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New York 14609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288 - 5989 -Fox CotnmiMion of Comervation (.onttiMfd under " Tk* CoHifnialion Act." S-g Kdviari VII, Chtp. aj, 1999, and amrndint AcH O-io FJuurd VII, Chap. 4a, 1910, ondj-4 Oeortf V, Chap. It, I9IJ- Ctmitmut Ki« CLir»r.^D SirTON, K.CM.G. M •mbcn : D«. HowAliD Mliibav, I)enn. I)alhou»ie Univeriity, HalilTM. N.& D«. Cli( II. C. JoNH- tf State and Minister of Mines, Hon. Auui'n E. Absenallt, Premier, Prince Edward Island. Hon. Orlando T. Daniels, Attomcy-General. N°va Jcot'O. Hon. E. a Smith, Minister of Lands and Mines, New Brunswick. Hon. Jules Allabd, Minister of Lan '^ and Forests, <^^- . Hon G H. Febouson, Minister of Unds, Forests and Mines. Ontano. Hon. Thomas H. Johnson, Attorney-General. Manitoba. Hon. George W. Brown, Rcgina, Saskatchev^n TM^nhone. Hon. Charles Stewart, Premier, Minister cr Vr. -ays and Telephone!. Alberta. Hon. T. D. Pattullo, Minister of Lanus, Bni..,,. Columbia. Atiiitant to Ch«inn«n, Deputy Head : Mr. James White. Commission of Conservation Canada COMMITTEE OX FORESTS FORESTS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA BY H. N. WHITFORD, Ph.D., AND ROLAND D. CRAIG, F.E., Und$r Ikt direction of CLYDE LEAVm Chief Foresttr, Commission of Consenali-^ OTTAWA, 1918 J Committee on Forests Hon. W. C. Edwards, Chairman Dr. Frank D. Adams Mr. J. P. Babcock Hon. Martin Burrell Hon. T. a. Crerar Dr. B. E. Fernow Hon. Arthur Meighen Mr. W. B. Snowball And the ex-officio members of the Commission who represent the various provinces noil3824: CONTENTS iNTBODUCnON PART I I. Geographical Relations *® II. Physiographic Relations 31 III. Climatic and Soil Relations ** IV. Land Tenure in British Columbia 80 V. Forest Administration on Provincial Lands 115 VI. Forest Administration on Dominion Lands 143 VII. Forest Policy '^ VIII. Forest Exploitation '^ IX. Forest Trees in British Columbia 187 X. Insect Injuries to Forests in British Columbia 220 PART II I. Forest Resources of British Columbia 238 II. Forest Resources of the Interior of British Columbia 243 III. Forest Resources of the Coastal Belt of British Columbia 322 APPENDICES 1. Timber Sale Contract 385 II. Volume Tables 389 III. British Columbia Log Scale 390 Note. — As a very comprehensive Index has been inserted at end of the volume, the Table of Contents has been abbreviated to a list of chapter headines, mar>s and illustrations. ILLUSTRATIONS pjote Facing Page I. A YouffG Forest on the Pacific Coast 1 II. Ships Loading Lumber for Export, Vancouver 6 Sawmills of the Canadian Western Lumber Co., at Fraser Mills 6 III. Anderson Lake, in the Coast Mountains 20 Kelowna, from the West Side of Okanagan Lake ; in the Interior Plateau 20 IV. Waste Land, at the He.'^d ok Chehalis River, Lower Fraser River, Coast Mountains 32 Alpine Region, at the Head of Chehalis River, Coast Mountains 32 V. Douglas Fir, North of Stuart Lake, Stuart River, Interior Plateau .... 40 Destruction by Fire of Spruce, near Nation Lake, Peace River Watershed 40 VL Douglas Fir, in Fraser Valley, Coast Mountains 48 Sitka Spruce and Cottonwood, in Skeena Valley, Coast Mountains 48 VII. Dead-topped Cedar, with Hemlock and Balsam, Hartley Bay, Douglas Channel, Coast Mountains '♦ Muskeg Type, on West Side of Grenville Channel, Coast Mountains 54 VIII. Muskeg Type, South of Masset Inlet, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands ^ Spruce, Hemlock and Cedar, Moresby Island, Queen Charlotte Islands. . . 60 IX. Semi-arid Conditions, East Side of Coast Mountains, Cavuse Creek, Fraser River ^^ Spruce, Balsam and Lodgepole Pine Forests, in Fraser Plateau, near Pen- ticton. Altitude, 6,500 feet 64 X. Douglas Fir, Red Cedar and White Pine, Columbia Valley ; Interior Wet Belt ^2 Red Cedar in Columbia Valley ; Interior Wet Belt 72 XL Sawmill, Spruce Creek, Atlin, B.C. Yukon Plateau 80 Spruce Logs, McKee Creek, Atlin, B.C. Yukon Pl \teau 80 XII. Spruce along Fort Nelson River, Great Plains Region 86 Cottonwood and Spruce, near Fort Nelson River, Great Plains Region. . . 86 XIII. Natural Reproduction of Douglas Fir after Logging and Slash Burning ; 20 YEARS OLD, NEAR GRIEF POINT, MALASPINA STRAIT 100 Douglas Fir Reproduction, after Forest Fire, 17 years old, Powell Lake. 100 XIV. Hemlock Reproduction, under Mature Douglas Fir and Hemlock Stand.. . 108 Logging Debris. This Constitutes a Dangerous Fire Hazard and Renders Reproduction Difficult W8 XV. Dominion Forestry Branch Lookout Cabin, on Green Mountain, Long Lake Forest Reserve, Kamloops District 114 Packing Wire for Fire Patrol Telephone Line, Columbia Valley 114 XVI. Blow-down in Hbmlock-Balsam Stand, Quatsino Sound, Vancouver Island. 122 Looking down Portland Canal, from Stewart 122 XVII. Logging bv Donkey Engine, Powell Lake 128 Logging Railway, Courtenay, Vancouver Island 128 XVIII. Logging Slash Burned, Preparatory to Clearing, Courtenay, Vancouver Island *3* Cleared Land (Oak on Left), Courtenay, Vancouver Island 138 XIX. Pulp and Paper Mill, Powell River 148 British Columbia Sulphite Fibre Co.'s Plant, Howe Sound 148 XX. Douglas Fir, Fraser Valley 156 Red Cedar, Fraser Valley 156 PlaU XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. c, ILLUSTRATION S—Omtinued Facint Page Sitka Spruce, Nade.v Harbour, Graham Island, Q.C.I 1*6 Western White Pine, Fraser Valley |^^ Western Hemlock, Lillooet Lake |^° Western Yellow Pine, Nicola Valley "° Douglas Fir, near Chilliwack •" Red Cedar, Hemlock and Douglas Fir, near Chilliwack vn Douglas Fir, near Oyster River, Vancouver Island »92 Red Cedar, on Spuzzum Creek, Fraser River 200 Typical Coast Forest, with Red Chdar Predominating 200 Pacific Great Eastern Railway, through Cheakamus Canon 214 Insect Enemies of the Forest 22 Western Yellow Pine Killed by Bark Beetles, near Princeton 234 Hemlock Defoliated and Killed by Caterpillars in Stanley Park, Van- 234 couver MAPS Physiographic Divisions Douglas Fir Types Western Red Cedar Types Hemlock-Spruce Types Hemlock-Balsam Types Yellow Pine Type Spruce Types Forest Reserves, Parks and Administrative Districts in British Columbia Saw-mills, Shingle-mills and Pulp-mills in British Columbia . . Distribution of Douglas Fir Distribution of Western Red Cedar Distribution of Sitka Spruce Distribution of Engelmann Spruce Distribution of Western Hemlock Distribution of Amabilis Fir Distribution of Western White Pine Distribution of Western Yellow Pine Distribution of Western Larch Drainage B.\sins of British Columbia Forest Stand Types in British Columbia Limits of Principal Trees Reference in text Coast Interior 31 57 66 56 59 69 60 61 71 62 62 71 62 65 65 •• 74 74 142 180 192 194 198 200 202 204 206 208 210 244 Inside back cover Inside back cover ERRATA Page 22 Twenty-third line from bottom, for 760,000^-, read 368,400^. Seventeenth line from bottom, for 13,539^ 8,20^. read 13,593, 8,202. Fifteenth line from bottom, for 7,68Cf, read 3,68'^. Eleventh line from bottom for pp. 4 and 5. The figure 7,680, read pp. 2 and 3. The figure 3,684. Sixth line from bottom, delete entire line. " 23 Tenth line from top, for nearly twice, read four times. Nineteenth line from bottom, for 400, read 366. Eighteenth line from bottom, for 26, read 24. Sixteenth line from bottom/, for 24 per cent, or 250, read 16 per cent, or 230. " 26 Third line from bottom, for Government Relations, read Land Ten- ure in British Columbia. " 62 Eighteenth line from top, for Western Hemlock-Balsam Type, read Western Hemlock-Amahilis Fir Type. viH Plit»l Red C'3dar Dougl.-a Fir A YOUNG FOREST ON THE PACIFIC COAST Sttka Spruce THE FOREST RESOURCES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Introduction A T no time in the history of Canada has a knowledge of our resources been *■ of such vital importance. During the course of the great war, the resources of the Allies, in men and materials, are being mobilized to an extent which would have been considered impossible in antebellum days. The force of these resources, marshalled from almost every part of the world, is beginning to be felt on the line of battle, and will in the end be the determining factor in the conflict. Unprecedented expenditures have been made to meet the war's demant't,, and obligations have been incurred by all the belligerents which must be met by present and future industry. The share of the burden which Canada is assuming is not a light one for this country, in its present stage of development. The success which has attended her call for financial credit is attributable, directly, to the belief that, by the development of her natural and industrial resources, she will be able to meet all her obligations. Addressing the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Commission of Conserva- tion, in January, 1917, the Chairman, Sir Clifford Sifton, drew attention to the manner in which the necessity for conservation — for national efficiency — has been impressed by the w^ar upon all peoples, belligerent or neutral : "Among the most remarkable results of the war has been the re-e.xamina- tion which each nation has been compelled to make with regard to its material resources. The gospel which we have been preaching for some years past has now been found to be the true gospel. It has been found by hard experience that national safety demands that nations should not only possess resources but understand them and be able to utilize them economically. Whereas, a few years ago people listened to the discussion of this subject with polite but somewhat academic interest, they now know that no subject is of more import- ance to the national welfare, and that the lack of developed capacity to utilize every possible resource may, in certain emer>,'encies, mean disaster." Canada, during recent years, has made great advances toward the investi- gation and proper utilization of the natural resources of the Dominion, yet it has, nevertheless, steadily become more apparent, as the work oJ the Com- mission of Conservation has progressed, that the economic problems awaiting solution are of a magnitude to require unremitting study and practical effort. All the efforts of the D.).: inion must be devoted to production and economy. The vast resources of Canada, to which the term 'illimitable' has been so fre- quently applied, because of lack of knowledge, must be turned to some useful j purpose. Untilled fields, buried minerals or standing forests are of no value except for the wealth which, through industry, can be produced therefrom. That industry may be intelligently applied, a knowledge of the natural I resources upon which it depends is fundamental. It is poor economy to attempt j to develop an industry the basic materials for which are not available in sufii- I cient quantities to ensure successful operation. 3 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION In the development of the resources supplied by nature, two clawes must be recognized— the reproducible, such as products of the soil, and the non- reproducible, such as minerals. Too frequently the forests are considered in practice as belonging to the latter class. The supplies of timber which are available for present use are necessarily of more immediate interest, though, ultimately, the productivity of the soil is of primary importance. The extent of the land in Canada which is available for forest production, and for that purpose only, is not generally realized. Agriculture, where possible, is the most profitable use of the soil, but the area in Canada which can be so utilized is small compared with the area of absolute forest land. In British Columbia, only about 5 per cent of the total area appears to be suitable for agncultiire. A very high percentage of the remainder is chiefly valuable for the production of timber. Beyond question, the best interests of the province, and of the Dominion as a whole, demand that this vast area of non-agricultural land be devoted to the systematic production c . successive crops of timber. The value of the forest production is shown by the following statement of the products from the four primary industries in Canada for the year 1915: _.,.,„„. $797,669,500 Field crops .J72 880000 f°.«»'s 138.513.750 *:?«J«*: - 31.264.631 Fishenes ' Toul $1,140,327,881 The year 1915 was one of general depression in the lumber industry, there- fore a very material increase in forest production is assured. There is no doubt that with protection from forest fires and with the enforcement of adequate cutting regulations, the forests of Canada could be made to produce many times the present amount. New industries are developing which call for new materials, frequently for those which were formerly wasted and considered of no commercial value. The pulp industry, for instance, utilizes species and qualities of timber which were disdained by the pine lumberman, and. on many areas, a second cutting has been more profitable than the first. A reasonably accurate knowledge of the character and extent of the forest resources of the country is obviously necessary, in order that all of tlic forest may be utilized to the best advantage practicable, and that adequate plans may be made for present and future development. In British Columbia, which is supposed to possess about one-half of the saw material in the Dominion, the lumber industry ranks with mimng as the most important primary industry. The values assigned to the various indus- tries for the last four years are as follows : Value of British Columbia Products ,Q,, 1914 1915 1916 Forest • $33 650.000 $28,680,000 W'.ISO.OOO ^^^ |28.O0O K......... ■.:....... 30;296.39| 26.388.82 9.4^.50^ «.970.5» ^JSre.. ...•.•.■.■.•.::■.■.■. i*®! 3o:?S 3i;m:8oi 32.259.1s7 *Canada Year Book, 1915. INTRODUCTION In addition to the industrial wealth created by the exploitation of our forest resources, the forests constitute one of the chief sources of direct revenue to the various governments. , . j / In 1915, the Dominion and Provincial government revenues derived from the forests aggregated over $6,000,000. The forests of British Columbia contributed a larger revenue than those of any other province ; the revenue collected by the Federal Government, in the Railway Belt, being $89,277. and that by the Provincial Government. $1,922,558. making a total of $2,011,835 for British Columbia, or approximately one-third of the total forest revenue of all Canada. Since its organization, in 1910. the Commission of Conservation has devoted much effort toward obtaining information in regard to the forest resources and forest conditions of Canada ; and, in presenting this report on the forests of British Columbia, it is felt that a valuable addition has been made to the knowledge of the forest wealth of the Dominion. Previous forestry publications of this Commission include a report on the forest conditions of Nova Scotia, by B. E. Femow, LL.D., assisted by C. D. Howe. Ph.D.. and J. H. White.* A somewhat similar report on the Trent Valley watershed, Ontario. Trent Watershed Survey, has also been prepared and published by the Commission, as well as reports on Forest Protection in Canada for the years 1912. 1913 and 1914. The results of an investigation into the forest resources of Saskatchewan will shortly be issued by the Commission, and it is hoped that similar reports for other provinces mav be prepared as rapidly as funds can be made available for the prosecution of the necessary field work. In particular, it is expected that an investigation into the forest resources of Ontario will be begun at an early date. For this important project, the co-operation of the Provmcial Government has been assured. New Brunswick is conducting a comprehensive su^^•ev of its forests, which will be a valuable basis for forest administration in that province. Of the forest resources of Ontario and Quebec, only frag- mentarv and conflicting data are available as yet. The phenomenal development of the pulp and paper industry in eastern Canada, due to the rapidly approaching exhaustion of the pulpwood resources of New York and the New England states, calls for an immediate investigation of the available supplies of pulpwood and the means whereby the industry may be made permanent. This is a project to which the Commission is givinp considerable attention. Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba possess extensive forest areas of great local value. The Dominion Government has set aside some 21,270,000 acres in the three Prairie Provinces for permanent forest purposes, in addition to some 4,248,000 acres for Dominion parks in Alberta. Large additional areas, found, upon examination, to be non-agricultural, and chiefly valuable for forest production, have been withdrawn pending final establishment as forest reserves by Act of Parliament. $ •The cost of the field work in connection with this report was borne by the Government of i Nova Scotia. 4 COMMISSIONOPCONSERVATION Three years were spent by the authors in compiling the data necessary for this report and, as far as possible, a personal knowledge of the local con- ditions in each district has been secured. The greatest difficulties experienced in conductinii this investigation were due to the large extent of territory to be covered, the extreme variability of the forest conditions, and the difficulty of establishing a standard for timber of commercial value. The province contains approximately 35S,855 square miles, 2,439 square miles of which is covered by lakes, leaving a net land area of 353,416 square miles. Much of the province has not, as yet, been explored with any degree of thoroughness. Lacking transportation facilities, even in the form of trails, time did not permit r the examination of many of these remote regions per- sonally, but it was usually possible to secure reliable information concerning these districts from officers of the Provincial Forest Branch, surveyors, pros- pectors, trappers or others who had a local knowledge of the conditions. British Columbia has been referred *o as a 'sea of mountains,' or a 'land of valleys,' depending upon the viewpoints of the writers. These appellations agree, however, in presenting a picture of uneven surface — an unending suc- cession of elevations and depressions. The unevenness of contour Liis such a marked influence on the climatic conditions that the vegetation varies from the almost tropical luxuriance of the southern coastal region to the semi-arid, cactus and sage-brush growth of the Interior plateau. Extreme altitudinal variations, together with a wide latitudinal range (tl degrees of latitude), produce, also, marked modifications in the conditions of plant life. It has been estimated that the average altitude of the land in the province is over 3,500 feet, so that a large portion is above the limit of arborescent growth. The roughness of the topography contributes also to the variability of the forests. To arrive at an estimate of the forest resources, it was first necessary to determine, as accurately as d' ssible, the area which, on account of high altitude or unfavourable soil conditions, cannot be expected to produce forests of com- mercial value. It is difficult to distinguish between permanently unproductive lands and those renderej so by adventitious causes, such as fire, wind, floods or slides. The timber line attains its highest altitude in the southern interior portion of the province, where it expends to about 6,000 feet. On the coast it is considerably lower, being about 3,500 feet on Vancouver island, and falling to 1,500 feet in the vicinity of Portland canal. Local soil and topographical conditions have a marked effect on the altitudinal limit of tree growth and, in favoured situations, good stands are sometimes found above these altitudes, but, more frequently, the merchantable stands do not attain these elevations. Almost three-fifths of the terrain in British Columbia must be classed as un- productive, from a forestry point of view. The unevenness of the topography, and the diversity of the soil and climatic conditions, result in extreme variation in the forests. In the moist valley bottoms along the coast, stands yielding c-' 100,000 feet board measure per acre are prevalent, while, frequently, tree' Ipine conditions exist within a mile of such stands. On almost any weh timbered square mile on the coast some part of the area will carry at least 50,000 feet per acre. and. on a con- INTRODUCTION fiderable proportio.. J the land, no merchantablf 'imber will be found. This •neyenness of sUnd precludes the adoption of any wholesale method of esti- Viation on the coast. In the interior of the province, however, and especially |n the plateau country between the Coast and Rocky Mountain systems, more •niform stands are found over large areas. Forest types, based on the average field, can, therefore, be distinguished and used as the basis of estimating the |otal stand in these regions. One of the chief difficulties in preparing any estimate of forest resources kas always been to arrive at a suitable definition of 'merchantable' timber, ^tandards vary in different parts of the province in regf' to the species, lualitjes and sizes of timber which can be used, and the diL^rence in the sUn- lards between eastern Canada and British Columbia is very marked. The narket and exploitation .'acilities determine, to a large extent, whether timber I of commercial value. In the southern interior of the province, where the fcmber is small and can be handled by horses and driven down the streams to the Inanufacturing points, which are close to the markets of the Prairie Provinces. Kmber can be profitably exploited that would be of little or no value in the y&vy stands on the coast. On the other hand, the establishment of pulp Hills on the coast has changed the standards of timber estimating very materi- |lly in the last ten years. Prior to that time, hemlock and balsam were frdinarily omitted from the umber cruiser's estimates. Standards vary with fhe demands of the lumber market. If the demand for any species, such, for xample, as cedar, increases to the point where it is difficult to fill it with the iiperior grades, the smaller sizes and poorer qualities which, previously, had ^o commercial value, can be utilized. The accessibility of a tract of timber is a relative term, depending on many actors besides the actual situation. The development of transportation and Dgging equipment has brought into the market large amounts of timber which ^as, at one time, considered commercially unavailable. The most important ^ctor in availability is, however, the price of the product, and, as wood values bcrease, more timber will become available for exploitation. There is a large imount of timber in British Columbia so situated that, at present, it would fpst two or three times the sale value of the logs to bring them to a market. fn the other hand, many tracts which, a few years ago, possessed a negative falue for operatmg purposes, are now being profitably operated. Since it is t : possible to foresee the developments which may take place in the future, the uestion of present accessibility was disregarded in the preparation of this tport and, therefore, the figures given do not represent the forest resources ^'allable for immediate use, but the amount on the land which may be utilized pen conditions permit. Effort has been directed to avoid making undue allowance for the waste Ihich, at present, prevails in lumbering operations in British Columbia, though ^any of the old cruises from which the total estimates were derived were Bsed on 'experience' or 'utility' standards. m The later and more scientific timber cruises are, however, made on a total aood volume basis, which includes all the timber of a utilizable size, usually to m « COMMISSION OF C »»N 8E R V A TI ON ft minimum di«mrt« limit of 10 inchei on the ttump. and l««vt to th. diwrnion of th« operator the degree to which he will utiliie the tUnd. Ai (»r m poedble. this tundard hai been adopted. The eetimatet of the lUnd wert compiled from detailed report! (umiehed by the British Columbia Forest Branch, the timber owneri. cruuen. turveyon and othen. who generously cooperated with u. in conducting thw mveetigation^ In respond to a requett from the Commiwion of Coniervation. the tiinb«r owners very generously furnished a wealth of detailed informatics, which could not have been secured otherwise without many years of field work and an ab«)lutely prohibitive expenditure. These cruisers' reports were supplied by the timber ownerr » the understanding that th^y would be treated as confidential by the Commission. In addition to the data secured from the timber owners diectly. numerous reports were secured from other sources. As frequently, two or more reports on the same tract were secured, it was possible, with the authors' personal knowledge of local forest conditions, to check a considerable portic of the data collected. Detailed reports on the amount of each species of timber were secured for approximately 75 per cent of the alienated forest lands, but the reporu for 10 per cent of the area were discarded as valueleM. Reconnaissance surveys have been conducted by the Forest Branch over severa. large areas, mostly in the interior, and these were of great value in the pie- paration of this report. It is recognised that cruisers' reports are not always reliable, siwe thore is no such thing as absolute accuracy in estimating standing timber. T^". personal qualities of the cruiser, as well as the purpose for which the report « ^e. are important factors. The most frequent source of error on the part of cruisers is their failure to properly estimate the area carrying timber. As a mle. the older cruises were found to be lower than the recent and more care- fully made estimates, the latter more nearly approaching a wood volume basis, while the former included only such timber us the cruiser considwed could be profiubly cut at the time. This resulted frequently in the omission ofthe hemlock and balsam and of all trees under about 24 inches in diameter, breast high and of the less accessible timber. Very heavy stands were, as a rule. undCT^timated. and light stands were over-estimated. The apphcation of modem forestry methods in cruising has resulted in more accurate results *^'*Fot dSptive purposes, the province has been divided into 66 districts, which have been designated 'drainage areas.' though, frequently, the boun- daries of these districts were determined by other considerations than drainage^ Uniformity of cUmatic. silvicultural and managerial conditions were coimdered important factors in this connection. Twenty-six of these districts are situated on the coast, and forty lie to the east of th. Cv^asi mountains. An attempt has been made to classify the land in each district, showmg not only the area covered by merchantable timber but the area which should be devoted to foreft It^ been found that, of the total land area of the province. 355,855 sq. miles, approximately 200.000 sq. miles is incapable of producing forests of com- PliMM ill SHIPS LOAOINO LUMBER FOR EXPORT, VANCOUVER 4 SAWMILLS OF THE CANADIAN WESTERN LUMBER CO., AT FRASER MILLS M tl ^11 INTRODUCTION nercial value. About 145.000 sq. miles He above the merchantable timber-line 1 on 55 000 sq. mdes. though below timber-line, the soil is either too rocky or ret. or the forests have been so completely destroyed by fire that there is no -•>e for the natural re-establishment of forest conditions for centuries to come L , °l*^^'o'S''''^ ^"'^^^ '''• """^^ ^^'""^ '^ '^^P^^le of producing forests. bnly about 28.000 sq. miles-less than one-fifth-carries sufficient timber to be Classified as statutory timberland.* In the interior of the province there are reas of forest land, aggregating 23,800 sq. miles, which, though not reach- ig this standard, carry between 1.000 b.f. and 5.000 b.f.. part of which nay be utilized. Only very meagre data have been obtained, as yet. as to the rea of land which can be used for agricultural purposes. It appears from our jrest land^ classification that somewhat over 5.000 sq. miles is grass land or ^ery open forest, some of which is suitable for cultivation, but the greater pro- p 000 to 15.000 sq. miles cleared or under forest which is. or may be, more jraluable for agnculture than for forest production. Deducting this potential kgncultural land, say 20.000 sq. miles, from the land capable of producing fcommercial timber, there is 135.855 sq. miles of absolute forest land which phould be devoted permanently to forest production. The timber on about 100.000 sq. miles, or two-thirds of the land once lorested, has been totally destroyed by fire, and on over half of the remaining B5 855 sq. miles the timber has been seriously damaged. Using the timber Itill standing as a basis, it is estimated that the province has lost, through lorest fires, at least 665 billion feet board measure. When one considers tlit Ihe total stand of saw material in the whole Dominion probably does not greatly fxceed this amount now. the seriousness of this loss, which can be attributed ^ery largely to public carelessness, becomes apparent. Following table indicates composition of the present stand of saw material ■ II Species Coast Vestem red cedar . . Douglas fir iprucef Testem hemlock . . . ialsamj -odgepole pine V'estem yellow pine 'ellow cjrpress Vestem larch V hite pine Jlack Cottonwood . . Million feet Iward measure 59.000 64.000 14,000 52,000 19.000 20 3.700 Per cent 27 29 6 24 9 Interior Million feet board measure 1.100 400 213,220 19 •5 2 100 0 18,019 12,573 58,375 12,164 13,838 12,130 4,208 3.152 1,617 272 Per cent Total Million feet board measure 13 2 9 2 42 8 8 9 10 2 8 9 3 1 2-3 12 2 77,019 76,573 72,375 64.164 32,838 12.150 4.208 3,700 3,152 2,717 672 Per cent 136,348 100 0 349,568 22 1 21 8 20 18 9 3 1 1 100 0 t "cudSSnHf.? '.^"f^'""*"." "P"!'*' "^'''^ ^P'^'* »nd black spruce iiT t I 2 . • l"*'and fir and amabilis fir. e ChlXT^d fllT pTrUL ""^ ""'""'^ ""^"^^^ '" ^ ''•'"°" ^^' (^PlU For deUiU :h If: I COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION It will be seen from this that, of the species which are used in the manu- facture of pulp and paper (hemlock, balsam, spruce and cottonwood), there j is 170 billion feet, which is equivalent to 243 million cords* of pulpwood. which may be increased to 250 million cords by utilizing smaller sized timber. In view of the fact that the supply of pulpwood is becoming a very serious matter | in eastern North America, it is of interest to know that so considerable a supply may be obtained in British Columbia. The estimate of the forest resources of the province submitted in this | report is based on a much higher percentage of detailed timber cruises than any forest report of a similar nature heretofore issued. It is believed, therefore, that the information will be valuable, not only to the governments, which con- trol the forest policy in the province, but to timber owners as well, and to financial interests, on whom the development of our industrial production so largely depends. Although the primary object of this investigation was to secure an estimate I of the available supply o^" timber in the province, it is felt that a report of this kind would not be complete without at least a general discussion of the con- j ditions affecting the administration and utilization of the forests. In the opening chapters the geographic, physiographic and climatic relation? •'hich afiEect not only the composition of the present stand, but also deteri - the character of the succeeding crops, are treated at some length. Under the head of 'Governmental Relations,' the various forms under which the forests have been alienated are described and the present systems of administration and protection of the forest are discussed. The administration of the lands and forests in the province is divided between the Dominion and Provincial Governments. The Provincial lands which were transferred to the Dominion in connection with the building of the Canadian Pacific railway constitute a strip across the province extending 20 | miles on each side of the main line of that railway and also a block of approxi- | mately 3,400,000 acres in the Peace River district. Though some timber-land has been sold outright, the general policy of both governments has been to dispose of the timber separately from the land, by granting leases or licenses, for which an annual ground rent and a royalty on the timber cut are charged By this system, the government retains an interest in and a measure of control over the standing timber. As a consequence of the boom which prevailed in . regard to western timber during the period between 1903 and 1907, about 15,000 sq miles of provincial land was taken up under what is known as special timber licenses. Though over 2,000 of these have been subsequently aban- doned, the license system has been one of the most important sources '* pro- vincial revenue. No provincial timber was reserved from alienation until the close of 1907, when the license system was discontinued. As a result ot the policy hitherto followed, over three-qf'rteis of the timber of commercial value in the province has been alienated under one form of tenure or another As might be expected, these private holdings include the most accessible and most valuable timber in the province •In British" Columbia 700 b.f. -1 cord. inu- liere j lich In tteri >piy this I han I ore, i to! a so latel this! :on- the hich the lead lave and INTRODUCTION 9 Timber was taken up far beyond the requirements of the lumber industry, tnd, unless production is greatly increased, the carrying charges on much of the less accessible timber will become a serious burden on the limit holders long 7)efore the timber can be used. During the last five years the total cut in the province has averaged only l250 million board feet. With a stand of 350,000 million board ft. of timber bf commercial size, and with over 100,000 sq. miles of land on which young fcrests are established and which, if protected, should produce from 5,000 Million to 7,000 million board ft. per annum, it will be seen that the forest ^sources of British Columbia can, under conservative exploitation, supply at least five times the present cut without seriously depleting the capital stock. I It is a matter for congratulation that both the Provincial and the Domin- bn Governments are providing increasingly effective protection for the forests ". the province. It is most encouraging that nn increasing measure of public •-operation is being secured through the efforts of the Forest Service, in due; ag the citizens as to the value of their forests, and it may confidently e anticipated that the ruthless destruction of this wonderful heritage, which las caused such incalculable damage in the past, will m future, be reduced to minimum. ided ■ inds '1 the I 201 •oxi- land n to ises, ged itrol d^n. • 30Ut ; ;cia! j ban- pro- intil . t of - rcial ,her ; anil ' ru m CHAPTER I Geographical Relations G^??e\ird"InH^^ ''°''f ". determines to a very large extent not only *r^ I'lnd and amount of forest products which can be produced btit tt eSto wt^?,*'r F^°^-^l-" b« "t'"- <>f ^^ --. is situated ^ GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS „ thirds, of the entire amount, or 1,022 billion feet Of tu:. im un- , or 22.5 per cent, is in British Columbia The bulk of thl . ' K ?'":°V^- belt is situated south of the northTrn enH nf V ^^^^'"^^ ^^ the Coast betwecn^the 42nd and SlZ^^n'rotltZ^Zr' '"^"'^ ^"'^ '^"^ ''' The .Interior forest belt, known locally as the 'Interior' or ' Mountain' .n,=™r fore,, bel, .ies »«h o, .he 55.h p.raSXi.l t UowII .t c mwiath. ('^ee Stand Type map accompanying this report.) to th! foU? Vk^ ^t'u'""^ ^'" ^^ "'"^^ '^'^^'••>- understood by reference l^allable " ' ''''' "'"' ^'°"^- '" ^°""^ fi*---^' ^^e best information TABLE 1,-STANDING TIMBER OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST FORESTt (I" billion feet, board measure)^ Coast belt Stand Per cent British Columbia. . . Northwestern States. Total. . 230 792 22 5 775 1,022 100 0 Interior Total ^^^^ ! Percent Stand ! Percent 136 365 27 1 72 9 366 1,157 SOI 100 0 1,523 24 0 76 0 100 0 Relation of Geographical Position to Utilization readJ^'heT.'' w ?' ^^"'^' Northwest contain large quantities of timber ready to be cut which cannot, at the present time, be fully utilized owin^ o thl S 'Tl-1 ^'\'^"'^ /"'^^^'^^-^ ^-- ^^« Prindoal IrkTs'o? he world. The chief markets are situated in the eastern portion of North America ^ ol" ^^^'r".^"'°r- "^^^'^ ''"''''' ^"PPly- «° f-- ^^ i-ports a^econcTrned S comes mainly from forest regions situated on or near the Atlantic seaboard w«/ T'* 'niportant mu.kets for the forest products of the Pacific North ;^st are those situated on or near the Pacific seaboard and in thTLiacent ^ Pra.ne regions east of the Rocky mountains. These markets, at the pre e^ time are incapable of absorbing more than a portion of the possib'» cut of the Pacific Northwest. It is important, therefore. Ic consider theTossibmti s of I "pa ™r Thl""'bf ^^.^'^^P-'*^^ N-*^--t. and of BriS Columb a ! particular. This problem involves such factors as the existing conditions ^ esJiS Iri^^^ZU^tbm^^'f^t'''' ' "^°" "' ^'^^'^^' "'«= f--' --'th of which I '' -] meLurei' ^"''™ ^'^'' "''"^"^ "^ throuRhout this report, signifies thousand million feet. ft II 12 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION respecting manufacturing capacity, the competition of other forest regions and the possible limitation of the cut to an amount which will not endanger the forest capital. PrtMnt Cut ^^^ following table shows the cut of the forest region under discussion for the year 1913 : TABLE 2.— LUMBER CUT OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST FOR THE YEAR 1913* (In million feet, board measure) Coast belt Interior Total Amount Per cent Amount Per cent Amount Per cent British Columbia 781 88 6,145 69 2 375 4 2 1.575 17 8 1.137 7.720 13 Ot Northwestern States 87 Ot Total 6.926 78 0 1,950 22 0 8.877 100 0 Of the total cut of 8.877 million feet of lumber in the Pacific Northwest region in 1913, 1,157 million feet, or only 13 per cent, was cut from the forests of British Columbia, although nearly 26 per cent of the total standing timber of the region is situated within the province. Of the British Columbia cut, approjumately two-thirds is from the Coast belt and the remaining third from the Interior. To maintain the forest capital intact the annual cut must not Possible Cut exceed the annual growth. In British Columbia it is very much less than the amount which could be cut withe it en- dangering the productive capacity of the forest. British Columbia is so large and contains so many different site classes that it is difficult to make anything more than a rough estimate of this growth. Moreover, the probable loss from fires must be considered. Again, where natural regeneration is depended upon for reforestation, all degrees of restocking occur ; fully restocked areas are the exception rather than the rule. Also, a certain percentage of the area forested with merchantable stand contains mature and overmature timber where the decay approximately offset.,, the increment. Selected areas on the Coast that were fully restocked have been found to produce an annual increment of 1 ,000 board feet per acre in forty years' growth. Obviously, this figure is much too high for a general average, even for the • It has been thought advisable to use the statistics of the year 1913 throughout this report, because 1913 was the last of a series of years of rapid development in the lumber industry of the Pacific Northwest. As 1913 was the 'peak' year ot production, saw-mill capacity and shipments, the tiniber output of that year must be surpassed if the lumber industry is to continue to develop. Hence, for the sake of the argument that follows, the statistics of 1913 are used rather than the average of a number of years. In many ways, 1913 will represent a milestone in the history of forestry and of the lumber industry of the Pacific Northwest. t See 'Forest Products of Canada, 1913.' Compiled by R. G. Lewis, Bulletin No. 48, Department of the Interior, Forestry Branch, Canada, page 10. t Compiled from 'Production of Lumber in 1913,' BuUetin No. 232, Forest Service, U.S, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1915. See also 'Some Public and Economic Aspects of the Lumber IndusUy,' by W. B. Greeley, Assistant Forester, Report No. 114, U.S. Dept. "i Agriculture, 1917. GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS U Coast, where the rate is exceedingly high as compared with the Interior. Taking the foregoing factors into consideration, it has been assumed that the average annual increment might be estimated at 100 board feet per acre, over approximately 50,000,000 acres of comparatively accessible timber-land, under reasonably effective protection from fire. This assumption will give five billion board feet as the total average annual increment for British Columbia, and consequently this amount could be cut annually without endangering the present forest capital. This is approximately five times the actual annual cut. The results of the investigations embodied in this report show that there are 95,580,000 acres that are capable of producing mer- chantable timber, but a large part of this area is commercially inaccessible at the present time. With the development of transportation lines, large areas, especially in the Interior, will become more accessible. On the whole, therefore, the estimate of five billion feet is considered conservative. Capacity of '^^^ saw-mills of British Columbia were estimated in 1914 to Saw-milU have an annual capacity of 2,555 million board feet.* As the cut for the highest year, 1913, was only 1,157 million feet, the present saw-mill capacity of the province is more than double the amount of the actual cut. A similar situation prevails south of the international boundary, so far as the excess of mill capacity over annual cut is concerned. For the year 1914, the mills of the United States portion of the Pacific North- west, including Northern Idaho, Eastern Washington and Eastern Oregon, had an estimated annual capacity of more than 13. 6 billion feet, while the annual cut is only 6-8 billion feet. Thus, half the saws in the region in ques- tion must remain idle, for lack of a sufficient market for the product.f This locking up of capital in mills and machinery was due partly to the over-confidence of the lumbermen in the ability of the markets to absorb lumber, and partly to the efforts of the millmen to realize quickly on their timber investments. In many cases, these efforts were forced by the pressure of economic conditions. Dis^sition of The markets for the timber of the Pacific Northwest can be • "* divided into home, rail and water markets. Home Markets— For the sparsely settled province of British Columbia It is estimated that, during 1912 and 1913, about one-fifth of the timber cut was used locally. During 1914, however, the home consumption suddenly decreased to one-twentieth of the total cut of the province.! Probably under normal conditions .^ per cent of the total cut will be used at home, leaving 85 per cent to be disposed of outside the province. Of the timber cut in the Coast belt of Washington and Oregon in 1913, approximately 25 per cent was consumed in the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Montana,!! and. for the region between the Cascades and the Rocky • Report of the Forest Branch of British Columbia, iffiA, p. 1 22. A«i.l.^i?r'°? D and Economic Aspecte of the Lumber Industry.* by W. B. Gntfay. Assistant ForMter. Report No 114, U.S. 6ept. of Agriculture. 1917. ^' I Import of the forest Branch of British Columbia, 1014, p. 120. li West Coast Lumberman, Nov. 15. 1915. p. 23. :|. 14 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION mountains, about 37 per cent of the production found a market in these states. In 1914 this proportion decreased to 31 per cent.* The foregoing percentages, representing the last uf a T.■, not be equalled for a long time. While it is almost certain that there will be a steady increase in population for all the units of the region under consideration, thus increasing the absolute amount of timber used, yet it is probably safe to estimate that the consumption of the home market will not be more than from 20 to 25 per cent of the "^"tal cut. The development of the Pacific Northwest will depend to a very large extent on the development of the lumber industry itself. In British Columbia the four leading industries are lumbering, mining, agriculture and fisheries. Forest production, primary and subsidiary, represents a very substantial pro- portion of the total wealth-producing capacity of the province, contributing, in 1913, nearly $34,000,000. The mineral resources and the activities of the fishing industry are confined to limited regions. The forest resources are, on the other hand, fairly well distributed throughout the province, contiguous to fertile valleys that need development. The establishment of mills and logging camps in such regions will induce an influx of settlers by giving them a ready market for their products and by furnishing them with employment during winter months until the\' become well established. Logging operations will aid also in clearing lands that are suited for agricultural development. The home markets for agricultural and forest products depend largely on mutual development. To a certain extent, therefore, the two industries are inter- dependent, and especially is this true in a newly-developed country. Naturally, in a mountainous country like British Columbia, the amount of land suitable for agricultural purposes is small as compared with that adapted for growing timber. Even when all the agricultural land is fully utilized, it can never support a population that will consume more than a very small proportion of the forest products that the non-agricultural lands are capable of growing. Hence, the lumber industrj*. if it is to he developed fully, must always depend largely on outside markets. Rail Markets — Approximately 75 per cent of tho 1913 lumber cut of British Columbia was shipped out of the province by rail. While there are no figures showing the distribution of these shipments, the prairie markets of Canada absorbed most of the material. Small amounts reached eastern Canada, and some went to the United States. The geographical proximity of the Pacific Northwest to the prairie region, with consequent lower freight rates, gives the products of these forests a great natural advantage over those from the eastern part of North America. The possibility of greatly increasing the markets in the prairie region is evident, owing to the fact that as yet only a comparatively small percentage of the available land in this region is being utilized. The prairie regions of Canada are likely to increase more rapidly in population than those of the United • West Coast Lumberman, August 15, 1915, p. 20. GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS |S States, since, in the latter case, the greater proportion of the area is already settled. ' The amount of lumber from British Columbia that reaches the market* of eastern Canada is small, partially because of the high freight rates, but also on account of the lack of a knowledge of the qualities of the Pacific woods. Shipments consist mainly of upper grades. Southern yellow pine has in the past supplied the markets of eastern Canada with the class of construction Mmber that cannot be furnished by the local forests. A strong impetus to the development of home markets generally has been given by the recent decision of the various Dominion Government departments and of the Canadian Pacific railway to give preference to Canadian timber in making contracts and pur- chases. In particular, it will mean a greater consumption of British Columbia lumber and construction timbers in the markets of eastern Canada. The rail exports of British Columbia lumber to the United States have increased rapidly since the duty on lumber entering that country has been removed. This increase applies esp3cially to cedai shingles and lumber. Statistics of the distribution of rail shipments of tLe lumber cut in the coastal belt of Oregon and Washington show that Douglas fir lumber has mvaded nearly every state in the Union. This is true as to even the southern states, in which southern yellow pine, Douglas fir's greatest competitor, is produced. These figures* are based on a production of six billion feet from the coastal belt of Oregon and Washington in 1913. and show that the region between the Rocky mountains and Chicago and south to Texas, and the states west of the Rocky mountains (except California), absorbed 39 per cent of the total cut. Twenty per cent of the cut, representing mostly cargo shipments, went to California, and approximately three per cent of the cut (partly cargo shipment) invaded the region east of Chicago and the states of Texas and Louisiana. The two last-named states, which furnish most of the southern yellow pine, took two and one-half million feet. The foregoing figures show that the general use of Douglas fir in the eastern part of the United States is restricted by the high freight rates incident to the long-distant haul. When normal conditions again prevail, the estab- hshment of lower rates by way of the Panama canal seems certain. This will mean that the consumption of Douglas fir in the eastern part of the United States will be greatly increased, and British Columbia will undoubtedly share in this market. The United States portion of the Pacific Northwest has long been the chief competitor of British Columbia in the Canadian home markets, despite the tanfE on finished lumber imported into Canada. While the figures given for timber shipments from the Pacific states to the prairies of Canada are con- flicting, the actual amount for 1913 seems to have been about 200 million feet, as against some 700 million feet for British Columbia's share of this trade. Results in favour of British Columbia timber, as against tb from the United States, have already been secured through the recent extensive educational •See article in Weil Coast Lumberman, Nov. IS, 1915. p. 23. w !• COMMIS JN OP CONSERVATION campaign carried on in the prairie region of Canada by the Britiah Columbia Porett Branch. The Provincial Government has established branch office* at Regina, Saak., near the centre of the prairie district, and at Toronto, Ont.. from which information as to British Columbia woods and as to their price* •nd supplies are distributed to the trade. Th« Watir Markbts— The water markets of the Pacific Northwest are of two general classes— the Pacific seaboard markets and the Atlantic seaboard markets. Tk« Pacific Staboard Marktts— The present cargo export trade of lumber from the Pacific Northwest to Pacific seaboard markets, while not large, has great possibilities of development. The following table shows that British Columbia, in spite of her great resources and large mill capacity, is not securing the share of this trade to which she is entitled: TABLE 3.-CARGO SHIPMENTS FROM THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST BELT TO PACIFIC SEABOARD MARKETS. 1913 • (In thouiand board feet) Dwtination at ihipment California Australia China Wwt coatt South America Hawaiian Iilandi J*P«i South Sea Island* Panama India New Zealand Philippine Iilandi Mexico Cent'-v! America Mitcellaneout Totals From British Columbia ports 1,420 10,100 450 4,820 4,720 1,000 650 5,010 28,170 From United States ports 1,236,630 228,670 105,970 118,820 54,450 16,470 10,890 10,830 10,570 7,960 7,510 6,430 70 3,250 1,818.520 Total 1,238,050 238,770 106,420 123,640 54,450 21,190 11,890 10,830 10,570 8,610 7,510 6,430 70 8,260 1,846,690 Of the 1.846 million feet absorbed by the Pacific seaboard marVets, British Columbia furnished about 1-5 per cent. If California, which is really a domestic market for the United States and a foreign one for British Columbia, be omitted, the latter furnishes more than 4 instead of 1-5 per cent. All the timber that is shipped by water to Pacific ports is produced within the Coastal belt of the Pacific Northwest. A reference to Table 2 shows that British Columbia furnished 781 million feet of this cut and the United States supplied 6,145 million feet. Thus British Columbia contributed about 3-5 per cent of her total coast production to this trade, while the United States furnished more than 29 per cent. Again excluding California, the ratio is 3-5 to 10. The latter figures are in close proportion to the relationship existing ,o,/'"*?f.^^f^^"'' compiled from an article in the West Coast Lumberman for March 15. 1916, pp. 32 to 3b. Figures for 1913 are quoted fur the reasons given in the footnote under Table 2 page 12. OBOORAPHICAL RELATIONS ly between the total itand of timber in the Coastal belt of the Canadian and Lnited States portions of the Pacific Northwest region. A discussion of the conditions that give the United States the advanUge at the present time^ so far as output is concerned, is reserved for the headine entitled Relation Between the Two Political Divisions.' • There are other forest regions en the Pacific ocean that are in competition or are likely to become more so. with •he Pacific Northwest. A consideration o these regions and of the possibility of present and future competition, especi- ally with Douglas fir products of the Pacific North -st. is in order in this con- nection : Japan-Of the several countries on the Pacific seaboard. Japan alone enters into senous competition with the Pacific Northwest at the present time especially m China, which is the best market of the East. In 1913 Japan supplied to China about 44 per cent, of the entire amount of soft woiids im- ported into that country, while, in the same year, the Pacific ccast furnished 49 per cent.f Japan is at the same time a customer for a small amount of Pacific North- west forest products of a character which she need:; and lacks within the limits of her own empire. This consists mostly of large dimension Douglas fir In 1913 Japan absorbed 21 million feet from Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. 16 million feet from the two first named and nearly five million feet from the latter. Thus, in this year at least, British Columbia secured a larger percentage of the trade in Japan, in proportion to her cut from the Coast forest, than did Oregon and Washington. Japan husbands her forest resources more than any other country on the Pacific. It IS improbable that she is, as yet, drawing on her forest capital in excess of the annual increment, unless it be in the outlying ::orests of the empire that are not yet unde' intensive management, and then only on lands that can be thrown open to agricultural development. However, with the enormous strides Japan is making industrially, she is likely to increase the amounts im- ported from the Pacific Northwest rather than to decrease them. At the same time, she has probably nearly reached the limit of the amount of soft woods she can furnish to China and other countries. Western Siberia-North of Japan is the thinlv-populated region of Western Siberia, which has considerable forest wealth. This wealth is not being utilized to the fullest capacity, and the prooabihty is that the lumberine industry will not be fully developed for some time to come. It cannot be considered as an importing region, at least there is as yet no record of any shipments from the Pacific coast to that country. From the standpoint of the development of the lumber industry, the two seaboards of the Russian empire are analogous to the two seaboards of Canada and the United States Until the forest resources of the Baltic seaboard of the Russian empire are fully • See page 25, 'tin » COMMISSIONOFCONSBRVATIilN developed and thow signs of exhaustion, there is not likely to be a very great development of her Pacific seaboard resources. China— As already noted. Japan and the Pacific Northwest furnish nearly all the soft woods imported into China. Table 3 shows that the shan of tb« Pacific Northwest in this trade .mounted to 106 million feet in 191,1, of which less than one million came from British Columbia. The most promising Asiatic market for Douglas fir timber of all grades is in China. The amount that is furnished annually by the Pacific Northwest is only a small portion of what China will consume annually when she enters upon a more active construction of railways and develops commercially. While in Manchuria and in the eastern provinces of China there are apparently large areas of forests, but little is known of their extent or accessibility. To what degree they can supply the needs of an awakened China is problematic. . robably only a small share of the entire amount can be so furnished. There are no insurmountable difficulties in the way of British Columbia eventually obtaining her share of this trade. India— The extensive forest area of British India is. for the greater part, managed conservatively, chiefly with the object of furnishing the immense popu- lation with its small amount per capita of wood consumption, and to favour the export of woods such as teak, which is used for special purposes. Coniferous woods occur at higher elevations in the Himalayas. These, with woods like sal and others, are the chief general construction woods, but the fact that India imported in 1013 about U million feet from the Pacific Northwest shows either that her forests cannot furnish a sufficient amount of general construction timber for her own use, or that the native woods are not adapted for certain special needs that can be filled by Douglas fir. The fact that India is a part of the British Empire ought to be in favour of British Columbia obtaining a much larger part of the t-ide u d efforts are now being made in that direction. In 1913 British Columbia made no ship- ments to India, but in 1914 she sent about three million feet, mostly in the form of creosoted railway ties. Philippine Islands— Recent investigations in the Philippines show that these islands have much more timber than is needed for local consumption, that a large proportion of this timber ranks equally well with Douglas fir for most construction purposes, and is still a fairly good substitute for even those purposes for which Douglas fir is superior. The importations of the Philip- pines have been gradually diminishing as the lumber industry of the country has developed. In time, the cheap construction timber of the Philippines will find an outside market. Because of its geographic proximity, China is the most promising outlet to absorb tne surplus lumber of the Philippines. If the efforts now being made to gain a footing in this market are successful, the Douglas fir timber of the Pacific Northwest is likely to find an active competitor in the woods from the Philippines. OEOGRAPHICAI. RBLATIONS t« Malay Regioni-Briti.h and Dutch Borneo. Sumatra and the Federated MaUy States are heavUy timbered with foreiti limilar to tho«e o( the Philip- pmet. Modem logging and milling methodi have only recently been intro- duced. If thew countriei were fully developed, they could furnish large quantuiei of timber that would come into keen competition with Douglas fir m Asiatic markets. The distributing point for this timber is Singapore one of the largest timber market- m the East. The fact that Singapore im- ports no Douglas fir whatever is r ...lificant in this connection. Australia and New Zcalnnd-With the exception of California. Australia stands first in the amount of cargo shipments from the Pacific .Vorthwest and IS, therefore, the most imjwtant of!-shorc market for the timocr of this region The chief native timl^rs of Australia arc of the genus Eucalyptus. These woods are very heavy and hard, and are principally in deman.i for such construction purposes as paving blocks and railway ties, where grea. durability is required While Australia has an export trade in these timbers, her imports far exceed her exports. In 1913. the shipments of lumber from the Pacific Northwest to Australia amounted to approximately 239 million feet, of whi. h less than 14 milhon feet was supplied from British Columbia. Canada has failed to secure a larger share in this important market because the trade has been conducted almost entirely through agencies in the United States which control not only the lumber market, but to a large extent, the shipping on the Pacific. Being a part of the British Empire, however, efforts are being made to foster the trade between Canada and her sister dominion. Ft is hojwd that a preferential tariflF may be arranged, as has been done with South Africa Such a course would enable the lumber industry of British Columbia to take advantage of the large and growing market which Australia offers. The standing timber of New Zealand was estimated, in 1914, at approxi- mately 30 billion feet, and the annual consumpfon at SOO million feet • the latter is likely to increase rather th.-.n decrease. New Zealand will, therefore have to supply this increase by importation, since she is already endangering her forest capital. The principal soft wood of New Zealand is' kauri pine a wood too light for heavy construction. This is an added reason for the importa- tion of stronger woods, like Douglas fir. The importation of lumber in 1913 was approximately 47,000 M. feet, of which the Pacific Northwest furnished about 20 per cent, or 8.700 M. feet.* Of this amount British Columbia con- tributed 650 M. feet, or less than 10 per cent. Hawaii and South Sea Islands— As shown by the table on page 16. the exports of timber to the Hawaiian islands amounted, in 1913, to about 54 million board feet, of which none was furnished by British Columbia. The amount imported is large in proportion to the population of the country, but this IS due to the fact that almost no construction timber is found on the islands. The exports to Hawaii will probably not inc ease greatly, but the country can be expected to maintain its present requirements for many years. •See • Demand for Lumber in .New Zealand,' Wtst Coast Lumhnman, February 15. 1916. p. 26, 20 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION What has been said of the Hawaiian islands is true also of the South Sea islands. The latter take some 12 million feet at the present time, one million feet of w*-' '. furnished by British Columbia. Wcft Coas. ^f South and Central America — The west coast of South Amt iw (>:iti America and Mexico absorbed, in 1913, about 141 million feet fro.- w^e idcific Northwest, of which British Columbia furnished about 5 million feet, or 3-5 per cent. With the Panama canal in full operation and peace conditions established in Mexico, the entire Pacific coast of Mexico, Central America and the South American countries is likely to have an unpre- cedented commercial development. Such a condition will call for a tremendous amount of construction timber, such as the Pacific Northwest can supply. No other region is more favourably situated to supply the demand. So far as is known, these countries have little, if any, general construction timber and must depend, at least to a very large extent, on outside markets for their supply. California — As shown by Table 3, California imported, in 1913, from the mills of the Pacific Northwest, over 1,238 million feet of Douglas fir timber, of which only about 1-5 million feet came from British Columbia. California imports heavily, notwithstanding the fact that the state has a stand of timber of about 340 billion feet, with an annual cut of over one billion feet. About half this cut, however, is composed of redwood, a timber that cannot compete with Douglas fir for heavy construction purposes. The remaining half con- sists chiefly of western yellow pine and sugar pine, which can compete more successfully with Douglas fir, but are somewhat inferior to it for general con- struction. Furthermore, the water rate from the Pacific Northwest to San Francisco or Los Angeles is probably lower than the rail rate to the same markets from the home forests where these timbers are available for cutting. The California demand for Douglas fir is therefore likely to continue and per- haps to increase. There is no reason why British Columbia cannot obtain a larger share of this trade, especially since nearly all classes of forest products are now admitted to the United States free of duty. Atlantic Seaboard Markets — In spite of the less favourable geographical position, compared with other exporting forest regions, the Pacific Northwest shipped, in 1913, approximately 76 million feet to countries on the Atlantic seaboard. The following table shows these shipments in detail : TABLE 4.— CARGO SHIPMENTS FROM THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST TO ATLANTIC SEABOARD MARKETS, 1913 fFeet, board measure.) Destination of shipment From British Columbia ports From United States ports Totol 14,210,000 7,boid,66o 4,430,000 8.370,000 3,470,000 38,540,000 22,580,000 Atlantic coast of North America. . United Kingdom and Europe East coast of South America 3,470,000 45,540,000 4,430,000 Totals 25,640,000 50,380,000 76,020,000 Pill* Ml ANDERSON LAKE, IN THE COAST MOUNTAINS -' '^ii^i-f^tsmMf^- :■• ;> ■^«).- JmT imma/iw at commmiON KELOWNA, FROM THE WEST SIDE OF OKANAGAN LAKE. IN THE INTERIOR PLATEAU GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS 21 A comparison of this table with Table 3, gi-ing the cargo shipments to the Pacific seaboard markets, shows that proportionately British Columbia has a much larger share of the Atlantic seaboard trade. The proportion in the case of shipments to the Atlantic seaboard is two to one in favour of the United States whereas, in the Pacific seaboard shipments, the proportion in favour of the United States is 29 to 3-5 with California included, and 10 to 3-5 without California. The figures of Table 4 show that British Columbia had the largest share of the Pacific Northwest trade with Africa. This is attributed mainly to the fact that South Africa and Canada have a preferential tariff arrangement that favours Canadian timber as against that from the United States. If similar arrangements could be made between Canada and other portions of the British Empire, especially with Australia, the lumber trade of British Columbia would undoubtedly derive a very great benefit. The cargo shipments of the Pacific Northwest to Europe, mainly the Umted Kingdom, amounted to 45 million feet in 1913. Of this amount Bntish Columbia's share was about seven million feet, '^'he large increase in the shipments to Europe, amounting to about 43 million feet in 1914 and 101 million feet in 1915. was due to the unprecedented demand because of war conditions, and cannot be indicative of the normal demand for this timber in Europe, though the fact that the British Government placed a large order in Bntish Columbia is significant. In the readjustment of the worid's trade after the war, it is not at all unlikely that Canadian timber will be in great demand, especially in the United Kingdom, and British Columbia will share in supplying this demand. In 1913 no cargo shipments were made from British Columbia to the eastern portions of the United States and Canada, and only 3,470 thousand feet from the United States side of the line reached these ports. The followir- :e, however, gives some idea of the effect of the opening of the Panama . . .. the movements of lumber to Atlantic coast ports of North America : TABLE 5.-SHIPMENTS FROM PACIFIC NORTHWEST TO NORTH AMERICAN ATLANTIC PORTS FOR THE YEARS 1913, 1914 AND 1915* (Feet, ')oard measure) Ports from which shipments were made British Columbia . United States ." ] . Total Years of Shipments 1913 1914 1915 Total 3,468,709 3.468.709 6.S91.609 27.580.300 11,336.462 74,559,585 17,928,071 105,608,594 34,171,909 1 85.896.047 1 123.536.665 The foregoing figures show an increase from less than three and one-half milhon feet in 1913 to 34 million feet in 1914. and to neariy 86 million feet in • Compiled from statistics in West Coast Lumbtrmcn for March 15, 1915, p. IS. .'f, '.I ii-Ji M COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION iri5. This is highly significant of the beneficial effect the openin , of the Panama canal has exercised upon the Pacific Northwest. British Columbia has shared in these benefits. Others factors, including the Great War, havt undoubtedly entered into this rapid development of cargo shipments from the Pacific Northwest to the eastern seaboard markets of North America. The establishment of normal conditions at the close of the war is likely to increase the trade rather than to decrease it. Comparison of the Pacific Northwest with the Southern Pine Region OF the United States The southern pine region of the Un-ted States is the greatest rival of the Pacific Northwest, not only for export business but for nearly all the territory of the United States and Canada east of the Rocky mountains. Besides supplying the markets east of the Mississippi river almost to the exclusion of Douglas fir, this region furnishes a large proportion of the lumber used on the prairies except in the region immediately adjacent to the Rocky mountains and to the international boundary line. The main products of the Pacific Northwest and those of the southern pine region are much alike. As these products are competing in the same markets, a comparison of the two regions as regards the supplies of timber, the present cut and the possible cut without endangerin- the forest capital, will be instructive. The following table will enable such a comparison to be made : T.ABLE 6.— COMPARISON OF THE PACIFIC .\ORTHWEST AND THE SOUTHERN PINE REGION (In million feet, board measure) Southern I Pacific _^^ pine region 1 .Northwest' T^T'\ "la^z""^' '^'^ I 760,000^ I 1,550.000^' lOtal cut, l\f\i J4 jjgJ2 , g „--, Cargo shipments to Pacific seaboard markets other than United ' i ' States and Canada I gnij Cargo shipment." to Atlantic seaboard markets other than United States and Canada ] ^qqi yji Consumption in United States and Canada. 13'539< '■ 8 202< Possible cut without endangering forest capital. (Estimated ' i annual growth of the forest.) 7 680= i 15 500» ' Exclusive of Alas' a. . c^„ fr T^o- ^'^"71 ^'^^s*'" given m Bullelin A'o. 30S, Forest Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, w„u;i , ,i:\ "^ Ef°"°"i'c Importance and Forest Management,' by Wilbur R. Mattoon \\ ashmgton, 915, pp. 4 and 5. I he hgure 7,680 million feet given for the possible cut without endangenng the forest capital is based on Mattoon 's estimate of the growth rate of 1 per cent annually after allowing for loss by fire, etc. See also pages 91-93, Report No. 114, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, by W. B. Greeley. •». V o wcpdll 'Figures compiled from West Coast Lumberman, March 1, 1914. Figures obtained by subtracting cargo shipments of columns 3 and 4 from total cut. Estimates of this report compiled from various sources. •Table 2, page 12. 'Compiled from Table 3, page 16. 'See Table 4, page 20. •Rough estimate based on annual increment of 1 per cent. GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS 23 The foregoing comparison shows that, in 191.?, the Pacific Northwest with a forest capital nearly twice as great as that of the southern pine region' had an annual cut of about 9 billion feet, as compared with the cut of nearly 15 billion feet for the latter region. This difference is due mainly to the difference in geographical position of the two regions. The southern pine region is situated nearer the centre of the greatest timber-consuming districts in the world and, chiefly because of favourable freight rates, can market its products more cheaply. The table shows that the actual cut of the southern pine region is already nearly twice as great as the estimated annual increment, while, on the other hand, the Pacific Northwest can double its annual production and still not impair its forest capital. These comparisons are most signifi-iant, for they indicate that the day is not far distant when ihe southern pine region will have exhausted its forest capital or drawn on it so heavily that the annual production will have to be reduced. When that day arrives the principc' lumbering centre of North America will be shifted to the Pacific Northwest, just as it has in the past been transferred from the white pine region of the Great Lakes district of the United States and Canada to the southern pine region. Mean- while, the Pacific Northwest cannot expect to realize fully on its forest capital, unless future development creates an unprecedented demand for lumber in the world's markets aside from North America. 1. The Pacific Northwest forest is situated so far fiom the Summary principal timber markets of the world that it has not yet been able to realize fully the value of its immense timber resources. 2. In 1913 the lumber cut from the entire r- gion was 8,877 mi'lion feet, of which British Columbia supplied 1,157 million feet, or 13 per ceni This is in contrast with the fact that British Columbia has approximately 366 billion feet of standing timber, or 24 per cent of the stand of the entire Pacific Northwest. Of the Coast Belt forest as a whole, British Columbia has neariy 22- 5 per cent, or 230 billion board feet. Considering the forest resources of this province alone, 62-8 per cent of the stand is in the Coast belt, and 37-2 per cent in the Interior. The present sawmill capacity of the province is more than double the actual cut. This is true also of the Pacific Northwest region as a whole. 3. The products of the Pacific Northwest forest supply practically all the timber used locally and furnish a large amount of timber to California and to the prairie regions. In 1913 British -olumbias share of this trade with the prairie regions was nearly 75 per cent of its cut. 4. The forest products of the Pacific Northwest invade the markets of eastern Canada and the easte.n seaboard of the United States, notwithstanding the long-distance transportation involved. 5. The Pacific Northwest forest is the only large forest region on the Pacific seaboard that has been developed sufficiently to furnish construction timber for export trade to countries that do not produce sufficient quantities of timber of this class for their own use. While the lumber industry of the *f( i 24 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION British Columbia portion of the region has not been developed quite so fully as that on the United States side, in proportion to the amount of her forest resources, it -.c, nevertheless, rapidly approaching the latter. 6. The Pacific Northwest furnishes a large share of the construction timber that is imported by the countries bordering on the Pacific seaboard In proportion to the cut. British Columbia's share of this trade is less than that furnished by the United States. 7. The Pacific Northwest furnishes, in addition, a small quantity of timber to the countries of the Atlantic seaboard, despite severe competition with the products of the southern pine region of the United States, the white pine region of eastern Canada, and the exporting regions of northern Europe In proportion to her cut. British Columbia contributes a larger share than the Umted States. The depletion of the southern pineries will ultimately result in shifting the centre of lumber production from the south to the Pacific Northwest. 8. If the Pacific Northwest could develop the markets for its products It could neariy double the output without impairing the forest capital, and. in the cast of Bntish Columbia, the production could be more than quadrupled, provided reproduction be looked after or. at least, be not prevented. Relations of the Two Forest Belts Attention has already been directed to the two forest belts, the Coast belt and the Interior belt— the former on the Pacific seaboard, and hence easily accessible to the cheaper water transportation ; the latter from 200 to 350 miles from tide-water but nearer the rail markets east of the Rocky mountains. The quality of the timber in the two belts is different. On the Coast about JO per cent of the cut can be graded as 'uppers.' while in the Interior probably not more than 5 per cent of the cut would be classed as equal to the 'uppers' of the Coast. The proportion of the 'commons' or the 'low- grade' in the Interior is, therefore, much larger than on the Coast. As the praine market east of the Rockies demands principally the lower grades the Interior belt is ideally situated, and has sufficient quantities of timber to fur- nish the entire amount required. In spite of the higher freight rates, however, the Coast belt ships more timber by rail than does the Interior belt. A certain percentage of this is 'uppers' that the Interior belt cannot supply but the larger part of it is of the common grade. That the Coast timber can compete successfully with the Interior timber m the rail markets is due to the cheaper cost of logging and milling on the coast. The cost of living is higher in the Interior, the region is more mountain- ous, and the yield per acre is much less than on the Coast. Again, the Coast Iwnbermen can get a higher price for their 'uppers.' and can accordingly afford to deliver the 'commons' at a lower price than can the lumbermen of the Interior. If the Coast lumbermen could get an overseas market for their commons, it would relieve those in the Interior of the severe competition GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS „ Which now exists ,> the prairie market. At the present tinu.. the export trade demancs chiefly the upper grades, but efforts are being made to find an over- seas market for the ■commons.' which, if successful, will solve the problem to the advantage of both the Coast and the Interior lumbermen.* Relation Between the Two Political Divisions »nH i!!^th"nrrw°'l?'''°"' ^°'- '"'"bering in the Coast belt of British Columbia and m that of Washmgton and Oregon are very similar. British Columbia as a whole, possibly has a sl.pht advantage, in that the province -as a greater mileage of coast line which is also more protected, thus afTordin^ a greater number of good harbours, and giving it a proportionately higher pe-centage of timber near -de water. It is true that Washington is well favoujd^m this respect but Oregon poss^«es few good harbours on the open Pacific The natural advantage that Washington has over Oregon in this respect is reflected m the much higher total output of timber from the former state. But this tfrh^r ''"'?l^ ^^"?'' •' T'^^'' '^'P^'''"^ ^Vashington of its easilv accessible timber, so that each year finds the available timber farther from tidewater thus increasing the cost of production. In British Columbia the depletion of the easily accessible timber has not been so extensive as in Washington The two units under discussion are separated by an international boundary me. This complicates the political conditions more or less, and thus aflects the cost of production and the degree to which forest products can move fron- one country to another. First there are tariff regulations imposed by both Canada and the United States, which provide for import duties on finished lumber. Shingles, and also lumber which has not been further manufactured than planed on one side and one edge, are admitted free by both countries, except that, since 1915 CanaT ^" ^""^ °^ ^^ ^'' """' ^^' ''''" '"^^"''^ °" ^" '"^"''^^ «"^^""g The general policy of British Colnmbia has been to restrict the export of unmanufactured forest products in order that the milling industry in the province might be built up. The exportation of logs, shingle bolts and other l^^^nwTf T^ '"' ''°"^ "^'^^^ '""'^^ ""' recently-granted private lands was prohibited. However, to mitigate the effects of the trade depression due to the war it was deemed advisable to allow, temporarily, the export of logs ahl, ITo -u .' °^ '•^"'^'- '^^'^ '""'''^'^^ '^^ ^^P°" °^ l°gs ^'om a total o{ about 59 million feet in 1913 to 65 million feet in 1914, and to nearlv 107 million eet in 1916. A large proportion of these exports consists of ceda logs for the shingle mills of Washington. A factor which militates against the British Columbia operator is the cost of certain classes of food supplies and of logging and milling machinery, which Sf f ^^^^ province than in the states of Washington and Oregon T' J^a^^ regulations in the two units are somewhat different In the Lmted States, most of the timber land that is easily accessible is owned out- • See page 28 for a discussion of these efforts. » COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION right, both soil and timber, by individuals or corporations But little of the timber of the National forests is on or near tidewater : the most accessible timber was acquired by priva:e owners before the National forest policy was established. As it is necessary for the lumberman to control enough timber to •upply his mills for from 15 to 20 years ahead of his cut, the carrying charges in the form of taxes and interest are heavy. On the other hand, in British Columbia, the Government has retained the ownership of most of the timber land, but disposes of the right to cut timber under the license and lease system. A moderate annual charge is made by the Government on an area basis, for carrying the timber so held by individuals and corporations, in addition to the stumpage dues payable when the timber is cut. Thus, in general, the greater part of the payment for the timber is not made until after the timber is cut.* This arrangement in a measure reduces the carrying charges and offsets partially at least the higher cost of production in British Columbia. In some respects, the license and lease system is similar to the timber sales policy in effect on the National forests in the United States. However, as previously stated, the amount of National Forest timber cut in the Pacific Northwestern states comprises only a very small percentage of the total cut for the region. Until recent years the lumbermen of the different political units have made no well-organized effort to extend their export cargo shipments. Gen- erally speaking, the importing countries bordering on the Pacific ocean needed the lumber and sought it in the cheapest markets. As the lumbermen in Washington and Oregon have been better organized than those in British Columbia and, therefore, better able to supply any demands of the export market, they received the bulk of the trade. Also, at the present time they have brner control of the tonnage necessary to carry the product. The lumber- men of British Columbia, also, were so busy supplying the rail markets that they did not until recently recognize the necessity of extending their export markets. The recent depression in the lumber industry and the inroads i mde by well-organized manufacturers of substitutes for lumber have awakentd the lumbermen of the Pacific coast and elsewhere to a realization of their situation. The lumbermen on both sides of the international boundary are now making strenuous efforts to recover lost ground. In British Columbia the Government has t. -dertaken an educational campaign, the results from which are already appareat.f In spite of the international boundary line between them, the rivalry of the Canadian and United States lumbermen is friendly and becomes keen only in times of depression. One cannot prosper permanently at the expense of the other. The general conditions of the market are beyond the control of either. Efforts of each to meet these conditions will aid the other. Both are striving to meet them. See chapter on Government Relations' for the amount of this charge and a descriolion of the system of tmiber disposal in British Columbia. fSee pp. 28-29 for details of the nature of this campaign. i I I 3 «; K ( ) C, K A I' H I CA L R K I. A I I < ) \ S ^7 In the- Interior belt, the conditions on bcth sides ..t the international boundary are very similar to those on the Coast in nearly everv respect, save that the Interior lumbermen are not concerned with overseas shipments except in so far as their markets are affected 'ndirectly.* Effect of Geooraphkai. Position on the Practice op Forestry At the bcRinninK of this chapter it was asserte' '^« C«"«d'«n Gove^m n to tie aTJ^ou letl^cZdr ;'"':''°"i '''' "°^'' ^° •"^"^■««^« these ml^lcet fhnt >.« K ^*°'"*^.^" ^"^s* products. This campaign, probably the first that has ever been earned on by a Governmental forest organization wUl un doubtedly show results that will be effective and valuable, not only in t^ the lumbermen, but also by indirectly furthering the ends of forestry praS n connection with the prospective increase in overseas markets there is an element of possible danger which should be carefully guarded ![", The demand from the foreign lumber markets is restricted ahnostenttreTy to Ices CeJT VTr'' " ''"" "' '^^ '°««'"K °^ «o-^«»«d inferior species. Unless the market for such low-grade lumber can be d«.vpl«n«^ 'S^^Z'S^l'n 'T"V,?-' ''' "^^^^ ^ades^'it isrevUablr:^ 1 tr?es fened wnrt K Z\ ^^''^^'^ ^-"l ^PP^^r in at least three forms- hellnH . . u P^^'^"y "''"'^^' '"^^''"K ^ ST^^' a'tiount of timber in de troyed in th T '5' ''■°""' ^ '"^^ ^'""""^^ °^ '-"^-de material wUl b aes royed m the woods or mills ; and inferior species will be left whoUv or wa d"J!' /''^'' development of subsidiary industries wouTd go far ^ard eliminating these forms of waste. The box, veneer distillation VnH nXrCe'r "', T'-f ^ "^ "■'" ^^^"'^ ^^ devTopeit^s con- nection. There is no doubt that a very much larger amount of low-grade lumber could be disposed of in foreign markets if concerted efforsirhi ttn rn°H "'h' "''' '^ ''' ''"'" '" ""'^°"" ^"^ ^ffi--^t system of i'spe" t.on and grading is essential in this connection. This would definitely fix the unde" "h'' export market, and eliminate the prevailing wastefuT p acUce of in mXf whlTo " '°rr u'^'- ^'^ -t-blishment of selling agencies verv r^«t! -^1 low-grade lumber is in demand, such as China, would also ery materially improve the situation. It must, however, be again emphasized hat the prime essential to better forestry practice, including closer uTSion s an mcrease in the price of lumber, with consequent higher stumpage va ieS" g adt c'anrrh 'V^ T^' "'^"^ '" ''^' ^^^'^>' "'^ ^^^"^ where' the bw f^des^be absorbed, does not keep pace with the consumption in the over- i JO COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION- I markeU, where the present demand ii chiefly for the upper grades, itumpage values are not likely to incr ie. although lumber prices may, and improvement in forestry methods generally will be held in check. On the other hand, it is argued that the needs for the prei»nt must be met as well as those of the future, and that better forestry methods must wait until the time is more favourable for their introduction. It is pointed out that over one-half the capital invested in mills and machinery in the province it idle, that mill operators have timber holdings on which they must realize, and that the province depends upon the lumber industry for its prosperity. Moreover, it is maintained that besides the waste of idle capital in saw-mills, etc., the annual waste by rotting of over-mature timber in the forests will com- pensate in a measure for the necessary waste left after logging because of lack of markets for the low-grade materal. In the interests of forest protection, however, it is advisable to have the land logged as clean as possible and the ■lash burned, which results in the destruction of all the timber which cannot be profitably utilized at the time of cutting. The chief waste in the forest is that caused by fire. The rwMt ^fM greatest contribution that the forest management of the region has made to forestry has been the progress toward saving the mature forests from fire, and, in particular, the protection from destruction of the great areas of young forest growth and immature timber formerly occupied by a heavy stand of mature timber. It was clearly recognized that any attempt to practise better forestry methods would be futile without a well-organized control of the fire situation. Consequently, the main efforts of the forestry organizations in the region have been directed toward fire protection. The principal features of this campaign have been propaganda, the shaping of legislation, and the perfecting of organizations to prevent and control forest fires.* *For further discussion of fire protection see Chapter V. nent t b« wait out ince ilize, rity. litis. :om- lack tion, the [inot The gion the tion erly that It a orts fire sda, and Jlrl Ml lit 120 III ~1 — II* 114 lit 1 Q 1 '^■ €rmm»ripn t( Ci>nMrt>alwn PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS BRITISH COLUMBIA 'i>nU%Jf,mMLMoimiul U Qru^JX. j o M M la »o i»,'^~Sio ni mo /Hiwy>a£7>«Mk«. ■ Note. South of ut. 58- 30'. the boundiry botweeo llw Eastern \y and Central bcMs (oi!o*s tho Hock, Mci/n:,, ,: ;,„.«(, ""'" '1 j,.ee — +- 1 Vt*' iiSiS"^ R /.>'( C iO > ^ i CHAPTER II Physiographic Relations CORDILLERAS OF CANADA :> f Belts Systems Mountains or plateaus Ranges, groups or plateaus 1 Eastern Rockies system Rocky mountains Hughes range Brisco range Livingstone range Palliser range, etc. Other ranges and groups 1 Mackenzie mountains Sayunei range Tigorankweine range Other ranges and groups m " .iklin mountains Un-named ranges and groups m Arctic system Richardson mountains Un-named ranges and groups j Columbia system Selkirk mountains Purcell range McGillivray range Moyie range Slocan group Nelson range Other ranges and groups i^H Monashee mountains Christina range Midway group Other ranges and groups Cariboo mountains Un-named ranges and groups Central Interior system Fraser plateau Bonaparte plateau Arrowstone plateau Other plateaus, ranges or groups ^ « Nechako plateau Ootsa-Frangois plateau Nadina mountain Other plateaus ^9 Un-named mountains and plateaus Un-named ranges, groups and plateaus .& Cassiar system Stikine mountains Klappan range Ground-hog range Other ranges Babine mountains Un-named ranges and groups Un-named mountains Un-named ranges and groups Yukon system Yukon plateaus Teslin range Glenlyon range Pelly range Un-named plateaus and ranges m Un-named mountains and plateaus Un-named ranges, groups and plateaus iil 'mr^ 32 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION CORDILLERAS OP CANADA— Comiwixrf Belt Systems Mountains or plateaus Ranges, gboups or rtATEAUs Western Pacific system Cascade Mountains Un-named ranges Coast mountains Tahtsa range Whitesail range Telkwa range Un-named ranges Bulkley mountains* Zymoetz range Seven Sisters group Rocher D«boul« range ^ Hudson Bay group '^ Un-named mountains Un-named ranges and groups Insular system Vancouver Island mountains Queen Charlotte mountains St. Elias mountains (part) Un-named ranges and groups Trenches Rocky Mountain Trench— The great intemontane vaUey lying immediately to the west of the Rocky mountains. Purcell Tftwcfc— Follows the depression occupied by Kootenay lake, and Duncan and Beaver rivCTS. Selkirk Trrncfc— Divides the Selkirk mountains from the Monashee moun- tains. Coastal Trench— Between Coast mountains and Insular system. General Description Bntjsh Columbia has been described as a sea of mountains. ' So extensive are the mountains, and so high above sea level is the average elevation of the bottoms of the valleys, that were the area levelled to a plateau, it has been estimated that it would be not less than 3,500 feet above sea level. The main structural features of the province have a general northwest and southeast trend, in some instances extending the entire length of the pro- vince, and in others for only a portion of its length. A reference to the Physio- graphic map will show these features. In the northeast corner of the province is a triangular area east of the Rori"- mountains. This area is a northwest extension of the Great plains wh.on lie east of the Rocky mountains. Together with adjacent portions of Alberta, the region is generally known as the Peace River district. The second physiographic unit comprises the Rocky mountains^ From the 49th parallel to its intersection with the 120th meridian, lat. 54° 05' N., the watershed range forms the boundary between Alberta and British Columbia. From lat. 54° OS' N., northward, as a result of the northwesteriy trend of the Rockies, their eastern slopes are, from approximate lat. 54° 30' N.. wholly within British Columbia. •Theso-csaled Bulkley mountains' are an integral portion o£ the Coast mountain^ Noevid- enoe has beentdduced or Li be adduced that would justify thw segtegaUon a* a s^** ""-^• Sd the writer formally protested such action by the Geographic Board ol Canada.- James White J Plal* IV lifi I WASTE LAND, AT htAD OF CHEHALIS RIVER. LOWER FRASER RIVER, COAST MOUNTAINS ■i ALPINE REGION, AT THE HEAD OF CHEHALIS RIVER. COAST MOUNTAINS Ilf*? PHYSIOGRAPHIC RELATIONS » Situated at the western base of the Rocky mountains is a remarkable U-shaped trough, some 900 miles in length, extending from south of the inter* national boundary to Yukon territory. The floor of this valley has, in Canada, an average elevation of approximately 2,400 feet above sea level and an altitu- dinal range of about 700 feet. The valley is from 2 to IS miles in width and is flanked on both sides by high mountains for the greater portion of its length. It if drained by several rivers with low pas.ses between them ; in respect to sire, the valley is often out of proportion to the streams that drain it. The direction of drainage is determined by fault lines or zones, which n^irk the boundaries between different rock formations. This great trough has been brought to its present form by long-continued erosion of valley glaciers, powerful enough to ride over the divides between the former heads of the streams and to degrade them nearly to common level. Such valleys are called intermontane, or valley, trenches. This particular valley, called the Rocky Mountain trench, is probably the most remarkable one of its kind in the world. The Columbia system lies to the west of the Rocky Mountain trench, extending as far north as Fraser river, lat. 53" 45' N. This system comprises the Cariboo mountains in the north, and the Selkirk and Monashec mountains in the south. Separating the Selkirk and Monashee mountains is the well defined Selkirk trench, which is occupied by the Columbia river and the Arrow lakes. The Selkirk mountains are dissected by several large structural valleys, the relative physiographic importance of which has not as yet been determined. From a forestry viewpoint, however, the Purcell trench is the most important. This valley is occupied by Kootenay lake and Duncan river, draining towards the south, and Beaver river, flowing north into the Rocky Mountain trench at Beavermouth, where the Canadian Pacific railway enters the latter trench from the west. It is from one to five miles wide. The next physiographic feature for consideration lies between the Colum- bia, Cariboo, and Rocky mountains on the east, and the Coast mountains on the west. This area is divided into three parts, the Interior, the Cassiar and the Yukon systems. To the traveller crossing the province on the Canadian Pacific railway through the deep valley of the Thompson river, the Interior plateau seems mountainous. Generally speaking, however, if the traveller climbs to the top of one of these 'mountains' he will find that there are no sharp peaks, but will find, instead, irregula y rounded or comparatively flat-topped summits, which have a fairly uniform elevation. In the Cassiar system, the uniformity of the elevation found in the Interior system is inter- rupted by isolated ranges and mountain groups. As the plateaus merge gradually into the mountains that flank them on either side, it is often diflicult to draw a line indicating the division between plateau and mountains. As, throughout the western portion of the Skeena system, the plateau is very much broken by small mountain ranges, the boundaries shown on the map are only approximate. rr' ill ! 34 COMMISSIOM OF CONSERVATION The Coast mountains, comprising another phyiiogr»pWc unit, border on the inland waters of the Pacific ocean from the Fraser river to the head of Lynn canal in Alaska * North of Portland canal, the boundary line between British Columbia and the 'pan-handle' of Alaska, runs on, or near, the axis of these mountains, consequently, in this area, only their eastern sloi^es are within the forested area of the province. Lying between the Coast mountains and the ranges occurring on Vancouver island and Queen Charlotte islands— known collectively as the Insular sys- tem—is a submerged trench which, for the purposes of this discussion, is called the Coastal trench. It extends north to the head of Lynn canal, thus separ- ating the Coast range from Vancouver Island, Queen Charlotte and other mountainous islands of British Columbia and Alaska. It extends south through Puget sound, dividing the Olympic mountains from the Cascades, and continues as a land trench through Washington and Oregon. These mountainous islands are separated from each other and from the Alaskan extensions, as well as from the southern Olympic continuation, by tidal waterways. With this bird's eye view of the principal features of the topography, the influences of these features on lumbering and forestry may be noted. Primarily, the mountains have a general parallel trend, alternating with plateaus or mountain trenches, all at right angles to the warm, moisture-laden westerly winds. This arrangement of the main physiographic feature, is of very great importance, since it controls the factors of climate, temperature and moisture, and thus determines the distribution of the different types of forest. The discussion of this relationship is, however, reserved for the chapter entitled 'Climatic Relations'. The mountainous character of most of the topography of British Colum- bia renders a large proportion of the area unfit for agriculture, and a great por- tion of the province is suitable only for the growing of timber. Thus, of a total land area of 353,416 square miles for the province, 38 per cent (133,500 square miles), is suitable for the production of timber, 57 per cent (200,000 square miles), is incapable of growing merchantable timber, and the remainder, 5 per cent, nearly (19,916 square miles), may be ultimately devoted to agricul- tural pursuits. As will be seen in another connection, however, considerable areas of absolute timber land may be used also for grazing purposes. During the glacial period, a continuous ice sheet covered the entire area of the province, with the exception of the highest mountains. On the retreat of this ice sheet, powerful valley glaciers fed by those of the higher mountains, scoured out the then-existing valleys, over-rode divides, and, on their retreat, left the bottoms of the valleys filled with a covering of glacial debris of varying depth, with lakes scattered here and there. The subsequent normal stream erosion lowered the valleys and the lakes, eliminating some of the latter, and leaving the valleys and lakes flanked on either side by benches. The scouring •Cr.a-it mountains is the name apulied to these mountains by geologists. Though^they ,ire frequently, but erroneously, called the Cascade mountams, the only iwrtion of Bntish Coluiiwi- occupied by the Cascades is a relatively small area lying to the east of the Fraser nver. {>ee Physiographic map.) PHYSIOGRAPHIC RELATIONS it action of the ice. in lowering and broadening the valleys throughout the pro- vince, has resulted in depressing a much larger percentage of the area than would otherwise have been the case. Such action in a mountainous country has been of great importance, for it has greatly increased the area of land suit- able for agnniltural pursuits. The glacial action in lowering the divides be- tween the h.;adwaters of the different btreams. has made such valleys more accessible to each other for transportation purposes. The glacial lakes have played, and will continue to play, an important part in the economic develop- inent of the province. In several regions they are still the only means of trans- portation. The glaciers have in a similar way been of economic service in scouring and lengthening the fiord-like inlets on the Pacific coast, thus increasing the length of the tide- washed coast line.* The main trenches, with the broad U-shaped valleys throughout the pro- vince. are of great strategic value from the standpoint of lumbering They determine the location of depots for the accumulation of raw forest products for manufacturing purposes. The trenches themselves, or their slopes and the lower ends of the valleys debouching into them, furnish the greatest sup- plies of lumber cut at the present time. The relative importance of the trenches vanes, of course, according to the kind and amount of timber in and tributary to them, and according to their geographic position with relation to the markets Because of the strategic importance of the trenches, it has been thought advisable, wherever practicable, to discuss the topography adjacent to the trenches, in connection with them. I Coastal Trench The main economic feature of this trench is that it is navigable throughout Its length and contains numerous inlets, some of which penetrate far inland This advantage, combined with the fact that three-fifths of the timber of the province is situated adjacent to it. gives it great importance With the ex- ception of the timber on the west coasts of Vancouver island and of the Queen Charlotte islands, the natural manufacturing depots for this material are sit- uated at favourable points along the borders of the trench. In some cases, the inlets or fiords penetrate inland as far as the axis of he Coast and Vancouver mountains, thus increasing the length of the coast line, and bringing the timber bordering them within easy reach of tide-water ine presence of numerous islands in the trench is another feature favourable w,.p1,l 1 '.'v^Z' {'"'^'^"ii '^^ finrd systems in each ccuiurv does not appear to be that which mr:^ul'^f;tr pJ^finrH^ «'^"'' r"''"-, '""■ '^'^ fi°^<^ sysSin thi iwd have .■..i.f ^Xf? "i P •• ,^^ ^"^'^'^ "'^ "' '""g aiu! cun-ed ; fiord channeb extend aloni? th^ •The n/,w?'^™\'".'r''' ^"'' ""ss-fiords often divide the countrylnto anS bS bvRlauers fo ri^,\'LTL^'f.f'^"^'"'T' "'f ^"".^'v^ ^'^""'^ « ^1^«' ^ords Cd^ Sated pau..M . f nam of th^ finJ ,1? ' '^»f -^","'''^^^*l''"^ ''"■ ^^iistence before the gUcial ocu- l>at protctH into tht v^lUv^T°"'»; ^^^ slopes have doubtless often been smoothed, the ^n fl nn i •iTn' ^ COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION ♦;««. BMidM increMing the extent of coast line, the •helter- to logging operation.. .^**^5fjr"rJ^y^,able counet for rafting the timber ^ water, behind the.e ..land. •««fj;;°";;^i^^ ,he topography bordering to the manufacturing depot, oenerauy v^ the trench i» rough. ^ ^j^ „t They extend The rugged Coa.t -««"^*^^^»"^i,^^;;rth^^ Fra.er river to the head for its full length a d,.tance f .^^0 mile.^ fwm t ^^^ ^.^^ .^ ^^^ of Lynn canal. These niountains '^'^^^"'uluy of the islands are iso- wuthern part and 40 miles wide *^^!;y"".^*;^„„^*nt foothiU.. lated ranges of the«, mountains while °;^«' ?f J^^^J^^oo feet, while «.me The Coast mountains v^y- altitud^from S.OOO^*.'^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^_ S^tT^i^r^sr rrra^-r .-.H. in the ««ithern *;:;ion. t^^ occur only at t^e higher ^e^^^^^^^^^^ ^,^^ ,,,,,„i„, ,he Coast Several rivers nse in the \« f^'^.J f '%*u°^ the most important are range, debouch into the heads o ^JV nL^ket^' N«s. Stikine and Taku. the^Homathko, Klinaklin. BelUkula.^^^^^^^ The Fraser nver rises in '*»« ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^hem extremity of the Coast verses the Interior plateau, ^^^f '°^°^ ^f ^^^^ Its discharge is so large „.ountains. and a n as do .no, e ^^^^^^^_ ri^^rpi^irs^rit^s.? :;::^^;m.ach.en ^^^ R^shrcrD^Jver, Goat river - >. , driver. Nation nver, Man.o„ creek, frneca ;^.cr Ingenika rive, n .- : .u., ,y river and Turna.a.n nver. V -V. ( tv,« nnrth end oi ' i ar ,'... mountains, the Rock\ Mountain North °f/»'*/°;\™ °^ . ,H . of the Interior plateau. Alon« a rt'^f'TS^Tars^n P^^^^^^^^ .o.-r nu.ainous area of the Skeena p.a^au Kr/hL tre^r^^orth of .,i I ^ Yukc. boundary, however, .he Cassiar mountains flank the tn .' . ^ west ^^^^^^ .^ The main centre of lumben!-- a.uuv . . . , /•, , !; , of the Canadian Pacific rail- , short the St M.rj """ »" „„„ „„ „„end> ir;«r5;r e"Em\n. KreC^vL. .» .he i„.en,aU0». boundary iTli^^d .hu» bn„gi»« Ih. .imbc of .he „.rem. so„.ho„. ,.or„o„ o. ,h. river debouches into the trench. (See Physiographic map.) The main line of the Canadian Pacific railway crosses the continent. dividlby the Kicking Horse pa... parallels the river of the same name mouth debouching into the Rocky Mountain trench at Golden, and follo^ss Jstrench nonh o its iunction with the Purcell trench. From this point u rl^rZ Purcell trench for a short distance and then cresses the Selk rk ^::::^rwXhe coast. Before the con^ructiono^^^ thP l„mher centre for the Rocky Mountain trench was at Golden, .hi:, ce. obti^>^s trbeTmostlv from L forests in the trench and in the tnbutanes o the Columbia river to the south, especially those that dram the ea.stem slope o. PHYSIOC; UAPHI( RELATIONS th« Selkirk mountains. Golden i» "ill a fairly important lumber centre, though ihc supply of Mmber tributary to it has Ijeeii much reduced by tires and longing operations, csfiecially 'he formt-r. The southern Rocky Mountain trench, bcint; in close proximity to the irainc region just east of the Rocky mountains, has \tcen. and will continue to Ix . an important factor in furnishing the lumber supplies for that region. For Winnipeg points, th'.s portion of the trench has an ave-a«e freight rate of .» cents per hundredweight, as compared with a rate from the coast of 40 cents. To near-by points in Alberta the average rate is 16 cents, as compared with the 40 cen rate from the coast. While the timber resources of the southern Rocky Mountain trench and 11. s tributary second rank trenches and valleys have been badly datnage- been so ba^y' burned that the present stand is mostly second CTowth A«in th« f.„^ .u\ lo^sted'^'n? ''''''''''' '^ '""'^ ^---<^ cCricbettrtU ar ta^^^^^^^ eot ft'l^o'i T"'**'' P'^^'"* "*"'^^*>°" °' »t« «-ber resources ex' Z hTv! "'!,• ^" 'P"' °^ ^^^'^ conditions, however, favoured Sricts il.r oTv.''''^ ri" ^'"^^^ '^y ^'^ *=°"*"'' quantities of merchantaSe Umber. On the other hand, there are numerous mills situated mS Fn the settled valleys of the southern portion of the region. Most of thTse are l^In but several are able to ship timber to outside S^kets ""*"' The valleys of the Interior plateau are well supplied with transoortation fa«ht,es. At the south is the Kettle Valley railway, a subsidi^ o ?he Snad ^n Pacfic. which crosses the plateau from Midway on the east^d connects wkS the maxn hne of the Canadian Pacific, at Hope and at Spence Bridge The di»nP?™/^*?1.'° K^"^°°P«' the Canadian Northern parallels the Cana- dian Paafic and then traverses the North Thompson valley for its ent^e lenrtS At S.camous. a combined rail-and-water transportation line connectsTkanafan Lake points with the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway A nS!^ atTaXs^ "^°^^^" ^°^^^- -"' — ^hese pl^S th'e Snt MountdnteL^h^fT'' ^f""' '^"^^^ '"'^" '^' ^'^'^^ ^'°- the Rocky and on^nf rt • u"^' ^'^' "^" *° P""^« George, ascends the Nechako r i:r^trgrtt^^^^tr" "^ '-"^^ ^° ''- "-- ^^^ northern lTv.T''*'tI*''^' ^'^^' ^^'^^" "^^^^y '-■^^^ the plateau from reach ,de wit T ^r.°'°'^' *° ^"'°°«*' "^ere it leaves the plateau S 0 he PaJfi.^ T^"" '^' ^°^' ""«^- A" these lines, except a Sn the Pacific Great Eastern, follow the main valleys. The latter Sy :,h' ill 'i M COMMISSIONOFCONSERVATION traverses the uplands for a short distance, but, for most of its course, it follows the Fraser river and its tributary valleys. The headwaters of the Skeena river rise in the west slopes of the Omineca mountains, and those of the Stikine in the west slopes of the Cassiar mountains. At the extreme northern end. the Dease river drains a portion of the western •lopes of the Cassiar mountains. From a commercial viewpoint, the timber on the headwaters of these rivers is entirely inaccessible at present. Cassiar Ststem This division lies north of the Interior plateau (see Physiographic map). Though, in part, an extension of the Interior plateau, its continuity is inter- rupted by several important mountain ranges. Some of these ranges toward the southwest portion of the unit are, possibly, outliers of the Coast mountains, and might be considered a part of the Coast Mountains physiographic unit. The Cassiar system is drained on the west by the upper portions of the Skeena, Nass, and Stikine rivers, which traverse the Coast mountains and empty into the Pacific. From a lumbering standpoint, this region, as a whole, is, at present, com- mercially unimportant. The southwest portion is, however, likely to become commercially important, especially portions of the Nass and Skeena drainage areas. Here, the valleys are wider and much lower and, in places, carry con- siderable quantities of timber. A number of small mills already exist along the line of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway, which traverses the southern part of the region. The timber in the Nass valley is adequate to supply the local needs and to leave a large surplus for outside purposes, should it ever prove profitable to log it. Its outlet would be via the river to points on the Coastal trench. Yukon System The extreme northern portion of British Columbia, above approximately the fifty-ninth parallel of latitude, is considered to be the southern portion of the Yukon system. Its relief is not so rough as the mountainous region to the south. The elevation varies from 3,000 feet to 5,000 feet above sea level. The western portion of this unit in British Columbia is drained by the Taku nver, ard by the head-waters of the Lewes river ; the eastern portion is drnned by the Frances and Dease rivers The latter rises on the east slope of the Cassiar mountains, and flows round the low northern end of these mountains. Its confluence with the Frances to form the Liard river is near the Rocky Moun- tain trench. This region, because of its high latitude and comparatively high altitude. cannot be considered capable of ever producing timber for other than local use. Many of the valleys, however, are forested, and, were it not for devas tation by fire, would have many times their present quantity of timber. T^ timber is smalLin amount and of poor quality, but, since it supplies the local needs of the mining interests, which constitute the chief industry of the region, it is of great relative importance. i^ ^ PHYSIOGRAPHIC RELATIONS Great Plains 4r The Peace River the Coastal belt that varies from about 40 inches tc over 1 20 inches. This variation depends on the position of minor mountain ranges. Thus, that portion of the Coastal trench lying on the leeward side of the mountams of Vancouver island receives less rainfall than either the west coast of the island I 5| v .♦ ' lil! I -i:. i ,,, i i i 2 V fi fc CLIMATIC AND SOIL RRLATIONS li or the northern portion of the Coaitai trench. The extremr ^outh«rn portion of Vancouver island has an annual precipitation oC oiijy JO to 40 inches. This Menu due to the fact that it lies behind the hiRBer Olympic mountains of the state of Washington, and to the absence of high mountains in »he vicinity The area to which this lower rainfall anplies is, however, small At the metrorotogical stations near sea-level, the Coastal belt shows a mean annual tenvneratufe varying from 44' to 49", with a summer mean of 55* to 61*, and a winter mean of 30" to 3^.'.* The lower temperatures are to the north and the higher temperatures to the south At these figures npresent only the stations of lower altitudes, they can- not be taken as in(ficative of the climate of the b«lt as a whole. Naturally, the temperatures of the hightr altitudes are lower. At sea level, the precipi- Ution is mostly m the form of rain. Thus Vancouver (lat 49" 17' N.), with an average annual precipitation of 61 inches. ha5 a snowfa : of only 25 inchea, equivalent to two and one iialf inches of rain, or four per tint of th*? totiil. At Port Simpaon (lat. 54' 34' N.) the average annual preci )itation is 92 mchea, a little over four per cent of which is in the form of snow. ? )n the other hand, stations at tea level situated at or toward the heads of inlets, show a larger percentage of the precipitation in the forn* of snow TVtjs, Nass harbour, in about the same latitude as Port Simpson, has a pr»! [.,,tat,ion of 80 inches. 14 per cent of which is in the form of snow. Obviously, at n'^hrx ahiu.dts on the west slopes of the mountains, the proportion of the nrei pilatio i in th? form of snow is much greater ; indeed, so heavy is the snow-fall tha die r, siting of it in the summer months is insufficient to keep pace with the winter lall, hence large areas at comparatively low altitudes are covered with perpetual snow and glaciers. Hence the low absolute timber line of the west slopes of the Coast mountains. Thus, for southern British Columbia, this absolute timber line is about 4,500 to 5,000 feet altitude, while in the southern Rocky moun- tains it is about 7,500 feet altitude. The average precipitation for all the meteorological stations on the coast is 81 inches. Of this amount, 70 per cent falls during the autumn and winter months, and 30 per cent during the spring and summer The climate is favourable to the luxuriant development of coniferou.s for- ests. Generally speaking, the stands of timber are much heavier in the south- ern portion oi the Coastal belt than in the northern or in portions of the west coast of Vancouver island. While this is attributed to the lower temperatures of the north, it is possible that another factor must be considered, namely, the relatively small amount of Ught. The rainfall in the northern region is much heavier than that of the south. Thus, the average rainfall (including portions of the west coast of Vancouver island) is 109 inches, while that of the southern region is 59 inches. The heavier the rainfall, the greater the number of cloudy days. There is accordingly less light, and light is at> indirect factor to rapid growth. ■Jifl :»f i, -1 ' t 1 ■ ' ;, *The climatic dat« of this paper have been compiled, in large part, from 7*f Tem<>erature and I recipilotum of British CdwiUna, 191 s, by A. J. Conner, of the Meterolot^ical Sercvie of Canada. m 50 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Dry Belt As one travels from the coast, through any one of the numerous passes of the Coast mountains, it will be noted that, after passing the water-parting, one finds a gradual diminution in the luxuriance of the forest vegetation, this diminution continuing to near the eastern base of the Coast mountains, where relatively arid conditions exist. This semi-arid condition continues to the western base of the interior mountain ranges that border the Interior plateau on the east. This section is known as the ' Dry belt ' or senri-arid region. Generally speaking, it corresponds to the Interior, Cassiar and Yukon systems. (See Physiographic map.) Contrasted with the Coastal belt, this region is characterized by a much lower precipitation and greater extremes in temperature. As a rule, the pre- cipitation does not exceed 20 inches, and, in a few places, at the lowest altitudes, the annual average is less than 10 inches. The driest part of the region is found in the valleys of the southern portion, below latitude 51°. Here, the precipitation does not usually exceed 15 inches. Short records show that the few recording stations on the uplands have a greater precipitation than the nearest valley stations. From this, it may be inferred that the uplands have, in general, a higher rainfall than the valleys. The precipitation in portions of the Cassiar system is greater than that of the Interior and Yukon plateaus. This is attributable, in part, to its mountainous topography, and, in part, to the fact that the mountain barriers between the plateau and the coast are lower and more deeply penetrated by ocean inlets. This allows a larger proportion of the heavily-laden atmospheric moisture to escape being '--ecipitated on the west slopes of the Coast mountains, and leaves more to be released when the moist winds strike the west slopes of the Babine and other mountain ranges of the Skeena system. While the data from stations in this region are meagre, they indicate an average precipitation of somewhere between 20 and 30 inches. The lowest precipitation is noted on the east side of the Hudson Bay and Rocher D^boul^ mountains, which parallel a portion of the fiulkley valley. Here, the average precipitation is estimated to be slightly below 20 inches. The temperature conditions of the Dry belt show greater extremes when contrasted with the Coastal belt. Since the meteorological stations are confined mostly to the valleys of the southern part of the region, it is not possible to express the temperature conditions in an average figure for the whole region The stations situated in the valleys of the southern portion of the Dry belt show a mean annual average of 45°, with a winter mean of 25", and a summer mean of 65°. The extremes vary from -45° to over 100°. The temperature of six stations situated mainly in the north-central portion of the Interior plateau show an annual average of 40°, with a winter mean of 16° and a sum- mer mean of 57°. The lowest temjjerature recorded in this district is -55° and the hfsihest 102°. While there are no meteorological stations in the Skeena syst^in recording reliable temperature readings, the indications are that . latitude for latitude, the extremes are not so great as in the neighbourini; northern portion of the Interior plateau. This, no doubt, is due to its prox- -k i • CLIMATIC AND SOIL RELATIONS 5, imity to the equable climate of the Coastal belt. Temperature data are avail- ?HH,i°?,?n f''fJ'°'l?'V'i' ^"''°" P^*'"*"' "^'"^'y- Atlin (latitude 59" .?5'. altitude 2.240 feet), which shows a mean annual of SOS", with a winter mean of 65 and a summer mean of Sir The highest temperature recorded at Atlin IS 81 and the lowest is -50°. As one would expect, the mean average for the neighbouring uplands is °r, 7ro"f f. ? ' ''^"°"' '•'"^'^'^ '" '^' ^'^"^y^- Thus. Hedley (alti- tude 1 719 feet), has a mean annual temperature of 45°, with a winter mean of . H ^1 .LT^^'u*"^^" °^ ^*'- "^^"^ '^^ neighbouring Nickel Plate mine (alti- tude 4.500 feet) has a mean annual of .16°. with a winter mean of 20° and a summer mean of 52°. With the exception of the valleys of the southern por .on of the Intenor plateau and of some of the ncighhouring lower portions of the uplands as well as of areas that lie above the absolute timber line, the region of the Dry belt ,s timbered throughout. Within this vast region a number of different vegetative types are found. Interior Wet Belt After crossing the plateaus, the eastward-moving winds from the Pacific ocean strike the mountain ranges that border the plateaus on the east, and being compelled to ascend their western slopes, a precipitation takes place which IS greater than that of the Dry belt. This gives rise to a secondarv moist belt, usually known as the Interior Wet belt. As defined here, this belt in- cludes all the region occupied by the Monashee and Cariboo mountains, the Selkirk mountains, with the exception of portions of their east slopes, and por- tions of the west .sloiHTs of the Rocky mountains, from the northern boundary of the Railway Belt to and including a portion of the Parsnip River drainage ♦ Within this region the general average of precipitation is well over 30 inches and, in some cases, is as high as 60 inches. In the southern portion of this region the mountains are lower, and the valleys have, usually, a precipitation of trom 20 to 30 inches At the lower extremities of the Selkirk, Slocan and Kootenay trenches, there are small areas that have an average precipitation 0 slightly less than 20 inches With one or two notable exceptions, the meteor- ological stations are in the region south of the northern boundary of the Rail- way belt and are situated in the valleys. The mountainous vallevs trib-itarv to the main trenches show a higher precipitation than the stations in the tren- c.o. themselves and a larger portion of this precipitation is in the form of Miow Ihus. Revelstoke (altitude 1.497 feet) has a precipitation of 42 inches oiu'-third of which is :n the form of snow ; while Glacier (altitude 4 094 feet) Mas a i.recipitation of 57 inches, nearly two-thirds of which is in the form of '"°.'!:__ ' (altitude 1.367 feet), situated in the Selkirk trench.t is much drier >!. iolm'thK «lM^.rV"''? "'.''"■y"''*"'' r"' '•""'■''' ""'""tains ■n>«ht ,,<,ss,Mv I,.. ,n- ■ ,1, Vr I • '^T"'"' "f t-X|)l..rcis .ii.lKaU- that tlicse sl„pos li.-.vu a leavicr" r-.i.ifVll h a^'''e for this station : total pn.lKibly ,m,ier .'(> inches. ..no-th.nl , ■*« ! 41 i'. If fU ■ t i I i 52 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATHiN ' I than the neighbourinR town of Rossland (altitude 3,400 feet) whose precipi- tation averages 30 inches, two-fifths of which is in the form of snow. The most northern station for which precipitation records are available in this belt is at Barkerville (lat. 53° 02' N., altitude 4.1S0 feet). Here the precipitation averages 34 5 inches, nearly one-half of which is in the form of snow. The stations situated in the valleys of the southern portion of the Inter- ior Wet belt have a mean annual temperature of 44°, with a mean winter aver- age of 27°. and a summer average of 61°. The highest recorded temperature IS 100° and the lowest is -17°. Contrasted with the temperature conditions of the southern portion of the Dry belt, the foregoing shows that the summers of the Interior Wet belt are cooler, the winters slightly warmer, and the ex- tremes not very far apart. With the exception of the mountainous area that reaches above the cold timber line, the entire area of the Interior Wet belt is capable of carrying for- est growth. Rocky Mountain Belt As defined here, this belt includes the west slopes of the Rocky mountains except certain valleys included in the Interior Wet belt and the drier portions of the Rocky Mountain trench. These exceptions include the portion of the Rocky Mountain trench from the Canadian Pacific railway southward, the upper portion of the Fraser River portion of the trench, and all that portion of the trench north of the middle portion of the Parsnip river. The exceptions also include the greater portions of the east slopes of the Purcell. Omineca and Cassiar mountains The climatic conditions within the Rocky Mountain belt are extremely variable and depend mainly on altitudinal and latitudinal variations. The climatic data are meagre and are confined almost entirely ;o the southern end of the trench. Here, the precipitation varies from 14 inches to about 20 inches from one-fourth to one-third of which is snow. Generally speaking, as the slopes or the valleys of the Rocky mountains are ascended from the west, there is an increase in the precipitation up to some point west of the axis. Beyond OT to the east of this point there is again a gradual decrease toward the axis of the mountains and to the east of it. This is illustrated by the following table, which shows a one-years record for four stations on the Crowsnest line of the Canadian Pacific railway : Cranbrook Elko Femie Crowsnest . Altitude, feet 3,019 3,089 3,313 4,451 RainfaU, inches 12 39 18 69 20 40 9 02 Sn- the coast, the of the SouthernlTS^r Wet tit the ^.a "T»!'°'^ °' ^'^ ''''''''' ' ^'^''^^ This latter fact is TrobaWv ^itri^LZ T T '^' '''*"'"*' °* temperature, this region from the severfpL, ° '^"^ protection of the valleys of as confrasted°"winr ;f1h?r.r^^^^^^^ "^^"^^ " ^^^ ^'--- •Tho normal precipitation for Elko is about 20 inches ^^ a l"xlrun^^i:^^=ir90.!''*' ^^- ^"^'"^ -> ^'••^ ~-' -ely show a m«num of «,o 51 COMMISSIONOFCONSERVATION Grsat Plains Bblt No reliable climatic data exist for the portion of the Great Plains region included within the limits at British Columbia. The nearest station for whici there are any records is at Dunvegan (lat. 55° 56' N., and long. 118° 35' W. on Peace river, 50 miles east of the British Columbia boundary. Here, tin mean summer temperatuie is 58°, and the winter mean is 1°. The nearest station to this in British Columbia is at Fort St. James (lat. 54° 28' N.). oi; Stuart lake, in the northern portion of the Interior plateau. Here, the summer mean is 53° and the winter mean is 12°. Thus, east of the Rocky mountains at a station farther north, the summer mean is higher and the winter mean - lower than at a corresponding station west of the Rockies. From this it is infer- red that the conditions for growth in the Great plains are better, so far as sun - mer temperature conditions are concerned, than in the corresponding latitudes west of the Rockies. No attempts seem to have been maiSe to even estimate the amount of precipitation of the Great Plains belt in British Columbia. Judging from the character of the vegetation, the precipitatkm is much less than 20 inches and is probably about 15 inches or less.. This portion of the Great plains is capalie of carrying forest growth throughout, except ior the large areas of swampy lands lying mostly in the northern portion. However, owmg to repeated fir- large areas have been replaced by grass. (See S'^amd Type- map.) I ml Summary While there are well-defined climatic belts extending in a northerly a southerly direction, there are, within these belts, variations in precipita' and temperature which are due mainly to differences in latitude and altitu While the vegetation of the Dry belt is strikingly different from that oi Coastal belt, yet it resembles the vegetation of the Rocky Mountain belt a of the drier portions of the Interior Wet belt. The moister portions oi 'k latter belt havt a vegetation very similar to that ol the Coastal belt, and ,ii•' the central portion and this, in turn, differs from that of the extreme tiur'ii Therefore, the climatic belts cannot be considered as carrying single veije- tative types, bu"^ Rrouns of types, each of which may. or may not. be foiuii in two or more of the climatic belts. Forest Types Over a given area, the atmospheric conditions of heat and moisture may be so similar as to favour the development of one species or group of a few specie- stronglj dominaiirij; all others in the locality. This species or group of spt.its gives a decided tone to the vegetation of the entire area ; and we may use :ht. name f»r uitmes of such species to designate this character. Such a conceirion of vegetation is sometimes called a type by foresters, and a formation by c oio- gists. To distinguish it from smaller units^into which it may be divided iut ^i:i> VII "g' t D.*O.TC,PPPr, ,.0.R WITH HEMLOCK ..OBALS.M. H.RT.EV BAV, OOUC.AS CH.N.C. COAST MOUNrAINS MUSKEG TYPE ON WEST SIM "«'^ °' Poo^y drained action Of physiographic ifc:^^;^; t.{.^tjl^7z:'' ^^ ''' 'r- carrj. a type of vegetation that may in geological pln^rbetpTa^rditr: turbe?b;^^rtV;o^lt: T^J'^-: ^^ ^'^^ ^^^-^^ - ^^ '^^^ undis. such a t/pe beikg t^:^s:L'\z'^ror:z:z"'£i rr' '-^- permit. While it is conceivable that °^J''^^^^^'°'' '^hich the climate will replaced by the permanent tvnej^^ emporary types will ultimately be n>ay occupy s^l^TZeZeli^JT'"' '^^"^^-«' P'°<^^^ - slow and ages, that'^from th^v^oint TpraXTS^^^^^^^^^ ^-'''^-^ types must in many cases'be consiS ^erlaTent '" ' *'™'""' .on ^^^s:s^:;:sT^-i-^^ t- areas in British Columbia, portions of a n, n,C: f ^''^mple. over very large forest, ^.j^^rSy be reouLdr^.h^^''"'?^ "' """' '""''' '"''^P^^ P'"' in time retui t^Tu • " ^f T' ^r''°"'^' ^"*^^ "^^ '^""'^ undoubtedly the v^ue S oerlr "'^^k '°"^'''°"'- ^' ''• ^°^-^^^^' conceivable that purposes t^«n if '^^^^ ^' «"**"" ^^ '"'^^ ^'^^' ^^^^ "."^ed for grazing gmal type. In certain districts, the advisability has been seriously considered '11 .1 '^lil i 3* COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION of extending the area of grazing land by intentionally burning off certain areas now clothed with young lodgepole pine forests. The Stand Type map accompanying this report is an attempt to show rough- ly the distribution of the climatic types of the province. In some instances, due partly to the small scale of the map and partly to insufficient knowledge to definitely delimit the boundaries of the different types, two or more closely related types are indicated in one colour. Where climatic types have been largely or wholly destroyed by fire and have been replaced over large areas by a forest growth differing from the original — which may, or may not, be the managerial one— the name of the managerial type is coupled in the legend with that of the climatic type. In the following discussion, types of vegetation which are closely related are placed under the same heading, corresponding usually to general similarity in conditions of precipitation. Forest Types of the Coastal Belt The heavy precipitation and the mild climate which prevail along tne Pacific coast are conducive to a luxuriant forest growth. With the exception of a small area on the southeastern portion of Vancouver island, the average annual precipitation in this belt exceeds 40 inches and, in places, reaches 120 inch's. Though very meagre meteorological data have been secured in this region, the following compilation of the records published by the Meteorological Ser- vice of Canada is suggestive as to the climatic conditions associated with the various forest types. It should, however, be noted that the stations where these records were secured are nearly all situated at or near tidewater and are not distributed in such a manner as to give altogether typical results. Type Temperature Precipitation, in inches M«at) .Mran mln. Eitrnne hlgheat lUlD anow Total* Mran mux. lowest Mno animal Drtail year WntMi year Mean annual Hemarka Douglas fir- i48 8 Western red tedar 54 0 54 .? 52 6 52 0 40 2 106 -13 47 42 22 02 89 00 29 8 50 40 16 stations, Van- couver island, and lower Era- ser valley Western re"^^rnational boundarv to Knight inlet reapoear- mg at the upper reaches of th. „.rd., as far north as Gardner canal Tn gene c pLTon i^rf. "-.''"u^P^- "^"'^ °"'>- '" -«'°- -here the annualp e- cipitation ,s less than ,5 inches, and that it reaches its best development where cpitadonTn the'f, '''1 ""'' '°"/'?"' "^ °' '"^^^ '^'^^'^^ importance than pre- /than anv of 'r '"'? h' '''' '"P" "^'^^'"^ «^ '^ -°^« Hght-demJnd- Z lr!r ?^, , 'ssociated spec.es except western white pine, and since he amount of sunhght available is more or less in inverse proportion to "he r;; e°Dou:.a;' fi'^"'* ^'^ Tt.^'^^'^-^"'"""^' ^P-- havel'la" o\er the Douglas fir m regions of high precipitation. This type extends from sea-level to an altitude of from 2.000 feet to 2 500 eo. and occasionally, to 3.000 feet in the southern portion of its range Towards the northern limit the altitudinal range decreases It usually attains its best de:. elopment below 1.500 feet. =^-;b"aS'd1kl'°of'ci^S\l'°^e"^r^^^^ ISr'^'"« 'r'^' °" ''-"^•^"^ '^'^'^- Q-^''- ^^ere "•'•h that on the ad jacm maXml ' "^ "^ '""'^"' "' precipitation is small as coniparM y:: 1; 'i , J !l »«C«OCOfr «IS01UTK)N TIST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 g us. |2J lit §Sm 12.2 13.6 US ii L£ 1 2.0 1.8 i^l^jl^ ^^K 1653 Cost Moir, sir,,! ^^^g Rochester. Ne« rofi, wfiriQ ic. ^^ (' 1 6) 482 - OMO - Phone "^ "-^^ ("6) 288 - 5989 - Fa. Hi- ss COMMISSION OF C O N S E R V A T I (J N Associated with the determining species, the following occur, in the order of their relative importance : Hemlock, balsam (amabilis fir and lowland fir), Sitka spruce, western white pine, cottonwood and lodgepole pine. Douglas fir thrives best on deep, rich, well-drained soils, but it will grow on steep and rocky sites where the supply of soil moisture is not sufficient for cedar or hemlock. In wet situations, such as close to the banks of rivers, it usually gives place to Sitka spruce, red cedar and balsam, and, around upland marshes, it is replaced by western white pine, hemlock and balsam. Though it does occur in almost pure stands in some places, as, for instance, on Texada island and on the southeastern part of Vancouver island, it is usually concom- itant with other more shade-enduring species. Throughout the type it forms on the average about 45 per cent of the stand. Red cedar thrives best in the more moist situations, but usually grows wherever Douglas fir does and maintains its vigour on higher and less pro- pitious sites. It attains its highest individual development in this type and forms on the average 30 per cent of the merchantable stand. Western hemlock occurs almost everywhere throughout the type, increasing in prominence at the higher elevations and on less favourable sites. It is usually of a better quality on higher situations, being, on the lowlands, more subject to defects though of larger size. Although of minor commercial value, it forms 15 per cent of the merchantable timber in this type. The two species of balsam, or 'larch' as they are locally, though erron- eously, known, are, as a rule, confined in the virgin stands, to either the damper or the higher sites ; the lowland fir to the former and the amabilis fir to the latter. Approximately 7 per cent of the stand is balsam. Sitka spruce occurs in this type only on the well-watered lands along the valley bottoms or close to the shore, and is seldom found at more than 1,000 feet above sea level. Though of considerable commercial importance in the type, it forms on the average only about 2 per cent of the stand. Western white pine is a typical species of this type, but it is not so gener- ally distributed as Douglas fir. It never occurs in pure stands and seldom fonns over 5 per cent of the stand on any area exceeding 100 acres. Altogether, it comprises only about 1 per cent of the total stand of the type. This is doubt- less due to its intolerance of shade, since it is rarely found in dense stands, but occupies rocky knolls or the edges of openings in the forest caused by windfalls, bums or marshes. It is distributed from sea level to an altitude of 2,500 feet. Though not found in sufficient quantity to make it of especial commercial value, it is an excellent wood, closely resembling the eastern white pine. Cottonwood occurs in the same sites as Sitka spruce and is typically a pioneer species on alluvial soils, gradually becoming replaced by conifers as the further building up of the land or the erosion of the river beds lowers the water level. It forms only a very small percentage of the stand in this type, but, owing to the special uses for which the wood is adapted, such as the manu- facture of boxes, veneer and carriage stock, it is of considerable value. C LIMA T I C AND S f) I L RELATIONS Lodgepole pine, as it grows on the coast, is a scnibby tree of practically no commercial value. It usually skirts the edges of the shore or marshy places in the forest. From a commercial standpoint, the Douglas fir-cedar type is the most important in British Columbia, producing not only the heaviest stands, but also the finest quality of timber. Stands exceeding 50,000 b.f. per acre occur over large areas and frequently over ' '">.000 feet per acre is found on small specially favourable situations. Mature fir trees usually contain from 2,000 b.f. to 6,000 b.f. and often exceed 10,000 b.f. Sitka spruce reaches about the same size as Douglas fir. Red cedar, though frequently 5 to 8 feet in dia- meter breast high, does not scale so high as fir or spruce, owing to the more rapid tapering of the bole. However, single mature trees usually contain from 1,000 b.f. to 3,000 b.f and frequently over 5.000 b.f. Dour-las fir is the most useful wood on the Pacific coast for general con- struction, and is, as yet, practically the only wood in demand for the export trade to the British Empire and to foreign countries other than the United States. Most of the forests of this type are situated within twenty miles of the navigable and protected waterways tributary to the gulf of Georgia, a large proportion being directly at tide- water. This renders it the mo?., accessible timber in the province and it has therefore been the most heavily exploited. Fires have done extensive damage in this type, expecially on the drier sites. The increased hazard due to the extensive logging operations is largely responsible for this damage, although the drier climate of the region and more inflammable nature of the Douglas fir and red cedar, as compared with the hemlock and spruce of the adjoining types, are no doubt important factors in this connection. Generally speaking, the natural reproduction of the fir and cedar is being accomplished satisfactorily, except where fires occur repeatedly. In order to secure the reproduction of these species after logging, slash burning has been found necessary, to remove, not only the resulting debris but the hemlock and balsam reproduction, which, owing to the shade-enduring characteristics of these species, usually becomes established under the mature stand.* ,ir Red Cedar-Hemlock Type As Douglas fir disappears from the stands in the north or at the higher al- titudes, red cedar becomes the predo-ninating species, with western hemlock as second in importance. ^s a rule this type occupies a zone above or to the north of the Douglas fir-red cedar type. In the southern portion of the Coastal belt this zone is usually at an altitude of from 1,500 feet to 3,000 feet above the sea, sometimes reaching 4,000 feet. The altitude at which it occurs gradually decreases tc ward the heads of the fiords and toward the north until it descends to the water's *A report on this subject, by Dr. C. D. Howe, is contained in the report on Forest Proleclion in Canada, 1913-1914, published by the Commission of 'Conservation in 191S. 11 60 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION edge between Knight inlet and Rivers inlet on the mainland, and between Barldey sound and Quatsino sound on Vancouver island, where altitudinal distribution of the type varies from sea level to about 1,500 feet. The climatic conditions of this type are more severe than those of the Douglas fir-red cedar type. Though the mean temperature is only slightly lower, the precipitation is heavier, ranging from 90 inches to 120 inches and averaging about 106 inches per annum. On the west coast of Vancouver island the available records indicate that only from one to two per cent of the pre- cipitation falls in the form of snow. On the mainland, however, the percentage of snow IS undoubtedly much higher. The species associated with the red cedar and hemlock in this type are balsam (amabilis fir and lowland fir) Sitka spruce, yellow cypress, cottonwood and lodgepole pine. Commercially, the red cedar is the most important species in this type and, at present, is being logged extensively, owing to the demand for shingles and cedar lumber. It forms on the average about 50 per cent, and frequently exceeds 60 per cent, of the stand in this type. Western hemlock assumes a more important place in this type than in the Douglas fir-red cedar type, and constitutes, on the average, 25 per cent of the stand. In the cedar-hemlock type it is one of the dominant species and the timber is generally of better quality than when dominated by Douglas fir as IS the case in the Douglas fir-red cedar type. Hemlock is being used chiefly in the manufacture of pulp and paper, and it is in this type that most of the pulp leases on the southern portion of the coast are situated. Its value for lumber is. however, becoming more generally appreciated, and the commercial value of this species will, undoubtedly, be materially enhanced in the near future. Balsam, like hemlock, is chiefly used for the manufacture of pulp and paper though for some purposes, such as box manufacture, it is used as saw-material It seldom comprises more than 25 per cent of the stand in this type and aver- ages about 12 per cent. Sitka spruce forms a relatively small proportion of the stand, seldom ex- ceeding 10 per cent over any large area, averaging about 5 per cent throughout the type. Owing, however, to the excellent quality of the wood, both for lumber and woodpulp purposes, and especially in the manufacture of aero- planes. It almost equals the hemlock in value in this type. Spruce is confined to the lower levels, either close to salt water or in the valley bottoms, where it attains large dimensions, frequently exceeding six feet in dip neter. Yellow cypress attains its best individual development in this type and IS a valuable wood. It is stronger and more durable than most coniferous woods and does not warp or 'work' much with changes in moisture. At pre- sent, however, as it is scattered and more or less difficult of access, it is not being utilized to any large extent. As a rule it is confined to the upper limits of the type, though in the more exposed, colder or wetter sites it occurs at tide- water. It seldom forms more than 10 per cent of the stand over any consider- able area, though it occasionally occurs in almost pure stands in small valleys I Piato VMI MUSKEG TYPE, SOUTH OF MASSET INLET. GRAHAM ISLAND, QUEEN CHARLOTTE IS LANDS Ml ■ •fl 1 1 lifj SPRUCE. HEMLOCK AND CEDAR. MORESBY ISLAND. QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS -: i :m Si:, ,. i '■ f'i CLIMATIC AND SOIL RELATIONS «i Approximately three per cent of the timber in thi. at the higher elevations, type is yellow cypress. Cottonwood does not occupy an important , .Mtion in this tvoe It, occurence ,s hm.ted to the larger valley bottoms, where it for^s only a relativl iVuTi; tr typ:^* '""^' "-'''^^'^ -- ^^ ^'- °^ ne„igib,e!;.omme::;;:; The damage by fire has been comparatively small, owine lareelv lo th- r/^r-. .r.'n;,*;r •-'• "-" '^-'- •'■« ^^^^ Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Type than^Jii^eeTll^'^ * '°T'",'^ '^P*; '^''*°™ °*=~"i"K at altitudes of more than 1,000 feet above sea level, usually below 500 feet. Hemlock and S^tkl spruce are more tolerant of shade and excessive moisture thirrTd cedar an J are thus enabled to thrive under conditions which the ceir finds d^c^t This type ,s found in the damper situations within the norZ ranges of Sh the Douglas fir-red cedar type and the red cedar-hemlockTi It Is the^i oTpon UnJ' '°T'''i° ''^^^°'^^*^ "^°" ^'--° Rivers'Set and the he"d of Portland canal, and on Queen Charlotte islands 42 inrhes'^tVm iX°' '''' '^?' ^he average annual precipitation varies from 42 inches to 112 mches, averaging about 76 inches.* of which one to two oer cent .s xn the form of snow. An important factor in determimng the^st^ In this type, the western hemlock forms from 25 to 45 per cent of the stand averagmg 38 per cent. Sitka spruce forms from 20 to 35 per cent and ave^ag^ chfer?- K r?!'' t' ''"'^ determining species L red ceSarTaufm (chiefly amabdis fir), yellow cedar and cottonwood. Red ced^ cor^ pnses about 1 per cent of the stand. Balsam forms 15 per cent o^e s Snd on . and. but, as it ,s not found on Queen Charlotte islands, the per- Tv Vn r ? * *^^'i' "'^"'"'^ '° ^ ^ P"' '^^"*- '^^"o^ <=>Press forms tv .n a'i^h. when left undisturla-d. contain a stand of tn.. . P»«,.U„ of .ho ...„u i, „s.o™ ,„ch, Dr£\"':„T,odJS Tnd sL.,^t i I'V'"" '? """" ""»"<' •" -W' hench land, .ndlll islands o. espeaally wann sites in the Douglas fir-western iarch type as mucTaTlToS^jirrdrr '" ''' T^*^^" ^•^""^' ^'"'^ ^^^^ '^-^ ^^ands of Thnt::.'^;rarJ^^^^^^^^ rorsr-^at - = pnnapahy to its accessibility, the lumbermen have" ad! ,rci.ter Lofdlon luenaird fV ^h" T °''" ^^^^^'^«">- ^" ''^'-- ^'-^- ^^ h LvT has be" alienated from the Crown, and the land hold under lease or in lim'its is usuallv lanT; hT '°' ««:^7'tural purposes when the timber is cut. Much of such land ,s better suited for raising timber than for growing crops At least it a L 7„^%t-"7--'>- -ed ^or timber production in Combination with grazing In especially favoured places, where irrigation is practicable or where the sod is such that dry farming can be successfillvTar^eS on Tant are being utilized for farming purposes, especially for growin^jTr^t forage \nH eC vely^S "^^ °^ '''' '''' ^^^"^"^ ^-'°-'^'- -»> ^^^ material on the forest floor is grass. The result" hat' wMe surface fiTat avenue Th" '".^ "^'°" °^"'^- ^" ™->' P'aces. 'hotter, tr^^^^^^^^^^^ have succeeded in destroying the reproduction. On the other hand where "SctrtoisS^e ::ur ra^ ^^^ -- ^- — ^^ --^ Lodgepole pine has frequently invaded burned-over areas of the vellow pmc type, but this does not occur so often in this type as in some of the other^. Ill) Jli M COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION Intbrior Dovolai Fir Type In this type, 60 per cent or mom of the stand was oriKinally Douglas fir. The area covered by it has been so devastated by repeated ftres that lodgepole pine has replaced the original forest over a great part of the region. The clim- ate of the area within which this type occurs rcneniblcs that of the yellow pine and the Douglas fir-larch types. In the southern portion ot the Interior plateau (south of lat. 51* N.), the Dougla.4 fir type usually occupies a zone lying altitudinally just al)Ovc the yel- low pine type. Here, its lower altitudinal range varies from 2,000 to 2,500 feet above sea level, and its upper from 4,000 to 4,500 feel. On southern as- pects, it extends to higher elevations than on northern. In the Southern In- terior plateau, between lat 51* N. and 53° N., it borders on the grass lands, and its lower general altitudinal range is between 2,500 and 3,500 feet above the sea, but, on northern a.spects, it may occur as low as the 2,000-fcet con- tour ; o . southern slopes, it may extend upward to 4,500 feet altitude. The precipitation over this type varies, usually, from 15 to 18 inches, though, farther north, the total is sometimes less than 15 inches. Outside the Southern Interior plateau, a good example of the type occurs in the Rocky Mountain trench from the head of the Columbia river to near the town of wolden. Here it covers the benches, extending from an altitude of 2,000 feet to about 3,000 or 3,500 feet. Throughout the range of the Douglas fir type, at its upper altitudinal and latitudinal limits it merges gradually into the Engelmann spruce ^ypc. It thus occupies a climatic zone that is intermediate in temperature conditions between the yellow pine and the Engelmann spruce types. Where it borders on the yellow pine type a percentage of the stand is yellow pine. Isl.' ids of yellow pine occur on the warmer sites within the Douglas fir type. Where it borders on the Engelmann spruce type a percentage of the stand is Engelmann spruce, especially in cooler ravines and on northern slopes The Douglas fir in the Interior Douglas fir type differs markedly from that of the Douglas fir of the coast. As one traverses the low passes of the southern Coast mountains it will be noted that, as the Dry belt is approached, the tree gradually becomes smaller in size, the bole is shorter and more limby, and the bark more closely ridged. In the Dry belt, while individual trees may reach a diameter of as much as six feet, the bole tapers rapidly, and seldom can more than three or four 16-foot logs be obtained from a single tree. On the best sites, stands may total 8,000 to 10,000 feet per acre, though the stand per acre over large areas will usually average under 5,000 feet. Due to repeated fires, Douglas fir has been replaced over large areas by lodge- pole pine. S extensive has been the replacement that the Douglas fir type, as a whole, gives the aspect of a permanent lodgepole pine type, and, in future management, the lodgepole pine is, for practical purposes, likely to be the most important tree from the forester's viewpoint Hue partly to the fact that the lodgepole pine forest cover has not usually reached merchantable size, and, partly, because of its relatively small size when it docs reach maturity, very CLIMATIC ANI> SOIL RBLATlONg ^j out the region an ut.I.x.nK ihe remnant* of DougU. f.r «tpnd. that have e.^id ttTu?; '^"!, '" •°"'=, ''■"^^ ^^»'"'' «-• »>«- -t boon t " requem there u a fa.r «tand ot voun^ Dot.Kla» lir mixed u .th the lodgepolc pine Such Scattered throughout the Intinor Douglas lir -y,K. art- otH..n L-rawv Sti;; »" .;»'^^°«'" Sometimes such opcn.uKs ar. only a fracm J extent. wh.Ie. ,n other cases, they cover several square mile. As to Xsicll oondu^n the ,o.U tn th..o K'ra,, areas may be dry or wet The dry ^I'le whTch^h T ^r^"'^^'-''^ The naturally dry ,laUes occupy sites o, which the .sod conditions are too dry to support tree growth. Such sites par- The wet Kladea or meadows are swa.npy in nature. The area of t he Doul- ^. fir type :. dotted with drained or partially drained glacial depression. Some o. these are occupied by lakes, around which are .ones of ,rass am sed" water. Such depressions become sufficiently dry during the summer season to support a luxuriant meadow growth. Usually o<^^her much of tu^r^f .h "°"«>^\fi' ^>P*^ <^^"not be made to yield better financial re- So^dtn'r .''■"'; "?""""-' ^'^ '"'^^P^''^ '''"^' ^-■- '° be completely dest.oyed. thus allow,n^J the invasion of K'rass and other forage plants for -raz .n, purposes. It is argued that certain regions could thus be turned nto K'ra! et: ''If :,ra Jr '"'' ' ^r'VT"" ^^^ ^^'^■- ^°^ ^^^ P-ent than l lorest^ U such a policy were adopted the areas considered for such treatment the'ls h,"t""' investigated. This study should include crnSlatoTo th possible eflect of the removal of the forest growth from the water heds Also, an investigation should be made of the life-history and behavior of the forage plants that are expected to invade the burned-over regions Experi! mental plots should be placed under observation and study for a period of ill', i ? ft COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION years before adequate conclusions could be reached. To conduct such a study, training in modern ecological methods of investigation is necessary. In addition to the .•\reas suitable for grazing, there are certain warm sites with favourable conditions which are suitable for dry farming. Other sites, where irrigation is practicable, could be made to yield forage crops for wmter feeding. Douglas Fir-Western Larch Type This is a complex type and, due to disturbance by fires, it is possible to give only a general idea of its character and limits. In general, it may be de- fined as a type in which 50 per cent or more of the stand is Douglas fir and west- ern larch. It is confined to the south-eastern portion of the provmce. usually below 50° N. latitude, but in some places it extends north to 50° 30' N. Its western boundary is approximately the Okanagan valley. Western larch is the key tree to the type, as defined. On some sites it comprises by far the largest percentage of the stand ; on others, its proportion may be as low as 10 per cent. The moisture conditions of this type are intermediate between those of the yellow pine type on the one hand, and the western cedar-western hemlock type on the other. The precipitation is generally between 18 and 25 mches. As to temperature conditions, the type is intermediate between the yel- low pine type on the one hand, and the Douglas fir type of higher latitudes and the Engelmann spruce type of higher altitudes on the other. Its altitudinal range is usually between 1,800 feet and 3,500 to 4,000 feet. Where it borders on the Engelmann spruce type, a percentage of the stand is Engelmann spruce and alpine fir. The composition of the Douglas fir-western larch type has been changed by fire After the first few fires in virgin areas, the percentage of larch in the invading stand is likely to be much increased, owing to the fact thai the bark of this species is thicker and offers more resistance to fire than that of any other species associated with it. This is especially true where the type borders on the Engelmann spruce and the cedar-hemlock types. It is probably true that some of the area of the Douglas fir-western larch type, as shown on the map, was originally occupied by the other types mentioned in the foregoing discussion ; due, however, to the inroads of fire, they were replaced by the Douglas fir-larch type. On the other hand, repeated fires have, over large areas resulted in the entire replacement of the species of the Douglas fir-west- ern larch type by lodgepole pine. Within the Douglas fir-larch type, there are dry sites on which the yellow pine type occurs, and, on moist sites along streams, the cedar-hemlock type is present. As a rule the type is found on the upper benches and slopes of the main trenches and 'their tributary valleys. While glacial depressions, in which swampy conditions exclude forest growth, are present within the limits of the type, yet such swamps are not nearly so numerous as in the Douglas fir type. ii CLIMATIC AND SOIL RELATIONS CEDAR TYPES OF THE INTERIOR WET BELT M The types in which western cedar is constantly present occur in the val- leys and on the lower mountain slopes of that portion of the Interior Wet belt which has an annual precipitation of 30 inches or more. In the southern portion of this belt, the cedar types occur up to altitudes of 4.000 or 4.500 feet • in the northern portion, the range in elevation is up to 2.500 feet or 3 000 feet Due to variations in soil and temperature conditions, three distinct cedar types may be distinguished, as follows : Interior western cedar type Interior western cedar-Western hemlock type Western cedar-Engelmann spruce type Interior Western Cedar Type This type may be defined as one in which 60 to 100 per cent of the stand IS western cedar. It occurs throughout the whole range of the cedar types and occupies sites in which the ground-water level is near the surface It thus occurs on the secondary flood plains* along the streams, and on benches and slopes and in pockets, where the soil is constantly moist but fairly well drained Due to normal erosive forces, the conditions that make for the favourable de- velopment of this type are changing surely though slowly, in such a way as to favour the entrance of an increasing proportion of the species of the adjoin- ing types. Because of its value from a lumberman's viewpoint, it is an im- portant type, some of the heaviest stands of timber in the interior being found in It. In places, groves of this type carry a stand of 100 M. board feet or more, per acre. ' Where the soil-moisture conditions are favourable, islands of this type may occur in the types adjoining it, especially in the wetter portions of the Douglas fir-larch type. In the southern portion of the province, the asso- ciates of cedar may be western white pine, western hemlock, lowland fir west- ern larch. Douglas fir. Engelmann spruce, alpine fir, and black cottonwood As one proceeds northward, the lowland fir, the larch and, then, the white pine drop out of the combination, and the Engelmann spruce and alpine fir become relatively more prominent. The rich soils of the bottom lands and lower benches of the valleys, occupied by the cedar type, offer favourable situations for ranches ; however, because of the high cost of removing the large stumps, very little of the area has been utilized thus far. Because of its position in the moist valleys, the cedar type offers consider- able resistance to extensive forest fires ; nevertheless fires have caused great damage m some locaUties. Whenever a crown fire occurs, owing to the thin t>ark of this species, nearly all the cedar trees are killed. 'By secondary flood plains are here meant those flood plains that are covered with stream qihcT thfm" AH ^LT^'TTT''' «?'l-"y - *'^« ^'tontUd "^es'lTd ev'n^alf; rcpuce them. All stages m this development exist. (See p. 71 for a further discussion of thi/) B\i _JI 70 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION- I ■ It. Interior Cedar-Hemlock Type This type is defined as one in which cedar and hemlock, combined, form 60 per cent or more of the species found in it. It is best developed on the benches and lower slopes of the valleys of the southern portion of the Interior Wet belt. The altitudinal range is between 3,000 feet and 4,000 feet eleva- tion. In the upper Fraser valley there arc small areas where this type is present. Throughout the area which it occupies, the constant associates of cedar and hemlock are Engelmann spruce, alpine fir and Douglas fir. In the extreme southern part, the lowland fir and larch are present. White pine is an asso- ciate as far north as latitude 52° 50' N. As previously stated, this type is en- croaching on the pure cedar type, just as the cedar type encroaches on the Cottonwood type. Cedar and the associated species, Douglas fir, western larch and white pine are the most valuable species in the type. The hemlock usually has a large percentage of defect and is of relatively little value. Fires have been very destructive in the cedar-hemlock type. However, due to the moist conditions, it, like the adjoining pure cedar type, has a larger percentage of its area still in a virgin, or nearly virgin, condition than is the case in those types where the precipitation is less. The climate of the lower c'-ov^ations of the area occupied by this type is favourable to agriculture. Wherever the topography is not too rough, as on the lower benches, the soil will probably be used ultimately for farming, but at present the cost of clearing the stumps from such areas is so great as to b almost or quite prohibitive. On the other hand, because either of rough topo- graphy or severe climatic conditions, a very large proportion of the area of the type is absolute timber land. A large percentage of the timber of this type has been alienated in timber limits. Western Cedar-Engelmann Spruce Type The cedar-Engelmann spruce type is one in which cedar and Engelmann spruce, combined, form 60 per cent or more of the area occupied by it. It is confined principally u» the Interior Wet belt. Here it is found usually on the slopes and upper portions of the side valleys of the mountains flanking the main valleys. At the south, its upper altitudinal limit is generally between 3,500-feet and 4,000-feet, but, in the northern range, it is between 2,500 and 3,000 feet. Detached patches of the cedar-spruce type occur also in the Rocky moun- tains, in localities where the precipitation is 30 inches or more. Such areas are. however, too small to be indicated on the Type map. This type, where found in the Interior Wet belt, merges imperceptibly with the cedar-hemlock type, which flanks it at lower altitudes, and with the Engelmann spruce type, which lies at higher altitudes. Western hemlock is the principal associate of the cedar and spruce. Islands of almost pure stands of hemlock may cover small areas. Douglas fir and alpine fir usually occur a> associates, and white pine may also be present. CLIMATIC A\D SOIL RELATIONS n Like the other types adjacent to it. the cedar-Engelmann spruce type has not been severely damaged by fire. Except where it occurs at comparatively low altitudes, as on the lower benches of portions of the upper Fraser river severe climatic conditions render the area covered bv this type unsuitable for farming purposes. Practically none of the area is thus utilized at present. INTERIOR HEMLOCK TYPES Hemlock-Spruce and HEMr.ocK-BAiSAM Types Portions of the valleys of the Skeena, Nrss, Unuk, Stikine and Taku rivers and of their tributaries, east of the axis of the Coast mountains, are influenced by the climate of the coast immediately adjacent to them. Consequently, their forest vegetation partakes of the nature of that of the Coastal trench Most of that portion of the valleys whose climate is thus influenced is situated at altitudes ranging from near sea level up to 600 or 700 feet elevation The western hemlock is the princii.-al species of these tyi)es. Western Hemi.ock-Sit>.a Spri-ce Type This type is clearly an interior extension of the adjacent coastal plain ;n • V, ^,''^'°':^l'^ies m which it prevails have a precipitation ranging from 30 inches to 40 inches. The hemlock-Sitka spruce tvpe occurs on the benches and lower slopes. It is found in Skeena valley up to a short distance below the town of Hazelton. and also in the lower course of the Zymoetz (Copper) nver, a tributary of the Skeena. It occurs also some distance up the Nass river and includes the whole of the valley of the short Unuk river. It extends up the Taku nver and up the Stikine, including its tributarv, the Iskut. Here it grades imperceptibly into types characteristic of the 'vallevs of the Yukon plateau. The species associated with western hemlock and Sitka spruce are western cedar and blac' cottonwood. Indeed, on the primary flood plains.* almost pure stands of cottonwood are found, and, where soil moisture is sufficient western cedar, more or less mixed with hemlock ar.i ^itka spruce, forms a r f ^^\J Z! " '^^" *^^* ^^'^ *yP^ '^ "•'^ th^t ^^' the cedar type of the Interior Wet belt, except that Sitka spruce replaces red cedar. In the btikine and Taku valleys, cedar is not present, but mountain hemlock is found mixed with western hemlock. In these vallevs, however, alpine fir is ot infrequent occurrence, and, toward the interior limits of the type white spruce is present. In the Nass and Skeena valleys, a small portion of the area of this tvpe is suitable for agncultural purpose but little of it is so utiHzed. In places, the type has been badly injured by fire, but seems to be repro- ducing fairly well with the original species, with hemlock perhaps more abun- aant than any other. •'Vc reference to flood plains, footnote, p. 69. n.y 72 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Hemlock-Engelmann Spruce Type As the drier plateau regions of the Interior are approached in the valleys of the Nass and Skeena rivers, the hemlock-Sitka spruce type gives way to the hemlock-Englemann spruce type. The latter has been badly damaged by fire, but, for the most part, is recovering, with, however, an increased per- centage of hemlock. Where repeated fires have occurred, small areas of lodge- pole pine, mixed with poplar, have become established. Scattered specimens of white spruce, birch and black hemlock are found in mixture with western hemlock and Engelmann spruce and, toward the coastal limits, some western cedar. Sitka spruce and amabilis fir are found also. The upper limit of the occurrence of this type is found at about 3,000 feet altitude. Very little of the area of this type is suitable for agricultural purposes. Hemlock-Amabilis Fir Type Altitudinally, the position of this type is immediately above that of the hemlock-Sitka spruce type. Its lower limit is at about the 2,000-feet contour, and its upper limit is at about 3,500 feet. At the latter altitude, it merges gradually into the adjoining sub-alpine type. Besides western hemlock — which forms at least 50 per cent of the stand — and ar-abilis fir, with 15 to 2.S per cent of the stand, there are present Sitka spruce, western cedar, black hemlock, and some Engelmann spruce. The soils of this type are ■ oily unsuitable for agricultural purposes. Hemlock-Alpine Fir Type Toward the drier interior belt, the hemlock-amabilis fir type is replaced by the hemlock-alpine fir type. The latter is situated altitudinally just abovi the adjacent hemlock-Engelmann spruce type, and usually lies between the 2,000 or 2,500 and the 4,000 feet contour lines. Toward the upper altitudinal limits of the type, alpine fir predominates, while, at the lower limits, western hemlock is most abundant. Engelmann spruce is found constantly through- out the type, and mountain hemlock is also present. This type grades into the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type of the drier interior regions. li "I SPRUCE-ALPINE FIR TYPES OF THE INTERIOR PLATEAUS AND INTERIOR MOUNTAIN REGIONS By far the largest proportion of that part of British Columbia which lies east of the axis of the Coast mountains is occupied by types in which Engelmann spruce or white spruce, or both, with alpine fir, combined, form 60 per cent or more of the original forest. Of such types, three are distinguished, as follows White spruce-alpine fir type Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type, or lodgepole pine type Sub-alpine type. Plate X /'/I.*- byC J. II ■,11;., DOUGLAS FIR. RED CEDAR AND WHITE PINE. COLUMBIA VALLEY. INTERIOR WET BELT ' \ i -I fWo by( .J.II,^Uon RED CEDAR IT, COLUMBIA VALLEY, INTERIOR WET BELT i CLIMATIC AND SOIL RELATIONS White Spruce-Alpine Fir Type 73 oK. l^u ^Zl^'^'^^l^f ^^"^ ''^''''y" ''■^'^ ^^ **"> ^"""^y niountains and north of f i^! 57th parallel of latitude. East of the Rocky mountains it evidently formed the bulk of the original forest on that portion of the Great plains which .s situated ,n British Columbia. At the lower altitudes, alpine fir is of only scattered occurrence, but. at the higher elevations, it forms a large proportion cf the stand. The type has been so badly burned that only remnants of the ongmal forest now remain. While lodgepole pine undoubtedly formed a small percentage of the stand of the original type, repeated burnings of the forest have given it a place of much greater prominence in the present forest cover. Over large areas, fires have been so severe as to destroy all forest growth In some cases such areas are practically barren, while in others they are cover^ ed with invading species of grass. This is true especially of the region of the Great plains. In this region, large areas are also occupied by bogs and swamps in which IS found a scrubby, non-merchantable growth of tamarack and black spruce. West of the Rocky mountains, areas of bog are not so extensive. Tamarack and black spruce are found in such areas along the Liard river and some of Its branches, as far west as longitude 131°.* In the Great Plains region, the remnants of the original forests on the ?>? fn^^n u" ". f '^^"'^' °^ ^'""^^^ '°'"^ P^^'^h^^ °f ^hich will yield more than 10,000 board feet per acre. Here, the stand consists principally of white spruce and cottonwood. West of the Rocky mountains, remnants of the ori- ginal forest average much less than 5.000 feet per acre. Near the headwaters of Stikine river, on the west slopes of the Cassiar mountains, small patches of forest are reported to contain stands, consisting of alpine fir and spruce, that will average 5.000 feet per acre. Along Stikine river, near Telegraph Creek, semi-arid conditions prevail especially on southern exposures, where conditions are apparently too dry to support forest growth. The area of this semi-arid region is. however, com- paratively small. In t'le valleys of the Yukon plateau, the timber has been destroyed by fire to such an extent that a considerable proportion of the area IS now occupied by dense groves of willows. Groves of pure poplar growth are also found here, especially on the better soil types, and represent the first stage in the reforestation of the areas they occupy. With the exception of limited areas in the Peace River region, very little ot the territory occupied by this type seems to have a climate favourable to asncultural r-.uits. Such patches are being settled by farmers who expect to grow wheat. These lands are undoubtedly well adapted to stock-raising and to the growing of forage crops. Fairiy good forage is afforded wherever severely burned areas have become covered with grass. This is supplemented by considerable areas where there is a sufficient growth of grass among the tim- ber to support stock. Perhaps with better transportation facilities and the pressure of a larger population, the region north of the Peace River Block may of th^auttkTja^^S'^w.l^'' ""'"^ '^*' "'• ^- '■^- ""* » ^^'^'^ "- ■' ^y »■« ' i^i 74 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION If settled. At Fort Liard, just north of the northern boundary of British Columbia, wheat is reported to have been grown. There is little chance for agricultural developm-.. in most of the vast re- gion west of the Rocky mountains covered by tUs ♦>! e, except as to the pro- duction of garden vegetables and forage crops. he region cannot, however, be expected to produce more than enough of garden vegetables and cattle pro- ducts to supply the small local population engaged in mining, hunting and trapping. At present it is not doing even so much as this. Engelmann Spruce-Alpine Fir Type or Lodgepole Pine Type The original forest of the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type is assumed to have contained 75 per cent or more of Engelmann spruce and alpine fir com- bined. The word 'assumed' is here used because the original ferest has been so badly damaged by repeated fires that it has become extensively replaced by lodgepole pine, and it is consequently difficult to tell to what extent lodgepole pine existed in the original stand. There are areas of considerable size covered with young growth of lodgepole pine which, at present, contain little or no spruce. It is historically known that some such areas had little or no lodge- pole pine on them before the original forest was destroyed by fire. For other areas now covered with lodgepole pine, there is no historical evidence nor any indication in the present vegetation that the former forest cover was anything other than lodgepole pine. Such areas usually occupy sandy, pebbly, or im- poverished soils, in regions where the precipitation is light. Those who argue that the original forest on such areas was the lodgepole pine type, point to this as evidence that the conditions were never favourable to the development of spruce. On the other hand, the areas so covered with lodge polepine show the effects of repeated burnings and it is not unreasonable to suppose that such burnings have been so severe as to destroy the accumulated humus of the original forest, thus reducing its moisture-holding capacity and rendering conditions unfavourable for the re-entrance of the species of the original forest. Be that as it may, the fact remains that on such areas the lodgepole pine type must now be considered as the permanent type for purposes of management. With the exception of the white spruce-alpine fir type, the climatic con- ditions of the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type are colder than those of any of the other merchantable types. This follows logically from the fact that these types occupy the highest latitudes and altitudes of the interior of the province. The moisture conditions are, however, variable, depending on the climatic belt in which the portion of the type under consideration is situated. In the southern third of the province the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type occupies a region that lies between approximately the 3,500 to 4,000 and the 5,000 to 6,000-feet contour lines. At the lower altitudes, Engelmann spruce forms the largest percentage of the stand. As the higher altitudes o: the type are approached, alpine fir becomes more and more prominent. At the tension zone between the type and those lying immediately adjacent and below it, there is a mixtiire of the species of the latter types. Thus, in the .ill I / iO- CiMnmiattini •;,' ta.Kes place in one or two generations If severe, a large number of generations may be required to complete the recovery. As already stated, much of the region may never be allowed to recover its former condition, simply because the temporary forest types may be the managerial ones ; or, where the soil conditions are favourable, the ground may be used for agriculture or for grazing. An attempt has been made to show on the Stand Type map the areas within which agricultural pursuits may prove practicable. If grazing land were included, these areas could be considerably enlarged. Some of the land situ- ated within these areas cannot be profitably cultivated, because of either rough topography or poor soil conditions. Even if all of the area classified as agricul- tural should eventually be brought under cultivation, it would represent but a very small proportion of the entire area covered by this forest type. At present, very little of it is being farmed. The products obtained are vegetables, root crops, forage crops and hardy grains. In the Bulkley valley, stock-^ raising is the principal industry. Some of the wet meadows furnish natural forage crops, and more or less gi-azing is also available in the semi-open timber lands, where peavine and other forage plants occur. It is believed that, in the long run. the region is best suited to dairy farming. At any rate, the climatic conditions are not dissimilar to those of northern Europe, where dairy farming is the principal agricultural industry. lii The SuB-ALPiNE Forest Types Reference to Land Classification table in Chapter I, Part II. will show that approximately 39 per cent of the area of the interior of British Columbia is situated above the merchantable timber line, that is, the line above which the climatic conditions are too severe for commercial timber to be produced. The altitude of this line varies in different parts of the province. For the southern third of the province, its average elevation is between 5,000 feet and 6,000 feet above sea level ; for the central third it lies between the 4,000 and 5.000-feet contours ; and for the northern third it is between 3,000 feet and 4 000 feet altitude. The cold timber-line, *hat is. the line beyond which, because of severe climatic conditions, tree growth is entirely absent, is from 800 to 1.200 feet above the merchantable timber-line. It is in the belt between the merchantable illi 78 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION 4 timber-line and the cold timber-line that the sub-alpine type of forest lies. The composition of this type varies according to the latitude and the degree of moisture present. Our knowledge of the distribution of the alpine trees of the province is still incomplete. Alpine fir seems to be the only tree species that is distributed throughout the entire area of the type in the interior of the province. It occurs from the international boundary on the south to the Alaska and Yukon boundary on the north. This species is usually found from the merchantable timber line, and below it. up to the highest altUudes that tree species will grow. Engelmann spruce is an associate of alpine fir from t' a southern boundary of the province north to about latitude 57° Howevu, it does not reach as high altitudes as does alpine fir. White-bark pine is confined to the mountains of the southern half of the province. It occurs in the Rocky mi^untains as far north as the headwaters of Parsnip river (lat. 54° 30' N.). It occurs throughout the Selkirk and Monashee mountains and in the Coast mountains as far north as the headwaters of the Nechako river (lat. 53° 40' N.). Toward the south it is usually an associate of alpine fir from the merchantable timber-line to the cold timber-line. In places, it is found scattered at somewhat lower altitudes, as an associate in the upper portions of the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type. Alpine larch usually occurs in portions of the higher limits of the sub- alpine type in the southern part of the province. In the Rocky mountains it is known to occur as far north as Kicking Horse pass, or about lat. 51° 30' N. It is also reported in the Selkirk mountains, from the southern boundary of the province to the latitude of the north end of Kootenay lake. It has also been reported on the west slopes of the Cascades in the Skagit valley. Mountain hemlock, in the interior, is confined to the moistest regions of the interior mountain ranges, mainly on the west slopes of the Selkirk moun- tains, and probably also in portions of the Mona.shee mountains. It occurs also on the west slopes of the Coast mountains south to the international boundary, and in portions of the west slopes of the mountains of the Cassipr system. Lodgepole pine occurs in many places throughout the area of the interior sub-alpine type, but only at the lower altitudinal limits of this type. The sub-alpine type is not a closed forest type, except in places where it borders on the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type below. It is characterized rather by scattered single trees or groups that have found lodgment where conditions for tree growth are most favourable. The very open nature of the type can not be ascribed entirely to the extreme cold conditions of the habitat but chiefly to the roughness of the topography and the instability of the soil, or to the presence of snowfields which, in sheltered places, remain too late in the season to permit the establishment of tree growth. Landslides and snowslides are frequent at these high altitudes. Some of them originate in the sub-alpine zone, and others in the alpine zone above it. In addition, the effect often extends not only through the area of the sub- CLIMATIC A N U SOIL R li I. A T I C) N S 79 alpine type, but in many cases, the disturbances are so frequent as to prevent the invasion of forest growth in the types below where such slides occur In many ravines, on protect3d slopes, and in glacial cirques, snow accumulates to such a depth that it remains throughout the summer months or disappears for only a short period. In the latter case, while the conditions are favourable for the rich perennial herbaceous vegetation which forms the mountain meadows, there is too much moisture for tree growth. Thus, the sub-alpine zone presents a picture of strips or groves of scrubby forest, alternating with stretches of rock waste, with scattered trees here and there, or with islands of mountain meadows. In many instances, however, the area disturbed by land-slips or by snow- shdes comes ultimately to a position of greater stability. In such cases there IS a gradual encroachment of vegetation, and, eventually, if the area is not further disturbed, the forest will establish itself. While the forests of the sub-alpine zone may have some commercial value in furnishing mining timbers or fuel to pre pectors, hunters and travellers, their chief value consists in their function of preventing the rapid melting of the snow and thus minimizing the danger of destructive spring floods. There IS no doubt that if the forest growth of this zone were destroyed by fire as it has been in some regions, the destructiveness of annual floods in the lowlands would be much greater than at present. The mountain meadows have a potential value for mid-summer grazing especially when they ars adjacent to regions where stock raising is well del veloped. At present, such meadows are utilized in this way to only a verv slight extent. ^ ^ SUMMARY 1. The - wince of British Columbia contains a series of climatic belts paralleling . t. These belts correspond in a general way to the physical teatures of • try, and differ from each other mainly as to moisture con- ditions. 2. Within these belts, due to altitudinal and latitudinal variations there are climatic regions, which differ from each other in heat and moisture relations. 3. The climatic regions support distinct classes of forest growth that can be called climatic types afforest. . 4. Within these climatic types, due mainly to variations in soil-moisture contents, or to dis' Sance of the original forest by fires, there are local areas that contain type., ot vegetation different from the climatic types. Because there is a tendency for these types, in their development, to converge toward the mam type of the region, they may be called temporary types. 5. In many instances, the processes of recovery are so slow that the temporary types must, from the viewpoint of forest management, be considered more or less permanent ; for this reason, they may be considered as managerial types. * i m CHAPTER IV rif 1. 1; Land Tenure in British Columbia T^HE Ian 1 tenure system in British Columbia, especially in regard to timber- * land, is complicated, owing to part of the land being administered by the Dominion Government anr' part by the Provincial. Under the terms of uniwn, British Columbia, in 18/1, ceded to the Dominion, as its contribution toward the building of the Canadian Pacific Ry.. a strip of land, known as the Railway Belt, extending twenty miles on each side of the railway from the eastern boundary of the province to the head of Burrard inlet, and comprising approximately 10,976.000 acres ; also the Peace River Block, 3,468,000 acres m the Peace River district, transferred in lieu of lands in the Belt alienated by the Province prior to the transfer. The Dominion also controls 50.000 acres of coal lend in the Crowsnest district, making a total of 14,494,000 acres of Dominion land in British Columbia. The remainder, aggregating approxi- mately 211,700,000 acres, is under provincial control. As the various forms of tenure are not generally understood, the salient features of each, with reference to forest administration, will be given here. The term 'land' in this connection will be used in its broader sense to include the timber, minerals and other natural resources pertaining thereto. A classi- fication of these forms of tenure, and their relationship to the forest adminis- tration, follows : Provincial Lands Crown- granted or permanently alienated lands — Grants in aid of railways, roads, dyking and other public works. Lands sold : (a) Prior to April. 1887. (b) Between April 7, 1887. and March 12. 1906. (c) Subsequent to March 12, 1906. and previous to March 1. 1914. (d) Sold since March 1. 1914. Lands homesteaded or pre-empted. Mining Claims. Crown Lands — (1) Temporarily alienated. Timber leases. Timber licenses. Hand-loggers' licenses. Timber sales. mn* XI /'/;..;,. In /,„,• I /,>„„, SAWMILL SPRUCE CREEK ATLIN. B. C. YUKON PLATEAU /'*,.(„. I,y I-,,,;. I lir,l„.l, i:i' SPRUCE LOGS, M.KEE CREEK. ATLIN. B. C. YUKON PLATEAU fil. LANU TENURE IN BRITISH CC'.UMBIA st (2) Unalienated. Forest reserves. Provincial parks and game reserves. Lands available for disposition. Dominion Lands Crown-granted lands — I Lands sold. Lands pre-empted or homesteaded. Mining claims. Crown Lands — (1) Temporarily alienated. Lands leased for coal, petroleum, mining, quarrying, grazing, etc. Timber berths. Timber permits. (2) Unalienated. Forest reserves. Dominion parks. Lands available for disposition. Indian Reserves. Provincial Lands To understand the present status of the various forms of tenure under which the forest lands of BriUsh Columbia are classified, it is necessary to review briefly, the nistory and development of the systems of alienation adopted during the different periods of provincial history. thp Jt ^f'f'y'^'"^ °; land disposal, by Crown grant, or deed, carried tne rights to all the nc'.aral resources appurtenant to the land. In 1870 how- ever, the system of granting the right to cut timber under leases distinci from the ownership of the land was introduced. The advantages of this distinctively Canadian system were easily recognized, and, as a result, the pre ^nce has -etained an interest in and a control over by far the greater part of its forest resources ; at the same time it has supplied the lumber industry with abundant raw material at a reasonable price. The evolution of the forest land administration has not been accomplished without mistakes, but ,t can be stated with confidence that the forest legislation now in force m British Columbia is, in many respects, the most efficient and progressive on the continent. CROWN-GRANTED LANDS A statement furnished by the Dept. of Lands gives the approximate area of land permanently alienated by the province at 16.417,175 acres Of this ^"^aT^IYJ^-^^^ ^"^^ ^^^ ^^^" Crown-granted through sale or pre-emption and 4.138.334 acres has been granted in a' I of railway construction MM n COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION If!.' Railway OraoU ways. The original grants to railways amounted to 8,203,410 acres, but 4,065,076 acres were subsequently repurchased from the Columbia and Western and British Columbia Southern rail- The railway grants were : Nelson and Fort Shcppard Ry 550,783 acre.. Bntish Columbia Southern Ry 3 755 73J " Columbia and Western Ry !.]!!!!! l'348'225 Kaslo and Slocan Ry !!!.!!!!!!..!. 250022 Columbia and Kootenay Ry ....■'..........'...... 188* 59J Esquimau and Nanaimo Ry •'!! 1 !]!.]!!]!!!!!! ! 21 10054 8,203,410 acres. Areaa Granted '^^^ following statement, furnished by the Minister of Lands, or Applied for ^^^^^^ the disposition made of provincial lands from 1905 to 1916, inclusive : Crown-granted — Acres Grants to railways 564,863 Purchased j 974 jjy Pre-empted. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 'l»2.6n Mmeral claims 158 447 Miscellaneous ]........ 103768 Pendtng Applications to Purchase — Surveyed. 2,291,803 Lnsurveyed 418,31 1 3,583,882 Pending pre-emptions. Total, acres. 2,710,114 3,608.475 9.902,471 Crown-Granted Timber Lands Though most of the land which has been Crown-granted i.'^ potential forest land, only a relatively small amount is classi- fied as statutory timber-land. In 1915, only 913,245 acres were assessed as such. A cf.reful examination of these lands would show that a very much larger area should be so classified. Lands Sold— In the early days, the standing timber wa; considered of no great value, and, in spite of the provision of the Land Act, 188-i. that "no land chiefly valuable for timber shall be disposed of by public or private sale." until as late as 1896. land "suitable for lumbering" was classified as first-class land and sold as such. Prior to 1888. the general price of land, including timber, coal and base metals, was $1 per acre. From April 7. 1887. to April 28, 1888. the land sold was called 'patented land,' and the applicant had to make a declaration before a justice of the peace that the land was not chiefly valuable for timber before his application was granted. The owners of patented lands, as well as pre-emptors who had not proved up, required licenses to cut timber on their land, for other than domestic 01 farm use or than for clearing and improvement of their lands. Such licenses, allowing them to cut for the manufacture of lumber, could be secured for 25 cents per thousand board feet for the amount of timber applied far. • The area repurchased from the British Columbia Southern and the Columbia and Western raUways includes 583,047 acres, m which the Heinze estate owns an undivided one-half interest. LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA „ and Ji^iSn^^^^r n'^jtd^tid:: T 'TfirrT' ''" '^^^- '--« sold as follows : ' "'" *^"'' '^^ '^"'^ ^•^'' ^'-'»"'''ifi«^tf^ss:^^fX:r.^" ^" ^'-'"-^- °^ ^'^^ ''" Tir ar • r f ' '^^ °^ '"^^''^-'^"^ 'sri ir L?r ^^^^ second 6/a«-Land requiring drainage or irrigation and not carrv nig -en:hantable timber as defined above. Price S2.50 p^r a re '' Priced! pc?a;^7'°"''''" '"' ^°'^'^>' '^"^- ^^^out merchantable timber. This was the first attempt to define timber-land, and it will be seen that X hnf """ I"" "'^"i''"'™ 0' fc'-cla»> land and lr,^s"rv"d t „m ..„r ™""* "°" "'°*' '" '""' """ "ysXy «l>»n'd not be considered as a license to .rr'?^ ""^'^T^ ^^""^^ ''''' '"''''-''^ °^ '^' ^''^'^^^'y o( obtaining ^ell^^Tis'pt M° V;:"^ '^"'^- ^"^ ^^^ -^^'^ -^ — ^ ^- " mc|./dI\\ri!SsrmoSLTSisThe'namr^ '" '^'^^l descriptions to also ma.r,Iand coast and lying^^^i^J^!t"tt::i^';^^ll'^^ ™°""'"'"* ''"^'^'•"""8 'he Pacif.c M C O M M 1 S S I O N O P C O N S E R V A T I O N At this time also, a tax accordinK to the following schedule was imposed on all timber cut from lands on which a royalty was not reserved, that is, lands Crown-granted prior to April 7. 1887. However, all of this tax. except one cent per M.. was rebated, if the timber was manufactured in the province so that It was in reality an export tax on raw material. SCHEDULE No, 1 (Span and »«w-logs and taw-bolts o( all kinds) Length in feet Diameters in incht^ Not over 40 50 60 70 80 over 80 Not liver 24 24 24 24 24 24 Rate per M. feet on grade No. 1 $2 00 4 00 Additional rate for increased size* Diameters No. 2 $1 50 1 75 2 00 2 25 2 50 3 00 No 3 $1 00 1 25 1 50 1 75 2.00 2 50 Not under Inches 25 32 37 42 46 over I 48 Not over Grade No. t Inches 31 36 41 45 48 $0 20 0 40 0 60 0 80 1 00 No. 2 $0 15 0 30 0 45 0 60 0 75 150 100 No. 3 SO 10 0 20 0 .K) 0 40 0 50 0.75 SCHEDULE No. 2 (Piles, poles and crib timbers) Lumber, in feet. Diameter, in inches. Not over 40 50 60 70 80 over 80 Not over 11 11 11 11 11 11 Ratis per hneal foot $001 0 01>4' 0 OIH C 01 ii 0 02 0 02}^ Piles or poles over 12 inches dia. shall be scaletl, ^ aded No. 1. and taxed at rates as under. Length 40 50 60 70 80 over 80 Per M. b.m. $2 OG 25 50 75 00 4.00 SCHEDULE No. 3 Mining props and lOKKine... en Cordwood. . . 59 '^™" P^'' <=°'''* A u . -1. V '!,'■'■ i ■ ■. 25 cents per cord A rebate will be allowed of all the tax over and above one cent oer cord on all railway ties, mme props, and logging and cordwood used ^ ?hl provSS. SCHEDULE No. 4 oil ^i'"^2^ "^ °^^f ^^^^ °f '*^a''' '■'■ °^ sP"ice. >1 per cord. The rebate to be olIeTa^dt^r o^ ^r ^^rri^ *" ^'^'^ ''-^'"- °^ «^^^^^ LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA H5 The attitude of the Government ..,^ard the conservation of timber wn, shown by the clarification of land for taxation ,>un.o.es in 1905 which Z vtded for taxes amounting to 4 per cent of the'asissed v^l.e of "' d llnS' that ,s un.mproved land carrying less than 5 M. per acre, and onVv 2 p r cent' on land carrying more thnn 5 M. per acre. nurcJ«JTV^' '^"'' "'r/*' ^'litninated from the classification of land for Cascades, to each 160 acres )^ha1l not bl^enlr sale" ^^ '^'^^ «"^ ^^^ «^ '^e class kndtnStM i'"'^ ^^^^ i"<7''a''ed. in 1912. to $10 per acre for the first- !„n» T K * ^°^ second-class, and the exportation of loj-s from lands granted subsequent to March 12. 1906. was prohibited By an amendment to the Forest Act in 1914. the okl schedules o. export taxe on logs cut from Crown-^rant land were replacc.l bv th fol oX $1 per'S ''• '' '" ''■= ""'^ ' '''''^ '°«^- '''' P- ^'- = '^o. 3 ,r;d:io«s: Th^^^A, lu ' • "^^^ '"<^reased to 85 cents for the upper grades and subjected o the same conditions in that connection as licen Js. Pracl callv a the unahenated Crown lands are now withdrawn fron, sale and are r iv d fcr pre-emption or for forest purposes. Lands granted in aid of railways or other public works, for the most part come under the regulations governing other lands granted at the Ln Z therJot arSL::"'''"" ^""'"•"^' ^° ^^— ^— ' timber-lands are subietl'to^rr"'."'';'' timber-lands, except railway lands exempted, are subject to the timber-land tax of 2 per cent of asses.sed valuation and all are assessed 1 M cents per acre for the forest protection fund Lands granted prior to April 7. 1887, are not subject to a rovalty on the m the schedule previously quoted applie- All lands granted subsequent to April 7. 1887. and i.rior to March 12 1906 ?mbe?cut't?"f ''"'^A T r'^^^^ ^° ^ '^y^'^y °^ ^« -"^^ Pe:M on the timber cut therefrom, and the logs cut from these lands may be exported with- iSofi » T . J^^ ''P°''' '^''- ^'^"^^ ^^^"^^d subsequent to March 12 ogs cut therefrom are not exportable. Timber cut from lands granted since the latter date is subject to the same royalty as licenses, and the timber must be manufactured in the province. .rant^LVhin'tf '^^•^"^^'"'^'"ded in the Esquimalt and Xanaimo Rv. land grant has been the subject of much discussion, and a final deci.sion has not yet I« « ■ ' I \| M I -; > I ( j ,\ O F r ( ) N S E R V A T ; O N bt-en reached. No royally is collected at |)rc8ent for the timber cut from these lands, and the 1 ; may \n: exported on the payment of the export tax. Prc-atipted /.a«Jj— Practically the same regulations in rcK'ard to the litnlKi on lands sold applies also to pre-empted lands. Settlers are not now allowed to take up land carryinR merchantable timber, and most of that which had been previously so secured, was «rantealt> on all leases w'uch had been renewed under the oro valent of that X^d Vn'LltdTT ""'^"^^^^'^ '^^^^ ^°^^- "^- acre rental and 50 cent pe M rovaU. ' '''■' .r^'^^^'^'y 22 cents per render and exchange of these leaL 7 ■' . ,•* ^'°''"^'^ ^'^° ^^'^ ^^e sur- The Timber Rovaftv Act 10,4 !f'u^' '''""'^^ "°^^""^ ^^^^ ^'o^'^d. s'e^X '-Rets o7zf :.s=s,'j: z*e?r. "::i '^' -"-* ordinary timber licenses. Rranted m the same manner as Axeu «.<,« The areas of forest land held under the three forms of leases, at the end of 1916, were as follows : Timber leases . . Hemlock leases. Pulp leases .... Total. 572,774 acres .«,I69 " 353,250 " 958,193 acres total of ,M3.no ac«; whS:;XTZn,redt^i.'"™'"' "f "^ ' Timber Licenses licenst"Vh'e'tensr"%°^ the alienated timber lands is held under timber General '!'*'? ^"^ general licenses were granted in 1884. and were hmited to 1.000 acres to one person, and the term of tenu had to keep account riheT\ ''''. '"""^' '^"*"' ^^' «^0. The licensee for skldtXerrrSting tu^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^"^ ^"°* >-'"^-^ ™a» trees cut tree and in add fi^n 7^ ^ ''''^^- *"'* P^y a royalty of IS cents per ^ canceiiea, it the timber was not operated. ,4.. LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 89 Sp«d«l Ucraiet In 1888, the Land Act provided for the RrantinR of 'special' hcenses to cut timber on areas up to 1.000 acres for one year . T ^ ^ T,r"'^ '^"^^'*^'« at the discretion of the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works. They were not transferable, and each individual was limited to one license. The rental was increased to $50 per license, with a royalty of SO cents per M.. one-half of which was rebated if the lumber were exported out of the province. In 1894. provision was made for the staking of lands for licen.ses. In 1901 the area granted under the licenses was reduced to 640 acres (80 x 80 chains or 40 X 160 chains). They were still granted for one year onlv. and were not transferable, but a person could hold two at one time and the'fee for each was increased to $100. At this time, also, a law was passed requi--- the manu- facture within the province of all timber cut from leases and lic......^s. '003. the license fees were further increased to $140 each on lands sit 'i ' 'the Cascades, but. owing to the lighter stands in the interior the> vt. .t $100 for hcenses east of the Cascades. Provision was made for a longer tenure by allowing the licensee to pav the fees in advance up to five years, after which, renewal could be secured only at the discretion of the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, and upon such terms as were then in force. It ^'>" be seen that, up to this time, the whole trend of the legislation had been to dispose of timber only to operators, nd onlv as required for cutting With the growth of the lumber industry, more stable conditions as to the supplv of timber became desirable, in order that the necessary financial support could be secured. It was found advisable, therefore, to extend the term of tenure and to allow the sale or transfer of licenses. Previous to this, those who operated under licenses were at a great disadvantage as compared with owners of Crown-granted timber-lands or leases, as. in the former case, the supplv of timber was not assured, and operators were thus deprived of one of the chief assets of a lumber business. In 1905, therefore, the then existing licenses were extended to 16 years ; they were made transferable but the royaltv was increased to 60 cents per M. At the same time, legislation was passed per- mitting the granting in the future of transferable licenses renewable for 21 years. The annual license fee remained at $140 per square mile west of the Cascades, but was increased to $115 east of the Cascades, and rovalty on all licenses was 50 cents per M. The Government reserved the right to revise either the rental or royalty at any time by act of the legislature. The land held under license was required to be surveyed before cutting was commenced. which had not previously been necessary. SuJdnt ^° ^^^^^ ^ special license, a stake, bearing a notice of intention LicensM ^^ apply for a license covering a described area, not exceeding 640 acres, was planted at on. corner of the claim, and p copy of the notice was advertised for two months in the British Columbia Gazette and a local newspaper, after which, application was made to the Government and the first license fee tendered. If acceptable, and no conflict of boundaries was apparent, the Commissioner of Lands and Works issued a license to cut >»! m f » 1 1 9* COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION :i: h I timber on the area described, for one year, with the privilege of renewal for twenty successive years, upon the payment of the required license fee or rental, in advance. No bonus was required, but provision was made that, if competition for the lands developed, the Government might call for bids. Coming at a time when speculation was rife in land and timber, and when the conservation propaganda in the United States was calling attention to the failing timber supplies in that country, this legislation, permitting the acquiring of timber with such small initial expense, resulted in a real timber boom, and the number of licenses increased from 1,451 in 1904 to over 15,000 in 1907 Including the cost of locating, which probably averaged $50 per license, and advertising, about $15, the average claim cost the stakers about $205 on the coast and $180 in the interior. This gave them the right to cut anywhere from 5,000,000 to 40,000,000 feet, depending on the timber staked. By the end of 1907, there was little accessible timber not staked and much, with slight prospect of ever being exploited by means then known, had been taken up. As surveys were not required, except as the land was to be logged, much confusion has resulted from the overlapping of claims, and considerable addi- tional revenue has accrued to the Government as a result. As one example of what has happened, the case may be cited of six different licensees who, for several years, paid fees on the same block of 400 acres of timber. The failure of many licensees to locate their limits accurately also resulted in the unnecessary inclusion of non-timbered lands, such as burns, areas above timber-line, etc., with consequent loss to themselves. Alienation of Towards the end of 1907, the timber-staking business was ProWbited falling off, and the Government began to realize that, though the system was yielding unprecedented returns to the treasury, the future welfare of the province was being exploited for present gain. On December 27, 1907, all unalienated timber lands were, therefore, withdrawn, by order in council, from all forms of alienation. It soon became evident that, even with a greatly increased annual cut— nearly a billion feet in 1908— the market in sight would not be able to use in 21 years all the timber held under lease and license. There was 619,000 acres under lease, estimated to carry from 10 to 15 billion feet, and 9,000,000 acres under license with over 100 billion feet, in addition to pulj) leases and the Crown-granted timber-!and, estimated to carry from 20 to .^0 billion feet more. _ . , In 1910, it was decided, therefore, during the next two years, rerpetual . n r' t . Licenses '° allow licensees, upon surrendering their 21 -year licenses and the payment of a $20 fee, to secure transferable licenses, renewable from year to year, while there remained on the land included in the licenses "merchantable timber in sufficient quantity to make it commerci- ally valuable." The following provision was attached : "That, whenever the land included within such license shall, after inspec- tion has been made by the Chief Commissioner, be ascertained to be fit for settlement and to be required for that purpose, the Chief Commissioner mav require the licensw to carry on and complete the cutting and removal of the il LAND TENURE IN BRITISH C (J 1. LM B I A 91 Royalties and Rental! timber thereon within suoh reasonable time as the Chief Commissioner mav fix and prescribe, and, on the expiration of such time or any extension thereof, the license shall be cancelled and the land included therein shall be opened for settlement on such terms and conditions as the Lieutenant Governor may think fit" and it "provided that such renewal shail be subject to such rental or license fee, and such tax or rovaltv and to such terms and conditions, regula- tions and restrictions as are fixed or impose. .iy any statute or order in council in force at the time the renewal is made or at any time thereafter." Approximately 12,850 of the licenses were converted into what are called 'perpetual' timber licenses under this regula- tion. There still remained, however, the uncertainty as to the rental and royalty which might be imposed, and this uncertainty militated strongly against the value of licenses for purposes of financing. In many cases the banks refused to accept these licenses as collateral, since, at any time, the Government could mcrease the charges to an extent that might seriously reduce prospective profits and, in extreme cases, might amount to confiscation. The introduction, by the Minister of Lands, during the 1913 session, of a bill to double the royalty charges forthwith justified the attitude taken by the banks, and brought this phase of the system to the attention of the public so forcibly that the impending legislation was withdrawn. Assisted by the co-operation of the lumber and timber interests, the Forest Branch made a ci-reful study of the conditions under which the industry operated, and, as a result, in 1914, a scale of royalties was agreed upon. This scale places the timber licenses on a more secure basis than real property held under Crown grant, so far as governmental charges are concerned. Royalty on Timber ^ m Crown Lands— Coast— For a period of five years, beginning January 1, i ■ royalty of 85 cents per M. b.f. upon all timber cut in that portion of the r >nce west of the Cascadi' range, and suitable for the manufacture of lumber . i shingles, and graded under the provisions of the Act as No. 1 or No. 2 Douglas f^r. No. 1 or No. 2 spruce. No. 1 or No. 2 cedar. No. 1 or No. 2 pine, or No. 1 or No'. 2 cottonwood ; and a royalty of 50 cents per M. b.f. upon all other timber suitable for the manufacture of lumber and shingles. Southern Interior— During the same poriod of five years, a royally of 50 cents per M. b.f., upon all timber suitable for the manufacture of lumber and shingles cut in that portion of the province east of the Cascade range which lies south of the Dominion Railway Belt, or within the watershed of Seymour arm and Adam lake, or within the watershed of the Columbia river, excepting the watershed of the Canoe river. Northern Interior -During the same period of five years, a royalty ol 6.-' cents per M. b.f. upon all timber suitable for the manufacture of lumber and shingles cut in any portion of the province in respect whereof provision is not otherwise made in this section of the Act. The grading rules are published in the Royalty Act, 1914, and are fixed until the end of 1924.* The royalty due on spars, piles and poles remains at •See pp. 167-168, Chap. VIII. ■J\ ili i J'll iii 92 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION t 1 cent per four feet of running length ; on railway ties and mining props at 50 cents per M. or per cord, and on shingle bolts at 50 cents per cord (600 b f ^ until the end of 1929. ' After 1920. the royalty on timber suitable for the manufacture of lumber and shmgles is to be readjusted every five years on the basis of the average wholesale pnce of lumber, the Government taking a share of the surplus if any. over $18.00 per M.. which is figured as allowing a reasonable profit for the lumberman. The Government share in the increase for the various periods IS as follows : 1920-1924. 25 per cent ; 1925-1929. 30 per cent • 1930-1934 30 per cent ; 1935-1939. 35 per cent ; 1940-1944, 35 per cent • 1945-1949 40 per cent ; 1950-1954. 40 per cent. For each of the foregoing five-year periods the mcrease m royalty is to be calculated upon the average wholesale selling pnce of lumber, f.o.b. point of manufacture, for the first four and one-half years of the preceding period. This schedule of royalties recognizes three important principles ; first that the public IS entitled to a share in the unearned increment due to the increasing timber values ; second, that it is unwise to impose a charge which IS liable to force the exploitation of the forest resources beyond the market requirements ; and, third, that security of title is essential in the carrying on of large business enterprises, such as are necessary in the lumber industry of to-day. ^ Rental on Provincial Timber Licenses— The maximum annual rental that can be collected until the end of 1954 is also fixed at $140 per license of one square mile west of the Cascades, and $100 per license east of the Cascades and including the electoral district of Atlin. As this scale is printed on every renewal receipt, it is incorporated in the contract and cannot, in future, be changed. The licenses, therefore, are now on a stable basis until the end of 1954. This arrangement gives the tax-paying public a more than paternal interest in the development and welfare of the lumber industry, for the amount of revenue from this source depends on the prosperity of the industry The result IS that the British Columbia Government is probablv doing more in the way of assisting in the developing of the lumber trade' than any other forest administration in America. Forest Protection Fund—In addition to the rental, the licensees are required to contribute annually to the forest protection fund. The levy for this fund at present i? li^ cents per acre. The outstanding features of these timber licenses in their present form are as follows : Though issued annually, they are renewable in perpetuity, providing there is merchantable timber on the giound and the land is not required for settlement. Settlement is not permitted on land included in timber licenses until examined and found more valuable for agriculture, and sufficient time is allowed for the removal of the merchantable timber. A maximum rental is fixed until the end of 1954. LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 93 The royalty on the timber cut is fixed until the end of 1954, according to a sliding scale, dependent on the value of lumber. The Government retains right to control the cutting operations. Together with the owners of other provincial timber, the licensees contribute one-half of the cost of fire protection in the province. Eitent of ^" December 1. 1915, there were 13,747 timber licenses in Alienation under good standing in the province ; 12,581 were renewable in per- TimberUceniei pg^yj^y jj ^y^^^ jg merchantable timber on the land, and 1,166 were for a fixed period of 21 years from th- date of staking (1907 or earlier). While the timber leases are nearly all situated on the coast, over one-half of the licenses are east of the Coast mountains. This may be explained by the fact that the lumber industry on the coast was well established before the license system was adopted, and the earlier aUenations were necessarily in the form of leases. The development of the industry in connection with pro- vincial lands in the interior has been of a more recent date. Location of Licenses No. of Forest District licenses Cranbtook 908 Hazelton 560 Kamloops 1,672 Lillooet 53 Nelson 1.306 Prince Rupert 1,248 Fort George 962 T«te Jaune l.OOl Vernon 328 Vancouver » i le? Vancouver island 2,357 Total 13,747 East of Cascades ^'9^? West of Cascades 6,701 At the close of 1916, the total number of timber licenses in good standing had decreased to 8,129, though 5,828 more were reinstatable and had not been cancelled ; 1,108 had expired before March 31st, 1913, and are not reinstatable. Of those in force, 9,929 had been sur\'eyed, covering 5,776,000 acres. Though 640 acres is allowed for each license, the surveys show an average of only 581 acres per license. The area of the remaining 2,857 unsurveyed licenses cannot exceed 1,828, 490 acres, and, all Tring the same average area as for the surveyed licenses, it would total 1,600,0^0 acres. The total area held under timber license may, therefore, be estimated to be about 7,500,000 acres. A round figure of 1,000,000 acres for timber leases makes a total of approximately 8,500,000 acres held at present under timber licenses and timber leases. This figure may be expected to decrease steadily, as areas are cut over and aban- doned. The increasing burden of the carrying charges is already causing the license holders to examine their limits more carefully and to discard the less valuable licenses. The license fees, which, at present, form 57 per cent of the total forest revenue, will naturallv continue to decrease from year to year. id COMMISSION OF CONSERVAliON it IM t Hand-Logoers' Licenses Hand-loRgers' licenses were first provided for in the Land Act. 1888, under the following clauses : "The Chief Commissioner may, tipon the payment of the sum of SlO theref()r, >,'rant a general license to anv person to cut timber upon Crown land- not bcinK timber hmits. without any reservation as to area ; but such licen^' shall be iiersnnal, and shall ^'rant authority to the person named therein to cut timber as a hand-lo^Ker, and such license shall be in force for one vear from the date thereof, and no longer." This law imposed no restrictions on the method of logging, and the holders were free to operate on any ungranted timber of the Crown. The same royaltv is due for timber cut under hand-loggers' licenses as under special timber licenses. The law remained unchanged until 1906, when the following clause was added : "The holder of a license granted under this section shall not use steam-power or machinery operated by steam-power in carrying on lumber operations under such license." In 1908, the operations of hand-loggers were -estricted to the northern Coast region, and the license fee was increased to $25. This restriction as to the district in which hand-logging could be conducted, was removed the following year, at the request of the labour interests, but the cutting was thereafter limited to certain defined areas, specified in the individual license. The sites for these licenses were to be examined by an officer o' fhe department before the license was issued. The license fee remained at $25, and only those 0)i the list of voters for the Legislature of British Columbia or members of tht Indian race were entitled to a hand-logger's license. Timber cut by hand- loggcrs is subject to the same royalty as that cut on timber licenses. Wasteful '^^^ indiscriminate cutting of convenient shore timber without Logging ^"y control results in the injury of many good logging sites ; for, as the hand-loggers are not allowed to use steam power, they fail to get to the water a large proportion of the trees they cut down. It is estimated that at least 40 per cent of the trees cut by hand-loggers are wasted in this way. The resulting debris produces a fire menace of the worst kind, since these workings are neariy always situated at the foot of a mountain and at the water's edge, where a destructive fire is most likely to start and gain headway. It is extremely doubtful whether the advantages thus gained in forest utilization, or the furnishing of employment to the nomadic, irrespon- sible citizens who follow this occupation are commensurate with the resultant damage. The discontinuance of this form of license was recommended by the Forestry Commission in IQIO, but such licenses are still issued. During the last 28 years, hand-loggers have destroyed the timber on over 1,000 miles of shore-line extending back from one to twenty chains, averagint: perhaps five chains, and covering an area of 50,000 acres. Though no figure.^ are available as to the amount of timber cut by hand-loggers, it is estimateu. from personal observation, that they have marketed perhaps 500 million feet, cut and allowed to go to waste, 300 million, and indirectly caused the dcslructior: of an additional 800 million feet, through fire and windfall resulting from their LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA M operations. About 210 of these licenses have been issued annually during the last few years, the revenue from which amounts to approximately $5,000 annually for license fees, and $19,000 for royalty, on an average cut of 125,000 feet per license. Hand-logging can undoubtedly be used to advantage in some places where small patches of timber are situated on steep slopes. However, provision is now made for small timber sales which allow the use of steam-power, and, in connection with such operations, cutting regulations and disposal of debris are required. It would appear that the usefulness of the hand-logging system has passed, and that it should be discontinued, as inimical to the object of forest conservation. Tlmber Sales Following the prohibition, in 1907, of the .staking of timber licenses, there was no provision in the statutes for the disposal of the timber on Crown lands, until the Forest Act, 1912, authorized the sale, by public competition, of licenses to cut timber under the form of tenure known as 'timber sales.' The complete withdrawal of Crown timber from sale resulted in the wasting of considerable timber on small areas adjoining alienated lands which were being operated. Very frequently the timber on these lands could be taken out more advantageously, or only, in conjunction with the limber being logged. Usually it could be handled cheaply while the roads and machinery were in operation on adjacent lands, but the cost of exploitation of these small amounts of timber was prohibitive, if worked separately. If left standing after the adjoining timber had been removed, the timber on these areas was exposed to greatly increased fire and wind hazards. The need of clearing the forest from certain lands suitable for agriculture necessitated the disposal of the merchantable timber first. The demand for pulp timber, by new concerns which had not acquired any of the old pulp leases, also made it advisable to allow the sale of at least some classes of Crown timber. Sales of timber chiefly valuable for pulp are made under the form of 'pulp licenses,' which differ somewhat from the ordinary timber sale. It was chiefly with the object of encouraging closer utilization that the ' timber sales ' were at first introduced. Finding, however, that the demand for Crown timber on the libera! terms offered by the Government gave promise of considerable revenue, the Forest Branch has encouraged and developed this business, until it forms an important part of the forest administration. Method of "^^^ legislation governing these timber sales has been revised Conducting nearly every year to facilitate the disposal of timber in this * way. Its chief features, as applied in 1918, are as follows : The timber is first selected, cruised and surveyed by the Forest Branch, and full information as to the kinds and quantity of timber is supplied to pros- pective purchasers. The Forest 'Branch fixes an upset stumpage price which must be offered over and above the royalty. The sale is then advertised in the British Columbia Gazette and local newspapers for two months if the amount of timber is over 1,000,000 b.f., or for one month, if between 500,000 and 1.000,000 b.f. When the stumpage value is less than $100, advertisement II* I ■Ail 4 11 i I •• COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION is not necessary. Sealed tenders arc accepted up to a certain date, then thi tenders are opened and the license awarded to the highest bidder. Small sales are handled directly by the local officers of the Forest Branch in tht district where the timber is situated. Ptyniwt on ^ deposit, covering the cost of cruisinK, surveying and advor Timbar Salei t>s»ng, and 10 per cent of the estimated total stumpage valuf, must accompany each tender. The time allowed for cuttin- in ordinary timber sales is definitely fixed at the time of sale, usually one or two years, and seldom over five years, based on the understanding that the tract will be operated immediately. Rentals and royalties are due on tht same scale on these timber sales as on special licenses. The stumpage and royalty are collected as the timbrr is cut and scaled by the Government scalers so that the purchaser pays only for the merchantable timber which he actuailv secures. lupMtioii of ^^^ operations are inspected frequei.tly, and. before th. Operations contract between the Government and the purchaser is concluded, the tract must be completely logged to the satis- faction of the Forest Branch. Failure to complete the exploitation of thf timber sale to the satisfaction of the Forest Branch within the contract time results in the loss by the purchaser of his deposit of 10 per cent made at the time of tendering. The only means of securing an extension of the time is t(j have the uncut area put up for sale again and to buy it in at the price then prevailing. From the standpoint of conservation, it is undesirable that further aliena- tion of timber on a large scale should be encouraged, except where its exploita- tion permits of the utilization of material which would otherwise be wasted or where the removal of the timber would facilitate settlement or is requircl for local development. As a general principle, the opening up of new territorv even though accessible, should be discouraged, since the value of the stumpafje will naturally enhance in the future, and since the legitimate demands of th. market for all except possibly local uses are more than a-nply provided for h\ timber already alienated. Owing to the large investment necess,- fcr the manufactun. Pulp Licenses of pulp and paper, and to the nect uy of such industries having an assured supply of raw material for a considerahU period in advance, it was found necessary to extend the time of cutting and also to sell larger areas of timber for pulp purposes than for ordinary timber sales. Precautions are taken, however, to see that these licenses are granted only to concerns which are prepared to operate the tracts within a reasonable time. The sale of pulp licenses is, therefore, limited to purchasers who have either already expended at least $350,000 in the erection of a mill for th( manufacture of wood pulp or paper, which fc not appurtenant to any existing pulp lease, or ho are prepared to execute a guarantee bond of at least $50,000 that such a mill will be built within three years, not less than $100,000 beiiiK spent during each of the first two years for that purpose. The licenses issued must be appurtenant to the pulp- or paper-mill, and the amount of timber Hi LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA fT to be taken up is determined by the capacity of the mill, not more than .10 years' supply being allowed at any one time. The rental payable by lessees operating a pulp-mill is one-half that on special licenses, namely, $70 per square mile on the coast and $50 in the interior. The royalty on pulpwood cut from these pulp licenses is 25 cents per cord of 700 b.f. W!:en saw timber is cut from pulp licenses, the lessee pays, in addition to the ordinary royalty on saw material, the difference in rental. Using 15,000 b.f. as the equivalent of one acre, this would be approximately \}^ cents per M. b.f. This arrangement enables the lessee to use the timber for the most suitable purpose, and, at the same time, docs not give the pulp licensee any advantage over the timber licensee. In 1914, ten sales of pulp timber, comprising 20,425 acres and estimated to carry 221,845,663 b.f., were awarded. The revenue anticipated from these sales is $267,613.32, which amounts to $1.20 per M. The extent of the timber-sale business is shown by the following table :* EXTENT OF TIMBER SALES Sales awarded — Number Total area Eititnated quantity of timber lold — Saw timber (M. b.f.) Piles and poles (lineal feet) Cordwood shingle bolts (cords) . . . Ties (pieces) Posts Estimated revenue from sales . . . Timber cut on timber sales — M. b.f Lineal feet Cords Revenue received in addition to royalty — Stumpage Rentals I9tj S238,476 00 $18,719 92 2,597.95 1914 71 28,1J2 278,078 12,910 7,615 18,520 25,000* $349,958 69 36,660 $36,545 33 3.477 87 1915 98 12,990 94,550 12.174 12.373 $152,589.97 70,983 115,389 12,454 $67,250 42 3.830 89 1916 133 23,318 136,354 435,810 26,667 92,000 loot $259,765.15 63,055 225.799 8.426 $68,779.87 5,235 35 •Pieces. tCords. H Provincial Forest Reserves The Forest Act, Sec. 12, provides that the Lieutenant-Governor in council may. by proclamation, set aside definite areas as permanent forest reserves, to be withdrawn from sale, settlement or occupancy and devoted to the per- petual growing of timber. Provision is made for the acquisition, by exchange or purchase, of any vested rights within the forest reserves which may have been created, and for the control and management of such reserves "for the maintenance of the timber growing, or which may hereafter grow, thereon, for the protection of the water supply, and for the prevention of trespass thereon." •A copy of a timber sale contract, as filled out for a pulp license, appears as Appendix No. 1. COMMISSION t)P CONSERVATION M Ilk Rivn Vorttt Il«««iv« 1914. None of tin The only reserve as yet established under this Act is on* of t 57,600 acres in the Elk River valley, notice of which *red in the liritish Columia Gasette for December 3iit, and is suitable for agriculture. rc"^^ 'rves which may be specially created by proclamation of u .or in Council, a blanket reservation of all statutory In addition tc the Lieutenant-G timber-land from .'e r settlemcn., has existed since 1884. L'nul the Forest Branch undertook 'he u speciion of the land before the grants were issued, this reservation n-as ( ■ omparatively little effect. I'pon the expiry of the lease or license b ,.i.ui hich have been thus held are placed under reserve until examine a- r ' •. s> i by the dcimrtment. All other lands which, upon examination, a.t.' .i.u n, ir be more valuable for forest purposes than for agri- culture, thougl il niav not carry sudicient timber to classify them as statutory timbei .im',* nn y be spefifically withdrawn from disposal. Under this latter head, i i r;icd- -n lands, lands carrying younj,' forests, or land- which adjoin valuable iti ; r • 4 vvo- ' - lenaced by the clearing of such lands, may be withdrnv .' ';:j).i ^ni' • . ^^nption. . _. . i'- •■> tfK ,;. ^< uf the Lands Department to have all lands Land Ciatstli- «., n t,.^.. cation ^^- >^»n<:0 ^'"^ > Forest Branch and classified m regard to the fo'-i "t coi I' I • before applications for purchase or pre- emptions are deai with. A.'^ fur as possible, this is being accomplished, and the Forest Branch has examined in advance large areas of Crown land which it was thought might be applied for As a result of these examinations, during 19114 and 1915, a total of 1,628,541 acres was placed under reserve, as follows : PROVINCIAL FOREST LAND RESERVED Forest ■listrict 1914 1915 Total Cranbrook .... Fort George. . Hazelton Island Kamloops Lillooet Nelson Prince Rupert. Tfite Jaune . , . , Vancouver Vernon Totals Acres 2.097 41,2SO 251.888 100 162,464 126,290 22.664 21,500 141,190 131,560 53,955 954,958 Acres 101,823 26,880 8,180 4,.'i09 472,878 7o4 6,200 14,801 37,548 673.583 Acres 103.920 68,130 260,068 4,609 635.342 127.054 22.664 21,500 147,390 146,361 91.503 1.628.541 To insure permanency, which is essential in forest management, authority to create or cancel forest reserves is usually vested in Parliament or the Legis- lature. In British Columbia, however, reservations on provincial lands may be cancelled wholly or in part, at any time by order in council. •Lands carrying 8,000 b.f. per acre when situated west of the Coast mourtains, and 5,000 b.f. per acre when east of the Coast mountains or in the electoral district of Atlin. LANDTENURRINBRITISH COLUMBIA W In proclaiming reserves on forest landu it is not the intention to with Iraw any of the natural resources from IcKitimatc use. The timber can he dis|.oscd of by timber sales, and, after it is removed, the land may be opened for settle- ment if found suitable for aRriculturc, aneaks of the system. Mount Robson, the natm-sake < -i' the park, is the highest moun- tain peak in the Canadian Rockies, 1.^.068 net, and a large number of others, induding mounts Resplendent. The Helir.et. L;, iix, Whitelmrn, etc., exceed 10.000 feet. The source of the Fraser riv '.t is in tliis mountainous region. The park is traversed by the Clrand Trt'.nk I'acifk and t? e Canadian Xorthem railways. Forest protection of the provincial pnrks is I.eiiis; i-rovi'K'd by the Forest Branch, and improvements, such as roay the British Columbia Mountaineer- ^a^V^^ncoOTer >".«: f"'"^) to have ano-her park established, to include the rugged mountainotis region to the north of Vancouver. Within 4(i miles of Vancouver, and a few hours' walk from the Pacific Great Eastern I ill 100 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION If M Sjf^ railway. ,s an area estimated to be 250 square miles in extent « Ur tion of which is covered by perpetual snowing 7 f *^"*' * ^"^e propor- peaks in the Coast mountaLs are wkh n^S . ^ ""™*'^' °^ *^« ^""^^ Garibaldi. 8.700 feet rnloTn^r^'^s ^^ea^ ^'^^^^^^^^^^^^ T°' feet ; Black Tusk 7 350 Wt ■ r»^ . . ' ^^^''® Towers, 8.000 and hunttog ,hi<,i„ i,' Sbftld "'""" " '" '"''"''= '«'"°' '" ^an,. Yalakom game reserve includes about 1 7n nnn ,^-.„ • *t. Y^.k»n river. LU,<»,t district, a «^»lZtr SX 'shirs^W lying to the west of Ek ?"^^'*^''7 ^'^'^^^•. '"eludes a mountamous district »a.„, „, B^rrivS riv's. trarr^LSarr " "■- -'•^- UiVALIENATED PROVINCIAL LaNDS Of the Provincial Crown lands available for disnosal tho f^u^ • We bee„ applied for .„d a. i„ proee. of CSn i^" Sed"^ Applications to DurchaM ■' ""^"""-ea. Applications to purchase. Pre-emptions Surveyed mineral claimsf 511,932 acres 992,001 " 409,066 " 1,912,999 As a result of the passing of the Soldiers' Homestead Act loirt , • • ablc and the proceeds are ,T^^7 ? ^.^^ "'''=" """""o"* «= 'avour- A„ .ddi.o„/.sSzr;trr::d';: rbTaii- ™"-''- in.aIt.ToTZlr"/rc"ZreS,i»'hT".''"'^ "= ""''"• '" -»' purposes. reserves, established at various times for various Und Open for '^"'^ p°^" 'a^^^s which do not carry merchantable timber are Pre-emption open for settlement. An additional safeguard to he f^rests^! __ afforded by section 12 of the Land Act, which provideTSat •Statement supplied by Forest Branch for March lUt lOi 7 tRecorded minen.! claims which are „uVsu^\fed are no[ included. Plat* XIM NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF DOUGLAS FIR AFTER LOOOINQ AND SLASH BURNING, 20 YEARS OLD. NEAR GRIEF POINT, MALASPINA STRAIT € DOUGLAS FIR REPRODUCTION, AFTER FOREST FIRE, 17 YEARS OLD. POWELL LAKE 'H IH II i! '^1 J I LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA tOl "the Minister may refuse to grant pre-emption records on any arec of land, not exceeding 640 acres, bounded on two or more sides by timber lands." Advantage has been taken of this provision to prevent the establishment of small clearings within forested areas, where the fire hazard created by such settlements is out of proportion to the value of the land for agricultural pur- poses. Though settlement is not confined to surveyed lands, the Dept. of Lands has endeavoured to anticipate the demand for pre-emptions by surveying large areas where settlement is likely to take place and which are not distant from railway communication. The greater portion of these lands is situated in the northern interior, and is tributary to the Grand Trunk Pacific Ry. The amount of surveyed land open for pre-emption in the various land districts is as follows :* -. . . ^ Area available, - ^«'"<' acres Casaar 147,518 Canboo. 766,318 Coast Range 5 238 004 Coast Range 4 .................'.'.'...'.'..'. 20SJ8S LiUooet 5,9 3,9 Kamloops 69,686 Queen Charlotte Islands 213 477 Peace River .....'..'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. n6,S»6 Rupert 26,443 Nootka 2 909 Similkameen 22005 Kootenay ......'.'..'.'.].'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'. 25!553 Sayward and New Westminster 16,430 Osoyoos ..'.'... 9^180 Texada 1 096 Yale 3,865 Clayoquot 1,506 Total 2,395,980 Land Cla "fl - ^° systematic classification for agricultural purposes was tion Required 'conducted while this land was being surveyed. The classi- li-iation attempted was left to surveyors, few of whom were qualified, and, as this survey work was paid for on an acreage basis, it was not conducive to careful elimination of non-agricultural lands. In Biitish Columbia, where soil conditions are so variable, much more detailed examina- tion of the land is required than in more level regions. The result of this lack of knowledge of the soil has been that, in many instances, settlers have taken up lands totally unsuitable for agriculture, and much of the land now offered for pre-emption is also of this class. In many instances, settlers have been allowed to locate where the agri- cultural land was not sufficient to support even a small community, and such settlers are doomed to be shut off from markets and from even the most primi- tive social advantages. The pre-emptor is usually a man of small financial means and very frequently of limited experience in the selection of lands. It should, therefore, be the duty of the Government to safeguard him from *Ii£port of the Surveyor Gtntral, 1915. lii:.:^ H : I, I I 102 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION ■>i fi The lUUway Bait Peace River Block wasting his time, money and energy on land which is not suitable for agri- culture, or in localities which are impossible of community development. Dominion Lands in British Columbia The Federal Government owns three separate tracts in British Columbia, known as the Railway Belt, the Peace River Block, and the Crowsnest Pass Coal Lands Reserve. The Railway Belt was granted to the Dominion by the Province to aid the building of the Canadian Pacific railway through British Columbia. In consideration of the land to be so con- veyed, the Dominion Government agreed to pay to the province, from the date of union, the sum of $100,000 per annum. The Railway Belt was conveyed to the Dominion in 1883. It includes the land within twenty miles on each side of the Canadian Pacific Ry. from the Alberta boundary to a westerly limit, bounded by the Meslilloet river, the North Arm of Burrard inlet and the western boundaries of townships 39, 38, 2 and 1, west of the Coast meridian. To compensate for the land within the Railway Belt which the province had disposed cf prior to the transfer, the Dominion was given the right to select an additional 3,500,000 acres of provincial public lands. The selection was not made, however, until 1907, when a block approxinsbtely 73 -6 miles square was selected in the Peace River district adjoining the Alberta boundary. Within these two areas the Federal Government administers all the unalienated lands in respect to settlement, timber, grazing, stone, gypsum, marl, coal, petroleum and natiu-al gas, and, in the Peace River Block, adminis- ters all minerals, except gold and silver. The Province administers the waters and minerals excepted from Federal control as stated above ; it also contrc'-, taxation of private lands and the administration of justice. Crowtnest '^^^ Crowsnest Pass Coal Lands reserve consists of two Pmi Co«1 blocks of 5,000 and 45,000 acres, respectively, in the Kootenay Luids Reserve district, to the east of Femie. This land was acquired by the Federal Government from the Crowsnest Pass Coal Company in return for certain concessions granted to the company. None of this land has, as yet, been alienated, though both blocks are fairly well timbered, chiefly with Engelmann spruce and lodgepole pine, with a scattering of balsam and fir. As the name implies, the principal value of the reserve is the coal deposits. Disposition of Situated as it is along the main line of the Canadian Pacific Ry., Land in the which, until recently, was the only railway traversing the "*' '* province, the Railway Belt is an imp''«" °^er^ing a mill, be permitted to havrthc th^ fcr cut from the berth or berths held by him manufactured at a mill which iTot h^, of^oS'ffi'^; ^'''''"^f.^ ',^^' ^' ''''' f'"*" ^hc said berth ^r Lnhs a the rate of 100.000 feet annually for each square mile held by him under the We'' v«r^t/° 7"''^°' ^^1 ^°"**"'^' ""'* ^^'"P^ °" ^^^^ °^ his berths every year, the enforcement of this clause is not economically possible; nor is it 1«X u r' """'"^ ^'''" ""' '="""^' '^^^^i" » reasonable price for his of W« ■«, i^" °""'' .""'' *^' '^^■'""' °P«'«'°' ^an secure his supply tl^ir "'^^^"^^^^^"^'y/rom settlers who wish to clear their land than Int «ff r S ?'• l"*^' '^ '"^"'"'^ '° ^"* '^^^ """^^d timber, he could ^Lf^n ^"^''J°''^^ ««"'c«* timber. For a few years, an attempt was ^r^Vrl t r* *!"^^^,*"^^^'y increasing the rentals, but it was found to be contrary to the principles of conservation and was abandoned. The principle ?JS,T°^ r'^'^l''"" °^ '"'^' ''*^™' •' '°"°^' P'o^'^^^'l <=«« is taken that P™^H 1 1 „* If" '*^ f" 'P' ''^'" ^"'^ ^^"^ ^ '"^'ket exists for the product. Practically all the merchantable timber is now in private hands, and much of iin?nf trT' ' ^' S' P'"'""' P"*^" °^ '"'"b^^; consequently, the enforce- Z „1 f ri-* '^""''^ necessitate wasteful exploitation and an ultimate loss, not only of direct revenue, but of productive profits to the country. SiMeultunl Another regulation limits the minimum diameter of trees Rtfttktiou which may be cut to 10 inches on the stump, except for pur- poses of road-building or other necessary construction. Seed trees must be left 'as directed," and all merchantable material must be used from the trees cut, and tops, branches and other debris must be disposed of in accordance with the directions of the officers of the department in such a way as to prevent, as far as possible, the danger of fire. In addition the licensee is required to prevent all unnecessary destruction of young growth. Refutotioiu J'^^^^ regulations are not enforced, however, as the timber not Enforced berths are administered by the Timber and Grazing Lands ■.., ... ^'"^"'^^ °^ ^^^ °''P^- °^ th^ Interior, which is not supplied with a technical staff of the training and judgment necessary to efficiently cirect such operations. ' Effect of Cuttim "^h® application of a general diameter limit to all species and to toa^neter all forest types is of doubtful value, from either a business or silvicultural viewpoint. The object of leaving the small trees is presumably to encourage reproduction, but, in the forests of British Columbia .he most obvious result of cutting to a diameter limit of 10 inches would be to encourage the reproduction of such inferior species as lodgepole pine, hemlock and aspen, at the expense of the more valuable Douglas fir, red cedar white pme, yellow pine and spruce. The regulations provide, however, for the leaving of such seed trees as may be designated ; they thus offer an oppor- tunity for a large measure of control over the reproduction. Ihe regulation regarding the disporal of the logging debris is important, both from a fire- protection standpoint, and as a means of securing desirable reproduction. " has been found that, for the Coast region, at least, slash burning is almost lOB COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Scaliag of Timber Cut necessary for a successful reproduction of Douglas fir. The elimination of waste in logging is also a most desirable object. In view of the importance of maintaining the productiveness of the forests, and of the fact that the licenses have been granted with these regulations attached, it is to be regretted that steps have not been taken to apply silvi- cultural methods of cutting, as far as they arc practicable under the existing conditions. Representations have frequently been made to the Dominion Government by the Commission of Conservation and the Canadian Forestry Association, calling attention to the urgent need for such a change in organiza- tion as would result in the adequate '•nforcemcnt of cutting regulations on licensed timber berths, with a view to securing better forest reproduction and a greater reduction of the fire hazard. The licensee is required to furnish each year to the Dominion Timber Agent having jurisdiction, sworn returns showing the quantities manufactured, soltl or disposed of, of all sawn lum- ber, timber, or any other product of timber from the berth, with the exception of slabs for fuel purposes or sawdust, and the price or value thereof. A bush count is also required to be kept of all saw logs and other timlier cut upon a berth, as well as the number of pieces hauled therefrom, and the books con- taining these records must be duly sworn to and returned to the Dominion Timber Agent. Timber cut on Railway Belt lands north and east of Yale may be scaled only by persons authorized in writing by the Minister or his appointed agent. Timber cut on Dominion lands south and west of Yale is to be scaled by a Dominion Timber Scaler holding a scaler's license from the British Columbia Government, and in accordance with standard methods.* The payment of fees is based ujjon the log scale, for which the British Columbia rule is in effect. Situated close to the railway, and generally easy of access, most of the merchantable timber in the Railway Belt has been alienated in timber licenses during the last 30 years, and, though large amounts of timber have been cut from the berths, these lands still remain an important forest asset. The low rental and the lower royalty, togethei with the sense of security in Dominion timber licenses as compared with the original form of provincial licenses, has given the former a preference from the investor's point of view. Timber Permits Permits may be granted, without competition, to settlers and others to cut up to 100 cords of shingle bolts for sale, upon payment in advance of dues at the rate of SO cents per cord. Permits may also be secured to cut fire-killed timber for the manufacture of lumber, cordwood, poles, ties, etc., upon payment of dues. In the Railway Belt •See 1917 Dominion Timber Regulations, Nos. 26 and 27. It is now proposed to make a further change by providing that the scaling south and west of Yale shall be done by a scaler holding a Bntish Columbia scaler's license, but employed by the Department of the Interior, instead of by such men in the employ of the licensees. 5S mI. PI M' ■ r^ i 1 L A N D T E N U R E IN BRITISH COLUMBIA M» Umiimi in f OTMt ReMirai Po&£ST Reserves Throughout the Railway Belt, as on other Federal lands, ihe Dominion has set aside targe areas of non-a^'ricuitural ands 'for the maintenance, i ro- tection and reproduction of the timber , 'owmg, or which may hereafter prow, thereon, for the conservation of the minerals and the protection of the ani nals. birds and fish therein, and for the maintenaiisce of conditions favourable to a continuous water supply." Adminl»t«r«d These reserves are under the control of the Director of Forestry. byForeit who, as head of the I orestry Branch, has the assistance of a stafi of technically-trained foresters to administer the forest!. The areas to be reserved are first withdrawn from settlement by the Minister of the Interior, and then permanently set aside by Act of Parliament, and no portion can subsequently be witln awn from the reserves without the consent 01 Parliament. No lands includi-u within forest reserves may be sold, leased or otherwise disposed of, or be 1 xated or settled upon, and no person may use or occupy any part of such latuls, except as authorized by the Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks .\ci or retjulations made thereunder. Until the firat Forest Reserves Act was passed in 1906, no considerable ar.as had been s"! asi le for forest purposes in British Colunib'a ihou.;:i t jkicfr park was established in 1888, Yoho park in 1902, and Lont; Lake Forest reserve in I9()i. Before the reserves were created, practically all ut the a essi' ' stands of merchantable timber had been disposed of under timber license, and, ihou^h these berths might be included within forest reserves, any rig'a or interest conveyed by the license is not prejudiced thereby. Sccfon 58 of the Dominion Lands Act provides, however, that such licenses shall be subject to any provisions contained in lie Forest Reserves Act or in regulations made tiicreunder, providinj^ for the pre tection of game, the prevention of fires and the preservation and n-: . .a -n of timber.* Though this section of the Lands Act seems clearly to place the r i -at. "•. of the timber berths in the forest reserves under the control of t' rvTe:;!r; Branch, there appears to be some doubt as to the authority of t i'. Fof tc/ Branch in regard to these berths, and, except for forest protection, Ih' ;"<>r:srv administration has been confined to the imlicensed lands In this connc: ; -. Sir Clifford Sifton, in his annual addresi in 1915, as Chairman of the Cc:;.- mission of Conservation, made th^ following comment : "We are still faced with the anomalous situation of a practically com[)lete divorce between the theory and p'actice of forestry on Dominion Lands held •Sec. 58, Dominion Lands Act : "Licenses issued under the authority of this Act, for timber berths which are located within the bouncla-ies of any reserve established by the Dominion Forest Reserves Act, chapter 56 uf the Revised Statu'cs, l^, or by any Act subsequent thereto which lets apart forest reserves, shall be subject to any provisions contained in that Act, or in regula- tinr.s made thcrr.jn.-lcr, prr-.vi-iing f.-.r the nrotf.-^i--r, .^f game, the preventi-on of fires, an! the pre- servation and reproduction of timber : Provided that, when any portion of such a timber berth has not upon it timber in merchantable quantity of the kind and dimension described in the license, the Minister may withdraw that portion from the license, notwithstanding anything in this Act or any other Act or in any regulation made thereunder ; and upon such withdrawal, the ground rent tnall be reduced in proportion to the area withdrawn." n .■ i no COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION IH } ! nil % under license to cut timber. This matter wts discussed last year, on the basis of a report made for the Commission by J. H. White, of the Faculty of Forestry at Toronto. It was then shown that, while the Forestry Branch is well equipped with men technically trained in forestry, and in administering the forest reser\'es, as well as aflfordinR fire-protection both within and outside these reserves, it has absolutely ijo connection, at the present time, with the administering of cutting regulations on the licensed timber berths, although many of these timber berths are included within the boundaries of the reserves. This is because the timber berths are not legally a portion of the forest reserves. At the same time, the Timber and Grazinj; Branch, which is charged with the administration of the timber berths, has not, as far as known, even one man in its employ who has had any training in forestry. "As stated last year, the principal practical feature? of present-day forestry are : Such control of the methods of cutting as shall ensure the perpetuation of the forest, and such measures of brush disposal, as a fire-preventive measure, as may be found practicable and desirable under the conditions of each indivi- dual case. The licensed timber berths naturally include the bulk of accessible merchantable tirnber on Crown lards, and ' it is -odiously illogical and thoroughly undesirable in every way to permit the cutting of this timber without the most careful and intelligent enforcement of the existing regulations, which have for their object the perpetuation of the forest. Such enforcement is, however, not now provided, a.id is impossible under existing conditions or organization." KeniUti ^^* regulr'.ions governing the forest reserves are designed to KnervM permit of the fullest use of the natural resources compatible with the maintenance of a permanent sustained production. Leases of siu^ace rights are permitted for mining claims, churches, schools, club ouses, sanatoria, and cemeteries and summer resort lots. The grazing of stock is permitted in forest reserves under regulations which enable the maximum use of the pasturage without danger of deterioration, and permits to cut bay are issued where advisable. The timber is disposed of under a system of permits or timber sales which are issued for a stated amount of timber to be cut in a limited time. Settlers are allowed up to 25 cords of dry wood free each year, for their own use as fuel, and any occupant of a homestead who has no timber suitable for building, fencing or fuel on his land may secure a free permit to cut up to the following maximum amounts : (a) 3,000 lineal feet of building timber, no log to be over 12 inches at the butt end, unless the timber is cut from dry trees, in which case timber of any diameter may be taken. Should the building timber be sawn at a mill, the permittee will be en- titled to receive, free of dues, 9,250 b.f. of lumber therefrom, and no more. (6) 400 roof-poles to be used for such purpose, (c) 500 fence-posts, 7 feet long, and not to exceed 5 inches at the small end. id) 2,000 fence-rails. Should the house timber be sawn at a mill, payments for sawing mtist not be made by way of toll, as the full quantity of lumber cut from the logs must be used on the permit-holder's homestead. Settlers' Pennits LAND TENURE IN BRITFSH COLUMBIA 111 Permits to cut timber up to the following maximum amounts are granted without competition for purposes and at prices as follows : (a) To actual settlers (sub-section 'a/ section 16), 10,000 b.f. of saw- logs, 500 fence-posts, 500 fence-rails not over six inches in diameter at the butt, 1,000 lineal feet of round building timber, 25 cords of wood for fuel. (b) To miners and prospectors (sub-section 'b,* section 16), 50,000 b.f. of timber, or its equivalent. (c) For municipal and public works (sub-section c,' section 16), whatever timber is required, and for churches and schools in rural districts 20,000 b.f. or its equivalent. id) To occupants, permittees or lessees (sub-section 'd,' section 16) 3,000 lineal feet of building logs, 500 roof-poles not over six inches in diameter at the butt. (e) For irrigation purposes (sub-section 'e,' section 16), 50 000 bf or its equivalent. ' ' "' (/) To residents of towns and villages, for the erection of buildings for their own use, in quantities not to exceed 3.000 lineal feet of round timber and 500 roof-poles, not to exceed 6 inches in diameter at the butt in any one year, at an upset price not less than that fixed by these reeula- tions for permits. (g) To any applicant, for his own use or for sale or barter green or dry cordwood at not less than 25 cents per cord, and in amounts not to exceed 400 cords on any one permit. folloJs''^ ^'^'^edule of fees to be charged for timber under these permits is as (o) Cordwood (for fuel only), 25 cents per cord. (b) Mining props and poles, other than telegraph and telephone poles, nine inches or more in diameter at butt, one-half cent per lineal foot • under 9 inches in diameter at butt, one-quarter cent per lineal foot (c) Fence posts, one cent each for 7 foot posts ; one-half cent for each additional foot (not to exceed 5 inches in diameter at top). (d) Poles or rails, two cents each (not to exceed 6 inches at butt). (•) Telephone and telegraph poles, one-half cent per lineal foot for poles 25 feet and under ; one cent per lineal foot for poles over 25 feet if) Shingle bolts, 50 cents per cord. (g) RaUway ties, eight feet long. 3 cents each ; each additional toot 1 cent. (A) Sawlogs. $1.50 per M b.f. (»■) Round building timber, one-half cent per lineal foot. Ti™h. o . Tenders may be called for larger amounts of timber, up to Timber Sle. 5.000,000 b.f.. to be removed within five years. The amount .nj ♦u , J'° ^°'*^ *"^ *^® "P^^^ P"'^^ '^ ^^^'^ ^y the Director of Forestry, fn II wl^ advertised for 30 days in a newspaper circulatin.^ in the district »i, I /i^*""''^'■ " ^•t"*t«'l- Applicants for such sales must deposit $50. Which IS forfeited in case the timber is not sold at the upset price fixed. Tenders 112 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION |1 must be accompanied by a deposit of not less than one-fifth of the total d»»es, if they do not exceed $5,000, or one-tenth, if they do exceed that amount, and this deposit is retained, to be applied on the two last quarterly payments. No person to whom a sale of timber has been made is eligible to tender on another sale, until either the conditions of the first contract have been fulfilled, or the time allowed is due to expire within the next six months. Cutting regulations, designed to meet the local silvicultural conditions, are inserted in the contract for each sale, so that the purchaser knows what will be required of him, and is prepared to carry out the instructions of the officers in charge. The elimination of waste, disposal of brush and provision for reproduction of the desired species are secured in this manner. The following are the Dominion forest reserves in British Columbia, the total area of each, and the area temporarily alienated, under timber licenses and grazing leases : Reserve Area Timber berths included Grazing leases included Yoho Acres 104,640 67,840 14,880 28,960 143,200 21,760 202,720 116,960 185,984 168,134 163,200 217.760 Acres 7,680 5,120 40,666 2,566 24,000 2,560 Acres Glacier . . Larch HilU Mount Ida Flv Hil!s 480 Mart-n Mt 800 Niskonlilh 6,560 800 Monte Hills Tranquille . . Long Lake 11,680 6,160 Nicola Artowstone Hat Creek 12,640 1,759,718 81,920 39,120 AffkultoMri L«a4 in Forest Reserves The forest reserves in the Railway Belt do not carry a great deal of merchantable timber, aside from that included in timber berths. The land in these reserves is better adapted to forest production than to any other purpose, care having been taken to exclude all large bodies of agricultural land. Such small areas of the latter as were un- avoidably included when the reserves were established, are now being opened for settlement under special arrangements, and provision for the utilization and improvement of meadow lands have been made, though these are of value only for hay production. Over a very large proportion of the area there are to be found excellent stands of young forest growth, which it is the duty of the Government to protect until it reaches maturity. Situated as these reserves are, chiefly in the drier districts of the province and covering the headwaters of the streams which supply the agricultural .valley with water for irrigation, the maintenance of a permanent forest cover within their boundaries is most important. LAND TENURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA Dominion Parks 113 The Federal Governm'mt has permanently set aside, by Act of Parliament, several large areas of Dominion lands in the Railway Belt as national parks. These areas, in addition to being forest reserves, provide pleasure grounds for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of Canada and of visitors who may care to use them. They are administered by the Parks Branch of the Dept. of the Interior, under tbe Commissioner of Dominion Parks. There are tl»se of these parks in the Railway Belt, the Yoho, covering 560 square miles ; the Glacier. 468 square miles, and the Revelstoke, 95 square miles They include some of the most magnificent scenery to be found in the whol-^ Rocky Mountain .system, and the object of their administration is, therefore, primarily to preserve and make accessible the wonderful scenic attractions of the parks. Before the establishment of the parks, over ^0,000 acres had been licensed as timber berths, over which 'he parks administration has no control, except in matters of fire protection. Dominion licensed tirtiber lands are administered by the Timber and Gra-/.iiig Lands Branch of the Dept. of the Interior. There is considerable timber not included in timber berths, but the cutting of this timber is permitted only for imprc^vement purposes, such as the removal of dead timber or for thinning stands that are loo dense. The Forest Resen^es and Parks Act authorizes -he Governor in Council to make regulations : (a) For the protection, care, management, control, maintenance and improvement of Dominion parks, and their use and enjoyment as public parks and pleasure grounds ; (b) For the conduct of persons residing in, or making use of, any park ; (c) For the lease for any terms of years of such parcels of land in the pwks as he deems advisable in the public interests, for public purposes, for the construction of buildings for ordinary habitation, for purposes of trade and industry, for the accommodation of persons resorting to the parks ; (d) For the maintenance and improvement of properties in the parks that have been sold or leased ; (e) Prescribing the class and style of buildings and other structures to be erected in the parks and the material of which they must be built, and for classifying building and fire areas ; (/) For the control and licensing of business, trades and traffic of every description within the parks, and the levying of license fees ; (j) For the construction, operation and maintenance of roads, side- walks, street lighting, '.vater-works, sewage, fire protection and sanitation systems, and other public utilities within the parks, and for levying con- tributions upon the properties benefited thereby and the persons interested HI such properties, and for the sale or forfeiture of the interests of such persons in such properties when such contributions are not paid ; 114 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION n ih) For the preservation of public health and the prevention of the spread of disease. Indian Reserves Scattered throughout the province are over one thousand tracts of land which have been set aside for the sole and permanent use of the Indians. As a protection against sale by the Indians, these lands are held in trast for them by the Dominior. Government, the administration being under the Depart- ment of Indian Affairs. British Columbia claims reversionary rights, whereby, in the event of any of these lands being sold or withdrawn from the reserves! the complete title is vested in the province. Land, timber or other rights on these reserves can be secured only from the Dominion Government, upon the consent of all those Indians in the tribe to whom the particular reserve was assigned, and, in order to make the title to any such rights unassaJable, it is necessary, in addition, to secure from the Provincial Government the assignment of its reversionary rights. The difficulty of acquiring all these assignments of rights has, fortunately for the Indians, almost completely prevented the explwtation of the natural resources, except by the Indians themselves. The following table shows the nusbers and areas of the Indian reserves in the various districts in British Coliimbia. as they stood in 1917: Agency .N'umber of Indians Stikine Nass Queen Charlotte SelUknla Kwawkewlth West Coast .', Cowichan New Westminster Lj-tton Williams Lake Babme and Upper Skeena. Stuart Lake Kamloops Okanagan Kcx>tenay NoRMdic Indians (estimated) . Number of reserves Totols. 675 iMO MO i.m 1,773 1,71? 2,422 2,238 1.229 1,926 1,421 2,296 872 576 2,.S00 Total area, iicres 24,744 2 63 25 65 91 149 72 149 160 64 45 42 1!M 43 n 1,085 415 62,854 91 3,484 50 22.667 93 16.607 49 12.357 10 19.879 59 »,97S 42 54.480 61 »2,430 77 30,073-80 22,047 94 173,226 66 145.928 21 46.141 38 712,571-31 The reserves are estimated to carry a total of about 2,500,000 M. feet, many of them being well timbered. Realizing that this timber should be used, the department has adopted a permit system of timber disposal, following closely that in force by the Dominion Forestry Branch on the forest reserves. Wherever possible, the Indians are encouraged to do the logging and sawing themselves. Pla(« XV """?«^r.T;„;Kr„vs:°^s,r;,;;:- "'■-"'•' PACKING A-rSC FOR FIRE PATROL TEU PHONE Lir«. CO. u. M3IA VAtLEY m- CHAPTER V Forest Administration on Provincial Lands* T^HE forests of British Columbia are administered by the Forest Branch of the Department of Lands, and all matters pertaining thereto are under the control of a staff of technically-trained foresters. Few government forestry staffs on this continent have such complete control over the forests and forest land.^ as has the Forest Branch in British Columbia. It has charge of the protection of the forests, of their alienation and exploitation, and of the collec- tion of the revenues derived therefrom. During the last few years, the devel- opment of markets for lumber has become an important feature in its work. DeTelopment of ^" *.''f ^"^^ ***^^^' ^°'"^^^ matters were dealt with by the AdminUtration officials of the Department of Lands. The work centred chiefly in Vancouver, at the office of the timber inspector. A forest ranger with a launch patrolled the 700 miles of coast-line between Van- couver and Prince Rupert. The forests of the interior country were adminis- tered by collectors, who paid occasional visits in quest of rovalty due from operators who had cut Crown timber. In those days, even though logging operations were conducted on a small scale, this slender staff was unable to cope with the situation effectively. Later, the long-standing conflict between the coast logger, as the vendor of the timber, and the mill-man, as the purchaser, compelled the Government to act as arbitrator. An official scale, known as the 'British Columbia' log rule, was adopted, and was made the compulsory basis for all dealings in timber west of the Cascades.f To put this scale into effective operation, the Government appointed official salaried scalers, acting under a supervisor connected with the timber inspector's office at Vancouver. The cost of the work was defrayed by levying a charge of five cents per 1,000 board feet on all timber measured. In 1906, prohibition of the export of un- manufactured logs increased the duties of the timber inspector's office and necessitated a launch patrol of the boundary. Fwrest With the growth of population, public sentiment in favour D^d^M °^ ^°'"^^* protection developed, and the Government undertook the protection of forests from fire. At centres such as Van- couver and Revelstoke. fire wardens were appointed, and the number of these gradually increased, until, in 1909, 37 wardens were patrolling the forests. Thus, forest protection gradually developed, until it constituted a separate branch of departmental work. Columw! ^nV*."?.^ indebted to the courtesy of Mr. M. A. Grainger, Chief Forester of BritUh tinclude* the Coatt mountaint, properly so called, and the Cascade mountains. lO' IM COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION If- ii f„„t In 1909, a Royal Corrmission of Inquiry on Timber and For- Cominittion estry was appointed to conduct an inquiry "into and con- of Enquiry cerning the timber resources of the province, the preservation of the forests, the prevention of forest fires, the utilisation of timber areas, afforestation, and the diversification of tree growing, and generally, all matters connected with the timber resources of the province". This commission consisted of Hon. Fred. J. Fulton, K.C., as chairman, and A. S. Goodeve and A. C. Flumerfelt. Mr. M. A. Grainger, now Chief Forester, acted as secretary of the commission. After extensive investigations, covering not only the local situation, but also the methods in use in other places, the commission reported that large appropriations must be made for forest protection, and a well-equipped, well-manned, specialized forest service brought into being. The establishment of the Forest Branch was the result. The report of this commission, published in 1910, contained a wealth of information in regard to the status ';•' the forest lands in British Columbia, and the revenues derived therefrom. Previous to this, very little was known concerning the disposition that had been made of the public forests or of their importance to the welfare of the province. The recommendations* made by this commission show that the situation was carefully studied, and the findings were, to a large extent, followed in the framing of the Forest Act of 1912. The Forest Act, 1912 With the passage of the Forest Act in 1912, it became possible to create an extensive force to carry out the comprehensive scheme of forest adminis- tration that had been recommended. Hon. W. R. Ross, Minister of Lands, secured the assistance, as consulting forester, of Mr. Overton \V. Price, to whom the organization of the U. S. Forest Service is so largely due. A technical staff was rapidly recruited, and a definite scheme of forest adminis- tration put into practical effect before the close of the year. Under the new Forest Board, the province was divided into FwMt BoMd ^ ^^ f°'"^s* districts, with headquarters at Cranbrook, Hazelton, Kamloops, Lillooet, Nelson, Prince Rupert, South Fort George, T6te Jaune, Vancouver, Vernon and Victoria. A district forester was appoint- ed to take charge of each of these divisions and, under hln, a technical assistant, whose duties consisted chiefly of cruising, recoiinaissiTnce, and silvi- cultural matters; also rangers, each in charge of the supervision of the forest districts; scalers and check scalers — the latter in those districts in which the mills do their own scaling ; forest guards, who are temporary employees con- cerned only with forest protection, patrol, improvements or fire fighting; and others necessary for the varying classes of work in the different districts. In charge of this district organization was a headquarters office, under a chief forester, and four assistant foresters, each cci:cerned with a separate branch of the general work. The Timber Management office deals with the forest atlas, land classifi- cation, products, scaling, seizure, silviculture, timber sales, timber markinc 'Final Report of the Royal Commitsion of Inquiry on Timber and Forestry, 1909-1910, p. D43. 1'OREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS 117 timber inspection, and trespass; also all work connected with the utilization of lumber products, a matter which, in recent years, has developed into consider- able importance. The Operation office undertook all organization and personnel matters and also control of forest protection work. Later, the investiKation of grazing on vacant lands, lumbering and publicity were added, and the duties of this office now comprise organization, fire protection, education and publicitv, improvements, reconnaissance, grazing, and library. The Records office deals with appointments, revenue and supervision of expenditure, the status of land, sale and royaltv, drafting of legislation, and the general collection of statistical data. Under the Timber Surveys office, considerable work was done until the outbreak of war, with the object of obtaininj; a general knowledge of the timber resources of the province; but, when war broke out. most of this work was abandoned, and the duties of the office were taken over by the other offices. In the first two or three years of the existence of the Forest Branch a large amount of cruising and land examination work was carried on under the direct -supervision of the Victoria office. As the district offices developed however, this work was gradually transferred to them. The crisis created by the depression in the lumber industry, which was so severely felt in the three years beginning; with 1913, was met bv'an energetic campaign to develop the market for British Columbia forest products. Market ^" investigation into the reasons for the lack of progress in ExteMJon British Columbia's export lumber trade for the past fifteen years had been initiated during 1915. Early in 1916, the need of xtending this investigation to the overseas markets was brought to the atten- tion of the Dominion Department of Trade and Commerce; and, in March H. R. MacMillan, Chief Forester of the province, was appointed bv Sir George Foster to visit these markets as Special Trade Commissioner. ' In the United Kingdom, with the assistance of Sir Richard McBride Agent General for British Columbia, he drew the attention of the Imperial authorities to the fact that lumber purchases even for the War Office were being made fiom American firms, to the detriment of the Br .i.h Columbia industry As a result, orders amounting to over S200.000 wcro placed in British Columbia and the Forest Branch attended to the filling of the orders and the shipping of the lumber. Valuable information in regard to the market for lumber in various forms was also secured and given to the public through the Weekly Bulletin of the Department of Trade and Commerce. Mr. MacMillan, later, visited Holland. South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and India. Forest Revenue The forest revenue of British Columbia came into prominence as a con- sequence of the numerous stakings of timber licenses in 1906, 1907 and 1908 in 1900 the forest revenue was $142,300 ; in 1909 it had risen to nearly ♦A500,000. By calendar years the revenue has been as follows : li ,!,l ii, lit COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION It ll Mi FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS 119 5 5.f ;:Ri^s;8;:S8SS8S t^ 90 *" VI M I/) "5 •»» "NO* K25s,5r:-s:j8STS?5-8S:? S;^^8S|SSS^8S::2^£cSS3'>n$ g oc o ri IN uj O *« "1 "• P "> 9£ •- Q -r i^. » -- »0 b* « ^ 3»- J ** O — O- ' - 'D • O — ff' ' - i 8 . (S| « v>3 8 8 I ft '3 1 e o K (2 £ s £ 3 j2 If I I s ■3 5 Ul ^( MKROCOTY HSOIUTION TfST CHART (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No 2) A APPLIED IM/IGE Inc Sri '653 East Mom Str«t 5"^ Rochestef, New rofk 14609 uSA '^SS (7t6} 482 - 0300 - Phone ^B (716) 288 - 5989 - Fo» 120 COMMISSION OP CONSERVAtlON PROPORTION OF THE TOTAL PROVINCIAL REVENUE DERIVED FROM THE FORESTS, BY FISCAL YEARS II Year Forest revenue Total Provincial revenue Percentage from forest resources 1901 S 115,594 $ 1,605,920 7-2 1902 161,071 1,807,925 8-9 1903 298,217 2,044,630 146 1904 405,748 2,638,260 IS-4 1905 486.516 2,920,461 16-7 1906 643,827 3,044,442 211 1907 1,305,327 4,444,593 29-4 1908 2,424,668 5,979,054 40-6 1909 (9 mos.) 1,920,349 4,664,500 41-2 1909-1910 2,448,150 8,874,742 27-6 1910-1911 2,654,824 10,492,892 25-3 1911-1912 2,753,579 10,745,709 25-6 1912-1913 2,999,329 12,510,215 24 0 1913-1914 2,342,680 10,479,259 22-4 1914-191S 1,922,558 7,971,496 24' 1 1915-1916 2,005,941 6,291,694 31-9 1916-1917 2,338,333 6,906,78* 33 9 The phenomenal increase in the total annual revenue from 1910 to 1914 was due chiefly to increased sales of public lands. When the payments are completed on the land purchases, as required by the Soldier's Homestead Act, 1916, the revenue from this source will be small, as, with the exception of some townsite property and a relatively small acreage reserved for auction, the Crown lands are now withdrawn from sale. The relative importance of the forest as a source of revenue is, therefore, practically certain to increase rather than decrease in the future. The large forest revenue during 1907-1913 was derived mainly from timber- license fees. When these licenses were staked, no survey of the land was required; and, as they were mostly speculative, little care was taken in locating the claims. The trading in these licenses and the increased burden of the annual license fees, however, have resulted in the surveying and the more careful cruising of the timber on a considerable proportion of the licensed lands. As a consequence, upwards of 1,500 licenses have been discontinued, representing a decrease of nearly $200,000 in the annual revenue. As more of the licenses are surveyed and cruised, and as logging proceeds, the revenue from this source will continue to decrease. The lowering of the license fees in the interior from $115 to $100 also meant a direct decrease of over $100,000; but it probably obviated a much greater falling off, which would otherwise have resulted through the abandonment of the claims by the licensees. Since the outbreak of the war, the Forest Relief Act has given protection to the holders of timber licenses who have been unable to maintain their aanual payments of rental, and the revenue from this source has shown, in consequence, a considerable temporary decrease. As the arrears are subject to heavy interest charges, ranging up to 25 per cent per annum, and, as considerable investments have already been made in most of the licenses now in arrears, it is apparent that, as soon as normal conditions have been restored, a considerable amount of arrears of revenue will be forthcoming. The normal forest revenue at the present time may be estimated at from $2,500,000 to $3,000,000. FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LAND Revenue from LoggiiiE Operations S 121 Revenue from the exploitation of the timber is becoming a more important factor and. as the revenue from rentals de- creases, royalty and stumpage must be more largely depended upon to furnish the forer, revenue. The amounts due upon the operations conducted in the vano. i forest c-^ncts during the year 1916 are shown in the table on page 122. Royalty and the manufacture tax yield five-sixths of the revenue from operations. The former is collected on all timber cut from Crown lands and from the more recently granted freehold lands. The manu- facture tax IS levied on timber cut from land, in respect to which no rovalt- is payable, and includes also the tax on logs exported. Stumpage derived rom timber sales in addition to the royalty, has yielded from $60,000 to S80 OOO per annum dunng the last three years. Scaling fees and expenses represent little, If any, net revenue to the Government. Over 70 per cent of the revenue from logging operations is collected in the Vancouver district. Next in importance is the Cranbrook district. The increased lumber production in 1916 resulted in nearly $100,000 more being collected for royalty and manufacture tax than in 1915, while for 1917 there was a still further increase of $ 1 05 . 1 95 . i' I ', ' i i % I!' li •If tl 122 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION ii J2 1 s s 5 K2S 2§S 3 -8 « JO 51 (N -r t-Vi «n t^ ol »-._ r. 1^ •♦ 01 5 1^ -r !n 3 00 3 eon H 2";? 1 e 3 -0 »n S^8 -^6 'd : —' ^ -,; ^ -; 6 s f -iri n" pJiW »*r 00- OT •» s 0 -r^r^ 38 !U S : ; ; ; ; ;»o wjf^ e^ .S S fr* • li^ o«i IN bc^ l| :::::: :^.5 •* ft) «» •» «» r. 30 ^ o E « «• •» z* o o < SSSS: :Sg8a : « 28 z 1-4 5i52 122^3 ; 1*100 1 •» «» 32 S o M .10 •00 § .-sss; 0 10 38 fa a P • 5 OOO D s** >o o-o- Z f*^ «» s JJ^ w Oi i-a S:§;:o2s;?2ss 0 S8 000 5Sf •» -^ w 3,^ t. 71 c c : .3.9 •«-» 4^ *» *c S.S. to 0 0 ^ in^ «> aS i? t; : : 1 ,2 « 1; r ^ b 3 a: c 1 1 1 '1 e 1) > 1 1 4 f 0 0 H Plate XVI BLOW-DOWN IN HEMLOCK-BALSAM STAND, QUATSINO SOUND VANCOUVER ISLAND lil' LOOKING DOWN PORTLAND CANAL, FROM STEWART !'! FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LAND CrowvmatMl Timb«fHanda S 123 The Forest Branch has no control over the taxation of Crown- granted lands, nor is it credited with the revenue derived t *t. *• w **'*'"«^™'"-* The Forest Branch does, however, collect royalty for the timber cut from certain Crown-granted lands and a manufacture tax on th? timber cut from other lands.f The tax on the timber land should nevertheless, be considered a direct forest revenue. The tax on this land is based on a rate of two per cent of the assessed valuation, which is determined by local assessors. No system or organization is provided for cruising or properly classifying the land, and there is reason to believe that a considerable area of timber-land is not properly classified. A better knowledge of the timber on these lands would, in many instances, result in higher valuations being placed on the properties. Crown-granted timber is the highest priced timber on the coast ; as most of it was alienated in the earlv days, it is. as a rule 0 choice quahty and favourably situated ; and also, on a considerable proportion of the Crown-granted lands, no royalty is payable on the timber when cut. For these reasons. Crown-granted .tumpage sells for at least Si. 00 per thousand more than similarly situated licensed timber. The assessed valuations given m the following tables would seem to be much too low, especially for the Coast Vancouvef "^"^* ^' '^'''^°"^' Cowichan, Alberni, Nanaimo. Comox and _ CROWN-GRANTED TIMBER-LANDS 1911. 1912. 1913. 1914. 191S. 1916. Area of private timber-lands, acres 824,814 874,715 922,948 960,464 913,245 922,206 Average assessed value, per acre $8.72 8.60 9.02 9.66 9.SS 9 73 AREA AND ASSESSMENT VALUE OF TIMBER-LAND BY ASSE.SSMENT DISTRICTS Forest district Acreage. 1916 Increase or decrease in acreage over 1915 Average assessed value per acre Change in value per acre since 1915 Victoria Cowichan 16.942 87.077 44,368 78,244 217,625 24.478 5,094 44,423 7,428 177,096 6,422 77,910 48,439 86,660 922,206 - 592 - 496 - 350 + 160 + 286 + 40 - 765 -2,879 - 58 + 7,075 No change No change No change +6,540 +8,961 SI3.30 14.88 18.31 12.83 13.99 4.03 3.00 5.29 15.73 3.85 4.99 3.87 11.55 6.51 S 9.73 -0.10 Alberni +0.14 Nanaimo -0.08 Comox +2.64 Rossland +0.10 Kettle River Slocan \o change No change Vancouver.. +0.01 Nelson +0.13 Vernon -0.02 Golden... No change Revelstoke -0.04 Steele -0.02 Totals -0.10 +0.18 ts2 Sfff tl /°' '^^,''°". °f Crown -granted timber-lands, roee page 85 for royalty m respect to Crown-urantpH HmV 11 ]iiW iyalty in respect to Crown-granted timber-lands. I IM COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION It is evident, from a tudy of the conditions, that the revenue from thu forests must be maintained by production rather than by speculative alien- ation. Increase in royalty charges has, to some extent, augmented the revenue, but the most effective means to this end is to stimulate production by increasin-^; the market for forest products. British Columbia can increase her cut five fold without endanKcring her forest capital. From a cut of a little over 1,000 million feet in 1915, a revenue of $351,310 was secured from the royalty and the manufacture tax. Since the royalties increase with the price of lumber (over a minimum price of $18 per M.), the Government is financially interested not only in the volume of production, but in the prosperity of the lumber industry. Timber sales have provided a new source of revenue which may be developed within certain limits. In 1915, $71,080 was received from stumpage and rentals from the timber sales. Forest Protection Tax The forest protection tax, levied on all timber-land* in the province, can not properly be considered as revenue, since the funds thus collected from the timber owners are reserved exclusively for forest protection. The forest pro- tection fund is discussed more fully at page 125 et seq. Ji Forest Expenditure Out of an average annual revenue from its forests of over $2,000,000, British Columbia spends approximately $400,000 in their protection and administra- tion. Since the cost of protection is borne jointly by the Government and the timber-owners, the expenditures for this purpose must be kept separate from administrative expenses, which are paid entirely from the provincial treasury. FOREST EXPENDITURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA, 1910-1916 Fiscal year Administration Protection Total 1910-11 S 65,822 (o) 60,071 (c) 162,904 (d) 231,374 275,302 241,591 $219,493 (6) 144,590 115,743 166,133 166,000 (e) 166,000 $285,315 204,661 278 647 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 397 507 1914-15 441 302 1915-16 407,591 (a) Ending March 31. (6) Including expenses of this period paid subsequently. (c) Including travelling expenses of officers. (d) Including $15,000 for construction of launches. (e) Heavy expenses incurred in fire fighting made it necessary to cover a deficit of $21,000 by an advance to the Forest Protection Fund in addition to this grant. Administration expenses include salaries of head-office staff, of district foresters and their clerical assistants, expenses of cruising and land examination, ■cost of scaling, collection of revenue and publicity work carried on in connection •Timber-land is defined on page 98. FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS .2S With the extension of markets' propaganda ae salaries of ranpers and Tt. iT"»: " '"' "^ ^*^^''"^ ^'''' ^"^ °^ ^"^'' '-'"'- - telephones launches etc which are necessary to protect the forests from (ire. are paid out of the orest protection fund. The launches are charged to the forest p no t on SstSo^^^^^^^^ '"r ^' " '''■'''' "°^'^- = '^^^ "-^ - '-'I examiia °n rr..H ? .'""^ or collection of revenue, their cost and maintenance are charged to administration. During the last four years, the expenditure for purposes other than pro- tection may be classified as follows: uuitr man pro- 19I.1.I4.... 1914-15 1915-16.. . 1916-17 (9 mos.) Administrative salaries $155,712 I90,,?90 171.035 87.852 Miscellaneous $75 622 7J,234 40,476 42.847 Lumber markets 811,678 30,080 80.000 Tnt.il $231,337 275,302 241,591 130,&';5 GENERAL ADMINI.STRATIVE EXPENDITURE FOR FISCAL YEAR ig,6..917 Headquarters Cranbrook . . . Fort George.. Hazelton Island Kamlnops .... Lillooet Nelson Prince Rupert Vancouver . . , , Vernon .... Totals . $ 55.289.11 5.721.28 4.290 21 2.577.41 3,501.32 4.957.61 2.938.30 4.777.54 4.038.97 33.653 51 3.376.27 J125.121.53 $ 9,149 .?0 3,255.32 3,987.12 1,239.45 4,390.69 2,184.66 900.69 1.352.25 7,488.85 27,143 79 2,225.47 563,317.59 $ 64,4,W.41 8,976.60 8,277.33 3,SI6 86 7.8')2.01 7.142.27 3.838 9q 6,129.79 i:, 527. 82 6().7y7.30 5,601 . 74 « 188,439. 12 Forest Protection . • ^ction of the forests from fire is the first and most important duty c administration. Since its organization, in 1912. the Forest Branch ed the major portion of its efforts towards establishing an efficient of fire prevention and control. It is doubtful if any forest ervice ?ainous Thrnn f ; 1 '''''^' ^^''^ ''• ^°' '^' '^°'' P^^^- '•°"Kh and moun- tainous. Throughout the greater portion of this territory there are practicallv whiTh Teln "ZT'T''' °^ ^--P°«-^-n and no resident populafon ro^^ du ? help could be obtained to control the fires. The salt-water shore-linr v^ °: UeTwTh '"'^ r' 't"'^' ^^ '''''''^'^' '' -- 7.000 miles a 1st timber oi the lo^st if'' " ''' '''"■'• ""^ P^°^*^^^ ^^^ ^-^'^ ^^-^s of tZl , ^ ^ ''^' necessary to provide numerous launches Trails S't^Lt? °'"'"^'''°" ^"^^ ^"' ""'"^^^"^ °^^- improvetnts'^;"^ li! 12' COMMISSION OFCONSERVATION Bdticativ* Camptlgn In addition to the natural difficulties, the indifference of the public to the destruction of the forest by fire necessitated an energetic educative campaign to obtain the co-operation necessary for results. A Bush Fire law was passed in 1884, providing for the imposition of penalties for sttting fire; but, lackinK an adequate orpanization for enforcement, it was of httle benefit. The prevailing attitude of the public, and particularly of the lumbermen, prospectors and settlers, whose lives were spent in the forests, was that fires were inevitable and frequently more bene- ficial than otherwise. The pop\'lar belief that the supply of timber was inex- haustible was expressed in the cheapness of stumpage. Unless his equipment was destroyed, the lumberman considered the damage occasioned by forest fires as negligible.. The prospector welcomed fire, since it laid bare the rocks in which he sought hib fortune. To the settler, the forest only encumbereil the land, and was an impediment to the tillage. Each summer, it was not unusual for from two to four months, to have the smoke from forest fires hanging over the coast like a fog —frequently pn- scnting a menace to navigation. Still, no coi cm was felt in regard to tho millions of feet of tin.ber which were annually being destroyed. For a number of years, during the danger months, a few rangers Wwdms ^^'"'^ employed, but their duties consisted chiefly in fightitiL: fire, after they had become dangerous. The force was tf" limited for an effective patrol to prevent the starting of fires. The inspection and supervision of these temporary and inexperunced rangers, scattered throughout the province, was left to one permanen* tire warden. The natural result was that the service was ineffective and subjt ;t to more or less ridicule. By degrees, the number of rangers was increased until, in 1911, the force con- sisted of 110 district wardens who, in turn, were under the direction of two supervisors of wardens. The Forest Branch was created in February, 1912; the service was reorganized to some extent and the rangers were giver, closer supervision. The following year the service was increased and much more efficiently organized. The protective service entailed not only an increased ^ -onn.jl, Init necessitated the provision of means of transportation, communication and other equipment. The immense area .vhich each ranger has to protect, even with the in- creased staff, is shown in the following table : llil FOREST ADMINISTRArn.. NOV ..Rov.Ncr AL I.A.N l)S 127 it m COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION ^ i II * PretMtlM Foad It was felt that, tince the timber-ownem aud the Government were jointly intereited in the protection o{ the forests, each should contribute toward the expense, and the "forest pro- tection fund', maintained equally by the timber-owners and the Government, was established. The first year, an assessment of one '•ent per acre was levied on all timber licenses, leases and Crown-nranted timber-land.* This nrovided $105,259.42. and the Government contributed a like amount. makii.K a total available for the work of $210,518.84. The assessment was increased to 1,'j cents per acre in 1913. as it was found that o!» the forrar basis the necessary improvements could not be made. For the first two years the fund met all demands, but the extremely bad fire season of 1914 necessitated the advancinir of $143,000 by the provincial treasury. Economics eflfpcted in 1915 and 1916. however, have made it possible to repay the treasury the 1914 loan. Thus, in times of extreme danger, the administration is not limited to the amount availa'ule from the fund, since the Government is prepared to advance the necessary money to cope with the situation, as it did in 1914. After making allowance for extreme hazards, due to climatic conditions, the effectiveness of a forest protection service can be judged by the relative expenditure for improve-.nents and patrol, as compared with those for fighting fires. The statement for 1913 to 1916 is as follows : Fiscal years 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17 Patrol ... $217,093 104.000 9,600 $228,352 31,385 143,461 $157,432 .5,151 19,449 $143,202.75 Improvements Fires 4,227.65 8,774 97 Totals $330,693 $403,198 $182,032 $156,205 37 The expenditure in the various forest districts in 1916 is fairly typical. Only about one-third of the fund is spent in the three Coast districts (Prince Rurirt, Island and Vancouver), notwithstanding that these districts con- tribule f onsiderably over one-half of the timber-holders' share of the fund. FOREST PROTECTION EXPENDITURE BV DISTRICTS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1916 17 Forest district Patrol Improvements Fires Total Headquarters $ 2,103.18 12,836.99 24, U. 0.84 ^,-J9.81 f i.OS 6J.8I u.f,58.26 16,252.38 7,796.60 31,877.65 8,719.71 $ 752.93 822.73 408.87 33.00 30.47 70.40 193.87 997:96 437.63 2,361.20 373.12 242.28 39.35 4 65 149 50 382.44 3,537.71 43.45 $ 2,103. IS 13,667.57 Fort George Hazelton . 27,344 <' 10,511 SO Island 12,327.33 Kamloops Lillooet 12,133 (i3 6.733 31 16.595 1 5 Prince Rupert 8.179.04 36.413 .'2 Vernon '.200 i'> $144,251 28 $3,747.86 $7,211.35 $155,210 4« •See page 98, for definitions of 'timber-land.' •ul» XVII LOdclNd ny noNKFV FNCINF POWft 1 tAKF ill iiJ ■III LOCiGING RAILWAY COURTENAV, VANCOUVER ISLAND !i FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS 129 The following table shows what h'as been accomplished in the way of permanent improvements during the four years, 1913 to 1916, inclusive : No. Miles Cost Cost per mile or unit Horse-trails 175 31 2 24 38 25 74 12 1,806*55 201 00 492 '7 $54,925.72 4,452.09 100 00 34,918,39 6,380.61 2,718,59 40,533 48 1,078.84 . Foot-trails $30.40 Bridges 22, 15 Telephone lines 50,00 Cabins 70.87 Boat-houses and caches 167.91 108.74 547.75 89.90 Launches, boats and canoes . . . Fencing ranger-station pastures Total $145,107.72 Forest Fire Laws To be effective, a forest protection service must be supported by comprehensive legal authority, a sympathetic public senti- ment, and close co-operation of all the allied interests. The full text of the law goveming^re protection will be found in Part XI of the British Columbia Forest Act. The most important features of this act mav, however, be briefly discussed here. Between May 1st and September 15th, a close season is established for setting fires for the purpose of clearing in or near slashings or timber, without a permit from the resident forest officer. The Governor in Council may extend the close season by proclamation. Permits to bum are granted at the dis- cretion of the forest officer in charge, and the Lieutenant-Governor, by order in council, may prohibit the issuing of permits, and the setting of fires there- under, in any portion of the province for such period as he may think fit. During the close season every person who throws or drops any burning match, ashes of a pipe, lighted cigarette or cigar, or any other burning sub- stance, or who uses explosives in any form, shall completely extinguish the fire of such match, ashes of a pipe or other burning substance before leaving the spot, and any fire thereby caused. Recognizing that the construction and operation of railways Railways presents a serious fire hazard, the laws in regard thereto are very stringent. The Minister of Lands is empowered to order any provincially-chartered railway company to provide such patrolmen to follow the trains and extinguish fires as he may deem necessary. If the company fails to comply, the Minister may employ men to do it, and collect the cost from the company. Fires within 200 feet of the right-of-way of any provincially- chartered railway are presumed to have been caused by the company, and all expenses incurred in preventing the spread of such fires and extinguishing them must be paid by the company. If it can be proved, however, that the hre was not caused by the company or its employees, the company is entitled to a refund from the person responsible, or from the Crown, for the money so expended. The burden of proof has been thus put on the railway company, and It has been effective in securing the assistance of the railways in reducing the fire losses. ! ill I » ■ iiU 130 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION i m On new lines, the right-o£- vay must be cleared of inflammable material before trains are operated. Special fire wardens may be appointed to supervise railway construction, and the company or contractors must furnish the men necessary for fire fighting. The expense incident to the carrying out of this work is to be borne by the company. The railway company is liaWe to a fine, not exceeding $1,000, for every case in which a fire is started by sparks or hot or burning material from a railway locomotive or carriage, whether the fire begins outside the right-of-way or spreads therefrom to adjoining land. It is considered as sufficient defense, however, if it can be shown that the company has installed on its locomotives the best available modern appliances for preventing the escape of sparks or burning material, that the company or its employees have not been negligent, and that an efficient and properly equipped staff of wardens has been employed. The foregoing provincial legislation applies, as noted, only to provincially- chartered railways, which have not been declared works for the general advan- tage of Canada. The only steam passenger railways coming under this classifi- cation at present are the Pacific Great EasteA, the Morrissey, Fernie and Michel, and the Eastern British Columbia railways. The remainder of the passenger railway mileage of the province, comprising much the greater portion, is subject to the jurisdiction of the Board of Railway Commissioners for Canada. The Board has paid considerable attention to the matter of railway fire protection, and has organized a Fire Inspection Department to supervise the enforcement of the provisions of general order No. 107, and of the fire protection requirements of the Railway Act . The requirements relative to railway fire protection are briefly as follows :* (1) Rights-of-ways must be maintained free from all unnecessary combus- tible matter. (2) Efficient spark arresters must be maintained on all coal-burning loco- motives. (3) The dumping of fire, live coals and ashes upon the right-of way, unless extinguished immediately, is prohibited. (4) The use of lignite coal as locomotive fuel is prohibited, on account of fire danger from sparks. (5) Officers of the Fire Inspection Department are authorized to prohibit the burning of debris upon the right-of-way during exceptionally dry periods. (6) The Chief Fire Inspector is authorized to prescribe the establishment of special fire patrols by railway companies through forest sections. A large number of such patrols have been maintained in British Columbia, with excel- lent results. (7) Railway companies are required to instruct sectionmen, agents, con- tractors, trainmen, and other regular employees, relative to the reporting and extinguishing of fires burning upon or near the right-of-way. The company is made responsible for the extinguishing of all fires occurring within 300 feet of I! Canada, •For full deUils of the railway fire protection work of the Board, see Forest Protection m tda, 1913-1914, Part I ; published by the Conunission of Conservation. FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS Ul 'XT' ""'"' '"°' ^'^" '^ ^"^"•^'^^^ ^^^^ -^h were not caused by the Dominion FoSy Branch ^"1!^^ ",'"""' "'^^^^^ ^^^"^^ ^"^ ^^-^ part of the.r regular duties ' Each uoh offi 'T "'" "? '"^P'^''°" "°^^ ^^ ^ mentasanofficeVof the BoLin ? ^'^' °' employee is under appoint- materially decreasS. the fi rda„rT ' '"'^ ''' "^' ^^' ^^^"'^^^ '" ^^'"V and Great Northern rai^wat fndlL ^.^ '^r"'"' °^ '''' ^^"^'^'^'^ P^^^ifi^ Trunk Pacific. anTilTcVaf E^r r:^^^^^^^^^^ ^"' ^^"^^"^^ ^-"'^ ^"^^If ^nfl '^^ Pr°^'i"<=ial Forest Act, logging and other railways Rauwy, l^'X f "' '.°"'"°" '^^^'•^ ^^'^ ''^^^^'^ to clear awav two hours after it has been shut down. Unless u^LoU for fn!?, ^' ''"'' Logging SUsh ilS^hir* T '''^ ^°T ^°"'"^' ""'' P^'^- *° d^-l-^e any nflammable matenal, such as logging slash, which endangers \n.r .u " property, a public nuisance, and can order its remoS Where the presence of debris endangers the safetv nf u f. 7 .!, '^'"°'^^'- Assisuace in .^^^^ ^ ^""^ """''s. except under a permit, on any land on which F.e F.ghting logging or other operations are being conducted, the operator fire If thP l»nT '""^^^ ^' ""^^^ °* ^'' employees as are required to fight the timber or pulp tse^S" " ^^°^'^-«-°^^'i timber-land, or is held'unde protectionCd s L^rd i^^ '° "'"'. ' contribution to the forest figi^ting it are subrnfttn >v ^ f" '' f^""''^^ ^'^^^P^'^' «"^ «^<^°'^nts for trol hflf .*?»,. '^'*^'" ^^ '^^y' ^^^^'^ 't ^a« been brought under con- trol, half of the expense is borne by the fund and half by the operator other- ..f HI li. w if 132 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION wise, all must be paid by the operator. The act does not limit or interfere with the right of any person to bring civil action for damage occasioned by fire. The penalties imposed for violation of the provisions of the act, unless otherwise stipulated, shall be not less than $50 or more than $300, and in de- fault of payment, imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for a period not exce«'ding nine months. From the preceding brief summary, it will be seen that the law respecting forest fires covers the situation adequately without being so drastic as to be unworkable. The most important feature of the forest fire law is, perhaps, SeTl^** the system of issuing permits for setting fires. Prior to its pas- sage the settlers were accustomed to burn their slash when they were ready, which was usually in the driest and most dangerous period, and it was with some difficulty that the law in this respect was enforced. The wil- lingness of the rangers, by advice and instruction, to assist the settlers in their clearing operations, and then making it plain that permits were refused only when the conditions were such that burning would constitute a grave danger to their own and to other people's property, overcar e much of the opposi- tion. Wilful disobedience of the law is vigorously prosecuted, and, in most cases, convictions have been secured. One of the most important advantages of the permit system is that it brings to the attention of the ranger the sources of danger, enabling him to watch them more carefully. Practically the only criticism of th" system has been that the rangers, whose poritions depended to some extent upon local support, were liable to grant permits in unsuitable times. With the adoption of civil service regulations in the appointment of the rangers, however, this condition has presumably been obviated. Method of Appointing lUngers Ever since forest protection service became an organized insti- tution, those who had the welfare of the forests at heart have endeavoured to free them from all local and political influences. The success of a forest protective service depends primarily on the men in the field. If they are incompetent or are under obligation to any influences outside of the organization, whether it be to a political party or local friends, the efficiency of the organization is bound to suffer. It has also been urged in British Coluuibia that, since the timber-owners directly contribute one-half of the f Dst of maintaining the provincial forest protective service, they should have a voice in the administration of it. The British Columbia Government was the first in Canada to adopt these reforms. . In the spring of 1917, two Forest Protection boards were appointed, one for the Coast and one for the Interior. On each of these boards the timber-owners and operators are represented by two members. The Government is represented on each of the boards by three members, consisting of the Deputy Minister of Lands (chairman), the Chief Forester and the Assistant Forester in charge of pro- tection. All matters concerning the administration of the forest protection fund come under the jurisdiction of these boards. This co-operation between Forest Protection Boards FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS ,,,., TJZT:::!^. "■' '™^~ »'» ^» ™-H .. e„,u„ puMie .o„fi. The adoption of civil service regulations in the selection of th^ fi.iH f to be selected by competitive examination. Before being allowed to take the exammation. applicants are required to furnish verv coCrte info!^ , respectmg their physical condition and previous experience nI 'nf°"nat.on a much supenor class of men. having a permanent interest ^the wo 15^ secured, and that fewer men will be necessary to accomplish thelme ^esLlt PubUc P"^;*^ '"terest in forest protection in the last ten vears has at campmg sites and in all logging, mining, railway or other camps a so n r; worker^"';?' r^' P°^* ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ places where sp"r sme'n.' settlers or workers m the forest congregate. These posters appeal to the intd Wnce and business inst. icts rather than to fear of the law. although they Iko sunnfv mformation in regard to the forest fire laws. Though very encoura^g rS ts have been achieved, there is need to continue and enlarge the scope of t hi rS "°^ K "^'r''^'^' ^"' '^^'"P^^^" «-^' - I'^lS.'formed 30 pe° cen causes of f Tfi • ^" '^''^ °^ '^' ^^'' '^^' ^^'^ '^ '^' l^^^t excusabl of al causes of forest fire. ,t is nearly always the most prevalent 750 OOn'" ' ^^'"^^^ ^"'^ P^''°""^ ^>' ^^'^ Suard and patrolman is nearlv Though he co-operation of the lumbermen and others employed in the woods ZZIT^ZT'""' '"k, '° *'^ '^^^"^^ ^^"^^^ - ^° *^e distric fore tet a^ In ms twen"tv" '/V'"'^' "^"^ ^'^^ "'^''^ ^^^^ ^-^ ^^^ «=°"troi: am m 1915, twenty-six patrolmen were employed by private timber owners Igtl Srte ha': ^°"^^ ^""^' 7^^^ "^^^'^^">' ^^« DltlTS hirrT ! ^' P"""""^*^ extremely helpful in forecasting periods of ^rea' ^rC^^Z:^' '''-'' "--'^ °^ ^-^--''-^^ ^^^ the forS^:f the I^t-^°'^^^ °^^^^^ '" *^^ southern portion of the province and those of h adjoining national forests in the United States co-operate, one reporting n fires observed in the territory of tho other, and. if necessary 'aking cha L nS uTdC "'"^ '"T"^^-^- ^ ^'"^^^ ^"^"^--t exits between tS ovmcial and Dominion authorities along the boundary of the Railway Belt. ■•|i •i i 134 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION r.j, ill I ^ Logging Debris Disposal of the debris resulting from logging operations has been discussed among lumbermen and foresters for many years. The advantage of removing the slash is unquestionable, but the feasibility, from a financial standpoint, is still a matter of doubt in some forest regions. Undoubtedly, the slash pro- duced in the logging of the forests on the Pacific coast is the worst on the continent. The heavy stands of timber, and the immense size of the individual trees, result in a tremendous amount of waste wood being left > n the ground. The unused portions of the Douglas fir and cedar trunks are frequently from two to three feet in diameter, and the branches would be considered good- sized trees in some places. In the felling of the large trees and the hauling of the logs through the woods by donkey engines, the destruction of large num- bers of the smaller trees is inevitable. The climatic conditions and the nature of some woods, especially cedar, are such that the wood on the ground i ccays very slowly. As a result, even in the virgin woods, there is a very large amount of sound fallen timber. Dead stubs also remain standing for many years and present a very effective means of spreading fire. After all the timber which is saleable at the present time has been removed, there remains on the ground usually from 25 to SO cords of wood per acre, which forms an almost continuous brush heap several feet deep. The removal of the forest canopy allows this debris to dry out and become a veritable fire trap. Fortunately, the very extensiveness of the slash facilitates its removal. Broadcast burning can, as a rule, be accomplished without the trouble and expense of piling. Owing to the large size of the pieces, piling by hand is practically impossible, and, with wood values as low as at present, using horses or machinery would be too expensive. Though the Forest Act requires operators to dispose of their slash, it has not been generally enforced, except on timber-sales, where a clause, explicitly requiring it, has been inserted in the contract. The lumbermen have found, however, that it is in their own interest to burn over their cuttings, and that, if done early in the spring before the ground dries out under the standing timber, or in the autumn, after the first rains, the cost of the work is comparatively small. The protection which the slash burning affords the green timber ad- joining, as well as their logging equipment, more than compensates for the trouble and expense of securing a burn. This is particularly true of the larger operators who have a greater interest in the protection of their holdings than the small operators, who own little or no tuaber. Most of the large operators, the number of which is steadily growing, are consistently clearing up their logged-ofiE lands in this manner. It is more difficult, however, to get the small operators to adopt this measure, since their stake in the forest is small, and, if fire destroys the timber they are working, they can easily move to other locations. The stands in the interior, or mountain section, of the province are lighter and the trees are smaller than on the coast. As a result, the slash is lighter and is more difficult to bum successfully without piling. A number of experi- ments, both in broadcast burning and piling before burning, in this portion Broadcast BumiBg FO«EST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAI, LANDS ,« .unt ™„.e. ,0 the .urroundfag gr«,„ ttaSr . * ' '"'' "' " ~"- fungi. I«th.«a„dm,for«,,,hrshade?srdera«XS?^^^^ species, such as Doaclas fir and ni™ ,1a 7„, IiEht-demandrag succcsstuUy rcproduid but ih, ° ^ ?' I. u^'T '"'"'■ """"• "" °°« a« shade enduL'^ h^l^llbUrd/tS'^.ht ""^vauf "" :n;:sr.7h:7rd=r-:^:^^^ sl.sh''^:S:' "■"*' """' ^""*' ""■ ""'"" "■• '"""""S ">■»-"' on ous areas ot slash wereXsVuiS of »mT?.S^° slash-burning. Numer. srgr'ij?£».'-!i-sr?4^^^^^^^^^ pending on fi5L,?KdSoSt^™"dfn?.hir"b:? i=?^ "^"'' *- Fire Damage this. In the Lt 2i U- "^ ^^'^' ^'' ''^''^' ''^'°"' ^°' - Z_!! "* P^^*"^' ^^^S« numbers of fires are never seen by the forestry serv^g.^"^"' ^"*"*'"" '" '^'"^' ""■'<"'' ''''''"'' P-'^'-hed by Commission of Con- 'III V n 'I? r f i IM COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION officials, and are. therefore, not reported. In the second place, a ranger, during the fire season, has little time to make a detailed appraisal of the damage done. Thirdly, the ordinary ranger is not qualified, as yet. to make a satis- factory report from the viewpoint of the forester. The fourth, and most potent reason, is that proper standards have not yet been adopted for estimat- ing the damage done. Most forest services attempt to collect forest fire statistics and some, notably the Dominion Forestry Branch, have developed good systems, but the lack of co-ordination between the various services renders comparisons impossible. Little definite information concerning cur- rent fire losses is therefore available. One important omission in most of the reports of damage is that of the destruction of the young growth. The general attitude, even of the forest rangers, is that the 'brush' is of no value until it reaches log size although it may represent the growth of fifty years. Where the land is valuable for agriculture, and will be used for that pur- pose, the destruction of the young growth is a gain rather than a loss. But on absolute forest land, the loss of even young seedlings can be expressed in terms of value. The future value of stumpage is unknown, but. if the history of other forest regions is anv criterion for British Columbia, the increment iii value will at least take rare of the cost of protection, which at present amounts to about three cents per acre per annum. Yield tables are not available, but the average rate of growth in any region can be estimated with a degree ..t safety, from the young merchantable stands which can usually be found in any locality The present stumpage value, including the sale price of private timber and theroyalty charges, is generally known for any district. The a^;o of the young stand destroyed can easily be obtained by counting the nunibt r of annual rings at the base of the trees. With these three factors, an estimate of the value of a young stand can be arrived at. For example, if the stand is on the coast and is composed ot Douglas fir, red cedar and hemlock of average quality, it can be assumed with safety that, in 100 years, a merchantable stand of 20,000 feet per acre would be produced in a well stocked second growth. The average annual growth would therefore be 200 feet.* If the present sale value of mature timber :n the vicinity is 75 cents per M., and the royalty due the Government avera.uc> 75 cents, the stumpage value is $1.50 per M. A ten-year-old stand is there- fore worth 200 ^^'••''Q X 10 = $3.00 per acre. The reproduction being natural, 1,000 represents no capital expenditure, and, therefore, it is safe to say that, if the value of the young growth had been thus conservatively estimated, and had been included in the reports of damage done by fires in Canada in the la Industrial ooerations (chieflv loscin^) 63 SI 1) Public-road construction . . 12 Totals 1.184 331 347 578 1,8.?2 1.031 XM •See British' Co: Forest Branch Reports. tAniount salva' reported for 1910-1914. tFrom these tot_.i .lie salvage has not beeu deducted, and may or may not be realized. Salvage is a very uncertain quantity, Mljl. XVIII LWlO.Nn SLASH BURNED rJEPARATOfiy Tf CLEARINCl COIIRTENAY VANCOUVf-H ISLAND ii.l 'I? CLEARED LAND -OAK ON LEFT.. COURTENAY, VANCOUVER ,SLAND t i if 'it FORBST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS U9 A« the number of fire« from 'unknown' cauwi (* -reasci. the pn»portion known to be rauwd by camr>cr« and travelUrs inrrcone*. The :nrj{e number of fires cauwd by camptm and by sicttlcrx intlicatei the necessity for increased publicity work, and of more drastic lenal action aKainst careless or wilfully neRliRent oflendcrs. The lots occasioned by forest fires is not (■ears, 1914-16, 69 I)er cent of the fires oriRinated .>n alienated lands, such as i.re-emptions, pur- chased lands or Crown-pranted lond., which are not classified as timber-lands • and which do not contribute to the forest protection fund, and only 31 per cent on vacant Crown lands or lands held under timber lease, timlwr license, or Crown-Rranted timticr lands which maintain the f»md. CLASSIPICATION OP FIRES BY PLACE UF URIOIX AND COST OF FIRE-KFCHTINO t9tO 1911 1912 I91J 1914 1915 1916 Total Bumbar i,lM 331 347 578 1,832 1,031 864 6,167 Orifiutad oa TMiai OowB Uadi •ad Und* 599 341 209 31 Ve OrlMuUd OB kUOBBUd iMtalaBol paying f. P. 1,233 690 655 EitfaiulslMd withuul COM NuinlMr 615 199 113 420 1,193 714 693 52 60 33 73 65 80 64 Cuat money to ■itiaguiia Nvmbvr 569 112 i34 158 639 317 171 Par «*B| 48 40 67 :7 35 31 20 36 Tout MM of Art l«btlac $140,000 14,344 29,879 9,600 143,461 19,449 5,585 $362,318 AvWBfO coat Mr Ira $246 109 128 61 224 61 32 $163 The success of the burning permit system, as a n.eans of controlling fires, has been demonstrated by the records, as shown in the f Mowing table. These show that settlers are by far the worst offendirs, both : regard to setting fire without permits and in allowing them to get beyo.id control. BURNING PERMITS FOR CLEARl.VG, 1916 Purpose Number of permits issued Agricaltural Und L"Kging slash R.'iilway right-of-way . Piililic roads Total, 1916. Tcial, 1915. ToUl, 1914. 6,901 ISO 93 112 7,256 9,515 11.523 Area bjmed over (acres) 20,344 2,332 2,157 161 miles 24,833t 52,475t 52,935t Number of fires escaped control 51 51 55 t2H Number of fires set without permit 61 1 1 2 65 66 80 •Timber-land defined, p. 98, chap. IV. tNot including public roads. J: iff •; ! '11 ■I I II 140 11 hi COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Collection of F'orest Revenie A lar^e proportion of the forest admuiistration in British Columbia is directly concerned in the collection of revenue. Rentals are payable only at the head ofiice in Victoria, but the royalty, stumpage. export tax and manu- facturing tax are collected bv the district foresters. A most equitable and eflicient system has been developed in this department of the service, with the result that there is perhaps less evasion of payment, and less dissatisfaction on the part of the contributors, than in the collection of any other form of revenue. This condition is attributable very largely to the method in mcasttring the timber cut. One of the most difhcult problems to solve in connection with the lumber industry in British Columbia has been the measurement of timber in the form of logs 'bolts or ties. Most of the logging, especially on the Coast, is done independentlv of the mills, which depend to a large extent on buying their supplies. In' the fixing of a scale or measurement, therefore, three interests have to be considered, viz., the logger, the millman and the Government. Log rules of ver>- many kinds, and giving widely varying results, are in use in different parts of the American continent, but very few of them are applicable to the large-sized timber found on the Pacific coast.* In Canada, the Doyle rule has perhaps been most generally used. On the Coast a combination of the Doyle and Scribner rules was followed until the British Columbia rule was devised and accepted in 1892. The Doyle-Scribner rule read up to a diameter of only 44 inches, and the contents of logs of larger sizes were guessed at. This method, as might be expected, g^ve rise to much dissatisfaction and con- siderable litigation. In 1891. the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works appointed a committee, composed of Andrew Haslam. M.P., Nanaimo ; R. H. Alexander, representing the sawmills ; and Mr. King, representing the loggers, to device a rule which would, as neariy as possible, give a just measurement for all concerned. Mr. Haslam presented a formula, illustrated by a series ot diagrams and practical results in sawing, which, in the opinion of the Com- mit'tee, would give satisfaction, and it was adopted in 1892. Its use was not enforced, however, till 1902, when the Legislature provided, in the Timber Measurement Act, for the appointment of an official supervisor of scalers and official scalers. The new scale was adopted, however, only for that portion ni the province Iving west of the Coast mountains. The millmen in the interior objected to its use, on the ground that it was too high for small-sized logs, such as they handled. In 1915, this objection was overcome, and the use of th. British Columbia rule was made obligatory throughout the province. Th^ formula on which this rule is based is as follows : Deduct one and one-half inches from the mean diameter ir. British Columbia jn^i^es at the small end of the log for slab and kerf; square Uw Rule Fonnui. ^^^^^^ ^^^ multiply by .7854 to find the area ; deduct i^; divicK by 12 to bring to board measure, and multiply by the length of the log in feet.t 'An interesting comparison of the results obtained from the more importont log rules in use is pubUshed in Table 1. Woodsman's Handbook, U.S. Forest Servtce BuUchn No. j6. fSee condensed scale in Appendix III. FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON PROVINCIAL LANDS Ul The British Columbia nile gives somewhat higher readings than the Doyle rule for logs up to 22 inches in dian.eter. and increasingly low r figures Ised fn rV /'r; . ''°"^"^' "•^'^ '""^ •'^P^"'^-« ">'-• -hich is genera ; metered on thf ' 'V' '"f ^"^' ''^"^^^ ^°' '°«^ "P *° '* '"^he^ i" dia- meter and on the average, about 5 per cent lower for logs over that diameter. .llustlat^s'ltTiiyer^""" '' ^'^ ^'^^'^ ''^'- °" '°«^ >^ ^-* - '-«th Log diameter, inches 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Scale, in feet, board measure British Columbia 55 261 619 1,129 1.791 2.606 3,573 Doyle 36 256 657 1.296 2,116 3,136 4,356 Spaulding 50 276 656 1.185 1.872 2,704 feet that mLT "^V/ ''"'^'^ ""^''^ ^■"' ^'"' *^^ ^''^^^ -'""""t in board feet that may be cut from a given log. since much depends upon the kind of machmery used and the skill of the men operating it. The experience of th. ast twenty years however, has proved the British Columbirs'Tto be ^ oflrict." H :■ """ ^^^^^"-^' enforcement of its use has ren^oved all cause of friction between vendors and purchasers of logs. Adv«U|es of '^^'^ "measurement of logs or lumber by board measure is an Cubic Bfeasure unnecessanly cumbersome and inaccurate method • it would be much simpler and fairer if cubic measurement were used a It IS. almost umversally, outside of Canada and the United States By the "old InH r "ZT ''1'°^^'^ "°"''^ ""' P^'^ ^- tl^^ amount of wood he Sssiw^ • 7T ^ "" ":' ''''''''' "^ '^' "^'^ ^P^^^tor to waste as little as possible in slabs and saw-kerf. In the case of lumber, the consumer woufd ^et the full amount of wood he pays for. and not 75 to 90 per cent. aThrnow Joes when ^<-inch boards are sold for 1-inch. There is. of cour e a disad vantage ,n the use of the cubic measure in that the small logs do not cut so economically per cubic foot as the larger lugs. Though it is recogmid thit It ^^ou d seem that the adoption of the cubic measure would be of materS advantage in the development of an export trade. Briti'^'h'f- I'^'V^t ^^T'""" °^ "" satisfactory rule for the entire province h L K """^If ^^' ^'^''°P'^ " "'"^^^ '■■"'^'•-'"^ ^>'^^«"^ «f «ea»ng which ts ^uf r ^T'"""? '" ''^^''^' '"'■ '""'-^''y P"^P--- - --t record lo^s cut. removes all cause for diflerence between buyers and sellers of logs «,„h 'V° ?^ P^'''"^ °^ ^^^ *^"'"^' ^'^^'^'■^ '^^^ i" '894. there were no f Z: f "''T^"k''1^"^'^"^^' ^"^ ^^^ ^«>'^'^^- -- -»-ted on the bas"s a sun ' '. ■?'' °''"''^'" '^'^'^ '^'' P^"^-'^'^^ ^-' the appointment d strir r V^ ''f '' ""^ ''" '"^""' ^^^'"^- t° ^^ '«<^ated in different districts throughout the province. It was the duty of these scalers, on the illi 142 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION il request of an owner of timber which had been cut, to measure it and furnish a report. Fees amounting to 5 cents per 1,000 feet for logs and spars. Scaling Fees or per 200 lineal feet of piles and poles, or per cord of ties and cedar bolts, were collected for this work. A copy of the scale and the fees were forwarded to the Government. Fees were not collected, however, for scaling timber cut on lands held under lease prior to the passing of the Act in 1894. No sale, or agreement of sale, of logs or other cut timber on which a royalty was due, was enforceable unless the timber had been scaled by an official scaler, and such scales were considered the basis of sales, unless otherwise agreed upon between vendor and purchaser. Timber on which a royalty or revenue was due the Government could not be exported unless scaled by an official scaler. This Act left the matter very much at the option of the operator whether he would, or would not, employ the services of an official scaler. In 1902 the Timber Measurenient Act was passed. This made OfficW Scale -^ compulsory to have all timber scaled by an official scaler omp sory before bei'u' sawn. The scalers, instead of being Government employees, were licensed, the fee being $25, and were authorized to collect fees as provided for in the Act of 1894. Each mill was allowed to have a licensed scaler, but those in the employ of mills were not entitled to - ge any fees. Reports of all scales made had to be sent in to the Goven. .ent. This act was applicable west of the Coast mountains only. In the remainder of the province the operators employed their own scalers and furnished the Government with the returns. In 1906, the present system was established. Its main features are, that the official scalers are employed by, and are responsible only to, the Govern- ment. They must be British subjects, and are appointed only after passing a qualifying examination. The same fees are charged as heretofore, but they are payable to 'e Government, and, together with the expenses incurred in making the scale, become a lien upon the timber. In the event of a vendor or a purchaser objecting to any official scaler or to his scaling, another scaler may be selected to measure the timber, the party requiring the re-scale or substitution paying the extra expense. Every scale of cut timber must be based on the official scale. No timber is allowed to be sawn on which there is any royalty or other revenue due to the province, nor may timber from any lands' under provincial jurisdiction be exported, until it has been scaled by an official scaler. Owing to the operations in the interior being so scattered, it has not been found practicable to appoint official scalers, except for the Coast region, but the Forest Act, 1912, provides for the employment of licensed scalers f^» the mountain sections. Each piece of timber rafted or floated on the salt or fresh waters of the pro- vince must be marked with a registered man.. This was first required in 1 890. and applied only to the Coast, but it is now in force throughout the province. Separate marks are required for each Crown-granted lot, leasehold or license. if, If n 124 Itt 110 lit II* 114 lit €irmmt««imi of dm*f tvatiim tmtmim FOREST RCSCRVEa PARKS AND ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA Accampammg report mCToreui in. BntisK Cbltunhi, iytLN. WUtfordJ^S.atuLRolaiU JX CraigM- 'naff ftitm-fiUubt otMrf ofDon%inion. of CmfiaJa , ihpcof Interior. ::i I* $h CHAPTER VI M Forest Administration on Dominion Lands A DMINISTRATION of the forests on Dominion lands in British Columbia ^^ is divided among three branches of the Dept. of the Interior, viz., the Timber and Grazing Lands Branch, the Forestry Branch, and the Parks Branch. Timber and Grazing Lands Branch The Timber and Grazing Lands Branch has charge of the alienation of the timber and grazing rights, and collects the revenue from them. The jurisdiction of this branch does not extend to forest reserves or parks, except in respect to timber or grazing leases which had been granted within these reserves or parks previous to their establishment as such. Though entrusted with the enforcement of the cutting and other regulations designed to further the conservation of the forests, contained in the timber licenses, no technical staff is provided, and little, if any. attempt has been made in this direction.* The organization consists of a head office in Ottawa, with branches, known as Crown Timber agencies, throughout the west. Those in British Columbia are situated at Revelstoke. Kamloops and New Westminster. Timber busi- ness in the Peace River Block is handled by the office at Grouard, Alta. The Crown timber agents at Revelstoke and New Westminster act as agents for the Timber and Grazing Lands Branch and, as representatives of the Forestry Branch, they are also in charge of fire protection on lands outside of the forest reserves. The advantages of combining the administrative and protective functions in the local offices are so apparent that it would seem advisable to develop the co-operation elsewhere. RentaUud "^^^ '"^'^ revenue from the forests on Dominion lands is Royalty secured from rentals on timber berths, royalty on the timber cut and cash bonuses paid by licensees at the time of purchase. Rentals (annual license fees) for timber berths are charged at the rate of $5.00 per square mile per annum in the 'Interior' of the province (east of Yale) and 5 cents per acre per annum on the 'Coast' (west of Yale). The royalty for saw material is the same, 50 cents per M.b.f.. on all Dominion lands. la the past, the Dominion has. unlike the province, depended SMlim practically altogether on returns submitted and sworn to by the operators, although a few scalers were employed by the Dominion for the purpose of checking the reports submitted by the loggers and millmen. Such returns are still required of all sawn lumber, timber, or any other product of timber from the berth, with the exception of slabs for *See also "Admimstration of Dominion Forests." By J. H. White, ia Forest ProUcUoH in Canada, 1913-1914, Commission of Conservation, p. 256, tts^. " "** " '""' rrouaum %n T ! 11 \ ■ . 1 »f i \ I1 .1': - f- I i I J44 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION £uel purposes or sawdust, showing the quantities 'n*n«f»^*""i!°*^°',*";f ""f of and She value thereof. A bush count is also required to be kept of all saw- Jogs and other timber cut upon a berth, as well as the nurrVr of p.^es hauled therefrom, and the books containing these records maot be '^"ly '^n »° an^ returned to the Dominion Timber Agent. Smce / "j,'ist 1. 917. however the payment of fees is based upon the actual log scale only, scahng to be done accordS to the British Columbia rule. Timber cut on Railway Belt lands noSh and east of Yale may be scaled only by persons authorised m writmR Sy the Minister or his appointed agent. Timber cut on Do-n.on lanjl. south and west of Yale is to be scaled by a Dominion timber scaler holding a sc^S's license from the British Columbia Government, and -accordance with standard methods.* A further change is now in contemplation, under Zhich the scaling south and West of Yale would be done oy a scaler hold ng a Sh Columbia scaler's license, but employed by the Department of the fnTerior instead of by such men in the employ of the licensees It is recogm ed Sit he es ablishment of Dominion Government scaling in the Interior would hi diffiLlt since throughout the Belt, the logs are. as a rule, sawn in bcal ^ilfs riI;gTfor;:e of scalers would be required for the scaling if the operations of the camps and mills were not to be unduly delayed. The Dominion assumed control of the Railway Belt inl 883 and. since the lands within the Belt are all within 20 miles of «,., the Canadian Pacific railway, which constitutes the main artery of commerce in the province, its forests have presented oPP^^^^r;^'^! ?^ l^th soeculation and operation that much of the timber on provincial lands dTd not then have The consequence has been that almost all the accessib e Satire timir has been alienated. The larger portion has been in private hands '" "t": Commission of Conservation is indebted to the Timber and Gracing Lands Branch for the following statement of the revenue derived from he wsts in Se Railway Belt. Considerable difficulty was encountered in secur- Stte figures for tJearly years, owing to the difterent methods o accounting foflowed where the iten.s could not be segregated they were placed m the not clas'sified- column. The totals, which, however, are fair V complete show that, during the last 27 years, the Dominion has derived $2,232,731 fron, its forests in the Railway Belt. Total forest revenue Moit AcceMibl* Timber AUcMted Year Bonus 1890-91 $ 26,322.02 1891-92 1892-93 1893-941 1894-951 2,014.00 5,f25.50 2,385.76 356.87 Rentals 2,957.33 5,557.84 9,071.42 3,885.91 3.:- 45. 97 Royalty $ 6,713.35 18,0.W.36 Timber permits $ 13,809.98 7,004.77 215.93 1,034.43 2U.09 95.89 249.28 $ 36,946.53 29,778.16 21.013.25 $ 49,898 5: 32,86.S 25 51, SSI 38 37,084 26 24,92718 •See • Dominion Timber Regulations, 1917.' No. 26 and 27. POkEST ADMINISTRATION ON DOMINION LANDS MS FOREST REVENUES (continued) Year Timber licenses Bonui 1895-96 1896-97 1897-98 1898-99 1899- 1900 1900-01 1901-02 1902-03 I 903-04 1904-05 1905-06 1906-07 1907-08 1908-09 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17 418 3,813 RenUh Royalty 3,788 2,676 7,384 141,436 61,557 33,571 41.360 155,798 113,264. 9,525 38,704 10,050 11,924 22,672 11,415 8.057 10,207. $724,331 69 t 2,588.11 4,539.77 3,999.21 8,541 60 8,552 40 7.480 33 16.364 82 18.816 98 14.496.16 19,079.41 17.371.63 5.171.29 27.059 81 23.303 64 33.957 51 33.794 86 34.502.07 36.154.76 21,813.73 24,956.47 21.310 99 20.464 86 1429.138 88 i 686.96 6,268.88 16,597.79 13.012.96 9.809.69 29,550 21 24.207.61 18,801 46 16.286 41 18,584.73 22,149.63 35,961 42 26.870.97 70,982.78 50,740 65 55,574.18 49.950.11 45,8.S0.41 33,913.51 54,144.83 83,459. 19 Timber permit* Seizures $708,247.09 i 1.339.83 2.129 99 1,779 50 1,802 63 3,014.79 3,515.65 1.579 78 2,142 25 4.823 18 1.808.08 7.221.40 3.098 27 3.683 80 11.169 11 15.619.23 17.865.63 9,716 89 11.188 881 16.428.71 21.706 08 $ 711.84 2.394.33 1,297.20 555.18 1.275 88 1.605.10 1.833 26 2.265 90 342 '95 241.35 8,621.60 2,463.37 8,202.14 10.817.15 5.629.02 5.497.20 3.174.36 7.803.03 2,565. D 1,429 89 Revenue not classified S 18.519.10 13.590 58 5,758.45 12,426 85 $163,909 88 $69,071.11 $138,032.92 Total forest revenue S 21,525.71 23,343.00 19,760.70 40,993.43 27,688.54 23,134.70 57,919.67 189,809.67 98,700.62 71,079.27 82,482 93 185,168.80 192,128 88 55,736.25 126,351.23 145,225.92 121,375.39 121,392 25 103,227.76 89,277.34 102,506.90 137,267.97 $2,232,731.57 Lxpenditures of the Timber and Grazing Lands Branch in the Railway Belt are, in some instances, not separated from those in the other provinces or from those of the Dominion Lands Branch and, therefore, it is impossible to more than estimate the cost of collection of this revenue, but it is probably m the neighbourhood of $30,000 per annum. The Forestry Branch The Forestry Branch was established in 1899, and Mr. Eliliu Stewart was appointed chief inspector of tin^ber and forestry. Two kinds of work were undertaken, the planting of shelter belts on the prairie farms and the protection ot the standing forests on Dominion Ian is. Both of these lines of work have developed into very important undertakings. The first forest rangers were appointed in 1901, when six were cmploved in the Railway Belt The first technical forester to be employed in Canada was Mr. Norman M Koss, a graduate of the Ontario Agricultural College and of the Biltmore 1- crest School. He was appointed in 1901 , and is in charge of the tree planting operations of the branch. Dr. A. H. Unwin. a trained English forester, entered the service in 190.?, and was succeeded in 1904 by Roland D. Craig. F.E. First Forest ^^°^ ^° '^^^' "° ^"^^^^ reserves had been defmitely set aside. Survey though several large areas had been withdrawn from settlement and placed under the control of the Forestry Branch A survey of the forest conditions on these reserves was commenced in 190^ to dtlermine, not only the present timber supply, but f rate of growth, so that administrative plans might be formulated. m I \ ; :ii , ". ill m IH k ,44 cOMMIS-'IOri OP CONSERVATION The passing of the Dominion Forest Reserves Act. 1906, was one of the most important events in the development of forestry in Canada. This Act segregated permanently for forest purposes twenty-one forest reser%'es. eight of which were in the Railway Belt. . . ,- i,u^ As an indication of the recognition of the importance of protection of the forests by the Dominion Government, it may be noted that the staff of the Forestry Branch now numbers 562 members, 44 of whom are technically trained foresters. In the Railway Beit in British Columbia the staff consists of : Imipector of (orett reserve! , Supervisor 2 4 Forest assistants On forest restrves — ,q Pennanent rangers g jg Temporary rangers Outside forest reserves— Coast Dit rict i Chief fire ranger (permanent) 21—22 Temporary rangers Salmon Arm District . Chief fire ranger (temporary) 20—21 Temporary rangen Revelstokc District . Chief fire ranger (permanent). . . 17—18 Temporary rangers Railway Fire Protection— ,— 2 Divisional fire inspectors (temporary) * _ Total ** The more important lines of work being conducted by the Forestry Branch are tree planting on the prairies, collection of trade statistics relating to forest products, investigation of the properties and methods of use of forest products, exploration of the forests on Dominion lands, protection from fire of the forests in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, and the Peace River Block and Railway Belt in British Columbia, and the admimstration of the forest resources. Tr j j c .n,, .io«,i Nurseries are maintained at Indian Head and Sutht.land, "f^ Sask., from which seedhngs are supplied free of charge to ""**' farmers for shelter belts. Owing to the care exercised in educating the planters and to subsequent inspection, this work has been very successful. On the average, about 3,500 applicants are supplied with about 1 000 trees each per year. Many seedlings are also used for plant.n^ on the forest reserves, but, as yet, very little has been done in this direction in British Through the cc-operation of the wood-using industries, the Forest Products branch publishes most instructive bulletins on the consump- Investigation ^.^^ .^ Canada of such forest products as lumber, lath, shingles, pulpwood. poles and cross-ties. A laboratory for the study of the physical and chemical properties of woods and their industrial uses is maintained by the Forestry Branch at McGill University, Montreal. The laboratory is equipped with machinery for testing the strength of wood^ and with a coni- p?ete paper-making machine. Bulletin No. 59, Canadian Woodsjor Structural Timbers, is of special interest in connection with British Columbia woods. FOREST ADMINISTRATION ON DOMINION LANDS KsyioratiM 147 ReconnaisMnce survey, have been conducted over a coniider- able area of both reserved and unreserved land, but there are .«»»» "nmensc tracts in the north concerninR which there it pracUc^ly no mformation. One of the principal object, of these surveS ! ^^V^l '""^."^^'"'^''^K ^o i'» suitability for aRricultural or forest pur- ™t*nH f "'f "'u^^^"' '•' '"•^"^''^ "K""" Estimation of the pre«Jnt stand of merchantable timber and study of conditions in regard to la i^r'"*.?" important features of this work. From the information gathered m these surveys. mtelliRent plans for the protection and adminu" :rprf:: i^j^^z "" ^"™"'"^'' ''- ""''''- ^' '--'''- ^^ ate iXraZiTarb.jroSLS^rof're S tf iiXV^nd" t^: '""'^ '^""'l tnat are not htted for agriculture, and m wh ch the forest will be oni. nf *iZ most important agencies for the development of industrieT of oooulation and of such measures of agriculture or grazing as may be Ssible The or^ fsTpalhiri^rt w'^^^'f/r"' r- '^r^^r^y^^'y sm^an.Vnd t£e losJby'S n fhu L;T^" u i "^* ^V."y realized what immense tracts have been swent m his way. what a splendid natural reproduction there is in most cases S real and imminent the present danger of fire is. and how costlvThe S^^ land w^oSd"h??h"' ". "'' 1 •L*^ *•« P^^ «^« °f »he Son 'S aS^es of o «t" ww»r^" I K ' ^^^ strongest efforts would be put forth to save a eiTt of nature which will be a great factor in building up homes on the prairies " Lind f'^"'^ ^*^^*^^' "PO" examination, is found to be suitable for ClaiiifiMtioa forest purposes only, should be permanently reserved and placed under forestry management. Permanency is essential m he practice of forestry. The crop takes many years, often a century to rnature. and the work of years may be wasted by a vacillating policy. Respect for the regulations of the reserves by squatters and other violators of thelaws h.\nr7 f ??^ :'''" ^' '' ^^^""'"'^y understood that time will not change the attitude of the administration. The Forestry Branch has control of the forest reserves as to land, timber and grazing, except where rights to such were umhi. ♦., ^^"^ , ^"°' *° ^^^ '''■^*^'°" °^ *h« ^^^^'•^■«- In British Col- vatr InH '''T' ""^f r^*'^^ '"''"'^^ ""'^ ''"^^'^ °^ P^«^"t commercial Ih I' f ""^ ""^^'y ^" °^ '^^' 's privately held under timber licenses, over thosP ,n r. r7 ^'T'^ .^"' "° '^°"'^'^'- '■ '^^' °f the reserves, such as S!A K ! ^^"^"^P' ^'^tnct. the stands are naturally light, due to the dry hZh fi I T^°''' '^' ^'^^''' P"'*'''" °^ tl^^ ^'"9.618 acres reserved. ecS ""\^^^^ '^''''°^'*^ '^' °"«^"-'^ ^t^"-^^' >-°""« forests which need pro: rj^K '"/"y'"S ^.t^Ses of development. The administration of these reserves, therefore, consists chiefly in protecting the growing forests from Me. the regulation of grazing, and the sale of small amounts of timber bv -ae permit system. The forest reserves in the Prairie Provinces supply large Forest Reserves it ' h UH COMMIRSION OF CONSERVATION m FarMt Pro- amounts of timber for building purpovei and fuel to the «cttler8 on the tree- Itu plains in the vicinity, but, in British Columbia, the settlers, as a rule, do not need to dn w from the reserves. The Forestry Branch is also charged with protection of the lands outside of the forest reserves and, though the officers co-ojicrate, the field staffs on forest reserves and on the lands outside the forest reserves are kept distinct. Part of the cost of the fire pro- tection service is paid by the license holders on the basis of one-half of the acreage cost for the district in which the berths are situated. The Dominion Government defrays the total expense for its own and Crown-granted lands and one-half for the licensed lands. Since the revenue from the timlwr licenses and fire protection ll''***u»*''"*^ contributions from licensees are credited to the Timber and *""" Grazing Lands Branch, the revenue of the Forestry Branch is necessarily small. The total revenue collected by the Forestry Branch for the last few years has averaged about $38,000 per annum, of which only from $200 to 1300 was received from British Columbia. REVENUE OF THE FORESTRY BRANCH DERIVED PROM THF, FOREST RESERVES IN THE RAILWAY BELT 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17 Timber permits an year. Each year the rangers burn considerable dash in the early spnn, or FOREST ADMIN'STRATION ON DOMINION LANDS 153 late auturrn. to reduce the fire hazard. The appropriations for this work are. however, inadequate, especially in the lower Fraser valley, where slash, due to lumbering, clearing or road building, has been accumulating for years. No more effective measure can be taken for the protection of the forests or of the lives and property of the settlers than by removing this debris, especially along roadsides or adjacent to settlements or industrial operations. Parks Branch Forest administration in the Dominion parks in British Columbia is con- fined almost entirely to fire protection. A few permits to cut dry wood are issued from time to time, but extensive exploitation of the forests is contrary to the policy of the branch. The total cut and revenue for the years 1914 to 1916, are as follows : No. permits Area Cut Total revenue 1914 1915 31 34 15 Acres 10,026 576 555 Cords 452-5 261-5 * M.b.f. 32 V $204.50 1916 34 50 36 50 The Parks Branch has developed a very efficient fire protection system, despite the fact that the thousands of tourists who travel through the parks are a constant source of danger. As warnings against starting fires are issued on attractive posters, buttons, match boxes and maps, the co-operation of the public is, in a large measure, secured. In 1916, there were in operation throughout t' e three parks, 48 3 miles of road, 254.1 miles of trail and 20 . 8 miles of telephone line, in additic .- lo the telegraph and telephone lines maintained by the Canadian Pacific railway. A number of ranger cabins and shelters have been built throughout the parks. The field protection staff, in 1916, consisted of two permanent wardens and seven temporary wardens. The duties of these men include both game and fire protection, consequently it is difficult to apportion the expenditure for each part of the service. It would seem fair, however, to charge half of the patrol and improvement expenditure to each. The total expenditure for fire and game protection has been as follows : Patrol Permanent improvements Fire fighting I9I4 $2,586.00 4,287.27 4,185.90 $ 678.06 971.37 1,406 49 $9,270 44 1915.... 1916.... 66.00 No return •No return of cut for 1916. ,1! [I |5 > j : ill CHAPTER VII Forest Policy !1. Virgia Forests not Due To Man j ■ \ IN this chapter, attention is drawn to a few points in the forest pohcy of British Columbia which have not been sufficiently covered in the preceding chapters. These are forest revenues, the need of scientific forest research and of a college of forestry. Forest Revenue The problem of devising an equitable system for collecting public revenue from forests and forest land has commanded the attention of economists and foresters in Canada and the United States, more especially during the last ten years- Increase in stumpage values apparently justifies the demand for increased revenue, from both private and government-cwned forest land. On the other hand, the threatened depletion of the forests necessitates the avoidance of any condition which artificially stimulates the exploitation of the forests or which discourages the production of succeeding crops. The existence of the virgin stands on forest lands is not due to the enterprise of man, and, therefore, should, primarily, be considered public property, though their utilization is dependent on private efforts ; consequently, the public should share in any increase m value not attributable to private enterprise. Secondly, forests, like other crops, produce a revenue only when used. and. under the conditions of ownership and exploitation prevailing on this continent, the greater portion of the forest land cannot be expected to produce an annual revenue. Thirdly, forest crops take a long time to mature, and high annual taxation on land cairying growmK forests imposes a burden which has almost entirely precluded the practice of forestry on private lands. Fourthly, the lands on which the forests grow are for the most part, unsuitable for any other form of production and should not be subject to the same conditions as. for instance, agricultural land. Canada has, in the main, recognized these basic principles. leasing ^^^ instead of selling timber-land outright to private interests, ^'**'°' the various governments have adopted the leasing system m the disposal of their forest resources.* By this system, the public, while securing an annual revenue from rentals, retains an interest m the stumpage in the form of a royalty on the cut. and the right to control, at least in some degree, the method of exploitation. The private rights, also, are nearly always relinquished when the mature timber is removed and then the Govern- ment can use the land for the purpose for which it is best adapted. •For full discussion of the forms of timber alienation see Chap. IV. FOREST POLICY 155 Effect of High Cwryiiic Charge,) .Next to fire, onerous taxation is the greatest menace to forest conservation. Conservation does not imply the withdrawal from use, but, on the contrary, it implies the fullest utilization, which, m the case of the forests, pre-supposes reproduction. High annual taxation or rentals, or large initial payment for stumpage. which mean correspondingly high interest charges, can, if they prevail generally, result only in over-pro- duction. Over-production, in turn, causes lo\.' prices, wasteful methods of exploitation and the general demoralization of the industry. The lumber industry differs from almost all other manufacturing indus- tries in that it is necessary, in most cases, to carry a stock of aw material sufficient to last at least from ten to twenty years. Wood-working industries seldom carry more than a few months' stock, depending upon t!ie lumbermen for supplies. Of the iron and steel industries in the Uiited States, 55 per cent carry only a few months' stock of ore ; the other 45 per cent carry considerable supplies of raw material in the form of unmined ore, which represents only 5 per cent of the value of pig iron. The stumpage value of timber, on the other hand, represents from 10 to 40 per cent of the value of lumber. The risk to which standing timber is exposed from fire, wind, decay and destructive insects must be considered. This item will, on tl e average, in British Columbia amount to 1 per cent or more per annum. Revenue Since forests are valuable only as they can be used, the logical on ciJt*** ^™^ ^^^ governments to collect their share in the stumpage values is when the timber is cut. By this method the operator pays only for what he can use, and, in fairness to the public, he should be required to cut as closely as the conditions permit. It is only just that the pnvate interests which have been given the right to exploit this public jiro- perty should contribute a reasonable amount annually to the public revenue. Annual charges, if too ;ow, would encourage speculation and cause monopoly of the raw material which is essential to the prosp(>rity of the lumber industry and to the consumers of forest products. Forests AUenated As a matter of fact, the forests of British Columbia ha/e been nSments ^"^"ated far beyond the requirements of the lumber industry . The license system, though it has yielded a phenomenal revenue to the Government in the form of rentals, has undoubtedly encouraged timber speculation. The timber sale method, which limits the tenure to such a short penod that continu -us operation is required, is, of course, the most effective method of preventing speculation. We have, howe\er, to deal with conditions as they are and not as they should be. With 260 billion feet of timber in pnvate hands, and a present annual cut of less than IJ^^ billion feet, high annual carrying charges can only result in either o\er-cutting or confiscation. Bwuses ^^^ objections to high annual taxation or rentals apply equally to cash bonuses, such as are required by the Dominion Government. The accruing interest charges have the same effect. > '■ } 156 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The following table shows the effect which bonus of 50 cents per M. would have had on the accumulated charges, if applied in 1907 to an average provincial license on the Coast. The stand is taken as 10.000 b.f., the rental at $140 per license, and interest at 6 per cent. Year Bonus and interest RenUl Totol 1915 $0 80 per M. 1.07 " •• 1.43 " " 1 91 " " 2.56 " " 3 42 •' " 4.58 " " 6 13 " " $0 UperM. 0.?6 " " 0 43 " " 0.66 " " 0.96 " " \ it " " 1 90 " " 2 63 " " 10 94 per M. 1.33 *• " 1.86 " " 2.57 " " 3 52 " " 4 78 " " 6 48 " " 8.76 " " 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 Though the trend of stumpage values is toward higher levels, a study of these carrying charges will convince the timber owner that he must, even at the sacrifice of efficiency, realize on his investment as quickly as possible. If he had only the rental to pay he might conserve his timber until market con- ditions warranted his cutting it. The forcing on the market of 100 billion feet of lumber in ten years, when there is normally a market for only about lyi billion feet per annum, would have a demoralizing effect. Forest Taxation ^" ^^^ neighbouring states of Washington and Oregon, where ^^TX^'^'^ ^^^ timber-land is held in fee simple, the taxation is deoendent ana i/regon « , « .. on local revenue requirements, and no uniform rates exist, either from year to year or for the various counties. Efforts are being made to have state control of timber-land taxation, the state rettu-ning to each county its proportion of the taxes. In Oregon, the average taxation on timber- lands at present amounts to about 50 cents per acre, and in western Washington to about 85 cents per acre. The following comparison of the cost of carrying timber at these rates of taxation with those in force on provincial licenses is very favourable to the British Columbia system. CUMULATIVE COST PER ACRE OF CARRYING TIMBER AT D r'FERENT RA-^ES OF RENTAL OR TAXATION (Interest at 6 per cent per annum) Length of time years B.C.. 'Interior,' at 1100 per sq. mife B.C.. 'Coast,' at $140 per sq. mile Approximate average in Oregon, at 50 cents per acre Approximate average in western Washington at 85 cents per acre 10 1 2.06 3.62 5.75 8.57 12.35 17.41 24.18 35.74 45.36 $ 2.88 5.09 8.05 12.00 17.17 24.. 38 35.41 46.54 63.51 $ 6.59 11.68 18.39 27.43 39.52 55.72 77.38 106.37 145.17 $ 11.20 19.78 31.27 46 63 67.20 94.72 131.55 180.83 246.79 IS 20 25 30 35 40 45 SO In some localities in Oregon and Washington, where large expenditures on local improvements are made, much higher assessments prevail, and, what < o u a UJ IT ■'••-<^ »*, *t "».-^>- V^-r^^i^ .*■■■■ '•- «^'t"_<_' ■^•.^^ if' 4*^. ill li FOREST POLICY 1ST alarm* the lumbermen is, that the rates are consfntly increasinj; and they do not know when the increases will cease. The following is a typical example of this increase in the taxation on a 30,000-acTe tract in Washington : 1905 17 2 cents per a»re 1906 21 3 1907 28 4 1908 38 3 1909 39.1 1910 4A 4 cent* per acre 1911 S6 8 1912 70 I 1913 83 3 Iltxiintini Rentals FUed in 3.C. In British Columbia the maximum rental that can be charged on licenses is fixed until the end of 1954, thus assuring the lumber industry, in advance, a Ruarantec that the cost of carrying the timber will not exceed a specified amount.* The fee of $140 per square mile in the Coast region and $100 in the Interior, or mountain sec- tion, is as high as the industry can stand and, by fixing these rates as maxi- mums only, the Government may make a reduction should such be found advisable to obviate a loss of revenue through the surrender of less accessible limits. The Report of the British Columbia Forest Branch, 1916, shows that, out of a total of 15,0bS licenses in force in 1908, 1,108 have exjiired and 5,828 are in arrears for fees for from one to four years. The latter may be reinstated under the Forest Act Relief Act, but it is estimated that at least one-half of the number will be relinquished by the holders. Scientific Forest Research In the development of a forest administration, such as that in British Columbia, the first efforts, as is natural, are directed towards protection against fire and towards the collection of revenue. The solving of the, so-called, 'practical' problems is demanded by the public. Abundant supplies of raw material, easy exploitation and simple market demands do not tend to stimu- late a closer study of the forests. The time has come, however, when it necessary to secure a technical knowledge of the forests, m order that the^ may be perpetuated, and of the products of the forests, in order that they may DC marketed and utilized to the best advantage. The aim of the administra- tion, in the past, has been limited to converting as much as possible of the accumulated wealth of centuries into cash without delay. Forestry should go farther, and make the forest a perpetual source of wealth. Silviculture, like agriculture, should be based on a scientific knowledge of the needs and quantities of the crops which are to be produced. Before silviculture can be intelligently practised, definite knowledge is necessary in regard to each species, as to the time of seeding, method of seed distribution, requirements as to soil, light, moisture and temperature, rate of growth, form and the ultimate utility. In every country where forestry is practised the need for scientific research has been recognized. Forest conditions vary so greatly throughout the world tiiai local investigations are necessary. Scientific research can only be suc- • See page 92, Chap. IV. H II *if m s hi 'iii lit 4 1 : : -I ,„ COMMISSION OP roNSERVATION cewfullv conducted by ipecialists. who can devote their entire time to it rnvIstigatTon conductec' ncidentally by a man who«e chief functum. ar. ad- "'"t wirr^rcl^C M^a. Swit.er.and. France. India and t\:r CrSrrs. ti; ^tU^dtan., for scientific f-s upon whic. SSurll rlX In addition, a central laboratory for the .tudy of fo.s. products is maintained at Madison, Wisconsin. In Canada, the only research work in forest pioducts ,s con- Fo»..t ,,„eted bv the Dc-minion Forestry nranch, in its Forest rodue s ^'"'* Laboratories in Montreal. Thou^;h this plant was ..nly estab- lished in 1914 much valuable work has been done in connection with the tcs Un,' of the mechanical properties of woods* and in connection w.th the manufactun: I ,.ln and oancr These laboratories are admirably situated for ,nvcst„^t.ui> : 'the for sHroducts of eastern Canada, especially those of h. of the ^o"^^ P';" ^ industry but the distance from Bnlish Columb.i '"^T'^l liffLlt forThe taff to'keep in touch with the laboratories or to conZpttethe mat;nal expansion of this line of work, as rapuUy as condtt.on, ""';;r:VumlTr':f"yearI wood has been losing ground as a construct,,. For a numDej y substitutes as steel, cement, bnck. [^^rc^ufand p ten -rLfin^^^ Though, in some cases, the use of h7se substftutesis justified, in the majority the replacement of wood 1, these substitutes 1 j knowledRe concerning wood and it> other -^^'^^^^^^XJoiirolressWe salesmanship on the part of luml.r- to the export trade as uregon puc , Oowlac fir is just aJ it is difficult to convince the toreign buyer-, that our Uou^ia. nr i- 5 • Canadian Woods for Structural Timbers. t See footnote, p. 163. Dominion Forestry Branch, Bulletin 59. FOREST POLICY II* strong, or, perhaps, stronger than that grown in the United Stales. Grading rules should be scientifically based on such structural features a^ width of the annual rings and proportion of summer-wood, as well as on such superficial features as the presence of knots, the proportion )f hoartwood, strai^htness of grain, etc. Specifications based on actual tests arc required of wood for use for special purposes. Frequently, grades of wood are used for purposes for which they are not sufficiently strong or durable ; as a result, substitute products secure additional converts. More frequently, however, the specifications call for valuable species and valuable grades being used where cheai)er material would answer the purpose just as well. The pulp and paper industry presents an immense field for investigation, concerning the processes used for the conversion of wood to paper. The possibility of utilizing saw-mill waste, or such species as lodgepole pine and Douglas fir, for this purpose is worthy of extensive investigation. PrtienrstiTe T"he preservative treatment of wood, to prevent destruction Wood"**" "' ^^ decay, insects, marine borers, mo hanical abrasion or fire, is an industry which is. each year, becoming of greater impor- tance. It has been developed to a point where its feasibility and utility have been demonstrated, but much remains to be done in the way of improving the processes of impregnation, reducing the cost and devising methods of treat- ment for certain kinds of wood and for special purposes, Three of the most important local uses for treated timber are railway ties, piling, and wood blocks for paving. The successful treatment of woods for these purposes will j;reatly extend the use of wood. In this connection it may be pointed out that the average estimated increased life, in years, of wood by preservative treatment is as follows : * Untreated Ties Poles Postii PllltlR Mine-props ShiiiRles. , , Lumber . . . / vcars I,« ■ •• 8 ■• .1 " i •• 20 ■• 8 " Treatci 1 7 years 26 ■ 24 •■ 20 ■ l.s ■• ,VS " 20 " There is, in India, a most profitable market for Douglas fir railway ties so treated that they will withstand the attacks of white ants. The Indian Government is anxious to co-operate in such necessary investigations •as will enable it to procure its supplies in Canada. Seasonjn f '^^^ lumber industry also needs more information on the Wood seasoning of wood. As the climate on the coast is unsuited to air-drying, practically all lumber and shingles are dried in kilns. The time during which the lumber is held in the kilns increases the ^xpense of manufacturing and the tendency is, therefore, to hasten the process • PresmatioH of Structural Timber, Howard F. Weiss, p. i. Ji^ ! t il I i m ,60 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION as mroh as possible. Rail freight rates are based on actual weight which ^ffe^ an inducement for over-drying, especially of shmgles. Much good material is ruined in the kiln-drying, and it is claimed that, except for the Ta^gt freight, drying of shingles has no iustification. and that ^-^e lay better, last better and are in every way more satisfactory. Authontat ve information on these and many other subjects should be available for the tSTand the establishment of a forest products laboratory in the province would Sof very great value in the development of the lumber mdustry. upon which the welfare of the province so largely depends. Administration of a forest property requires that accurate Volume information be obtained as to the quantity, quality and value '^'"" of the standing timber. When stumpage values were nominal timber was bought and sold on the acreage basis, but. as these values increased^^ knowledge of the amount and kind of timber became more essential as a pnmar> basis for all transactions. Early methods of estimating standmg timber were based almost altogether, on the experience of the estimator in logging com- parable stands. The standard for merchantable timber "-^'^^ '^^^^ITj/^^^^J cruises was usually conservative enough to protect the purchaser. The lack S^ny rfimte standard on which to base an estimate of the amount of wo.,d S a single tree or stand results in extreme variation in reports by differen cruLrs One example is cited where a limit on the coast was cruised ten y^ai ago at 6.500.oSo b.f. The owner logged off 5,000.000 b.f.. and a later cruise showed over 15.000.000 b.f. remaining. One of the first things which a forester needs in his work is a senes of volume tables, on which to base his estimates of the standing timber^ Volume tabic give the timber contents of trees for various diameters and ^etghts. Thc> can be compiled only from the actual measurement of a large number of tre in order to obtain reliable averages. Distinct tables are necessary not on or each species, but for the same species in different locahties. since the on of the trees varies to a considerable extent with climatic and -te -ndi tun- Private forest engineers have, at considerable expense, compiled their oNsn volume tables, while both the Dominion and Provincial forest services have Lmmenced c;ilecting the necessary data. Much, ^^^^^^T^:^':, done before a complete set can be given to the public. Stand^^^'^^^^^^ timber cruising is just as important as the standardization of log scaling. .\s aTLthe7go the volume tables for Douglas fir. western red cedar and we^.rn hemlock, "published by the Forest Branch in 1914 — ^ jj-^''^^,^ / can be used with safety only in the southern coast region. These tables be found in Appendix No. 2. With the exception of one season's work, conducted in the Reproduction southern coastal forests by Dr. C. D. Howe, for the Comm.s- Inye8tig.tion8 ^.^^ ^^ Conservation.* no concrete information has been secured concerning the extent or nature of the young growth which i^- ^ff^"" J be. replacing the original stands removed by logging or destroyed by fire. In * Forest Protection in Canada, i0i3-'9'4. P- 212-230. FOREST POLICY ,51 this investigation, sample areas, representing different conditions as to site composition or stand and age, were selected and carefully studied, and the results obtained are of great practical value by establishing the following facts : 1. On about one-half of the area logged and burned in the past iO years, the forest reproduction is not sufficiently abundant to insure the re-estabhshment of the commercial forest. The other half however IS well stocked with young trees, and, if not burned, a forest yielding saw-logs is assured. 2. It is evident that light burning of the slash and dense undergrowth gives the best reproduction of Douglas fir. 3. Better protection of the reproduction of fir already established is imperative, since second and subsequent fires have already destroyed about one-half of the reproduction originally established The continuation of this work in other forest regions, and in connection with other species of trees, is necessary, in order that methods of exploitation and protection may be adopted which will encourage reproduction, and that the pubhc may be informed as to the value of the young growth and the neces- sity for lU protection. The rate of growth of the various species of trees in British Columbia is a subject concerning which no information is available. Definite knowledge in this connection is fundamental in the development of a forest policy which aims to secure the highest sustained production possible. There is no doubt that, from the standpoint of maximum financial returns, the large trees in the virgin stands are long past maturity. It may be that, under certain conditions it IS more profitable to cut as soon as the timber is fit for pulpwood, posts or piling, than to wait for the trees to grow to saw-material sizes. A knowledge of the rate of growth is essential in the valuation of growing timber for purposes of taxation and for the assessment of damages from fire or other causes. To conduct investigations along these lines, permanent experiment stations should be established in the forests, where all the conditions affecting the forest, from the seed to the mature stand, can be observed and controlled for a sufficient time to secure definite and reliable conclusions. Grazing Problems In the central portion of the province are large areas of the public domain which are suitable for the grazing of live stock. Nearly all of this land is un- suitable for the production of field crops, on account of the altitude topo- graphy or soil conditions. A small percentage of it is treeless, but most of It IS partially timbered. In some parts dense growths of small timber are found, composed chiefly of lodgepole pine and poplar, of very little commercial va ue. There is evidence that much of the open land is being over-grazed with senous results. The importance oi the live stock industry justifies a thorough investigation of grazing problems. It is believed that, in many locations, the land could oe used to better advantage for stock raising than for growing timber In »ri ■m .ill iif ; i ill Hi 11 \ ii 1„ COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION Other localities. fo«sts are more valuable either for the^^ber thej produ^ ^ for the protection they afiord the ^^'I'J^^^l;^^^'' ^^l regulation. It jitional forests of tlie United sutes kb industry, notwithstandrng ?:S;r;?:^rojSS'*« "S .o. disappeared, so f» as the ..t.o», forests are concerned. Forest Entomology and Forest Pathology . . J *.« thA forests bv insects and fungi demands The damage bemg done *°J,^«J°;',^; i^ ^rder that the most practi^ thorough investigation and constant attention ino outbreaks reach measures of control may ^^f J-;^;lS^^^^^^^ Dominion Depart- dangerous proportions. The Entomological jd . • ^Jo^s on forest m- Tnt of Agriculture ha. ^--^^'''tj^^^^X^iTyeZ but the Federal SSSrS: S ^^ ^^= "-- are destroying millions of feet of timber in this province. A CoLiEGE OF Forestry Required There is urgent need ^or a forestry coUege in ^^^^^^^^ nearest college in Canada is in Toronto. The jjstancejrom ^^^ precludes the attendance of all ff-^^Xt^^^-^oJ The forest Light be able to take a comple^ ~^e ^n^^^ ."m those of eastern Canada conditions on the coast differ to such an exte necessary before that considerable experience ^^^^.r^^^,^~^: in British Columbia. eastern-trained men are able *°;f!*^f^£?^^^^^^^ men for forest The work of such a college would be ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^nes The need for work, and conducting scientific ^^^I'^^^^^^'^ZmIy trained men the latter has been pointed out. The P^-ep^^^^^^^ ^^^^, ,, o,ly for the administjtwe wor^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,^ one of the objects. The practical ayy o^^nortunity these men have of the rangers in the field f^^^^^^^^.^^^ Z°^^Znoe or from the oc acquiring the viewpoint of the for^« by ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ „ casional visits of inspectors. fy'T™ „iy by the technical training m • See Chapter on Forest InsecU. FOREST POLICY 1«3 The training these men might thus secure would enable th««, ♦^ o^ the nims. ■ '*'*=^"""»">''s»l'«''y equipped tofumish The estabhshment of a forest products laboratory in connection ^ith fh. a^Ser t^ ''-'' '-'- '^ ''-' - ^^^^" UnivS^itTwouir m^u^; the ,?mVe;tndu's'S;"* ThVSh'^^C^r b^ '^^"f ^^^ "'°"^'^ ^^^"^ ^^^ m Vancou!:^r,S;inlin1 M^ri^l 8 'oL"f our1^L\ ^°'"'"''? ^,^" « the establishment at who desire to qualify ai forest t-r.arrl=Ti!- "^''^ "'""^ '" forestry for returned veterans tional Branch of TKlite^lfoTpulis CommT«r T T"^^'^^''' the auspices of the V^ from the four western pi^<^ ^Tht ^t^h^TA« "^"^^ "^'"^ intended to serve students ^mmission. on the parFof ?hl UnivS of Ckh ^^."^?^lf'?'? IT^}^^ ^Uitaiy HospSu Dominion Forestry Branch IrnoeSriMinUtT^l^fiS^'"??'''^ ^""* Columbia Forest BrLich a prominent firtn oTconsulting fZstere^ ^ Munitions. Imperial Munitions Board. aS menttUr^ '>^n°Xp"lft^nj^RXshmrt':J Van""" "^^ (^"'' »''»«) 'hat arrange iucts Uboratories mafntained It Montreal brthon^m^n^"^^^^ °^ ? '"2"'=*' °f the Forest pL *! h McGiU University. For the nre Jnt f L v °°™""°" Forestry Branch in ccM>peration Pnmarilytotimber-test^n^work spJSSe fi^t ?nT^^^ >^t its aitivitiw Ruction of airplane material ySter The t«r ^t' ^i L'°'"*'?v1 °' P«>blems arising out of the of mvestigations which can blhai^kd bv thS 'iil!^ „™ '^ • '* 'ogreaUyexpnl the scope involves co-operation between thrDominionpt.^fn^- J\,": T'?^ that this development Imperial Munitions Board.ind Un&^°S£ BS^cSlTbik^"'^ '^'"■""* ^""^^ ='">«*' ill ill, ' * . i 1 m CHAPTER VIII !'il i) ; I ■ i' Forest Exploitation boundary betvv-een the Bnt,sh -"^^^^^"'^.^^^^^^f^^^^^^^ on the Columbia the Hudson's Bay Co.'s ^'ff^'''ZJj' of Portland. The acceptance of river, and near tb. site of the l^^^^^^^oundarv led to the removal of head- the 49th rarallcl as the -ternat.onal boundary^led^ ^ ^ ^^^^^. quarters from Fort Vancouver to a P-n^ ^f ^ ^,^ g,,„,, ^nd arrived in under James Douglas left F--^^^^^^. j^^. ^^•hich is now the city ot Camosun bay on March 13. ^^f. /":'''' ^^y ,, ere established. Victoria, the new headquarters of the ^-"P^"^ ; -^ ^ 3,riking contrast The scene which greeted the eye ^^^^ ,, ,pp,„,„ee. Before to the present beautiful cit>. ^'J-^'f ^ ' .^hich no white man nor- thern lay a vast o'^^an-Wd bod> of land P ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^ ^.1. stood. Not a human ^-'^f'^^^^^J^jf^oA was drowned by the gentle Even the distant murmur of the voiceless %voo beatins; of the surf upon the shore. ^^^ .^^^^^ Subsequently other posts were «P-f^ J^Vcon'anv was more interested including Nanaimo and For Rup rt^ fj^.^tetUement grew very slowly. The in the fur trade th.n in colonization the ^^f^'^^ ^ ^ , j^fl^, of popu- discovery of gold along the Fraser nver m 18.7, broug g ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^.^ lation, chiefly from the CaMorn- gold^f W^ n^^ ^^^J^^^^^ ^^^^ ,^„, ?ord\r r^rrg^lSr T^gold -msh' brought the mainland mU. nrominence. „u„,;„HiiJ"/^^,„", except for the steel, wh.ch "-^r;:""n*!s;rtiL'pu----':r^^^^^ rtttrirSe;3CrS:nr ^ScbUer dri^n, di.- Towing Lof* FOREST EXPLOITATION ,(,, The cost of loRKing varies according to the location, the nature of the ..round and Umber, and the cost of labour and supplies. In loJe very itt e !o«g.ng was d.ae on the coast under S4 per M. or over $8, the av ra«e bl ng alHmt $6.50 per M^ In the interior, as a general rule, the cost would iL slight" J in excess of these figures. ""um ut siigniiy Nearly all of the logs taken out on the coast have to he towed about 60 to 70 feet wide and 500 to l.OOO feet long The outside Wsticks are held together by chains and the boom is kepTfn shap^ bv long Wters.- which are laid across the top of the boom and fastened^ each end to the boom sticks. These booms do not stand very rough wiS but on the inside passage between Vancouver island and the mainland the per: centage of loss is small. Where rounh water is to be encountered. cylindS cnbs. bound together by cables, are used with success. logs having been towed over 400 miles ,n safety. Though a few of the mills owS their own tLs The owing IS generally done by special towing companies, who charge on a pcj thousand eet basis, according to a more or less fixed schedule ofrates aI m other hnes of business, supply and demand and also weather condition influence the rates, but the following schedule represents the usual cha^s Anacortes, Wash. From Harrison lake Pitt lake. . . Howe sound Jervis inlet. Powell river Toba inlet Bute inlet Loughborough inlet Knight inlet . (iilford island Belize inlet Hardy bay . . Salmon river Rock bay. . . Comox N'anaimo. . Chemainus San Juan •Barkley sound. . •Clayoquot sound. . "Kyuquot sound . . . '^hiatsino sound. . . tRivcrs inlet tBellakula [ tSwanson bay tKitimat , , tAlii e arm .... tMassot tSki'lfuate...!. . ..'. =„^^l°^ '*'"?' P°'"'= '"'KS can be towed to the milline attempt have been made to tow logs from the wesT S Ti-ogs from these northern localities wUl be sawn locally centres only in cribs, and as yet few and seldom towed to southern porU. !| •■11 I 1 ^ * 1 I ill i Ill 170 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION taufiag todsSi ^ ,, ^ portion Of Jhe ^;^^ ^Tt "T^;^ indeptn.ent loggers, who ""/T Th. logs .re meMured either 'lirectly or through bn)ke». ^n ^^^^^^^^^ „.,,. by government .-!« = ' •\rbrfro "hertlkT^ .uffici«.t for their Quite • few torn, opev te cm?.. ^"^/^.^ ' j, generally done by the mill.^ S^nneed.. In theintricr ']?^^^'l^^;^^^^,^y, according to supply .nd The price, of log. '■ ^^'.^ble^J^P^on of the logging i. done by dem.nd. As long ' -- •■ "^^'rialmoSST unstable condition. wtU exjst ,„,.ll outfiU. w '*t "-"^ 'T!ral^ usually have to sell their cut quickly, to meet expense. ■' r .. ^ '^u, ^"fj'^Pg'" ^f^ „,her hand, the milln>en do not. the .ituation to A ... s h. y^ ^J^'/^^sk lumber tr.4*, or dnnmut.on „ a rule, carry lar - si ... of logs, n ^^^ ^^^^^ industry is, in the supply of ic. Hu . :- rf^arp se .n h p^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ ^„ however, getting .nv^ ' no . u..is .m^^^ ^,^ J ^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ,„to the t«n a more even ^u r .' ^ ; ' ^/section 6 of the Royalty Act : following classes, t ^ ,)rovi CSDAR • 1 -„♦», on inches and over in diameter, ^, ;_Logs 16 f,et and ov.r -J^^ffjlJ^^X contents in clear inch that will cut out 50 per cent or^ . (» <> 00 No. i fft 50 6 50 6 UO Camp rur $10.00 10 no <» 00 6 .V) 6.S(> Oettmctioo bj Tertdos Storage of logs in British Columbia is a seriotis problem. Unless the loK's can be held in fresh or brackish water, or on tide flats where they will dry out every day, they become riddled by teredos in two or three months. These marine worms are verv active on the coast and cause j;ri.at damage each year. Exportatioii of Lo(s The policy of the Provincial Government, since 1891. has been to require the manufacture of the forest products within the province, and to prohibit, as far as i)os..- ine ruyaii.^. increased to 85 cents on StmC a ^rdir'dfo, BnU Columbia „d„ on Puge. »u„d. FOREST EXPLOITATION 173 and. for No. 2 and No. 3 grades, especially, the price oflFered is usually con- siderably higher there than at home. When conditions improve, the embargo will undoubtedly again be enforced as it is in the interest of the province, as a whole, to encourage the local manufacture of all the natural resources. Loainf Operations The number of logging operations in the province increased from 957 in 1915, to 1,144 in 1916 due largely to the increased number of handloggers' licenses issued, as a result of the openmg up of the pulp-mills at Ocean Falls and Swanson Bay. It is the aim of the provincial Forest Branch to inspect every logging operation on provincial lands at least quarterly; but. with the limited field staflf available, this has been impossible of late. The main objects of these inspections are to prevent trespass, to encourage brush disposal and to keep the importance of fire protection before the operators. Except on timber sales, no attempt is made to enforce cutting regulations. On timber sales the most important consideration is the complete removal of the stand. The following table shows the number of operations for each forest dis- trict, divided into three classes, and also the number of inspections made in each district : LOGGING OPERATIONS AND INSPECTIONS ON PROVINCIAL LANDS. 1916 Forest District Timber sales Hand-loggers' licenses Leases, licenses, Crown grants, and pre-emptions Total operations Number of inspections Cranbrook Fort George Hazelton 10 10 "i 18 14 17 93 7 200 91 45 83 4 40 13 23 91 30 281 73 55 93 4 40 14 41 IDS 7 S 80 110 52 Island 4 Kamloops LiUooet 45 15 Nelson 33 Prince Rupert .... V'ancouver V'eraon 156 389 756 88 Totals 170 291 683 1,144 1,648 Timber Cut in British Columbia It is impossible to secure accurate statistics as to the amount of timber which has been cut for the manufacture of lumber or other forest products. In the eariier times no attempt was made to keep track of the amount cut. Fairly accurate records have been kept for the timber cut under lease or license or from the Crown-granted lands in respect to which royalty is due; but that taken off the old Crown grants, which are free of royalty, has not been recorded until the last few years. Statistics regarding the cut on provincial lands in the interior, up to 1906, are, to a large extent, unavailable, as official scaling was not enforced. In the Railway Belt also the only records are those concerning the collection of royalty. ■iti| !! Il' r ii r lEi S lii i 174 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION In order to secure inforaation as to the output of the forest SSSS* "* industries, the Dominion Forestry Branch, in 1909. commenced Indottrie* tijg collection of such data, by means of questionna^es sent out to lumbermen and wood manufacturers. From the replies secured, the Dc^ minion Forestry Branch publishes annual bulletins on this subject^ Though the data thus secured are not as complete as could be desired, owing to the UilZ of many lumbermen to send in their returns, the proportion of de- '^^^rn^is each year decreasing, and the value of the reportsi^^^^^^ inCTeasine These reports, however, do not include one very considerable tern o foreslproductL. namely, the amount of timber exported in the f om of SJ or p^p-wood or other unmanufactured forms. In Bntish Columbia, the i^cSaZtf logs from Crown-granted lands has been considerable, and since the embargo against export from Crown lands was raised m 1914. this trade has been of considerable importance. The amount annually exported in logs for the last few years has been as ioWows : 47.000.000 b.f. 1911 63,280.375 b.f. 1912 58.752.678 b.f. 1913 65,678,054 b.t. 1914 106,874.935 b.f. Igl^:::::::::::::::::':---------"----"----- S2.i84.385 b.f. The confusion resulting from inclusion, or exclusion, of various f<^s of for Jprc^ucts. such as shingle bolts, poles, piling, fence posts ties^ cordwood. etc forts other standards of measurement than board feet are u^d, i^ii r com^tes the compilation of these statistics, ^h-se °f the^^^" ::rh of thetX indX. which, though not rapid, has been fairly steady^ Du^ne the colonial days, from 1856 to 1871. very little lumber was sawn , ,f The toSamount s estimated at 250.000 M. b.f. Strange as it locally. The total ani^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ p^^od was „,ay seem a ^°J^f ^^^'^ ^^"^^^^ jense forests of the finest timber were to^ce. and were included in some years and omitted m others. FOREST EXPLOITATION 175 LUMBER PRODUCTION Conversion factors : 1 M. lath -166-6 b.f.; 1 M. shinglet - 100 b.f . Calendar Provincial lands Total year Number Daily Lumber Lumber Shingle Railway bolts ties and of mills capacity cut cut Lath Shingles Provincial M.b.f. M.bi. M.bi. M. M. Cords M.b.f. 1888 25 769 31,869 24,437 56,306 67,612 94,861 120,612 84,250 76,676 78,974 1889 30 1,089 43,852 23,760 1890 41 1,343 78,177 16,684* 1891 57 1,786 88,108 32,504' 1892 57 1,757 64,187 20,063 .... 1893 60 1,785 60,587 16,089 1894 66 1,786 64,498 14.476 1895 77 1,815 112,885 10,042 122,927 126 660 1896 85 1,903 112,947 13,713 1897 90 1,805 105,939 15,255 62 217 121,226 1898 45 1,576 124,547 27,077 365 783 367,932 162,801 1899 45 1,506 217,086 29,684 345 4,404 177,077 252,580 1900 35 1,742 276,237 32,877 324 5,23 3 224,856 318,531 1901 32 1,412 241,312 33,364 1,371 .... 5,56 8 214,588 284,182 1902 105 1,904 281,946 31,279 1,619 15,79 7 149,530 325,874 Totals 1,578,227 341,304 4,086 5,404 26,59 i 1,133,983 2,294,872 'Includes lumber cut from Indian Reserves. M I It TIMBER CUT IN BRITISH COLUMBIA, 1903-1916 Conversion factors: 1 lineal foot -5 b.f. ; 1 cord -= 500 b.f. ; 1 tie -30 bX Dominion Lands Fiscal year Saw material Railway ties Poles, :'les,etc. Shingle bolts Cord- wood Fence posts, rails, etc. Uth Total 1903-4 1904-5 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 M.b.f. 22,710 21,368 21,640 42,477 77,936 57,211 93,858 42,867 98,769 128,748 129,624 67,642 119,062 Pes. 62,060 46,969 37,116 44,588 94,243 4,902 12,191 28,763 9,933 86,485 154,718 24,274 29,662 M. lineal ft. °4iD,26i 43,942 157,600 160,458 714,288 338,680 347,727 Cords 6,395 7,282 4,354 8,698 9,519 19,033 15,454 16,798 15,596 13,780 14,330 33,680 54,707 Cords ' 0*2 1,300 3,464 7,119 6,849 6,670 17,104 1,281 9.838 Cords ' 2,866 13,066 30,215 18,420 46,130 175,876 13,990 368,837 Pes. 1,282,617 69;,000 413,267 71,500 4,349,900 1,189,500 1,130,300 M.b.f.|i 3a284( 26.534 , 24,939 48.176 86,819 67.725 104,085 , 55.939 111,095 142,4161 153,730 87,558 154,338 923,912 ■ ! 1,093,638 • ■ 1 f »' 1 ' i 1 ! tj ; t J i > ^\ tmrn 9HN 176 m COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Provincial Lands ^ Calendar Year Cut on Crown lands Saw Material 1003 1904 1^05 1906 l^^OT 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 Piles, poles M.b.f. 317,551 270,271 450,385 476,430 509,013 507,706 530,091 774,260 787,102 827,633 1,084,733 M. lineal ft. 5,509 5,851 3,732 5,024 Cords Crown-grant paying manu- facturing or export tax 9,938 12," 48 6,163 4,968 3,099 113,297 202,778 310,486 279,185 ToUl Total for Prov. and Dom. M.b.f. 317,551 334,693 508,218 539,282 566,065 560,364 588,618 I 816,278 1,060,000 1.105,394» 1.457,042 962,071 1,017,038 1,278,532 11,111,146 347,835 361,227 533,157 587,458 652,884 628,089 692,703 872,217 1.171.095 1.247.810 1.610.772 1,049,629 1,171.376 1.218.532t 12.204.784 • No old Crown-grant included. t Provincial only. The following table shows the form of provincial tenure under which the timber was cut during the years 1914-19i&_ Year Crown grants prior to Arnl 7, 1887 Crown grants subsequent to \pril 7, 1887 1914 1915 1916 M.b.f. 195,440 211,701 247,393 Lin. ft. 563 571 1,028 Cords 44,725 117,516 89,667 M.b.f. 191,621 132,691 173,973 Lin. ft. 1,876 1,439 2,434 Cords 113,350 108,993 124,858 Year Pre-emptions Timber licenses 1914 1915 1916 M.b.f. 31,464 28,185 37,389 Lin. ft. 985 411 211 Cords 19,347 7,648 9,095 M.b.f. 185,105 155,332 232,609 Lin. It. «-oras 1,491 37,262 777 36,136 533 22,972 Year Timber leases Timber sales 1914 1915 1916 M.b.f. 157,565 110,343 156,688 Lin. ft. 387 35 226 Cords 8,050 4,991 12,625 1 M.b.f. 31,756 76,127 63,055 Lin. ft. 126 66 226 Uords 1,346 2,782 8,426 Year ' =lailway permits Hand-loggers' licenses lOtA M.b.f. 3,566 M.b.f. 36,176 Lin. tt. v^orus ion 571 1916 Total Year 1914. 1915. 1916. M.b.f. 792,951 717,879 941,277 Lin. ft. 5,428 3,299 4,916 Core's 224,080 278.066 268,214 fk^^m ii HI ' i i 1 Si Ml^ FOREST EXPLOITATION 177 On the basis of the reports furnished by the mills, the Dominion Forestry Branch estimates the total production of the province as follows : Year Lumber Lath Shingles Pulpwood 1908 M.b.f. 647,977 790,601 1,169,907 1,341,942 1,313,782 1,173,647 962,612 669,816 875,937 M. 86,862 77,487 94,226 136,461 124,459 108.859 59,140 46,345 45,729 M. 724,652 866,275 966,924 900.126 778.045 643.484 1,060,272 1,894,642 2,009,798 Cords 1909 1910 1,316 1911 440 1912 150 1913 35,067 1914 84,173 1915 80,013 1916 90,535 109,115 The total amount of timber cut in the province up to the year 1916 is estimated as not to exceed 30 billion feet, board measure. Douglas fir and red cedar are by far the most important species cut. as is shown by the following statement on page 178, prepared from data collected by the Dominion Forestry Branch. The value of the products of the forest manufactured within the province has. during the last four years, averaged $33,300,000. The value of the various products, includmg freight charges, within the province, during that period has been as follows : Lumber, Coast.. . Lumber. Interior . Pulp. Shingles Boxes ].!!!!!! Piles and poles .'.'.'.. Mining-props and posts . . . Miscellaneous (cut by railways, mines, settlers, cordwood, etc.) Additional value contributed by in- dustries, etc Product of Dominion lands ... . Lath Totals. 1913 120,400,000 6,400,000 3,000,000 5SO,00Ot 40oi,666 250,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 450,000 200,000 $33,650,000 1914 $15,500,000* 3,750,000 2,730,000 650,000t 900,666 300,000 1,200,000 1,900,000 1,600,000 150,000 $28,680,000 1915 $15,500,000 3,206,666 3,500,000 750,000 1,200,000 400,000 900,000 1,750,000 1,800,000 150,000 $29,150,000 1916 $21,075,000 '3,V20,666 4,500,000 1,833.000 650,000 1,000,000 1,150,000 1,650,000 t 150,000 $35,528,000 hi. tL» tl^f Toi% ^^ disturbed the norma conditions m the lumber industry in British Colum- lf.Vil>v bilities of extracting Horn saw-mill waste such articles of commerce as turpentine, oils, acetic a^-id and alcohol, call for immediate investigatvm Now that large quantities : ed stumpage values, which, in turn, will render the forest worth protecting yM worth reproducing. Logging Regulations No attempt is being made by either the Dominion or^Provincial Go ment to regulate the cutting operations along silvicultural lines, except ■tn- FOREST EXPLOITATION ,g, ttt^S*^?'" J^°^^^' ^" *^' *""*°'^^ °^ ^*^ '^'^ Dominion and provincial timber licenses, the respective governments reserve the right to imD^r«?.h cutting regulations as are deemed desirable for silvicuftuL pulses no steps have been taken in this direction. In provincial timber- sa^es thr^n!. tracts explicitly can for utilization of all merchanUble timl^" d^wn'to tatTd stump and top diameters, leaving of ceed trees if designated, protection of thf young growth and dismal of slash as directed by the dSSc' Torester Similar provisions are made in the timber sales on Dominior. fom' reir^ ef In sorae places, such »s in the fir forests on the coast good reorod«rtJ,^n .s soured b3- clean cutting *nd slash burning, and. if seed ^r^eTwSe ^ft thev would, in many mstances. be blown down. The protection of the^s tabii Jed young growth is verj- difficult where the logs ar* taken out by donkey en^^es Usually the volunteer growth which comes up under tlie main .t«L t Douglas fir-cedar type is p«dominantly hemlcJk. ^Z^r^;^ZZ of the young growth is not alwavs desirable On the other h«n/ P'^^f^'^^'^ m many parts of the interior are such that ca«L t^tt on ^f ^he'cu^'Z . i^e^essary if successful reproduction of the more valuable sp^^rtob^ coast^^TaS'?^ '' ^"^"^ '''" """^ ''"^'^''' sih icultural objective on the t vl . i ^^"^ ^''•^ "''^ °°^y '" the «^ste «f a large amount of t mber-for what is left on the ground is usually burned or b£wn down-but dslTT ;•' ^^'■«%«^^-^ '^ reproduction of inferior speeds and leavS diseased and insect-infested trees as a menace to th. surroundEJ^ndt^cceedrnl^ forest. It IS in recognition of this fact that the government d^^^^Ti^ rate of royalty on balsam and hemlock and on th.. 1^^^::^ TjZ t^ Lo«e. on ^"^^^ specifically required, as in the case of timber sales the tower Grtd^ extent to which the timber is used is dependent to a'verv large extent on the price of lors. The statem»mt ..„ ^„ .o^ .llustrates the effect of a difference of Si per VI in the^ oT oe" nofol on the profit of the logger, but on the timber he can take'ouT ^[tho'ut fi l„Ti ^ hi ,t e''«'"Ple taken is that of an average good limit on the coast Th^e the stumpage. in addition to the royalty, costs the logger $1 per M This shows that, with logs selling at aa average price of $9.56 per M the ogger can take out .11 the timber, pay the government $16 900 in rovaltv ogs m the lower grades is slightly higher per M. than for the large logs If ovan m'' " "fT" *' "^ ""• "" ^^^'^ ^^^^«' ^he cost of logging and StU A '^""f '?" ^'' '^^' "^"•'^ ""' "^'^^-''^ f^'- the No. 3 grades of fir and cedar or for the hemlock anc' balsam. The natural rP«.it „ , ^ u he 10.000 M. uxluded in these grades in the woods. In some such oaJ! Si not ' 7 ?; °''f ^'^^ "^" "'°- ^^^" °ff-^ '^- loss. Zin othe" '>1I not; and. if forced to take out fie lower grades, the logger would suT^/n net loss on his operation. It is of interest to note also that the was fof h low grades m the example gi^^en would mean a loss in royaUy to thi government of $5,000 and. in loggers' wages, of about $50 000 ^ li' COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION l^fff^' I Jll I §58 ^11 •3'2'SS 1^1 lo »« "n Q O w^ »'> •" + + I +4- I I =^iR S 8 S 8 8*-* *'> "^ s g s * S" a B S a ■ «•« S 1^. * ^.''i 5 ' i« mm «^ « "I •« C: 8 ao**5 1 5 IS . t g - « BA . 8 fc : •"J tk : a< _o : ■ l^ ^ ' 1 5 . 0 bC eg ■a |-i ss 4. I I s «) ?i — — r* — <«< — m »^ «^ t^ ^~ O f^ f^ is 1 I u^ -^ « «M r^ M ^" r^ ^dro^r^if^ e 3 z SiE t:- - '^" ' Is 3 o fc- S^ ■c a a x: FOREST EXPLOITATION 185 The extent to which silvicultural regulations can be put into practice .s dependent, therefore, on the net value of stumpaKc. which in turn is. to a large extent, governed by the price of the forest products. Stumpage V'alies What may be termed the 'gross stumpage value' is the value of standing •imber, mcludmg any royalty or manufacture tax which may be resen-ed by the government, as well as the equity of the owner or holder of the cutting rights. For the purpose of this discussion the term is used in the restricted sense of 'net stumpage value', as it is ordinarily used in the trade This includes omly the value of the standing timber over and above the royalty or tax which may be due to the government at the time of cutting ' The Provmcial Government makes this distinction in its timber sales -u- that tte bonus p«,d by the purchaser in addition to the royalty is referred 'to as the stump«ge value. Then.- are two ways of determining the stumpage value. In the first the absolute stumpage value may be considered to be the net amount that can be secured after the cost of manufacture is deducted from the price of finished lumber. The second, and more usual application, is to consider numpage value as the price at which standing timber can be sold The former depends on only two factors, cost of exploitation and price of product- the latter, though atfected greatly by these factors, is influenced bv supply and demand, the prevailing financial situation and the vagaries of speculative investment. A margin of safety is always allowed between these two values to cover operatmg profits, carr>-ing charges, interest and risk of loss Though knowledge of the available supply of timber of any kind is generally a dominant factor in determining the sale value of stumpage. in British Columbia the supply on the market is so large that stumpage values are governed almost entirely by the cost of exploitation and the price of the manufactured products. While subject to many local variations, due to differences in stand and location, the average sale values of stumpage, exclusive ot royalty or manufacture tax. in British Columbia, in 1916. were approxi- mately as follows: ^ S()uthem Mainland Coast Uiicotiver Island Crown Grant \ rthrastem Vancou- er Island « <--t Coast Vancou\ cr Island . . Aorthem Mainland . Queen Charlotte Island >iwthem Interior. . . Southere Interior.. 5£ 11.00 2.00 1.00 .50 40 .75 11.25 2 25 1 25 .50 .50 .50 .50 1 00 E X s a a: JO 50 .60 .40 25 35 .35 .35 30 10 40 .50 .40 .25 .35 .30 30 $1 00 2 00 1.00 SO n i ! 75 Itl 00 $1.66 "TSSt Mrii 186 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Ilii I 1 r ' As a general rule. Dominion licensed timber is held at from 25 cents tn SO cents per M. higher than provincial licensed timber, partially on account of the proximity to transportation, but chiefly because of the lower ground rent and royalty and the sense of security in the title, which the provincial licenses until recently lacked. The Crown grant timber in the Esquimalt and Nanainio Railway grant, on Vancouver island, is more valuable on account of having the privilege of exporting the logs to United States mills, and also because there are no royalty charges on the timber cut. Spruce stumpage is abnormally high at present, owing to the demand for spruce for airplane manufacture, but it is ordinarily about the same price as fir. As high as $3 per M. has been paid for fir and cedar stumpage on Crown grant and Dominion timber berths, which offered exceptional facilities for logging, but, as a rule, an average price of $1 per M. will purchase good accessible tracts, held under lease or license, within 200 miles of Vancouver. The average sale value of all the alienated timber in the province would probably not exceed 50 cents per M. The government, therefore, retains, in the royalty, at least a half interest in the timber on Crown lands. The prices paid on provincial timber sales, as quoted below, are generally above the prices asked by private holders. This is due to the fact that pay- ments to the Government are made as and when the timber is cut and the government assumes all the risk of loss of the stumpage from fire, whereas the private owners usually require the sale to be made outright and a con- siderable cash payment to be made before permitting a purchaser to commence logging. The tracts disposed of by the government have, for the most part. been small and cheaply logged : STUMPAGE PRICES SECURED IN ADDITION TO ROYALTY IN PROVINCIAL TIMBER SALES 19U 1915 1916 Species M.b.f. Average price perM. M.b.f. Average per M. M.b.f. Average price per M. Douglas fir 25,224 14,596 1,018 6,159 215 223 "639 531 $1.32 1.12 1.33 .52 .58 .80 i:82 .50 29,417 27,074 4,284 23,347 8,135 155 ■2,613 130 $ 95 1.05 .71 .46 .48 .77 [so SO 36,261 44,016 11,741 ?t,174 8,637 2,459 4,074 2,705 2,287 $1.0*) Red cedar 1 16 Spnice .72 Ifprnloi'lc .4.=; .?<* W-^tcm white pine Wtstem yellow pine. . . . Western larch 1 . d') 1,74 1 75 Other species 1 9.=; TotaU 48,605 $1.15 94,555 S0.80 136,354 $0 % PUlii XXMI M H ill '''■■■•■'" '"■ >''•■■'/. I.I,.::',.-, , Dnuc;LA<; fiP riEAR <,„,liwa, k i >s CHAPTER IX Forest Trees in British Columbia THE forests in British Columbia are predominaiUly coniferous. Deciduous isth-o^'. ^* ""*" P~P°"'0" °f the stand, and black cottonwood .s the only spec.es used to any extent, except for fuel. Broad-leaf maple, alder and aspen are perhaps, the only other deciduous species of any commercal value Not^tJ.standmg the wide range of climatic and physiographic conditions, wh.ch tre^ s^eTi, "" '"T/" '^''''''"* ^°"^ °^ '''' P'°-'"«- ^^e number of ^ril TV .'°"''T^"''''^ ''"^"' *^°"* " coniferous and 26 deciduous spec.es. The trees of commercial value include sixteen conifers and one deciduous tree, the cottonwood. It is not the intention in this report to enter into a botanical discussion .lnn^^t°"'""*^T:'''i**^'^°^*^* Characteristic features of the more Zrib«t?„nT?t ' •?* described.* The information available in regard to distribution of the various species is fragmentary and incomplete. On the accompanying maps an attempt has been made to delimit the distribution of lx!or?h."^-?*r!"^.""'- '^^'^ ™"'' "°* ^ interpreted as indicaUnt exactly the distributional area, inasmuch as local influences, such as altitude and climatic conditions, are more important than geographical influences in aetermimng the distnbution of a species.f Much confusion has resulted from the use of different botanical and «"!!!!°"*r!""'' ?! *^* '*™'' 'P^""-^ '^^^ nomenclature followed in this Tv r.'n « „ * o^ *^^ Dominion Forestry Branch and. with one exception. Dy the U.S. FOTest Service, and is in accordance with the rules laid down by the Botamcal Congress Vienna. 1905. Trade names are frequently coined with the object of facUitating the sale of the manufactured products. Such names as hemlock-spruce and Alaska pine have been giver to the western hemlock in an attempt to dissociate it from its inferior eastern relative The vanous species of the genus Abies, though they are true firs, are known as larch in British Columbia and as balsam in eastern Canada. Since the name fir 's so generally attributed to Douglas fir. it has been thought advisable to refer to the species of Abtes generally as balsam. Westem yellow pine is known variously as yellow pine, white pine, bull pine and westem soft pine in the different regions in which it grows. The last name is a recent British Columbia coiaage. It appears to be meeting with some success in the trade, but. as yet is^oohmited in use to replace the widely accepted name, westem yellow pine. ' by i*S."Kt"&,^5'2fta^'"^'l^r'"-^^v^r^^ ■'^'''^- "^^«« B- S'^iworth. published Xntflm Co?New Yoril tUd B^^. ^ '^ ^'"' "' ^'^"' ^'^*"'' ^-^"^'^"^ ^- ^^8«"'' Houghton »nd b7t\l'S2£f ^T?!'";^ ^y i'^- ^: Macoup. C.M.G.. Biologist of the Geological Survey, X^SlLil^otitS^I^^TZ ""/.fT/"-^ 1°"^^ ^^'^' « gratefully aclno^vledgl^ t.S l^t ofASuLre ^'*"' ^"*' "^ '** ^"""' ^'^'- •8''«""' ^o- '7. Division of PorJtry n !i n i 1 n » . ? t ' V H m COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION li i i I ii.- Species of foreit trees in British Columbi*. subdivided into coniferous and deciduous, we as follows : LONIFBKOUS Common namt Botanical namt Douglas fir* Pseudotsuga mucronata Western red cedar* Thuya plicata Yellow cypress* ' hamacypariz nootkattnsn Sitka spnice* ''w«i sitchtnsis EnReln>ann 'ipruce* 1'"^^' !.nK«lmanni White spruce* Ptcea canadensis Black spruce* /'««a tmuiana (Lowland fir* W'l'w grandii Balsam { Amabilis fir* ^bies amabilis (Alt^ne fir* ""« lasiocarpa Western wliite pine* . . . . WfStern yellow pine* . . White bark pine Limber pine Lod^epole pine* Western hemlock* Mountain hemlock ... Western larch* Alpine larch Tamarack* Western yew Rocky Mountain juniper I'tnusmontiLola fin Its pondtrosa . Pinus albi'i tults I'inus flexilis . Pinus contorts Tsnga heterophylla Tsuga Mertensiana l.arix occidentalis l.arix Lyallii . .arix laricina Taxustrevijolia Juniperw: scopulorum DECIDt'OlTS Garrv oak Quercus f. -^ryana Madrona \rbutns M, n:iesti Broad-leaf maple ^cer macrophyllnm Vine maple ^ccr ctrcinatum Dwarf maple -^cer glabrum Populus trcniidoides Populus balsamifera Populus trichocarpa Petula papyri/era Hetula occidentalism Hctula alaskana Aspen RaIm-of-;;ilead . . Black Cottonwood* Paper birch Western birch . . . Alaska birch Mountain birch Hetula fonttnalts Mountain alder -I'mm^ tenuifolta Red alder ''««* oregona Sitka alder ■'^l*'»^ sitckensts White alder -"^'w'" rhombtjolta Oregon crab apple Malus rivutaris Western serviceberry Amelanchter almfolta Black haw Cratcegus bremspina Bitter cherry Prunus emar^nata Western choke-cherrv Prunus demissa Wesiern dogwood Cornus Nuttalln Western black willow Salix lastandra Long-leaf willow Salix flumattlts Hooker willow "^a''* Hookertaua Silky willow 5a'«*^ sttchensts • Commercial species. , « , ^ ^ •/ i . n^,; i .- iBelula ocidfHialis i.s now trc-ati'd as a vancty of Betula pifpynfera by miwl Bnti>l i American botanists (see p. 216). FOREST TREES IN BRITISH Cr.LlMBIA ,M .no«';HeKScr''TSfJt\^^^^^^^^ '£»' »»«. flora i. sent a list of the tree wcieJ wTk^^?,, n ^V*'***'" ****" """'» »" P"" species : impwtance. those with an ♦ bcmi; commercial Coast ' '''''"'Zu^tafnT:'''''''''''''' '"'"" '"'' '''''^"" -'"- ^'^.r of ,k. Coast nouRlaji lir* WcstL-rn red ct'dar* Wistcrn hemlock* Lo ' land fir* All! ihiHs fir* Wistcrn white pine* Yellow cyjircss* Sitka spruce* Black cotttmwood* Aspen Broad-leaf maple Red alder ( jarry oak Vine maple Lotljjepole pine M'untain hemlock Western dojjvvood Nfadrona Western birch r'ai)€r birch Western yew Sitka alder White alder Mountain alder < )rej;on crab-apple White-bark pine H<>cky mountain juiiija-r Western serviceljvrr/ Western choke-cherrv Bitter cherry Hooker willow Silky willow Long-leaf willow IJwarf maple '""'^.i;":'.^^^;''^'- """' '"'""' """"""'-.A- Queen CHarloU. Western hemlock* Western red cedar* Sitka spruce* Amahilisfir* Alpine tir* ^'ellow cypress* Black cot! ;ii\v()()(l* Mountain iiemlock I-odpepole pine Aspen Sitka alder ■'ccn Charlotte islands : Western hemlock* '^it ka spruce* Western red cedar* Vellow cypress* Lodgepole pine Mountain hemlock Western yew Red alder Red alder Broad-leaf mafile \\'esterii yew Mountain alder Western choke-cherry Western serxiceberry Ore^jon (•rab-apf)le Silky willow Lon),'-leaf willow Hwarf maple Broad-leaf maple Aspen Western serviceberry ( )reK'on crab-apple vSilky willow I>on>,'-leaf willow Mountain alder Western birch Interior i- -I 'if ;l MCROCOTY RISOtUTWN IBT CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2) ^ /APPLIED INA^GE In ^K '65J East MoTi Street ^jS "ocheslfff. New i-on. U609 uSA ■— ('16) *82 - 0300 - Phone ^S '^'6) 288- 5989 - To- «■ MMliil 19* COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Western hemlock* Black Cottonwood* Mountain hemlock Aspen Balm-of-Gilead Mountain alder 5. Skeena Plateau — Drainages rivers : Engelmann spruce* White spruce* Black spruce* Lodgepole pine* Douglas fir* Black Cottonwood* Mountain hemlock Aspen Alpine fir Sitka alder Western serviceberry Long-leaf willow Alaska birch Dwarf maple of Skeena, Finlay, Nechako and Blackwater Balm-of-Gilead Rocky Mountain juniper Mountain alder Sitka alder Western serviceberry Black haw Mountain birch Western birch Dwarf maple Long-leaf willow -Drainage of ChilcoHn river and east of Rocky mountain juniper Mountain alder Western serviceberry Western choke-cherry Dwarf maple Long-leaf willow Western birch Plateau — Kettle river, Okanagau, Nicola, Clinton: Aspen Rocky mountain juniper Western serviceberry Mountain alder Bitter cherry Western choke-cherry Dwarf maple Long-leaf willow Western birch Northern part of the InteriorlPlateau- Fraser river to QuesnelForks : Douglas fir* Lodgepole pine* Engelmann spruce* Alpine fir* Black Cottonwood* Aspen Balm-of-Gilead Southern part of the Interior Kamloops Ashcroft and Western yellow pine* Douglas fir* Lodgepole pine* Englemann spruce* Western larch* Alpine fir* Western white pine* Black Cottonwood Alpine larch White-bark pine . Kootenay — Kootenay river and Arrow lakes: Western yellow pine* Mountam hemlock Douglas fir* Alpine larch Western hemlock* Rocky mountain jumper Engelmann spruce* Western yew Western larch* Mountain alder Western red cedar* Sitka alder Western white pine* Western serviceberry ii Alpine fir* Lowland fir* Lodgepole pine* Black Cottonwood* Aspen White-bark pine Black haw Bitter cherry Western choke-cherry Dwarf maple Western black willow Long-leaf willow Western birch FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 191 Douglas fir* 10. Rocky mountain juniper Western birch Mountain birch Mountain alder Sitka alder Western serviceberry Bitter cherry Western choke-cherry Dwarf maple Long-leaf willow of the province, east of the Rocky Black Cottonwood Tamarack Alpine fir Alaska birch Long-leaf willow „^7o^f '^""""^^ ""f °^ *^' ^'^'^''' «P«"«s of trees varies ^n different ^^M ! ^T""*^- ^" '^^ '°"*^^™ ''''^°' portion of the province they any species occurs the more limited its altitudinal ran a* t„ *»,» v * district good stands of Engelmann spnicVand ipinTl^r fou^d aTfoS ^..V ?/'" ''"'^- °" *^" ^"'^^^^"^ -^«t meJchantaWet mber o ff^ species seldom grows at even 4.000 feet. In the following table are given the maximum altitudes at which the Western red cedar* Engelmann spruce* Alpine fir* Western hemlock* Western white pine* Lodgepole pine* Black Cottonwood* Aspen Mountain hemlock White-bark pine Great Plains— north-eastern corner tnokniains: White spruce* Engelmann spruce* Lodgepole pine* Black spruce Aspen Balm-of-Gilead Howe sound Bute inlet Kinecome inlet... Renfrew district. . Oayoquot sound . Quatsino sound. . . Johnston strait.. . Rivers inlet Gardner cau_.." Skeena river Portland canal. '. Queen Charlotte" islands Douglas fir feet 3.000 2.000 a.soo 3.000 2.500 2,500 2,500 500 We.«;em red cedar feet 3,800 3,000 2.500 3,000 4,000 3,000 3.500 4.000 2.000 1.500 1.500 2,500 Western hemlock feet 4.000 3.000 2,500 3,500 4,000 3,500 3,500 3,500 2,000 1.500 1,500 2,700 Balsam* feet 4,000 3.500 2.500 3,500 4,000 3,500 3,500 4,000 2,000 1,500 1,500 Sitka spruce YeUow cypress feet 2,200 1,500 1,800 1,000 1,500 1.000 1,000 700 500 800 800 1.400 feet 5,000 4,000 3.500 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,500 4,000 3,000 2,500 2,500 2,500 Western white pine feet 3,000 2,000 2,500 3,000 2,500 2,500 3,500 Lodge- pole pine feet 500 500 1,000 500 500 500 200 200 500 800 800 800 -t r:^^^&^''^''^'^,ttl:^t^^:^^!:!-^' •^-^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ P-^ably do. MM II i :l t i . t ^' ,4ljjj !■ 192 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Douglas Fir — {Pseudotsuga mucronata [Raf.l — Sudworth) This species has been called by botanists Pseudotsuga iaxifolia (Lam.)- Britton, and Pseudotsuga Douglasii (Carr), and it has even been assigned to tlu> genera Abies and Pinus by some of the early botanists. A great variety of common names is attached to it. In the export trade of the Pacific states it is known as Oregon pine. In British Colvimbia it is, as a rule, simply called fir. Two varieties, yellow fir and red fir, are sometimes recognized. The former is the product of the most favourable sites, and is characterized by a yellowish, flakey bark, but slightly furrowed. The wood of the yellow fir is lighter and softer than that of the red fir, owing to the fact that the summer-wood rin-s are not so prominent. Douglas fir is the best known and, undoubtedly, the most important forest tree in the province. The export trade, except that to the United States, is almost entirely confined to this wood. In 1915, 67-7 per cent* of the lumber manufactured and 42 per centf of the total amount of timber cut in the province was Douglas fir. In 1916, 44*1 per cent of the total cut was Douglas lir. Though confined to the southern half of the province, it forms approximately 22 per cent of the total stand of saw material. On the coast it comprises neariy 30 per cent, and in the interior a little over 9 per cent. In all. there is estimated to be 76,000 million feet standing in the province. Douglas fir reaches its best development in the region directly tributary to the salt water, between the mouth of the Columbia river and Seymour narrows. In British Columbia, it occurs on the coast as far north as thejiead of Vancouver island; and, though not found close to the northern coast, it reappears near the upper ends of the fiords as far nolrth as Gardner canal. It is not reported at Ootsa lake, Eutsuk lake or the headwaters of Dean river, but is found along the Grand Trunk Pacific railway to the east of Bums lake. It extends as far north as the southern end of Tacla lake and to Fort McLeod. and crosses the Rocky mou' ains to the foothills in Alberta. It thrives best on well-drained soils, where the annual precipitation is between 50 and 60 inches, and where the climate is moderate and not subject to extremes. It grows in the interior where the extremes in temperature are very great and the water supply scant; but, under these conditions, it is much smaller, and the wood is not of such good quality. It is a light-demandini; species and grows best in even-aged stands, where, owing to its rapid growth, it soon becomes the predominant spec ies. It reproduces readily when the seeds reach mineral soil and sufficient light is available ; but it is at a disadvantage, as compared with hemlock and cedar, in the virgin forests, wh- re the soil is covered with vegetable mould and it is shaded by the large trees. The seeds of fir have been found to retain their vitality for several years, and clear cutting and immediate slash burning are usually followed by good fir reproduction. With the exception of the giant sequoias and redwoods of California, the Douglas fir is the largest tree on the Pacific coast . It ordinarily attains a height of from 175 to 200 feet, and a diameter of from 3 to 6 feet. Not infrequently, • fprfst Products of Canada, igrs. Dominion Forestry Branch Bulletin, No. 58A. t Report of the British Columbia Forest Branch, ifUS- if . tlH ;!i^ ;ii jili o z o o z < ^^. < ^* '•'>,^ -'rr • ■ « H : I ,J:3 FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 193 ♦cr are seen. Owing ind drop oil. leaving trees up to 250 feet in height and from 6 to 9 feet in di s of a dir.' h °^ T ''■""'^' •""^"^^•'"^^ ^^^" ^»^-ker. Typically he btk The cones are reddish-brown and from 2 to 3 inchp« i«n., tu tamed 40 M.b .^ per act., an average of l.OOO board feet per acre per an Jm EuroS^Xh^'Se SLIT?'"';' '"™""' '" °"" «*»'" -^ C„"«„Tn.a, nock^' fv" 4" ' , """V " """ ««" ="« *ould be exercised to secirt, ric . • S7 l" "'"? '^'"^'^ ""•' "" °»"h-<^a^l"n .tates a" inienc be found more hardy. usuall r, ^OOOOhr/^'nnru*/^''" ^' predominates, the stands bettei . yied exceeds 00 Soo b ^ '" ""' ''°"'' '"^"^"''^' "'^ ^'^^ whereS UOtl OOOh 7 ! / ,' -^^ P^"" ^"^' °"^ instance being recorded from 500 to 2 Ooi b f ^ ''' *'' "^"^'"^^ «^ *^^- -'^-"y --tain not sSrom iL'tteT- ^'Z '^'''';"* *'^^ '" ^^^'^^ Columbia. It does the hemlock rniTedlr':^^^ ^"^"' ^'^^"^^'^ *° "^^'^ ^^e same extent as do miock_and cedar. The logs are remarkably sound, even from very old • F.gures for the State of Washington, from U.S. Forest Service BuUeUn. No. 33. »n f « ! : ■\' , l! ill I ! IM COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION trees. Owing to its intolerance of shade, however, the tendency in the virgin forests is for the fir to be replaced by hemlock and cedar. The production of Douglas fir lumber has increased rapidly in the last fifteen years. In 1913 more Douglas fir timber was cut in both Canada and the United States than any other single s pedes. Though, owing to the effects of the war. it has fallen behind white pir.e in Canada for the last two years, it may be safelv predicted that it will quickly regain its place as the premier con- struction wood of Canada. The tests made by the U.S. Forest Service* show that Douglas fir is the strongest wood, for its weight, in the United States. The large sizes which can bf cut fror.i these huge trees render it especially valuable for ship-building and heavy construction. t Its green weight is about 3.300 pounds per 1.000 b. f . ; but. when the lumber is kiln dried, as it usually is before shipping by rail, it weighs about 2.500 pounds per 1.000 b.f. The sapwood is usually not over two inches wide. The heartwood varies in colour from reddish to yellowish. The wood from the centre of old trees, from second growth, or from trees growing under un- favourable climatic conditions, is likely to be coarse-grained and reddish m colour. On the coast, however, a large proportion of the wood is clear, fine- grained and light-yellow in colour. In the building trades it is a most valuable wood, being used for beams, joists, heavy flooring in -nill constructior. siding and for all general purposes. Owing to its hardness it is used extensively for flooring, for which purpose it is cut edge-grained. For interior finish, it is recognized as perhaps the most beautiful of our Canadian woods. On account of the distinct alternating rings of spring and summer wood, it presents, when cut tangentially. a most attractive grain, rivaUing qu. Jter-sawn oak in beauty. Douglas fir hardens with age, and, when .olished, has a mar-resisting surface whicl. renders it especially useful and attractive for doors, panels, beams and other interior woodwork. It takes stain well, and can. therefore, be given a variety of finishes. T^ \ Western Red Cedar— (T^Mya phccUa — Don) The botanical name. Thuya gigantea, has also been applied to th. -ecie:i. on account of its size. Among the common names applied to it are giant arborvita;. giant cedar, canoe cedar, shinglcwood, Pacific red cedar and Lobbs arborvitx (in cultivation in Dngland). Since it is the only true cedar in British Columbia, it is locally known simply as either cedar or red cedar. The latter name is used to distinguish it from yellow cypress, which is often cabled yellow cedar. ... j The cedar is confined chiefly to wet or constantly moist situations, ana where precipitation is abundant. Its range extends, along the Pacific coast, from south-eastern Alaska to northern California. In British Columbia it is found on Vancouver island. Queen Charlotte islands and throughout the • r»t<. nf 'Structural Timbers, U.S. Forest Service Bulletin, No. io8. ^ j uj^k tThe s?{Sof DouRlaTfir, as compared with other woods, native and itnportedv.hd comite ^thuS OmaSc. is shown m TaBles 4 and 5 in Ca»aJw» Woodsfo, Structural T,mb^r^ Bulletin, No. SO, Dominion Forestry Branch. H n ihcc mmp n-ampUUt atH^ofDamuaan-of CanmJm , D^t,of bitn^m: V lilt i-i 1 1 s ? POkEST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA ,95 beyond Hazelton. It is absent fom 1 L' f r""."'"' *° " ^'^"^ ^'^**°<=« Interior plateau butisfordLsurs ^ .^"'^ °°''^"™ P°^>°"^ °f th« bordering on the strait of GeorH? t^ T ? southern coastal region vicinity of Queen Charlotte sours °"f ' "'""'^ ""' "^^"^"'^^ ''^ t^e fore. Of greLr rela^:^?^;rn;:rttertr^^^^^^^^^ last fT'^rr^trt'celS^^^^^ "^V "' '" '=°'"™^'"^' -P"*-- - the 78 billioJfeet-f fZ: atost^'^rabi: ITTStf' T ''r^'"-^' province^ The estimates secured tnt^ fnvestfgatt s W T '^.°' '"'' more cedar than any other sn*.o,-p«: .^.„a- '"™"'f^y'°° show that there is over 22 per cent of tLtSirnJ Ttl '^iT^ertn^'^' }' ^°""^ m the interior, slightly over 13 per cent tLV^^IJ ^ ? " ^^^^'^ ^°^' tional durability when exposed to the wlather ^n'thl ' '°""t ^'^'^^P- suitable for a number of purposes for JSch n. .?», a ^''°""*' ^^^^ "« the possible exception of c3ss can h. ct . f ,' '^'°'"'^" ^°°'^' ^^t^ supply of red ceda'r is fas Scomtg d^^d f ^^^^^ T^' "^^^ --'«ble Canada, with the result that thTdemand for Bn fl l""'''^ ^}^''l ««d eastern creasing, and is likelv to ronHn,, , "'^"'^ ^""^ ^"^'^^^ Columbia red cedar is in- in British ColumS was 35!^^^^ The cut of cedar These amounts"ep«rented 3^^^^ - 1916. the total cut. The manufactnr; of T- 1 ^" ^^"*' respectively, of cent of its total cut '"^"'^"'^'"^" °^ ^^'"^^^^ -counts for from 50 to 70 per a heigh?:; otr n5 LT^^dt L'slfSa ' V'T "' ^°^ '* ^"^"^^^ -"-- size, which is at present beine cut on th 7 °^ T' ^° ^^^*- '^'^^ ^''din^y and from 100 to iTo JeeUnSt UnlT ^"1'°" ' *° « ^^^* '° '"^-^t^'. so that the diameter at the up": fndof^^t^^^^^^^ '^^^ ^"'^'''^^ ^^P-. feet. The lumber content ofl o.Z.* first 32-foot log seldom exceeds three standing cedT^ ' "" '" ='""'^" "" mTchantable contents rf ..-W, inch per yen, t„ .a. dian.eter o^,.^' IZ^X^f"' S^ri^^ i \ ' 1^ COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION cedar, near Vancouver, has been recorded as producirg wood having less than three annual rings to the inch.* <,«„,v»i tree branched to the U uSy^comes grayish-brown, tro» long »^- J^ ^^^ ?"h. J»t seldom much over an inch ttack. even on old t«j. The ^^^^^ .he luSe winged seed, are often c«ned >ong d.^^^ ^^ on^tb J ^""d soon lose their ability to genmnate >f *f .^° ™' ," °°J„,i,er vegetable Seedlings grow best on moist beds "'"^■'"^^^^'S^^^foLt fires cedar matter. On exposed ^nerasod^-h» ^>.^^rr^ --^^ ^^^ ^ r.:2d"rD:„gr fir."het^* ^^^-rro. c^s^-; rrris Mbf^t:;:rr:sr.^oS'rt^^""---'''^^^'- arule. between 20and60 M.bt. peraoe_ j j^^ „ddlsh-brown The wood is hght, soft and not strong. It '«"^ ''°'° " i„jhes wide toahghters«awcolo»Jhes.pwoo^.|U-^j;;'^^^^^^^ and U very '* ' "" .tTusel tol^bylhe Indians and woodsmen to make splits so teaddy that .t is ojd .'"g^ ^ j^^ ,„ .„^,„et their honses. ?;^l';Xtr:2^iS"t„:r?ng:„t canoeso. .^^^^^^ -rr-:r?t-^^^.rrmaj:^:^r i-iSs^hrSfoir-H B3^ier;^ss qwditics, and ita freedom «'<'°/7'°«: "^d jS L*'' '' ""^ l:j;-rrd^t" rtrrtoryTor^^^^^d^^^^^^^^^^ -^irfcSSdL:S'ra:irorrhfi»w^^^^^ dry givet. 11. » chiooed by rail to the eastern markets. of freight rates and ^^^^^^^/^ ^^^JJ^^^^^^ wood in which quality makes snch^srnSrvr'rLpr^^^^^ ^ r 'r/mltralTi^S.* Srii of th. p^oorer quality a. — r7iSrC<..u„bi. Red Cd.- •-.« F1.— . '■"»^"" •/ «« '-^^ ""'" °* ""'• FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA m to a large extent used in the manufacture of shingles, where defects can more readily be avoided. British Columbia red cedar shingles have won a repu- tation for quality which is continent-wide, and, as a result, the market for them IS steadily increasing. In this connection if is significant that British Columbia shingles sell in the United States at a premium of from 10 cents to SO cents, averaging 25 to 30 cents per thousand, over the current prices of American shingles of similar dimensions. The large sizes, straight grain and freedom from knots, coupled with its resistance to decay, are most valuable quahties for shingle manufacture. Many examples of the long life of red cedar shingles have been recorded. The Indian potlatch houses were nearly all made of cedar shakes. On San Juan island, the roof of a house, built in 1856, IS still intact. Near Tacoma, Wash., the roof of a house which was laid with sawed red cedar shingles over 30 years ago, is still in perfect condition. The resistance to decay is demonstrated in the woods. Old cedar wind- falls, that fell centuries before Columbus discovered America, are still sound except for the sapwood, though another generation of forests has grown to maturity on top of them. Though, on account of the thinness of the bark It is very easily killed by fire, cedar sustains perhaps less damage, com- mercially, from fire than any other coast species. This is due to the fact that the wood in the fare-killed trees, whether standing or down, remains sound for many years. Cedar lumber or shingles should not be kiln-dried too quickly, since the high temperatures incident to quick drying will break down the structure of the wood. It is claimed that, except for the saving effected in freight charges It would be better not to kiln-dry the shingles at all. A considerable pro- portion of the shingles have, up to the present, been cut from ' bolts' 52 inches long and about a foot in diameter. These bolts are, to a large extent, secured from material which has been left standing or on the ground after logging. The tall stumps cut by the loggers are frequently used to advantage for this purpose. In some cases, the logs are split up into bolts in the woods, but unless this method is necessitated by difficulties of logging or transportation, It IS a wasteful method of exploitation. The shingle mills, are. however, getting their material in increasing amounts from logs, from which shingles can be cut with less waste than from bolts. The resistance of the wood to decay makes cedar particulariy desirable for posts and poles. Over 2,500,000 lineal feet of poles and piling of various species were cut in the province in 1916. It may be estimated that at least 2,000,000 lineal feet of this was of cedar, about 90 per cent of which was exported. Yellow CYPREss~{Chant(Bcyparisnootkatensis [Lamb.]— Spach.) This species is most frequently called yellow cedar in British Columbia. It IS known also as Alaska cedar, Alaska cypress, Sitka cypress or Nootka Sound cypress (in cultivation, England). It is confined to the coastal region, from Alaska to northern Oregon. In British Columbia, it occurs as far north as Stikme river. In the vicinity of the strait of Georgia it is seldom found Illl j ,„ COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION at altitude, below 2.000 feet and -enj^- f'^^, ^^""^ ^^^^^^^^^^'^^^ - -°- -' -'- '""Z in^ral appearance it ™Jles ^jed"^^^^^^^ somewhat more ashy i^^?^°"'• ^"^ t Jh ,S?^^^ smooth foliage of red noticeably harsh c.nd pnckly to ^J^ *°"^^^^^^^^^ ^bout one-half inch in cedar. The cones are 'f^^'f'J^^^^^^^°Zl short spine in the centre of diameter. The cone sea es are ^hield^ke wUh as v ^^^^^ ^^^_ each. The trunk usually t^P««J«J ^^JP^tv^w in colour, even-grained spicuously fluted. The wood is ^"ght sUlphur-yeU^^^^^ ^^^ and has a decidedly unpleasant odour. ^^^^^^/^^^^^^^^^^^ u is easily heaviest and most durable comferousj^oodn the P^v^ ^^^^^ worked, and takes a beautiful satm-fimsh ^^^\''^^^^^^^ unaffected by for interior wood-work and cabinet wor^^^ changes in moisture, and is ^^^'l'^-^^^^^^^^^'-^ j^Tn great demand for boat- wood grown in the provmce. For th« '^2oto^J^sas^ and door stock. cypress, however, are difficult to dispose of • ^.^.^^^ ^ It is unfortunate that the supply of ^^^^^^^ ^^S. are considered and that it ^o.. ^^ r^^^^f^^J^^^^^^ coastaWegion; inaccessible. The t^^' ^i"^";^ '" tree from which a comparatively small in the north it is usuaUy a smi^by tree r ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ approximately ^ZZ^.'^^^'^^^Z^^^^ the cut in 1916 was only 75 M.b.f.. and. in 1915. only 30 M.b.f. ^^^^^^ There are four species of ^^^^ Z^^^ce'^'^'T^^^^^ Engelmann spruce, white ^^r^ce an6^Ua^^r.ce^^T^^ ^^^^^ ^^ be over 73 billion feet of spruce ^^ «ie jrovi^^^^^^^^ P ^^.^^ .^ per cent of the total stand. .XXtS^' thZ is .ppro^m.tely 59 billion ZtT^ ^ ^^- ^ "^^ '' ^-"^"" '''^'" '^' " remainder white and black ^pr^ce. ^^^ jeg. but In recording the -ts. no distinction ^^^ been m ^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ total timber cut of the provmce. hemlock by the The spruces may be ^!*-^Xt1e^ keSy^P^^^^^^^^ ^-^ ^' -^^^'^• fact that their leaves are ^t^^'/^^^^^^/th; twigs, but are twisted so that scaled and pendent. 1:11 ■ : . :.i ■ ■ 1 1 ( ,} , ! i il Atfe map f^ortvplatB cfMdpoflkmunion.of Cmamdm. tDtpLofhuarior. FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 199 are l^^aJitVy ^af ^^T'Sfff^rr' ^--" -'^ while the tree. di.ting.ish Jnce their chaiUl^t;^r.iS« -eti^ ^^^^'^ - where the wear i. not too greaf The j^^ I ''™'''°" ^"^ '"'^"^^ spruce in the manufacture of airplanes S^Jl" "'*'"*/ ^"'"^"^ ^°' ^'^ar in Canada for the manufacture of puTp " ^°"«dered the best wood SrTK.SPKuc«-(P,.a«..W,(3on..]-Trautvetter and Mayer) seldom extending more than 50 miles L^^ ^*'^* *° "°'^^^'^ reported to have an altitSLal i e ^^ t ' ?'* r'"'' ^^°"«'' >* » seldom found in commercia"les above 1 000?™ T ^'^'^ '° ^'^^^ ^^^*'* '* « and is usually confined to the v'ry bottom 1?''°" '" ^"^"^ throughout the western slope of The CoT^t . * '' ^""'"^"^ distributed Queen Charlotte islands T extend a shorTT.''"' ""^ °" ^""'=°'^^" «"«1 the Stikine nearly to Grand rapMs jn the M T "^ "^^^^ "^^^ ^"^ «P lower portion, from Cranbe,^ river down iT "^^"7 V' ^°""'* "^'^ '" ^he Ha7elton;and.intheFraserTainZ itTren .T?*? *^' ^'''^^"^ *'™°=* to pass. aramage, ,t is reported at the summit of Coquihalla merchantable stanJon thrS^Usstkh '*'^" ''^''° P«' «=«"* °f the in the northern coastal reVonexten^^^^^^ T'' °^ ^^''^'^ ^^ *° ^e found ^land t P..,,, eanai. ^'i:sx^^ 5;-^::: ^^ ^— of irlTs nrfitTnjVtilrS r Zi'- ^°^^^' ^"^^-^^ ^ ^--^ter from three to six feet in diai f and O^to Jjw ''.V^u*" ^'''"^'^ ^^ « fa:rly dense stands the trunkTs usuallv cw! f \ f * ^^^^ ^"^^^ S'^^'^ ^^ very little till the branches are r^ Li %^^^^^^^^ 10,000 b.f.. and occasionally as muTh aflS OOO h f rf '?."'"'" '^^"^ ^'^^^ *« stands, but, in mixture ^vith hemlocl and h»l '^°'° °''^'''' '" P'^^ frequently runs from 40 to 60 M per Ze °" '"''' Cottonwood, it and Trt^oral^ituSir^rTh'^"^^ ''''' ^" ^'^^ ^^'^^ ^P--' the tips of the branchlets'TaJy f om-2 I 4 "r' ^"^^^ '""^"^ '^"^ ^^"^ and X^X^dtr if s::^^^^^^^^^ '-^J ^-^ -e ofgermination vegetable matter, and the seedlS^r T! f^'^ "" '"°'^' ^°"^ rich in however, the spn^ce is not so shadf ^".^'^"^ ^^^y. dense shade. Later, or western red'^ce.ar It ^ows raSdtTn'' f " ''^ "^^^^^'^ ^^-'-'^ -_.^^ grows rapidly under favourable conditions, and Forut Tree, of the Pacific Slope-S^i^onh. I : if < 1 s • 1 ■ ,50 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION usually «x>n over-top. the hemlock. Unle« «-n in f«r^^^ U d Jnot .hed it. lower limbs very readUy .nd fo, t^^J^"^;^\^^* J^ „,, especially from the more »^^ ^^;'Zl^^ ^^'J^^TtZ other coastal yield .uch a high percentage of '^"J^^^^nl is dL. and. owing to the ipecie.. Usually, however, one «de of the '^^l^'^^'^^^^ ;^ j, Ughter la'^ge sizes, a very superior grade °^ ""^ ^^^^^p^^. J'he prairie market and «>fter than fir. and ^-^<^y\\^^''^^ ^^ ,^Z On -count of it. light- where the trade is «''=-'*^°'"«J ^.^^ .^u^d Tsounding boards for musical ^^^-'''^TTLT:ZioT^^'^^^ usually greatly exceeds the irr - Z t=ry p^vfdes «. «^^^ -- f T^ZJl for the use of the Alhe.. ENOELMANN SPRUCE-(P«.a £«geImaHm-Engelmann) H,u- • ««t.m soecies which occurs throughout the interior montane This IS a western species, wmi. p„,,imhia It does not occur on region from Arizona to northern Bnt«h Columbia I .^ ^^^ ^^^ thT western slo^ of the ^-^ J— ^ t^: ealte^n slope of the Rockies irtr^^.::^^^^ ^^ ---- "^^^" '^^ ^" '" feet elevation. ^ictineuish it from Sitka spruce The most prominent features ^^J^^^fSeTyTour-sid^^ and the cone are that the leaves are thicker -"d m°« f c^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^,, scales are shorter and broader This pec^s u y ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ crown, and il 'oes not grow *« ^"'^^^^^f^^^^^^^^^^ ^„d f^m 80 to 100 feet high, usually being from 18 to 36 inches in d^^met ' a ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ As a rule, it occurs in mixed st^"J;/f*^^^^^^ i„ dense stands it produces frequently it is found in ^^'"^f.^;^;;^ is quite tolerant of shade, but long, clear tr^ks-t^ve^^ responds quickly by lacreasea gr important species in the From the standpomt of ^^PP^^' ^'J™ "ly 40 per cent of the stand. interior of the province. --Pn-g app -j^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^., ?/rr?oteiun:^v"^^^^ -- -- ^^'^ ''■ '- 2S.00O b.f. per acre being fairly good yields^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ The spruce resources of the f ^"/^f/j^if.tb f of spruce was cut in very limited extent. J^ J^^^^' °f .f^^ l^rClmann sp'ruce. With the this region, and. no doubt, most of his ^^^ J^ ^ ^^^^3,, „e bccomm,J in^provement of tjansp-tat'on facilmes.^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^ .^p,^,„, rreiLlllira^fp^. Action of the province. H ii il 1' i Bute map Cromptair ot' Hup at' JhMfutuon *>f Cm^tuia. IhpCof interior. «00 usual it do espe< yield sped larg« and whe ness inst sup] con! mai for teg th< dn it. it fee fe< ar se cr U! A ft k « ii C I 2 Plata XXV /■'.■•./ . "V ^;,^;,/• l.,i,„l„; ( ■ RED CEDAR. ON SPU7ZUM CREEK FRASEH PIVER 5 I f! » } 1 1 i iff rii.Jo. I,y Sl,ifl.l> l.umh,rl„ TYPICAL COAST FOREST WITH RED CEDAR PREDOMINATING i i i FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA White Spruce— (Pjcea canadensis [Mill]— B., S. & P.) 201 The white spruce is one of the most widely distributed tree species in America. Its range in Canada extends from Nova Scotia to Yukon, and, except for the southern and western portions of British Columbia, is usually found wherever there are forests. In British Columbia its southern limit of distri- bution includes the Stikine, upper Nass and Skeena rivers, Babine lake, Necha- ko river, Prince George and the Fraser rivers. There is estimated to be between 2 and 3 billion feet of white spruce in the province. It is distinguishable from the preceding spruces by its stifTer and usually shorter leaves, and its smaller and narrower cones, the scales of which are short and broad and with entire edges. In similar sites, white spruce grows to about the same size as Engelmann spruce; but, in its northern habitat, naturally it is smaller. It is quite shade- endunng, and, unless grown in dense stands, does not clean its trunk well. Black Spruce— (Ptcea mariana [Mill.]— B., S. & P.) Like the white spruce, this species is general across Canada. Its southern hmit m Bntish Columbia coincides closely vAth that of white spruce, but it IS not ' .ind so far west in the northern portion of its range. From the infor- mation available, its western limit is between Teslin and Atlin lakes and to the east of Telegraph Creek, on Stikine river. In British Columbia it is a stunted tree, seldom over 25 feet high, and is found usually in cold, swampy places. In the northern mining districts where wood of any kind is scarce, it has some value for local use, but it cannot be considered an important forest tree. Western Hemlock— (r^wga heterophylla [Rafj— Sargent) On account of the somewhat unenviable reputation of eastern hemlock lum- ber, attempts have been made to give the western species a distinct name and Alaska pme is the n...t prevalent of these pseudonyms. Since the superior quality of western hemlock has become generally recognized, and, since even the eastern species is no longer scorned, the need for an al^.; s no longer felt The name Tsuga mertensiana, which rightly belongs to the mountain hemlock" has been applied to this species. The western hemlock is a product of the damp climate of the Pacific northwest. With abundant atmospheric and soil moisture, it thrives nn poo- thin soils and on any exposure, but best on deep, porous, moist soils. On the coast. Its range extends from the fog belt in northern California to Alaska In Bntish Columbia, it is found distributed generally west of the Coast moun- tains, up to altitudes of 4,000 feet. It extends up the Taku river a short distance, and up Stikine river to Grand rapids. It is found throughout the main valley of the Nass river, and to beyond Hazelton on Skeena. Hem- lock is absent entirely from the interior plateau, but reappears in the Columbia and Rocky Mountain systems, where it occurs in the following regions : Arrow lakes, Kootenay. Mabel and Shuswap lakes, 'Big Bend' of the Columbia f 1 ' i i } i i 1 1 jOj COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION Canoe river. Adams lake, upper North Thompson and Clearwater nVer^^^ Que^ellake Bowron river, and in the valley of the Fraser above WjUow mer ?t Xs not cross the Rockies into Alberta, and is not ^^^^n^^^^l^^ °^ Kootenay river. In the Selkirk mountains it ranges up to 5.000 feet altitude, Western hemlock is one of the most important species in British Columbia in regard to both production and available supply. There is est^-ated to be 52 WlUon feet on the coast and 12 bilUon feet in the interior. On the coast it ?oms about 24 per cent of the merchantable stand, in the interior about 9 per o/nT and a Uttle over 18 per cent of the total stand of the province The t"£t:nf o^pulp mills on the coast has given geat impetus to the ex- i? the total cm in the province. Of this cut. about one-third is manufactured into lumber and the remainder is used by the pulp-mills. Western hemlock is. perhaps, the most shade-enduring species o^^^^^^^^^ Pacific coast. It reproduces abundantly in dense shade, and the seedling str^ede aJong for many years under the main stand, in a suppressed, but healthy condition Hemlock is seldom found in pure stands, but is usual y mTxed wUh eVther fir. cedar or spruce, where it occupies a subordinate place Tthe^and o wi 1, balsam and cedar, where it is usually predommant E£air«sfc^^=;^^^^ i/toTS' inches thick, hard and deeply furrowed. It vanes in colour from IK to VA '"*'V« li^hterav There are two varieties, distinguished as ^bStnrwhi^^e- b^S Se Jen^ The white-barked hen^lock is usually x^lre heaUhy and free from defects. The foliage of the hemlock is of a lighter ^eln than the fir but not so yellowish as the cedar. The leaves are flat, Sooved above have rounded ends and distinct threadlike stems which. Z r groutd, and X" L sLmp rot, .way .he hemlock is left stand™ on the leg-like roots. The abilitv of this species to withstand shade frequently results in tne estaSmtrof\emlocJ reproduction to ^^e ^-o^t --^^^^^^^^ c *u» ^fV,or snpries Under undisturbed forest conditions nemiocK. m tJ",Z"":^rs t^tinches i„ diameter '^^-f^^^.^^t^ 200' yea-s old. With light and suitable sod conditions, however, .t gr. 1 1- II 3 Bmte mmp nvmplatf ofMtp otBtrniution. of Cuui^a, D^t-of tnurior. i '1 c c I I illl' FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBI.i 203 rapidly; an annual diameter growth of from onn htU *,. »u inch being sometimes secured H.L T T 'hree-quarters of an yields; where it formT thrprinciparnrrt „f ^^ ."°'. '•'°'^"'^ ^'^'^ ^^^^^^^ M.b.f. per acre, usually about Tvih V , '"^' '' '°''^^'" ''''''"^' ^^ 3.500 b.f.. averaging perhaps ,000 bf " '"" ""^^ ^°"'^'" °^- largely to the thinn^s^of the trk th? '", '" P'*'^'""'- '^'^'^ '"^>' ^' ^"e absence of protectinToul I'/^'i 't^:: f''^^^^^^^^^^ ^"'V^^%°' ^^^ diseases are conk (Trametcs ^ini nn ^ /. ^ ■ "^°'' Prevalent fungus rot (P./^pon« Sells 5) It t f ?'''""' ''"^'"''''''''^ ^"^^ «^"""d caterpillars. ''''"'"'"'-"^- ^' '« ^'^^ «"bject to attacks of defoliating it i^^ss bec::;:i^tcS:^:;rif^;LT i ?^^'??^ ^- '-^- general construction or finishnenurnr! r. ''' Canadian woods for white, and the grain though not s^oTt^t as'th- ^7^"^ f^'' ^""°^^ attractive. It is hard and .tr^nn- , , ""^ ^\ °^ ^^- '^ straight and very is entirely free om pitch Though n""? '" f"^'"''"^ '''''' ^^ P°"^h. and butthehLiestconstructionlt k^Nrd^SSr^^^^^^ ^r "'^'"= ^'^^ ^" the nails very much better Fnr „V ^ "^^^"^''y ^' ^''" ^"^ ^^^'^^s give such long s'n.ce as fir but aSr" ""'""' "''^ '^^ ^°'' '^ '^'^^ -^ be as good, if not unerior for .'uoh ^'^'''-'''^'^''^'^ treatment, it is said to for underwater purpos^ suc^as ntnr'r T """'^' ''*-" '' '^ ^^^f"' other interior wLwork it'Lost' Zls fir" ThT^ ''r'"T ''"" ^"^ indined to warp than fir it is^uchl. • V J^^' '''''*'" ^^y'"^'' '"o^^ regard. '"'*'^'' '"''*="*''• *° '^e eastern hemlock in this but the soda process does ^ ^S^^ t ^S:^^ tlS' SS "rS from Sitka spruce or balsam ' " ™'''' ''^^^ '^"'^ '^'-' '""^'^^ Mountain HEML0CK-(r5»ga A/.r/.nsza^., [Bong.J-Sargent) This species has also been called Tsu^a Pattoniana (USr) Pn..i u botanists It has also several common names, such a b ack fmlck pln ^ British Columbia^t iffrdThL^hlrthTl'::^^ /'^ between 2,500 and 6 000 fppt in n,» =„. m usually at altitudes also found ,„ the mountains ot ,ho Columbia and sjna systeL ' " It is a small, scrubbv species with Httlr- nr r.- ^ I i : i i i iii 1^ I i I ' i j i' Ill ^'i 4 304 COMMIL ON OP CONSERVATION from western hemlock by the more bristly appearance of the foliage owing to the leaves stickinR out in all directions from the branches, and their rounded and plump appearance. The cones are much larger on this species, being from l}4 to 2>4 inches long. BALSAM There are three species of Abies occurring in British Columbia. A. grandis, A. amabilis and A. lasiocarpa. They are not, as a rile, dis- tinguished by lumbermen, but are known collectively as balsam or larch, sometimes as balsam fir, white fir or silver fir. Though they are true firs, it is considered advisable to refer to them as balsam, to avoid confusion with Douglas fir. The name 'larch' is incongruous, however, since these trees have no resemblance to the true larch or tamarack. In appearance and wood qualities the different species of Abies are very similar. They all have characteristic conical, often spire-like, dense crowns. The leaves on the lower branches are flat flexible, not sharp-pointed, and extend horizontally from the branchlets. On the upper branches and leader they are stouter, crowded and sometimes sharp-pointed. The foliage is dark green and shiny. The cones are from 2 to 5>i inches long, stand erect on the branches, and the scales fall away from the central spike-like axes to liberate the seeds. The trunks are, as a rule, tall, very straight, and evenly and gradually tapered. The bark, when young, is smooth, ashy-brown with chalky areas and it is marked conspicuously by blister-like resin pockets. With age, the bark becomes furrowed and darker in colour. The wood vanes in colour from light yellow to almost white. It is soft and not strong. The better grades resemble spruce. As lumber, it is used chiefly for hght con- struction or box manufacture. Its chief value, however, is as pulpwood. for which purpose it is one of the most valuable of the western trees. There is estimated to be 33 billion feet of balsam in the province, of which 19 billion is on the coast and 14 billion in the interior; comprising about 10 per cent of the total stand. In 1916, only 21,406 M.b.f. of balsam was cut in the province, this being less than 2 per cent of the total cut. Of this, 20,663 M.b.f. was cut on the coast and was used chiefly for pulp. Lowland Fir— {Abies grandis — Lindley) This species is known also as grand fir or white fir. It occupies moist situations, such as alluvial stream bottoms and the lower gentle moun- tain slopes, depressions and gulches, and is found along the coast from northern California to southern British Columbia. It occurs on Vancouver island and the adjacent mainland, west of the summit of the coast mountain.s, and reappears in the southeastern portion of the province in the regions drainin- into Arrow lakes, Sugar, Mabel and Kootenay lakes and Moyie nver, and again on Elk river and the headwaters of Bull and Flathead nvers. The most characteristic features of this species are that the lower leaves are distinctly notched at their ends and the cones are of a light yellow-green colour, 2^ to 4*4 inches long by 1 inch to lyi inches in diameter. i . 1 1 Hi nil li 11 in IM III to ■ ■>■• ' 'a«o.oTrE ' ii of (llinitfruntuiii BRITISH^COLUMBIA DISTRIBUTION or AMABILIS FIR ■^- "nt^futtuig i,-pi,rt un Fornta Ul MriU.-,h foiutrthu," ut.FF. If iH Bmil^S*i I2t Bast nutp from plmU of Map of Dominion, of Canmdtt. Dtptof Inlrriar. 20< fr. ill i ■M ti sc it E h si 1 e t] g b t: g c i: t 3 f 1 \l'.] FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA »j in taeter and from 80 °, " e=' „ heSkf l' »,h'"" ^ '"" "^ "" '"' soils in which t^r is"c:;:;J . !T '' ^^^Z^^''^' ^^P^"^"^ °" '"^-'^ grows rapidly. '^'^"-^''^^'-^ e humus. Under favourable conditions it AMAbi^ij, I'.i. -dbies amabiUs [Loud.]— Forbes) Oregon to southern AlaL^^. ^tat- that this species is reported spec.es of Abies there, nor has he been able to find /n^^ 7 °u *^'^',?^ ''^ '>^ "ever seen any ccmmercial value, as no tiXr cruS" meMioi!! U. ^ '"^° ^^ " '' ^'^ °^' ^' *« oi no :i 1 i i I ill I * I i lii 206 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION •I I Hi by the time the scales fall off. It reproduces fairly abundantly and is quite tolerant of shade. Growing, as it does, at the higher elevations, where other species find it difficult to become established, it is important as a protective cover for watersheds. For lumber and pulpwood it is also of considerable value. PINES Five species of pine are found in British Columbia. Three of these, west- ern white pine, limber pine and white-bark pine, are of the wh^ e pine class, having 5 needles in a bundle; one, western yellow pine, is of the 3-needles class, and one, lodgepole pine, of the 2-needles class. Western White Pine — {Pinus monticola — Douglas) The name 'silver pine' has been used for this species, but was never generally accepted. It occurs west of the continental divide in southern British Columbia, northern Montana, northern Idaho, Washington, Oregon and northern California. In British Columbia it is confined to two regions. On the coast it occurs on Vancouver island and the adjacent mainland as far inland as the headwaters of Bridge river, the upper end of Anderson lake, Spuzzum creek, Coquihalla river and Skagit river. In the interior it occurs in the area including Arrow lakes, Mabel lake, Shuswap lake, Adams lake, upper North Thompson river, Clearwater lake, upper end of Quesnel lake. Canoe river, Columbia river, Kootenay river and up Elk river to above Fernie. Western white pine is one of the finest woods in the province, but its importance is limited by the fact that it forms less than one per cent of the total stand, and is seldom found in sufficient quantities in any region to enable it to command a special market. There is estimated to be 2-7 billion feet of white pine in the province, 1 • 1 billion feet on the coast, and 1 ■ 6 billion in the interior. The total cut in 1915 was 5,057 M.b.f., and, in 1916, 6,816 M.b.f. In appearance and structural characteristics, western white pine resembles the eastern species very closely. The main differences are that the needles are stouter, more rigid and somewhat longer, and that the cones are larger, some- times 5 to 6 inches long. The trunk is usually tall, very straight, tapers very gradually and is usually clear of limbs for at least two-thirds of its length. The wood is very light and soft, and makes excellent lumber for inside finish and general construction purposes. Mature trees range from 2 to 3 feet, occasionally reaching 4 feet in diameter, and from 75 to 100 feet high. It is nearly always associated with Douglas fir, red cedar and hemlock; but, on account of its intolerance of shade, it is found usually on hillsides, rocky knolls or around the edges of lakes or swamps where the light can reach it. It never occurs in pure stands, and seldom comprises more than 5 per cent of the timber on any square mile. It is seldom found at altitudes exceeding 2,500 feet on the coast or 3,500 feet in the interior. Western white pine is not a prolific seeder, and the seeds germinate best on exposed, moist, mineral soil. Though the seedlings will stand considerable shade for some years, abundant light is re- quired later for proper development. iil >M I FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA Limber Pine— (Pinus flexilis— James) 207 height Uttrr, t \ ^'P'^' 'P'""'' '^^'^""^ ^''^^*^d'"« 25 or 30 feet in ocS as a t rlh r 1 ""'" °^ * ' distribution in Canada, but it is reported to S^ortance ' '''"'' '" '^' '°"'^^^" ^°'='^'^^- ^' ^' ^^ "° com^^ercial White-bark Pine— (P,„m5 a/6ica«/«5— Engelmann) It i.I^nr '' ^"°^^7 ^i^'"' 'P'""'- ''"^" ^" ''^^ ^"d unimportant commercially It :s more generally distributed than limber pine, however, and is reported as lunTarTtt R ?''"?" '^*^'^'^" '•''' ^"^ ''''' ^-^ - '^' Skirl river aTd in he Pnf "^ ''' V""'' "' ^^' """''^ ^' '^' headwaters of Parsnip ^Gardner cana, "" '' "''"'' '° ''^ "°""'^'"^ '" ^'^^ -^"'^'^y Western Yellow Pine-(Pik«5 ponrf^roia— Lawson) Tn r'^iv' 'P^"^^'^^^ a greater variety of names than any other on the coast British r'T'- u-'\T '"'' '' "'•^•^ P'"'^- -h^'^ - the Inland Empire' and One of t^ ?'" '^' ""'"^ ^'''^^" ^°^* P'"« '^ g-i"i"S "«age in the trade One of the early names, and one which is still used extensivefy. is buU pTne others are yellow pme. red pine, pitch pine and heavy-wooded pine (Eng) ' southernVt J""^''^ distributed species, ranging from British Columbia to southern Cahforma and northern Mexico. In British Columbia, it is confined to the dner regions of the southern portion of t le province. t ."the most typical tree of the southern part of the Interior plateau. It is fc -d in the valleys o the Similkameen and Nicola rivers, down the Fras r to NahaSatch WnTy sTuthTh''^" ""'' ^T'^^'^ "^■'-^^- "P ^^« ^-th Thompson o LtrS' .? Thompson nver, Okanagan lake. Lower Arrow lake, Kootenay lake and up the Kootenay river to Palliser river. ^ootenay and J'sooT.^I ^"l- ^V^''''^ '^°P'' °' P^"'^^"-^' "^"^"y between 1.500 3 500 fe!t • ^"'' °" '"P*^^'^ ''""'"''''y ^'°P^^- 't ™-y extend to It grows in open, park-like stands, usually mixed with Douglas fir but ometimes alone. Where it occurs at all. it ordinarilv comprised at least SO per cent of the stand. There is estimated to be 4 • 2 billio^feet ^f western PI cTin'The ?u'h'^' ''?^'"''^' r '' '' ''^^'""•"^ '^ --- - ^-Po -t 29 ?L M w T P'"'^"'^"^" °f the province. The cut in 1915 was only 29,766 M.b.f., but in 1916 it increased to 71,783 M.b.f. It does n^t atta n ^ch large sizes m British Columbia as in the southern part of its ange T^e usi^l size IS from 18 to 40 inches in diameter and 60 tt> 100 feet Jn hei Jht The trunk is smooth and cylindrical, with but little taper until the lowi Tl rf"' "' ''"''''• "^^'^^ ''' "^"^"y ^t ^bout one^third of the hST plates. The surface of the plates is made up of small scales. The bark is ti'nt' tZ X'lVTV''^'''' '""^ "P«^^^"y ^-^y "-^ the base of the trunk. The thick bark affords protection against damage from ground fires i i ; i 1 i i f ' 'I . n i p h 1 r: Hi : 208 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION w^-ich are of frequent occurrence in this forest type, due to the ground cover of grass, which prevails under these open stands. T' e leaves, as has been mentioned, occur three in a bundle. They are usually from 4 to 6 inches long, and are borne in heavy, brush-like clust^ to 4^2 inches long. Western yellow pine is a prolific seeder and would reproduce well if it were not for the constantly recurring fires which destroy the seedlings. The wood is soft in texture, white to creamy in colour, and takes and re- tains an excellent smooth finish. Though it has been used considerably for railway and other construction, its fine quality renders it suitable for interior or exterior finish, especially for sash and door stnck. It is softer and lighter than Douglas fir or southern pine, and is frequently sold in eastern markets for purposes for which only white pine has previously been used. Lodge POLE Pine — (Pinus coniorta — Loudon) On account oi the variable character of this species, botanists have at- tempted to establish specific differences between the scrubby type, found in the coastal region, and the tall, straight type, which grows in the Rockies. The former is recognized as the typical Finns contorta, and the latter as either Pinus Alurrayana or Pinus contorta Murrayana. As the botanical distinctions all break down when applied generally, it may, for practical purposes, be considered a single species. The name lodgepole pine is seldom used for the coast type, but is applied to the mountain form on account of the tall, slim poles which are found in dense stands of this species. The mountain type is also frequently called black pine or jack pine. On the coast it is generally known as jack pine, black pine or scrub pine. This species is general throughout the province, from ♦^he international boundary to the Yukon drainage. On the coast it is found in swampy places, along the shores of the sea or lakes, or on exposed rocky places, where other species find the conditions too difficult to overcome. Growing thus, it develops a scribby, knotty form and, except in a few situations, is of little commercial value. Throughout the interior, however, it has become the predominating species over large areas. Its extreme hardiness and ability to reproduce after fire have enabled the lodgepole pine to replace the original stands of fir, yello\v pine, spruce and balsam where they have been destroyed by fire. It gro\\> well on sandy and rocky soil from which all the humus has been removal, and, though not a timber-line species, it grows to the lower limits of the suii- alpine type, at altitudes of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet. Under favourable con- ditions it may attain a height of from .SO to 75 feet, and a diameter of from 12 to 24 inches.* In dense stands the trunk tapers very little, and may 1)C clear for over half its length. The leaves are two in a group, from 1 inch to 2 inches long, and stitl. The cones, which are borne in great numbers, closely attached to the branches • One speoimen found in the Fly hills is reported to have attained a diameter of 23 inches and a height of 1 10 feet (Dominion Forestry Branch). .-* i .^^^. '"S -— --f- K 3 2 •J 4 o S o n. 45i ^1 W S: ^3 r 5 « > ^ P 2 a: -- - a bJ « 0) u r> ! i 1 * 1 ;. t ' i I m V3 11 HI ■i i FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 209 cone scales are thickened on the end and tipped with a sninp Tvl i. . decUW advanta,. i„ „„ s.ru^.e'Jro^.lr J.a S fi°/° "''" '"'' ™s cut in 1015 and 3 OSS \I il lo?« ,', F"'""''""' ■>"!>■ S.'H M. Western Larch— (Larrt occidetttalis—Kuttan) Bnt^uVZ^u' ^.??"^"'^y '^^"^d tamarack and sometimes hackmatack In river asTar north! r' '"f- ""'^ ^^indermere lakes and Kootenay .Pe and trS:Jrs;^ "^^f tt S^Sj^-^Sd^ usuaJ.t;;L'Dou:i;'fi' largest larch indigenous to North America, and uaiiy equals Dout,Ias fir m size m the localities where it occurs It orHin Th 'bole'r ' '"f ' °'J''°'" ''' '"^ ''' f-^ -^ - diameter of from 2 to 4 fe t' Th bole IS very straight and. above the root swelling, tapers verT.'raduallv c.nnamon-broJn and fn? °'?;"'k,°'.°^''^'" ' '°°' '" '^'^'"^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^d^'^h to ^^^=^^ - - to 30 rnJa^'of^atr T • V° ' '"'^'^^ '°"^- "^ '" ^^'^^^ ^^ ^-^ >* coniferous t,res the Hrr'1''T" '°'°"'- ^"""^^ "^"'^ ^" ^^e other inches in llnpfh ^^^ \^''^^' f ^ deciduous. The cones vary from 1 to ly, be5owtL"e onetat" ^J^^-^^-^ ^^ P-^ruding bracts, which grow ne cone scales. The cones npen in one year, and begin to shed their I ! 210 COMMISSION OF CO., SERVATION I '-'I il seeds early in August. Western larch is a prolific seeder and the seeds requi abundant moisture to Rcrminale. It reproduces best on bare mineral sc It is very intolerant of shade, even when young, and thus does not succeed competition with dense reproduction of lodgepole pine, fir or spruce. Giv sufficient light and moisture, it grows rapidly. The wood of the western larch is much superior to that of the easte larch. It is heavy, hard and strong, and the distinct annual rings produce beautiful grain when the wood is sawn tangentially. When cut edge-graine it makes excellent flooring. Though not quite as strong as Douglas fir, it used for the same purposes, such as structural wood, interior finish, railwi ties, etc. It is to be regretted that western larch is not more abundant in the pi vince. The total stand is estimated to be only about 3 billion feet. It reproducing well, however, and excellent young stands may be seen on t old bums throughout its range. A good example of larch reproduction m be seen at Sicamous, in the Larch Hills forest reserve. In 1915, the cut larch was 38.597 M.b.f. and, in 1916, 38,706 M.b.f. Alpine Larch — {Larix Lyallii — Parlatore) The alpine larch is a stunted species, seldom over 40 feet in height 24 inches in diameter, and it is usually broadly branched to near the base the trunk. 1\ occurs only at the higher altitudes, near the limit of tree growt It has Lo£ : (ported on the eastern and western slopes of the v :)ntinental divii at 6,500 to 7,000 feet, northward, to House pass, at the headwaters of t North Saskatcheivan river ; eastward, *^o beyond Canmor?, in the Bow valk and westward, to the southern Selkirk range (between Kootenay lake ai St. Mary river) and Galton range (near Tobacco plains, between the con nental divide and Kootenay river). It has also been reported in the Ska^ drainage, on the west slope of the Cascade mountains. This species can be distinguished from western larch by the occurren of from 30 to 40 leaves in a cluster, by somewhat larger cones, the scales which are deep purple-re 1,. and by the recurved bristly bracts, which are clci purple. It is of comparatively rare occurrence and is of no commercial value. III'- Tamarack — {Larix laricina [Da Roi] — Koch) This is the species of larch or tamarack found in eastern Canada. I range extends from the Atlantic seaboard to the north-eastern comer of Briti; Columbia, where it occurs on the eastern side of the Rocky mountains, in tl drainage areas of Peace and Fort Nelson rivers and in the drainage of Liai river, almost as far west as Dease lake, at the head of Dease river. Its usu; habitat is in swamps and muskegs or along the banks of streams, where it accompanied by black spruce. Ji ;ds require ineral soil, succeed in :e. Given he eastern produce a ;e-grained, as fir, it is ih, railway m the prii- eet. It is !en on the iction may the cut of height or he base nl ee growth, ital divide, :crs of the low valky, ' lake and the conii- the Ska; •♦ occurrence e scales of h are dctp value. nada. Its of British lins, in the e of Liard Its usual where ii i» W ''^''"' .-4. • J V,,' o *»r >*. I ,'M^ 1 --fc. ^^ ft a ---4 i « - -J 52 < = J w I- w ! too) i £ <^ i t « i 1. 'In III 1 11^ FOREST TKEES IN BRITISH C O I. U M H I A ,„ The leaves of the tamarark ore in clusters <■ fr„m it * tn j RocKv Mountain j™i.E»-(y»„>„„, «.f„/„„„,_s„,„,„„ This specks .a, l„ a time comidm.,1 a wcslcrn r.,™ ,.( ihc- casitTn r.,1 Kamloops. Franso.s. and other lakes), to Pacific ocean he e cm hei^hKnof nvcr on Telegraph ereck. Just east of coa.t ran.e, is probabh this "eeies i alternately opposite pairs. The fruh, which is tl^ Sue x^;" eT^ ""' usually two seeds, sometimes onlv one "^- ' '^"^'"'*^=* Western VF.w-(7a.u(5 bniiMia Nuttall) a 00 m d ametcr. It occurs along the coast as far norih as Oueen CharlottI as the mouth of Canoe river, Kootenay lake and Duncan river and in th eav.s are flat, two-ranked, sharp-pointed and flexible The corJ?.H k ii • /"r«< Trees of the Pacific Co Eof 'colour to the other^nse rather sombre foliage of the coniferous fo c. touch ot colour madrona reaches its northern limit S° .^.*^rin .htUt adjLn. the «.!. o. Ge„^. I. ^^'^ development on the eastern side of Vancouver island, a short distance oon. fSS'SoSd vSuvT. luto the F™. ddt. may b. » d.«nl»l. art; no FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 213 of Victoria. There it grows to a height of from 30 to 40 feet and a diameter of from 12 to 20 inches. It extends along the eastern side of the Island to Seymour narrows and is quite abundant on the islands in the gulf of Georgia and on the adjoining mainland. It is, as a rule, confined to a narrow belt following the salt-water shore-line, and seldom, if ever, grows at altitudes exceeding 1,000 feet above sea level. Throughout the greater part of its range in British Columbia, it does not attain tree form, but belongs to the shrubby undergrowth associated with salal ard huckle-berry bushes. It appears to grow on all kinds of soil, from rich bottom lands to almost bare rocks, but is generally found on exposed rocky situations where the soil is shallow. The trunk is seldom straight for more than a few feet, and the limbs are very crooked. The bark on the smaller trunks and branches is thin, smooth and quite red, peeling off in thin, irregular flakes. On the older trees it often becomes rough and scaly near the base. The leaves, which are evergreen, are broadly oval, from 2),4 inches to 5 inches long, thick, leathery, shiny dark green above and whitish beneath. The brilliant orange red, berry-like fruit, which is frequently borne in abundance, is very beautiful in the autumn. The wood is heavy, dense, fine grained and, when dry, is hard. It is not used commercially, but is said to be excellent for cabinet work or for making char- coal. The madrona is used to some extent for ornamental planting, for which purpose it is very effective. Broad-leaf Maple — {Acer macrophyllum — Pursh) The broad-leaf maple is the only large maple indigenous to the Pacific coast. Though confined to the Coastal belt, its range extends from southern California to the southern end of Alaska. It is quite abundant in moist valleys on the British Columbia coast. Though sometimes found as a pioneer growth on hillsides laid bare by slides or fire, it rarely occurs at altitudes exceeding 1,000 feet. It occasionally grows to a height of from 60 to 80 feet, though usually less than 50 feet, and the trunk, usually 1 to 2 feet in diameter, sometimes exceeds 30 inches. Ordinarily, the main trunk is short, the large twisted branches spreading broadly. When subjected to shade on liie sides, however. it sometimes produces a good clean bole for IS to 25 feet. The most con- spicuous feature of the tree is its very large leaf, which is usually not less than 6 inches, and, frequently, is over a foot broad with stems 6 to 12 inches long. The wood is hard, fairly strong and can be used for flooring and other purposes for which the eastern maples are used. Since hardwoods are so scarce on the Pacific coast, one would expect this maple to be used to a greater extent than it is. Only 3,000 b.f. is reported as having been cut in 1916 in British Columbia. The broad-leaf maple grows very rapidly, and is used extensively f^r ornamental planting. Vine Maple — {Acer circinatum — Pursh) This is a small tree, often shrub-like, and seldom over 25 or 30 feet high, i^ith a crooked, often sprawHng, trunk from 2 to 8 inches in diameter. It i;'| I il :i ■1 i I If I , 1 214 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION occurs on Vancouver island and the adjacent mainland, extending up the valleys well into the Coast mountains. It is found at the he.' 1 waters of Skagit nver and throughout the valley of Lillooet river and Harrison lake. It grows, as a rule, on moist, rich soils, such as alluvial bottoms, flats, benches and along streams. It is commonly associated with alder, forming dense thickets. These species are usually the first to cover the ground laid bare by mountain slides providing there is sufficient soil and moisture for their growth. Vine maple is extremely tolerant of shade, but it reproduces only moderately well. The leaves are from 2 to 5 inches in diameter, almost circular in outhne, with from 7 to 9 acute marginal lobes. It is one of the few British Columbia species which has very brilliant autumnal coloration. In early autumn the leaves of this species turn to colours ranging from yellow to bright scarlet. The wood is useful for fuel and some minor domestic purposes, but is of no commercial value. Dwarf Uaplz— {Acer glabrum—ToTrey) This is a small species, seldom reaching 25 feet in height. It is sparingly distributed all along the coast as far north as Lynn canal and throughout southern British Columbia. It grows in moist situations at higher altitudes, sometimes up to 5,000 or 6,000 feet in the southern portion of its range, and descending to sea level in Alaska. It is the most prominent maple in the Rocky mountains and has been called mountain maple. Dwar* maple can be distinguished easily from vine maple by its deeply three-lobed leaves. It is, like vine maple, of some local use, but of no commercial importance. Aspen- — (Popidits tremidoides — Michaux) Aspen or poplar, is one of the most widely distributed of our forest trees. It occurs throughout British Columbia, but is. not abundant on the coast. It is a short-lived tree and, as a rule, forms an important part of the tem- porary stands which succeed forest fires. The bark, except at the base of the larger boles, is smooth and whitish, marked with pale green or yellowish areas. The shiny, trembling, ovate leaves are characteristic of aspen wherever it is found. On some of the higher parts of the Interior plateau, and in the northern portion of the province, it forms a considerable proportion of the forest cox cr. It is of little value for lumber, even when large . .ugh, but it makes good pulp- wood and may be used for this purpose when this industry is established in the interior of the province. Practically the only uses to which it is put in British Columbia at present are for fuel and building poles. The sapwood which comprises the larger portion of the wood, is white, soft, bnttle and not durable in contact with the ground. The small core of heartwood is rale brown. It is very susceptible to fungus attacks and is usually unsound bv the time it attains saw-timber size. No figures are available as to the amount of aspen growing in the province, since it iotms a very insignificant portion of the forest resources. Plate XXVI ^. ^^r .*' . "i '/^m^ tsmnSHM Of idirsimh PACIFIC GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY THROUGH CHEAKAMUS CANON II .1 .1 1 t-. . * * 1 ! 1 i r - ! 5 i \ t s I' FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA Balm-of-gilead — (Populus balsami/era* — Linnsus) 21S : fr Balm-of-gilead, or balsam poplar, as it is frequently called, is a northern species, extending across the continent from AhjJca to Newfoundland. Very little definite information is available as to its occurrence in British Columbia, but it is supposed to be confined to the plains region east of the Rockies and to that portion of the province lying north of latitude 56' and west of the Rockies. It resembles black cottonwood, but is not so large. The buds are conspicuously large and coated with a sticky, yellowish, pungently fragrant balsam. The wood is very similar to that of cottonwood, but is more inclined to be defective. It is not an important species commercially, as it is very limited in quantity. Black Cottonwood — {Populus trichocarpa — Torrey and Gray) This species is known sometimes as balsam cottonwood. but usually simply as cottonwood. Black cottonwood is a western species, not unlike the common cottonwood, which occurs from the Atlantic seaboard to the eastern side of the Continental divide. ^t is the largest and, commercially, the most important broad-leafed species in the province. Trees 80 to 125 feet high and from 3 to 4 feet in diameter are not uncommon, and even larger sizes are occasionally seen. The trunks are usually straight, and, on the larger trees, clear for over half their length. The bark is r>-'e gray, deeply and regularly furrowed, and on the larger trees about 2 i. -^^hick. The young twigs are distinctly angled, later becoming round, shii.^ ^ reddish yellow. The buds are very large and covered with a sticky, ; ant gum. The leaves are broadly ovate and from 3 to 4^ inches long. When mature they are thick, leathery, shiny deep green above and silvery white with rusty areas beneath. The wood is light brown in colour, soft, straight-grained, strong, tough and odourless. The latter characteristic gives it a special value as box material for food pro- ducts, such as butter, cheese, and fruit, since the other local commercial woods are all coniferous. It is easily worked and takes a beautiful finish. It is m demand for carriage and automobile bodies, and to some extent for furniture. Its great strength, in comparison with its light weight, renders it especially valuable for the manufacture of laminated wood products, and it is used more than any other wood in the province for this purpose. In British Columbia it is not used to any great extent for pulp, but, when pulp manufacture was commenced in the Pacific states, it was thought that an admixture of cottonwood was essential in the production of all kinds of paper ; later, other species were substituted. It is, however, still considered • Mr. J. M. Macoun, Botanist, Geological Survey of Canada, writing under date Nov. 8 1918, says : P. trichocarpa is confined in Canada to southern British Columbia, while what nas passed under that name and as P. balsamifera in the northern part of the province is P inchocarpavaT. hastate. This variety seen as a tree is very difficult to distinguish from P. bal- IfT'r"' °"t IS readily separated by its fruit. The tree growing in the Lillooet district, pub- nbnec! as i*. Balsamifera m LeMaies list, is Irichocarpa var. hastaia. The cottonwood, which grows to be such a fine tree along the Skeena at Hazelton. is also this variety." r i iiJi ■ 216 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION indispensable in the maniifacture of soda pulp for high-grade paper. As mechanically ground pulp it produces a fairly long, strong, white fibre. Black Cottonwood is typically a pioneer species on alluvial soils. It is usually the first tree to become established on sand banks or other alluvial deposits. It has a powerful influence in the fixation of these soils. Later, when the soil becomes sufficiently built up, spruce, cedar, hemlock or fir replace the Cottonwood. It is found, however, in nearly all the larger valleys in the province, along the river banks, and on the newer soils of the islands, but is seldom seen along the salt-water shore. In some of the valleys, such as those of the Fraser and Columbia rivers, where there are large areas of bottom- lands, Cottonwood becomes an important part of the stand. Where it occurs at higher elevations in moist canons it does not attain the large sizes found on the river flats. Estimates of the stand of cottonwood are considered as only approximate, but since it usually forms such a small percentage of the stand it is ignored by the cruisers. However, it is thought that there is about 750,000* M.b.f., about two-thirds of which is on the coast. The cut in 1915 was only 1,045 M.b.f., and in 1916 1,944 M.b.f. The demand for cottonwood will no doubt increase as the pulp and other specialized industries, such as veneer, cooperage, and box manufacture are developed. Birch Four species of birch are reported in British Columbia— western birch {Betula occidentalis—Uodkei), Alaska birch {Betttla a/osfeana— Sargent), mountain birch {Betula fontinalis— Sargent) , and paper birch {Betula papyrijcra —Marsh). Much s^^ill remains to be determined concerning these minor species of trees, not only i » regard to their distribution, but also as to their botanical classification. The birches of British Columbia, with the exception of B. occidentalis and the western varieties of B. papyri/era, are all small trees occurring sparsely and are of little or no commercial importance. B. occiden- talis has recently been reduced to varietal rank and is now treated as a variety of B. papyrifera by most British and American botanists. Other well defined varieties of B. papyrifera are var. subcordata— Baker and var. kenaica—Uemy. These varieties are so difficult to separate by anyone but a specialist that they may be treated together as western birch, a tree which reaches a height of SO or 90 feet and a diameter of from 2 to 3 feet in favourable localities on Loth the coast and in the northern interior of British Columbia, especially in the valleys of streams running into the Fraser from Lillooet northward and in the valley of the Skeena. In the Skeena valley, in the vicinity of Hazelton, there are some very fine trees which, according to Dr. Sargent, who has examined specimens, include both the var. occidentalis and the var. kenaica. Some fair-sized trees are also to be still found in the lower Fraser valley, along tri- butaries of the upper Columbia and on Vancouver Island. Whether true Betula papyrifera occurs in British Columbia or not is very doubtful unless ♦ Including the P. trichocarpa, var. haslata. ||L|j FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 217 it be north of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway. The western birches of the B. papyri/era group are evidently a remnant of what was once a more im- portant deciduous forest and where found Krowinp now they should be carefully preserved. Alaska birch is a small, northern species, usually 25 to 30 feet high. The bark is occasionally white, but usually light reddish-brown. It occurs through- out the north-western plains, and crosses the ..orthern portion of the province to the Pacific coast, but probably does not occur south of Stikine river. Mountain birch is a small tree or shrub, 10 to IS feet high. The bark is shiny and old-copper coloured. It is reported by Sudworth as occurring "throughout British Columbia, from upper Fraser and Peace rivers, and probably farther north, southward and eastward over the continental divide to eastern Rocky Mountain foothills in Alberta; extending eastward, also, down Saskatchewan river to Edmonton. Not detected west of Coast moun- tains. Locally noted on Columbia river from Golden to Selkirk summit." It is also reported as being common along the Athabasca river in Jasper park. Alder On the Pacific coast there are several species of alder, which develop into fairly large trees. Red Alder — {Alntis oregona — Nuttall) The largest species of alder is the red, or Oregon, alder. It is a coastal species, extending from Alaska to California, but some very fine trees grow as far inland as Lillooet and Hazelton. In British Columbia it frequently attains and sometimes exceeds a height of from 35 to 40 feet and a diameter of from 12 to 18 inches. It is a quick-growing, short-lived tree, found usually on alluvial soils, along streams or moist hillsides, where the coniferous forests have been either destroyed or have not yet become established. As a rule, it is associated with cottonwood or maple in a temporary type. The trunk of red alder is usually well defined, fairly straight and clear of branches for one half or more of its length. In dense stands, as it is very frequently found, it forms long, straight poles. The bark is thin, smooth, light ashy gray or whitish. The leavec are ovate with serrated margins, ordinarily from 3 to 5 inches long. The upper surface is smooth and deep yellow-green ; the lower surface paler with short, rusty hairs. The wood is pale reddish-brown, light when dry and not strong. The grain is quite attractive and it is said to be suitable for cabinet work. The chief use, however, is as fuel, for which it is excellent. It is of local importance only and no estimate of the available supply has been secured. . 1 Hi il 'h! I White Alder — {Alnus rhombijolia — Nuttall) This species is very similar to red alder in size and habits. It differs from the latter in having thin, conspicuously-scaly brown bark ; the scaly bark extends considerably higher up the stem than it does on red alder, which is 218 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION commonly unbroken and smooth. The leaves of white alder are lighter in colour and more finely toothed on the edges. Very little definite information is available as to its distribution in British Columbia, but it appears to be confined to the region east of the Coast range. Sitka Alder — (,Alnus sitchensis [Regel] — Sargent) Sitka alder is usually a shrub, but sometimes forms a small tree 20 to 30 feet high. It occurs between sea level and 3,000 feet altitude in Alaska and south through British Columbia to Oregon and to the RocKy mountains in Alberta and Montana. It is a species of no importance, commercially, and very little is known of it botanically. Mountain Alder — (Alnus tenuifolia — Nuttall) Mountain alder is a slender alpine species seldom reaching 20 feet in height. It is reported from Yukon (Frances lake) and British Columbia (south to lower Fraser river), through the Rocky mountains, to northern New Mexico and Lower California. It grows in very damp "situations, such as around high meadows and lakes at the headwaters of mountain streams. Jil j r 1 i ij » i . 1 '; A i Oregon Crab Apple — {Maltts rivularis [Dougl. in Hook.] — Roemer) This is a small tree, rarely more than IS feet high, very much branched, and usually forming dense thickets along the edges of lakes and streams. It is distributed along the coast and islands of Alaska and British Columbia, through western Washington and Oregon to California. Western Serviceberrv — {Amelanchier alnifolia — Nuttall) The serviceberry is usually only a tall shrub, from 10 to IS feet high, with stems rarely over 4 inches in diameter. It has smooth, dull, grayish- or red- dish-brown bark. It is distributed generally throughout British Columbia, frequently coming in after fires or growing along the edges of streams, meadows or lakes and in the interior sometimes attains a height of 30 feet and a dia- meter of S inches. Black Haw — {Cratcegus brevispina) Black haw is usually only a low much-branched shrub, but it sometimes develops into a tree from 20 to 30 feet high with a trunk from 10 to 20 inches in diameter. It occtu^ in moist situations, along the lower mountain streams, in the interior portion of the province. It is reported as occurring as far north as Parsnip river. The bark is reddish-brown and slightly seamed. The fruit, which ripens in early autumn, is shiny black or black-purple, and is sweet and edible. The wood is fine-grained, brownish-rose-red, with a large proportion of sapwood. No commercial use is at present made of it. FOREST TREES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 219 BiTTRR Cherry — (Prunus emarginala [Dougl.] — Walpers) Bitter cherry varies in form, from a slender-stemmed, much-branched ,iirub, to a straight, clean-stemmed tree 35 to 40 feet high and from 6 to 12 inches in diameter. It is distributed throughout southern British Columbia, and as far south as Arizona. In the northern portion of its range it grows at from sea level to an altitude of 3,000 feet ; in the south at 5,000 to 9,000 feet. The wood is light and brittle and soon rots when in contact with the soil. Western Choke-cherry — (Prunus demissa [Nutt.] — Walpers) This cherry has almost the same habits of growth as the bitter cherry, but extends to the northern portion of the province, along the coast and as far as Cache creek in the interior. It has also a wider altitudinal range. Western Dogwood — {Cornus Nutlallii — Audubon) Western Dogwood resembles the eastern flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), and is known chiefly for its large conspicuous white bloom in the spring and its clusters of bright red berries in the autumn. The real flowers are borne in dense clusters and are small, inconspicuous and greenish yellow. Surrounding the clusters of flowers are from 4 to 6 (usually 4) large snowy white bracts which are popularly taken to be parts of the real flower. The trees usually develop distinct, fairly clean trunks from 2 to 6 inches through, rarely 10 to 20 inches. The dogwood is often 20 to 30 feet high, rarely 40 feet. The wood is very pale reddish-brown, with thick sapwood. It is fairly heavy, quite hard, dense and fine-grained, though not so heavy or dense as the eastern dogwood. It is said to be suitable for turnery and small cabinet work, but is very little used at present. In British Columbia it is confined to the southern portion of the coast (lower Fraser river and southern portion of Vancouver island), but it extends south along the coast to California. Willow There are a large number of willows in British Columbia, but few of them are of tree form, and these are of little or no commercial importance. Western black willow (Salix lasiattdra — Bentham) occurs in the Selkirk mountains, and is sometimes 20 to 30 feet high. Long-leaf willow (Salix fiuviatilis — Nuttall) is distributed widely through- out North America, from California and the New England states to the Arctic circle (valley of Mackenzie river). It is sometimes 25 feet high. Hooker willow {Salix Hookeriana — Barratt in Hooker) occurs in the coastal region, from Vancouver island to southern Oregon. It is usually a shrub, but sometimes becomes a tree 20 to 30 feet high. Silky willow {Salix sitchensis — Sanson in Bongard) is found along the coast, from Cook inlet, Alaska, to Southern California. It is nearly always a shrub, but occasionally a tree 20 to 25 feet high. if \ il . i ■ i i ( 1 j 1 1 f i ) i| \ t » 'is i i '; i M CHAPTER X Insect Injuries to Forests in British Columbia* By J. M. SwAiNB Entomological Branch, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ont. OF the injurious agencies affecting British Columbia forests, insects have been only slightly less destructive than fire. During recent years, ex- tensive outbreaks by certain destructive species have resulted in unusually severe injuries with very large quantities of timber partly or completely ruined. Normal Annual ^" addition to the more evident outbreaks, where many Lota from hundreds of trees die each year in the infested area, there Intact Injuriaa j^ ^ ^. ^^.^ i^jg^ ^jjj often unrecognized annual loss due to the normal activities of forest insects. Everywhere throughout the forest injured, unthrifty and overmature trees are attacked and killed by various species of bark-beetles and wood-borers. The normal loss from this cause is so very great, when large areas are considered, that it should receive serious consideration. When coniferous trees die without any apparent external in- jury, examination usually shows that death has been hastened or caused by bark-beetles or other insects. When slashings are allowed to lie, the fresh bark and wood serve as a breeding ground for many destructive insects, and it is therefore only to be expected that the annual crop of scattered dying trees will be abnormally lars,'t in the neighbourhood of bodies of neglected recent slash It unfortunately happens that nearly all these dying trees are complete ' destroyed by the grubs of boring beetles in the first two years following th J ath, and become an absolute loss, since, even though the limit is being I ,ed, it is usually un- profitable to collect the scattered dying trees. Properly conducted slash- burning will almost invariably reduce the amotfnt of this annual loss and must be regarded as a most valuable method of insect control. Light bums also provide an abundant supply of dying bark for breeding purposes. The injured and slightly burned trees are as dangerous beetle- breeding grounds as is the slash ; and this should be considered when the bums are being logged. If the fire has occurred in the first half of the season and has charrc' only the bark near the ground, the timber on a bturn must be cut during the ' -st winter following the fire, or, at most, not later than the second winter, if anything is to be saved.f Since the logs will contain living • This chapter was contributed by J, M. Rwaine, Chief, Division of Forest Insects, through the courtesy of Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, Dominion Entomologist, and Consulting Zoalogisi, Entomological Branch, Dept. of Agriculture, Ottawa. fExcepting the largest timber of the British Columbia coast. INSECT INJURIES TO B.C. FORESTS m grubs, even though cut the first winter after the fire, they must l,c got into water or sawed l^fore spring opens ; an.I. when the latter is done, the lutnlu-r should be dried as rapi.Uy as possible. All green slash and small dvine trees on the burn should be piled and burned to prevent the bree.ling of in.sects Trees which have been thoroughly charred from base to top may be disregarde.l m so far as beetle control is concerned. Burns made late in the season are. of course, frequently immune from beetle injury, although this is true to a smaller decree in Bntish Columbia than in eastern Canada. Btrk-b««tl« Outbreaks The most extensive injuries to timber in British Columbia in recent years have been caused by several destructive species of bark-beetles, affecting western yellow pine, lodgepole pine western white pine, Engelmann spruce, Sitka spruce, lowland fir. alpine fir and western hemlock. The outbreaks in yellow pine, white pine and lodgepole pine have been most extensive and have killed an immense quantity of timber The infestation is still spreading rapidly, and has already become a most serious nienace to the timber areas of southern British Columbia. In the country about Okanagan lake, and between Princeton and Merritt. there are large areas upon which the pine has been already almost entirely killed off by the beetles, and others upon which SO per cent or more of the pine is now dead or freshly infested this season. These older and more extensive outbreaks, in- creasing in size each year, are the reservoirs from which the injury is now rapidly spreading throughout the southern pine region west of the Rockies Small outbreaks are already reported across the summit east from Okanagan lake. The timber values threatened by these outbreaks are enormous, but are probably not the most important consideration. If the beetles are allowed to spread unchecked, and if large areas of beetle-killed timber arc swept by fire there will be just that much more rock and range land in southern British Columbia. It is possible, even yet, by the immediate application of practical control measures, to effectively check the spread of the destructive beetles and to prevent further serious injury, but the longer the adoption of this policy is delayed, the more difficult and expensive will be its application. (Written March 14, 1917.) Itok-beetlei in The western yellow, or bull, pine, Pinus ponderosa Laws.. TeUow'piiie °'^'^"" *" British Columbia only in the southern part of the interior. It is specially subject to attacks by destructive bark-beetles, ambrosia-beetles, the larger wood-borers, and a variety of other uijunous insects Since its thick sap-wood is rapidly attacked and destroyed by bonng-beetles and stained by bluing fungi, the timber of beetle-killed trees should be utilized at once. Throughout its range in British Columbia, the western yellow pine is subject to attack Ly three destructive species of bark-beetles, and by many species of less importance. The western pine bark-beetle, Dendroctonus brevi- Mww— Lee, is one of the two most injurious ; the western white pine, or . I R _ 222 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION tnotintain pine, lir beetle, D. monticola Hoj k,. ii as serious an enemy to the yellow pine in iiritish Columbia as it is to the western white pine, or mountain pine, irnm .vhi 'h it derives its name ; and the rvd turpentine bark- beetle, D. vaUns . ' 'vorks in the inner bark alwut the base o( Rrcen pints attacked bv the I > more destructive species just mctitioned. Dying trcis are also found in whiili the last-named species seems the chief cause of thu injury. •■ a j' bark-beetles results in the death of infested trees. ' i<'3s han one year. Many thousands of trees have been i- fi later, riddled by wood-borers, since the commence- , n /ut ten years ajjo. The area seriously affected in- aiv ui Okanagan lake, and westward to beytul Mcrritt The injury < previously so 'nd killed by bark . ■ ment of the 01." i eludes the cour, f-) oncu moht. h T'. and Princeton, pine in clumps ^r tested area, but *' Pcachland and *'i tically all the [ ; s an small or large cli iips 01 • iury by '.he Ijeetlcs, as evidenced by dying and dtud id tre' ^. m''V be noticed in many parts ot the in- with numerous i' ng nn. s have occurred in the valleys west uf lood of Princeton. In some sections prac- but, usually, the infestation is evidenced by trees (called 'red-tops' until the needles fall) 'rces scattered throughout the infested area. The injurious be ties, with iht'.- broods, feed within the bark of the infested green trees. Th( y attack the irccs during July, and, by the following June, the tree is dead and reddish in colour. The beetles which have bred in the bark then leave the tree to attack others nearby, or, a< frequently happens, they may travel in great numbers and settle upon trees at a considerable distance from the parent trees. This is one of the tw -> injurious species concerned. It is a WMtem Piae cylindrical, hard-shelled beetle, from two-sixteenths to three- Bvk-Beetle sixteenths of an inch in length, and varies in colour from liRht- brown, when recently transformed, to nearly black when mature, li is clothed above with very short, inconspicuous hairs. The young are small, whitish, footless grubs, with powerful jaws, found boring chiefly in the outer portion of the inner bark. Lije History and Habits— The beetles enter the green bark of healthy, injured, or recently felled trees in pairs during the summer months, and e.t- cavatc long, irregularly winding egg-tunnels, mostly upwards from the entrance- hole, through the inner bark, upon the wood-surface. A portion of the red boring-dust and excrement is thrust from the entrance-hole and lodges in the bark crevices below ; the remainder blocks the egg-tunnels. When the attack is made upon green, healthy trees, the exuding resin forms in irre^;ular masses about the entrance-hole, and drops fall and adhere to the "bark below The male beetle keeps the entrance free through this mass of gum, which is known as the 'pitch-tube' or 'resin-tube.' The presence of these resin-tubes upon the bark of injured trees indicates positively that the tree was attacked while the bark was green and full of fluid resin. The eggs are deposited singly in shallow niches, cut by the female along the sides of the egg-tunnel at intervals of a half-inch or more ; and the young INSECT INJURIES TO B.C. FORESTS 221 iuvm. or grubi. which hatch from the crrs in about cixht da -s, bore irrcRularly, mainly in the outer layers of the inner bark. When nearly full-grown, the grubi bore outwards and deep into the middle layers of bar!;, enlarge the endt of the tunnels to form 'pupal-cells', and there transform to the resting-stage or pupa, The adult beetles, which appear later from the pupa, bore round holes through the outer bark and escape to spread the infestation to green trees, or to increase the numbers in th , trees already infested. Many of the beetles attack the ir.,es near the red-tops' from which they escape ; but swarms, spreading from the old infestations, attack isolated trees and small clumps at a considerable distance. The outbreak thus spreads by the mcrease m the number of the clumps and scattered infested trees, as well as by the enlargement of the individual clumps. Seasonal History of the Broods— In British Columbia there are one brood and a partial second one each season. During the winter, there may be found m the bark the parent adults of the autumn brood, youn^, light-coloured adults still in the pupal-cells, and many larva-, or grubs, in various stages. When the weather becomes warm in spring, the over-wintered {.arent adults extend their tunnels, or start new ones, and deposit eggs. The adults developed from these eggs appear, it would seem, eariy in August and start t nnels in the trees already attacked by the broods of over-wintered x oung adults. - * The over-wintered young adults emerge from the 'red-toi)s during July and attack green timber about the old 'red-tops,' or spread to isolated trees or clumps. By the middle of August, the bark of the trees attacked is filled with larvae, of all sizes up to nearly full-grown, and the foliage, while not yellow, appears slightly faded, so that such trees can usually be picked out as unthrifty, and. later in the autumn, they are distinguished bv the yellowing foliage. They can usually be distinguished by the resin-tuhes which stud the bark by hundreds, although it often happens that most of the resin-tubes are high up in the trees and are difficult to distinguish from the ground. This fact should be remembered when marking infested trees for cutting,'. The larva; of this brood pupate, and. in most cases. leave the bark as adults l-ofore tlie end of September. These adults, apparently, start fresh tunnels in the sanif trees, eggs, the lar*'£e from which are to be found in the bnrk during and deposit winter. Western White Pine Btrk-beetle This species is the most destructive nf our bark-beetle-.. It has killed larK'e quantities of white pine and lodgenok- pine in various parts of the Province, and in at least some parts of the beetle-infested yellow pine area it is even more destructive to ve^bw pine than the western jiine bark-beetle. It is a cylindrical, black, rather stout beetle, somewhat larger than the ^es'crn pine bark-beetle, ranging from 4 mm. to 6.5 mm. (one-sixtli to one- quarter of an inch) in length, with the thorax wider than long, distinctly nar- rower in front, punctured and hairy on the sides and above ; the elytr.i (wing- cuvers) with striae of medium-sized punctures, the interspaces roughened, sparsely clothed with short hairs and wi'h scattered long hairs behind. It is 224 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION distinguished from the western pine bark-beetle by its larger size (usually), the wider pronotum narrower in front, the long hairs of the sides and hinder part of the elytra, and by the different shape of the egg-tunnels. Life-History and Habits — The adult beetles leave the 'red-tops* from the latter part of June onwards, and start their egg-tunnels in the bark of the trunks and larger branches of dying trees, recently cut logs, or of healthy timber. Each pair of beetles cuts an entrance-hole through the bark to the wood- surface and the female excavates an elongated, somewhat straight, egg-tunnci upwards through the inner bark, slightly engraving the wood. The eggs arc placed singly in shallow niches, which are arranged along the sides of the egj;- tunnels in small groups of three or four niches, with a space of about half an inch between the groups. The eggs composing a group are close together and often covered by a common layer of boring-dust. The grubs, or larvae, which hatch from the eggs bore the larval-mines mainly through the inner bark. They finally enlarge the end of the mine to form an oval pupal cell, usually between the bark and the wood. After changing to pupae in the pupal cells and later transforming to adults they finally bore round holes through the bark and escape. Much red boring-dust is extruded from the entrance hole, and. in green trees, resin-tubcs form about the opening. This species normally prefers dying bark, and, when such is obtainable from fires, storms, or slash, the green timber is less likely to be attacked ; but, when the beetles are in large numbers, they readily enter and kill healthy green trees. Detailed History of the Broods — The winter is passed in the bark of the trees infested during the previous summer, as larvae, young adults and parent adults. The over-wintered parent adults lengthen their tunnels, or excavate new- ones in the infested trees in spring, and deposit eggs which develop to adults probably in July and August. The over-wintered young adults emerge from the 'red-tops' and start egg-tunnels during late July, August and early September. The larvae of this generation in part develop to adults, but the greater number winter in the b.irk as larvae. Th. over-wintered larvae transform to adults which, in British Columbia, apparently emerge during late summer. There is thus one complete eycle each year. Effect Upon the Trees — The tunnels of the adults and the larval mines kill the inner bark, and, if the greater portion of the trunk is infested, the tree dies in one year. The foliage of infested trees usually remains green until late autumn or spring, fading during auttimn and spring to yellow and linally to red by mid-summer. If only a portion of the bark is affected at first, the remaining bar!' is usually attacked in the following summer, or durin;; the same season, by later-appearing beetles. The infested trees are to be distinguished by the gum-tubes upon the bark of the trunk, the red boring-dust extruded from the tunnels, the work of woodpeckers on the bark and, later, by the fading foliage. The foliage r'i^ Pi.ite XXVII A. P E. T INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOREST H ific Coast Timher Deetle. /^'(I/^7'll^ \ih>»u Sw. . enlaryeil to 7 ttmes natural si?e. ills of the Western Sprure Gall Aphis. ( l:,rrti, ortance. As a rule, th.-se second- ary species breed in dyinR bark of slash and dying trees, but have txjen found occasionally killing green timber. Slash burning will usually hold these species in control. . , •„ , The western hemlock and the lowland fir are each attacked and kilU <1, sometimes in consi.-!:, i-iV' IV ..^.; ^ '^.* - . ■t^- "f^ v» > -J ■* •-■ j 'iff ■ ' '^ -^ '•'" ( 5 I ti Mir: 1 i L ' INSECT INJURIES TO B.C. FORESTS 23S was brought to the attention of the Entomological Branch late in the summer of 1913. and an examination was at once undertaken. It was found that the chief injuries to the trees were caused by certain insects, and a careful in- vestigation of these injuries was carried out by officers of the branch durine the summers of 1914 and 1915. Recommendations were made to the Van- couver Board of Park Commissioners for such control measures as could then be applied. Unfortunately most serious injuries had already been effected and a very large number of trees were already in a dying condition. The area included within the park is somewhat over 900 acres, and com- pnses a mi.xcd stand of western red cedar, Sitka spruce, western hemlock and DouBlas fir, with a considerable proportion of deciduous species, such as maple, alder, cherry and willow. Much of the larger coniferous timber was removed many years ago. but a considerable number of fine trees still remain It was found that the injured trees were chiefly Sitka spruce and western hemlock. Many cedars were dead at the top. but this was apparently due to a fungus disease, beyond our control, and common throughout the coast region of the province. The Douglas fir was uniformly healthy. Injuries to the '^^^. ^'^^^ ""^^"^ '"^^ attacked by the western spruce gall Sitkt Spruce aphis, the spruce green aphis, and the Sitka spruce bark- beetle. The Sitka spruce gall aphis, Chermes cooleyi Gillette, was held responsible for the death of a large proportion of the small spruces in the park and for senous injury to most of those remaining. The injurv to the tree caused by these minute insects consists in the development of cone-shaped galls upon the twigs, resulting in the death of the twigs affected, and gradually when the infestation is heavy, of the entire tree. The forms emerging from the galls on the spruce are winged and migrate from the spruce to the needles of the Uouglas fir. Their progeny are without wings and remain upon the fir until the following spring, when they deposit eggs, from which comes a generation comi-nsmg both winged and wingless individuals. The winged form returns to the spruce and produces a generation whose iirogenv remain upon the spruce t^viKs dunng winter, and the following spring provide the generation of gall [Toducers. Hundreds of galls are produced upon a single spruce under park con. itions. and the injury is accordingly great. The galls are not produced on file fir and apparently no very serious injury results from the feeding of the aphir upon the needles. Experimental spraying proved that the gall aphis is effectively controlled fy spraying with contact sprays ; but so many of the smaller spruces had al- ready been killed or injured beyond hope of recovery that spraying was not undtrtaken. The trees in a dying condition were removed and burned in the early spring. The largest spruces are also badly infested bv the gall aphis put ihey will probably be able to withstand the attack. The green aphis of the spruce. Aphis ahietina Walk., was discovered 1 m4. seriously affecting the foliage of numbers of the smaller spruce trees in Stanley park. These plant-lice appear early in the season and suck the "ce from the older spruce needles, causing many to fall, and very seriously 1 ' !fli 23« COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION affecting the appearance and health of the trees. The injury is undoubtedly a serious one, but it has not actually killed trees in the park. It is readily controlled by spraying with contact sprays. Tlie Sttka spruce bark-beetle was discovered in 1913. breeding in a few unh«lthy large spruces on the margin of Beaver lake. In 1914 the number of infested trees had risen from less than six to about twenty-seven, including- trees apparently previously in fairly good condition. It was evident that the remaining large spruces in the park were threatened with destruction and it was recommended to the Park Board that the infested trees, then beyond hope of recovery, should be removed during the winter and the broods of beetles in the bark destroyed to prevent the spread of the outbreak. This recommendation was carried out, and the following summer only three infested trees were found. These were treated later and the outbreak completely checked. The hemlocks in Stanley park were attacked by the western We^era*Hemlock hemlock looper, Ellopia fenidaria Hbn., during the three sea- sons preceding our first visit late in the summer of 1913. By that time the chief injury had been effected and the outbreak was practically over. although that point could not be definitely determined until the following' summer. Many trees had already been killed and a much larger number very seriously or fatally weakened by repeated defoliations by the caterpillars. In the sunmer of 1914 there was a marked diminution in the numbers of the larvae, and the younger trees along the driveways, almost entirely de- foliated in 1913. were returning again to the normal condition. This great reduction in the numbers of the caterpillars was due to natural control by ;i parasitic tachinid fly, and since 1914, the caterpillars have almost entirely disappeared. The injuries caused by their activities were, however, so serious that a large number of the weakened trees died during 1914 and 1915, leaviii}; large areas covered with dead and dying hemlocks. Not only were these incs extremely unsigjatly, but they were breeding large numbers of injurious fuiiKi and bark-^x>rin>?. and wood-boring insects, notably the western hemlock bark- beetle, and were a positn « danger to the remaining hemlocks. The foilowing recommendation was therefore made to the Park Board : "The following genera! recommendation, we believe, embodies the only permanent solution of the pr(>,5«'m of producing and maintaining a healthy condition of the tree growth in Stanley park. It should be a definite pijlicy to remove dving and dead trees as soon as their usefulness is gone and so prevent breeding of 'insects and fungi ; to remove or burn all slash from any cuttinj,' operation and prevent the accumulation of dying and dead wood from any cause, preferably by burning it between the months of October and May : and to replant the areas, large or small, denuded by the removal of dead trees, with Douglas fir. The British Columbia Forest Branch has offered to super- vise this cutting and replanting. The hemlock is not thrifty under \y.itv. conditions and will probably gradually die off, and if it is systematically re- placed by Douglas fti the park will ^adually assume a permanent healthy condition. "Insect outbreaks in the hemlock and spruce, similar to those which re- cently killed so many trees, will undoubtedly recur at intervals ; but, now that INSECT INJURIES TO B.C. FORESTS 337 the cause of the injury is known and the proper means of control determined, a prompt application of control n easures should prevent any serious injuries." It was further suggested that the replanting of the denuded areas pre- sented an opportunity for introducing other species of British Columbia trees not indigenous to Stanley park. ! { ) , I I I III i, ! ill PART II CHAPTER I Forest Resouvces of Btitith Columbia T^E primary object cd this iaarestigation has been to obtain the most 1 accurate informuaon possible of the extent of the forest resources in British Columbia. A knowledge of the present condition was necessary for two main reasons : First, to guide tiae Government in its administration of the forests, so that they may be utilised to Unt fullest extent, consistent with the maintenance of sufficient supplies ff the data upon which this report is based would have been im- possible * Most valuable information was also supplied by the Provincial Forest Branch, the Dominic n Forestry Branch, the Forestry' Branch of the Canadian Pacific railway and the Land Department of the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railway. Though the figures submitted in Chapters II and III, Part II, are, in most instances, given in comparative detail, it must be remembered * Sw page 6, Intfwluctio*. FOREST RESoyRCES OP BRITISH COLUMBIA 239 that they are only estimates, based on the best information available at the time. Later and more intensive survey will doubtless reveal local inaccur- acies, but. since the estimates are based on such a large proportion of actual cruises (about 65 per cent', the total estimates for the various drainage basins represent, with a reasonable degree of accuracy, the amount of merchantable timber in each. Changes ia the standards of cruising timber, which will undoubtedly take place as the value of stumpage increases and the forest industries develop will tend to increase the proportion of the stand which can be termed mer- chantable or of commercial value. In this report, accessibility, so far as situ- ation IS concerned, has not been considered, since it is such an uncertain factor The Sizes which are considered merchantable vary for different parts of th- province, for different species, and for the purposes for which the timber can be used. In this estimate, the terra merchantable is understood to include such timber as can be used for the ordinary commercial purposes, such as the manufacture ot lumber, shingles and wood-pulp, or as piling, poles, railway ties or mine timbers. Owing to the marked difference between the geographical, climatic and industrial conditions of the coastal region and the interior or mountain region It has been found advisable to treat the forests of each region separately. An attempt has been made to make a general classification of the land from the viewpoint of permanent forest production. L.\ND CL.\SSIFrc.\TI().\ Total lanil area ProiJuctive area.s Unproductive areas .Absulute forest land Agricultural land • .Vb( ive mer- chantable timber-line Below mer- cliantiible timber-line Co.ist S,,. miles 64,lo4 289.347 Per cent 17 9 82 I .Sq. miles 20.590 123,835 Per cent 32 1 42-8 S,i. miles 3,700 17,(KX)t Per cent 5-S 5 9 Sq. miles 32,715 115,533 Per cent 51 0 Sq. miles 7,1.54 32,979 Per cent Inicrior 111 11 4 Tutui 353.511 144,425 40 9 20,700 5 9 148,248 41 9 40,133 11 3 This classification shows that over one-half (53-2 per cent) of the total land area is unproductive, either for forestry or agriculture, .\bout 59 per cent IS considered to be of more value ultimately for agriculture than forestry and 40.9 per cent, though useless for agriculture, is capable of producing torests, and should be devoted to that purpose. A considerable amount of the land classed as agricultural is at present orested, so that the total amount of forest land in the province is placed at 149 3 54 square miles, or 42-2 per cent of the total land area. This forest land :ias been classified according to the stands of timber it supports, and is indicated on the Stand Type map accompanying this report. * .\t prcset!< partially tim!>ored. t includes 5,022 square miUs of grass lan^i 'h- very open forest. ■I ii t i I f 1 I I , If 240 li- I 'J ! I J' H commissicJn of conservation classification of the forest land Timber-land carrying over 30M b.f . per acre Timber-land carr>'ing 10-30 M.b.f por acre Timber-land carrying 5-10 M.b.f per acre Timber-land carrying 1-5 M.b.f per acre Total timber-land Additional area capable of produc ing forests (mostly reproduc tion) Coast Area Sq. miles 3,840 7,522 11,362 12.085 23,447 Land area Per cent 6 0 11 7 17- 18-8 36 5 For- est land Per cent 16 4 32 1 48-5 51-5 100 0 Interior Area Sq. miles 2,748 14,105 23,7% 40.649 85,248 125,897 Land area Per cent 0 9 4 9 8 2 14 0 29-4 43 4 For- e«t land Per cent 2 2 11 2 18 9 32 3 67 7 100 0 ToUl Area Sq. miles 14,110 14,105 23,796 52,011 97.333 149,344 Land area Per cent 40 4 0 6 14-7 27-5 42 2 For- est land Per cent 9 5 9 4 15 ') 34'K 652 100 0 Only 28.21.5 square miles, or about 19 per cent of the forest land, is statu- tory timber-land, as defined by the British Columbia Land Act.* In the interior, however, an additional area of 23,796 square miles carries a light stand of from 1.000 to 5,000 b.f. per acre, which may be considered, at least in part, as merchantable. Stands of less than 10,000 feet per acre on the coast are not considered merchantable. Of the forest-land, only about one-third now carries timber of commercial value, and on 97,333 square miles of forest-land, the merchantable timbci has been cut or destroyed by fire. Previous to 1917. only about 30 billion feet had been cut in the province.f Since most of this timber was cut on the coast and from the heavier stands, the area logged probably would not exceed 2,000 si-,uare miles. The forests on the remaining 95,333 square miles ha\e been destroyed by fire. It is estimated that, in addition to the area on which the r.^rch^ntable timber has been totally destroyed, about one-half of the area still carrying merchantable stands has been seriously damaged. It is estimated, from these figures and the average stands on unburned areas, that the amount of timber destroyed by fire in British Columbia is at least 650 billion feet, or nearly 22 times as much as has been cut by the lumbermen. If this timber had not been destroyed it would represent an asset to the Govern- ment, for royalty alone, of over $325,000,000.1 The value from an industrial standpoint would be many tmies that amount. • See page 83, Chapter IV. t See pages 173-'" , Chapter VIII. tThis figure is based on a mvalty of 50 cents per M., whereas the royalty at present vanes, with the grades of timber, from 50 cents to 85 cents per M., and provision is made for incrf.iseb as lumber values enhance. It does not include the stumpage value which the governments secure, in addition to the royaltv, from the sale 'd timber. It is not contended that llie value ct tr.ii timber could tie realized' immedi..tely, but it would be a real a.ss?t, and the annual revenues ffom rentals, aiul also, to some extent, perhaps, from royalties, would undoubtedly be increx-ca. since much of the timber destroyed was situated close to transportation, where it would l.ave offered opportunities for investment and exploitation. FOREST RESOURCES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA 241 Most of this burned-over area is growing up again to forest, but, owing to repeated fires, the land in many places is not fully re-stocked. On portions of this area desirable species are being reproduced, but, over a very large proportion of the burned area, the reproduction is of a less desirable type than the original forest. Thus, throughout the interior, lotlgepole pine has, to a very great extent, replaced the Douglas fir and spruce types after fire. Reliable data concerning the rate of growth of the forests in British Columbia are not available, but a stand of 40-year-old D(jujjlas fir in Wash- ington has been found to have produced an average of 1,000 b.f. per acre per year.* If we assume that the 97,000 square miles, on which young forests are more or less completely established, produces, on the average, only 100 b.f. per acre ner annum, the total increment would amount to 6,200 million feet per annu-n, or about five times the present annual cut in the province. The realization of this increment is contingent, however, upon the protection of the young growth from fire. No increment is looked for in the mature stands, since decay will undoubtedly offset any growth that may take place. The remaining stand of timber in the province is estimated to be as follows : FOREST RESOURCES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA (estimated) Specie!? Western red cedar Douglas fir Spruce (all species) \Vestem hemlock White fir (balsam) Lodgepole pine Western yellow pin« Yellow cypress Western larch Western white pine dntonwood Total saw-material Piling, poles, pulpwood, etc Total forest resources . Coast Million l).f. IVrient .SQ,949 63,400 14,16.=. .S1,94K 1<),115 68 4,056 1,083 516 214,.300 l.S,46S 229,765 28 0 29 6 6 7 24 2 8 9 19 Intnrior Total Million l>.f. Per cent I. Million b.f. Percent 18,019 12,573 58,899 12,164 13,838 11,793 4,208 ,l,i52 1.617 272 136,535t 136,535 13 9 43 8 10 8 3 '2' 1 77,968 75.973 73,064 64,112 32,953 11,861 4,208 4,056 .3,152 2,700 788 350,8.?5 15,465 366,300 22 21 20 18 9 3 1 1 It will be seen that, of the species suitable for the manufacture of pulp (spruce, hemlock, balsam and Cottonwood), there is 170 billion feet, to which may l)e added about 9 billion feet of small timber which was not included in the estimate of the saw-material on the coast. This, at 700 b.f. per cord, amounts to 255 million cords of pulpwood available in the province. The Dominion Government controls the forest resources in the Railway Bolt and the Peace River Block, the forests in the remainder of the province ,. 0^^!)^' ^' Woodward places the growth of the Douglas lir t\T>e in a rotation of 100 years a^. '»»■.? 7.5,064 64,112 n.'lii II.SOO 4,2n8 3,737 319 4,056 4,11.^6 2,300 1,300 200 852 317 72 3,152 1,617 272 ,?.i.=: Western white pine. Cottonwood 1,044 472 39 44 1,083 516 2 TOO 788 Total .... 200,616 13,684 211,300 60,000 76,535 136,535 260,616 90,218 .v^n,8M . The amount of timber alienated, under the various 'orms of tentu-e, is considered to be as follows : M.b.f. Provincial timber Hcenses 161 , .100,00*^ Crown-Granted .)r applied for 50,000,0(K) Provincial timber leases 22,000,000 Dominion timber licenses 17,400,(MKl Provincial pulp leases 9,60O,0O() Piovincial timber salts 316,(KM1 260,6I6,(X)0 hi CHAPTER II Forest Resources of the Interior of British Columbia I\ disaissinR the forest resources of any region, the first essential is to arrive 1 at some conclusion regardinK the areas of the dilTerent classe-; of land, with reference to their capacity to produce timlK-r. In this report, any area in the interior of British Columbia that is capable of producing' saw-timber thai will yield 1,000 b.f., or more, to the acre is considere small areas, that the capacity to produce timber f -i: ; below 5,000 b.f. With these facts in mind, an attempt has been made to arrive at the area of the province capable of producing merchantable saw-timber. In a mountainous region like British Columbia, a large percentage of the area he.s at high altitudes. In the interior of the province, at the southern boundar) (latitude 49°), saw-timber is usually not found above the 6,000-feet contour line. For the purpose of this report, this is called the 'merchantable timLer-Iinc. ' Towards the north, this line becomes lower, until, at 60° latit;iile (the northern boundary of the province), it lies at apjiroximately •3,000 feet altitude. The 'cold timber-line' is, as a nile, from 800 to 1,200 feet above the merchantable timber-line. The zone between these two —the ';ub-al[)inc zone— contains tree growth which usually does not reach saw- timber size. The forests of this zone are of value mainly for protecting' the watershed. I 1 i ■ ( M4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION I-| I ' ih' An attempt ha* been made to indicate the boundariei of the ana below the merchantable timber-line, as distinguishul from the areas above, and, where topographic and reconnaissance mapa are available, thii attempt has been reasonably successful. However, out of ttie total area of the interior, comprising some 294,000 square miles, about one-third, .r approximately 100,000 square milt-s, is not covered by even rough sketch-topographic maps. Nevertheless, ;i fairly successful attempt has been made to delimit the area above the merchantable timber-line from that below, for these unsurveyoi areas, as well as for those which have befn mapped more or less accuiricl . The table on page 245 shows the results of this part of the investigation. For descriptive purposes, that portion of the provitue lying to the east of the axes of the Cascade and Coast mountains, known as the interior, has been divided into six regions, which are ftiriher subdivided into forty drainaj^e basins, as follows :• Rtgion South of the Railway Bell— Elk and Flathead Goat, Moyie and Yahk Upper Kootenay South Upper Columbia and Upper Kootenay North Lower Kootenay Lake Upper Kootenay Lake and Duncan River Lower Columbia and SaUno Lower Arrow Lake and Slocan River Upper Arrow Lake Kettle Shuswap Okana^an Nicola and Similka.meen Railway Belt, Interior — Golden Section Revelstoke Section Shuswap Lake Section Kamloops-Lytton Section South Central Region — Big Bend of Columbia and Canoe River Adams and Seymour North Thompson Bonaparte. San Jose and Mahood Bridge and Chilcotin Nechako and Blackwater Quesnel River Section Willow and Bowron I'pper Fraser Kcrth Central Region — Parsnip Stuart, Salmon and Nation Upper Skeena llpper Nass Finlay • See map showing position of drainage basins. i y jyijy^ t below «, and. »pt has nterior, imately : maps. he ana trveyeil uirlel. Uion. he east ior, has Iraina^f :• ' . 1 Mictocofr nsowTioN tbt chart (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2) J /APPLIED IM/)GE t653 Eost Mam Street Rochester, New Vort. 14609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288- 5989 - Fo« Ma—mm^n^m.^mfafMii^orOmiunimtmfl M aj . i H ; ..!;.= FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B. C. 245 Region East of Rocky Mountains — South Pine Peace River Block North Pine and Halfway Fort Nelson Section Northern Region — Dease and Kachika Stikine and Unuk Taku Atlin A.lsek and Chilkat AREAS ABOVE AND BELOW MERCHANTABLE TIMBER-LINE, INTERIOR OP BRITISH COLUMBIA Regions * Total area, sq. miles Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line Area, | Per cent sq. miles ' of total Area, sq. miles Per cent of total South of Raaway Belt Railway Belt 32,505 12,845 70.431 58,428 59,276 60,573 8,257 3,062 16,237 25,313 14,665 47,999 26 24 24 43 25 79 24,248 9,781 S4,r4 '3,115 44,611 12,574 74 76 South-Central ... ... 76 North-Central 57 East of RocW Mountains . . . Northern B.C 75 21 Total 294,058 115,533 39 178,525 61 Total, acres 188,197,120 73,941,120 114,256,000 ' ' I" 'i :•!: This table shows that, of the 294,058 square miles of terrain in the interior of the province, 115,533 square miles, or 39 per cent, nas too severe a climate to produce merchantable timber. It shows also that there is 178,525 square miles, or 61 per cent, which, so far as temperature conditions are concerned, can produce merchantable timber. For that portion of the interior lying within the Railway Belt and to the south of it, the merchantable timber-line is estimated to be at the 6,000-feet contour line; for the south-central region, from 5,000 to 6,000 feet; for the north-central region, from 4,000 to 5,000 feet; for the region east of the Rocky mountains, from 3,500 to 4,500 feet; and, for the northern interior of the province, from 1,500 to 3,500 feet. The minimum altitude of the timber-line in the latter-named region is due to the influence of the coastal climate along the rivers that break through the Coast mountains. The high percentage of the terrain that lies above the commercial timber- line in northern and north-central British Columbia is due, not so much to altitudinal as to latitudinal effects on the climate. On the other hand, the region east of the Rocky mountains, though extending from latitude 54° to 60°, shows as low an average percentage of areas below merchantable timber- line as do the southern and south-central portions of the province west of the » * For areas included in above regions see Drainage Basins map. ,i 24b C;)M MISSION OF CONSERVATION i> s s M I r i in: i i 1^ Rockies. This is due to the fact that a great part of this region lies at a rela- tively lower altittjde than does the adjoining portion west of the Rocky moun- tains. While temperature conditions are favourable to forest growth on 178,525 square miles of terrain in the interior of British Columbia, a portion of this area is considered incapable of carrying timber, due, mainly, to soil and other conditions. In the first place, there is an area, situated mostly within the 'dry belt', where the moisture conditions are unfavorable to the production of merchantable timber. This region lies below what can be called the 'dry merchantable timber-line', and is mostly covered with grass, sagebrush or very open timber. Including the areas that formerly carried forests, but, owing to repeated fires, have a vegetative cover mainly of grass, sage brush or park forests, the known area of this class of land is 5,022 square miles, or 3,214.080 acres* ^ Again, a considerable portion of the area of the province is occupied by lakes. Tiie mapped lake area (in the interior) alone covers 4,711 square miles, r 3,015,040 acres. Other classes of terrain that do not carry forest growth are: Areas occupied by swamps, rivers, rock outcrops, land slides, soils too shallow for timber growth, precipitous slopes, and areas that formerly carrier' forest growth but have been badly burned, t A rough estimate of the aggregate of such areas (exclusive of lakes) is 32,979 square miles, or 21,106,560 acres; including the lakes and grass land. 42.712 square miles. The classification of the area in the interior of British Columbia below merchantable timber-line, divides it into two categnries : (1) land capable of carrying merchantable timber, and (2) land incapable of so doing — is as follows : CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS BELOW MERCHANTABLE TIMBER-LINE WITH RESPECT TO THE!R CAPACITY TO BEAR TIMBER—INTERIOR OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Regions Tr tal area, sq. miles Incapable of bearing saw-timber Capable of bearing saw-timlier Area, sq. miles Per cent of total Area, sq. miles Per cent of total South of the Railway Belt. . . Railway Belt 24,248 9,783 54.194 33.115 44,611 12,574 3,501 1,447 5,660 3,596 24,402 4.106 14 15 14 11 55 33 20,747 8,336 48,534 29,519 20,209 8,468 86 85 South-Central 86 North-Central 89 East of the Rocky Mts Northern B.C 45 67 Total 178,525 42,712 24 135.813 76 Total, acres 114,256,000 27,335,680 86.920.320 • This includes only the known areas of this class. In central and northern British Columbia and in the region north of the Peace River Block there are very large areas that formerly were forested, but which now carry grass. • Some of these areas, like swamps, prairies due to fires, and badly burned areas, could. under intensive management, be forested, but for the purposes of this discussion they are not considered as forest lands. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 247 This table shows that 135,813 square m-.les, or 86.920,320 acres, in the interior is capable of bearing merchantable timber. This represents about three-quarters of the area below merchantable timber-line, but it is only 46 per cent, or less than one-half, of the total area of the interior. Conversely, more than one-half of the interior, taken as a whole, is incapable of bearing merchantable timber. Of this, more than two-thirds is above merchantable timber-line, the remainder, representing 15 per cent of the total area of the interior, being below this line. The reason why so large an arna of the region east of the Rocky mountains— 24,402 square miles, or more than one-half of the total— is incapable of bearing saw-timber, is discussed in the descriptions of the drainage basins of the Fort Nelson river and the Peace River Block (see pp. 307, 310). The total area of land in the interior, 135,813 square miles, that is classed as being capable 3f carrying merchantable forest, would be considered as the area of 'absolute timber-land,' were it not for the fact that some of it may ultimately be more valuable for other than forest purposes. There is estimated to be 11,978 square miles of such land in the interior as a whole.* Deductmg this amount, leaves 123.835 square miles, or 79,254,400 acres, as a rough estimate of the absolute forest land of the interior. This represents about 42 per cent of its entire area. To consider this large area of timber-land with reference to the condition of its present stand, it has been divided into four classes. These are as follows :— (1) Areas in which the standing timber will average over 10,000 b.f. per acre; (2) areas in which the average is between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f.; (3) areas in which the average is below 5,000 b.f., and (4) areas that carry timber which has: not yet reached merchantable size. This latter class includes those areas that carry all stages of reproduction, from one-year growth to pole size, and a rather large area which has been burned over recently, but has not had sufficient time to re-stock. It does not include the area so severely burned that it cannot recover without artificial planting, f Thus, of the 135,813 square miles of land in the interior of British Columbia, that is capable of bearing merchantable timber, only 40,649 miles, or 30 per cent, is carrying merchantable timber at the present time. The remaining 70 per cent, or 95,164 square miles, may be tak;epole pine. . . . Western larch Cottonwood South of Railway Belt Railway Belt 3.999,676 4,391,748 2.422,456 1,300,264 5,192,790 1,030,546 2,525,688 1,953,744 3,145,968 Total 2,190,540 2.179,080 1,438.590 472,280 2.834,970 272,6W 1.215,420 731.696 5.820 South- Central 5.541,190 10.I21,.?O4 2,888,344 4,206,442 19,095,266 313,355 466.816 3.379.643 25.962,880 11.341,000 46,013,360 North- Central 841,272 1.327.292 4.053,128 7,195,936 21,742,819 2,647,849 101,404 East of I North- Rocky em Mts. B.C. 331.260 8.741.600 2,932.300 37.909.700 77.840 12.083.000 3.224.800 1.361.280 332.000 1.290.160 148.240 93.120 Total 12,572,678 18,019.424 12,163,798 13,838.182 58 '98,605 I.616.50S 4,207,924 11,793,472 3,151,788 272,364 136,.S34,740 Approximately 59 billion feet, or nearly one-half of the stand of timber in the interior, is spruce; this, with the exception of about 3 billion feet, is Engelmann spruce. Next to spruce in amount is red cedar, with a stand of approximately 18 billion feet. This is concentrated in heavy stands along the streams that lie in the interior wet belt. The next species, in order of amount, is balsam fir, with nearly 14 billion feet. This lies mainly within the spruce type, usually above an altitude of 4,000 feet; in the northern portion, it is found at lo\. altitudes, although in such places it constitutes a smaller proportion of the stand. Hemlock constitutes some 12 billion feet of the total. It usually accompanies the cedar in the interior wet belt, but is also found in portions of the Skeena, Nass, Unuk. Stikine and Taku basins. There is approximately 12>^ billion feet of Douglas fir. This is found throughout most of the interior, from the 49th to the 55th parallel, either in a type by itself or as a constituent element in other types. Although lodgepole pine contributes lar^e areas of young growth throughout the entire interior, investigation shows that there is only about 12 billion feet of this species of saw-timber size. There is approximately 4 billion feet of yellow pine in the interior. This is confined mostly to the drier portions of the region in and south of the Railway Belt. Larch is next in importance, representing slightly over 3 billion feet of the stand. It is confined to the south-eastern part of the province, mainly south of the Railway Belt. There is. approximately. 1-6 billion feet of western white pine. It is scattered throughout the cedar and Douglas fir-larch types in the wet belt. Most of it is found south of the Railway Belt, especially along the international boundary, just north of the state of Idaho, where it is especially abundart. As the cruisers usually do not consider it, it has been difficult to make even ^ ? i I 1 ' ■ t ■ H'' ' it 3M COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION a rough estimate tf the amount ut cuttonwood. There is probably about one billion feet more oi this species than is indicated in the table. Description of Drainage Baains REGION SOUTH OF THE RAILWAY BELT DRAiNAcr; Basiws op Elk and Flathead Rivers Potition and Phyiical Femturet The Elk and Flathead basins are situated in the heart of the west slope of the Rocky mountains, in the extreme south- eastern comer of the province. The axis of the Rocky moun- tains forms their eastern boundary, and a series of ranges separates them from a section of the Kootenay River drainage on the west, except where the Elk river breaks thiough this barrier and emerges into the Rocky Mountain trench. This region, a narrow one, wit' a length of 110 miles and an average width of 20 miles, parallels the axis of the Rockies. With the exception of a short section that crosses the eastern half of the Rocky Mountain trench, it includes the entire drainage of Elk river, and also that portion of Flathead fiver lying within the province. Elk river occupies a long U-shaped, glacial-scoured valley, whose bottom varies in altitude from 3,082 feet, where it emerges into the Rocky Mountain trench, to 5,000 feet, near its heatlwaters. It has three main tribu- taries— Wigwam river, Michel creek i nd Fording river. Throughout its course, the E^k and its tributary valleys are hemmed in by high mountains, except 'or their outlets and low passes at their headwaters. Flathead river, like the Elk, has a U-shaped valley, and varies in altitude from 3,950 feet to approximately 5,000 feet at its headwaters. Except for passes which connect it with the tributaries of Wigwam river, on ttie west, and Michel creek, on the north, it also is bounded by high mountains. The mountains surrounding these basins, anc' 'epa.cxting their com- ponent parts, vary in altitude from 6,500 to 8,000 tt, ■., with a number of peaks rising to a height of between 8,000 and 10,000 feet above sea level. Only mea."re climatic data are available for the district. A one-year (191.i) precipitation record shows that Elko (altitude 3,089 feet), at the mouth of Elk valley, has a total of about 26 inches, one-third of which was in the form of snow; during the year 1915, the precipitation at Fernie (altitude 3,313 feet), a short distance north of Elko, aggregated 38 inches, about one-half of which was in the form of snow. Crowsnest (altitude 4,451), on the eastern edi^e of the basin, had, during the same year, a total of about 12 inches, one-third of which was snow. As 1915 was an exceptionally wet year for the re^'ion, these figures are probably somewhat higher than the average for a number of years. Perhaps the major portions of the valleys of the Elk and the Flathead, which lie centrally located in the basins, will show an average precipitation of ne£irly 30 inches, with a decided decrease for the regions near the dry eastern slopes of the Rocky mountains. The precipitation is fairly well distributed throughout the year. FOREST RESOURCKS .,F THE rNTERIOR OP |, 0. 251 • ,J''^T"1. **""""' ^""r'e''al"'-e for Femie (avcraRe of a number of vears) IS 39", while that of Elko (pne year's avera^'e) is nearly 44». This illustrates the lower i mperature comlitions at a station situated well in the mountains compared with one on the eastern ed«o of the Rocky Mountain trench and at a lower altitude. Exceptionally dry nnd hot summers occur periodically however, and. at such times, destructive forest fires are likely to take place. Foreit Forty-three per cent of the area is above m^ :hantable timber- ConrtitloM "ne, about the 6.000-foot contour; while 57 per cent is below this line. Ot this latter amou It, 112 square Pilosis considered incapable of producing' merchantable timber, leaving 1,205 square miles that can be classed as timber-land. CLASSIFICATION OF LAN^ WITH AMO^^^^^^^ STANDING TIMBER. IN -HE ELK FLATHEAD DRAIN.\GE BASIN Clussi-s (if land Above merchiintahle timlKT-line Bcliiw mcrclian table timhcr-linc — Area carr>ing tO.OOO h.f. or more r«T aire Area carryttiK lx;twecn 5,0(X) aivl 10,000 h.f. per acre .^rea carr>ing between 1.000 and 5,000 h.f. per a( re Area carryinR younf; j;r(iwth Area incapable of tarrying timber. ... .\ .!!!.! ^ Total Area. sc|. miles 1,001 2') 27J 420 4S,* 112 2..? 1 8 PcrcentaRc cf entire ,ir<;i 4J 1 Il- ls- 20- 4- Saw-timber, M.b.f. 278,400 1,.?00,400 806.400 2.385,200 Merchantable Timber by Specie* The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Elk- Flathead drainage basin is as follows : Dou^'las fir, 53 272 M.b.f.; red cedar, 62,828 M.b.f.; balsam, 208,472 MM- spruce, 1,524,488 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 512,288 M.b.f.; larch, 23,852 M b f'- or a total of 2,385,200 M.b.f. " As might be expected, the main type of the basin is the En^elmann spruce Indications are that, at one time, the Douglar fir-larch type occurred in the -r situations at the lower ends ot the Elk and Wigwam vaU^vs, but it ha= I mostly destroyed. The cedar-spruce type occupied the moist situations -ong the lower Elk, and remnants of it still occur in the side valle%'s of this portion of that basin. Over large areas, due entirely to repeated ires, the lodgepole pine tempor- ary type prevails. An area greatly damaged by repeated fires lies along the line of railway in the Elk valley and its tributary, the Michel valley Fires in this valley have been historic, because they have involved, not only the destruction of forests, but of lives and towns. In regions more remote from the rr way, the fires have not been so frequent. vVhere the forest has been only slightly damaged by fire, the reproduction IS mostly spn je, balsam and lodgepole pine, but the last-named species Decome-s more prominent with the increase in severity of previous fiies The area carrying timber under 5,000 feet per acre is either growing stock re- ■; 'i )l m COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION Wi Lumbwlag OptrattOBi covering from the eflfecti of fired which occurred 50 to 75 yt»n ago. or conRiRtH of damaged remnants of mature timber which escaped the effects of (>ast fires. Situated near the prairie market, which borders it on the east, this district has long been active in ^umbering. Logging operations have been carried on withiu easy reach of the Canadian Pacific railway and of a short railway that extends southward, along Michel creek, to Corbin. Considerable quantities of timber are still found in the valleys of the short streams that flank the west side of Elk valley and the north and west sides of Michel creek, but no timber remains in the portion of the main valley traversed by the Canadian Pacific. Some logging operations have been carried on in Elk valley, north of tin: point where the railway enters it, but, up to the pic^ent, they have not been extensive. When required, thi timber that lies well to the north end of this valley will be available. The timber in the Flathead valley is mountain-locked. The only natural outlet is by driving it down the Flathead and across the boundary line inio the United States. The development of the coal-fields in this valley will very possibly offer the Iwst opportunity for the utilization of this timber. It these coal fields prove of sufficient value, the railway, which now ends at Corbin, will no doubt be extended across the pass .it the head of Michel crei.k into the Flathead valley. Such a road would r./e an outlet for the timber. There are no insurmountable difficulties in the way of driving the main stream of both basins. Besides lumbering, the main industry of the region is coal mining. Extensive coal-fields exist, but only those itnmediately along the railway are being developed. Because of the high average altitude of the region, a great part of it is too cold for agricti'itural purposes. Patches of good soil are found in the lower half of Elk valtey and are suitable for growing garden truck and forage crops. The timber grazing and open lands in the burned-over portions of the valley will, however, supjiort a limited number of stock for perhaps seven months of the year. It is estimat- ' that 34 square miles, or 15 per cent of the whole, comprises the area within which agriculture can be carried on. * Othtr Industries Drainage Basin of the Goat, Moyie and Yahk Rivers Position t.-.d '^^'^ ^""^ ''^^ ^^ ^^^ southern end of that portion of the Purcell Physical section of the Selkirk mountains which is within the province. Fe«tu.es j^ comprises the whole of the Goat basin and the portions of the Yahk and Moyie basins lying to the north of the international boundary. These basins are separated from each other by low ranges of mountains. • The estimates of the agricultural area of this and the other drainage basins include the area within which the climatic conditions are such that agricultural pursuits of some kind can be carried on. Within these, there are large areas where soil conditions are unfavourable. \\^itl> the data at hand it is not possible to eive an estimate of their extent. (See Stand Type ■■■^v for tt.. situation of the so-called agricultural areas.) rOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OK n C i.VI .-he Yrhk baiin i. the most easterly one. It i» mountain-Iockcl on ali suits. It. only natural outlet In-inR southwan! into the United State. The lowest altitude of this basin is 3.100 feet. Low Uu.borc-I passes connect it to the east w.th the Rocky Mo,-.tain trench an.l to the west 'with Mo>rvalle The Moyic basin occupies the medial ,K,rtion of the three basias and is |eparated from the Yahk basin by the Yahk r«n«e an.l from the Go^ basm by the Moyie ranue. Its lowest altitude is 2,650 feet. The Goat basin .OS well toward the Purcell trench, and. for most of its lcn,th. is separatiS Hs scut? ™"''' , T""*''"' '^^' '-'^"^ '''''' ''''"''''' ''^^"^h this barrier ;Lv ^"'^'=^" ''"'^- ""'> ^^^ -^^ into the Kootcnay river, a short distance above the southern boundary of the province. Its lowest elevation is 1.760 feet. Generally speaking, the mountains of these basins reach a lieiL-ht of between 6.000 and 7.500 feet. ^ ^ Creston (altitude 1,989 feet), situated near the mouth of , > nver has an annual precipitation of 2J inches, about one-fourth of whici , . ,w This .s Cstnbuted fairly well throughout the year. Jud^inK from ...c vegetation n the valleys heading in the Moyie rauRe. fie precipitation is somewhat heavier, ry ,aps 35 inches, while in the Yahk ran^e an.l Yahk valley it is probably baween 20 and 25 inches. ^ Creston has an annual mean temperature of 44». a summer mean of 63' and a winter mean of 26-. The highest r -corded tem,H^^rature is 96' and the west IS 12«. Compared wi.:. West Kootenay. the climate of this roR on wi^ n the llT'fTr'^V "^"' '^' '^'"''''''"" ''^ '''' ^''^^''^ '^««i"- " '^ ™itly Hit Inn the limits of the Interior wet belt. The merchantable timber-line lies at abou. 6.000 feet altitude. Of the otal area of Yahk. Goat and Moyie basins, 19 per cent is above this line an.l 81 per cent IS below. It is estimated that, of the 1.046 square miles below merdiantable t.mber-line. 75 square miles is considc ^d incapable of bearing CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOU.^ JF STANDING TIMUFR iv thp GOAT. MOYIE ANL YAFIK DRAINAGE BAsYx'^^'*' '^ ^"^ ! ? Classes of land Atx.vc merchantable timber-... . Bdt.w merchantable tiinber-linc— .Uia (urryinR 10,000 b.f. or more per ...re .\ri;i (arryinjt between .S.OOO and 10.0(M) b.f. per acre Area carr>inK l*twcen 1.0(10 an 4-2 20.(1 II-.? i<)H 5-7 Saw-timl«.T M.b.f. .'!2H,(X)0 I,2.5«,400 277,400 2,043,800 The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Goat- Moyie-Yahk drainage basin is as follows : Douglas fir \lKf u , ^^^'t^* •^•^•^' '■^'^ '=^^^^' ^"'^O'* ^^•^•^•; hemlock, 81.752 Mb.f.; balsam. 81,752 M.b.f.; s- uce. 674.454 M.b.f.; white pine. 204 380 Merchantable liaiber, by Sptcies , 1 i U ! t t ii I I J . i i is 2S4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION M.b.f.; lodpepole pine, 163,504 M.b.f.; larch. 551.826 M.b.f., or a total of 2,043,800 M.b.f. The principal species are thu« spruce and larch. This is due to the fact that the Douplas fir-larch and the Enpelmann spruce types cover most of the region. The former lies mainly below and the latter mainly above the 4,000-feet contour line. The moister sites along the streams carry the cedar- hemlock type, but their total area is not large. Where the region has been badly burned, the reproduction is mainly lodgepole pine, but, where lires have not been so destructive, the proportion of this species is much less ; on some reproducing areas it is entirely absent. Lumbering operations have been confined to the region along Operations ^^^^ portion of the Moyie and Goat rivers traversed by the Crowsnest line of the Canadian Pacific. The timber of the Yahk basin has a natural outlet down this river, and across the boundary into Idaho. What was the most accessible timber along the railway has been burned. Mining has been long an active industry, especially around the Moyie lakes. There is an admirable farming region near the mouth of Goat river and in the Purcell trench, near Creston. At present, fruit is the principal crop raised, though the region is well adapted for mixed farming. Certain other sites along the railway may ultimately be used for farming purposes. It is estimated that 131 square miles, or 10 per cent of the whole, comprises the area within which agricultural pursuits may be carried on. Of this, 13 square miles is now covered with statutory timber. Other Industries Position and Physical Features Drainage Basin of Upper Kootenay South This basin lies at the southern end of the Rocky Mountain trench. It comprises the area drained by that portion of the Kootenay river in the trench, and includes all its subsidiary streams, except the portion of Elk river already considered. Its eastern boundary is the summit of the ranges separating it from the Elk River drainage. Its western boundary is the summit of the Purcell mountains. Strategically, the main physical feature of the region is the southern end of the Rocky Mountain trench. The medial part of this trench is about 17 miles wide, narrowing down to approximately 5 miles at the southern end and to about 4 miles at its northern end. The altitude of the bottom of the valley at the international boundary is 2,371 feet ; at Canalflats, the northern end of the basin, it is 2,666 feet, K'iving a descent for the river of only 295 feet in about 90 miles of its course. Por- tions of the Kootenay river have a meandering course, with a wide flood plain, and consequently a sluggish currc .t ; at other places, the river has a com- paratively straight course and swift current. On the whole, it is admirably adapted for driving logs, while the many side channels afford good oppor- tunities for booming them. •FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B. C. 255 The main tnbutanes of this section of the Kootenav are the Elk, St. Mary and Bull nvers and Gold. Sheep and Skookumchuck creeks. Gold creek drams the eastern slopes of the McGiUivray range of the Purcell mountains which border the trench on the western side at its southern end. These mountams are comparatively low, only small sections of them extend above he '"erchantable timber-line. They separate the regions under discussion from the Yahk basin. The Galton range of the Rocky mountains lies east of the southern section foooMTnnn It ^"'"^^^^^ *^«^« mountains are, for the most part, from 7.000 o 8,000 feet in altitude, lying well above merchantable timber-line. A small section of Elk river crosses the trench in a deep, narrow caflon, de- bouchmg into Kootenay river a short distance above the mouth of Gold creek Bull nver has a southeriy course, and its valley separates the mass of high mountains lying between the trench and the Elk river into two ranges. The tnbutanes of the St. Mary river rise in the summits of the Purcell range This nver has a nearly straight easterly course, emptying into Kootenay river a short distance north of the mouth of Bull river. The most northerly tribu- tanes are Skookumchuck creek, which drains the eastern slopes of the Purcell mountams. and Sheep creek, which drains the western slopes of the Rockies The mountains on either side of this portion of the trench have an altitude of between 7.000 and 8,000 feet. The average annual precipitation of the trench is between 16 and 20 inches about one-third of which is snow. It is fairiy well distributed throughout he year, but occasional very dry summers render the forest vegetation ex- remely inflammable. A higher precipitation occurs in the bordering tribu- taries; m those on the east, the annual rainfall will probablv not exceed 25 ul^ T "PP^' ''^'^ °^ ^*- ^^^""y "^^"^ ''^^ ^ell within the wet belt, and probably has a precipitation of not less than 35 inches. The mean annual temperature of the main valley of the Upper Kootenay South IS about 40». with a winter mean of 20«, and a summer mean of jy . Ihe lowest recorded temperature is -37° and the highest 103» The valley is comparatively free from summer frosts, but late spring and early CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER IN THE UPPER KOOTENAY SOUTH DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line. Below merchanUible timber-line— Area carrying 10.000 or more b.f. per acre Area carrymg between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrymg between 1.000 and 5.000 b.f. peracre Area carrymg young growth ... Area incapable of carrying timber ... Area carrymg grass or very open forest '.'.'.'.'.'.'. Totil Area, sq. miles 1.284 43 601 520 1.003 151 52 Percentage of entire area 3.654 35 1-2 16-5 14-2 27-5 4-2 1-4 Saw-timber, M.b.f. 367,000 1,923,200 988,000 3,278,200 3M COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION lit I IS I ft] V ' ti m hi y ,1 t h yiiiJ Forest Conditioiii autumn frosts are likelyto occur. The temperature conditions at higher altitudes are, of course, much lower. Thirty-five per cent of the area is above merchantable timber- line, which here lies at about the 6,000-feet contour. Of the 2,370 square miles lying below merchantable timber-line, 203 square miles is considered incapable of carrying merchantable forest. Iferelunuble '^^^ amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Upper Umber by Kootenay South drainage basin, is as follows: Douglas fir. Species 627,184 M.b.f.; red cedar, 170,992 M.b.f.; hemlock. 72,344 M.b.f.; balsam, 237,840 M.b.f.; spruce, 267,600 M.b.f.; white pine, 13,000 M.b.f.; yellow pine, 697,104 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 311,936 M.b.f.; larch. 880,200 M.b.f., making a total of 3,278,200 M.b.f. Yellow pine and Douglas fir-larch forest types are the most important, and are the types in which most of the logging operations are carried on. The yellow pine type occurs in strips, on the lower benches along the Kootenay, and some distance up the St. Mary, with isolated patches on exposed sites in other parts of the region. As a type, it is not found at altitudes much above 3,000 feet, but is often found scattered throughout the Douglas fir-larch type, and may form as much as 25 per cent of its stand. The Douglas fir-larch type flanks the yellow pine type on the higher benches and lower slopes of the main valley, and extends back along the side streams to an altitude of approximately 2,500 feet, and, in exposed situations, to 4,000 feet. In the moister climate of the medial reaches of the St. Mary river, however, this type is replaced by the cedar-spruce type. Between 4,000 and 6,000 feet altitude, the spruce type prevails. The lodgepole pine temporary type has made inroads on all these types, as the result of fires, and occupies the largest area of any of them at present. Above 6,000 feet is the subalpine type. The species found in this type are the same as those which occur in the drainage basins of the Elk and Flat- head rivers. This drainage basin has long furnished the bulk of the timber o"er«tiims manufactured in the interior of the province, and it still has pera ons sufficient quantities left to maintain this lead. It is well supplied with railway transportation facilities. Nearly all the main tributaries are driveable, or can be made so with some improvement. Logging railways can be profitably constructed to some of the bodies of timber that are not favourably situated as regards dri\eable streams. Only one group of mines is being worked at present, in the Purcell mountains. This is located at Kimberley, at the terminus of a branch of the Canadian Pacific railway. The agricultural areas of the region are confined to the trench proper. Nearly all of the land that is not at present held under timber licenses or leases has been alienated for agricultural or speculative purposes, mostly the latter. Logged-over timber licenses are usually pre-empted quickly, it" not Agriculture on Logged-over Lands I I FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 257 S"nf Thrs,!;in\'''''"t- '''^. "^- ^^ ^ '''^°'«- '^ b-* adapted to cattle ^hioW^n^ • '^'''! '*•' '°°'' '^ "^"^"y too deep. The amoun^of stock The ^ 1?^ "^. '' ^^•'^^ '° '^^ ""''^'^^ ^°' agriculture, mthout irrigation The best soils are found m the bottoms, along the Kootftnay river houeS" ringj^f Zit'L'rb'^' •'^"^^"^^^ ""^^^ °^ '^ '^ -^^-' t° --flow ounng noods. Fruit can be raised on irrigated lands, but. generally sneaking 'thiTnd •V*°°riV° "^'^ ''''' •'^'^"^t^y comme;cially'proSe'^'^^^^^^^^ of the land alienated for agricultural purposes is better suited for prodS fesTrnTd tlTt'n^'"^""^^ P™'^'^>^- "^^^^ °^ '* -" beZ uti3 priL th™ ^>i- \'T'' ™'f • °' °"^''y 2° P«^ ^"t °f the whole, com- prises the area within which agricultural pursuits will be carried on Of th^ '^iZriz^szTr -- ^-'^ °- ^-^^- -^ ^^^ ^^- ™"- '^^ 'oi:?rd Drainage Basins op the Upper Columbia and Upper Kootenav North 1!!^%^t'v''^^^J'^^' "' "^""'^ °^ t^^ Upper Kootenay South and Elk River drainage basins, and south of the Railway Belt the Ro.w 1^ ?^- ^"'^ u'^^ Columbia River drainage is that portion of the Rocky Mountain trench drained by the upper reaches of the Columbia The axis of the Upper Kootenay North basin is the southern portion of what ts rT m " Kootenay-Beaverfoot trench, a secondary one which ofns he Rocky Mountain trench near the source of the Columbia river. tC two nches are separated by the Stanford and Brisco ranges, which rich In altitude of 6.000 to 8,000 feet. ^" feet ?h'.J'°'r'" °^ ^^^ ^l^^l ^°°t«"ay ^a"ey varies in altitude, from 2,666 ^urce of the TT ""'^ '^' """'^^ ''°""*"^" t'-^"^^' '° 4.158 feet at the ZLyBen ^°°ten^y- J ™'«« "O'-thwest of the southern boundary of the and on t? .V r^'?. °'' '^^ ^"'t ^y t^« Stanford and Brisco ranges. 000 to 10 000 f I ; ' ^^"chell and Vermilion rarges, which are of fr'om ri bv !'h? wv p'^n • J^^ '"""'Stains are divided into a number of ow n J -1 ^?' ^^"''''' ^'°'' ^"^ ^^™'"°" "^«". which, in general flow m a southeasteriy or southwesterly direction for some part of their course The streams that drain the east slopes of the Stanford and Brisco ran^ are Th::; a';:?- /';7"-^r °^ ^^^ ^°°^^"^y -«* ^^s main tributanj a u snaped and are flanked with a series of benches. feet ^.';'.K°",?"'/ *^^ ^°/''^ Mountain trench varies in altitude from 2.683 li!' 1' J^^adwaters of the Columbia river, to about 2.350 feet, at the ^^^^^hc^undarj- of the Railway Belt. This portion of the Columbia river * Sue footnote, page 252. Position and Physical Features ■ ! ! I ■ h i. f m m 258 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION contains two comparatively large lakes near its source, and below these the river follows a meandering course, with a rather wide area of swampy land, which is flooded during spring freshets. The Purcell mountains flank the trench on the west. The west slope of these mountains is drained by a number of small streams. The Upper Columbia valley is the driest portion of the Rocky Mountain trench. Wilmer, on Windermere lake, has an annual precipitation of about 14 inches, a little less than one-third of which is snow. About one-third of the total is summer rainfall. The precipitation in the higher altitudes is evi- dently somewhat greater judging from the character of the vegetation, pro- bably from 20 to 25 inches The mean annual temperature for the warmest part of the Columbia valley is about 39', with a winter mean of 18°, and a summer mean of 60°. The high- est recorded temperature is about 10(f and the lowest -36". The Kootenay valley and the higher altitudes have undoubtedly a lower mean temperature. Fifty per cent of the area is above merchantable timber-line. cS'diti Of the 2,073 square miL' below this line. 301 square miles is *"** open lands, including the grass area and lands incapable of carrying timber. The area has been badly burned, but is, for the most part, reproducing, mainly with lodgepole pine and spruce. All ages of reproduction are found ; on most of the area it is less than 30 years old. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER. IN THE CLASSIFlCAllUN^ COLUMBIA-UPPER KOOTENAY DRAINAGE BASINS Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrjing between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying Utween 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying young growth. Area incapable of carrj'ing timber Area carrying grass or very open forest Area, sq. miles Total . 2.050 3 259 520 990 242 59 Percentage of entire area 4,123 49-7 01 6-3 12-6 240 5-9 1-4 Saw-timlier, M.l..(. U.4IH) 1,243,21)0 g<)S,4l)0 2,2.^i'.i"W Merchantable Timber by Species 772,320 M.b.f. The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Upper Columbia-Upper Kootenay North drainage basins, is as follows: Douglas fir, 410.640 M.b.f.; balsam, 76,944 M.b.f.; spruce, yellow pine, 124,320 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 386,736 M.b.f.; iarch, 485,040 M.b.f. ; making a total of 2,256,000 M.b.f. There are, also, very small amounts of cedar and white pine. The main forest types are the Douglas fir, the Douglas fir-larch and the Engelmann spruce types. The Douglas fir type is found mainly in the Col -.mbia valley, reaching an altitude of 3.500 feet. The Douglas fir-larch type o.uipies the valleys of Kootenay river and Finlay creek, up to an altitude of 3,5U(J teet. The Engelmann spruce type occurs above 3,500 feet, and large areas of n have Lumbeiinf Operatioiii PORE.T RESOURCES OP THE .NTER.OR oP B C. «, Above the M contour line and the last between the 3,500-feet and the 6.000-feet contour. All three tvpes have been badly damaged by fire. The cedar-hemlock t^^ has suffered less from fire than the other types, because it lies along the stro.r.ns, well back from the lake, and is accordingly favoured by moister soil cond,noa. On special sites along the lake there are small areas of the ye"o^ P"^^' ;;;PJ- The proportionately large amount of white pine in thi. region should be n ned. Some sections, m both the cedar-hemlock and the Douglas fir-larcb ..pe»^ tarry a relatively large proportion of this species ; m some instances, a, liign I 11- FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OP B.C. Other Induttriei 261 them as septate Typ«s """ considered practicable to distin^ish form^%1.etriS;iuo;:f"s^^^^^^ ''"'' "°" -^'^ ^J^^ «P««es that centage of lod^Se pS '^oduS T"' 'r.^^"' " '"'^'^ '-«« J-- white pine is r^orZH.nZSnrS:tZ JT'I^^^^^^ '"""^''^>'' larger percentage of this species rha^Toent pr^nt'or' ""' "'" '^^^ * Lumbering '^^*, '"^ginK operations of this basin have been ma,nl„ «,«fi- ^ present difficulties in irivimLdZlZ ■? ^°"' °' """« '"""» beto™.„»h timber can teriket^ Hntl*^ "" f '"™ " >» ''»"' some o£ th. streams is eoS^dtmSX^S^T^r '' "" '™^' °" iiJirnrs c'^:'„r,™it"i.'"^ r^ '^ "• -- square mile«i ,« ,T'^°'^°S fruit. It is estimated that 118 willbeconfined.' Tws^pLents 7-6" "'^'%\'"' '^"^^"^*^ P"""'*« None of it carries statutory tImW ^^ ''^"*, °^ ^'^^ *°*^1 ^™* °f the basin. Crown. ^ *""'^'^' ^"^ "^^t °f •' has been alienated from the The mining industry is the principal one at the present time. Uppbh KOOT...V Lake xxo Du.ca. River Drxivaoe Basiks ».,... S^c^lU "n^h ''?L '""f^^ ^^^'"^ - ^^« -ddle third of the Features ^T®" French. The most important side valley of this region . he Lardeau-?rrLS::^„eh^ ''' '^''-^ ™ ^^ ^™- f^^e^S;:; adioilLViomh^t'p^on^^^^^^^^^^ ^'^^ ^"-" *--h. like those of the .naster valley th?ouTnai;ow caTonsTvT"!?'"'"^' "^'^^ '^'^^ the outandcarry%oiisidLbTeTuanSrof t^ter "''^^ ''^" ^^"^^^ ^™^^- to a heth^o^/;o"o^X"oott'""?" '"'r"°^ ^^"^^^^ - -^^^^^ -^^^ -e 8,000 felt contf„rgVcifr"'? etttor?^^^^^^ >rtion of the area above from 1,760 feet, at Kootenav iX 7 /c2f .' '''="^' ''^'"y ^^ altitude Duncan river. Trout re^hL^^n^allr^^^^^ '' ''' ^^^^^ °^ Kootenty TalTh^Ttnt? "'^' '" ^'^ ^^^•°"- "--• "^ the head of of ^6^ and a summe^mro ?r ?h?hT7 °' ''; ^^' ^ ^^^^ ™-" and the lowest -13". Th^se fitu;eslr H^ ""'''"^'^ temperature is 99' tion of the basins and those for hXh ^°\!^°T" '^P""'""^ '^^ ^^^^^t por- -ore severe. A Ferg^on SSe' 2 om '' "^" ^'°" *^^* ^'^^ ^"-^te is - P-Pitation is .0 S^che". "^^^^1::::^^ f^J^^ 11 i I I . I 'i w r ! 262 C CM M I S S I O N OF CONSERVATION ForMt Conditions 26 inches, about one-third of which is snow. The above figures show thai the basins lie well within the wet belt, the lower altitudes being drier than those above. Of the total area, 47 per cent is above the merchantable timber-line, leaving 53 per cent below. Of this amount, all but 164 square miles, or 7-4 per cent, is capable of bearink' timber. While forest fires have badly damaged the timber, they have not yet been sufficiently severe to render any considerable area incapable of re- covering, or to bring about the replacement of the original forest with lod«c- pole pine reproduction, except as to small areas along Kootenay lake. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE UPPER KOOTENAY LAKE AND DUNCAN RIVERT DRAINAGE BASINS Classes of lanil Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timbir, M.b.f. 1.0t2 66 274 .*22 .«0 164 470 30 12-3 14-5 15-8 7-4 Below merchantable timlwr-line — \rt*a 4->nrrvirnj 10 fKMl h f or more UtT &CTC 633.600 Area carrying tetween 5.000 and lO.OOO b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1.000 and 5.000 b.f. per acre. l,3t5,2(Hl 644.000 Area incapable of carrying timber Total 2.218 2,592,H(K1 Merchantable Timber by Species The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Upper Kootenay Lake and Duncan River drainage basins, is as follows : Douglas fir, 454,680 M.b.f.; red cedar, 842.560 M.b.f.- hemlock, 549,720 M.b.f.; balsam. 130.160 M.b.f.; spruce, 356,400 M.b.f.! white pine, 129.640 M.b.f.; larch, 129,610 M.b.f.; or a total of 2.592,800 M.b.f.' Cedar-hemlock, Douglas fir-larch, and Engelmann spruce are the principal types of the region. The cedar-hemlock type occupies the bottoms of the valleys of the moister situations up to an altitude of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet. In the drier parts, the Douglas fir-larch type is present up to this aititude. Above 3,500 feet, the Engelmann spruce type generally prevails. On the flood plains of Duncan river small areas of the cottonwood sub-type are found. The lumbering operations have been mainly confined to the Lumbering lower end of Duncan river and along the Lardeau-Trout F.ake Operations French. A combined railway and water transportation route connects the head of Trout lake with Kootenay lake. This latter lakr is tapped at its southern end by the Crowsnest line of the Canadian Pacihc railway. The heavy timber in the upper part of Duncan river is accessible from the head of Kootenay lake, where it can be milled and carried to po.nts on the railway at the south end of the lake. Mining is a prominent industry of the region. The min-.-ral todtStries resources have for the most part not been developed, though I FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR oP B.C. 2M mining claims are located throughout tu^ . ■ of Trout la.e. has. in the plsrSr^I^^l Jr^' ^ ^he head short'ran":^1h:trrUel^^^^ along Kcotcnav la.e and a or will be. the principTl fndus Jv M ^u. '7«^V«'"»"^«^- ^^^^ rising is. the climate is too^ever?L:triSi„,f;/'*S,%;^^ 'T '^°"^^«'' on the small areas lying along the LaZu-rZt iTtrlnch J^^^^l'^ nver between altitudes of 2.000 and 2 SOO r!lf t! *5®"''^*"^ *^ ^"can square miles. 4-7 per cent of thV whoi. . J' " estimated .hat 105 cultural pur;uits w[n b" confined thir?'"?"''' "'^ "''" '''"^•" "^^''^ ^^^ statutory timber. Th.rty-two square miles of this carries Lower Columbia R.ver akd Salmo R.ver Drainage Bas.ms Potitioii and Phrtieal Fetturn ■rta ot these mountains is above 6,000 feet. ' """ .«ro o, «., With a .inter mean TJ. a„"t 1^1^43 S""" L'^S recorded temperature is 100° and the lowest - 1 7" olT J V "'S^est of 3,500 feet has a m^an ">^ , ? " ^o^sland, with an altitude 2S» IZ """^' temperature of 42», with a winter mean of te' .owesV-7'" %T °' '"° ^ ^'^'•^'^^' ^^^^^'^^^ temperatur?[s 90 "and u.e lowest 17 . The mean annual precipitation of Nelson k ?s in.h. about one-t ird of which is sn.w. while'the 'record for RosSand 3 nearly 30 ien V hT V""'"'' °'."'"' " ^"°"- T'^^ ^^'l^y °f the Columbia' v" .th s On ti^T/T'^f '•°"' "'^^ '" ^'^'''' ^"1 P^-bably fal^beloVro mches. On the other hand, in the upper half of the valley of the Salmoth. precipitation will probably average well over 30 inches ' '^' Ten per cent of the area is above merchantable timber-line and 90per cent below. Of the 1.150 square miles below the' the amount tharrttaW^tf "•"'^■^' '' ^^T^ ""^^ '' ' ^°"^^ ^'^^^^^^ half nf 'fhT u '"^^P^^'^ '^^ carrying merchantable timber. More than h^t of the area has been badly burned, but is mostly re-stocking wUh some kind of growth, except where fires have occurred recently Forest Conditions i 3M COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THK LOWER COLUMBIA AND SALMO DRAINAGE BASINS w ClaMMi of land Area, K|. miles Percent ige of entire area Saw-timUr M.b.f. 122 57 111 320 572 90 too 4 4 8-7 25 1 44-K 7 0 Below mcrc'hantahtc timt)er-line — 547,20(1 Arra cftrr>inK l)etwcen S,0()0 ami 10,000 b.f. per acre Area inK t)ctween 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. Area rarrvinff voiino ffrowlh 532,H(MI Area incapable of carrying timber Total 1.272 1,489.600 MMcluuitabl* Ttanber by SpeciM The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Lower Columbia and Salmo drainage basins is as follows : Doug- las fir. 189.200 M.b.f.; red cedar. 515.360 M.b.f.; hemlock, 263,840 M.b.f.; balsam. 20,480 M.b.f.; spruce, 162,560 M.b.f.; white pine, 128,480 M.b.f.; yellow pine, 20,480 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 40,960 M.b.f.; larch. 148.240 M.b.f.; total, 1,489,600 M.b.f. Cedar-hemlock, Douglas fir-larch, and Engelmann spruce are the princ.pal forest types. The latter usually occurs above 4,000 feet altitude. The yellow pine type occupies small areas along the Columbia river, but has been mostly logged. The Douglas fir-larch type usually occupies altitudes between 2,500 and 4,000 feet. In some places, however, it is found below 2,000 feet ; sui h cases occur where moisture conditions are slightly more favourable than those required for the yellow pine type. Logging operations are, for the most part, limited to the main Open^s valleys of the region. The mills are situated at strate^jic points along the railways. The Canadian Pacific railway traverses nearly the entire length of the Columbia valley, below Lower Arrow lake, and the Great Northern traverses the upper half of the Salmo valley. From the town of Salmo, the Great Northern traverses a side valley to the Columbia. The easily accessible timber is almort gone, hut ^ide valleys contain considerable quantities that .an be logged at slightly hi^jher costs. Mining is the principal industry of the region. Small areas FrSforoirtiiB °^ agricultural land lie along both the Salmo and Coluinbia valleys. Fruit raising is the chief farming industry. Because of the mountainous nature of the region, its extension is limited. There is a lim* amount of land suitable for timber grazing, but so far it has been uf but little. It is estimated that 212 square miles comprises the area withm which agricultural pursuits will be confined. This represents !66 per cent of the total area. Thirty-one square miles of this carries statr.tory timber. i n I FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OP Be Lower Amow Lakb avd Sukan Rivir DRArwAOB Basimi lU Podttonud Physical PMtttTM '^a'T'' °! '^i!^^^"^ ^"n'^h °«="Pi«l by Lower Arrow lake, and the entire Slocn secondary trench, comprise the axe« of v',11. It ^*^ ^""y *" Mparated from each other bv the Valha la ran^e of the Selkirk mountains This range is a hi«h mL,d one attam,n« an alt.tude that varies from 6.000 to well over 8.0o!i'feet " ranJof%he'selkirks Th'*' °" '1' '^'' '^ ''^ ^°""'«™ ''''^'f °^ »»'« ^locan range oi the helkirks. This ranjje has an average altitude of over 7 000 feet • ZTh th" •"''"" '-"^ ^"'^ ''"^ ^-' The western bouX7; LhTh , "^ '*'^^""f "* "^«« of the Monashee .mountains, a small ^rtSn of ociKiric irencn ts 1,382 feet, the leve of Lower Arriw i fi-uros of IT; r'^'TV '^^ ^'^^''' '"'^*" temperatures within the ...o; The preop.tat.on of the region will vary from about IS inches to neariy 30 mches LssthlT- .^^ "'''^'^' '■" '^' '"^^'y' '''''^ f™™ the trench. The area ot" less than 20 .nches precpitation is very small and lies along the shores of Uwe Arrow lake, extending a short distance up Slocan river. Twenty-five per cent of the area is above merchantable timber- l.ne.and2.1568quaremiles.or .5percent.isbelow. Of thelatter able timh^ TK '*'""l "'!" '' considered iucapable of bearing merchant^ Sf ft riJ^Ja Jt r*'""' T "^'^ ^''^^y ''""^^^ °^«^' «^P«='«»v that portion 111 ^ , ^°*'' ^"°^ ^^^^ ^°^ "°""d Sl°<=an lake. The burned r7g?na7wst ™^ ^r'^'''"^^'' * ^""''^ ^'^^^ -"'^'^ 'he species of^he ongmal forest. Small areas, however, are being re-stocked witVlodgepole Forest Conditioiia Classes of land AlK)ve merchantable timlK-r-Iine Below merchantable timber-line— .\rea carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrymR between 5.000 .in.i 10.000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5.000 b.f. per acre Area carrying young growth ... Area incapable of carrying timber Total. Area, sq. miles 708 102 178 450 1.178 248 2.864 Percentage of entire area 25 3-5 6-2 15-6 411 8-6 Saw-timber, M.b.f. 652,800 854.400 576,000 2.083,200 MerchuiUble Timber by Species 287,520 M.b.f. The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Lower Arrow Lake and Slocan R.ver drrinage basins, is as follows • Douglas fir, 345.120 M.b.f.; red cedar. 532.320 M.b.f.- hemlock' ; balcam. 10^ <'48 M.b.f.; spruce, 356.160 M.b.f.; white pine' i ! i! I f t ! ■! i ! I I n I i (i COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION iji. Lmnbariai OpMratiOM 97,632 M.b.(.; yellow pine, 7I,S20 M.b.f.; lodKepole pine, 100,320 M.b.f.. iM-ch. 185,760 M.b.f.; or a total of 2.083,200 M.b.f. Cedar-hemlock, Encclmann ipruce, DouKlas fir-larch and yellow pine arc the principal forett types of the region. Enxelmann ipruce usually occurs above the 4,000-feet contour. The cedar-hemlock type is luund in the moistcr portions of the region, below 4,000 feet altitude, along the mountain streams. The yellow pine type is found in the driest portions, usually below 2,500 feet altitude. The Douglas fir-larch type is present in that portion of the region below the 4,000-feet contour, where the rainfall does not exceed 26 inches. Logging operations have been confined to the easily accessil>It- timber tributary to Lower Arrow lake, to the combined rail and water transportation that traverses the entire length uf the Slocan trench, and to its tributary streams, especially Little Slocap river. The mills are found at strategic points on Lower Arrow lake, principally at the southern end, and on the Slocan river. Mining is the principal industry of the region, the main centre being situated on the railway that connects Slocan lake with Kootenay lake. Narrow patches of land along the trenches, and in some instances extend- ing up the side valleys, are suitable for agricultural purposes. Fruit raising is the principal agricultural industry. The val'.eys of Inonoaklin (Pire valley) and Whatshan creeks contain considerable areas of land ^hat can be utilized for mixed farming purposes. It is estimated that 258 square miles, or 9 per cent of the entire basin, comprises the area within which agricultural develop- ment will be confined. Of this area, 32 square miles is covered with statutory timber. Upper Arrow Lake Drainage Basin Other ladttstriti Position and Physical Features The axis of this drainage basin is situated in that portion of the Selkirk trench occupied by Upper Arrow lake. It lies Just south of the southern boundary of the Railway Belt. The region is bounded on the east by the upper half of the Lardeau range of the Selkirk mountains, and on the west by a section of the Mcnashee mountains. The Lardeau range is, for the most part, high and rugged, with peaks that extend well over 8,000 feet. The section of the Monashee mountains that ferns the western boundary, especially the northern part, contains peaks oi an altitude well over 9,000 feet. There are a number of fairly prominent tribu- tary valleys. On the east side are the Kuskanax, St. Leon and Halfway creeks ; on the west are Arrowpark, Vanstone and Pingston creeks. Ihe streams contain fairly wide U-shaped valleys, and carry most of the standing timber. The Trout Lake-Lardeau trench, which connects the Selkirk and the Purcell trenches, opci.s into the northern end of Upper Arrow lake. The lowest elevation of the basin is 1,383 feet, which is the low-water level of Upper Arrow lake. Nakusp, situated near the lower end of the lake, has a mean annual ti-m- perattu-e of 43°, with a winter mean of 27°, and a summer mean of 60°. The ;tli'i I ,1 ;__ P«)REST RBSOUHCKS oK T II K INTKRIOR .)P B C J67 hiRhett recorded temperature is 9.V «nd the lowest -5". This station pro- bably represents the warmest section of the basin. The precipitation of the bas.n >s probably between 25 and 40 inches. The former fiKure holds for the portion of the area at low altitudes along the lake, while the tributary valleys W.11 show a precipitation In^twocn 25 and 40 inches, the latter amount occur- ring at ihe higher altitudes. roTMt Twenty-nine per cent of the area is above the merchantable CoaditiMs timber-hne. and 71 per cent, or 8J2 square miles, below. Of this area. 164 square miles is considered incafiable of bearinjr merchantable timber. AlthouKh the region has been damaged by forest fires IMS recovering from this damage by good reprotluction. mostly of the species that formed the original forest. CLASSIFICATION OP LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OP MERCHANTABLE TIMBER IN THE UPPER ARROW LAKE DRAINAGE BASI.N "*'«^«' '^ Claues of land Almve merchantable timtier-liiie Below merchantable timU-r-line — Area cftrr>ini{ 10,00() b.f. or more per acre Area < arr>ini{ between 5,000 and 10.000 b.f. wr iu.re .^ren carrying between 1.000 and J,n:»b.f. per acre Area carryinB young growth .^rea incapable of carr>-ing timlxir .......... Total. Area, Ml. miles MM 106 204 240 164 1,169 Percentage of entire area 2<* 10. 1 <>0 17 4 20-5 14 0 Suw-timljcr, M.h.f. 1.132.800 50H,HOO .W1,6H0 2,aV?.280 MerchantabU Tiaber by Spscits The amount of merchantable timber, bv species, is as follows • Douglas fir, 248.352 M.b.f.; red cedar, 830,784 M.b f ■ hemlock" ^ **3'7'2M.b.f.;balsar ,101.664 M.b.f.; spruce. 287.520 Mbf- white pine, /8,566 M.b.f.; lodgepole i .ie. 19,584 M.b.f.; larch, 23 098 M b f"' or a total of 2.033,280 M.b.f. .">» ^vi.o.i., Cedar-hemlock is the principal forest type of the region. It occupies the motster portions of the tributary valleys, up to an altitude of 4 000 feet A thin zone of the Douglas fir-larch type is found along the Upper Arrow lake f ^r! ^ ^^^ '°''^'' ^^*^- ^^""'^ ^^^^"^ *yP«^' between altitudes of 4,000 and 6,JuO feet, IS the Engelmann spruce type. Industrial '^^^ '°^*^'"^ operations of the basin have been confined mostly Operations to the accessible timber along the lake. The mills are at or near Nakusp and at the head of Arrow lake. The mining resources of the basin have been little developed. Small areas of agricultural land are found along the lake, especially near ^^c southern end. where iruit growing is the principal industry. Portions of the valleys of Vanstone and Arrowpark creeks contain agricultural land that wu be suitable for mixed farming. It is estimai;ed that 119 square miles, or 10 1 per cent of the basin, comprises the area within which agricultural de- ' ' I! ii' f I" li m \'ii a i 26K COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION velopment will be confined. Of this area, 40 square miles carries statutory timber. Kettle River Drainage Basin Position and Physical Features This basin extends from the international boundary, through one degree of latitude, to the 50th parallel. It is bounded on the east by the axis of the Monashee mountains, and on the west b} the axis of the divide that separates it from the Okanagan trench. It thus drains a portion of the western slope of the Monashee mountains and part of the extreme eastern portion of the southern Fraser plateau. The main Kettle river flows in a southerly direction, through about the middle of the drainage basin, approximately dividing the Fraser plateau and the Monashee mountains, until it reaches a point near the international boun- dary, where it makes an abrupt turn east and almost parallels the boundary, until it leaves British Columbia altogether near the southern end of Christina lake. Granby (North fork of Kettle) river rises in the axis of the Columbia mountains, and flows directly south, joining the main river near the inter- national boundary. It separates two ranges of the Monashee mountains, namely, the Christina range, on the east, and the Midway mountains, on the west. The drainage basin of the west branch of the Kettle, the Westkettle river, is entirely within the Fraser plateau. The Kettle river and its main tributaries have U-shaped valleys. Only small portions of the area lie above the 6,000-feet contour, the lowest altitude of the basin being about 1,460 feet. The mean annual temperature of the portion of the Kettle valley near the international boundary is 44°, with a winter mean of 24°, and a summer mean of 62°. The highest recorded temperature is 104° and the lowest is —42°. I'hese figures do not represent the averages for the upper portions of the valley nor for the higher altitudes. The precipitation in the valleys near the boundary is about IS inches, but meagre data and the character of the vegetation show that this very dry condition does not exist in the upper portions of the valleys nor at the higher altitudes. Thus, a one-year reading for Carmi (altitude 2,792 feet), on the Westkettle, shows a precipitation of 2i inches, and Lynch creek (altitude 1,900 feet), on Granby river, has an annual precipitation of nearly 23 inches. Twelve per cent of the area is above merchantable timber-line, and 2,716 square miles, or 88 per cent, is below. Of the latter, 92 square miles carries grass or very open timber, and 162 square miles is considered incapable of carrying merchantable timber, leaving 2,462 square miles that is timber-land. The region has been very badly burned, and over large areas the original forest has been replaced by lodgepnle pine, or by this species mixed with Douglas fir, larch or Engelniann spruce. Forest Conditions FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF n. C. 269 CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER IN THE KETTLE RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of lanJ Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre . Area carrj-ing between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying young growth Area incapable of carrying timber. .......... Area carrying grass or very open forest . ......... Total. Area, sq. miles 359 109 810 1,543 162 92 3,075 Percentage of entire are.i 12 3 26 50 5 3 Saw-timber, M.b.f. 408,800 1,296,000 I,"Ot,800 The amount of merchantable timber by species in the Kettle River dramage basm is as follows : Douglas fir, 402,280 M.b.f.; red cedar, 20 440 M.b.f.; hemlock, 4.088 M.b.f.; balsam. 129.600 M.b.f.; spruce. 287 816 M b f • wh.te pine. 8.176 M.b.f.; yellow pine, 150,040 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 300,080 M.b.f.; larch. 402,280 M.b.f.; or a total of 1,704,800 M.b.f. Yellow pine, Douglas fir-larch and Engelmann spruce are the principal forest types of the region. The former occupies the lower altitudes at the southern end of the valley and forms islands in the Douglas fir-larch type on southern exposures, up to altitudes of 3.000 feet. The Douglas fir-larch type occurs at altitudes between 2.500 and 4,000 feet, above which lies the Engelmann spruce type. On moist sites, especially in the valleys of the western slope of the Monashee mountains, there are small areas of the cedar-hemlock type Large areas of the temporary lodgepole pine type have replaced the original types. Lumbering hogging operations are mostly confined to the Granby valley Operations and around Christina lake. The mills are situated at favour- able points on the Boundary branch of the Canadian Pacific railway, which traverses that basin from east to west, along and near the boundary line. A railway extends some distance up the Granby river and a branch of the Great Northern connects the region with the main line in the Lnited States. The Kettle Valley railway traverses a portion of the main Kettle river and of the Westkettle and crosses the divide to Okanagan lake and thence to the Coast. These railways afford outlet for the small amount of timber that is manufactured. Where irrigation is possible, the climate near the boundary line is favourable for fruit raising. Agricultural areas best suited for mixed farming extend some distance up the main valleys. The rough, open areas and timbered lands adjoining them aflEord Kood grazing. It is estimated that the area of arable land aggregates 370 square miles, or 12 per cent of the area of the basin. Of this. 12 square miles tears statutory timber. The chief industry of the region is mining. The main mining centres are at Grand Forks. Greenwood. Phoenix, and on the Granby river. Other Industries I \ 270 i S^ ,!! 11^ i commission of conservation Shuswap River Drainage Basin Podtion and Physical Featnrm This basin comprises that, portion of the Shuswap River drainage lying south of the Railway Belt. The river rises in the Rail- way Belt, flows south through Sugar lake, turns abruptly west for a short distance, then north through Mabel lake. The outlet of this lake is wholly within the Railway Belt. It flows west to the Okanagan trench, and then north, along this trench, to Mara lake, an arm of Shuswap lake. The portion of the river under discussion, and its numerous tributaries, for the most part lie within the west slope of the Monashee mountains. The southern branches drain a small section of the Fraser plateau. This section of the Monashee mountains rises to an altitude of well over 7,000 feet, with some peaks along the axis of the mountains of 9,000 feet or more. The lowest altitude of the basin is 1,270 feet, the level of Mabel lake. The valley of the Shuswap river and its main tributaries have the usual U- shaped form in cross-section, the slopes of which rise abruptly into the flankinj; mountain ranges that border them. Only \f-:y meagre climatic data are available for the region. The n^ rest station for the moister portions of the region is Griffin lake (altitude 1,511 feet), lying north in the Railway Belt. Incomplete recr "^ for this station show a precipitation of 34 inches, about two-fifths of wh is snow. A one- year record for Richlands (altitude 1,400 feet), lying in a wide valley near the southern part of the beisin, shows a precipitation of 24 inches. The moister portions of the region have a precipitation of between 25 and 35 inches. To- wards the east, however, this probably drops to about 20 inches. The warmest parts of the basin probably have a mean annual temperature of about 42°. Sixteen per cent of the area is above the line of merchantable timber, and 1,163 square miles, or 84 per cent, lies below. Of the latter, 121 square miles is considered as incapable of bearing timber, leaving 1,042 square miles as the area utilizable for producing merchantable timber. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER. IN THE SHUSWAP RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN ^ Forest Conditions Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timber, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 224 118 72 300 552 114 7 16 8-5 S-2 -.•5 40-5 8-2 01 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrj'ing 10,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrj-ing between 5,000 and 10,(X)0 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrying young growth l,510,4(Ht 345,C)iMI 600,()i)n J Area incapable of carrying timber Area carrj'ing grass or very open forest Total 1,387 2,450,(11)0 While fires have badly damaged the timber of the Shuswap basin, much of it is reproducing fairly well, mostly with species of the original growih. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 271 Some areas have been entirely captured by the lodgepole pine temporary type, especially in the driest portions of the region. MerehanUble The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Shuswap SMdes**^ ^'^" drainage basin, is as follows: Douglas fir, 280.160 M.b.f.; red cedar, 933,360 M.b.f.; hemlock, 547.680 M.b f balsam, 117,856 M.b.f.; spruce, 201,152 M.b.f.; white pine. 166.272 M.b.f yellow pine, 18,912 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 80,736 M.b.f.; larch, 109,872 M b f or a total of 2,456,000 M.b.f. Cedar-hemlock, Engelmann spruce, and Douglas fir-larch are the principal forest types. Small areas of yellow pine occur on exposed sites in the drier portions of the region. Engelmann spruce occurs between the 4,000 and 6,000- feet contour lines ; the cedar-hemlock type is found below this altitude in the wet valleys, and the Douglas fir-larch type in the drier portions of the valleys. Lumbering hogging operations have been confined to the timber adjacent Operations ^° the miin river below Sugar lake, principally around Mabel lake. This timber is driven down the Shuswap river and milled at Enderby, on the Okanagan branch of the Canadian Pacific railway. The timber lying above Mabel lake is accessible in the same manner. Short railways may be necess. -y, however, to enable the smaller streams to be logged. A projected railway, connecting Vernon with points on the Shuswap river between Mabel and Sugar lakes, would, if built, render the timber on the Shuswap more accessible by saving the long drive. Favourable localities along the Shuswap and its tributary are Farming suitable for mixed farming purposes. The principal farming at the present time is raising forage crops, mostly hay. Favour- able warm sites are suitable for growing fruit, but, for the most part, the climate is too severe for this industry. It is estimated that 146 square miles, or 105 per cent of the basin, comprises the area within which agricultural pursuits will be carried on. Of this, 3 squa-e miles carries statutory timber. Position and Physical Features Okanagan Drainagb Basin This basin extends from the international boundary to the southern boundary of the Railway Belt. The Okanagan trench is the main axis of the basin. Okanagan, Dog and Osoyoos lakes occupy most of the area of the bottom of the trench. Short sections of the Okanagan river connect the lakes with each oth',r. The trench has a broad U-shaped form, and rises abruptly to the uplands of the plateau which flank the trench on either side. The bottom of the trench has an alti- tude varying from 913 to 1,125 feet, the latter figure being the level of Okanagan lake. The streams that border the trench on either side are short, but have U-shaped valleys. The uplands have an average altitude of about 4,500 feet, with some portions above the 6.000-feet contour. The annual mean temperature of four stations on or near the lake is 46°, With a winter mean of 26°, and a summer mean of 64°. The highest recorded i i. ( tl u ii , •i >■ 1 ! 1^ '3i 272 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION temperature is 104°, and the lowest -22". The temperature of the adjoining uplands is much cooler. The stations on Okanagan lake show an average precipitation of about 12 inches, one-third of which is in the form of snow. A short record for Fair- view, in a side valley near the boundary line, shows a precipitation of 9 inches. A one-year record for two stations at the heads of the side valleys, at an elevation of approximately 4,000 feet, shows a precipitation of about 20 inches. This indicates that the moisture conditions of the uplands are much more favourable for forest growth than are those of the main valley. The vegeta- tion along the lake is grass or very open forests. (See Stand Type map.) South of the lake, where the rainfall is below 10 inches, the vegetation ap- proximates arid conditions, and sagebrush is a conspicuous element in the vegetativF cover. Forest '^^^ basin, situated in the Fraser plateau, has but two per cent Conditions °^ its area above merchantable timber-line. Of the 2,825 square miles situated below this line, 774 square miles consists of areas of water, grass or very open timber, and land incapable of bearins timber, leaving 2,051 square miles suitable for growing timber. On the area given as carrying a stand of less than 5,000 feet per acre, there are many small patches that would run about 5,000 feet per acre, but •* has not been feasible to segregate these. The batin has been badly burned, especially on the uplands. These areas are re-stocking with lodgepole pine or with this species mixed with Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, and, in places, larch. CLAFSJFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE OKANAGAN DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timber, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 71 22 422 1,607 250 524 2-4 0-8 14-6 5S-4 8-7 18- 1 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carr>-ing 10,000 b.f. >jr more per acre Area carrj-ing between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre . Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrving young growth 105,&(H) 844,000 Area incapable of carrying timber Area carrying grass or very open forest Total 2,896 949,600 In the Okanagan drainage basin, the amount of merchantable timber, by species, is as follows : Douglas fir, 284,880 M.b.f.; balsam, 28,488 M.b.f.; spruce, 113,952 M.b.f.; yellow pine, 427,320 M.b.f.; larch, 94,960 M.b.f.; total, 949,600 M.b.f. Yellow pine, Douglas fir, Douglas fir-larch and Engelmann spruce are the principal forest types. The yellow pine type usually occupies the region below the 2,500-ft. contour line. On exposed southern slopes it will extend up to 3,000 feet. Islands of this type occur also in the areas shown on the map as open or semi-open lands. Douglas fir is usually found above the 2,500-ft. contour FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR O F B. C. 273 Lumbering Operations line, but. on northern slopes, it may be found at lower, and on southern ex tT"l'„? '^'"5'' ,f •'"''"• '' ''^'"^'^ ^° the limits of he Engelmann spruce' TndT 00 St Vh: r '''' 1 f' '^^'"- ^"'^ ^t' altitudes betwee S and 4.000 feet. The temporary lodgepole pine type covers large areas but the crudes do not mdicate that lodgepole pine has'r'ached merchLuble sLe itT'"?'. °^ "?" '"'"' ^'' ^^""'^ '" the basin. The logs are obtamed from the small patches of timber usually situated at some distance from the lake. Most of the timber is commer cially maccessible at the present time. commer- An Africultur.1 "^l"^ ^^^'^ ''^ primarily an agricultural one. Owing to the drv District chmate however, irrigation is necessary, and conservation o^ of the forest cover F^r'"'^ of the uplands depends upon preservation or ire orest cover. Fruit raismg is the principal industrv thouirh stock raising is also important. The open and semi-ooen land^ r.^\h« i minor valleys afford good grazing' land. Co™ Is'cln be .oln ^^^ T' time, considerable wheat was produced The areas ^nLhr^' ^""^'.^t °ne have practicairy an been taken u'p. eitherirliti^Sn oTf^ ^ I^pC^^^^ ^1 ur't^d OtV:r'' "'"■ °^ ''■' P^^ --^^ °^ the whole'TsTrt cultural land Of this. 13 square miles carries statutory timber while S24 square miles ,s too dry for this purpose. Except where LltiVal a is m grass or very open forest. "'"va.^ .a Nicola River and Similkameen River Drainage Basins Position Md These basins lie between the Okanagan basin, on the east and the Railwav Rplt nn (■*,« .. — t j _ , . ' " Physical Features fi,o t> -1 T, , v^-o'iagaii uasm. on tfte east, am the Railway Belt, on the west, and excend from the inter- norMi T^. ..."^tio^al boundary, on the south, to the Railway Belt, on the north. The Nicola basm occupies the northern section and the Simikameen the southern section of the area. The greater portion of the area He wS the . uthern part of the Fraser plateau. At the south, however the con tnuity of he plateau is broken by spurs of the Cascade mountains The main Similkameen river rises just south of the 49th paralleUnd flows north gaining the area between a portion of the Okanagan range on the easTand the Hozameen range on the west. At Princeton, it is joined bv the Tn^^^! nver, which rises in the Railway Belt, and has a general ralr^courleTrom wUh ttof ' """ °' ^'^ Similkameen is south-eastward to its confluenc^ Mth the Okanagan nver. just south of the international boundary of OkTnLrTu""" T '^ ^'■^^^ P'^^^^" -^PP^^'te the western tributaries of Okanagan lake. It has a general westeriy course, until it crossesThe boundary of the Railway Belt, where it makes an abrupt northwest turn and maint this course until it joins the Thompson river' Its ma n ributary nd h. " "T '" '^' ""^"^^^ ^'''- "=^'- ^'^■^ headwaters of the CoouS' and has a general northeriy course, joining the Nicola at Merritt A he main valleys have the usual U-shaped form in cross section If- li ^ !i 74 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The uplands of the plateau have a general elevation of about 3,500 feet, with small portions on the Okanagan border rising to about 6,000 feet. The ranges of the Cascade mountains, near the 49th parallel, are high and rugged, some peaks reaching an altitude of over 8,000 feet, with a fairly high percentage of the mountains above 6,000 feet. Within the region under discussion, the lowest altitude of the Similkameen valley is 1,170 feet, and of the Nicola valley, 1,825 feet. The climatic conditions of the basins vary according to the altitude. A station at Nicola lake (altitude 2,056 feet) has a mean annual temperature of 42°, with a winter mean of 24°, and a summer mean of 60°. This station has an annual precipitation of 1 1 inches. The following shows the temperature conditions of points in the Simil- kameen valley, and includes one station in the Okanagan range : Station Altitude, feet Annual .lean Summer mean Winter mean Annual precipitation, mches Princeton Hedley 2,112 1,771 1.372 4,500 42* 45° 47" 38* 61* 64° 68* 52* 20' 25° 26° 20° 13 11 Keremeos Hedley Mines 8 26 These stations show a higher precipitation and lower temperature con- ditions for the higher altitudes. Eight per cent of these drainage basins lie above the line of Conditions merchantable timber. Such are .s are found mostly in the Cascade mountains, near the international boundary. Of the 4,332 square miles, or 92 per cent, of the area below this line, 3,563 square miles is considered capable of carrying merchantable timber. A large portion of this area has been badly burned, but is reforesting, mostly with lodgepole pine. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE NICOLA-SIMILKAMEEN DRAINAGE BASINS Classes of land , Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-tinber, Ahovp merchantable timber-line ... 361 168 470 2,925 190 581 8 '3^5 9-9 62-3 40 12-3 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carr>-ing young growth Area incapable of carrjing timber 80^,400 75J,OilU Total 4,695 1 5.^s.4lrt) The amount of merchantable drainage basins is as follows : balsam, 22,560 M.b.f.; spruce, 1,004,992 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 37,600 M.b.f. Merchantable Timber by Species timber, by species, in these Douglas fir, 424,480 M.b.f.; 68,768 M.b.f.; yellow pine, total, 1,558,400 M.b.f. iS ! ila' FOREST RESOURCES „p THE INTERIOR OP B.C. m Lumbering The largest mill in the dry belt draivin.r Jf. „. ■• «n.b.r „i„. a,,™r„"ra;.tr.™':^;.'"r,ur "" ti "-^ Xicola rivers. traverses the bimilkameen. Coldwater and Stock-raising is the principal industry of the reeion Th. 1., open and semi-open lands, together with » i., '^'^® "^*^ °f afford good grazhig iTtheZsZZl^^^^ Percentage of the timber-land. annual temperature is above 4rSu.W°" "' ''' "'"'y^' "^'^'''^ ^»^^ -^«" farming has'Llso provedtccessflf orstelTsfte': ' ^r?'"' V"'"^^'>'. ^^^^ crops, irrigation is necessarv tn «„«,.. *Tu "^^"""^ ^"^'^ ^"' ">~»'ains t he •ith the Bea^rfoot Jv.r iZ^^TT*"'" '"""• «» "' J""nioa -Plies into ;i:tta,;hra."s 1 r STcSK 'r. "«--="'■»«■ a«a >m.« being the Be.verioot, wh^e "alle^J^ tS' IrthT' ""'$■""■ "■' "»=!. form the Beaverfoot-Kootenay „,fS i B.» Z'^. ''°r"*>' «.d „o„, the Columbia valley by ttfBeaverfL^ange ' """' " ' .l.-ai»Td''by tt B^^^Zr^Zl r™ °' "I ""' '""- " "■» R~''- »P««chee„ .ye. -aTrario^^h'Tse'lSr 1^ Vtr^a^ey, It M' 1 i!fT' j J ; 1 11 ' 1 1 ^ 1 i i ii 1 11 i i 1 .i ! i ill Ii m i\ 376 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION the Others, has a typical U-dLar'^a form, parallels the general trend of the Columbia river, and is sepcrr ro from that river by a low range of mountains. The portion of the Purcell trench within the Railway Belt is drained by the Beaver river. Both the Selkirk and Rocky mountains contain high, rugged peaks, some of which reach an altitude of over 10,000 feet. The higher portions of these mountains contain numerous large glaciers. The Dogtooth range of the Selkirks, while not so high, nevertheless has a considerable .)ortion of its area above the 6,000-feet contour. The lowest altitudes of the region are found in the bottom of the Rocky Mountain trench. At Golden station the altitude is 2,583 feet, and where the Columbia river crosses the northern boundary of the Railway Belt the altitude is about 2,300 feet. The average of two stations (Golden and Donald) shows that this portion of the Rocky Mountain trench has a mean annual temperature of about 39°, with a mean winter temperature of 15°, and a summer mean of 59°. The highest recorded temperature is 97°, and the lowest -51°. The climate of the side valleys is much more severe than the lower altitudes of the Rocky Mountain trench, though there are no specific records. In the trench, north of Donald, the precipitation is still greater, but, to the east, as the summit of the Rocky mountains is approached, there is a gradual reduction in precipitation. Fifty per cent of the area is above the merchantable timber- line. Of the 1,581 square miles below this line, 224 square miles is considered incapable of growing merchantable timber. Over large areas, lodgepole pine has replaced the original growth of spruce, balsam and other species. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE GOLDEN SECTION OF THE RAILWAY BELT Forest Conditions Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Sav-tin:1*r, M.h.t, Above merchantable timber-line 1,594 68 126 420 741 226 50 21 40 13-3 234 7-2 Below merchantable timber-line — 652.S1X) Area carrying between 5,000 and lO.lXX) b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . (.(H,MH( S0(i,4(H) Total 3,175 2,0(4,1)00 Mercluntuble Timber by Species In the Golden section of the Railway Belt, the amount of merchantable timber, by species, is as follows : Douglas fir, 206,400 M.b.f.; red cedar, 61,920 M.b.f.; balsam, 227,040 M.b.f.; spruce, 1,238,400 M.b.f.; white pine, 20,640 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, :09,600 M.b.f.; total, 2,064,000 M.b.f. Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir and cedar-spntce, and the temporary lodgepole pine, are the principal types. Of these, the Engelmann firuce formerly covered the largest portions of the region. Where it has not been destroyed by fire, this condition still prevails. The temporary lodgepo'c pine M Ih Rositioii and Physical FtttUTM FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OP B.C. Ill which indicates that this species is in the ascendancy again. iU^^SlS •** ^m1**'" '"^V""^ '^^ * prominent saw-milling centre. Smaller Hneuitur. ^.u, are found in the Columbia and Kicking Horse valleys. lanH ,nifaKi , ^"^"""^^'^ "^e* '" ^^e Columbia valley there are patches of land suitable for agricultural purposes. The climate is too severe for fruiN raismg on a commercial scale, although small fruits do well. Owing to climatic conditions however, these lands wiU ultimately be used for dairyinrand cattle-raising. A imited amount of the timbered area can be used for grazing purposes. A portion of the Columbia river has a tortuous course wTth fl<^ p ams. and is subject to frequent overflows. Forage crops may be gLn^ he higher and drier portions of these flood plains. It is'estimated 'that 12J Stri^d^ioir/nr °^ ''- -"'''• ----^ ^^« -- -----^^'^ ^t Railway Belt— Revblstoke Section The axis of this drainage basin is that portion of the Selkirk trench that traverses the Railway Belt. The basin lies between the summits of the Selkirk and Monashee mountains The flanking mountains are of high altitudes, having neaks that reach from 9 000 to over 10.000 feet. A portion of their areiL covered w^th glaciers. The lowest altitude of the trench is 1.384 feet, at the soutJ^ n uTo S Th' ^"^"'^ 5f • ^' *'^ ""^^^'^"^ '^-"^-^ •'- •' ^" bo"; nni T„ « P"""P*' tributary valleys are those occupied by the Incom- appleux lUecillewaet and Jordan rivers. These are typical U-shapTd mountain valleys, whose heads are occupied by glaciers Revelstoke (altitude 1.497 feet) has a mean annual temperature of 43» .ith a winter mean of 23°. and a summer mean of 61». Its highest recorded temperature is 100» and the lowest -25°. Glacier (altitude 4.09ffeet).Suated 6' with? V"""' °' tlf^'' '''''''• ^^^ ^ ""-" — ' temperature of 36 , with a winter mean of 23°, and a summer mean of 54°. The hiehest Zt t'^Tf ""' " *'" '"^ '''' '°"^^* -''"■ "^^^ temperature condition of these two stations represent nearly the extremes for the entire region The annual precipitation of Revelstoke is 42 inches, about one-third of which IS m the forni of snow ; that of Glacier is 57 inches nearly thre^tinh e effect o/n-ff "" °' ^Z' '^'^"^ *"° ^'^^'^^^"^ ^^-«°"^ ^^ow strikingly GkcW 1 T"f '" ^''''"''' °" ^'^ '"^'^^^^^ ^"d temperature conditions ealt oTttToast rfn?e.'"^^^^ *''" *''* "^°^'^' '' ^"^ °*^^^ ^^^*•- Forty-nine per cent of the area lies above the merchantable timber-hne. Of the 8I0 -uare miles lying below the line. 120 timber l« • '^of ^ ™^^' '' considered incapable of growing merchantable bnr;hrT I '^u"" "^"'^ ^°' '^' "^^ °^ timber-land. The timber Lns i-^ « wf.^"' l'"''. ^""^^^ ^^""^^"^ ^y ^''' b"t the climatic condi- tions are such that much of it can recover its former forest growth Forest Conditions 1:1 27» COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN Till REVELSTOKE SECTION OF THE RAILWAY BELT Clawicg of lanil Area, iq. miles I'en-entage of entire area Saw-tini!- r, M.b.f 801 105 W ISO 354 120 49 6-5 56 4'4 220 7 5 Brl»w menhantulile timber-line — Area i'irr>ini{ tU.UUO l>.f. or more per acre Area carr>in|{ betwien S.OOO ami tO.OOO ti.(. per ocre Area carryinu lietwecn 1,000 and 5,000 b.(. per acre. , Area carr>'ing young gmwth Area inia|Mililf of carrying timber l,.U4,fNlO 45n,iiii() 2(t5.(HK) Total 1,620 2,0"'>,INKI Sp«ci( MtreiuutabU Tifflbw The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Revel' stoke section of the Railway Belt, is as follows : Douglas tir, 135,000 M.b.f.; red cedar, 864,000 M.b.f.; hemlock, 468.750 M.b.f.; balsam, 100,380 M.b.f.; spruce, 346,650 M.b.f.; white pine, 1.^5,720 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 28,500 M.b.f.; total, 2,079,000 M.b.f. Cedar-hemlock, cedar-spruce and Engelmann spruce are the forest types of the region. The latter type is usually found above the 4,S00-feet contour. The cedar-spruce type lies between the 3,500 and 4,500-feet contours, and the cedar-hemlock below the 3,500-feet contour. Lumbering •c'ing young growth Area incapable of carrying timber Total. Area, sq. miles 252 280 iSO 1,089 24,? 2,40,? Percentage of entire area 11 ll'2 "■8 14-0 45-,? 10- 1 Saw-limber, .M.b.f. 2,<)88,0 and Salmon Arm. The climatic conditions are favourable to fruit-Krowiu^ but mixed farming is likely to be more profitable. On most of the ar. .i alienated for agricultural purposes, a limited amount of timber grazing i available. It is estimated that 277 square miles, or 1 1 -5 per cent of the wh< >le comprises the area within which agricultural development will be carried mh Of this, 10 square miles carries statutory timber. I ! r / !! Railway Belt — Kamloops and Lyttom Section PotiUoB and "T**" section lies almost entirely within the dry belt, and com J^IJjJ"' prises the area drained by the Thompson river and by a portior •• of the Praser river. The South Thompson river di8char^;e! Shuswap lake and joins the North Thompson at Kamloops. Below Kani' loops it is known as the Thompson river. The latter follows a westerly course, to Ashcroft, where it takes an abrupt turn to the south, debouching into the Fra-ier river at Lytton. The principal tributaries of this river an the North Thompson and Bonaparte rivers, which enter it from the north, and Nicola and South Thompson rivers from the south. Only the lower reaches of the three first named lie within the Railway Belt. The section of the Eraser river that traverses the extreme western portion of the Rail- way Belt has a southerly trend. The valleys of all these rivers have a ym- nounced U-shaped form, and their bottoms are from a few hundred to 4,000 feet below the level of the uplands. The lowest altitude of the region is the Fraser river at Lytton, about 475 feet. The uplands have an altitude varying from 3,000 to 4.000 feet, with some areas reaching above 6,000. At Kamloops (altitude Vl61 a ;t), the -.nenn annual temperature is 47°, with a winter mean of 26°. and a summer mean of 67". The highest recorJod temperature is 102°, and the lowest -31°. Spence Bridge, at the mouth of the Nicola river (altitude 774 feet), has a mean annual temperature of 48°, with a winter mean of 25°, and a summer mean of 68°. The highest recorded tem- perature is 105°, and the lowest -29°. These two stations give a fair average of temperature conditions in the Thompson valley. At higher altitudes the climate is much cooler. Kamloops has an annual precipitation of 11 inches, and Spence Bridge 9 inches. Edith lake, near Kamloops, altitude 2,000 feet, shows a one-year record of 16 inches, indicating, as would be expected, that the precipitation increases with altitude. Probably some portions of the uplands will show a precipitation that will approach 20 inches. Forest Conditions i^i Seven per cent of this area is above the merchantable timtwr- line, most of it within the east slope of the Coast range. Of the 5,232 square miles below the merchantable timber-line, 858 square miles is incapable of bearing merchantable timber. This leaves 4,374 square miles that can be called timber-land. PORBST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OF B. f. m 1 1.ASSIFICATION OP LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OP STANDING TIMBER IN THE KAMUXJPS-LYTTON SECTION OP THE RAILWAY BELT Claucii of lunil Al- Aemcrthont .Mr tinit)er-line Bi I w merrlmnt' > timt«r-lin»' — Arm laroing lO.OOO h.f. or nrnrr jicr at re Ar.a lurryinK between 5.000 ■n.l tO,(M)0 t..f. per airr Ar.u (arryiiiK >»twcen 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per ace. Area tiirryinK ymnv! Kniw th Ana inca|uili|r of carrymi; timber Arou carrying gt^m i.r very open fore«t ...'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'. Total Area, H|. milea 415 44 .»70 650 i.UO 177 6Ki .VM7 IVrtrntuKe of entire area 6-5 II A iK (, .M U 5 S(iw.linib«r, Mb.l. 35i,() 6-X 2-8 Below men liantalile timber-line — Area carrviiif,' IO,(KK) b.f. .2(p!i III II) The distribution of merchantable timber by species, in the ' Big Bend ' of Columbia River and Canoe River drainage basins, is as follows ; Douglas fir, 443,108 M.b.f.; red cedar, 3,048,320 M.b.f.; hemlock, 1,019,728 M.b.f.; balsam. 176,680 M.b.f.; spruce. Merchantable Timber by Species FOREST RESOURCES OF THE I \ t E R I O R OF B.C. 2S3 ■ t'jUK and 1,452,844 M.b.f.; white pine, 112. 480 M.b.f.; lodgcpolc pine, 12,840 M.b.f.- total. 6.266,000 M.b.f. Cedar-hemlock and cedar-spruce are the most important forest types of the region. The former lies in the bottom of the valleys and on the lower benches of the rivers of the Selkirk trench. The latter occupies the higher benches and lower slopes of this region, and the bottoms and all the benches and lower slopes of the rest of the drainage ba.sin. Between 4,000 and 6.000 feet alt'':iide, the Engelmann spruce prevails. The subalpine type in this drr^.a^c '.cjui is composed of balsam fir, Engelmann spruce, white-bark i)ine, lor ..t pole pine ;inii Mountain hemlock, in varying proportions. Lunbering operations in this region have not been extensive. br. have been confined mainly to the portion of the Selkirk Uench lying immediately north of the Railway Belt. The natural outlet for the heavy stands of timber in the valleys of these drainage basins is down the Columbia river, to Revelstoke. or to the head of Upper Arrow lake. A small amount of timber is tributary to the Canadian Northern railway, where it crosses the headwaters of Canoe river. The agricultural areas consist of narrow strips of land, lying here and there along the main trenches, and on some of their tributaries. They are, for the most part, heavily timbered. The cost of clearing and the relative inacces- sibility of the region are against its immediate agricultural development. A few adventurous pre-emptors have invaded the ujiper regions of Canoe river, but, up to the present time, little or nothing has been done in the way of agri- culture. It is estimated that 144 square miles, or 3-1 per cent of the whole, comprises the area within which agricultural pursuits may be carried on. Of this, 92 square miles bears statutory timber. The mineral resources of the region are not at present being utilized. Position and Physical Features Adams and Seymolr Rivhrs Drainage Basin This drainage basin comi)rises a triangular area which lies on the west slope of the Monashee mountains just north of the Railway Belt. Its eastern border is the summit of the Monashee range and its western border lies well towards the western edge of these mountains. It is separated from the North Thompson river by a low, and, for the most part, timbered divide. Adams river rises in the extreme northern portion of the region, follows a southerly and south-westerly course, and enters the north end of Adams lake (altitude 1.357 feet). Besides Adams river, the main tributary of the lake is Cayenne creek, which drains the medial region between Adams and Seymour rivers. Seymour river occupies the south-eastern section of the region, and empties into the north end of Seymour arm. a branch of Shuswap lake (altitude, 1,137 feet). The Monashee mountains, the axis of which forms the eastern boundary of the basin under discussion, rise to an altitude of between 7.000 and 8.000 il':'^ i I 284 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATIOX feet. With the exception of small isolated areas, there are no other mountains within this region higher than 6,000 feet. The average elevation of the areas between the different drainage lines is about 5,000 feet. While there are no meteorological stations lying within the area, indica- tions are that the precipitation is between 30 and 40 inches. The average temperature for the valleys will probably be between 38° and 43". Forest Eighteen per cent of the area is above the line of merchantable Conditioni timber. Of the 1,422 square miles below this line, 112 square miles is considered incapable of bearing timber, leaving 1,310 square miles as the timbered area. Fires have damaged large areas wit: •'. the region, particularly along the lower half of Adams river. Fires have, in places, extended over the divides. but heavy stands of timber still remain along Cayenne creek, the upper reaches of Adams ri^"". and nearly all of Seymour river. Where the fires have been severe, lodgepole pine forms a considerable part of the reproduction, but, for the most part, the original forest growth is gradually re-stocking the burned areas. CLASPiFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER IN THE ADAMS-SEYMOUR DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line — Area carr>-ing 10,000 b.f. or more per acre. . . Area carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre. Area carr>ing between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrj-ing young growth Area incai lile of carr>-ing timber Total Area, sq. miles 306 48 293 380 589 112 1,728 Percentage of entire area 18 2-7 170 21-9 340 6-4 Saw-timher, .M.li.f 614.21)0 l,4'>5,(li)ll 729,o(JO 2, SOS, SOD The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Adams-Seymour drainage basin is as follows : Douglas fir, 390,610 M.h.f . ; red cedar, 1 , 100.440 M.b.f.; hemlock, 421,320 M.b.f.; balsam, 182,690 M.b.f.; spruce 587 S92 M.b.f.; white pine, 125,848 M.b.f.; total, 2,808,800 M.b.f. ' Cedar-hemlock, cedar-spruce and Engelmann spruce are the forest t\i)es of the region. Engelmann spruce lies above the 4,000-feet contour, an.i the cedar types below this altitude. Lumbering operations have been carried on around the hra.i of Seymour river, and along Adams lake and river as far n.irth as Harbour creek. The outlet of this timber is through Sc nour arm and Adams lake, to shipping points on Shuswap lake and South Thoin-ison Lumbering and Other Industries nver. Favourable patches of agricultural land are found around the l\ra.l of Seymour arm and along Adams river, but, as yet, the country is very siK,r.ieIy settled. It is estimated that 38 square miles, or 22 per cent oi uie FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF PC. 285 whole, comprises the agricultural area, of which 5 square miles carries statutory timber. Position and Physical Feature! North Thompson River Drainage Basin This basin comprises the area drained by the North Thompson and its principal branches, excepting a section of the North Thompson that traverses the Railway Belt, and an area drained by Mahood river (Bridge creek), a branch of the Clearwater river. The North Thompson river rises in the south-eastern slopes of the Cariboo mountains, a short distance north of the headwaters of Quesnel lake, and follows a south-westerly course to its junction with the Albreda river ; thence the course is south to near Wire Cache station, where it makes an abrupt turn to the west to its confluence with the Clearwater. From this point it takes a southerly course and joins the South Thompson river at Kamloops. The Clearwater river rises in a series of lakes near the head of Quesnel lake, and flows south to its junction with the North Thompson. Barriere river is the only other imp irtant tributary of the North Thompson. It falls in about midway between the mouth of the Clearwater and Kamloops. All the valleys have the distinct U-shaped form. The upper portions of the North Thompson river and its tributary, the Albreda, are flanked on either side by high mountains, that reach an altitude of 7,000 to 8,000 feet. The lower course of the river flows through the eastern border of the Fraser plateau, whose uplands have an average altitude of between 4,000 and 5,000 feet. The bottom of the valley of the North Thompson varies in altitude from 1,185 feet, at the northern boundary of the Railway Belt, to 2,866 feet at the Albreda summit. The Clearwater river has an altitude of 1,3.?6 feet at its mouth, and of about 4,000 feet in the lakes near its headwaters. With the exception of the headwaters of the Barriere river, the southern " of the North Thompson river is in the dry belt, and the valley has a pre- . tion of between 15 and 20 inches, with perhaps a slight increase for the . _ oouring high regions, especially on the east. The conditions are the same for the lower portions of the Clearwater river. The northern half of the North Thompson is, however, well within the wet belt, and has a precipitation of more than 30 inches. The mean annual temperature of the southern half of the basin is prcl^ably between 43° and 45°. The mean annual for the valleys of the northern half is probably between 38° and 40°. Thirty-nine per cent of the area is above the line of merchant- able timber. Of the 3,945 square miles, or 71 per cenL of the area, below this line, 239 square miles cannot produce mer- chantable timber, leaving 3,706 square miles as the area capable of growing timber. Damage by fire in this region has bton great. In places where repeated fires have prevailed, the usual lodgepole pine invasion is occurring. For the most part, however, the damage to the region has not been so great as to destroy all reproduction, though over large districts the re-stocking of these barren areas is at present incomplete. Forest Conditions M 11 286 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION II liii I, CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOI NT OF STANDING TIMBER IN TIIK NORTH THOMPSON RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Above mfriluiiita' le timber-line Bell w mercliantalilc limber-line — Area carryin>; l(),()00 b.f. or more per acre Area carrying between S.OOOaml 10.000 b.f. per acre Area carrymK between l.(K)Oand 5,000 b.f. per acre Area carrjinj; younp; growth Area incapable of car-;.inK timber Area carrying grass or very open forest T..t.! Area, sq. miles 1.5«() 174 510 2,629 220 10 5.5.M Percentage of entire area 28-7 .<-2 71 47.5 41 ■2 !>iiw-timl)f: M.b.f. 1.670,40(1 l.«.S0,4()(i 979.20(1 4,5.?6,0()(l Merchantable Timber, by Species The distribution of merchantable timber, by species, in the North Thompson River drainage basin, is as follows : Douglas fir, 631.440 M.b.f.; red cedar, 1.137,456 M.b.f.; hemlock 364.032 M.b.f.; balsam, 420,192 M.b.f.; spruce. 1.794,240 M.b.f.; white pme, 71.136 M.b.f.; yellow pine, 19,584 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 97 920 M b.f.; total, 4,5.^6.000 M.b.f. A narrow strip of yellow pine is fou.id along the North Thompson ri\er near the Railway Bejt. Douglas fir flanks the yellow pine on either side. extending to an altitude of about 4,000 feet as far north as the mouth of Mad river, and a short distance up the Clearw-.ter river. The cedar-spruce type occurs at lower altitudes at the headwaters of the Barriere river, also along the northern portions of the North Thompson and Clearwater valleys. Between the altitudes of 4.000 and 6.000 feet is the Engelmann spruce type. The subalpine type is above 6.000 feet altittidf, and comprises Engelmann spruce, balsam fir. lodgepole pine and white-hark pine. Lumbering Lumbering operations in this drainage basin have been con- Operations fined, up to the present, mostly to the valleys of the North Thompson and Barriere rivers. The Canadian Northern rail- way has. however, rendered more accessible the heavy stands of timber in ihe northern section of the Thompson watershed. The heavy stands at the head- waters of the Clearwater can be driven down the Clearwater or carried across a short portage to Quesnel lake. The Clearwater is not considered a Rood driving stream, and the latter outlet will probably prove the more economical. From Quesnel lake the timber can be driven down the Quesnel river. If the Pacific Great Eastern railway, now under construction, is completed, it ca;: he taken out by this line or by a branch to the foot of Quesnel lake. The mineral resources of this region are not, at prui-iiit. being developed commercially. Considerable areas of -..-.ri- cultural land lie along the southern section of the X. rth Thompson, the Clearwater and the Barriere rivers. The northern section . ; : he North Thompson watershed has narrow strips of agricultural land in place- Other Industries FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 287 Position and Physical Features Agriculture is well developed along the lower North Thompson and Barriere rivers. It consists mostly of mixed farming. The adjacent timber lands afford fairly good grazing. Fruit can be raised at certain sites near tht southern end, but, as a whole, the country is best adapted for stock raising. It is esti-' mated that 262 square miles, or 4 7 per cent of the whole, comprises the area within which agricultural pursuits will be carried on. Of this, 4 square miles bears statutory timber. Bonaparte and San Jose Rivers and Mahood River Drainage Basins These drainage basins comprise that portion of the Fraser plateau that lies between th3 Fraser river and the water- parting west of the lower North Thompson river. They extend from the northern boundary of the Railway Belt to the divide of the Quesnel River drainage. With the exception of the northeastern third, tne waters of this region reach the Fraser river. The northeastern third, comprising the drainage of Mahood river,* drains into the Clearwater, a branch of the North Thompson. Bonaparte river drains the greater part of the southern portion of the region, and the San Jose river, the north-western portion. Between these two rivers, on the west, are a number of small streams, which drain directly into Fraser river. This basin has an altitude of 675 feet, in its extreme southwestern corner, on the Fraser river, and 7,400 f. et, in the Marble mountains, near the south- western corner. The average altitude of the regie , i:; about 3.500 feet. One- sixth of the area lies below the 3,000-feet contour, one-half between 3,000 and 4,000 feet, and one-third above 4,000 feet. The precipitation of this region varies, from 12 inches along the Fraser river, to about 20 inches at the higher altitudes. The lower altitudes along Fraser river have a mean annual temperature of about 45°, with a summer mean of 66°, and a winter mean of 24°. The mean annual temperature of Chnton (altitude 3,040 feet) is 40°, with a summer mean of 50° and a winter mean of 20°; the highest temperature recorded here is 96° and the lowest -51°. Most of the region of the plateau north of Clinton will probably have a mean annual temperature of between 35° and 40°, though no climatic data are avail- able to show this. Forest 9"'^ *^^'° ^^^ ^^^^ °^ ^^^ ^'"^^ *^ above the line of merchantable Conditions timber. Of the 6,082 square miles below this line. 4,865 square miles is considered capable of growi- : merchantable timber. Large areas of this region have been badly burned, l hese areas are re-stocking, mostly with lodgepole pine. Some of the area classified as open land IS capable of producing timber. It was reduced to this condition by repeated fires. Such areas contain good grazing, and will probably never be allowed to re-stock with forest growth. * -Maliood ri. -r was formerly known as Bridge creek. 2«H COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION VH^xJL'.S/^Ii^Jii'SJ'^^'"^- WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER. IN TilK DRAINAGE BASINS OF BONAPARTE AND SAN JOSE RIVERS AND BRIDGE CREEK Classes of land Alxive mercliantahlc timber-lino Below merchantable timber-line- Area carr\in(» 10,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrying i)et\veen 5.000 and 10,000 b.f. per acrv Area carr>inK t)ctween 1.000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carr\ injj young growth Area incapable of carrying timber Area carrying grass or" very open forest Total \rea, s<|. miles 141 10<) 640 4,119 Mi 883 6,223 Percentage of entire area 1-8 10-3 66-2 5-4 14-3 Saw-timtxr M.b.f. 508.MO I 1.305,60(1 1,814,400 Merchantable Timber by Species The amount of merchantable timber by species, is as follows •' Douglas fir, 1,026.720 M.b.f.; red cedar, 5,088 M.b.f.; balsam 101,760 M.b.f.; spruce, 274.752 M.b.f.; yellow pine, 160.000 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 246,080 M.b.f.; total, 1,814,400 M.b.f. The greater part of the area below 4,000 feet was formerly 'jvered with the Douglas fir type of forest ; this has been completely obliterated, over lar^je areas, and replaced by stands of lodgepole pine. In the southern portion of the region, along the Bonaparte river and other small streams, there are small patches of the yellow pine type. These patches represent the northern exten- sion of this type in British Columbia. Above 4,000 feet altitude, the spruce type prevails, where it has not been destroyed by fire and replaced by lodijc- pole pine. The small area above 6,000 feet altitude has the subalpine type, which here consists of alpine fir, Eiigelmann spruce and lodgepole pine. Lumbering Scattered throughout the district are small portable mills, which and Other cut timber for local use only. Most of the district is too dry to carry heavy standc of timber. The patches of Douglas fir will average not over 3,000 or 4,000 feet per acre, while spruce will averajje about 6,000 feet per acre. The region under consideration is primarily adapted to stock-raisiii;;. Besides the large areas of open lands, there is, in the aggregate, a consideralile area of open glades in patches throughout the remaining forest, and these, with the small meadows around the numerous lakes, afford very good grazing. Where irrigation is practicable, the small area on the benches of the Fra>cr river in the southwestern portion of the region is well adapted for fruit-growing. Other areas, favourably situated, have proven suitable for dry farming. !i is estimated that 1,030 square miles, or 16 '5 per cent of the whole, compri-'-s the area within which agricultural pursuits, mostly stock raising, may be carried on. Of this, 883 square miles is too dry to carry merchantable timl .. r. Position and Physical Feattires Bridgr and Chilcotin Rivers Drainage Basins This region comprises that section of the Fraser River water- shed drained principally by Chilcotin an'l Bridge rivers. It extends from Fraser river, on the east, to the summit of the FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 2»9 Coast mountains, on the west. It includes, also, the headwaters of the Homath- ko nver. which nses m the Fraser plateau, and breaks through the Coast mountains, finding its outlet in the Pacific ocean. Bridge river lies in The extreme southern portion of the region, and drains a high un-named spur of the Coas mountains. The headwaters of the Chilcotin consist of several lakes that he near the eastern base of the Coast mountains. The main river has a general southeriy and south-westeriy course and debouches into the Fraser nver^ Besides these principal streams, there e a number of smaller ones. riv.7t T^uu ?^ ^^^ ?*^'°" ^'"^ ^'""^ ^^^ f*^-'^' ^he lowest level of Fraser ril tV n 1 h'KV''''''o°^ '^' ^"""^ mountains. Peaks in these mountains nse to a height of over 9,600 feet. The altitude of the plateau, which com- prises th*» largest part of the area, is from 3,000 to 3,500 feet. The valley of the Fraser nver is U-shaped in form, flanked on either side bv well-defined V IW of tJ r JrT- '•''' '" '-'"^ '''' ^^'"" ^^^ ^-^^ °f ^he uplands. The alley of the Chilcotin is similar to that of the Fraser, except that towards its lZt7.JX ruTT °'u'' """'^ " ""'^'^ ^^^''-- Ch'-X" '-K«. the head- Hi n .. u ^-^^"'^ °^ '^^ ^^'''=°''"- h^^ ^" ^''''"d^ of 3,860 feet, and hes well within the Coast mountains. Tatla lake, the headwaters of the Chilanko branch of the Chilcotin, has an altitude of 2,980 feet. Tatlayako lakcN near the headwaters of Homathko river, has an elevation of 2 723 feet low Th'e?" '''%7''^'" '^'^'y b«^t- ^"d hence the precipitation is usually !>>, ^^V^'°" °/ ^°^'^^^ ^'t't"de« alo"K the Fraser river is arid and covered with sagebrush. Its annual precipitation is probably less u,an 10 inches hough a five-year average for Lillooet (altitude 840 feet) shows a precipitation of ISmches. BigCreek (altitude 3, 100 feet) has an annual precipSn of i? mches, about one-third of which is in the form of snow. A on -year reeo d Sic' fhlr " "'^ ^"T ^""^ ^""^^ ^^•''^"'^^ l-^OO^-t) is 16 inches L.llo^,t has a mean annual temperature of 4S», with a winter mean of 24° and summer mean of 66° Chilcotin (Big Creek), on the other hand, has a me^n ' ThTiir";" "' '/^ "''' ^ ""^" "^^^ °^ '''' -^ ^ ™- --nof -SOO ^^^^^^ recorded temperature for this strHon is 102° and the lowest Forest Twenty-nine per cent of the area is above the merchantable Conditions timber-line. Of the 9,279 square miles, or 71 per cent, below ,1, * u- , ■ ^'^^^ ^'^"^'"^ ^^^^^ cannot carry timber of mer- chantab^e value. This leaves a total of 7.944 square miles'for timber-irnd. Iv for .Z"' T I T"" ""' ''^^-0^'^ >^"ds are. for the most part, too ^> for growing timber. Repeated fires have, no doubt, been responsible for faXTh?";-''' ''" "'' '° ''' P^'^^^"^ ^°"^"'°"- P'-^ h-^ burned ov nearly the entire area, most of which is now reproducing with lodgepole &Tv"' l^^- ^""T* ? '"^^'^^^"table timber, by species, in the drainage sS ^ ^^''"" «^ Chilcotin and Bridge rivers, is as follows- spruce 330 650 ST/^' ^J' -^^^^^^ ^^■^■^■' ^"'^^'"' '^''•296 M.b.f.;" pruce. 330.650 M.b.f.; wnite pine. 3.891 Mb.f.; yellow pine 287 232 M h f lodgepole pine. 503.091 M.b.f.; total. 2,191.360 Mb.f. ' ' ll hJ 290 COM MISS ON OF CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN TUf DRAINAGE BASINS OF BRIDGE AND CHILCOTIN RIVERS Clowes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-tinil)cr, M.b.f. 3,708 ",18 l.MO 6,8M 428 907 219 ■3 7-9 52-7 i-2 6-9 Below merchantaWe timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrying tjetwcen 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carr>'ing l^twi-en 1,(X)0 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrying young growth Area incanable of carrvinff timber ' V94,';r,0 1,99(.,8(KI Area carrying grass or very open forest Total 12.987 2,191,300 For a short distance along Fraser river, and in patches along Bridge river the yellow pine type is found. Over most of the area, the Douglas fir type comprised the original forest, but, as a result of fires, it has been replaced to e large extent by the temporary lodgepole pine type. Above 3,500 feet altitudi the Engelmann spruce type is found. The few small mills found in the region cut lumber for local use only Cattle raising is the principal industry. The open lands afford winter grazing when the snow is not deep. Open glades occur at many points in the vast area of the timber-covered portion, and these increase the grazing possibilities of the region to a material extent. Some alpine grazing lands occur in the high mountains, but, as a rule, these areas are little utilized. Natural meadows supply hay for winter feed, but forage is raised also on irrigated lands alonj or near the Fraser river. When irrigated, the lands at low altitudes in the extreme southeastern portion of the region are capable of growing fruit. It is estimated that 941 square miles, or 7'2 per cent of the whole, comprises the fjea within which agricultural p'lrsuits can be carried on. Of this, 90/ squf.re miles contains little or no forest .^rowth. Position *nd Physical Festtires Nech.\ko and Blackwater Rivers Drainage Basins This large region, comprising 22,529 square miles, includes the portion of the Fraser plateau drained by the Nechako rivei (except the Stewart River branch), the Blackwater river, and the upper portions of the Dean, Bellakula and Klinaklini rivers. It extends from the Fraser river on the east to the axis of the Coast mountains on the west. The three last named rivers break through the Coast mountain.s and fall into the Pacific ocean. The altitude of the uplands of the plateau is between 3,000 and 4,000 feet, gradually rising westward into the high, rugged Coast mountains. Scattered throughout the plateau are isolated peaks a id mountain ranges, which vary in altitude from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. The valleys of the plateau lie from a few feet to 1 ,000 feet below the upland.s. A prominent feature of the region is the large number of lakes, which have a total area of 894 square miles. The largest of these are the Eutsuk (altitude 2,810 feet), Ootsa (2,700 feet), Frangois \ \ PORRST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OP B.C. 291 (2 375 feet) and Fraser lake (2.192 feet). Quesnel (altitude 2.250 feet) Su«o?4o' :r """• "' '''' "**^" ^'^"- ^- « -«" annual S: station probably represents the mildest temperature conditions of the reg on e^xept. perhaps, some portion of the Dean River valley, where temperature con ' d,t.ons may be modified by the warmer currents of air coming from the^cTt Quesnel has an annual precipitation of 14 inches, about one-third of which « m the form of snow. The average for the plateau is probably Stweln 14 and 20 inches, though the eastern foothills of the Coast mountains may Sap, show a precipitation of from 25 to 30 inches. pernaps Forert '^!'^'^ ^'^ considerable areas covered with grass, especially Conditiont along the Blackwater river, but their situation is not ac- curately defined. The table indicates that 8 per cent of the S "f t°v i^!,"?"'!!""'*^'' timber-line. Perhaps no re^on^n the southern half of British Columbia has been so badly burned as this, yet a very S percentage of it has a forest cover of some kind. The areas of grass have probably been brought to their present condition by fires. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER IN THE NECHAKO-DLACKWATER DRAINAGE BASINS Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line. . Below merchantable timber-line — Are.' carryi.ig 10,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carr>-inK between 5,000 ami 10.000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acr' Area carry mg young growth . . Area incapable of carrying timber Area, sq. miles Total. 1,725 141 2,970 15,779 1,914 22,529 Percentage of entire area •6 13 1 69-9 8-4 Saw-timber, M.b.f. 676,800 3,801,600 4,478,400 Diitributioii of MerchuUble Timber ' iruce, M.b.f. The merchantable timber, by species, in the Nechako and Blackwater drainage basins is as follows : Douglas fir. 617.040 9 7n7o,nV,'K. ,.'^' ^^'^^^ ^^■^■^■' balsam. 481,680 M.b.f.; -2.707,920 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 604,080 M.b.f.; total, 4.478.400 firt '^^^ ^^"lu^fl"^^^^ *^'P^' °^ ^^^ "^•°" "« *he Engelmann spruce-alpine fi type and the lodgepole pine type. Toward the western and north-weS an T' °" """T' "'''• '^"' "' ^''^' '^^' ^°"tain the Douglas fir typT and there are indications that it formerly covered larger areas in this pa^ of he region. Toward the foothills of the Coast mountains there are^al areas covered with the hemlock-Engelmann spruce type. Lumbering There are a few small mills on the Fraser river and along the Sd^^eV ^'- ;' the Grand ^runk Pacific, but logging operations hive timh», f *u- ^™^*'^^"y ^^^^^^ ^'"^« the construction of this railway. The .mber of this region is not likely to be marketed for a long time. Except for small areas, it is mostly immature. ^ I ' fs i I i i V ■ m roMML.ilON OF CONSERVATION Lari^c areas aroun I IJI-i Position and Physical Features This section of the Fraser drainage basin lies between iho 52nd and 5,?rd parallels of latitude, and east of the Fraser rivir. Its eastern boundary is the divide between the headwaters of the Quesnel and Clearwater rivers. Quesnel lake is the most important geographical feature in the Quesnel drainage. Its headwaters arc not far distant from Hobson lake of the Clearwater drainage. The general tnnd of Quesnel lake is east and west ; its outlet, Quesnel river, has a general nortli- eart course and debouches into Fraser river at Quesnel town. About two-thirds of the drainage lies along the south-western slopes ot the Cariboo mountains, the remaining third being within the Fraser plateau. 'I ho Cariboo mounti 'ns here have an altitude of 7,000 to 8,000 feet. From this, the altitude of the region becomes lower, through the foothills of the Carilioo mountains, to the Fraser plateau, where ihe average elevation is 3,000 fiet. The descent from this plateau to the Fraser river is abrupt. The latter lies in a U-shaped valley, the bottom of which a\'erages about 1,500 feet altitude. The average precipitation of the Fraser valley itself is 15 inches, alimit one-third of whicb is in the form of snow. There is a gradual increase in the precipitation from the river to the foothills of the Cariboo . tains, where it averages about 20 inches. In the valleys of the foothills, ai.a -ong the south- western slopes of the Cariboo mountains, the precipitation will average from 20 to 40 inches, tliree-sevenths of which is in the form of snow. The annual mean temperature of this portion of the Fraser valley is 40°, with a winter mean cf 20° and a summer mean of 60°. The highest temixra- ture recorded is 100° and the lowest -50°. At the higher altitudes, the mean annual temperature is probably 35° for the valleys, and below this for the mountains. Eightee.i per cent of this drainage basin is above the mer- chantable timber-line. With the exception of 433 square miles, all the area below this line is considered capable of bearing timber. The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Questiel River drainage basin is as follows : Douglas fir, 286,800 M.b.f.; red cedar, 1.720,800 M.b.f.; hemlock, 573,600 M.b.f.; balsam. Forest Conditions Merchantable Timber CLASSIFICATION OF I.WDs wi in vM,.,vr „ AIkivi- nMTilmntat)li. timUT-Unc Hclnw nu-r. Iiantal.lc I JmlnT-lini- - Area carrymK Wm l.f. „r m..r,. ,,.., ,„ r. •>"■«• larryiriK Ix'tHCfii ,^.0(K)aii,l lllimii i .■ . r.-a oarryiMK b.-t«....n I Ca" Z,, ' k^;";" Arcil in.apalili- <.f larrvinj; tinit,,.r Area farryini; grass nr'vrn- oprn fori-st Total . 55 .«N5 Id 1.' .' U ') 4*. 4 us 52S,(KK) 1,70 ,,S(K) 5,7.Ui,0()0 ^- Jh:.,^ el L^^^'^" r /'^^^"f--" spruce-alpine fir, the P'.lc pine. The En, ■ mann s™^ T "' *"' '^"'^ ''''' ^^""M-orary lodge- contour. The Dou«la fir tv^i ''!;"' "" ''''' "^'""^^ "''"^'^ ^^^^^ '*'«00-feet and the cedar typTs to the SsrcrT' 'k !''' '"" """''^"^ "^ '^e basin, pine type is conE ^^ te Z^ po "r^lf tt^^ ''""^ '^u '''"' '""^'^P"'« burned. The subalpine iyvo^J:TZ:^':^T'^ ^^ "^^^ '^'^y and conssts of EnL'ehnAnn ^„r„.. i • !• S.-SOO-fect contour, white-bark pine. ' ' "'"'"' "' '"'' '"'^'^^'""'^' "i"*-- with some Indu.tri.1 ^'^^^ 'he exception of a few small mills situated near the settle merus, no lumberin. operations ha-o been carried ^n in f stands Of timbe:ridQtsnTSrd'it^t';;L; --r"^^^'^ ^-^^^ river to Quesnel town, on the line of the P oj ed Pa ^G^^tZt'^ '^T'''' A more practicable outlpt fnr tuia ,• u ■',.' ^'^'"'^ "-^reat Lastcrn railway. portion of the l».i„ s ock rliln' »«;■■»»"."««">« i" the southwestern cropsa., .he „ri„dpa, J:! STr aV 'kToSt »ct"'"''' "'J '"'" be MiKzed for dry tarmine. It is estiniled ttat «I ?"■ ''°""™'' •he area within whieh a.rL.tura, TuSt^^? he ^rt^ro" ""'" """"""^ Position and Physical Features Willow and Bowron Rivers Drainage Basins This region comprises that portion of the Frascr drainage that lies between the north end of thp r=^u^^ "i rise in the water-parting that separate* them from the drainage of Quesnel river and Cottonwood creek They have a general northerly course. The Bowron river empties into the Fraser, near the mouth of McGregor river. Willow riv« joins the Fraser, 25 miles above Prince George. Small portions of the foothills of the Cariboo mountains reach an altitude of over 5,000 feet. The valleys of the two rivers vary in altitude from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. That portion of the Fraser plateau which lies within these basins has an average elevation of from 2,000 to 2,500 feet. The only meteorological station within the basins is Barkerville (altitude 4,180 feet), which lies in a mountainous valley near the headwaters of Willow river. Its mean annual temperature is 35°, with a winter me&n of 19" and a summer mean of 53°. The highest recorded temperature is 93°, and the lowest, —46°. The precipitation at this station is 36 inches. Barkerville represents probably the lowest temperature and the highest moisture conditions for the valleys of this region. The precipitation for the drier northern portion of the region is probably about 20 inches, and the mean annual temperature is near 38°. Eleven per cent of the area is above the line of merchantable timber, here estimated to be at the 5,000-feet contour line. The region shows evidence of having been burned over about This old bum, however, has reforested itself, with the excep- tion of the northeri and southern parts, which have again been burned more recently. This new orest is now nearly mature, and covers more than one- half of the area of tht two basins in question. Forest Condltiont 100 years ago. m I sin CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER. IN TlIK WILLOW-BOWRON DRAINAGE BASINS Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timtHM, M.b.f. 354 31 1,399 390 859 116 11 1! 44-5 12-4 27-3 3-7 Below merchantable timber-line — Arpn, rarrvini? 1(1 000 b f. fif (nore Der acre 297,60(1 Area carrying lietween 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying l)etween 1,000 and .S.OOO b.f. per acre. . 6,715,20(1 748.S(K) ArpA inranable (A carrvintT timber Total 3,149 7,76I,WH) The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Willow- Bowron drainage basins is as follows : Douglas fir, 350,640 M.b.f.; hemlock, 70,128 M.b.f.; balsam, 813.600 M.b.f., spruce, 5.049,792 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 1,477,440 M.b.f.; total, 7,761,600 M.b.f Merchantable Timber by Sp«cies FOREST RKSOURCKS OF tHK INTKR.oR uV BC m DoZ^V^f ? " ''"" ^ ^"' •" *^^''''^"*^'' '^^''^ « '«'K«^r amount of Douglaa fir wai formerly mtcrmixed with this species. Areas of the te.nuc^ar lodgepole p.ne type are to be found where .severe burns have cKcul^cd '^Ca , Lumb«ri«( J}]*" ^'""^ !">"»' ''"«=i«c railway crosses the northern e.,d of Op.r.tl<». this reRton. from the mouth of the Bowron to the mouth of Willow nver. At the mouth of Willow river, a larce mil is loRRing the timber that lies immediately adjacent, while a smaU mTopT ate ^^en^'Ssivr °"' "" '*^'" ''''■ ^°«-« «--'°- ^-- - f- - rhU !^T °' 1*1' **'"*^' "" "'""^ ''^^ "PP" half of the two rivers that drain r=th^?--rdr^::— -^^^^ T^nk Lrffi. p A 7 ""'^ '""'''''^ ^°' aRriculture lies near the Grand wrybuTthus fir on.v ! ""'"' 'n" ^^''" "" Pre-emptions along this ra^I- way. but thus far only a very small area has been actuallv cultivated The .mate permits raising hardy vegetables and grains, as well as ro^ and forlge crops. The region is perhaps best suited for dairy farminR It .s estimated that 248 square miles, or 79 per cent of the whole com- pnses the area within which agricultural pursuits can be camei o? Of th^ 5/ square miles carries statutory timber. ' Upper Fraser River Drainage Basin This region comprises the area drained by the upper Fraser rr^ *M ?u .'"';'" ^'^"'^' '^"^ ^IcGregor river, known also as the North fork. The Fraser river rises in the Rocky mountains, near Yc!l..whead pass and flows in a generally westeriy direction to T6te Jaune. where it enTers the Ro^kv ^twr'irr"^- '''"™ ''''' P°'"*- '' ""'' ^ -"hwest trend o ts confluence t^ci flank?dT- .J'" "^''''" °' ''^ ^^^^" "- -^h- - broad ulaTed rcnch. flanked for the greater part, on both sides by high mountains that reach an altitude of 8.000 feet or more. The bottom of this vaHev at its junction with McGregor river, has an altitude of 2,000 feet the umm^ o Vellowhead pass is 3.722 feet above sea level ' by a^um^tTr^nf T"*^'"''^^'''' ^^"'^ '^' "^^^ °" ^^e northeast, are drained Morkm and h1 T^^^ 'r T' '"P°'''"* ''^'"^ ^^^ ^orpy (Clearwater). MoriciU and Holmes. The Cariboo mountains flank the river on the :^thwP<;r Tne northeast slopes of these mountains are drained by a nuLt;^' sma [ Position and Physical Features IH i| i 1. m * 296 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION McGregor river rises in the watershed range of the Rocky mountains, at about lat. 54°, long. 120°. It has a general westerly course, and, after receivinp a number of branches, mostly from the north, debouches into the Fraser at the western limit of the region. A portion of the lower McGregor valley and the valley of Bad river probably constitute part of the Rocky Mountain trench. Tete Jaune (altitude 2,402 feet), situated in the driest portion of the region, has a one-year precipitation record of about 16 inches. Judging from the character of the vegetation, the annual precipitation in the western part of the upper Fraser valley must be about 30 inches, or perhaps more. Fifty-seven per cent of the drainage basin of the upper Fraser ComUtions ^'^^ above merchantable timber-line. Below this line, 160 square miles is considered incapable of bearing forest growth, leaving 3,082 square miles of timber-land. The eastern section of the part of the basin drained by the upper Frasor has been badly burned, and is mostly replaced by lodgepole pine growth. Otherwise, the region is heavily forested. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER. IN THE UPPER FRASER RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Area, s(i. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timliir. M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 4,.U9 1,247 420 1,0.17 160 57 50 10-5 5-6 I,V« 21 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f . or more per acre .?,628,8()() 5,085,6(M( 806,40(1 Area carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 ami 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrying young growth Area incapable of carrying timber Total 7,5<<1 10,420,8(XI Merchanuble '^^^ amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Upper Timber, by Fraser River drainage basin is as follows : Douglas fir, 847,6.^2 Species M.b.f.; red cedar, 3,109,200 M.b.f. ; hemlock. 371,856 Mb f. ; balsam, 1,050,144 M.b.f.; spruce, 4,718,496 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 32,V472 M.b.f.; total, 10.420,800 M.b.f. Cedar-spruce and Engelmann spruce-alpine fir are the principal fonst types of the region. The former occupies the bench lands on either side of the Fraser, in the moister portions of the basin. The mountain slopes, the entire valley of McGregor river, and the greater portion of the tributary valleys from an elevation of 3,000 feet to 4,500 feet, carry the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type. Patches of Douglas fir type occupy specially warm sites in the eastern section of the basin. Lumbering operations have not been extensive in the past. Operatiral "^^^ completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway thrnnph the entire valley of the main Fraser has, however, rendered FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 297 centre. The a JunToSt' HS^^r^n^^^^^^^^^^ ^t^SX^'''""' part upon the demand from the farming regions ornoniern^ATbert ' cnltntf"'' °^ '^"'^ f'"""' ^"^^ '° ''''■^'' """^^ ^'de has been surveyed for aeri cultural purposes, along the portion of the valley which lierfn tt. L T little of ,t has yet been brought under cultivation. Because of the rather RlTandT*" ^°"'^'^--- ^h^ -«-n seems to be best adapted to dairy Lmng Root and forage crops and hardy grains and vegetables can be grown ^' prisefthe^^Stll are? 'SZr^^ Z^^ -[ ^"^ °^ '^^ ^'^'^ — with statutory timber. ^ '^ ''"'"' ''' ^' P"^^^"*' *=°^^^«d NORTH CENTRAL REGION Parsnip River Drainage Basin Position and Physical Feature* This region includes the area drained by Parsnip river, with the nZ Tthe U^ "t '"'T^^' ^^^'°" "^-- ^'^'^ b-^n «e axis of the Rocnol?l?''?af:Srntr^^^^^^^ southwesterly to the Rocky Mountain 'trend Thence U flowsTortf 7' this trench, to its confluence with the Finlay. to form Pea^e w '""' " The section of the Rocky mountains drained by Parsnip river is much lower than that portion of the mountains to the southeast The !ZZ.X peak in the Parsnip drainage has an altitude of 68?fee^ Lof L^^^^^^^^ .V.I ^^"^ ^l'^'"^ ^'^ "° meteorological stations witWn the region accounts of tn rrto fnche" '^T! "^^'^^ '' '^ "'^ '^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^ ,«•,. :r ^^^ '°''''^'" portion of the river and on the adiarent P.ateau the precipitation is. in some localities, probably as low as IS inchis Twenty-three per cent of the area lies above the line of mer- chantable timber Of the 3.451 square miles, or 77 per cen . below this line, all but 169 square miles is timber-land of thi d^ragfbar."" °' ^'^ '""^' '''' ''-' ^" ^'^^ ^-- P'^^-" P-tion The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Parsnip River drainage ba.sm. ,s as follows : Douglas fir. 36,912 M fa f pine 332 213 M h f'"; I'VMT. ^•^•^■' ^P"'^' ^■"^•«" ^-^f- = lodgepole pine, 332,213 M.b.f.; total, 7,382,500 M.b.f. b-^hu'c Forest Conditions Species of Merchantable Timber >!( ' ri ill 'P ' ^ j HI t 1 1 i ■ P ; 1 i D : 1 ■1 .' , 'i ' i 1 i': r»i i« yCB. ^il ■■[ 298 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE PARSNIP mVi.K DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timber, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 1,041 21 1,001 695 1,565 169 23 ■5 22-3 15-5 34-9 3-8 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre 201,600 5,804,800 1,376,100 Area carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1 ,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre . . Area carrj'ing young growth Area incapable of canying timber Totals 4,492 7,382,500 Except where it has been replaced by the temporary lodgepole pine type, the principal forest type of the region is the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir typ The small amount of Douglas fir of the region is found on specially warm sites, mixed with the spruces, or carrying small areas in nearly pure stands. No logging operations have yet been carried on in this region. Should the projected railway from Prince George to the Alberta prairies, by way of Pine pass, be built, the timber of this basin will find a ready outlet. At present, little or no land is cultivated in the region, though there are a few settlers in the valley of the lower Parsnip. It is estimated that 175 square miles, or 39 per cent of the whole, comprises the area within which agricul- tural pursuits can be carried on. Of this, 32 square miles is covered with statu- tory timber. Stuart, Salmon and Nation Rivers Drainage Basins Position and Physical Features The drainage basins of the Stuart and Salmon rivers lie in the extreme northern portion of the Fraser platoau. Under the name of the Driftwood river, Stuart river rises in about lat. 56°, long. 127°, and flows southeastward to Tacla lake. Stuart riv^jr discharges Tacla lake and flows in a southeasterly direction through Trembleur and Stuart lakes to its confluence with the Nechako river, about 50 miles above the city of Prince George. Comparatively low, wooded water-partings separate it from the Babine drainage on the west, and from the Nation and Salmon drainage on the east. The Nation River basin lies in the northeastern portion of the region. The river rises a short distani^c from Tacla lake. It has a general easterly course, and the upper half of the river broadens out into what are known as the Nation lakes. The Nation river falls into the Parsnip, about 35 miles above its confluence with the Finlay. Salmon river occupies the southeastern section of this region. It rises in about lat. 55°, long. 124°, has a general southeasterly course, and debouches into the Fraser river a short distance above Prince George. The general altitude of this region is about 3,000 feet, though there are a number of peaks and low mountain ridges that vary in altitude from 5,000 feet to more than 6,000 feet. FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 299 A distinguishing characteristic of this region is the large number of lakes varying in altitude from 2,200 to 2.400 feet. These lakes aggregate some 632 square miles in area. CUmatic data at Fort St. James, which lies at the lower end of Stuart lake and has an altitude of 2.280 feet, show an annual mean temperature of 33" with a winter mean of 12°, and a summer mean of 53». The highest recorded temperature IS 97». and the lowest is -5S». The annual mean predpitation is IS inches about one-third of which is in the form of snow. These cUmatic data probably represent an average for the valleys of the entire region, but. doubtless, the uplands have a slightly greater precipitation and a lower temperature. In contrast with the southern portion o. .„ . Fraser plateau, this region, together with the Nechako-Blackwater basin to the south of it, is, in spite of ' !^u^u"**''?^ ^°Z P'«"P'**t'°°' capable of producing merchantable forest growth throughout the greater part of its area, up to an altitude of 5,000 feet. This is due to a better conservation of soil moisture, resulting from lower tem- perature conditions. Forest 9°'^ ^''^ ^ c«"' °^ ^^^ area is above the line of merchantable Conditioas timber. Of the 10.116 square miles below this line 1652 TV. u u ^'^^f, "^^^ '^ incapable of carrying merchantable timber. The area has been badly bum 1 Where fires have been severe, it is re-stocking meetly with lodgepole pine, though, on patches where the soil is deep, poplar Js the first invading species. *-• j' h CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER IN THE STUART. NATION AND SALMON RIVERS DRAINAGE BASINS Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrymg between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. Area carrying young growth Area incapable of carrying timber Total . An a, sq. miles 645 122 692 1,290 6,360 1,652 10,761 Percentage of entire area Saw-timber. M.b.f. 6 11 6-4 120 59-1 15-4 1,161,200 3,321,600 2,476,800 6,959,600 Merchantable Timber, by Species The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Stuart- Nation-Salmon River drainage basins is as follows : Douglas xfK. ,^ fi'"' 804.360 M.b.f.; balsam, 695,960 M.b.f.; spruce. 4,697.540 M.b.f.; lodgepole pme, 761,740 M.b.f.; total, 6,959,600 M.b.f. The Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type is the principal forest type In the southern portion of the Stuart and Salmon basins, this type contains, at the lower altitudes, a mixture of Douglas fir, which, apparently, was more abundant in the original forest than at present. On special sites, there are small areas covered with stands of pure or nearly pure forests of this species. Over large areas, lodgepole pine has entirely replaced the original forest I 300 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION I I m =iii I Lumbering and P'"^<=t>cally none of the timber has been utilized commercially. Agriculture There are no saw-mills, and, until the more accessible timber of the province is utilised, the timber resources of this region will probably not be in demand for general use. With adequate protection from fire, the large area of young growth will, in time, reach maturity, when, perhaps, better transportation facilities will render accessible the very large amount of timber the region will then contain. This area should accordingly be regarded as a reservoir to supply the demands of a distant future. A considerable area of land has been classified by the provincial authorities as suitable for agriculture, but the area is unutilized, save for a few patches here and there. Root crops, hardy grains and vegetables and forage crops can be grown, though summer frosts are not infrequent. Dairy-farming is likely to prove the chief agricultural industry. It is estimated that 1,022 square miles, or 9 5 per cent of the whole, com- prises the area within which agriculture will be carried on. Of this, 63 square miles is now covered with statutory timber. Position and Physical Features Upper Skeena River Drainage Basin This region comprises a very large area and is drained by that portion of the Skeena river east of the axis of the Coast moun- tains. It lies mostly in the physiographic unit that has been called the Skeena system, but a portion of it is in the northwestern part of the Fraser plateau and some on the east slope of the Coast mountains. The main Skeena river rises in a pass that connects it with the headwaters of the Stikine river, in about lat. 57° 15', long. 128" 30'. From this point it has a south- easterly course, to its junction with the Sustut river. It then follows a westerly course, thence south, and makes an abrupt turn to the east to its confluence with the Babine. From this point it has a southerly course, to the town of Hazelton, at the junction of the Skeena and Bulkley rivers. From Hazelton it follows a general southwesterly course, emptying into the Pacific ocean a short distance south of Prince Rupert. The principal tributaries of the Skeena are the Sustut, Babine, Kispiox. Bulkley, Kitwanga, Kitsumgallum and Zymoetz rivers. The Sustut river rises in the western slopes of the Omineca range and flows southwesterly to the Skeena. The Babine river rises opposite Fraser lake and flows into Babine lake, nearly 100 miles long. From the lake it flows northwesterly to the Skeena. The Kispiox is a comparatively short stream, that joins the Skeena a short distance above Hazelton. Bulkley river rises near the headwaters of the Endako river, a tributary of the Nechako. It has a general northwest course, and receives two main branches from the southwest, the Telkwa and the Morice. The Zymoetz river rises near the head of the Morice, flows in a general northwesterly direction and enters the Skeena near the town of Terrace. The Kitsumgallum heads opposite a branch of the Nass and flows south in the Kitimat trench to its confluence with the Skeena. ; '1 FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. .Wl The Skeena system consists of a series of plateaus, broken by a number of mountam ranges. Of these, the Babine range, which lies between the Bulkley and Babine nver-. is the most important. These mountains reach a height of over 7,000 eet. and are divided into two parts by the Suskwa river, a tributary of the Bulkley. Lying to the southwest of the Bulklev river are a number of high ranges of mountains, known as the Rocher Dc^bonld the Hudson Bay and the Telkwa mountains. Portions of these ranges reach an altitude of over 9,000 feet. "^"-u The Kitwanga river rises opposite the headwaters of Cranberry river a tributary of the Nass. It flows south, entering the Skeena at the to vn o^ Kitwanga. It is separated from the Kispiox river by a range of mountains he Skeena and Zymoetz rivers, are the east slopes of the Coast mountains All these mers have usually the well-defined U-shaped valleys throughout theii The lowest altitude of the upper Skeena basin is 190 feet, at the mouth of I ^^Tl" "^''- ^* "^'"^*°"' ^' '^' '"""th of the Bulkley. the aUkude is about 725 feet, while at the headwaters of the Bulkley it is 2 36? tef r=k lake has an altitude of 2,222 feet. The headwatei o/th main Sk ^a have a" wftrthe" bIh '°"' t'"^ 't """^ P°^^'°" °^ ^^^ ^^-- above tsjtnci" ™? . ?'"' IS bordered on the west by a comparatively low divide tha^ separates it from the upper reaches of Nass river. mate of the western portion of the upper Skeena drainage ba^in is more o. i mfluenced by its proximity to the coast. The ea tern portion SfT;' . ' ?""^'' '''^' '' '"^^^ "^^^'y characteristic of theTnterirrern still further o the east. No data are available as to conditions o teZ^^^^^^^^ A number of stations have a one-year record for precioitation Tw ?v Hazelton (altitude 1,030 feet) situ'ated behind theTo c'h 'SouL mountai^ he precipitation is 19 inches ; McClure lake (altitude about 2 000 S) has a precipitation of 24 inches, about one-fifth of which is snow AfTu! lit cabin (altitude about 3.000 feet), on the Yukon t eg aphlL stSed in'a pass between the Skeena and Nass basins, the precipitation for eleven mon^s of one year was 34 inches, about two-fifths of which was snow The town o varialk'' ^irJZ"!'Zl!'^' *^' precipitation throughout the basin is extremely Z nf K ! ^ on' *^"^Kion west of the Babine mountains has a precipita^ tion of between 20 and 40 inches, while the Skeena vallev fror^ til .outh of the Kitwanga to the mouth of the Zymoetz. proUly^as froT 30 to^ This section of the drainage basin contains an extension of the hemlock- Sitka spruce coast type of forest. In the remainder of the basin wc^tTtll Babme range. Sitka spruce is replaced by Engelmann soruce H , i mixed with this on special sites, usually at^altitudlraboveTSo fe^t Ced^ occurs on the upper benches of the Skeena. up to 40 mSIs n;^ IfKazelto" n M H IS' • i i JOS COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION and also on similar sites a short distance up the Bulkley and its tributary, the Suskwa. On the other hand, the headwaters of the Babine and Bulkley contain neither hemlock nor cedar, the Engelmann spruce-alpine fir and lodgepole pine types being the principal ones in this portion of the drainage area. Forty-three per cent of the area is above the line of merchant- able timber. Of the 9,494 square miles below this line, some 950 square miles is incapable of carrying merchantable timber; this leaves 8,544 square miles as timber-land. While much of this land has been badly burned, a large proportion of it still carries timber, though the amount has been considerably reduced by fire. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE UPPER SKEENA RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN Forest Conditions Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timher, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 7.206 136 877 2,410 5,121 950 43 •8 5-3 14-4 30-8 5-7 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre 1,305,600 4,207,600 4,627,000 Area canning tjetween 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrying young growth Area incapable of carrying timlier Total 16,700 .... 10,140.400 Merehuttable Timber, by Species The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Upper Skeena River drainage basin is as follows : Red cedar, 336,412 M.b.f.; hemlock, 783,224 M.b.f.; balsam, 1,584,116 M.bf.; spruce, 6.590,580 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 744,664 M.b.f.; cottonwood, 101,404 M.b.f.; total, 10,140,400 M.b.f. The Engelmann spruce-alpine fir, the Sitka spruce-hemlock, the cedar- hemlock, and the Engelmann spruce-hemlock types are the principal forest types of this drainage basin. Lodgepole pine and poplar occur in some places on badly burned lands, and are usually well mixed with spruce reproduction. Along the flood plains of the Skeena river there is usually a well-marked zone of cottonwood. There are a few small saw-mills along the line of the Grand A^ciShSI" Trunk Pacific railway, which traverses this region, but lumber is beine; sawn only for local use. Most of the timber is not readily accessible, and it is likely to be a long time before it is utilized for other than local needs. At present, the medial portion of the Bulkley valley is the most active agricultural district in the central portion of British Columbia. Stock-raising is the principal industry. Open patches of the forested areas afford fairly good grazing. Hardy grains, forage crops, root crops and vegetables are the prin- cipal agricultural products raised. The Kispiox valley and small areas in the Skeena valley below the Kispiox have agricultural prospects. A portion of the area around Babine lake is said to have good agricultural land ; here. dair>- ! I Position and Pbyiical PettUTM FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B. C 303 farming probably offers the best prospects of success. It is estimated that 608 square miles, or 3-6 per cent of the whole, comprises the area within which agncultural pursuits can be carried on. Of this. 56 square miles is at present covered with merchantable timber. Mineral resources abound in the region, and some of the mines are operating on a commercial basis. Coal measures have been discovered at the heads of the Telkwa. Skeena. N»iss and Stikine rivers, but commercial development will not be practicable until better transportation facilities become available. Upper Nass River Drainage Basin This region comprises the area drained by that portion of Nass nver that lies east of the axis of the Coast mountains The u ^ * * Nass nver rises in about lat. 56» 50'. long. 130». opposite the headwaters of the Iskut nver. and empties into Observatory inlet, in lat 55» Tr!lut u ^'f^°^^''\ tributaries of Nass river are Cranberry river and the nf'S?^*^ '•' "^^"^ ,?'*"»^"y "^^ rises opposite the headwaters 1«^ », ,^^"^1 "'''u- . ^^^ ^*"'y' °* *^' Cranbeiry and Kitwanga rivers are what has been described as a 'through valley,' connecting the Nass and Skeena drainages. The medial section of the Nass valley is said to be about 40 miles wide, before it rises abruptly into the area of higher elevation on either side. This portion of the valley has an altitude which varies from the level of the Nass to 3.000 feet, at the foot of the higher land on either side. The Coast mountains, that flank the region on the west, are high and rugged, and have a considerable portion of their area covered with glaciers and perpetual snow. of tT,« M^iV^u '"• °". *^^ ^"^°" telegraph line, situated near the headwaters of the North fork, an eleven-months record shows a precipitation of 23 inches From the accounts of explorers, the lower Nass valley has a comparatively heavy precipitation, probably about 40 inches. Toward the headwaters of the nver, this gradually diminishes to, probably. 25 inches ; the presence of hemlock throughout the valley also indicates this precipitation. The temperature of the basm is influenced by its proximity to the coast, which is a comparatively mild chmate for its latitude. ".iipontuveiy Fifty-one per cent of the area is above the line of merchantable timber, which here occurs at about the 4.000-feet contour Of lin .1 u . ,,/^^ 3.764 square miles, or 49 per cent of the area, below this line, all but 1 74 square miles is considered capable of producing timber Only a comparatively small proportion of the area has been damaged by fire • such areas are re-stocking fairiy satisfactorily, with lodgepole pine poplar spruce, hemlock and balsam, and are rapidly recovering their former forested condition. voi.cu Soecieg of In the Upper Nass drainage basin, the amount of merchantable Ttob^""' timber by species is : Red cedar. 990.880 M.b.f.; hemlock x,u. 3.269.904 M.b.f.; balsam. 3,368.992 M.b.f . ; spruce, 2.279 024 M.b.f.; total. 9.908,800 M.b.f. ^.^i^.vz* Forest Conditions I i r * 1 , I ' ! i i 3M COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OP STANDING TIMBER, IN THE UPPER NASS DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Area, sq. miles Perccntagi. of entire area Saw-tinilier, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 3,850 17 t,428 1,510 635 174 51 0 2 lM-6 iy-7 Hi 2-2 Below merthantabli- timt)cr-lin«^- Area carrying 10,000 l>.f. or more per acre Area carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1 ,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrying young growth 16.), 200 6,846,400 2,8W,200 Art'a incapable of carrying timber Total 7,614 9,908,8011 On the lower Nass, as far as the mouth of Cranberry river, the principal type is the hemlock-Sitka spruce. Above Cranberry, it is replaced by the hemlock-Engelmann spruce type. Small patches of the cedar-hemlock type occur in the lower Nass valley, and the upper headwaters contain the spnae type, with a heavy mixture of balsam. No lumbering activities have occurred in this region. The natural outltt for the timber, however, would be by driving down the Nass river, for milling at some point on the coast. The t. ber is not likely to be utilized for a long time, except for possible local needs. Mining has not passed much beyond the prospecting stage ; some devcloii- ment work has been done, but no minerals are mined on a commercial basis. Besides other minerals, coal occurs at the headwaters of the Nass, Stikine, and Skeena rivers. Agriculturally, the conditions seem best adapted for dairy farming. Root crops, hardy grains and forage crops would presumably constitute the princii)al agricultural products. Grazing is available in the more or less open areas of forest. Few settlers have established themselves, and the number is not likely to be greatly increased until the country is opened up by railway transportation. It is estimated that 124 square miles, or 11 per cent of the whole, repre- sents the area within which agriculttiral pursuits can be carried on. Of this, 73 square miles is covered with statutory timber. i 1 1 ll ( Position and Physical Features FiNLAY River Drainage Basin The portion of the Rocky Mountain trench occupied by the Finlay river and its tributary. Fox river, constitutes the axis of this basin. Finlay river rises in lat. 57°, long. 127° 30', near the southern end of the axis of the Cassiar mountains. Fox river rises in Sifton pass, in lat. 58°, and flows south-southeast to its juncti m with the Finlay. The altitude of the bottom of the Rocky Mountain trench increases from about 2,000 feet, where the Finlay and Parsnip rivers unite to form Peace river, to about 3,500 feet, at Sifton pass. The axis of the Rocky mountains forms the eastern boundary of the Finlay drainage basin ; the western boundary is formed by the axis of the Omineca range and the southern end of the Cassiar mountains. FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OF B.C. JOS .hnJ^^nZTf^^' '*"l'" ^^' *"'*'"' ''°P* °^ ^^" ^'^^y mountains are mostly the range are considerably longer. The general altitude of the Rockies in this basin IS about 6.000 to 7.000 feet, with individual j«:aks of over 8.000 feet. The Omineca range is a general term applied to the mass of irregular short ranges separated from each other by the western tributaries of Finlay nver. These mountains have an altitude of 6.000 to 7.000 feet, with some peaks of about 9.000 feet. Small glaciers are present at some places T^e valleys between the ranges are U-shaped in cross-section. The ,mncipal western tnbutanes of the Finlay are the Ingenika. Omineca and Manson rivers «r.twT/'' "« "meteorological stations within this region, but indications are that for most of the region the precipitation is well below 20 inches, and that the mean annual temperature is about 33' for the southern portion of the Rocky Mountain trench. For the northern portion of the trench, and for the higher elevations, the temperature is probably lower. On especially warm days in the summer, a temperature of 90° or higher is said to be reached. Forest Sixty-seven per cent of the area is above merchantable timber- Condition* line, which occurs at about the 4.000-feet contour. Of the . ,^'^'? ^"l""^ '"'•^^ ^elow this line. 651 square miles is incapable of bearing timber, leaving 5.639 square miles as the wooded area. Of this 4.201 square miles is more or less covered with young forest growth The region has been badly damaged by fire, and large areas are re-stocking with lodgepole pine, or with this species in mixture with spruce. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER IN THE FINLAY RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN ' Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line— Area carrying 10.000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrying Ixjtween 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying l>etween 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying young growth . •Area incapable of carrj-ing timber ... Area, sq. miles Percentage of I entire area 12,571 26.? 1,175 4,201 651 Total. 18,861 Saw-timber. M.b.f. 1-.? 6-2 22-2 3-3 1,262,400 2,256,000 .1,518,400 Distribution of Merchantable Timber The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Finlay River drainage basin is: Balsam. 70,368 M.b.f.- spruce 3,518,400 M b f^'"^'*^ ^^■^'^■' ^°^«^P°^^ P*"^' 809.232 M.b.f'.; total.' Engelmann spruce-alpine fir and lodgepole pine types are the principal forest types of the region. The latter has replaced the former over large areas and^rdtp^pinT ""''''' '" ''' ""^ '"'^ °' '^•"'^' ^^^ ^"^ ^P^^ Placer mining on a small scale is being carried on in the region In con ■ nection with placer mining, two mills are found in the region, one on the On- :-eca, COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION the other on M anion river, but they have not been in operation for a number of years. From a commercial viewpoint, the timber is inaccessible at the present time. Considerable areas of land along the lower part of the Finlay have good ■oil, and could be utilized for the raising of hardy agricultural products, prin- cipally forage crops and vegetables. Soime alpine grazing is available, princi- pally in the neighbouring Omineca range, but there is little grass in the valley. It is estimated that 356 square miles comprises the area within which agricultural pursuits can possibly be carried on. Of thif. 39 square miles contains sta*utory timber. H Position and Physical roatuTM REGION EAST OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS South Pine River Drainage Basin Tl.iS region comprises all of British Columbia south of the Peace river and east of the axis of the Rocky mountains, with the exception of the Peace River block. The region is drained, for the most part, by the South Pine river, which rises in the axis of the Rocky mountains and flows in a general northeasterly direction. The extreme southern portion of the region, however, is drained by the headwaters of the Wapiti branch of Smoky river, this, in turn, being a tributary of Peace river. Except in the extreme southern portion of the region, the altitude of the Rocky mountains in this basin is comparatively low. At the extreme south, however, one peak has an altitude of 10,000 feet. The east slope of the Rocky mountains grades off imperceptibly into the region of the Great plains, which comprise an area, triangular in shape, immediately south of the southern boundary of the Peace River Block. The uplands of these plains have an altitude of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet ; the valleys are from a few feet to several hundred feet below these elevations. Practically no climatic data ■ r -ailable for this region. Reference is, however, made to the discussior u.ider the description of the F^ace River Block. (See page 307.) Twenty-three per cent of the area lies above the merchantable timber line, which here occurs at about the 4,500-feet contour. Of the 6,700 square miles below this line, 1,171 square miles has been so badly burned that it cannot be reforested, except at great expense. Of tb's area, 278 square miles is now clothed with grass or very open forest. This lies mainly along the southern boundary of the Peace River Block, and is probably an extension of what is known as the Pouce Coup^ prairie. The main bodies of merchantable timber within the region lie in the valleys of the eastern slopes of the mountains. The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the South Pine River drainage basin is : Balsam, 331,260 M.b.f.; sprues, 4,637,640 M.b.f.; lodge- pole pine, 1,656,300 M.b.f.; total, 6,625,200 M.b.f. Forest Conditions ^i[ FOREST RESOir.CES OF THB .NTERIOR OF BC Jo; Claum of land Above merchantablf timlwr-line Bflow merchanuble timber-line- A,'^ ^-12*"" ,'*'*"*" S.'WOan.! 10.000 bf. per aero Area carrying between 1.000 an.I i.OOOb.f. wracre Area rarrying y.mnu Kn.wth . ' Area incaimble of larrving timljcr Area carrying grass or very ojjen forest . . . Total. Area. M]. milei 2,061 1,000 .J.496 278 8,761 Percentage of entire area 2i 110 I2'b 400 10 2 3 2 Saw-timt)er, M.b.f, 4,526,400 2,098,800 6.625,200 Poiitioa and PhjsicaJ Vtatures Pbace Rivbr Block This block includes a strip approximately 74 miles wide fmn, .Mch lies ...Li. ^.^i";jp^:s:ahtrit"„:t :r:^'o:::.^sS' below this leveL ir„Vef.^:^rJ"V "" "" •"«»"«» '« beyond the limits of the blSt "" "'^ """ head'atera onhf^St^t-1..rnrdt^^^are*r!L\t^^^^^^ ™,er temper...^ i, „„^ ,.,^. ,„„^„ ^^.^^ P«c R"CBlJk'thr„'::; I I 1 ! i i ! i f 3M COMMISSION OP CONSKR VATION Port St. James, judRiu>,' from a comparison of the data for ihin latter station with DunvcKan. Thus, while Fort St. James has a mean winter temperature nf 12*. Dunve^an has a winter mean uf 1". The moisture seems to be suflTicient for tree growth, for evidently the rcRion was formerly covered with an unl.rokcn forest. The prairir condition which prevails over a portion of the area is believed to be due to the y reiwnted fires, rather tlian to the lack of sufficient pre > pitation. Jud^'inj; from comparison with other renions, w here tlie \cKctation 1 similar, this rcKion probably has an avcru^e annual precipitation of alwrnt 1 ■ inches. It is reported ihat, dxmng the winter, there is from 14 to 20 inchis II. snow. Oi/ii.■ Nor.- of the area of the block lies above merchantablp timbi r- 'inc. Thirty per cent is treele -, about one-half, or <>00 sfjuare nii'-js, bcint; fire-made 'prairie.' Fires have done sevire ,.c forest. On 380 square miles the forests have ',)cen so badly I lat there is no reproduction on the land. The balance is re-stockin^;, with lodfjepole pine and poplar; the latter forms jjroves on the richer ii.<' iij^ures of the following table are adapted from a reconnaissance report made by J. A. Doucet, of the Dominion Forestry Branti.. Some slight changes have been made in these fi>;ures to make the discussion conform to that of the othtr drainage basins. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDINC. i IMBER. IN Till: PEACE RIVER BLOCK Classi's <>{ lanil Below nirrchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or nu>r.. per acre. . . Ana carryinn between 5,000 ami 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrj'ing Ijetween 1,000 and S,0'ing timber Area carrying grass or \ cr>- open forest Total . Area, sq. miles 2.S9 410 473 2,637 808 481 14-7 1(14 Snw-tin-.l>ir, M.b.t. l,921,(lii(( l,702.iKHi H(>2,tNlil 4,54.S,le represent, the fir., .ta^e of rln-er^^ 1 ^ ^^te o " Both of these type, may or may no. 1k> mixed with Hprx,cx? Th Hwum , Zt carry tamarack and black spnicc. 8Wttmp> areas So far as kno-n no saw-mills are at present in o.^^ation within the block or m the adjo.nmR basins, to the north ami s.,mh of it. The fac. that pre-emptorn are rnpi.Ilv settling the region is fairlv .ood ...sitsa.Hc.,t«rari;;^L.\::^;:^ .raz.n,. It ,s estimated bMrOo a! TaM^'"^' -^"""^V"""^'^ "*"' ''"' area within which a.ricultura. .^^X 1^:;:^ ""'"' """'""^ '''' Drainage Basins op t«e North P,nh an-., Halpwav Rivers ll"ltov river rises nLV the uxTof he R f ' "" ™'""'' ""° ""' ''••''"• Block rFnr r^ r ^^'^ nor ern boundary of th.- Peace River Block. (For a descnpl.on of the climat.c condi.ons see pa^-e 307.) Very little is known about the forest conditions of this region The fcllowmR mdicates the situation, according to the best information available *».ab>e ,i„her. ™s..y along NoXpi'r"; ProbalT «hT;'°' °h' ""■ exist, but srx^oifi^ iTif,,.^^*' ■ .. "• '^rooaoiy, other such areas Some of tW ^Thanr hi'. " '^"^1^ ''•'"' ''^^^ ^''""^ ™'^^ '^ re-stockmg. miles incIude;?aX bu^eH "?^'' ''"''^'- ^'^'^ ^^'"^'"'"^ »•«" sq Je nciudes bar'iy burned areas not re-stocking, 'fire-made' praines, sw^ps Forest Conditions r -! ■ i 1 ■ 5 I 1 \ 1 1 ■ 1 .' ,* ■ i ■V ■■ i 310 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION and other areas that cannot be made to grow merchantable timber without great expense. The amount of timber is estimated to be 134,400,000 board feet, and consists of spruce (probably white spruce). The burned areas are re-stocking with lodgepole pine and poplar, or with these species mixed with spruce. Tamarack and black spruce are found in the swamps. The area which may be of use for agriculture is roughly estimated at 600 square miles. (For lumber- ing operations and other industries see page 309.) CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE NORTH PINE RIVER AND HALFWAY RIVER DRAINAGE BASINS • Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre. Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre t • Area carrying young growth Area incapable of carrying timber t Total Area, sq. miles 1,961 28 2,274 1,827 6,090 Percentage of entire area 32 0-6 37-4 30 Saw-timber, M.b.f. 134,400 1,M,400 Fort Nelson Section of the Liard Drainage .y ^ This vast area, nearly 39,000 square miles, comprises that Physical portion of the province which lies east of the axis of the Rockies Feature* ^jjjj north of the divide which separates it from the Peace River drainage. Approximately, it stretches from lat. 57° to lat. 60°, and from long. 120° to long. 126°. It is largely drained by Fort Nelson river, a branch of the Liard, which rises near the headwaters of the North Pine, a tributary of Peace river. Fort Nelson river has a tortuous northerly course, joining the Liard in about lat. 59° 30'. It receives important branches from the east and west, the latter draining the east slopes of the Rocky mountains. The headwaters of Hay river drain a small portion of the region between lats. 58° and 59°, near the Alberta and British Columbia boundary. This river flows in an easterly and northeasterly direction, to Great Slave lake. There is a short stretch of the Liard river in the northeastern portion of the basin. The Liard crosses the northern boundary of British Columbia from Yukon territory, makes an abrupt turn to the east, and, in about lat. 59° 30', breaks entirely through the Rocky Mountain system. It traverses the Rockies at an altitude of approximately 1,500 feet, the lowest pass in the Rocky mountains. At its confluence with Fort Nelson river, a short distance east of the mountains, it turns to the Northeast and recrosses the northern boundary of the province into the Northwest Territories, before emptying into the Mackenzie river. • Information concerning the forest conditions of these basins is incomplete ; tlie figure in this table are only a rough estimate. t Information incomplete. ... , .u X Includes a rough estimate of an unknown area of prame or very open forest growth. FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 311 The east slopes of the Rocky mountains comprise the western portion of the region. For the most part, these mountains are unexplored. They probably have a general elevation of between 6,000 and 7,000 feet, with some peaks of over 8,000 feet. A considerable portion of the area is covered with glaciers and perpetual snow. Where the Liard river breaks through, the mountains are comparatively low, and are drained by a number of its tribu- taries. The northwest extension of the Great plains comprises the region east of the foothills of the Rockies. The Plains consist here of a plateau, whose up- lands have an average altitude varying between 2,500 and 3,000 feet at the south, and between 1,600 and 1,800 feet at the north. The valleys lie from a few feet to about 400 feet below the level of the plateau. The table which follows contains a rough estimate of the areas of lands by classes and of the amount of timber. In the absence of sufficient data, no figures are given for the stand type carrying timber below 5 M.b.f. Probably large areas of this class exist. If so, they are included in the area shown for young forest growth. Seventy-three per cent of the area lies below merchantable timber-line. Of this, 19,696 square miles is a rough estimate of the area that cannot be made to carry timber without great expense. Possibly under intensive man- agement, a large part of it could be reforested. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE FORT NELSON SECTION OF THE LIARD DRAINAGE BASIN • Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timber, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line — 10.6.M 8,441 19,696 27 6^5 21^8 50-7 .\rea carrying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carr>inp between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acref 778,400 Area carr\*ing grass or ver\* open forest t Total 38,938 778,400 Descriptioii of Timber Resources The amount of merchantable timber by species in the Fort Nelson section of Liard River drainage basin is as follows : Spruce, 700,560 M.b.f.; cottonwood, 77,840 M.b.f.; total, 778,400 M.b.f. The region has been very badly burned. Near the foothills of the Rocky mountains, and on the drier parts of the plateau, there are said to be large areas that formerly carried forests, but are now reduced to the grass stage by repeated fires. Large areas on the uplands of the plains are occupied by * The information concerning this drainage basin is incomplete, and the figures are only a rough estimate. t Information incomplete. t Includes a very large area of muskeg and some grass land. lil'^ if:! i. 1 : II ;1 :{ If I i i f 9» COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION swamps or muskeg. These, where too wet for tree growth, are covered with swamp grass, but, in their drier portions, they carry scrub tamarack and black spruce. To be conservative, these areas, together with other classes of terrain that will not bear merchantable forest growth, are estimated to cover about two-thirds of the area below merchantable timber-line. The principal forest types of the region are the spruce-alpine fir and the lodgepole pine types. The latter occupies the poorer soils that have been burned over, and is more or less mixed with spruce. The swampy areas contain the non-commercial tamarack-blavk spruce type. The areas of virgin spruce lie along the principal streams. This region offers more promise for agricultural development than does the adjoining portion of northern British Columbia which lies west of the Rockies. Wheat ripens at Fort Liard, which lies across the northern boun- dary of British Columbia, but is near the region under discussion. The large areas of grazing lands could be extended by further burning, should such action be considered advisable. It is altogether likely that, until transportation facilities are available and the larger and better areas to the south and east are settled, this region will not be very largely utilized for agriculture. If it should so develop, the available timber is adequate for local use. » I » ^i i I •-. a ■■ 9 e :l 1 '' i; k I NORTHERN REGION Drainage Basin of the Dease and Kachika Branches of the Liard Position and Physical Features This drainage region lies in the central portion of the extreme northern section of British Columbia. There are within it portions of four physiographic units. These are the Yukon plateau, the Cassiar mountains, the Rocky Mountain trench and the Rocky mountains. The eastern boundary of the region is the axis of the Rocky mountains. These mountains are here comparatively low, and toward the north, where the Liard river traverses them, they break down. The Kachika river, in at least the upper portion of its course, occupies the Rocky Mountain trench. The trench is narrow at its southern limits, but toward the north it broadens out and consists of a comparatively wide area that contains low hills, none of which rise above the merchantable timber-line. The Kachika river rises in the Sifton pass, at an altitude of about 3,500 feet, and flows north-northwest to its junction with the Liard river, where its altitude is about 1,600 or 1,700 feet. It receives from the west one important branch, the Tumagain river, which rises at the axis of the Cassiar mountains, just across the divide from the heads of tributaries of the upper Skcena river. The Tumagain has a general northerly course, entering Kachikj river about 20 miles above the confluence of the Kachika and Liard. The Cassiar mountains include an indefinite mass of ranges that extend from about lat. 57° to Dease river. In the southern portion of these moun- tains some peaks attain an altitude of about 8,000 feet or more, and a con- siderable part of these ranges is covered with glaciers and perpetual snow. FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 313 Toward the Dease river they decrease in altitude. Dease river rises in Dease lake (altitude 2,660 feet), in lat. 58° 40', lonp;. 130*". 05'. It has a general northeasterly course to its confluence with the Upper Liard, to form the Liard river. It thus drains the western slopes of the Cassiar mountains, besides a portion of their northern extension. Lying to the east of the Cassiar mountains is a small portion of the Yukon plateau, which will be described in another connection. Very little is known about this region, except that the forest growth has been badly burned and, in places, has been completely destroyed. From the meagre information available, the following attempt has been made at a land classification of the region, with especial reference to its capacity to pro- duce timber. No data are available for an estimate of the area or amount of standing merchantable timber. CUSSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE DEASE-KACHIKA DRAINAGE BASINS • Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Above merchantable timber-line 12,158 4,340 1,446 68 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying young growth 24 Area incapable of carrying timber g Total 17,944 Approximately 68 per cent of the area is above the line of merchantable timber. Of the 5,786 square miles, or 32 per cent of the area, below this line, 4,340 square miles is restocking with some kind of timber growth. It is prob- able that a considerable portion of this land might be placed in the stand type of at least 1 M. to 5 M. board feet per acre. A small area around Dease lake said to have such a stand, or, at least, timber of sufficient size to meet the local demands for mining timbers. Of the remaining 1,446 square miles, a large part is said to be 'fire-made' prairie, and might be utilized for grazing purposes. Some of the land of this class is too wet for merchantable timber growth. The types of forest within this area are the lodgepole pine and the white spruce-alpine fir types. The swamp-lands carry the tamarack-black spruce type, but, because of the scrubby character of the trees, this type cannot be considered merchantable. Placer gold mining and fur-trading are the principal industries of the region. The placer gold fields of Dease lake have long been yielding small quantities of gold. The region is accessible only with great difficulty and is entered usually by boat from Wrangell, Alaska, up the Stikine river to Telegraph Creek, thence by trail to Dease lake, and thence by boat or canoe down the Dease and Liard rivers to the various Hudson's Bay Co. posts. •Very rough estimate. HW h i \ i It 1 1 i |,1| i J il-> 1 iA., • i ■k 3" ' i.t f i '.- ■i ■; IK f^ :: •' : ? ^■l i \ ■ il Hi JyJ 314 COMMISSIOM OF C O \ S E R V A T I O Nf Stikine and Unuk River Drainage Basins Poiitionuui PhytiMl Feature* The drainage basins of these two rivers comprise the area that is situated between the axis of the Coast mountains on the west and the axis of the Cassiar mountains on the east. This region lies, for the most part, between the S7th and S8th parallels of latitude, thouph a tongue of it extends as far north as the 59th parallel, and there is another section which extends to the southeast, well below the S6th parallel. Parts of three pliysiographic units comprise the basin ; these units are the Coast mountains, the Cassiar mountains, and a broad plateau lying be- tween these range.-:. As the axis of the Coast mountains forms the boundary between British Columbia and Alaska, only the eastern slopes are within the province. These mountains are, for the most part, high and rugged, with a large proportion of their area covered with glaciers and perpetual snow. Like the Skeena and Nass rivers to the south, the Stikine breaks through the Coast mountains, and the bottom of its valley is very near sea level where it crosses the boundary. The Coast mountains grade oflE imperceptibly into the plateau which comprises vhe area between their base and the northwestern base ot the Cassiar mountains. The uplands of this plateau have a general altitude of between 3,000 and 4,000 feet, and the valleys are from a few feet to 2,000 feet below the general level of the plateau. The Cassiar mountains have a general altitude of 6,000 to 7,000 feet, with some peaks of over 8,000 feet. Portions of the latter are covered with glaciers and perpetual snow. Stikine river rises in the western slopes of the Cassiar mountains, at the extreme southeastern portion of the region, in lat. 57°, long. 128° 30', not far from the headwaters of the Skeena and Nass rivers. From this point it follows a general northerly direction to near lat. 58°; them •. it turns west, main- taining this westerly course to near the town of Telegraph Creek, lat. 57° 55', long. 131° 10'. From Telegraph Creek it flows southwest to the eastern base of the Coast range, whence it maintains a nearly southerly course to the British Columbia-Alaska boundary. From this point it turns abruptly to the west, entering tide-water near Wrangell, Alaska. Throughout its course it receives a number of tributaries, the most im- portant of which is the Iskut river. The latter rises in some lakes near lat, 57° 30', not far from a tributary of the Stikine river ; it follows a general southerly course to lat. 57°, thence westerly, joining the Stikine near the Alaska boundary. The Klappan river rises a short distance from the source of the Stikine ; it has a northwe terly course, entering the Stikine from the south. The other tributaries of the Stikine are the Second South fork from the south, and the East Fork, Pitman, Tuya and Tanzilla, from the north. Tanzilla river rises a short distance north of the mouth of Klappan river, flows north to near the head of Dease lake, then makes an abrupt turn to the south- west, joining the Stikine a few miles above Telegraph Creek. Tuya river rises in a lake in about lat. 59°, flows south and joins the Stikine a short dis- tance below the mouth oT the Tanzilla. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. .115 The altitude of the bottom of the valley of the Stikine river varies, from about 4,000 feet at its source, to tide-water at its mouth. At Telegraph Creek it is about 540 feet. For most of its course it has a rather wide U-shaped form in cross section. For a considerable distance above Telegraph Creek, it flows through the Grand cafion, a deep gorge in the basaltic rocks of the region. Unuk river drains a small section of this region, lying on the west slopes of the Coast range, between lat. 56° and 57°. A low pass connects it with branches of the Iskut and Nass rivers, respectively. The Unuk flows south- east, crosses the Alaska boundary at an elevation of 250 feet, and eventually reaches tide-water at the head of Unuk inlet. A short distance from the boundary, the river passes through a cafion, above which the valley broadens out, and, with its branches, has a considerable area that carries a compara- tively heavy stand of timber. There are no climacic records for any portion of the Stikine and Unuk basins. The valleys of the Unuk and of the portions of the Stikine and the Iskut that traverse the Coast mountains, are influenced, to some extent, by the moist, comparatively mild, climate of the adjoining Alaska coast ; their climate is, however, more severe so far as temperate conditions are concerned. Ascending the Stikine river, the precipitation decreases and the temperature changes. For example, the climate at Telegraph Creek, altitude 540 feet, is very dry. The summers are exceedingly hot, with a maximum temperature of more than 90° in the shade ; on the other hand, the winters are severely cold. From the accounts of explorers, the western slopes of the Cassiar mountains have a heavier precipitation than the Yukon plateau lying to the west of them. The precipitation in the valleys of these slopes is probably well over 20 inches. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS, WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE STIKINE-UNUK DRAINAGE BASINS* Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timber, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 17,573 28 298 780 1,749 1,066 82 01 1-4 ?-6 H-1 4-8 Btlow merchantable timber-line — 268,800 .\rea canying between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying between 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carrying young gro—th 1,430,400 998,400 Total 21,494 2,697,600 This table shows that 82 per cent of the area is above the line of mer- chantable timber. The altitude of this line varies for the most part between l.SOO feet and 3,000 feet. The former figure applies along the lower Stikine, where the Coast climate prevails, and the latter applies in some places in the southern portion of the drainage basin. On the other hand, in the portion of the region situated in the drier portions of the interior, the merchantable tim- ber-line occurs at an elevation of about 4,000 feet. * Very rough estimate. Hi-'- llli I III 1 ,,;i 1 '^ I J . 1 i i i i 1 llf ' 'c JI6 COMMISSI OX OP CONSERVATIOX Merchantable Timber Of the 3,921 square miles below the merchantable timber-line, a!! but 1,066 square miles is considered capable of carrying timber. The titiit)ci growth that once partially covered the valleys of the region has been badly burned, and large areas are now covered with a second-growth of willow and poplar. Other areas are reproducing with lodgepole pine, with or without a mixture of white spruce. In places, there are patches where the soil coudi. tions are too wet to support forest growth. The bottoms of the U-shaped valleys, at the headwaters of the Stikine, are swampy, but their slopes are clothed with a forest of spruce and alpine fir, extending up to timber-line. Around Telegraph Creek, the climate is arid, and there are areas alonjj the Stikine where the conditions are too dry to support tree growth, especially on southern exposures. Nevertheless, at a short distance from Telegraph Caek, at higher altitudes, and even along the river on northern exposures, then- are patches of timber, mostly second growth. The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Stikine- Unuk drainage basins is as follows : Hemlock, 1,189,440 M.b.f.; balsam, 284,640 M.b.f.; spruce, 1,038,720 M.b.f.; lodKtpole pine, 99,840 M.b.f.; cottonwood, 84,960 M.b.f.; total, 2,697,600 M.b.f. Along the Unuk and the lower courses of the Stikine and the Iskut, where the coastal climate prevails, hemlock-Sitka spruce is the principal forest type. The flood plains of these rivers carry rather heavy stands of cottonwood. In the interior, the principal types are the white spruce-alpine fir and the lodfje- pole pine types. On the richer soils of the valleys of the plateau, groves of poplar and dense thickets of willow prevail wherever fires have completely destroyed the original forest growth. There are no saw-mills within the region. In the days of the Yukon sold rush a saw-mill was operated near Telegraph Creek, which cut timber in a forest within a few miles of the town. A small portion of this forest i.s left, and is roughly estimated to have a siand of 3 M. feet to the acre. Most of the timber used at Telegraph Creek and Dease lake is either hewn or whip- sawn. The timber of the Unuk and lower Stikine rivers would be easily accessible were there a market for it. Telegraph Creek is at the head of navigation on Stikine river. For five or six months of the year the river can be navigated by shallow-draught steamers or motor-boats. The small population of the region is supported by fur-trading, k'old- mining, and big-game hunters. As stated in the discussion of the drainage basin of Dease river, placer gold mining is the chief industry around Dease lake. Telegraph Creek, being the head of navigation, is the supply station for the region around Dease lake and beyond. In the hunting season, Tele- graph Creek is visited by parties of big-game hunters from various parts of the world. Except for a small amount of hay and an inadequate supply of small fruits and vegetables, no agncultural products are raised. Yet with some effort a sufficient quantity of these products could be raised to supply the needs of the small population. IJa . j a 1 i FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. Taku River Drainage B.isin Position and '^^^ drainage basin lies between the Stikine drainaRC basin on FMta^t ^^® .^°^^^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^''" '■''^**'" ''" ^^^ ""'■^^- 't contains portions of two physioRraphic units, namely, the slopes of the Coast mountains and the Yukon plateau. However, only a very small portion of the region lies within the plateau. Taku river, under the name of Nakina river, rises near the southern end of Teslin lake, has a general south- westeriy course, crosses the Alaska boundary, and enters Taku inlet not far from Juneau, Alaska. Taku river receives an important branch from the southeast, the Inklin river, which rises near the town of Telegraph Creek, and has a general north- west trend to its junction with the Taku. A northern branch, the Sloko. rises in Sloko lake, at the southern end of Altin lake, flows a short distance east, and then south to its junction with Taku river. The plateau portion of this region has a general altitude of 4,000 feet ; the Coast mountains are high and rugged and are covered with glaciers, some of which fill the small side valleys and reach neariy to the waters of the Taku. The portion of this basin in British Columbia has a fairly wide U-shaped valley, which contains a comparatively heavy growth of timber. The timber line occurs at an altitude of about 1,500 to 2,000 feet. The climate of the lower course of Taku river is influenced to some extent by its proximity to the Alaska coast, and is comparatively warm and moist. The plateau region is, however, dry and cold. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE TAKU RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN • Clas.ses of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timber, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-line 6,21.1 78 .125 4m 88 •5 11 4-6 5-8 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 10,000 b.f. or more per acre. Area carrying Iietween 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre. . Area carr>-ing I)etween 1,000 and 5,000 b.f. per acre. Area carrying voung growth 163,200 100,000 .Area mcapable of carrying timber Total 7,059 26,J,200 Thus, 88 per cent of the area is above the line of merchantable timber. Of the 846 square miles below this line, 409 square miles is considered to be incapable of carrying timber. This area is composed of swamps, lakes, and badly burned patches which, not re-stocking, are covered with grass or willow growth, or are barren. The merchantable timber lies mostly along the lower course of the Taku, where the moist, comparatively warm climate of the Alaska coast exerts a favourable influence. The amount of merchantable timber, by species, in the Taku River drain- age basin is : Hemlock. 114,240 M.b.f.; balsam. 28,loO M.b.f.; spruce. 102.640 * Very rough estimate. m 'nTn <} ». ' III Ia i 1 in h 1 ■!'!!!' ^ J ' 1 I w 1 4 Hth •■'Mt ^ ■■ ;:lt? :i ii i- ■ ■ 1 Hi iMliliiiiiiL 318 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 10,000 M.b.f.; cottonwood, 8,t60 M.b.f.; total, 263.200 M.b.f. The hemlock-Sitka spruce type, with cottonwood on the flood plains, occurs in the valley of the lower Taku. In the plateau portion of the region, the white spruce-alpine fir and lodgepole pine types are found. Poplar groves and areas covered with willows occur where fires have been severe. Except for a few Indians, the region is entirely uninhabited. A railway has been projected from the mouth of Taku river to the Atlin region, but con- struction will presumably be delayed. Without such a railway, the mineral resources of the region will necessarily be very slow of development. Drainage Basin of the Atlin Region Potition and PhytiMl FaatuTM This region comprises that portion of northwestern British Columbia which is situated between the axis of the Coast mountains on the west and the Dease River divide on the east. It lies between the 59th and 60th parallels of latitude. There are two con- trasting types of topography in the district, the Coast mountains and the Yukon plateau. The Coast mountains consist of rugged mountains, a considerable portion of which is covered with snow and ice throughout the year. The Yukon plateau, to the east, consists of uplands and valleys. The uplands have a general elevation of between 4,000 and 5,000 feet, while the valleys range from 2,200 to 2,400 feet. The valleys are steep- walled, typically U-shaped depressions, and are partially occupied by lakes. Of these, Atlin lake is the largest in the province. Bennett, Tagish and Teslin lakes extend across the Yukon boundary* line. All the streams of the region empty into these lakes, and the waters of the latter find their outlet through the Lewes river, a tributary of the Yukon. Atlin (altitude 2,240 feet) has an annual precipitation of about 12 inches, one-half of which is in the form of snow. This total is the same as that at Kamloops, in the southern portion of the dry belt. The temperature conditions throughout the entire region are severe, ev n in the valleys. Atlin has a mean annual temperature of 30°, with a winter mean of 6-5° and a summer mean of 51°; the highest recorded temperature is 81" and the lowest —50". Summer frosts are frequent. The severity of this climate wil' be more evident when compared with Kamloops, the mean annual tempen..ure for which is 47°, winter mean 26", summer mean 67°, highest recorded temperature 102°, lowest recorded -31°. With the same total precipitation, but with much lowp'" temperature, the climati of Atlin is favourable to forest growth, while thar > • Kamloops is not. This can be ac- counted for only on the supposition tht.' :nder the lower temperature condi- tions, the limited amount of moisture is c(,nserved in the soil instead of being evaporated rapidly, and can thus be utilized by the trees. At Kamloops, the evaporation is so rapid that no tree growth can exist except along streams, where soil moisture is present. FOREST RESOURCES OP THE INTERIOR OP B.C. .M9 CLASSIFICATION OP LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OP STANDING TIMBER. IN THE ATLIN DRAINAGE BASIN ClosiM of land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-timber, M.b.f. Above merchantable timber-h.e , 7.774 150 978 83 1-7 4-7 10-6 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying between I.OOO and S.OIHJ b.f. per acre. Area carrying young growth 192.000 Area incapable of carrying timber Total <),333 192,000 Of the total area, 83 per cent lies above the line of merchantable timber, which here is between the contours of 3,000 and 3,500 feet. Of the 1.559 sqtiare miles below this line, 978 square miles is considered incapable of carry- ing timber. Of the latter, 596 square miles comprises the lake area of the region. The amount of merchantable timber by species, in the Atlin Region drainage basin is: Balsam. 19.200 M.b.f.; spruce. 134.400 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 38,400 M.b.f.; total, 192.000 M.b.f. The principal forest type of the region is the spruce-alpine fir. Lodgepole pine type occurs on the poor soils, where the original type has been badly biirned. Poplar groves and willow thickets occupy the richer soils, where the original forest has been completely destroyed by fire. Lmnberiai ^'°^ ^^^ viewpoint of the coast or interior lumberman of OpentioBs southern British Columbia, the forests in the vicinity of Atlin would not be considered as containing merchantable timber. The character of the timber growth is comparable with that found at an alti- tude of 5,500 feet in the southern portion of the province. It consists mostly of white spruce, lodgepole pine and balsam. It is of small size and poor quality, and would be classed as non-merchantable were there any other available. Yet, around Atlin lake there are seven small mills, with an estim- ated output of 750 M.b.f. per year, all of which is consumed locally. Six of these mills are operated in connection with gold dredging companies, and the output is used for building flumes and other necessary construction. They are situated along streams tributary to Atlin lake. One of these mills is cutting spruce and balsam grown at an altitude of 3,300 feet. The commercial mill at Atlin cuts its logs mostly from the easily accessible growth of forest, on the shores of the lake, at an altitude of about 2.200 feet. The best of the spruce timber averages two 12-foot logs to the tree, with a top diameter of 9 inches ; the best lodgepole pine will cut but one such 12-foot log per tree. The scarcity of this class of timber is shown by the fact that one logger claims that, to obtain 200 M. feet of logs, he scoured the shore of the lake for three miles, and for one-half mile back. Around AtUn lake, logs of this character are very scarce, and. in the near future, they will have to be obtained from less accessible sites, or else smaller logs will have to be used by the operators. It is estimated that, on the very best sites, the timber will average not more than 3 M. board feet to the acre, cut to an 8-inch diameter in 3» COMMISStON OP CONSERVATION the top. This lumber mIIi for about 145 per M. «t the mill. Due to .iiRh transportation rates, one small shipment of medium-sized bridge timber of Douglas fir from the coast cost 195 per M. feet laid down in Atlin. Access to this region is obtained by rail from Skagwa> . Alaska, to Car- cross. Yukon, situated on an arm of Tagish lake. From Carcross. the White- Pass and Yukon Railway Company maintains, during the summer, a bi-weekly steamer service to a portage railway, four miles long, conn ning Tagish lake with Atlin lake. A steamer plies between the terminus of the portage rail- way and Atlin. The main industry of the region is placer gold mining. For a number of yean, Atlin has produced a small but steady supply of gold. There are several ore mines, one of which is nearly developed to a commercial basis. The ore mining industry, however, must necessarily labour under a great handicut) until better transportation facilities are available. Mention has already been made of the projected railway to connect Atlin direct with tide-water by way of the Taku (see page 318). While a few vegetables are grown, no serious effort has been made to show what agricultural products can be raised. The soil and climate are capable of producing hardy vegetables in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Some of the swamps grow fairly good hay. and cultivated forage crops can be raised. There is sufficient grazing land available to supply summer feed for the limited number of cattle that the small population needs. The?e grazing resources have not been utilized as yet. Petition and Physical Featnrei Drainage Basins op the Alsek and Chilkat Rivers Reference to the key map will show that the extreine north- western comer of the province is roughly triangular in shape. The pan-handle region of Alaska lies to the south, and Yukon to the north. The western portion of the region is crossed by the Alsek river. which flows south, draining into the Pacific. The middle portion of the region is drained by the Tatshenshini river, a tributary of the Alsek; the headwaters of the Chilkat drain the eastern portion. This region is high and mountainous, and a large area is covered with glaciers. Very little is known about it or about the timber conditions. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS. WITH AMOUNT OF STANDING TIMBER, IN THE CHILKAT-ALSEK DRAINAGE BASINS * Classes <»f land Area, sq. miles Percentage of entire area Saw-tin^lur, M.b.!. 4,281 15 240 207 90 ■4 51 45 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carr>ing between 5,000 and 10,000 b.f. per acre 72,(H)0 4,743 72,000 • Very rough estimate. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE INTERIOR OF B.C. 421 Of the area, 90 per cent is estimated to be above the merchantable timber- hne, which IS here situated at from 1 .500 to 2,500 feet altitude. It is reported that there IS IS squart miles of statutory timber on one of the tributaries of the J 1! '. »?' T**"" " '"'"'°" ^«*^- °' **»»ch 57-6 million feet is hemlock and 14-4 million feet is spruce. The Alsek valley, according to a forest map of Alaska, is shown to carry timber, but no information is available as to its rT"i°AM^""*"- ^" **'•' Klondike gold rush days. ChilUt pass, at the head of Chilkat nver, was one of the routes leading to the gold-fields, and. at that time, most of the timber along this route was burned or was used for fuel A number of mineral claims are found in this region near where the timber hnnts are situated, and. if these mines should prove profitable, there is sufficient timber to develop them. I < • CHAPTER III ; ■ t* ill 11 Foreit Resourcei of the Coutal Belt of British Columbia THE coastal region is that portion of the province lying to th* west of tlie axes of the Cascade mountains and the Coast mountains, extending from the international boundary on the south to the watershed of Portland canal on the north. Several of the larger rivers emptying it to the Pacific cut through the great mounuin barrier, and the upper portions of their drainage areas are described in the preceding chapter, dealing with the intenor of tl« province. British Columbia has one of the most broken and uneven coasts jn thi world. John Burroughs* declares that, for 1,000 miles northward, froii Victoria, the coast has "probably the finest scenery of the kin4 in the work that can be seen from the deck of a ship— scenery of fiords and mountain locked bays and arms of the sea. ' ' It is dissected by countless inlets, channel! or fiords, many of which run parallel with the coast, but others extend inlanc for from 50 to 100 miles between mountainous spurs of the main Coast moun tains. To quote Mr. "Burroughs again. "The edge of this part of the continent for a thousand miles, has been broken into fragments, small and great, as b; the stroke of some earth-cracking hammer, and into the openings and channel thus formed the sea flows freely, often at a depth of from one to two thousan< feet." Dr. J. W. Gregory. F.R.S., in Tht Nature and Origin of Fiords, 1913, attributes the formation of the submerged, or partially submerged, valley primarily to the folding of the earth's crust, which resulted in fissures an faults being fonr.ed. Subsequent stream action, following the faults whic had produced planes of weakness where denudation was more rapid, has bee an important factor. Glacial action, where present, has also been a powerfi force in producing the typical U-shaped form which is so prevalent m thes valleys. A partially submerged range of mountains, known as the Vancouve Island mountains, which is represented above water by Vancouver island an the Queen Chariotte islands, affords protection to an extensive system < waterways. In addition to these large islands, there are numerous smalk ones, separated from each other and the mainland by navigable channel so that coasting vessels can go from Vancouver to Skagway. a distance c over 900 miles, with only 35 miles of the course unprotected by islands. It is estimated that the shore line of British Columbia exceeds 7.000 mi^ This feature renders accessible, and facilitates the exploitation of. the f.mb* *Narrati94 of llu Expedition. Harriman Alaik. Seriei, Vol. I. Smithsonian Issue, 191 pp. 19-20. t See footnote, p. 35. M FOREST HK >ir»CE8 OP THE ( 0A8TAL BR .T JU •nd mineral rMources of t he reRson. The tii ber on the cant side of Vancouver t«land. and on the mainland for a distance of 250 mile- froni the city of Van- couver, can be safely tow. I in opt-!. Iwoms to the niillink; centres of Vancotiver. New Westminster . Vi. toria for ny»nufaeture. Along i he nc^fthrm coast,' similar conditions exist in regard to the timtw tributary to Prince Rurwrt and the pulp-mills at Swanson Bay and Ocean Falls. If put up in cribs, logs can b« transported with comr^rative safety irom any \,. rtion of the coast to the manufacturiiiR pcHnts. The west coait of Vancouver istand presents moit hazard* in this connection. The mainland and most of the adjacent islands are extremely mountainous The shore-line is, as a rule, steep and rugged. The mountains on the main- land frequenth ris,- to a height of from 5.000 to 6.000 feet within a mile or two of the water, jltle flat land is to be found, except where alluvial dtposiU have formed f*' the mouths of the larger rivers or in he broad valleys whicb extend inland from the heads of the fiords. The delta of the Eraser river constitute'^ the largest area of such alluvial land. Vane mver island is not so rough, though a range of mountains extends through th,. centre as far nortl. as Beaver cove. Some of the peaks of this range attain alitydc! of from 6.000 to 7,000 feet. Victoria peak attains an attiudo uf 7.484 feet. The north end of the island, above Nimpkish lake, an." a strip from 10 to 20 miles wide along the eastern side, from CanifibplI riv. .- to Victoria, are comparatively level. The eastern portion of Graham island is quite flat, but its western portion and the greater portion of Moresby and other islands of the group are mountainous. The agricultural land is confined largely to these moi.. i. -.el areas, though there are many small patches of arable land where ntti^m^ ' to establish 'ranches.' It is estimated that, -, ut , -t 3.700 square miles, or 5-8 per cent of the total arp-, be . cultural. A considerable part of this land is still ■" ".-, :^v.- voast. only w ■•;1 ";ed as agri- 1.0 r: liable data ;".■•:>• hut obser- ; ■'. much more " "' s an* so heavy ml' \ y'' IH M] Mir \ ' i" 324 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION would enable many struggling settlers to carry on agricultural operations at a profit, instead of at a loss, as is. at present, too frequently the case. Settlement should be guided to districts where sufficient good land is available to support a community; thus ensuring the advantages of social intercourse, education and religion. The policy of allowing settlers to take up isolated land in a forested region is not fair to the settler and is a menace to the surrounding forests. A bona fide settler, who is willing to spend years of his life in turning the wilderness into a productive farm, is entitled to gocd land and congenial surroundings. The policy of placing the responsibility of settlement on the settlers, whose knowledge of the country is Umited. cannot be justified. It is clearly the duty of the government, before opening an area for settlement, to ascertain by careful examination that it is suitable for settle- For the purpose of this report the coastal belt has been divided Subdivision of j^^q ^^e regions, within which the forest growth and the con- CoMtalBelt ^itions of exploitation are similar. These regions have been further subdivided for descriptive purposes into 26 'drainage basins.' In determining the boundaries of these areas, the watersheds have been followed as far as possible, but, in some instances, the distribution of the forest types, the conditions offered for exploitation, or the administrative features have necessi- tated other divisions. For example, the Railway Belt, which is under the control of the Dominion Government, is described separately. Where their forest conditions are similar, several large drainage areas are grouped together. The sub-division of the Coastal Belt has been made as follows :* Southern Mainland Region — Railway Belt, Coast Section Chilliw'ack and Skagit Rivers LiUooet, Stave and Pitt Rivers Burrard inlet and Howe Sound Jervis Inlet I'owcll River and Tcxada Island Tol.a Inlet Bute Inlet L(ni^;lil)oronj;li Inlet Quadra to llardwick Islands Kni^lil Inlet Kin^come Inlet, (lilford Island Drury and Belize Inlets Vancouver Island, East Coast Region — Hardy Bay Johnstone Strait South-eastern Section Vancouver Island, West Coast Region — Kentrew District Barkley Sound Clavoquot Sound Nootka and Kyuqtiot Sounds Qualsino Sound •Sc»' map s'low iiiK ilrain.ige l)asins, facing p. 244. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT Northtrn Mainland Coast Region- Smith and Rivers Inlets Burke and Dean Channels Gardner Canal Skeena River to Portland Canal Quten Charlotte Islands Region— Graham, Moresby and other Islands 325 Sotithera Mainland The Southern Mainland region extends from the international boundary to Belize inlet, a distance of about 250 miles The thP »«, K • V'P^^^P^y '^ generally rough and mountainous, 61 per cent of sUnd and?/ "'^^^ ™^.^<=hf table timber-line. It is protected by Vancouver .sand and ,s we 1 supplied by navigable waterways, on which the timber can oorHonTf,, ^^"'^^^^^^^"^.the other manufacturing centres in the southern portion of the province. It is in this region that most of the logging is now fro™ .t V '^ protection and other forest administration is conducted chTflv of .?"n ""^7 "f '' f '^^ Provincial Forest Branch. The forests are inllT th! A T^ ? ,'"''*" *yP°' *'"'■ '" '^^ "°''^>^«^" P°'«°" above Knight inlet, the cedar-hemlock type predominates. East Coaat of The East Coast of Vancouver island, which is about 280 miles vj««.T.r long, is tributary to the same milling centres as the southern mainland, and the forest conditions are very similar Ex- tr7 T"^ operations have, for years, been carried on on this side of the i ct« ; 7 !1°'" •''™ ''°'""°" °^ **"'' '*=S'°" »' incXnA^d in the Vancouver forest xf aI°1 .^'^'"'"l^t^ation purposes, but the southern portion is under the Island district and is administered from the Victoria office. West Coast of The West Coast of Vancouver island is indented with numerous vj^ouver miets. which, in many instances, extend nearly to the centre of the island. Owing to the difficulty of towing in booms on the open ocean, the lumber in this region will, for the most part, be manu- factured loca ly. As yet. very little timber has been cut on the west coast. The Esquimau and Nana.mo line to Alberni affords the only rail connection with the east side of the island. Lumbering operations are being conducted at Alberni. Some logging is also being done at the southern end in the vicinity 1 i, r"/ T ^°T.°^ '°'^' ^^" ^^ "''^''^ ^'""^ '■^'^ P«>"t to Victoria, through the strait of Juun de Fuca. Northern '^j'.'' Northern Mainland Coast includes the mainland and Mainland adjacent islands from Queen Chariotte sound to the head of Portland canal. This portion of the coast is much cut up with inlets and IS very mountainous; about two-thirds of the area is above merchantable timber-line, and a considerable portion of that below is not suit- able for the production of commercial forests, on account of its rocky nature or he unfavourable climatic conditions. Along the shore line and in some of the Mi ^^}u^^' r"'- ^^^'^ '' ^ ^"'"^ ^°^*^^* 8'°^^='' "'hich is especially valu- able for the manufacture of pulp. Hemlock predominates, and cedar, spruce and balsam are the other most important species. Douglas fir occurs only in lit [\ 1 aM COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION some situations near the heads of the inlets . This region, as well as the Queen Charlotte islands, is administered from the Prince Rupert office of the Forest Branch. Logs can be towed from any point north of Rivers inlet by inside channels to any other part of the region. Rail connection is afforded by the Grand Trunk Pacific railway at Prince Rupert and along the Skeena river and there are pulpmills at Ocean Falls and Swanson Bay. _ The Queen Charlotte islands lie from 40 to 80 miles off tne Ob^tte mainland, and, though logs can be towed across Hecate strait ^•'^"'* in cribs, the bulk of the timber will undoubtedly be manu- factured locally. Hemlock, spruce and cedar are the most important species. and the pulp industry will be developed as a means of utilizing this timber. Land Classification An attempt has been made to classify the land in each drainage area, from the view-point of forest production. Accurate mapping of the whole area in the field was impossible, but, from the maps and other information available, supplemented by considerable personal inspection, the following classification has been made : CLASSIFICATION OF THE LAND ON THE COAST (Areas above and below merchantable timber-line) Rafions Southern Mainland Vancouver Island, East Coast. . Vancouver Island, West Coast . Northern Mainland Coast Queen Charlotte Islands Total 64,164 Total area Sq. miles 22,608 6,615 5,541 25,616 3,784 Abgve merchantable timber-line Area Sq. miles 13,833 826 886 16,886 284 32,715 Percent 61 12 16 66 8 51 Below merchantable timbei' line Area ^. miles 8,775 5,789 4,655 8,730 3,500 31,449 Percent 39 88 84 34 92 49 CLASSIFICATION OP THE LAND BELOW MERCHANTABLE TIMBER-LINE WITH RESPECT TO ITS CAPACITY TO BEAR TIMBER R^ions Total area Incapable of bearing saw-timber Capable o£ bearing saw-timber Agricultural land* Area Per cent Area Per cent Area Per cent Sq. miles 8,775 5,789 4,655 8.730 3,500 Sq. miles 960 224 530 3,870 1,570 11 * 11 44 45 Sq. miles ^.815 5,565 4,125 4,860 1,930 89 96 89 56 55 Sq. miles ,150 880 180 190 1,300 I.t Vancouver Island, East Coast Vancouver Island, West Coast Northern Mainland Coast Queen Charlotte Islands 15 4 2 37 Total 31,449 7.154 23 24,295 77 3.700 12 * Partially timbered. liili ^ygl- FOREST RESOURCES OP THE COASTAL BELT 327 CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST LAND* R«gioni Southern Mainland Vancouver Island, East Coast Vancouver Island, West Coast Northern Mainland Coa«t Queen Charlotte Islands. Total. Total area Sq. miles 7,292 :,340 4,085 4,810 :,920 Land carryine 30 M.b.f. or more per acre Area Sq. miles 890 1,350 1,03S 230 335 23,447 3.840 Per cent 12 25 25 5 18 16 Land carrying between 10 M. and 30 M.b.f. per acre Area Sq. miles 2,2S7 t,700 1,515 1,400 620 7,522 Per cent 31 32 37 29 32 32 Land carrying less than 10 M.b.f. per acre, chiefly young growth Area Sq. miles 4,115 2,290 1,535 3,180 965 12,085 rr^L^tL^t^'V^'"' 51 per cent rf the area is above the altitude at which merchantable timber grows. In the southern portion of the coast this merchant able timber-hiae is at an altitude of approximatelv ? snn w 7,! u jna.^ of ,ac.. v,^ ,it.le ^ s.-^Si.Tln'S "llti^ JS"' "^ timber-hne becomes loiwr in the norti, =t,^ „+ n _-.i , '.juu leei. lae saw-timber is seldom fo-rndabove ts* T^i '^' ""'' merchantable Approximately 7,154 sq. miles, or 23 ocr cent nf th^ Ur,A k i area only 37-9 per cent or 24 905 c^ -i ''"'"^*"°"- ^ the total land 365 per cent of the total area. On over half of thi« =.,», t ,. ' ._he d„e,op„e„. of t„„sp„„„i„„ faci.i.i., and .he „pe„4 u^S ad°L„15 .-^rd..^r?L;^Sft:frr:sr,'^„ir • Does not include non-timbered agricultu:»l land, town rite., etc. M III li« ' 328 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION carries over 30 M.b.f. per acre; 7.522 sq. miles, or 32-1 per ^ent. carries between 10 M b f and 30 M.b.f.; and 12.085 sq. miles, or 515 per cent, carries less than 10 M b.f . per acre, mostly young growth. Of the latter ti»ere is hope of it pr. - ducing commercial forests within a period of time which can be considered m the present administration of the forests. ESTIMATB OF THE AMOUNT OP STANDING TlMBER ON THE CoAST Owing to the variability of the stands of timber on the coast, it was found impossible to make a satisfactory estimate of the forest resources by applyin ■ wholesale methods of calculation. The roughness of the topography, and the variation in soil contents, cause the forest cover to change very quickly h..tl, in quantity and in species. On almost any well-timbered square mile, especiall v in the Douglas fir-cedar type, the stand will vary from lero to over 100 M.l. i. per ac»e The composition of the stand may vary also, from spruce and cedar r. the bottom land, through pure Douglas fir, to hemlock and balsam at the hli.•^.•^ altitudes. Careful cruises* of 84 typical timber licenses of, nominally. 640 acTts each scatte*sd thro««hout the southern coastal region, were obtained. \\ ht ti the licenses *vere surv-ed they only averaged 616 acres m area and only ?(i4 acres of merclaantabk timber. In only two instances was the whole ar. a timbered Since the two main factors, area timbered and average stand i .r acre, arc quantities of such uncertainty, aa estimate, to be of value, could be based only on detailed information. It was naturally out oi tht qaestion for the Commission -> I < i "l fe i z E < D H < 3 (2 6* 8 2 a (A CQ "2 " «1 a 1 5 »A, f*i O S £ O ". O ! »0 0*^00 ^ f*f Jf 1^ ") *^ ^ 18 8-SS (^>>z6' (J a a H Z o a 8 I .J fr, D Z < en s 2 d z h O H Z § < s h O < Mi H CO i .5 5985 -- .*.*.*.*. ^ ~ — «»> «s •■" I a 03 -;0C»0 2 „■„- 2 -'"-' •'J fr t~ >• » •- 20C ^ ^ 00 ^ «8 ^ ^ Mb ^ IT}!/) lO O O •r 05 "> 2 °S * 2„- _- Jg f « in <*» -^ 3 n IT) Q Q ti c .2 •sills 18 8-SS ^>>z6 t o H FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT 331 si. i-5 Ifllliili ! i 1 ^^^ 332 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION On account of the high quality of the timber and its acccssibiHty, a very large proportion of the total stand on the coast has been alienated. Ap- proximately 60 per cent of the alienated timber is held under timber license; 20 per cent has been Crown granted; 11 per cent is under provincial lease; 4 per cent under Dominion license and 5 per cent under pulp lease. The per- centage included in timber sales is, relatively, very small. Under the heading 'Crown grant' in the table on pa^e 331 are included lands held under application to purchase and pre-emptions for which Crown grants have not yet been issued. The areas of these alienated lands are, to a large extent, estimated from the timber maps issued by the Provincial Gov- ernment, since definite data as to the areas were not available. The Railway Belt, Coast Section The Railway Belt consists of a strip of land extending 20 miles on each side of the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway, which, in the coastal region, follows the north bank of Fraser river. The Railway Belt terminates, on the west, at the North arm of Burrard inlet, and, on the south side, at a line running just to the east of New Westminster. This area is under the control of the Dominion Government in respect to the administration of the laiid and timber. The Fraser river, in the lower portion of its course, traverses the Pacific system and, between the towns of Lytton and Yale, divides the Cascade moun- tains on the east from the Coast mountains on the west. A marked differenic in the forest conditions is found in the region east of this portion of the Frasc r as compared with the region west of it. The more arid conditions prevailing; east of the Coast mountains result in the open, park-like stands, in whi< h west- ern yellow pine and Douglas fir predominate, with little or no cedar, spruce or balsam. On the Pacific side, the more abundant supply of moisture products heavy stands of Douglas fir, red cedar and hemlock, with some spruce in the bottom-lands, and balsam at the higher altitudes. The most westerly point at which yellow pine is found in the Fraser valley is a few miles east of North Bend. On the Nahatlatch river, yellow pine is quite abundant on the east side. but is almost altogether absent on the wesl side. From Lytton to Yale the valley 's narrow, with high, steep mountains on both sides, forming what is known as the Iraser cafion. The forests on the mountain sides in this vicinity have, for the most part, been destroyed by fin?. Much of this timber was destroyed during the construction of the Canadian I'.i- cific railway. In some of the valleys lying behind the first lateral ridges, how- ever, there are some stands of green timber which escaped destruction. Amonjr these are the headwaters of Anderson, Nahatlatch and Spuzzum rivtr . At Yale, the head of navigation on tlip Fraser river, the valley gradually broadens, and the flanking mountains, though Ladly burned, are less rugj^ni and offer betl er forest sites. On the south side, the Cascade mountains termin- ate in Cheam mountain, near ChilHwack, and, from there westward to tin gulf of Georgia, a distance of about 70 miles, there is a broad stretch of com- i 1 A iM FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT iU paratively level Rfound. forming the delU of the Fraser. The elevation throuRhout this delta seldom exceeds 400 feet above sea level. When cleared, most of this area will be suitable for aRriculture. With the exception of some low land, where prairie conditions exist, this valley bottom was once covered with a dense stand of fir. cedar and hemlock. Most of the present stand is of a relatively young growth, indicating that fires have swept the vallty in the past and that this timber is a second growth. Lumbering has been very active in the Fraser valley for many years, and there are still about 30 saw and shingle mills in operation; these are fast using up all the merchantable timber. Though this land has almost all been Crown-granted, and settlers have been in posses- sion for upwards of fifty years, only a very small proportion has, as yn. been brought under cultivation. The greater part of it is bush land, awaiting clearing. Ajrieultuie Though supplied with excellent transportation facilities, by the Kretsing B"t'sh Columbia Electric, Canadian Northern. Great Northern, and the Canadian Pacific railways, agriculture is not making the progress it should, due. primarily, to the high land values which have prevailed. Many farms, on which a start was made, have fallen into the hands of loan companies, who advanced more money on them than the owners apparently thought the land was worth. The cost of clearing is a serious hindrance to cultivation, and Government assistance for this purpose may yet be foimd necessary if this valuable land is to be brought under cultivation. Very little of this land is absolute forest land, and should therefore be devoted to more productive uses. The soil and climate are suitable for fruit, garden produce, dairying and general farming. On the north side of the Fraser river, the agricultural land extends back from five to ten miles and, on the south side, it extends to the international boundary. Five large lakes, Harrison. Stave, Alouette, Pitt and Coquitlam, drain into the Fraser on the north side, and the valleys in which they lie contain heavy stands of timber. Portions of these drainage areas are in the Railway Belt, the remainder being in provincial territory to the north. Harrison lake is 40 miles long. Harrison river, only nine miles long, connects the lake with the Fraser and is navigable by tugs during the high water season of five or six montlis. During this season, the logs can be taken in booms to the coast mills. Though as yet. there has not btPi iruch logging on Harrison lake, the feasibility of exploiting this timli-r li?.? br-t demonstrated. Stave lake is but nine miles long, and, though the upper Stavc river diair.s a large area, the country is more rugged and the timber does not extend sc far up the valley. Stave river is not navigable. A large fall, aboyt Ibree miles from the mouth, has been developed by the Western Power Company o* CtiicLds and is producing about 40,0C0 h.p. The electric power is used m th-- ?rasei valley and in Vancouver and New Westminster. A short raiLvay connect? Stave lake with the Canadian Pacific railway and the Fraser river, and . x- tensive logging operations have been conducted on the lake and along the 3J4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION III ! h i i I M lower river for some yean. Much of the moet acceutble timber hM beer cut. A la.'Ke Mwmill is situated at the mouth of Stave river. Alouette lake, or Lidooet lake, as it was formerly known, is about ten mileii lonK. and uveraKcs less than a mile in width. It drains into Pitt river, about five miles above the cc Mb 336 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The western portion of this tract is drained by the Chilliwack river, a tributary of the Fraser, and the eastern portion by the Skagit river, which flows south through the state of Washington to Puget sound. The whole region is rough and mountainous, about 70 per cent of the area being above timber-line. A waggon road has been constructed up the Chilliwack valley to within 12 miles of Chilliwack lake; above this point, there is only a trail. Little is known of the upper end of this valley, but it is reported that it contains some excellent cedar. Skagit valley has no means of communication other than horse trails. Two of these traverse the valley from Princeton to Hope, and one follows the main river down to the settled district in Washington. At the international boundary, the valley bottom is perhaps a mile wide, gradually narrowing to- wards the headwaters. The mountain sides flanking the valley offer good forest sites, but fires have destroyed most of the merchantable timber. It is, however, being replaced with a thick pole-wood stand of fir, white pine, lodgepole pine and cedar. A good stand of virgin timber remains on the lower portion of the Klesilkwa river and also around the confluences of Skiast and Sumallo creeks with the Skagit. Most of the timber of commercial size has been taken up under license or purchase. CLASSIFICATION OP LANDS IN THE CHILLIWACK AND SKAGIT DRAINAGE BASINS CUssei of land Area, *?• nues Percentage of entire area Above merchantahle timber-line 248 3 19 6< 20 69-3 Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30 M.b.f . or more per acre • 8 Area carrying between 10 and 30 M.b.f. per acre 5-3 Area carryingless than lOM.bi. per acre (chiefly young growtii).. . Area incapable of carrying merchantable tin:ber 190 5-6 Total 358 m There is reported to be but 6 square miles, or !•? per cent, of land suitable for agriculture in the Skagit valley. Detailed cruises of the timber in the Chilliwack-Skagit area Sa^^twial ^^^ ^^^ available, but, from the reports of several competent observers, the stand of saw-material is estimated to be ap- proximately as follows : Douglas fir, 45,000 M.D.f.; red cedar, 125,000 M.b.f.; ■western hemlock, 25,000 M.b.f.; balsam, 12,000 M.b.f.; spruce, 5,000 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 6,000 M.b.f.; yellow cypresf; 5,000 M.b.f.; making a total of 223,000 M.b.f. In addition, there may be 50,000 M.b.f . of small timber suitable for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. The total amount of timber suitable for the manufacture of pulp is probably about 90,000 cords. About 30 sq. miles has been taken up tinder timber license and some 7 sq. miles has been permanently alienated; total area alienated, 37 sq. miles. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT 337 Provincial Lands on thb Lilloobt. Stave and Pitt Drainage Basins North of the Railway Belt a large area of provincial land is drained through the Lillooet. Stave and Pitt rivers, into the Fraser river. This area constitutes a natural forest resource unit. The Lillooet river, about 155 miles long drains considerably over one-half of this urea. It rises in a glacier between two ranges of the Coast mountains, and flows in a south-easterly direction into Harrison ,ake. The valley may be considered in four r'^isions. Harrison lake, lower LiUooet nver, Lillooet lake and upper Lillooet river. During high water in the summer months, Harrison lake can be reached from tide-water by small vessels, such as tugs. The lake, which is about 40 nules long, is navigable at all seasons of the year. Lower Lillooet river flows from Lillooet lake into Harrison lake, a distance of 30 miles. Though a large nver, it is not navigable. When, in the eariy days, in order to avoid the Fraser caflon. this route was used in travelling to the Cariboo country, the Hudson's Bay Co. built a road along this portion of Lillooet river. During the 'seven- ties It was used by the gold-seekers. Though the lower portion of this road has since been repaired and improved by a logging company, it is, as a whole, not much better than a trail. Lillooet lake is about 20 miles long and from one-half to one and one-half miles wide. The valley of the upper Lillooet is about 60 miles long. In the lower 30 miles there is some very fine bottom-land, known as Pemberton meadows This bottom-land averages about one and one-half miles in width, but for seven miles above the lake, it is about two miles wide. Since the river is fed by glaciers, there is very high water in the spring, and it is sustained during June. As the outlet at the lower end of the lake is restricted, the water backs up and floods a considerable portion of the valley bottom. The damming up of the flood water has resulted in the building up of this flat, which is com- posed of nch alluvial silt. A large part of this area is open meadow-land and the remainder is comparatively easy to clear, the timber being small and chiefly Cottonwood and willow. There is an old setthment here but isolation from markets has prevented its development. The Pacific Great Eastern railway, under construction between Vancouver and Prince George traverses the Lillooet valley at this point, and the agricultural resources, as well as the timber, will undoubtedly be developed. On the upper reaches of the Lillooet the valley sides are well clothed with fir and cedar for a mile or two on each side uf the river but. around Pemberton meadows, there is little or no merchantable timber. Up the Birkenhead river there is qmte a good stand of timber, with a few hundred acres of agricultural land m the valley. The n-.-th-eastem side of Lillooet lake is very rocky and carries httle merchantable timber, while on the opposite side there is only a narrow stnp of timber along the shore. The Lower Lillooet river and several of its tributaries, such as Billy Goat, Glacier. Fire and Spring creeks, are well torested with fir. cedar, and hemlock; but. speaking generally, the timber is reported to be not of the best quality, especially the cedar, which is inclined to be rough and hollow. i'lu. f h ;i! .i : ■■*■'!'■"! 338 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION On the north side there is a pass, by Twentythree-mile creek, throug to the Nahatlatch river. On the latter stream, near the Railway Belt lin« there is a heavy stand of cedar. The shores of Harrison lake are well forested for a mile or more bad Douglas fir predominates, with red cedar, hemlock and white pine intermixed At the higher elevations, yellow cypress is quite abundant. On the wester side, the tributary valleys of Five-mile and Coon creeks contain strips c timber a mile or more wide, extending a considerable distance back from tL lake. Some logging has been done on the shore limits on Harrison lake and fo a short distance up the Lillooet river. An attempt was made a few years ag to drive the river; but the swiftness of the stream, especially during high watei rendered control of the logs difficult. It may be possible to overcome thes difficulties and drive logs from Lillooet to Harrison lake, but a railway woul probably be a more satisfactory means of transportation. There are no fixe rates for towing logs from Harrison lake to New Westminster, but it has bee; done at an average cost of $1.00 per M.b.f. Now that the Pacific Grea Eastern is built to this point, the timber on the upper Lillooet is, from ai exploitation standpoint, tributary to Howe sound. The upper portion c the river cannot be considered drivable, and a railway will likely be require( to take out this timber. Between Lillooet river and Howe sound there is an immens barren area, estimated at 250 sq. miles, which, except wher the bare mountain tops protrude, is covered with perpetua ice fields. The mountains in this region reach an altitude of between 8,001 and 9,000 feet, and present some of the most wonderful alpine scenery in th( Dominion. Though close to transportation, and comparatively easy of access this region has been visited by very few persons, and has never been accurately mapped. The Chehalis, Stave and Pitt rivers rise in this field of perpetual ice The upper Stave river has three main branches, which meet not far fron its mouth. The East branch is timbered up to Stump lake, somewha over 10 miles. The Middle branch is not so long, but the West branch extendi in a north-westerly direction between 25 and 30 miles. The lower portion of th( West branch passes through a deep cafton, but above this the valley broaden; out and carries a considerable stand of cedar, with some Douglas fir, hemlock white pine and yeiiow cypress. Logging operations have been conducted or the lower part of the East branch, but the remainder of the area has not, as yet been developed. Driving can be carried on '-^' only a short distance on eithei branch, and railways or flumes will be nece* to exploit most of this timber Very little, if any, of the provincial land on the Stave River drainage is suitable for agriculture. Pitt river is a large stream, extending 25 or 30 miles above the lake. Higb granite ridges flank the valley which is a little over a mile wide at the head oi the lake. About six miles above the outlet it broadens out and the timbei extends two or three miles on each side of the river. Timber limits have been staked for 20 miles up the river, and, in places, there are excellent stands of cedar. Perpetual Ice Fields ■ FOREST RESOURCES OF THE CO/":- BELT 339 The river has deposited so much silt at its mouth, ai ' north end of Pitt lake, that the islands formed thereby interfere with log driving, even where the river is not too swift and rough. Some logging operations have been conducted on the lower limits, but the great body of timber is still virgin. At the north end of Pitt lake, there are some meadow-lands which are partially, if not wholly, submerged in the spring and eariy summer. Some of this land has been taken up by pre-emptions, but not much of it can be considered as of agricultural value. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE LILLOOET, STAVE AND PITT DRAINAGE BASINS Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f. or more per acre. . . . Area carrying between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per 'acre Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chieBy young groWth')' Area mcapable of earning merchantable timber. . . Non-timbered agricuUural lands Total Area, sq. miles 2,167 37 258 710 60 15 3,247 Percentage of entire 66-7 11 7-9 21-9 1-9 •5 It is estimated that 40 sq. trjles of land in these valleys, or 1.2 per cent, may eventually be of agricidtural value. Estimates of '^^^ ^^^^^ °^ saw-material is estimated to be as follows . Saw-material Douglas fir, 2,526,815 M.b.f.; red cedar, 1,247,790 M.b.f.; hemlock, 465,635 M.b.f.; balsam, 229,695 M.b.f.; spruce' 4,500 M.b.f.; white pine, 137,130 M.b.f; lodgepole pine, 10,585 Mbf- yeUow cypress, 45,250 M.b.f. , making a total of 4,667,400 M.b.f. To this may be added 205,000 M.b.f., which may be utilized for piling, poles and pulpwood The greater portion of the timber, 3,901,400 M.b.f., is in the Lillooet lUey. The total amount of wood suitable for pulpwood, including all sizes of suitable species, is estimated at 1,070,000 cords. In this district, approximately 330 sq. miles is held uider timber licenses, 37 sq. miles under timber leases, 0-6 sq. mile under timber sales, and 35 sq. nules has been, or is in process of being. Crown-granted. The total area alienated is, therefore, approximately 402 sq. miles. BuRRARD Inlet and Howe Sound Drainage Basins Burrard inlet is the most southeriy fiord on the mainland of British Columbia. It penetrates the Coast mountains a distance of about 30 miles and includes the harbour of Vancouver. From the wide entrance to the harbour, which is known as English bay, the channel is restricted to less than 1,000 feet at the First narrows. Inside the narrows it broadens out to from one to three miles and forms one of the largest and mo» mouth. Powell lake has never been accurately delineated on any publi:;hed map. It is about 30 miles long. Goaf island, about half way down the lake, is about 10 miles long and .* miles wide. Upper Powell river occupies the terminal valley, wliirh extends for a considerable distance above the lake. Two tribu- taries enter Powell lake from the east side, Ooat river and Loon crock, each of which flows from a lake of some size. No other streams of importance flow into the lake. The drainage to the west of Powell lake flows into Maluspina inlet. From Thunder bay, on Jervis inlet, to Powell lake, a low and comparatively flat area extends back for from one to four miles from the shore. This is well covered with a drift deposit, consisting of finely stratifictl hard sands overlain by several feet of stony clay. As might be expected, a wonderful stand of fir, with cedar as a secondary species, was produced on this land. Much of this timber near tide-water has already been cut, and the more remote parts are now being exploited. When cleared, much of this land will be suitable for agriculture, as the southern exposure and the deep, though somewhat stony, soil offers favouruble conditions, especially for fruit growing. From Powell lake to the Indian reserve at Sliamen, somewhat similar conditions exist, though the granite bedrock outcrops more frequently, and the flat land does not extend so far back from the shore. From Sliamen to point Sarah the country, though not mountainous, is very rough; pockets of soil occur among the rocky c ♦crops. An attempt to place settlers on this land has been somewhat of a failure, as the proportion of tillable land on a homestead is frequently too small to support a family. Behind this stretch of level land the granite mountain> rise somewhat abruptly, but not to very great heights, hardly any ^fing above umber-Hne within IS miles of the salt water. Snow-capped P' ..i.utifacture, tlv cost of towinK being about CO cents per ?'.b.f. About 60 square miles, or 1.3 per cent of the land-p t of thir diiftrict, will be of value for afrriculture, but. as yet, most of it is imtj?r <. Little over 370 sq. miles has been alienated, . .yottt o le-third jl„»„ of which has been, or is in process of bein;;, pe.manently alienated. About 109 sq. miles has been taken up under timber leases, 130 sq. miles under special licenses and 3 sq miles under timber sales. The high percentage of the area which has been Crown-granted or leased it due to the fact that th*? excellent qu-''t>- of the timber and the accesMble location attracted the early investor . hough this region has been exploited for the past 30 years, the following -. it of saw-material is estimated to b« itill standing: Douglas fir, 2,575,. j M.b.f.; red cedar. 1.4«"4,410 M.b.f.; hemlock, 517.760 M.b.f.; balsam. 201,940 M.b.f.; spruce, 36.660 M.b.f.; white pine, 16.010 M.b.f.; yellow cypress. 37.560 M.b.f.. making a total of 4.789.700 M.b.f. The additional small material suitable for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc., if estimated to be 312,000 M.b.f. Pulpwood forms a relatively small pro- per Jon of the stand in this district, there being only 1,169.000 cords of all the ipecies which can be used for this purpose. ToBA Inlbt Drainage Basin Toba inlet, with its main outlet, Pryce channel. extends in a north easterly direction about 35 miles. The Redonda islands and Raza island, and the main- land adjoining Toba inlet re of the typical Coast Mountains granitic forma- tion. The mo lins are steep and rugged, those on the mainland often being covered a ■ eir summits with perpetual snow and ice. A broad terminal valley, iccipied j> Toba river, extends for a distance of over 30 miles above the heaJ of Tolia inlet. The river is navigable for shallow draft boats for a distance of IS t-^ ?0 miles, and is one of the very few rivers on the coast on which log driving .an be conducted. Two main tributaries, the North fork and the Little Toba, drain areas of considerable size. Klite river flows into the head of the inlet from the north. These rivers rise in glacial fields, and. as a result, a large amount of silt is brought down by them; this has caused the formation of an extensive delta at the head of the inlet, and the salt water is discoloured by the silt for several miles. Several lateral valleys enter Toba inlet, and in these, as well as a the more gentle slopes, good stands of timber are found. With the exception of a few pockets of soil on the Redonda islands, no agricultural land is to be found in this vicinity. As the bottom land of Toba valley is very sandy and subject to floods, it is not, at present, suitable for settlement purposes. After the timber in the valley i? removed, and some expenditure is made on dyking and draining, it may b« jossibie to develop a few sr ..are miles of land for agriculture in this valley. ft • ; i^ •iH i J 348 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE TOBA INLET DRAINAGE AREA Classes of land Percental of entirt area Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f. or more per acre Area carrying between 10,000 and 50,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth) Area incapable of carrying merchantable timber Total Saw Timber Arailable There is only about 7 sq. miles in this district which can be considere( as of value for agriculture, and practically all of this is more or less timbered. Approximately 152 sq. miles in this district has been alienated; 110 sq miles is held under timber licenses, 26 sq. miles under timber leases, 2 sq. mile under timber sales and 14 sq. miles has been Crown-granted or applied for. The total stand of saw-timber is approximately as follows Douglas fir, 922,610 M.b.f.; red cedar, 768,270 M.b.f.; hem lock, 395,530 M.b.f.; balsam, 197,920 M.b.f.; spruce, 125,52( M.b.f. ; white pine, 3,020 M.b.f. ; yellow cypress, 7,530 M.b.f. ; making a total of 2,420.400 M.b.f. To this may be added 140,000 M.b.f. for small material, such as piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. Phe total amount of pulp material, including all the hemlock, balsam and spruce, is estimated to be 1,113,000 cords. The rainfall in this region varies from 80 to 100 inches per annum, which favours the production of cedar. On account of the comparatively shallow soil and more or less exposed situation, the fir on the Redonda islands does not attain the large sizes and soft texture which are to be found in more favourable situations, and hemlock forms a considerable portion of the stand. Farther up the inlet the quality of the timber improves. In the valley bottoms there is a considerable percentage of spruce which attains large sizes and is of good quality. At the higher altitudes, balsam and yellow cypress are found. Though fires have been of frequent occurrence, the precipitous nature of the shore-line has resulted in localizing the burns and no very large areas have been destroyed. Reproduction is generally well established on loggcd-of! or burned areas. Hemlock usually predominates after logging, unless thv young stand established under the original forest is destroyed. A good example of pure hemlock reproduction, established under a mature stand of fir and hemlock, is well illustrated in the plate facing page 108 taken on Redonda island. For the last ten years or more, a number of small logging operations have been c nducted in this district, chiefly around Redonda islands, and a con- siderable amount of the most accessible fir has been taken out. Some years ago, the timber along the edge of Toba river, for a distance of ten miles from the mouth, was logged under an old donkey license, and logs were successfully driven to salt water. As there are no mills in this district, the cut has to be FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT 349 towed to Vancouver or other manufacturing points. The average towage charge from Toba inlet to Vancouver is 90 cents per M.b.f. 760 2-2 6-6 9-5 5-7 Bute Inlet Drainage Basin Bute inlet presents the same orographical features as Toba inlet. The high mountains flanking the channel are composed of granite, and their sides are generally steep and in places even precipitous. The vallej', of which Bute inlet forms the outlet, is one of the most extensive on the coast. It rises in the Interior system and cuts through the Coast mountains. The salt water extends up about 28 miles, beyond which the Homathko river, with its tribu- taries, drains an area SO miles in length by 25 miles wide. The Homathko, though carrying a large amount of water, is so swift and so full of bars that it is not navigable for any distance, and it is doubtful if logs could be success- fully driven on it without a heavy expenditure for improvements. About 20 miles from the mouth, the river flows through Waddington caflon, a narrow box caflon several miles long, the sides of which are so high that great difficulty is experienced in reaching the upper part of the valley. The Southgate, a river of considerable size, flows in from the north-east and enters the inlet near the head of salt water. It drains a valley about 30 miles in length. The Salmon river falls in on the east side of Bute inlet, and about mid-length. On the west side the lateral valleys are all short and contain small streams. Opposite the outlet of Bute inlet, the inside passage, between Vancouver island and the mainland, is blocked by islands, and a series of 'narrows,' in which the tidal currents are very strong, occurs in all the connecting channels between the strait of Georgia and Johnstone strait. Stuart island lies at the entrance to Bute inlet. East of the island the passage is wide enough to permit an easy entrance to the inlet; but, on the west and north sides, the Euclataw and Arran rapids occur. The precipitation in this vicinity varies from 70 to 100 inches, decreasing towards the head of the inlet. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE BUTE INLET DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Percentage of entire area Above merchantable timber-line " Be'.ow merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f . or more per acre .^rea carrying between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre. '.'. Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth) Area incapable of carrying merchantable timber Total The amount of agricultural land in this district is very limited, 5 square miles (0-1 per cent) being about all that, under exi.iting conditions, could be so classified. Most of this is more or less timbered. 3S0 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION 'i r ,t in. There is practically no agricultural land except in the terminal valle; where a considerable delta has been built up. This land, where not we timbered, is chiefly gravelly or sandy and subject to floods. Settlemen therefore, should not be encouraged, at least until the timber is removei On both shores of Bute inlet large areas of timber have been destroyed b fire. On some of this burned-over land, where the underlying rock has nc been washed too bare, good fir, cedar and hemlock reproduction has bee established. The timber grown in this region is generally above the averaj; in quality, the cedar being particularly good. In the valleys near the hea of the inlet there is a considerable amount of Sitka spruce. Approximately 113 sq. miles has been alienated in this district; 100 sq miles under timber licenses, 2 sq. miles under timber leases, 1 sq. mile unde timber sales and 10 sq. miles Crown-granted or staked for pre-emption o purchase. Logging operations have been conducted in Bute inlet for a nurabe of years, but the following amount of saw-material is estimated to be stil standing: Douglas fir, 616,710 M.b.f.; red cedar, 767,920 M.b.f.; hemlock 172,395 M.b.f.; balsam, 97,925 M.b.f.; spruce, 125,450 M.b.f.; making : total of 1,780,400 M.b.f. About 95,000 M.b.f. may be added for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. Th( total amount of timber suitable for the manufacture of pulp is estimated to b( 608,000 cords. No manufacturing is carried on in this region, and all th< logs are towed to the milling centres below. The average cost of towing logs from this vicinity to Vancouver is about $1 per M.b.f. Loughborough Inlet Drainage Basin This district includes that portion of the mainland lying north of Cardero, Chancellor, Wellbore and Sunderland channels, extending from the entrance of Bute inlet to Port Neville. Loughborough inlet, which is the most prominent geographical feature in the district, extends in a northerly direction about 2<\ miles. The valley divides at the head of salt water. Mink river draining the eastern branch and Stafford river the northern. The latter valley almost joins Knight inlet at its source. Two small inlets, Frederick arm and Phillips arm, occur between Bute inlet and Loughborough inlet. Frederick arm and the Estero basin (a salt water lagoon situated at the head of the arm) occupy part of a through-valley connecting Bute inlet with Cardero channel. Phillips arm extends north about five miles, and a large terminal valley, occupied by Phillips river and lakes, extends for 18 miles above salt water. On the west side of Loughborough inlet, and about nine miles from the head, a through-valley extends in a south-westerly direction to Sunderland channel. The eastern portion of this valley is occupied by Heydon lake, which drains into Lough- borough inlet and the western end by Topaze harbour. Several such valleys, all with a generally east and west course, occur in this district. As a rule excellent stands of timber are found in the unsubmerged portions of these through-valleys. The precipitation in this district is between 100 and 110 inches, and the winters are considerably colder than farther south. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT 351 The general formation is the usual granitic rock of the Coast mountains. Mineralized areas have been disco\'ered on Frederick arm, Phillips arm and on Thurlow island, and some development work has been conducted. In spite of the steep contour, heavy stands of timber occur along the shore-line of all these inlets, extending back from nne to two miles from the salt water or several miles in the ravines. There is practically no land of agri- cultural value in the district, though a few small patches of soil have afforded an excuse for some pre-emptions. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE LOUGHBOROUGH INLET DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f. or more per acre. Area carrying between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young groWth) Area mcapable of carrying merchantable timber Total Area, sq. miles 384 SS 145 110 60 754 Percentage of entire 50-9 7-3 19-2 14-6 80 Cedar of High Quality About 10 sq. miles (1-3 per cent) of the land in this district may be con- sidered as having some prospective agricultural value. Most of it is at present classified under one or other of the forest types. Cedar is the predominating species; climatic conditions seem to be particularly favourable to its growth, for the quality of the cedar grown in this district is considered above the average. Some good yellow cypress stands are found at the higher altitudes. In the country north of Sunderland channel, Douglas fir is perhaps the most important species, heavy growths of excellent quality being found in this district. The total stand of saw-timber is estimated to be as follows : Douglas fir, 1,037,025 M.b.f. ; red cedar, 2,067,475 M.b.f. ; hemlock, 784,725 M b f ■ balsam, 495,175 M.b.f. ; spruce, 91,625 M.b.f.; white pine, 23,625 M.b.f. \ yellow cypress, 45,750 M.b.f.; making a total of 4,515,400 M.b.f. To this may be added 320,000 M.b.f. of piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. The total amount of timber suitable for pulpwood -s estimated to be 2,131,000 cords. Approximately 212 sq. miles in this district has been alienated under the following forms: special licenses, 160 sq. miles; leases, 33 sq. miles; timber sales, 4 sq. miles; Crown-granted or applied for, 5 sq. miles. This district has probably escaped damage from forest fires to a greater extent than most of the lower mainland districts, though several large areas have been burned, chiefly after logging. The most extensive area on which the virgin timber has been burned is a tract of land lying north of port Neville. Reproduction on the burned and logged-over area is, as a general rule, well established. Logging has been carried on extensively for many years, owing to the accessibility and good quality of the timber. Practically all of the cut is towed to the mills in the southern centres for manufacture. The towage "mt-. m ii.i .J hi i m 352 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION charge to Vancouver is about $1 per M. A large shingle mill was operated for a short time on Loughborough inlet, and a few small sawmills have been operated at different times, but none was in operation in 1916. Quadra to Hardwick Islands Between the mainland and Vancouver island a series of smaller islands is formed by the numerous winding channels. Johnstone strait and Discovery passage, which skirt Vancouver island, comprise the main channel, connecting the strait of Georgia and Queen Charlotte sound, but several other navigable passages also connect these waters. Geologically these islands belong to the Coast mountains, being chiefly granitic in formation. The names and approximate areas of the larger islands in this group are as follows : Cortes islands, 48 sq. milrs; Read island, 21 sq. miles; Quadra island. lOOsq. miles; Maurelle island, 20 sq. miles; Sonora island. 56 sq. miles; Upper Thurlow island. 33 sq. miles; Lower Thurlow island, 43 sq. miles; Hardwick island, 27 sq. miles. The chaanels dividing these islands average about a mile in width, but are frequently narrowed to a few hundred yards, causing swift tidal currents. Vessels navigating between the strait of Georgia and Queen Charlotte sound are forced tc pass through one or other of these narrows. The islands themselves are mountainous, but none reaches over 3,000 feet in height, and, where soil conditions permit, they are well timbered to the summits. Mary and Hernando islands and part of Cortes island have been formed by glacial deposit and, therefore, offer conditions suitp>-'.e for agricul- ture. Agricultural land occurs also on Quadra and Read islands, but very little is to be found in the islands to the north and west of the series of narrows. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS ON QUADRA TO HARDWICK ISLANDS Classes of land Arc.i. sq. miles Percentage of entire Above merchantable timber-line. . . 2 30 120 102 40 8 - Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f . or more per acre y.Q Area carrying between 10.000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre 39-7 Area carrying less than 10.000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth). . Area incapable of carrying merchantable timber \i 1 Non-timbered agricultural or industrial lands .... 2-7 Total 302 The area of agricultural land is estimated to be about 20 sq. miles (6-6 per cent), of which over half is still more or less timbered. The timber on these islands is chiefly fir, and most of it is of excellent quality. Though a large proportion of this area has been logged, the following amount of saw-timber is estimated to be still standing : Douglas fir, 1,388,160 M.b.f.; red cedar, 411,040 M.b.f.; hemlock, 425,100 M.b.f.; balsam, 49,160 FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT i53 M.b.f.; spruce, 7.080 M.b.f.; white pine, 9,000 M.b.f.; yellow cypress. 1 000 M.b.f.; making a total of 2.290,840 M.b.f. The amount of small material, suitable for piling, poles, pulpwood. etc., is estimated to be 135.000 M.b.f. It is estimated that the total amount of hemlock, balsam and spruce would make 752,000 cords of pulpwood. Out of a total area of 193,280 acres, it is estimated that 239 - q. miles has been alienated, under the following forms: Permanently alienated, 84 sq. miles; special licenses, 110 sq. miles; leases, 39 sq. miles, and timber sales, 6 sq. miles. A large number of logging camps are still in operation in this district, and one shingle mill is being operated at Green Point rapids. The towage charges from these islands to Vancouver vary from 75 cents to $1 per thousand feet, depending upon whether the camp is above or below the narrows. Knight Inlet Drainage Basin Knight inlet is one of the largest fiords on the coast. The salt water extends from Queen Charlotte sound, in an easterly direction 40 miles and, thence, in a northerly direction. 30 miles. Above this, the terminal valley occu- pied by the Klinaklini river extends for a distance of 80 miles, cutting through the Coast mountains from the Interior plateau. Turner, Cracroft and several other islands are in or near the entrance to the inlet. Owing to the similarity of silvicultural conditions, they are considered with the Kingcome Inlet drainage area. To the south of Knight inlet and about two or three miles distant from it, a parallel inlet, named Call creek, extends about 13 miles. Knight inlet is', perhaps, the most rugged fiord to be found on the whole coast. The moun-^ tains on each side, especially on the northern half, are very high and precipitous, several peaks rising above 7,000 feet. Within seven miles of salt water, two huge glaciers discharge into the Klinaklini valley; large ice fields are also visible in all directions from the inlet. Except for the lower ten miles, the Klinaklini valley is very narrow, in many places confining the river to narrow box canons. At the eastern end of the lower reach of Knight inlet a valley extends across to the head of Loughborough inlet. In this valley there is a considerable stand of timber. About three miles to the west of this point a broad, fan-shaped valley enters at Glendale cove. Martin, Tom Brown and Keogh lakes are situated in this valley and the surrounding land carries an excellent stand of timber. The shore-line along Call creek and the lower end of Knight inlet is for the most part timbered, though there are many rocky out-crops which are bare. The climate in this locality i.- siderably more severe than even at Loughborough inlet. As a result, Douglas fir is almost eliminated from the stand, except in the Tom Brown Lake region, and yellow cypress grows down to the water's edge. The rainfall ranges from 120 inches at the outlet to about 80 inches at the head of the inlet. Except for a small area of delta land at the mouth of the Klinaklini, and some few scattered areas along the shore, aggregating probably 1.000 acres, there is no land in this district of agricultural value. ^■^:r ;Mi: ':\- * m i*ik 3S4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE KNIGHT INLET DRAINAGE BASIN CUawR of Und Area. m^ Percentage of entire area Above merchantable timber-line 1,982 40 140 130 40 8S'0 Below merchantable timber-line — Area carrying 30,000 b.f. more per acre 1'7 Area carrying between lO.itOO and 30,000 b.f. per acre 6-0 Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth). Area incapable of carrj- ng merchantable timber 5-6 !• 7 Total 2,332 Call creek has been the seer" of logging operations for some years, but very little has been done on Kni^nt inlet, where the stand is still to a large extent virgin. The estimated amount of standing saw-timber in this district is as follows: Douglas fr, 606,260 M.b.f.; red cedar, 1,415,770 M.b.f.; hemlock, 732.760 M.b.f.: balsam, 287,730 M.b.f.; spruce, 80,750 M.b.f.; white pine! 5,540 M.b.f.; yellow cypress, 82,020 M.b.f.; Cottonwood, 2,170 M.b.f.; a total of 3,213,000 M.b.f. The small material, suitable for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc., is estimated to amount to an additional 245,000 M.b.f. Of the species suitable for the manufacture of pulp there is estimated to be 1,709,000 cords. Approximately 181 sq. miles has been alienated, as follows : Permanently alienated, 4 sq. miles; timber licenses, 140 sq. miles; timber leases, 17 sq. miles; pulp leases, 14 sq. miles, and timber sales, 6 sq. miles. As might be expected from the climatic conditions, red cedar predomin- ates, with hemlock and balsam forming a larger percentage of the stand than is found in regions to the south. The cedar is generally of good quality, though in some places it is inclined to be rough. Owing particularly the fact that lumbering and settlement have not been carried on extensive.. , and also to the dampness of the climate, the destruction from forest fires has not been very great in this district. There is sufficient evidence, however, to show that, in dry seasons, fires will run even in the green timber. The saw-logs from this district are towed to mills in the vicinity of Van- couver, at a cost of approximately $1.25 per M. The pulp leases in this drainage basin belong to the Powell River Company. The pulp timber from these leases and most of the hemlock and balsam frc n the other lands, are taken to Powell River in the form of logs. KiNGCOME Inlet Drainage Basin The next large fiord to the west of Knight inlet is Kingcome inlet. It is 18 miles long and parallels vety closely the east-and-west portion of the valley occupied by Knight inlet. The upper end of the valley, running north and south, is occupied by Kingcome river. Wakeman sound, a tributary fiord, six miles long, comes in from the north side. About ten miles from the entrance to Kingcome inlet a small narrow fiord, about eight miles long, called Mackenzie FOREST RESOURv" OF THE COASTAL BELT J5S 1-7 60 5-6 1-7 sound, enters Sutlej channel. Numerous small inlets, such as Thompson sound, Bond sound, Kwatsi bay. Simoon sound and Belleisle sound, occupy separate valleys or portions of throufrh-valieys which have not been entirely inundated. Between Knight mlet and Kingcomc inlet, and around the outlet of the latter mlet. are a number of islands, separated by rhannels, forming an even more comphcated system of waterways than occurs in the Quadra-IIardwick group. The principal islands in this group and their api.roximate areas are as follows • Gilford island. 137 sq. miles ; Cracroft island. 68 sq. miles ; Broughton island. 53 sq. miles ; Tumour island. 23 sq. miles ; Harbledown island. 14 sq. miles; Hanson island, 7 sq. miles; Baker island, 6 sq. miles; Eden island 5 sq. miles; Bonwick island, 4 sq. miles; Village island, 3 sq. miles. In addition to the above islands, there are numerous smaller ones. The rock in this vicinity is of the usual Coast granitic formation, except small areas of shale and limestone on Hanson, Harbledown. Cracroft and Swanson islands. The topography of the mainland is similar to that of Knight inlet. High snow-capped mountains, frequently over 5.000 feet in altitude, rise close to the shore-line. Except Gilford island, where several peaks exceed 3 000 feet the elevations of the islands seldom exceed 2,000 feet. The main terminal valleys in this area are those occupied by Kingcome river and Wakeman river, the former being about 25 miles long and the latter about 20 miles. The timbered area on Kingcome river averages about two miles in width, with a tributary on each side extending back eight to ten miles from the main river. On Wakeman river the timbered land averages some- what broader towards its mouth, and, for the lower 15 miles, is about 2% miles wide. With the exception of the high land on Gilford island, almost all of the area on the islands can be classified as absolute forest land. There are numer- ous small rocky areas on which forests do not grow, but which are too small to be estimated. On the deltas at the mouths of Kingcome and Wakeman rivers there is some land of agricultural value, aggregating perhaps 5 000 acres but elsewhere in the district the amount of agricultural land is negligible. CLASSIFICATION OF LAND?. IN THE KINGCOME INLET DRAINAGE BASIN isses of land Above merchantable timber-U.ie Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f. or more per acre. Area carrying between 10,000 and 30,0(X) b.f. nor acre Area carrj-ing less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chieflv young gro\vth)' Area mcaoable of carr>'ing merchantable timber. .' Non-timbered agricultural land Total There is about 8 sq. miles of land in this district which mav be classified as agricultural land. About one-half of it is open land and the' remainder is timbered. I ill HI! 1 » < 356 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The rainfall in this district is very heavy, averaging between 110 and 120 inches per annum. The temperature, though perhaps not quite so low as on Knight inlet, is nevertheless considerably cooler than the more southern portion of the Coast region. Consequently, Douglas fir is almost entirely absent, and nearly half the stand is composed of cedar. The amount of saw-timber of each species is estimated to be as follows : Douglas fir, 113,710 M.b.f.; red cedar, 4,017,225 M.b.f.; hemlock, 2,253,970 M.b.f.; balsam, 1.041.035 M.b.f.; spruce. 366.375 M.b.f.; white pine, 17,745 M.b.f.; yellow cypress, 287,725 M.b.f.; cotton wood, 8,915 M.b.f.; a total of 8.106,700 M.b.f. Cedar poles and small pulpwood fofm quite an important part of the stand in this drainage basin. The total amount cf this material is estimated to be 775,000 M.b.f. The hemlock, balsam and spruce, if used for pulpwood. would amount to a total of 5,760,000 cords. This district is the centre of the cedar production at the present time. Owing to the strong demand for cedar lumber and shiiigles, a large number of logging camps are now in operation. Though the cedar grows to large dimensions, it is not, as a rule, of as good quality as that grown in the vicinity of the strait of Georgia. The trees penerally are shorter, and have a more pronounced taper. Over large areas, nearly all of the mature trees appear to be suffering from some disease (evidently fungus) which has caused the tops to die. The hemlock and balsam in this region are of good quality and find a market as pulpwood. The forests along the western and southern portions of the islands are exposed to considerable wind from Queen Charlotte sound, which influences the quality of the timber. Forest fires have done some damage on these islands; but, taking the district as a whole, it has escaped serious destruction from this source. Owing to the thinness of the soil in many parts of this district, severe fires, especially if repeated, result in the rockr being so exposed that reproduction is impossible. In this district about 405 sq. miles has been alienated : 7 sq. miles is included in Crown-grants, pre-emptions, etc., 280 sq. miles is held under timber licenses, 1 sq. mile under timber leases, 110 sq. miles under pulp leases, and 7 sq. miles under timber sales. The logs from this district are all towed to the southern manufacturing points. In 1916, much of the cedar was exported to Puget Sound mills, owing to the higher prices offered by the United States mills. The cost of towing to Vancouver averages about $1.50 per M. Drury and BcLize Inlets Drainage Basin On the north side of Queen Charlotte sound, and to the west of Broughton island, there is an area of comparatively low land, extending back for about 25 miles, which is very much cut up with inlets. Most of these inlets have an easterly and westerly direction. The most southerly of these is Drury inlet, which nms west about 12 miles, from near the north end of Brought on island almost to Blunden harbour on Queen Charlotte sound. The valley, however, bends sharply to the east and the salt water extends another five miles in what is known as Actaeon sound. Beyond this it is occupied by the FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL HKLT .»J7 fresh water of Huaskin lake, for a distance of nine miles. The eastern end of the lake reaches to within half a mile of salt water again at Kenneth pass. A salt water lagoon runs for about four miles northward from the head of Actaeon sound, in a through-valley extending to Warner bay en Seymour inlet. The next system of waterways opens directly into Queen Charlotte sound. Three long fiords, Seymour inlet, Nugent sound and Belize inlet, extend east- ward from a common outlet, Seyir ■ ur inlet is about 40 miles long, and several bays still further increase the lei.^-th of shore-line. The chief of these are Frederick sound. Salmon arm. Maunsell bay. Warner bay. and a series of lagoons which almost connect with Blunden harbour and Drury inlet. About two miles to the north of Seymour inlet. Nugent sound runs in a parallel direc- tion for about 13 miles. The uppfer end comes within one-quarter mile of Sey- mour inlet. Belize inlet also parallels Nugent sound and Seymour inlet for 26 miles at an average distance of four miles. Its upper end also nearly meets Seymour inlet. On the north side of this inlet. Alison sound and Mereworth sound extend in a northerly and easterly direction each for about twelve miles. It will be se.-n that, if this region had sunk to a slightly lower depth, a series of open channels surrounding islands would have been formed, rather than closed ' .lets, as at present. The only terminal val'ey of importance in this district IS that of Seymour river, which runs in a northerly direction about twenty miles from the head of Seymour inlet. A range of high mountains lies tlong the northern and eastern edge of this drainage area. Many of the peaks exceed 5.000 feet in altitude. The ordinary granitic formation prevails throughout the district. The hills dividing the inlets are rounded and. though heavily timbered along the shore- line, are frequently very ''parsely timbered on their summits, due perhaps to the exposure to the winds from Queen Charlotte sound. The precipitation in this district is usually from about 110 to 120 inches per annum and the temperature is similar to that on Kingcome inlet. Douglas fir is practically non-existent in this region, forming only 01 per cent of the stand. Over 60 per cent is red cedar, which, though large in size usually tapers very quickly and does not yield as high a percentage of clear' lumber as that grown in the vicinity of the strait of Georgia. As in the King- come Iriet basin, many dead-topped cedars are to be seen. In a general way It may be said that, for a distance of one-half mile back from the shore-line of the inlets, the stand of timber will average over 30,000 b.f. per acre. For the next half mile it will run between 10.000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre Beyond that, there is a scrubby growth of cedar and hemlock, which has no ^resent commercial value. Exceptions to this rule occur in sheltered ravines or in situations where the soil is deeper. On the shore of Queen Charlotte sound, there is a strip of land which has been taken up under pre-emptions and applications to purchase, presumably tor agriculture. It is chiefly of an open muskeg nature. In this district there is about 40 sq. miles of land which is considered to be of value for agriculture. It is chiefly of a muskeg nature and, on only about one-quarter of it, is there timber of any value. ill ill M^- II 3M COMMISSION OP 'CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OP LANDS IN THE DRURY AND BELIZE INLETS DRAINAC.E BASIN CUiw* of land PercentaRr o( entire »rea Above merchontable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line ; Area carrying 30,000 b.(. or more per acre Area carrying between lO.Ott) an-ing less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth) Area incapable of carrying merchantable timber Non-timbered agricultural lands Total 575 Area, Percentaj^e sq. of entiru mi es area none 240 41-7 170 2<)() 75 130 80 13-9 10 1-8 About 75 sq. miles (13 per rent) of the land in this district could be used for agriculture, but most of it is timbered at present. Approximately 442 sq. miles in this district has been alienated; about 350 sq. miles is held under timber licenses, 16 sq. miles under timber leases, and 76 sq. miles under various forms of permanent alienations. The quantity of saw-timber is estimated to be as follows : Douglas fir, 4,279,125 M.b.f,; red cedar, 3,126,725 M.b.f.; hemlock, 3,425,500 M.b.f.; balsam, 555,250 M.b.f.; * FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT 363 spruce. 532,500 M.b.f.; white pine. 79.625 M.b.f.; yellow cypress. 62.875 M.b.f.; a total of 12.061.600 M.b.f. There is also about 742.000 M.b.f. suitable for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. The total pulp material in the district is estimated to be 7.000.000 cords. The quality of the timber is generally excellent, and heavy stands occur over considerable areas. Forest fires have done some damage; but the district, as a whole, has escaped serious injury, and satisfactory reproduction is being established on the burned and cut-over lands. Owing to the proximity to Victoria, and the shelter afforded by the Olympic peninsula, logs can be towed with comparative safety from Port San Juan. Extensive logging operations have been con- ducted in this district for a number of years; but. as yet. the cutting has made very little impression on the forest resources. Barkley Sound Drainage Basin This district includes that area on the west coast of Vancouver island, outside of the Esquimalt and Nanaimo land grant, which drains into Barkley sound and extends as far east as Nitinat river. Barkley sound is a wide, island-dotted bay. terminating in Alberni canal. The latter is a long narrow fiord, which extends about two-thirds across Van- couver island. Great Central and Sproat lakes drain into the head of Alberni canal, and Nahmint and Anderson lakes occupy large tributary valleys on its west side. Effingham and Pipestem inlets, two smaller fiords, enter Barkley sound from the north side. Nitinat lake, which empties into the Pacific through a river less than a mile long, extends north-easterly about 12 miles and averages a mile wide. The terminal valley extends over 20 miles beyond the head of the lake and provides a low pass to Cowichan lake. Between Nitmat lake and Alberni canal, the topography is less rugged than on the west side of the latter. Little of this area is above timber-line; but, on some of the rncre exposed situations, the timber is of such a scrubby nature that it cannoc be considered as of commercial value. On the west side of Alberni canal, however, there are fairly high mountains, the summits of the higher peaks extending beyond timber-line. Close to the shore on Barklev sound, the forests, where exposed to the winds from the open ocean, are of an inferior type, being composed chiefly of scrubby cedar, hemlock and balsam. Farther inland, as in the vicinity of Great Central and Sproat lakes, some of the finest timber in British Columbia is to be found. This is a region of heavy pre- cipitation and mild climate. The precipitation is over 1 10 inches on the coast, decreasing to approximately 70 inches at Port Alberni. There is very little agricultural land outside of the Esquimalt and Nanaimo belt, except in the vicinity of Ucluelet arm. where a small settlement has been established. From the data available it is estimated that the area suitable for agri- culture is about 35 sq. miles, or 3-4 per cent of the total area. »F i(i 'i 366 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE BARKLEY SOUND DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f . or more per acre Area carrying between 10,000 ai.s, and 72 sq. miles by pre-emption or purchase. No attempts have been made to exploit the forests in this region, and consequently little damage has, as yet, been done by forest fires. The ex- tension of the railway would materially aid in the utilization of the forests in the Nootka Sound district and branch lines to the other inlets would be feasible. The development of the forest industries will, however, depend chiefly upon the export trade. QuATsiNO Sound Drainage Basin This district includes the western watershed of the northern portion of Vancouver island. Nearly all of this area drains into the Quatsino sound. This fiord is approached from the ocean by a funnel-like bay, which narrows gradually to approximately one-half mile in width at the mouth of the inlet. The harbour then opens out to an average width of about two miles for a distance of IS miles. A tributary fiord, the Southeast arm, is 14 miles long, and another valley, occupied by Victoria lake, Alice lake and Marble creek, parallels the Southeast arm to the east. The upper end of Quatsino sound, known as West arm, is a body of salt water 35 miles long and averaging a mile in width. It extends in an east-and-west direction almost parallel to the main sound, with which it is connected by a narrow strait. This extensive system of waterways, navigable for ocean-going vessels, renders accessible a large amount of timber. The hills in this region are low, seldom exceeding 2,000 feet above sea level and, for the most part, are forest-covered. On the west side of this district a large portion of the area is almost flat. The rocks along the shore of Quatsino sound are close to the surface and in some places a con- siderable amount of timber has been blown down by heavy gales which have ■Mi ^iil 11 •fcr.l •' ; I i: i f , 1 3T0 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION occurred in this vicinity. The annual precipitation in this region exceed 110 'i.^h2s, and the mean annual temperature is about 2" below that of Clayo ''uo* 1 ound. There is estimated to be perhaps 25,000 acres which may be of value foi agriculture. A settlement, chiefly of Norwegians, has been established or this sound for over 20 years. Thus far, owing to the difficulty of reachinR u market, very little has been accomplished in the way of agriculture, but sufTicicnt progress has been made to demonstrate that fruits and vegetables can he successfully grown. In the vicinity of Holberg, at the extremity of the West arm, a large amount of land has been taken up by settlers in the last few years. There is urgent need of good roads to facilitate development. The population is dependent almost altogether on a fortnightly boat service to Victoria via the west coast. By crossing the island to Hardy bay, connection can be secured with boats following the inside passage.* Practically all of the land is covered with a forest growth. In the southern and eastern portions of the district the forests are very heavy, but, towards the west end, they are chiefly of a muskeg type, composed of a scrubby growth of hemlock, yellow cypress, red cedar and balsam. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS ON THE QUATSINO SOUND DRAINAGE BASIN Classes of land Percentage '>f entire area Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f . or more per acre Area carrying between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre. Area carrj-ing less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth). . Area incapable of carrying merchantable timber Non-timbered agricultural land , . . . Total The timber is chiefly of the pulpwood type, hemlock and balsam predomin- ating, with a considerable proportion of Sitka spruce. Douglas fir, which comprises only a little over 5 per cent of the stand, is confined to a narrow strip close to the shore of the sound, where good drainage is provided. Red cedar is generally distributed throughout the distiict. The total stand of saw-material is estimated to be as follows : Douglas fir, 572,960 M.b.f.; red cedar, 1,759,600 M.b.f.; hemlock, 5,006,040 M.b.f.; balsam, 2,325,560 M.b.f.; spruce, 906,400 M.b.f.; white pine, 9,240 M.b.f. ; yellow cypress, 60,200 M.b.f.; a total of 10,640,000 M.b.f. There is also estimated to be 1,045,000 M.b.f. of small timber, suitable for poles, piling and pulpwood. Including all the saw-material suitable for manufacture of pulp, there is estimated to be 13,050,000 cords of pulpwood. In this drainage basin, about 599 sq. miles has been alienated; approximate- ly 102 sq. miles by pre-emption or purchase (Crown-grants have not yet been • See description of Hardy Bay drainage basin. FOREST RESOURCES OP THE COASTAL BELT J7I issued for a considerable portion of this land), 87 sq. miles under pulp lease, and about 410 sq. miles under timber licenses. The pulp leases were granted in 1904 and 1906, with the understanding that a pulp-mill would be constructed for their immediate utilization, but, until 1917, no attempt was made to establish the plant, with the exception of a small saw-mill, which was operated for a short time. The forest resources are, therefore, in a virgin state, .\mple power and water supply for the operation of a pulp-mill can be secured from .Marble creek, and a large plant is now being constructed; this will mean a great deal to the development of the region. Other industries are likely to follow, and the mineral and agricultural resources of Quatsino sound may also be developed. Forest fires in this region were practically unknown until a few years ago, when a windfall near Quatsino Sound village became ignited. The fire attained such headway in this dry material that it swept across the Narrows and extended over a considerable area, "^hese windfalls present the chief fire h. -ards in this district, and it is necessary to maintain a vigilant patrol during the dry season to prevent further outbreaks of fire. Smith Sound and Rivers Inlkt Drainage Basin Smith sound and Rivers inlet open directly into the Pacific ocean, near the northern extremity of Vancouver island. The former runs in an easterly direc- tion for a distance of 32 miles. About six miles south of Smith sound is a tribu- tary valley, also running east and west, which is occupied by Long lake and Wyclees lagoon. Two small inlets, Boswell and Naysash, branch off from the north side of Smith sound. The valley, of which Rivers inlet forms the outlet, is one of the larger valleys penetrating the coast. The salt water, however, extends only about 30 miles inland. Beyond that, Owekano lake, which empties into the head of the inlet by a river about four miles long, fills the valley for another 26 miles. Chuckwalla and Kildalea rivers also enter the head of the inlet from the north-east and north. Machmell river occupies the main terminal valley at the head of the main reach of Owekano lake. An extension of the lake follows a tributary valley from the north This Vdlley is contracted in three places, so that a chain of lakes is produced. The Sheemahant river, which flows into the lower of these lakes, is a large stream about 20 miles in length. Neechantz river, which flows into Owekano lake from the south, near the mouth of Machmell river, heads in the same valley as Seymour river. Drainey inlet enters Rivers inlet on the south side, and is about 15 miles long. The upper end of Drainey inlet is connected by a through-valley with Owekano lake. A large valley, in which Moses inlet and Klyak river lie, enters on the north side of Rivers inlet, about ten miles from the head. Towards the heads of these inlets high mountain ranges, with numerous large glaciers, occur. Near the coast, the hills are lower, thouf' of a rugp ■ granitic formation. The area of agricultural land in this portion of the coast will probably not exceed 9 or 10 sq. miles. ■Hi t m COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION CLASSIFICATION OP LANDS IN THE SMITH SOUND AND RIVERS INLET DRAINAGE BASIN ClMMi o( Und Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line ; Are* carrying .40,000 b.(. or more per acre Area carryinK between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre. ...'.'.'...'... Area carrying leas than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth) Area incapable of carrying merchantable timber ToUl The average precipitation on the coast is reported to be between 120 and 130 inches per annum; but, at the head of Owekano lake, it is only 60 or 70 inches. This causes a marked difference in the forest types of the two localities. On the coast, cedar, hemlock, balsam and spruce prevail, while around Owekano lake, good stands of the Douglas fir-red cedar type are to be found. About one-half of the total stand is composed of the pulpwood species. The total stand of saw-material is estimated to be as follows : Douglas fir, 255,190 M.b.f.; red cedar, 1,991,155 M.b.f.; hemlock. 1,033.700 M.b.f.; balsam. 499,410 M.b.f.; Sitka spruce, 488,440 M.b.f.; yellow cypress, 437.105 M.b.f.; a total of 4,705.000 M.b.f. To this may be added 425,000 M.b.f. for small timber, suitable for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. The total amount of available pulpwood is estimated at 3,230,000 cords. There are no timber leases in this drainage basin. About 310 sq. miles has been taken up under timber licenses and 15 sq. miles has been, or is bcinc, permanently alienated; total. 325 sq. miles. The timber close to the coast is. as might be expected, of rather poor quality. Much of the crdar is dead-topped, and the hemlock 13 of an inferior grade. Farther inland, the timber greatly improves in quamy. and excellent cedar and fir are found on Owekano lake. Owing to the distance from Van- couver, and the extra hazard of towing the logs across the open water of Quten Charlotte sound, practically no lumber operations have, as yet. been con- ducted in this region. As the supply of easily available timber decreases in the more southern districts, the logs will undoubtedly be towed from tiiis region in specially constructed rafts. The establishment of local mills will prove the best method of exploiting the forest resources of this district. Salmon canning is an important industry in Rivers inlet, and some hand-logging is done to supply logs for a small mill which manufactures box lumber, and also for fuel for the canneries. Though forest fires have occurred in several places, the damage from this source has not been very large. Burke and Dean Channels Drainage Basin From Queen Charlotte sound to the head of Lynn canal there is a series of north-and-south channels running parallel to the Coast mountains. These chan- FOREST RESOURCES OP THE COASTAL BELT Hi nelt, with their tranivene passaKcs, leparate the islands of a chain which extends from 10 to 40 miles out from the mainland. Branching off from these north* and-south channels are two extensive systems of waterways, which penetrate the main Coastal ranKc. The southern system is formed by Burke and Dean channels, which debouch into FitzhuRh sound, and which are connected by Labouchere channel, thus enclosing Kinj; island. The upper ten miles of salt water in the main terminal valley of Burke channel is called North Bentinck arm. Above this the Bcllakula river extends for over 75 miles, completely traversing the Coast mountains. Dean river, which floors into the head of Dean ch; 'lel, also rises in the Fraser plateau and cuts through the Coast moun- tams. South Bentinck arm, 12 miles long, enters Burke channel from the southeast. Kwatna inlet, a small tributary of Burke channel, alx)uf. ten miles long, parallels the southeast side of Burke channel at a distance of about two miles. In addition to Dean river, a valley of considerable size, occupied by Kinsquit river, enters t\ : head of Dean inlet from the north. Two tributary fiords, Cascade and Cousins inlets, enter from the north, opposite King island. At the head of Cousins inlet a short river with a considerable fall empties from Link lake. This excellent water-power is being ujed by the pulpmill at Ocean Falls owned by the Pacific Mills, Ltd. The principal coastal islands udjacent to these channels, and included in this basin, with their approximate areas, are as follows : Calvert island, 106 sq. miles ; Hecate island. 40 sq. miles ; Hunter island. 170 sq. miles; Spider island. 6 sq. miles; Goose island. 8 sq. miles; Campbell island. 62 sq. miles ; Denny island, 50 sq. miles ; Cunningham island. 46 sq. miles; Chatfield island, 28 sq. miles; Bardswell group. 45 sq. miles; Yeo island, 26 .sq. miles; Lady island, 8 sq. miles; Dowager island. 25 sq. miles. The geological formation in this district is of the usual granitic type. The sides of the inlets are steep and rocky, and the mountains increase in altitude towards the heads of the inlets. Near the coast, and more especially on the western exposures of the islands or mainlarJ, a considerable pro- portion of the land is covered with a mossy growth, with patches of scrubby yellow cypress and hemlock in places. In the more sheltered situations, Sitka spruce, hemlock, red cedar and balsam stands of fair quality are produced. Towards the heads of the inlets and along the tributary valleys, the climatic conditions are more favourable to forest growth. Douglas fir forms an im- portant part of the stand in South Bentinck arm, and the other species are of — ich better quality than where found near the coast. This portion of the coast is subject to very heavy precipitation, the records showing that it reaches 140 inches on the coast, decreasing to about SO inches at the heads of Burke and Dean channels. Heavy falls of snow occur in the winter. As a consequence of the severer climatic conditions, the timber-line is considerably lower here than in the district protected by Vancouver island. A definite classification of the land and forests in this district is difficult to arrive at, owing to the fact that a great deal of the forest is composed of a stunted growth of cedur hemlock, balsam and yellow cypress. Most of the m COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION I ill cedar in this type is dead-topped, and none of the stand can be expected ti produce anything more valuable than fuel, posts, or small pulpwood. A the present time, these forests are of no commercial value. For the purposi of this report a great deal of this class of land may be considered waste Innl Practically the only land of agricultural value in this basin is in the Bcllakul; valley, where, for the last 20 years, there has been some settlement, chic'^y b\ Norwegians. This valley varies in width from three miles at tide-water to ->ne half mile at 40 miles up stream. As the mountains on either side are unt^aallv steep and high, generally precipitous, all of the agricultural land is in ilit bottom of the valley. The chief drawback to the agriculiural development of this district is the distance from suitable markets and the lack of transpor- tation. A waggon road has been built, from the head of the inlet, for a distanco of 50 miles up the valley, and. beyond that, a trail connects with the CaritxMj road, tia Chilcotin river. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE BURKE AND DEAN CHANNELS DRAINAGE BASIN Ctaiics o( land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timb'r-line : Area carrying 30,000 h.l. or more per acre Area carrying between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth) Area incapable of carrying merchantable timber Non-timberetl agricultural lands Total The area of agricultural land is estimated to be about 26 sq. miles, over half oi v,'vjh is muio or less timbered. The total amount of saw-material in this drainage basin is estiinateil to be as follows : Douglas fir, 1,037,300 M.b.f.; red cedar, 1,254,190 M.b.f.; hemlock, 1,117,545 M.b.f.; balsam, 410,205 M.b.f.; spruce, 757,405 M.b.f.; yellow cypress, 89,585 M.b.f.; Cottonwood, 18,860 M.b.f.; a total of 4,715,000 M.b.f. In addition, there is a considerable amount of small material. It is estimated that 600,000 M.b.f. may be of value for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. Of the pulpwood species it is estimated that there is, in the aggregate, about 3,920,000 cords. In this basin, approximately 418 sq. miles has been alienated, as follows: Permanent alienation, 103 sq. miles; timber licenses, 190 sq. miles; pulp leases, 125 sq. miles. The pulp mill at Ocean Falls and the small saw mill situated at Nainu, on Fitzhugh sound, are the only forest industries in this vicinity. Logs have been towed successfully from Ocean Falls to Vancouver, in cribs bound together by wire rope; but, as the cost of towing this distance is about $3.00 per M., the bulk of the timber will be manufactured locally. F Ok EST RfcSOURCF.S f > F THE COASTAL BELT .I7S Percentage of entire area 6J'8 •7 3 9 13 4 18 1 •1 .... Garonrr Canal Drainage Basin A lyitcm of fionls, very similar to the nurkc-Dcan syxtcm. ocnirs nlwut 100 miles to the north of the hitter. The |)rincipal waterways in this system are Gardner canal and DouKlas channel. The former extends in an easterly direction about 80 miles and the latter in a northerly and easterly direction for about 50 miles. Numerous cross channels and branches of the main channel enclose islands of considerable size. A .series of narrow, north-atul-south rhnnnels separate the coastal islands from the mainland, and afford a sheltered passBRe for cor.slwise shipping. The princii)al islands included in this district and their approximate areas are as folows : Priricvs Royal i-land. 792 sq. miles; Pitt island, 560 sq. miles; McCaidey island, ,15 sq. miles; Banks island, 376 sq. milcK; Hawkesfuiry island. 144 sq. miles; AnRer island, 16 sq. miles; Gribbell island, 85 sq. miles: Farrant island. H so. miles; Gil island. 75 sq. miles; Campania island, 48 sq. miles; Estevan island, 70 sq. miles; Aristazable island, 164 sq. miles ; Sarah island, 31 sq. miles; Roderick island, 155 sq. miles; Swindle island, 91 sq. miles; Price i.sland, 49 sq. miles. Gardner canal and Douglas channel are flanked by ruRRed mountain ranges, which, throughout the greater part of the shore-line, rise abruptly for from 1,000 to 3,500 feet. The islands are al.so vcy rocky and mountainous. Kitlobe river and lake occupy the terminal valley of Gardner canal. This valley is only about 20 or 30 miles long, and very little is known of its char- acter. It is reported to contain considerable bottom-land, which may possibly be of agricultural value, and to carry a heavy stand of timber, composed chiefly of Cottonwood. Kemano river enters Gardner canal on the north side, about 20 miles from the head of the canal. Several small bays occur on either side, but usually terminate abruptly in steep cirques. Near the head. Douglas channel divides into two branches, Kildala arm and Kitimat arm. At the head of Kildala arm there is a broad, well-timbered valley. On the west side the tributary valleys are short and end abruptly. One of the most extensive through-valleys on the coast extends from the head of Kitimat arm by way of Lakelse lake, across the Skeena river, up the Kitsumgallum river and down Tseux river to the Nass. It has a general width of bottom-land of between five and ten miles, and contains some excellent agricultural land. Settlements are being established in this valley at the head of Kitimat arm and on both sides of the Skeena river, where transportation facilities are afforded by the Grand Trunk Pacific Ry. The heaviest precipitation on the coast of British Columbia occurs in this district, 170 inches having been recorded for Swanson bay. It decreases cradually to about 60 inches at the heads of Kitimat arm and Gardner canal. .-\ large proportion of this precipitation falls in the form of snow during the winter. A very large percentage of the area which is below the limbcr-linc is covered with a mossy muskeg, interspersed with a scrubby growth of red cedar, yellow cypress and hemlock. Except in the larger valleys, the merchantable 1 li^ III i 376 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION timber is, as a general rule, confined to a strip along the shore extending bad from one-quarter of a mile to a mile. The highest altitude at which red cedar hemlock and balsam attain merchantable dimensions in this region is abou 2,000 feet. The spruce usually does not occur at over 500 feet, though yellov cypress reaches 3,000 feet. The same difficulty of classifying the timber, as was noted in regard to th( Burke and Dean channels, occurs here and throughout the w*io!e northert coast. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS ON GARDNER CANAL DR. 'NAOE BA5IN Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f . or more per acre Area carrying between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre. . '. Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly young growth) Area mcapable of carrying merchantable timber Non-timbered agricultural land ]\[ Total miles I 5,928 60 420 715 1,300 5 8,428 Perec uigf tf ?■ tire area 70-3 50 8-5 15-4 ■t The area of land suitable for agriculture in this district is estimated to be about 45 square miles, most of which is still forested. In this drainage basin, approximately 577 sq. miles has been alienated in the following manner : Permanently alienated, 65 sq. miles; timber licenses, 380 sq. miles; pulp leases, 132 sq. miles. Investigation shows the total stand of saw-timber in this district to be approximately as follows : Red cedar. 1,143,330 M.b.f.; hemlock, 2,458,755 M.b.f.; balsam, 1,101,420 M.b.f.; spruce, 1,454,610 M.b.f.; yellow cypress, 261,885 M.b.f. ; Cottonwood, 4,000 M.b.f. ; making a total of 6,424,000 M.b.f. In addition there is estimated to be about 880,000 M.b.f. of small timber, suitable for piling, poles, pulpwood, etc. Though Douglas fir does not figure in the stand as of commercial im- portance, it does occur at the head of Gardner canal, chiefly on the north side beginning at Kemano river and extending as far as Kitlobe lake. The pre- cipitation in this locality is, as noted, only from 60 to 70 inches per annum. The bulk of the timber is of the species suitable for the manufacture of pulp, and can be best used for that purpose. Including all sizes, there is estimated to be aboi!' 8,260,000 cords of pulpwood in this district. The quality of the timber improves as one proceeds eastward along the inlets, and some excellent hemlock, balsam and spruce stands are to be found in the sheltered places protected from the damp winds from the coast. Damage from fire is not so noticeable towards the coast; but, in the drier situations on Kitimat arm and along the upper 50 miles of Gardner ca:;al, severe damage has been done. The rocks in many places have been so fim- pletely bared by the fire that successful reproduction is precluded. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL REI.T ,<77 70-3 ■ * 50 S-5 15-4 ■1 The Swanson Bay pulpmill is situated on the mainland side of Graham reach, opposite Princess Royal island. To utilize the cedar and higher grades of spruce for lumber, a sawmill is operated in connection with the pulpmill. This plant should play an important part in the development of the forest resources of this rcRion. There is a small sawmill at Hartley hay, near the mouth of Douglas channel, but it was not in operation in 1916. Very little cuttinR has been done in this region, and the forests are practicallv in their virgin state. What logging was being done in 1915 and 1916 was conducted by handloggers or pre-emptors, who disposed of their small cuts to a sawmill near Prince Rupert. As the cost of towing logs from this district to Van- couver would be about $4.00 per M., local industries must be developed to utilize the forest resources. Skeena River to Portland Canal Drainage Basin Two of the largest rivers on the Pacific slo-«e in British Columbia, the Skeena and the Nass, are in this region. Both rise m the interior of the province and cut through the Coast mountains, the lower 80 miles of their courses being on the Pacific side. Skeena river has a length of approximately 325 miles, and, with its tributaries, drains about 18,750 sq. miles, 16,600 sq. miles of the Interior forest and 2,150 of the Coast forest. Nass river is about 275 miles in lerigth and drains an area of about 8,040 sq. miles, 7,680 sq. miles of the Interior forest and 360 sq. niiles of the Coast forest. Only the area lying west of the summit of the Coast mountains is discussed in this portion of the report.* In addition to the valleys occupied by these rivers, there are several large inlets in this drainage basin, the most important of which are Portland canal, Observatory inlet and Wark channel. The Skeena valley is of the same U-shaped formation as the fiords; and, if it were not for the large amount of fresh water pouring into the channel, it would be a salt-water fiord for a distance of at least 50 miles. The Nass valley is of the same type. The Coast mountains at this point take a turn to- ward the northwest, so that the salt-water inlets of Portland canal and Observa- tory inlet, though running almost north-and-south and parallel to the coast, are at right angles to the main mountain range. Cross channels connect Portland inlet, which is the lower end of Observatory inlet, with Portland canal, cutting og Wales and Pearse islands. Another through-valley, occupied in large part by Wark channel, extends from Portland inlet to the Skeena, forming the Tsimpsean peninsula. A large river valley, the Ecstall, enters the Skeena from the southeast. The city of Prince Rupert is situated on Kaien, one of a number of islands near the mouth of the Skeena. Port Simpson lies about 20 miles north of Prince Rupert, and near the northern end of Tsimpsean peninsula. Portland inlet and Observatory inlet are the lower and upper portions, respectively, of the same channel, and total 60 miles in length. Observatory inlet branches at the head into Hastings arm, 18 miles long, and Alice arm, 15 miles long. The • For area east of the Coast mountains, see pp. 300 to 306. If 1 ' ■; nf! 1 ' iJ 1 ' : f w 1' M flii 378 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION mining town of Anyox is situated on Granby bay, near the outlet of Hastin- arm. Portland canal, which forms the international boundary between Canad; and Alaska, is 90 miles long, and in very few places is it more than IK mile wide. The city of Stewart is situated at the head of Portland canal. Mininj is the most important industry in this locality. As already mentioned, one of the largest through-valleys in the provina occurs in this drainage nrea, running from the head of Kitimat arm to Xas: river. In this valley, Lakelse and Kitsumgallum rivers, are tributary tf Skeena river, -. tie Lava lake is tributary to the Nass. The terminal valle\ at the head oi Alice arm, occupied by Kitzault river, extends in a northerly direction about 20 miles. Kshwan river drains the short terminal valley oi Hastings arm, and Bear river, at the head of Portland canal, rises in glacial fields within 20 miles of its mouth. The precipitation in this district varies from 120 inches at the coast to between 50 and 60 at the watershed of the Coast mountains. The winters, especially in the vicinity of the heads of the inlets, are fairly severe, and are accompanied by a considerable fall of snow. The chief areas of agricultural land are situated in the Lakelse-Kitsumgallum val- ley, where it is estimated that over 100 sq. miles will be available for agricultural purposes when the timber is removed. Some of the bottom- land in this valley, especially on the south side of the Skeena river, is gravelly and of doubtful agricultural value. A promising little settlement has been estabhshed at Terrace since the advent of the Grand Tnmk Pacific. The chief hindrance to further development of this region is that most of the land is held under either timber license or application to purchase, the owners holding the land for speculative purposes rathe- than for actual development. The conditions on the Nass river are qv ilar to those on the Skeena river, but very little agricultural land occurs ,he summit of the Coast mountains,except on the sandy islands in the river ■ . u narrow stretch of bottom-land on each side of the river. The shore-line of the inlets is gener- ally very steep and rocky, and the timber extends up the steep sides for only one-quarter to one-half mile from the salt water. The flanking mountains are frequently over 5,000 feet high, and are capped with permanent snow and ice. Near the ocean, the timber is usually of poor quality, chiefly scrubby red cedar, yellow cypress and hemlock. Farther back, in sheltered situations, there is considerable good spruce and balsam, and the other species attain a better growth. The area suitable for agriculture in this portion of the coast is estimated to be about 120 sq. miles, 100 sq. miles of which is still more or less forested. The stand of saw-timber is estimated to be as follows : Red cedar, 759,020 M.b.f.; hemlock, 3,076,360 M.b.f.; balsam, 1,106,800 M.b.f.; spruce, 1,6.^8,- 240 M.b.f.; lodgepole pine, 1,680 M.b.f.; yellow cypress, 113,960 M.b.f.; Cottonwood, 434,160 M.b.f.; a total of 7,131,120 M.b.f. The amount of small timber below saw-timber size is estimated to be 990,000 M. b.f., and of the pulpwood species there is about 9,620,000 cords. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT 379 CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS IN THE SKEENA RIVER TO PORTLAND CANAL DRAINAGE BASIN ' Classes of land Above merchantable timber-line Below merchantable timber-line : Area carrying 30,000 b.f . or more per acre . , . Area carr>-ing between 10,000 and 30,000 b.f. per acre. Area carrying less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chieflv voung growth) Areamcapableof carrying merchantable timber. ' Area suitable for agriculture Total Area, sq. miles 4,575 50 470 950 1,100 20 7,165 Percentage of entire 63-8 6-6 13-3 15-3 •3 There are no timber or pulp leases in this district, but approximately 400 sq. miles is held under timber licenses, and about 313 sq. miles has been," or is being, permanently alienated. The total area alienated is, therefore, approxi- mately 713 sq. miles. There is no Douglas fir in this drainage basin. Heavy stands of cottonwood of good quality occur on the islands and adjoining bottom lands in both the Skeena and the Nass rivers. Spruce is found chiefly on the low lands, though it grows to some extent on the mountain sides. Forest fires have done considerable damage in the eastern part of this district, especially along the Grand Trunk Pacific. Most of the fires in this area originated during the construction of the railway. The reproduction after fire in this district appears to be largely of lodgepole pine, which has not and, perhaps, never will, attain more than pole-wood size. The chief industries of this district are fishing and mining. Numerous salmon canneries are scattered along the coast at the entrances to the rivers, and the finest halibut fishing on the coast is to be found tributarv to Prince Rupert. On Portland canal and Observatory inlet much mining development has been carried on. Stewart was the scene of considerable mining excitement a few years ago, and many promising prospects in this region are awaiting development. At Anyox, the Granby Consolidated Mining, Smelting and Power Co. has established a large smelter. Most of the ore for the smelter is secured from a mine in the immediate vicinity. Good prospects are also being opened up on Alice arm. The forests in this region have not been exploited to anv appreciable extent, and most of the lumber used locally is brought north from Vancouver. In 1916, there were small sawmills at Georgetown, about 15 miles north of Prince Rupert, and at Terrace, on the Grand Trunk Pacific Rv., near tne mouth of Kitsumgallum river. These mills were being operated solely for the manufacture of lumber and box material for local use. Logs can be rafted on the lower 50 or 60 miles of the Skeena and on perhaps 30 miles of the Nas?. It is doubtful if driving operations above these points would be econo-viical, on account of the numerous channels and shoals in the stream. Eventually Prince Rupert will become the centre of an extensive lumber industry. Logs 380 C O M Al I S S I O N OF CONSERVATION i! ill it. Hi can be towed to Prince Rupert from all points north of Queen Charlotto sour in the same manner as they are now towed to Vancouver from the arc tributary to Johnstone strait and the strait of Georgia. Queen Charlotte Islands This group of islands lies from 50 to 100 miles ofiE the mainland of Briti Columbia. The north end is almost directly west of Prince Rupert, and tl most southerly point is opposite Burke channel. The principal islands the group, from north to south, are Graham, Moresby and Prevost, whi several others of considerable size, Louise, Lyell, Burnaby, etc., lie along tl east side of Moresby island. The group forms a rough triangle. The non end of Graham island, which forms the base, is 53 miles wide and the distant from there to cape St. James, which forms the apex of the archipelago, is 1; miles. Orographically, these islands form a portion of the partially submerge Vancouver Island mountains, which are represented in the south by Vancouvi island and on the north by Prince of Wales and other coastal islands of Mask Geologically, they are of the same formation as Vancouver island. In son places, the sedimentary rocks of Graham island contain seams of coal, mountainous axis, commencing near the northwest comer, extends along tf western side of Graham island and through the southern islands of the arch pelago to cape St. James. Some of the peaks in this range attain a hei,i,4 of 4,500 feet. The north-eastern portion of Graham island is almost (la seldom exceeding 300 feet above sea. This low land is covered, in place with glacial till. It is, however, more generally covered by a marine depos of clays, sands and gravels, indicating successive submergence and elevatioi of the land. The nearest land to these islands is Prince of Wales island, Alaska, 45 mik north of Graham island, and on the other side of Dixon entrance. Massct i approximately 80 miles from Prince Rupert, and Skidegate is 120 miles di; tant from the latter. Graham island, the largest of the group, is 53 miles wide at the north cnc but it narrows to about 25 miles at the south end. The distance from Masse on the north to Skidegate on the south end of the island is 48 miles, and th total land area is approximately 2,370 sq. miles. Moresby island is separated from Graham island by Skidegate inlet am channel. The latter is so narrow in two places that it is navigable only b; ^anoes. Heavy tidal currents occur in these 'narrows'. The north end o Moresby island is approximately 30 miles wide, and, though much dissecta by inlets, it extends in a south-easterly direction for approximately 80 miles Its total land area is 967 sq. miles. The larger of the other islands of this ;jrou| are as follows : Louise island, 124 sq. mile«; Lyell island, 92 sq. miles; Kunghit island, 8' sq. miles; Burnaby island, 39 sq. miles; Talunkwan island, 14 sq. miles; fanni island, 13 sq. 'liles; Ramsay island, 6 sq. miles. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT 381 Opening on the north end of Graham island are two inlets, Masset inlet and Naden harbour. Masset inlet fonns a narrow channel for about 17 miles then opens out into an irregular-shaped inland sea, about six miles wide from' north to south and 18 miles long from east to west. As might be expected the tidal current in the neck of the inlet is very strong, but no dangerous rapids or over-falls occur, and the inlet is navigable for vessels of considerable size Naden harbour is approached by a funnel-shaped bay, which narrows to an opening less than one-half mile wide, beyond which the harbour expands to about 2j2 miles in width by 6 miles in length. This inlet affords excellent natural harbour facilities. The west coast of Graham island affords little shelter for ships. The only safe harbour is Rennell sound, which is situated near the south end of the island. It extends inland about 8 or 9 miles and curving to the southward, affords a good shelter from western gales, 'cart- wTight sound, a few miles to the south of Rennell sound, extends inland about 7 miles, but it affords very little shelter from westerly winds. On the east side of Graham island there is no harbour whatever. Skiderate inlet, between Graham and Moresby islands, however, affords excellent harbour facilities. On the west side of Moresby island several harbours occur including Inskip channel , Moore channel and Tasoo harbour. The west coast of Graham and Moresby islands has not been thoroughly surveyed, and is seldom visited e-en by prospectors. The dangers of navigation are so great that the Indians have not established any villages on this side and seldom visit it. On the east fde of Moresby island, however, the numerous sheltered channels and deep oays afford excel! .it protection for shipping and facilitate the exploit- ation of the ratural resources. The influence of the Japan current renders the climate of the Queen Charlotte islands very equable, and, owing to the absence of high moi-ntains the precipitation is less than half of what it is on the adjoining r- ■ ^nland' Dunng the winter months, a relatively small portion of the precipita. s in the form of snow. What is, perhaps, the largest continuous area of agricultural land on the coast of British Columbia is to be found on Graham island. There is approxi- mately 1,290 sq. miles of almost level land, from 200 to 300 feet above sea- level. A large portion of this land is of a muskeg type. The mineral ioil is covered by a layer of moss and decaying vegetable matter for a depth of from 3 inches to 2 feet , averaging perhaps 6 or 8 inches. A scrubbv growth of timber composed of red cedar, yellow cypress, hemlock, lodgepole pine and spruce, par- tially covers the land, leaving many open meadow-like areas between the groves Where there is sufficient drainage, su; x. as along streams or close to the hore-line of lakes or the salt water, heavy stands of timber are almost invariably found. The cost of bringing the muskeg land under cultivation would be small com- pared with the cost of clearing heavily timbered lands. On most ot this land It would be necessary to provide drainage by shallow surface drains and to remove the covering of moss by burning. Settlements established in the vicinity of Masset and Skidegate inlets have demonstrated that the soil and climate are conducive to the successful growing of all kinds of garden produce i i I : 382 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION and small fruits, and to the raising of live stock. The aRricultural prodiK i from these islands has twice scctired the first prize for district exhibits at tlii annual apricultiiral fair at Prince Rupert. The settlement of this district ha been very >,'rcatly retarded, due to the fact that nearly all of the acccssilil. land was taken up under timber licenses, coal licenses or applications t( purchase before the attention of prospective settlers was attracted to the dis trict. Hundreds have been turned away, owing to their inability to obtair suitable locations. There is very little actual waste land on Graham island unless the muskeg areas are classified as such; but as these, though useless I'oi forest purposes, have an agricultural value, they cannot be so classified. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS ON THE QUEEN CHARLOTTE IbLANDS Classes of land Area, sq. miles Percentag of entire area Above merchantable timber-line . 284 335 620 965 1,570 10 7 ■ ^ Below merchantable timber-line : 8-s Area carrying between 10.000 and 30,000 b.f . per a< Area carrjnng less than 10,000 b.f. per acre (chiefly ^re ... 10-4 young growth). . 25-.=; 41 5 Non-timbered agricultural land *. .,5 Total 3,784 • Muskeg land suitable for agriculture is included under that incapable of carrying mercliant- able ti-nber. This is land capable of producing forests, but which has been burned or cleared so that it is not likely to be again forested. Inchiding the muskeg land, there is about 1,2')C sq. miles (,14- 1 per cent) which may be developed for agricultural purposes. Of this area, approximately 680 miles is held under timb-^r licenses, 16 sq. miles under timber lease and 468 sq. miles has been either Crown-grantetl or is held under application to purchase or pre-empt. The total area alienated is, therefore, approximately, 1,164 sq. miles. The total stand of saw-timber is estimated to be as follows : Red cular, 3,729,100 M.b.f.; hemlock, 5,712,700 M.b.f.; spruce, 4,817,800 M.b.f.; kMli:e- pole pine, 31,000 M.b.f.'; vellow cypress, 465,100 M.b.f.; a total of 14,755,700 M.b.f. Of this amount, approximately 6,500,000 M.b.f. is on Graham island and 8,253,700 M.b.f. on Moresby and other islands. In addition to the saw-tinibcr, there is estimated to be about 1,210,000 M.b.f. of small timber, chiefly cedar poles and pulpwood. Of the pulpwood species, there is estimated to be 16,400,000 cords. The distribution of the merchantable timber on the Queen Charlotte islands is very largely determined by drainage. On the hillsides and al'mg the shores and streams very heavy stands, yielding from 25 M. to over 100 M., occur generally, but on the flat land on Graham island little or no merchant- able timber is found. The heavy stands do not, as a rule, extend back more than a mile^and, frequently, less than a mile — from the shore-line or edges of the streams. The better drainage afforded by the more mountainous FOREST RESOURCES OF THE COASTAL BELT m topography on the southeastern portion of Graham island, and on Moresby and the adjacent islands, results in more extensive stands of hi^h-Rrade timber. The Sitka spruce of the Queen Charlotte islands is undoubtedly of the finest quahty to be found on the coast, especially for aeroplane construction imTJ w !'"'"^"^V'^«^«- f'-equently 6 to 8 feet in diameter, and from 150 to 200 feet high. Smgle trees contaming over 50 M. feet have been cut Tie wood ,s as a rule, fine-grained, tough, strong and elastic. The^ large trees yield a high perct tage of clear lumber, in spite of the fact that spruce is a shade-enduring species and does not readily shed its branches. Mo^t of the spruce purchased by the Imperial Munitions Board for aero- plane construction came from the Queen Charlotte islands. Though Sitka spruce occurs generally throughout the coast region, it seldom forms a large proportion of the stand except on these islands. There, it frequently com- prises over thirty per cent of the stand on quite large areas nortiln nf\T'°''' ''•^' ^ "i'"' '"P'"^'" '" ''"^"'y ^° *^^* ^°""d *" the southern portion of the province, and is an important species on these islands. The red cedar, though it grows to large sizes, is frequently not very sound, and a con- fer Th'" T '' '' ""' '"^'"^^^ '°' '''' m-^nufacture of shingles than ind thnn ? f > ^"°^^f yP'-^^^ J^ows ,n the swampy flat lands or on the hill tops and. though frequently reaching merchantable size, the trees are usually of a crubby growth, tapering very rapidly from the butt. Lodgepole pine may be used for mmmg props, fuel, etc.. hut could not be considered of much value as saw-matenal The absence of bdsam from these islands is pecuHar sSce : occurs m conjunction with the hemlock and spruce on the adjacent ma"n! he authl"°f ^r v,°^ ''" P''"'"'' ^'^ '^^^^ ^^'^^'^^^^ ^^' '^-^ it been seen by the author of this chapter on several visits he has made to the islands Prior to deve.opment of the aeroplane spruce industry, four small mills had been erected on Masset inlet and one on Skidegate inlet but thdr o,™"- lons were very limited. During the constructi6n of the Grand Trunk Pacific dlTnH f ^' T ^" '°'"' ^""'^"'' ^'"'■^ ^'^'PP^'i to Prince Rupert. The d mand for aero- lumbc. gave a great impetus to the lumber indu trv on the f f H ?? "'"' ''""'-^' -'^blished were improved and five new L lis were erected. A large number of logging camps were opened up to supply the ocal m^K and the mills on the mainland. The logs were successfulh towed across Heca e strait in Davis rafts and undoubtedly the pulpmills' on The mainland wil continue to secure a considerable amount of t'heir log supp it rafned f "f ' '" ''' '"'"'''°" °' aero-lumber only the clear straight! oTt h :? ''I' ^'T""- '''"^' '''''''''' '°SSing was necessary, and only the best trees have been removed, leaving, in many cases, good s ands tor pulp or commercial lumber. • t. " aidiiu!, Vnr J^'^'Pf^^'^f ^°'" °'' '^ ''^'"g conducted on the west side of Graham island For a number of years, copper has been mined at the southern end of Moresby ZT^' ^",^*^'^'*'°" to their other resources, the waters in the vicinity are noted as fishmg grounds for halibut, salmon, herring and cod. and a whaling t Zl"]^T/T'T^ " Naden'harbour. The lack of Ldequate tSns' portation facilities has been one of the greatest deterrents to the development iiM 384 COMMISSION OF conservat;on of the resources of these islands. When direct trade connections are estab- lished between Prince Rupert and the Orient, which will necessitate the passage of the steamers along the north shore of Graham island, this situation will, in all probability, be ameliorated to a certain extent. There is perhaps no portion of the province which offers such a rich field for development as do the Queen Charlotte islands. ":n Appendix I (Specimen) PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA FOREST BRANCH. DEPARTMENT OP LANDS PULP LICENSE No. 60S Timber Sale Contract THIS INDENTURE, made the ^j^y °^ , J J . *-°- *^l • between His Majesty the King (herein represented and acting by ■- ^ s v «ciu Minister of Lands for the Province of British Columbia), who. with his heirs' and successors, is hereinafter called "the Lessor." of the one part, and who. together with executors, administrators, successors, and assigns. ;sheremafter called "the Lessee." of the other part. WITNESSETH that, in consideration o' the payments and stipulations to be made and observed by and on the part of the Lessee and of the Lessee's offer to purchase made under the said Act. the Lessor doth hereby grant unto the Lessee under and subject to the provisions of Part III of the "Forest Act and for the term and subject to the reservations and conditions here- mafter provided, a license to cut and remove aU the merchantable timber upon an area which is agreed to comprise 460 acres, situated and described as follows, and shown upon the map annexed and thereon coloured red : No. 60S Commencing at the S.E. corner of T.L. 3419. Range 3, Coast ; thence N. 20 c ,r i "^ ''"''*'' ' ^' 20 chains ; E. 60 chains ; S. 20 chains ; E. 10 chains ■ :>. -0 chatns : W. to the shore ; thence north-westerly al.;ng shore to the point of commencement. *^ ^ In consideration whereof the Lessee hereby covenants, promises and agrees with the Ussor that the Lessee shall pay to the said Minister of Lands the several sums at the times and in the manner foUowing, namely :— (1.) An annual rental, based on 460 acres, at the rate of 10.937 cents per acre, amounting to $S0 . 31, further payments to be made annually in advance on th& first day of January in each year hereafter during the continuance of the license hereby granted : Provided that such annual rental is to be reduced in each year oy the omission from its computation of six hundred and forty acres or any multiple thereof when said six hundred and forty acres or multiple thereof has been logged m the preceding year, as proved to the satisfaction of the said Minister. •' ,} : 14 i JW COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION Promded thai, in respect of any saw-timber cut or removed from any area in respect of which half-rental is being paid under the provisions of this section, there shall be due and paid per thousand feet of such saw-timber, in addition to royalty on saw-timber, an amount equivalent to the rental charge that would have been f.iid per thousaKd ftt't bad the saw-timber aforesaid been held under special timber i.cense issued at the sam^- Jate as the pulp license in question, fifteen thousand feet, board measure, of saw-timber being taken as the equivalent of one acre in computing said rental charge. (2.) All forest-protection dues as provided in the "Forest Act" ami amendments, payable annually in advance on the first day of January in each year during the life of this contract. (3.) Royalties and the cost of scaling, payable as follows : — Royalties as provided in the Statutes, which must be paid within sixty (60) days from the date of Scale and Royalty account. (4.) The cost of cruising, surveying, and advertising incident to this contract, being the sum of $45.00. (5.) A stumpage price as follows : Douglas fir $ .95 per M B.F. Red cedar 1 05 " Spruce 50 per cord Hemlock 35 Balsam 35 " Payable as follows : — To be paid immediately upon receipt of stumpage account. And the Lessee further covenants, promises, and agrees to cut and remove said timber in strict accordance with the following conditions and with all regulations and provisions gov-"'nf timber sales in the "Forest Act" and amendments : — (1.) No timber will be removed from the sale area until it has been cun- spicuoush' marked with the following registered mark issued for this timber sale : " /\ " (2.) No unnecessary damage will be done to young growth or to trees left standing. So far as practicable, trees will be felled uphill, and no trees will be left lodged in the process of felling. If trees designated to be left standing are badly damaged through carelessness durint; the process of logging or are cut, they will be paid for at the rate of J/. 50 per M. (3.) Stumps will be cut so as to cause the least practicable waste, and will not be cut higher than the diameter of the tree at the point where it is cut, and in nc case higher than 30 inches on the side adjacpnt to the highest ground, except in unusual cases in the discretion of the officer of the Forest Branch in charge. (5.) (6.) (7.) TIMBf.R SALE CONTRACT ,„ (4.) The following trees will be cut — ii'l^'Z^"T*1'" '^\ "^ "'"' """""' •■'• '«''^*'""«6/' timber or pulp wood fourtetn inches and over in diameUr as directed by the officer o) the Forest Branch in charge. ^ ^Zl!r^ ^i» be manufactured or sold until it has been properly ccorda^eTir^^l'; ,f • "^°"" ^'^^" "'"' --n«l--ts' anT^ accordance with the following special provisions — Ail timber will be scaled by an official or acting official scaler before ^l^^'-jo^edfrom the sale area, or from booms IdiZing hV ale Ira il"«?ti *'" ^ "^u "?** '° " '"'^ '^ ^•'""«^" '" »»>« t0P» " practicable 7o inch.. T '*" 'r' *"''• ""'^ ^° *»>« •"•"*">""> dian,eter o iorlcJ R u' " T'''''"»«ble in the judgment of the officerTthe Forest Branch m charge. Log lengths will be varied so as to p°ov de for the complete utilization of merchantable timber Merchantable trees designated for cutting which are left uncut ellmg. and any merchantable timber which is cut and not remov^ of°the"c;:.ur"" °' ^'^ ?"'"^ ''"^ '"''^ '°««-« - "hit iSS a i!r^l7 "'* '' completed shall be scaled, measured, or c^nteS as hereinbefore provided, and paid for as follows — uX^tm.'-'' '" '"^^'^^'f'*' ^-M" ^-ch sums to be paid upon Brush will be disposed of as follows :— As directed by the District Forester. Prince Rupert. The license ht ' granted is to be renewable yearly upon the oav- ment of the anuaal rental hereby reserved, at the time and in^he manner hereinbefore specified, during the term of 30 years from he date of this contract next ensuing: Provided that all timber uTob^ cut and removed before the first day of January, 1947; Tnd urth^ (10.) Provisions for fire protection — As provided in the Forest Act, Part XI, Sections 104 to 133, inclusive. amount will be held until the requirements IveLrnSued by t'hTress^' and then refunded ; or otherwise will be forfeited : ^ *"**' Provided further that all timber cut under this contract shall be ««.H ,'« o?ltr°"' r ''?r="f-<=t-«d in this Province intotards la h sh^^^^^ or other sawn lumber, to such an extent to be of use in the trad^ SS (8.) (9.) 11; in 38S COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION further manufacturing, except in the case of pilei, telegraph and telephone poles, ties, and crib timber, which may be exported under an Order in Council. The decision of the Minister of Lands will be final in the interpretation of any of the terms and conditions of this contract. The Forest Officer in charge, by Riving notice to that effect in writing tn the Lessee, or to the person in charge of logging operations upon the area. may suspend any logging operation conducted upon this area, should violation of any of the terms or conditions of this contract have occurred ; and such violation shall render this 'contract liable to cancellation by the Minister of Lands. Provided further that the interest, rights, and privileges of the Lessee in the said hereditaments, tenements, and premises shall be construed as subject always to all the provisions of the "Forest Act" and amendments thereof. In witness whereof the parties hereto have hereunto set their hands and seals the day and year first above written. Signed, sealed and delivered on behalf of the within-named Lessor in the presence of — Signed, sealed, and delivered on behalf of the within-named Lessee in the presence of — SEAL Deputy Minister of Lands. 1 SEAL > (Lessee or Purchaser.) 1. Appendix II VOLUME TABLES Compiled by the British Col'tmbia Forest Branch Volume Table for Douolas Fir Giving merchantable contents. British Columbia rule, under present conditions wnth no allowance for breakage or defect. Compiled from measurements taken Of 726 trees on the lower coast. Diameter at breust height Short Medium Tall Diameter at breast h«ight Short Medium Tall Inchw 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 Board feet 350 420 510 610 730 890 1.060 1.250 1.470 1,700 1.970 Board feet 440 560 710 880 1,075 1,280 1,520 1,770 2.050 2.350 2.675 Board feet 600 750 920 1.130 1.375 1,650 1,955 2,280 2.640 3,010 3,400 Inches 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 Board feet 2,250 2.550 2.875 3.225 3.580 3.960 4,350 4.775 5.230 5.750 Board feet 3.020 3.370 1.750 4.150 4.565 5.000 5.475 5.950 6.460 7,000 Board fett 3,810 4,230 4.675 5.130 5.610 6.090 6,580 7,075 7,575 8,080 Volume Table por Cedar Giving merchantable contents, British Columbia rule, under present conditions, with no allowance for breakage or defect. Compiled from measurements taken of 354 trees on the lower coast. Diameter Diameter 1 at breast height Short Medium Tall at breast height Short Medium Tall Inches Board feet Board feet Board feet Inches Board feet Board fe't Board feet 20 22 24 190 260 290 375 410 530 42 44 1,440 1.650 1.895 2.125 2,340 2,600 335 475 660 46 1,865 2,370 2,875 26 28 420 510 585 705 800 950 48 50 2,090 2,330 2.(M 2,925 3,175 3 51 S 30 32 34 600 710 825 83S 975 1.125 1 1.115 I l..«)0 1 1.485 ! 52 54 56 2.580 3,220 3,525 3,840 3,865 4,250 4,650 36 960 1.290 1 1,685 i 58 3,360 4,150 5 080 38 40 1,100 1,260 1.475 1 1,675 1 1,890 2,100 1 60 3,630 4.480 5,530 I, t i ■*! 1 390 commission of conservation Volume Table for Hemlock Giving merchantable contents, British Columbia rule, under present conditions, with no allowance for breakage or defect. Compiled from measurements taken of 207 trees on the lower coast. Diameter Diameter at breast Short Medium Tall at breast Short Medium Tall height height Inches Board feet Board feet Board feet Inches Board feet Board feet Board feet 16 220 300 410 30 1,030 1,440 1,730 18 300 410 530 32 1,230 1,680 2,040 20 385 530 670 34 1,450 1,950 2,380 22 480 670 830 36 1,680 2,260 2,780 24 590 830 1,020 38 1,930 2,580 3.200 26 715 1,010 1,235 40 2,200 2,920 3,620 28 865 1,210 1,470 1 Appendix III BRITISH COLUMBIA LOG SCALE (Condensed) Diameter of small end Length of log in feet — iocbea 10 12 14 16 20 24 28 32 40 10 34 41 48 55 69 83 96 110 138 12 S3 63 73 84 105 126 147 168 210 14 74 89 104 119 149 178 208 238 298 16 100 120 140 160 200 240 280 320 400 18 129 155 181 207 259 311 362 414 518 20 163 195 228 261 326 391 456 521 652 22 200 240 280 320 400 480 560 640 800 24 241 289 337 386 482 578 675 771 964 26 286 343 400 457 571 686 800 914 1.145 28 334 401 468 535 668 802 936 1,070 1,337 30 387 464 541 619 773 928 1,082 1,237 1,546 32 443 531 620 708 886 1,063 1,240 1.417 1,771 34 503 603 704 804 1,005 1,207 1,408 1,609 2,011 36 567 680 793 906 1,133 1,360 1,586 1,813 2.266 38 634 761 888 1,015 1.268 1,522 1,775 2,029 2.536 40 705 847 988 1.127 1.411 1,693 1,975 2,258 2,822 42 781 937 1,093 1,249 1,561 1,874 2,18b 2.498 3,123 44 860 1,032 1.204 1,376 1,719 2,063 2,408 2.751 3,43') 46 943 1,132 1,320 1,508 1,885 2,262 2,639 3.016 3,770 48 1,029 1,239 1,441 1,649 2,058 2,470 2,822 3.293 4.117 54 1,312 1,574 1,837 2,099 2,624 3,148 3.673 4.198 5,247 60 1,629 1,955 2,280 2,606 3,258 3,909 4,561 5.212 6,515 66 1,980 2,376 2,772 3,168 3,960 4,752 5,544 6.336 7.920 72 2,366 2,839 3,312 3,785 4,731 5,677 6,624 7,570 9,462 INDEX ADAMS AND SEYMOUR RIVERS drainage basins, classification of lands and araount*"**" of timber in 284 description of 283 lumbering and other industries in ................'... 284 merchantable timber in, by species 284 Administration, development of jlj Administration of forests on provincial lands. nj Administration of forests on Dominion lands 14I Aeroplane spruce, securing of t|i Africa, cargo shipments to 20 Agricultural land in forest reserves 112 Agricultural land on coast Jii Alaska, pan-handle of 7q Alberta, Dominion parks in V forest areas of » market in, for timber ...................'. 30 Alder, mountain, description of 218 Alder, red, description of 217 Alder, Sitka, description of 218 Alder, white, description of jjS Alexander, R. H., quoted fii Alienated timber in British Columbia, estimated 242 Alienation, extent of, under timber licenses 03 Alienation of forests beyond requirements ... 1S« Alienation of timber and land 27 Alienation of timber prohibited an Alpine fir, description of i. ,«; Alpine larch, area of « description of ,10 Alsek and Chilkat Rivers drainage basins, clarification of land and atnwint of' timber in " ' 320 aescnption of area ' 120 Altitudes at which different species occur. foi Amabilis fir, description of int Ambrosia beetles, effects of ~V? Arctic current, effect of in Ik Arctic system '"'J? Argentina, exports of lumber to ,il Arrow lakes (see also Lower Arrow lake and Upper Arrow Jake) 11 40 Arrowstone plateau jo.vj Asiatic market, prospects in I i Aspen, description ol 214 Atlantic ports of North America, shipments to. ! ! 21 Atlantic seaboard markets 16 20 Atlin Region drainage basin, classirication of land and amount of timber in 319 description of area i\l lumbering operations in iiq Australia, cargo shipments to j^ ,il| forest research in I?a trade prospects in 10 BABINE mountains ,, Balm-of-Gilead, description of .'..'. ,f 1 Balsam, description of ,ii Baltic seaboard of Russia j7 Barkley Sound, drainage basin, classification of lands and amount oif'timber in 366 aescnption of area vTi timber in, estimate of, by species jgi Bark-heetles, control measures for outbreaks of, in yellow nine •>« mjuries to Douglas fir by iii injuries to lodgepole pine by 550 injuries to western white pine by .'..'. 2 j5 injuries to western yellow pine by Hi outbreaks of .... ti] relation of slash to '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 227 393 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION fill !jj |>i, • . »fi:iit mm 28S 287 288 288 87 Beavermou.; '*?« St?,"''" • •3i.'38,4l Bdlakula nver 3^ 'Big Bend' of Columbia and Canoe River drainage basins, classification of lands and amount of timber in 2S2 description of area 281 lumbering and agriculture in ....................[...'. 283 merchantable timber in, by species !!!!!!]..!. 282 Birch, varieties and description of !.!!!!!!!]. 216 Bitter cherry, description of ]!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.!!... 219 Black Cottonwood, description of 2!5 241 Black haw, description of ' 218 Black spruce, description of 201 Blaebeiry river ..............[..[.. 37 Bonaparte plateau ... ...\. ............ ... 3\ Bonaparte, San Jose and Mahood Rivers dra-nagc basins, classification of lands and amount of timber in description of area ............ lumbering and other industries in . . ......... merchantable timber in, by species ..... Bonus system in leases Borneo, forests of ^9 Botanical Congress, Vienna, 1905 IgT Breakage of timber, losses by 329 Bridge and Chilcotin Rivers drainage basin, classification of lands and amount of timber iii 290 description of area 288 merchiantable timber in, by species 289 British Columbia, area of !..!!.!!!!! 238 area capable of producing forests ...................'. 6 7 area of lakes in !!..!!!! '4 area of land in .'.'...'.. 4 area of timber destroyed by fire in .......'..'.....'..... 7 climatic belts of 4g climatic conditions of !!!!!!!!!!!!! 48 competition of, for home markets !. i !]!!!!."!.'.'!!!!! ] IS Dominion lands in !!!!!!!]..'.' g first mills in .!.!!!!! 164 forest revenue of ....'..'.'.......'.'..'. ii7 forest regulations in ]!!!!!!!!!!! 26 geographical advantage of !!..!!!..! »5 geographical position of !.!!!!!!] 10 land area of 4 land tenure system of 80 leading industries of 14 lumber cut for 1913 ..................[... u market extension work of 28 organization of lumbermen in 26 out of touch with forest laboratories in the east isg policy of, re forest products 25 possible timber cut of 9 provincial lands in .!!!!!!! 8 puipwood in ].!!!!!..!!! 8 F.iw-material in, present stand of 7 : .vmills, capacity of 13 1 "'» share of trade on Pacific seaboard !.!'.!!!'.'.'..'.. 16 soil relations in ...'..'.'....... 48 summary of market conditions in ^ !!!.!!!!!!!!!!!! ! 23 timber cut of !...!!.!!!!!!!!!! 9 unproductive land in !.!.!.!!!!!!!."!!!.'!] 1 value of products of !.!.!.'!!!!!!!!!! 2 British Columbia Forest Branch, detailed reports by '!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 promotion campaign by ." ' 15 British Columbia Lands Branch, Dept of Interior 103 British Columbia log rule adopted ,',.', 1 1 5 British Columbia Mills, Timber and Trading Co 164 British Columbia Mountaineering Club, recommendatiun of .' .' ov British Columbia Southern Ry., land grant to 82 British Coltunbia Sulphite Fibre Co 180 Broadcast burning !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.! 134 INDEX 353 BrooVg-Scanlon Lumber Co •'ag" Bulkley mountains 180 Bull river ',', 32 Bulletins of British Columijia Forwt Service ^^ i^itiTo?^'^.^'^':^'"' *«"'"• <=l«^^ti°« of landsand amount of timber in] 374 pulp-millsin ■'^^ timber, estimate of, by species ^^* Burned timber, value of 374 Bumine permits for clearing. 240 Burrard Inl^t^and Hovve Sound drain^g^' basins,' ciassificatioa' of' lands and amoun^of "' description of area , ,[ , •'•! ' saw-timber in, estimate of, bv sp^'ies -'^^ Burroughs, John, quoted '. •*■♦> Brisco range . ' ' 322 Bush river 31 ^"'•diSJT^a^;:^'''^'!^ of landsandamount of timber in •:::;;:::;;::;: 3« timber, estimate of, by species '•*' CALIFORNIA, cargo shipments to trade prospects in 16 trees of '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 20 Campbell, R. H., Directorof Forestry, qiioted ,19 Canada, pulp and paper industry in eastern. . '*4 Canadian Forestry Association, representations of, re cuttine inl Canadian home markets »08 Canadian Industrial Co IS Canadian Northern Ry., terminus of ^80 '''"■ ""cSumbia'l^d'^^S'^g^.fr"^ " Crowsnest line of 33 entrance of, into British Columbia. ^* Kootenay Central branch of , ">5 Lands transferred re building of . . . i . ] 3i terminus of / 8 timber conditions near line of ] 37 use of British Columbia lumber specified by ■?? ''^" infrnn^1^n%up^«.^ BrancTcredit to,for supplying infonnation : ! ; ] i ; ] ; ; 328 Canadian Pacific Sulphite Pulp Co. 238 Canoe river . 179 Capacity of saw-miUs 37, 39 Cariboo mountains 13 description of 31, 33 drainage of 42 Cascade mountains 155 Cash bonuses, effect of. .... .....','..'..''. ' 10,32 Cassiar physiographic system 155 description of 31, 33 drainage of 46 Cedar, good demand for 3S grading of 172 nigh quality of 1^" types of the interior wet belt. ..........[ •'51 western red, amount of, in British Columbia.' «5? " area in which found iil " cutof 195 " description of '.'. 195 " " useso?. W Central America, cargo shipments to "" lumber exports to 1<5 trade pros^iects in west coast of '$5 Central belt 20 Cherry, bitte', description of . . ! 31 Chili, lu^^'e?;.^;^^.''"'"'"'" •ppo-ted-.peci.inutricetconxmi^ioner:: :::::::::::; ''^ China, caigo shipments to 1*5 16 i MM 4M COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION China, competition with Japan in ^? lumber exports to ][ , ' ' lumber trade prospects in !!!!!!]!!!.!!!] lo Choke-cherry, western, description of jm Christina range i , Civil service regulations, advantage of A\ Classification of land \\ i~ below merchantable timber-line ,5? on the coast ,*^ Classification of forest land iir by stand types .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..". iil Clayoquot Sound drainage basin, classifiration of "lands'aiid amount of standing tiiiib^' iii 367 description of area ' v""i«=» lu jo/ timber, estimate of, by species ,2, Clearing land, high cost of. ,,' Climatic conditions fo Closer utilization of timber is profitable. .. ,Vt Coal lands, Crowsnest district ,'_[ "* Coastal belt, classification of forest land and amouiiVof standing timbwin '.' 7in description of " "" land classification in '.'.'..'.'.'.'.'. il? precipitation in '.'.'.'..'......... fS. principal species of trees in .'...'.......'...'. la, subdivision of ,:, trees of '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. vA Coast forest belt ,„'*' Coast mountains tniy description of ' ^? situation of !!!!!! ,?■ Coast Motmtains system t Coastal region, description of ,,, Coastal trench •'" features of '. \l timber tributary to ,5 Cold timber-line, altitude of ^V. College of Forestry required .." ". 'li Colonial Pulp and Paper Mills '.'.'.'.'.'.'. •; Columbia mountains, drainage of \ Columbia river .........'."." ii'ii'in ai timber can be driven on JJ. ^/, 40, 41 timber tributary to ,0 Columbia system !!!.!.!!!!!!!!]!!!! !« J? Columbia and Kootenav Ry., land grant to s'> Columbia and Western Ry., land grant to...'..'.'..',','. «£ Commission of Conservation, referred to ..'. f representations of, re cutting '. .J, reproduction investigations by , , f; silvicultural investigations by 1 s« Conservation of timber, attitude of Government on or Cooperage plants ,^J Copper, mined on Moresby island '. laf mines at Anyox, B.C Js t Cordwood, tax on ]'",', ''^* Cottonwood, amount of, in British Columbia ........'. lit black, description of, and area where found , 71 1 black, estimate of stand X,l grading of .'.'.'.'.';.■.■.■.■ Im Craig, Roland D., referred to } 1 - Cranbrook, forest district of ! ,; Creosoting plants Ay Crooked river \^ Crown-granted lands, Dominion, forms ol. ..... ...',',,",', Vi Crown-granted or permanently alienated lands, forms of jio Crown-granted timber-lands, taxation and royalty from in Crown lands. Dominion, forms of tenure of. 01 provincial, forms of tenure of oA timber leases on a" Crowsnest District coal lands .'. 2^ Crowsnest pass ^g INDEX 3,5 C"owsnMt Pass Coal Landi rewrve '*<» Cruigere' reports, confidential. . 102 secured 6 Jruises, variations in .'. 328 Cubic measure, advantages of 329 Cypress, yellow amount of, in British' Columbia" '*! area where found 241 description of ] 197 uses of 197 ^„„ 198 DORE river Dean river 38 description of area 313 Diameter limit, effect of cutting to 312 Disposition of lumber cut 107 Dogwood, western, description of 13 Dommion Forestry Branch, informationsuppliedby ?!' mstructions of, for reporting fires i'V'"" °y 328 Dominion Government, use of British Coluinbia lumber' bv m Dominion lands m British Columbia '"niDer oy jj foiTOs of tenure of 102 Dominion parks, regulations for. .' 81 Donkey engines, logging by..., 113 Douglas channel 167 Douglas fir, amount of, in British' Columbia 36 density of stands 241 description of, and area where found 193 grading of 192 rate of growth 170 DougUsfir bark-beetles, descriptiOTof .', 193, 241 Douglas fir-red cedar type 228 most important in British Columbia 57 DSa%r4''.™.'^.*^\'''^"P«'»°^"---- 68 Drainage areas .' 114 Drainage basins, description oif ! ! ] 6 Dramage basins of interior. . 250 ''™'^"1nS^^.'"''*^''T"«»'^^^^-ifi-iio„°nands'and'amount'ofs '** description of area ] 358 timber, estimate of, by species 356 Dry belt, description of ... 358 precipitation of ' SO temperature of .' 50 Duncan river ' " ] 50 Dunvegan, climatic data of..............', 33, 41 EAST Coast region, drainage basins in description of 324 Eastern belt 325 fc^t-Sf"^''^i British' Columbia' lumber shipmenis to'. ! f 1 tdmonton, market centre for timber 15 Educative campaign for forest protection 39 Egypt, British Columbia timber used in '26 Elk nver 165 Elk valley .' ] .' 37, 38 Elk River forest reserve, area of 38 Elko 98 ^"^ de^riSr^f SS '^"^T '^""' '^'^^^'fi^^""" °^ landsandstanding'timber in! ! ! ! 251 forest conditions in 250 lumbering and other industries iii 252 merchantable timber in, by species 252 Empire Pulp and Paper Mills. . . 251 Engehnann spruce, clescription of '..'..'. 179 Engelmann spruce-alpine fir type ^** areas covered by. . . 74 75 39 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION 1 • m :t 1 4^' Entomological Branch, Dept. of Asriculture '^S! Entomology, forest }^* Esquimau and Nanaimo Ry. (s^iataiCanadUn ' Pacific Ry.), credit to,' for inifomation suppuea . mformation supplied by Land Dept. of ,„ land grant to *^^ status of land grant to S ? Europe, cargo shipments to 2^ Exhibitions of samples of .vood ,]J Expenditure on forests, general administrative . . , ; - Expenditure on forests }" Expenditures of Dominion Forestry Branch in Railway Belt \it Exploration work 'T^ Export trade, development of .'.,'. ]*', Exports, fail .'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.".".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' .' m FERNIE Femow, Dr. B. E \[\ 3s Findlay creek !!!!!..'!!!!! A Finlay river "!!!!!!! i- « Finlav River drainage basin, classification otlaadi and amount oit timber in in? description of area VS merchantable timber in, by species '..'.'.'.'. inf Fiords, Nature and Origirt of, quoted « Fiords, situation of i« Fir, alpine, description of, and area where found.. 74 jn? Fir, amabilis, description of, and area where found . jn« Fir, Douglas (see Douglas fir) ^"^ Fir, lowland, description of, and area where found ... j/u Pir, white, amount of, in British Columbia 'yTy Fire damage ' _' r*' Fire fighting, assistance must be supplied.. , If Fire protection tax in Railway Belt , fi Fire wardens, increasing number employed. . . . ,? Fires in Railway Belt, causes of i:° Flathead river ^\i Flumerfelt, A. C, member of Forest Commission of Enquiry 1 1I Forests, annual increment in }1? Forest Board, organization of };? Forest Branch, Provincial ',\\\ fiS information supplied by \_\\ 2 ^8 J2H Forest belts, comparison of shipments as to quali'tv. . . ! ^-o, J^s relations of i? Forest Commission of Enquiry ,7? Forest Club, British Columbia ,\! , Forest districts, British Columbia, divided into \\i Forest entomology and forest pathology. . . Ji, Forest expenditure jjf Forest fires, causes of {fj cost of fighting '.'.'.'.'.'. jjo damage from, in British Columbia ... fig in Railway Belt '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. \ laws relating to 1 losses from, little information available r«. iig places of origin "° waste by .'. .....'..'.'.'.' S Forest growth, influence of climate on '.'.'............. \a Forest msects, injuries by 2U Forest laboratory at McGill University ....'.' iiA i« Forest land, burned over ..'.■.■.■.'. 240 classification of 240 proportion carrying merchantable timber. '.'.'......... 240 reserved, provincial '[\ qi^ Forest management, obstacles to !!.'!.."!!..... 28 Forest products, investigation of !.'!!!!!!.!..!.!. 146 laboratory at Montreal .".'.!!!!!.!.! 158 laboratory at Vancouver "!!.'.'!!!!] \hX Forest protection, area and administration of units.'. .* 127 attention to pj fAOE . . . . 162 . . . . 162 ition . . . . 328 . . . . 238 • . . . 82 . . . . 85 . . . . 20 2<) . ... 125 . . . . 124 . . . . 149 . . . 147 ... 165 ... 15 ... 38 3 ... 38 ...37,38 . . . 305 ... 30» . . . 305 ... 35 ... 35 . . 74, 205 ... 205 . .. 2W . . . 241 . . . l.?5 . .. 131 . . . U8 . . . 126 . . . 152 . .. 37 . .. 116 , . . 136 , .. 116 . . 163 238,328 24 24 .. 116 .. 163 .. 116 .. 162 .. 124 .. 138 .. 139 .. '38 1 .. 136 •• 139 . . 30 . . 56 . . 234 146, 163 . . 240 . . 240 . . 240 , . 98 . 2i . 146 . 158 . 163 . 127 . 135 INDEX j97 Forest protection, boardt for '*™f expenditure, by districts J^- Porert protection fund A, !?! Forest Protection m Railway Belt ^•,5„ on Dominion lands ]^~ permanent improvements toward! jl? public interest in }** recommended by Forest Commission of Inquiry- If* systems of, employed .... !i* tax for . JZS undertaken '24 Forest research, scientific,' required'.'. . . jlf Forest reserves, agricultural land in J" Forest reserves, Dominion ]}^ description of }09 under control of Dominion Forestry Branch ill Forest reserves. Provincial '*; regulations in '7 Forest resources of British Columbia.. .' iia i]? under Dominion control "'• ;*' under Provincial control **? Forest revenue ;;, ?T? collection of •»'. 'M Forest survey commenced ^^^ Forest trees m British Columbia j*5 Forest farpes 187 of the Coastel belt Jj of the Interior |5 Forests, utilization of, necessary ,5* Forestry Branch, Dominion }|t administration by jj^ collection of data by }** establishment of }J* information supplied by 1,? silvicultural investigation by ?,? staff of 158 Forwtry Cwnmi«ion nj^^iiddiscontinuance of handlloggm' licenses *Q4 Forestry convention at Vancouver, 1906 '"xaaes vj £*^**^'.*^*<=* °^ geographical position on practice of. ." SJ Forestry mstruction in British Columbia... .il d^^ti^ rf"a^*^.'.':*^.^'^'*' ^"' ■<^i»«=ifi«tion^' i^ds and amount of timber in ill Fort Vancouver, headquarters' of 'Hudson's Bay Co.'^t fi? France, forest research in j°* exports of lumber to Jff Franklm mountains '"* Fraser plateau ■■■.■■■............ I' trees of northern portion oJF. , ,1 Fraser river, timber near ,' Freight rates, based on weight of wood. ! ,rX effect on lumber industry '°^ on timber ;5 Fulton, Hon. Fred. J., mem'ber'of Forest Commission of' Inquirj- ....'.;.'.;;.'.;.';:;:;;;;; 1 16 GAME reserves, British Columbia oo im d"^riSn 0?^^'.^;.':'^.'=*^°° °^ ^"^^ ^d am'cmnt of standing timber in! .' ' 376 pulp-mills in \ll timber in, estimate of, by spedes. .'.[['.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. ill Geographical position, relation of, to forest growth ,n relation of, to utilization }r General licenses, conditions of i J Germany, exports of lumber to ,"* forest research in JJj Glacier park ]~* area of }09 Glaciers, effect of, on valleys. '....'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 'If Glenlyon range. ... , ^^ JN COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION 'j ' Wm i i'l^ mm \ lumbering and other indu«triet in. ................[.[[[ l\l timber in, by ipeciea \ *r* Gold, discovery of, along Praser river 7?i Golden, important lumber centre ,* Golden section of Railway Belt, clawification of land and amount of timber lii ! 276 description of area 't^ lumbering and agriculture in ..................'. ,U merchantable timber in, by ipeciei. . . ZL Goojleve, A. S., member of Foreit Commission of inqiiiw .;:;;; f, J Gramger M. A Chief Forester of British ColumbU i i , ^ Granby Consohdited Mining and Smelting Co ' l-a Grand Trunk Pacific Ry., opening of ... ^iz Grass and semi-open forest types, areas covered by .' '.'.'. ^? Grass lands, causes of "* Grazing problems ^ Great Northern Ry '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.". "^' Great plains, description of . ! ! '5 t.-oes of . . 47 Great Plains belt, description 'o('.'.'.'.'. ^'1 forests in '* Gregonr, Dr. J. W., quoted '.'.'.W'.'.'.'.'.'.W.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.:..'. ; . ," Goundhog range ■"• •*** Ground rent and royalty ^' ' ^ 104 HAND-LOGGERS' licenses, conditions of q. , „ L^ptiL of i*r^:.''^**'°" °* ""''• *"'* ""°'»* °f VtandiAi'tob;^ iA: : : : : • 3S9 timber in, estimate of, by species] '..'.'.'. lln Hastings Mill Company. .. . f^' Haw, black, description of \^l Hawaiian Islands, cargo shipments to . ^|? trade prospects in IS Hemlock-Alpine fir type ... i' Hemlock-Amabilis fir type . .'^ I ]'.['.'.'. ; ' Hemlock bark leases, conditions of U Hemlock-Engelmann spruce type „ Hemlock leases, areas tmder 'A Hemlock, mountain, description of and'arra where found] '. iSf Hemlock-spruce and hemlock-balsam types tT Hemlock, western, amount of, in British Columbia li. cut of •'■*' description of and area in which foiiiid - offi - 202 one of finest Canadian woods . . .''~".~. ?21 High lead and overhead logging systems '...'. fji Home markets '°* Howe, Dr. C. D., referred to'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '^ reproduction investigations by ,,„ Hudson Bay group . '^" Hudson's Bay Co., headquarters at vkniiJiver'. ,1. Hughes range '9* ICE-FIELDS, perpetual Idaho, part of f>acil5c Northwest forest region.'. '. ,a null capacity of northern portion of V Imperial Ministry of Munitions ,3, Imperial Munition Board }?, India, cargo shipments to A co-operation in investigations by Government of .'.'.'. ! .in forest research in ]i, lumber exports to j^. T J. tiade prospects in '.'.'.'.['.'.'.'. ,« Indian ^airs, Dept. of, administers Indian afifairsV.'. '.'.'.'.'. i u Indian Head. Sask., tree nurseries at ]! Indian reserves. Dominion. . . 3? number of and areas ,^1 InformaUon for this report, method" of securing HI INDEX 3M Iniecti, annual Iom from '*5J5 deitruction by J*j injuriei to Bntjih Columbia forest* by- .'.'.'.' i^n Inspection of operations on timber sales '£r Insular system J® situation of .......,."' if Interior cedar-hemlock type, description of .'.' '.'.'.'. ii Interior, classification of forest land in ,IX forest resources of *7" trees of 2« Interior Douglas fir type, area covered by..'.'.'.'. '?? climatic conditions eoveminc ii effect of fire upon °° effect of lodgepole pine growth upon 5? Intenor forest belt , , $* Interior hemlock types 71 Interior plateau, description of l\ rivers rising in ** trees of northern portion of . . , ] ] .' ] ] .' .' .' ,^ trees of southern portion of Jir Interior physiographic system 'ir description of ;?' Interior wet belt, description of '.'.'.■.■. J? precipitation of '} t««»o< ''::y.::::::'.::::::::::'.::::::'.::'.:::::::: m JAPAN, cargo shipments to , - competition from }5 lumber exports to 'J Japan current, effect of, on cUmate ,n'9; ^M^riptfon'ofTn^' '='«»*''"'"°" °' ^'^* andamo;.nt 'of standing timber' in . .' ! ! ! .' 343 timber in, estimate of, by species! .'..'.'.'..'. ^ dSSiS of ^'** '^"' '='***''*'=*''°'' °* '»» description of 2W Lardeau trench, transportation in 41 Leases, areas under us hemlock bark Kj, pulpwood fii thirty-year '.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'. '», twenty-one-year It; Leasing system 154 License fees, amount of ftq Licenses, expired and in arrears 157 (forms of) general jitl hand-loggers 1/4 perpetual. .........'.'.'.......... QO special t(i| staking '.....'.....'. S Limber pine, description of 207 Livingstone range i\ Lodgepole Pine type ....'.'...'... U Lodgepole pine, amount of, in British Columbia 241 description of 208 injuries to, by bark-beetles 22»< Loggers' Assocuition of British Columbia Ih? Logging centres 4< Logring, comparative costs of 183, IS4 nigh costs of 167 industry, operations of 170 operations and inspections 1 7,1 primitive method's of Ibd revenue from 1 20 Logging railways 168 fire regulations of \i\ Logging regulations 1S2 Logging slash, disposal of i.U, 1,M burning o* 1 5 j Log rules, af ized ] .......... .\. ............ .. 140 Logs, annua' orts of 1 74 export; . l 1, policy of government re 171 export ! ind special conditions, in 1914 172 gradir.. jf 1 70 outlet required for surplus 171 prices of 171 Long Lake forest reserve lOO Loughborough Inlet drainage basin, classification of lands and amount of standing timber in .'.^1 description of area \Hi timber in, estimate of, by species 351 Lower Arrow Lake and Slocan River drainage basin, classification oif lands and amount t)f timber in 265 description of 265 lumberinp and other industries 266 merchantable timber in, by species 2(r Lower Columbia and Salmo Rivers drainage basin, classification of lands and amount of timber in 264 description of area 263 lumbering, mining and fruit-growing in 264 merchantable timber in, by species 264 Lower grades of timber, losses on 183 Lower Kootenay Lake drainage badn, cla^fication of lands and amount of timber in 260' description of area 259 lumbering operations in 261 INDEX ^ Lowland fir. dMcription of rAoi Lumber and »iingle Manufacturer!' AitMiation'of BritlJi' rni.'.mK;' **• Lumber and ihinglet. toui cut of. wTTwib Columbui ,4, Lumber induitry, early hiitory of.... 178 must have large suppliM In advance." ." .' >*« Lumber production, 1888-t902 I5S MACKENZIE mountains MacMillan H. R.. Special Trade Ctitm^aiii^' ■" Madison. W»., forest laboratory at. . .7*"™" 117 Madrona, description of . . . . I5S Malay regiont, competition from. '.'.'. 21J Managerial type, moaning of . . , 19 Manitoba, forest areas of $$ timber licenses in 3 Manufactured in the province, ajl timber to bi: >M Maple. broad-Ieafed, description of. . . 87 Maple, dwarf, description of. 2iJ Maple, vine, description of . 214 Markets, campaign to extend 213 Marking timber compulsory .... 28, 117 Manson creek 142 McGillivray range 38 McGdl University, Forest Piid'urts'taboVatow at •» Merchantable timber, basU for. . ""~"""y "' U6, 163 diflTcrence in sUndards 243 Merchantable timber-line, altitude of 5 areas above and below, in the interior 77 boundaries of 24S lands below, capable of beiringtimbe^; '. i** lands below incapable of bearmg timber. 246 Mexico, cargo shipments to 246 lumber shipments to. . 16 Midway group of mountains. . 20 Ml&cSrr^'''".''"'™^""'^'^'*^^-^^^ l2] Milling industry, development of." 43 Mills, total production of, in 1908-1916 171 Mining claims 177 Mining props, Ux on 86 M«sis«ppi river, markeU east of 84 Monashee mountains . 22 Montana, mill capacity til.'.'. 31, 33, 42, 140 Mn^K""*.'"? °^ ^t"J^'= Northwest forest region.'. » Montreal, forest Uboratory at 10 Mountain alder, description of. 158 Mountain hemlock, area of . . 218 description of 78 Mountains, effect of, on prediritation;.' 203 Mount Robson park, situation and area 34 Moyie range 99 NADINA mountains Nakusp "'' 31 Names of trees, authority for'. 40 iVo/«re amf Oripn of Fiords, OM^i^.'..'. 137 ''"*''°tSn"LT^.r" .'^^•" ''"^•^e'^.-ciasi^cation-ofiandsandan^tof '" description of area 290 lumbering and other industries in 291 merchantable timber in, by specie.' .' 291 Nechako plateau ' *^ 291 Nelson, forest district of . . . ! 31 NS^;sir:^''?p^^5^'i»"^K^ti°----"::::::::::;::^ '1^ Nelson trench '' 31 New Brunswidc, survey of forests of.' .' .' .' 40 New England States, pulpwood resources of » New York State, pulpwoidreiourcea^. .■.;;;;:;::;:;; ■» 4«t COMMISSION OP C0N8BRVATI0N Nfw Z«alan<), car|D ihipmanu to traile pmtpecti in ..".". NicolA and SimitlMmcen Rtvtn dninac* baaina, ciatiiikaitioli of laadt' imd amount oit timber in (Ictcription cA area !!.!!!!!!!.!!][ i !]!!! i i lumbcrini and other industrial in. , .'.....'.'..'....','.'....',.'.' merchantable timber in, by ipedaa '...'....'..'.'.'..'..'.'.'.' temperature cnndiiu^mi in .'.'.'..'.'.'...'.'...... Nootka and Kyuquot Soundi drainage basin, claaaification of laiidi and' amiwnt of timber in description of area !!!!.!!!!!!!!!!! timber, estimate of. by spectes ] , ,...'..'..'....'............', North America, cargo shipmt>nts to Atlantic f-jast of ....,.','... pulpwooil in eastern North Central region, drainage basins of •..!!!!!!!'!!!!!]!.!.!..' North Pine and Halfway Rivers drainage basins, ciMsification of lands and amount of timber in . . descriptiim i Pacific system ........'.'............. 32 Palliser range 31 Panama, cargo shipments to !.'!!.!...!!!."!!!!!!..'. 16 Panama canal, effect of, on freight rates !...!!!!!!!.!.!!!!!!!] 15 effect of opening of 21 Park near Vancouver, proposed !!!]!.!!![!!!!!!"!!!!!!!! 99 Parks and game reserves, provincial !.!.!!.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 99 Parks Branch, administration by {4} fire prot«ction system of ....!!!!!!!!!!!.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!]!!.! 153 jurisdiction of, in British Columbia !!!!!.!!!!!.!!!."!!!!!!!.' 153 INDEX Ml P»«nip Riv« druiMit bMin, cUuilftcation ot lands Md amount iJ Umlw in 'm? dMcn^tion i){ ares . •««• <«« mercMnUble timtier in, hy ipactM. Si Patmted landi, tibial condition* t.( '.', f2 Patholonr, forett, itudy of. f»qulr«a ," ' [ IjJ! Paving blocki, HI* of eucalyptui (or ?f Pmc« Rivtr Block, cUiaification of Undi and arooiin tst)e<:t« in , }• Piles, poles and crib-timbers, taxes on., ...... i? Piling, pules and pulpwood, amount of, in British Coliiinbia. i2» amount of, on the coast fji Pine, crading of '..'..'. fS lianber, description of \JS todgepole, varieties and description of ....,...' .' " i^ wi Oregon, compared wnth Douglas fir... , i«« species of '»» western white, amount of, in British Columbia '. jV? description of, and area where found ,JU estimate of stand of jj" injuries to, by baric-beetles jV? western yellow, amount of, in British Columbia! ill descrif tion of, and area wher« found. . in- injuries to, by bark-beetles „', Pine, white-bark, description of ,•- :„ Pine pass to Political divisions, relations between .'..'. ,? Portland canal, altitude of timber-line on I Powell River Paper Co • ^""dStion of^S!^'* ^'^'^ drain^e ba«n,classificat on' of U^ and inioiint of timber in 346 timbw in, estimate of. by species! ^ Prairie Provinces, forest reserves in •**( market extension offices esUblished in. .'.!!! ] 4 markets of ff Prices of lo«s .if Pre-empted lands, regulations ioT.. 'Z? Pre-emption, land open (or ] ,5? Pr*iservative treatmcn' )( wood fj? Price, Overton W. , asulting forester. , ,« Prince George "■ 'i? Print e Rupert, (oiest distncc of ,f^ Productive land in British Columbia, areas of..........'. 2W Provincial lands, forms ot tenure of gt Pulp industry, establishment of ■.............[[... ITO Pulp leases, area* under !!!!.!!!!!.!'! a« conditions of °2 Pulp licenses, restrictions in Pulp mills, first at Port Mellon in 1909 ..........].[]['. Pulpwood, pUing and poles, amount trf, in British Columbia. . . Purcell range Purcell trench lu«bcr industry of sittution of ..'.'...'..... streams draining into 87 96 179 404 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION |!:H: ' QUADRA to Hardwick islands, daasificBtion of lands ""Vo descnptionof -i'^ timber on islands, estimate of .".'.'.".'.' ,,, Quatsino Sound drainage basin, classification of lands and amount of timbirV,'. 170 description of area ~'" pulp leases in „ ^ timber in, estimate of, by species .^ ........[..... iik Quebec Forest Service, silvicultural investigations by..... ! lej, Queen Charlotte islands, aeroplane spruce on Ja , classification of lands in ,2, description of lands in ]'. „,, finest hemlock on coast therewi a, Sitka spruce on ,?, timber, estimate of, by species .'..'. t«9 trees of ' "^ description of !°^ Queen Charlotte mountains ji u Sesnel river, timber on ...'.'.'...... 44 esnel River section of Fraser River draiJikgeb^'iniciassifiratioii of lands and amount of timber in »„ . description of area iq", industrial activity iqf merchantable timber, by species ■■............................[...[ 292 RAILmarkeU Railway Belt, British Columbia. ..........['.'.'.'.'.'.'.]'.'.'.'.]'.". IJ area of causes of fires in , t? Coast section, agriculture in ". ' ' ' ' ' '.'.''.'.'.'.'.. " 33! classification of lands and amount of standing timber iti. Wi description of area '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 332 timber in, estimate of, by species . . 11c conditions of transfer ,„, cost of fighting fires in , Vf damage by forest fires in ,i, disposition of lands in [,[ JqJ drainage basins in interior of 27S drainage basins in region south of ".'. ^vt expenditures in ,?, forest fires in {so forest protection in 1 en forest resources of ]][ i^2 forest revenues from fll land situation in \Vi revenue collected in ].........].[ j timber permits in '//] ,/>« Railway grants, amount of ut Railway ties, tax on Sf use of eucalyptus for ■■■■■..■........].....[.... 19 RaUway Commission, Dominion, instructions to inspectors 137 Railways, forest fire regulations of 1 in re^nsibility of, for fires 130 senous fire hazard of 129 Rangers, methods of appointing 132 Red alder, description of .'..'. 217 Red cedar-hemlock type ..'.".'.'.'.'.'.".'.".'.'.'.".'.'.'.' 5"il«:i i/» lumbering and other industries in 270 merchantable timber in, by species .!!..!!!!. 270 406 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION 1- Shuswap River drainage basin, classification of lands and amount of timber in description of area lumbering and fanning in ....■■.... ..\. ......... ... merchantable timber in, by species !!]!]!!!!!!] Siberia, western, competition from Silvicultural regulations ,[[ Sflviculture, little attention paid to Sifton, Sir Clifford, quoted ] Sitka alder, description of ; Sitka spruce, description of injuries to, by bark-beetles ..\... ....[.. .].... injuries to, in Star i-y park, Vancouver ................[... Skagit and Chilliwack drainage area, classification of lands and amount of timber iii description of area saw-material in, estimate of, by species , , , Skeena plateau, trees of Skeena river Skeena River to I'ortland Canal drainage basin, classification of lands and amount of standing timber in description of area *....!!]!]]!!! mining development in timber in, estimate of, by species ] ] Skookumchuck creek Slashings, breeding ground for insects Slocan group Slocan lake ...■■■....................].... Slocan trench, transportation in Small material, destruction of, by logging methods Smith Sound and Rivers Inlet drainage basin, classification of iaiids and amount of standine timber in description of area timber in, estimate of, by species , Snowslides, effect of South America, cargo shipments to east coast of cargo shipments to west coast of trade prospects on west coast of South Central region, drainage basins in South Fort George, forest district of .....[........[... South Pine River drainage basin, classification of lands and amount oif timber iii description of area South Sea i'^lands, cargo shipments to trade prospects in .'........ South-eastern section of Vancouver Island, classification of lands and amount ot -nber in descnption of area timber in, estimate of, by species ] ] Southern Coast district, trees of. ................[.[...].. Southern interior, royalty on timber in Southern Mainland region, drainage basins in !.!!!!]! description of Southern pine region, comparison Special licenses, conditions of Species and regions in interior, estimated amount of timber by. . ....... Spillimachecn river Spruce-Alpine fir types Spruce, amount of, m British Columbia ..............!...... black, description of ...........[......... Engelmann, description of and area where found grading of ...........[[[........ Sitka, description of and area where found injuries to, by bark-beetles 229 varieties of '..'....."...'.'.'.'.'.... ... ' white, description of ...................... Squatting on timbered lands confers no rights Staking licenses, conditions of Staking of lands for licenses Stand types, classification of forest land by Stanley park, Vancouver, effects of insects on trees of recommendations to overcome insect damage in St. E^ias mountains PAGE 270 270 271 271 17 107 1X2 1, 10<) 21.S W) 229 2,iS ^M, 190 379 377 379 37X 3X 220 37 40 41 329 372 371 372 78 20 16 20 281 116 307 306 16 19 363 362 363 189 91 324 325 22 24<. 38 72 241 20) 2IK) I TO 19'l 235 I9S 201 104 S9 S9 24H 234 236 SI INDEX 407 Stikine and Unuk Rivers drainage basins, classification of lands and amount of timber in "ilS description of area ■ jjj mr.-chantable timber in, by species ,lf Stikine mountains ''1, Strathcona park, situation and area. . .....[......],.,. oA Stuart, Salmon and Nation Rivers drainage' basins', claisi'fi'ckti'on 'of' iaiids and amount' '>i timber m ,__ V«ncouver island Western hemlock-Sitka spruce type characteristics of ' Western larch, description of". Western red cedar (see cedar) Western red cedar borer, description of Western serviceberry, description of. Western white pine (see pine) Western yellow pine (see pine) Whalen Pulp and Paper Co White-bark pine, area of _ description of White alder, description of . . White fir, amount of, in British Columbia White, J. H., studies of, referred to. . . Wnitesail range White spruce-Alpine fir type White spruce, description of . . ■"Kpt&SrS"'" ":'"''^'':^"^• ^'-'fi-tion of lands and amount of timber in lumbering and mining in merchantable timber in, by species Willow, varieties and descriptions of Wood river Wood, seasoning of Wood-borers, injuries to logs by Wood-box factories Wood losing ground as construction material Wood-pipe factories Wood, preservative treatment of Woodpulp industry, erowth of . . Woodpulp, output of, in 1914-1916 409 PAOB 70 219 62 236 71 61 209 233 218 YALAKOM game reserve . Yellow cypress (see cypress) Yellowhead pass, timber in Yellow pine type, areas covered by. .... climatic conditions governing. . . control measures for outbreals'of bark-bceties in ' injunes to, by bark-beetles. . . Yew, western, description of . . . Yoho park, establishment of area of Young growth, destruction of . . protection of Yukon plateau Yukon system description of Yukon territory ZYMOETZ range 179 78 207 217 241 3 32 73 201 294 293 295 294 219 37 159 231 182 158 182 159 181 181 100 39 65 65 225 221 211 109 113 168 183 31 31 46 33 32 I t tr 1 iBJgfcffiiSil ■Wlfc .mt- — . -. ««c«ocorr risoiution tbt chart (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART Ho. 2) ^ APPLIED IN4/^GE Inc ^^ T653 East Ma'n Street ST^ Roct>«Sttr. New York '«609 USA ^g (716) 482 - 03OO - Phone > cJi i' 1 1 1- 111 I ;.• -}-' VJt li'M i:.*: iji U-fl U!) IIH 117 lU 111 HJ I of Forest Tret's m liritish ('olumlna COMMON NAMr NICAL NAML 1 •<. Douglas fif ig< murri W''«itMril rpil i.Mi!,ir ' ata Yl !lr/w cvprt'ss ifis noot Sitk.i iprurp (■ S'S EtMjf''m.'rn spfifi 1 ■ .mill W'lilf spfuct* f .jensis B!.iik S|i(Htr P lana Am.ilMhs fir ". IllllS l-uwi.ir.ll fir ;. idis AlMiH. Iir " A icarpa Westi;fii «liiloie [ii''( M.i„'-tj." *'?"' ■ rn b:fcn ^'' 'f -r-jfk pint B.llf. fii»ff COMMiiN NAMf Vm-p nni,:,- Dwjif nvir. . Am--* W.-.tt r.. i f.h A^isku tiir( h M.iuntinn [nfcn HfiJ altl.M Sitk;i .iIHhf Wh.t. ,.i.l.-, WtStf!Ml St-r-virf'tht-fr , Bl.ii > tMA Bttt.^r rn.fr, Wostnrn I n,.kfM] Wt.'Slftri [,!.,( k Alii. .A Ldiig Ip.if Ai'l'i* Hookor wa|f}W Silt . AiltOrt J mr)'(! or It'SK (leriHratU thru(i«l'"ut the [jr^ Rerional Distribution' NOTE. J WesteTT •leml'j. k S'fka ^pfM-e Weifprn re I ip.la» Yei'ow r,p'e«^ L',<'lyeDoie i> lie Moui.tdf" !ie-'"iHt. We?ite'- »p.v Rp-I aiiirr Br.-,ar|.t^at manffi Wf-*tefp ler-.cebefrv S.'k,- «,)(«.* Mounta.f. ,ii.p. W(-.Mern h-.ti Bi'TANICAL PJAMt Ai-.f .,!i,-r' A. f-r [jlal.r,mi Piiji.iuiv f'rmijirmlnii Poim'ii?) t'l' fiiffl'iM Biilu'a tMtivrifpfa Bi.luij (-.ntltiMt.ii.s R >t-i S.,I,» 'iij'.r.ll I'S S;ili» HiinW.TM.n ; Note 4 ] Whits spnirc ! toittjetKi.p pir'f Wf^'f^-r. M...;-tji' W«3tein .-. 8rf>fi-'.f-(tii^a.i Wc.te"- A'- •• r ■ Bid. k ■Ot'onwOOl LurtqCO'ie y-ff Hofkv MoiiTtatti |ij"'B«' Bljfk (Aiftur-Anjo^; Mount*. -1 4l!"r Asppn WPStCf" tj.Th , M..-,..r...'-. tf, -.;,-. . Wf.Mern wfv.ctierry W'ltr-h.''l. L.'»- We*t*fn ti.ok^-'-herry Mi"i., Mo.j-U-" 1 Dwi'f miiife WH-;tf"> l"L- Lofu-H-af w ii')« Mn.,r-frrrv A,,.„ !„.i h D*a'f mdDf I .. u-"*t *..l.-j*. Lo^U-ieaf *.i:ow f ■'Jior^.ann ipt« W'l te Bpru-e ^ NOTE fl A'T-tPrn feil ri>(;*r Sidik sprutv WfJ.te'f ye'drt pi" ■iil.i S'M.'-* c- ■.;:oole p.ne U-..„j.a3 t,r A".a)..i ■- f.| D.)..ilas f,r Westerr hpi-..tnr« ftlpinc f,r M-i,K.ta.r h«rr>iu h f r.ileinann .piuf.e Tr:'OA- cviKi-ts Aspprl Western tar, n Hiafk rntfor.woo't Ai.'i.e hf Western 'e.j ce.H- M...,-Xi'n tipmlork Bdi-i-uf.n,(ea'J Weslefn wRite pi'ie lo :.j^iK)l«p.nf' H ilk ..otlrirmoo Afpne fc Aso^'i , '"?;,! K. Mountain luoiper Lo*!aii) fif .S>!i>« Ai'fer M,'.„r!a,n al.-tpr Lortgepoie pinp R.-: aMer - -"a ji.le' Buck if(-h Alp.ne urili We^tfi" seruirenerry ■'* '" f'"«rie Rockv Mcujiitani jim O'.'ijnn r.r4p.ap[ile ■ '-l^df A'lHllV Weatprn yc« SllK. ^.lk>* Mountain ji,le( Long. leaf »*.llow S'tka aMfr Dwarf ;iay(e Wetter" t)irfh Western scrvn-ehc" Slack ha* Bitter ttie-t, Weatern choke-che'' D*fl'f "'ac'e Wcsle'f blark *i!' 4" ri( ■ixric I n^ '••.»». , ,->.',; \ -J4,.. - , '^-\ - 1 /' ' "• ^^ ^H|r,. 11, ■l|.«.|- i< ^^ ■""'■y^n-^H •■•^■^^ ' NOTE? \ :4; \ * — - , ,«.(•*.. "^>^ 1^ ' ■.*,., -V^^ ■r ""'\' O^ \. SU^^ ^:^^ SS, '.aR -X ^- \ • -^ f « :._«rtirilv tonb*r*^ Stan Timbarlaml carrying owar 10,000 B,00fr Total Tiinto*ft«n4 Adiiitionat area eapaMe c (mostly raprodiictioni *IrKiu«le3 ad tunbrHMxf ill Ute Hif - iCo«»t t'>r»nt l«nd in "PrrMjuctiv** merchw^taHi', wul th*ruf. i* im -5^--^'--= ^' U LAND CLASSIFICATION J Ana Proil.>i.livfl Arit*£ li— f ■■ - -- (M. milKl .. •4,164 ..mtMf FnmlloMt !tq. milMi 20.990 123.839 Unorndictivs Arau . an.911 '! 144,429 I ij' araM Iwid matiHl) COMt InMrior Totii FOREST UANO Stand Ty«a Coaat Intarivr T«tal yinfl ovar 30.000 tioard ft. par acf«. lO.OOO- 30,000 9,000-10.000 " " ■■ 1*00- 9,000 iq. miiaa) ' *»4 i*,«,v, * u# W^W W:4 yv^"^ ■^Jr- iM^^w&^ : ^«i^«:"^ ^i^^^' 1. Mj :WW^'''^. V V A, v. 4^- ,''X Syirl) It^'' • I' > A i^. iW*,. »:.> .•i?*'**<5:S^^ %^..''j:"/ ?*!#1 ,« ^^y '^ I ^// ?,^, i^ / ■^/-<,^^>'//' ■''ff^a. "m 4;. .>:^i/^ "--/, .■'^^/./;. :^ !t^o//' >'^,-*^V -;^/M: '^^ ■ i S^ ^'-y..-: ''^•^i --%- VS LAT*^' |i -USt'" ..V.v,^.-*-^-*-' .V .:?r!^>■,,^^ n^»»« \ ^ i "- x*^ iJiSBr- i(^V V ^' to FOREST STAND TYPES BRITISH COLUMBIA Accompanying report on"Fore»t« in Britith Columbia 1^ H.N.W»iitrbrd.Fh.a^nd Roland O.CraiJ.F.E. -«» LEOENO Stands avcragtnl over 1 4000 feet.bMrd iM^rc.pvr acrt (C*Mt««d lAtcriarj. Stand* cvera^inlfhom i||MO-liM)OOfbat,aMi'-<'^<«»? f^flJ. lJ!323 MPi ^0% f^rsrjjjF ^p? \*»l«l«l^,f^ BrOMMh Ct^ha^A^ .p^hmJUJ by O^^pm^^mmnt ,. - i.ai^dtt B'-\iuh- CnbuHfum