' P-ectivr^p^S/^ nacted m 1881. This law recognized State, Roval and Communal property as of public con^m tnH at°watSa?e? ''"^"'^ ''™'^^'' underTu^is ^J and near th.t„°"/''"' '^°^' "^^' watercourse,, and near the boundaries of strategic importance) These ar^s. coming under the protectivTS' comprise 84 per cent, of the whole foresra^a Thev -r^g'^pirnf "^ ''''^'' '""'- ^^'^y >PP-«i In 1885, three French foresters were called in tr. organic a State forest department and to t^l 2 ^sp^to«"L sr;"'"? "■'"" ^•"' i~ei T25 "'spectors and 89 district officers) being insufficient and wood prices low (the income from sL e Jro-rtv the ,H ^ * • '" ^^^' "><= '"^^e had doubled the administrative forces had not been enlaZd to any great extent (137 foresters of various Ses) 11: I If 326 Roumania. and by that time only 150,000 acres had been brought under working plans. By 1900, about 200,000 acres of State property, or 14 per cent., and 500,000 acres of private forest, or 22 per cent., were organized in some fashion. Lack of means of transportation, however, prevents a really well regulated management. Al- together only 65 per cent, of the State property is accessible so that it can be worked, and the working plans consist mainly in leaving a number of seed trees. In 1889, a Forestry Association {Progressul Silvic) was formed, which with its organ, Rerista pddurilor, pushes the propaganda. In 1890, an energetic Minis- ter of Domains, Carp, sought strenuously to bring improvement into the situation. A budget of $500,000 for foresters' dwellings was secured to bring the forest managers into closer contact with their charges, a planting fund of $100,000, later increased to $140,000 per annum, was voted, and reforestation and reclam- ation of sand dunes was begun. A forest improve- ment fund was inaugurated in 1892 by setting aside 2 per cent, of the gross forest yield. But, in the politi- cal struggles. Carp's party was displaced, and, de- pression in agricultural prosperity causing financial distress, an era of increased exploitation followed, so that the export of forest products, largely cooperage, (mainly to Greece, Italy and France) which had been declining to less than half, rose again to about four million dollars annually. The financial embarrass- ment of the State led even to a proposition to sell State forests, but, before contracts for this purpose were consummated, relief came and the danger was averted. ill M Administration. 327 The State cuts about 22,000 acres annually, yielding «o?)f!, •'^' ^^^ administration costing (in 1903) »240,000, leaving a net yield of 30 cents per acre. In 1898, the Forest Department, in the Direction of Domains under the Ministry of Agriculture consisted of a Forest Director with 156 foresters academically educated (mostly in France, and since 1892 in the Agricultural Institute at Bucharest), and over 2 500 underforesters and guards. Of some 30,000 acres of sand dunes, one-half belonging to the State, about 18,000 acres have been recovered by planting Black Locust, and some 9,000 acres of plains country have been reforested, for which 330 acres of nurseries furnish the material. In spite of all these efforts ex- cessive pasturing, although forbidden in the State forest, and fires continue to devastate the property Private forestry is, of course, much less developed- CfZ""^ ^"T P''^^"^^ (Princess Schoenburg, with 20,000 acres) are under efficient German forest man- agement. Here, money is spent on developing means of transportation, and a better revenue is spcured than in State forests. GREECE. The history of the country has been so unfortunate and political conditions so unsettled that only lately efforts at improvement in economic conditions could hope to receive attention. For centuries after Greece had become a Roman province (146 B.C.), it changed rulers, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, Venetians follow- ing each other, until, between 1460 and 1473, it came 328 Greece. under the Turkish yoke. As a result of an insurrec- tion started in 1821, freedom, but no settled order as yet, was attained in 1829 through the assistance of Great Britain, France and Russia, and the elected kings, Otho (of Bavaria), Alfred (of England) and George (of Denmark) successively tried to secure social order and efficient constitutional government. By the time this new era had arrived there was probably little valuable forest worthy of the name left, except in the inaccessible mountain districts. 1. Forest Conditions. Although certain districts, like Attica, were already practically denuded in Plato's time, there is little doubt that originally the whole of Greece with small exceptions was a continuous forest. The destruc- tion of the forest, protected by thousands of gods and nymphs in holy groves, proceeded slowly under the regime of the ancient Greeks, until the fanaticism of the Christian religion led to a war against these pagan strongholds, and the holy groves were reduced by axe and fire. Turkish misrule for centuries, over- taxation, reckless cutting, extensive herding of goats and sheep, and fires have reduced the forest area until now it occupies only 12 or 14 per cent, of the land area (25,000 square miles). In 1854, a survey developed about 2 million acres of woodlands (probably an ex- cessive figure) for the now 2.5 million people, while 67 per cent, of the surface is a useless waste, and only 20 per cent, under cultivation, so that the general aspect of the country is desolate. The many islands are entirely deforested, and so are the seashores. »*i-P^lK^ Forest Conditions. 329 "Where in olden times dense shady poplars stood, now only infertile sand and dreary rock waste remain." The forest in northern and middle Greece is con- fined to the two rugged mountain ranges with numer- ous spurs which run parallel, north and south, with Mt. Olympus (nearly 9,000 feet) and Mt. Pindus (6,000 feet) the highest elevations. The large fertile plains of Thessaly and Boeotia are forestless. So is the large Arcadian plateau of the Peloponnesus, and the other smaller, hot but fertile plains and plateaus. The most valuable conifer forest is found on the higher ranges between the 2,500 and 5,000 foot level, below the snow-clad mountain tops, where especially two species of fir, Abies Apollinis and AUes reginat Amaliae (a species remarkable for its sprouting habit), with other firs and several species of Juniperus and Cu- pressus, form sometimes extens-'ve forests. Other common trees are chestnut, sycamore, several species of oak and poplar, and, on the coast, Pinus halepensis. The firs occupy about 35 per cent, of the forest area, oaks and deciduous forest 45 per cent. Among the forest products which are exported, we find galls, Vermillion and sumach prominent. It is believed that Greece in ancient times was more fertile than it is now, and that the deterioration is due to deforestation. Undoubtedly soil conditions favored such deterioration, for, with the exception of the Pindus range, which is composed of metamorphic Dr. CiilOROS, W.ldv.rhiUtniB.e GriechenUnd.. Thci. for the Doctorale at Munich. 1884. a pp. AMDjRLmD. Mittheilungen uber die WaldverhSltnisse GriechenlMjl. Allrn- meine ForaUund Jagdzeitung. 1884. 330 Greece. rock, a poor, dry limestone is characteristic of the country except where fertile, alluvial and diluvial deposits cover it in valleys along the coast. The climate is, however, so favorable that even the poor soil would readily reclothe itself if left alone. The winters are short, hardly three months, and with hardly any snow or ice except on the high mountains, making the vegetative period nine months; and, with temperature ranges from 20 to 106 degrees F.; rainfall average 400 mm.; the summers, to be sure, rainless and dry^ but the other seasons humid, somewhat less than in middle Europe, rapid growth is the result of these conditions. But the continued pasturing of goats and sheep — some six million — prevents any natural reforestation. Increased taxation on this industry has had no effect, and the practice of per- mitting the people to gather dry wood for fuel is an incentive for making dry wood by setting fires, which also serve to improve the pasture; perhaps nowhere are forest fires more frequent, in spite of heavy penal- ties. That a baneful influence on the water condition and river flow has been the result is historically demonstrated by Chloros.* In the mountains some fine and quite extensive bbdies of fir still exist, lack of transportation having preserved them. Elsewhere the rights of user, and the herding of goats are so well established that re- forms appear, indeed, difficult. Firewood, 3 loads for each person, supposed to be •S«e Alltmmu For^-und Jagd ttUung 188«, p 183 ff., and 1887, p. 327 If. for intere*tinfp details. Forest Treatment. 331 taken from the dead or otherwise useless trees, and small dimension material is free to all. For the right to cut workwood, the government charges a tax of 25 to 30 per cent, of the value of the material, the price for this being annually determined. On the material cut in private forests, the government also levies a tax of from 12 to 18 per cent, of its value. This pernicious system of promiscuous cutting leads to the most wasteful use imaginable, not only high stumps, but large amounts of good material are left in the wooiis so that it is estimated that hardly 50 per cent, of what is cut is really utilized. The cut, as far as the tax gives a clue to it, amounts to round 2.7 million cubic feet workwood, but with the firewood included it was estimated that near 90 million cubic feet are cut annually. Importation to the amount of 1.5 million dollars, mostly from Austria and Roumania, makes up the deficit in work material, especially for the box factories which manufacture the packages for the large export of currants, some 2 million boxes. The tax during the decade from 1862 to 1871 produced an annual income of $600,000, a. little less in 1895. The forest has been from olden times, and is now almost entirely. State property (some 80 or 90 pe.- cent.) and in neariy all the remaining, private, com- munal and cloister property the State has a partial ownership or supervision. The waste land of p.o- bably 3 million acres extent also belongs to the State, the whole State property covering over 30 per cent, of the land area. ; I ^..-X..„i«i*^-Jri; 332 Greece. 2. Development of Forest Policies. A first definite attempt to regulate matters was made by Otho, who being a German, took a personal interest in this forest property, and instituted for each province forest inspectors (dasarchys) under one chief inspector, with forest guards, to prevent devas- tation by fire and theft. The mistake was made of employing in these positions superannuated Bavarian army officers, who were merely a burden on the treasury, No management or even regular fellings were attempted. The population could, as before, supply its needs upon permits, always granted, from the governor of the province, one of the forest guards being supposed to vise these, and to see that the wood was properly employed, not, however, to supervise the cutting. In 1877, further legislation was had, instituting in the Ministry of Finance, a forest inspector, techni- cally trained, with two assistant inspectors, also technically trained, to superintend the outside work. A forest survey was begun in 1879, but interrupted in 1880 for lack of funds and personnel. The same law placed the duty of guarding the State property in the hands of the general police or gendarmerie, 50 officers and some 340 guards, and during the fire danger (June to October) ilO more, being detailed for this service under direction of the Minister of War. The pernici- ous permit system, however, was continued. Dr. Chloros, who obtained .. j education in Ger- many, became finally Forest Director and was re- sponsible for securing further legislation in 1888, the » '( m Development of Forest Policy. 333 object of which was, as a first step towards improve- ment, to survey and delimit and round off the State property. It provided that enclaves, and all abso- lute forest soil was to be expropriated. If no amicable agreement with the owner could be reached, the price was to be determined by the net yield which had been obtained from the property during the last five years, capitalized at 5 per cent. No attempts, how- ever, at an efficient organization or change of the destructive permit system were made. By general law,the State has the right to surveillance of private property, although the extent of this right is not fully defined. The government may take for its own use, by paying for it, upwards of one-sixth of the annual cut; it collects a tax of 12 to 18 per cent, for all woodwork cut; it forbids the pasturing of woods that have been burned within 10 years, and obliges all owners of over 1200 acres to employ forest guards. This and other interference with property rights naturally acts as deterrent to private forest manage- ment. A notable exception is the small private royal forest property near Athens, which, since 1872 under a Danish forester, appears to have been managed under forestry principles. A thorough re-organization of the forest service was effected in 1893, when 20 district foresters were employed, the number of forest inspectors was in- creased to four, and a regular Division of Forestry was instituted in the Finance Department. The general police or gendarmerie was continued as forest guards. Until a native personnel could be educated by sending young men to Germany, foreigners ' i I 334 ^f SL.iiWiral Greece. were to be employed for the making of workine plans. Yet in 1896, the then Director of the Forest De- partment, a lawyer, still complains of the absence of a proper organization and of any personnel with fores- try knowledge. Apparently no progress had been made. In that year, however, the gendarmerie was to be replaced by forest guards (52 superior and 298 subaltern) who were to be appointed from graduates of a special secondary school, which had been institu- ted at Vytina some two years before. This replace- mer- tould, of course, not be effected at once, since haro > more than 25 men could be graduated annually; hence even thi- improvement in the lower class police would not be completeld for six or eight years. No steps had been taken to educate officers for the higher grades, and in this direction,propositions merely were discussed. In 1899, a change in the permit system was made, but hardly for the better, justices of the peace being empowered, under certain conditions, to issue such permits. Nor do we find in 1901 anything more than expressions of good wishes, and desire for further legislation, besides sok.ie attempts at popular educa- tion through the formation of tree-planting associ- ations under the patronage of the Crown Princess. In 1905 no change in conditions are reported. Forest fires still continue as a common occurrence. While the government makes efforts to improve conditions, the indifference, stupidity, cupidity, and malevolence of the people, and the long established abuses prevent rapid progress at reform. -•yr.^'' ww^ .m-^.^^- Conditions in Italy. ITALY. 335 The efforts to secure improvement in the treat- ment of forest resources have been more active and s renuous m taly than in Greece. They were in- w»t .T"f^.''y *^" "««"* "^ °f protecting watereheds, the nvers throughout Italy having been turned into torrents by deforestation. But.owing to the weakness of the government and to poverty, the actual execution of the very good laws has lagged behind^ Indeed, while ample legislation has been enacted, the people, overburdened with debt, and needmg the small income that can be derived from pastunng or renting the pasture in the woods, make ■t difficult to carry on any reform, and the enforce- ment of the laws has again and again led to serious trouble. Forestry is a sore point in the national economy of Italy, as it involves sacrifice of money and time. Italy, therefore, is still in the transition period Irom forestal rapine to forest culture. Densely populated (33 million on 110,600 square miles) with fully one-fifth of its area unproductive. °LgL!gggL"""sed. and one-ouarter of fhi. almost or V«ri<»» Muyt by Prof. Vrrronn PuraaA of V>ll.n.l.r«» l n MArni, KniUmJirt,!^,, Itmly. Bjr Prof. W. Dnu. UM «r::ixrr«rr;:s:ir.irAr"""""*^"' "«•■ P M •« 336 , Italy. quite beyond redemption, no country offers better opportunities for studying the evil effects of de- forestation on soil and waterflow. As a result of the combination of geology (slates and limestones), topo- graphy (steep slopes), climate, and forest devastation or destruction, mainly by pasturage of goats (two million), the Italian rivers are invariably flooded in March and mostly dry in summer; the melting of the snow coinciding with the heavy spring rains turns them into raging torrents {fiumare), silting over the fertile jands in the valleys and occasional landsides in the mountain country, where extensive tracts are nearly bare of vegetation. Especially the rivers around Bologna, which in 1897 again caused damage in excess of one million dollars, are dreaded. 1. Forest Conditions. Situated similarly to Greece as regards accessibility and climate, and similarly torn by wars and political strife, and in unstable conditions for centuries, Italy has in proportion to population, if not to area, reduced her forest resources even more than Greece; less than one-third of an acre per capita remains, with a total of somewhat over twelve million acres, or about 17 per cent, of the land area, and this includes much useless brushland, over 2 million acres. Apparently, if the uncertain statistics may be relied upon, a re- duction of several million acres has Uken place even since 1870. Some 15 million acres of waste land and swamps offer ample opportunity for increasing this forest area without infringing on the 42 million acres of usefully employed agricultural soil. m •3*fflr|M.\!PF'^4. Forest Conditions. 337 Of the forest area, 25 per cent, is to be found in the Alps, about 50 per cent, on the Apennines, the one mountain range which forms the backbone of Italy; less than one-quarter is distributed over the plains, and the small balance is found on the islands, especi- ally Sicily, which is a hill and mountain country, once magnificently wooded, now largely denuded (4 per cent, wooded), and on Sardinia, which, with nearly 45 per cent, under forest, is the best wooded part of Italy, although the condition of the forest is here no better than elsewhere. \Vith the exception of the slopes of the Alps (2.5 million acres of spruce, fir, beech, larch), and the tops of the Apennines and remote plateaus (4.5 million acres), and of a few special places on which now and then even magnificent remnants of virgin forest may be found— lack of transportation having preserved them — most of the area is occupied by miserable brush forest, coppice or else open forest with scattered trees among a shrub undergrowth of thorns, hazel and chestnut (called macchia, i.e., chapparal), so that most Italians have never seen a real fo ,u Never- theless, Italy is by no means as treeless as this con- dition of forest would imply, for trees (poplar, ash, elm) are dotting the plains and slopes, planted for rine supports and boundaries, unshapely through pollard- ing and lopping the branches for firewiwd. Olive and chestnut groves on the hills (of the former 2 million acres, of the latter over 400,000 acres planted for the fruit), and 8S million acres in vineyards add to the wooded appearance of the country and to the wood supply. The annual product of fire- m m itfih m 338 /toZy. wood from these planted trees is estimated at 6 mill! oncords. On the sand dunes and near the seashore, especially in the marshes, the Maritime, the Aleppo Pine, and the umbrella-shaped Pinus pinea, and picturesque Cypresses are sometimes found in small groves, while the calcareous hills in this region up to 1200 feet are studded with olives, cork and evergreen oak. Osier growing is here also quite extensively practiced. In the mountains, above the 2700 foot level, conifer forest, composed of Pinus silvestris and laricio, and Abies pectinata, has been reduced to less than 7 per cent, of the whole, mixed conifer and deciduous forest represents 4 per cent., the bulk being deciduous forest of oak (several species) and beech, with chestnut. Forty-eight per cent,, of the forest area is in coppice {ceduo), and of the 52 per cent, of high forest, the bulk is managed under selection system (a scelta), a small part under clearing system {ad aUo fusto), although management can hardly be said to exist except in small groves. That supply of workwood is insufficient for the needs of the population, and is decreasing, is attested by the fact that the importations more than doubled in the decade from 1892 to 1903 to near 14 million dollars, 80 per cent, of which was saw material, in addition to 2 million dollar of wood manufactures, while neariy 6 million dollars' worth was exported in the last named year, mostly cork, casks, thin box- boards, olive wood manufactures, and charcoal. No better picture of the forest conditions can be had than by a sutement of the home production, which, in f^.«^v m Property Conditions. 339 1886, (last official data) was placed at 48 million cubic feet of workwood, valued at 3.4 million dollars, 223 million cubic feet firewood, valued at 4.1 million, 106 million cubic feet charcoal, worth 3.6 million, and by-products to the large amount of 6.4 million dollars altogether a little less than 17.6 million dollars. Fire- wood and charcoal, which represent over 80 per cent, of the product, are, of course, furnished by coppice, and in addition by the pollarded material, almost the only fuel to be had. The ownership of the forest area is for the greater part private (53 per cent.) and communal (over 43 per cent.), the State owning a little over 400 000 acres, less than 4 per ' :„t. The State property being so small, supervision of communal and private forest has become the policy. .JJ"^ .!'*'A ^°'""' '' °' '*° ^'^^«' the alienable, r^ I ^^^r^"^'""^"* °f '''"^"'=^> th« 'a^ger part, about 376.000 acres, and the inalienable, so declared by law of 1871, which was then about 115,000 acres and was placed under a forest administration in the Department of Agriculture; but of this about 20 per cent. IS not forest, and even in 1896, some of this small area was sold so that now only 40.000 acres remain. Ihis area is to serve for demonstration of model management, and to supply government needs. Beech and oak with fir, pine and larch, mostly in timber forest, characterize this property, which is managed mostly in selection system. Curiously enough m 1888, the difficulty of disposing advantage- ously of the old timber is complained of, due to lack 01 means of transporution. The personnel of the 19 'li Ml 340 Italy. administration consists of a central bureau with one Inspector General, three Inspectors, and a Council. For each province, and in some cases for two or more provinces together, an Inspector with several Sub- inspectors and a number of guards or brigadieri are charged with the management of the State property and the enforcement of the forest laws. 2. Development of Forest Policy. For centuries, since the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AlD.) until the end of the eighteenth century, Italy has been the victim of war and strife with neigh- bors or within its borders, being divided into number- less commonwealths, almost each city being inde- pendent. Hence, no economic improvements could take place until, under the influences of the French Revolution, the regeneration period began. Not, however, until the seven or eight states, which the Congress of Vienna (1815) had established, were moulded into one united Italy under Victor Em- inanuel, during the years 1859 to 1870, could an effec- tive reconstruction be inaugurated. It is true that some of the republics in earlier times paid attention to their forest property. Notably in Venice, old forest ordinances* date back to 697, and, in 1453, a regular forest administration was instituted, especially to take care of the large forest area in Istria and Dalmatia, which fell into the hands of the Venetians about 1420. A tolerably conservative management continued here until the beginning of •Biuiran. S>nio •torico lUla lacUUcione VeneU romule, ISSI, An ex- Pi' Xi' jJf. J ^mMrki^ Early Forestry Legislation. 341 the eighteenth century when, in consequence of politi- cal complications, supervision became lax, and devas- tation began which continued through the century leaving to the new century, and finally to the Aus- tnans, the legacy of the Karst (see p. 173). Florence too, managed to prevent the deforestation of the summit of her mountains until the beginning of the eighteenth century, and in other republics king- doms and duchies, similar efforts at forest adminis- tration existed. Yet Genoa, which in Strabo's time was the principal timber market of Italy, had by 1860 nearly all its mountain slopes denuded. Before the general legislation for all Italy was enacted there were at least a dozen laws in operation ',=,,• ''t';'""' provinces; in Lombardy, th^ law of 1811; m Naples, the law of 1826; in Rome, of 1827- '" ,^:!'i"?^' °f ^^5; in Bologna, of 1829; in Tuscany,' of 1829; in Piedmont, of 1833 ; in Sardinia, of 1851 • etc If these had been heeded much better conditions would have been inherited by the new kingdom. With the arrival of a national spirit, many schemes •or the promotion of forestry and of forest policy were discussed. The academies of Florence, Milan. Modena, Palermo, and Pesaro offered premiums for reforesting of mountains, and called for popular treatises on silviculture, A forestry journal came mto being, furthering the propaganda. In 1860 a very well written account of "Present Conditions of Forestry and Production of Sulphur in Sicily " a collection of reports, was published by Shiro. In I860 also, an investigation of forest conditions in each province was ordered by royal decree, and ^.^ V 842 Italy. propositions for their improvement were called for, which led to legislative proposals, introduced in 1862, and legislation enacted in 1863. The law of 1863 still treated each province inde- pendently: forest inspectors for each province, and for Naples an Inspector General, with district foresters and a large number of forest guards were appointed. Another law, applicable only to certain parts of the Kingdom, was enacted in 1874, intended to check the progress of deforestation and prevent turning waste woodlaifds into pasture; tiiese absolute forest soils were to be reforested within five years. The law remained a dead letter, yet it is still in force in part, with modifications enacted in 1886. The final unification of the country as far as legis- lative unity is concerned, was completed in 1877, and in that year the first general forest law for all Italy was also enacted. This law, which has mainly in view the protective mfiuence of forest cover as a factor in the public welfare, leaving all private property not falling under the character of protection forest entirely free, estab- lished provincial forest commissions— conservation boards— unpaid, who were to enact rules and regu- lations best adapted to their localities. The Board of Commissioners consisted of the prefect of the pro- vince, ex-officio president; an inspector of forests, the technical oflicer who administers the government property; an engineer appointed by the governor; and three members chosen by the provincial council; m addii ., each communal council was to send one member to take part in the deliberations of Development of Forest Policy. 343 his particular commune was the board as far interested. By this law the country is divided into two sections vertically namely the territory above the limit of chest- nut, and that below this limit, the latter represent- mg the farmmg country, the territory above being unfit for agncultural use. To the former the restric- tions of the law apply as a rule (terreni soggetti al v^ncolo forestde-b^n forest), to the latter, as excep- tion, namely where the removal of forest or brush cover might cause landslides, or affect stream flow I^^r <. ,';°"'"'1°"« unfavorably. The chestnut hmit naturally vanes in different parts, but, generally speafang, lies between 1,800 and 2.000 feet elevation. The determination of these areas was to be made by the provincial forest committees, and it is significant to note that m these the State forest administration did not have the majority. The territory under restriction, was in 1887 after various revisions, established as comprising 7.5 million acres of forest and 2.5 million acres of brush and waste nearly 71% of the forest area being thus placed unde; restriction ; leaving 2.5 million acres of forest and over 2 million of brush and waste outside the working of the law; these latter areas are left entirely without re- strictions, except as general police regulations apply. The execuuon of the law and regulations is left to the State Forest Department with an organization of forest guards (some 3.000 in 1883), appointed by the prefect of the province with the advice of the forestry commission, but acting under the State forest administration. Their pay was to come to 344 Italy. the extent of two-thirds from the communes, the other tnird from the provincial treasurer. In the forests placed under the law, clearing and agncultural use is forbidden. Fellings and cultures must be made under direction of the Committee No compensation is made for this limitation in use except »^ere hygienic influence was the basis for placmg the forest under ban. If the regulations of the commissions had beta observed to their full extent, all would have been well m tame, but ,t is evident from subsequent legis- lative efforts that the execution of the laws was not what could be desired. Political exigencies required leniency m the application of the law. An interest- ZJr'^rr/'"' '■''y'*' °' '^^ «'«' quinquennium shows that during that time 170,000 acres were cleared, over 40,000 without permission, and by 1900 It was estimated, defor station had taken place on about 5 million acres. Wrangling over the classification of the lands under ban has continued until the present, and local authori- ties have continued to favor private as against public interest, to withdraw lands from the oiration"^ and to wink at disregard of the law. Moreover, rights of Ta1°. i ^^' P^^'^'^Ke (Koats are by aw ex- cluded) and other privileges continued to prevent improvement although several laws to effect their extinction had been passed. The devastating floods of 1882 led to much agita- fsfifi ^1\"^VJ:^'^ °^ ^ 'f^'^ commission in 1886, the law of 1874, which had obligated the com- mumties to reforest their waste lands within five y'r Develnpment of Forest Policy. 345 years or else to sell, was revived, extending the term of obligatory reforestation in the endangered sections to ten years. By that time, out of 800,000 acres ongmally declared as requiring reforestation, no more than 40,000 acres had been planted, but the acreage mvolved had also been gradually scaled down Dy the forest committees to 240,000 acres. The re port, on the other hand, found that the area needing reboisement was at least 500,000 acres, requiring an expenditure of 12 miliion dollars. The law of 1877 did not contemplate enforced reforestation of ban- forests; it sought to accomplish this by empowering either the Department of Agriculture or the provinces or the communities or special associations to expro- priate for the purpose of reforestation. Results were A revision and broadening of the law led to the general reboisement act of 1888,* which has in view the correction of torrents, fixing of mountain slopes and sand dunes-one of the best laws of its kind in existence anywhere. The principal features of the law are: obligatory reboisement of mountains and sand dunes according to plans, and under direction of the Department of Agriculture, the areas to be designated by the depart- ment, with approval or disapproval of the forest com- mittees; contribution to the extent of two-fifths (finally raised to two-thirds) of the expense by the government; expropriation where owners do not con- sent, or fail to carry out the work as planned; right to reclaim property by paymen^pfW^H interest, •For dM»l. M. fm^, i„ o.rd™ .nj p,^^ igjg, ^^ ^{,- I n i I . ! 346 lUdy. or else sale by government; right of the department to regulate and restrict pasture, but compensation to be paid to restricted owners;" encouragement of co- operative planters' . clalions. The area to be reforested was estinate ■ a, .^r: .:^;,,t over 500,000 acres and the expen.. ., .vpr ; ,p,„: „ jo,,^^. The execution y the iav ^us not - ■■ stricter than before. In im. the <.,.creta:> of Ag . alture reports . „ 'r '^''* ''" ""t ^■•'' 'f-"^^ enective applica- tion. The difl,::uhy c! ■> . vmiiing what is and what is not necessary to ref.,,-... whv. is and what is not absolute forest soil ma'I,- os.,.,sil.!y the greatest trouble and occasionedc.l, : , butrinancial incapacity and political influences bidding for popularity are probably the main cause of the inefliciency. Meanwhile the forest department tried to promote reforestation by giving premiums from its scanty appropriation and distributing from its 130 acres of nursenes, during the years from 1867 to 1899, some 46 million plants and over 500 pounds of seed, and furnishing advice free of charge. In 1897, again a commission was instituted to ■T^^^. "*'' legislation. This commission reported in 1902, declaring that all accessible forests were more or less devastated, accentuating the needs of water management, and proposing a more rigorous definition of ban forests, a strict supervision of communal forests, and the management of private properties under working plans by accredited foresters or else under direct control of the forest department, the foresters to be paid by the State, which is to recover from the owners. It was found that in the past 35 years of Hygiene Influences. 3, *«^i?^'°°° ^"« "««>'"8 reforestation urgently only In 1910, conditions seem not to have much im- proved, for agam a vigorous attempt at re-organization and improvement on the law of 1877 was made by the Mmister of Agriculture; so far without result. It is to be noted that Italy is perhaps the only country where forest influence on health conditions was legally recognized, by the laws of 1877 and 1888. The belief that deforestation of the maremnae, the marshy lowlands h ^veen Pisa and Naples, had pro- due^ the malarial fever which is rampant here, led the Trappist monks of the cloister at Tre Fontane to •""^fiTn" i"^''""' °^ Eucalyptus (84,000) beginning m 1870, the State assisting by cessions of land for the purpose. A commission, appointed to investigate the results, in 1881, threw doubt on the effectiveness of the plantation, finding the observed change in health conditions due to improvement of drainage; and lately, the mosquito has been recognized as the mam agency in propagating tiie fever. The new pro- positions, however, did not any more recognize this claimed influence as a reason for public intervention. Incidentally it may be stated that to two Italians is due tiie credit of having found the true cause of salu- bnousness of forest air, namely in the absence of pathogenic bacteria. 3. Education and Literature. The first forest school was organized by Balestrieri, Who had studied in Germany, at the Agricultural M I f ! -^ M[ 348 Italy. School near Turin about 1848, transferred to the Technical Institute in Turin in 1851. This school con- tinued until 1869, and from 1863 on, had been recog- nized by the State, assuring its graduates employ- ment in State service. In 1869, the State established a forest school of its own (Institute Forestale) at Vallambrosa near Florence, with a three years' course (since 1886, four years) and, in 1900, with eleven professors and 40 students. In spite of the State sub- vention of 18,500, it appears that some peculiar econo- mies are, necessary, for owing to the absence of stoves the school is closed from Nov. 1 to March 1. In spite of the existence of this school, the State Service is recruited also from men who have not passed through this school. The legislative propositions brought forward in 1910 also provide for transfer of this school to Florence, leaving only the experiment station in Vallambrosa, and also for raising the standard of instruction. At the same time, however, there was at the old institution ordered a "rush course" to be finished in 15 months, since it appeared that not enough foresters were in existence to carry out the proposed re-organization. In 1905, a school of silviculture for forest guards was instituted in Cittaducale, the course being 0 months. Besides the technical school at Vallambrosa, agri- cultural schools have chairs of forestry or arbori- culture, as for instance the Royal school at Portici. As an educational feature, the introduction of Arbor Day, in 1902, la fetta dei alberi, should also be men- tioned. Literature and Associations. 349 The existence of a forest school naturally produces a literature. While a considerable number of popular booklets attempt the education of the people, who are the owners of the forest, there is no absence of pro- fessional works. Among these should be mentioned Di Berenger's SelvicoUura, a very complete work, which also contains a brief history of forestry in the Orient, Greece and Italy. G. Carlos Siemoni's Manuele d'arte foreslale (1864), and the earlier Scienza selvana by Tondi (1829) are encyclopedias of inferior quality. In 1869, R. MaflFei, a private forester, began to publish the Revistaforestale del regno d' Italia, an annual review, for the purpose of popularizing forestry in Italy, afterwards changed into a monthly, which continued for some time under subventions from the government. A number of propagandist forestry associations were formed at various times, publishing leaflets or journals, one of these L'Alpe, a monthly, in 1902. In 1910, the two leading societies combined into a federation Pro montibus ed enti affini, merging also the Rivista forestate italiana with L'Alpe, which serves both propagandist and professional needs. SMIN. "Poor Spain" is the expression which comes to the lips of everybody who contemplates the economic conditions of this once so powerful nation, almost '"r** * "•ol". • «™.iolliciiU journ.]. attiOjIUMd I. an. •• the bnt «,urc«. BIMtm^ i, UfMrnci^ y AimimMlTtclm FbrnM. by Hiuin Ruii. luid Jl^.»» UtiMlmcim, rmmml. by Dit C, 1101. ataborlU Uw coniplk*!*! \ I hIJ 3fi0 Spain. the ruler of the world. Once, under the beneficent dominion of the Saracens, a paradise where, as a Roman author puts it, "Nil otiosum, nihil sterile in Hispania," it has become almost a desert through neglect, indolence, ignorance, false pride, lack of com- munal spirit, despotism of church, and misrule by a corrupt bureaucracy. With the exception of a narrow belt along the sea- shore, the whole of the Iberian peninsula is a vast high mesa, plateau or tableland, 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea le\«e!, traversed by lofty mountain chains, or sierras, five or six in number, running parallel to each other, mainly in a westerly and southwesteriy direc- tion. These divide the plateau into as many plains, treeless, and for the most part, arid, exposed to cold blasts in winter, and burning up in summer. They are frequently subjected to severe droughts, which sometimes have lasted for months, bringing desolation to country and people. The rivers, as they usually do in such countries similar to our arid plains, form caiions and arroyos, and, being uncertain in their water stages, none of them are navigable although hundreds of miles long, but useful for irrigation, on which agriculture relies. The great mineral wealth had made Spain the California of the Carthaginians and Romans, and it is still its most valuable resource. Dicimtmro Hittmt^. Ym:m «■ 356 Spain. of 1835 and 1843, a forest school was established at Villaviciosa de Odon, later (1869) transferred to the Escurial near Madrid. This school, under semi- military organization, first with a three-year, later a four-year, course, and continually improved and en- larged in its curriculum (one Director and 13 pro- fessors in 1900), is the pride of the Spanish foresters, to all appearances deservedly so. It was organized after German models by Bernardo della Torre Royas as first Director. The creation of a forest department, however, Cuerpo de Monies, had to wait until 1853. This department, under the Minister of Public Works (now under the Minister of Agriculture), is a close corporation made up of the graduates of the school as Ingenieros de Monies, acceptance into which is based upon graduation and four years' service in the forest department as assistants besides the perform- ance of some meritorious work. The school stands in close relation to the department service. The first work of the new administration was a general forest survey to ascertain conditions, and especially to determine which of the public forests, Under the laws of 1855 and 1859, it was desirable tu retain. The investigatior showed that there was more forest (defined as in the above classification) than had been supposed, but that it was in even worse condition than had been known. The public forests, i.e., those owned by the State, the communi- ties and public institutions, were divided into three classes according to the species by which formed, which was the easiest way of determining their loca- ri!Rr^isiig^-^i^« i^mrmw. ^ ^ State Forests. 367 tion as regards altitude, and their public value ; namely, the coniferous forest and deciduous oak and chestnut forests, which were declared inalienable; the forests of ash, alder, willow, etc., naturally located in thr lower levels, therefore without interest to the state, which were declared salable; and an intermediate third class composed of cork oak and evergreen oak, whose status as to propriety of sale was left in doubt. In 1862, a revision of this classification left out this doubtful class, adding it and the forest areas of the first class which were not at least 250 acres in extent to the salable property. The first class, which was to be reserved, was found to comprise neariy 17 million acres (of which 1.2 million was owned bj the State), while the salable property was found to be about half that area. Ever since, a constant wrangle and commotion has been kept up regarding the classification, and re- peated attempts, sometimes successful, have been made by one faction, usually L-d by the Minister of Finance, to reduce the public forest area (desamortiza- doro), opposed by another faction under the lead of the forest administration, which was forced again and again to re-classify. In 1883, the alienable public forest area was by decree placed under he Minister of Finance, the inalienable part remaining under the Minister of Public Works (Fomento); very much the same as it was in the United States until recently. The public debt and immediate financial needs of the corporations gave the incentive for desiring the disposal of forest property, and, to satisfy this demand, it was ordered, in 1878, that all receipts from the iii 'mF_^^im^^i...Wm.kZ i^m 358 Spain. State property and 20 per cent of the receipts from communal forests were to be applied towards the extinguishment of the debt. The ups and downs in this struggle to keep the public forests intact were accentuated on the one hand by the pressing needs of taking care of the debt, on the other hand by drought and flood. Thus, in 1874, the sale in annual instalments of over 4.5 million acres in the hands of the Minister of Finance was ordered, but the floods of the same year were so dis- astrous,, (causing 7 million dollars damage, 760 deaths, 28,000 homeless), being followed by successive droughts, that a reversion of sentiment was experi- enced, which led to the enactment of a reboisement law in 1877. This law, having in view better manage- ment of communal properties, ordered with all sorts of unnecessary technical details, the immediate re- forestation of all waste land in the public forests, creating for that purpose a corps of 400 cultivators (capatacas de cultivos). To furnish the funds for this work the communities were to contribute 10 per cent, of the value of the forest products they sold or were entitled to. But funds were not forthcoming, and, by 1895, under this law only 21,000 acres had been reforested (three-fourths by sowing). The financial results of the management of the public forests, although the forest department probably did the best it could under the circumstances, had, indeed, not been reassuring. In 1861, a deficit of $26,000 was recorded; in 1870, $600,000 worth of material was sold, 1.3 million dollars worth given away, and $700,000 worth destroyed. Altogether, by Mfmrnm^^^'M State Administration. 359 fire and theft, it was estimated tliat 15 per cent, of the production was lost. In 1885, this loss was esti- mated at 25 per cent., when the net income had at- tained to 15 cents per acre, or, on the 17.5 million acres to less than three million dollars. When it is considered that the governors of pro- vinces and their appointees, besides the village autho- rities, had also a hand in the administration, it is no wonder that the forest department was pretty nearly helpless. While, under the law of 1863, the depart- ment was specially ordered to regulate the manage- ment of communal forests and to gauge the cut to the increment, the political elements in the administration, which appointed the forest guards, made the regula- tions mostly nugatory. At last, in 1900, a new era seems to have arrived a thorough reorganization was made, which lends hope for a better future. The technical administration was divorced from the political influence and placed under the newly created Minister of Agriculture. The machinery of the Cuerpo de Montes was remodeled, rhis consists now of one Chief Inspector-General four Division Chiefs, ten Inspectors-General for field inspection, 50 chief engineers of district managers, 185 assistants, and 342 foresters and guards, the latter now appointed by the department, instead of the Governors, and not all, as formeriy, chosen from vete- ran soldiers. The better financial showing referred to above was the result. In 1910, a special reboisement service, the Servicio Hulrologual Forestal, was also placed on a new footing. the country being divided into ten districts for this ! ' :!'; MKaOCOfY nSOlUTION TBI CHAKT (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) /IPPLIED IIVMGE Inc 1SS3 Eoct Main Strwt Roctmtar. Nvo Tom 14009 UU (7IS) ♦« -OMO-Phon* (7»«) 2B8- MM -Fox 360 Spain. purpose, and an engineer placed in charge of each. But from a statement that, in 1910, of some 300,000 acres planned to be recovered only 31,000 had been completed it may be inferred that financial difficulties still retard the work. Private forests, which had been without any inter- ference, were, in 1908, placed under government control so far as located within a defined protective zone (zona protectora dasocratica). Such must be managed under plans provided by the Forest Service, and in case of refusal on the part of owners expro- priation proceedings are provided, but the money for taking advantage of this provision would probably not be in the Treasury. Indeed, according to Pro- fessor Miguel del Campo at the Escurial forest school, results so far are nil. Since 1896, popular education is attempted through Arbor days, various associations fostering the idea; in 1904, La Fiesta del Arbol was made a national holi- day, and premiums are distributed for plantations made on that day. The Retiista de Monies, a semi-official monthly journal, began its publication in 1877, and serves the purpose of propaganda, as well as the professional needs. A considerable book literature is also de- veloped. PORTUGAL. The small kingdom which occupies the west coast of the Iberian peninsula, with 34,000 square miles and 6 million people, is in many respects similar to Spain, except that a larger portion is fertile, being Portugal. 361 situated in the literal region, the climate less excessive, and the people somewhat more enterprising. Not much more than one-half of the country, however, is utilized; nearly 15,000 square miles being waste. Three sections or zones are recognized, the northern, bounding on Spain which is mainly mountainous but also contains extensive sand dunes, is the best wooded ; the central, which is hilly and less well wooded, con- tains (in Estremadura and Beira) one of the most desolate regions of Europe and at the same time the best managed forest; the southern, the richest in farm lands, with semi-tropic climate and flora, the zone of evergreen broadleaf flora. About 10% of the land area, or 4 million acres are under forest, although 2 million more are wooded with olive, fig, almond plantations, or open viood- lands and brushwood. Of the actual forest area the State owns only 82,000 acres, 30,000 of which re- forested areas or sand dunes in process of recovery. The composition is nearly one-half of pine (Pinus marilima and pinea), one-fifth, cork oak "with pastures," a little over one-fifth, other evergreen oaks "with pastures," and the balance, chestnut and deciduous oaks. The fact of the extensive private ownership and the reference to the pastures in the enumeration of forest areas suffice to give an idea of the condition of most A puiphlcl oritun for the Intem.tioii.l Eipoiiticn at Rio de Jsiidro in 1908 contain. • chnpler written by • forater. Borre., which (ivea mo>t recent and authentic information. Beaidea notes «:atterad throuKh the literature, an article by L. PanUe a French botanist, in Ravue dee Eau> et For6t.. 1011, (i,.. an extensive deacription of forest condltioaa and aspedally of tlw fbnat of L«ra. 362 Portugal. Besides the native forest areas, there are in exist- ence a number of parks and plantations of exoric the c,,„,,e of Portugal in parts resembling ha of Cahforma and permitting a wide range of Introduc t.ons even tropical. There is perhaps nowhe e such a good opportunity of seeing the most varS 'orest iZu oi t^""'-- -.^''^ f°-t parks of MoTt- Tarden;. ' ^"'^ '" '^' ""'°"= botanical soS*75or.^""'T*"\""'^ A^^^- plantations, some 1500 acres, of high economical value near W c" Tait" ' "'"""" "' ' P"^^'^ '-^--" The deficiency of wood supplies is covered bv an .mportafon of about 1.5 million dollars agaSt which there .s an export of a little over half a miUion maSJ cooperage stock. The best developed forest indu ^ .s the growmg of cork giving rise to an export of around 5 m llion dollars. A considerable naval ore production is also developed. Sta^t^'o ^''' ^"'"^'" " ^ '^^' management of the States property dates from 1868; a regular organi"! unde"; ^r^' '''^ "°* ^^''^ P'-^ ""til 1872 when tries atresr?"''''""^' °' ^°"""^-^ -^ I"d "' tnes a forest admm.strator with a technical staff of ec";„s :;'" ''"''- corresponding to the three fnsSd. ™""*^^' '"' ^'^ forestmasters were At present, the staff of the Inspector consists of Administration. 353 8 technically educated assistants, each in charge of Zl "f1 M ""'■'^" U"'^^^ these, there a'^a iZ^ -i f''' T"'' °' supervisors (some 14 in guards'" "" education, and underforesters and .J^P T'^ '■'^"r ^^" ""^"^eed forest, the pride of the Portuguese foresters, is the forest of Leiria in Estremadura, a planted pinery of about 25,000 acres on which over 50 men of various grades are employ^ sTw S T ''^"'^""' ™P-^-t-« works, 2 saw m lis. Its management (in natural seed tree system) dates from 1892. Besides attending to the management of the State ^crests, a committee composed of the administrator and some of the technical staff, were to examine the country and decide what parts needed reforestation As a result of a very full report, in 1882, a reboisement werfi'er""' ""'" "'''^'' '""'' "' "'^ -"d d-- In 1903, a more thorough organization of this work took place, which, with liberal appropriations, pro- mises more rapid progress. This law recognizes two ways of placing private property under a forestry regime, namely obligator^ tain '^'^"f"^^ "■■ -°'"nt"y- Territory in the moun^ tains and on dunes may if deemed by the superior Sew of ""hi-''""",." ^^ "''"'""« '' f-" 'he pdn o view of public utility be placed under the regime by royal decree. Or else private owners may ask to have their properties so placed, either merely securing police protection, obligating themselves to keep the property wooded, or working under a working plan \\-':\ 364 Portugal. or reforestation plan provided by the Forest Service In either case the owner is obliged to pay the guards and at the rate of about 2 cents per acre for the work- ing plans. Planting material is furnished free or at cost price, and exemption from taxes for 20 years is granted for reforested lands. Expropriation of waste lands declared as of public interest is provided if owners object to enforced reforestation. Some 275,000 acres have so far been placed under the forestry regime. There are provisions for forestry education in the School of Agriculture at Lisbon, or the education for the higher positions in the forest service may be secured at German or French forest schools, and some have secured it at Vallambrosa. GREAT BRITAIN AND HER COLONIES. It is a remarkable fact that the nation which can boast of the most extensive forest department in one of her colonies, has at home not yet been able to come to an intelligent conception even, not to speak of application, of proper forest policy or forest economy. One of the English authorities on the subject writes still in 1900: "With so much land of poor quality lying uncultivated in many parts of the British Isles, the apathy shown towards forestry in Britain is one of the things that it is impossible to understand." If we should venture to seek for an explanation, we would find it in geographical and physical conditions, but still more in personal and political characteristics, historically developed, such as also in the United States make progress of forestry slower than it would otherwise be. Due to her insular position with which in part the Hi>loricalI^mri„ cmc^mtFcn,!, and Fore^ La„,, by P.Rc.v»L L.wil, UU, giro m full account of tli« practice in thi; old ban fomti .^f!^^°"u'.r' ^""'J I'"'- ■** """y"""". give, an interring acmant of the old • foreata ' and thrir history. O^ Fma. .,i W«M.ni,. by J„H» Nb.„, 1900. ba. a chapter on the hutoncal development of forest laws. Wh. Schlicm, Manual of Forestry, vol. I, 3d ed.. 1906, bring, in convenient lom an account of conditions in various parU of the British Empini. SotWAFFAo^ fi»*ar», Zuslani. in E„ta,d. Zeit«:hrift fUr Forst und Ja^esen. 1903. » an account of forest conditions from the pen of a prusicl B. R,.„TO.uralli.c. Co!leAed,a$wclIoutoft/ic Common Lawes and chon,andoutofthe An;fe5ofP,cl„rin2»nd LancaTlcr b/ loHN Manvvooo. .»;ATrt|«»flr^ added theStames of the Forefiji TYe^ HetsAtheCo..mofA,t«hnientf,Si»MiiiiSe,&Juftk,rea ' •flfct Porta. ,„d ccminc ptinripall Care.. M«r..o,m «n* : iwiiei hcrfmfiMc piiwej tor (he r*it]Ji(iiie LONDON, Pfiotcdror theSocieticof Sniioners, Cup Trm/r^if. . Fac«m;le of Title page of Manwood'. celebrated volume (OrtflMl. the propeny of Mr. Joly de Lotbbdin). Early Interest in Forestry. 373 establish his right as 'forester' for the crown. A full account of the forest laws is contained in Man- wood's volume, the title page of which is here re- produced. In Scotland the same usages and laws existed, only very much less rigorously enforced, until, in 1681, the extension of 'forests' was discontinued by pariiamen- tary act. It will be understood that the term forest did only distantly refer to woodland and that no economic policy had anything to do with the laws. Only inci- dentally was forest growth protected and preserved for the sake of the chase— the same medieval policy which still largely animates the forest policy of the State of New York. The woods outside the 'forests', which had mainly served for the raising of hogs, and for domestic needs, experienced at various times unusual reduction by fire. General Monk, among others, laid waste large areas on the Scottish borderiand in Cromwell's time. The first serious inroads by extensive fellings occur- red under Edward III in the first half of the 14th century to enrich the treasury for the French wars. Again, Henry VIII in the 16th century, when he seized the church properties for his own use, turned them into cash. A hundred years later, James I reduced the forest area, especially in Ireland, by his colonization schemes. Yet both, Henry VIII and James I, are on record as encouraging forest planting for utility. Charies I, James' successor, always in need of cash, alienated many of the crown foresU, and turned them into cash, besides extorting money •11 t ,:e < 'in s 1 374 Great Britain. through the forest courts. During the Revolution beginmng .n 1642. and during Cromwell's rei^ a hcenuous devastation of the confiscated or mortgaged noblemen's woods took place JJ^f^'T'^^" ^^""'^^ "' ^^^ "^« f°r the royal navy forced attention to the reduction of wood sup- plies and as a result of the agitation to encourage the p-owh of umber, a member of the newly formS whTh ^y'lJ'-'^ "'"''''^ '° P'^P-« an essa^ wh.ch, pubhshed .n 1662, has become the classic work of English forest literature, namely John Evelyn's Sylva ot "A Discourse of Forest Trees," which has expenenced eleven editions. It should, however be mentioned that an eariier writer, whom EveTyToften nuh ''Jf ":.^'°''^ '""^ '^■«" -' E«-beth, In 1526 pubhshed h,s "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry " tior'^El^f" '" ''I:'''' t'^P'anting received atte;. IZ- ^^"' ^'"^^ ^''^t time, periodically and spas- modically, the question of forestry has been agitlt^ without much serious result agitated, offSr '11^ Vl^'' '}' ^''y °f Arts in London Tnthrl^ • ?'l^"^ P""'^^ f°^ treeplanting. and culturalfn?"'"'. "" ''^ ^"'"^^ ^ revival of i^bori- of In ""^ experienced, perhaps as a result Neis^n'olTh'*'"^ '''^" ^^ *••" '^^'"•'^^ted Admiral Nelson on the mismanagement of the forest of Dean concern for naval timber giving .he incentive, in whfch he ^commended the planting of oak for in;estme"t At hat time, a Surveyor-General, with an insuffi- r^ [°r' ""' '" '''"'«' °' '^"^ "°^" '"-^sts. In 1809, the management was placed under a board of three Commissioners, one of whom being a member State Forests. 375 titl?"n T"* T *° ^ "^^""^^ *'th the adminis- tration. Under this management, graft became so rampant that, m 1848, a committee of the House of Commons was appointed, whose report revealed the most astomshmg rottenness, placing a stigma on the United States from time to time. A reorganization took place .n 1851. At that time the ro^al forests and parks r«luced m extent to about 200,000 acres, showed a deficiency of $125,000, mostly, to be sure occasions by the parks. There was then still a tribute of some 600 bucks to be delivered to various personages, as was the ancient usage At present there are some 115,000 acres classed as royal forest but only 67,000 acres are really forest, consisting of more or less mismanaged woods, unde; the admimstration, not forest management of the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, with Deputy Surveyors in charge of the ranges. Although there it'^n^hl"'' r^'^u' ^''^^Pt'°"« in the management, it ■.li !? "^ '^^* "^^ '^™^ «t"Pid ignorance, which State of N X^'T^ '"'° '""^ Constitution 'of the the English Parliament, forbidding in the New Forest all cutting and planting. In 1900, there existed just one planting plan, made by a professional forester namely, for a portion of the forest of Dean, while now only two other State properties and two or three "TL'T^^^'r^' are managed under working plans, in 1887, a Committee appointed to inquire into the d.w"'fiL T '^'' "'"•^"y- ''"P'-^'^ i'^'f most dissatisfied, but a Committee of Parliament in 1890 ■1111 376 Great Britain. whitewashed the administration and reported that the management was satisfactory. The^ committees, as well as an earlier one, .n 1885, were also to recommend measures fo^ Ae advancement of forestry. They laid in their ^omme„dat.ons the main stress upon education, but no action followed, and it can be said that the govern- ment has never done anything for the advancement of forestry ,„ the home country, whatever it may have done for the dependencies. A Departmental Com! mittee agam reported in 1902 with all sorts of recom- mendations, which have remained unheeded. The mterests of forestry as far as the government rrr "' '' P'^""* '=°'"«>'"«» to the Board" Agnculture, an unwieldy body created in 1889. from which this Departmental Committee was appoin ^ There is now, however, a strong movement on foot, led ernr't ? '^'""''^ ^^^ '"'^^^ '° ^""""i* the 8°- ernment to some action with reference to the waste lands and towards providing for educational ml^J Another committee, appointed in 1908 to enquire nto prospects of aflforestation in Ireland, report^ " favor of acquiring 300,000 acres of wood and 700 000 bS to"bf "^^L'r- '"^"'"« especially o^r a Chile" „„r'"''"' ''^ ''~^''""« employment and ^nste^d of"..?'^''""" "' *''' '■"'^' population, instead of acting upon this proposition the government directed the Royal Commission on m7 tor°"'H"^"'? ''"' '"""^ '^^ «-' report in 11;^^'^"'*? '"""'^ '"'° the inroads of the ^h^h. '^'"' ''"='"««'^e8 to the inquiry as to Whether in connection with unclaimed lands or Afforestation Schemes. 377 otherwise it is desirable to make an experiment in afforestation as a means of increasing employment durmg periods of depression, and how, and by whom such experiment should be conducted. In 1909, the Royal Commission on Afforestation and Coast Erosion reported at length, proposing the re- forestation by a special Commission of nine million acres of waste land at a rate of 75,000 or 150,000 acres a year to be acquired by purchase— an elabor- ate plan, which so far has remained without result. The government, although various committees have recommended it, has remained also callous in respect to educational policy, except that, in 1904, the Com- missioners of Woods and Forests instituted a school (one instructor) in the Forest of Dean for the educa- tior. of woodsmen and foremen. As illustrative of the government's peculiar attitude to forest policy in general, we may note a curious anachronism, namely the act of 1894, which relieves railway companies from liability for damage from locomotive fires, if they can prove that they have exercised all care, although traction engines cannot offer this excuse. The first attempt to secure educational facilities dates to 1884 when a chair of forestry was established m the Royal Engineering College at Cooper's Hill, an institution designed to prepare for service in India purely. Through private subscriptions another chair of forestry was instituted in 1887 at the University of Edinburgh, and several agricultural colleges, notably tiiat of Cirencester, as well as the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, had made provisions for ! ^ff ! ■11 i 'fl 378 Great Britain. teaching the subject .n a way, but outside of Cooper's Hi 1 no adequate education in forestry was obSn able in Great Britain, until 1903 Inl905, the forest department in Cooper's Hill one Srirr' '° ''^'°"'' '""^ ^"-^ Vears'^^ours^ one year to be spent m the forests of Germany or other countnes-being as before designed m^n"v for aspirants to the Indian forest service' Now Sdes £r„rdy;iti:tatf ^ ^'"^"^°"^' '^^^^■^^ The name of Sir William Schlich, a German forester and for some t.me the head of the Indian forest de partment now m charge of this school, is most prom - nently connected with the reform movement. Altogether forest management and silvicultural pract.ce are still nearly unknown in England and unt.1 w,thm a few years, the useful idea of worWng fm That theT "^ "• "° "?""'''• '" P^« ^""^ *° the nnhn r K ^"/^'■'""^"t is in the hands of the nob,hty, who pr.W to keep their "shooting ranges" Sm i„r f? T \ '"^"^"^' ^^^^"*^«^ f-- "'-^n^ from S to 40 ": °"^ "' '^'^ "^^ '^^"-e - «"t of •rem. 10 to 40 cents per acre for shooting privileges. Private endeavor has been active through the two arboncu,tu,al societies, the Royal Scotch, founS inZ' Th '. ' ^°''' '^"^"^''' beginning its labo^ or cSlioIif '7^"'°"' °f these societies in annual or occasional volumes represented the current maga- Education and Literature. 379 2ine literature on forestry since the monthly Journal of Forestry and Estates Management, which began its career in London in 1877, transferred to Edinburgh in 1884, ceased to exist in 1885. At present, a very well conducted Quarterly Journal of Forestry, started in 1907 by the Royal English Arboricultural Society replacing its Transactions and that of the Irish Forestry Association, also the Journal of the Board of Agriculture, occasionally, supply the needs of the continuously improving chances for development on forestry lines. Until within a short time the English professional book literature has been extremely meager, although a considerable propa- gandist, arboricultural, and general magazine litera- ture exists. Schlich's Manual of Forestry, first in three volumes published from 1889 to 1895, now in its second to fourth edition, enlarged to five volumes, is the most comprehensive publication. Another author deserving mention is John Nisbet, known by his Studies in Forestry (1894), who also engrafted conti- nental silvicultural notions into later editions of James B'own's The Forester, an encyclopaedic work of merit. Several German and French works have been translated into English, notably K. Gayer: Die Forstbenutzung; R, Hess: Der Forstschutz; H. FUrst: Waldschutz. John Croumbie Brown's sixteen volumes on forests and forestry in various countries may be mentioned among the propagandist literature. The Arboricul- tural Societies mentioned also make a brave effort to advance professional development of forestry in their publications. if § m m INDIA. While so neglectful of her forest interests at home Great Britain has developed in her possessions in the East Indies a far-seeing policy, and, under the lead of German mfluence, has established there one of the largest, if not most efficient, forest departments in the world. Contrary to a frequently expressed idea that the conditions and problems of India are comparable to the conditions and problems of the United States so that the example of Great Britain in India rather than that of any European country might serve us in the United States, the writer thinks that the very opposite IS true. Not only are the natural conditions for the most part different, India being mainly tropical with an entirely different flora and different conditions of growth, but industrial, cultural, social and political conditions are also entirely different; all of which entails difference in methods of procedure. There are, to be sure, a few points of similarity: the large size of country under one government, and that in the hands of an English speaking race; the fact that the fire scourge, as with us, but from different reasons, is still the greatest problem; that there are arid regions and deserts (not over 10 per cent.), and irrigation problems and flood dangers to deal with; and finally the long delay in establishing a definite forest policy. Although this policy was inaugurated over 40 years ago, India has not yet, and will by the nature of f-ings not soon pass out of the first stage of development' which we may confidently expect to pass through General Conditions. 381 much more rapidly, due to the conditions in which we resemble Europe more closely. The greater part of India, namely 62 per cent, of the 1,773,000 square miles, is under British adminis- tration, and is peopled by a subject race of nearly 240 million, without a voice in their government, which is carried on by a small handful of the con- querors (about 100,000 Englishmen are living in India), while the balance, around 700,000 square miles with 53 million people, is divided among a large number of more or less independent native States, very different in their civilization from ours. Industrially, the difference will appear from the statement that about 70 per cent, of the population is engaged in agricultural pursuits, hence there is no active wood market as with us, except for domestic purposes, and, as the woods, like those of most tropical forest, are mainly cabinet woods, even the export trade is insignificant, amounting to hardly 3 million dollars, while minor forest products (lac, cutch and gambler, myrobalan, caoutchouc, etc.) represent about 12 million dollars. Climatically, as is to be expected, on such a large territory, great variation exists, which is increased by differences in altitude from the sea level to the tops of the Himalayas. The climate is, of course, largely tropical, with a rainfall which varies from the heaviest known, of 600 inches, to almost none at all. Nevertheless, in spite of these differences from our conditions, much may be learned from Indian experi- ence in the matter of organization, both to follow and to avoid, and the fact that this can be done without 382 India. the need of a foreign language will be attractive to most Americans. The British like other nations, gained a foothold in India for trading purposes during the 17th century This they extended during the 18th century, especially after they had attained the ascendancy by Clive's subjection, in 1757, of the great Mogul, one of the most powerful native princes. By conquest and amicable arrangement, the territory of British in- fluence was gradually increased through the agency of the East Jndia Company, until, in 1858, the British government in India was formally established by em ire '°"' *"''''" '*"''' ^"^ '^^'^'^ ^^ As stated, native princes still control, under British influence and restrictions, over one-third of the coun- J^'aZ ^ ^^""'"'^ °^ "^^"'y ^OO-OOO square miles divided mto 13 feudatory states. The total area 1 Os'/ofi""'" "'f ?"*^°' ""^ government is 1,087,000 square miles, of which 25 per cent. (280,000 square miles) is probably forested and waste, s^me 232,000 square miles or neariy 150 million acres of which are so far declared government property. d J • ."a^ ^ *''"*°'^ " "^'^'"^^ '"to three presi- dencies (Madras, Bombay and Bengal) and nine provinces, each with a separate government under a governor, or commissioner, with a council, and all subject to control by the resident governor-general or viceroy and his council, and he in turn is responsible to the Serrptarv n( q*-^«-» „* l_ _ '^ - , — ..V4 lit 111 • Secretary of State at home. There is, however, little centralization of govern- Climate and Forest. 383 ment functions, the provincial governments being to a large degree at least semi-autonomous, like the states in the United States, and consid' able varia- tion exists in the conduct of affairs. The difficulties in introducing something like a uniform forest policy- were, indeed, not small, and much credit is due to the wisdom and tact of the three German foresters, who in succession filled the difficult position of head of the Imperial Ff'- -* Department and organized the service — Brandis, achlich and Ribbentrop. 1. Forest Conditions. In the tropics, rainfall conditions more than any other factor determine forest conditions. The rains of India depend on extraordinary sea winds, or "mon- soons," and their distributio . is regulated by the topography of land and relative position of any dis- trict with regard to the mountains and the vapor- laden air currents. Thus excessive rainfall character- izes the coast line along the Arabian Sea to about latitude 20 degrees N., and still more along the coast of Lower Burma, and to a lesser extent also the delta of the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Hima- layas. A moderately humid climate, if gauged by annual rainfall, prevails over the plateau occupying the larger part of the peninsula and the lower Ganges valley, while a rainfall of less than 15 inches occurs over the arid regions of the lower Indus. The rainfall, so unevenly distributed territorially, is, moreover, as unevenly distributed through the year. In most districts the principal rains are ex- perienced in summer, the rainy season being followed i 1^! 'i t 384 India. by a long dry seasrn. But on the Eastern coast the summer rains are slight, and the principal rainy season is delayed into October and November, while m Northern India and the Himalayas, also winter rams occur, irregular and of short duration. Even where a relatively large rainfall prevails, the climate is dry on account of the high temperature hence some 30,000,000 acres of the cultivated acreage (which comprises 225,000,000 acres in all) depend on irrigation, over half of this irrigated area lying in the tropical zone. Roughly speaking, at least four climatic zones with many sub-types, may be recognized: the truly tropic, intensely hot and wet (over 75 inch rainfall), prevailing on the plains and tablelands of the lower half of the peninsula; the hot and drj- (below 15 inch rainfall) climate of the Northwestern Indus plain and plateau; the moderately warm and dry to humid (30-75 inch rainfall) climate of the Ganges plain and central plateau; and the temperate to alpine, humid climate of the Himalaya mountains, with snow and ice in winter, and ffioderate heat in sjmmer. In keeping with this great diversity of climate, both as to temperature and humidity, there is a great variation in the character and development of the forest cover. At least six types can be recognized, namely the evergreen forest, found along the West coast, in Burma, Andaman Islands, and the sub- Himalaya zone, which is composed of broadleaved species with a dense undergrowth of small trees and tangled lianas (vines), but few shrubs, as is character- istic of most tropical forest; the deciduous forest, Forest Condiliotis. 385 mainly in the interior of Centra! India, with Sal, Teak and Ironwood as characteristic trees; the arid region forest, found in the Punjab, in Raiputana, and in Sindh, of /arying composition, from the open shrub forests of the latter province, composed of acacias, tamarisk and mesquite, to the denser, more diversified dry, low tree forest of the former; the alpine coniferous forest of the Himalayas and of the mountains of Afghanistan, Belutchistan, and Burma, composed of pine, deodar, juniper, with oak, walnut, boxwood, approaching our own forest types. In addition, there may be segregated the coast forest, of small extent, composed of trees which, like the mangrove, will bear salt water; the overflow forest along rivers; and river forests in the desert regions, of which latter large areas exist. The natural differences in the forest cover are en phasized by the action of man, who for many centuries has waged war against the forest, clearing it perma- nently or temporarily for agricultural purposes, or else merely burning it over to improve grazing facilities, or for purposes of the chase. Statistics, except of government properties, are somewhat doubtful. Apparently, the forested area of the whole of India comprises somewhat over 40 per cent, of the land area. The government forests, settled and unsettled, represent at present about 24 per cent, of the area under British rule (149 million acres), not over 20 per cent, being under cultivation, leaving about 56 per cent, either natural desert, waste, or grazing lands. The great forests of India are in Burma; extensive 386 India. woods clothe the foothills of the Himalayas and are scattered in smaller bodies throughout the more humid portions of the country, while the dry northwestern territories are practically treeless wastes. Large areas of densely settled districts are so completely void of forest that millions of people regularly bum cow dung as fuel, while equally large districts are still impene- trable, wild woods, where, for want of market, it hardly pays to cut even the best of timbers. The great mass of forests in India are stocked with hardwoods, which in these tropical countries are largely evergreen, or neariy so, although the large areas of dry forest are deciduous by seasons; only a small portion of the forest area is covered by conifers, both pine and cedar, these pine forests being generally restricted to higher altitudes in the Himalayas. The hardwoods, most of which in India truly deserve this name, belong to a great variety of plant families, some of the most important being the Legurainosa, Ver- benacea, Dipterocarpeae, CombreteccK, Rubiaces, Ebenaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Myrtaceae, and others, and a relatively small portion represented by Cupulifera; and other families familiar to us. The most important, valuable species are Teak, Sal, and Deodar. In the greater part of India the hardwood forest consists not of a few species, as with us, but is made up, like most tropical forest, of a great variety of trees unlike in their habit, their growth, and their product: and, if our hardwoods offer on this account consider- able difficulties to profitable exploitation, the case is far more complicated in India, several thousand species entering into the composition. In addition Forest Composition. 387 to the large variety of timber trees there is a multi- tude of shrubs, twining and climbing plants, and in many forest districts also a growth of giant grasses (bamboos), attaining a height of 30 to 120 feet, which is ready to take possession of clearings. These bam- boos, valuable as they are in many ways, prevent often for years the growth of any seedling trees, and thus form a serious obstacle to the regeneration of valuable timber. The growth of timber is generally quite rapid, although to attain commercial size. Teak requires usually a rotation of 150 years. But in spite of their rapid growth and the large areas now in forest capable of reforestation, India is not likely— at least within reasonable time— to raise more timber than it needs. In most parts of India, the use of ordinary soft woods, such as pine, seems very restricted, for only durable woods, those r isting both fungi and insects (of which the white ants are specially destruc- tive), can be employed in the more permanent struc- tures, and are therefore acceptable in all Indian markets. At present, Teak is the most important hardwood timber, while the Deodar (a true cedar) is the most extensively used conifer. Teak occurs in all moist regions of India except the Himalayas, grows usually mixed with other kinds, single, or in clumps, is girdled two or three years before felling, is generally logged m a primitive way, commonly hewn in the woods and shipped— usually floated— as timber, round or hewn, and rarely sawn to size. In 1905-6, the cut in the State forest area was 240,000,000 cubic feet, timber (25%) and fuel, of 388 India. which 20 per cent, was given to grantees or those holding rights of user free of charge, and less than 2 per cent, was exported. In addition, over 200 million bamboos and nearly two million doUr worth of by- products, such as lac, caoutchuc, cch, gambier, myrobalans, were secured. 2. Property Conditions. Prior to the British o< cupation, the native rulers, or rajahs, laid claim to a certain proportion of the produce from all cultivators of the soil. They also reserved absolute right to the forests, and to all un- seated or waste lands, although usually the people were allowed to supply their needs from these. The English government, by right of conquest, fell heir to these rights as well as to the properties, but, with- out care in asserting its rights, the unimpeded use of unguarded forest property led to the assertion of rights of user by the people, and such were also sometimes granted by the government. "Joint village" com- munities in some parts, i.e., settlements which occupy contiguous areas, claimed and occupied large areas of forest and waste as commons, and in general the original property righte of the government became uncertain. The necessity of bringing order into this question led to various so-called settlements, by which the rights were defined, properties de-limited, and paymcm 'n kind changed into cash payments. After attempts to regulate these matters by local rules, the first general Indian Forest Act, passed in 1865, modified by the Forest Act of 1878, laid down State Forests. 389 the basis upon which the rights of forest property were to be settled. These acts divide the forests into three classes, namely, those in which the right of the State is absolute; those in which the State has property rights, but which are burdened with prescriptive or granted rights of user; and those which are private property, but on which the State reserves the right to cut certain kinds of trees for government use, Teak, Sanda' -ood, and in some parts Deodar, these being considered "royal trees." The forest act being throughout applicable only at the choice and under the construction of the provincial governments, modi- fied acts, applicable to different parts of the Empire, and different in details, were passed from time to time, and many different local rules were issued by the pro- vincial governments, but all agree in fixing one definite policy, namely declaration or demarcation of govern- ment forests, after inquiry into all existing rights, and division of the declared government forests 'nto three classes, reserves or permanent state forests, protected forests, and unclassed, the latter two still open to change in ownership, and adjustment in rights of user, etc. The absolute and relative areas of government pro- perty, therefore, are continuously changing. In 1900 the reserve forests comprise 1 81,400 square miles, or 8.6% of the total territory controlled by the British government; the protected forest 8800 square miles, and the demarcated but unclassified area, 117,000 square miles. These figures had, in 1904, changed to 01,567 for permanent reserves (58 million acres), 9865 for protected, and 131,269 for unclassed, showing ■ ^K:'h i-i^ 890 India. the rapid change now taking place in the status of classification. The name of B. H. Baden-Powell, at one time con- servator of the Punjab and Acting Inspector-C^eneral of Forests during 1872-4, is closely connected with placing this forest legislation on a sound basis. The object of this legislation was mainly to settle the ques- tion of ownership and rights, hence reserved forests are not necessarily set aside for forest purposes like the forest reservation sinthe United States, although ultimately this will probably be their condition. Rights of user were under this legislation regulated or commuted. In some parts, even on the reserved forest areas, there are still retained rights to ciu taungyas, i.e., to make partial clearings for temporary agricultural use, under the restriction of not destroy- ing teak trees over 18 inches in diameter, and with the right of the cultivators to supply their domestic needs, under obligation to cut out fire traces, burning the brush, and instituting similar protective measures. The title to the forest property having been secured, its permanent demarcation and a survey of the same were the next steps; the first having gradually been nearly accomplished, the latter being still far in arrears. The area of private and communal forests is not pre- cisely known, but, including waste land and lands of uncertain conditions, there are at least 500,000 square miles so owned, including those of feudatory rulers within the provinces. Of these, some 500 square miles or more of forest are leased to the government and under its control; and in some cases forest adminis- trations are instituted by thi rajahs themselves. Property Conditions. 391 In the Act of 1878, there was a clause calling for protection of private forest property against trespass and encroachment, but this remained a dead letter. By later legislation the government is entitled to exer- cise control over private forests and lands, if it appears necessary for the public weal, or if the treatment which such forests have received from their owners affect the public welfare or safety injuriously; but in such cases the owner can require the government to expi.-'r>riate the land in question. The forest act also provided that the government may assign to village communities from the reserved forest area so-called village forests, and make rules for their protection, use and management. How far this policy has been applied does not appear. There are still areas the ownership of which is not settled, and rights which are still in doubt, the work of the so-called forest settlements still going on, several thousand square miles being annually changed in status, and several thousand dollars annually spent to quiet rights of user. 3. Development of Forest Policy. Through the long history of India that preceded the arrival of the Mohammedans in the 10th to 12th centuries, it appears that the forest area was only slowly encroached upon by the Hindoo civilization. Even when the invaders, nomads by habit, drove many of the native race into the jungle to eke out a precarious existence, owing to the remarkable re- cuperative powers of a tropical nature the impression made was not permanent. Although much forest 392 India. growth was then destroyed, cleared or mutilated, changes took place only slowly. It has been claimed, that in consequence of the destruction, which was incident to the nomadic life of the Mohammedans and the shifting agriculture of the aborigines, climatic changes were produced, but the proof for this assertion has remained questionable. When in the 18th century the British entered India in rivalry with the French and other European nations, it was, of course, only for purposes of exploitation, and for a long time after the British had attained the as- cendancy and had subjected most of the territory now ruled by' them, not much concern was had about the forests; they furnished but small values, excepting in one particular, namely supplies of Teak for naval purposes. In the beginning of the 19th century the Government became concerned regarding these sup- plies, which under the rough exploitation threatened to become exhausted. The first step towards securing some conservative management dates back to 1806, when Captain Wat- son was sent to India as Conservator of Forests, to look after the interests of the East India Company in this direction. His inability to compromise with those who had secured timber privileges led to his removal and an abandonment of the ofhce, in 1823. Ineffective, sporadic efforts at administration by the provincial governments then followed. In 1839-40, the government of the Bombay Presi- dency stopped the cutting of Teak trees on govern- ment property. In 1834, M. Connolly, Collector of Malabar in the Madras Presidency, began to plant Early Attempt' at Forest Control. 393 Teak on a large scale at Nilambur. In 1847, Dr. Gibson was appointed Conservator of Forests in Bombay; from 1848 to 1856, Lieutenant (now General, C. S. I.) James Michael conducted the government timber operations in the Anamalai Teak forests (Madras), and made the first recorded attempts to protect Indian forests from injury by annual jungle fires. In 1856, Dr. Hugh Cleghorn was appointed Con- servator of Forests in Madras. He checked the destructive practices of temporary cultivation in the government forests of that Presidency, a measure, which at first was strongly opposed by the people, but his well-known desire to promote native interests inspired the rulers of the country with confidence, and finally his measures were successful. Various attempts at some kind of regulation of the exploitation by lumbermen were also made by the general government, after various examinations and reports, and, in 1847, even a small and ineffective forest department was organized. The annexation of the Province of Pegu in lower Burma, in 1852, introduced a new complication, and proved the turning point in forestry matters. In this province, the right to cut Teak had been reserved by the native princes, and hence became a right of the crown, but private lumbermen began to cut this timber, and, after an investigation and report, it was decided to take definite steps to regulate the use of these valuable Teak forests at least. Lord Dalhousie, the then Governor-General, upon the basis of the report of the superintendent of forests 394 India. at Pegu, Dr. McClelland, in 1855 laid down in states- manlike manner an outline of a permanent forest policy for the government, and introduced the first professional adviser. In 1856, a German forester from Hesse, Dietrich Brandis (afterward Sir) was installed as superinten- dent of forests for Pegu with wide powers under con- tract for 10 years, at a liberal salary, and pension after retirement. The only possible check that could at first be applied was to force the lumbermen to make contracts, limit the diameter to which the exploitation was to be allo-.^ed, and mark the trees to be felled. This was done, naturally not without a large amount of friction. The result of this experiment in forest conservarcy, as the English are pleased to call it, was so satisfactory, that, in 1862, it was decided to organize a forest de- partment for all India; Brandis was entrusted with the organization, and, in 1864, he was appointed head of the new department under the Secretary of Public Works with the title of Inspector-General, acting as adviser of the various provincial governments. The forests of India during the next 20 years during which Brandis held office, were, province by province, brought under the regime of the Imperial Forest Departmeht, although the provincial governments retain full and independent administrative power. The first problem was to settle ownership conditions, which was done in the manner described before, by the act of 1865, and by later acts. The discontent which was created by this act came very near wrecking the whole enterprise, and much Forest Acts. 305 , difference of opinion between the local and general governments existed, the government of Madras going so far as to declare the impossibility of estab- lishing State property in view of the acknowledged rights of the villagers over waste lands. The general policy, however, finally prevailed, and an increasingly harmonious cooperation of the provincial govern- ments has allowed the development of an efficient forest service. Various provincial legislation was considered, passed and repealed, until, in 1878, the Indian Forest Act VII settled the policy at least for the majority of the pro- vinces, Madras and Burma and some minor districts still declining to extend its provisions to their forests. The Burma government enacted, however, similar legislation in 1881, and the Madras government in 1882, and, much later, the other outstanding govern- ments followed (1886 to 1891), so that, while the lietail of application varies not inconsiderably, the general policy regarding forest property of the State is the same throughout the empire. Whatever of uniformity exists had to be secured mainly by per- suasive means. The forest acts, as stated on a previous page, con- tain certain provisions regarding formation of village forests and control of private forest property, but no interference with private forest property has been attempted, although in some parts this is more im- portant and larger than the State holdings. Most of the owners merely exploit their property, but some of the larger, more enlightened native princes have established forest administrations, imitating the n J 396 India. example of the Imperial government. Those of Mysore and Kashmir and Hyderabad have placed this ad- ministration under an imperial forest officer, fur- loughed for this purpose, and derive handsome reve- nues; the Kashmir forests of about 2500 square miles yielding round $180,000; those of Mysore, near 2000 square miles, over $330,000, this largely derived from sales of sandal wood; those of the Nizam of Hydera- bad, with 5200 square miles in reserves and 4400 in protected forests, deriving a revenue of $75,000, seven times what it was ten years before. 4. Forest Organization and Administration. The condition of affairs in the forest department can be briefly summarized as follows for the year 1909. Total area under government control: 241,774 square miles, namely. Reserved, 94,561; Protected, 8,835; Unclassed, 138,378. Officials (in 1905): Higher grades, 312; Lower grades, 1,663; Guards, 8,533. The contro'ing staff was in 1909 increased by 34; and numbers in all other grades increased. Rounded off Expenditures, $4,500,000; Revenues, $8,225,000; Net Proceeds, $3,675,000 (45% of gross). Variation in the value of the rupee makes compari- son with earlier years uncertain. In spite of the many difficulties, a poor market (no market at all for a large number of woods), wild, unsurveyed, and practically unknown woodlands, requiring unusual and costly methods of organization and protection, the forestry department has succeeded, without curtailing the timber output of India, in so regulating forest exploitation as to insure not only a permanence in the outjiut, but also to improve the Administration. 397 woodlands by favoring the valuable species. It has prepared for an increase of output for the future, and at the same time has yielded the Government a steadily growing revenue, which bids fair to rank be- fore long among the important sources of income. In 1865 the net revenue was only $360,000, it had about doubled by 1875, and more than trebled by 1885, and since then has more than quadrupled. While in the period of 1870 to 1874 the expense of the administration was still 70 per cent, of the gross in- come, it has gradually been reduced to near45 per cent., while the outturn in material has in the last five years increased by 35% over the preceding quinquennium. At first, the department and its operations as well as its finances were Imperial, the local governments hav- ing no control over its ofiicers or over the revenue de- riveo, but, in 1882, decentralization was effected, the local governments obtaining a direct interest in the revenues. As a result the financial interest over- ruled the conservative policy, and over-cutting was the consequence. In 1884, the general government recognized the need of a change. After some struggle, the Imperial department was placed at least in charge of preparing the working plans, and pressure for their execution if not direct enforcement can be brought through appeal to the general government by the Inspector-General, which, however, has never been necessary to use. The organization of the forest service passed through various stages, and the arrangement in the different provinces is even now not quite uniform. The forest service, then, is peculiarly organized as regards division responsibilities and relationships Mi^m 398 India. between the imperial and the provincial governments, the autonomy of the latter being jealously guarded. It is divided into the Imperial and the Provincial Service, the former consisting of the higher grati'; officials entirely recruited from England, the latter, the executive service, being in administrative functions independent of the former. An Inspector-General, directly under the Secretary of Revenue and Agriculture, (for some time under the Home Department) is ti?<^ head of the service, and acts as professional adviser both of the Imperial and the Provincial Governments. But this head of the service is shorn of most of executive functions, all adminis- trative matters being reserved to the provincial authorities. The Inspector-General has charge only of the fo".st school administration, of forest surveys, and of the making of working plans, which later, after approval by the Provincial government, are in their execution inspected and critically supervised by him, but with- out power to enforce them, or to give direction directly to the Conservators in charge (at least in Madras and Burma). He also watches over and reports on the progress of all forestry matters in the empire. Peculiarities and great variety are also found in other official relations and in the appointing power, the general and provincial governments exercising certain rights in this respect. The Controlling Staff (57 officers in 1869, now about 300) under the Inspector-General, consists of Conserva- tors, Deputy Conservators and Assistant Conserva- tors. The Conservators, now some 20, so far as they are x,^ Organisation. 399 not directly acting as assistants in the Inspector-Gene- ral's office, are the heads of the provincial departments and conservatorships, and in that capacity directly sub- ordinate to the local government, which in Madras and Bombay also has their appointment; each is m charge either of the entire forest business of the Provmce, or of a circle forming part of a Province and the admin- istration unit in India. These are, therefore, the most influential and most responsible agents m m- troducing forestry practices. Conservatorships are divided into divisions, each in charge of a divisional forest officer, a member of either the Imperial or the Provincial Controlling Staff; but these have to ac- knowledge subordination to the Chief Civil officer, the Collector of the district in which they are located, m order to harmonize the financial and forestal interests. About 80 per cent, of the Controlling Staff in the Imperial Service are appointed by the Secretary of State from graduates formerly from the forest school at Cooper's Hill College, now Oxford, the remaimng 20 iier cent, from Englishmen in the provincial ser- vice, the members of which have passed through the Dehra Dun forest school and through the lower branches of the service. In addition to this Superior Staff, a Subordinate Staff of Extra Deputy Con- servators and Extra Assistant Conservators forms the Provincial Service, which is mainly recruited from the natives. The districts are divided into ranges, for which an Executive Service ii organized, of rangers (over 400), who are now selected from graduates of the forest school in Dehra Dun. Deputy rangers and foresters. 'I VI. \ \ k 1 400 India. a lower grade (some 1700), and guards, having their separate beats (over 8500), form the Protective Service, mostly or all recruited from the better class of natives. 5. Forest Treatment. With the irregular distribution of forests, the pecu- liarities of Indian government affairs and population, and the wild and difficult forest conditions themselves, it is but natural that the work thus far has been chiefly one of organization, survey, and protection. In the protection against unlawful felling or timber stealing and grazing, the Government of India has shown itself fully equal to the occasion by a liberal policy of supplying villagers in proximity of the forests with fuel, building material, pasture, etc., at reduced prices or gratis. Over $1,500,000 worth is thus dis- posed of annually, the incentive to timber stealing being thereby materially reduced. A reasonable and just permit system for grazing, where again the needs of the neighboring villagers are most carefully con- sidered, not only brings the government a yearly revenue of over $800,000, but enables the people to pasture about 14,000,000 head of animals in the State forests without doing any material damage to tree growth. Thirty-one per cent, of the total forest area is open to grazing. The work of preventing and fighting fires can with the means available not be carried on over the entire forest area, of which large tracts are not even crossed by a footpath, and in a land where the regular firing of the woods has become the custom of ccnturiei, and where, in addition, intensely hot and dry weather. I Forest Fires. 401 together with a most luxuria* ■ gto. th of piant grasses, render these jungle fires p actically uii'.anageable. Each year, however, additi n;i territor is brought under protection. In 1902, neaily "7,000 square miles, or nearly 40% of the area in reserve, but only 12% of the total government forest area, were under protection at a cost of $4.00 per square mile or less than one cent per acre, half of what it was 10 years before, and over 2 per cent, of the gross revenue. Nearly 5,000 fires occurred, to be sure, which burnt over 3,000,000 acres, that is to say over 90 per cent, of the area the protection was effective. For nearly half the fires the cause remains unknown. Danger from fire has, however, become less in protected are'is because of the changes in herbage and moisture con- ditions. Yet it costs still about two per cent, of the gross revenue to protect the area, and the figures just cited show that this expenditure is only partially effective. In 1909, tho protected area had increased to 43,000 square miles, the cost to $5, the efficiency to 94 per cent. The first successful attempts to deal with forest fires were made in 1864 by Major (later Colonel) G. F. Pearson, who was then Conservator of Forests in the Central Provinces, and who devised a system of cleared fire lines or "fire traces," surrounding the areas to be protected, which were cut and burned over early in the season, a system now in vogue in all India. In the jungle forests the traces must be broad; the grass often taller than an elephant must be cut and burned before the grass on either side of the fire lane is dry enough to burn. This protection forms the most important duty of .•«5fc '■fr^^l 402 India. I the forest officials, a trying one as it has to be carried on during the hot season. A separate branch of the forest service carried on the work of surveying and mapping the forest area in- stead of the regular Survey of India, with the result of cheapening the cost. Some 74,000 square miles had been mapped on the scale of 4 inch to the mile, the standard, some smaller areas on smaller scale, at the rate of $25 per square mile. In 1908, however, this work was handed over to the Survey. Silviculture. Silvicultural practices are naturally but little developed. Protection against fire, grazing, overcutting has been the first requisite. The un-. regulated selection system with a diameter limit, which Brandis introduced, still prevails mostly, al- though beginnings of a compartment and group sys- tem in converting miscarried selection forest of Deo- dar, Pine and Sal have been made, or rather of an improved selection method, which seeks to secure re- production in groups. Clearcutting with seed trees held over is practised in the coniferous mountain forest. Coppice and coppice with standards (re- serves of sprouts) is a natural condition over large areas, especially with Teak and Sal. Even improve- ment cuttings or sowing on barren hillsides with remarkable success, are not absent. The attempts at securing reproduction, especially in the truly tropic forests have often miscarried, in- ferior species filling the openings. Girdling of in- ferior species to favor the better classes has hardly had the desired result. In the deciduous forest, the same difficulty of undesirable aftergrowth is exper- Silvic. Itural Practice. 403 ienced, deteriorating the composition, except in the case of the gregarious Sal tree (Shorea robusta), the treatment of which for reproduction has, after many failures, been well established. Other gregarious species also can be satisfactorily reproduced. The culled and burned-over forests, of which, there are many, are re-habilitated in a manner by merely removing the old overmature and defective timber, with comparative success. In some parts, the large gregarious bamboos are a serious obstacle to reproduction. Here, the only chance for reproduction exists when they flower and die. Killing the bamboos by cutting the annual shoots proved a failure, but burning over the whole area and sowing seems to be followed by success. In other parts, as in the large Teak forests of Burma, as well as of other provinces, the useless kinds of trees are girdled, huge climbers are cut off, and a steady war is waged against all species detrimental to teak regen- eration with satisfactory results. With Teak, even planting on a larger scale is resorted to, especially by means of taungyas, i.e. plantations, where the native is allowed to burn down a piece of woods, use it for a few years as field (though it is never really cleared) on condition of planting it with teak, being paid a certain sum for every hundred trees found in a thrifty condition at the time of giving up his land. Similarly, the department has expended large sums in attempt- ing to establish forests in parts of the arid region of Beluchistan, and, on the whole, during 1894-95 about $150,000 were expended on cultural operations, which up to that time involved about 76,000 acres of M 404 India. regular plantations and 36,000 acres taungyas (mostly teak,) making a total of 112,000 acres, besides numer- ous large areas where the work consisted merely in aiding natural reproduction. But, in 1909, the plantations seem to have been re- duced to 59,000 acres, (probably through failures), the taungyas however increased to 84,000 acres, and the budget for plantings and other cultural measures formed a little over two per cent, of the gross revenues. We see then, that though the forests of India are now, and will continue for some time to be little more than wild woods with some protection and a reasonable system of exploitation in place of a mere robbing or culling system, yet the work of actual improvement steadily increases in amount and perfection. In disposing of its timber the Government of India employs various methods. In some of the forest dis- tricts the people pay merely a small tax and get out of the woods what and as much as they need. In other cases, the logger pays for what he removes, the amount he fells being neither limited in quantity nor quality. The prevalent systems, however, are the permit system, when a permit is issued indicating the amount to be cut and the price to be paid for the same, and the contract system, when the work is more or less under the control of government officers and the ma- terial remains government property until paid for. To a limited extent the governments carry on their own timber exploitation. Working Plans. Only a relatively small part of the total forest area, each year, however, increasing, is as Working Plans. 405 yet worked under plans. In 1885, only 109 square miles, in 1899, 20,000 square miles, and in 1903, nearly 30,000 square miles, about 13 per cent, of the total, or 30 per cent, of the reserved area, were oper- ated under working plans, and each year about 4000 square miles are added, so that now (1909) over half the reserved area is under working plans. Only gradually was the character of these plans brought into practical form, and their execution, in spirit at least, enforced, the Conservators having "'e right to deviate from the plans. A map, prepared by the survey branch naturally forms the basis of the plan. The form of the plan is prescribed by the provincial regulations, and the preparation is also carried on by the provincial ser- vice under advice and supervision of the imperial de- partment. The "strip valuation survey," which Brandis introduced, covering sometimes as much as 30 per cent, of the area, is employed in determining number of trees and sizes, growing stock and cut, modeled after the European practice, except that little, perhaps too little, money is spent on their elaboration, especially on determining the proper amount of cut. That the cut is controlled at all is the most important result. 6. Education and Literature. In 1866, Sir Dietrich Brandis selected as assistants two young men who had been trained in the forest schools of Germany — in turn his successors — and at the same time arrangements were made for the train- ing of young Englishmen in the Forest schools of 406 India. Fraiice and Germany. At the end of 1875 the pro- ftssional education \yas entirely transferred to Nancy. The present force of Conservators is composed largely of these men. For some reason, the training of men in Germany and France became unpopular, and this objection finally led, in 1884, to the establishment of a chair of forestry at Cooper's Hill College for En- gineering in England. At first, the course of study ex- tended over 26 months, during 22 of which the candi- dates prosecuted their studies at the college; the remaining four months being spent under suitable supervision in selected British and Continental forests. In 1905, this department was transferred to Oxford University and the course extended to three years, one year to be spent in continental forests. At present this time may, however, be reduced to two years and the vacations in continental forests, This is a government affair, and probationers receive stipends from the government. Mr. Brandis as early as 1869 saw also the necessity of providing the means of giving the natives of India some sort of technical education in forestry. The first Jtep in this direction was to place natives, selected ones, under one or two officers of the Imperial Service who were deemed fit to instruct them, and in this way 'a few good men were turned out. An- other experiment, after the German pattern, was made by apprenticing likely young men under some forester for a year or two and then sending them to an engi- neering school for theoretical instruction. This was also a failure. After much hard work, the Indian forest school at Dehra Dun was established in 1878, Forest Schools. 407 the forests between the Jumna and the Ganges rivers were set aside as training grounds, formed into a special Forest Circle and placed under the control of the director of the school. These forests have been subjected to regular systems of management, based on European experience, and excellent results have been obtained. The first course of systematic theo- retical instruction was opened on the 1st of July, 1881. In 1884 the school was made an imperial in- stitution by the Government of India, and the In- spector-General of Forests was charged with its supervision, under a Board of Control, consisting of the Inspector-General, the Director, and three Con- servators, with the Assistant Inspector-General as secretary. This board meets once a year at Dehra, conducts the examinations, and looks into all of the workings of the School very carefully. There were two courses — one in which the teaching was given in English for rangers, the other in which the instruction was given in the vernacular for foresters; courses ex- tending over 24 months. In 1906 the school was raised to the rank of a college and the course in the ver- nacular abolished. The graduates may aspire to the rank of division officers. The training of lower grade officers is left to the provinces. The Bombay Presi- dency had for some time their own forest school in connection with the Engineering College at Poona, but this is now abandoned. Another school, however, is located at Tharrawaddy, with a two-year course in Burmese, and one in Madras with a one-year course; so that the education of lower grade officials is well attended to. 408 India. Forest Experiment and Investigations have never been systematically instituted, being left to individual initiative, but lately (1909) provision has been made in this direction in connection with the Dehra Dun school by the establishment of an Imperial Research Institute. Besides a monthly journal, the Indian Forester which came into existence in 1875 through Schlich's initiative, and the annual reports of the various con- servators and of the Inspector-General, a small book literature has developed within the last ten or fifteen years. Descriptive volumes of note are J. S. Gamble's Manual of Indian Timbers, new edition, 1902; Trees, Shrubs and Woody Climbers of Bombay Presidency by W. A. Talbot, 1902; Ribbentrop's Forestry in British India, 1900, and the eariier publication of H. R. Mor- gan, Forestry in Southern India; Brandis' Indian Forestry and Distribution of Forests in India. Of pro- fessional interest are E. E. Fernandez Manual of Indian Silviculture, unfortunately out of print; the same author's Forest Industries; D'Arcy's Manual of Forest Working Plans; C. C. Roger's Manual of Forest Engineering in India, and E. H. Baden-Powell, Forest Law. The influence of the development of the Indian For- est Service on the forest policy of other British col- onies and of the home country has been considerable and is growing, Indian forest officers being detailed to assist in developing forest policies in these other parts of the British Empire. r] CANADA. The largest single cole ly of Great Britain and the most important as regard- forest supplies, both as to quantity and character, Canada has been for a long time supplying the mother country with a large pro- portion of her imports. Although in size larger than the United States, its land area being estimated at over 3,600,000 square miles, Canada has so far attained only one-fifteenth of the population of her neighbor, namely less than 7 million, although now rapidly growing. Much of her territory is still unknown, and will remain for a long time unavailable for civilization owing to its inhospi- table climate. Indeed, as yet not one-third of its territory may be considered opened up to civilization, and not much more than 100,000 square miles can be said to be occupied, one-half improved in farms, and two-thirds of this in crop Much of the northern country remains unorganized and the vast North West Territory (2,656,000 square miles) between Hudson's Bay and the Rocky Moun- tains, as well as Labrador, are for the most part unin- habited except by Indians and a few military and trading posts. i i KrfaH n <*> Fortil tfeaUh nfCmnada, by the SUtbtidaii of the Department of Agriculture. 1896. ReperU of Crown Lande Depertmenti, of Bureau of Forestry of Ontario, and of Poreatry Branch of the Dominion. DaFluvOH'a Hitltrr ifl^ Lumbtr Indtahy (^ Amtricm, Vol. I, IKM, briafa toyellicf much information on this phaaf of the eubject. HouoH'a KtftH tm FtrrMlry, VoL II, UMI, haa a compihtion of eariier suHstica. Xa Amtytit ^ CmmmiUt 7>.win' ITrallk, by B. B. Fliunw, in Foreatnr Quarterly, Vol. VI, 1908. atteispta a £flcrcntiatioa of omimcFci^ foreat aiaaa. 410 Canada. The central interior region, dotted with lakes and intricate river systems, is a continuation of the forest- less arid and subarid, plains and prairies of the country West of the Mississippi River, toward the north changing by steps into lowlands studded with open treegrowth, and barrew tundra frozen all the year, a million square miles answering to this last descrip- tion. The Pacific Slope is a rough and lofty mountain country, the extension of the Rockies and Coast Ranges, with a variable, in part humid and temperate, in part dry and rigorous climate,' more or less heavily wooded, about 600,000 square miles, with the Eraser River in the South ioi-ming the most important drainage basin. The Atlantic portion, south of the plateau-liko, bare, or scantily wooded Hudson Bay and Labrador country, with a clima«^e, somewhat similar to North Eastern Germany, is formed by the slopes of the water- sheds of the Great Lakes and of their mighty outlet, the St. Lawrence River and its Gulf; the slopes rising gradually northward to the low range of the Height ef Land, a plateau with low hills, not over 1500 feet elevation, which cuts it off from the northern country and forms the limit of commercial forest. This region, the bulk of the provinces of Ontario and Que- bec— a belt of not exceeding 300 miles in width and about 1500 miles in length, altogether 300,000 square ^liles — with 93,000 square miles in the maritime provinces, around 250 million acres in all, represents, outside of British Columbia, the true forest region of Canada, and at the same time the centre of Canadian civilization.. Political Development. 411 Although the Cabot brothers discovered Cape Breton and Labrador in 1497 and 1500, the first settlement of Canadian territory was not made until 1541 by French colonists, after the first Captain- General of Canada, Jacques Cartier, the discoverer and explorer of the St. Lawrence (in 1534), had taken possession of the country for Francis I ; but not much progress in colonizing was made until Champlain's arrival in the first years of the next century. Quebec was founded as early as 1608, and Montreal in 1611, but Ottawa dates its first beginnings not farther back than 1800. The northern country around Hudson's Bay was, under the name of Rupert's Land (after Prince Rupert, the head of the enterprise), undefined in limits, granted by Charles H, in 1670, to the Hudson's Bay Company, a powerful fur-tradingcorporation which had not only a commercial monopoly but, except for occa- sional interference by the French, held absolute govern- mental sway over the country through 200 years, its jurisdiction at one time extending to the Pacific Coast. Friction and warfare with the English resulted in the latter acquiring by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Newfoundland, and settling their rights on Hudson's Bay. The final conquest of "New France" by the English ended French rule in 1763, but the French colonists remained peacefully, and their descendants form to-day, at least in Quebec, the predominating influence. Indeed, in 1774, by the so-called Quebec Act, the first permanent system of self government was established much on the lines of the French feudal system, and the French civil law was retained. 412 Canada. At first, under English rule, the territory, then including the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michi- gan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, formed one colony, but after the war of the Revolution, in 1791, the territory remaining English was divided into two separately governed provinces. Upper and Lower, or West and East Canada. They were re-united in 1840, and continued so until 1867 when the so-called Union or British North America Act effected the present organization of the Dominion of Canada, a federal union, comprising only the provinces of On- tario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. After various combinations and subdivisions all of the British Possessions in North America, except New- foundland and its dependencies in Labrador, came into the union, and, in 1882, the union was completed with the then seven provinces (those mentioned with Prince Edward Island, Manitoba and British Colum- bia) and all the organized and unorganized territory. In the same year, four territories, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Athabasca, in 1895 the territory of Ungava in Labrador, and in 1898 that of Yukon were organized, with a view of their eventual elevation into provinces, the relationships of the federation being quite similar to that of the states and territories in the United States. In 1905, the Western territories were organized into two provinces, Saskatchewan and Alberta. The government, although practically much like a republic and largely independent of the home country, is theoretically a limited monarchy, the king being represented by a Governor-General, appointed ii fl,.,,j|iB Political Development. 413 n :\ by the king, and a privy council selected by the governor. The latter also appoints (now 81) senators for life to form the upper house of the Parliament or legislative body, while the lower House of Commons is elected by the people. Besides this imperial govern- ment, each province has its own separate government with a lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Gover- nor-General, and an elected legislature; thisautomony being somewhat similar to that of the states of the United States and the division of functions be- tween federal and provincial governments being also similar. Although the home government retains the veto power, the supreme jurisdiction and various other powers, and although apparently, by the appoint- ment of officials, its influence is guarded, practically the party management as exercised in Great Britain prevails, and independence from imperial influence and from the home government is continually in- creasing. In regard to the crownlands, including forests, this division as well as this relationship be- comes important. Each provincial government ex- cept those of the three middle provinces administers the crownlands within its boundaries in its own way, yet on similar lines, while the Dominion government controls only the lands located outside of the provinces together with those of the middle provinces and the so-called railway belt in British Columbia. These latter lands were mostly acquired by purchase from the Hudson's Bay Company, the Company relin- quishing its territorial rights in 1868, and the trans- fer being completed in 1870 upon payment of £300,000. ' I - T-^'^^'m 4J4 Canada. 1. Forest Conditions. The forest area has at various times and by various authorities been roughly estimated as between one and a quarter over one and three quarter million and square miles, which would make the forest per cent at least over 32. But this includes the open wood- lands of the northern territory and of the prairies, which, while of great importance to the local settlers are for the most part probably or surely not of com- mercial value. Commercially valuable forests, actu- ally or prospectively, are found almost only in British Columbia and in the old provinces, the two forest regions separated, just as in the United States, by a forestless region, except that north of the prairie region a continuous belt of open woodland extends to near the mouth of the Mackenzie River. A care- ful examination of the sources of information has led the writer to the conclusion that less than 350 000 square miles or round 200 million acres would cover fully the commercially valuable forest land, although the wooded area of the provinces in which the com- "/n" M-*™'^'' '^"'^ " "'^t«^ officially as around 460 million acres, two-fifths of which is to be found in British Columbia. Indeed, although we are accustomed to look upon Canada as a great forest country, it really possesses about «50 per cent, less commercial forest area than the United States, and about one-quarter of the mature timber of that country. It will be understood that all such statistics are merely rough estimates, the data being slim, and eked out by conjectures based Forest Conditions. 415 on geographical conditions which predicate the char- and'ca culL-°"T'' ^"' — «°nable speculations and ca culauons' as to amount of timber standing tions ' '"" '"^"■^ °" ™P°^'^'^ ^=^"'"P While by the change of standards and by local needs, forest areas may become commercially valuable which were not so considered before, and thereby the above figures may be eventually increased, from the stendpomt of valuable lumber supply for the world trade, the above named area may be assumed to set the hmit for the present. Dli!^^°""'"' ''"' .1'"™^ --• -d thereby deteriS ^ted in Its composition, the inferior Balsam Fir ap- pearing in largest number in the reproduction. North of the Height of Land, in Ungava and west- ward, spru-- continues to timber line, but, outside ' s"tanTb'''T'°T« ''' river valle'ys,:;,;t open stand branchy, and stunted, hardly fit even for puTp, This nnJ"" ''"'.^''^ ^"^^ ^'"^ ^^P«" intermixed intinu'rr ""■"'' ^T'' '"'^"P^^^^d among muskegs continues more or less to the northern tundra and across the continent to within a few miles of the n th!^nf "'"'" ^"^ '^' "°^' """hern species In the intenor, northern prairie belt, groves of asoen dense and well developed, skirt the wfter cLlesTnd Jorm an important wood supply. The forests of British Columbia partake of the character of the Pacific forest of the'unfted States the Coast Range along the coast for about 200 miles being stocked with conifers of magnificent develop Pine 'anH°"'r ^\''''"'' ^''^''^'^' ««'"'<^k. Bu'l a^so of^'f °'^"'' '^' ^'^^y ^*°""'a'" range also of coniferous growth, pine and larch, but of in- AlpLtrMl- 'T "^^^ ""'"^ ™--d with Alpine Fir (Abies lastocarpa) and Lodgepole Pine Jt 418 Canada. important as soilcover and for local use in the mining districts, but lacking in commercial value. If much of the forest area in the settled provinces is burnt over and damaged by foiest fire, much more extensive destruction is wrought in this northern forest by fires sweeping annually over millions of acres unchecked, many of them said to be started by lightning. About 50 per cent, of this country is said to be fire-swept. Among the large notable forest fires the great Miramichi fire in New Brunswick in 1825 destroyed more than 6,000 square miles in a few hoars. In 1880 the loss by forest fires in the Ottawa valley alone was still estimated at $5,000,000 annually. In 1909, reports indicate over half a million acres burnt over in that year. The river systems of Eastern Canada, with the mighty St. Lawrence permitting sea-going vessels to come up to Montreal, have been most potent factors in the development of the lumber industry and export trade, without the need of railroads. Yet although, as a consequence this trade was early developed to a relatively large figure, it has not grown at as rapid a rate as might have been expected, and to-day with an export in excess of imports of less than 40 million dollars is considerably below that of the United States. The small export trade of earlier times, having been stimulated by exempting Canadian timber from pay- ing duties in the home country, or at least allowing it a preferential tariff, had by 1820 grown to 15 million cubic feet, all squared timber, and sent to acPi-' •- Export Trade. 419 England. In 1830, it had crept up to only 20 million cubic feet, but by 1850, it amounted to over 50 million th. 9^9 '• Tf'^' °^ '"^'''^ ^^' ^^^l ">^terial, tne 2632 mills being reported by the Census (1851) as having cut 776 million feet B.M. By 1867 when the Dominion was formed, the total export of forest products had advanced in value to $18 million; the next decade, with a climax year in 1873 of |26 million saw an increase to $20 million in the average, the proportion of .awn material being nearly three times that of hewn wood, and the entire cut of Ontario going to the United States. At that time it was com- puted that the waste of value in shipping square timber amounted for the province of Ontario alone still to over $350,000 annually. At present sawed lumber, deals, boards, planks, etc., form 70 per cent of the total export. In the last 20 years a steady increase in r iports at an average rate o. about 3 per cent, per annum is noted, the tot: n 1903 culminating at neariy $41 million, but in .ollowing year sinking to 36.7 million. In laiO, the total export amounted to $53 million against which an import of neariy $16 million is to be offset, neariy double what it was three years before Adding wood manufactures, the net export must be increased by some $36 million. The bulk of the report goes, of course, to the United States. But, while exports of forest products thus increased absolutely, relatively to other exports they have con- siderably declined, i.e., the lumber industry has not grown proportionally to other developments, for ^^hile, in 1868, forest products formed 34 per cent, of 14a ii; 420 Canada. the total export, in 1904 they represented only about half that figure. The same conclusion, namely that the lumber business has not increased rapidly in the last 25 years, may be derived from the report of the Decennial Census. While, for 1890, the total cut amounted to over 5 billion feet and its value to nearly jS80 million, in 1900, the cut or at least the Census report fell below 4 billion and its value to $53 million. In 1909, the total lumber cut was reported as 3.8 billion feet B. M. and its value $62.8 million. A measure of the depletion of the great staple White Pine is found in the statement that from 1865 to 1893 the average size of pieces decreased by one-quarter to one-third, and that, in 1863, over 23 million cubic feet were exported from Quebec as against 1.5 million feet in 1904, while the price had more than quadrupled in that period. Spruce has here taken the place of pine, and Ontario is now the main producer of pine. Yet in 1909, the White Pine cut in amount almost equaled that of spruce, and in value exceeded it by 40 per cent. Spruce, and especially pulpwood, forms an ever in- creasing item in cut and export, export of pulpwood having increased sevenfold in the last decade, to nearly $2 million, and of woodpulp to over (4 million. A notable economic improvement has taken place during the last ten or fifteen years in that the propor- tion of raw materials exported, especially logs and ■quare timber, has decreased in favor of manufactures. While originally the home country took the bulk of exports of forest products, the cut of Ontario has Trade Conditions. 421 been always, duty or no duty, sent almost entirely to the United States. In the last six or eight years, the export to the United States has been doubled amounting now to about half of the total export, and as the States return of its own forest products largely in the form of manufactures to the extent of about 6 million dollars worth, a balance of trade for the Canadian forest product of 12 million dollars is left. 2. Ownership. When the French took possession of the country all the land belonged to the king, and could be held by others only under feudal tenure, i.e., as a gift under obligation of counter service. The whole country was placed as a fief under the rule of the Hundred Associ- ates, a company which also exercised a trading and colonizing monopoly, but made no success, and was dissolved in 1663. It was then that Richelieu intro- duced the system of seigniorial tenure, the land being divided into portions of from 100 to 500 square miles usually with a certain amount of river front, and given outright to younger noblemen, favorites of the court and clerics, who were, however, obligated to subgrant to colonists, thereby becoming so many immigration agents. These not only treated their colonists as tenants, exacting rent and service, but exercised nearly absolute jurisdiction within their domains the colomsts becoming virtually serfs or retainers of the seigneurs. This condition continued until 1854 when an adjustment of rights was formulated by the Seigneurial Tenures Act, and the government aided the 'habitans" to secure their freedom by ;.:. «■ 422 Canada. indemnifying the seigneurs, or else by paying rent, which was done mostly. Under English rule, the granting of lands, without, however, the seignorial rights, was continued. In 1784, such grants were made along the St. Lawrence and the Bay of Quinte to veterans of the loyalist army, some 20,000, in lots of 200 acres for privates up to 5,000 acres for field officers. In 1791, every seventh section was ordered to be set aside as Clergy Reserves for the support of the Protestant Church, a measure which created much friction, and formed, especially in the Roman Catholic province of Quebec, a chief grievance in starting the Papineau rebellion of 1837. Some 3,300,000 acres were gradually withdrawn for this purpose, and as far as possible leased to secure an income. Some of these lands were sold after 1827, and finally, in 1853, a statute was passed to sell the remainder and turn over the proceeds to munici- palities for educational purposes and local improve- ment. Extensive grants and sales were made to lumber- men and speculators. In this manner, by the granting of 13,000 acres to an American, Philemon Wright, in 1800, the great lumber industry of Ottawa was started, and, in 1836, another American syndicate secured abgut a million acres of grants. Out of the 50 million acres granted in aid of railroad construc- tion, some portion must also have been in timber. By all these methods as well as by small grants and sales to settlers a large area of uncertain extent has become private property. In Nova Scotia, nearly the entire government do- M^M^i 1.^:1-' Property Conditions. 423 main has passed by grant and sale into private hands, some 6 irnlhon acres, one-half in small holdings. O the lands remaining in the crown at least two-thirds rhrsri"""'"'- ^^f^- '" P""^^ Edward Island, wholly owned privately, the 14,000 acres of state land £ value """^ °^ '*'" ""^^'^ P^P'^'y- ^^"PI^ "f wnllJll^T/^''""'*^'''' "''"■ ^'^ """""^ ^<=««- "nostly woodland (contaming over 10 billion feet) was granted to the railway company and another million acres or so IS m other private possession; a liberal disposal of lands havmg been continued until 1883, when about 7^ million acres of timber and waste land remained to the crown. In Quebec some 6 million acres are estimated as privately owned, mostly in woodlots on farms. I„ ?h^^r°. T^'" ^°°*^'^"'* ^''^ °f commercial character may be over 5 million acres Besides the large grants which were and still are fa^sSh" ''' '""''^' ^''*^"* •" timberlands, the of Ton h T°"' P!°^'"'^««' a'^<=°^ding to the Census of 1901 have from 22 to 57 per cent, in woodlots, or altogether probably in the neighborhood of 30 million seres. The total area privately owned may then be placed at not to exceed, say 40 million acres, and the largest part of the forest area, is still crown lands, the govern- ment of the different provinces and the Dominion government m the territories and in the middle provinces administering them and deriving the revenue therefrom. This condition has prevailed 424 Canada. since 1837, when the home government gave up its claim to land and revenues. The provincial ownershipextends over about500,000 square miles. The Dominion government owns an area of 20,000 square miles in the railway belt of British Columbia, 20 miles on each side of the railway for 500 miles, which contains good timber, and some 722,000 square miles of land in the middle provinces whicii contains practically only timber suitable for local use. 3. Administration of Timberlands. In the development of ownership conditions, the realization of the valuable assets in timber growth had not been overlooked by the home government, care of supplies for naval construction giving, as in the United States, the first incentive to a conservative forest policy. Even under the early French rule, the grants of land were made under reservation of the oak timber fit for naval use, as is evidenced from a landgrant made in 1683. This reservation led to considerable friction as it hampered the coloni.sts in making their clearings on the best lands. Later, the reservation was extended to include other timber needed for military purposes, and when the British occupation began, these established rights of the crown were not only continued, but reservations of larger areas for the timber were ordered, notably around and north of Lake Champlain. In 1763, and again in 1775, the home government ordered reservations to be set aside in every township. Early Administration of Timberlands. 425 But the great timberwealth seemed so inexhaustible that the governors paid little attention to the wise instructions of the home government for the creation of reservations, and whatever regulations regarding the cutting of timber were made, failed to be strictly enforced. In 1789, the policy of reserving to the crown all the timber as far as not granted, and giving licenses to cut, was inaugurated; but not until 1826 was even the revenue feature strongly enough realized to at- tempt systematically to secure the benefit of it, namely by allowing anyone to cut timber "such as was not required for the navy" who would pay a fixed rate for what was cut; a surveyor-general of woods and forests being appointed to collect the timber dues with the aid of quaUfied "cullers" (1811). There was even an attempt made to prevent waste by doubling the rate of timber dues on all trees cut which would not square more than 8 inches; this restriction probably remained a dead letter for lack of super- vision. Lumbermen, however, found it cheaper to buy the land, making only part payment, and after cutting the best timber, forfeiting the land; contractors who had the monopoly for cutting the timber for the royal navy cut also for their own account; corruption and graft pervaded the administration, which enriched its followers with the revenues obtained from the timber licenses and otherwise. The strong hand which, in the absence of a strong government, lumber- men were driven to use in order to protect themselves from piracy by their neighbors, or else to perpetrate such, brought about many bloody conflicts. The P i '^_E^m 42e Canada. general maladministration of the so-called "Family Compact" besides other grievances, caused the revo- lution of 1837, which, although readily put down, led to the union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841, and to reform of the abuses. It was then, that, after the new governor -general. Lord Durham's admirable report on the situation, the home government turned over the administration (in part at least) and revenues of the crownlands to the several provincial governments. At that time in New Bruns- wick, where a thriving export trade had been early established the dues on $2 million worth of production were involved, and in Quebec and Ontario the income amounted to between $200,000 and $300,000. But even then, the immediate revenue, and not any concern for its continuation animated the adminis- tration of the public or crown forests. The free-hand sales for nominal sums were changed into licenses to cut, and in order to secure larger returns these were by and by put up at auction for competitive bids, the premium or "bonus" being paid for the limits, (i.e., a limited territory on which he holder or licensee had the exclusive right to cut), in addition to the fixed dues or charges per unit for the timber actually cut. Later, to discourage the holding of timber limits for a rise of prices, an annual cut of first 1,000, then 500 feet per square mile of holdings was required. To still further accelerate the use of the licenses to cut, the Crown Timber Act of 1849 limited the license to one year, and provided for an eventual limit in size of the grants. All these provisions forced to more rapid cutting and overproduction, and depression in Timber Licenses. 427 the lumber market was the result, the supply in 1847 being 44 million feet to meet an export of 19 million New rules were promulgated in 1851, introducing a ground rent system, a set price being paid per square mile of limit, and doubling the ground rent for unused hmits each year. Needless to say, the impractica- bility of this geometric progression in ground rents became visible in a few years. The final present systems in the disposal of timber limits, varying in detail, were gradually perfected in varying manner by the several provincial governments, but they agree in general principles, in that they grant limits for a certain time, some by the year, others by periods, usually 21 years,during which certain con- ditions as to establishment of mills and amount of manufacture without waste must be fulfilled, and a ground rent, a bonus, and timber dues for all timber cut are to be paid by the limit holder, details and prices varying and being changed from time to time A diameter limit below which trees are not to be cut also mostly prevails. Lately, sales by the thousand leet B. M. have been inaugurated in Ontario, and sale by the mile is to be abandoned. As a rule licenses become negotiable and can be transferred upon paying a small fee per square mile. The governments reserving absolute rights to change conditions of this contract at any time the interest of the licensee is to cut as fast as he can- other unsatisfactory conditions leading in the same direction. A Department of Crown Lands in the Dominion government and in each province (in Nova Scotia .ae t^^Mi 428 Canada. Attorney-General acting as head) administers the lands. Scalers or cullers attend to the measuring of the cut. The revenue derived by this system by all the provinces amounts now to round 4.5 million dollars per year, Ontario leading with about 20,000 square miles now under license, (mostly pine) pro- ducing in 1910, 11,835,000 ; the yeariy average for the decade ending 1910 was 1^ million dollars, and some 41 million dollars have altogether accrued since 1867; Quebec, with over 70,000 square miles under license, (mostly in spruce,) producing only about $700,000, nearly 30 million dollars havmg accrued during the 43 years, or at the rate of 1418 per square mile, two-thirds of which from dues. Since land for settlement is, as in the United States, obtainable by homestead and other en- tries, a good many fraudulent applications under guise of settlement have curtailed the revenue, until now closer scrutiny of the fitness of land for settlement is made. The retention of the lands by the government is naturally a feature which would permit and should have earlier induced conservative forestry methods, but the immediate revenue interest has had and still has a more potent influence than considerations of the future. 4. Development of Forest Policy. The impetus to introduce conservative features seems to have largely come through the influence of the forestry movement in the United States, and, al- •ftM Development of Forest Policy. 429 though, voices of prominent Canadians, like that of James and William Little, and Sir Henry Joly de Lotbini^re had been heard before in advocacy of a more far-seeing policy, the meeting of the American Forestry Congress at Montreal in 1882, (see p. 480) may be set as the date of the inception of this move- ment in Canada. The definite result of that meeting was the inaugu- ration of forest fire legislation in the various provinces. In the Province of Ontario, the Fire Act of 1878, which had until then remained a dead letter, was im- proved, in 1885, by inaugurating a fire ranger system, in which limit holders pay one-half tlie cost of the rangers. The force , fire fighters, 37 in the first year was gradually increased until,in 1910,nearly 1000 were employed at a cost of $300,000. In that year a change was made, the whole service including in- spection being charged against the limit holder. In New Brunswick, a fire law was passed in 1885, followed , in 1897, by the introduction of the Ontario ranger system. In 1883, Nova Scotia passed a forest fire law, which, like that of Mew Brunswick, remained in- effective for lack of machinery; this was not provided until 1904, and since then has worked most satisfac- torily. Recently a forest survey of this Province was made. Quebec also enacted fire legislation in 1883, but did not provide means to carry it into eflfect until 1889. Since at first only $5,000 annually was allowed for its execution, and by 1901-2 not more than $7,226 was expended for fire protection over an area of 40 million acres, its effectiveness may be doubted. But in 1905, a special Forest-Protection Branch, with a 430 Canada. Superintendent and a ranger system after the Ontario pattern was organized, and the service has become more effective. The need for more organized effort and advice led to the establishment of special bureaus of forestry. In Ontario, a Clerk of Forestry was established in the Department of Agriculture in 1883, and, in 1895, he was replaced by a Cleric in the Crown Lands De- partment, later named Director of Forestry (Mr. Thomas Southworth). This office,later, was changed to a Bureau of Forestry and Colonization, and a tech- nically educated man was appointed as Provincial Forester, with a View of developing a forest manage- ment, at least in the Reserves. This movement, however, soon collapsed for lack of appreciation; the office was transferred back to the Department of Agriculture, which does not control any timberiands, the Forester resigned, and the bureau was, finally, in 1907, restricted to the colonization work, the for- estry part being deliberately abandoned. Meanwhile the Province of Quebec pursued a more enlightened course. To control the cut, a Culler's office was established in 1842, which, however, only checked the square timber, then the principal ma- terial. In 1873, after various futile attempts to se- cure better, supervision, a corps of forest rangers was created; but as they worked without organization the results were only partial until, in 1889, they were placed under seven chiefs or superintendents. In 1897, the number of superintendents were reduced to one, but having io v.ork with incompetent men, political appointees, this improvement in headship •?i u C'ouHti! may reserve forest lands and reguale the ' otti'ig b> diameter limit. One and a half million a ' ? hivp been reserved, but no staff for administration exis.r. In New South Wales six million acres ■■/( vith- drawn from settlement, but it is mostly used iur pas- ture, and withdrawal may be revoked at any time. No effective system of control exists. In Victoria five and a half million acres have been declared reserves under act of 1890, nearly half the forest area. There exists a forest department of one Conservator, two Inspectors and 25 Foresters, but no plan of management. Four State nurseries of doubt- ful value seems the whole result. The other colonies still merely exploit their forest resources under loosely managed license systems, without even an inefficient attempt at intelligent treatment. :Av. JAPAN. The modernization of this remarkable island em- pire of Niphon (the native name), which began in 1868, included the organization of a forest department after German models. Curiously enough, there are other noteworthy points of similarity to be found in the historic development of forestry in Germany and Japan. The empire comprises four larger islands — Kiushiu, Shikoku, Hondo or Honshiu, and Hokkaido or Yesso — and a host of smaller ones, stretching in a chain of nearly 3,000 miles north and south along the Asiatic shore, the width of land being nowhere over 200 miles. It comprises an area of nearly 150,000 squares miles, with a population approximating 50 million, largely engaged in fisheries and other sea industries. rctulty ol Jtun, 1904. pubUilHd by Uw.Impeilal Butcau ol Foreatry In oonnectioa with the Louiiiana Purdwie Bxpodtkm, and ■ reprint with ad- ditioni in 1010, contain* moat of the infbnnation utilised above. iiiu in WMunin Japn'i, by Dr. Heinrich Mayr. 18S1. livea a full account of the forest leoiiaphy, which la also to be found In J. J. Rein, J»fn. lam. Dw WtU i» Jcftn. an article by Dr. Hefele In ForstwiiaenschaftUchea Centtalbhtt, 1008, gives an iniight into forest conditions from the point of view of a forester. A very clear analysis of the development of property righu Is to be found In an article by Or. Zentato Kawase in AUfemeine Forsi-und Jaidseiluni. MM. An article hi Zeltschrift fur Forat-und Jsfdwesen from the pen of Pnf, H. Matsuno, ths Brst professionsi forester of Japan, lives a brief account of the development of forestry, especially In earlier times. A report by Special Canadian Trade Commlmioner W, T, IL Prwon, IM*, contains valuable lUtlstics on the lumber trade. m^: Physiography. 443 The islands are of volcanic origin— part of the "girdle of fire" which reaches from the Alaska pen- insula through the Philippines to the Antilles— with many active craters, subject to frequent disastrous earthquakes and tidal waves; mountainous, with numerous ranges of high hills and with lofty central ridges, with numerous short rivers, apt to turn into treacherous torrents, while hurricanes and water- spouts, typhoons and equinoctial gales sweep the surrounding seas frequently. The soil is nowhere particularly fertile, but the patient and painstaking labor of the Japanese has brought every available foot of it— little more than 10% is arable— into producing condition, wherever the climate compensates for the infertility, especially in the most densely populated part, the southern half of Hondo. Extending through 30 degrees of latitude, the climate naturally varies from the tropical one of Formosa, through all variations of the temperate, to the alpine one of the high mountains and the neariy arctic one of the Kurile islands. The Japan current skirting the eastern coast, and the mountain ranges, with elevations generally not exceeding 6,000 feet, oc- casionally up to over 13,000 feet, which cut oflF the dry continental west winds, also produce great climatic variations between east and west coasts. In general, however, the climate of the whole empire is characterized by a high percentage of relative humidity and ample rainfall, especially during the hot season, producing luxuriant growth. 'J 444 Japan. 1. Forest Conditions, and Ownership. Due to these great variations in climate, four cli- matic regions being differentiated, the forest flora of Japan almost rivals in variety that of the United States, with over 200 deciduous, and more than 30 coniferous species of size (besides a large number of half-trees), although not more than some 50 or 60 are of silvicultural importance, and not more than 10 or 12 species form the basis of forest management and of the lumber ^rade, which requires some two billion cubic feet annually, and supports an export of over tax million dollars. The value of the total cut was, in 1907, placed at over 17 million dol'ars, of which six million was to the credit of the State Treasury. In the tropical districts, bamboos form the main staple; in the subtropical region, the most densely populated and hence also almost forestless, the broad- leaf evergreens, especialiy several species of oak, fur- nish desirable fuel wood, and two species of pine are most valued for timber, one, the Red Pine (P. densi- flora) extending its realm rapidly over waste are.is; camphor tree and boxwood furnish ornamental wo d. The region of temperate forest furnishes, out of over 60 species, some 14 conifers and 19 broadleaf trees of value, the former mainly of the cedar tribe, with Chamaecyparis obtuaa and Cryptomeria japonica the most widely used, while of the broadleaf species, which occupy more than 50 per cent, of the forest area, Zelkovm keaki. of the elm tribe, a chestnut, a beech, several oaks, a walnut, and an ash count among the most useful. Forest Conditions. 446 Spruce, Fir, and White Birch are the trees of the northern forest. Mixed forest forms 45%, broadleaf 25%, conifer 21%, and 0% is rated as blank or thinly stocked. The forest area, which, over the whole, covers, with the addition of the newly acquired island of Saghalien, 67% of the land area, or around 75 million acres (IX acres per capita), is quite unevenly distri- buted according to topography and population, be- ing mostly confined to the mountain ranges and hills which form the backbone of the country, and to the northern provinces, which contain still large, un- touched areas. Hokkaido, which was opened up to colonization only 36 years ago, now with a population of only 20 to the square mile, has 63% of forest, 15 acres per capita; the northern part of Hondo has a somewhat greater area per cent., mostly on the high steep mountains, but only 1.2 acres per capita; on the southern portion, the low ranges of hills and valleys the forest area has been reduced to 53%, but shows only three-quarter acre per capita; and Okinawa, with 26%, and less than one-third acre per capita, shows the lowest. Of this forest area, however, almost one-half is "hara," brush forest, chaparral, or dwarfed tree growth — the result of mismanagement, excessive cutting and fires — and in the southern districu, impenetrable thickets of dwarf bamboo, which crowd out tree and even shrub growth wherever such mis- management gives it entrance. These extensive haras are cut every two or five years for the brush, which is used to -Mver and furnish manure for rice fields. 446 Japan. ™ ■ ^'"^' which, until lately, ran over 5 or 6 million acres annually, and ruthless cutting, have in the past and are still deteriorating the forest area. Grassy prairie and barrens due to natural conditions are not absent, and are due to excessive drainage through loose coarse-grained rock soil; they are found, not extensively, at the foot of volcanoes, and on highest elevations. The differentiation of land areas is not quite certain. In 1894, there was still 30.5% of grassy prairie reported, but some of this, no doubt, was forested, pi;obably one-half. The bulk of the forest area is owned by the State and the Imperial Household. Communal forests are esti- mated to aggregate.in 1904,somewhat over four million acres (7.5%), in 1910 reported as 11%, and private property some 18 million (26%; in 1910, 22%) leav- ing 30 million for the State and for Imperial or Crown forest (66%), the latter comprising some 6.5 million acres. These figures are liable to variation, due to sales of the latter class, and to adjustments of the somewhat obscure property rights. The ownership by the State and a conservative use of the mountain forest is necessitated by the protective value of the forest cover, the cultivation of the extensive rice fields being dependent upon ir- rigation. 2. Developmenl of Forest Policy. The history of Japan dates back to 660 B.C., when the empire was founded on the island of Kiushiu by the warrior king Jimmuteno. He established a kind Xi. Early Condilions. 447 of feudal government, with the daimios (knights or barons) holding their fiefs from the mikado, who was considered the sole owner of the soil, or at least all exercise of ownership rights emanated from him. Private property seems then not to have existed at all, the people having merely rights of user. Coloni- zation of the islands brought under the mikado's dominion progressed rapidly, and with it, not only arable portions but even mountains were de- nuded. With the beginning of the Christian era, the need of better protection against floods seems to have been recognized, and, in 270 A.D., we find the first forest ofKcial appointed, a son of the royal house, who with assistants was to regulate the use of the forest pro- perty, which, under the rights of user granted by the mikado, was being excessively exploited and devasted. In the fifth century, the feudal method of giving fiefs of land and forest to the deserving vassals bad come generally into vogue, and later, with the rise of Buddhism, forests were assigned to the temples and priests, who, as in Germany the monks, were assiduous in cultivating and utilizing them. Soon the daimios, similarly to the barons in Ger- many, began to assert exclusive property rights, and, notwithstanding various edicts, issued from time to time to secure free use to the people, more and more of the forest area was secured by daimios, and by priests as temple forests. In the ninth century, deforestation and excessive exploitation had so far progressed that not only the need of protecting watersheds was recognized by 448 Japan. edicts, but i ar of a timber famine led even to planting in the provii. es of Noto. A period ol Internal strife and warfare during the following centu-ies which left forest interest in the background, led, in 1192, to the establishment of the rule of the shoguns, the hereditary military repre- sentatives of the mikado, who made him a mere figurehead, and exercised all the imperial functions themselves, until the revolution of 1868 restored the mikado to his rights. The effort at^ conservative forest use was renewed with increased harshness when, after a period of warfare and devastation, the great shogun family of Tokugawa (1603) assumed the rule of the empire, enforcing the restrictive edicts with military severity. Even at that eariy age, the protective influence of forest cover on soil and waterflow was fully recognized, and a distinction of open or supply forest and closed or protection foreste seems to have been made, the latter being placed under the ban of the emperor or shogun, and withdrawn from utilization. The ex- tensive forests of the province of Kiso, the best remaining, owe their preservation to these efforts. The daimios, 260 in number, each in his district, en- forced the edicts in their own way, giving rise thereby to great differences in forest administration; yet in the absence of technical knowledge, deterioration con- tinued. The severity of punishments for depredations etc., reminds us of those of the German Markgenossen, a hand or finger being the penalty for theft, death by fire that for incendiaries. The idea of protecting or reserving certain species of Early Practices. 449 trees, which was practiced in India by the rajahs, we find here again in the beginning of the 18th century, the number of such protected species varying from one to seven and even fifteen in different districts. Another unique and peculiar way of encouraging forest cul- ture was to permit peasants who made forest plan- tations in the State forests, to bear a family name, a right which was otherwise reserved to the knights or samurli, or to wear a double-edged sword like the latter. Arbor days were also instituted, memorial days and festivities, as at the birth of children, being marked by the planting of trees. While in Germany the love of hunting had led to the exclusion of the people from the forests, in Jap>an it was a question of conserving wood supplies that dic- tated these policies. It is claimed that to these early efforts is due the preservation of the remaining forests. But, while this may be true in some instances, as in the province of Kiso, more probably their distance from centers of consumption and their general inaccessibility pre- served those of Hokkaido and of the northern moun- tains. Certainly the brush forests south of Tokyo do not testify to great care. The detested shogunate was abolished in 1867 by a revolution which brought the mikado to his rights again and crushed the power of the daimios, whose fiefs were surrendered, and their acquisitions of for- est property, as well as (a few years later) those of the priests, were declared State property, with the excep- tion of some which were recognized as communal properties. 450 Japan. Ml m Similar to the experiences of France, the distur- bances in property conditions, which implied instan- taneous loss by the people of all rights of user in the State property as well as removal of all restrictions from private and communal properties, led to whole- sale depredations from the State domain, and to wide- spread deforestation and devastation, an area of a million acres of burnt waste near Kofu, west of Tokyo, testifying to the recklessness of these times. Without any force to guard property rights, steal- ing on an exterisive scale, similar to past experiences in the United States, with the accompanying waste- fulness, became the order of the day, and is even now not uncommon. A first provisional administration of State forests was inaugurated, and a forest reconnaissance ordered in 1875 in order to secure insight into the mixed-up property relations, and restore to their rightful owners such portions as had been wrongly taken by the State. In 1878, the State forests were placed under a special bureau organized by Mat^uno, who had studied forestry in Germany (Eberswalde) for five years. But it was not academic knowledge that was needed in the situation; it was necessary first to moula public opinion in order to secure means for adminis- trative measure^!. This he set himself to do through public addresses and pamplets, and by organizing a society of friends of forest culture, and finally, in 1882, by establishing an experiment station at Nishigahara, and, a year later, a dendrological school, which four years later Htt Jlii^^/fi.'acJ^ !»# M Early Practices. 451 was combined with the agricultural school at Komaba- five years later both were joined to the Univereity of Tokyo. With the transfer of the forestry bureau to the De- partment of Agriculture and Commerce in 1881, and a reorganization in 1886, a new era seemed to be prom- ised, yet a substantial progress in organized forest management of the State property does not seem to have been made for another decade at least, the slow progress being largely due to lack of personnel and the contmuance of mixed property conditions, which myolved not only uncertainty of boundaries, but also mixed ownerships. Although tiiis last trouble, namely of mixed owner- ship by State and private individuals, had been recog- nized as inimical to good management, it was deliber- ately increased by the law of 1878 in a curious way, reviving an old custom, namely by permitting private . inviduals to plant up clearings in tiie State forests; in this way, these individuals secured a certain percen- tage, usually 20 per cent., of tile eventual profits aris- ing from the results. Some 200,000 acres were planted under this arrangement. To remove the boundary difficulty, a survey of the boundaries of State property and adjustment of property rights, as well as segregation of tile State lands to be disposed of, namely small lots and others not needed, was ordered in 1890. It was then also that tiie first provisional working plan for the tellings on State lands was elaborated, and gradually with the progress of the survey more permanent plans were adopteii for district after district. 452 Japan. By 1899, the adjustment had progressed far enough to begin the restoration of properties, whirh the State had improperly claimed, to their proper owners. It was then also that the Imperial forests, intended for the support of the Imperial household, were increased to about 5 million acres. Meanwhile, the personnel had increased in numbers and improved in character. In 1904, the organization of the forestry bureau under the Minister of Agri- culture and Commerce, arranged somewhat after German models, consisted of one director and four forest commissioners with ten clerks, forming the head office; the sixteen districts into which the State forests were divided were presided over by 32 con- servators and 80 inspectors, while 325 district officers with 880 assistants and 626 guards, altogether over 1,800 employes, formed the field force. In 1910, the number had increased to 2500, mainly by ad- ditional rangers. This organization applies to the State forests under control of the Department of Agriculture. Strangely enough, those in Saghalien, Hokkaido and Formosa are not under that department, but under the supervision of the Minister of Home Affairs, -and are merely exploited, while the Imperial forests are under the Household Department. In 1907, only 7 per tent of the State forests were under working plans. The need of supeivision of the ill-managed private and communal forests, mostly located near the set- tled portions, early attracted the attention of the new regime, mainly on account of their protective value. Annual losses through floods to the amount of four .immmmJim^ 0 m Protection, Forest and Waste Land Planting. 453 million dollars, and similar losses due to unchecked forest fires gave the incentive to the passage of a law, in 1882, simply forbidding all forest use in protection forest, which simple prescription evidently did not work until a further revision was made in 1897. This latter does not confine itself to legislation for protec- tion foreste alone, but also authorizes the supervision of supply forests, under the special control of the local governors. Under this law, which also extended the assistance of local authorities to would-be planters, aided by reforms in the corporation system, remark- able activity in planting waste lands ensued, so that in the next two years not less than one million acres of communal property was set out with trees, number- ing over 800 million, while in the State forests, some 400,000 acres of vacant land had been planted by 1970. Some sand dune planting and reboisement works are also the result of this legislation. Further legislation more closely defining State control was had in 1907. In connection with this planting, it may be of inter- est to record the attitude of Japanese foresters toward natural regeneration: "This is no longer popular in these days when the knowledge of forest management possessed by foresters has become highly developed, for if that method is the easiest and least troublesome, nevertheless it is not advisable, in view of the neces- sity of effecting a thorough improvement in our sil- vicultural conditions. Only on steep slopes and for protection forests is it applicable." In 1897, also, some eight experiment stations were organized, in addition to the earlier one at Nishigahara organized, in 1882, by Matsuno. .It ,! ' MKHOCOTY nSOUniON TBT CMAIT (ANSI and ISO TEST CHADT ^4o. 2) i^Uii^ A /IPR-lEa M^GE Ine 1653 Eq>t yoin StrMt RochMlif. Nm York 14609 USA (7t«) 4§2 - 0300 - Phon« (71«) 26a- aw« -Fo. 454 Japan. m Education in forestry has lately run riot in Japan as •t has m die United States. Since the first Jh^^. IJan.«d m 1882, not less than 62 instituZT had Boen the need of offering the opportunity to^me acquainted with that subject. By 191^ .h^hL b^n reduced to 47. Hen., however diffe«nt^t fn^rir? "^ acknowledged. There an. three colSS insbtuuons whose diploma admits to the higheTser- ^±"' "^ °l '"""'"^ '"'^'^ "'-*-" 8ive sS courts, and the rest tr«it the subject merely^s a subsidiary of a practical education including agri- cdu„.stock.fanni„g and fishery. A ranger LIS. IV nTu'"'*'*"*^ ""«^'' Matsuno's guidance controlled by the forestry bureau, came to an e^d o3,*tJ'"'^'° ^"" '"' ''^^ °f f-ds, but has probably been revived again. A forestry association now with 4000 member ^es on propaganda and publishes a magazine, and ^^TZ."^''*^'"'' ^•"°"« '"»^» "'^e" to S^uToflm.'"''"^^^'"^" '"^ "^"^ '"""«» "»«»- In conclusion, we may say that Japan has done wonders in reorganizing its forestry system in a short Sfe an th/T ""^ *° °"" competent observer, while all the Japanese care for detail and love for ?^^W *" " "PP*'*"' '" ">* °««' "°t *»" that is found on paper is to be found as yet in the woods, and that, for similar reasons as have been indicated lor Russia; many things happen in the woods that are not known in the office. KOREA. The latest move in foa>st reform in this part of the world as a result of Japanese influence, is to be re- Korea, and w.11 doubtless apply her own methods in the new province. The forest area of Korea com- nearly 53 million acres of very mountainous country l!T'*1J°" "'^ ^''P'oitation of the northern for- •■exoHr-- r^""' ''''"'' '"•^'"''^ '''^ '^-planting with exotic tree speaes, was the immediate cause of the Russo-Japanese war. In 1907, by co-operative arrangements with Japan, a conservative fo^st Si'^'orTaZ.'" '"^"^^^'"' '^ '^- ^"""- - Drouth, floods and erosion of soils have been com- mon experiences. The preservation of forest cover especially at the headquarters of the Yalu and Tumeri .n the northern part of the country, is aimed at. For this purpose the government has taken all forests under its care. All private owners or lease holders must report their holdings and have their property listed, and in case of failure to do so Ae property ,s forfeited. The government may then ^! propnate, or else regulate the cutting, or, whe.^ p^- tecuve functions of the forest cover require it. mTy forbid cutting altogether. ^ A forestry school is also part of the program. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. I The great and exuberant republic of the United States, vast in extent and rich in natural resources generally, excelled and still excels in extent, im- portance and value of her timber resources; and, having only lately begun to inaugurate rational forest policies, promises to become of all-absorbing inter- est to foresters. The marvelbus g.owth of the nation, which from three million in 1780 had attained to a population of 76 million in 1900, and, by the last Census numbered around 92 million people, has been the wonder of the world by reason of its rapid expansion; and yet the limit is far from being reached. Annually some three-quarters of a million or more immigrants from all parts of the world arrive, and there is s*ill room and comfortable living for at least another 100 million, if the resources are properly treated. The large land area of nearly two billion acres (over three million square miles) is undoubtedly the richest contiguous domain of such size in the world, located Ripen upon rarulry, 187».e, bv Dr. F. B. Houih; astaliu nfcnoca to tht urUer hlitory of forcit development. Biilcry 0/ Uu Lumbtr IMuslry, by J. E. Defebauth, 1908-7; U valiubla u M Rfeteoce to lUtlttial matte . Ripcrl nfini Fcrttlry Innstii'lions of Ik, UtiiUd SUlUl Dipvlmnl of ArttMm. 1877-1898, by B. E. Ferno*. Houie Document No. 181. Mlh Cowreu; contain! amplliicatloni of tbe matter conuined in Uiia cbapter. Annual and otber reporta iHued by the Department of Agriculture, by tha nrloua Sute Foreat CommlnloBa, and Foreetry Aiaodationa. For laleit developmesta, coniult CotumoHon (/tnunai* Forwiry) and Ftralry OntrUrly. General Conditions. 457 most favorably with reference to trade by virtue of a coast line of over 20,000 miles, and diversified in climate so as to permit the widest range of production. While a simple mathematical relation would make the population at present about 31 to the square mile, such a statement would give an erroneous con- ception of economic conditions, for the distribution of the population is most uneven, a condition which must eventually diversify the application of forestry methods in different parts of the country. In Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island combined, for instance, the density of population is 428 to the square mile, ex- ceeding that of the simitar -sized State ol Wiirtem- berg in Germany, while in the neighboring State of Maine it is not 25; the Atlantic Coast States south of South Carolina, a territory slightly larger than Ger- many, show about half, and the Central agricultural States about one-third the density of that densely populated country; on the other hand, some of the Western States, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada, Ari- zona, and New Mexico have less than three to the square mile. Similar unevenness is found in the distribution of resources, especially of timber wealth, and, to some extent at least, the present populational distribution is explained by the uneven distribution of farm soils and timber. Outside of the unorganized territory of Alaska and the disfranchised District of Columbia, the country is divided into 46 States and two Territories which will eventually acquire statehood. In addition, there are a number of insular possessions under the direct 458 United States. control of the federal government. Each State beine intern^ :h"*''"';°" ^^^'^■«" '" '^-'^ - ^- - "tf mternal administration is concerned, it is evident that "a°r rtr^^ °' '""^'^^ '^" ^ -P-ted. etepfs" tar as imita iveness, in which the American citizen «cels, may lead State after State to repeat the ex" penment attempted by one. The federal govern- ment nas no direct jurisdiction in matters concerning the management of resources within the States, ex wiled Public Land States, and a few parcels in the Eastern State^ over which it still retainfjurisdiction oeJenc^"'?' 'T °' '''^°"^^<= institutions is ex- penenced when the attempt is made to establish a policy which shall guard the interests of the uSre at the expense of the demands and needs of the present oM"hrrole'''°jT ''^"'^ ^"'^ characteriS o» the people which .-.re inimical to stable economic S" inTt """? *° '""^ ^"*"^^' such as areTm plied m a forest pohcy. The vast country with an ;:^:t 'thf'' r"' ^"^ •heterogenous ■S^p^L^ ^nl ^J"-'"'' ^^""y °f "^*"^^'' ^ well as of Sons ™ H "; '^° "°* '=°'""'^^ *'* '^°^ °f other TihelZT "' '"^ individualistic tendencies which 117"' "'' antagonistic to anything Which smaks of "paternalism," the attitude under which alone a persistent, fa;sight^ poH • 1 I-., r ;. ?''"^"* '^''^"K^ °f administration, or at i:LZTT °'r.f '^''^"^' ""P-'- ~-^ten execution of plans; fickle public opinion may subvert atany time well laid planswhichtaketime in maturiS upp^. General Conditions. 459 the true democratic doctrine of restricting State ac- tivity to police functions, and the doctrine of ncn- interference with private rights, as well as the idea of State rights in opposition to federal power and author- ity—all these characteristics of a democratic govern- ment are impediments to a concerted action and stable policy. That, in spite of these antagonistic interests, con- ditions and doctrines, substantial progress toward establishing at least a federal forest policy has been made, is due to the fact that the American, in spite of his reputation as a materialistic, selfish oppor- tunist, is really an idealist; that he responds readily to patriotic appeals; that, in spite of his rabid na- tionalism, he is willing to learn from the experiences of other nations; that, indeed, he is anxious to be educated. Finally, much credit is due to the men who with single purpose devoted their lives to the education of their fellow citizens in this direction. It must, to be sure, be added that remarkable changes in the political attitude of the people have taken place in the last 30 years since the propaganda of forestry began; changes, partiy perhaps induced by that propaganda, which have aided this movement, and which, if they persist, promise much for the future development of forest policies. A decidedly pater- nalistic, if not socialistic attitude has, lately been taken by the federal government; and by skilful construction of the Constitution as regards the right to regulate interstate relations, has led to an expan- sion of federal power in various directions. A similar 46i> Untied States. paternalistic attitude has developed in the legis- latures of several States to a noticeable degiw. Even the judiciary has taken up this new spirit, and is ready to sanction interference with private property rights to a degree which, a decade ago, would have been denounced as undemocratic and tyrannical. Two courts have lately ruled that owners of timberlands my be restricted, without compensation, as regards the size of trees they may fell on their property if the welfare of the State demands such interference The argument of the Roman doctrine utere tuo ne alterum noceas,> which forestry propagandists have so strenuously used, seems finally to have found favor, and the inclusion of the community at large, present and future, as the possibly damaged party does not appear any mora strained. The idea of the providen- tial function of governments, as the writer has called It, seems to have taken hold' of the people. The democratic doctrine of State rights, and restriction of government functions has, even among Democrats been weakened through the long continued reign of the Republican party, the party of centralizing ten- dencies, to such an extent that the latest Demo- cratic platform of a Presidential campaign (1908)out- did the Republican platform in centralizing and pater- nalistic propositions. It is proper to emphasize the growth of this social- istic attitude, as it is bound to influence and influence favorably, the further development of forest policies. Nevertheless, it is still necessary to keep in mind that the States are autonomous, and that, while the federal government, in spite of the antagonism in the Forest Conditions. 461 Western States, in which the public lands are situated, has been able to change its land policy from that of liberal disposal to one of reservation, it alone cannot save the situation. While a few of the States have made beginnings in working out a policy to arrest the destruction of their forest resources, which are mostly in private hands, still much water must flow down the Mississippi before adequate measures will be taken to stave off the threatening timber famine, and the energy of the various local and national Con- servation associations will need to be exercised to the utmost. 1. Forest Conditions. Three extensive mountain systems, running north and south, give rise to at least eight topographic sub- divisions of the country, going from east to west. 1. The narrow belt of level coast and hill country along the Atlantic shore, from 100 to 200 miles in width with elevations up to 1,000 feet, but especially low along the seacoast from Virginia south; drained by short rivers navigable only for short distances from the mouth; a farming country, with the soils varying from the richest to the poorest; some 300,000 square miles. 2. The Appalachian mountain country, nearly of the same width as the first section, with elevations up to 5,000 feet; the watershed of all the rivers to the At- lantic, of several rivers to the Gulf, and of the eastern aflluents of the Mississippi ; a mountain country, of about 360,000 square miles extent, rich in coal, iron 462 United States. 3. The great river basin of the Missiwrn.,; ,n., 4. The plateau, rising towards the Rockv Mn„„ tains from 1,000 to ■; nnn fo * i! '^"CKy Moun- 870 nnn •? '^ '^^* ^''°ve sea level, some and to semi-arid district of rugged raLf. a irrigation for farm use; a mining countrv rich in ROW and silver, extending over 150,000 square miles and 'rif:^f -rELl-^^pelnut^^^^^^^ supporting magnificent forest grow h^^'tS wtf slopes; some 190,000 square mfles ^''''™ inues, tor the most part a desert alm«„„i, • supporting a stunted" growtlTpSrafd Tun^f and, where irrigation is possible, productive "^ ' Forest Distribution. 463 u o^„ ""°'' "^"^y' °f *« Sierra, comprising about SCOCK. square miles, which, under irrigation; have become the garden spots of the Pacific. To these topotrraphic subdivisions correspond in part the chmatic and the forest conditions, although variation of soil, and of northern and southern cli- mate produce further differentiation in types, and in distribution of field and forest. The ivrst three sections were originally densely wooded— the great Atlantic forest region— but farms now occupy most of the arable portions; the fourth and seventh are forestless, if not treeless, while the mth and sixth were mere or less forested- the Pacific Coast region. Floristically also, these topographic conditions are reflected, namely in the wide, north and south dis- tribution of species, unimpeded by intervening mountain ranges, and in the change in composition from east to west. The two grand floristic divisions of the Atlanuc and the Pacific forest, having but few species in common, a.e separated by the plains and praines The Atlantic forest is in the main composed of broadleaf trees with conifers intermixed, which latter onlv under the influence of soil conditions form pure sta. Is, as in the extensive pineries of the South and North, and in the northern swamps and on southern mountain tops. The central region west of the Alleghanies exhibits little c lifer growth in its composition, and is most widely turned to farm use White Pine, hemlock and spruce are the important comferous staples of the northern section, and a num- ber of Yellow Pine species, with Bald Cypress and 464 United States. S .h 7^"^' ^^'""'''^ hardwoods, ther« is but little change from north to south. nn^K ^.""u^" 'r'* ""'^ '^ ^'-""^t entirely conifer- ous but here also climatic conditions permit a dis- Mountam forest bemg mostly of rather inferior mTt m?"fi' '"' ^'^ ''^"^ '°'-' exhibiting Z mc«t magnificent tree growth in the world Nearly half the country is forestless, grassy prairie and plam, some 400 million acres being of the latter descnption. while open prairie and brush lore to waste land occupies 600 million acres. miS'" "'\^°'^^' ™P°" of the East some 250 T^T acres have been turned into farms, leaving 8.11 two-th.rds of the area either under woods or gardmg this acreage are wanting, the area of really pr«1uct.ve woodland in this section may probab y be set down as not exceeding 300 million acres, which S in thTcJ .'? °' '^' '°'^' ''^' -^^"« ^o^ id/o in the Central agricultural States to 50% in the Southern States; Maine. New Hampshire and Ir! kansas being most densely wooded, with over 60%. m^m^ °""'"'" ""'• ^''"' f°'««'«- --^^ with 100 million acres, would bring the total productive ^6% of the whole. (Later estimates including brushlands of doubtful productive capacity, increlsf this area to 550 million acres.) stin\'t?nr'* '*^' VV^^P' ^" estimate of the timber still standing ready for the axe; not only are the data Forest Area and Standing Timber. 465 for such an estimate too scanty, but standards of what IS considered merchantable change continuously and vitiate the value of such estimates. The writer's own estimate, made some years ago, of 2,500 billion feet, which by others has been treated as authorit- ative and forming a basis for predicting the time of a timber famine, and which was lately sustained by an extensive official inquiry, must nevertheless be con- sidered only as a reasonable guess, ventured for the purpose of accentuating the need of more conser- vative treatment of these exhaustible supplies, in comparsion with the consumption which represents around 45 billion feet B.M., and altogether 23 bil- lion cubic feet of forest-grown material, the ulti- mate value of ell forest products reaching the stupen- dous sum of around 1,250 million dollars. And, as in other countries, this lavish cont .ption of forest growth, from five to fifteen times : t of Europeans, has shown in the past a per capita increase of 30 per cent, for every decade. The bulk of the standing timber is to be found along the Pacific Coast, in the Sierra, and in the Southern States with their extensive pineries; the Northern and Eastern sections are within measurable time of the end of their virgin supplies of saw timber. The practice of culling the most valuable species has changed the composition in the regeneration, making itinfenor, and large areas have been rendered worth- less by fires. The loss by fire, the bane of American forests, as far as loss in material is concerned probably does not exceed 2 or 3 per cent, of the consumption, and may be I 466 United Slates. , IP valued at say 25 million dollars per annum. But the «id,rect damage to forest and soil, changing the com- poBition. banng the soil,and exposing it to erosion and washmg, turmng fertile lands into wastes, and brooks and nvers mto torrents, is incalcuable There is no doubt that at the present rate of con- sumption the bulk of the virgin supplies will be used up m a measurable time, which will force a reduction in timber famine is bound to appear,-indeed, has be- gun to make its appearance; and all recuperative measures will not suffice to stave it off, although they may shorten the time of its duration. 2. Early Forest History. The early colonizers, settling on the Atlantic Coast soon after the discoveries of Columbus, did not, as is uwally believed, find an untouched virgin forest. The l™"fiT^ "^T. ^'^' ^'""^ ^h-^"' ^'^ o-t their '»m fields, and had supplied themselves with fuel wood and material for their utensils; and fires, acci- dental, intentional, or caused by lightning, had, no doubt, also made inroads here and there. The white jnan, to be sure, is a more lavish wood consumer; hi. farms increased more rapidly, his buildings and his fireplace consumed more forest growth, and careless- ness with fire was, as it is still, his besetting sin. More- over, a trade in timber with the Old World developed, L^ W ^*^>' ^' '""^ largest-sized material figured W'3tefulness was bred in him by the sight of p enty, and the hard work of clearing his farm acre, mated a natural enmity to the encumbering forest Early Forest Control. 467 The first sawmill in the New World was erected in 1631 in the town of Berwick, Maine, and the first gang saw, of 18 saws, in 1650 in the same place,* while, before that time, masts and spars, handmade cooperage stock, clapboards and shingles formed com- monly parts of the return cargoes of ships. By 1680, nearly 50 vessels, engaged in such trade, cleared from the Piscataqua River. The ordinances on record which were issued at the same early times by the town governments of Exeter (1640), Kittery (1656), Portsmouth (1660), and Dover (1665), restricting the use of timber, remind us of the early European forest ordinances; they were probably not dictated by any threatening deficiency of this class of material, but merely intended to secure a proper and orderly use of the town property. The appointment of a Royal Surveyor of the Woods for the New England colonies in 1699, and the pen- alties imposed in New Hampshire (1708) for cutting mast trees on ungranted lands (f500 for cutting 24-inch trees), and in Massachusetts (1784) for cutting White Pine upon the public lands ($100), were prob- ably also merely police regulations, to protect prop- erty rights of the Crown or commonwealth. That this last move was in no way conceived as a needed conservatism is proved by the fact that two years later the Legislature of Maine devised a lottery scheme for the disposal of fifty townships; and 3,500,000 acres were disposed of in this way during the twelve years following the war. Altogether the States sacrificed their "wild lands" at trifling prices. •S<« For-^ry Quarit'^y, voL IV, p. 14, 468 United States. But, when William Penn, the founder and first legislator of the State which represented his grant, sti- pulated, in 1682, that for every five acres cleared one acre w-as to be reserved for forest growth by those who took title from him, that may properly be considered an attempt to inaugurate a conservative policy, dictated by wise forethought,— an attempt, which, however, bore little or no fruit. Thoughtful men probably at all times looked with pity and apprehension upon the wasteful use of- the timber as they do now, yet squander went on, just as it still does; but the apparently inexhaustible supplies in those early times called for no restriction in its use. At the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century, a fuel-wood famine must have ap- peared in some parts of the country, just as in Ger- many at that time and for the same reasons, the woofi having been cut along the rivers, which were the only means of transportation, and hence, the distance to which wood had to be hauled increasing the cost. This was probably the reason why the Society of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures of New York, after an inquiry by circular letter, issued in 1791, published, in 1795, a report on the "best mode of prraerving and increasing the growth of timber." This condition probably also led the wise Governor of New York, DeWitt Clinton, of Erie Canal fame, in a message in 182.2, to forecast an evil day, because "no system of economy" for the reproduction of forest supplies was bf;ing adopted; and he added: "Probably none will be, until severe privations are experienced. " Like Great Britain at that time, the federal govern- Naval Timber Reservations. 469 ment became concerned as regards supplies for naval construction, and, by act approved in 1799, appro- priated $200,000 for the purchase of timber fit for the Navy, and for its preservation for future use. Small purchases were made on the Georgia coast, but nothing of importance was done until, in 1817, an- other act renewed the proposition of the first, and directed the reservation of public lands bearing live- oak or cedar timber suitable for the Navy, as might be selected by the President. Under this act, a reser- vation of 19,000 acres was made, in 1828, on Com- missioners, Cypress and Six Islands, in Louisiana. Another appropriation of $10,000 was made in 1828, and some lands were purchased on Santa Rosa Sound, where, during a few years, even an attempt at culti- vation was made, including sowing, transplanting, pruning, etc. This was done under a more general act of 1827, by which the President was authorized to take proper measures to preserve the live oak timber growing on the federal lands. Under these acts, al- together some 244,000 acres of forest land were re- served in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana and Missis- sippi. But, although another act, of 1831, provided for the punishment of persons cutting oi destroying any Live Oak, Red Cedar, or other trees growing on any lands of the United States, no general conception of the need of a broad forest policy, or even of a special value attaching to the public timberiands dictated these acta, except so far as the securing of certain material, then believed necessary for naval con- struction, was concerned. Indeed, the act of 1831 470 United Slates. remained for 60 years the only expression of interest in this part of the federal domain. In those early times, the extent of our forest domain was entirely unknown, and the concern of occasional early voices in public prints regarding a threatened exhaustion of timber supplies can only be explained by the fact that, in the absence of railroads, the sup- phes near centers of civilization, or near drivable and navigable rivers, were alone of any account. That the earlier propagandists of forest culture re- ceived scant attention was due to the fact that con- ditions soon changed; and with these changes the evil day seemed indefinitely postponed, and the ne cessity for forest culture apparently vanished. These changes were mainly wrought by the opening up of the west, by extending means of transportation through canals and railroads, and by distributing pop- ulation, whereby the need for near-by home supplies was overcome: a continental supply of apparently inexhaustible amount was brought into sight and with- in reach. Meanwhile the population began to grow, immi- giants began to pour in by the hundred thousand and the westward stream opened up new country and new timber supplies, and a lumber industry of mar- vellous size began to develop. The small country mill, run in the manner of, and often in connection with, the gnst mill, doing a petty business by sawine as occasion demanded, to order for home customers or export,gave way to the large mill establishment as we know It now; and with the development of railroad transportation and the settlement of the western J a -^^ I Lumber Industry. 471 country, especially the forestless prairies.the industry grew at an astonishing rate. It is worth while to briefly trace the history of this industry, for the sake of which the need of conserva- tive forest policies is essential. That the petty method of doing business lasted un- til the middle of the century is evidenced by the census of 1840, which reported 31,560 lumber mills, with a total product valued as $12,943,507, or a little over 1400 per mill. By 1876, the product per mill had be- come J6,500; by 1890, with only 21,000 mills, it was $19,0''0; in 1900, nearly the same number of mills as were recorded in 1840 (33,035) furnished a product of 566 million dollars, and in 1907, the banner year of production, the cut of 28,850 mills was reported at over 40 billion feet, and the gross product per mill had grown to $23,000, or a value for all of $666, 641,367. In 1909, 48112 mills cut 44,509,761 000 feet valued at $684,479, 859. Nearly half this product came from the Southern States. In the fifty years from 1850 to 1900, the value of all forest products harvested increased from $59 mil- lion to $567 million, and in 1907 the value had risen to $1,280 million, representing a consumption of over 20 million cubic feet of forest-grown material. Especially after the Civil War, the settlements of the West grew as if by magic; the railroad mileage more than doubled in the decade from 1865 to 1875, and with it, the lumber industry developed by rapid strides into its modern methods and volume. How rapidly the changes took place may be judged from the fact that, in 1865, the State of New York still 472 United States. furnished more lumber than any other State; now it supphes only insignificant amounts, a little over I^o per cent, of the total lumber cut. In 1868, the golden age of lumbering had arrived in Eau Cfeire had 30, Marathon 30, and Fond du Lac 20 sawmdls. now all gone; and mills at La Crosse which 3y 1882, the Saginaw Valley had reached the clim^o .te production, and the lumber industry of the gre^t Northwest, ^th a cut of 8 billion feet of White Rne reached Its maximum in 1890, with 8.5 billion feet, then to decrease gradually but steadily to less than ha^ that cut in 1908. Southern development be" gan to assume large proportions much later; at the present time, the lumber product of the S^uthlrn f^K 1 ^T *° ^"""""^^ "^^^'y double that of all the Northern States combined. But not only the unparalleled and ever increasing reXrrnrT- "'.'^'' "°^ ^^^ --■^-^ ^^^^' f^ ^i ?^^' ^""^ *""^' *''^' °f Germany and ten Si. .^'■""'n' '"'''^''"'^ ^''^ ^haustbn of the ^nahllTn" ''. u'^^''^ conflagrations almost in ^nably followed the lumberman and destroyed gen- «oShf '"'""'"^ ''""**• ^"'^ ^"-'y the young ^owth. So common did these conflagrations become Uiat .they were considered unavoidable, and though laws intended to protect forest property against fires aTmort' °"f ^"^ f '"'^ "^"^ °' every'state ;: attempt to enforce them was made No wonder that those observing this rapid decima- Early Movement, 473 tiou of our forest supplies and the incredible waste- fulness and additional destruction by fire with no atten- tion to the aftergrowth.began again to sound the note of alarm. Besides the writings in the daily press and other non-official publications, we find the reports of the Department of Agriculture more and more fre- quently calling attention to the subject. In a report issued by the Patent Office as early as 1849, we find the following significant language in a discussion on the rapid destruction of forests and their influence on water flow: "The waste of valuable timber in the United States, to say nothing of 6rewood, will hardly be«in to be appreciated until our population reaches 50,000,000. Then the folly and short- sightedness of this age will meet with a degree of censure and reproach not pleasant to contemplate." In 1865, the Rev. Frederic Starr discussed fully and forcibly the American forests, their destruction and preservation, in a lengthy article in which, wit'' truly prophetic vision, he says: "It Is feared it will be long, perhaps a full century, before the «sults at which we ought to aim as a nation will be realized by our whole country, to wit, that we should raise an adequate supply of wood and timber for all our wants. The mils uihuk are anticipated uiill probably increase upon us for thirty years to come with tenfold the rapidity with which restoring or amelioratini measures shall be adopted. And again: "Like a cloud no bigger than a man's hand just rising from the sea, an awakening interest begins to come in sight on this subject, which as a question of political economy will place the interests of cotton, wool, coal, iron, meat, and even grain, be- neath its feet. Some of these, according to the demand, can be 474 United States. produced in a tew davs oth^™ in , r but Jmber in not kss tbInT. ™°"*'" °' " '*» y«»". ^^^irri:;;6^?r-^^-wi.^ -e, to eacH i::^:^,^::^^-;)^^^^^^^'- <* repots tKS'-^Lriir"'^'- ■"'^^■■^ m.ss.oner to the World's Fair at vLnna „ Jgyt f4S^ab:::r„rt-j™-^^^^^^ ;„ c J 7™' ^- «-• Andrews' report on 'Forestrv All .l.«e p«bfaa„„ tad ,|„|, ,„,„^^ ,^ ^^^^ Beginnings of Federal Policy. 475 ing a larger number to a conception and consideration of the importance of the subject, so that, when, in 1873, the committee on forestry of the American Association for the Advancement of Science was formed and presented a memorial to Congress, point- ing out "the importance of promoting the cultivation of timber and the preservation of forests, and recom- mending the appointment of a commission of forestry to report to Congress," there already existed an in- telligent audience, and although a considerable amount of lethargy and lack of interest was exhibited, Con- gress could be persuaded, in 1876, to establish an agency in the United States Department of Agri- culture, out of which grew later the Division of Fores- try, a bureau of information on forestry matters. Dr. Franklin B. Hough, one of the signers of the memorial, was appointed to the agency. It is to be noted as characteristic of much American legislation, that this agency was secured only as a "rider" to an appro- priation for the distribution of seed. While these were the beginnings of an official recog- nition of the subject by the federal government, pri- vate enterprise and the separate States also started about the same time to forward the movement. In 1867, the agricultural and horticultural societies of Wisconsin were invited by the legislature to appoint a committee to report on the disastrous effects of forest destruction. In 1869, the Maine Board of Agnculture appointed a committee to report on a forest policy for the State, leading to the act of 1872 'for the encouragement of the growth of trees, ex- empting from taxation for twenty years lands planted 476 United States. without result. About the same time a real wave of enthusiasm regardmg the planting of timber seems to have pervaded the country, and especially the Western praine States. In addition to laws regarding the plantmg of trees on highways, laws for the en- couragement of timber planting, either under bounty or exemption from taxation, were passed in Iowa. Srrirr«fir^"'°.".'-" '" ^^^'- '" ^'^'^'^ «"d New iB„ ■ T ;.'" ^'^»" "> 1870; in Minnesota in in l«7T ""^r."! ^^'^' '" ^^'""^'' '" 1873; in Illinois in 1874; in Dakota and Connecticut in 1875; and hnal y the federal government joined in this kind of Sf h",^'; "•' '°-=^"''' timber-culture acts of 187>J and 1874, amended in 1876 and 1877 For the most partthese laws remained a dead letter accepting m the case of the federal government offer! The encouragement by release from taxes was not much of an inducement; nor does the bounty provision seem to have had greater success, except in taking money out of the treasuries. Finally, these laws were in many or most cases repealed March 3, 1873, by which the planting of timber on 40 acres of land (or a proportionate area) in the tree- less territory, conferred the title to 160 acres (or a proportionate amount) of the public domain. This law had not been in existence ten years when its repeal was demanded, and this was finally secured in 1891, the reason being that, partly owing to the crude provisions of the law, and partly to the lack of proper supervision, it had been abused, and had given rise Timber Culture Acts. 477 to much fraud in obtaining title to lards under false pretenses. It is dit cult to say how much impetrs the law gave to bonafide forest planting, anH how much timber growth has resulted from it. Unfavor- able climate, lack of satisfactory plant material, and lack of knowledge as to the proper methods, led to many failures. •. number of railroad companies, opening up the prairie States, planted at this time groves along the right of way for the sake of demonstrating the practica- bility of securing forest growth on the treeless prairies and plains. There was also considerable planting of wind-breaks and groves on homesteads, which was attended with better results. Altogether, however, the amount of tree planting, even in the prairies and plains, was in- finitesimal, if compared with what is necessary for climatic amelioration; and it may be admitted, now as well as later, that the reforestation of the plains must be a matter of co-operative, if not of national, enterprise. At this time also, an effort was made to stimulate enthusiasm for tree planting among the homesteaders and settlers on the plains by the establishment of arbor days. From its inception by Governor J. Steriing Morton, and its first inauguration by the State Board of Agriculture of Nebraska in 1872, Arbor Day gradu- ally became a day of observance in neariy every State While with the exception of the so-called treeless States, perhaps not much planting of economic value IS done, the observance of the day in schools as one set apart for the discussion of the importance of trees. 478 United States. foreste and forestry has been productive of an in han,"? 'TT '" ''"^ ^"''J-'- Arbor da's have p "-' haps also had a retarding influence upon the prlcti^l -ceSonTaTT' '" '^^'"^ P^op^ -"!: KS conception that forestry consists in tree Dlantino- in d.vert.ng attention from the economicTues Ln of the proper use of existing forest areas, in brhigTngTnto the 2:rhTrd"hrd'J ^"' ^T'°"^' -'"''^ have' Sdti tne hard-headed practical issues, and delayed the earnest attention of practical business men anrjrr'n'. " '''' ^' '" '"^ "^^ -' f°«'«ring be foT2 ef 7"°""^' *''"'^'' P'^"*'"8 should nol De torgotten, such as the offering of prizes bv thi- M^chusetts Society for the Promotion of Agricul ture as early as 1804 and again in 1876), and the planing do by private land holders at Cape C^! effoS t„i ' ^"^"''' ^"'^ e'^where. Thes^ mat c 'a^Hn^ '"'' ,^"" ""'^ ^P^^^^ic and unsyste- tion of v^r^ T ""^'^ -""""ensurate with the destruc- uon ot virgin forest resources tea1h\°he?A' '"'""1* °^ *"° "°"^ Frenchmen to teach their American hosts a better use of their ma., nificent forest resource, although of 1 1 tie reTuh" nis son Andr6 Francois, who, between 1785 and 1805 sXa iri"^ ."^ ^ magnificent North American "exteSaT^ • *"° 'r"'^ °' ^20,000 for the esSlv of . ■ "t"^'"^ °' agriculture and more ^ y^ "'^"^"''"--^ '" the United States," which bequests became available in 1870. Th. An^^can Forestry Movement. 479 Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, a trustee of one of the legacies, has devoted its income to beautifi- cation of Fairmount Park, providing a few lectures on forest botany and forestry, and collecting a forestry hbrary, while the other legacy has been used by th^ Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agri! the A nold Arboretum, besides ofTering the prizes for tree planting referred to above. 3. Development of a Forest Policy. This first perioU of desultory efforts to create public opinion on behalf of a more conservative use of forest resources was followed by a more systematic propa- ganda, in which the Division of Forestry, growing out of the agency in the Department of Agriculture, took the lead. This it did officially as ..ell as by assisting the American Forestry Associafou, soon after organ •zed with a view of educating public opinion. For 15 year^, the chief of the Division acted either as Secretary or Chairman of the Executive Committee ot the Association. The first forestry association had been formed on the"T/'' .'f "' "" ^*- ^""'' ^'""- '"«^'y '"rough the efforts of Leonard B. Hodges, who was the first to make plantations in the prairies for the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad. This association was aided by state appropriations, which enabled it to offer pre miums for the setting out of plantations, to distribute plant material, and also to publish and distribute widely a Tree Planters' Manual, revised editions of Which were issued from time to time In 1875, Dr. John A. Ward =ssued a call for a .;!; 480 United States. convention in Chicago to form a national forestry association. This association was completed, in 1876, in 1882, a number of patriotic citizens at Cincinnati called together a forestry congress, incited thereto by the visit and representations of Baron von Steuben, a Prussian forest official, when visiting this country on the occasion of the centennial celebration of the surrender of Yorktown. A very enthusiastic and representative gathering °'l-u'^^^' ''^ ^^^ '■^'"'*' '*^*'"8 through the week,' which led to .the formation of the American Forestry Congress. In the same year, in August, a second tneeting was held in Montreal, under the patronage of the Canadian government, and the name was changed to the Amencan Forestry Association. In 1898 it began the publication of a propagandist journal. The Forester (later changed to Forestry and Irrigation then to Conservation, and now again to American Fores- tryj It has now a member-ship of over 5,000. Much of the eariy educational propaganda was done through this association. Indeed, this association, holding yearly and intermediate meetings in different parts of the States, became the center of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement. Twelve volumes ol Its proceedings contain not only the history of progress m establishing a forest policy, but also much other information of value on forestry subjects Other local or State forestry associations were formed from time to time, more or less under the lead of the national association, and exist now in almost every State, while several other societies, like the Associations and Commissions. 481 Sierra Nevada Club and the Mazaraas of the Pacific coast, and State horticultural societies in various States, made the subject one to be discussed and to be fostered. The most active of these associations smce It was formed in 1886, publishing also a bi- monthly journal, Forest Uaves (at first less fre- quently), is the Pennsylvania State Forestry Associ- ation, which has succeeded in thoroughly committing Its State to a proper forest policy, as far as ofl^icial recognition is concerned. Usually as a result of this associated private effort, the States appointed forestry commissions or com- missioners. These commissions were at first for the most part instituted for inquiry and to make reports upon which a forest policy for the State might be framed. Others have become permanent parts of the State orgauization, with executive, or merely educa- tional functions. Such commissioners of inquiry were appointed at various times, in Connecticut (1877), New Hampshire (1881 and 1889, Vermont (1882), New York (1884), Maine (1891), New Jersey (in Geological Survey 1894), Pennsylvania (1893), North Carolina (in Geological Survey 1891), Ohio (1885), Michigan (1899), Wisconsin (1897), Minnesota (1899), North Dakota (1891), Colorado (1885) California (1885). It was but natural in a democratic country that these movements sometimes became the play balls of self-seeking men, political wire pullers, and grafters, or more often of ignorant amateurs and shallow senti- mentalists, aided by half-informed newspaper writers. Infinite patience was requir';d to steer through these lilll ^ 482 United States. rocfes the ship of true economic reform, and to educate legislators and constituents to its true needs The very first foref ■ y congress was really conceived with a view of adv Jng political preferment of one of its organizers, and many another "forestry" meetine was utilized for a similar purpose, the new, catchy title attracting the gullible. 0,ie of the first State forest commissions, well e- dowed to do its work, soon fell into the hands of grafters, and created such scandals that they led to its abolishment, and to a set-back in the movement every- where Arbor day sentimentalism discredited and clouded the issue before the business world; the move- ment was in constant danger at the hands of its friends Antagonism of the lumber world was aroused by the false idea of what the reform contemplated, and, in the absence of technically trained foresters to instruct the public and the amateur reformers, and to convince fivT.u ?' ^'''°'"*^ """^ °f discontinuing old established habits, progress was naturally slow, and experienced many setbacks. It was a hard field to plow, grown up with the weed growth of prejudice and custom, and means and tools lor the work were inadequate. The federal government was naturally looked to to take the lead. The first two agents, employed in the Department of Agriculture- to "report on forestry" unfortunately lacked all technical knowledge of the subject, the first, a most assiduous worker, being a writer of local histories and gatherer of statistics, the second a preacher. The third, the writer himself.had at least the advantage of this technical training, but Forest Reservation Policy. 483 ll*tT«^ *™^' '•'^ d'^dvantage of being a foreigner who had first to learn the limitations oFdemX'c government Only the paltry sum of IS^waTa his disposal for plowing the ground, and even after the agency had been raised to thedign^tyofaZSon be S;ei and? "° T^^'"^'^ appropriations could work of^h". A ' '^^ ''°^ ^"^ "^f"'"^«^ of the work of the Division was hampered {louriJ°(T^ Association, inaugurated with such a flourish of trumpets and with such a large member ship at the start, had in the first two years dw'ndM fund '"f "T'" "' '""^f"' °"-- «"d wast "hoS funds when the writer became its secretary In spite of these drawbacks, the propaganda had progressed so far in 1891, that, through the earnest msistence of the then Secretary of the'lnter^^r ohn V u u 'r^"*"" ^^"^ ^^" ^°" -^^^^ to the views for which the Division and the Association stood, a daut was enacted by Congress in "An act to repea timbe^ culture laws and for other purposes, " giving authority the pubhc domain. Again, this important legislation, which changed the entire land policy and all previou notions of the government's functions concerning the Public Donain was not deliberately enacted but pipped in as a "rider", at the last hour, in Conference Committee In this connection the name of EdwaS A. Bowers, m 1887 Special Agent in the Depar™ of the Interior, and later Assistant Commi^ioner o the General Land Office, deserves mention as mo^ active in securing this reservation policy Acting under this authority. Presidents Harrison 484 United States. and Cleveland prcxdaimed, previous to 1894, seventeen l7,oUu,000 acres. The reservations were established usually upon the petition of citizens residing in the respective States r^tlt h .k"" ^^a-n-nation, the Forestry Association acting both as instigator and as intermediary Meanwhile no provision for the administration of the reserves existed, and the compreh.-Ve leeisla'ion devised by the Chief of the Division of L o"sS h "h included withdrawal and administration of aU public fS'S '"'"^ '° "^ ^"^««'^' ^'^••-«h i'n the f^-^.u ^"^"^"^ " "^^^ P^^'^ ^y •'°th Houses, but failed to become a law merely for lack of time to secure a conference report. But the purpose of the advocates oi forestry was to create such a condition as would f^Z!^?"5'^u '° ^"' ^y <=°'"i""ally withdrawing forested lands that would lie useless until authority was given for their proper use and administration. m order to secure influential support from outside a committee of the Forestry Association induced the then Secretary of the Interior, Hoke Smith, in 1896 to request the National Academy of Sciences, the ^^lly constituted adviser of the government in scientific matters, to investigate and report "upon the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forested lands of the United States." After an un! neces^ry so-called "junket" of a committee of the Academy to investigate the public timberiands, a prelimmary report was submitted recommending the creauon of thirteen additional reservations, with an area of over 20 million acres, and later a complete Forest Reservation Policy. 435 report was made with practically the same recom- mendations which had been urged by the Forestry Association. President Cleveland, heroically, proclaimed the desired reserves all on one day, Washington's birth- day, 1897, without the usual preliminary ascertain- ment of local interests, and immediately a storm broke loose in the United States Senate, which threatened the overthrow of the entire, toilsomely achieved reser- vauon policy; and impeachment of the President was strongly argued in a two-day (Sunday) session. Con- gress, however, came to an end on March 4,before it had taken any action, but, as it had also failed to pass the annual Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill, it was immediately recalled in extra session. Then, again, by a clever trick and in an indirect and surreptitious manner, instead of by open, direct and straightforward consideration and deliberation of a proper policy, most important legislation was secured in the Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill, which provided for the temporary suspension of the reser- vations lately set aside until they could be more de- finitely delimited, private claims adjusted, and agri- tf.^"!^'^"''' ^'''''"'^' ^^ " *"^«y' f°^ ^hich 1SI50,000 was appropriated to the United States Geo- logical Survey. The agricultural lands were then to be returned to the public domain for disposal. At the same time, provisions for the administration of the remaining reservations, much in the sense of the legislation advocated by the Division of Forestry and by the Forestry Association, and especially for the sale of ti-^ber, were hung on to this appropriation clause. if 486 United States. y^er this act the reserves were administered until re "aiS i?t'uH'*°Tl,*'" '"* °' '^«'«'-"°" were fT he eir^TT °' '"^^ ^"''J^^*' but the need rnnh'.i...^ ■ • . years tnis torest survev irom the Geological Survey, describing the forest reser.at.ons-a very useful, educational piece of work no 1 six Sr I' ^'! '^«-'ation-for S ^mf 110 0^ ™'"'°"^ve been expended. By 1905 some 110,000 square miles had been examined when this work was handed over to the Forestry Bureau Thus .t happened, almost by accident, that finX the a.„,s f the reformers were realized, the appoS charL°of r f'^r'^"'^"*^' ^^"«-' «-• '°° ke cnarge ot the forest reservations was secured «nH 'Cu^l^Ti^tT '°- ''-' ^^-'"■•---^n'wTre lormulated by the Commissioner of the General Land Office, marfang the beginning of a settled pdfcy on the Meanwhile, the Division of Forestry had continued Federal Forest Service. 437 to bring together and distribute in the shape of re- ports, bulletins, circulars, addresses and letters such mformafon useful for the education of the publk of wood consumers, and timberiand owners, as it hmued appropnations permitted, undertaking also rbrjhSs.'"^"*'^"'""^' '-'-''-'^ '" ">^ "- °' Soon after, in July, 1898, when the writer resigned h.s position as Chief of the Division of Forestry S Vork State College of Forestry, Mr. Gifford Pinchot e^sV ^'^:.°' *'' .''""""• ^°""«' ambitious at gressive, w.th some knowledge of forestry acquired in Europe and with influential connections and a Lr^e fortune, he ea.ily secured the first need for effect ve sowing on the well-plowed field before him-apnro! pr.at.ons. Whatever had been feebly begun couM^ broadly, sometimes lavishly, extended, and the new .dea of mak.ng "working plans" for private timbe" knd owners could be developed-a great educational work wh.ch, eariier, when even co-operation with State institutions was considered a questionable proposition, would have been turned down as tc« paternal. In five yeare the appropriations had increased ten- fold, to over 1250.000; and in the first decade of 7he new regime, around $3,000,000 had been spent on for! estry investigations, not counting expenditures on lorest reservation account. whl'"C''"t>'''°"^ '"PP°'' '^^■"^ '"t° the field, when Mr. Roosevelt became President of the United States, in 1901, and unreservedly threw his 488 United States. f^^rS'""""^^ '''"''' balance, to advance tirSlw^ i",*"'' '"*^'*''' ^^^ Withdrawal of public S?i ""^ '"'^ P'"'^^^^^^ ^* ^ -^Pid rate: by in ?L t^r"'""'"' '•^'^ ^°^" *° 65 million acres^ hL hi 1 . . administration, 175 million acres had been placed in reservation. of Th! f"""!'''""' '^""dition, which placed the survey of the forest reserves in the Geological Survey th^r ortechSa'".''^ "-^"^ ''''^^'"' ^•'"-^-t'fic or technical development of forestry in the Deoart ment of Agriculture, was finally end^ in 1904 Xen hLdf ofT^Cr^tt 77^"": '"-^^ '" ^" Forestry Oi^ir^hir'hal rn^S;^-.^: foTLf LX"' ^"^ *''^" ^"-^ ^^^ "—in With this transfer, it may be »aid, the federal forest S'i;.r/""^ "'"•'"^''"^' ^* '^^t f°^ it« own lands s'Scl^tut; meZr"'°" ^"^ ^"^^ ^-'°P-- of fgS^oSor'"""^*-""' ^'''"'^ "°^ (1907) exceed »950,000 for investigating work alone, limitless on rTctioHf — ^ *° ^ °'"" *° extend'the man" I rections of inquiry and solve the silvicultural problem ^L'^Zt ^''"^^^'°"^' ^"-'- of 'hi-rgovr: But besides the administration of the federal Jberlands and the educational and other ass Itlnc of private owners, a further expansion of the Forest Federal Forest Policy. 4gg Service is developing under the paternalistic and socialistic tendencies referred to before, which may ultimately lead to the purchase and federal control of forest reserves in the Eastern States. Such ex- pansion, was, indeed, proposed in the establishment of reserves in the White Mountains and the Southern Appalachians, propositions which have been resisted by Congress for the last seven years, but with ever weakening resistance. Finally in 1910, success was attained, and the federal governmant placed in po- sition to acquire these forest areas, to the amount of $10,000,000. Meanwhile the single states have begun to develop their own policies. Outside of legislation aiming at protection against forest fires— which nearly every State possessed from early times, ineffective for lack of machinery to carry it into effect— and outside of the futile attempts to en- courage timber planting referred to, no interest in timberlands was evinced by State authorities for the first two-thirds of the century, since practically all these lands had been disposed of to private owners, and the authorities did not see any further duties regarding them. The first State to institute a commission of inquiry was Wisconsin, in 1867; but with the rendering of the report, prepared by I. A. Lapham, one of the active early propagandists— the matter was allowed to ma- ture for thirty years. The next State to move, in a feeble way, in 1876, was Minnesota, the legislature making an annual grant of money to its forestry association. 490 United Stales. beS^eSS' °' ~~ °^ -'^"'^ then another commis^on in ?88o wh! °"* "■''""■ ^"^ led to the establishment S ''P°'*' '" ^893. Of inquiry and adt^lhh a'^irr' "'"•'"'"■°" forest fire laws. Vern.oTfoLZZiT^'r'''' °' mission of inquiry in 1882 ^ ^ ''°"'- ^r--^/ned\iL;" 2q:e'';^,.-''- ^^^ ^" stimi^;thrB"tatVoTd'TA^" ^^^°''«' *° °' -"- of inquiry WW rfr^ m??".""''" " commission no coL^;enceTe~h'""'=^' '". ''«'■ ''^^ «'- acter ^'"'^P^ those of an educational char- the eo„„d„ao„ rf ,he Ei orh'.?,".'"? '"•° fo>m condition, ,„d „^, '™' '•" "«'<' "P-t. on which published a „Tmbe,of"an ?'"' '" ''«^' eventually collapsed fo"rll^fj;;r "''°"^' ''"' ine tast, Colorado m the Middle States, and State Activities. 491 California in the West, seemed simultaneously to have awakened to their duty, largely as a result of the propaganda of the American Forestry Association In California, a State Board of Forestry was in- stituted, with considerable power and ample appro- priations, which, however, eventually fell into the hands of unscrupulous politicians and grafters, the resulting scandals leading to its abolishment in 1889. In Colorado, which when admitted to Statehoo-t"-^^^^ in 1910. 23 reserves with an area of 575,000 acres had been made Distribution of plant material and of advice to planters is also part of the policy. Annua tective but the commercial value of the timberiands .s considerable. The extent is variously estimated as covenng between 40 and 50 million acres (50% S tot" ai^a), much of it virgin, and 16 million acres of it com mercially valuable. Of the seven hundred odd specte •iiiaiar . 506 United Slates. of trees, mostly heavy woods r^,^ • -me 160 a^ -^ketable aTt;raT in rt' '""'' almost fifty per cent of th-T '"China; yet imported fronTthe State, """ '^""sumption is accessibility oT sofL^, ' T"^ '° ''^'^'"=^ °r i„- cessiveexpenslofnr ;,'"''■ '''''' ^°^' ^ue to ex- When the?r^?L'^^ ' '°««'"8 '""hods. forestry bureau wenf t, m u ' ^^ ^"ivities of this ^iues for timber lilenlj^'''?"?"'^ '''' ^""^'^tion of the cost of the se^te a^I"' T'"'' ""'^ ""'"^ "'«" structions were STab'oraTed"" ^^•^--"-' '"- a4^pTa^"So::eVAh°errri /"^ ^™^^'-" given attention to fofestrvl ^°' '"""^ *'"« he naturally was 0^.!) ?^ t '" '" "'^ States, and 1900. There were SJl^'r^^ °' *^'^ ''"--. '" acres private ardchnrrh ''"'""^ °"^ "i'hon sidered' State lands "u, all "n"'^' ''' "^' ''"""^ -"' quired to register th^frK t-*^ ?'^ "^"^-"^ ^^--^ re- to exerdse Th r riXs JT J^^°- ^'"^ a"owed cutting timber and of ; ^'^^"^ °^ '"^^"«« for population wt'coniuefafteTs'^'T '° ^""^ "^^ only was an efficient Z"^""'' "•°^^'^- Not cured, but the teXicM !r"'?*^°" ^^^'^"^"y «- silvicultural knowS^ri h' ° ^endrological and possible under the able »r, " "' '"'^'^'^ ''^ Ahern, a continuouslv ^^"""f «'!<>" of Captain result """"""""^'y growing literature being the Administration, Austria, 167- Canada, 424; Denmark 3ia' Finland, 281 ; France 217 r ■ ^"J^' Britain, 375 • 181; India, 396 ; Italy 339 • Japan 450ff; Norway 3091 lll'^^^^t^'^^?- R°"n,ania c '• iiA ^"^'3 268, 269: |E?'"'3?9; Sweden, 291, 301 g02; Switzerland,197; United States 485, 486 488 "^ Africa, 439. Alabama, 496. Albania, 322. Algiers, 223, 250. Allmende, (Germany) 28., ^'m 303 '"^"'°''^' 73, ' 114, Andre, lis! Andrews, 474. Arabia, IS. Arborday Germany, 63; Italy am-' il*P^5' ^^- ''pain. , 142. Eberswalde, 146 Eprpt, 14, 16. Eisenach 146. Endres 144. Enrign, United States, 491. tntail, Germany, 129. Entomology, Germany, 142. Ethiopia 14, 15. 374"'' ^"™' "^'**' °"'*'"- ^".'Sr'™'" stations, Austria, 176; France, 239; Germany H7; Hungary, 184; Italy. 348; Japan 453; Sweden 304; Switzerland, 201. Exports, see Imports Export trade, Canada, 418, Faustmann, 134, 139. Feldjiger, 81. Felling time, Germany. 78 jemelschlag, Germany, 61 Fernandez, 408. oil?' 'yw«™. France, 208 210; Germany, 33; Japan. Finland, 277. Fire«, Canada, 418, 429' F™"«, 221, 250: Germany," «; India, 400, 401; Swedeh 303; Switzerland, 190; Unit- ed Sute., 466, 494. Fischbach 140. de Fleury, France, 233. Forest area, world, 4 Forest conditions, ancient. 9- Austria, 155ff; Canada, 414- 417; Denmarlc, 314, 315; Finland, 279; France, 205. ?SS' 9?™*">'' 24, 47. 96. 109; Great Briuin, 367; g™«e. 328. 329; India, 383- 388; Italy, 336; Japan, 444; Norway, 306 307; Portugal 360; Russia 254-258; Spain, ioZ; Sweden, 287, 288- f^'«"-'?nd 188; Turkey,' 322; United States, 461-466 forest courts, France, 216- 370™ n*"' ^^' ^"*' Britain, Foresters, Forestarii, 32, 38 forest influences, Austria, 163- f rj"«. 230; Germany, 129, 144 ; Italy, 342-347; Russia 264; Switzerland, 191, 194 Forest management, ancient. 16. '^"I'S' ,1',"''!?"'=". Austria. IS8, 161; France, 212-216- Germany, 37, 38, 52; 169-172; France, 239,240- i^™a"y. . 113-120; Japan, 4^; Russia, 274; Sweden, Forest police, Austria, 164-166. iTi'/"?'*"'""' ^y ancients. 10,18; Germany, 141, 142 139 '*"'' *^=™any- 118, Forest schools, Austria, 175- Canada, 43R; Denmark, 319; liS'Sjf 283 ; France, 241, Sr'iv^V^*™*"^' 83, 84. HO, 145; Great Britain, 377, J'o; Hungary, 183, 184- India, 4a5; Italy, 347, 348 ^?g*"'3 «'•*«: Norway. JIO, 313; Portugal, 364; Index J06i Sweden, 303, 9^. Switierland, 190 am- rr^' trntion""^"- *^ Admini.. Frana^lkff^r "*'■''• 31« ,• ||O.No4fay.l68:"s";SS:; Forestry council, Germany, l^-^.'oS'VTi^--" p°™ '*«o.". Germany. 134 French revolution, 128 iTontier forests, ancient n in France, 222;'Ge™any 'i": Hungary, 180; ^' ■**' Fflrst 131, 132, m. Guiot, 237, 245. Guyot, 243, 246. I Gwmner, 131, 140 Galicia, 160. Gamble, 408. Gayer, 108, 131, 132. 380; Russia 282^^' '"J''*■ ^^fi;Sw■trrland'•l9'Tu"• ted States, 480, 497 t^rmany, 22. Gibson, 393 Gifford, 500. Giessen, 146. V. Gleditsch, 84. uochhausen, 86. Goeppert, 112. Graves, 503. Great Britain, 365. Grebe, 142. Greece, ancient, 10, 14. i« modem, 327. Greiumark, 13. Hamison, 483. nartigs rules 102 104 ins "artg, R. 112, lYf'/g^' 105. Hartig, Th. 132. lii"^- Hauch 319. Haug, 112. Hausvater, 85. Hawaii, 505 Hennert, 72, 74, 75. Henry, 246. Hess, 102, 142. Heyer, E. 138. ,>?i?i-.i«3i:i'4°?-"'^^; hZ"-- "S- "'"•'od 120. H.sto„^, periods, Germany, Hodges, '479. Holy groves, 13, 15, 16 H»,feld^„2, 134,' 135. 136, Hough, 475. H,"^r'4'^'134, 136, 137 Huffel, 239, 247. Hungary, 154, 173 Huntmg grounds of Roman. "^7"'"^ 'nfluenees, Italy, 344. Hypsometer, Germany, 75, 134 Imports Canada, 418- n.„ ^^- ^}^ "'"'•nd 277- m""',.^! Germany. 24 '28; Italy, 338; Gr«,t Indet Britain, 388; Norway, 308 Increment measurinjr. Ger- many, 76. H?" per cent. Germany, 117 Ind«, 14, 380. Indiana, 496, 497 Indo-China 251. '"{^ti"" bureau, Germany, Iiaiah, ref>;rence, ID Israelites, 10, 13 Istria, 160. Italy, 11, 335. Jacobi 70 Jacquot 247. Jaeger 112,138 Japan 442. Jews 10, 13. Josephus, reference to for«st destruction 10. MO, 4J6; Denmaric, 319: Ftnland, 284; France, 247- ^.^"V">y. H9, 150; Great Bntain, 379; Hungakr, 184- Inda, 408; ItalT, Mg,: 3^"r''' • ^',t' R°""«nia 328; Russia, 271; Spain, 360 land, 202; United Stat». Judeich 117, 140, 170. JudeichandNitzschel42 Jung 90 Kentucky 496. Klipstein 114. Kogl 172 '^^Qt* ',^' '"> "2, 116, 132, 135, 136, 138, 272. Korea 455. Krafft 112, 133, 140. Kram 159. Kravschinsky 273. Kfegting 73, 113. Krohne 75. V. Kropf 72, 74, 75. Kuntze 136, 137, 138 Kaigodorov 273 Kaiser 132 Karl 138 Karlsruhe 146 Karst 156, 161, 173, 174. Kauschinger 142 Landolt, 191, 202 UphaTSsg'''™'^'''^'^"- V. Lassberg 88. Laurop 142, 144, 148 Lefebvre 249. Lehr 140, 144. Leiria forest, Portugal, 363 Literature, ancient, 19; Aus- tna, 178; Denmark, 319^ France, 244-247; Ge^anyl 22, 41 67, 84-91, 130ft Great Bntam, 379; Hungary^ 183; Italy 349; India, JoS; Russia, 271 272; siedTn iW; Switzerland, 202 Litter 61, 133. Logslides, Germany. 70 Lorentz, 238, 242 Lorey, 112, 131, 136, 187. l^uisiana, 496. '""w"" .J?''"»'n', United States, 471; Canada,419 420 Macedonia, 11, 322. Maine, United States, 494, 406. Malay States 438 Manteuffel ftj, 107 Maria Theresa reforms, Aus- tna, 161, 180. w^. Index Mark forests Austria, 154. Marsh G.P., 474 Maryland 496. Massachusetts 490, 496 Matsuno 450, 453 Mauritius 439 Mayer 141. Mayr 132.. McClelland 394. if'm"^" <=™»'ri«. 10, Meister 202 Mercantilistic 1 system, G*r many, 42, 53, 126 Mesopotamia, 10 Methode i tire et aire Ger Me7reW'= '^"""■^S- Meyer 144 Micheaux 245, 478. Michigan 490, 496, 497 Mine forests, Austria, 159. Hungary, 180. "" • Minnesou, 489, 494, 496 497 Mo°rrv1'7^'^'^ V. Moaer 89. Mound planting, Germany, Mount Lebanon 10. 14. Muhlhausen 132. Mflller P.E. 319. Miiller. U 138 MOnden 146 Munich 84, 146. Municipal forests 14 Na^ rraervations, Canada. *«. Prance, 215- rr.,>» Britain 374,-' Ruiia,^^ United States,469. ' Nestorov 273. Newfoundland 437. New Hampshire, 490, 496. 497 New Jersey 490, 496 497 New York 490. 49i:4M 4fl8 NeTm""'^'^«'-«» Nisbet 379 Noble 483. &J!T' "2, 138, 156. -^%™' forest, Austria, 170, 171. Germany, nS; Hun-' North Carolina 490, 497 Norway, 305. Nurseries, ancient, 20- Gw many, 106, 107; Hun^; Nursetree method. Germany. °^™"'68.70,74,76,77,1H Ohio 490, 497. Oliva de Serres 244 °7™"«'. Austria, 1S8, 161 2?7' ^.T' ^"' 215, 216 f,'.*"! Germany. 33, 38 f7, 48, 49ff. 62; liily sSl Japan. «7; Nin^y'^' |^: Spain. 355; Sweden M4 ." Ifnited Sutes. 467. ' ^ ' Orlov 273. Otozky 273. Oxford University 378, 406. Nancy, 242, 406. Nanquette 242, 243. 3M Nap^eon 219.. ' ^■ ment in Gemuay, 38, {gjT PAiESIINE 9, 13 Palladius 19. Parade 242, 246. Paradises of Persian. 13 I j^'?i?"' l«. Greece. 381 • India. 400; luly, 3*1 •*"■ Switzerland 193, 196, 19a. ' ' ^^¥41% Index Pathology, Germany, 141 Paulsen 115, 138. Pearson 401. Pennsylvania 495, 496 Pennsylvania Railroad Com- Pany 498. Persia 14. Perthuis 245. Ef' .^Ji? Crescentiis, 41, 244 Pfeil 101, 104, 111 126 130 131. 132, 139, 142, 143', J4I; Phys^^^Jc doctrine, Ge,. Pinchot 487, 497, 501. rhiUipines, SOS, 506. Planting, Austria, 172 173- Denmark, 318, 319; France," 00, 82, 166ff; Great Britain, 369 Ind,a, 404; Japan, 451 si? b™"^"^]' ''«2. 363;Rus- sia, 276; Sweden, 302; United S'"e», 476, 4-.7. 478, 498 iund,Germany,65; Rus- 8|a, 269; Spain, 358. budgets, Germany, 66 Plant material distriL. i C^rmany 128; Hunga.y; ifi: I'^'y; 346; Portugal sStes,'\"r' ""'■■ """•" Pliny 19, 20. Poland 275 Polewood management, Ger many, 61. Portugal 360. Porto Rico, 504. '"tS^t-flbTSir^': penmarMl7; Finland, 283' France^ 206, 207, 212, 2241 ito' ?"?"'o1?3! Hungary 179 Inda, 390 391; fialj 339; Japan, 447; Norway ^: Portugal, 361, 363; Rus- ^,273; Span. 360; Sweden, iVtS, Switzerland. 195, 196 Property conditions, ancient, 422 i^^JoJ ^^' Canada 4^. 423, 424; Denmark, 216, 217 Finland. 280; France ^2, Germany, 27-36, 42-47, 92; Gi^t Britain, 376; In- d-a. 388; Italy, 339, 342- ^n?*"D ^^' *^- Norway 290ff?'<:^'^'"'?^2' Sweden n^'j Switzerland, 189; United States, 468, 461 1 rotection forest, Austria, 163- France, 222 260; Hungary 181; Italy 342; Japan, 453 ^TSk ^^^' SlsrRussia 264, 2^5, 266; Switzerland.' Puton, 242, 243. 246. Queensland. 441. Railroad planting, United States, 479, 498. ^ Kamann 142. Ratzeburg 142. R&umur, 77, 238. 245. i«s'*i!?*"'' Austria, ISO, 159 185; Denmark, 317; France 223,224,229,232,238; gS: S."377?ll„„-- ,pfe'58^'y9^"'^- ferSt'"'''*"""'^-'' '*42.ri«"?i .Canada, 424, Re^'l1^.= """^<'Sute.,469. X; ««u«i, 118, 134. 24«. RicfSTrTaS.'^'^'**- Rhode Island 496. Index Rirfit. of user^ ancient, 16 ^i ^.' V- ^' 128; Greece 331; IndM, 388, 389. 390 1^' J«P|". *47; Norway '' 11*. 138, I Somude, school, Germany, 84, ^22!™' '^'~«'"«t. France. South Australia, 440 Southworth 430. I Sowing, Germany, 63 Index Sowing cones, Germany, 94. Space number, Germany, 133. Spain 9, 11, 349. Spath 110, 136. Stahl 84, 89, 91. Starr 473. State foresters, Canada, 431- France, 220; Germany, 12o' Umted States, 496; Switier- land, 198; ^*?!io '°J!*»'s. Austria, 167, 168; Denmarlc, 317; Fin- land, 280, 281, 282, 283- France, 210, 218, 219; oriein in Germany. 92; Great Bri- tain, 374, 375, 376; Greece, I 1' "li"S*'>'' 180, 181, 182; India, 388, 396; Italy, 339 iSf*"',.*^' ^Sl; Norway 307, 311; Portugal, 362 Russa, 256; Spain, 357, 358, 359; Sweden. 290, 291, 292 ^*e supervision, Austria, 161- oS?" Germany, 144; Greece, S^: ""IJgaO'. 181;France, 220-223; RnUnd, 283; Den- mark, 316; July, 342ff; Japan, 462; Norway, 312- Protugal, 363; Russia, 263ff' Sfoin, 360; Sweden, 297, ■«»9ff.; Switzerland, 193. V. Steuben 480. Stcetzer, 132. Straits Settlement 438. Strip system, Austria, 172; e.^™!"y> 59; Russia, 274. Styna 159, 160, 162, 171. «f*?i;* fellings, Germany, 81, 102. Supplies, of world, 4. Swamps reclaimed, Russia, 277 Sweden, 287. Switzerland 186. Syria 10 Tariff, Germany, 126 Tassy 246, 249. Ta^gya, Germany, 66; India, Tm release, Austria, 173, 174- France, 218; United States, T«hnology, ancient, 18, 19- Switzerland, 202. ' Tharandt, 84, 146. Thrace 322. Theophrastus 19. Tichonoflf 272. Thinnings, Denmark, 318- J,""«. 236 239; Germany, 1^9 ■ Switzerland! THrty years' war, Germany, Timber culture acts. United States, 476, 477. T.'JP'f.J famine, Germany, 3, *2;t®'^Li26. 144;Uiuied States, 486, 468. S^'427^"**' *-*"**'»■ *2«, Timber Physics, United States. 0O3. . ''m'238,l4r''*'- ^'''^- Tolsky 273. Torrents, Austria, 166; France 229-232; Italy, 336, 3« 1 ransporution means, Ger- •nany, 79. Tree marking, Germany, SI. Triage 211. Trunk 75, 90. Tubingen 146. Tuffer 374. Turkey 321. Tursky 273. Tyrol 169. United States, 45S Urich 136. Utilization, Germany, 182. Valuation, Germany, 138. Vanderbilt 497. w ii /Mfar VatiD 19,20 Vemce IM. Veigil 19. Vermont 496. Vienna fotest 171. Viaierl83. ^raTis*"""""'- ^'"""y. Wacbnkk, 112, 131, 140 Wagner 132. WaTdfeldbau. 109. Walther 140. Wangenheim 97. Warder 474, 479. Waitenbetg dibble 107. Waahington 496. Waate land., Canada, 4 France,224; Japan, 4S3, Wedeldnd 143. V. WedeU 71, 74. Weuel37 WeiMwaMerl7a Germany, 35, 434: ,W^tt»24^ -*'»«• I We««ly 183. West Virginia 490. Wedenman 130. Wllkomm 141. Wimmenauer 134. u«£l ^°^'- Germany, 69. wXTh2^' *^' *^'*^- JK°°?. P"<^. Switzerland, 200. Worbng plan,. France, MB^ G«™any us. 121,' 122 w'S^»' «5; Japan, 461. • .■^mU^"°°1. '"PPly "d con- sumption, 4. WOrttemberg 119. Yield, rwulation metliods, 88. lie. 136. • <=«™«"5'. ^. ' V. Zanthier 68, 70, 76. 77 83 Zflndi 109, 200. mw^f^^. 1S8. , 59. 407. Ger- 200. 235; 122; con- 7«,