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^ APPLIED IM^GE In
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THE INSECT BOOK
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The Insect Book,
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BEES AND ANTS
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Ev;iiii:i appendigaster Discolia nobilitata Discolia bicincta Camponotus pennsylvanicus Sphiorophlhalma ferruginea Mv/ine sexcincta s Discolia diibia
(Camponotus pennsylvanicus SphiiMophthalnia occiden-
talis o Myzine sexcincta $ Dii'lis plumipes (iiiiysis parvula Sphxrophthalma occidcn-
talis V (AMceris clypeatiis (a-rciris iiiuiL-sccns
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28. 29. ■!0.
Chrysis smaragdula Colletes hyalinata Pseudoplisus phaieratus Astatus sayi Apis mellifka Melissodes Xylocopa virginica Megachile latimanus Bembex spinola: Ceratina dupla Bombus ternarius Halictus flavipes Fpeolus remigatus Bombus pennsylvanicus Bombus americana 9 Bombus americana 3
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THE INSECT BOOK, a
POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE BEES WASPS, ANTS, GRASSHOPPERS, FLIES AND OTHER NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS EXCLUSIVE OF THE BUTTERFLIES MOTHS AND BEETLES, WITH FULL LIFE HISTORIES, TABLES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES
BY
LELAND O. HOWARD. Ph.D.
CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, J. S. DEPARTMENT OF ..ORICULTURE
TORONTO WILLIAM BRIGGS
1901
pan
CcrvBiniiT, njoi.iv
DOUllLF.DAY, PACE & COMPANY,
June, I'^'i
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IRINTtll BV
Tmk Manhattan Vmi-^ W,.sT l:»..AmvAy, N V , II S. A.
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09601997
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INTRODUCTION.
Persoks who 1, . e nature are apt to be long-lived and their lives are apt to be happy ones. In this country until quit'- re- cently few people have realized this ,act, and while notably with the Germans, and to a lesser extent with other European nations we find a love of nature fostered through early childhood, and while there are people of all countries and all occupations who know much about the animals and plants which surround them and m.ny who make collections and study certain groups as a fad or pastime and as a relief from the daily drudgery of life in the United States little attention has been paid to nature study in the school and in the family until within the past few years It IS true that there have been American^ who were born naturalists and who have pursued their studies in spite of uncongenial surroundings. It is true, too. that almost every country boy is a close observer in his own untrained way, and that he picks up many interesting facts about his natural history environment But even the youngster of aecided tasies has be< too often discouraged by his parents, and, further than that, he has few books to help him and stimulate him in the occupation to which his tastes direct him.
Recently, nowever, a great nature study movement has sprung up amongst us and in this movement the study of insects must play an important part. They are the most easily observed of living creatures. They abound everywhere-in the fields and wocds. in the door-vards, and, unfortunately, even in the house- hold. Subjects for observation are never lacking, and although some prejudice exists agains' them as insignificant crawling creatures and in large part nuisances and pests from a human standpomt, yet their structure is wonderful, their life histories are most interesting, and among them may be found a wealth of material for the study of broad iife problems of the utmost biographical importance. I know a stock broker, an insurance agent, a commercial traveler, a hotel clerk, a minister of the Go. pel, a keeper of a beer saloon, a portrait painter, a hardware merchant, a stonecutter an iron founder, a carpenter and builder
s«rjfe:*»
S-TBI^;--* ,»■«*«
■■( i.: '.-i:^":'i-.-
Ik
f
Introduction
a wholesale wine merchant, n lawyer, a chemist ,m undertaker ' lUu" .n an armv oftker. a navy officer, and anv number of SSms and t-^ers w.;o .ke^. «re.est e^^m the
he h " do "to'humanitv. That w.ll everywhere be .ranted
but h deserves an add.tional star in h.s .mmortal crown for ti^e
S thi he was the onjjinal naturalist in th.s country^ Very fact that he was I k _ ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^j ,^ ^.^
1 nc pnnciv a. groups of msects which
rather "^^^'^"'^'^'^ "l^;; jj °^,;, f" ;.„ J'\Se wealth of material is
Someo thee are moderately complete as to "lam facts, wh.le oth^s le ve gaps in the life-round ofthespec.es. Such gap others ''^•'^^/ P J, g,,si,y filled bv careful study. In a
"" i^TiCtnT an? interesting groups, however, no " fif h, orv c n be given for the simple reason that no one rt fd ":;ril:^/nt care and time to the sub^t. The .mv of natu,'e workers now springing up should not devote army ol natu^ vvell-trodden paths of long known and
lTri:strt:ne truths when they m^ht just as easily, if they knew iu wh re to look and what to do, study some unknown kntvA, )ust wnerc ^^ contributions to
f-"r"/.:'p"fessorc'N^an of England, who has written
; .r. nf insects of economic importance. Very many
i:. howllof Which we .„ n,oreo, Ws, ighoum. o«.r
vt
*p«
fields of stuJy of f.iscin.it undoubtedly come d
nterc ilscoverie
Introduction
St and through such study will
Most hooks tell -^'liat is kmmii. hut h
much biological importance.
'<•/■<• V(' sh.il! try ,i/so to point
tis, I an he more or
out what h not kno-^n hut -^liufi. iieverthei less easily foil lul out.
SomcthinK more is necessary, however, than life history study alone. One must know the relations of the creature he is studyinK and. moreover, he must know exactly what it is" Therefore synoptic tables of the larger groups have been given' and. m addition to this, full title references have been giver to all works and papers which will assist in the determinatic n of exact species in each of the larger groups. In this way an attempt has been made in the first place to foster the study of life hi.stories; in the second place to wri:e in popular style an account u these insects which will interest perhaps those who know little about insects and who wish to find out something about them in the easiest way; and. thirdly, to put those who have an earnest wish to go deeply into the study in possession of information which will enable th.m to follow their sf ' s much further than this book or any other one book can take cm The choice of the groups of insects treated in the volume may .seem odd. but there are good reasons for it. The majority of collectors of insects confine their attention to butterflies moths, and beetles. The butterflies and moths are most attrac- tive from several points of view and the beetles are compict easily preserved and easily collected insects, whose classification IS most exact and more available than that of almost any other group. The butterflies of the United .States have already been admirably tieated in a volume of this serie.s-- The Butterfly Book -by the en.inent naturalist. Dr. W. J. Holland, and the same author is preparing a moth book. The beetles need a book by themselves, and such a volume will eventually be prepared The insects of the other orders have been mo^e neglected and sirjce nevertheless their study is quite as interesting and perhaps even more .so than that of the beetles, butterflies and moths a special Dook may well be given to them.
It has been the endeavor of the author and publishers to Illustrate the present volume as profusely as possible. The plates are all original, having been photographed from insects either collected especially for the purpose or taken from the collection
Introduction
of the United States NationnI Museum. The text figures for the most part are printed froir. electrotypes made from blocks which are the property of the United States Department of Agriculture, and many of them have illustrated previously published articles
bv the writer. ' A word must be s.iid in regard to the literature references which follow the consideration of most of the groups. Nearly all of the papers mentioned have been published either by Gov- ernment institntions or by learned societies and scientific periodi- cals. Very fev. of them have been published as separate books, but such as have been published in this way. if of comparatively recent date, may be obtained from book dealers. The periodicals and transactions of scientific societies may be obtained through the societies which publish them and through the publishers, but in the case of Transactions and Proceedings, single volumes, and more especially single papers, are seldom sold, and the older ones are liable to be out of print. iMorecver. the expense oi purchasing all of the periodicals containing the publications on the different groups of insects will be so great that few workers can afford it. But there is a custom among writers on these topics of securing a certain number of separate copies of their papers, and these are freelv distributed, so that it often happens that a person interested can obtain a copy of a scientific paper by writing to the author. The American Entomological Society, of Philadelphia, has published a little directory containing the names and addresses of those interested in the study of insect life ir the United States and Canada, and from this dir.-ctory the addresses of all living writers on insects in North America can be obtained. Many of these '-author's se, irates ' can be pur- chased fiom dealers in second-hand books, and the American Entomological Society, of Philadelphia, and a few other societies here and in Europe offer many of these authors extras for sale, and in some cases publish lists. Moreover, there are certain establishments f-rough which the student can buy ne.irly all,of the works and separates which he needs. These are dealers in natural history books and papers, and many of them publish catalogues which are sent free on application. Bulletin 24. new series of the Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture, contains a list ..f these dealers which publish catalogues, and this bulletin is sent freely to all applicants.
PA* V
^^^f'^
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^rm
"WBfP^
Ttms.^iwn'M
Introduction
M.ny systematic papers have been publ.shed l>v the United
Mates Government throuKh the Smithsonian Inst.tutln ,hc
N..t.onJ Museum, the Department ol Agriculture nj he
GeoloKical and GeoKraph.cal Survevs. Many of the public.
onsare distributed free of cost to appl.canK whil. othrn re
M>ld a, a moderate pnce to cover the :os, of publication There
s a Government institution known as the Office of ,he Suplr!
intendent of Documents. Union Building. Washington whr/h
pu lis es sts of Governmen, ..Mictions and send' them fee
of ch..rge to applicants. Hr. m these li.ts one can see wha^ h!s
coran Buildmg. and Lewis S. Havden. ,.„ F stre'tN ^I;
The subject of how to collect and preserve ihediff.r.nt kinds o. insects mentioned m this book is^reat -d n . tp J section at the end of the volume. separate
yJ^l '^''''■' °'''" '^'"''" "i^"ks to several of his issori ,f. m Washington, all of whom are speci. lists in r, nn insects .,r advice and suggestions'" lit e^^ W^'.^i^^^ mead the results of whose labors in the Hymenopter^have been'
D.ptera Who has prepared .helaTroH e"hthe"7:o"ur:rthi: .fed.rin^-ir:^„--— --^^
Mr F ' C PrTtt wh"""" 'T'' '^°'" ''' ^"^'^"•^ ""-•'- mounting of the Diates ■,m\, r*; , arrangement and
' trust. ii;;;tS"d^,; r;^:^''' ^-^ '^'''^™- -^- -"■
1 wish especially to thank Dr. E. P. Felt, State Entomologist
i ( t
i It
f ■
Introduction
ham. ana which will U- published in York State Museum.
to examine the manuscript of an
'lee '
Bulletin 4» of »'^« ^'■"*'
of New York, lor allowing me - , (. ^ j.
admirable report on aquatic insects, prepared by Dr. J- <'• Neea
IP
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introductior
List of Plates . . . .
List of T-xt Illustrations ■ . . . '
Order Hymenoptera .
Table of Suborders and Superfamilies . ' '
The True Beis (Supcrfamilv ApoUea)
Was s ''''^^ "''*°'^ °^ " ''"'"^''' ^'"' ' ^'""*'" /''"''''«^>' • The Solitary Wasps (Superfamily ^phecoU.aj
Life History of a DiKger Wasp rspheaus sbecmus
The Social Wasps and Their' Allies (S.perf.mily
Typical Life History . . ' "
Life History of a Parasitic Wusp rLr/n.s trogoJer- matis) . .
The Ants (Superfamily h'onniioijei)
Typical Life History . . ' ' '
The Proctotrypid Parasites (Superfan.ily ' /'ro.7o/-l potJea) . ,
The Gall-Klies (Superfamily r:,7,',/,o,./^j; The Chalcis Flies (Superfamily ChahiJohU-a)
Life History of a Chalcis V\y ( EupU-ctn.s .omstock, How.)
The Ichneumon Flies (Superfamily h'ln,.u>„onoUea )' Life History of an Ichr :mon Fly (Prnp/a ,„.,„. sitorj ... r 1
Th.. Horn-Tails (Superfamily Siruohiej)
Life History of a Horn-Tail r/'/nVtov/.- nitegerj ' The Saw-Flies (Superfamily Tentlnedmoidea)
Life History of the Pear Slug ( EnocampoU^s Itmacin^) . . _ The True Flies (Order Diptera) . \ ' '
V
xix
xxi
I
2
4 13 i8 i8
J4 31 48
49 53
56
57 6i
64 69 71 73
76 79
Table of Contents
P!
0\
i I,
Table of the Higher Groups
The Crane Flies (Family Tipulid^r) . ■ ■
Life History of a Crane Fly ( Bittacomorpha
clazipt'sj
Families DixiM- and Stenoxenida- . ■ ■ • Mosquitoes (Family Citliiidcv) . • ■ •
Life History of a Mosquito (Culex puiigens) The Moth Flies (Family P^ychodidcr) The Midges (Family Chiroiwmidcv)
Life History of a Midge (Chironomus minutus) The Gall-Gnats'(Familv Cecidomyiidir) .
Life History of a Gall-Gnat (Gridomyta legumtm-
coIj)
Fungus Gnats (Family Mivv/o/)///7/./ir; .
The March Flics (Family Bibionidir) .
The Black Flies and Buffalo Gnats (Family Simulii-
diD
Life History of a Black Fly (Similium pktipcs) . Families Orp}wephilida: Bkpharoceridcv and Rhy-
phidiT
The Snipe Flies (Family Leptidir ) . . . • Soldier Flies (Family Stratiomyiida-)
Family AianthomcridiT
The Gad-Flies or Horse-Flies (Family TabanidiT) .
Life History of a Gad-Fly ( Tahauiis atratus) .
The Small-Headed Flies and the Tangle- Veined Flies
(Families Acroccridd- and Ncmestrinidir) . Families Mydaidd- and Apioccrid^v . ■ ■ ■ The Bee-Flies (Family fl(>/"/!i/"./'''> •
Life History of a Bee-Fly (Systacliiis orcas) .
The Window-Flies and Stiletto Flies (Families Sce-
iiopinidLT :\nA Tlii'rrci.u') . . ■ •
The Robber Flics (Family Asilida-) . . • ■
The Dance Flies and the Long-Legged Flits (Families
EmpididiT and Doliiliopodida- ) The Spcar-Wingcd Flics (Family Loiuliopkrida) . The Hump-Backed Flies (Family Phorida) .
Life History of the Ant-Decapitating Fly ( Aporc- phaliis pcrgaudci)
83 94
QS
97 98 104 108 no III "3
115 117 119
120 121
124 126 128 130 m 132
1^4
n6 1^7 138
iw 141
■44
146
147 147
hii
The Fiat-Footed Flies and the Big-Eyed
The Th,ck-Headed Flies (Family CoLpuicc) ' " The Bot-Fhes (CEstrida-) f ^J ■ .
The Nimble Flies (Family Dm/</<r; ' '
The Flesh Hies (Family i-<znoM<,^,./.r; " " "
''^aJ^I^I;:^ ■-' "^ ^- ^^'-ions (Family
Life History of the House Fly '(Musca domes-
The Anthomyia Flies (Family Anthom.iLUr > ' '
Families 5<,/,.o«,rc/,/;r. Lonchaid.v'.nd OrtalLUr ' The Fru.t and Gall Flies (Family TrvpctidT) '
The Salt Water' Flies (Fam.ly f^.v/r;./.,-; " ' The Grass-Stem Flies (Family OscinuJ) ' '
ThcB^d TiT''^'"''^'^''''''^''^''''''- ■^^^Botond.v ' Th R -J"^ '^^"""y HiPPoboscida)
''^..™s;; '^' ^•'' "^ "°e "«-«*^
S/-'^*''-";" <0'J«r T,ich„p,„a) i ' ' ' I able of Families . . *^ ' ' ■ ■ .
Family Phrygancida- '.'''■
Family UmnephiUd.v . ' ' ■
Family Rlmuopiiilidcr . ' ' ' ' '
Family Hvdroptilida- .''"••
Family Si'nros/oma//d,r . ' ' ' '
Family L,'p/o,rnd,r . ' ' ■
Family Hydropxyrhida- . , ' '
xiii
Table of ContentB
Flies
149
ISO
>S4 ISS
iss
IS8
162 166
167
171
'73
'74
'7S '77
'7f> 182 18;
18s
187
188
190
191
'93
'gs 197
198 199
JOG
:!oi 202 20? 204
'
K
t.
Table of Contents
The Scorpion Fhes (Order Mecoptera) . • • • '^"KiS^of a Scorpion Fly. A,«o.par./V.-
The Lace-WingTd insects (Order Neuroptera) • •
Table of Families . " . (pamily S/a//./.r; .
ThP Snake-Flies (Family Raphidiuhr ) ■ The False Rearhorses (Far.='y Mantjsp,d. .
'2;f His,o„ of th. G«ld.n.Ey. f«m«f. „„,.U„,Sc*"r.s.T™eB„,s,B.c:,Ord»Hen,ip-
tera) • • " ' ...
Table of Suborders .••••. Suborder Homoptera • • • •
Table of Families . ■ ■ ■■ ^/r j.//./cr ; ■
U(i Hi^toiy 0( the F'««'«J l-iBl""'"* ""P?"
( Ormenh pnr.nosa ) . ■ ■
Ufe Hislorv of .. Wh,l. Fly < /"<"»•"> ' "" ' ^ Scak Insccls (Fa™''» '-'"''^if '
PAGI 206 207
207
20q 210 211 212 216
217
21'^ 219 221
222 224
226 227
228
229
231
23''
236
237
239
241 243
24s 246
247 2S0
Table of Contents
Life History of the Oyster-Shell Bark-Louse of ^^^ '<?p\t ( Mytilaspis pomorum) The umpmg Plant-Lice or Flea-Lice (Family PsylUda^
Plant-Lice (Family Aphididce) '
"^''^klTuV' "^' ""^ P'^"t-Louse 'fPkoroJon
The True Bugs (Suborder Heteroptera) .
Table of Families . . ' '
The Water Boatman (Family CoVmrf",r; .' ' The Back Swimmers (Family Notonectido') ' The Water Scorpions (Family Nepid<^) . The G.ant Water Bugs (Family Belostomatida^) The Creeping Water Bugs (Family NaucoridJ, The Toad Bugs (Family Galgulid^) . ^ The M^rsh Treaders (Family Limnobatid^) . The Water Stnders (Family Hydrometridce ) .
Life H,story of a Water Strider (Hydrornetra iiiit'iJiii J
The Flower Bugs (Family '^nthocond.rj .' ' The Bed-Bug Family (Family CmadJ)
The Shore Bugs (Family SaUid.r)
The Thin-Winged Bugs (Family Ha,uophalid.v)
The Assassm Bugs (Family Reduv,uLv)
Life History of the Wheel-Bug (Arilns rrht. The Ambush Bugs (Family PtJatX' The Hat Bark-Bigs (Family AradU^j . ' The Lace Bugs (Family Tingilidcv) .
Life History of the Hawthorn Lacc-Bug (corv thuta arciiaia) . . » ^ -
The Leaf-Bugs (Family Capsid^)
Life History of a Leaf-Bug ( Parilocapsus I meat Hi) . . ^
The Squash-Bug and Its Allies '(Family Corcid^) .
The )^t T- °^ '^' Squash-Bug (Anas, tnstis) The Cotton Stainer and Its Allies (Family Pyrrkocl
TlJW) .
255 259
260 262
365
269
270
273
275
276
278
280
281
282
283
285
287
288
289
291
292
293
294
297
298
299
,?oo
JO I
302 304
JOS
307
*TS^
I ' i
■I
Table of Contents
Life History of the Cotton Stainer ( DysJercus
suturellus)
The Stilt Bugs (Family Berytidcr) .... The Chinch Bug Family (Family Lygcruiir)
Life History of the Chinch Bug (Blissus leucop-
terus)
The Stink-Bugs and Their Allies (Family Tentato-
midir)
Life History of a Stink-Bug (Podisus cyanenen-
tris)
The True Lice (Suborder Anoplura)
Thrips (Order Physopoda) • • ' , ' ^ " * Grasshoppers, Katydids, Crickets, Etc. (Order Orthop-
tera)
Table of Families
The Walking Sticks (Family /'*i';»'/'/<rj .
Life History of a Walking Stick (Diaphcromera
femorata)
Rear-Horses or Praving Mantids (Family Mantidae) Life History of a Rear-Horse ( Stagmomantts
Carolina)
Cockroaches (Family Blattida-)
Short-Horned Locusts or True Grasshoppers (Familv
AiridiiJ(v)
Life History of a Grasshopper ( Mehvwplns at-
lanis)
Long-Horned Grasshoppers (Fr.mily Locintidir) Life History of a Katydid (Muroceniriim retin
em's)
The Crickets (Family Gryllidcr) Earwigs (Order Euplexoptera) . . • ■ Bird Lice (Order Mallophaga) . . . •
'i .ible of Families
The Book-Li.e and Their Allies (Order CorroJentia) White Ants (Order Isoptera) . . . • The Stone Flies (Order Plecoptera) . Dragon Flies (Order Odonata) . . . ■
Table of Families
Damsel Flies
Family CaloptciygidiT . . ■■
308 309 310
3"
3'3
3>4 316 J18
320 322 323
3^3 326
327 329
332
334 33(>
339 341
34s 347 349 3SO
^53 361
363 369 370 370
Table of Contents
Family Agrioniilir True Dragon Flies
Family Gomphidcr Family Cordnlcgastridct Family /Eschnidce Family Cordulidcr Family Libellulidce . May Flies or Sh.id Flies (Order Ephemerida) Spnng-Taii and Fish-Moths (Order Thysanura) Subord r Cinura • . . . Family Lepismalida: . Family Japygidcc Family Campodeidce . Suborder Collembola .... Family Aphoruridce . Family Poduridir Family Entomobryidce Family SymnthuridcE Family Papiriidx Collecting and Preserving Insects . Collecting Apparatus Points on Methods of Collecting Different Collecting Aquatic Insects . Rearing DifTerent kinds of Insects . Killing and Preserving Insects .
Preparing Insects for the Cabinet Bibliography ....
Orders
371
373 314
375 376
377 380
38.
?82
384 384 385 386 386
387 388 388 389 389 394 395 396 401
401
405
f
P-i !i
,, ,
i li
!«*'«£-
LIST OF PLATES
Plate I.
Plate II. Plaie III. Plate IV. Plate V. Plate VI. Plate VII. Plate VIII. Plate IX. Plate X. Plate XI. Plate XII. Plate XIII. P!ate XIV. Plate XV. Plate XVI. Plate XVII. Plate XVIII. Plate XIX. Plate XX. Plate XXI. Plate XXII. Plate XXIII. Plate XXIV. Plate XXV. Plate XXVI.
Bees and Ants
Bees
Bees
Wasps and Bees
Wasps
Wasps, Ants and Ichneumon Flies
Ichneumon Flies and Chalcis Flies
Ichneumon Flies
Wasps
Saw-flies and Horn-tails
Saw-flies True Flies
Neuropteroid Insects
Frontispiece
Facin<, PAr.n
2
lO
i8 24 30 36
. 46 56 60 68 . 76 8- 92 104 . 116 128 ■ 140 152 164 176 188 208 • 218 228 . 238
M
Li»t of PUtet
Plate XXVll. Bugs, Leaf-hoppers and Cicades
Plate XXVlll. Cicadas and Leaf-hoppers •
Plate XXIX. True Bugs • • • •
Plate XXX. " •■
Plate XXXI. " " • • • ■
Plate XXXIl. Miscellaneous Orthoptera .
Plate XXXIll. Long-horned and Short-horned Grasshoppers
Plate XXXIV.
Plate XXXV. Miscellaneous Orthoptera
Plate XXXVl. Short-horned Grasshoppers or True Locusts
Plate XXXVII.
Plate XXXVIIL " " ''
Plate XXXIX.
Plate XL. Dragon flies
Plate XLl.
Plate XLll.
Plate XLIII.
Plate XLIV.
Plate XLV.
Plate XLVI.
Plate XLVIl.
Plate XLVlll.
PAtiR
348 3^6 266
378 380
388
2q6
138
346
358
364 370
374 376
378 380
384 383
LIST OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
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Head and tongue of worker bee Heads of queen and drone
Queen cells and worker brood of honey bee
Queen of the common honey bee
Legs of different bees
Legs of different bees . . '
Sphecius speciosus carrying Cicada to its burrow
Adult Cicada bearing eggs of Sphecius
Larva of digger wasp in Cicada burrow
Same, spinning its cocoon
Immature stages of the digger wasp
Cocoon of same
Polistes paliipes
Polistes rubiginosus ....
Odynerus tlavipes and its nest in a spool
Tip'-ia inornata Chrysis sp.
Lxlius trogoderm.itis
Goniozus sp. parasitic on larvae of codling moth
Solenopsis xyloni
Crematogaster lineolata
Monomorium minutum
Tetramorium casspitum
Ants at play
Pelecinus polyturator
Baeus americanus
Cynips spongifica
Diastrophus nebulosus
Pachyneuron micans
Chalcis ovata .
Larvae of Eupiectrus comstockii
Pupa: of same
4
S 7 7 8
9
2?
2} 24 24
24 25 2S 26
31
3' 3'
36 37 38 39 40 46 50
5'
S3
50
■'7
■;8
38
«»>:
Lilt of Test Illuitralion*
J> I':'
iJ
Fig. 34- FiK- 35- Fig. 36. Fig. 37- Fig. 3«. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 4V Fig. 46. Fig. 47- Fig. 48. Fig. 49- Fig. so. Fig. '1. Fig. S2. Fig. S3. Fig. S4. Fig. ss. Fig. 56. Fig. S7. Fig. s8.
Fig. S9. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Fig. 6s. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. F\ii. 68. Fig. 6q. Fig. 70. Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73.
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Adult of same |
S9 |
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Thalcssa lunator |
6a |
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Same .... |
63 |
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Polysphincta dictyn;c |
63 |
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Pimpla inquisitor |
64 6s |
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Same, early stages . |
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Same, cocoons |
67 |
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Tremex columba |
70 |
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Cephus pygmxus . |
70 |
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PhyllcECUs integer . |
7« |
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Cimbex americana . |
74 |
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Nematus similaris |
75 |
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Nematus marylandicus |
75 |
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Eriocampoides lin.acina (Pear Slug) . |
76 77 |
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,, 11 <• 1* '. •* |
77 78 |
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Pachyrrhina sp. ... |
94 |
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Anopheles punctipennis . |
98 |
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Culex txniorhynchus |
99 |
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Anopheles maculipcnnis . |
100 101 |
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larva and Culex larv |
I03 |
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pupa and Culex pup |
103 |
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Psorophora ciliata . |
104 |
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Culex pungens |
105 106 |
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Chironomus larva |
no |
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" plumosus |
111 |
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Cecidomyia trifolii |
113 |
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Diplosis resinicola . |
114 |
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pyrivora |
114 |
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Cecidomyia leguminicola |
IIS |
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Sciara tritici |
• H7 |
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Bibio albipennis |
119 |
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Simulium meridionale |
120 |
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" invenustum <4 < < |
121 121 122 |
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ornatum . |
. "23 |
Fir. 74-
'•ig. 76.
Fig- 77- Fig. 78.
Fig. 79- Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 8s. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. Fig. 88 Fig. 89. Fig. 90. Fig. 91. Fig. 9j. F'g- 9)- Fig' 94- F'g- 9S- Fig- 96. Fig. 97- Fig. qk. Fig. 99- Fig. 100. Fig. 101. Fig. 102. Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. los. Fig. 106. Fig. 107. Fig. ro8. ^"ig. 109. I ig. no. Fig. III. Fig. 112. Fig. 113.
Chrysops fugax Tabanus atratus Anthrax hypomclas Systcechus oreas
Scenopinus fencstralis Erax bastardi " apicajis Mesograpta polita . Eristalis tenax . Rat- "ailed maggot CEstrj* ovis Hypoderma lireata . Winthemia quadri-pustulata Euphorocera claripenni.s Compsomyia macfilaria Lucilia caesar . Cailiphora erythrocephala Sarcophaga sarraceni* Hffmatobia serrata Morellia micans Stomoxys calcitrans Musca domestica Homalomyia brevis Pegomyia vicina Scatophaga furcata . Chactopsis <cnea Trypeta signalis Sepsis violacea Piophila casei . Nemopoda minuta Hippelates piebejus . Gaurax anchora Drosophila ampeiophila Sphxrocera subsultans Oifersia americana . Meiophagus ovinus . Nyct -ibia sp. . Puk.v serraticeps Sarcopsylla gallinacea
LiM of Tt»t IllMUMiom rAoii
•37 m8 138
•39 141 143
ISO
'SI
IS2
is6 IS8
1S9 165 163 164
If^S 106 167
167
168
'7' 172
'73 '75 '77 '79 180
180
18?
184
I8s
187
188
189
190
191
192
f^^
Lit! of Ttit lUuiltalkon*
I :•!
Fig. 114
T IIS.
Fig. lift- Fig. 117- Fig. 1 1 8. Fig. 119- Fig. I20. Fig lai. Fig. 123. Fig. 133 Fig. 134- Fig. lis. Fig. 130. Fig. 137- Fig. 138. Fig. 139. Fig. Uo. Fig. i}\- Fig. 132. Fig. 133- Fig. 134. Fig. 13s. Fig. 136. Fig. 137- Fig. 138- Fig. '39. Fig 140. Fig. 141- Fig. 143. ^\ii. 143. '\4-
Caddis fly and larva. Nest of Hydropsychc Hydropsyche sp. (larva) Corydalis cornuta .
Chrysopa plorabunda " oculata .
Cicada septendecim
(work)
(egg: (wor (larva
) Helicoptera sp. Scolops sulcipes Otiocerus coqueberti Ceresa taurina
Enchenopa binotata Archasia galeata Ceresa bubalus
Monecophora bicincta Proconia und;'ta Thamnotettix clittelerius Erythroneura vitis . Aleyrodes citri
Uiaspis pentagona .
Fih
Fig. 14H.
Fig. 14Q.
Fig. ISO.
Fig. isi.
Fig. 1S3.
Fig. 153-
" rosa; . l.ecanium nigrofasciatum Dactylopius citri
longifilis Pulvinaria innumerabilis Mvtilaspis pomorum
Chionaspis furfurus Pachypsylla venusta O. S.
195
304
an
314
333 331 33 ^
311
331 313
333 334
33s 31S
33^ 317
338 338
239 339
340
341 343 343 344
346
348
3 so 3S1
3S1 2S3
2S3 3S1
3S1
2hA
3SS
2S9
.. 1 \
um or Ttii
*'«• 154 Hig. 15s. Fig. i^h.
^'« 157-
Fig. is8.
^'"g• IW.
Fig. 160.
Fig. in.
Fig. 163.
f-ig- 16).
Jig. 164.
^■ig• i6s.
Fig. 166.
^'ig 167-
Fig. 168.
Fig. 1 69.
^■ig• 170.
Fig- 171-
f-'g- 175-
F'g- 17.?-
f-'ig- '74-
%• 175.
Hig. 176.
Fig- 177' Fig. 178.
F'g- 179-
Fig. 179(7
Fig. 180.
Fig. 181.
Fig. 182.
F'g. 18^.
Fig. 184.
Fig i8s. Fig. 186. Fig. 187. Fig. 188. Fig. 189. Fij;. I go. Fig. 141. Fig. 192.
Pear tree Psyllj
NecUrophora (destructor) Phylloxera vastatru
Pho'odon humuli
Corixa interruptj Say Notonecta undul ta Nepa cinerea Ranatra fusca Ambrysus ."vignoreti Galgulus oculatus . Limnobates lincata Gerris (Hygrotrechus) remigis Rheiimatobate.s rileyi Triphlc'ps insidiosus .^ciacus hirundinis Cirnex lectularius (young)
Henicocephalus culicis Conorhjnus sanguisuga Reduvius personatus Ras.ihus biguttatus Mdanolestes abdominal Milyas cinctus Krnesa longipes Arilus cristatus Phymata wolffi Aradus robustus Gargaphia angulata Corythuca arcuata
(•^ggs) Piesin.1 anerea
pisum
Say
lUuitrMlona
tAtm
abo 3b I 3bi 362
36)
aft?
364
364
366
abb
3b-}
367
3bS
273
37s
376
^11
380
381
383
38^
384
387
388
389
390
293 29?
294 394
394
29s
396
2q7 398 299 399 300 JOO
•v^
-^
■^-
^
rr
■!,? i;
!1-
r*:
List of Text Illustrations
I /
I
IJ,
jit)
n
|
Fig. |
193. |
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Fig. |
194. |
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Fig. |
19s. |
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Fig. |
196. |
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Fig. |
197. |
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Fig. |
198. |
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Fig. |
199. |
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Fig. |
200. |
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Fig. |
201. |
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Fig. |
202. |
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Fig. |
203. |
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Fig. |
204. |
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Fig. |
20s. |
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Fig. |
206. |
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Fig. |
207. |
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Fig. |
208. |
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Fig. |
209. |
|
Fig. |
210. |
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Fig. |
21 1. |
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Fig. |
212. |
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Fig. |
21;. |
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Fig. |
214. |
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Fig. |
21S. |
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Fig. |
216. |
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Fig. |
217. |
|
Fig. |
218. |
|
Fig. |
219. |
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Fig. |
220. |
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Fig. |
221. |
|
Fig. |
222. |
|
F.g. |
223. |
|
Fig. |
224. |
|
Fig. |
22s. |
|
Fig. |
226. |
|
Fig. |
227. |
|
F.g. |
2271J |
|
F.g. |
228. |
|
Fig. |
22q. |
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Fig. |
230. |
|
Fig. |
211. |
Halticus uhleri Pa'cilocapsus lineatus Leptogiossus phyllopus Metapodius femoratu.s Corizus hyalinus . Leptocoris trivittatus Anasa armigera Largus succinctus . Dysdercus sutureilus Myodocha serripes . Nysius angustatus . Blissus leucoDterus
Murgantia hi.strionica Euschistus variolarius Corimclicna puiicaria Brociiymena annulata Stiretru.s anchorage Pc'diculus capitis Thrips tritici .... Diapheromera femorata . Stagmomantis Carolina .
(eggs) . Periplaneta americana Ectobia germanica. different stages Periplaneta orientalis Meianopius devastator . Schistocerca americana . Romalea microptera Meianopius spretus. laying eggs Orrhclimum viilgare, and eggs Song note of Cyrtophyllum concavum Microcentrum retinervis . Dav song of Scudderia angustifolia Night '•
Gryllus assimilis .... domesticus .... Anabrus simplex .... Song note of the mole cricket
302
303 304 304 ?o5 ?os 306 307 308 310
3>>
311
112
112
3'3
3"3
314
3'4
^15
;i6
318
324 526 328 129 130
3"
112
333 334 336 337 338 '39 339 141 M> ^2
342
^mmmrgm^.mfz^A
Fig. 2)2.
Fig. 2j). Fig. 234.
Fig. 2}^.
Fig. 2j6.
Fig. 237.
Fig. 2^8.
Fig. 239.
Fig. 240.
Fig. 241.
Fig. 242.
Fig. 243.
Fig. 244. Fig. 245. Fig. 246. Fig. 247. Fig. 248. Fig. 249.
List of Text Illustrations
PAfiK
}43
250. 251. 2S2. 2S3. 254.
^55
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. 2s6. F'g- 257. Fig. 2s8. Fig. 2S9. Fig. 260. Fig. 261. Fig. 262. Fig. 2bj. Fig. 264.
Song note of the field cricket pay song of the snowy tree cricket Night
Song ( l.ic ^UVO r:r!ckr-t
Forfif ,!l;i sp.
.Menr 0.1 ^iseri.itut/i
Gonic ;,. t -s ybdoiTiina'.s
dissiii.J. Atropos divinatoria Termes flavipes, male and female
Di .'u .' '^'s^ iiueen, workers and
rlathemis lydia
Lepisma domestica
saccharina
Lepidocyrtus americanus
_, '' " side view and
I he hand net frame The Sanborn net frame
Beating net or sweeping net
A good hand net
Small water dip net
A fumigator .
A good haversack .
The umbrella and its mode of use
The Riley breeding cage
The Comstock improved base for breeding case
A good simple aquarium . ^
Pocket cyanide bottle
Spreading board for Lepidoptera
In.sect mounted on cardboard triangle
Triangle punch . .
Points for mounting insects
The Marx tray for alcololic specimens
343 343 344 343 341 348 349 350
333 soldiers 3S4
}(>3 382
3^3
386
enlarged parts 387
390
390
190
391
391
392
393 393 ,596
397
400
401
402
402
402
40J
40?
xxvii
ISl.^
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THE INSECT BOOK
•'1S». ('"^■^''>^v#?'-;X.
la
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I
ORDER HYMENOPTERA
..ntc "^""u^r" "'■'^'' '^'" ''"'"^'' ^l^'^^^ ^°"^^i"s the bees, wnsps n ts, ,,,„., ,e.s. saw-flies, ichneumon-flies and related or, J^;
vey large order, and comprises nearly lo.ooo described species but the enormous number of undescribed species, particular^ of
out-ot- he-way localmes would probably swell this rmmbe. o more than ,00,000. To indicate the work still to be done in tnis order ,t .s sa e .0 say that a day's collecting in Central Park New York, almost under the wmdows of the great American iVluseum of Natural History, or in Logan Square. Phil..delph,a. wiZ "c^ y^rrds o, the Academy of Natural Sciences, would esu t n Z capture of a number of species new to science. But the si"e of the order ,s us least important and interestmg feature. Th very great vanafon m habus and l.fe history, the wonderful socS orgam.afon of the bees, ants and some w^^sps, the seern. m ' vellous intelligence of these creatures, the remarkablca" pL ons" of structure tc environment, the extraordinary interrelation and inter ependencies of species seen with the membe of the p.rasitic families, the strange vita^'-enomena of sex-abortion of virgin birth or parthenogenesis, and the wonderful planed": formations brought about by the gall-makers, unite to render the Hymenoptera a field of study of never-ending interest
insecK bv rZ ""■■ ">'^'^"°P'^''^' ^"-^ distinguished from other inse ,, by the following points : Their metamorphoses are com- plete, heir mouth parts are mnndibulate, and n most famil^s formed lor biting, although in the bees they are so mod iTd a
n^xTn'r'?' P"'"""' ^"' ''"' •"^"^^'^ -^ f-nished wi h an extensile sting or ovipositor. All have four wings, of which
r mt^tnt'b ' '"'"^^- '"'^ "'"^^ ^^^ membranous, usu ay ransparent, bear no scales, and are divided by veins or nervures
as they are inappropriately and misleadingly called, into a com
paratively small number of cells. '
On account of the great diversity of form and structure
which exists within these limits, the Hymenoptera have long
5
ril
'li
\''i ,
Order Hymeioptera.
been diviiii'ii into m:my families and subfamilies. Mr. W. H. Ashmcad ol the United States National Museum, whose great work o!i tins order has placed him at the head of all livinj; authorities on the Hy.nenoptera. has recently jiiven us as the result of his prolonged studies an arran<;ement of this enormous coniple.\ of forms into ten super-families, .ind tor the sake of sim- plicity our consideration of the order will lollow his cla.ssillcation at the risk of .some sli-^ht temporary confusion in the minds of those familiar with other general works on insects. The corre- spondence between physical structure and habits and mode of lite, however, is so marked in the Hymenoptera, that these structural super-families are really habit super-families as well.
Economically considered the Hymenoptera as a whole is a beneficial group in its relation to man. Aside from the iioney industry dependent upon the honey bee, thousands of the parasitic forms destroy noxious insects, very many forms are of the utmost importance as cross fertilizers of trees and plants, and certain galls have a distinct value in commerce.
In the dilTerent aspects of the study of this great group there is room for a small armv of workers.
TABLE OF SUBORDERS AND SUPER-FAMILIES.
Su!m<Ur HETEROPHAGA. Ashmfad. Abdomen much nar- rowed at its attachment to the thorax. Larvae legless.
Suborder PHYTOPHAGA, Latreille. Abdomen broad at its .ittachment to the thorax. Larvae with legs.
I'
Heterophaga.
Underside of last segment of the abdomen not divided iongitudinally; the sting or ovipositor, when present, ;ilwavs issuing from the tip of the .ibdomen i
Underside of last segment of X^v abdomen divided: ovipos- itor issuing some distance before the tip of abdomen ;
trochanters always two-jointed S
-Pronotum not extending back to the tegulx 2
Pronotum extending back to t(>gul«, or the latter are absent . }
AfitM:...«..k
'-Mf .'. A.
I |.l
■is'hiu.H
:ii..;|
■M .^^mtMMm^mm^^iB^zi: m
f^n
li
|
l^ATK II |
||
|
BEbS |
||
|
KIC. |
MG |
|
|
1. |
Bombus terricola t |
IS. |
|
2. |
Bombus modenitus |
16. |
|
3- |
Bombus nfv:idensis |
'T- |
|
4- |
Bombus bimacuLitus *, |
IS. |
|
5- |
Bombus terriciil.i v |
"9- |
|
6. |
Bonilnis jffinis |
20. |
|
7- |
Bomhas sonomx |
21. |
|
8. |
Bombus bim.iculatus 9 |
22. |
|
9- |
Bombus bitiirius |
23. |
|
lo. |
Bombus vafi:ins |
24- |
|
1 [. |
Hmphoropsis miserabilis |
2S. |
|
12. |
Bombus tervidus |
26. |
|
n. |
Bombus improbus |
21- |
|
M- |
Apathus insularis |
Bombus californicus Anthophora smithii Anthophora cdwardsii Busynhalonia edwardsii Synhalonia atrivcntris Amejiilla maigiiiata Anthophora occidentalis Apathus laboriosus Apathus citrinus Anthedon compt.i Xylocopa acncipcnnis Xylocopa orpifex Xylocopa texana
iK
TmB lN:;fT Ecox
FlATE II.
*fflr
4
i
ii .1-
n
►?*;;■.■ i^--
Ordtf Hymenoptcra
2-T:irsi dilated or thicki-ned; hairs of hund .md thor.ix tcath-
Tarsfslnder ;■ hairs .,n hc.darul thorax Sf!ic"""' ''^""'':''
Supfr-faniilv V//.'. o/.Av/.
3-Trochamors^^^.,lwavs one-^ (.^u-pt in th. family
Trochanters two-jointcd (except in the family I'elecinidii-t
Super-family Proitotnfoid/a.
4-Petiole, or first segment of abdomen simple, without swel- lings; wmged forms with well-developed tej,'ula- . '. . . . p ,;,■■". '. Super-faniilv ^^fsf^oUfa.
with imperfectly formed tefiukc Super-family tormuoUca
"Lr::::^ sSmi'""^'":'':.'": '^'^^^^'^"'' "--■ "--
Front winK's with a stigma; the marginal vein usually L.rge
and stigmated Super-family LhnanuououUa,
b- I ronotum extending back to the tegulx . . .'
r, Super-family CvnIpoiJea.
Pronotum not extending back to the tegula- '. . .
Super-family Clia/nJoiJfa.
Phytophaera.
Tibix of forelegs with one apical spur
Tibix of forelegs with' two apiral spS''"'^"'"' . ^'":'"'''''; Super-family TcitthrediiwiJej.
f
.1 i
J !.
7/y/f 7-/?^/r BHHS
( Siif'ii J'liinih Afi'ithtt)
This t.'ro.it Ki""P> fcmprismK .ibout tivi' Ihnusand spt-cu's. in- cludi-s ..II I.I Iho true Ivfs. both the hoiu-y-n.ithc-u-rs whkh have social comnuinilics and live a strict community lite, and the
solitary bees. We have already seen inthetableofsuper- t.imilies that the hind leet "I these insects are dilated or thickened, and that the hairs olthe head and thorax are feathery. Ihese pe- culiar ""eathery hairs are found only in the true bees, which Iso differ from other Hynnii- optera by the pecu- liar modification of the ni'Uth-p.irts which are length- ened into A struc- ture which is almost like a proboscis. It In a very conspic- uous organ and is fitted in many "f them for probing deep (lowers and for gathering nec- tar. The mandi- bles or upper jaws
I-iK
II .Mil ;ii\ii luiigui- .if worker h.'
The True Beea
-=J
Pl..y no r..rt m this rrohoscK-hkc Mructuro, uhich is .omposc.l ontirciv ol l„wcT l,p .„ul lower mws. b.,th nrv.nlv lengthened
\^huh the l..rv,i- develop. Sometimes they are (ed by the ..duit
... /t
"K -• . .f A..,uiin; B. dmnt'ofhoNry tK-,C/.^,.„ , ;,„^,^^^
bees and sometimes a supply o. food .s stored in the cell so that after the e^K ,s |„d and the cell ,s completelv closed the mo h ■ has m^morc- respons.b.lty for the growth and development of he!
(.r ,1^ r T"^' "!' higher and more specialized bees that we see fo the., rst time the extraordmary communi.v l.fe wh.ch is de- veopedamoHK^ them and certam other Hyn.enoptera, such s certam soc.al wa,ps and .nts. and practically nowhere else ex-
t'o an!;e""f ?^' '""'■'"' "''"^ -'"^-^ °^ '-"''"• -huh belong to quae a .hfferent o.uer. Wth the social bees we lind a mos^
perftct con.mun.sm ; each mdividual works tor the good of the
commumty, and thus oni. indirectly for ,ts own ends.
happrnid' "rf H ■ ' "" ^'^'""'"""y 'i^«-- ^'^^-nge things have Happened. There has come to be a class of individuals which are practically sexless, and are called neuters or workers Th se ndividuals do the mechanical work of the communi.v. Th"v are really structurallv females m which the development of the sexual organs has ceased at a certain point. Thev aTe undevel oped md infertile lemales. The other wo sexes are represeited but the number of tr. . females, or ,,ueens as th"y J^- jt small, onlv a sufficient number being found to supply ^ggsfo
tr::'T7 "' '^^^"™■^.v■ The males are ap.lv Sm^d drones, since they are drones in comparison with the active and
5
t'i '^^1
i) V
The True Bees
h.rd-working neuters or workers. Their function in the com- munity is s,m'ply to .ertiUze the queens at the proper t.me. and then they are of no further use in the world. ..,,„„
The Apoidea are now subdivided into no less than fourteen fullfledged famihes. These include the Apida.. or true honey bees the Bombid^. or bumblebees, the so htary bees of the Anthophoridx, the cuckoo bees of the family Nomad.dae. the fmi carpente bees of the family Ceratinidx. the large carpenter b^e o ^he tamilv Xylocopidx. the mason, leat-cuttmg and poer bees of the family Megachilidx. the P^^'^'^'^bees of the Sy Stelid.. the sharp-tongued burrowmg bees of the am ly Andrenid^;; the blunt-tongued burrowmg bees of the family
'"'Ihthats^oJth: bees of these diverse families vary greatly, and most of the characteristics which they have in common have already been referred to. All. from their flower-vis.tmg habits arc-o uveat importance in the cross fertilization o plants, .nd without thJnr aid the health of the plant world would suffer and its infinite variety would hardly have been achieved. ' Th most famous of all bees is naturally the common honey bee. an importation from Europe, not a native, which by the hand of man has become a true domesticated animal. The lite h story oT this creature has been so o.ten written about and may so Iny be learned by consulting any encyclopedia or standard general work of reference that it does not seem necessary to de- scribe it in detail here. The methods of bee culture m use admit of ready study of its economy.* In this brief summary of the gen ral characteristics of bees we shall, therefore confine our- selves o the wild and less known forms. A bumblebee has been see ted for the typical life history, and little need therefore be snd of the large and important family to which that species be- ongs ex ept to state that bumblebees now occur m most par^s of the wor 5. and that they are especially abundant in temperate "nrevTnboeal regions, large numbers inhabiting far northern ioctlSs where they abound in the brief artic summer, and where ^ev live a hort but extremely busy life on account o the crowding together of the flowering periods of sub-polar plants.
6
The True Bees
The solitary bees of the family Anthophoridce art -n general thickly clothed with hair, and many of them burrow inio the earth, forming tunnels in which they form earthern ceils, storing
them with a supply of pollen and honey upon which the egg is laid and the cell is then closed.
Much good work can be done in the way of accurate observation upon the members of this group ; the length of the larval life, duration of the egg stage, and other points have not been accurately fol- lowed out, although some of the European species are fairly well known. Certain species bore into wood instead of en- tering the earth, or they oc- cupy old burrows of some carpenter hee. There are cer- tain curious parasites of these bees, and the life of one of them has been studied by the English observer Newport.
The cuckoo bees of the family Nomadidas without exception live parasitically in the nest of other bees, and have undoubtedly originated from other bees through different lines of descent— probably from those of the group just men- tioned. As their parasitic habits would prepare us to learn, their legs are without the scopa for the car- riage of pollen, and their life is practically that of the cuckoo, the female laying her eggs in cells al- ready prepared by some more in- dustrious and conscientious bee, and her larvs living at the ex- pense of the ot1..pring of the cell- v:. ^ „„. „ ,,,
■ to i^ig- 4- — V'Uffn nf the <:c>mi:lon
maKer. honey btc. (From /union.)
f'g- 3- — Qoeen cells and worker brood of honey bees. (From Benton.)
^
•7 1
i \
M
The True Bees
Cunouslv cnoui^h, these bees seem to be on perfectly good terms with their hosts, visiting flowers in their company and visiting their burrows as unconcernedly as though they were the result of their own labors. Hmerton has observed that there is frequently enough food for the larva of the cell-maker and the
Fig. 5.-Legs of different bees: A, Apis; B, Melipona; C, Bombus. (From Insect Life.)
larva of the cuckoo bee. and that ihey both thrive and issue a.s adults simultaneously. This cuckoo life is found with bees of certain other groups, and will be referred to later.
The rather smooth and active little bees of the family Cera- tinid;e which have been termed small carpenter bees, are ex- tremely interesting creatures, and are generally metallic blue, blue-black or bright green four-winged flies, not hairy, and are very active in the summer time. They bore tunnels into the stems of pithy plants and form their cells in these burrows Thev are verv'commonly found in brambles. The cells are hned with a delicate silkv membrane and are separated from one an- other by mud partitions. The common CeraUna dupla is a familiar example. With this bee the cells are tilled with a paste of honev and pollen upon which the larvx feed. The trans- form.ition to imago occurs in the latter part of July or during
August , , , , ,
From the cells of this bee two very remarkable parasites have been reared by the Rev. J. L. Zabriskie, namely Diamorus iubns-
kii. Cres., and Axima {al'iiskii. How.
s
The True 3ees
The large carpenter bees, however, do not confine them- selves to the stems of plants. Their burrows are so large that they are frequently made in the dead trunks of old trees and com- monly in lumber, and even in the joists of buildings. The commonest of the large carpenter bees in this country is Xyloco- pj virginica. This large black-bodied bee, as big as the biggest bumblebee, but with a (latter and less hairy abdomen, bores symmetrical tunnels into solid wood, choosing in civilized regions fence po.sts and boards. The burrow is a half-inch in dianteter. and runs horizontally across the grain for about the length of the insect's body, and is then turned downward at right angles and runs with the grain from twelve to eighteen inches. In this bor- ing the bee progresses at the average rate of about half an inch a day, occupying at least two days in digging the first portion against the grain of the wood. After the burrow is once com- menced, their persistence in returning to continue the work, in spite of all obstacles, is very rema. kable. One of these indefatig -ble bees
Fig. 6.— Ugs of different bees : a. .Xpulhopli.u.i , 1), Mulissodis ; c. I'erditj • d, .\omada: e, .\gapostenion ; f, Numij. (From Insect Life)
once Started a burrow in a lintel over the front door of the writer's house in Georgetown. She was repeatedly driven away, was struck with a broom a number of times, and finally ceased from her l.ibors only because kerosene was squirted at her through a syringe with accurate aim. It was the hand of death alone which released her from her work.
m
1
if
I I
i ii 1
it
I I
The True Bees
The tunnels generally run in opposite directions from the opening;, and sometimes other galleries are made, one parallel with the other, using a common openmg.
While we may admire the industry of the carpenter bee m doing all this hard work for its young, it is not averse to an easy thing and will use the same burrow over agam, and if an old deserted burrow can be found which was made the previous summer, or even several years previously, it is preferred to the drudgery of making a new one. Moreover, there are other bees which will pre-empt the deserted burrows of the carpenter bees. After the tunnels are prepared the cells are made and sup- plied with pollen. With the species under consideration the cells are about seven-tenths of an inch long, and are separated from each other by partitions which are made up of a single flattened band of sawdust and tine chips glued together and rolled up into a flat partition about four layers deep The side forming the bottom of the ceil is concave and smooth, while the o'her side is flat and rough. . .♦
Even about the common carpenter bee there is much yet to W learned, and a careful series of studies carried through an en- tire season cannot fail to show novel facts.
The mason bees of the family Megachilidae (sub-family OsmiiniE) derive their name from the manner in which they construct small earthen cells unders tones, in the burrows of other bees, in decaying wood, in deserted snail shells, m old galls, and elsewhere. Th se b.es show a great diversity of habit Their cells are constructed of sand, earth or clay mixed with pebbles and wood scrapings, but glued together so firm y that thev are smooth inside. Ten to twenty of them are usually found together, and each one contains a store of honey and pol- len, for the larvx-. of which only one is found in each eel .
One of these bees rCVrj/o.s7«w fOsmu) lignivora Packard) has been shown bv Dr. P.ickard to be a truc wood-borer. He saw it make a tunnel three inches long in maple wood, the tunne containing live cells and the partitions being made of wood
chippings.
The leaf-cutting bees of the same family are common crea- tures whose habits are extremely interesting. They derive their name from the fact that they cut pieces out ot the tender leaves ot V irious trees with which to form their cells. The leaf-cutters
Platf. 111. BKHS
HG.
I.
2.
3- 4-
5- 6.
7-
8.
9- lo.
II.
12. '3-
M- IS- 1 6.
i7-
iS.
19-
Xenoglossa pruinosa Andrena rotli-xa Andreiia viclna Megachile inimica Mi-gachilc lirevis Halictus lerouxii Hutechnia taurea Paraiiomia nortoiii Mfgachilc pollinaris Qclioxys 8-dentata Agapostcmon radiatu.s Megachile infragilis Osmia distincta Agapostcnion splcndens I'araiioini.i nortoni Melissodes biniaciilata Melissodes ponnsylvanicus Osmia canadoiisis Ct-rctris vi-nati)i
FIG. 20. 21. 22.
2}- 24. 2S. 2(X
27-
28.
20. 30.
J'-
32-
.n-
34- Vi- }^- 37- ?«•
l,arra analis Larra torsata Oxylu-ius 4-notatus Tachytes distincta Xylocopa niicans Tachytes validus Hricrocis fuinipennis Nysson plagiatus Melissodes belfragei Xylocopa arizonensis Anthophora abrupta Philanthiis solidagus Nomad.i hicincta Philanthiis ventralis Ccrceris corr> pacta Apathus variabilis Bombiis morrisonii Bombus morrisonii philanthiis punctatus
'I It
\im
i
The !n5bct Bock.
Put
%'
Thi True Beet
are found in ;ill parts of the world and look mach like bumble- bees. The pieces of leaf which they cut out very neatly are either oblonj; or circular, the former being used for the sides and the latter to cover the end of the cell. The burrows which they use vary greatly in situation, .jome burrow into the ground, others into soft wood, while others make use of chance tunnels. I have seen them in accidental auger holes, and in lead pipe, and once knew the nozzle of an old pump to be packed full of cells. According to Professor Putnam, a single female observed by him took twenty days to complete and provision a series of cells un- der a board. He found there were thirty cells in nine rows of varying numbers. An estimate of the number of bits of leaf used in the construction of these thirty cells amounted to more than a thousand.
The potter bees of this same family construct small globular cells of earth and attach them to the stem of a plant.
The parasitic bees of the family Stelidie live, like the No- madidae, in the n-sts of other bees, choosing indifferently the cell of almost any kind of bee, no matter what its situation. No observations on any of the American species have been recorded, and here is an interesting field of study.
The habits of the Euiopean species Slelh mtnuta have been observed with some c;ire. It was found to be parasitic in the nest of one of the mason bees, a female having laid her egg in the cell after it was partly filled by the mason bee. Unaware of the presence of the parasitic egg, the mason bee continued her work, and after nearly tilling the cell deposited her own egg on the top of the food mass, closing the cell with a partition, and begin- ning another one above. The Stelis larva hatched a little earlier than that of the mason bee, and both began to feed, the parasite larva from below and the mason bee larva from above. Unfor- tunately for those who are interested in the triumph of right and justice, the latter grows very slowly while he parasite larva grows more rapidly, and gradually worked its way upward through the food mass, thus approaching the mason bee larva. In the words of Riley's summary of this tragic performance " the crisis finally comes— the Stelis larva encounters the Osmia larva ; a short but deadly combat ensues ; the Osmia larva is easily overpowered and killed by the much larger and stronger parasite, and its body is devoured by the latter within one or two days."
'Si;
D-Vv ^
if
Th« True Bcci
The sharp-tonRued burrowinR 1 -es fo- i ;i very large group, with m my common species which lly actively through the sum- mer. The cells as a rule are made in burrows or tunnels m the ground or in hard clay banks. ^lUmu viaiu. according to Em- erton. digs a straight tunnel into the ground for a depth of several inches or more with short oblique galleries branching off from it. The earth ii cells lined with mucus are tilled with pollen and honey. This is all done in the latter part of April and early in May.' The larva: are full grown in less than live weeks, and the adult bees issue all through July and August. To this group be- long the beautiful little bees of the genus Halictus, which are often metallic in color. They dig branched tunnels to a depth of from six to ten inches and are semi-gregarious in habit, a great many of the burrows often being found close together. Emerton has studied the habits of H. paralklus, and states that this bee has two generations each year.
The blunt-tongued burrowing bees live much like those bees which we have just mentioned, constructing their burrows in hard clay soil or in the cracks in stone walls, but the bees of the allied lamily Prosopidx which have been called by Ashmead the obtuse-tongued carpenter bees, burrow into the twigs of bramble, elder and other shrubs, in which after extracting the pith, they construct their cells filled with pollen and honey. The Prosopi- dx used to be considered parasitic, but the English observer, Fred.-rick Smith, discovered their true habits a good many years ago. Mr. R. C. L. Perkins has recently stated, however, that some of the Hawaiian bees belonging to his genus hlcopro^ s are genuine parasites.
Life History of a Bumblebee
(Bombiis fcrvidus Fabr.>
In our generalization on the habits of the true bees we said little about the bumblebees, preferring to let this typical life history speak for itself. The bumblebees belong to the group ot socialbees, although their communities are by no means as large or as perfect a; 'lose of the domesticated honey bee, not in fact is the different:... ion of the worker cl.iss so marked as with the honey bee. The workers, in fact, more nearly resemble the
12
The True Bcm
females and have few of the structural [u-culiuritics which are so evident with the workers of the honev hee. The bumblebee worker sIihrs severely and this fact makes the close studv of their community life rather ditticuit. It is comparativelv easy, however to study a bumblebees nest. Marlatt, in the Proceedings of the hntomoloKical Society of Washington, tells how the boys in Kansas avoid the stings and gather the honey. He said that they (and he wjs one of them) were led to rob the.se nests more from the e.xcitement caused by the danger of being stung than to secure the honey, which, in f.ct. was not only rank and unpalatable but m the early fall, during the h.iving season, was small in quantity. The method followed was to take a one-or-two-gallon jug su^h as IS commonly used to c.irrv w.iter to haymakers, till it partly with water and place it, with the cork removed, within two or three ket of the nest. The bees were then thoroughly aroused by beating the nest, immediately after which the brave boys re- moved themselves hurriedly to a safe distance. The ennged bees would swarm out and begin (lying about in widening circles to disco-er the enemy The jug would at once attract their at- tention and numbers would (ly about it and over its open mouth which, by re.ison of the air set in motion by their wings, would Mive an answering roar to their angry humming. Excited bevond me;.sure by this noise, the bees would tlv at the mouth of the jug and one alter another would pop into it-the noise produced by tho.se within still turther attracting those without -until all had entered A second di.sturbance of the nest would .serve to draw out ^nd dispo.se of any of the remaining lighting worker-bees. ^Iter which the robbing of the nest was easy. After robbing the nest the water and bees in the jug were' emptied out on the ground and the bees, although apparently drowned, would soon recover and start off to found new colonies which other boys would probably rob. In later years when Mr. Marlatt became mterested in the collection and study of insects this method was employed with unvarying success in the examination of bumble-
^k""'? u'" °''^"' '" ''''''' P^''^'-^*'" ^"J 'he guest insects which inhabit these nests. This method .seems to be a discovery of the western farm-hoys, since the writer, although he 'robbed bumblebees nests m central New York when a b.-y was never ingenious enough to invent such a capital method of avoiding
'3
^mmltiimm^aM
^
^^
;•(
M|
Ut
Th« Tru« B«««
Romhii'i f.-rrUi'<. .ilsn calU-d Romhu^ hon-jlis, is a species which is Co ninon i «' . la aiul th^- northt-istern United States with sonnthinK'of.i ■ •' ' t" ^"^ western ran^e and is a fairly typical I' iiiiblebce. M . ' • approach of winter the old colonies tail, the workers .lui the Irones, .., males, die and only a lew lertili^red females .i:n.n liv. These hide themselves .iwav m protected place: pas 'nc nter in a torpid condition iiid when sprinj; cosnes e ic'i one stj ts out to found a new colonv. She collects moss or ^ra:-; "id Millen, seeks some d.pression in ■■ Held and lu'^'iiis . v-x. "U under the jfrass or moss. ' )ld
.■ .Uf lleij I'.'!
nests of held ini
cell, which is
qu.intity of poll i.
cell begins at oiu e
tain a queen with . arge I nn
well .i-. '^KS •'"'^ i.iiv.p in .lii
ired with :.!■ ' .in ■Aloi. , L
;!v T.NeJ 1 I"" his purpose. !" ll's ;)ii' .i.,ermin(iled with a snail Ht and the formation of anouier |uiy the nest will be found to con- I : of workers of various sizes, as ij^,:. nf development. Interesting ob'^trvations upon this spe.us iMve been made by Mr. F. V. Coville. who. althoiiiih a famous botanist. ouRht to have been an ent..nioloK'ist. \u..j.\\\n from his studv of this insect. The precise duties of the dirlereiit si/ed workers, .iccordintf to this observer, are not evident but in j,'eneral the larger ones attend to the mend- ing of th. overing of the nest and to the bringing in of honey, while the smaller ones lor the most part do the inside housework, the wax patching and the nursing of the voung. He never saw this nursing, as a matter of f ict, done bv a l.irge or even a medium- sized bee. The eggs are laid sever.il together in cavities in a mass of wax in which, however, are manv pollen grains. The larv;e after hatching remain encased in a shell of wax and soon become separated each from the other bv a waxen wall. Here thev are fed by a mixture of pollen and honey supplied them bv a worker. One of the smaller workers, which ( oville has called the nu'-se bees, collects nectar and then pollen, preparing the mixture, and then goes to one of the larvir. winch lie in circular form in their chambers, and injects the brownish, fluid mixture through a small opening previously made, usually bv another worker. This is greedily eaten bv the larva;. Whether the larv.x of both fem.iles and w orkers are fed in the same manner and with the same mixture could not be decided, but it is known that in the honey bee the different kind of food influences the si/e and the function of the bees. .1 special food being used to develop queens.
14
i
Tb« Tru* Beci
The lnrv.-c wh,-n full grown spin a silk c<uoon and transform fn pupae, in which stage they rt-m.-in from two to three weeks md then transform to perfect bumhlebees. The Ihvs emerge from the cua.on alter ^na wm« a lid about its apex. As soon as the hce has left, the other workers cut away the upper half of the cell add remove the debris, and the part which is left furnishes a receptacle I, r nectar and honey as it is hrouRht into the nest
In early Aukus. all th,- bees up to this time hav,„K heen workers with the r.vcepii..n of the oriK^ial queen. fer.,les or queens, and males. , , dron, s. be^in to em. r^e. Withm ., Vew U-i.v ■ h.'th se.x s leave the old ne.st .,nd do not return
I he methu J adopt, J by Coville t.,r the study of this species IS an easy and conveniens one .nd is worthy , .f description A box about three inches de.p a, J lar.e enuugh to .ont.nn a nest (.. K0>. l-s,/ed ciK..r-box v.,|l do, was provided withuRlassco er •>nd a „all hole was cut m the 'e. In thi. ;h,x in the e .riv s^nnmcr ., nest taken from she lie,, was pLu I and the ..pertuic was closed lor ,, Jay. The box vas the. ,-,ted in below ^ windoN* sash .so th . the bee. could come an. , on the outside wi hou, mnoyin^. th. obse.v, r, who remained , the ro,.m In c.llecl .,. the ne.st, u huh had been found durmg the ,v the obserse. ..rie.l for the field |ust before d.trk, alter all the bees were in. provided with a ci«ar-box. ., bottle of chlorolorm a pair •■I lorcef's and a K'-'uze-coveied. wide-mouthed bottle Ur appro.iched the nest, poured .. little chlorofo.-m • er it w -ed until the hu-.nmmix h .d cea.sed. opened the top of the.r-.st -d
.nt the bees with the forceps and pat the m the bottle rr,, nest with the 'comb being naced in the ciu r-bov The bees revive a.te: being pLued in the permanent box, and he cnloro- lorm. il U.S. d moderately, does not kill the larvx
The stud' nfthe hie of., colony of biKTiblebee will iv -und to be a very interestin ^ne. esp..M||v if observati -ns „ad,.
'Ton the parasites an :rue i :sects, or nquilin nich ■•
ircxiuenilv found in these nests. Many in: .-stin. nrs as' o iriimportant h:,i.,ts. esrvcially as they bear u, on th :,,..t,on of inherited instinct or mteliigence may he ,.hs. W /this wiv For exampi,-. these K- s ,re ve- v clean, v in I; -ir ubif Their faeces are alv. ivs ^epos.ted in a particular Ha. ,■ side the nest Some ol the guest b.es (requentlv d m ? imblebee nests
belong toth genus Apathus. or Psr ,, , .-.s i s .w called
'S
mmamm
The True Bees
These bees resemble bumblebees so closely that it is difficult to distinguish between them :md they live apparently in perfect harmony with bumblebees, but are lazy and use the food of the industrious bumblebees, both when adult and when m the larval condition Bumblebees resent the introduction of one of these guest bees into their nest, but the intruder seems to have very pleasant manners for the alarm and resentment occasioned by his or her presence soon dies away and an amicable relationship succeeds. Whether the guest bee and its larvx consume so much food (they undoubtedly bring in some themselves) that they endanger the health of the colony of bumblebees is a dis- puted point. The old idea was that they ate so much that the voung bumblebees were starved to death, and it was upon this supposition that the writer in his youth wrote the following Imes which perhaps will be accepted rather on account ol their apt- ness to the present topic than on account of their rhythmical
merit :
Oh ! an Apathus sat on a Chrysanthemum
A-cleaning her antennx. And she little thought of the Pyrethrum That would take her lite away !
And there she sat, a-taking a rest.
And smiled in a satisfied way. For shed laid ten eggs in a Bombus nest
And there'd soon be the de'il to pay. For her offspring dear, her very first brood.
Would hatch in a very short time, And no trouble she'd have a storing up food,
For she worked on the Cuckoo line. Her young would hatch ere the young bumblebees.
And the young bumblebees would die. When the young Apathi would live at their ease
And fatten like pigs in a sty ! So she sat in the sun, this wicked old bee,
And scratched her tibiae, And chuckled inside in lazy glee
At the business shed done that day.
♦ * * *
But the Chrysanthemum on which she sat
Belonged to a neat old maid. Whose plants were her pride (next to her cat),
And that day she was out on a raid
bl
The True Bees
Against Aphids and slugs, with a Buhach-gun
hilled with Peters & Milcos best. And seeing the Apathus, just for fun.
She dusted her yellow vest.
How the cheat kicked as she fell on the ground! And how she did buzz and hum!
But she never got well— she never "came round "■ Her fraudulent life was done. * * ♦ ♦
From this little tale can a moral be drawn- How the bumblebee loafs not a bit;
But works all day from the earliest dawn, And thus 'scaped the death dealing hit?
This moral is good, but please don't forget Those eggs that the Apathus hid !
The Bombus is working and slaving yet But it's all for the other one's kid !
17
It i
.If f
' \,
Hi
t ' t
IV^STS.
The Solitary Wasps.
(Super-family Sphccoidca.)
To this group belong nearly ;ill of those insects vhich are known as the solitary wasps, in contradistinction to the social wasps which form communities and live in nests, usually con- structed of a paper-like substance, and lead very much the same socialistic life which we see in the social bees. The solitary wasps, in the main, form burrows, just as do the solitary bees, construct cells within their burrows and in the cells provide food for their larvae. This food, however, is not the pollen and honey mixture which is found in the cells of the olitary bees, but it is other insects which have been stung and paralyzed bv the mother wasp. To this super-family belongs a large assemblage of forms which comprise twelve large families, the habits of all being rather similar.
Nothing can be more fascinating than the study of the habits of the solitary wasps and no more readable book on a natural history topic was ever prepared, not even excepting the famous Natural History of Selbourne or the general volume of Kirby and Spences Introduction, than that entitled. "On the Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps," by George W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham. of Milwaukee, published as Bulletin No. 2 of the Wis- corisin Geological and Natural Hi.story Survey. The Peckhams, already noted for their interesting work on the habits of spiders, and attracted to the study of solitary wasps probably through observing these creatures carry off spiders to stow away in their cells for their young, have spent many summer days in close obser- vation of these industrious, active and most intelligent creatures and have described their observations in the most charming stvle. They have entered into the lives of the solitary wasps and have shown them to be as interesting in their way as the much-more-
^1
ii
>!:
t*
f
Pi ATH IV. WASPS AND BEES
|
nn. |
Fir.. |
|
|
I. |
Crabro singularis |
21. |
|
2. |
A^apostenion ti-x.iniis |
22. |
|
3- |
Andrena mellivcntris |
23- |
|
4- |
Colletes thoracica |
24- |
|
s. |
Hpeolus lectus |
2S- |
|
6. |
Crabro interruptus |
2(-<. |
|
7- |
Andrena texana |
27- |
|
8. |
Epeolus concavus |
28. |
|
"J. |
Solenius scaber |
2t). |
|
lO. |
Coelioxys diibitata |
^0. |
|
1 1. |
Noniada rnodt-sta |
^1. |
|
1 2. |
Melissodes rustica |
3-- |
|
1 1. |
Epeolus donatus |
3'- |
|
14. |
Xi-sti)crabrn 6-inaculatus |
34- |
|
IS. |
NdHiada macul.ita |
3S. |
|
'T- |
Melissodes suffusa |
16 |
|
IS. |
Epeolus lunatus |
^7 |
|
It) |
Pseudocrabro chrysarginus |
38. |
|
20, |
Mcgachilc xylocopoidcs |
Nomada belfra^ei Melissodes obliqu.i Sphi-odes dichro.i Anthidiuin intcrruptum Megachile mendica Nomada grandis Melissodes perplexa Larra americana Anthidium pallivenjis Megachile bucephala Microbembex monodonta Melissodes nienuacha Anthidium /ebratum Monia apacha Meuachile pruina Bembex obsoleta Melissodes confusa Monia heteropoda
J
The lN;.EtT Vook.
F ATE IV.
■f^ t f "if" f
1 t
9
f
1
t-
^t
r
.^«>- •
f
IV ^\ »«
20
X /
26
35
*
la
-I
/^>
17
22
I
2J
^
27
' 2.'
(#^
30
37
riiawi^
II
It
^l^
li
rff
ik
'If
J
Wasps
written-about bees and ants. Their ingenuity in capturing .hoir prey, the care with wh,:h they conceal their burrows the d.ffe ent md,v,dua.,ty among members of the same spec^ ' and 1^' as omshmg than ail, the actual use of improvised too s by h" e creatures, and many other points which the Peckha.ns h we brought out and described make one wish to drop a lie ther oc cupauons and immediately begin the study of the so ry w sp The acfve I.ttle wasps of the lamiiy Oxybelida; are knZn
fl.es European writers state that they do not paralyze the flies
by stmgmg as with most other digger wasps, but that hy crush
he thorax ,ust beneath the wings so as to destroy the great ne^/e
S : 'o';lr- ^^. 'r''^^'^' ^-"'^ «- of our'Amer^L
tormgfli?rafterh'h "''''''''''" '"^^•^^'"^' '" '^'^ ^^"^ ^'"^ siormg tl.es after the burrow was completed. There were some
The wasps of the family Crabronidx are usually larger but st.ll are rather small insects. Thev burrow in sand and clay and many ofthem make their burrows in wood -in palings pots stumps and decaying logs. They store in their cells /.rJ.; vanety o. .nsects. .V../<vn,/v-. rCra.roj sf,rpuofa w found bl the Peckhams to „11 us cells with different kinds of flies Others
:^ix;i:ptt"' "^h ''^. '""^^--^""^ observation t:
. ade by the Peckhams on the species just mentioned that it works n.ght md that "her manners were an agreeable contrast to those of the wasps that we had been watching through the day The fevenshexctement of their ways seemed quite in keeping with the burning neat of noon, while Crabros slow and gentlt
e";rnr"''o '""°"'"'' ^'^'"^'-^ ^'^^ '^^' ■-« ^hadoi; of evening. One specimen was .seen to work industriously for forty-two hours, toiling from three in the afternoon on |uly ,7 Uirough that night and the day and night following until nrn^
She takes the palm for industry, not only from other wasns but from the ant and bee as well. ' Her burrow was thirty nnecen t.meters .n length and was made in the stalk of a raspberrjor
"y
I
ilH 1
^ !h^
li
Wups
blackberry. The species which bclonjj to the genus Trypoxylon and its close allies as a rule make use of the burrows of other in- sects. Thev sometimes store the insects which they collect in the deserted cells of a mud-dauber, and sometimes in the small round holes made by wood-boring beetles in old trees. Many of the species seem to store up pl.mt lice but others capture and paraly/e different kinds of spiders. There is a very important wasp which belongs to this group which does not occur in the Uiu'ed States but which I am trying to introduce. This is the Ampuiev which prevs upon cockroaches. A correspondent in Mauritius, DHmmerez de Charmoy. of the museum at Port Louis, has promised to send me some of these creatures alive. He states th it they enter the houses and prey upon the domestic cockroach. Perkins', quoted by Sharp, says that in West Africa cockroaches ire stung by these wasps and placed in confinement in some such spot .IS a kevhole and in one case one was apparently prevented from afterward escaping by the wasp carrying some heavy nails into the kevhole. Rothney. also quoted by Sharp, says, " I saw two or three of these wasps (/I riificornis) collar a pe- culiar cockroach by the antenna; ind lead it off into a crack in the bark, but as the cockroach reappeared smiling each time I don't know what was up."
Numbers of other most interesting forms occur here, but those interested must go to the Peckhams' book and to Ashmead s interesting paper entitled. "The Habits of the Aculeate Hymen- optera, • published in P<ivche. January to May. 18^4. and to the papers referred to by the latter author.
The genus Ammophila contains some of the most interesting forms in this family, and the habits of one or more species have been described in the most interesting way by the F'eckh -ms, by the late William Hamilton Gibson, and Dr. S. W. Wilhston, and by Mr. Theodore Pergande. These are the insects which use tools. Their burrows are deep in the earth and are carefully con- cealed by the insertio.i of a stone, over ..hich dry earth is scraped. When the female returns with a caterpi.lar, (and she travels un- erringly to this concealed burrow lor a long distance,) the earth and stone are removed, the caterpillar is carried down into th- bi-rrow and the mouth is once more concealed until anotl;. caterpillar is brought. The solicitude exhibited by the maternal w isp for fe... her burrow may be discovered has been vividly
W.ip,
described by ;ill of the authors above mentioned. When the burrow IS conipiefe the female wasp has been observed to use a stone as a t-impm^' iron to pack the earth into the mouth of the burrow. This is the tool use referred to. Dr. Williston states that he feared to publish his observation at first, since he miRht not be be leved. I'er^ande noticed that after the burrow w-,s completed and (illed the mother wasp revisited the spot oc' casionally to satisfy herself that everything was .secure a«inst in- trudersand to make surety doubly sure bv placing additional dis- guismg objects over the already disguised burrow mouth
It was m their study of one of the Ammophilas that the mkhanis noticed a very distinct personality among the females which they watched at work. This personality was not of in dividua appearance but of such mental attributes as careful painstaking or carelessness and industry or laziness. One seemed to hurry tremendously and spent no time on non-essentials Aii.ther was an arti.st, working for a long time on the closing of her burrow, arranging the surface with scrupulous care and sweeping away every particle of dust to a distance. Still another went to the extreme in carelessness, carrying the caterpillar in a very careless way and making a nest which was a very poor affair. Still a founh was " -he most fastidious and perfect little worker of the whole season, so nice was she in her adaptation of means to ends, so busy and contented in her labor of love ind io pretty m her pride of her completed work." In fact, thev'seem to have almost as much individuality as human beings and the result of these observations has a strong bearing on the discussion of instinct. Fabre, the French entomologist, who studied the same insects, considered that they were inspired by automatic- ally penm instincts which can never have varied to anv ap- preciable extent from the beginning of time. Deviation from the regular rule, he thought, would mean extinction. The Milw lukee authorities however, found that variability was the one unmi.s- t.-,k.ible and ever present fact, and this variability existed in every particular, in the shape of the nest and in the manner of dig- g.ng ,t, whether it is left closed or open, in the manner of stinging the prey and of crushing it, in the manner of carrying the victim, in the way of closing the nest and in the condition produced in the victim by the stinging, .some Jvmg and others living for a long time, though ne irlv motionless. All this varia
H'i
Wsipi
bility the Peckhams got from the study of nine wasps and fifteen
"'' ThTmud-daubers of the ^enus Sccliphron (formerly and in most books placed in the genus I'elopx-us) are among the n.os .nterestm^ members of this super-family. They bu.ld the.r ncsts " M ,n mud in sheltered places under the eaves of barns or ev n m the attics of houses. The food supply w.th which the eel s
re s tored consists almost invari.ibly of spiders as many sp.dc s
ieint packed into one cell as the cell will hold. A single egg is
. d tpon the last spider packed in and the larva eats rap.Jly • -n-
uming the abdomen of the spiders first and subsequently he a of their bodies, eating both dead and living sp.J<-rs. A ter the egg is laid and the nest closed up new cells are constructed
'''*:; ;::::;:u^"i;lirvation has been made by Schwarz in the Washington parks and gardens. He found that one of he Sphegid wasps-C7,.,/i/'/o« r«T,//.-//m-was engaged m c P u - in, a certain kind of spider which hid itself so cardully that it was niost diflicult to find. Instead of spendm, her time in ruit- U.s searching the w.asp would ent.mgK' hersc'i ,n ihe ueb ot he niJe when the latter would nnmed.a.ely d.irt out trom lu-^ h ding place, thus exposing herself to the wasp who would c V free herself from the web and chase the sp^a.. to its retreat.
Life History of a Digger Wasp
( Sf /tains spfiiosiis Say.>
This large and ferocious wasp, which is in fact the largest W..SP in what may be termed the eastern central ^tates_ that is t„ L. from southern New Jersey southward, is very abund nt in Marvland. and Virginia and the mid-western states in the month of July, digging great burrows, usually in clayey soils and storing in them for food the large dog-day Cicada, harvest-fly or
-man. or annual Ccada ( T,Hccn t>nunosa Say). During the l.tter half of Julv. when the note of the Cicada is tilling the air with us vibrations, this big wasp is often seen flying about the trees from winch t,.e song comes. Suddenly the regular note of the h a- vcst-tlv ceases and in its stead a distressing, discordant cry will
Waipa
be emitted. The wasp h.is caujfht its victim ;ind with ;i quick stina; has paralyzed it and thrown it into a comatose condition
from which it never recovers. ^^^ In this prehminary struggle often both the wasp and its victim fall to the ground and then the wasp begins the la- borious task of dragging its prey back up the tree strad- dling it with its long legs, although the Cicada is bigger than the wasp, and working sometimes foi ,m hour or more ^^ until it reaches a height from
Fig. 7— .Sphecius spctiosus .Say caiTj-ing which it Can lly obliquelv a cica<'> i„ htr burrow. jown to its nest at some dis-
,/■ ■./...,/../..) tanceaw.y. In W.ishington,
the dryer ard more elevated portions of the lawns, especially slight terraces aloiii,' the sides of roadways, are prelcrred by this wasp for its burrows. Damp earth causes the Cicadas to mould after they have been stored in the burrow. The burrow itself consists of a gently s; iping entrance extending for about si.x inches, when ordina- rily a turn is m.ide at right angles and the excavation is continued for six or eight inches farther, ending in a globular cell an inch ...\d a half in diameter. Frequently a number of branches leave the main burrow at about the .same point, each ter- minating in a round cell. Hach of these cells contains, aloDij in Au- gust, one or two Cicadas, and in those cells which contain two the larv.i of the wasp acquires a larger size, and, as the female wasp is a
great deal larger than the male, Riley thought that one''cicada is required as food to develop a male and two to develop a female.
Kig. .S.— Adult ficad.i ln-aring egg
of tht- di,:4i;t,'r wasj>, at ;i.
f From lns,-it Lift-
'I
Fl«. 9.— «'i<Mdii i" t'lirriiw of Sph«iu«, with full grown Ui\ 1 ■•! <i<M" «'<-P '«<1>"K
WWP*
Thcililiiie. white, elon- gate I'XK "• '^"' w.isp IS l.iul umk r the iniJille Icr oltlic ( .^.id.i .hkI when it h.itiht'N tiif l.irva sticks out its he III .in J bfjiuis at once I Jraw nourish- ment from between the segments of its victim. The e>;^' hatches in two or three days and the
larva attains full growth in a weeK. or a little more, it feeds
entirely from the outside
and when full grown spins
awhitesilken cocoon which
is finished at the expiration
of two days. The word
silken is somewhat mis- leading, since it is mixed
with much earth. When it
is finished, about a dozen
curious, porelike openings
are seen in the side if the
cocoon, the function of
^•i^J
10.— 1 jrva of digiiirr »a>i> »i)inning its cocoon. ( from /iisa I Liji. J
■■\ \
Kit;. ' I - ^pli" '"* ~ix-'i'«u<: .>,l.irv.i; h. pup,! (n.m bilow; . . >aiiir. fr-.ni -lilc ii.Hiir.il >iic. ./. liLjd >>f l.ifva;
, labium of v.inif ; tiiUrgtd ■ hi
n.isill.l of >.inii-- — .'w/ /« <■< / Ltf<:. I
-4
•\ \
.
PlATF. V.
WASPS
!l
H(.. I.
4-
I-
s.
i».
lo. I I.
I'(rcilopompilus interruptus Mon<ibi:i qiuulridcns Hcinip'iKonii''^ :ilicnatus OJyiHMUS capr:i Odvnerus cnmpostns Mcinipononius tortis Aiuistroccrus capra Fumencs frati-rnus Vi'spa bdicalis CiTatopalus bipunctatus I'olistcs meti icus
FIG.
12. Polistes annularis
13. Vespa vulgaris
■ 4. Sceliphron ccinentarius
15. Ammophila ^ryphus
16. Ammophila intLMTupta
17. Vcspa caiolina
1 8. SphfX iihncumnneus K). t'ompiloyastcr a-thiops 20. Prionoiivx atiata
2\. Sphfciiis spiiiiiM!s 22 (^hlorion nwnik-um
[t-
1
(i
The 1h' ect Hock.
A
h
\'
■J 1
■ I
^^iU:
^MUaiilHBMaMMMMBBttAl^lCMHHy
J
Wasps
Fig. 1 1. — a, cocoon of Sphe- cius — natural size; fi, en- larged stftion of pore. ( from Insect l-ijcj
which can only be surmised. Possibly they are for the respiration of the larva before it transforms to pupa and it re- mains in the cocoon unchanged through the winter, transforming to pupa only the following spring and shortly before the appearance of the true insc :t. When the adult hatches it gnaws its way out of the cocoon and so on up through the burrow to the surface of the ground, thus accomplishing its life-round in a full year. This big digger wasp is very abundant in mid-summer throughout the southern states. It stings severely, and, it is per- haps needless to say, should be avoided.
The Socia! Wasps and their Allies.
(Super-family VespoiJea.)
All of the social wasps belong to this super-family, and there are also brought into it a number of solit;iry wasps, as well as the so-called cuckoo i.ies of the old family Chrysididi-, and some strange insects that were formerly plived in the parasitic family Proc- totrypida.'. but which are now made a family by themselves under the name Bethylidu;. There are other parasitic groi ps in this super- family, and it also contains the curious creatures known as cow-kil- lers, cow-ants, solitary ints. or velvet ants of the family .Mutillidie, which have solit.iry habits, but closely re- semble the true ants. All these forms, differing however widely m habit, teed tor the most part in their early stages upon other insects or upon the remains of other insects. The only e.vception is a small group found mainlv in tropic.il regions, which m.iy be termed the honey w.isps, of which the old Polish-^ mellifua of Say, which comes from Mexico, is an example. Ail of these
Fig i;,. I'oli.stes p.illi|xs ' Afttr Contslotk. ,
il
I
(pi 11
,Bi!
|
(■■ . 1 |
|
1 |
^WJ
:hr
Wasps
honey wasps :irc now brought together into one genus, which is called Ni'ilarinia.
The true social wasps, nearly all of which in the United States lielony to the Genera F«'.s/><7 and Polistfs. lorni communi- ties much like those of the social bees. Their communities, however, are not so perfect and are not so persistent .is are those of the true honey bee or of the ants, but resemble more nearly those of the bumblebee. There is a form known as the worker, just as with the social bees, and the workers here, as in the other cases, are undeveloped females. Here also, as with the social bees, these undeveloped females or workers may lay eggs which invariably prcduce males or drones.
Most of our social wasps make paper combs and nests. They are in fact the original p.iper-makers. and it is quite within the possibilities that the paper-making idea in the human species
was gained from the observation of these insects. Their paper. however, is made from wood pulp — a late de- velopment in the human scale of in- genuity. They are particularly fond ot scraping the frayed wood fibre from old weatner-be.iten fence boards and irom the sides of old unpainted buildings. These wood libres are macer- ated with their saliv.i. and a p.istywood pulp is thus formed with which the nests are constructed.
In our consideration of the preceding group of wasps, we said Something about mdividuality among these creatures and its in- fluence upon theories of instinct. In the social wasp also at least one observation seems to show that inilividu.ils in the f.ice of an emergency pr: viously unknown to the species readily adapt themselves to new conditions. This observation was made by Miss Mary H. Murtfeldt. of Kirkwood. Mo., who found that in a vineyard where the grape clusters were inclosed in p.iper bags to prevent destruction by insects the soci.il wasjis found that the d.imp and rotlnig paper b igs were perlectly adapted to their nest-
Sprin^ nt-si i.l I'.iii^tt. I A/Ur Ai/,y. I
\\
i; ...
^Sk
B
Waipi
building operations, and they thus used this paper already pre- pared rather than to take tlie trouble of manufacturing their own wood-pulp paper. This was a good thing for the wasps, but unfortunate for the vineyardist.
It is more difficult to study the economy of the social wasps than that of either the hive hce or ants. ' As most of the species are very irritable and possessed of venomous stings, it re- quires considerable tact and courage to investigate their habits closely.
The si/e of the communities varies at the season when they are largest, and according to the species, from a few individuals to many hundreds. In one large nest 1 counted i,i ?■; cells, and since, as will be shown, the worker cells are used tw o jr three times in the summer, the colonies become very strong. This count was made with the large bald-faced hornet fl^espa maai- Litaj but in some of the smaller wasps or yellow-jackets, like l^c-ipagcnihjnua. the cells are even more numerous. In one nest ol the latter species, Mr. M..rlatt tells me that he carefully esti- mated that it contained about fourteen thousand cells.
These communities of the social wasps, unlike those of the hive Ke and of ants, but like those of the bumblebees, have only .1 temporary existence. On the approach of winter the males and workers perish and the fertile females crawl into such pro- tected situations as crevices in walls or under the bark of tr-.-s and there pass the winter in a dormant state. At the opening oi spring each surviving female founds a new colony. At firs: she performs the duties of both queen and worker; a small n?st is made, eggs are laid in it, and when the larv:x; hatch thtv are fed and cared for by the queen intil they reach maturity. This first generation is composed entirely of workers. They relieve the queen of the duties which belong to them and from this time forth her only duty is to l.iy eggs. .Sometimes she a.ssists in the caie of the young but not in the construction of the nests.
The essential part of a wasps nest consists of a comb forme.! of hexagonal cells similar in form to the cells of a honey-comb. It ditters. however, m .several important respects from that of the iiive bee: The material of which it is made is paper instead oi w.ix; the comb consists of a single layer of cells instead of twr., and the cells are usually vertical inste.id of hori/ont.il. In some species the nests consists of a single comb with one or morestems
= 7
( \
\li\i'
fe»
Wasp*
holding it in place. In others the comb is enclosed in a spherical envelope of paper with a small opening at the bottom In the more complicated nest.s there is a series of combs placed one be- low the other, and the whole is enclosed in a case made of many thicknesses of paper. The nests are enlarged bv adding ce s to the edges of the combs, and room .s made for these new cells by rem -ving the inner layers of the envelope; the p.rtion removed, however, not being wasted, but chewed up again by the wasps and added to the outside. The nests are suspended froni branches of shrubs and trees or from fences .md roofs. Some of the smaller species bu-ld .heir nests in the ground and under stamps, in each cell 01 .he comb an egg is laid. Owing to the position of the corib, when the larva hatches it is suspended head downwards in each cell and holds its place while young by meuis of a glue and when old by its enlarged head end. which completely fills the open part of the cell. They are constantly nursed bv the females and worker.., and are fed with a browmsh nuid which IS prepared by the workers or females and consists of the juices of fruits and the remains of other insects which have been chewed up. When it gets fu.l grown the larv.. spins a silken cocoon, the lower end of which serves as a c.ip to the cell and then it transforms to a pupa. After the adult wasp is- sues the cell is cleaned out by the workers, and is used again by the queen, and. as the whole period from the laving of the egg to the emerging of the full-growr. wasp is about a month m the northern states, a comb made early in the season serves for several successive generations.
As a rule the males and queens are not developed until toward autumn. At this time larger cells are m.ide for the re- ception of the eggs which ..re to produce these lorms. Thus . la 1 ,rge wasp nest be examined it will be seen that the top .ombs contain smaller cells and all of the same size, while the lower comb. cont.nn larger cells. This habit which the social wasps have of beginning at the top and builJing downward ^^^ ^'^■^^ suggested to Gulliver-s Laputan philosopher that they should be- gin bv buiiamg the g.irrets of every house first of all ..nd then gradually working down f. the l.>wer stories -''^^'/he cellars.
The most not..ble of the s.Kial wasps in the United States s the bald-faced hornet < K.'i^J mMulala) above referred to. It builds the enormous paper nests commonly seen attached to the
Waspi
bninchcs of thu trees. The (jreat l^espti ("rj/iro or hornet of Eng- Lind nnd Hurope. which is the species most commonly referred to in hnglish hooks of reference, was accidentally imported into this country many years ago and established itself in the vicinity of New York City. 1 believe it was tirst discovered there by Mr. James Angus. It has since spread and multiplied very slowly, and is not known to occur very far from the place where it was origi- nally discovered. It is rarely found in parts of Long Island and New Jers There is also an unconfirmed report of its establish-
ment near Charleston, S. C. This wasp, which is more yellow in color, builds preferably in the trunks of old trees.
The smaller yellow-jackets f ycspa germauiij and ^. cnneata) build their nests above ground, in or beneath stumps or stones, and in excavations in the open ground. The underground nests are frequently very large, sometimes more than the size of a half- bushel basket. Access to these nests is gained by a single (rarely two) small opening which leads directly from the center of the nests. The loose paper covering is not as tough and thick as that with the big hornet.
These large underground nests may be exterminated, when their location is discovered, bv pouring in a little bisulphide of carbon. The time of the application, however, should be chosen, and it should be after dusk; otherwise there is great danger of being stung. The colonies in the large hornets' nests are rather easily destroyed about nightfall by drenching them with a bucket of kerosene. This should be done late rather than earlv, because just at dusk a few late-returning workers will "raise Cain ' over the destruction of thei; home.
The other common social v\'asps found m this country belong to the genus Poiistes. They are the long-bodied, bl.ick wasps with folded wings ;ind slender abdomens. They are frequently found in houses in the autumn looking for places to pass the \Ainter.
The nest of the Poiistes wasps consists of a single comb without any envelope. Thev are found commonlv in country barns, .ind are also attached to bushes and to the lower surf. ices of stones which are slightly raised from the ground. Tlic\ are generally horizontal in this country, but European species build their combs vertically. Poiistes feeds upon caterpillars and also vegetable material as well, and its habits in other respects are very much like those of the other social wasps.
29
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Mr. F. H. Chittenden tells me that he thinks one of these Pohstes u-.isps w.is respons ble lor the Jestruclion of the cabbaRe caterpillars in the center of a lar^e cabbage liekl near Washington last summer. The wasps would hover about .i plant and then .ilight and walk about it, but lindinK nothing would continue to the ne.\t plant, and so on to the next, hi the sunnv center part of the lield the cabbage caterpillar.s were exterminatid. but in the shadv portions next a patch of woods they were present in ^reat numbers. Wasps do not see well. They lind their prey more by .1 sens.- of touch than by a sense of sinht. and as they prefer the sunshine th.A mconsciously ignored the abundant caterpillars
in the sh.kle.
There are tropical social wasps, most of them belonginn to the ^,'enus I'olvbia, which build enormous nest>. It is said that the nest of a Cevlonese wasp reaches a length of six feet, and wit'i a common South American form the paper is so thick and h.ird that it resembles thick pasteboard, while the outer layer is so tine in texture that one can readily write upon it with ink and
a line pen.
The .solitary wasps of this super-family, although differing in structure, resemble greatly in habits the solitary wasps of the super-familv Sphegoidea. There is one large family known as i'ompilid*. of which we have many representatives in this coun- try. .All of these wasps whose habits are known prey upon spiders. More th.in a hundred species occur in the United States, and most of th-m dig burrows in tne ground, s,Miie of th>.m. however, using readily natural burrows and those of other insects. Some of them dig their burrows before they c.ilch their spiders, and others catch the spiders liist: and one species has been seen to carefullv h.mg its spider on the branch of a plant where It u'uild !u.t be disturbed by ants while the burrow was bem.' ni.ide. uccasnr-.Mly visiting it in the intervals of w.irk to find out whether it w.is s.ife The habits ol several Pompilids have been studied hv Mr. .uid Mrs. I'eckham. There is a tamous wasp of this family which in the Southwest is known as the taraiitul.i-killer.
The w.isps oi the tamily l-umenid.v are knoun .is potter- w.isps, and store up caterpill.irs. saw-lly larvx. .ind the larviv of beetles. They form globul.ir cells of clay or sand which .ire attached by a small pedestal to .some twig. They .ire Silled full
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PLAIh VI.
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Notogonius nigripennis Rhinopsis canaliculatus l>ru)i:nemis luiperus Aii[i*ni.i incllipes Lyrodon subita Trypoxylon alMiarse Trypoxylon albopilosuin riypoxylon texensis Trypoxylon politum SoiiMiiiis inu-rruptus Pompilus fi-rrugiiuus Odyncriis conformis ddyiicr^s me>{*ra y )dynerus dorsjlis Odviurus tigris Masaris occiJent.ilis Aniistrmcrus iiml'asciatus
no.
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21.
32. 21. 24. 3S. 2ft.
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34
Vesp.i sulcata OdvntTUS lulvipes Odynorus austrinus Masaris tcxi-nsis M.isaris texonsis Vespa diabolica Vcsp.i ni-rmanica Vespa iiineata Odynorus annulatus Vi'spa niaculata Polistes pallipes , l>olisti-s fxilis Vespa vidua I'oivbia ciilK-nsis Polistes rubininosus Poiistis bi-llicosus polislcs anu'Vicanus
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lANSI and ISO TfST CHART No 2i
A APPLIED r/VlGE In
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of caterpillars in just the s; cells with spiders, and a s O. T. Mason says that cer- tain beautifully shaped In- dian vessels and baskets have precisely the form of these cells, and he thinks the observant aborigines may have deliberately cop- ied the insect design.
There is an interesting '_ genus in this group known li as Odynerus. These are
sinall active wasps, usuallv with one or more vellow bands They were probably originally borers, but are most adaptive
in their selection of places in which to make their cells. They use the old burrows of different bees and wasps, and are fond of using old nuid- dauber<;' cells. Ashmead found one sp les in Florida making its cells m the lock of his front
-( HI) ni-rus flavipes and its nest in a ■sponl. ( A/Ur KlUy.)
Fig. i6. — Tiphia Inomata
tr { Al'l,i
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door, and in old holes in a board fence and inoiyoak'giin's' Walsh found one building its cell in the cavitv of a discarded spool. These wasps also sting caterpillars and store them in their cells.
The insects of several of the families, although resembling in general appearance the other wasps, are probably parasitic m their habits. These are the SapygidiC, the Scoliidne, the Myzinid;c, the Tiphiidx, all well represented in this country, and the curious Thynnida; of Australia, South America and Africa By parasitic we mean that their larva- feed upon or within the living insects instead of such as have been paralyzed by the sting of the parent, or which are already dead. The "Tiphia wasps are para- sitic upon the big white underground grubs which are the larvx of the May beetles or June beetles, and the larva of Scolia has been found in Europe within the body of another beetle, and
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Fig. 17.— Chrysis sp. ( After /•.ukarj. 1
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AshmiMii has found an American Scolia preying upon the larva of still a third beetle.
The so-called solitary ants, of the family Mutillidac, are very common in portions of the United States. Most of them are clothed with hair, which is frequently bright-colored— in some of them being bright red — and on account of the velvety appear- ance which this hair gives them they are sometimes called velvet ants. In this group there is admirable opportunity for the study of life histories, since comparatively little is known abo t the way these insects live. They are no doubt parasitic in the nests of bees, and in Europe one species is known to live in the larval state feeding upon the larva; of a bumblebee. Schwarz, in this country, reared one of them from the cells of a burrowing bee, Riley another from the cells of another burrowing bee, and Davidson from an anthophorid bee.
Many strikingly beautiful insects belong to the family Chrys- ididae. They are called cuckoo (lies by the English writers, and goLK'CSpen, or gold wasps, by the jermans. The colors are usually brilliant metallic green or blue, and the abdomen is fre- quently tipped with red. The larger species reach the length of hal. an inch or more, but the commoner forms in the United States are small insects, seldom reaching three-eighths of an inch in length. They are rather stout-bodied insects, and are readily distinguished from the slender wasps of the preceding groups.
Careful studies of the economy of any of our North American species are greatly needed. Walsh reared Chrysis cariilaiis from the cells of one of the potter wasps (Eiimenes fraterna), and Ash- mead has seen one of them entering the burrows of a Trypoxylon, while he reared two species from the cells of a mud-dauber and one from the cells of an Odynerus. They are, therefore, either parasites or guests in the nests of wild bees and wasps, and are probably parasites rather than inquilines. In Europe some species of the genus Cleptes are true parasites on saw-fly larvae. There is a curious confusion sometime.-- in an Odynerus cell, for a Try- poxylon will enter one carrying its own store of food with it, and closing the entrance against the return of the female Odynerus; then comes along a Chrysis and lays an egg, from which hatches a larva which devours the stores of the Trypoxylon. The larva of the cuckoo fly is said to transform without cocoon to a pupa, and in this state to pass the wmter.
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The parasitic family Bethylidas, which Ashmead has trans- ferred from the I'roctotrypoidea to the Vespoidea, is a ^'roup of small insects. The family Trigonaiidx. now placed here, hut formerly placed near the Ichneumon tlies, is also parasitic ; they live parasitically in the nests of Polistes and Vespa, agreeing in habits with the Sapygidx.
The Bethylids are all. so f;ir as we at present know, parasitic upon caterpillars and upon beetle hirvx, usually upon very small larvrc. HaliJay, the Irish entomologist, many years ago! wrote an interesting account of the parasitism of some little Tineid larvic by a species of Bethvlus; but in this case the parasite was observed to drag its little c.iterpillar victim into a hole in a reed. F^ossibly this fact had much to do with the original suggestion, which came from Haliday, that the Bethylidic should be placed nearer the wasps than with the true parasitic Hymenoptera. In the typical life history which follows, however, we will see that members of this family are true parasites.
Typical Life History
As has just been shown, the habits of the insects of this great group are so diverse that no one life history could be considered as in any way typical of the whole group. As a matter of fact, the proper and complete study of no one American species has as yet been made. Many of these insects are everywhere to be found, and life histories of surpassing interest and of mL;rh novelty await the first careful person who will care to devote the necessary time to this study. Of course a great deal is known about the general economy of our social wasps and interesting studies have been made by the Peckhams and others on some of the solitary wasps which belong to this super-family, as well as to the Sphe- coidea; but it is the parasitic forms, especially of the Scoliida;, Myzinidx and Tiphiidae, which offer great opportunities. So do especially the Mutillidae and the Chrysididx. Of one of the Bethy- lidx, I am fortunately able to give some account, since it has been studied with care in my laboratory by Mr. August Busck, from whose unpublished notes the following interesting story is drawn.
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Life History of a Parasitic Wasp
(Ltd ins livgoiicnitatis Ashni.^
When V.r. Busck was making some studies for me in the summer ol 1S07. on the life history of the tussock moth, he made the interesting discovery that the egg masses of this fimous shade- tree defoliator were sometimes eaten hv the larvas (. Ttain der- niestid beetles which are oi-dinariiy known as museum pests, feeding upon skins and furs, stuffed birds and pinned insects, and which, although known to feed upon dead and dry animal matter, were hardly to be suspected 0 .ating living animal matter. But we found (and this is by the way) that these museum pests were really destroying the sound eggs of the tussock moth. This in- terested us so much that egg masses with derniestid larvK were brought into the insectary for most careful observation. Then it was found that with the dermestids had also been brought in a most interesting parasite which proved to be Lcvliuf, trogaderma- iis~d Bethylid. The Lvlius is a little, black, slender, active, four- winged lly; and the female, when it linds one of these dermestid larva>, at once jumps upon its hack and lings lirmlv, in spite of the struggles of the victim. As soon as tlu- poor beetle larva quiets down a bit, Lxlius places herself crosswise over the thorax and. curling her abdomen around under the side, inserts her sting just behind the second or third pair of legs, paralyzing the dermestid instantly, the sting apparently having entered one of the large thoracic nerve ganglia. Then the parasite relaxes its hold and begins pulling the legs and hairs of its victim with its mandibles, its antennx- vibr.-ting in a contented manner. Th.. pulling of the legs is evidently an attempt on the part of the parasite to see if the stinging has done its work with perfect effect. Having satis- tied herself by all sorts of tests that the paralysis is complete, she proceeds to lay an egg. attaching it to the skin of the dermestid on the under side of the body, first pulling out the hairs carefully so that the egg can be tirmly attached to the skin. If in the course of this operation, or even before the egg is laid, another dermes- tid larva comes within her range of perception, she leaves the lirst victim, mounts and stings the second, or even a third or a fourth, each time testing the completeness of the paralysis with the utmost care. Before attaching the egg she thrusts her sting into the spot several times, apparently maki.ig an orilice through
34
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Wasps
which the- l.irva. ;ilti'r hatchin
I
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can at least enlarge easily so as to i.iseit its oval, soft, translucent, about a third has no peduncle, .ind is not very tirmly me ti
ii. can thrust its head, or which it
lie eiiL
ola niillmx'ter loni;, apparently attached to the skin of the
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dennestid. From one to six eggs are laid upon a single victim. In a few days the l.irvx hatch, yellow in color and very indistinctly jointed. Immediately on hatching, their mouths are closely ap- plied to the skin of the paralyzed der- mestid and they be- gin to grow, not so rap.dly as the some- what similar Hu- plectr-.s, which will be described in a succeedingchapter, but still rather rap- idly, reaching full giowth in from ten to fourteen days. When full grown, a group of these larva; with their heads inserted at a central point, look not unlike the petals of a curious flower growing out of the shriveled dermestid larva. When only one Lxlius larva occurs upon a liost it sometime;-, enters the sucked-dry skui and spins its cocoon within it. but generally the white, rather loose, silken cocoons are spun outside 'he skin of the dermestid, which shows large holes where the parasitic l.irvx hav;- been at work. After the cocoon is formed the larva remains wit'^ it. motionless, for ten da\ s or more, linally translormiii:: to a white pupa with red eyes. This white color changes gradually to bl.ick and in eight to ten days further the adult lly issues from the end of the cocoon through a ragged hole. The entire life duration of a generation, in the summer-time, is from thirty to thirty-tive days and the i.isect passes the winter as a larva in its cocoon, the cocoons of the winter generation being tinner than those of the summe-- brood :ind darker in color. Mr. Husck observec that .i female will paralyze all dermestid larv e with which it comes in
Kig. iS. ~I.„-lii,s /r,x'»iicrm,:ti!: liirmesticl I.irva
at riulu. >h..wiiig iggs ni p.ir,i>ite; full
yrown i),ira>itc larv.T at left; adult
para^itL- in centre (•,riginal).
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contjct. but it does not use them all for e^K'-layitig. The stinir does not kill the dermestid larva but simply paraly/es its motor nerves. It remains alive, as is evident from the fact that its ali- mentary canal continues to work and excreta are emitted from the anus. In spite of ail the precautions taken by the mother l.xlius to assure hersell <.l the complete paraly/ing of her victim, occasionally this IS not complete and alter .. lew davs the dermestid larva molts In sich cases, of course, the eggs of the parasite perish. Mr.
Busck found the phenomenon or parthenoffenesis to occur with this insect, a virgin female in one instance having laid eggs which hatched and the larvne were reared to the adult condition, all of the individu- als, as was quite to be ex- pected, being males. The volume of the eggs laid by a single female is surprising. It lays more than twice its bulk in eggs. The (emale drinks water greedily and possibly takes other food. In confmement it will perish if left without water
An undescrilKd Bethylid of the genus Go„/o;/ts in Kansas has a similar life history, according to Popenoe and Marlatt. but this one is of greater economic importance since it attacks the larvae of the codling moth-tht -vorm so commonly found in apples. Just such a cluster of parasitic larvx as is described above was found by Marlatt upon an apple-worm in the interior of an apple.
(.'odliii^ nioi
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Plate VII. WASPS
FIG.
1. Isodontiu phiLidelphica
2. Xciioglossii spriuna
3. Monedula Carolina
4. Beinbex fiisciatus
5. Amniophila vulgaris
6. Priononyx thomse
7. Amniophila pictipennis
8. Amniophila liictuosa
9. Ammophila grai.ilis
10. Ammophila pruinosa
11. Arachnophroctonus tropicus
nc.
12. Pompilus maurus
13. Sophropomp is ingenues
14. Arachnophroctonus atrox
15. Kntypus amcricanus
16. Priocnemis llammipennis
17. Isodonti.i tibialis
18. Mygnimia ustulata
19. Pompilus phiiadciphicus ao. Sphex pennsvlvanicus
21. Pepsis tormosa
22. Salius magnus
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( Super fdinily l\>niu\t>i,/ai.)
All of the triif iinis biJiMiy to this Kfuip. They are all very characteristic in appeararue and there are very few other insects which can be mistaken lor them, except possibly the so-called cow-ants, or velvet ants, of the family Miitillidx (super-lamilv Vespoidea), or the so-calkd • . !e ants, which belonK' to an entirely different order and whid; really should not be called ants, if popular names are to coincide at all with scientific classilication. The uue ants, however, as shown in the synoptic table, are readily thstin- Kuished from all other Hy menoptera, aside from their ^(eneral and more characteristic appear- ance, bv the one or two swellinjjs on the petiole of the abdomen.
We have seen with th- bees and with the wasps that while some species are soci.il and live in communities, others are solitary in their habits. With the ants, however, it IS different; all species *■'«■ -o— ^"l^""i'>i^ xylnni. , ,i/t.r .lAcwi. i live in communities and are soci.il insects. Soci.il life with certain of the ants is carried to the p;reatest extreme known in nature. The differentiation into different ca.stes or forms of individuals of the same species is carried to a much hiijher extent than with the bees and the wasps. We have seen, with the bumblebees, the beginning of a separation into two classes of workers, that is to
J7
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say, there are l;.r<je workers ;ind small workers which have dii- ferent functions in the co.nmunitv. With the ants this becomes almost the rule and when we consider all ants we find that there may be eight distinct castes, not all in <he same individual species though five miy occur in the same species. There are not only the ordinary winged males and the ordinary winged females the large workers and the small workers (workers major and workers
minor, as they are termed), but with certain species there is a well developed and well adapted caste which does the principal lighting for the community and which is known as the soldier. The workers, as with the bees, are simply infertile and undeveloped T ^^55^ -„^^ ^ females. They never have wings.
^■•^ ^ ^ ^ The true females have wings, but
'after the nupii.il flight they are discarded and only at certain times in the year are winged in- dividuals seen in an ant com- munity. The true workers, when examined asto their internal anat- omy, seem to differ principally from the true females in that they lack the receptaculum seminis. There are, however, with certain ants forms which never have wings and which in the female sex possesses a receptaculam seminis, and there are correspond- ing wingless males, that is, males which never develop wings. These are. then, sexually competent males and females neither of which ever develop wings. This adds two more structural forms to the possible number of forms in a community, and they" are called ergatoids. This is a term which will come more fre- quently into use and should be mentioned. It applies to both sexes, but the females are said to be ergatogynous and the males are said to be ergatandrous. The eighth possible form occurs
Fig. 21. — C'rema.'itOBa.ster lineata.
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The Ants
exceptionally and seems to be intermediate between female and worker.
The community life of ants and their industry, thrift and sup- posed foresight have been the subject of observation and comment smce the earliest times. The biblical references are familiar to all and the old ideas are well formulated in part in La Fontaines charming fable of the Grasshopper and the Ant. Milton, Prior and many other poets have sung praises of the ant. and it is safe to use the trite expression and say that it is "fabled in song and story." In "The Royal Dream Book." an English north-country chapbook, it is said that "to dream of ants denotes that you will live in a great town or city, or in a large family, and that you will be industrious, happy, well-married and have a large family."
The ants form a verylargegroup. More than two thousand species have been de- scribed. Sharp estimates that there are prob- ably tive thou- sand species in existence. There is a marked uni- formity of struc- ture as well as of Fig.— r:;. Moiioniorium miiiutum.
habits in this great group and the systematic workers have so far made only eight families, of which the Camponotidx, or common stingle.ss ants, and the Myrmicidae, or stinging ants, are the most familiar example-; to persons living in the more northern United States. Represntatives of the curious ants of the famil" Pon- eridiB r.cur in the .Southern States.
Many stories have been told of the supposed intelligence of ants, but perhaps it will not be out of place to tell one more which has not been published. In one of the greenhouses of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, a medium-si/ed black ant occurred in considerable numbers, attracted by the presence of plant lice and mealy bugs upon the hothouse plants. As is well known, ants are especially fond of the nectar secreted by these
39
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The Ants
insects. A number of ye:irs iifto some l.iherian coffee-trees were started in the greenhouse. On the under s^de of the leaves of these cofTee-trees, there exist at the bases of certain of the leaf ribs some very minute, nectar-secreting glands. The ants soon found this out and sipprd the nectar. Then the idea occurred to some clever ant that these nectar glands would be the best places in the world for mealy bugs to live and grow fat and ihev would in cnse- quence secrete a great deal more nectar then thev would if they lived on other parts of the leaf. But the nectar glands were too small to accommodate even one good-sized mealv bug. So the word was passed around and the ants gnawed the edges of the gland and enlarged it so that it would accommodate a good-si/ed mealy bug, which was carried to it. Doubtless to the delight of
the ants, the result was as we may imagine it to have been an- ticipated. The mealy bug thrived exceedingly. The gland was ^ /'^^ • y t^'i'-irged still further and a whole
ll fM.'^^^y family of mealy bugs was raised
"* ^ in the same hole. Thus a cus-
tom grew up and many such greatly enlarged glands were found after a few months. Here was an ant, then, apparently tak- ing advantage of an opportunity which was new not only to the experience of the individual, but new to the experience of the race, and if we adopt the most reason- able of the definitions of instinct here seems to have been dis- played positive intelligence of a high order.
In all of these stories of the seeming intelligence of ants and of bfs, and of other insects as well, it must be remembered that we are running a great risk in our interpretations for the reason that we make them from a human .standpoint, that is t ■ say, that we consider these insects as though thev had human person- alities. The observer and the narrator inject their own personal- ities into the subjects investig. ed and in fact thev use words which carry with them meanings which mav not be warranted by the (acts. This fact is brought out strongly by the German
40
''■g- -J- — Tetramorium ca^spitum. I Ajlcr Marlatt.)
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The Ants
writer Bethe. who wrote in 1898, on the psychological qualities of ants and bees. He shows, for example, that while we see all we know about bees and other insects is that they are inlluenced by the light and that it would be most unscientitic to say that they do anything as highly psychical as seeing until it is proved, Some of the peculiar and apparently highly intelligent things which ants do, such as recognizing the enorinous number of members of the same colony and lighting instantly members of other colonies, and such as finding their way to their own nests and to food supplies and communicating intelligence of the location of food supplies from one to the other, have been carefully tested by this author who concludes that he can find nothing in the phe- nomena exhibited by bees or ants to prove the existence of any psychical ciuality. " They learn nothing, but act mechanically in whatever they do. their complicated reflexes being set off bv simple physiological stimuli."*
It is interesting to note in. passing that Bethe's conclusions
were anticipated for a number of years by the famous American
naturalist, Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain). If any reader does
not believe this let him consult Chapter XXII of a "Tramp Abroad".
No one who has read Bethe's account of how ants find their
way by ant-traveled paths and how easily they are lost when
but a very short distance from the path, cm help'thinking of Mark
Twain's inimitable '■chapter in natural history" which also wakes
a responsive chord in the mind of every one who has attempted
to see intelliiience and design in the movements of the isolated
ant. "During many summers, now. I have watched him." says
Twain, "when I ought to have been in better business, and I
have not yet come across a living ant that seemed to have any
more sense than a dead one. * * ♦ 1 admit his industry, of
course ; he is the hardest working creature in the world,— when
anybody is looking.— but his leatheiheadedness is the point I
make against him. He goes out foragum, he makes a capture,
and then what does he do ? Go home ? No,— he goes anywhere
but home. He doesn't know where home is. His home may
be only three feet away,— no matter, he can't tind it. He makes
his capture, as I have said; it is generally something which can be
of no sort of use to himself or anybody else : it is usually seven times
•Albri-dit Bethe, .Arcliiv. f. d, Ges. I'liys. IXX, 15. 100. January, 1S9S A Review l)y Caswell Crave. American Naturalist, Vol. XXXII. pp. 437-45,).
41
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The Ants
bigger th;.n it ought to be; he hunts out the awkwardest place to tJke hold of it; he lifts it bodilv up into the ;iir hy main force and starts: not toward home, but in the opposite direction; not calmly and %sisely, but with a frantic haste which is wasteful ot his strength; he fetches up against a pebble, and instead ot going around it, he chmbs over it backwards dragging his booty after him. tumbles down on the other side, jumps up in a passion kicks the dust off his clothes, moistens his hands, grabs his prop- erty viciously, yanks it this wav, then that, shoves it ahead of him a moment, turns tail and lugs it after him a moment gets madder, then presently hoists it into the air and goes tearing away in an entirely new direction; comes to a weed; it never occurs to him to go around it, he must climb it; and he does climb it. dragging his worthless property to the top-which is as bright ,■. thing to Jo as it would be for me to carry a sack of flour Irom Heidelburg to Paris by way of Strasburg steeple- when he gets up there he linds that is not the place; takes a cur- sory glance at the scenery and either climbs down a^rain or tumbles down, and starts off once more -as usual in a n"ew di- rection. At the end of haif an hour he fetches up within six inches of the place he started from and lays his burden down * * * '• Alter continuing this charmingly aimless work for some time md meeting another int and fighting him about nothing, "each starts off in a dilferent direction to see if he cant find an old nail or some- thing else that is heavy enough to afford entertainment and at the same time valueless enough to make an ant want to own it."
V\ ismann has just published some important observations in which he shows that ants of the genus Las/iis appear to deter- mine direction only by paths previously traveled by members of the same community and which they distinguish by the sense of smell located in the antennx, but that certain ants of the genus fonuna proceed directly to the desired point without fol- lowing paths, using apparently sight as the directing influence Some littL^ understood sense of orientation, however, may lead to this result and such a sense of course would be instinctive.
The community life of ants seems almost perfect. It nas been likened to a perfect republic where each works for the good of the whole community, each having his appointed work, laboring constantly for the good of all, and each ready to sacrifice himself lor the good of all. Most of the writings on the habits of ants
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The Ants
df.l with Europenn species. Little is known of an exact nature about the full details o. the life history of any one species which inhabits the northern half of the Uniu-d Staie< Ran.'om notes and occasional observations have been published, but a thorou-h conscientious study of all of the aspects of the l,le of one of our commoner forms is still to be made. Hven the little red ant of households (Mouomorium pharaouis). or the p.vement ant (Tctramorinm casptttm), or the common black carpenter un (Lamponohi.pcnnsylvamai,). or any of the common species of Lasius or Hormica. afford subjects for investigation which may everywhere be found and which should V studied through one or two years by some careful observer willing to record all that he .es 1 here need be no great interruption Horn the weathe. nee colonies of ants can be studied to advantage indoors. Si, ,;,n Lubbock, in his charming book entitled. -Ant.s. Bees and Wasps, carried such colonies along for several years He kept in captivity, in fact, about half of the British species of ants ,s well as a considerable number of foreign forms, ..nd for several years he had generally from thirty to forty communities under observation. He found that the most convenient method was to keep them in nests consisting of two plates of common window- glass about ten inches square, and at a distance apart of one-tenth to one-fourth of an inch, in tact, just sufficiently deep to allow the ants freedom of motion, with slips of wood around the edges, the intermed ..te space being filled up with fine earth The nests were kept covered over, except when under actu.l observation, since ants very much dislike light in their nests On one side a small doer was left. These glass nests were either kept in shallow boxes vith loose glass covers, resting on bai^e which admitted enough Ax. o- on stands surrounded either by water or by fur with the nairs pointing downward. Some of the nests were arranged upon stands. Comstock tells how ihc habits of ants can be studied in a school-room by establishing a colony in an artificial nest. His arrangement practically follows that of Sir John Lubbock. He takes two pieces of windo,i^'- giass ten inches square, a sheet of tin eleven nches square and a piece of plank one and one-fourth inches thick, twenty inches long and at least sixteen inches wide. He cuts a triangular piece about an inch long on its two short sides, from one corner of one of the panes of glass. From the sheet of tin he makes a tray
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three-eighths of nn inch in depth. On the upper surface of the phml<, a short distance from ti.e edge, he cuts a deep furrow. This lunow is kept lilled wit.i water in order to prevent th- escape of the ants. The tin tr.iy is placed on the plank, within the turrow. the square pane ol i;|as., is laid ' ; the trav, and alon^' the ediies of the ^lass are l.iid four strips of wood about a half an inch wide .ind a little thicker than the height of the ants to be kept, then a layer of tine ear>h is placed in. and the p.me of j' 'ass of which one corner has been cut otT is !,,id on the strips of wood, and the whole is covered with something which will keep the nest dark.
The general features of the community life of ants of the commoner genera may be briefly summarized as follows : A community is supposed to be founded bv a single queei /hich lays white or yellowish, elong.ite eggs, which hatch in two weeks or more. The larvx- are white, legless, helpless creatures which, in the beginning of the colony, are attended by the queen and which develop into workers. As the community grows, egg-laying is continuous, new queens are born and these pair with the males and 'ay eggs, the workers, as soon as they begin to make their appearance, taking care of the larvx. feeding them and carrying them about from chamber to chamber in order to secure the suitable warmth and moisture. In ditTerent parts of the community will be found larvie of comparatively similar size, the smallest ones in one place, larger ones in another, and still larger in another. These larvte have to be fed for a n.onth or more, according to the species, and when full grown transform to pupx, sometimes naked, sometimes covered with a silken cocoon. The cocoon is usually white, and is also carried about to suitable places by the workers. When an ant colony is dis- turbed the workers are seen scurrying ab^ut, carrying the .e cocoons, endeavoring to carry them to a place of safety, and the common idea is that these c- :oons are eggs, but they are a great deal larger than eggs. In three to four weeks the pupx emerge and in emerging from the cocoons they are helped by the workers, which are said to take the greatest care of them unfolding their legs and helping them e.xpand their wings The males die very soon as a rule, but the females and the workers are very long-lived. Lubbock kept two queens for more than seven years, and certain workers more than six.
44
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The Ants
The- life of nn nnt community is pmcticnllv pcrpetu;,!. thus d,ffc-nn« Krcatly Irom the communitv Ijfo c.f w.sps and bumhle- ves The nests vary greatly ir form. Some ants occupy lmI- l.nes .,„d chambers in the ^n-und. Others make , xtensive ^;a cries and chambers in decayi, ; woo.<. Others build mound- Still others construct nests of , paste-like substance, and in tropical regions there are extraordinary variations i , the m inner in w.iich nests are built and in the material which composes the ne-.ts. The ants themselves feed upon a frreat variety of sub- stances Under natural conditions they are both carnivorous and vegetable feeders, eating various plant SLibstances, fruit and other insects, as well as the dead bodies of higher animals. They are especially lond of the sweet sap of certain trees, and of the secretions of plant lice, of scale insects, and of certain le.f hoppers and tree hoppers. In an old community the number of ants may be very great, extending high into 'the hundreds of thousands, and it is ,i matter of common observat.on that while the ants of one community are perfectly able to recognise other members of the same communitv. no matter how gre .1 their number, they .ilso recogni/e at once and -^ther resent or have nothing to do with members of other com. .unities, e-en of the same species.
The battles of ants, the slave-making habits of certain species the extraordinary variety of the guest insects which are found in ants nests and their diverse functions in the communitv the re- lations of ants with pl.uit lice and other insects which afford them one ot their articles of diet, have so often been described in other works that It would be a vain repetition to dilate upon them here I he strange facts connected with their a-icultural pursuits with Lhe occupation of mushroom-grp'.v ing which is cultivated by cer- tain specu-;, the remarkable features of the lives of the honey ants and, in f,a, everything connected with ant ■ conomy offers most fascinating reading, even to persons not especially inter-sted in nature.
The honey ants deserve more than pa.ssing mention, even though they ar? found in this country only in the far West and at high elevations. The peculiarity of the.se creatures is that one form has the abdomen distended the size of a currant and entirely filled with grape sugar, or •• honey.' The nest is a low, gravel- covered mound about six inches in diameter and two or three
45
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The Ants
inches high. The honey-be;irers ;ire found clingin^j i" thf roofs of the ch;imbcrs. a ftw inches under the ground, and seem to act simply as cells for the sti>ring of the sweet substance which is collected by the active workers from the exudations of a gall which is found upon a dwarf oak. In times of famine and in seasons when .he exudation is not forthcoming the honey-'.iearer regurgitates the honey, drop by drop, and it is transferred to the stomachs of the individuals in w.iiting. In other respects tiie economy of the colony does not differ m.iterially from other species. There is practically with this insect a new caste of workers which probably are not gradually transformed by the distension of the crop and the e.\pan,sion of the abdomen, but which have some peculiar structure or form of the intestine and abdominal walls which gives them a tendency to this change.
Kig. 2^. — Ants .11 pl.iy. ( KcJraicii Jt\>m .\Ll\\tk.t
They become simply animated p..ntries for the use of the others in time of want. Dr. H. C. McCook has written a charming book upon this subject, which is entitled, "The Honev Ants and the Occident Ants." and the same distinguished entomologist and divine has written another book, entitled. ''The Agricultural Ant of Texas." which gives a most interesting account of the most interesting ants found in this country, and which includes at the same time many observ.itions. sc.ittered here and tiiere throughout the volume, on other ants to be tound in the United .States.
A word may well be said of the household ants. The little red ant ( Moiioiiioriinu pliaraoiiis ) h.is become thoroughly do- mesticated, passin^; its entire existence in houses and having its nests in the w.ills or beneath the llooring. The little bl.ick ant. (Moiiawnriiiui 11:11111 film J. ,ind the pavement ant of the Eastern States CTitramoiinm liispi/inii J are also fretjuently found in
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WAsre, ANTS AND ICHNEUMON HI.IKS
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Mutilla 4-KUttata Uasymutilla /elaya Spha-Tophthalma sackeni Sphicrophthalm.i IVnestrata SphiiTophthalma ore us Sphitrophthalma simillima Sph;vrophth:ilina cypris Mv/ine name.i S Photopsis impt-rialis Sphicrophthalma macra Brachvcistiis idiots Tipliia inorn:ita Myzinc namea 9 Photopsis impcriaiis Sphxropinthalma auripiiis Braclv. i.stiis castanca Discoiia lecontt'i Mv/ine obscura Nomi*pha>!US sanborni NoinixphuKiis sanborni Mutilla ornata
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Hlis xantiana
Odontoniachus ha;niatodes Pofjononiyrnu'X barhatus
F.lis 4-inacuiata
Horniica intc^jra
Formica intt'Kfa
Pogonomyrnif X transvcrsum
Labidus mexicana
Atta tcrvens
(laniponotus nielleus
(^aniponotus iiu-IIlus
Iphiauiax eury^ja.sttr
f'hasgoneura sulcata
Atta t'ervens
Ainphibolips contluons
Hemiteles thyridopicrVKis I halessa nortoni , Glyptomornha liiratus , I.abidus sayi . Helcon ligatus . 'Irofjus 4-leonus
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houses. Thev :irc- n..t s,. dcsfructn .■ to h-..s.hoK| ..ffi-cts as tlu'V «re ..nnoyinK throuKh tlu.r pr.>.„ce on midc. o. tooj A friend once told me .. beaut.1,.1 st„ry r.f how he once houuht .. piece o| W..ckberry p,e one n,„ht, in .. dimlv l,„hie,| r..,h.,,ul e.mn« house m a western town. He IvK.in to e.it it .,nd dK..,vered ..n ..cid 1.,vor which he did not expect. ,,nd, crrviiiK U to the l,«ht found It sw..rminu with Mon,mo,nn>, p)ur.,o,u,. Thl^ is not ,n uncommon e.xperience :md simplv indic.it.s the cui tiess num- K^rsin which .hesehitle cre.itures occur „metimes m houses. Ho*.toKctrM.,| these ants is a d.Kicult .,nd serious question I heir nests. ..ccurrin« u^ually in w.ills, are hard t . locate Tr m- pniK them with sweetened sponges afterwards soaked in hot w..ter IS app,.rentlv sometimes almos, hopeless on account of heir mtin.te rn.mber. Careful watching, however, will usu.illy show the crack through which n.ost of them enter the n iiitrv or the dmiiiK room, and then squiitinK m kerosene with a l.rue syrin^je through this crack will often stop the incun.ions : or the crack may be packed with cotton soaked in kerosene. drivinL- it in with a t.ible knife. ^
br. William M. Wheeler has recently published s,.me very important studies of the peculiar ants of the family Po- rid e ,s they occur m Fex.is (»iol„«ical Bulletin. Vol. 1|., No i OctobeV KKX)). These ants make rather primitive nests and ihey se.m to be jjenerali/ed creatures fr,„n a socialistic standp uiU ' Tliey do not seem to feed one another like the specLili/ed ants, but they have the same habits re^Midin- ,h. cle.inliness of the iiulividua •md of the nests. Their larv.c differ tiom those ul otiur ants . do their eg.i^s. They are not nearly .so proli.ic as are otner ants •ind the leedinj? habits of the l.,rv;e are very rem.irk.ible The workers capture another insect, cut il into pieces and scatter the p.eces ..mon^r ,he larva-, which insert their hug necks through the cut surfaces, feedin- upon the juices of the re.ently killed insect. Ur. ^A■heeler found th.it there is no such sharp distinction between the sterile and the fertile female with the I'oneridx is U'lth the more specialized .ints. He finds ,,n irre-nlar polymor- phism i- both .se.xes. The workers have the s,.n,e habit nf opening the cocoons and dniwini; out the pup;e which are reily to transform. Ten or a do/eri workers were observed f. Rat'v, ;iround a prematurely extracted pupa .uid lick it tor hours
One of the most interesting leatures of the study of ant col,,-
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The Ants
nics is the wonderful diversity of guest insects which nrc found in them. Insects of several different orders may be found, in- ciuJini; beetles, grasshoppers, plant lice, bark lice and Thysan- iirans as well as mites. All these creatures play some part or another in the economy of the community. Several are cared for by the ants and furnish food through their secretions. Others live at the expense of the ants, either as true parasites or as partakers of ant food. Wasmann has long made a study of these ant guests and his papers afford such fascinating reading that they should be generally translated into English for the benefit of persons engaged in nature study.
Typical Life History.
From the observations oi Dr. McCook on the agricultural ant of Texas a nearly complete typical life history could be drawn up, but the geographic range of this ant is so uncharacteristic of the greater pa-t of the United .States that it does not seem wise to devote the necessary space to such a treatment. The absence, therefcire. of a typical life history in such an abundant and com- mon group as the ants will serve to emphasize, as strongly as anything which has been said, the ease with which novel and important observations can be made upon insects. It is the earnest hope of the writer that some student will take up, for example, the large carpenter ant, Campoiiotiis peiinsvhaniius, study it must cirefully and compare his observations with those of liuropi an writers upon congeneric forms, although, as a matter of fact, representatives of this particular genus are not abundant in Hurope. Whoever begins the careful study of tins large carpenter ant must first read Dr. II. C. McCook's interesting paper entitled "Notes on the Architecture and Habits of the Pennsylvania Carpenter Ant " published :ii Vol. \'. of the Trans- actions of the Ac.ierican Hntoinological Society, pp. 277-289.
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THE PROCTOTRYPO/D P^R.^ SITES
(Siipct-fauiily Pioctotijf>oi(lca.)
With the consideration of the insects of this group we first meet with forms which were formerly grouped together in a sec- tion called the Hymenoptera parasitica, the true parasitic Hynien- optera. In the old system this included the families Ichneumonidx, Braconidit, Chalcididx and Proctotrypidic. Other groups have been added since, and entomologists now, following Ashmead, consider the Proctotrypoidea, in spite of their invariably parasitic- habits, to be more closely allied to the Vespoidea and Cynipoidea than to the Ichneumon (lies and the Chalcis Dies. This is un- doubtedly true as to structure, and it will be remembered some of the Vespoidea which we have just been considering are para- sitic in their habits, while, as will be seen when we take up the Cynipoidea, some of these insects too, although most of them are gall-makers, are truly parasitic in their life.
Wou' inUnial parasikf. //tv.— The development of the larv;e of those parasitic insects which live within the bodies of other insects has been the subject of much specul.ition and some in- vestigation. How these creatures breathe, nourish themselves, move, cast their skins, and pa.ss their excrement have been mooted points. Cuvier thought that the.se larva- bre.ithe by placing their spiracles in relation with those of the insect in which they live. Rat/ebuig showed that some of them h.ive a curious caudal append.ige with very thin walls, and this he thought acted as a blood gill, oxvgen being gained through its walls from the puri- fied blood of the host insect. Boisduval concluded that they do not take nourishment through the mouth: that they do not breathe, and that thev void no excrement, the larva? being analo- gous to the fci'tus in mammals, which lives the life of the mother. Newport described the larv.e of cert.un Ichneumon tlies as having no anus, the ivctum and its orilice being rapidlv developed ,it the tinal molt of the larvx. The older authors thought that these
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The Proctotrypoid Parabites
parasitic Hymenoptera. In the Proctotrvpoidea n curious hypcr- nictamorpiiosis occurs in certain cj,'- p.ir.isit.s in wliich there ire three distinct forms of the larva of the same species, one form resembling' the little aquatic animals of the ^;enus Cyclops.
The eggs of the I'roctotrypoids are ovate, with a peduncle at the end. Nearly all of the larvx live within other insects. Very many of them live in insect c^'^s. underj;oinir their trans- formations within these eggs, sometimes a half-d,'. !i or more lu-ing foi,nd within a single egg-shell. .Still others live within the larvx- or the pupas of in.sects, in which case they gnaw their way out before spinning cocoons, or sometimes trtnsform within the body of the host, in which case there is usually no cocoon, the skin of the host giving ample protection. The insects of one gev.is, Trichacis. develop in the nervous system of the larvx of one of the little gall midges, while the larv.x of another genus, Polvgnotus, develop in the diges- tive tract of the same insect.
As just stated, many of them develop in the eggs of other in- sects, such as butterflies, moths and true bugs, as well as grasshoppers. Many times students interested in rearing butterllies from the egg will I be disappointed, instead of hatching ^ out caterpillars to find numbers of 5 the extremely minute black four- winged tlies of the I^roctotrypoid genus Telenomus, which make their appearance through minute pei t'ora- tions in ' .-irg-shell. The eggs of the niouriung-cloak butterlly (EiiViiiussa aiitiop.. > .ire espe- cially apt to suffer in this wav.
Other Proctotrypoids live in the l.nvx of gall-llies. ,<;all-gnats, of many kinds of llies. of butterllies and moths and beetles, and in plant-lice, and the eggs of spiders, as well as of bugs, butter- flies and moths. Some of the species (of the genus Bcriis) which live in spider eggs ,ire very curious, wingless creatures of simple form.
The curious familv Pelecinidx is placed in this super-family by Ashmead, and it forms an e.xception to the remainder of the
(•if; 2(}. — li.x'us .inRTicanus. ( .liil/uir's !/!usti;itli'H )
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insects with which it is thus associated from the fact that the trochanters are not diviJed; that is to say, they appear to be formed of but one seument. They are very curious creatures with an extremely long and slender abdomen, and look hke Ichneumon flics. This elongation of the abdomen occurs only in the female sex. The male has a more normal abdomen. In their early stages they are probably parasitic upon the larvx of beetles. R/,viniis po/v/iirj/or is our commonest species, and Professor Horbes states that he has bred it from May beetle hrvx.
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THH GALL-FLIFS
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(Sa^tr-finiii/x Cyuipoi.ha.)
To this Rroup beloriK the true g.ll-flies, as well is certain insects which arc inquilines, or jr,ii.,iy j^uests. and also certain forms which are true parasites. Although we call the Cynipoids me true gall-thes, there are many other insects which make galls such as some o. the two-winged flies ol the families Cecidomyiidic and Trypetida;, cer- ^
tain caterpillars, a few Chalcis (lies, and a few beetles, as well as cer- tain mites and scale insects. Certain of the oak galls formed by Cynipoids were early used in the manufac- ture of ink, and later for tannin, so that when one speaks of gall- flies these creatures are always thought of.
They are small dark *■'« -~ ~' y"'i'^ s|K.ii);itica. , colored four-winged flies, at once distinguishe ' allies by the venation of the wings and the struc as pointed out in the analytical tabli
Those which make galls lay their eggs in fht , ssues of the growing plant, and the larvx when hatcnec^ feed upon the pi int cells and their contents. A very slight g.ill deform.uiop may result, but in the majority of cases there is a rapid growth of plant-cells and a curious enlargement of variable shape which is called a gall.
The nature of the gall has long been a disputed point. It was at lirst thought that it was a purely vegetable growth and
53
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their close he thorax,
The Gall-KJiea
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thiit »■..• :, vubs foiinJ within it were tht' result of spontaneous
fe't""^' 'i^i' it w.is supposed -hat jjalls were caused by the
punci . . isccts and the injection of a poisonous liquid.
With th' true g.i !i 's, however, the f;all .ippar- ently does not commence to form until after the cg^ hatches. It is .supposed tiiat the larva secretes a liquid which causes the abnormal growth of ti.e plant, the plant cells which are most active m growth and subdivision being directly affected.
The egg of the gall- tly is slender, and has a very long petiole which is six to ten times the length of the egg body, and this is inserted by means of a very long curiously formed ovi- positor. A good account of the method of ovipo- sition reported by Riley from observations made by Pergande will be found in the Proceedings of the Hntomological Society of Washington (Vol. III. pp. 260-2(3;).
Most of the Cynipokis make galls upon oak. Others, how- ever, are found upon rose bushes. All parts of the plant are affected - roots, stems, twigs and leaves, as well as leaf petioles. In .some galls but a single larva develops, while in others very many develop. The oak galls of commerce are European galls, but some of our native galls would undoubtedly be found to possess commercial value through the quantities of tannin they possess.
The origin of tannin in galls has been the subject of inve.sti-
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The Gall-Flies
gation by Kracmer. He finJs th:it ^'.illic acid is formed at the ex- pense of the starch during the chrysalis stage of the insect. With the maturing of the winged insect, the gallic acid is changed to tannic acid. The transformation of gallic acid into tannin is accomplished by the condensation of two molecules ol the for- mer with the loss of one molecule of water.
Most of these insects are single-brooded and develop but one generation in the year. Under unfavorable circumstances, how- ever, this period may be greatly lengthened, and circumstances are on record where the flies iiave emerged only alter two or three years. Certain moisture conditions favor the proper issuing, and when these are lacking the development is retarded.
Some very curious alternations of generations occur among these insects. Of certain species, and indeed of certain genera. for years only the female sex was known, and it was afterward discovered, first by Riley and afterward by Adier, that what had been considered two entirely distinct forms were really the same species, but that one generation included both se,xes while the alternate generation comprised only females which reproduced parthenogeneticallv.
One of the most peculiar f.icts connected with the gall-flies IS that a particular part of the plant is always affected by the same species, and that each species of the same generation always pro- duces a deformation or gall of exactly the same character, so that the gall alone identifies the species of insect, and in fact for a long time generic and specific names were given to the galls before the insects were named, the name subsequently being applied to the insect itself.
The full development of none of the American gall-making Cynipoids has been studied with the care which this subject should have and doubtless there are many interesting and important facts yet to be discovered.
The guest gall-flies closely resemble the true gall-flies, but lay their eggs in galls already formed by the true gall-flies, their larvx living upon the plant growth produced by the true gall- fly larva;.
The parasitic gall-flies live as true internal parasites in other insects, mainly plant lice and the larvae of dipterous insects.
About fifteen hundred species of this super-family have been described.
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THH CHALCIS FLIPS
(Super-family I 'lialci-ioutca.)
This group of punisitic Hymenoptor.i is proluMy tlii' larpest in number of species ol'iiny otthe corresponding Hymenopteroiis groups. It IS A well delineJ and well limited group structurjiiv speaking and comprises undoubtedly many thousands ot species. Only a small proportion ot the species have as yet been described. As a rule the insects are so small that they attract no attention from the averai^e collector and the paucity of our specific knowledge of the group possibly arises from this fact. The writer was the lirst entomologist in America to undertake the systematic study of the Chalcidoidea and he and his colleague, Mr. Ashme.id, have »■ y had the field practically to
themselves lor the past lo years. In the course of this I time, houever, we have described many b.undreds of species and have learned many interesting tacts about the strange life histories and relationships with other in- sects, many more of which remain to be noted by care- ful observers. Almost all of the forms are truly parasitic, the exceptions being certain gall- making species belonging to the genus Isosoma and its allies and possibly the seed inhabiting species of the genus Megastigmus. Nowhere in nature is there a more marked example of the co- relation between structure and habits than occurs in this family. This co-relation descends to the relation between the parasites and their hosts so that it is possible for an experienced person on seeing a new species of Chalcis tly to tell precisely what kind of an insect it will be found to be parasitic upon. For example, the
56
Kig. jt;. — Pachyiieunjn micans, How. ( Author i tUustr.ttion. )
lis
II
Pl.ATF IX.
ICHNFUMON Kl.lhS AND CHAI.CIS FLIES
iir.. I.
■).
4- s. ().
7-
s.
Th:iless;i atrat:i Odontomus sti^maplLTiis riialcss.i luiiatur ,' Thalessa lutiator ? Hrcniotylus tcxanus Chalcis inariif (khakis nvata Ophion inacruruin Anomalon apicalc
HG.
10. I'impla conquisitor
11. Mflanohraion simplex
12. IVIi'ujiius polvtur.Ptdr
1 1. Tctrachorochcta iiiNok-ns
14. Ichnciiinon ciirtator
1^. Ichneumon .seminiKer
1(1. Ichneumon jnalacus
17. Hxetastes scuteilaris
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Th« Chilcii PUn
species of the genus Copidos. iti.i .ire .ilw.iys parasitic wiihm naked caterpillars. Thosi- of the nenus Bothriothora.\ are always para- sitic in small diptercjus larv.c. Tb.. oconomic importance of the group IS great. They are the iik.si etlec tive par.isites of many of our most injurious insects. For example, in a certain year in the
Kig JO < h.il. iM.v.ii.1, S.iy I Aiil'i.-r\ iltM^traUon.)
cotton fields of Northern Florida oi per cent, of the eggs from which would have hatched the voracious cotton caterpillar were killed bv the minute Chal.Jd ".ira>ite, Tiu liogiamiihi frctiosj.
Life History of a Chalcis Fly
(Eii/<lti/>iis lODislivkn, l\n\K.)
It goes without saying that the full life of the intern:il-feeding parasites of this group is very difficult and pr.ictically impossible to follow so long as they are within the body ol the host insect. In our earlier consideration of the super-f.imilv Proctotrypoidea we have given some gent-nl remarks upon the development of all internal-feeding parasitic Hymenopterous larvx, and those re- marks will apply in general to the Ch.ilcis tlies. Th.-re are some of them, however, whose larvx do not feed int jrnallv. These .irc especially those which are p.irasitic upon the l.irvx of\,all-making insects. If a gall bf cut open, it is quite likely th.it there will be found within it the larva of a Torymus (one of tlie Chalcis (lies)
57
' i* #1
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I
i
Fig 3
I«-irva' of Hupleitnis comstockii, on cotton caterpillar. I t'imrth A'<f>,irt C S. I:i!t. C'm. I
The Chalcis Flies
feeding extern;illy upon the p;:ill making larva, and there is a quite large group known as the Elachistinx which are parasitic upon caterpillars, the larvx of which feed also outside the skin of the host insect. It is one of these which has been selected for our typical life history. It was studied in the summer of 1878 in the cotton fields of Alabama by Mr. H. A. Schwarz, but it has a north- ward spread and is parasitic upon caterpillars of certain Geomet- rid moths — measuring uorms.
The adult parasite, which is a little black, shiny, four-winged fly and which, when seen under a strong lens has a number of
strong, dark colored bristles upon its back, lays its eggs to the number of from three to fifteen in .1 group upon the middle of the back of the wriggling caterpillar. Each egg is brown in color, almost black before hatching, is elongate oval, strongly conve.x above, and somewhat llattened heneath. The individual eggs although laid in a group are sufficiently separated from each other to allow for the development of the larv;e. They hatch about two days after being laid. The delicate egg shell splits longitudinally in the middle of the back and discloses the white, grub-like parasite larva, which gradually works the egg shell more and more down the sides of its body where it remains visible as a black line for some hours. As soon as the grub has freed its head from the egg shell it pierces the skin of the victim, and thereafter remains stationary with its head buried. As soon as it has fairly begun to feed, the white color changes to a bright bluish green, and the spiracles and the con- strictions between the segtnents are readily seen. The growth of this larva is extremly rapid. In fact, we know of no insect larva which has a more r.ipid development. In midsummer it reached full growth in three d.iys from the time of hatching. In September
this larval growth took fotir days. When full grown the para- sitic grubs crowd each other, and if there are five or more of them on a caterpillar thev form a semi-globular lump of very striking
5S
■"'j; .VV— ''ii|'-^' "f Kiipluctnis
com.stockii. / From himrth
Ktptirt I'. S. Ftit Com. i
urn
t^^4'X?£^siafeN?Miid»:ai
:r-«4*\.»-.
T
The Chalcis Flies
appearance. Usually their growth is uniform. A retardation in th. deve opment of .ndivul .Is in the group results in deati When Ml grown they .),. , -l.u .u:J rebx their hold.
The poor cterpilla. .vhich up fo u,i- . me has shown no signs of be.ng alTected exce, , by Us .s.ckh. y .uwish color and bv it very s ow growth colh ..^c :u,d J,,.., as oon as a single one of the paras,, c larvx- w.thdrav ,-, .:.:. .... ...^e fate overtakes those
paras.tic maggots which are at the time less advanced in their devetopment. If one of thelarvx be removed bv hand, Schwarz found both the victimized worm and the remaining parasites qu,ck y dry up. After the larva turns yellowish white an! relaxes Its hold on the caterpillar, it works its way around underneath the
'^'g- 34— Kuplettrus comsto, kii, Ilnw Adult I /-nm Fourth K,/;,,/ r. S. /■:,:/. C.mi. /
belly of the host and spins a .series of silk threads attaching the caterpillar, which is now a mere emptv skin, to the leaf Then the paras.t,c larv.e take their places side bv side across the under side of the caterpillar skin, fasten it lor nearlv its whole length to he leaf, spin a little more loose silk of yellowish white color, and transform to pupx. This silken web does not form a series of cocoons since ,t is so loose that the black pupa; can plainly be seen between its strands. The caterpillar skin protects these pupae just as a roof would do. After (irst transforming, the pupa is
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The Chalcis Flies
dark yellow, but soon becomes black, especially on the head and .ibdomen. In from three to eight days the adult parasite emerges. Just think what a speedy development this means !— two days for the egg stage, three days lor the larva! stage, and three days for the pupal stage— an entire generation in eight days. Even the proiilic and rapid-breeding house tly cannot beat this. It is altogether the shortest development of any Hymenopterous para- site th.it has been studied, and it is due to this great rapidity of development of this parasite, together with the abundance of certain other parasites, that the famous cotton caterpillar of the South, an insect which used to damage the cotton crop annually to the amount of fifteen millions of dollars, is periodical in its attacks and while very abundant some years is very scarce in other vears. During the summL-r when Mr. Schwarz studied the species in Central Alabama he found that there was an almost complete destruction of the caterpillars in the early part of October, and that this destruction was principally due to this parasite.
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Pl.ATK X.
ICHNEUMON H.IKS
nr.
1. Ichneumon wilsoni
2. '".rvptus ;inieric;miis
}. l.ampronota americana
4. Cryptus cxtrematis
5. IcbiK'union lonuiilum o. Ichinnmion w-allniin
7. Exetas»es lascipennis
8. Ephia.. s irrorator q. (Irvptus niinciiis
!(). Ichni-unidM unifasciatus
11. Ichneumon tlavi/onatus
12. Ichneumon divinator
1 3. Exochiliim niiin Iviiii
14. Exochiliim mundum
15. Thvreodon morio
hiO.
I'l.
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ig.
20.
21.
2h.
27. 2S. 2q.
Ichneumon cocruleum Ophion bilineatum Heteronelma llaviconiis linicospilus puriiatus Ichneumon viola l.:'hena apicaiis ("eialosoma apicaiis I'aniscus j^eminatus Arote.s aiiKi'nus Lahena jirall.itor Compsocivplus caliptera Ophelles fjlaucopterus Aiiomalon curnim Hoplismeiuis morulus
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THE /a WHUMON FLIES
( Siipcr-familv Icliihuiitoiioidca.)
Until quite recently this grc.it group comprising what are popularly know- as the Ichneumon (lies* was cnsidered by entomologists to form but a single faniily-the khneumonida;', but Ashmead has justly decided that the group is of super-lamilv rank, and in a recent paper has carefully worked out the genera of the world, recognizing no less than 1,140 distinct genera, very many of which inhabit the United States. The species of the Ichneumonoidea are without exception p.irasitic upon other in- sects, and for the most part upon insects which are injurious to vegetation. Caterpillars are especially subject to the attacks of the Ichneumon flies. In his paper upon the Hvmenopterous parasites of North American butterflies, published as a cnapter in Mr. Scudder's great work "The Butterflies of 'ho Hastern United States and Canada." the writer has described a large number of Ichneumon flies which l.iy their eggs in butterliy larva-, and which i.ssue as adults either from the c;,tcrpill.irs' or from the chrysalids. One of the most frequent disappointments met with by collectors of butterflies in trying to tear to the adult condition the larva of some interesting or rare s^-ccies is the ultimate realization of the f.ict that some Ichneumon flv h.is laid her eggs in the rare specimen before it was captured. Not only do L.Tva; of butterflies and moths suffer t'rom the att.icks of members of this group, but also beetle and flv l.irv.e and more rarely the l.irvx of other orders. They .ire on the whole distinctly bene- ficial insects, and as will be shown in the detailed life history which follows, they may be responsible for the absolute saving of great damage to the shade trees of our cities .is well .is to agri- cultural crops by their widespread destruction of injurious insects.
• Bo'.h tt.c^ s, icntifii a,Kl the popuLir i-anu-s of this proup were derived from t ... name of the so-called Kfjyptian Ichiuumo,, or I'haraoh's rat. which devours th, cKgs and voung of the croc.dile and «as held s.icred l.v the ancient Eiivptians I Me applic.al)ihty of this title to the group under consideiation is due to the p.ira.smc lialjits of the Ichneumon riies.
61
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^'■S- ;/'•— Thai. -,,.1 lunalor, r />•,./« /«.„■./ /,/;■.
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^"'g- 37— ''"ly^ihinUA diuyn,v, a parasite of siiidurs. / Autlior's tllustralion.j
. , I-
J. J
The Ichneumon Khes
Li'e History of an Ichneumon Fly
( Pimpta Diijiitsitoi, Say.^
This important but widespread parasite of caterpillars occurs in California, Texas, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Ohio, New Vork, Ni'W Hainpshire, Massachusetts, Virginia, District I'f Columbia, and is probably to be found in all parts of the United
tig. j,s — I'lnipl.i inquisitor; -/. '■, ,-, l.irv.i' .it li-ft ; (', male abdt)nien. / Anthi't' i i/iitsftiitii'tt. I
States except possibly in the very coldest portions. It is para- sitic upon a large number of different kinds of larv:€ of moths feeding upon such concealed spinners as the tent c.iterpillar of the orch.ird and the army worm of the forest ( Clisioiiimpa aiiifrirana and (,". ih'ss/rnij and upon certain st.ilk borers .ind gall makers, leaf folders and certain of the larger leaf miners. It is by far the most abundant ot the parasites of the white marked tus- sock moth (Oriiyld Iciuostifrma). a f.imous shade tree enemy of the northeastern United States. The adult Pimpla is shiny black in color and has a wing spread of. on the average, three-quarters of an inch, the length of its body being about one-half an inch, but it varies greatly in size, the adults issuing from well fed 'irvx exceeding these measurements and under-fed specimens trans- forming into much smaller adul's. Upon the tussock moth caterpillar and upon the army worm of the forest the female Pimpla will l.iy her eggs when the larvx- are lull grown or just after
The Ichncumoii Klits
-.L.
they lijvi- spun thoir coccmmk. tbi- I.itur iiinc Wuvj, Mi.-iiiin;ilv prcfcr.iblo. VVhiTi i-ithiT spocics is .ilnind.Hit tin ir lU'wIy splin cocoons .ire the rallying , unls ot l.irKo nuriilvts ,.| ihcsf I'inipl.is. One of tlu' fcmali" alter riinniiij,' ahout |..r a U\v seconJs will suddenly thrust its ovipiisni.r thiout;h the cnon,\\ into the hodv of the caterpillar which will writhe with p.nn. The I'liiipla. however, will remain apparently undisturivj and push it^ ovi- positor in to its full extent, remainins,' motlonle^s in this positu n for about tlve minutes durini; which time the .ihdomeii is shu'htiv moved in .1 peristaltic iii.inneras il f.irciHK' thee>,',i;s out and down through the ovipositor. She will then turn round, take a step or
I'K- V " ''i"'r'' "i'Hn-it"r. /•■ .. •;;.;;-. '. I.irvi-; .-, coccxins.
h
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It •'.
*
two, and tlnally give the caterpillar v\li.it is .ippareiitly a ronp i/t", ;,'/■<)(•(' with two or three tiirusts in tjuick succession. .Some- times the same operation is repeated. '\hv eu'jjs ,ire not thrust into the body of the citerpilLir when tile Litter is eiiclusid in its cocoon but sometimes are to be touiui loos^' betwieii the cocooll and the caterpillar ,ind soir.etimes not tiniilv att.ichi-d to the skin of the caterp''' st.indiny upriiiht on end. The e,uj.'s are elon- gate, somewhai wider ■' one end than the othi-r, pure uhite in color and perfectly smooth .ippe.iring bii-hlv polished. The average length is one mii!., and the ^'reitest width about one
£-5
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The Ichneumon Plici
and ei^;ht-tl•nth^ mm. ilio iliir.iilon oi ihe entf st.itf must be vi-iv short .in J is pn.t'.ihlv only .i m.ittcr of l-ut .i lew h(iLirs. Alter h.itihmi; the I'inipl.i l.irvx v,\u-n at work upon a just spun up tussock moth i.itirpillar ta'd f.xtcrnally upon the hody of thi- caterpillar, the mouth-parts closely applied to the skin and in fact obviously suckinic blood through a minute oritice. Their growth is rapid and there is no perceptible casting of the skin. In mid- summer the larv.i- will become full jirown in (our days, when they .ire ne.irlv ten mm. lon^-, by three mm. in greatest dianu-tcr, lusi- form i:i sh.ipe. and slightly curved. The color is yellowish white. They soon be^in spinning cocoons. These cocoons, at (irst while and .itterward lLirnin« ^:radu.lllv to a pale vellow brown, becoming much the .same cilor as the cocoon of the tussock moth, are denser in structure and are composed of a considerably liner quality of silk. They are lon^ oval in shape and are closely applied together adhering so firmly that it takes some little force to sep.irate them. They are applied side by side and so closely t'lat their ov„l nutline becomes more or less anjjular at the point I'f application. Two days alter the spinning,' of the cocoon in midsummer the larva ch.in^es to pupi and adults issue .some- times as early .is six days later, m.ikini,' the entire life round of the species about lifteen d.ivs.
It sometimes happens that a tussock moth c.iterpillar is slunj,' when it is just on the point of transforming. I jt in such a case the tran.slormation to pupa is occasionally accomplished. The re- cently formed pupa is also occ.isionally stun;,'. T.ontrary to the general mi,- lioldinLT when caterpillars are eaten out by the Pimpla larvx the l.itler seem to teed within such pupa' and evidently to spin their cocoons within the caterpillars pupa skin so that one will frequently find an apparently perfect pupa of the tussock moth within its cocoon which, however, contains four or five cocoons of the Pimpla packed close together and completely filling it.
The number of I'lmpla I irv;v nourished by a single tu.s.sock moth caterpillar varies from one to ten, with perhaps .in average of three or four. This is the case in the summer time, but in the autumn more are found. Ten or lifteen in .i single cocoon are not unusual at this time f the year, while in one case the writer has seen twentv-three male Pimpla cocoons in a single cocoon of the tussock moth. This particular cocoon mass was
cross-si'ctioncd and is shown ;it
U ht-n f.illc lines .md the Iced
The Ichneumun Fliti
in the .icciinip.inyinj; (i^iuic.
inn :ind hreedinn M'-ison
living individuals of this p.irtiail.ir p.irasitc will p.ickid .iw.iv m the l.irv.il st.it
h<
P-ist, all
found "t soin lem mamlv m thel.iiv.
e within the bodies
snuKly
host
insect and the winter is passed by th
dit.on in their cocoons. With the appro.ich ol spring, however
thev transform to pup.e and about the linu- when the v.uinJ
h.st caterpill.irs be^-m to hatch Iruin their e^K's the adult' p.n-
Mtes eiiur^'e rcadv lor the summer s campaign.
In this aa 01 emerKing it is interesting to notice that as with
manv other par.isitic Hvinenoptera and in t.i.t with many other
inse.ts the n,ik> ^ a rule issue before the 'em.iles and w.;,t with
imp.itience .or t panionship of the fair se.x. (roin one lot
nl .ou.ons -UK' ihe wuter in the spring of hs^h, tortv-nme
iii.iies ■ .< bit .e.fi March ?d
and ; i.- .efoie a single female
put in an .ippe.irance. On March
1,1th and 14th a single female
issued each day; on the 17th
eight more; on the iSth three
more; on the U)fh fourteen more.
.md on the .:0th twenty more.
In the meantime the number of
iii.iles i.ssuing had t spidly f.ilieii ' '« ^^
oti .ind they eventually ce.ised
to make their -pe.irance. The number of men,(.eis of both
se.\. ^ w.is appro.ximateiy equal.
A curious fact may be noticed concerning the cocion.s from \Nhich these earlv spring individuals i.ssued. that is to sav the over-wintering .ocoons. We have seen that an entire generation m.iy be produced in a space oflifteen dav.s in mid.summer. but of course, in colder weather the development is slow and the time m.ty be much e.xtended. Again, in the ;ibsence of proper host in- sects the females may live for several weeks without h.iving oppor- tunity to deposit their eggs. The midsummer cocoons are rather t.utTy ;.nd although more closelv spun than are the cocoons of the tussock moth citerpillar, they are still rather loose ,ind the outer silk m particular is loosely spun. With the over-wintering co- coons, however, it is at once noticed that they are of a closer, tougher and more parchniein-like consistency. There is less of
67
'Ills of I'impla irujuisitor.
TF'
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X,
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Ihe Ichneumon Flies
the looselv spun silk with the individual although more of this loose silk surrounding the whole mass in any given host cocoon. Thus it seems as though the parasitic larvx in preparing for the winter appreciated the degree of cold which they would have to experience and wisely prepared for it by making their habitations thicker and tighter against the inclemencies of the weather.
As abundant and hardy as this species seems to be it does not escape the attacks of enemies of its own. Certain soldier- bugs have been seen to capture the adult females of the Pimpla when they were engaged so assiduously in egg-laying that they were blind to their surroundings. This is not surprising since one can approach them during this process so closely as to be able to study them well with a small hand lens. Then, too, secondary parasites have been reared from their cocoons, that is to sav. internal parasites of their own, and s ill more strange to relate, Hymenopterous parasites of these secondary or hyper- parasites have also been reared from the Pimpla cocoons. An e.xtrai)rJinary chain of links in the development of species is thus brought about and may be studied by any one during almost any summer in one of our northeastern cities. When the tussock moth caterpillars appear in gre.it numbers on our shade trees dur- ing a given season, it will almost invariably be found that this I^impla is present also in great numbers and that the majority of the caterpillars are stung by it. This means that the following se.ison there will be an unusu.il number of adults of the parasitic insect which is now termed th'- primary parasite. So great is this abundance that the first generation of tussock moth caterpil- lars is pr.ictically wiped out of existence. Then comes the second curious lact. that the secondary parasites become enormously abundant and kill off the abundant Pimplas. At the end of the same season or .it the beginning of the next the tertiary parasites put in their appearance and the secondary parasites are destroyed, thus giving relief .igain to the primary parasites \\'hich once more begin to be abundant and ready for the next case of super-abund- ance of the host caterpill.ir. This little chain of species depending upon species otfers one of the easiest and most interesting series of observations which niav be made by any school class in the part of the country indicated.
68
V 1
M
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L i
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|
PlATF XI |
||
|
WASPS |
||
|
■'(".. |
FtG. |
|
|
1. |
ChalyMon tcxanum |
IS- |
|
2. |
Notocyphiis tcxanus |
It). |
|
}■ |
Spliex tcxanus |
'T- |
|
4- |
Ccropalcs nijiiipes |
IS. |
|
s. |
I'aliiKides riilivutitris |
•9- |
|
h. |
Splu'X ti'iianus |
20. |
|
7- |
I'liononyx lirunnipi's |
2 I . |
|
S. |
Sphox flavipcs |
-> t_ |
|
9- |
Piioiionyx t'firugininis |
21. |
|
lo. |
Sphi'X btllra^'ii |
24- |
|
1 1. |
Piiocncniis unifasciatus |
2i. |
|
12. |
IVpsis citMuk-a |
2(). |
|
1 !• |
(AMopales c'lf^ans |
27- |
|
14 |
l-iitypus niarginatus |
Pepsi.s marpinatus Pscudagenia bombycina • Scricopompilus cinctipt-s P(tciloponipilus navus Pcdinaspis Ixvifrons Hc'inipogoniiis hciligbroJiii Par.iptinipiliis contigmis I'riocnemis liilvicornis Priononvx bifovtolatiis Batozonus algiJus Piiocneini.s tt-rminatus Saliiis tt'xanus Ainmophila robusta
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The Inselt C ok.
Flat.-: XI.
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THE HORN-TAILS
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(Super-family Siricoidia.)
These insects form an old series of Hymcnoptera, known as tiie wood-eaters— Xyiopliaga. They are distinguished from the true saw-flies by the fact that the foreshanks have only one spur at the tip instead of two. They have the same broad abdomen and broad head and thorax.
The group includes the families Oryssidx, Siricidce, Xiphy- driidae and Cephidx. The larvne of all of these insects are wood- borers, living in the stems of plants, and even in the trunks of trees. The adult flies are called horn-tails, because the end of the body usually bears a spine or horn. The ovipositor is fitted for boring instead of sawing, and with it the female bores into woody tissue and lays her eggs. The group is not a very large or a very important one. although it contains man\ common species. A noted example is the Eu-opean Ccphiis pygmaus, which bores into the stems of whe^t. This species was acci- dentally introduced into this country some years ago, and is now found in portions of Canada and New York State. Its damage, however, has not attracted the attention of farmers of late. The large pigeon Tremex (Trcmex columba) is a not uncommon enemy to shade trees in certain of the northern states. It attacks the elm, oak, sycamore, and several varieties of maple. The holes of this borer may be recognized by their regular, evenly-cut shape, about the diameter of a lead pencil. Isolated shade trees along roads and in streets are favorite habitats. The writer, as a boy, saw them iii great numbers in the maple trees on the grounds of the old Ithaca Academy, at Ithaca. New York. In midsummer a large number of females would be seen boring into the trunk of a single tree laying their eggs. The female plunges her borer perpendiculaly into the trunks, holding it at right angles to the abdomen. The insertion requires evidently great muscular etTort, and the egg is deposited at the bottom.
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The Horn-Tails
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i'y
\
Fig 41.— rruniex ccilumha. ( J-'n'm /iis,\t lift )
It was a common sight to see females which, after laying, had been unable to withdraw the ovipositor, so that they had been
held to the trunk until they died. The eggs ;;re oblong-oval and pointed at each end.
The common parasites of the larvie of these horn-tails are the very large and extremely long- tailed Ichneumon flies known as Tluilcssa liituilor and Tluilt'ssa iitiata. These Ichneumon flies lay their eggs in the burrows of the Tiemtx. and their larviC feed upon Tremex larvae.
The ex.ict facts concerning the life of the Tremex larv;c in trunk of the tree have not been studied, and the species is such a ci.nimon one that it will be 70
Fig. 4;. — Cephus pygmxus. (After Curtis. J
.tf ;i
I,
The Horn-TaiU
an interesting matter for some observer to work out the life history in detail.
-I
Life History of a Horn-Tail
(PliylluxHS iutcgti; Norton.)
This insect, which is known as the willow-shoot horn-tail IS found throughout the eastern part of the United States The female, alter boring a hole some inches below the tip of a willow twig, pushes her ovipositor in an oblique direction into the pith of the twig, inserting the eggs at the bottom of the puncture
•■'■S- 4J— l'li)l'*i-us inttgL-r. ' from Insect liU.J
She then girdles the twig below the eggs to prevent it from growing any farther, obviously to prevent the eug from being crushed by the rapid growth of the plant. After a week the eggs hatch, the young larvx- I ore their way down through the pith to a distance sometimes more than two feet. lilling the channel behind them with their excrement as they pr^iceed. The eggs having been l.iid in the spring, the larv;e feed M through the summer and become full-grown in late tali ;ling
'^
li
it:
j!
^! I
I ^
\
M
fp
il.
' 'k
li
*!:
The Hom-Taiti
the lower end of the Inirrnw for half an inch with frass. They then eat a passage through the side of the twig about a quarter of an inch above the prospective cocoon, but without cutting through the bark. Then the cocoon is spun in the burrow and the larva remains within it all through the winter, changing to pupa early in the spring.
in young willow groves, the shoots of which are intended for basket-making, the withered tips should be pruned off as soon as noticed in the spring.
I
72
THE S/tir-FUES
( Supcr-fiimtly TcnthroiinoiJia.)
The saw-flies derive their name from the fact that the ovi- positor of the female is peculiarly constructed, so as to act like i saw There are two saws set side by side in a groove under- neath the body and can be shoved out and moved up and down They are used to make the proper aperture in leaves or other vegetable tissues in which the eggs are placed. The head and thorax are wide and the base of the abdomen is not slender The front shanks bear two spurs.
The eggs are. as just indicated, l..i.l in plant tissues in apertures made by the female saws.
The larva- as a rule are remarkable from their resemblance to caterpillars. Some of them look so much like cutworms th it one might almost e-.pect i^ breed moths from them instead of (lies. They have, I owever. from tv^-elve to sixteen prolegs in- stead often, which IS the usual rule with the caterpill.ir Mmv of them also have the habit of curling the body around so as to embrace the twig upon which they may be walking. Many of them feed exposed upon the leaves of plants in mu~ch the same way as do caterpillars. Others, however, are covered with slime and look more like slugs than like insect larva-, while still others are covered with a white, waxy excretion which completely disguises them.
There are a few leaf-miners in this group, while in the family Nematidx are many gall-makers. A few make cases in which they live. Nearly all descend to the suriacc of the ground to transform to pupae, and spin silken cocoons about themselves.
This super-family is particularly well represented in the United States, and its species in fact seem to be more abundant in temperate and cold regions than in the tropics. About two thousand species have been described.
7J
mm»
Th« Saw-Flict
Many saw-llies are so injurious to vegetation as to possess much economii; importance; tiie larch sA^-\\y ( Nemattis erich- soniij, in certain years, has destroyed large sections of larch forests in northern New England through the work of its
, I
'<
•|'« .
i
Fig. 44 — Cimlitx aniuricjna. / .-t/l,r KiLy i
larva • the imported currant uorm (Kcmatus ribesii) is a famous enei. of currants m most parts of the United States; the com- mon rose slug f Monos/rgia rostrj. next to the so-called green llics and the rose chafer, is the most abundant enemy to rose
7-t
■-■iBBir"-^ a trrm r/v^K^nri m
The S.w-FIiet
bushes in different p.irts of the country, while the large ;ind h.indsoine Cimhex tnnrnaiiij, known .is the Americin saw-lly, is (Vc- quently found upon t-lms, willows .mkI birches in sutlicient niiinhers to al- most entirely vieloliatc tliem. The yellow-spotted willow slug (Xi'ina/iis vcii- tralii. Say) is a common enemy to willows in the United States.
The life histories of ail of the species just men- tioned are well known, hut there are very many forms which need careful study.
'fi 45 -Ncmatus simiUris. (^1/icr Corns t.
I
i
k
hi
cni,ilus m.irybndicu.^ I'.i. hyncmatus cxlfn.*icoilift.
It
I
4
! i
|
^ |
|
■'' i |
rh« s.
Flitt
Scvci ! < ' '■ le species of tho genus I'ont;mi.i which m.ike the curious p . on willow leaves are convenient lorms for study, and 'h hill nd c;irelul life history of any one of then woulJ i'e a viilu.'hie c ■ tributioii to science.
Th '«i pe -family Tenthreilmoidea w:is formerly consilereJ .1 f; imly 'u- nthredinid.e- but it has betn justiliabl separated b> .Mr. .•isHin id into i Ifven diitmct families.
Li*e Hirlv r/ ,f the "Pear Slug"
(yV/v ..itupoiiiis liiiiiuitiii, Ketzii; )
pear
Ins in-.' 'UK, K I
the larva of which is commonlv known as the : . to the ^roup whicii has the slimy c.iterpill.its releried to above. In f.ict, Its scientitiL n.ime, //HiiUiihi. indic itfs this fact. Miu o l.imax is .isluji. This slimv. dark olive- green, slug-like creature occurs commonlv upon the leaves ul pear, cherry, plum and .illied frLi;t treei during most of the sum- mer. Frequently itnccurs in such e.xtr.iordinary numbers with the Liter broods thai the leaves 0! the tree turn brown, di and fall to the ground i midsummer. .S. iietimcs when the slugs ire very abundant, the sound of the e.itin^' of myriads of mouth- resem- bles the f.illing of a tine rain upon the le.ives. There :e some- times thirty or more feeding upon a single leaf.
The .idult insect is a small glossy Ma^k. four-w uK'ed tly. about one-tifth of an inch in length.
The eggs are l.iid in April .ind M.iy The oviposir or nt the female is tlirust oMiijuely tlirough the skm nithe le.if fro:-; below. not reaching through the upper surf.ice, liowever. 1 . saw
1 lu (7- r«.i- .Sluj;: ,;, uJult saw fly. fcni.i!
/•. Ur\u will; ^linu- rfm<,\f-vl; r. >ame in ii' ■
nial stati , 7. leaves with ..4rva' liituralsi/i
.I./', I-, muih inlarctd A/\r Marliitt I
if \wi
li ,
J' i
k
Pl.ATK XII.
SAW-FLIKS AND HORN TAILS
|
Fir, |
HCi. |
|
|
1. |
r.imbcx ;muTic;ina |
IS. |
|
2. |
Lophyrus prattii |
16. |
|
?. |
l.ophyrus abbotti |
'T- |
|
4- |
Cimbcx amciicann |
IS. |
|
s> |
Trichiosnnia trianuulum |
IQ. |
|
6. |
Bactroceriis pallimaciila |
2(). |
|
7- |
Harpiphonis fasciciila |
21. |
|
S. |
Zartea inflata |
22. |
|
Q. |
Pteninus vcntralis |
21. |
|
lO. |
Dolerusarvensis |
24- |
|
1 1. |
Strnnjfvlojfi'sfiT apicalis |
2i. |
|
1 2. |
Schizoct-rus zabriskei |
26. |
|
1 7. |
Mi)nophadnii.s bardus.t |
21- |
|
14- |
Ptfionui ribesii |
Monophadnus bardus ? Nomatiis i-richsonii DoIiTiis aprilis l.yda luteicornis ('ladiiis isomera Hylotonia .scapularis I'anrums pinicola Janus intejfiT Tremex columba A Unnertis albicornis .Xypliidria albicornis Oryssus terniinalis Tremex columba ?
i
I i
The Inssct Book.
Pl^TF XIJ.
1^
^m
/^kic -^s^iAriiteiSiSatsiSL^rw ,
The Saw-Flies
Fig. 4S._ Pear Slu); :,;, last moulted lanal >kin: /<. larva after casting hu*t skin — soniewliat enlarged.
(A/n-r .\rarUlt.J
Of the female is moved rnpidly with a swinging iater.l motion Irom side to side, forming an irregular cell or pocket of an oval outline. The egg is quickly passed down between the plates of the ovipositor, and dropped into the pocket thus made, the time occupy- ing little more than a minute for tile operation. A single saw-tly usually deposits only one egg in the same leaf, and after laying the egg she goes around to the upper side of the leaf and e.x- amines it carefully, rests awhile, and then tlies to another leaf and repeats the operation. The egg is oval, slightly flattened on one side, and remains in the leaf about two weeks. It increases in si^e apparently by absorbing the pl.mt juices.
The young larva on hatching makes a semi-ciicular cut through the upper surface and crawls on the top of the le.if. At first it is nearly white in color, with a yellow- ish brown head. Almost immediately a slimy, olive-colored liquid be- gins to e.xude over the whole body ; the head appears black under the slime, and the body be- comes dark. The an- terior segments of the thora.x swell out and the head is retracted, so that the little larva appears club-shaped. It begins feeding on the upper surface of the leaf eating out small holes the size ofapinhead. This work continues and increa.scs as the lirvi grows until the leaf becomes entirely skeletonized. Full size is reached in less than a month. The larva casts its skin four times, and usually eats its cast skin
'"^^^sS^it- Mf^-
1 11, t) I ir SI ^, I tnti i,n
|x 1 " I I..-., f l..n„ „ J.
<if nil lielieath • ,)idemii.s. with (i\i|i.isiton
/■. sani.. after egf; li,is K-een de|).isiied;
<-. s.in,e after es< a|K- nf larva-eldarged.
/ Aj!,r M.i-.Uu. ,
( f;
Jt
The Saw-FIiei
for its first meal after each molt. When full grown it molts a fifth time, leaving its cast skin as a slender line of slime attached to the leaf. It now appears as a light orange-vellow worm, perfectly clean and dry, with no slime. It thiii crawls down the plant to the ground, penetrating for half an inch or more and
forming a Httle cell the sides of which it moistens with .saliva, thus forming a kind of cocoon of firm tex- ture, more or less impervous to water. Near Washington the first gen- eration of larvx leaves the trees by the end of June, and a second genera-
/^^comri:'rdianaf.','pu^a-"' ^'°" 1'^^'"^ to appear soon after; but all enlarged. ( A/ur .M.iriatt.j in New York State many of the in- dividuals of the first generation pass the winter in their cocoons. The insect hibernates below the surface of the ground, and the flies appear the following April or May.
No insect is easier to destroy than the pear slug. All of the insecticide mixtures kill it readily, and even throwing dust over the leaves will destroy it.
78
'^tr^:.^^^BBiC?%ei4Ce9HiSIPn]^«^f^^^
THE TRUE FLIES
(Oriiir Diptcra.)
-,nH if" ''I' T^ "'"• '^'"' ''• "^^'" *"^^^^^ *hich are died flies and have but two wngs, belong to the order Dipter:.. They e the on^ .nsectswh,ch possess but two wings. w,th the exception of the males of the scale msects. and a very few M.,v flies (genera Clcron and C<zn,s). Some insects in other orders half one pair of wmgs so greatly aborted that they appear two-winjred a' .n the genus Psectra. one of the Lacewing flies. The wings are membranous and usually transparent and bear no scales except
Iwl kn"orH"' '"""^' ^'^^ '^'"'^ ^'"*^^ ''' represented' only ly two knobbed projections called halteres. or poisers The mcta morphosisis very complete, the larvre being alwav. footless and usually apparently headless maggots and the pup.T either some- what resembling those of butterflies and moths, with compara- tively free legs and wings, or they are enclosed in the larval skin Their mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The true flies com- prise an enormcas number of species. The most numerous of all of the orders of insects are the Coleoptera. or beetles the Hv- menoptera. which we have just discu.ssed. and the Diptera and for superiority in point of numbers the precedence must probably be given to the Diptera. About forty thou.sand species are known and It IS estimated that the number yet to be described will bring this number fully up to three hundred and /i'-y thousand, against three hundred thousand which we have estim.it.J f,. theHymenoptera Not only have the true flies a superio.ity in point of numbers, but entomologists are concluding that they probably stand at the head 01 the insect system in point of evolution, that is to sav they are the most highly specialised of in>ects. While they do not pos- sess the apparent specialization in the uay of intelliiJence and in o her respects seen with the bees, wasps and ants, the very com- pleteness of their transformations and the highly specialized or- ganization of the adults ofs.neral families support this view.
7'>
The True Flies
I I ^i
The ordtr is not a popular one among entomologists and collectors. Aside from the fact that observations upon their life history are by no means as interesting as some of those which we mentioned in the preceding order, they have none of the beauty which attracts students and collectors to butterllies and moths and they have not the detiniteness of structure character- istic of the beetles and they are much more difficult to preserve in collections in perfect condition. The hard-bodied, easily col- lected, and readily pinned beetles seem much more attractive. But the Diptera in many respects possess a peculiar interest and their study is of enormous importance from many points of view. Even in point of beauty, many of the families possess species of striking color and graceful shape: and, everywhere abundant as they are. they are easy objects to collect. It is true that with some of the delicate species, especially the mostiuitoes and crane flies, it is almost impossible to preserve specimens in good condition. .Still, with many of the groups they keep well when simply killed and pinned and preserve their colors much better than do the dragon llies. tor example.
Very many species, and in fact entire groups, are harmful to man through damage to growing crops and to livestock. One of the most famous crop enemies in the world, the so-called Hessi.in tly, is a dipterous ins'ect, and most of the insect parasites of livestock belong to this order. As late as 1884, Dr. S. W. Willis- ton, then of Yale University, an authority upon this order, wrote: " As a whole, the order is a beneficial one to the human economy. While we may resent the troublesome mosquito's and the im- pertinent house-llvs molestations, and while the black tly and the horse-lly may cause the death of many horses and cattle, yet the larger number are purely parasitic in their habits, either in the larval or adult states, upon other and usually injurious in- sects. Many others, too, act as benetici;d scavengers of unwhole- some matters. vA'hich would otherwise often bring disease and death." Since Williston wrote these lines, a whole class of bane- ful work accomplished by llies has been discovered. That is their agency in the spread of disease.
As early as 1S64, l.eidy attributed the spread of gangrene in hospit.ils during the Civil war to the agency of the house-lly, and the terrible disease known as malignant pustule was afterward discovered to be caused by the bite of one of the gad-llies which
80
i f
The True Flies
carried the bacillus of anthrax from diseased catti,- and bv its bite inserted it mto the circulatory system of human l-eings The car- nage of the purulent uphthalmi.. of the Egvpti.ns bv the house-tlv was later demonstrated, and the spread of the disease known as •pink-eye ,n the South has been shown by Hubbard to be facili'- tated by little midges of the genus Hippelates. An English army surgeon has ascertained that the tsetse-lly of Africa carries patho- genic germs from diseased cattle and by i,s bite transfers them o the blood o. healthy cattle, and late investigations have shown t.iat certain (lies, and especially the common house-lly, are re- sponsible not only for the spread of Asiatic cholera but of the everywhere prevalent and dreaded disease known as typhoid fever. A vital stimulus to this line of investigation has been given by the discovery that certain mosquitoes are responsible for the spread of malarial fevers and a very great interest has been ex- cited and an enormous literature has sprung up within the last few years concerning this line of investigation. This interest has be- come even more intensilied by the experimental proof obtained by the United Mates Ar.ny Yellow Fever Commission of the a<'encv of certain mosquitoes in the spread of yellow fever. The whole subject of the agency of insects in the transmission of disease is one of the most prominent subjects of medical inve.stigation at ihe present time and nearly all of the insects concerned in this work belong to this order Diptera; so that, in spite of the benefits to humanity which the parasitic species bring by their destruction of injurious insects and in spite of the beneficial function which many IJiptera exercise as scavengers, this incident of the lives of many o( them, added to the ra-ages of many more on crops and domestic animals, makes the order a distinctly and markedly injurious one. Many strange features in life history occur with the (lies With some no eggs are laid and living larva- issue from the body of the female. Such (lies then become practically viviparous or '• larviparous.' With others, although these aie few in number the development within the body of the female goes even farther and when the insect emerges from the body of its mother it is already in the pupal condition. Such forms are called • pupi- parous." We have mentioned the wings of the Diptera, but in some forms there are no wings. Such species, and they are also few in number, are usually parasites, and the loss of wings is one of the degradational features consequent upon the parasitic life
8i
iii
a
The True Flies
See the bedbug among the Heteroptera, the true lice (Axioplura) and the bird lice (Maliophaga). With those species which lay eggs the larval development is usually rapid ; and with some torms, particularly those which are true scavengers and feeders upon carrion or upon excrement, it becomes very rapid. The possi- bilities for enormous multiplication are apparently greater in this order than in any other group of insects. It is estimated that the progeny of a single house-tly, if undisturbed, would in the course of a single summer reach high into the billions in numbers, while an almost equally rapid multiplication takes place with some of the mosquitoes.
There is great variation in habits in the group. Most flies prefer the sunshine and are most numerous in the middle of sunny days. A few, however, such as the mosquitoes, fly at night. These, however, are the great exception. Very many flies frequent flowers, and thus exercise a beneficial function in the cross-fertilization of plants. Many species — comprising, in fact, whole families— are aquatic or sub-aquatic in their early stages, and some possess the faculty of living under what appear to be most disadvantageous conditions. Some of the llies of the peculiar family Ephydridx, for example, live in the strongly alkaline lakes of the far West where almost nothing else can live.
It is surprising how little of an intimate and exact nature is known concerning the life history of most flies, it is true that maggots are not attractive creatures, but the mode of life is so variable in the different groups of flies and the transformations are so remarkable that a very great interest attaches to many of these ife histories. Unfortunately, however, very few observers have done any work in this direction and it results that there is room for an army of workers who will find it especially easy in this order to add to scientific knowledge. It will be noticed in the consideration which follows of the different families th.it full ob- servations have not yet been recorded in many of them from which typical life histories can b Jnwn up. This is a sad state of affairs and it is one which observers of nature should endeavor to remedy. As an example, it was not until iSqs that a full ac- count was published of a single one of our common NortH ' leri- can mosquitoes and even so ubiquitous an insect as the h .■ c-'fly was netrlected in this country until a comparatively recent ite. it is a ! ;,ange fact, although not impossible to explain, that our com-
S2
< -^■'Ca
.iffifv:
c'i.V¥l**.r.-*4IKS(*ifc&.-
The True Fliei
monest forms are na'kvtcd l.y students. One not only does not f nd then, m collcct.ons. but when an attempt ,s nud. tu ,ind wha Ls known about the,r hves it often results that no ,n(..rmation can be gamed Irom books. The reason for this in p..rt is th.,t every- one Uimks that everythmg must be known about these common
The classification of the Diptera is complicated. The order has been split up into many families and the determination of spec.es and genera in many of these families is exceptionally dif- .cult. For the following table of the families and higher groups the writer .s md.bf.d to Mr. I>. W. Coc,uillett, and it is taken m part rom the advance sheets of a paper about to be published by the U. S. National Museum. '
TABLE OF THE HIGHER GROUPS
Antennae conspicuous, inserted at upper end of the face some- imesmany-jointed. proboscis usually furnished wi.h t'ermmal ips body rather soft and l^nttle, legs .ipproximateJ, win.'s u.sually present and Ireciuently lurnished with a discal cell- adults oviparous or larviparous, never in all their sti-es liv- iKoSCIlJEA) '"•;'""'''''■ ^"'^'^ "'"■ '^""^■y l>^es (Suborder
Antennx usually inconspicuous, commonly inserted near the middle of the sides of the f.ice. and composed of from one to hrec oints. the apex furnished with a style or bearing sever .1
m? \lf-' .'"■'■ ^''■"'^^''^^''f "^'^''^'' turnished with terminal lips body integument tou-h ami leathery, legs on one side ot the body usually widely sep.irated from those on the other side, wings, when present, never furnished with a discal cell ; adults pupi^irous. living externally upon mammals birds or honey bees (Suborder El'ROBOSCIDEA) . . . 6i"
'ti
Suborder PROBOSCIDEA Latr.
I— Discal cell, when present, usually furnished with three veins that extend to the wing-manrm: frequently f.mrorlive posterior cells are present, the third vein sometimes forked ; It the second bas.il and disc.il c.'lis are coniluent the color
L»,.''"JnW '
^m
The True Plici
of thi' body i> usu.illv met.illic Krci-nish or the antennal style IS usually apu.il. .ititiTinx sonutiiiu-s compost-il of more than three )oints ; hv.ij "( the larva ol a lirm texture and delinite shape, pupa not inclosed in the old larval skin, or it inclosed this never torms a hard, cylindrical puparium. the pup.i or the 1111.1^0 issuing' Ihrou^'h a longi- tudinal and transverse lissure (Section Ortliorli.ipliii). . 2
Discal cell, when present, never furnished with mo'-e than two veins; nevermore than three posterior cells an present, the third vein never forked: when the second basa! cell is confluent with the discal the color ol the bodv is never niet.illic jireen: antenn.e never more than three-jointed, the terminal joint usually furnished with .1 slender arista which is ;,'enerally dorsal, einpodium bristle-like or want- ing' ; head of the larv.i sott .md mobile except the mandi- bles, the pupa inclosed in the hardened skin of the larva, which is ruptured circularly near the .interior end during the emergence of the imago (Section CyJorhapha). ■ -yo
Section ORTHORHAPHA Brauer.
2- joints of antennx more than three in number: the last one seldom furnished with a slender style or arista; antenn:v and leizs i.sually very I n.ir .'nd slender; bodv also usually slender, and rather delicate (Subsection Nt'iiio- teni) •,
Joints of antenn;v never more than three in number: the ter- minal one much longer th,in the others and frequently annulate, sometimes furnished with a jointed style or arista: antenn.e and legs usually short and robust: body often elongated (Subsection Rr.ulnUiia) i\
Subsection NEMOCERA Latr.
} — Antennx usually long and slender, the joints usually longer than broad, and nearly always provided with vei-ticels of bristly hairs, the structure frequently very different in the opposite sexes of the same species: eves seldom broadly contiguous above the antennx in either sex, sometimes narrowly contiguous above and below the antennx, the facets of a uniform size and not separated by a transverse line into .in upper and a lower portion; body usually slender and elongate, pulvilli wanting (Super-family Tipii/oh/i\i} 4
^?
^F^
^T
hAII XIII.
SAW-KLIi:S AND MORN-TAII.S
|
vu; |
HCi. |
|
|
I. |
Aridiis bimactibtus |
18. |
|
2. |
C.ularm-nt.i cl.iv.itiis |
19- |
|
h |
[';inrurus apiciilis |
ao. |
|
4- |
Tt-nthredo lohat.i |
21. |
|
s. |
Matroxyela x-ni-a |
22. |
|
6. |
Haipiphor:; t.irs.ilns |
2?- |
|
7- |
Pseudosiiihl.i fXcav.ila |
34. |
|
8. |
Matrophy;! trisvllata |
as- |
|
9- |
Hylfitoma hiinur.ilis |
26. |
|
lo. |
Harpiphorus variaiius |
27. |
|
II. |
Rhogcu.i^tiT niinhipennis |
2X. |
|
13. |
I'anruru.s ivatifus |
29. |
|
'> |
Macrophya cpinola; |
30. |
|
14. |
Hvlotoma peitoralis |
11. |
|
IS. |
All.mtus l\isilaris |
12. |
|
16. |
TenlhrtJo nilopi-cUis |
■<1. |
|
"7- |
Urotcrus abdominalis < |
Tenthredo basilaris Hylotoma ruhra Doleriis albirrons Hylotoma Mcl.t-.iyi Dolerus tcjonicus Tenthredo riitipi's UroctTiis abdotninalis v Tcnthri'do cinciibili>i Pamphiiiiis bninnicans Dolerus .scriieus Abia kcnnicotti Xeris cuudatus Tenthri'do ^^randis Tremev sericeiis Tt-nthredo vertiialis Trichiosoma l.miiuin.isa
mjyh:^:::}J^^-L'LJ},'l}-^ .iMi^'^IL- -^J^y^r^
?#^liM»
^1' f>
The True Flies
Antennae rather short, never furnished with verticels of bristly hairs ol the same structure in both sexes, eves frecuientlv broadly contiguous alcove the antenn*. but' always sepa- rated below It. pulvilli frequently well developed, body rather robust (Super-family bibionouicaj , ,
Super-family TIPULOIDEA Coq.
4— Thomx never furnished with a distinct V-shaped proove neir the middle of the upper side, discal cell always wanting s Thorax furnished with such a groove, discal cell usually pres- ent, mostly large tlies, some of them the largest in this subsection; crane-tlies Family TipiiluLv.
S— Last subdivision of the veins which reach the wing-margin .it least nine in number, hind margin of the wings encom- passed by a vein. tibi;e never furnished with .i pair of
spurs at the apex of the inner side ... 6
Last subdivision of the veins which reach the wing-manrin not more than eight in number, tibix sometimes furnished with a pair ol terminal spurs g
6— Veins of the wings bearing long hairs or scales 7
Veins bare, in the outer half of the wing th-.>of the veins .'re forked and there are two cross-veins ; rather large and
""'"■e "'I's Family DixIJa:
7— Wings long and slender the veins and body bearing flattened
scales; mosquitoes Family CulunUv.
Wing.^ usually broad, like the body covered with long hairs • small, moth-like tlies ' Family PsxrIioduUr.
8— First two wins never coalescing and then separati.ig into four branches „
First two veins ne.ir their bases coalescing for a considerable distance and then separating into four branches, the re- maining vein forked ; rather small, very rare flies
Familv S/iiinx,iiiJ,v.
9— Posterior margin of the wings encomp.issed bv :i vein, or the
tibi.c furnished with a pair of lung, .ipical spurs 10
I'osterior margin of the wings not encompassed by a vein, tibia- never furnished with a pair of apic.il spurs, ocelli w.inting. .intenn.i of the m.ile Irequeinlv le.ither-like or with .1 pencil of long hairs F.imily CliiroiwmiJa:
i
i 'I
BH
tfkdWk
n
s
■I
The True Flies
\^
VI
10 — Tibia: not fiirnisiu'd with ;ipic;ii spurs, ocelli iisu;:liy wanting, wings niostiv with only three veins of which the lust
one is forked : sm.ill. delic.ite (lies : g;ill gnats
Kaniily Ct'ciiloniviudr.
Tibi;i; furnished with a pair of spurs at the apex of the inner side, ocelli present Family MycctophiliJir.
Super-family BIBIONOIDEA Coq.
II— Ocelli absent, or the wings covered with a net-work of creased lines, or the discal cell present \2
Ocelli present, wings never furnished with a discal cell nor with a net-wcrk of creased lines, the front tibia." are sonietinu's gre.itly swollen, or in some case'- are fur- nished with a circle of short spines- -Kainily tiihioiiiJ.r.
12— Verte.\ of head not furnished with ocelli; (lies of small size, i ?
Vertex of head furnished with ocelli, wings rather long and narrow 14
13— Antciin.e of iiearlv an equ.il thickness, wings unusually bro:id. the veins on the posterior portion faint : the black-llies Family SimiiliiJa-.
Antenna verv thick at its base, rapidly tapering to a style- like, jointed .ipical portion, the palpi are almost as long as tile aiitennx; very rare tlies. . Family Orp>iiicpliili\ia:
14 — Wings furnished with a net-work of creased lines, discal cell never present Family BlepharoceridiT.
Wings never furnished with creased lines, discal cell present; rather large llies Family Rhyphidic.
Sub-section BRACHYCERA Macq.
IS— Empodium broad, simil.ir to the two pulvilli. third joint of the antennx frequently annulated. body and legs not provided with stout bristles (Super-family TahaiiotJca)\h
F.mpodium narrow, bristle-like, or wanting, third joint of the antenna* never annul. ited. body and legs frequently fur- nished with stout bristles 21
Super-family TABANOIDEA Coq.
16— C.ilvpteres verv l.irge. or the tibi;e not furnished with ter- min.il spurs 17
Ml
1; ■ «•.
The True Flies
Calypteres small or rudimentary, at least one pair of tibix provided w.th distinct .purs at the apex of the Z^r
'""''' y-mWy Lf/U.v.
17— Third jomt of the antenn* distinctly annulated ,8
Third joint not annulated
18-Uiscal cell lying in the middle of the width of the vvin.r nos- terior margin of the wing encompassed hy a vein . 19
Discal cell lyin between the middle of the width of the wing and the CoSta. posterior margin of the wing not encom- passed by a vein Family StnWnnmnLr.
19— Tibicc never furnished with terminal spurs, caivpteres rudi- mentary: large Hies from Middle and South America. . . Family Aidiithomt-ruUv.
Tibix provided with terminal spurs on at least one pair
calypteres very large; horse-flies. . . Family T.ibjiinLr.
20— Head small, much narrower than the verv convex thorax
calypteres very large; hump-backed (lies .'
Family AcroceridiV.
Head at least as wide as the depressed thorax, calypteres verv small; llies not at all hump-backed. Family AV«/f.s7r/;;/,Ar. 21- When five posterior cells are present the fourth vein ends before the .-xtreme apex of the wing; when less th.in five the anal cell is much longer than the .second Kis.il and the third vein ends below the tip of the wing, dis- cal cell always pre.sent (Super-family Soiiih'/ioiM\h J..22
When five posterior cells are present the fourth vein ends below the extreme apex of the wine, when less than five the anal cell is wanting, or. if present, is shorter or scarcely linger than the second basal, or the third vein ends before the extreme apex of the wing, discal cell sometimes coalescing with one of the other cells 24
fS
it
Super-family BOMBYLIOIDEA Coq.
22— Wings provided with less than ("ive posterior cells 2^
Wings pnwided with five posterior cells, fourth vein ending
before the w ing tip. antenn.ii stvie much n.irrower th.in
the third antenn.il jomt: inhabit the southwest
F.imilv Af^HhtriJa-.
23— Style of the .intenn.v tl.it, much wider th.in the third antennal
joint ; Luge, elong.ite, nearlv b.ire llies ■ . F.imil y Mwiaida-.
S:
J * I"
The True Flies
Style of :intennx, when present, much narrower than the third antenn.il joint, fourth vein ending,' lulovv the win^ tip Family BniiihvliiiUr.
24 — Discal cell wantwij; or coalescing; with one of the other cells, fourth vein coalescing with the tilth lor a conskierable distance. 01 the win^s h,ivin^' two iDii^itudinal and three or four oblique veins issuinj; from the seconil (Super-f.imily FlioroiJ,\i) »
Discal cell usually present, fourth vein not co.ilescinu with the tifth. vvin^s proviiled with more than two lon^i- tudmal veins (Super-family Asilouiiii) 2S
iiy
Super-family ASILOIDEA Coq.
25 — Apex of the third vein usually situated below the extreme tip of the wiuii, body sometimes met.illic green or bluish. 2b
Apex of the thud vein situated at or above the tip of the wini,'. bodv never met.illic iireen or bluish, proboscis furnished with terminal lip>. .inal cell much longer th.iri the second basal, three posterior cells present, third vein forked, antennx not furnished with a stvie or .irista K.imily SiCiiof^'iiiJir.
2t>— With five posterior cells in each wing, anal cell always present .md much longer th.in the second basal, third vein always torked ^7
With less than live posterior cells, anal cell sometimes want- ing: when present it is shorter or only slightly longer than the second basal cell 28
^•j_Proboscis furnished with terminal lips, lace strongly retreat- ing on Its lower p.irt, net bristly Kamily TlicrrctJa-.
Proboscis sharp-pointed, not provided with terminal lips, face projecting forw.ird or convex on its lower part,
pro\ided with strong bristle> or long hairs
Family Asilhltr.
28— Second basal cell, when confluent with the discal. the color of the body is never met.illic green, an.il cell sometimes wanting, third vein sometimes forked. Family /;"/;;/>/,/.r.
Second basal cell conlluent with the discal. anal cell .ilways present, third vein never lurked, color of body usually met.illic green Family DoluliopoJiihr.
,ss
■P^
The True Flies
Super-family PHOROIDEA Coq.
2C)-Winns Uirnishod with mcMc thin two lon.mtudinal veins fourth vi-in co.iluscm^r uith tiu- tilili bcvonil the npcx of thi- second b.isjl lcII. then sepiir.itin>; into three bninches, axillary lobe .ind cell w;miinLC, -mal cell verv narrow. . .'
Family Loiuliof>tciiJ,r.
Wings furnished with two lonijitudinal veins, situated near the cost.i. the second vein sendini; three or tour indistinct veins obliciuely toward the posterior margin ol the wing Family Plioihltr.
Section CYCLORHAPHA Brauer.
30— Anal cell present, distinctly longer than the second basal, the discai cell sometimes wanting, both basal cells usually present (Super-family SyrpholJ:a) ^1
Anal cell, when present, shorter than the second basal, but one or both of these cells Irequentlv wanting (Super- family MiiSioiJCii} ^
Super-family SYRPHOIDEA Coq.
31— Proboscis short and robust, no supernumary vein between the third and fourth veins ' ■',2
Proboscis slender and elongate or the wings provide! with supernumary vein between the third and fourth v.-ins. 33
32— Head less than one-half as long as the thorax, the ace and front broad Family Plaiypc-yiJ^r.
Head unusually lar e. nearly as long as the thorax, except
on the occiput .limost wholly covered by the eves
Family Fipinuiiluix.
33— With a supernumary vein between the third and fourth veins, crossing the small cross-vein, the proboscis usually short and robust F'.iniily Svrpln.!,r.
With no supernum.iry vein, the proboscis veiv slender and elongate Family CoiwpiJj-.
^4-
Super-famiiy MUSCOIDEA Coq.
-Lower. (>\- posterinr. c.ilvpter distinct, usu.illv projecting beyond the upper ((iroup (..ilvplci.il.r). . 55
The Trae Flies
Lower cilyptcr miiuite or wantirifj, cyi's broadly Sfpanitcii ill both sexes (Group Aiiilyptci\i) 40
^^! I
Group CALYPTERAT/E Desv.
3s — Oral opening large, the proboscis veil developed 36
Oral opening very small, the proboscis and palpi riidiinentary. the antennx verv short and somewhat concealed in cavities; rather large, robust llies Familv (hstriiliV.
36 — Pleura bearin;,' a perpendicular row of bristles above the pos- terio;- t . .»;c 57
Pleura no: bearing such a row of bristles, thosi of the abio- men weak ?g
57— Antennal arist.i hairy or plumose, at least on the b,is.il portion iS
Antennal arista bare 01 pubescent Family TiulniiiJ,v.
38 — Arista of antennx hairy nearly or quiu- to the apex, legs usually verv long, .ibdomen provided with stout JMistles i-'.imiiy DcMuLr.
Arista bare on its broad apical portion or the bristles of the
abdomen weak, legs short and robust
Family \/r(<>/)//j^/./ir.
39 — Fourth vein before its .ipex strongly curving tow.ird the third Family Afwii /./<r.
Fourth vein not or only slightly curving toward tht third. . . Family Aiilhowviul^r.
Group ACALYPTERyC Macq.
40 — Auxiliary vein distinct, separated from the (Irst and terminat- ing in the costa. the .in.il cell present 41
Auxili.irv vein absent, or confused with the first vein ^2
41— Anterior oral margin bearing a distinct bristle on either side 42
Anterior or.il margin never bearing such bristles, their pl.ices sometimes occupied by several short bristly hairs. 4^
42- Costa lif the wings bearing numerous spines, or the bristles of the front conlined to the upper half 44
Cost.i of the wings not beset with spines, front usually bristly from the vertex .ilmost t'l the antenn;e 43
')0
J»
The True Fliei
4?-Third joint of the ;mtcnn;v noticeably longer than broad. .
• • Faniilv S^ntophagiJa:
Third joint broader than lon^. the last section ot tlio fourth vein usually much longer than the preceding section. . . Family HcteroiieuriMr.
44 -Front edge of the wings not beset with spines ( SctsiJa- in couplet SI). / •
Fiont edge of the wings beset with short spines, thorax con- vex, tnird joint of the antennx nearly circular
Family Hclomv^hliV.
4S— Tibi* bearing an erect bristle on the outer side before the
apex, anal and basal cells present ^6
Tibia; not furnished with such a bristle, anal cell present. 48
46— Body convex, the face and cheeks not unusually bristly. . .47
Body greatly depressed, the face and cheeks unusually bristly
Family PhwoJioiniJa-.
47— Sixth vein of the wings prolonged to the wing-margin
Family Siioiin;i,Lv.
Sixth vein obliterated before reaching the wmg-margin
Family Sjf>ioiin;i\Lr.
48— Legs usually short and robust, abdomen usu.illy o\- ite ind rather short, in the female furnished with a horny ovi-
positor
4Q
Legs and body usually very elongate and slender, .ibdomen of tem.ile not furnished with a horny ovipositor, bristles of the front conlined to the upper half ; i
49— Basal and anal cells large, the latter usually prolonged .it its lower apical angle ,0
Basal and anal ells small, the latter not prolonged at its lower ap.cal angle, bristles of the tront confined to its "PP^'' half Family LoiuhaiJa-.
5t>— Auxiliary vein gradually curving to the costa toward its apex,
bristles of the front confined to the upper h.ilf .'
Family Or/j/iJiV.
Auxiliary vein abruptly bent forward near its apex, hri.stles of the front extending from the vertex .ilmost to if, 'o^^'^T ^'"J F.iinilv TnpcliJ.. .
SI— Face in profile refre.ifing on its lower part, p.ilpi usually large, third .ind fourth veins usually ^-trongly converging toward their .ipices F.iinily Kiu ropf{nLr.
5
The True Fliet
r I
Face ptTpendicul.ir and somewhat projecting forward on its lower p.irt. palpi ininutc, third and fourth veins parallel or diverging toward their apices Family St-f>siJ<r.
t,2—}ran(nA and ll^ually the body short and robust ^4
Femora slender and elongated, body also usually elongated, anal cell prevent =■ 1
51_Pourth vein parallel with or diverging from the third vein- • Family Psi/iilii.
Fcurth vein usually curving toward the third at its apex ( Vf/iTo/ii'^/./.r, in couplet sO-
54— Head nearly hemispherical, not prolonged laterally s.^
Head prolonged laterally, the eyes su.iated at the apices of
the prolongations, front femora s ery robust
Family DiopsiJiV.
5H_Anterior oral margin bearing a distinct bristle on either
side '^^
Anterior oral margin not bearing such bristles =i6
56_Anal cell usually wanting, the second basal cell usually con- fluent with the discal cell S7
Anal cell distinct, second basal cell usually separated fiom the discal cell ( Agromy;iihr. in couplet 6o).
j-y—Antcnnal arista frequently long-pectinate on the upper side, head usuallv much wider than high, 'i.iCk: usually pro- vided with bristles especi.illy on each side, and the oral
opening sometimes excessively large
Family EphwiriJ.r.
Antennal iinsta ne\er long-pectinate, head not wider than high, face not bristly, and the oral opening never un- usually large ' Family OsiiinJ.r.
^8— Arista of antenna- bare, bodv short and robust (vj
Arista usu.illv plumose; if bare the ^bodv is some what slender '<9
=Q— Hairs of the antenn.il arist.i long and few in number, second
39-
bas.'l cell usuallv coiitluent with the discal cell.
Family Dio<ophiliJ,i\
Hairs of the arista short and numerous, sometimes w. inline;:
second bas.il cell separated I" Mil the discal ceil
Family GeoiiiVyiJ^r.
'
i
r.n.
I i
I 'I ATI xiv.
SAW-ri.iis
nr.. I.
2.
1-
4-
s-
h.
7- s.
I). lo. I I. 12.
n. M-
IS- \h.
•7-
l><.
HI
Si hi/oc-crus pIumiKeni ' M.icrociphiis tril;isiijlii-i Hinphytus iiullipis l.Vilii ocrt'iit.i ' lophyrus Iccontoi Schizocerus plimiJKfr.i . Hyli>toni;i cxnili'iis Hmphytiis cinctipcs l.yila DcrtMla . IVriclista piirpiiriilnrsiim Mniioctenus junipi-ri .^ Hvliitoma clavicorni-i I'hyinaloiera fiimipinni-- l.Viia miillisi^'iiata Niiuotoma fasiiata Mttnoctenus junipfii .' lIvlotKina miniala Ifnilirtilo lormosa . Hi-mitlin>a all^iilovariata
iiti.
20. Macrophva inierta ?. I . /ariea aiiK-ricana 22. I.iolyda pla^iata
21. Slronpyli'nastcr Mniculat.i 2 !. Dolenis coliiradi'Msis
2S. Mairophya lorniosa
2(1. I'arasiobla rulocinctus
27. Trithiosoma cr.issum
2S. PtiTonus irilinoatiis
2C). Pachynematiis fxli'nsic(>rni>;
30. StronjsylonasttT li-nninalis
11. Dolcrus-similis
32. Pteronus coryli
■!?. Hirpiphoriis iiili-nnediii'^
34, Xiphidiia prov.;ni.hfri
3,. Panruriis ari'olatiis
36. Xcris miinisonii
17. T(.'nth!cdo di.scrj'pan.s
"Mf Im- ic-t Conif,
I
' i|
MiaiOCOfY KESOIUTION TEST CHART
(ANSi ond ISO TEST CHART No 7:
1.0
l.i
1.25
140
1.4
1^
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
A APPLIED irVMGE In
i ^16) *H2 0300 ■ *'h* (716) ?fl8 - ^989 t"oi
I
II
t
i I
'\
'^u
iP
* X-'--J^ ■
;V,^' ■'"'■^-'^•'feT •*.„'-■ ■ -iV!^'':!^"v"
I
'i€::'¥iv^-'W:
The True Flies
60— First joint of the posterior tarsi slender, longer than the second joint Family Agromy^iJa-.
First joint preatly dilated, shorter than tlie second
Family BorboriMr.
Sub-order EPROBOSCIDEA Latr.
61— Head greatly depressed, projecting forward or downward, body usually depressed; living on mammals (except
bats), birds, or honey bees Family HippobosciJa-.
Head rounded, projecting backward upside down over the thorax, body usually nearly cylindrical; living upon Kits Family Nvcteribiula;.
T
I'
ii
93
fti,a?J.:jL- -'-JuS,^
i
!
i
m
jjl
i
III
::ir
If
iP
I!:
THE CRANE FLIES
(Fatnily TipiiluiiC.)
The big slender long-necked flies, commonly known as "crane flies" in this country and as "daddy-long-legs" in England,* form a distinct and characteristic group of flies. They
have long antennae and very long slen- der legs which are so slightly attached that It is difficult to capture a Tipulid without breaking one or more of them. The thorax has a V-shaped suture on the back and the wings contain nu- merous veins and usually a perfect dis- cal cell.
Crane flies are frequently taken for big mosquitoes, but they differ entirely m habits and do not bite, although those of the genus Kle- ph.mtomyia have a long proboscis, even longer than that of a mosquito. The larvx of most species live in the earth but some live in w.iter. in decomposing wood and
Fig. 51 -I
. .//■/,•>• U'.l'Sh-r.J
mosquito.
* Tlu- t<-rm " (l.nldylnni: legs " in this country is .illnl lurvcst spidtr.-. of tiic family I'haUngiida .
V4
applied exclusively tu tht
The Crane Flies
even upon the k-nves of rl.mts. Some of the e.rth-inh.biting forms destroy grass and srain by injuring the roots. Thev breathe through two .n.l spiracles uhich in aquatic species are placed at the tip of a \o,v^ process. The pupal stigmatic tube is se anteriorly, the same chan<re from the anal end to the head e.id takmfj place m the transformation to pupa as recurs with the mosquitoes. The pupa itselt resembles somewhat a Lepidon- terous pupa. ' '
The adult flies are commonly seen in the late summer and are found in pastures and woods, sometimes, especially with the smaller species, swarming towards sundown. More than one thousand species are known and about three hundred of then occur in tne United States. Certain forms appear in the eul - spring and there is a curious wingless genus-Chionea-the species of which are found upon the snow.
The wings of the crane flies are generally clear but are some- times beautifully marked and spotted as in Limnobia and Tipul . The large and beautiful Pc-Jn/a albmilLUa Walk has striking b-cwn bands on a white wing surface. It is found in the White niOLmtainsand the Catskill mountains, as well as in Jie far north- west and in Alaska. BitLuomorph.i with its short wings and banded legs and swollen feet is a most striking form. The Cali- fornia genus Holoiumsia contains the giants of the family and W graiidis has a wing spread of more than three inches. The colors of the crane flies are usually dull, but in Qciwpliord the body IS frequently brilliantly marked with red. In this genus the ab- domen is pointed so as to resemble the ovipositor of some Hymenoptcrous insects and the male abdomen is swollen at the tip .ilmost like that of one of the so-called •■Scorpion flies " of the family Panorpidx (,/. z.).
Life History of a Crane Fly
( Bittacomorpha clavipis l-"ab,y
Comparative'y few species of this family have been carefully studied, but in his important paper on the '-tntomologv of the Illinois River and Adjacent V\'ateis.- Mr. C. A. Hart records some interesting facts concerning this species. The genus Bittaco- morpha is found exclusively in America and the larvx ofthein-
95
I I
L
i
» i
til
The Crane Flies
sect uncier consideration were found in the carlv spring in a jhallow swanipv slough full of rushes and swamp gra-s. In the mass of dead >tems. grass and leaves, through which a broad stream of water ran slowly, were found the cylindrical iusty- brown larv;v of Bittacomorpha, which i their appearance look like bits of decaying grass stem. Their stomachs were found to be liilid with diatoms, mud and dead veget.ible tissue and the larviv had evidently led on the diatomaceous growth which coated the decaying stc ;s. At the anal end of the body was a long respiratory tube bearing two pairs of spiracles at the end. About the end of March they showed some swelling and within the loose skin the soft white pupae were found. The thoracic res- piratory tube was rudimentary and the tube was coiled between the larval and pupal skins. On April 6th the first adult tlies is- sued. Later, in September, a number of adults were seen flying, which indicates either an emergence of the same generation both in fall and spring or two generations annually, the offspring of the fall tlies remaining in t' •-• larval state through the winter and giving forth adults in the spring. The eggs have not been ob- served and a more careful study of this species is needed.
96
M.'
F/tMILIES T>IXID/E ^ND <TJ JOXEMD/E
The little midges of the Dixido; resemble mosquitoes, but they do not bite. They ull belong to the single genus Dixa, which is so distinct from the other Diptera as to constitute a group of family rank all by itself. We have less than ten species in this country. The Dixas seem iiitermedi^-te between the mosquitoes and the crane (lies. They are found in damp places in forests, and in the larval state are aquatic. The latva is con- siderably like that of a mosquito, and might by the careless observer well be taken for the larva of a mosquito of the malaria bearing genus Anopheles. The IJixa larva has fringes on '' upper jaws like those in mosquito larva, but it differs in having leg-like projections from the first two segments of the abi jmen. It is found in shallow water and breathes air as do the mosquito larva. The pupa has respiratory siphons on the thorax just as does the pupa of mosquitoes.
Stcnoxenidtr is a family name proposed by Coo'jillett for a single little tly of curious venational structure— 5/f//ox-i'KKs >o//«- so«/— which is known only from Delaware Water Gap, N. J.
i \
97
I !
I %
i
i t
> V '
MOSQUITOES
(Fanii/y Culicidie.)
This group includes the famili;ir insects known as mosqui- toes— not a large group, but a very important one, pot r.nly from the fact that mosquitoes abound in so many localities and are great annoyances to man and animals, but also from the fact that
they are active agents in the transfer of dis- ease. They are found in great abundance in tropical regions, in temperate re- gions and even far to the North. Travelers in
Alaska state that the abundance and voracity of the Alaskan mos- quitoes is be- yond descrip- tion. They oc- cur with equal abundance in Lapland and in Greenland.
So far as definitely known the larvrc of all mosquitoes are aquatic, although they are true air-breathers: that is to say, they must come to the surface of the water tu breathe. They are rapid breeders, and pass the pupal
98
Fig. 52. — Anopheles punctipennis: Female with male an- tenna at right, and wing-tip sh(.)wing venation at left — enlarged. (Author s tllnstrattott. )
)
Mosquitocfi
condition .ISO in tine w.Ucr, but llontinK normally nt the surface They pass thmugh several generations in the coursi <,faveir and hibernate as adults. Hibernating mosquitoes may often be found during the winter months in barns and in the cellars md cold garrets of houses or in sheltered places like outhouses and under bridges and stone culverts. In the extreme southern states many mosquitoes are active all through the winter, and mosquito- bars are almost as necess„.y at Christmas time as during the summer. Even as fir north as Bal.imore. mosquitoes sometimes bite in houses in December and January. In places where there are prolonged dry spells, and S,,
very heavy rains are only ex- pected at certain seasons of the year, dult mos- quitoes live through the dry spells and lay their eggs as soon as the rains come. This is the case in the Irv regions of ■ southwest- ip CL,'jntry, and is ;'lso the case tropical coun.i.es where the entire year is divided into a wet season and a dry season. In those countries the wet season is generally considered as comparable to our winter, yet it is the active breeding sea.'^in of mosquitoes, while the dry season, which is supposed to be comparable to our summer, is the season when the adult mos- quitoes live on and on. With these insects, as with so many others, the life of the adult seems to be dependent only upon
\^'
./
f'K' 53— t'ulu.x l.vniorhynchus : Female, showing the
shon palpi which distinguish "ulex from Anopheles;
toothid front tarsal claw at right— enlarged.
( Aullwr's iliustratwii.)
!''<¥•
I
I i\
Mosquitoes
tho ..pportunity of propag.itinj; llu- specios. Tho main purpose of the .idult is propafjatii'i
The adult male mosquito does not necessarily take nourish- ment and the adult female does not necessarily rely upon the blood of the warm-MooJed aiumals. 'Ihe mouth-parts of the mail are so different from those ol the female that it is prohabic
Kig. 5^. — Anopheles maculipennis : Adult; male at lift, female at right- enlarged. / Author .i illustratiiyn. J
I
that if it feeds at all it obtains its food in quite a different manner from the female, fhey will sip water or any liquid substance, and appear to be especially fond of beer and wine. The females are normally, without much doubt, plant-feeders, and very few of them get an opportunity to taste the blood of a warm-bodied animal. They will feed upon other than warm-blooded animals. They have been seen puncturing the heads of young fish ; they
lOO
fl I
I
Moiquaoet
have K-en soon purutunnK the chrvs;ilis o| ., Initi. rth .uij Ituy h;ive bixn scc.i ,sw irmitiK -'^'ui iiirtUs u hen thc^ L.tt.r i.u- „m land. Iheurvx,, thr coPlr.iry, f.-ed upun all ...rts of ,>nnutf organisms ll.utm^; in th.. \v.,icr. such as tlu- st.„rcs ul al-x ..nd tninuti.' ai|iiatit anim.iK. Tlify .irc all furnished with in. my bristks .u thi' mouth, and thcsi- hristli-s are kept in constant vihr.iiion drawiiij; particles tlo.itin^,' <>r in siispmsKiii in the water into the mouth c.ivity.
Five genera ot mo,\i|uitoes are represented in this country, n.iniely y^iiophcL >, A,\lcs. MrtiJihniiis. Pson>f<ltora and Cii/tx. Most ot our species helonj; to the ^.'enus CiiUx, and one specie.s of this genus has been .selected for the typical /ife history which is given.
The mosquitoes of the genus y4noi'lhit< are the ones which .11 e respo:isihle for the transfer of ma-
' '*-' 55 — .\ii'ii>iii-i<
Kgtiff'inilHl.iw.it lifLfrDmalh. .It ritjlil -Ka-..tly tnl.irntd. ( .liillwr'i tlJuitrali.iii. J
laria. Th>. micro-organism of mal.irij the human being inhabits the red-blood c
\ sporulating development in the red-blood corpusci
is a protozoon which in corpuscles. It undergoes
•ng th
the
rown into the blood .serum afterward
spores
entering other
o-d corpu.scles extracting their red coloring matter .md destroy
ing them. The full life round of th
is not completed until it has been taki
e ni.ilari.il parasite, however.
human being into the stomach of
n with the blood of a
1 mosquito of the genus
Anopheles. Here, and here only, is the sexual generation of th. parasite developed. Certain of the parasites which uiiJ,'rgo no development in the human boJv, when they are brought 11. ,0 the
stomach of the Anopheles com and give birth to elementary foi trate the stomach wall of th
Lie a sexu.il development, unite ins. knc^vn as bl.ists, which pene-
e mosquito, enter the salivary glands, and ar- thus with the poison dir-i-cted into the body of the next h. lan being punctured by this mosquito.
We have in the United States th toes o( this malarial ge is Aiiof>hele'<. n.i qiiaJrimaeiiLifHS=ela-eiger. A. piiiutlpennis and A. eruciai
species ol mosqui- ly A. iiuhtilipennh =
F i
Mosquito**
Thi' mosquitoes of the p;cnus /f.'.Avs are excessi\ viv sm:ill. Those ol Minjrliiiiiis .ind Psoiophora .ire very Lir^e, .ind include the lornis known in v.irious p.irts of the country as ^aliinippers. fSontphma IS distinguished by possessing; upright scales on the legs; Mcgarhintis by its curved beak. Anopkeki is distinguished
i;
w
, u
Kig. 5^1. — Ki^;ure it tup, half grown lar^'a M Annplicles in feeding p<isili(in. just iK-iiuath surface tilni. higuru at Untliim. half grown larva of Ci. cx in ' r -athing position — greatly enlarged. o.-'s illustration.)
from Cnlcx by the fact that the palpi of the female are ne.irly as Ions ''^ ''^ beak, while in C.ulex the female palpi are very short. Mosquitoes as a rule do not lly very far. Those of the trenus Anopheles appear to be of extremely short tlight. Those of the genus Cukx will not tly far away from their breeding
Mo*quito«*
placf unlf«:s fhi'v .iro cnmeJ by light nnd continual wind.'. In heavy winds they clin« to the nearest point ol attachment. They are carried lon^ distances by railroad trains, and many localities where mosquitoes were unknown ha'e become infested by the intri>duction ol railways or improver .u of the through train service.
Many localities can be practically rid ' nosquitoes by 'he adoption of anv one of three measures: eitiu-r by the draina^'e oi the swamps ,>r ponds in which they breed, or by the use of kerosene upon the surface of the waters in which they breed, or
Hg 37. — I'upa of (ulfx pungens at left; pupa
at right— greatly enlarged. (Auiur'i
i \-i'>|'h'ew niaculipennis
^iiit.ttlOH.J
by the introduction of tish ir^ ''shitss pc . .0 that they may eat the larvae of the mosquito in all mos>^jito-extermination work, however, it must he remembered that they will breed suc- cessfully in any transient pool of water or in anv receptacle vl.ere water is left standing for .1 week, no matter how small this receptacle may be. They may breed in collections of water in the hollows of old stumps or in old bottles or in oM discarded tomato cans. They breed profusely in rain-water barrels, and in rain-water tanks, and in old wells, and even in cess-pools where the adults are able to tj.iin access to such pools. There- fore every possible source of this kind must be hunted for when one is enyajjed in mosquito extermination.
10?
I
Mosquitoes
Life History of a Mosquito
(Culix piiugcus Wicclcmanii.y
This common ;ind vvidcspn-ad mosquito, which occurs from the White Mountains in New Hampshire to Cuba, and from British Columbia to Mexico, lays its e^'jis, numbering from 200 to 400, in a raft-like mass on the surface of the water. The eggs
« I i .
Fig. 5S.—rsnroph(ira cili.it. 1 : Ifnuilt— er.iarpid. i Aulhor'i illustration. )
.ire laid side by side, standint; on end and stuck close together in Ifingitudinal rows six to thirteen in number and with from three or four to forty eggs in a row. The egg ntass is gray-brown
104
4-i
;ur
PiATi: XV.
I
m\ !
■ ■ 1
11 iH;
■'
Fir,. I.
2.
3- 4-
5- 6.
7-
8.
9- lo. II.
12. 1 ■!. 14. IS. \h.
'T- IS. II). 211. 21. 22.
2-!. 2.J. 2i. 20.
27-
2><. 2t). 10. •)!■ 32- ??■
14-
IS-
17- 38.
40. 41.
42.
TRUE FLIl-S
Physocephnla tibialis (Conopidnc) Athintic States
Ciirysopil:i ()rn:it;i (U-ptidiu) Athintic .St.itos
Psoroplioia ciliatii (CiiliLii.l:i") U. .S.
Pyrt;ota iindata (Ortalidx) Hastern half of U. S
Fmpi.s laviiia (Hnipidx) N. H.
Miisia domosticn (Muscidiv) Cosmopolitan
Hflicobia qiiadrisctosa (SaicopiiaKidx) D. C.
Bitt.icomorpha clavipes ( fipiiiida-) 11. S.
Pyrtrota valida (Ortalidx) NorthiMstcrn IJ. S.
Caniptonoiiia picta (Ortalidx) U. S.
Morcllia micans (Muscidic) Ha.stern II. S.
Sanophaita sarracftiix (Sarcophagidx) Fastcrn U. S.
C.aliibata lasciva (Micropc/idiC) Southern I J. S., W. I., S. A.
TftanociMa pliimosa (Sciomyzid:v) Northern U. S., Brit. Am.
Phormia terr;vnov;c (Sareophaf(idic) Northern U. S.
C.illiphoia crythrocepiiai.i (Sarcophagidx) N. A., Eur.
i'achvrhina fcrruirinea (Tipulidje) N. A., Mex.
hibio albiperuiis (Bibionidx) Northeastern U. S.
Seatophaira stercoraria (Scatophagida;) N. A., Hur.
I.ucilia cicsar (Sarcophagidx*) N. A., Eur.
(APomyia cadavorina (Sarcophagida^) Eastern half U. S.
Bombviioniyia ;ibrupta (Tachinidx) N. A., Me.x.
< )dontoinyia binntata (.Stratiomyidx) Western half U. S.
Olfersia amerieaiia (Hippoboscidic) U. S.
Iriehopoda pennipes (Tachinidx) N. A., Mex.
("lOnia capitata ' (Tachinid.c) N. A.. Mex.. Hur.
Hihinoinyia algens (I'achinidx) Northern N. A.
Panzeria radicum (Tachinidx) U. S. Eur.
Ocvptera carolinx (Tachinidx) N. A.
{"lastrophiius equi (Oestridx) N. A.. Eur.
Gonia capitata 9 (Tachinidx) N. A., Mex., Eur.
Jurinia metallica (Tachinidx) Southern 11. S., Mex
Archvtas aterrima (Tachinidx) N. A.. W. J
Hypodcrma lin-'ita (Oestridx) N. A.. Eur.
Tabanus lineola (Tabanidx) U. S., Mex.
C.hrysops niger (Tabanidx) Eastern half N. A.
Chry.sops vitlatus (Tabanidx) Northeastern IJ. S.
Tabanus cost.ilis (Tabanidx) Atlantic Slates
("uterebra buccata (Oestridse) Eastern U. S.
labaiiii'i anioricana rF'abanida-) Southeastern U.S.
Tabanus lasiophthalnius (Tabanidx-) l-asl(-rn N. A. Tabanus atrala ( Tab.uiidx) liastern 11. S., Mex.
il-lH
Thb iN-inrr Book.
Plate XV.
I
«
6 II
IS
*
'20
\/
I
30
f
16
21 ■'
'It'
31
/ /
\ /
|
T |
¥ |
|
1 ' |
10 |
|
13 |
-'-f: |
|
18 |
|
|
23 |
* i4 |
|
t |
^ |
|
33 |
|
|
^i-- |
34 > |
&
)
)
\ I
fn
III
tit
y
fi
Mosquiuies
from above and silvery white from below, the Litter color being due to the water lilm. The eggs are laid early in the morning before dawn and in warm weathf v»'ill hatch by two o'clock on the afternoon of the same day. The larvie are active little crea- tures known as wrigglers which are so often to he s. n in rain- water barrels and horse troughs. The anal end of the body is provided with a long respiratory tube into which two large air vessels extend quite to its tip, where they hav.- ,i d(.uhle orifice which is guarded by four flaps. This tube issues from the eighth
•■'S- 59— >"ulex '-"ngenst Kgg mass, wi'h enlarged eggs at left and young larva; below — enlarged. (Aul/i^r's iliusiralion.J
segment of the abdomen. The ninth segmetit is armed at the tip with four fl.ips and six hairs. The flaps arc gill-like ir. appear- ance, though they are probab'v simply locomotary in function. The mouth parts are curiously modified and are provided with nng cilia which are kept coni-tantly in vibr.ition, attracting and directing into the mouth minute panicles ot .ininial and vegetab'e matter which are to be fouiiJ in the water. The wriggler remai.is at the surfice of the water when bre.ithlnu' through its respiratory tube but descends when seeking for food. It undergoes three
105
Moiquitoci
h
1 1
u
t
differept molts, reaches maturity and transforms to a pupa in a minimum of seven days in hot summer weather, taking much longer in the early spring or when the weather grows cool in the fall. The pupa is well il'ustrated m the accompanying tigu;e and differs radically from the larva or wriggler from the fact that it now breathes from the ear-like cr trumpet-like organs issuing
Fig. (o- — lulex pungens! Full-grown Ian a at kft, pujia at right — enlarged. (Aulhor's illmtralion.J
from the thorax instead of from a respiratory tube at the other end of the bodv. The pupa remains at the surface of the water in an upright position but when disturbed wriggles actively to the bottom, floating upwards again in a very short time. The puoa stage lasts in warm weather but two days, at the expiration
io6
Mosquitoci
of which time the skin splits on the back of the thorax and the aduK mosquito works itself out. resting upon the old pupa skin until Its wings un^ Id, and then flies away. The duration of a single generation inav be within ten days; .sav sixteen hours for the egg, seven da> for the larva and two davs for the pupa. This time, howtver, may be indefinitely extended if the weatl.cr be cool.
107
THE MOTH- FLIPS
(Family Psyc/iotiidiC.)
There nre cert;iin very small, weak flies which look like little moths, from which fact they have been termed " moth-flies, " which are frequently found upon windows and upon the under surfaces of leaves, and which have broad wings, rather '.hick antenn*, and which are densely clothed A-ith hairs, even the surface of the wings being hairy. These are the flies of the family Psychodida:. They are so small and so fragile that they are difficult to preserve, and though there are probably very many species only comparatively few have been described.
The arrangement of the wing veins in these flies differs from that of all other flies, and possibly represents the lowest or most generalized type in the Diptera. although there is good reaj.on to believe that perhaps the Tipulidic more nearly represent the pri- mordial fly.
In larval habits th^^v are interesting and variable. Some of them live in dry cow dung; others on fallen leaves immersed in the water of pools or small streams, while others live in rapidly running water, and others are found in rotten potatoes. The larvK are remarkable from the fact that they have both tracheal gills and open spiracles, so that they can theoretically both breathe air and use the oxygen in the water.
One of the European forms ( Perkoma canescens) has been carefully studied by Miall and Walker (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, IC05). but the larvae of none of the American forms were known until very recently, when Kellogg discovered the larvae of Peri- coma californiensis in the streams of the Sierra Morena Mountains near Stanford University. California. With Kellogg's larva no tracheal gills were found but they may have been retracted. On the under side of the larva are curious sucking discs, through which it attaches itself to objects under the water, a structure which seems to be necessary in order to prevent the larva from
108
ri
The Moth-Fliei
being carried down the ftream. They were found on the stones of the stream bed, not usually submerged, but always at the very verge of the water, sometimes submerged, sometimes above the water surface, but always wetted by the current or spr.iv. They look something like a sow-bug or pill-bug (Oniscus) in shape, but are narrower. Kellogg's ligures and descriptions mav be found in Entomological News for February, ii)oi.
Less than twenty species have been described in the United States.
i f I
il
109
THE ^inCFS
J
with a dancing motion.
(Family Cliirouomidii.)
The 11. ects of this family, commonly known as "midges," are small, delicate (lies with simple wing venation and no ocelli. The antenna" of the males of most genera are strongly plumose, and the llies themselves are frequently seen Hying in swarms
When at rest thi. front legs of these llies are lifted and are used as feelers. The larva; aie mainly aquatic, but some live in decomposing matter and in soft earth. They are soft- skinned and worm-like in form and frequently blood- red in color. The aquatic forms are usually found in shallow pools and streams and make larval cases of silk and mud or decomposing leaves; but sonie are found at the bottom of lakes of great dep'.!'. Professor S. I. Smith having dredged them from the bottom of Lake Superior at a depth of nearly a thousand feet, and Packard ' as found them living in salt water in Salem harbor. The larva of Cliiron- omus pliimoiiis, figured herewith, abounds in great numbers in the waters of Chautauqua Lake and other fresh water lakes of the United States. These larvae form an important fish food but the family has no other economic value.
the flies abound in the spring, even before the snow has left the ground. Dr. Williston has seen them in the Rocky
Fig. 6 1
-("hirononius sp.: ti,/>, lar\'x;
fl
PI ^"*^
The Mi>i(et
Mount , ins rise up from the ground at niKhtf.-ll m the most ,n- cuM numbers, making a hummmR no,s<- like a distant watcr- ^.1. Many species are common to Hurupe and North America belon^inK t<' the so-called "circumpolar fauna. ' The eL-i-s of Chironomus are laul in the late evc ,in^j or early .norninK in a dark Kclatmous mass which swells up on touching the water md which is attached to some object cL.se to the waters edge The larv.e difler in form and hal-l, Lut there are two types In one there are four lon>{ anal tubules which function as blood-ffills. as in the lishes, and the pupa- bear bunches of long filamentary tracheal gills. These larvx are large and red and are called in England "blood-worms." The larvic of the second type have no anal tubules and the pupa has a pair of short, breathing trumpets, as in the moscjuitoes, in- stead of the thread-like tra- cheal gills. Larvic of the first type burrow; tho.se of the second type often live at the surface of the water and feed on weeds. These generalizations are taken from Miall and Hammond. One European species has been found to lav eggs while yet in the pupal stage. A genus of this familv-CVr,7/o/.„- ^o«— is composed of very minute biting flies. The so-called •• .-'inkie '• of the north woods, called " no--.ee-um ' by the Maine India. 's, belongs to this genus, and other species are found from Canada south to Chili.
Fij;. f':.— I'liir.inr,mu»plum(..-u> : .idult and pupa. / .-///,,■ A;/,-i: i
Life History of a Midge
( C/tiiviwmus mtiiHtiis. )
The life hi.story of no American species of this family has been worked out. That which follows is taken from the obser- vations of Mr. L. H. Taylor, of Leeds, England, as given in the
The Mulct*
w.)rk I'll Chiroiiomin by the aNwc montionod iinlhor';. The |.irv.v .ire Iciiiul in nel,iliiii>us liil'is .itt.uhi'il to >leiUN in slow or swilt-runninn sirc.iiiis. Whvii Jisliirluil tluv K-.ive their uses ;iiid ir.iwl like nicisiinnK vmrnis or swim with .1 liniire-ol-eu:ht million. The l.irv.i is pile >,'reen in color .itul ihoul seven mm. lonn .ind h.is no .m.il MooiI-kiIIs. When .ihuut to piip.ite the thor.i.\ is mikh swollen. The pup.v live m ncl.itiiioiis i.ises • t.iched to stones, e.uh c.ise h.ivinn .1 sliKhtly protruded ontiie at either end so th.it the w.iter flows through impelled bv the molionol thebody ofthe pup.i. The pup.i bre.ithes bv ine.ins of respir.itory trumpets which .ire so small .is to sun;;est th.it the insect .ilso bre.ithes cut.ineously or in some other w.iy. It is armed with strong hooks on the abdominal stK>"'""«'* I'V means ol" which, when mature, it tears its way through the case and rises to the surface of the water. In this position the skin of the thorax cracks and the adult lly emerges.
M
! :
THE GALL-GS^IS
( Family Cta,L>mytidu.j
The minute flies of this family are smjjl dtlicat«r flies v.me- what resembling mosquitoes, but do not bite. The \>r-,^^-i:x are many-jointed, and are furni>hcd with whorls of hair 1 ht vnr.jii have (inly a few luHKitudinal veins and but a v-.n^-le croiv ve:n ;ri .v>me genera. The legs are not swollen, and the Kjdv i-, j wingv are clothed with hairs which are easily rubbed off.
In this country these flies have n^t K-en vvsicmatitiliv studied with great care. There are nianv species, hovKever, and some of them are known only by the work of their larv*. About one hundred species have been dc^crlbcd in the United States.
The larvx differ con- siderably in their habits, but most of them for^l galls • .n tht twigs or leaves of ditTcrcnt plant:-. S.:'T,c liv? jnde' ba'k and others (of the genus [Jiplosisi rrtv upon plan!-l:ct an; barK-iice. Others still produce plant d.-'-m\.\x^ ot jifTcrcnt k;-idi whicr cannot strictly be called gjl!>.
^he larv.e are small, somev^ h:.t ll. at each end. .md frc^juentlv bnghtlv c. red or vellou'.
The pupa is e;the-r..ikeJ o' .- ei Cuiovin.
The most fam.;>u> me'rhe' •''' th: Hessian ll> ' Cecidomwi Jt:tru.
1
Tte'ltj -Uigg;':'-, io'e- wn.*-. :..'"ic
T'e'int
.ait ■-':
I...- s.Ker
-■r ^^\ .
■ •■' •.•■■t s--;aiiec 1^ ^^'C-ici i:\ e^ jr.
The Gall- Gnats
1 I
I IS
M '
!i
1
the larval state, in stems of wheat.
Fig. 64. — Diplosis resinicola. (After Comstock.)
and annually damages the wheat crop of the United States to the ex- tent of many millions of dollars. it is sup- posed to have been in- troduced into the United States in the straw brought over for bedding by the Hessian troops during the War of the Revolution. Hence the popular name. Other Am-rican species form curious galls on willow, one of them for example
resembling a pine cone. Another spe- cies lives on the sur- face of the maple le.ives. .Still another forms a gall in the stem of Chrysopsis. There are also several Cecidomyiid galls on golden rod. sun- flowers and Aster. The species of two genera have been found in Kurope to gi\e birth to young Vv'.ile in the larv.il state. This phenom- enon is knov\n as pedogenesis, but has not been observed in any American forms.
htwm CiiiuJ SI,
1 )ij)ln-i.~ pyiiviira //,j !>,f,i>lnuiit Agrhiilluy:.)
114
The Gall-Gnats
Life History of a Gall-Gnat
( Caidoiityia Icgtimciiicola Lint.)
This insect, commonly i<nown as the clover-seed midge, occurs throughout a large part of the United States and breeds in the tlower heads of the common red clover. It was tirst noticed in New York State in 1879, but has since been found in most of the clover-growing regions of the country.
The very minute, long, oval, pale yellowish eggs are pushed down by the fem.ile between the hairs which surround the seed capsule of the yet undeveloped flo- rets. They are gener- ally deposited singly, but are sometimes found in clusters of from two to five. Af- ter young larvx hatch they work their way through the mouth of the flower to the seed. They feed upon the seed, usually destroy- ing it, and when full grown work their way out of the closed florets, wriggling vio- lently until they fall to the ground where each forms an oval, compressed. rather tough cocoon of line silk with particles of the surrounding earth adhering to the out- side and rendering its detection extremely difficult. The pale orange pup.i remains within the cocoon about ten days, after which period the adult fly emerges.
•15
( \'t idonivia IcL'uniinicnl.i. i'lL'tn I'mkii Stales /h/'jriiiunt .■l!;riiiillun-.J
i
The Gall-Gnats
There ;ire two generations annually in New York, and three in the District of Columbia.
The species also breeds in white clover, and is frequently so numerous as to destroy the clover-seed crop over a large section of the country.
The remedy is a simple one, and affords an excellent example ot the value of accurate knowledge of the life history of injurious insects. It is the custom in the northern states to cut clover twice in the season, once when the clover is in full bloom, for hay alone, and again in the autumn for seed. If the hay crop 1 e cut from two to three weeks earlier than usual the lirst generation of the insect will be destroyed and the seed crop in the autumn will not be affected, or ;i least only to a comparatively slight extent.
r If
trr/' - ---' «'J|
lift
fl
i
i
M
^1/
ft \
it
Pl.ATK XVI.
TRUH II.IKS
ri(V
1. 4-
^ .
7-
s.
q.
in. I I. I ->^
I ?.
M I ^
'T- IS.
U).
::o.
21. 22.
.n.
24
2I\
21 'S
Strntiomyi;! discalis (Stratiomyidx) U. S. Fabanu.s trim;iculatus (Tabanida:) Southeastern fourth U. S. StMtioinyia norma (Stratiomyida;) Northeastern fourth U. S. lipula aiidominalis (Tipulidu;) Eastern half U. S.. Can. Tabanus trispilus (Tabanidic) Northeastern fourth U. S. Stratiomyia badius (Stratiomyidiv) Northeastern U. S.. Br-t. Am. Pantroni.i tranquilla ( labanidx) Northeastern U. .S., Can. Hermetia illucens (Sfaiiomvidic) Southern U. S., Me.\.. W. I..
S. A. Tabanus fusLopunctatus (l'abanida>) .Southeastern U. S. C.enonnia ferruginea (l.eptidx) Atlantic States, liur. .Sarirus deeorus (Stratiomyid;e) N. A. I'edici.i albivitta (Tipulidiv) Northeastern IJ. .S. Tabanus bicolor (Tabanidiv) Northeastern U. .S.. Can. Tab.inus at'finis (Tabanidiu) Northern LI. S., Krit. Am. leptis mvstacea (l.eptiJa-) F.astern N. A. Chrysops excitans (Tabanidx) Northern IJ. S.. Brit. Am. Chrysops hilaris (Kabanida;) Northeastern U. S.. Can. Chrvsopil.i thoracica (I.eptida) Hastern U. S. Tabanus septentrionaiis ( Tabanidic) Northern N. A. Di.ilysis rutithorax (l.cptida:) Northeastern U. S. Chrvsops fu.uax (Tabanidx) Northeastern IJ. S.. Brit. Am. Chrvsops fuiiax ( Tabanidiv) Northeastern U. S., Brit. Am. Chrysopila vehitin.i (l.eptidx-) Kastern h.ilf U. S. Cyrtopoijon biniaeula (Asilid;v) Northeastern U S., Brit. Am. Ommatiu'; tibialis (Asilidx) Hastern U. S. I.tph-- a gilva (Asilidx) Northeastern U. S., Can. l.ampria bicoh.r (Asilidx) Hastern U. S. I.anipri.; rubriventris (Asilidx) Southern II. S. Ceratur^;us cruci.ilis (Asilidx) Hastern hall II. S.
The I:j d^-t Book.
LI
ik
V.
t i
m
FUNGUS GN^TS
( I-\imily Mycitophiliihc.)
The flies which belonj; to this group are known as the fun- gus gnats, from the fact that many of them breed in fungi. These insects are so delicate in structure that they are difficult to collect and study and are not so well known as they should be, although nearly a thousand have been described. More than a hundred species have been described from the United States. They are delicate and as a rule rather slender little flies. The wings are generally clear, but sometimes they are smoky or with
Fig. 67.— Sci.irairitki. iAjt,r C,:/?ii:i,-ft. }
large spots as in those which belong to the gener.i Platyura. Scio- phila and Mycetophila. The female abdomen is frequently dis- tended and expanded toward the tip. as in Platvura pcdoralis Coq. and Asiihliiluii) moiiLinitm Roder. With those species whose larvK live in fungi or decaying wood or other vegetable matter, the larv.c are usually slender, cylindrical maggots, more or le.ss worm-like in appearance. Some of them somewh.t resemble
"7
Fungus Onats
i ' i
snails ;mJ construct delicate cocoons. It was formerly supposed that with some ol the species the larvx formed g.ills on leaves, as, for example, one species was supposed to belong; to the genus Sciara which makes the beautiful crimson, eye-like spots often seen on the le.ives of the silver maple, but the larvx in these spots are now thouglit to be Cecidomyum and it is doubted whether any true Mycetophilids ever make galls. Some of the Sciaras also have the curious habit when in the larval state of traveling in great armies so close to each other as to almost form one mass. They h.ive then been called worm-snakes. They travel in a solid column several deep over each other at the rate of about an inch a minute. In turope they have from this habit been called the army-worm, but in this country the term army-worm is applied to a caterpill.u. Oke of our American species of this habit h.is been reared by Pr.itt and proves to be S< Mr.j fiiUcnia. Some species live in the s.ip of trees, and injury to the b.irk of a maple or .in elm causing the sap to llow in the spring frecjuently .ittr.icts these little midges, which will lay their eggs there and subseqiientlv little m,iggois will be foLiiid. One species, known as El>iJ.ipiis Sijh'i'/. is s.iid by Hopkins to be the cause, or at least the tr.insinitter. of the disease known as scab among potatoes. He also luu.s that the .same insect will breed in he.ilthy pot.itoes. The use of scabby seed potatoes offers f.ivor- abie conditions for the att.ick of these insects as these are attr.icted to the scabby spots under which they breed and are thus brought into contact with the growing tubers. Another species teeds upon ripe .ipples. One of the Sciar.'s has been called the yellow- fever fly in the southern United States, since it made its appear- ance in extraordinary numbers during a yellow fever epidemic. It has. however, no connection with the disease. Certain of these fungus gnats jump actively as well as tly. Siiani /ritiii Coq., figured herewith, in its 'arval stage damages young growing wheat plants.
5 J
uS
THE MARCH-hLIES
( Fiuiiiiy Ihhioniihc.)
The flies of this f.imily arc not especially interesting. They are of medium size and are rather thick-bodied and rather hairy but are weak fliers. Their wings are frequently smoky. Some species, as Scatopse, are very small. There seems to be nothing especially interesting about the group, although more than three hundred species are known. The larv;e are cylindrical and have tr.msverse rows of bristles and the head, which is r.irely obvious in dipterous iarviV. shows eyes. They feed upon excrenient.il or vegetable substances and are said to attack *' e roots of growing grass. One of our commonest species is Bibio alhipcnnii. This species sometimes occurs 'n enormous numbers. In the spring of I Sen. according to Osborn, it abounded in parts of Iowa and w.is erroneouslv reported as doing much dam- age to vegetation. In this form the >Aings are white, quite contrary to the general rule in the family. Other species are of a deep red color with dark wings. The l.irvie of some species of this family have been found on the surface of snow. The llies of the genus Scatopse breed in decaying vegetable material, in sewers, and in human excret;i. Si.ifopsi' pii/n-iiria is common on our windows at certain seasons ofthe year and, us it is an excrement lly, is a d.ingerous inhabitant of houses.
119
I'ig. (iS. Hildo albipcmiis. ( A/hr J.iiiliur. }
THR BMCK FLIES ^ND BUFFALO GN.-iTS
t 5.
,iV' I
( /■'iniii/v Simii/iii/a-. )
Thi-si- insects, known .is W.uk llics, s.inJ tlies or biiff;ili>un.its. ;irf sin.ill. :;tout. hump-biickcd, bitinj^ llii-s with br();id wJii^s .ind rathtT short lejfs which arc sometimes speckled. ;md with short, strui^'ht, simple antennx. The eyes ol the male are verv lar^'e
and Irequentiv touch each oilvr, .md the insect in this sex Joes not bite. The family cont.iins only the single genus Simulium of which the bl.ick ,lies of the north woods and the biiffaio gnat of the Mississippi and Missouri valleys are well known examples. They rival the iros- quito in their blood-thirsty ten- dencies and not onlv do they attack human-beings, but poul- try and domestic animals are frequently killed by them. There is one case on record in which a man was killed bv m- nuinerahle bites. Ill certain seasons they multiply enor- mously, alight ill thousands on cattle and produce death thn)Ui.'li their poisonous bites as well as from loss of blood. Un- like mosquiti'es thev tly .ind bite in the d.iy time and are often seen III large numbers living in bright sunshine. The larv.c are aquatic and unlike mosquitoes again, the larvx of which live in st.ignant water. Simulium larvie frequent well aerated and fre- quently swiltly running stre.ims. They are found most abundantly ■ in rocks or logs so near the surf ice .is to c.iuse a rapid ripple.
120
I u. (ii) — simulium nuriiliDn.ili-
The Black Klicn and Buffalo Onati
On one occasion in tho South the butT.ilo gn.it pl.igue w;is ;ivfrti-il
hy the removal o\ a jam ot lojjs in a sliigKish havmi over which the water ran .shalli)w!y with sufficient speed to make a per- fect breeding place. When the logs were rtnu)ved and the oM sluggish current was resumed the breeding places had been abolished. In the typic.il life history which follows, the issu- ing of the fly is mentioned but it should be slated here that wiih another species in the southwest Mr. H. l"i. Hubbard while watching the surface of the water saw adults issue in gre.it numbers w ith such force and velocity that as he e.\- pressed it they appeared as if shot out of a gun.
Fig. 70. — ^iniutiuin inveinistum.
Typical Life History
( Siutidium putif'ts llagcn.^
The larv.-T- of this species occur abiindantiv on the rocks in the hillside sfeams about Ith.ica, N. Y.. where the writer v\as familiar with them as a boy. The bovs who bathed in the streams in that region fe.ired these larvx. called them leeches and supposed tli.it tliev U'ould att.ich them- selves to the skin .ind suck blood. They are. however, perlectlv h.irmlc ;. The life history oi the sj . cies has been c.irefulK worked out bv Miss R. O. Phillips ' '■; in .in unpublishe'l paper from
121
- ^iniuliuni iiu t iui>tuni. female Fmh C'.S. Dcpt. A<,"-j
The Black Klici and Hulfalo Onata
!
which the fbllowinn account is condensoJ. The adults ((.i w in :'•■.' c.iriv p.itt III M.iv m .it tho lioninninn "( the tiist cuniiiiiii'iis w.irm wiMthtr in tho spring. The i>ij{s arc deposited on rucks over \v huh the w.iter is tlowinK. I lie llies hover in httle swarms a font oi two .il uve the rock, r.ipidiv llvini! l^-'ck .md torth, .iiul occ.ision.illv d.irtiiifi down and depositing lun eggs beniMlh the water on the llat surface of the rock. I he hatch of ei:i{s becomes at le.ist .1 foot or more in diameter and is di-tinctlv observable .it some distance on account of the light yellowish color. V\ hen the w.iter is veiv sh.ilK \v and its velocity sli;;ht the llies soinetiines cr.iwl over the surl.ice of the rock .ind depo>it eggs without tlymg. Only a small proportion of the eggs pro- duce larvx". The larva' hatch about eight davs after the eggs are
I. lid and in this st.ige the in- sect in. IV be found .it .inv se.tson of the ye.ir. in suinnier .IS u ell .IS In winter, and it is in this st.ige th.it it hibern.ites. The hirv.e die in three or Inut hours %\lun pi, iced in i|uiet u.iter. I'.isteiud to the rock 'V tne .mil L-nd of the bodv they assume .in erect position .md move the iie.iv irouiid occ.isioii.illv with a circlinii motion.
Thev m.iv ick'.ise themselves .ir.d as thev grow l.irger tliev
sometimes .illow themselves to be w.ished into deeper water.
holding bv a thre.id which they spin as they go. The thre.id is
'Min from the mouth but is att.iched along the side of the body
different segments. Sometimes .1 l.irge cluster of l.irv.e
' to the same thread which they c.in .iscend in mu^h the
ner as do spiders. Not much food is taken in the
wii..^. .e. l)uring the summer the length of the larv.il life is
about four weeks, varying with the temper.iture and the velocity
of the water. When full grown the larva spins its cocoon, firmly
att.iching it to the rock and also to .idjacent cocoons. The length
of the pup.il st.ige i^ .ibout three weeks. Over-wintering l.irv;e
transform to pup.e about Ihe 12th of .April, the lirst tiles .ippearing
on the 2d of May. The newly issuing tly surrounded by a
. — Sinmliiim in\ ernisuim. nult'
The UUck Ktit* and HuHslu Qnau
i
hubblo of Wiiter qukkly arises to the surl-icc ol the water aiiJ
(lies away instantly.
the silky pubescente
keeping It Imm yet-
tm^ Wft. The lirst
>{cner.ition having ap-
j'l.ireil in early May.
successu ■ generations
are proiiuceJ from
this time on liiirinij
the Miminer .inJ p.ir
ol the autunin. A .
ol the llies captured ..
from the first brooj in \K
one inst-ince were fe- V,
males and this m.iy be f/(
the rule but towards
autumn the males
bewail to appe.ir in
^neater numbers .ind
towards the last of
AujiUst iieativ all ol
the specimens taken
were m.iles. On Sep-
tembi-r _>. iSS.*;. ilif
present writer c.ip-
tured liftv specimens
of this tly at Ithaca
and all were males
with the e\cepti<in of
one. Adults were
observed on the wing as late as the loth of October.
'■'K- 7;>-
^inmliuni ornatuni. cirly .-///.»■ A'l.'.v.
stages
1 = 1
FAMILIFS ORPHNF.PHIUD/R. BLEPHARO- CERIDAi ^ND RHYPHID/B
These three f.imihes ;ire not especially well represented in the faun:i of the United States and comparatively little need be said about two of them.
The OrphnephilidiC are small brownish or yellowish flies without bristles or hairs. We ha/e only one described species in this country, viz, Orplmeplii/ii A'sA/ci,/ Ruthe. common to Europe and North America. Nothing is known about the transforma- tions of any member of this family.
The Blepharocerida", however, are insects of much greater interest and especially on account of their curious larvx and on .iccount of an unusual arrangement of the viens in the wings which has been pointed out in the table of families. The adult (lies look somewhat like mosquitoes but do not bite. The eyes are divided, the upper half containing large ocelli and the lower half sm.ill ones. The larvx are very peculiar looking objects, having appp.irently but seven segments and being furnished with conical leg-like structures on most of the segments. On the under side of the body is a row of circular suckers bv which they .ittach themselves to rocks in swift running streams. Each of the suckers is surrounded by a little fringe of tracheal gills or there are tufts of such gills near the sides of the body. The pupa is formed within the last larval skin but subsequently the skin is cast so as to leave the pupa naked. The pupa also clings to the rocks, the skm of the back being hard and making a sort of scale over tile bodv. On the underside. hnv\ever. it is delicate and soft and furnished with six suckers bv which it clings to the rocks so (irmly that thev can hardly be removed without breaking them. Comstock h.is watched the tlies issue from the pupa skins. The pup;c occur in groups so .is to form black patches on the rocks. Each one rests with its he. id down the stream. The fly emerges through a split in tl e skin between the thor.ix and
124
Ji7y5>'^ 'fW^^.ym^'^
.y w"- yZi* --^.. -^^^^^
v^n:..,r-
^^•:
7k1
Families OrphnephilidsE, Blepharoceridse and Rhyphid*
abdomen, working its w;iy out slowly and holding itself upright in spite of th. v!''; "-urrcnt. Where only a quarter ot an inch of
water llr skins wii The win. was deep perished.
d ovtt iiie'r ii. '.^s (lies were able to hold to the pupa thiirhinJ !.gs lie body being free from the water. . tn r. ex|i.iti(.ed ind they flew away. Where the water •: *. H' 'lit s were carried down the stream and possibly 1 he comiiio.:t.'st species of the northeastern states is Blepbiiroicra capilata I.oew, which occurs in the District of Co- lumbia, in central New York, in the White Mountains J in Canada.
The family Rhyphidie, the members or which have been called the "false crane Hies," is composed in general of small flies with broadly rounded and spotted wings. It is a small family and only two genera are represented in this country. The early stages of none of our American species are known but in Europe they are described as long, slender, worm-like creatures which are found in decaying %\'ood, in cow dung, in decaying fruit and even in dirty water.
"S
■^i-
'S ,1 "
• 1
'!*..
7 ' - - ■■ .^f^
W
i '■■ i
■tt
|
11 |
|
I'll 11 |
|
li s^ |
THE SNIPE FLIES
(Family I.cptidiC.)
These are slender, rather small flies, somewhat resembling the robber flies, on account of their long legs and slender bodies. Thev have usually smoky wings and velvety bodies, some of them slightly resembling yellow-banded wasps. They are not especially numerous. Some of these flies are predatory and de- stroy other insects and this may be the habit of all. They are sluggish in their habits and are easily caught. The larvK are predaceous. and variable in their habitations. Some are found in water, others live in deciying wood, or in the earth, in moss, in dry sand, or in the burrows of wood-boring beetles. There is a curious resemblance between the habits of the species of the genus X'enuileoand the well- iiown ant-lions, the larvic forming conical pitfalls in the sand in which to catch small insects. Flies of the genus .Atherix lay their eggs, as do the females of the Stratiomyiid genus Odontomyia, in masses on dried branches overhanging the water. The masses become very large and pear-shaped from the curious fact that a number of female- add their eggs to the same mass, frequently dying after egg Living and leaving their bodies attached to the egg mass. The larvx are cylindrical and sometimes bristly, and may have fleshy ap- pend.iges resembling prolegs on the abdomen. Atheri.x has seven pairs of these prolegs. The l.irva of one species has been found by Hart in damp e.uth.
The t.imilies ,Xylophagid;e and C(rnomyiidx which will be found mentioned in some books are merged with the Leptids. The Xylophagids are rather slender flies with the .ibdomen pointed in the female .sex. The (^lenoniyiids on the contrary are stout, r.ither l.irge flies. The larv;e <il some (>f Xylophagids live under b.irk .ind prey on other insects .ind the larv.v of Ciunomyia live in the earth and are also probably predaceous.
1.-6
..i
ifiHi
•wjUf^arr
i.\y.
m- ^- ':?^.-^
fi- !
The Snipe Flies
Nearly three hundred species are known, ot which rather more than lilty occur in the United States, hut the full life history of none of our American forms is known. Vermileo, the form whose larva resembles that of the ant-lion, does not occur in the United States.
127
■Ill If.
Ml ill;
- » \l: 1
SOLDIER FLIES
(Family Stiatiomyiidie.)
There are certiiin rather broad, but rather flat-bodied flies of divers structure, but separated Irotn other flies by the characters given in the table, which are not especially remarkable in their appearance except in -ome aberrant forms, and which are not especially numerous or notable, which are grouped together in this family. Comstock has called them the -soldier flies," on account of bright colored stripes with which some species are marked. They are also dark colored and metallic and are not h.iirv or bristly. -Some of the brightly marke.l ones look like Syrphus flies and .some of them have a superflcial resemblance to some of the solit.iry wasps. The wings are usually clear, but are sometimes smoky or brown. They are found generally in marshy pl.ices on flowers and vegetation, and their larvx live in the water, in the earth, in moss, in decaying wood, and in ants' nests, and there are observations on record which seem to show that the larva; of the curious American genus Hermetia may live in bee hiv^ s, and in the nests of wild bees. At all events. H. illiiit'iii has been seen hovering about bee hives and thrusting its eggs through cracks in the hives. The aquatic species are not con- fined to fresh water, but at least one is known to inhabit salt v. ater. and one form lives in some of the alkaline lakes of the western states.
-Some of the l.irvx are carnivorous, while others feed upon decaying vegetable matter.
The .iquatic foims feed upon very small aquatic organisms. The eggs are laid in overlapping layers upon the under sides of the leaves of aqua..c plants, or they are laid upon the surface of the water. The larva; are elongate pointed and flattened. We hardlv know enough about the development of any one North American form to draw up a tvpical life history, but several of
Ifi ■ ' ?..T ■
im»rm:.:JK'^^l~
'
Pi ATE XVII.
FIG.
lO. II. 12.
13- M
I ^. lb.
'T- IS.
20. 21. 22.
23- 24.
TRUE FLIKS
Anthnix fulvoliirta (Bornbyliida) Eastern U. S.
Anthrax alternata (Bombvliidx) Ea.stern LI. S.
Systa-chus vulgaris (Bonihyliida) Norlheasti-rn fourth U. S.
Anthrax hypomtlas (Bombyliida-) Eastern half U. S.
Exoprosopa fasciata (Bombyliidic) Eastern half U. x
Bombylius major (Bombyliidie) N. A., Eur
Anthrax sinuosa (Bonibyliidx) U. S.
Exoprosopa c:'!:ptera (Bombyliid*) We.stern half U. .S., Mex.
Anthrax tegminipennis (Bombyliidiie) Northeastern lourth U. S., Can.
Laphria canis (Asilida') Northeastern U. .S.
Spogostyluni siinson (Bombyliid;v) U. S., .S. A.
Dioctria albius (Asilida;) Northeastern U. S.
Laphria pubescens (Asilidx) Northern U. .S.
Erax KStuans (Asiiidx) N. A., W. J.
l.nphria sericea (Asilidx) Eastern L'. S.
Dasyllis llavicollis (Asilidae) Eastern U. S.
Asilus orphne (Asilidx-) Eastern U. S.
Deromyia sp. (Asilida;)
Dasyllis po.sticata (Asilidx) Atlantic States
Asilus sericeus (Asilidae) Eastern U. S.
Mallophora orcina (Asilida;) Southeastern U. S.
Proctacanthus milberti (Asilida;) Eastern half U. S.
Mallophora orcina (Asilidx) Southeastern U. S.
Proctacanthus philadelphicus (Assilida;) Eastern U. .S.
'§^MS^m>>^:r^sr:Ju^m^immit^j^^imr^miSj^ ■ f '
^-^-f-^ - ■"
iLziAOSE
-*?T
ii
maum
jfedPi .jmyMML^MMiWl9CMrk:k^^l
A-4-:_.
f
Soldier Flics
the aquatic and subaquatic species have been studied by Hart in his interesting; uivesti^iations of the entomology of the llhnois River. He liiiJs that Stratiotnyia seems t prefer the shore and Odontomyia the water. The larvce are large, opaque, greenish brown or gray, obscurely striped, and when in the water are found upon vegetation near the surface or floating about, and when on shoie crawling about over the mud and in the green scum . J oiten found on w 1 1 banks. The pupa is Ibrmed within the larv.il skin, but occupies only the head-end. the remainder of the skin being tilled with air which causes the pupa to float at the surface of the water. When the lly is ready to emerge the larval skin splits transversally on the fourth segment and the tly emerges while the case is tloating on the water or resting on the shore. Hibernating larva; and pupa: are four.! in large numbers on loose drift on the shore, emerging, in Illinois, in early sum- mer. Hart thinks there are two generations annually. He watched the egg-laying of OJoiitomyiii cinita and O. ivrtehnila. They chose dead branches in the water, reeds and the stems of various pl.mts. The female generally stood with the head down- wards, and the long ind narrow eggs were placed in an irregular oval mass to the number of several hundred closely laid with their tapering ends inserted between the ends of those next to them.
The larvx and pupx are frequently parasitized by certain Chalcis tlies fSmiiia nitoh'iiioi\itj and 5. microgaster. j Hart made an extremely interesting observation when he found the latter parasite mutilatirg w ;*h its jaws an egg mass of one of these Hies. I i 'i>w of no jbservat on parallel to this. The eggs above referred tn were laid June i:t. and hatched in ten days. The stomacio of the larvie were found to contain mud for the most part, with a little vegetable m.itter, and here and there a diatom.
About one thousand species of Stratiomyiidae have been described, of which about two hundred are found in North America.
"9
F/1M/LY /tC/tNTHOMERlDy€
This is ;i small and relatively unimportant family of flies of which hut a single genus and half a dozen species arc represented in North America and all of these are southern forms. They include some of the largest tlies known and resemble the gad- flies and bot-Ilies more than the tlies of any other family in general appearance.
I
130
:^ .t^\ Mf^.
m:
-.11
4 K.
■i-9i^\tv^^"mn'm-'i^.
THH GAD-FUF.S OR HORSF.-FUF.S
( Juiiiiiiy Tahauiiicc.)
The insects of this important family are known as pad-flies, horse-tlies or lieer-llies. T > this ^jroup jieionp the active, stron^{- tlyin^j creatures which aim y horses to sucli an extent when one is driving alon>{ a woudtd road, especially in pine woods, and also the smaller yellowish or greenish tlies whicf. annoy forest animals, and which bite hiim.in beings when in the woods. The proboscis of all of the tlies of this family is in the female sex adapted for piercing and sucking, the males, as in all of the blood- sucking tlies, incliidmg the mosquitoes, bemg harmless, and the proboscis not adapted for piercing the skin of inamm.ils. The bites do not ap- pear to be as painful as those of mos'iuitoes or of black tiles, and apparently no poison is in- jected, but any one of these flies may be responsi- ble for the trans- fer of the bacillus of anthrax or "in.ilignant pus- tule," as it is called. The
adults are great water ikers,
and are usually nu st abundant in the vicinity ot inland ponds and streams. This has suggested to Porchinskv, the Russian entomologist, thede^irabiliiyof co.it;ng such ponds with kerosene,
I'.i
Fig. 74. — Chrysiips fugax. fA/liir Osl'orn. 1
The Gad-h'lit« or Horge-Klte*
.I'ul his ,x(viinu-ms rcsult.-J in the Jestriiction ..r uriMf numKTs ul I .ib.iillils.
The hrviv nt the T.ihinidx live in ihe e.irlh or in w.iter mJ mv e.irniv..r,.us. teeJiiig upcn sc.fi-h.,dieJ insects .ind w iter MMils. lhespindle-sh.ipeJ hr,mn ,.i h|,ck e^ns ;ire der,.siteJ in summer in ^-roups ;itt,iched t.. the le.ues „r stems o( herlv^o Ihe K'ad-llies vary jjreatly in eol..r ..nd si/e, ,ind the sm,.||er ones "I the ^a-nus Clirvsups. sometimes e.illed deer flies .lu (re- Muentlv iiLiite sm.ill jnd M-l-.red with vellow or Kieen. Tlie Lirger ones v:irv throumh jjr.iv .ind hrovvn to bl.iek. Our lar-est ^.Md-llv is ■/■.;/.,;;///> /tnifrn jiiiis l-..rst.. which is .in inch .ind .1 qiurter lon^', .ind has .1 v^'inK-spre.id ol two .md one-h.ill inches It inhabits the Southern States. About looo species are known. and perh.ips 2u) oc.ir in this country.
Hi I
! .
Typical Life History of a Gad-Fly
I I iilh})iiis iihiilus bah J
This IS one ol the common Lir^i black horse-dies which h.is a verv wide distribution in ll.r United Stales. Its l.irv.i- have been
studied bv Walsh, 'viley and Hart. H.irt h.is found the etii; iii.isses in July on the dry bark ot .1 stick lojectini: Irom the water. Fi,.m these iK.ys l.iiv.e hatched .Auu'ust 4th. I,,ir\x of this species were 1 >und comiiionK in water, among vege- tation and m the sand of the s.indv shores of the Illinois River. , , \\\\>x m.iv be found
in the earlv summer, and the adults ,,pp,.ar in.m .May to |uly hvmg ail through i!;e summer. The species is apparently single-brooded, that is to sav. has but one generation annually,
/'. |>uim;
/^, fffy
*-»*• ■■ 1.^
The Oad-Ptics ur Horie-Klict
and hibcrnaU-s in the l.irviil sUi^i-. the ;uiiilts tn.iinly omorninn in July .ifter .1 short pup.il pt-rKul. the I'Ufjs beinK l.iid withuut delay and producing l.irvx a week later. The eKK is about j.s mm. loni;. with a diameter of .4 mm., dark-brown, sub-cyhndrical, moro or less t.iperm^j at the end. As they af laid in masses they point obliquelv upwards, and are stuck in tour or five tiers, one above the other, and all gummed toijether in .1 lirm mass. The larva is shininj; and ol a transp.irent. whitish color, with a jjreenish tin«i- marked with conspicuous dark-brown or jjo'd- fjreei) irre^iiLir b.inds. The e^K is p.ir.iMli/cd bv the little Hvmcnupterous insect known as Pliiiniiriis la/uiinvnis Ashm.
'3i
THE SMALL-HEADED FLIES AND THE TANGLE-VEINED FLIES
(Families AcroariJce mui Xcmcstrinida;.)
The Acrocerid flies, which have been called the "small- headed " flies by Comstock and which in some books are known under the family name of Cyrtidie, are of medium size and with a strongly convex thorax so as toapp.-ar hump-backed. The head is very small and is composed almost entirely of eyes. Both the tlies of this family and of the Nemestrinidx would be described .is little fat tlies from their stout bodies. The Acrocerids are sometimes of brilliant metallic colors and are rather well repre- sented in North America since we have representatives of ten genera comprising more than thirty species. The flies of the genus Pterodontia, of which one species (P. analis) occurs in our Southern .States, are of very extraordinary form. They look like minute inflated bladders, the head being extremely small. The larvx of the small-headed flies are chiefly parasitic, living in spiders or in their cocoons. In Europe one species lives in the body of a spider, leaving it to pupate, while in this country Emerton has found the larva of one of these flies living in the webs of a common spider, presum.iblv having eaten the spider itself.
The flies of the family Nemestrinida; resemble .somewhat in general appearance certain wild bees or the bee-flies of the family Bonibyliidiu. Their mouth parts are frequently of great length and they are used in gathering nect.ir from the flowers. They are rare in the United .States, only four species being known to occur here. The life hi.story of none of them has been worked out. One of the Huropean species of the genus Hirmoneura is in its early stages parasitic in a beetle larva. The p.irent fly lays her eggs in the burrows of some wood-boring insect. When the larva- hatch they come to the surface of the log in which they
'J4
The Small-Headed Plies and the Tangle- Veined Flies
were born, tilt themselves upwards and are blo> ". away by the wind, falling to the ground and entering the bodies ol ih'* white grubs upon which they feed, or they may attach themselves to the bodies of the beetles and so be carried into the ground when the female enters to deposit her eggs.
'35
FAMILIES MYDAID/E AND APIOCbRID/E
The llio-s of the f;imily Mydaidx, for which there is no other popular name than the " Mydas-tlies. " are large and rather slender forms, frequently black with yellow or red bands and with smoky wings. They much resemble the robber-tlies of the family Asiii- dx. to which they are rather closely related. They are quite abundant in this country, though rare elsewhere in the world. The flies are predatory like the robber-flies and feed upon other insects. The early stages are known in only a few species. The larva of Mwids fiihipcs Walsh lives in decaying sycamore trees and is probably predatory on other insects living in such locations. This larva is nearly two inches long. Other species are said to be predaceous in the larval stage and on the larva; of the gigantic Ion ,■ 'lorned beetles of the genus FVionus, which are generally four J in dying or dead trees and usually in the roots. The remarkable species known as Mviijs Ititcipeiinis Loew, which occurs in Te.xas and New .Mexico, has dark orange-yellow wings of the same shade as those of the so-called tarantula-killer (a very large wasp known as Pepsis formosa). This is obviously a case of aggressive or protective mimicry, and the same phenomenon is seen with some of the slender black and yellow-banded flies of this family, which look like Scoliid wasps.
The flies of the family Apioceridx also look something like the robber flies, but our species are all western. They are rather large and slender; some rest on the ground and others hover over flowers like humming-birds. The early stages and transfor- mations are not known.
'J6
THE BEE-FLIES
(Family Bomhyliidic.)
The handsome, slout-bodied, active flies of this family are commonly known as "bee-tlies" from their superficial resem- blance to bees. There are over 1.400 species known. They usually have spotted or banded wings and their bodies are clothed with hair. They poise in the air in their flight and are most frequently found in sunny openings in the woods. They are distinguished from allied flies by the characters mentioned, by their venatioi., slender legs, small, close three-jointed antennx and rather long proboscis. They are distinct., ely (lower-flies, fie- quentini; blossoms and feeding upon the pollen and nectar which they are able to reach with their long beak. Some of them some-
's
*
Fip. 76. — Anthrax I.ypomtlas.
what resemble the gad-flies of the genus Ckrysops, and others, like Sysfrophiis, have a slender abdomen swollen towards the tip and look like mud-dauber wasps. Their larval habits are ex- tremely interesting and they are parasitic upon wild bees and in the egg-cases of grasshoppers as well as upon certain caterpillars. On the whole they may be termed benetkial insecis.
1-7
The Bee rlies
Typical Life History of a Bee- Fly
( Svshtr/iiis oriiis (). S )
This species is ;i Western form ;md is parasitic in the egg- cases of the so-called Rocky Mountain Locust or Western Grass- hopper. It is unfortunate that the life history of no good repre- sentative of the Eastern species in some one of the other genera which may be supposed to live in the nests of wild bees has been
worked out. Here is a (ield for some intel- ligent Eastern worker.
y^ I ifflfc f j^^ '^"^ species have not
larvae are found in the egg-pods of the grass- hopper or near them and of different sizes during most of the year. The larva' be- gin to transform to the pupa state early in the summer and the pupa pushes it.self half-way out of the ground in order to disclose the lly. Flies continue to issue dur- ing the summer. Normally there is but one generation annually but there is a great tendency to retardation and sometimes the larviu remain over unchanged until the second year. The larva is a stout, plump, curved, grub-like looking cre.iture with an opaque whitish color with small dark-brown he.id. The pupa looks something like the pupa of .i l.epidoptero^ insect but bears manv spines on the head and thora.x and the dorsal ridges of the abdominal segments also bear rows of spines while other portions of tile body carry soft dark hairs.
-Systachus i)ri..i.N. i After KiUy.j
Kig 7S. — S. fircos, j)u]>;i. (AfUr KiLy 1
'38
THE IVINDOIV-FLIES ^ND THE STILETTO-FLIES
(Families Sciiwpiiiidcc ami 'J'/uirviii(r.)
The Scenopinid flies, which Comstock called the window- flies for the reason that they are quite commonly seen upon the windows of houses, are small, active, shining black Hies of which we have a half-dozen species in North America, the commonest being Siciiopiniis feiicstralis Linn., which is common to both Europe and North America. Its specilic name, fenestralis. i^ due to its window-loving habit. The larviv of these flies resemble those of the following family, and are long and very slender, white in color and with apparently many f -\; joints to the body. They ^" are frequently found under carpets and in decaying wood; also in woolen blankets, and Riley has stated that he found one in human expectoration. |,. This, however, was prob- ably accidental. The manager of a storage warehouse noticed many of these slender, white l.irv.-c under carpets sent in by his customers for storage. He was worried at their number since he supposed that their presence might indicate the advent of some new kind of carpet moth. He was assured, however, that they were considered as predatory in habit, and that they feed upon clothes moths and otier insects found in such places, such as book-lice. Nowhere, he vvever. does there appear to be any record of any definite observations on this point. One observer tells me that he tried to dec'de this question, but that the insect intended for
'39
-Si:i-ncipiims fc-ncstr:ili>
»
The Window Flies and the Stiletto Klies
prey turned out to be more afjgressive and ate up the Scenopinus larva. They are apparently always especially abundant, as I am informed by Mr. Chittenden, in the sweepinsjs in feed stores and the llies are always to be found around the windows in such establishments. The probability is very strong that they feed upon such small, soft-bodied insects as llour-mites and book-lice. Mr. Pergande tells me that he has seen them eat the pupae of one of the little stored-grain beetles (Silvaniis siiriiiiiniiiisis) and also disabled house-tlies which he had offered them, as well as their comrades of their own species.
The family Therevid;v comprises a group of rather small and rather slender tlies, frequently of variegated color, and looking something like robber-llies. They have been called stiletto-llies. The flies themselves prey upon other insects, principally other flies. They are not as active as the true robber-flies, nor are they as strong, and as a result they choose weaker prey and have the habit of lying in wait upon leaves and bushes and even upon the ground for their prey to come near them instead of flying about actively in search of it as do the robber-flies. Their larva- are very curious and .ire found in rotting wood or in earth which is full of vegetable mold, and seem to feed upon I oth decaying animal and vegetable matter. They have been found feeding upon dead caterpillars and pupit. They are very long and slender, and have apparently twenty segments to the body in- cluding the head. This appearance, ho»vever, is deceptive, and is due to a seeming division of the anterior segments.
140
il'l:. )
I'i
I :
■ I
i!
I'l.ATE XVlll.
TRU1-: f"LIHS
FIO I.
2.
1.
4
7- 3.
Q. lO.
1 1.
12.
I 1.
M-
IS.
'7- 18.
'9-
20. 21. 22. 21.
:!4-
2S. 26.
27- 2>i. 29. 10.
3'-
Hrax macukitus (AsiliJa-) Southern U. S., Cent. Am., S. A. Krax ruliharbis (AMlidx) H;i.stein IJ. .S. Mallophora fautrix (AsiliJa-) Southeastern LI. S.. Mex. Deroniyia ternatus (,Asihdx; Southeastern I). S.. W. I. I'roctacanthu.s rulus (Asihdx-) Atlantic Stat-s Krax ruliharbis (Asilidx) Kastern U. S. Promachus lastardii (Asilidiv) hastern U. S. Proniachus vertebratus (Asilid*) Kastern half U. S. Midas luteipennis (Mydaidae) Southwestern U S. Systa'chus solitus (Bombyliid*) Southeastern U. S. Dasyllis thoracica (Asilidx) Eastern U. S.. W. I. D.isyllis sacrator (Asilidiu) Northeastern U. S.. Can. Anastttchus nitidulus (Bonibyliida;) U. S., Kur. Spoj(ostyluni pluto (Boinbyliidx) U. S., (^an. Anthrax ceyx (Boinbyliida;) Southeastern U. S. Kciimus t'unestus (Bombyliidx) Northe.istcr.i U. S. Anthrax alcyon ( Boinbyliidx-) Western half U. S., Brit. Am. Hxoprosopa fasiipennis (Bombyliidx') Kastern U. S. , W. I. Bombylius pygma-us ( Bombyl'"')*) Kastern U. S., (Ian. Kxoprosopa decora ( Bombvliid. , .. idle U. S. Lepidophcra lepidocera ( Bombyliida') Kastern li.ilf LJ. S. Bombylius varius (Bombyiiidic) Northeastern U. S. Kulonchus smaragdinus (Acrocorida) Cal. Toxophora amphitea (Bombyliid;e) Kastern U. S. Anthrax fulviana ( Bombyliida") U. S. Sparnopolius fulvus (Bombvliida?) Kastern U. S. Psilocephala hxmorrhoidalis (Therevida-) I). S., Can. Thereva frontalis (Therevidx) Northe.istern fourth U. S. Spo^ostylum analis (Bombvliida-) U. S., (]an. Neocota weedii (Kmpida) Miss. Rhamphomyia rustica (Kmpida) Northeastern U. S.
rHI \H: ClT bcCfi.
Pl*rc XVlii.
14
'•^ IT ^
20 2' 22
IS
^
w
^
^
M
■1^
27
Hf
\J
t
30
P^
mm
|
■ |
I t ■J |
|
m |
* i |
|
.1 1 |
THE ROBBER-hLIFS
f l-'iiviih Asi/iiiu\ i
The strong', haiiy, activo. prcdatorv tlies. known as robber- flics, form this K^i^up- They arc very numerous and are always conspicuous, living with a dartin^j motion and preymg upon many different kinds of insects. Thev are. as a rule, rather slender, but extremely stronjj. and are furnished with a larj{e, taperinjr, hard beak, enclosing? a sharp l.incet which is thrust out and cuts A severe wound in the body of the insect captured. The tip of the beak is bearded with stiff bristles which hold it securely in the wound into which it is crowded. Fitch s.iys, "These llies .ire inhuman murderers. They are savaj,'es of the insect world, putting their c.iptives to death with merciless cruelty. Their l.irge eves, divided into such a multitude of facets, probably give them the most acute and accurate vision for espying and seizing their prey: and their long, stout legs, their bc.irded and bristly head, their whole aspect indicates them to be of a predatory and ferocious character. Like the hawk, they swoop upon their piev. and grasping it securely be- tween their forefeet they violently bear it away." Nearly all of their victims are captured on the wing, and any flying insect is liable to be caught bv them — other tlies. bees, beetles, moths, butterflies, grasshoppers, and even members of their own spe- cies, so that they are true cannibals. Just as with th praying M.intis. or le.irhorse, the female frequently resents the caresses of the male, and grasps him and eats him. Thev will also feed upon caterpillars, but rarelv. Persons engaged in bee culture especially iear these robber-tlies, which are known rather gener- .'lly in this country as bee-killers. One of l)r. Fitch's corre-
141
Fig. So. — tji.ix h.isterdi. ' Ajt.r HiUy.j
H'
The Robbf Kliii
n\ : .in interesting iiLirount of the damage done to " 1 robbcr-tly captured K-es by making' rapid
work
spi'odents s Ins apiarv.
dashes citJunKin m on Ihc wing, then wrapping its legs ahout the bee, r.! "u- sii K it tightly to its own bodv it iinmediatelv sought a in oi I I'l weed upon which to alikilit and devour its prey, j-u-Lin^ a hoe in the body .lid sucking out the lliii . .md softintm I i '•'■: leaving uniy the hard outer skit Upon the ground .'f.t i.h - ■ t- favorable perch for the flv near the apiary hundre • ■ ol the'i- •'p"' ' ' •.•• were found acd'.niijl.ited ir. i single I .. The coni-si'i" >' . thought th.it it w.is •hroiii*h the !ie robber 'I'es hat during certain seasons i i a bi ■ rais- ing region in New York not a single hive threw otT a swarm. The beak f I robber-llv is so strong th.it it an pierce the skin of a human being, I'lit fortunately none of these creatures h.i. vet acquired the h.ihit of feeding upon warm blooded .imm.tK.
Some robber-llies are very delicate and slender, as in l.eptogaster. seme of them being almost as slender as midges, upon ■ Inch thev probably feed, and looking half starved, in spite ol their voracity. The colors of the robber tlies arc variable, but nearly all are very hairy or bristly fv spiny. In this f.imilv some good cases of wh.it is called ■' aggressive mimicry ' are seen, aggressive mimicry me.ining a resemblance of a predatory insect tc the insects upon which if fi^ds, thus facilitating thi capture of its prey. We should not fear grizzly be.irs if they locked like harmless, peaceable human beings. Th k the robber-tlv known as Dcromyia annulata Bigot, looks hke the comnmn v. asp Poliiks nietritiis Sav : while some of thi' Hies of thr genera I > yl- lis and Mallophora risemble bumblebees. In sfune of the 1 itter the hind sh.inks .ire modified so as to look verv much li- the pollen-bearing hind legs of the bumblebees. This curious ^!!uc- tural modification can be of no service to the llv excep- :i! in- creasing: its resLinblanco to the bees. Then .ilso. as another illustration, one of the robber-llies of the genus Laphna resem- bles a big wasp of the penus Vesp.i.
The larv.e of the robber-tlies muJi resemble the l.uva- < ''e gad-flies, although the adults are so widely different. Ihey Ir.e
142
HHMM
m
Tb« Robbcr-Flict
in the e.irth, and in decaying wood, and prey upon the larvx of wooJ-buring beetles. In the ^r.-und they have been k
feed upon the e^gs of grasshoppers. Harris has described
early stages of one species fAsilu\ svm
nown to
the
eiis) which hi !hought
led in the larval ■^tage upon the roots of rhubarb. I tarns was seldom mistaken, but it is safe to say that as a rule the larvic are carnivorous. The pup* are hrisflv. and have the he.id and the segments ot ihe.ihdomen provided with spines u h assist them in m.iKing their way out of the ground or the dcayin',' logs which hey inh ibit.
Tile group s A \ ^ry Urge one und comprises about th^'e thousand described spr-cies. of which four hundred >r more in- habit this countr . The detailed life history ul >omt oh' er-t1v is a great dcsider.uum.
'«
,;i I
!
I i
ft
THE DANCE-FLIFS /iND THE LONG-LEGGED FLIES
(Families Empidida and Dolichopodidie.)
The flies of the family Empididce are rather slender, sordid, uninteresting-looking creatures, usually of small size. They are sometimes called dance-tlies, because they are often seen in swarms in the woods flying up and down with a dance-like movement. By "dance-like" is not meant the slow, gliding movement of modern waltz, but the robust up and down back- woods jig movement. It is a very large family comprising more than eleven hundred species. they resemble the robber-flies somewhat in form and also in habits since they are predatory and capture other insects. Some of them have the curious and as yet unexplained habit of carrying little silken webs with them when they (ly, although no one really knows how they spin these webs or where thev get them. Their use has also been a mooted point, but it has been suggested that they act as parachutes or aid in the capture of their prey.
Aldrich has studied what is probably this same phenomenon. He linds that the males of an Empis carry little oval masses larger than themselves, which are really not composed of silk, but of bubbles of a viscid substance. The purpose of this structure is to attract the female. Aldrich says, "When numerous males were flving up and down the road it happened several times that a female was seen to approach them from some chokecherry blos- soms nearbv. The males immediately gathered in their path and she with little hesitation selected for a mate the one with the largest balloon, taking a position upon his back * * * The pair would settle down toward the ground, select a quiet spot * * * here she would continue to hold the male beneath her for a little time. The male meanwhile would be rolling the balloon about in a variety of positions, juggling with it, one might almost say. After the male and female parted company the male immediately
"44
The Dance-Flies and the Long-Legged Flies
dropped the balloon upon the ground and it was greedily seized by ants." It seems probable that this observation by Professor Aldrich will explain all of the cases in which dance-flies are seen to carry such structures.
Many of the species do not capture their prey by flight, hut run rapidly about on the ground catching other insects with their front legs. The female, as in certain other predatory groups which we have mentioned or will mention, resents the approaches of the male, and if he be incautious seizes him and dispatches him at once. The only time at which he can with safety make his advances is when she is busy eating some insect.
The larvae of the dance-tlies are cylindrical, and live in the earth under leaves and in decaying vegetation. They are said to be probably carnivorous. One species was reared, however, from human fasces in the course of certain investigations made by the writer on the subject of the flies which may ca'ry the germs of tpyhoid fever, but of course they may have been preying upon othei insects which were feeding in this substance. The pupje are Sfiii to be free and to possess two points at the front end.
The Dolichopoii ! flies are rather small and rather slender species, usually greenish or bluish in color an^' more or less metallic. Their wings are clear, or thcv may be dusky or ob- scurely banded. They possess long k^s, from which fact they are called by Comstock "the long-legged flies," which, however, does not seem to be a good popular term, since there are other flies with much longer legs. Just as with the dance-flies, these creatures are predatory and capture small flies of other groups, and even soft-bodied worms. They are found in damp places upon the leaves of aquatic plants, and some of them are able to run rapidly over the water. The proboscis is short and not as strong as with the robber-flies. It is a large group, and about twelve hundred species are known. Many forms occur in this country. With none of the species, however, has a good full life history been studied out. The larvx live in the earth or in decaying vegetable matter; some are found under the bark of trees or in flowing sap. They form a cocoon and the pupa has two long breathing tubes on the back of the thorax.
US
THE SPEAR-IVINGED FLIES
(luimilv l.onchoptcridiv.)
The (lies which belong to this group have not the slightest genenil interest, but they are structurally very different from other (lies, showing even more differences than are necessary to the establishment of the group as a separate family. They are very minute creatures, some of them being only one-twelfth of an inch in length, and they are also slender. But two species are known in this country, both belonging to the genus Lonchoptera, and both occurring also in Hurope. They are common all through the summer in damp, grassy pl.ices, as on the banks of well- shaded streams. Their larvx apparently undergo very interesting transformations, but no studies have been made in this country and in Hurope— the knowledge of entomologists dated back to some incomplete observations made by Sir John Lubbock as long ago as i862~-until within the past vear de Meijere of Holland has described, with tlgures, the early stages of Lonchoptera littca. The l.irvx live under leaves and decaying vegetable matter on the surface of the ground. and have the peculiar habit of transforming to what mav be termed a semi-pupa or a wingless maggot-like creature withm the List larval skin, subsequently transforming to a true pupa. The caieful working out of the life history of these flies ought not to be difficult, and such careful work is decidedly needed.
t<«
THE HUMP-BACKED FLIES
(Family Phoriduc.)
The little dark flies of this family have no popular name, unless we adopt that of Comstock, "the hump-backed Hies,' which is characteristic enoujjh. They may easily be recognized by the two very dark, thick veins on the front margin of the wings. There are not many species, but individuals are excess- ively common in this country, flying in swarms, and frequently being found upon window panes. Their larval habits are various, but they breed in decaying anim;il and vegetable matter. The flies lay their eggs on dead chrysalids, on dead snails and in decaying vegetation, and the maggots which hatch develcip rapidly. They are slender, and the pupa which is contained in the hardened last larval skin breathes by means of two slender processes issuing from the fourth segment. There has been some discussion as to whether the larv;e "f the flies ol this family are ever directly parasitic in other insects, but it seems to be accepted that one species is a true parasite in the hives of the honey bee and a most interesting form has recentlv been discov- ered which is a true p.irasite of ants. In other cases, the.se flies undoubtedly lay their eggs on diseased or dying insects.
Life History of the Ant-Decapitating Fly
(/Xpoccphnliis pcn^audii Coquillett.)
It would be rather a misnomer to call this a typical life history since this form seems peculiar in its habits and rather aberrant among the Phoric.;v. but the observations which li.ive been made upon it bv Dr. W. H. Fcx and Mr. Theo. Pergande have been more complete than any which have been made upon other members of the family, .so it is here included. A common black ant, Camponotiis jtiiii.sv/Viiiiuiis. is the host of this little
M7
loi
The Hump-Backed Flies
hump-backed llv. !n the District of Columbia and in New Hampshire the tly may be found in midsummer dartmj,' about the moving ants on tree trunks and .'Isewhere and (inally suc- ceeding in hiying its egg, sometimes after a struggle, on the neck of the ant. The egg hatch, s and the young larva bores directly into the head of the ant. As it enlarges it eats out the wholehead cavitv. the head breaks off from the body of the ant and moves about independently, propelled bv the body ot the contained maggot which extrudes partly from the neck hole. The larva of the fly transforms to pupa within the last larval skin in the cut off ants head and the adult fly issues in the course of from two to three weeks. To se» an anfs head walking off by itself is a curious sight, yet it is common enough where this fly abounds. Ur. Fox named it, appropriately enough, "the ant- decapitating fly "
i.,8
THE FL/IT-FOOTED FLIES AND THE BIG- EYED FLIES
(Familiis Pl(ily/'iztd<£ and Pipiinculidte.)
The flies of both of these families are common looking little creatures and most uninteresting in appearance to the general observer. The flies of the family PlatypezidcV have been called "flat-footed flies." It is a small family of little flies which are also found in shady places. The hind feet of many males are very broad and flat from which comes the name of the family, The larvae live between the gills of toad stools.
The members of the last named group are called by Comstock "the big-eyed flies" for the reason that thev have very large heads which seem to be composed almost entirely of eyes. They are found in shady places and their larvae so far as known are parasitic within the bodies of leaf-hoppers. The pupa is said to resemble that of one of the Syrphus flies.
««
I
f
THE SYRPHUS FLIES
(Family Syrphida.)
The syrphus flies (for they have no other vernacular name), comprise many of the most interesting of the dipterous insects. It is a very large family and more than three hundred species are known to occur in the United States. As a rule they are rather stout-bodied flies, varying greatly in color. Some are metallic greenish as in Microdon and Psilota, while others are banded with yellow in different ways. As a rule the abdomens are rather broad and are rather apt to be flat, but in some, as in Baccha and its allies, the abdomen is slender. The syrphus flies are flower flies
Kig. Hi.— MesograpJ.i iK>lit.i: a. Ian a; /•, puparium , I From Instil lijej
, adult.
par excelh'itcc. They fly in the sunlight and are easily taken by sweeping flowering plants. Almost all types of bees and wasps are mimicked by them and so generally does this occur through- out the family that syrphus flies form the most striking instances of protective mimicry. There are syrphus flies like honey bees, bumblebees, social wasps and solitary wasps of several kinds. Thev are rarely to be seen except in the middle of sunshiny days, some of tiiem resting occasionally upon leaves, but more fre- quently they .lie to be found about flowers, while others seem to be almost constantly upon the wing.
150
LLi'-l.Wi^llLl,-.
■WWP
ffs^fm
The Syrphua Flies
The habits of the syrphus flics in their early stages vary greatly. Very many of them in the larval state feed upon plant lice and other small, soft-bodied insects. I have seen currant bushes upon which there was hardly a leaf which did not support a thriving culony of plant lice and which had not become curled and distorted in consequence, and yet within a very few days, while the distortion of the leaves remained, not a plant louse was to be found but under each leaf instead of the flourishing group of lice was a fat. lull-grown syrphus larva which had destroyed all of the previous inhabitants and vas now ready to transform.
These larvx do not have a distinctly differentiated head. The external mouth-parts are either entirely lackmg or there are two or four usually dark-colored booklets. The body is smooth and usually glistening. When ready to transform, the last skin of the larva contracts and hardens and assumes an oval shape and a darkei color and the pupa is formed within it. When the fly is ready to emerge. the front end of the old skin is pushed out and the perfect fly escapes. The hooklets on the
mouth of the larva occur with those >•'(; S; - F.nMah, timx-drone fly
ana pupanum oi saiiif.
syrphus tlv larvx which feed upon
other insects and they serve to grasp and pierce the body of the prey. Those l.irvae which do not have such hooklets have other habits. Thev may feed in the decaying wood of old trees or logs; they may live in manure or soft mud impregnated with de- caying vegetable matter; they may be found in the sap of trees or in the stems of certain tender plants or in fungi. Still others are common in ants' nests and others again are guests in the nests of bumblebees. With such variable habits there must necessarily be considerable variation in structure and as a result of this mode of life those forms which live in soft mud or manure, which mav be almost a liquid, and .some of those which live in very damp, decaying wood, have long slender projections at the end of the bodv Ix'aring spiracles or breathing holes at the tip, so that when the bodv of the larva is buried in the semi-liquid mass in which it is k'cJing this long tail still protrudes to the air, enabling it to breathe in cointort. These larvx have been termed
wm
tm
vhhivi
The Syrphua Flies
i
"rat-tailed majrjiots" and are very curious objects which are freqaently sent to entomologists tor name.
Those which hve in ants' nests belong to the genus MuroJon and are among the strangest insect larvx known. They do not look like insect larv;c. and, in tact, resemble certain land shells. Curiously enough, they have been described and named as species of mollusks. In fact, certain insects have given shell students a good deal of trouble, for, as will be shown when we study the caddis-tlies. certain cases constructed by these insects have also been described as shells. The Microdon larva does not appear to be jointed and the upper surf.ice of its body is covered with a net- work of bristles which usually hold a coating of dirt. There is no trace of any head and the sides of the body project, forming a .sort of fringe around the edge. The soft pupa is formed withm the l.ist l.irval skin and does not alter its shape. Just what these larvx do in the ants' nests is not well understood. Perhaps the ants gain some secretion from them. As a m.itter of fact they are sometimes found elsewhere. The adult tlies of this genus are usually dull-colored, are slow lliers and are found on the borders of low-growing woods. The (lies have been seen laying their eggs in the ant hills and the ants have been seen to drive them away but they re- turned again, undiscouraged by the im- polite rebuff. This fact would not seem to indicate that the larv;t are of any service to the ants.
Those svrphus Hies which live, in their earlv stages, in the nests of bumblebees belong to the genus yoluccUa. and the flies of this genus rather closely resemble bumblebees. Their larvx w\-re for a long time considered to be parasitic upon the young of the bumblebees but later observations have practically dis- proved this and we are forced to conclude that the Volucella larvx are simply .scavengers, feeding ipon the wa.ste or excreta of the bee larvx and even upon the de.id bodies of those which die. The bumblebees seem to realize that the svrphus flies are not inimic.il to them, since they allow them free access to tl . nests and do not seem in the least disturbed by their pres.mct.
Tlie most famous of all the syrphus flies is the one .■ hich comnionlv goes bv tln' name of the drone lly. It is Enstalis tniax and Its larva is one of the rat-tailed maggots. It is a cosmo-
'52
Fig. ,S.i - K.il luil.-d I Aft,r Smith, i
rvsf-
mm
r^ fr*r, ,
I' ■
\\ '
I'lAll XIX.
TRur. Kt.n:s
11(1.
1. l)i/oni:.s ha.isi (Asilidx) S..iilh.-m U. S., M.x.
2. Hchthiul.«p;i piil>cr.i (Asilidx) Wi-.uiii hill II. S.
1. I'r.Ktiu-.inihiis iMVvipi-niiis ( Asilidx) Suulu-.istoin 1). S.
4. NkuclfS ii-nnil.itoi ( A>ilid.c ) <.al.
s. OsprioaMus ;ilHlnmin;ilis ( Asilulx) Wfstcin li.iil U. S.
(,. DizouMS tristis ' (Asiluhc) Soiilluin I). S. Mcx.
7. Stfnr)p(>Ki>n inqiiin;ilus ( Asilid;f ) Nchr.
s. Saiiipojjon dustus ( AsJlidx- ) U'X.
.). ()spii(in-ni> fiitiophiis ( Asilid.v) li-x.
10. l'o>.'«n<)Soin.i dorsiitii (Asilldx* H.islcni U.S.
11. i'lcKiiicinthus lu-ros ( Asilid.u ) Soutlu'.istciii U. S.
12. Hitt-nipiiuoii phiiiiicunis ( Asilida;) li'X.
il l)i/i>nMs tiislis V ( Asiluix ) SoullK-m U. S.. Mi-x.
14. Osprioccriis vi'inr.ilw ( Asilidii') An/-
IV NiisM fulvic.iud;i ( AmIuIx i Suiithiii. I' S S. A.
Id. SilfKipi'L'iin lu'lvi>lus ( AmIi '.I') li'X.
17. Mitri)stvliim moi'isiiin ( Asilidx ) lex.
IX. DiToiiuia lu-iiiiMui'^ ( Asilidx) 1 .i>itirii U- S.
1.,. D.isvili^ .Kiur ( \-ilid.t) <..il.
20. Prom.uliiis albil.isiiatns * ( Asilulx) Ariz.
21. .Mallophor.i puiUiiann ( Asiliilx ) Kan.
22. Mallophora Iv.mlx.idis ( Asilulx) SoiithiMStt-rn 1 1. S. >i. Mallophor.i dausiw-li.i < Asilidx I S.uitlu-ast.iii U. S.
24. I'rom.iJuiv nilipcs ( Asilidx ) S.nitlu'astcin LI. .S. ^^i. Proinaihus alliit'ascialus', ( Asilida-) Ariz-
2(1. Cvitopo^ion platisnr (Asilidiv) Wi'stcrii U. S. 2-}. I.aphiia s.itTr.ina (AsilidiV) Soutlu-a.^tfrn 11. S.
25. (rviopoii.m chiVM.poi-on ( Asilidx) N.)rtlieasti-rn IJ. S.,(..m. 2c(. i'nun.ii-hiis piincips (Asilidx) Wash.
0. i i
I
«w^r
■ ' ; ■! ..'
W^?«W"'^^^fP
The Syrphus Hi«3
poliliin spccii- iM.l IS r.ittuT l.irKci h;ii '-c hoi)ey-l> whivh i( closfl", reseniiks. It fnqucnts (lowers and Is CDtmn. Iv louiul in houses on windows Lite in ii.i .lutumn. The l.irv.i- .re found in soft mud .uul in privies, where tl y K I'd upon vlec.iyiii_; iiinul .ind veKir.ible m.itlet transiorinin« to pup.i within the last larvai skin. Osien .S. kin. in two ml restltij^ pjiptrs on thi -o-talU '• Bugonia myii . shows that th dea. which h..^ been pn valeni Since ancient times ,ind whivh is ihr the cm issr, of animals miv generate swarms ut mcy-hic has probahlv .h .en lioinihelavt th.il ihis drone ll\ In^idin^j n. arcjsse^ has mosi Mniversally be.n mistaken for the honey-ivc. Tneleariiid Russian author shows the existence nf this myth with many n.itions indudinK the Chinesf and thi l.ip.mese. It i- -i: -ntioneJ n nunv places in ancient literature .! I ven occurs m the sto.v ^ i Sampson, in the bo( '•; of Judges i' Ui Old ■ cstamcnt
Th;^ famllv is piulujilv \l. rno'u , 'ractivc ;roup of (lies. A collection of specimens is a .lost .ihe esting one mth from the aesthetic and the scientific p., of view I he very 'requent ins' inces oi proU'ctive mimicry rLrerredt^^ .i'love, in ilieniselves should pive .1 great impetus to the >:udy ol ilie group. Moreover. we in this country are most fortunate from the fact that most of our species have been carefully studied m ! in .idnirabic mono- graph by hr Williston has been pul-lished by the Nation.il Mu.seum. which is one u; the mos perfect works of its kind which the entomologist is liWe to co suit. A careful work on the life histories of these ii is. how v.-r, is almost as gre.itly needed as in the other familus of (lies. The statements which have been given above are gener.il. but in searching for specific accounts of individual hfc historuts we find that they are lacking.
'S3
I
THE THICK-HEAD FLIES
(Family Conopidic.)
The (lies of this group ;.re n.thcr closely related to the syr- Phus (lies. Thev mav K- called, after Comstock. "the thick- head thes.- because 'their heads are large and conspicuous The tlies themselves are r.uher large, but are generally slender ,nd the abdomen is stalked, like those of some wasps. The wmgs are usually dark and the insects themselves are dark- colored, but some have yellow bands on the abdomen. Those which belong to the genus Myopa are stouter and have hairy legs, almost like those of a robber-tly. The b.,u-head ll.es are toundupon tlowers with the syrphus (lies and their larvx are Par.isitic. chienv upon bumblebees and wasps, but they have :,|so been found, according to Williston. in the bodies of grass-
"'^'^The larva: of these llies live in the bodies of the full-grown wasps and bees. It has been supposed that the llies enter the bees' nests and place their egfS on thelarvx or pupx. but the ,dult llies always Ksue from the adult bees or wasps, having occupied the interior A the abdomen. When full-grown they freouentlv completely till the abdomen. Williston has seen a (onops following a bumblebee and repeatedly living against it and thinks that the eggs are deposited upon the body ol the bee ind that liter hatching the larvx boie into the abdcMninal cavity. In one instance a big-head fly was reared from the body of a bumblebee several months after the latter h.id been killed and pmned in ;, collection. There is a peculiar genus in this lamily. Stvlog ister in which the female has an ovipositor which is longer th.nlheemiie body. K.ither more than thirty species of big- head llies, distributed in seven genera, are known to occur in the United States.
'54
wwrnmnm.
- .A',':E:tki.{b.A..- -;. I
m
THE BOT-FUHS
(Family Uistridic.)
This family ctintains the parasitic creatures known as bot- flies, sever il of which are the cause of j,'reat suffering and even the death jf domestic animals. The bot-lly of the sheep (U-sliiis ovis), the bot-fly of the horse (Cjiistropliiliis cqiii), the bot-fly of theox which is known in tnnlandas the" ox warble" fly ( Hvpo- derma liiicata. the European species being H. bovis), and certain other tbrms whose larvx live under the skin of such wild animals as squirrels and rabbits f,i;i-ii!is Ciikre- bra) and which are some- times in tropical regions found under the skin of human beings ( Dcrmatobia ivainvcitlris) belong to this family. The group is not a large one. comprising only about sixty species and the life history of the dif-
ililr
I A/t,r A'lUy.)
fercnt species is quite variable, comprising many strange and curious phenomena. All, however, are parasitic in vertebrate animals. The flies themselves .ire rather large, generally nther hairy, and they are as a rule inconspicuous iti iheir coloration. The antenn;e are small and inserted in rounded pits.
Typical Life History
( If\fi>iiiiniii luuata Villers.)
This fly is the c. mnion "ox hot ' or" ox warble "of the United States and is known in the southwestern country as the "heel tlv." To siock raiscis its larv.i is al.;o known as the "grub." Affected cattle are known as " grubby " cattle, harly in the spring
155
. ill
I
f
^
The Bot-Flies
the flies appearand arc immediately iittracted to cattle, laying their egf»s upon the legs, especially just above the hoof, which explains the southwestern name "heel fly." The eggs are occasionally laid on other parts of the body but the neighborhood of the hoof is preferred. They are attached to the hair by means of a clasp- ing projection and usually from four to six arc laid together. The animal licks its legs and the larva at once hatches and is carried down into the a'sophagus, the walls of which it penetrates by means of its strong spines. It then molts and becomes smooth
and for several months wanders through the con- nective tissues of the cow, between the skin and the flesh, penetrat- ing gradually along the neck and ultimatelv reaching a point beneath the skin on the back of the animal. The larva then molts again, becomes more spiny, and biircs a hole
through the skin, placing its anal spiracle near the orifice in order to get air. During its earlier lite it probably breathes by an cn- dosmolic method as do the larva- of the parasitic Hymenoptcra and in fact much as do the aquatic larv;e of certain other insects. The larva now develops rapidly, living upon the pus and bloody scrum which is produced by the irrit.ition of its spiny skin. It inolts ag.iin .md is then more than an inch long .ind yellowish- white in color. 1 1 works its way out of tht minute orifice which it enlarges .ind drops to the ground where it contr.ictsand hardens, the l.irv.il skin becoming the protection for the pup.i which is liirmed uithin. In three to six weeks the adult llv escapes by pushing olf the circuL.i cap .it one end of the puparium.
Kip. .S6— Hypoilcmia lincata. rgns. ( AjU-r Kttey.
"*^^:
m
The Bot-Fliet
The life history of this insect was entirely misunderstood until recent ye;irs. it was supposed that the eggs were laid upon the back and that the larva immediately penetrated the si<in and lived there without wandering. It was not until 1890 that the true life history, as described above, was ascert^i'ned by Dr. Cooper Curtice.
"57
*
M
THE TACHINA FLIES
(Fiituily Tachinidiv.)
This is a larno and important group of flics, the members of which have po common name except that of 'tachina llies, ' by which thev are generally known to everyone who has studied insects, even if his studies have not carried him into the order Diptera. for all or nearly ail of these creatures are parasitic upon other insects and a person engaged in rearing caterpillars will often have his ultimate design frustrated through the work of the l.irvx of these (lies. As a rule they are medium sized or rather large tlies of a grav tint, rather unattractive in appearance and perhaps resembling the common house-tly as a rule. In fact, one mav sav that they belong to the house-fly tvpe. The gray body
color is frequently striped with dark HI lighter stripes and there are some m. irked exceptions to this general colorational scheme as. for example, in the dark-winged, sometimes red- dish-bodied Trichopodas. the slender Xanthonielienas and Hemyd.is.tlie red- bodied Hchinomyi.is and those species of the genus Ardtylas v>'hich look like blue-bottle llies. In general the wings are cle.ir. the bodies .ire somewhat bristiv .ind the insects lly with a buz/ing sound which is not very pronounced but like th.it of a house-llv. They are .ictive and tlv usually in the sunshine, being much less in evidence i ii c! )udv d.iys.
In their relations with man the tachina flies are beneticial - the most beneficial group t)f Diptera. with the possible exception of the syrphus llies. With the t.ichina llies. however, the habits .ire much more uniform and the l.irv.e teed onlv upon living insects. Hv far the favorite hosts of these flies are the leaf-e.iling c.iterpillars and the numbers which are destroyed in a single
15H
I'lfi "^7 Winthcnu.i < pustulata.
iiKidh-
The Tachina Flies
season by these p;irasites is quite beyond computation. I have seen vast armies of the army-worm, comprisirif;; unqueslionabiy millions of individuals, and have been unable to lind a single specimen which did not bear the characteristic eggs of a tachina fly. These tlies were present iii such numbers that their buz/ing, as they flew over the army of caterpillars, could be heard at some distance and the farmers were unnecessarily alarmed since they conceived the idea that the llies were the parents of the cater- pillars and were llying everywhere and laving their eggs in the grass and wheat. As a matier of fact, one great outbreak of the army-worm in northern Alai\ima. in the earlv summer of 1881, was c o m p I e t e 1 >• frustrated by the tachina llies, aided by a few other parasites and predatory insects. They also attack grasshoppers, bugs and beetles, saw-llies and saw-fly larvx and bumblebees and wasps.
Their eggs are usu.illy white in color, oval in sh.ipe and are stuck by some sort of a gummy substance to the surface of t'c insect on which the tuture l.irvx are to feed. The small v\hite eggs are frequently seen sticking to the back of some unfortunate caterpillar. From the under side of each egg there hatches a little maggot which bores its way through the skin of the host insect and penetr.ites into its body, where it lives, nou''ishing it-ilf upon the lattv matter .ind Ivmph, until it reaches lull Liiowtli, usuallv if not alw.iys destroying before it emerges some vit.il organ so as to c.iuse the death ot the host insect. It almost inv.iriably issues when full grown from the bodv of the insect attacked and trans- forms at or near the siirl.ice of the ground within the last l.irv.il skin, which hardens into .1 brown, oval puparium. Breeding is rapid and there m.iy be sever.il gener.itions each summer. In
KiK
- Kiiphorotf: ' I LiriiK-nni.'
AlW'li'r's tUti^tr,Uu»l
"i
s?
The Tachina Kliei
i^
i/
I
I I
issuing from the puparium the Ily breaks away the entire eiul of the hardened larval skin.
It used 'o be thouj^ht that every caterpillar upon which these eggs were pliced was doomed, but it olteii happens that the mother tachina fly. with a faulty instinct, places her eggs upon the back of a caterpillar which is abo^t to ca^t its skin and in such instances it frequently moults before the eggs have had time to hatch, so that when they do hatch the young larvx find them- selves out in the cold world instead of revelling in the interior of a well-fed caterpillar. So frequently does this occur that a very large prop'^rtioii of tachina eggs are wasted by the mother tlies. The observations of Kernald and his assistants in their work upon the gipsy moth in Massachusetts have given us exact tigures in regard to this matter. In one instance 2so caterpillars, each bearmg eggs of tachina (lies, were fed and carried thrmigh their transformation without t!ie appearance of a single adult fly. In another instance 2?s caterpillars, each bearing from one to thirty- three eggs, were fed and watched and Irom these, 226 moths Were reared and only nine were killed bv'the tachin.is.
An interesting point connected with the life of these flies is brought out when we compare them with the parasitic Hymen- optera. the ichneumon flies and the chalcis flies. In the latter case we are struck by the extremely definite re;.ition between the kind of parasite an.! the kind of host. The parasites of a par- ticular genus will .ittack perhaps onlv insects of a ceitain familv and it IS a verv delinite rule that parasites of a given subfamily will attack only insects of a certain order. With the tachina flies, however, it is quite different. The same species of flv will lav her eggs not only upon insects of several different families but upon insects of two or even three ditferent orders. This would seem to me to indicate that the parasitic mode of life in the tachin.i flies is one of comp.iratively recent acquirement and that sufificient time has not elapsed since they began to take on this habit lor so gre.it a differentiation, so great a co-relation between the host relation and the structure of the insects, to grow up. The ancestors of the tachina flies were probably flesh-flies and the parasitic mode of life has come from a gradual change from feeding on Je.id insects to feeding on live ones.
(;oi|uillett has pointed out th.it in their instincts these flies appear to be much stupider than the ichneumon flies. The latt'T.
irx)
,
t|
rf:1
.L u^
The Tachina Flies
for example, seem to know by ;i touch of their ;intennx whether or not ;in insect has alrc.idy been stiin;^ by some other parasite and thcv only in very rare instances insert an eg){ in the body of an insect that already contains an ejjg or larva of anothii parasite. Moreover, the ichneumon Hies seem to grade the number of eg^s which they lay in a certain insect to the number of larv.x which can successfully grow within it. But the tachina fly will att.ich ti . caterpillar three or four times as many e^'gs .is the number of larva- the caterpillar can maint.iin. Thus many tachiniil larvue perish for want of food while some, which are barely able to exist, produce flies which are dwarfed in size, so that some adult Hies are only one-third as large as others.
As above stated, the group is a very large one and fortunately it has been admirably monographed by Mr. I). W. Coquillett, who has also brought together from the records of the U. S. Department of Agriculture an interesting table of these llies in relation to the insects upon which they have been parasitic.
I6l
,1 ii
II
■A\
iff;
1 1
'.I
THF NIMBLE FLIPS
(l-amily llcxiuhc.)
The flies of this proup, of which we have nearly fifty species in this country, most of them belonging to the typical genus Dexi.i, resemble the Tachina (lies for tlie most part, although some are quite handsome, as, for exatnple, Euantha Utxirata. which has banded wings and a striped thorax. The legs of these flies .ire usually long :md in thoir early stages they are parasitic in various insects, especially in beetles and also in snails. Some of the exotic species are very handsome, as those of the genus Ruttlhi.
i6a
■W9^>
THE FLHSH-fUFS
( I'liiiii/y .S ;;•< .'Z'//,/^'-/,/,.'. ;
This is ;i larfff group of tlios, comprising vi-ry m;inv species.
;ind ;is the scientitic name indic.ites they are c lUed '■ ilesh-tlies '
because many ot thtiii live In the larval state in tiie bodies of dead .i'limals. Although, as just stated, many of the .-.o-.alled tli-sh-i!ios are lle>h leede' -. the '.;rin;p a-; a whole is a van. i Me iw. in h.ibit. The larva" of si/rne live in decavii'i; veue- 1 iMe in.ittLr aiul iruJts. othi.:s live in dunj; .ind other-; are pr.ictikMllv p.ir- asitic unon I'.xinu' insn.!-;. ();ie genus (Sarcoph:!.!) is .1 p.irasite of
Fip Sc,.— Cimps.inijLi noi i U.itia. margin. ilia and even of huniari heiniis.
( Author s tUtiitmtu'ir - , - - , ,
depo.NitMii,' Its voung in ;he nostrils where thev cause gre.it suffering and even de.ith. Siver il specie3 of this family are referred to in the medical literature of "mviasis" which means the parasitism of human beings by llies.
The females of the Ilesh-tlies may deposit eggs in l.irge numbers or thev may deposit living larvx. .is just indicated, the eggs being hatched before they have lelt the body 0>i tlie female. A number of f.imoiis insects belong to this group. The insect popularly known as the '• crew- v^orm lly ■ is well known in th<' west. It is one of the most important of the injects uhich affect domestic animals and its greatest dani.ige is done in Texas
s
yti^
III
7'^}
in
in
'i
r"
The F!rsh ! he,.
.ind .uljxmini; Si.itis. i ho lly l.iv> it^ i . _ . on any spot w Iktc the skin h.is h.i'H injured iilher Ihiiii .i scrutch by n barbed- ^re f''nco or thi- putuiuu- ol .1 thorn. Thi t.iw or sli^'htly bio v surt.icf ;ittr;kts tin- llus which lay their o^gs and llu' laiv;c jivi- in the (Ksh, nuking' a !ari;e sole 1 he lly does not lonline its
attacks to domestic anim.ils but also lie- quently attacks man. I'he most common cases are those where the lly h.is laid its vg^fs in the nostrils of some one. nenerallv some person with a bad ca- tarrhal trouble. The cii^in hatch and the i.irvx work their w.iv throuj,'h the upper nos- trils and destroy the tissues. The soft pal- ate is frequently entirely destroyed and fatal cases in men are not rare. The remedy is to svrnjje out the nasal passa>,'es with diluted carbolic acid. This msivt .ilso in its larval stage feed.i on .arrion. Another well kiinvMi llesh-!ly is l.iiiilui ,\r<,ir, Kener.illy known as the jjreen- bottli- lly. which is M.metiii:. ; driven into hcjuses on the approach ot :i storm. The l.iiL.'e blue bottle lly of uther dull color with bl.ick spines on the tluM.ix is known as Cj/Zif^finrii crythrihi-phaLi. This is the common •'Mow-llv"of Hurope and is the species treated by l.owne in his classic •'.■\natomv ot the H'ow-Kly." Its l.irvxare iiKlistint;uish.ilile from those of the preceding species except in si/e and they ,ire to be loiin.l on meat and dead animals. Riley st.ite> .iko that it desiiovs tiie Rocky Mountain locust or western gr.isshiipper. The tlies of the true genus Sarcophaga are very general sc.ivcngers, leeding. however, upon animal matter practi- cally exclu^.ively. The common tlesh-lly of Hurope S<inoph,i^'j larihiihi does not seem to occur in this country but we have a closely all ed specie^. .S. \ ; ; ,;cc«/ir, which has been reared from
ir,4
Kif; >)i -( .illiphMM crvtluDi i]>hala.
!BK
.'
rilKMitei**
>;;; !»>'
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
lANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2i
l.i
|
la |
|
|
L^i^ |
IIIIM |
|
!^ 136 |
2.0
1.8
i^5 iu
1.6
"-SS '16) 482 - 0300 - Phone
Pl.ATI XX.
TRUH l-I.IRS
FIG.
1. Milesia virginiensis (Syrphidx) F.astcrn half U. S., (lent. Am.
2. Kristalis occiJt-ntalis (Syrphidx) Wash.
1. Volucella facialis (Syrphidx) Nniinwestern I). S.
4- Triodonta cuivipcs (Syrphidic) Northern U. S.
5. Syrphus Icsueurii (Syrphidx-) Northern U. S.
6. Eristalis viiu'toriim (Syrphidx) Fastcrn half U. S., S. A.
7. Volucella mexicana (SyrphidiC) Southern U. S., Mex., S. A. ^i. Triodonta curvipes (Syrphidie) Northern U. S.
9. Syrphus diversipes (Syrphida*) Northern U. S.. Brit. Am.
10. Eristalis bastardi (Syrphidx) Northeastern U. S.. Brit. Am.
1 1. Volucella obesa (Syrphidx) Southern U. S., Mex., W. I.
\2. Leucozona leucoruin (Syrphidx) Northern U. S., Can., Eur.
n. Svrphus torvos (Syrphidx) Northern U. S., dreenland, Eur.,
Siberia. 14. I.athyrophthainuis xneus (Syrphidx) N. A., Eur. IV Volucella lasciata i Syrphidx) U. S., Mex.
16. Xvlota chalybea (Svrphidx) Eastern U. S.
17. Spiloniyia 4-fasciata (Syrphidx) Northeastern fourth U.S., Can.
18. Eristalis compactus (Syrphidx) Northeastern U. S., Brit. Am.
19. Neromacrus crucijiera (Syrphidx) Southern U. S., Cent. Am.
20. Pyrophxna ocymi (Syrphidx) Northern U. S., Eur.
21. Brachy palpus Irontosus (Syrphidx) Eastern U. S.
22. Eristalis tenax (Syrphidx) Cosmopolitan
23. Didea laxa (Syrphidx) Northern U. S.
24. Mallota cimbiciformis (Syrphidx) Eastern half U. S., Can.
25. Sphecomyia vittata (Syrphidx) U. S., Eur.. Siberia
26. Cheilosia plutonia (Syrphidx) Alaska
27. Temnostoma xqu;ile (Syrphidx) Northern U. S., Brit. Am.
28. Cheilosia lasiophthalma (Syrphidx) Northwestern fourth U.S.
Thb Imsbct Book.
21
^
Jr\
*^/
II
Hf -t"
13
/
37
Plate XX.
%
-#- "tT -r
12
-r
^ f * t-
^
/^\
M
w"--mBtiwimnv!^.>L.-<i^tz-^'iy:,sbstmk '%;°%i.
TI I !mSk «an>'
The Flesh- Plica
larvae found feeding upon dead insects in the pitchers of the common pitcher plants and which is often reared from dead in- sects and from excrement. It is rather a rapid breeder and a
Fig. 92. — Sarcopliaga sarracunix. (Author's tllustraiion. 1
generation will be developed in ten days in the summer time.
Among the commonest of the flesh-flies are the small species of the genus Helicohia, originally so named because they were reared from a dead snail. They are very commonly found feeding in the larval stage upon the dead bodies of insects.
A majority of the flesh-flies belong to what may be termed the house-fly type, /. f., they are gray flies rather obscurely striped with black, but some of them, as just shown, may be- come metallic in color.
165
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THE HOi '^H-FLY AND ITS NEAR RELATIONS
(Fatnily Miiscida.)
The insects of this family comprise what might he known as the typical true flies. The bristle of the antennx is feathery and the abdomen is smooth except for a certain number of bristles near the tip. The larviv as a rule feed upon decaying animal or vegetable matter, more abundantly upon animal than
vegetable. The group comprises many spe- cies and includes some of the most common and abundant forms, such as the house-fly (Miisra domestica). the horn-fly of cattle (Hir- iiuitobia scrrata), the ' stabie-tly (Stomoxys caltitrans), and some of the so-called "blue- bottle" flies. Certain members of this group, such as the horn-fly, and the stable-fly (both species having been in- troduced from Europe) arc very annoying to liv .' stock and produce great loss by their attacks. Many species of this group are of much value as scavengers, destroying, through their great num- ber and quick breeding, quantities of decaying animal matter, but some of them are again injurious as appears froi i recent investi- gations by virtue of the fact that they breed in human excrement
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The House-Fly and Its Near Relations
through the carriage and distribution of the germs of diseases of the intestinal tract, such as typhoid fever and Asiatic cholera.
Typical Life H. story
(Mil Silt dumcsticr.)
This insect, known as ( ■ commo.< house-fly, is found all over the world. It lays its eggs by preference in horse manure but in the absence of this substance will oviposit and breed in other excrementi- tious matter and will lay its eggs in decay- ing vegetables, al- though I have been unable to rear it in substances of the last named character. It is also difficult and often impossible to rear it from cow dung. In horse mai'ure, however, it flourishes. The eggs are laid freely on horse manure in an ur.d'sturbed conditit - These
Fig. ';4 — Morclli.i micans. (Author's illuilrjiion. i
Kig. (;5. — Stoniox\s calcitrans. f Author s ilht^tyatton. ) if.7
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The House-FIy and Its Near Relations
eggs ;ire clongiiti', uhitt'. and hattii very soon afti'r being laid, in six or eight hours. The larva-, which ,ire while, pointed in.ig- gots, as shown in the accomp.mving ligure, grow rapidly, cast their skin twice, .iiui reach full growth under favorable conditions in four or live days. The outer skin then hardens, swells out, turns dark brown in color, .ind within it the true pupa is fuimed. In this stage it may live lor live days and the adult lly issues at the e.xpiration of this time through a round hole in the anterior end of the pup,il covering. This .nakes the total lite round for a
Fiy. 96. — Musca domestica. / Autht>r^s illustraiion.)
single generation in summer approximately ten days. Thus there is abundance of time for the development of twelve or thirteen generations in the climate of Washington every summer. The number of eggs laid by an individual fly averages about 120 and the enormous numbers in which the insect occurs is thus plainly accounted for, especially when we consider the abundance and univers.il occurrence of appropriate larval food. The univer- sal occurrence of uncired for piles of horse manure in cities is therefore not only a source of great discomfort but is inimical to health since the house-fly undoubtedly distributes disease germs. The numbers in which house-tly larvx occur in horse manure piles may be understood when the statement is made that from a qu.irter of a pound of manure from the center of a pile ino larvae and 146 puparia of the house-lly were taken. This would ni.ike about 1,200 house-tlies to the pound of manure. This is not a lair average, but indicates possibilities and is an actual record of an individual case. Experiments conducted by the
16S
The House-Fly and Its Near Relation*
writer at Washington mdic.itc that l-y clr.inlv incasuri's in st.il'Us by the daily collection of the manure anJ pLicini; it in a closed pit or closet or hv treating it at intervals ot a week with chloiij of hme, the house-liy nuisance can be j^-reatlv abated and thus the disease danger larf,'ely avoided.
There is a general impression that house-tlies someti.nes bite people, but this is entirely wrong. Its mouth parts are lifted for sucking and lapping up liquids, and not f..r piercing. The stable-fly m.ationed in .1 previous paragraph i.v however, a bit- ing one, and it looks so much like a house-tlv that one almo.st has to let it bite Ix-fore linding out whether it' is a house-lly or not. The stable-lly is seldom found in houses except just before a rain, and then it comun in at the open windows. Fium this fact arises the old s.iying, •• hiies begin to bile In'ore a rain." It has been asked why llies seem to prefer windows and looking- gla.sses, but the answer is simple enough: when they are on the windows they want to get out; when thev are on looking- glasses they are mistaking them for windows
Sometimes when a house-tly is e.xamiiied it will be seen to be fairly covered with little reddish objects which are really living creatures. They are parasitic mites which attach themselves to the bodies of house-flies and certain otiier in.sects .md inserting their long beaks suck their juices. It is comforting to k th it the house-fly has these parasites which torment him so. Such retribution is ju.st. And there is another comforting fact: .ouse- flies die of fungus diseases. Sometimes, especially in the f.ill, flies will be found behind the picture-frames or in rather dark places, covered with a gray, fur-like substance, which is the manifestation of the fungus disease which has killed it. Then, too, dead flies will be seen with their bodies swollen and appear- ing more or less .striped. These al.so have been killed by another fungus disease. These epidemic disea.ses cease in December, and although many thousands o( house-tlies are killed by them, the remarkable rapidity of development in the earlv summer months soon more than replaces the thousands thus destroyed.
If we could only get our boards of health in cities to attack the house-fly question and to insist on the r'oper disposal and treatment of horse manure the insect would soon become scarce, and perhaps its agency in the spread of disease will induce these officials to look into the matter. It is a noticeable fact that
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Th< Houie-Fly and lis Neat Ketalions
horses u.v very much on the decrease in cities; the motor vehicles of difffrent kinds are becoming multiplied, and with this (.li.inge will cornea decrease, and a marked i>ne in the num- ber of house-tlies. In the country and in agricultural communi- ties there is not much hope in the near future except through better knowledge on the part of the inhabitants and an etTort to do away with the breedmg places of this nuisance.
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THE /tNTHOMYlA lUHS
( I'mittly A iillwmyiiilic. J
The (lies of this family also .is a rule lH.|„n!,. i,, the houso-fly type. They arc generally rather small but ol unpronounced color It IS a very large lamily and a most dilficult one to study and the (lies themselves are singularly unatlrattive in general appearance Nevertheless, the habits ol many of the species are of interest and they leed not only upon decaying vegetable matter but also upon growing plants and a few piey upon the eggs of grasshoppers Such a wide variation in habit suggests that strucf.jral characters will eventually be found which will split up this large family
'■'g ';7— Ilonialomyia brcvis. (Author'' iUustration.)
Several species will be found mentioned i:: i .'dical works under the head of " iiividsis iiitiiiia" and in these cases they have been taken into the stomachs of human beings with spoiled vegetables. They frequently retain their vitality and issue alive with the fxces. The insects commonlv known as little house-tlies ( Hoi)i,ih,iiivi,i r iirufcin's and H. hicvi^) frequently seen in houses on windows belong to this familv. The'- breed in decaying veu'etable material ar I dung. The so-called onion-lly (■Pliorbia cpanim)
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in the l.irv.il sMk*.' i^ ncc.isiiin.illv wxs Ji'slructivi' to Dtiions. working into tlu' Inilb ntnl ili'siroymn it lnr fo'id. I he c.ibh.igi- ni.ijjuot (P. I'rjssUii J wuiks in llu' roots ol Ciihhii^'i' .inJ soim- tinK-s doi-s HfiMt J.iinaj^i'. Sonu' species iti the larval st.i^c mine the leaves o( plants. I\n<wnut ihina mines the leaves ol heets and has hetonie a rather important insei t sitice the cultivation of
V4,
Kig. <>S. — I'fgfniyia % ii iii.i. ( Author' i illustratwH. J
the sugar beet has assumed la.ge proportions in this country. One species is s;'id to damajje seed corn when placed in the ground and others destroy injurious grasshoppers .ind there are records which show that other forms sometimes live in tumors under the skin of birds.
172
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THE 'D' \G lUHS
if
(Families Scaioflir
iiiiil lf< fin<f'iiri(tic)
small far ;i, mti.'rf,stmf; ■,
We arc cominjj now to the lon^ series ol of rather small flics which are not especially especially remarkable.
"^he ScatophajjiJa; are rather slender, medium si^ed flies
ger.'. ally smooth.
Hut rarely with
some bristles and
yellowish hairs. In
color thiv are
u.sually blatk and
shining, but some- times yellowish
or with a broad
yellowish stripe on
a dark background.
'ihe flies of this
family are popularly
known as dun>{ flies and are at- tracted to and breed in dung of varir . animals, and al in decayini; vege- table matter.
The Heteroneuridae are rather small, slender, yellowish or black species, which are found in foul, damp places,' and whose larvae are found under the bark of trees and in similar sitL:.itions.
Fig. i)<).— Sca.uphaK.i furcata. . .4u!/,or\ /llmlraHon.)
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FAMILIES HELOMYZID/E, THYCODROMIDAi AND SCIOMYZID/E
The Helomyzidae ;ire small, dark-colored flies, looking some- thing like dung-flies. They seem to prefer damp, shady places, and fly in the twilight. In the larval condition they are to be found in fungi and one species in Europe feeds upon truffles. Some of them also lay their eggs in the excrement of dogs and other animals.
The Phycodromidac are also small, grayish flies in which the abdomen is somewhat darker than the thorax. They are found on ocean bc.iches, and also on the shores of lakes, upon the different substances, usually vegetable, washed ashore, and they probably breed in such places.
With the Sciomyzida;, the colors are brown or gray, and they are ordinary-looking, medium sized or small flies. Their wings are usually spotted or slightly clouded. The metamorphoses of most of them are not known. These flies are to be captured on high grasses or upon bushes.
'74
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FAMILIES SAPROMYZID/E, LONCHEID/E AND ORTALID/E
The flies of the family Sapromyzidx much resemble those of the last mentioned group, hut the wings are rarely spotted The abdomen is usually rather broad, and short, and egg-shaped Their larvae are found under the bark of trees or in the burrows of wood-boring insects, or in decaying vegetation of almost any kind The Hies are commonly found in damp spots near their breeding places.
The Loncheidx is a group which was formerly included in the preceding family and which it very much resembles. The
Fig. roo. — ^|l,^l.top^is xnv.\.
metamorphoses :\re not well known, but the larva; of one species have been found n Europe in the stems of weedy plants, and of another in the rootlets of wheat. In this country 1 have bred Louclura polita from dung.
The Ortalidx comprises a group of flies with usually spotted or handed wings, and frequently of metallic colors. In the l.irval state they occur under the bark of pine and poplar and in the burrows of wood-boring insects and also in onions, cotton bolls,
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Families Sapromyzids, Loncheidae and Ortalidae
apples, and the fruit of the Osage ornriire, probably in all cases, however, following the work of soii;e other insect. Strictly speaking, therefore, these flies are scavengers. The brown winged species of the genus Pyrgota are the largest flies of this familv which we have in this country. Camptoneura piita Fabr. is a beautiful little fly with brown wings in which the brown is incised with clear spaces. Chcrtopsis criica has been reared from corn stalks, which however, as with the other species, had previously been bored by some other insect.
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TRUH FLIFS
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Frist^ilis hirtiis (Svrphiiliv) WcstiTH h;ilf U. S. Fristalis diiiiidiiilus ( Syiphiil;v) h:istern half U. S. Sericomyia chi vsntoxoidi-s (.Sv iplikix) Atl.intic States, Can. Svrphus americaiuis (.Syrphidx j U. S.. Hrit Am. Svrphus ribcsii (.Svijiliida') Nortlicm U. .S., Hur. Fristalis liiitus ^Syipliiilx) Wcstt-rn halt U. -S. Hristalis albitrons (Syiphida-) .Southea.sterii U. S., W. I. SL-ricomvia chalcopyi^a (.Syiphidx) Northwistciii L' S. Svrphus arcuatus { Sviphidiv) Nt)rthem U. S., Hrit. Am., Eur. Syrphiis ribcsii (Syrphidx) Northern U. S.. Fur. Hristalis transviTsus (.Syrphidx) Atlantic Stati-s Sericomyia niilitaris (Svrphidx-) U. S., Hrit. ,Am. Xylota an.ilis (Syrphidx) Soiitinvosifrii U. S. Hristalis traiisvorsus (Syrphidx) Atlantic States 1-ristalis llavipes (.Syrphidx ) Northern L). S., Can. Xvlota pifira (Syrphidx) U. S.. Hur. Tropidea cjuadrata (Syrphidx) Northeiii U. S., Can. Svritta pipiens (Svrphida) ("osmopolitan ilelophilns latilions (.Syrphidx') Northern U. S. Mallota posticat.i (Syrphidx) Northern U. S. Baccha fuseipennis (.Svrphidx) I). S.. Cent. Am. IM.ityvheirus hvperboreus (Sviphidx'j Nort. U. S.. Cireeiiland. \'olu(.ella evect.i (Svrphidx) Northe.istern U. S., Hrit. .Am. Didea t'uscipes (Syrphidx) Ni ihe.istern U. S., Hur. Helophilus latilrons (Svrphidx) Northern U. S. Baccha I'uscipennis (.Syrphidx-) U. S.. Cent. Am. Lasiophthicus pvrastri (S\rphidx) N. A., S. A.. Fur.. Africa Somnula tiecoia (Svrphida-) Nortiie.istern IJ. S. reiinostoma bombyl.ins (Syrphidx) Northeastern U. S. Ceria signifera (Syrphidx) Southern U. S., Me.\. (dirvsotoxuin derivatum (.Syrphidx) Northern IJ. S.. Brit. Am. Spilomyi.i lonyicornis (Syrphidx) FastiTii halt U. S. .Microdon liistis (Syiphidx) Noithern I). S., Brit. Am. Zodion spleiidens (Conopidx) Western h.ilt U. S., Mex. /odioii I'ulvit'rons (Conopidx) U. S. Conops biilbirostris (Conopidx) Southeastern U. S. C<Miops xanthopareus (Conopidx) (^oiin. Cuterebr.i tenebius.i (Oestrid.e) Western IJ. S. I'hvsocephala t'urcillata (Conopidx) NortluMstern U. S., (^aii. Coiiops excisus (Coiicipid.e) Southeastern U. S.
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THE FRUIT AND GALL FLIES
(Family Trypctidw.) Most of the flics of this family are rath
er small, although some are above medium size. They are of very striking appear- ance and interesting habits. They vary from light yellow in color to dark brown or nearly black, and the body is fr.-quently curiously spotted in the lighter specimens. The wings are . -o beautifully banded and marked. The group is a large one and i^ w !I represented in the United States, many genera and species occurringwithus. The Tryr tjd flies in their e;!rly stages live in fruits or in the stems of plants. producin<j galls. I h e so-'.alled apple maggot of the Northeastern States, an insect which is especially abundant in Maine and New Hampshire, is the larva of Trypcta pomonella. It eals into the pulp of apples, boring tunnels in all directions through the fruit. It i- said especially to attack the earlier ripening apples. When full grown it drops to the ground and transforms within the last larva! skin. The adult insect is a black and white fly with banded wings. One of the large round galls whicn occurs upon the stems of goldenrod is made by one of these flies known as Trypeta soliJaglv.is. There are sometimes two ot these galls on the same stalk, and they are most conspicuous m the winter time when there are no leaves on the plant. If one cuts open one of these galls it is found to be full of a pithy solid
■77
Fig. loi.— Trjpct.-i signalis. (A/t,-y Mjr!„ll.J
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The Fruit and Oalt Fliea
mass, in the center of which is the plump, white m;iggot of this tly. A famous member of this fimiily is known .is Ccralilis capitata. wh.ch d.uTiages peaches and other fruit in different parts of the world. It is common and injurious in Bermuda, but, fortunately, has not established itself in the United States. Another trypetid Hy which does great damage is Trypeta liiJcns, the larva of which is known as the Morelos orange fruit worm. It bores into the pulp of oranges, and renders them unlit for eating purposes. These worms are frequently found in Mexican oranges which are brought into the United States in the early fall before the California oranges come on the market. California orange growers are greatly alarmed at the prospect that this insect may be imported into their orange groves and establish itself there, and they are trying to induee Congress to pass a law by which the Secretary of Agriculture shall be empowered to quarantine against Mexican oranges. This would be by no means the first instance in which insect damage has caused national legislation.
The larva of TrypcLi fralria Loew mines the leaves of parsnip in many parts of the country.
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FAMILIES MICROPEZID/R. SHPSID/E, PSIUD/E AND 'DlOPSIDAi.
The Micropc/iJ llios are slender. d;irk creatures of a good size with a few spots on the wings. Tt .v are rather awkward in shape, their legs being long, and thev are not common. Nothing IS known of their metamorphoses, but they are cap- tured upon decayin',' and foul vegetable and animal matter
The Sepsid* comprise a series of small. fr,.,,,.cntlv shining black flies, of rather slender form, which breed, as a rule in decaying vegetable material or in dung. The little shining black
Fig. loj, -Sep^is viiila.ia. > Author's illin/ratimt. )
species of the genus Piophila. however, breed in cheese, h.im fat, and in other fatty or spoiled and decaying animal matter. The little maggot known as the "cheese skipper" is the larva of Piophila i-asci Linn. This insect frequently docs gre.it damage in packing establishments. The eggs are laid in compact clusters of from live to lifteen, or are scattered singly, hach female lays about thirty eggs. The egg is white, slender, slightiv curved, one millimeter long, and hatches in thirty-six hours. The larva
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is I vliiulriiMl .iikI l;ipiTs tow;ii\i the .intcrmr i-nd. It ccpinplctes its growth in from sivi'ti to v\nhi d.iys, ;md il'tlu- food sup- ply is sulficii'iit. it docs not move iniicli, Init when iiiiiture it jumps in ;in extr.iordm:irv w;iy, from which it derives its n.ime of ch''ese skipper. The le.ip is ni;ide by bringing the two ends of the body together, and suddenly releasing them like a spring. In this way they sometimes jump
Fig. lov — Piojiliila t.i>ri : <; /'. pupaiiuni : . , .idult
three or four inches. When full grown it moves away to some dry spot. contracts and assumes a yellowish color, the skin hard- ens, and within the last larval skin the pupa is lornied. In ten days the adult tly issues. As a cheese insect in this country this lly does not play as important a part as it doe^ as an enemy to smoked meat. In Eu- rope, it is noted prin-
Kip. 10). — Nt:nio|K)da niinuta. tihistrattim. i I So
/ Author.
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Pamilix Microp«id«, SeptidK, Pallida
■nd D
ioptida
l^ .1 in;ilU'r ol common oh
cipally ;is .i cho-sc post, .ind it
.;on .h.., „. ,u.z ny s..u.\: ;;:;:: r^rs';:::;:
and whjc ., ,s .. r...r ,h,n, ,.. .„„ ,|,„ sk.ppcrv ch" sc ; ;-. y he he ,. ,, W.1I h.,r.;y do ... supper, 'L ^^r^ Son th ,, ,s Kood bccuso ., K sk,pp.rv, althouKh ,h>s con clus on ,s cr.rren, ...nonw . certain cL.ss ot ch.vsc-e .tcrs Rc.d..rs of th..s will Iv reminded o, the in,m„..ble see, en tie ljr.snK.shn. des.r,|,ed hv Charles Keade .n • The Clo.ster a^
.h m?h' t' "^ ""'.•'•"""" '''"'^''" '"■' •' '""^- ^'""•^■r -'"d shorter than the M,cropcv,ds. and are sometnnes l,Kh, in color, though Konerally dark. The metamorphoses of very tew of them 're known Sonu. occur in the stems of plants; others are found in the roots of carrots and cahba^es, and the tl.es themselves a e seen comtTionly sittinK upon the leaves of bushes and low- prowinfT phmts. "^
The Diops.dx are remarkable fron, their verv curious heads. The nead .s greatly broadened with ,h. .yes a, the extremities, and the eye-por„on is swollen. In some tropical species thi^ feature becon.es so exa, aerated that the insect looks almost as if t earned hcycle handle bars on ,ts head. Thev are s.nall black ll.es, usually stouter th.ui those of ,!,. «roup.s\vh,ch we have lust mentioned, and they are found in shady wooded places
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THE SALT-ty/ITF.R FLIES
I
( hatnilv EphydnJii.)
This family includes a number of insects of curious structure and strange habits. The adults are generally sordid little flies usually with clear wi.iKS.
The larvx. as a rule, are aquatic or subaquatic. and are found in waters strongly impregnated with salt. They occur near salt wells and are found in the strongly alkaline lakes of the West. Some species breed in pools of water strongly impregnated with miniT.ils, and one form is found breeding commonly in the pi.ssoirs of Huropcan cities. I have reared Hr hvJeukia argCH- tata. a handsome little species belonging to this f'"iily. from larv.e found in a small pool of water which was strongly impreg- nated with horse m.inure from an adjoining manure heap. The numbers m which the Hphydrid llies occur in the alkaline lakes in our western country is something astonishing. They are found ■n the Great Salt Lake, in Mono Lake, and others of the same character. The waters of Lake Mono are very heavy and have a nauseous taste, and when still the water looks like oil and feels slippery to the touch, and it is said that no lish or reptile lives in it. It sw.irms, however, with countless millions of these l.i vat, which develop into Hies which rest upon the surface of the water and cover everything on the shore. The larv;c and the flies drift in heaps on the beaches, and hundreds of bushels can be collected. Professor Hrewer, of Yale University, has published an interesting account of them from which these statements are drawn. It seems that at certain times of the year the Indians used to come from far and near to get them for food. They dried the puparia in the sun and then rubbed off the outer skin. The Indians call this tood koo-iliah-hc. I'lof. Brewer says that it tastes like patent meat bisoiit and if one were ignorant of its origin it would make palatable soup. Another species is found in great quantities in Lake Texcoco, near the City of Mexico.
182
THE GRASS STEM FLIES
(I. mily Oscinuiie.)
Th«e are httle flies, either d..rk .nd shining or yellowish in color, and are more or less stout-bodled. The Lirv^c broed in the stems of grasses or are found in decaying vcKet.ihle material; some live m the burrows or cavities in pl.ints made by oth.-r msects while a few feed on the egK shells and cast skins of
-llippeUl
insects. A'-'o;«v{J AmcTicava feeds in the stems of wheat and rye, and sometimes does considerable damage; the larva of Chlorcps gramith-a lives in a gall-like swelling on grass stems, :ind the larva of Chlorops assimilis mines the leaves of sugar beet. One of the commonest of these tlies in ihis country is a little scavenger known as Gaitrjx aiichora. vhich feeds upon ail sorts of dead animal matter, such .is .he ompty egg shells of other insects, the cast-off skins a caterpillars' and chrvsalids, and spiders' eggs. 1 he little tlies of the genus Hippelates are
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The Grass Stem Flies
especially noticeable in the summer time, particularly in the Southern States. They are the most minute of Hies, and .swarm about the eyes of dogs and domestic animals, and in some places are annoyin},' by ge'ttinj;; into the eyes of human beings. These are the forms which were considered by Hubbard to be responsible for the spread of the eye disease known as '• pink-eye " in Florida, a complaint so prevalent at times, especially among
it^ !
Fig. 106. — ("laurax .inchora. I Author's Illustration. )
school children, as to cause the schools to close. The species of the true genus Oscinis almost invariably in their larval stage bore into the stems of living plants, especially grasses, but one species lives in the seed pods of the so-called Indian bean tree (Catalpa speciosa). A member of this family is the famous " frit fly " of Europe, and causes great damage to grain crops, especi- ally in North turope.
184
L^ i,F*
THE LITTLE FRUIT FLIES
(l-'niiiily Divsof^liilidic.)
This group includes tiic little fruit nies, or pom;.ce flies so commonly seen about decaying fruit and also about other decaying vegetation. They are frequently found in houses in the autumn about dishes containing pears, peaches and grapes Thev ire attracted to fruit both fur lood and as places for oviposition 'since
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their larvx live in decaying vegetable matter. Thev are also called "vinegar Hies." from the f.ict that their white, slender larva- are frequently found in canned fruits and pickles which have been imperfectly sealed, occurring mostly near the top of the jars, but living without inconvenience in the briny or vinegary liquid, and transforming within brown puparia around the edges of the jar.
Drosophila ampclophila seems to be the commonest species all over the United .States, and is niainlv responsible for the injury to canned fruits .md pickles. Drosuphilas are found coiniiKinlv
I i V;
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The Little Fruit Flies
around the refuse of cider mills and fermentinR vats of grape pomace Forbes has stated that in 1 884 they damaged the grape crop at Moline, 111. Thev attacked most frequently the grapes which had been mutilated by birds or damaged by rot, but. having once commenced on a cluster, they passed from one berry to another, the flies meanwhile constantly laymg eggs.
A brood of these flies mav develop in twenty days. I have recently shown that these flies are attracted to dangerously foul substances, .nd that they may be responsible for the spread of
certain diseases. , . , u •
The larva of Drosophila flaveola (Meig.) makes blotch mmes
in the :i-..ves of radishes
1 1 .
h i
186
FAMILIES GEOMYZID/E. /1GROMYZID/E AND BORBORID/E
The family Geomyzidae is a small one, and is composed of very small flies about which there is nothing especially distinctive or especially interesting. They are usually rather slender and of a grayish or yellow color, looking some- thing like the pomace flies. Those of which the meta- morphoses are known have larvae which mine the leaves of grasses and grains.
The Agromyzid flies, as a rule, are small, insig- nificant creatures of dull colors. The larvae of some of them feed on living plants, forming burrows or mines in various parts, and especially in the leaves, while the larvae of others 'of the genus Lcucopis) prey upon plant-lice ;ind scale insects. None of the species, however, appear to have any great economic Importance.
The Borborida; are little flies, usually of dark color, and with clear wings. They are often to be found in great numbers upon dung, and, in fact, appear to breed exclusively in this s^.nstance. One of the species of the genus Limosina (L. vena,..ius) was found abundantly in Cuba by Osten Sacken, and as it is an African species it is very probable that it was brought over in slave ships. The flies of this family have sor,;e v.'kie on account of their function as scavengers, but they may be responsible for the spread of disease among human beings.
1S7
Mg. 108.— Sphterocera sal)sultans. ( Author s iliustration. )
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THE BIRD TIChS.
(Fiimily Ilippobosciilic.)
This group comprises a series of very remnrkable flies which are parasitic upon iiirds and mammals, moving quickly about among the feathers and the hair. Unlike other external insect parasites of vertebrate animals, many of them possess whigs aitliOLigh they are mndilied structurally in many other respei! as a result of their parasitic mode of life. One of the '^ost rem.i k- able features of the bird ticks (as they are called), is ihe fact that they not only do not lay eggs but that they do not lay larva-. They are pupiparous insects, the eggs having hatched and the larva
developed until the pupa st.ite is nearly reached within the body of the mother. They are ex- truded by the parent llv only when nearly ready to become pupae. Bird ticks are not very prolific mly a single young is biought forth at a birth. The pro- boscis of the adult fly differs from that of other flies, and consists of two hard flaps which spread apart alluwjng a tube to be thrust out from the head.
Very little is known of the intimate life history of any of them. Hippohoua Cipiiiia is a winged species which occurs uj^on the horse and which is known in Hngland as the foiest lly. Possibly the best-known species is a wingless form known as the sheep tick f Me/of<lhii;i/s ovimis). In this insect the larva has been shown to be nourished by secretions from certain gl mds of the mother fly. One of the commonest of our North American species is Olfcrsla ,iiiicri(and which is found upon several kinds
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Fig. loy. — <)lft.rsia .\nit*ricana. (After I\ukiiiJ.j
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T:ichin;i mella (T:ichinid.i') U. S., Ciin. (ivmnosoma tiili^'iiios;i (T.i '"nidiv) U. .S.. C.m\. rrichoptHJ.i cilipi-s (T.ichin . ■ Kj.slcrn li.iH U. S. Wintht-mui 4-piistuLita (Tachiiiida- ) LI. S.. Can., luir. Hpalpiis bicolor ( Tachiiiidii; ) WcstiTii U. .S. HupliDioccra claripL'iinis (Tachinidx) U. S. Hvpostcna variabiles (Tachiniiix) U. S.. Can. Trichopoda lanipcs (Tachinida') Soiittu-m LI. S. Svmphoioiiiyia lini.it.i (lAptidx) (^al. .Archvtas analis (Tachinidcv) U. S., Can.. W. I. IViotcria tcsscllata (Tachinidit) Northern U. S., Can., Eur. Hp.ilpus si^'nifcra (Tachinidx) U. S.
r.khina rohusta (Taciiinidif ) U. S.. Can.
.AiLhvtas ialcr.ilis (Tachiiiidii') L). S.
Bclvosi.i bilasciata (TachinidiC ) U. S., Mcx.
Jurinia nictallica (Taciiinidx) SdiitiuTn LI. S.
Triciiopoda lorniosa ( T.iciiinida;) Soutlurn 1 1. S.. Mex.
Bkpiiaripeza adii.sta ( Tachinidx') Ndrtiifin U. S., Can.
jurMkll.i ainbiiiua ( Tachinida-) CoL
Hrniyda aurata ( Tacliinid.i: ) Hastcin iiall IJ. S.
I'aradcjeania rutilioidcs (Tacliinid.c ) Wistcin V. S.. Mcx.
Blepharipcza adiista ( Tachinida-) Northirn L', S., Can.
Diicniia vt-xatrix ( Tachinidic) Col.
i'hi'i.iir.i loLicozona (Dcxida') U. S., Hui.
MkroplhaJina disjun.ta ( i'ai:iHnidx-) V. S. hur.
TliLivsia canesci'ns (Dexida) Eastern II. S.
Aahvtas hv.strix (Taciiinid*) Soutlu'in I). S.
I'olk-nia riidis (Sarcophaiiidx) ElastLTn IJ. .S., I'ur.
TiiL'ivsi.i tandrcL (l)i.'\id;f) Soutiu'astcrn U. S.
.Vlvoiir.i tibialis (Dfxida') U. S.
Zclia v.rtfbrata (Dcxid.u) Eastern U.S.
S> Mtoph.ifia pallida (Scatophauidx) Nortliern U. S.. Biil. Am.
Muscina stabulans (Mnscida-) LJ. S.. Eui.
Sonoplcrina splcndens (Ortalida) Soutiiern 11. S., S. A.
Zonoscina electa (Trypetida-) U. S.
Tetanocera clara (Sciomyzidx) Northeastern U. S.. Cm.
Chrvsomvia macellaria (S-ircophaiiida) Ll.S.. (\-nt. Am.. S. A.
Str.mzi 1 |onjj;ipennis (Ortalid.e) U.S.
Ornithomviaerythi.Kcphal.i (Hippobosciil.e) N. A.. W. I..S. A.
Tritoxaincurva iOitalid.e) E.istern h.iit U. S.
Sepedon tliscipennis (SJomv/id.e) Northeastern LI. S.
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The Bird Tickt
Of birds, such as the homed owl. cert;.in h..wks, t\u- ruffed ltousc or partridKf, and which h;.s . h..rd, smooth. iLmened yellow body. I he species which belong to the genus I.ipoptc-n.. "live on mammals, and apparently live for a long time. When they first
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>'ig. 1 10.— .Melophagus u\inus. (.■l/tvr I'.ukarJ. ,
appear they have wings, but when thev have found a satisfactory location on some deer or other animal thev lose their win-s either byb.tmg them off or casting them. While .still win-ed they may live on birds. In other words, apparently too la/y t,. Ily. they use birds as their means of convev.ince until thev lind themselves in the -mmediate vicinity of some deer Tlvit the name "bird ticks ■'should have been applied to these creatures is very unfortunate, since the name tick ought to be restricted to the spider-like parasites of the family I.vodida-. hut in the case of the so-called sheep tick, which is reallv a dipterous insect, it is not surprising that the name tick should have been applied since no one in his senses would think that it is a llv unless he were (arniliar with the intimate structure of the Diptera and of the true ticks.
1S9
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THE BAT TICKS.
( Family .Xyttirihiiilie. )
These are also wingless, degraded, p.irasitic flies, which have a similar misnomer in the vernacular, and are called bat ticks. They are quite the most extraordinary of all the flies, the body being small and the legs remarkably long, so that they look
11
Fig. I II.— NyLtcriba sp. i AfUr Parkard.j
almost like spiders. The head is very small and the eyes may be entirely lacking. They are rarely more than one-sixth of an inch in length, but the long legs, which are frequently banded with jet black and silvery white, render them quite conspicuous.
190
FLEAS
(OrtUr Siphomfttia.)
The insects of this order. comprisinR .11 of the true fleas nre nil contained m a single family, the Pulicid*. They ire I'li w.nnless. the moiith-rarts are formed for suckiriR, and the hodv IS compressed from side to side. The antennx are short and thick, and are placed in depressions behind the simple unfa.eted eyes. The metamorphosis is complete. They are the t e .test jumpers known in nature. The lleas are like the mosquiioes comparatively few in number of species, but very abundant in in- dividuals,and well represent in struc- ture the degraded form which is the result of a semi- parasitic life. Thev prey upon nearly all species of warm-blooded animals. some, and in fact most
species of tleas,
passing readily
fromonespeciesof
animal to another.
Very many dif- ferent kinds of
birds are infested
by Pulex axinm,
while Pulex scr-
ratiicps occurs all
over the world.
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F'g. IW.— I'ulex scrraliceps. i';i
f Author' s illustration. )
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infi-stin;{ tills iind Jon^;, b'th k'mestic -.mA wlkl. upim thi- li^vpliiin lihni'uinon .iiid liu iiiiiiiion Kuropfaii ( oli'-t.it. tlu- striped hvxri.i. the cuiiiiiioii h.ire, \W r.iccuon, .mJ it also hitt-s human iMii^is. Ilu' IixhI oI Ilea brvx has been the subject of some JiM.iiss.(in. The oM statement that the female Ilea ilisK'TKi"!* drops iiiMuod upo; winch her youn^' feed, seems true only to a small decree. I.ab. ilheiie, the lamous breHi-h entumoloKist. at first believed that blood was necessary for the nouiiNhment of the larva;, the reddish colored contents of the diijestive trart making him think so, imt he found that they would lloiirish and com- plete their iiKtamorphoses ■r "TT*v- in sweepin^js in which
there was no trace of blood. He concluded that all that has been said about P. irritMi'^ (the human (lea of liurope) nourishim,' its younj,' on dried blood is verv problematic. Mr. W. J. Simmons found Ilea lar- jV ' yV v;l' feeding upon a dust
^^ \A,'''^-'~**vS», composed of fragments of
cuticle, hairs, fibers, and pilii-;:- of dried blood, the List being probably the natur.il e.xcnta of the tle.is. The writer has fed them suc- cessfully upon moist bread crumbs, and it is reasonably certain that they will feed upon the dust or minute p.irticles of almost any kind of organic matter.
The minute, delicate, whitish eggs hati h into slender, worm- like larvx. which, when full-grown, spin delicate cocoons, and transform to pupa-, from which issue the adults. R.nher more than ino species are known, of which about 30 have been found in the United States.
In the recent important and alarming indictments of certain species of insects as carriers and transmitters of certain human diseases, fleas have not escaped. Grassi considers that the cat and dog flea (P. Siri\iti,\fs) is an intermediate host of Txnia (tape-worms), while Simon and others have brought forward some proof that certain fleas convey the germs of the bubonic
Fig. 113. — S,irinpt.vll." t lini >
Pleat
A cunous and ..hcrnnt tic. ,s the so-cllod "chiKoe" or chigKer Of rop,c.l Amer.c. r,S.,n.As../A, /„„../..,m;, no.u. ho con JS with the- so-c.llcd ch|KKer of V,r«m,.. ..nd southward, wt,uh ,s
n Iroor*.! n '"'/" ?•■" '""•"^' °' "^^' ^^'«°"^- --•^'""-•^ "-J Po ts '^^N . O ; '• -'"^ J^^-^-'""V '--«h, to our southern s...- ports (New OrU-ans. Savannah and Charleston), buries ,he torepart of her body m the flesh of human beings he abdomen becom.n, greatly distended and dischargmg a nun,ber of ^^ Ano spec.es of the same genus (S. ,Mna.,aK sometimes
calk .he chicken tk-a, bunes itself in the evelids of domestl fowls in our southern states and in other parts of the world
S
Life- History of the Cat and Dog Flea
(Pukx semtticifs GervaisJ
This insect, commonly known as the cat and dog flea as stated above, occurs on a number of different animals, and in the nonheastem United States at least is the common flea, which proves a pest in houses. The true human flea, so-call d (P nutans), seems to be very rare in the L!nited States, although
..mmon oPoug. m Europe, as travelers and those who hav read Mark Twain s account of the "chamois- well know The eggs of the cat and dog flea are deposited between the hairs of the infested animals, but are not fastened to them, so that when the animal moves about or lies down, large numbers of the eggs will be dislodged and drop ,o the ground or floor, or wherem
he animal may be at the time. An easy way to collect them therefore, is to lav a strip of cloth for the animal ,o sleep upon' and afterwards crush the cloth into a receptacle, in which th cKgs will be found m numbers. The eggs hatch under favorable circumstances in from two to four davs. and the young larvx
Ihown in tV ''°"'''^' "''"''" '" "'°^' ^"'^ o'- the structure hown in the .iccompa ivir.^ figure, crawl into the floor cracks and feed upon the accumulated dust. They may be reared under observation, in saucers, between layers of blot'ting paper with dust and bread crumbs. Specimens studied by Mr Pergand^ at
-^^■- 9/^^ltfi ■' ^^'*^,- ^f^^^
- — -^^~
- - V*t«i
Fleas
the writer's office in Washington, showed that the larva casts its first skin in from three to seven days, and its second skin in from three to four days. From seven to fourteen days after hatching, they began to spin a delicate silken cocoon, which, when com- pleted, was almost transparent, except where it was covered with dust particles. In the cocoon the pupa, as shown in the accompanying figure, was formed and the insect remained in the pupal condition for four days. Thus an entire generation may he developed in about a fortnight, and since the adult female lays many eggs, it is not surprising that persons having cats or dogs about the house will frequently (and especially where the houses are closed during the summer, and the floors left unswept) lind their domiciles overrun with thousands of these active, biting creatures.
The remedies consist in a free use of fresh pyrethrum powder, in spraying the floors and floor coverings with benzine or in thoroughly washing the floors with hot water and soap. On pet animals pyrethrum powder should be freely used.
'94
THE CADDIS FLIES
( Oniir Tyichoptcm. )
Almost everyone who likes to w.itch curious living tre it-res knows the caddis worms-the str.mge little larvx which con- struct cases of bits of leaves, twigs, small stones, or sand and which live under the water of permanent streams or ronds They are very good objects for the aquarium, and are struc- turally of great interest. While the case-bearing larvx ire so well known, it is quite different with the adult insects which
i.
Fig. 1 14.— Caddis fly and larva. ' /-'yom La^^t;er, 1
not only are seldom seen in collections, but have been studied to a comparatively slight extent in this country. They have four wings, which are more or less clothed with hairs, so that the caddis flies look very much like moths. The mouth-parts are rudimentary, and the antennx are thread-like, freoiiently very long and many-jointed. The pupx resemble the perfect "insects in general appe.irance. and become active before the last molt. The hind wings of the llies are usually broader than the fore- wings, and may be folded in repose.
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The Caddis Flies
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The caddis flies are often seen about tlie margins of streams and frequent siiady places. They do not often fly during the day, but are sometimes attracted to light at night.
The eggs are laid in a double mass, which is gelatinous, and usually green in color. This mass is usually attached to the surface of some water-plant, but it is supposed tluil certain species creep down the stems of aquatic plants under water for the purpose of laying their eggs. The larvx are all aquatic, with the exception of one form, which lives in damp moss on land, and they are nearly all protected bv a case of some form or another. The cases, as just stated, may be composed of leaves, either attached by their edges or placed longitudinally, or they may be bits of stick arranged in many different ways, or stones, or grains of sand, or even water-snail shells may be used for the purpose, attached to the outside of the case, in such cases sand being the main material. All of these different substances are fastened together by means of silk, spun by the larvx, and they serve to protect the caddis worms from the predatory insects so often found in streams, and also from (ish as well.
In the majority of instances the cases are cylindrical, but sometimes they are curved in a horn-like manner, and in other cases they are very strangely involuted, like a snail-shell, in fact, tiie case of a caddis worm was once described by a con- chologist as a new species of snail-shell. Then there is another form in which the case resembles a bottle with the bottom cut away and the lower part compressed until only a slit is visible, in the majority of instances the cases are free, and the larva crawls or swims about with only its head and thorax protruding from the oriflce, but in other instances they are firmly attached to rocks or submerged logs.
The larva itself is elongate and usually cylindrical, and while the head and thorax are tough and horny, the abdomen is thin- skinned, delicate, and of a pale color, it breathes bv means of tracheal gills, which issue from the sides of the abdomen, it is not known how many times any of them shed the skin and a molt has never been observed to mv knowledge. They live several months in the larval stage, and some of them pass the winter in that condition. When ready to transform to pupa, both ends of the case or tube are protected by a silk netting, spun by the larva, which transforms in security, well drawn back
196
f.'-J.'. Af
)ii/?W./i--¥r''^^^'
The Caddis Flies from either orifice. When ,v.dy to tn.nsform to the adult st:..e he pup., works „.s way .h,ou,h the ,n,arJed ori.ice, swims to hesurlaceof the water, and crawls out. where possible upon" tw,K or other ve,re,a„on, „r upon the hank. It may ca t i, pup..l .sk,n whde st.ll in the water, the win.s remain n^', el panded but as soon as >t leaves the water the wings expuul ■ nstantly to the.r full si.e, and the ,ly departs throu^ l^e Th.s statement ,s based upon an interesting observation by Con : stock who states that the instant expansion of the wings s necessitated by the fact that the insect. stud,ed bv h,n, " ^ , ; emerge front rap.dly flowing stre.ms. which dash over rocks and If much time were required m this wing-expansion, the water wou d destroy, the w.ngs for purposes of ,',gtt, and dash the .nsea down The larval food of the cadd.s .l,es is mainly vegetable, but there is one group wh.ch is carnivorous The
fifty North American species have been described
As common as are the caddis worms, and as often as they have been watched in streams and in aquiria. no, a single full hfe history has been recorded in th.s country, and a fascinatm. field for original investigation is therefore open to the first comer"^
' I
; - I
I-
J
Table of Families
Spines on the legs, three ocelli ,
No spines, only hairs and spurs ' ,
i-Four spurs on middle tibix F.m,7v Plnv,a„e,L
I wo or three spurs on middle tibue. , , . Family UmncphiluLv 2-Last two joints of palpi not elong.ited. simple not flexible. 5
Last joint of palpi, elongate, flexible, palpi hairy ^
3— Male palpi four-jointed, ocelli absent
^^sn„?^''r."''"'''*"''^- "'''"' "'■'^'" P^^-^^'"'' ^^h^'" absent' the spurs 2-4-4 hamilv RhvacnpiUUdcc
4-No spurs on anterior legs FamUv HvdroptUuhv
Spurs present on anterior legs FamUy ScruostomatU.v
5-Basal joint of antenna long and large, uings slender no
„ °,. ■. /•■.""'/I' LeptoccruLr
Hasa joint of antenna shorter, wings broader, last joint of palpi multi-articulate Fa„uly HyJropLhida'
"97
^
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■••'"■F T '"^
FA MIL Y PHR YGANRID/E
This t'amilx icntiims ilu- l.irgest o| the caddis llit-s. McLach- lan calls thcni "the f^iants of the order.' Thev are Ibund only in the northern portions of the globe and some ot the most striking species are boreal, or at least inhabit high mountains. They are not very numerous. One of the largest and handsomest, Nciiro- iiii! fcmifiisi'iata Sav. is shown on th- accompanying plate, and has been taken by the writer at night at a light in his cottage in the Catskill Mountains (elevation 2. soo feet). 1 he larv;e live in ponds, swamps, and bogs, and make cylindrical cases of bits of leaves or the libers of slender-leafed aquatic plants which they arrange in a spiral manner. The cases (jf the full-grown larviv are nearly of the same di.imeter at e.icn end but with the young larvcc it is .smaller at the tail-end and that end is cut off by the caddis worm in order to add the remainder to the front end. The cases are open at both ends and the larv;v are probably able to reverse their positions within them. The perfect insects conceal themselves during the day and Hy at night. Their flight is lumbering, and they are readily recognized while on the wing. Only two genera are represented in the United States, namely Phryganea and Neu- ronia, most of our species beloriging to the latter genus.
198
■iT
"■'fX li'
^SIk IM-^lni.
FAMILY LIMNEPHILID/E
The members of this family are smaller than those in the group which we have just discussed but th.'v seem confined very largely to temperate legions. They are common in Canada, Nova Scotia and Labrador, the North' st Territory and Alaska, but some forms extend down into Louisiana and Georgia. The habits of the larvx are very variable. Some live in torrents, others in still water. The cases are free, but the materials employed vary in all possible manners. It is some of the members of this group which employ snail-shells, and Comstock has found shells containing living snails .securely fastened to the case of one of these larvx. Thus, he says, "the snail was afforded compara- tively rapid transportation whether it desired it or not." It is also to this group that the single form belongs which lives in moss, the only non-aquatic member of the order. The moss which it inhabits mav be at the roots of trees lar removed from water. In England caddis worms are used very commonly as bait by flshe.. :en, and it is generally the members of this family which are so used.
■f
199
ill
^m-
f u
FAMILY RHY/ICOTHILIDA.
The insects of this group have a broader distribution and more of them extend to the south than any of the preceding families. The flies are stnall or of medium size. The larv;e are found in rapid streams and, instead of making free cases with which to move about, their r;i>;es are formed of small stones fastened with silk to the rocks— a wise provision, considering the rapidly-running character of the streams which they inhabit. These cases are very slight and loosely formed — merely a few pel^bles fastened to the lower surface of a large stone by a few threads of silk, but. living on the under surface of rocks as it does, the insect i.'^ less liable to be attacked by fish or predatory insects, and does not need so elaborate a case as do the free swimmers or crawlers. When it transforms to pupa a special protection is formed within the case in the shape of a brown cocoon, which is thin but of tough texture. We have a few widely-distributed species in this family, which belong to four genera.
'■%
F/IMILY HYDROPTIUD/R
This group deserves only a word. Thev are the smallest ot he caddis ( >es, none ot ,hem possessinRa win^ expanse ol more than ten millimeters. They look in form much like some of the tme.d moths, and possess Ion- f-nnges to the wings ju.st as do some 01 these moths. They are attracted by lights in the houses near the water, sometimes in great numbers. The larva? make very small cases, which are almost seed-like in appearance ind are composed of silk dotted with very line grains of sand The larv* are destitute of breathing filaments (probablv breathing through the general surface of the skin), and are found amongst water plants or on the surface of stones at the bottom They have -ery short legs and a distended abdomen. The cases ire provided with a slit at each end, and the larva; turn around inside the case with facility.
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it/
FA MIL Y SF.RICOS TOM/t TID/E
The caddis tlics of this group arc usually exccssivoly hairy. They vary much in form. Their iarv.e usually inhabit streams and not ponds, and the flies are generally found near the breeding places. The larval c.ises are usually of the ordinary cylindrical form. They are free, and generally made of sand or small stones, but sometimes the cases are broad and flattened and sometimes they are quadrangular, and the most remark- able of all are those which are constructe 1 in the shape of a snail-shell. An almost perfect heli.x is made by some of them, and it is one of these which, as mentioned above, was described by a conchologist as a new species of snail. That was at a time when shell students described the shells and cared nothing for the animal which inhabits them. We have in the United States a number of species in this family, separated into nine genera, most of the forms being northern, although the two typical Sericostomas inhabit Georgia.
FAMILY LHPTOCHRID/k
These are caddis tlies with very long antennx. and usually with very hairy wings. It is a large family and widdy distributed About forty species are known from North America, where the genus Setodes is best represented. Some of the caddis flies are very handsome, and also resemble tineid moths, especially the little Hies of the genus AJcIa and its allies. Seto.lcs exquhita Walker well deserves it.: specific name. The larvx are f ,und both in ponds and in running streams, but more commonly in the latter. They are not often found in very swiftly running tor- rents, since their food is largely living vegetation, which does not grow in such streams. The case is free, and is ordinarily com- posed of sand, nearly cylindrical, but slightly curved, although there are some cases of different shape.
K , •..
ill
20 1
■f:i^i^*»r?«^
>w'
^a^
Kip. 1 13. - Trap .ind larval case of Ilydropsyche. / Atithors iltustrxUion .
FA MIL Y HYDROPS YCHIDAi
The caddis tlics which should possess the j;rcatest interest for us, because it is a personal interest, belony to this yroup. Their larv;v are the only caddis worms which are carnivo- rous. Thev are found both in streams and in ponds, but more commonly in streams. They are elong- ate and slender, with short legs, and with anal pro- jections which bear strong curved claws with which
they hold to the surf.ice of rocks or to their cases. Their cases are li.xed and are generally composed of bits of stone fastened tn large stones or rocks at the bottom of the water. Sometimes several l.irvx appear to live in company in a common case, being covered bv a sheet of silk, to which minute fragments of leaves and sticks are fastened. There is usually more silk in the con- struction of the cases of these insects than with the caddis worms of the other fimilies which have stony cases, and although the stones attached to it may be few in number, there is apt to be a pretty dense, silken tube. Sometimes this tube is simply covered with slimy mud and has no other foreign objects attached to it. Some of these larvx prey upon other aquatic insects and it is prob- able that this is a general habit of the group. An Interesting form which I h.iv.' watched in Rock Oeek. ne.ir Washington, inhabits a case shaped like a funnel, the tube of the (unnel bent nearly at right angles
204
Fig. 116. — I.ar\a of llydrnpsvchf. the maktT ni the trap, figure 1 1 ^. ( Authi' ' s tlltistnitu'n. ,
inline
1
Family Hydroptychida
With the mouth. Thi- mouth is composc'd ,,( a nctw, •' of silk upported hy ..rched 1>.k ot tw,j;s. The- h.rv.. remains hidden in the funnel. u.itchinK lor its prev to bec..„Kht in theopen mouth. The cses were prefer.d.jy placed at the ed^'e of slight depressions in the rocky surface so that the tubular portion was protected from the lull force of the current. On the surface of a rock al-nut ciRhteen inches in diameter too .,f these nets were counted The larvx of one of the black llies were very abundant in this stream and were washed into the mouths of these nets and probably formed the principal food of the Hydropsyche larv;e. Therefore this is ' .,e of the few creatures which we know which helps to reduce the number of bl.ick flies and it must therefore be con- sidered as very beneficial tf. mankind. The family is a rather large one and nearly thirty species are known to occur in this country, about half of them belonging to the typic.l genus Hydropsyche. MMron.ma ichr.itnm Hagen is one of our hand- somest species. Its wings are beautifully spotted and banded with yellowish brown, it occurs from Canada south to Virginia
^
THE SCORPION FLIES
The curious insects of this onit-r are ordin;iriiy called scor- pion llies. although this term applies strictly only to thosi' of the genus Panorpa which have the ^{enital organs of the male adult curiously enlarged and modilied so as to resemble the tail of a scorpifin. Mecopterous insects have four wings with many veuis. The most striking peculiarity is the great prolongation of the head into a stout beak-like organ at the end of which are biting mouth-parts. The metatiiorphoses are complete. Only one family is contained in this oider.
so6
t
FAMILY P/INORPin/F.
The rerres.nt.iiv.s ot this f.imily in th. UmtcJ St.if.s.ire ..11 contained in the genera Panorpa, Bittacus .uul Boreiis. The true scorpion ll.es are very common insects in midsmmner in nmst parts of the United Mates. Some of then, have beautiful, spotted
7nT T "V'\ """' '" "'■• '^"«'^' ^^""'«ht 1" places where lall herbage abounds. At my country place in the Catskill Moun- t.uns they are extremely abundant towards the end ol July llvinu from one blackberry bush to another and resting frequent I'v upon the golden-rod plants. All I'anorpids .,re carniv , .. ,s, but Pm- orpa has nol been observed in this country to c.pture other insects as does Bittacus. The development of these insects w.,s unknown until the Au.strian entomologist. Brauer in iSf,,' sue ceeded in obtaining eggs and rearing the insect. The larv.e of \ atiorpa and Bittacus are found near the surface of the ground and leed upon dead anim.ils, including such soft-bodied insects as cterpillars and grubs. The other genus, Boreus, is composed of wingless forms which look something like minute wingless grasshoppers. They occur m winter upon snow in our Northern States.
Life History of a Scorpion Fly
(l\}iio)fa riiftsaiis Rami).;
This species, which is common in our Northern .States is the first Panorpid to be carefully studied in this country It wis found commonly at Ithaca, N. Y., in the summer of i8qs. by Dr. E. P. Felt, flying in moist woods during July and August and especially along .streams and where nettles abounded. After con- limng several females in breeding cages the eggs were obtained, rhev were laid in an irregular mass, were yellowish white in color Irom twenty-four to twenty-nine in each cluster, and from i t .:! to 2 cm. below the surface of the ground. The earth was moist
207
U I
m
•» I >
!
Family Panorpida:
and the larvx hatched in from six to seven days. The young larva when first hatched is whitish, with a light brown head which becomes darker when the body becomes gray. It looks like a caterpillar but the antennie and the eyes are unusually prominent. The abdomen bears a row of ringed spines down the hack, those toward the anal end of the body being longer. The larvx pass through several stages of growth within the first two weeks. They burrow into little tunnels under the surface of the ground and remain underground most of the time. They were fed upon raw meat placed upon the surface of the ground. Sometimes they come out of their burrows for feeding. They are cannibalistic and the stronger ones destroy the weaker ones. They wander in search of food and feed upon all sorts of dead flesh. They reach full growth in from three to four weeks, burrow deeper intf the ground, excavate another cell, and remain as larvae for several months before entering the pupa state. There seems to be but one generation annually, the adults issuing in midsummer.
m8
I
in >•( i ":i!H'i '.'
; ill tr
!'
FIG, I. 2. 3- 4-
5- 6.
7
Platr XXIII. NEUROPTEROID INSECTS
Asynarchus punctatissimus (Limnephilidae) Northern States
Poiystoechotes punctatiis (Hemerobiida) U. S.
Mantispa interrupta (Mantispida;) Southern States
Mantispa brunnea (Mantispidx) Southern States
Neuronia semifasciata (Phryganeidae) U. S.
Chauliodes lunatus (Sialidae) Eastern U. S.
Chauliodes lunatus $ (Sialidae) Eastern U. S. 8. Platyphylax subfasciata (Linmephilida;) Northern States g. Macronema zebratuin (Hydropsychidae) Eastern States
10. P;morpa rufescens (Panorpidx) Eastern States
11. Panorpa subfurcata (Panorpidae) Northern States
12. Bittacus strijfosus (Pancrpid^) Eastern States I ?. Bittacus apicalis (Panorpidie) Eastern States
14. Chauliodes pectinicornis (Sialidx) Eastern St.ites
15. Corydalis cornutus J head (Sialida;) Eastern States
16. Corydalis cornutus ' (Sialida-) Easjern States
17. Tieniopteryx fasciata (Perlidie) Eastern States
18. Sialis infuniata (Sialidx) Eastern States
' -J
Thr Inssct Book.
d
THE LACE-WINGED INSECTS
(Oiiiii Xcnroptcra.)
There was a time, and it extended down to comparatively recent years, when all of the insects which would not fit into any of the five principal orders, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidop- tera, Orthoptera, or Hemiptera. were placed in the order Neurop- tera, but entomologists of late years iiave changed all that, and the old group Neuroptera, as it was formerly considered, has been divided up into a number of distinct orders.
The first step was to separate those which had a complete metamorphosis from those in which the metamorphosis was incomplete. This resulted in the establishment of only one new order, the .so-called Pseudoneuroptera. which included those in which the metamorphosis was mcomplete, but the F^seudoneurop- tera has again been split up, and we have the Thys.mura, the May-dies, the dragon-flies, the white-ants, the Psocids and book- lice, the bird-lice, the caddis flies and the scorpion flies, all forming distinct orders, which are treated elsewhere in this work. There remain then those of the old order Neuroptera in which the perfect insect has a biting mouth, two pairs of mem- branous wings with many veins, and in which there is a com- plete metamorphosis, the larva being quite dissimilar from the aJult, and moreover, in the adults in no case is the head pro- longed into a beak-like structure. Even under this restriction of the old order Neuroptera we have still a number of diverse forms in the order, and these are separated into seven well-marked families. It would not be surprising if the old order were still further split up, and as a matter of fact a distinct ordinal name has been suggested for a group of five of these families.
The biting mouth-parts of the Neuroptera as limited at preset. » are not used for the purpose of eating vegetation to any e.xtent, since practically all of the insects in this group are car- nivorous and feed upon other insects. Some of them are aquatic,
209
■Mk
■HMH
The Lace-Winged Insects
i
but the majority of them live on land, and wherever their prey abounds. Many members of the group are most beneficial in the great number of injurious insects which they destroy, while others are few in number of species and rare in individuals, and some of them prey upon beneficial insects.
Table of Families
Hind wings with ;m anal space t
Hind wings with no anal space 2
I— Prothorax quadrangular when seen from above
Family Sialidae
Prothorax long and cylindrical Family Raphidiidx
2 — Front legs formed for grasping Family Manthpidic
Front legs of the ordinary type 3
; — Wings covered with a whitish powder
Family Conioptcrygidx
Wings not powdered 4
4— Antonna- clubbed at end Family Myrmelconida;
Antennx not clubbed at end ^
s- Antenna.- moniliform (beaded) Family Hemcrobiidtr
t) — Antenna; setiform (brisMe shaped) Family ChrysopidiV
m
THE DOBSOX AXD ITS FAMILY
( I'iiini/j' Sitilii/ic.)
To this group belong the so-c.illcd alder flies, fish flies anJ hellgrammites : in fact, some of them have many popular names. They have four broad wings, of which the hind ones are wide at the base and capable of being folded behind. The wings have numerous veins, both longitudinal and transverse, forming irregular cells. There is a very complete metamcrphosis, the larva having strong-toothed jaws and the pupa being quiescent. It is a small family, with only a few genera, but some of the species are so striking in apju-arance, so interesting in habits, that the group deserves really more e.xtended m-ntion than can be given it here. All of the forms are aquatic or sub.iquatic in their earlier stages.
Of the typical genus Sialis we have only two species. They comprise the smaller individu.ils of the t.iniily, and frequent vegetation about the banks of streams. \'erv many eggs are laid by a single female on the vegetation overhanging streams, from two to three thousand being contained in a single egg mass.
Most of our species belong to the genus Chauliodes. of which the so-called comb-horned lish-tly ( Ch.niliodes pt\tiiinornis L.) is the commonest form throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. The eggs do not seem to be known, but the larva; are found in the water crawling along weeds and upon the bottom. They are carnivorous, and teed upon other .iquatic insects, and when ready to transform to pup;e crawl out upon the bank, and are then found in cavities under stones or even under the bark of trees. The .idult insect has a wing spre.id of three ind one-half inches, and is a striking looking creature. ChiiitlioJvs luihitiis is .1 large and handsome species with brown wings banded with white. The difference in si/e between its males and females is verv strikin-.
Needham says that the larv.i f .S/,;//, iiif innate live in trashy
211
gjUg,,
MiiiHtfliiili
The Dobson and iti Family
places tilled with ;iqu.itic pl.ints in the border of streams and ponds. They clamber through fallen ve),'etatif)n with great agility, and push thur way re.idily through sediment fallen upon the bultoni. In an aquarium, and probably outside, the lonj^ tail is intermittently lashed up and down. This causes a swirl in the water, which is doubtless usetui in bringing a fresh supply of well-xrated water into contact with the lateral filaments. Whe" the larv* are full grown they burrow into the soil for several inches and become , up* without making a cocoon. Thi- adult tly emerges after two or three weeks.
The eggs of Chauliodes have been found by Needham in the Adirondack region of New York to be very generally parasitized by a very minute egg parasite, a chalcis fly, more than seventy per cent, of the eggs being destroyed in this way.
The most familiar American example of this group is the so-called hellgrammite lly, some account of which is given in the following paragraphs.
Life History of the Dobson
(Cor}'dalis contuta l^.J
If
This IS I . ^' of the most striking and most curious of insects which occur in North America. Its transformations were first de- scribed in part by S. S. Haldeman in 1848. It is interesting to note that at that time, although the insect was well known to most peo- ple in the localities where it was found, Dr. Haldeman was never able to discover that it had a vernacular name either in English or German among the so-called Pennsylvania Dutch. Surely this defect must have been speedily remedied, since the great four- winged fly with its enormous jaws is now generally known as the hellgrammite. while its great, strong, biting, wriggling larvae are familiar to llshermen in many parts of the United States as Dobsons. or crawlers. In fact, it is likely that not one of our insects has so many vernacular names at the present time. In i88q Professor W. W. Bailey, of Brown University, collected the names in use in Rhode Island alone for this insect, and they are sufiiciently interesting to be repeated. They are : Dobsons, crawlers, amly, conniption bugs, clipper, water grampus,
212
m'fwm
The Oobion and iti Family
goggle goy. bogart, crock, hell devils, flip-flaps, alligators. Ho Jack, snake- doctor, dragon and hell-diver.
It will be very easy to infer from these names alone that the ..isect is a very extraordinary one and somewhat terrifying in its appearance.
ig. 117. — t:orydali.s comuta. ( After Ktley. )
The adult is a large creature, having a wing spread of more than four inches, and possessed in the fem.ile. of powerful biting jaws, with which it can give a severe pinch to the skin of the per- son who handles it carelessly. With the male there is a curious modification of the jaws. They are extended into ion^r, curved, piercing organs, which cross when at rest, and which are fully an inch in length. These jaws make the male look particularly
The Dobion and ill Family
dangerous, but, fortunately, they do not function ;is jaws, ;ind are simply used for the purpose of holding the female during marital caresses.
The female lays her eggs in white, chalky-looking masses about the size of a nickel five-cent piece. These masses are somewhat convex, and contain about three thousand very small eggs set on end. They are deposited on the leaves of trees over- hanging the water, or on rocks, or the piers of bridges or similar places where the larvae can readily drop into the stream or pond.
vdalis comuta. (A/Ur Kilty. I
Sometimes they are so abundant as to make the rocks look as though someone had splashed whitewash upon them profusely with a brush.
The young on hatching drop immediately into the water, descend to the bottom, and durmg the entire larval life, which lasts two years and eleven months, feed upon other aquatic insects, especi.iily the early stages of the May-flies and stone-flies. They hide under stones in swift-running currents, and possess at the anal end of the- body two strong' tubercles, each provided with two curved claws, with which they hold flrmly to one object or another. They breathe through several pairs of tufts of
214
Th* Dobion and in Family
Ik
breathing? filaments situated just beneath each side of the abdomen. They also, when they ap^'oach lull ^Towth, have spiracles, which are closed, however, until the creature is rcjdy to emerge from the water. The number of molts is not recorded. When full grown (two years and cloven months after its birth), the larva leaves the water and crawls about seeking ;i suitable place for pupation. It does not travel very far. but it crawls energetically while it is about it. curiously enough, climbing trees occasionally, and on several occ.isions in Illinois thev fell down the chimney of a house occupied by the man who kept the toll bridge over the Rock River. They tr.ivel on land only by night, hiding under some stone or log during the day. and it is under stones and logs that they finally pupate.
The larva in color is dark slate-gray, and is remarkably thick-skinned and tough. This fact adds to their value as bait, since one will last a long while. The pup.i, however, is light yellow in color, and transforms to the adult lly m about a month. Full grown larv;c begin to emerge from the water in May, and the adults .ire seen flying a month later.
In rapid, rock-bottomed streams, where these insects abound, the method of catching them is to wade in the streams with a net and lift up the stones in advance, catching the Lirvx in the net as they float dov/n uilh the current.
They bear at the sides of the body, in addition to the respira- tory tufts mentioned above, two long filaments on each side, which are furnished with hairs, and may be of sc.ne service in swimming. Possibly, also, with the very young larv.-e thev have a respiratory function. When the larva; become large, however, dissection shows that the trachea' contained in these lilaments are insignificant, whereas each element of the branchial tufts possesses a strong branched trachea.
315
THH Sh ilsi:-n.IES
(J\,iii-ly Kiipliuli
.)
Insects of this f.imilv ire r.tpjcious '. h's of other in?;i "fs, and it is a pity th.it their neui^upli c distributiDft in the United States IS so limited. They are found as u matter of fact practically only on the I'acilic Slope, althi-u^h one species is recorded from Col- orado and another from Arizona.
Thev are insects of curious vtructure, the nr ck being verv long and the female bearing a long, curved ovipositor. The Luva: are found under the bark of trees, and Comstock says ih >', \n Califfi'nia he h.is found them commonly under the I 'se bark of the Hucalyptus.
The codliiit; motii or apple-worm has a habit of sp nning its cocoon under the loose bark of ipple tri ,s alter it leaves the fruit, and many of the codling moth larvic .ire destroyed by these Kaphidians. In Australia and New Zealand the codling moth is a tire.it scourge, and s.ime years a^o an attempt was maiie lo send living R.iphiJi. ins from (^aliforni.i to these English ci mies in the hope that they might become acilimated aid .i-sist fruit- growers in their work again- 1 the codling moth. Nothing has been heard from them, however, for seve' il years, and the prob- abilities are ih.it the attempt was a fai ire. In Hngland these .nsects are known as snake-tlies. from tl _ lonfr neck of the adult.
The l.irvae are very voracioi and hunt tor their prey with great assiduity. They are, like many other ^arnivi-rous insects, capable oi Listing for a long' ne. Tb fierman entomologist Stein kept one for eight months without food, but stil! living
The pups IS found nak-.d under bark and looks like the adult e.xcept th.it it h.is not the long neck, it becomes active before giving out the .idult, )ust is do the punx of the caddis flies.
Less than ten species inhabit the United States, all of them. .IS above --t.ited, being far weste forms. The full life-history of none oi them is known.
THF FAISF RF..{R-HORSi:S
Vi
( only Manttspidu'.j
As the narr.c would indicite, tl. m- 'nsccts bear some rc- scmblancf to the M.mtid*, or pr.ivinK M.intes. i r "rcar-hi .. s" as they are called in the Simth 1 ley have .1 |„tv f" v k, and the strong, dilated and ^^>l'led ^ou' legs are inserted \\.\s behind the head, and ■<■ used lor cap .ww^ their pn y.
Ver-. lew species inh:i! the United St es, miy tw.,, M<»/(- 'ispa rob la and M. inlcrtupiu. having a v. v wide Jistribution
The isformalions of these creaiti'es vas lor .1 V\n-^ tim a myster> but Biauer. of Vienna, Icni 1 about thirty y«"-i ago that tluy live u-on the -ggs and y ung of spuU-rs. th. , eggs are very small, .;nd very numerou- ul e,ich is pla> od .n the tip of a long stalk, very much th. s.m way as are the -ggs ot the lacc-winged flus which will bi- Jes.ni^;,! Liter. The egi. ■ are laid in the « ill and thi- larva- hatch rid, 'inter. Init rem.iin hidden withou, lod, II Npnng. Then tl -earch ii>r the r.:; cocoons ' ! certain s( pierce them, . . nter .imong t -
eggs. W en the egys . nearly rea.ly m h,itch thc\ ..it them and the voung si aers is well uil they are full ^rown. nmltinu
only twice, and 1 skin. Just as in out the fly, ai J u the egtr cocooi "f
In he ger transforr"! ition fornia ha •■ ni in 'he ni . .■
up;eornyiiipns within ! irv,il
iie pupa IS acti\e belbie giving
■rough the l.irval skin, tl ^>ui,'h
. ::: give'- forth the adult.
wliich belongs to this Liimiy. the
• (inrsiivfe n,it species which lives in ' ,ili-
ceii Studied, but a South .American species ves
wasp.
• iii.mein). I- 1 ' lanii
i IS w >pill'-T,
-vmph s,
THE DUSTY-iriNGS
Vs
(Family Coniopterygida.)
The insects of this family are the smallest of the Neuroptera. Their wings are covered with whitish powder. In Europe their larvae have been found to prey upon scale insects and to spin a double cocoon when full grown and ready to transform.
In this country we have only two species, namely Aleuronia weshi'oodii and Coniopteryx vkiiia, and the life history of neither has been described. Mr. Banks, however, has found the larvae of the Aleuronia upon the leaves of m.nple trees at Washington, where it was probably feeding upon the young of the cottony cushion scale ( Piihiiiarij tnnuiiuTiibi/i'sJ or upon plant-lice found commonly upon the leaves. This larva resembles a small larva of one of the lace-winged flies, but has not the long jaws char- acteristic of those creatures.
218
y.' I ■■!• I'-i'
^
.t. K ■
. •-' ;; i .-y
'. !< : ;,■!-, I
Plate XXIV.
NEUROPTEROID INSECTS no.
1. Platyphylax difficilis (Limnephilida:) Eastern States
2. Isogenes frontalis (Perlidse) Northern States
3. Limnephilus externus (Limnephilid*) Eastern States
4. Neuronia stygipes (PhryganeidiE) Northeastern States V Pteronarcellus badius (Perlidic) Western States
b. Hydropsyche grandis (Hydropsychidae) Western States
7. MacronemM transversa (Hydropsychida) Southern States
8. Corydalis cornutus (eggs) (Sialids) Eastern States q. Leptocerus resurgens (Leptocerida:) Northern States
ID. Brachynemurus 4-punctatus (Myrmeleonidce) Southwestern
States II. Panorpa lugubris (Panorpidae) Southern States i.>. Brachynemurus 4-punctatus (Myrmeleonidae) Southwestern
States
13. Brachynemurus carrizonus (Myrmeleonids) Southwestern
States
14. Panorpa nuptialis (Panorpidae) Texas
15. Brachynemurus carrizonus (Myrmeleonid<e) Southwestern
States
l\h
mmtmwKmfm.
VMMPinp
wmmm
Kk ^.■«: Tffni
Thi Insect Book.
^^— •ii^_aJfc* ■»'*-^
FuiTK X.XIV.
1'
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IV
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wpiwf*
THR ANT-LIONS
(Family MynncUonida.)
The so-called ant-lions are interesting creatures which have long attracted the attention of naturalists and of nature students The average American country boy knows the ant-lion pits in the sand about as well as he knows the curious caddis worms in the brooks. It is rather a large group, and about thirty or more species are known in the United States, three hundred or more comprising the number of described species in the entire world. The adult flies have short clubbed antennae and four reticu- late wings, and are not especially attractive in their personal appearance.
They vary considerably in size, and some of them have a wing expanse of four inches.
The eggs must be laid in the sand, and the larv.-e when hatched immediately begin to construct little pits. They have flat heads and long jaws, and scrape a load of sand on the head by means of the front legs, and then jerking the head suddenly upwards and backwards throw the sand to a distance. The future pit is planned as to size, and the larva first excavates a circular groove in the way just described. Then it makes an- other circle within the first and so on until a conical pit results, at the bottom of which the larva remains in hidin The sand on the sides lies, when the pit is finished, at such angle that the least disturbance causes it to slide toward the I ,om, and when an ant or some other small insect reaches the verge he is apt to slip rapidly toward the open jaws of the larva waiting to receive him at the bottom. In case, however, bv great activity, he seems likely to escape over the margin again, his fall is assisted by the ant-lion at the bottom, which throws little showers of sand upwards, and these showers falling upon the struggling insect hasten its descent.
Any little deposit of s.md beneath buildings or at the bottom
The Ant-Liona
of cliffs along sandy banks in the warm sunshine may be found to contain numbers of these pits. Large collections of them will frequently be found together, which means that one or more females have deposited their eggs in the same general vicinity. The sand must be dry. and hence usually is in a warm, sunny place. When it is damp the larva cannot dig a good pit.
Professor O. Lugger, at a recent meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington, told an interesting story of how a load of sand being carted across a western prairie, far from any stream and miles from any other accumulation of .sand, was accidentally spilled through the breaking down of the cart, and how, after i comparatively short time, he found this sand con- taining many ant-lion pits. This instance indicates that the strong-tlying adults are widely distributed and must be in the habit of flying long distances in search of proper places to lay their eggs. There is, of course, also a bare possibility that the eggs were already contained in the sand.
The jaws are enormous and are toothed, and each jaw is grooved deeply on the under side.
After the victim is practically consumed the ren.ains are jerked away by the head just as the sand is jerked up in excavation.
The duration of the life of the ant-lion larva is variable, depending largely upon the abundance of food, just as with some of the other predatory larvae which we have recently men- tioned. They arc able to undergo long fasts, in which event the transformation may become indefinitely postponed, but when ants and other food are plentiful they reach full growth in com- paratively short time, and spin circular cocoons in the sand, making them of silk, to which, since it is gummy when spun, grains of sand adhere. Within the cocoon the larva usually passes the winter.
There is need of careful study of any one of our common ant-lions. The eggs should be described; the number of molts of the larva should be known, and the duration of the different stages under differing circumstances should be determined. It is probable that with most, if not all of the species, there is one generation annually.
B <
THE APHIS-LIONS
(Family HemcrobiiiLe.)
The insects of this group are medium-sized or large lace- winged flies, the wings being often rather dark colored and spotted with dark spots. There are about thirty species in the United States.
Their larvx- are active, predatory creatures, with long, pointed, sickle-shaped jaws, with which they pierce the bodies of plant-lice and other soft insects, sucking their juices through grooves along the inside of each jaw. Some of these larvie are furnished with tubercles along the side of the bodv, the tubercles being clothed with hair, and they have the curious habit of covering themselves with the skins of victims which they have destroyed. The tubercles and the long hairs serve to hold these remains in place. One of these little larva- will thus disguise itself to such an extent that it cannot be recognized as an insect. The cocoons are spherical.
There are some very interesting forms belonging to this family which are aquatic in their early st.iges. Needham says that those of the genus Sisyra are very curious-looking objects in the larval stage. They live in or on fresh water sponges, cling- ing closely to the surface of the sponge or hiding in it, covering themselves with debris. Those of the genus Cli.nacia are also aquatic in the earlv stages, according to Needham, living in the same places.
A good representative full life history is needed in this family.
Hi
h
'9 llli
I I
%
THE GOLDEN-HYHD LACE-IVINGED FLIES
(Family ClirysopiiUe.)
These little insects iire known as the jtoUier.-eved lace-winged flies. They are generally green in color, and their eyes, while appearing brown in some lights, have a distinct yellowish, almost phosphorescent or metallic glint in other lights, which accounts for the name golden-eyed. They are sometimes appropriately called stink tlies. The uncautious observer, attracted by their beaiitv. on handling them is at once conscious of a dis- agreeable and very strong odor which is with ditiliculty removed from the lingers by soap and water.
The eggs of these little tlies are very curious. Each is placed at the extremity of .1 long slender stalk, which is a most necessary method of egg-placing, on account of the voracity and omnivorous
habits of the newly
Fig. 119. — rhrysopa fliir.il>iii\il,i. ( Ajhr KiUy I
hatched larvx. If thev were laid on the sur-
with .so miny othor insects, the lirst larva which hatched would eat up ail of the other eggs, but. issuing as it does from the epg on the top of this long inedible stalk, finding him.selfon the leaf llure is nothing for him to eat unless he .searches tur plant-lice, of which 'here is gener.illy an abundance nearbv. The eggs are usu- ally de, o^!t^.■d on leaves or twig^;, .ind. with wise foresight, cus- tomarily in the middle of a colony of plant-lice, and the young larv;c after hatching begin immediately 'o leed upon the nearest prey.
t their long, pointed.
They are most voracious, and
shaped jaws (like those of the W erobiids) into the bodv of the nearest sott-bodied insect. It shotn ' be stated lirst, houever, that on hatching, the upper end of the egg is cut off bv the l.ii val jaws.
The Oolden-Eyed Lace-Winged Fliei
The young l.irv.i h.is an i-xtremdv larRf head, and the sides of Its body are armed with immense curved hairs, which give it ;i very ferocious appearance. It crawls down the egg stalk until It reaches the object upon which it is placed. (Jn reaching a young plant-louse it grasps it between its long curved jaws and rolls It one way or the other, the juicy contents being rapidly e.x- tracted. It seems always hungry and always to be feeding when It can find anything upon which to feed, and its rapidity of growth IS limited only by the abundance of the food supply. ' It will eat
^l^;. iJ0.-( hrvMip,! (.ciil.ila : ,;. i-(;>;s, h, full urown larva: ,, f.,r,t <if same- ./.sanu- dcvourins a I'svlla ;,■. c„c>..u> ;/ adult insect. ;-. hi-ad .if same; /;. adult, natural size-all enlarged except /I. (Ajur Marhitt. I
one of its own brothers as iiuickiy as any other insect, and when nearly full grown its jaws are strong enough to pierce the skin of a human being. In Toronto. Canada. I once felt a sharp prick on the knuckle of one of my lingers, ,i:id on lookin:: down found one of the.se larv;e with both jaws sticking thiou-li the skin and pumping awav with its body in an effort to pet some nourish- ment. I w.ilched It Ibr .some time under a lens with some interest, and am glad to state that it did not seem satisfied with its meal!
The Golden- Eyed Lace- Winged Klie*
The insect transforms to pupa within the interior of a white spherical, silken cocoon, which is very characteristic in appear- ance, and the adult escapes throuf{h a circul.ii hole to which the cap rem.iins attached like a lid.
The golden-eyed lace-winged (lies are .imonn the most im- portant enemies of the injurious plant-lice which swarm upon many valuable plants especi;;'lv in the early part of the xummer. The mother tly lays her ejjfjs where possible in the midst of colonies (if plant-lice, and these arj rapidly swept . lut of existence after the eggs are hatched.
A few of these lace-winged tly larvx have the same habit which we have described .is occurring with the Hemerobiids, of covering themselves with the skins of their victims. Hubbard h.is studied a species which feeds upon bark-lice, tearing the scales loose from the bark and devouring the solt contents, and then .aiding a portion of the debris to the load on its 1 ack.
Unfortunately, these beneticial lace-winged Hies are subject to the attacks of certain parasitic chalcis flies which sting their cocoons. Trie species of the interesting lienus Isodromus seem to confine their attacks exclusively to the cocoons of lace-winged Hies.
ii rr
Life History of a Golden- Eye
(Clirysopa oculala Say.^
This is one of the commonest species in this group, and is often mentioned in books on economic entomology as destroying plant-lice and other injurious insects. The only observer to de- scribe its life history with .my detail, however, is .M.irlatt, from whose observations the following statements are drawn.
The eggs, inste.id of being deposited in rather large groups, as is the case with other species, are distributed almost invariably singly upon the leaves of trees, and rarely two are lound together upon the same stalk. The young larva cuts off the upper end ot the egg and on emerging crawls down the stalk and begins its search for food. Approaching the egg of the pear tree Psylla, for example, it immediately grasps it between its long curved mandibles and rapidly extracts the juicy contents. This is done with great celerity, the dry shell is cast aside, and the whole
^ = 4
Th« Oolden-Eycd Lact-Winged Fliti
operation frfqucntlv taki-s less than a minute. The larva then eats anything in the shape of a living insect which comes its way. It is totally fearless, and att.uks with eagerness insects much larger than itself. After ten days it becomes full grown (these observa- tions were made in Maryland in July) and spins up in the curl of a leaf, or in any partial protection, constructing a delicate, slightly oval but nearly spherical silken cocoon, which is attached to the leaf by silken threads. This cocoon is very small in comparison with both the larva which spins it and the adult whkii emerges from It, and is less th.m an eighth of an inch long. The adult emerges in from ten to fourteen days, cutting otT the upper end of the cocoon in a neat cap. It does not soem to be known whether this cap is partially cut by the l.irva, or whether, as with other Neuropterous insects, the pupa becomes active before transforming and cuts the cap through which the fly emerges.
The adult insect is pea- green in color, and when alive has brownish eyes with greenish reflections. It is very helpless, does Pdt feed, and remains concealed in low grass during the day becom- ing active in the evening and depositing its eggs at that time. Helpless as it is, the disgusting odor which it emits when handled is probably its chief means of protection from its natural enemies.
Kig. 121 — (hrysopa oculata: newly
liatchMl l.irva. with under side of
head .uid claw at side — greatly
enlargtd. i After Marlatl.J
"S
PLANT-LICE, SCALE INSECTS, TRUE BUGS, ETC.
i
if
[
-p i
,v
ff
II
.1:
m
(Orihr HimtfUra.)
This is another of the old and great orders of nsects. It is one of the original Linnean orders and comprises those insects known as the true bugs, true lice and scale insects. Nearlv ao.ooo species have been described, but, as with the < 'lu r bi« orders, very many more vet remain to be studied, pi )h:i' ' at least three times as m.my as are now known.
Although extremely variable in form and strii turc, all of the Hemiptera have the mouth-parts formed for piercii^ "^d sucking (not biting) and their metamorphoses are iniomplete. !u- young bug being active and formed much like the .ddone. In those which have wings the wings are .f two distinct types In one suborder the forewings are thickened at the base and the thinner end parts lap over on the back. In the other type the forewings are of about the same thickness throughout and are usually held in repose sloping in a roof-shaped manner at the sides of the
body.
The order as a whole is a most injurious one in its relations with man. Although some of the true bugs prey upon injurious insects the destruction of plants accomplished by others offsets by far this benefit. In fact Sharp says: "if anything \Kere to exterminate the enemies of Hemiptera, we ourselves should probably be starved in the course of a few months."
The Hemiptera are divided into three suborders w ' ch we shall consider separately. They are distinguised as follows:
226
PL. t-Lici, Seal* Inicctii. True Buk% Etc.
Tcible of Suborders
Bi-ak jointed, h.iril i.J hortn i
Kcik unjointfd. llcshv ... 2
—K'^rngs when pnwnt of the itiu' thicknes.s th!i>ii>thout .in.! hfid usujIIv in ;i .sl. pinn po^i'on .it Ihi- sid ^ i<: the bndv; K'.ik inscrti'd ! the hlMjtr p.irt of t'u- ho.ui
Siil'Hird r HniinfltT.i
Forewinj;- thickt-md ;it Kise. with thimu'i fXtriinitiis which I i'rl.i('. bi'.ik insiTtt'd . !i the fri" ! p.irt ol ihi- hr.>.!
... . . .Suhordi ' // '/ / '..'
3 — Winglf>^^ ^pecK's, pur.isitic upon in.in .ind .mini • jihotiiif lice) • . Subordci AiLif'liira
»»7
SUBORDER HOMOPTERA
A curious and important assemblage of insects belong to the Homoptcra. Those creatures which we know as leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, cicadas, plant-lice, flea-lice, bark-lice, scale insects, mealy bugs, and white flies all belong here. Their name is legion and they are without exception, destructive to plant life. Their mouth-parts are formed for sucking, and their transforma- tions are incomplete. Their forewings are not modified, as with the Heteroptera, or true bugs, but are more normal and are usually held roof-like over the back when at rest. The front of the head is always bent under so that it touches the base of the front legs. Beyond these points, their structure is very diverse, and beyond the fact that all are plant feeders their habits are also very diverse. In their \.->: histories some of them, particularly the plant-lice, the bark-lice and the periodical cicada (or so- called seventeen-year locust), present some of the most interest- ing, and. in fact, some of the most astonishing, phenomena in the whole Held of biology. The progressive degradation, after birth, of the female of the scale insects, from an active, highly animated creature to a blind, legless, protoplasmic globule, and the contiasting development of the male of the same species, from a minute, crawling mite to a virile, .vfinged, active and highly organized creature whose head is practically all eyes, is one of the most extraordinary life histories among all insects, while the alternate forward and backward development which occurs in the genus Margarodes in this family is even more strange. Then, too, the remarkably adapted parthogenetic life of the plant-hce, with their alternation of food plants and their relations with ants, make their study one of fascinating interest. The Homoptera is a large group of insects. No one knows how large. The plant-lice and the scale insects of Europe and North /\merica have been rather well studied, largely on account of the economic interest which attaches to them. Yet, even from North America, many new species are being found, even in these
;2S
i^
I
41 fe V
no. I.
■). 4-
6.
7-
8.
9- lo.
II.
\2.
n.
14.
I'lATK XXV.
NEUROI'TKROIl) INSKCTS
Manicanda conspersa (Myrnu-lfonidic) Fastein States Myrmclcoii iinmaculatuin (Mynnflionidx) U. S. Mymiflfon rusticiis (MyrinclLitnidx) Southern States BrachyiK-muius pticgriiuis $ (MyniK-lcoiiidx) Westeri. .tatcs Brachvncimirus loiifiipalpus V (Myniiclconid.i") Southwcsliin
States Brachyiieimiius nimil.ibiis ? (Myniieleoiiid.e) Western Stales BrachynenuMUs pere^jriiuis ' (MsriiuleMiiidx) Western States Brachvneiminis loiinipalpus ', (Myrnulednidx) Southwestern
States Braelivnenuirus nijarilabris ' (Myrmeleonidx) Western States Braehvneiiuiriis saekeiii ? (Myrnieleonidx) Southwestern
States Aeanlhaclisis convener (Mvrmeleonidx) Western States Brachvnemurus sackeni ' (Myrmeleonidx) Southwestern
States Ac.mthachsis hayeni ' (Mvrineleonida') Southwestern States Ac inthaeiisis hageni '^ (Myrmeleonidx-) Southwestern States
1^
The Insuct Book.
MiHiHatiiHid
ii
--v?.;*/
Suborder Homoptera
sT;:VroE,.o'!;p: Tow °'^^^^ '"' "'^'-f-^'oppersand
in fac. the wh"iTu£r rT;,"' "^'^""'^'^
regions, is bu, sl^^luly known nM 7^^"^-"''^'^ '" tropical
are easi v preserved ,n.i ■v...b„ • '""^'"''"K insects. They
economic workers who h.ve t.keL nn ,1 T'" "''"y "^
past ten years, but the pi m llJl V """ ''^ ^ '^"'"'"^ "^e
difficulty of proper V preserving T ■ ""'"^ '"°''-' ■'^^"'''^"'^- ^^e thev must be kept^^fl Zl ' V"'T "' '^'^ ^^°"P- ^^ microscope sl-derd^ube'sde,!; ""''"/'' "-^""'^"^ "P°" their study. But the ii^h■st^: oT^^rv^rl^^oTor N '^^k American species are knnu/n ..„j ' "^ '^"''th
Table of r-'amilies
Beak plainly inserted in the h-ad- feet with thr
antennx minute, bristle-li.ke' ^"^^^ segments;
Beak apparently inserted between the fore'letrs •' fi-^t «,;.h ' ' ' ' two segments; antennae usually Vrominenfh^t °"^ '"'
wantmg - f eminent, but sometimes
.-Ocein three in number; , he males with musical organs:: ' ' ' Only two ocelli or none;' males' n:., music .1 '""'" '""'"''
^-Antenns; inserted in front of and between the'eves ""
Antenna, inserted on the sides of the cheeks beneath the eyes
3-Prothorax „ot prolonged :.bove the abdomen """' '"^'"''^''' F rothorax prolonged into a horn or point above abdomJn : : . "*
4-Hind shanks with one or two stout ' teeth",?','' ^''""';""''"' wth a crown of short, s^.ut pine SZ r'"^ VJP
H.ndshanksw,tharowofsp.nesUw:;;':';^;;;;;^^::i;
Suborder Homoptera
Feet usually with two segments: wings when present four in
number 6
S — Wings tr;mspiiront 7
Wings op;ique, whitish F;imil\ AtcvroJiiLr
Feet V. .th onlv one segment: males without mouth- p;irts and with two wings only; fem;iU's wingless and .;cale-like or gall-like in form, and covered with wax m plates, layers
or in powdery form family Coivn/.r
6 — Hind thighs swollen; antenmc with nine or ttn segments- • . Family Ai7//i/.r
Legs long and slender: antennx with three to seveii segments Family AphiJiJu'
230
THE HARyEST FLIES OR CICADAS
(Family Cicadidce)
This is a group of insects commonly known by the popular name of " harvest Hies " or cicadas, and frequently in this country by the erroneous term "locust." We , have already seen that the term "locusts" should properly be applied to the long-horned grasshoppers of the true family Locustidae, although it is also, especially by British subjects, applied to the short-horned grass-
fig. \ii. — I'lriDdkal Cicada- ,.. male, o' the
large form . b. male, of the small fomi.
(' AfUr h'tUv- J
hoppers and especially the destructive species. Fhc l.iniily CicaJida- is a group of large insects containing very many tropical species. Their bodies are large, with a wide, blunt head, and with prominent eves on the cuter
2.3 >
Hg. 12^. — Twiji", putu'lured by C'icadai^. l]Iu.^!i.ttili};; niunner o^ breakllif; • .-///.'»■ A'l/,y
tfiBB
m
The Harvest Fliea or Cicadas
angles. The hc.id has three ocelli placed trianRularlv on the summit between the compound eyes and the antenna- consist of a short basal jomt surmounted by a bristle which is divided into about (Ive segments. The tropical forms are sometimes brightly colored but the species which occur in the United States are UMialiy greenish marked with black.
The commonest form in the more Northern States is the so- called "dog-day harve.st fly " or " lyreman "— the insect which every summer, toward the end of July or early in August, begins
'J- Si
Kig. 124— Kyt;^ i.f the Periodical Cicadii f Ajlcr iiilty.)
its doleful but resounding buzzing hum in the tree tops. This sound is familiar throughout the hot days of the late summer and is freque.itly more noticeable in the early morning and .ibout sundown. This, however, may be due to the fact that the day noises of a town or city ire less noticeable at such times. It is supposed that this is an annual species, /. c . that it has but one gener.ition annuaiiv the larvic living in the ground through only nine or ten months of the year, it may be, htiwever. that ii has a much longer larval period, and that only its gre.ii abundance and the intermingling of generations accounts for its annual occurrence in the adult condition. This is a point which should be investigated as its life history has never been thoroughly workul out. There are other cicadas in t'n Southern and Wistcrn St.ites, some of them r.ither small in s!>.e, like Teili^ta liieroj^/yphuii, and olbers large, like the big Ciiihia cmarginata.
232
m
The Harvest > liei or Cicadas
Life History of the "Seventeen-year Locust"
((.Ii.Ii/h .Uf/i ik/ii im, I../
This insect, communK known .is tii<' pi-riodica! cic.id.i or seventci'M Vf.ir lucust, is tiike.i hcii- bi-c;iusi- it is the only species of the family whose life history is thuri.u^hly well understood. It is prolniMv not typical in its very cXhided lijrv.il life In the North this insect reiii.iins either .is l.ii va m p'lp i under^ound fur seventeen years In the South i; devtiv^ps in ti'irtecn years, thus givinj; rise to two races which are kiiowii as the sepvcndecim ..nd tredecitn raCis The diviiiint; line between the Iwo nuts ccr'.'- sp'iuls tiirly well with the northern rn.ii;;int'f tl'.e so-c.iil.'ii lireer austral lil'e zone, in some localitiis confusi in ,irise.; troii: the fact that the insect iijakes its appearance at shortct :!it rvals ih.m seventeen years. This is accounted for I'V tlie fa>t that the insect appears in distinct broods some <>! which ovi'iap the tirritory also i -.habited bv oth^ : broods. There is no reason, however, to s'ppiisr that the length of life of any l.irva 's of shorter dura- tion tiian seventeen vears in the North and thirteen in the South. The iar^est of the Northeastern brood n made its last app* .irance in i88=i, and is due an.iin in 1902. It will then be found in great nii;nbers throughout New Jersey. Delaw.i e, part ot I'ennsyl- vani.i, .Mar.land, northern Virj.;i>'i '- '^I'io. southern Michigan. Indiana, .-.istern Illinois, Kentucky and down the Appalachian ch.rn of mountains through North Carolina inio northern (ieor>;i.i. It will .ilso appear in afew loi-alities in Vermont. New ^'^rk, Wis- consin. West Vir^'inia .md Tennessee. ii.-.j..i.>%. r
The e>;>,'s are laid in small tWigs ,ind i'Mnch -s "'".y,,^.™"'/,',, y which .ire pie.ced by the ovipositor and in this w.iv the insect does |'i.i<l!C.illy the only d.intai,'e uhuh it accom- plishes. Thev occnr ii, i-nornious sv^-.irms an.) the -.i e:ikininL; ,1! the twigs. c.iM-ed by the 1 MUtures,, ciuse:- u uiy of them to 1\' broken off b\ the wind. The yoiin^ ant-like '. v.i hatches lioit' the eggs .1 few \\ eeks all'-i' oviposjtion, escapes iroiii th( woundv- i limb, fills to the ground .iiul hi- rows quicklv out ofsiuhi. wliere it forms for itself .1 little undergiMiind ch.imbei iie.ii vome rootlet,
^Hgg^
Th« HarvMt Flic» or Cicadat
liirged whii.li
it
Uiv.i Afttr KiUy I
remajmnn tlure, isolated from »hers and moving, probably very slowly, lor .stvcntecn nr thirteci ars. It molts four times, the first time alter Ironi one year to ii^hteen months, the second alter two additional ye.irs, the third alter tliree years more, and the fourth alter another period of three or four years, leavinjj three or fiiur .idditional years to elapse before the insect assumes the so- calli .! pup;il state. The anterior ie^'s of the larva are curiously en- I csemble the cutting jaws of biting insects. They are desifjned for digging; and transporting earth. The food iinsuines is obtained probably from the soil humus and to some extent from the roots of plants. After the change to the pupal condition the insect bur- rows to the top of the ground and, emerging, crawls up the trunks of trees where the skin splits and the adult insect issues. Occasionally, in certain kinds of soil or when the pupa has reach( t the surface too early, it will construct mud chimneys from the .summit of which it eventu- ally issues.
In the great cicada year of i88s. Dr. Riley started .m interest- ing series of experiments in order to determine whether the duration of the I irval stage with the thirteen-year race would be prolonged by transporting the eggs north and accelerated by transporting eggs to thi. south. Tliii was done on a very large scale and at several localities, the ex .ct locations being carefully marked and r-, lOrJcd. No positive results have as yet been ob- tained; that IS U) say, no undoubted specimens have issued at either north or south.
Ihe ultimate fate of this interesting species is undoubtedly ex- tinction and its numbers are rapidly growing less. One of the coinparativelv lew insects upon which the Knglish sp.irrow feeds with avidity is the periodical -icada and many thousands of them AXi! destroyed by sp.irrows each time they make their appear. ince ;;nd before they lay their eggs.
tH
' vK'-
ai:
THE L/1NTHRN-FUHS .^\'D THEIR ALLIES
( btimtly I'lilj^otiiiut.)
To this group belong the wt-ll-known lantcrn-llies of the '.ropics, hut it ;ilso includes .1 host of other species cf diverse forms which arc sepurated into no less than 1 1 subfamilies of
Kig 127 — iii-Iiritpttra sp. i AJttr CkUr.)
I .'S - >i
Mill I1H.-H.
t Ajlir t 'hhr
which the iJelphacina- and Flatina; are best represented in the United States. The tropical forms are large and bright-colored and the true lantern-tlies are so-called because of the enormous
i-
Fig. IJc).- OtiiK-crus i ni'uiferti. ( Afhr Vhl,r. ,
enlargement of the fore-part of the head which was formerly thought to be luminous. All are vegetable feeders. Our Ameri-
•'35
MiCDOconr risoiution tist chart
(ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No 2i
1.0
I.I
11.25
1^
■ 2.8 1 2.5
m
2.0
1^
136
1.4
1.8
1.6
^ APPLIED IIVHGE jinc
"^= . *'6) ♦Si - 0500 - Plone ^^ 'ife) ?89 - 5999 - Fa-
tu
■'^ lt«tteiii-Plie« and Tbnr Atbn
l-if. H,«ory of ,he Fro««, Lightning Hopper
(Ornunti pruinnsa, Say.y
them. Thev ^r^sS TiT ""'' '"'"'"^"^'y -^-' -. -.e^JS ------- -P-.e. soon a.e.
»3»
THE TREE-HOPPERS
(Family Mcmbracid,e . )
These insects comprise some of the most grotesque species which nature h;is evolved. Comstock offers the apt suggestion that "Nature must have been in a joking mood wtien tree-hop- pers were dev eloped." The antennae are inserted in front of and
''"'g- 'JO— f'eresa taurina. i After .\r,irlatt.)
between the eyes and the prothorax is prolonged so that it fre- quently covers the rest of the body. It is by the curious modifica- tions of this prothorax that the strange and grotesque forms of the insects are produced. The majority of these modifications
=37
The Tree-Hoppers
have been developed in order to brinjj about protective re- semblance since by these inoditications the insects are made to look hke different plant structures. The thorn-like process on
the thorax of the common little tree- hopper of the bitter-sweet ( Hiuhcn- opii hinotata) is a good example. The in.sects customarily rest in such posi- tion along the twig of ,t vine that they precisely resemble veiietable thorns. This family like so many others reaches its most remarkable development in the tropics but many strange forms occur in the United States. The species just i.nentioned, when en- iarj'.ed, bears a fanciful resemblance to the partridge and was once the Mh- Fig. i3i._censa t..urina. eggs ject of a charming popular article bv
the late William Hamilton Gibson, entitled '■ A Queer Little Fari.ily on the Bitter-Sweet," published in the Harper s .Monthly for August. i8q^ A common form is the little hump-backed species known as Tclemona moiiUiohi.
'■■ i'
>>
Kig. r ;:.— Knchcnopa binoiata. ( AfUr IJiitiur.)
which somtimes swarms upon the branches of the Virginia creeper in June. Another most interesting form is that known as F.ntilui siniiatii. which is found upon the leaves of sun-flower and other annual plants. This species lays its eggs in the mid- rib of the upper leaves. The mother insect broods over her eggs
W ;
|
il |
■ l! |
|
b |
!^- |
|
Va |
J |
'•-■( I f.
•w.1»P^^':>;^
m
i
FIG. I.
3. 4-
/■
s.
').
lo. I I.
12.
I 1.
Pl.ATK XXVI.
NEUROPTKROII) INSHCTS
HfX;ineni.i bilineata (Rphemeridx) Hastein States Chivsopa nigricornis (Chrysopidx) Kastein Stati-s Uliilodcs hyalina (Ascalaphidie) Southern States I'eria tlavescetis (Perlidx) riastern States I'tcionarcvs nohilis (I'eilidie) Northern States Hph.inera decora (Hphenieridx) Northern States Ac.i hachsis ainerieana (Myrnieleonidie) Atlantic Coast States Psaninioleon iiijieniosiis (Myrineleonida-) Western States Dendroloiin obsoletus (Mvinieleonidx) U. S. Hr.ichvnenuirus nebiilosiis (Mvrnieleonid;c) Florida Brachvnemiiriis abdoniinalis (Myrineleonidx) 11. S. (ilenuriis jjratus (Mvrnieleonid;i') Southern Slates Brachynemurus lonKJcaudus (Mynneleonidx) Southern States
ij ?^'
0'
Thb [rrcc-r Bcxiif.
Platr XXVI.
^:m':.'=M
^%
m
h
\ I
W~'^.-
W: a^
The Trce-Hopperi
until they uro h;itchcii nnd the young fnm the time «{ h.itchinn until Idll grown are constantly attended by ants which are at- tracted to the sweet secretion which this insect, together with many others of the same family, just as with certain of the Jas- sidac exudes from its anus.
Life History of the Buffalo Tree-Hopper
(Cinsit bnbiiliis.)
This little insect is probably the species of the greatest eco- nomic importance of any of this group of tree-hoppers. It is popularly known by the name of the "buffalo tree-hopper." Its popular name is derived from its supposed similarity in shape to the male bison, the prothorax being greatly enlarged towards the head and projecting at the sides into two strong horns. It
'■'B '.V) — .■\rcha.si.i K'iI'i'.i. ' Aftir Lux:;er.)
Fig. 1 J4 — Ceresa bubalus. ( AJl, r MarLitt. =39
4i^?^<.'C^
f
*^-' i. ><
i
yf \
■ '■
The Trc«-Hopperi
i common ..II through the United .St:ites. from Missouri north- w.irds into (..in;ida, and is sometimes the cause of considerahle damage in orchards, particularly to voun>? trees and nursery stock. 1 he injur-.' is produced by the cutting of th. small limbs by the kni.ile with her .saw-like ovipositor, in whicn process she
makes large noles through the
bark in which the eggs are in-
.serted in clusters. The insect
llies with .1 loud buzzing noise
from tree to tree .ind is very shv.
The twigs chosen for egp-laying
e preferably those of two or
three years growth and \ irious
kinds of trees are selected.
The eggs are placed in small
compound groups .irranged in
two nearly par.illel or slightlv
curved slits. About .1 minute
is requ; i.d for the insertit)n of
each t 'g. Ihe wound is made
in such a w.iv as to cause a
certain cessation of growth be-
,,, ,. , , , tweentworowsof eggs to pre-
i.i5 I L-rcsa l)ul,aliis, firgsand old . .1 1 '
rgKMap. tA/U: .uJ^.UJ ^'^"' "^'■"' ''^■"'^' 'TUshed by the
rapid growth of the twig. tach female lays (rom one hundred to two bundled eggs. The in.sect hibernates in the egg condition and the young >- 'tch in the •spring. They molt three or four times before beco. ig lull- hiown and during their lite feed upon the juices of the tender twigs and leaves by inserting their beaks and pumping up the sap. The insect in its early stages is wingless and is covered on the upper side along the centre with numerous barbed projections
240
tfl^S*
e. -.■•>:
.•r-'
^^^w:^'
THE FROG -HOPPERS OR SPITTLE INSECTS
(Family Ciicopid^.)
This is a rather l.irpe fa-nily comprising mostly rather stu.iii insects, many of which are known as " frog-hoppers' or "spittle insects. The antenna- are placed between the eyes, there are only two ocelli and the thorax is not strangely modilied as with the Membracid*. Few insects excite more interest among moderately observant people than the true spittle insects which belong to the subfamily Aphrophorina;. They are small, r.ither slender, brown, clay-yellow or grayish species^ and after hatching from the egg live in little masses of froth resembling spittle on the stems of plants and trees, frequently on grasses and weeds. In some parts of the south, according to Uhler, the negroes think that horse-tlies are developed from these froth specks. When abundant they may do con- siderable damage to pasture-lands. Philanus spnmarius and P. Iiih\itiis are said by Fernald to be common on grass in M.i.ssachusetts. The former is abundant in gardens in lingland and was probably introduced from England into this country.
The eggs are laid in the stems of plants in the autumn and hatch in the spring. It was fornurlv thought that the spittl.' that soon surrounds the young ins^ .t was excreted from the anus, but Professor E. S. Morse has recently shown that only a clear liquid containing no hrbbles is thus exuded and that the air-bubbles are brought in by a constant thrashing about of the anal end of the body, bringint^ in air which is retained as bub- bles by the viscia quality of the liquid. There are anal append- ages which are probably branchial in function, according to Morse.
It is suppo.sed that the purpose of the frothy mass is to pro- tect the soft-bodied immature insects from tiieir' natural enemies
*4I
Kir r 56 — Montphdra l)ic iiiiia. I /■ivm I '■ ^ Ihft. M^'r J
Th. Froj.Hopp,,, or Sp.„|, i..,„„
they ..re souKht lor hy a' t ,, L n k '"^, •'"' ' '"•""'^ '" ''c. •some observer. '"teresting ,nj novel lic-ld ,„r
»4J
'ill:' i
THE LH/tF-HOPPEKS
I'timily Jassida.)
This group of ip is, which comprises the forr" liinarily known as leul-hoppcrs, is an extensive group, -i-jng a
great complexity of forms and by , .nodern writers is considered as having sup. ...nily lank and is generally termed " Jassoidea." They are usually slender insects, with the antenn* in- serted in front of and between the eyes and having the hind tibiic witti a row ol spines be- low. They are very FiK i37T-Proco abundant
nia u ndata. ( l-rom on I o W - C. a. Deft. Afr.)
growing herbage and have been shown by Professoi Her- bert Osborn to bring abjut a very extensive although probably ur,, '-ced injury to forage plants in large grazing ranges ir, the west as well as <n na^turc lots in the east. He ..hows that on acri- of p •., ,; land the •: -quently e.\:.ns one million leaf-hoppei .s and that this million hoppers consume as much grass as a cow if not more. In this restricted sense this family includes the leaf-hoppers now generally placed in the
family Teitigonid* which '^'«- '^'•-^^"i;:;:!::;;""'''^^^"-
243
The Leaf- Hoppers
are distinguished from the restricted Jnssidx by the position of the ocelli. Amonji; the leaf-hoppers which may be especially mentioned are the green spindle-shaped species of the genus l*:edrocephala which are found abundantly in pasture lands, one species ( D. mollipcs) occurring commonly in the salt marshes of the Atlantic States. The forms belonging to the genus Proconia ;i;e rather widely distributed and one of them (P. tiiidata) is responsible for most of the .stories of " weeping trees" which
'6~ - ^ " —y
Fig, Ijy— Erythroneura vitis. ( After MarUttt. )
are seen in the newspapers. These insects in all stages (and the species of several other genera have a similar habit) eject a spray of fluid from the anus when disturbed and, when occurring abun- dantly upon trees, if the tree be shaken what seems almost like a light shower of rain will fall. One i,f these '• weeping tree mys- teries." so-called, in Texas some years ago "set the state agog with various e.xplanations of the phenomenon, ranging from the superstitious credence of the supernaturally incimed to the posi- tive denial'and derisive laughter of the constitutionally skeptical. ' It took a brave newspaper reporter to solve the mystery, since he alone dared to climb the tree and investigate. The common leaf-hoppers of the grape-vine, erroneously called bv grape- growers " Thrips." are known as Erythroncura vlti^ and Tvphlo- fvha ritifcx. They frequently cause the leaves of grape-vines to turn brown and wither. Agjllia sanguiiioh'iita prefers open
^44
m.%
The Leaf-Hoppers
sunny places, is destructive to clover and attacks a great variety of useful plants such as cabbage, celery, turnips, strawberry, beets and many weeds.
Typical Life History of a Leaf-Hopper
( Dcltocephaliis inimiciis.)
This little leaf-hopper is one of the species which is com- monly found in pastures and meadows. It has been reared upon young wheat plants by Professor F. M. Webster. The females laid their eggs in November in the tissue of the leaves and the young could be seen developing within the eggs without removal. They were especially noticeable just prior to issuing by their jet black eyes. A few days after hatching the young leaf-hoppers molted and they molted again twice thereafter, the full-grown individuals making their appearance December 22d, giving a life period of forty-one days from the egg to the adult. The species seems to hibernate both in the egg state and in the adult condi- tion and to have several generations each year. Osborn found the eggs inserted under the skin of the leaves of blue grass, making little blister-like swellings near the tips and causing them to turn yellow. Those which hibernate in the egg state issue in great numbers in grass lands early in May. There are two generations each year, the young being most numerous in late May and in August and the adults in June and in the fall. Large numbers have been seen attracted to the electric lights in Illinois (Forbes & Hart.)
245
THE IVHITH FLIPS, OR /ILEYRODIDS
(lamily Aleymdidie.)
This family, m^n closely allied to the Aphididae and O^idae than to;.ny ryfhers, and yet widely different in important features, is a puzzling and abnormal assemblaKe of insects. They
f:^Ui6r% cisri. ( Irom /nml l.ij,:j
ire very small instcts, frequently minute, :.nd infest the leaves of Jf-int^. usually on th- i.,wer side. In their early stages they are v.ite-hke. and mu' ■ f^«:mhle some of the Coccida:. Unlike the (yxc\As:. howevr- th« development < the two sexes is prac- ni.»ily parallel, and \yAh males and fen; les arc active and winged. Ci-ir^ring ..gain from fh*r scale insects, there are two pairs of vmsfs instead of or,-r pvif. All foi- wings are covered or dusted ■x.;Th a whitish. me^Mske secretion, which has given to the group S^e popular name -A white flies. In the immature stages the
246
The White Flies or Aleyrodids
body may be more or less covered by n secretion of wax, but the most distinctive character is the presence of an opening on the dorsum of the last abdominal segment which is known as the vasiform orifice, in the adults the antenna: are seven- jointed, and the eyes are usually somewhat constricted near the middle, and may be even completely divided. The wings when at rest are nearly horizontal, and are broad and well rounded. The wings may be unspotted, or variously spotted or banded. The Aleyrodidx do not constitute a large group, and but two genera and not more than 1 50 species are known. Of these both genera (Aleyrodes and Aleyrodicus) are known in the United States, and rather more than fifty species occur within our geographic borders. Doubtless many of these are imported, since they occur more commonly upon greenhouse plants than upon wild indigenous plants. They are found upon both herb- aceous plants and upon forest trees. They are very seldom serious enemies to vegetation, although the species occurring com- monly upon the orange does considerable damage, which arises not alone from the actual loss of sap and consequent withering of the leaves from the sucking of the insect, but also from the profuse quantity of smut fungus, the spores of which (Ind their nidi in the honey dew secreted by the insects. Their natural enemies are practically the same as those of the scale insects, but tht- very minute Hymenopterous parasites of the family Mymarida; seem to be their specific internal parasites. In fact, they are too small to harbor any other true internal parasites except (he members of this family, which, as a matter of tact, includes the smallest true insects known.
Typical Life History of a White Fly
(Alcynnh-s citn, Riley & Howard J
This species, which is the only form of any great economic importance in the group and the one to which we have just re- ferred, occurs abundantly in some of the orange groves in Florida and in northern greenhouses and made its appearance about 1890 in the orange groves of Louisiana. It is not known whether it is an indigenous or imported species. Il will probably be found
247
t
The White Flies or Aleyrodids
in any northern greenhouse in which orange or lemon trees occur. It is found in the south also upon the china-berry tree, upon viburnum, cape jessamine and the water oak. The follow- ing life history account is drawn up from observations made in greenhouses in the city of Washington. The insect passes the winter in the full-grown larval condition. The adult insects issue during April and begin to lay their eggs about or before the middle of the month. About twenty-five eggs are laid by each female. The eggs are very delicate, pellucid, and each possesses a slender petiole or foot-stalk about one-third the length of the
•'=szrr:>:3S><9afcC3£fS!c:
Kig 141.— Aleyrodes citri. 1 From Insert l.ifi.)
egg proper. In two weeks the young larva hatches. It is com- paratively active and crawls a short distance from the egg-shell before beginning to feed. In from two to four weeks it molts and by the middle of June three skins have been cast. In molt- ing the insect curves the abdomen upwards at moie than right- angles, moving it occasionally up and down. It shrinks away from the side margin until it occupies only about one-third of the original Literal space. The skin then splits at the anterior end or underneath the head. Then the head and prothorax are pushed
248
'mm.
M
PiATi: XXV".
ih'kl
m
no.
3
4
5 6,
7-
H.
^■ lO.
1 1.
12.
n-
IS.
I().
'7-
IS.
U). 2<). 21. 22,
24-
2=;.
2'i.
27-
2S. 2Q.
BUGS, l.h:AF-H(>l'i>FKS AND CICAPAS
Nep;i npiculitJ (N.-piil;v) Atbntic States Kan.itia fiisca vNepidx) Atlantic Stales HiiKsa lonjripcs (f-^K-.sid;i-) Atlantic .States Ikny.Lis griseiis (BelostoniatiJa-) Atlantic States Cialgulusoculatus ((JalnuliJic) U. S. Cieriis reinigis (HyJroirctrida-) Atlantic .Stales Cnnxa harrisii (Crixidiv) Atlantic States . Rlieiimatobates rileyi (Hydrometridx) U. S, . I'ci'cilocapsus li , itiis ((:apvid.r> U. S. . Kesthenia insitiva (Capsida.-) U. S. Notonecta undui.it.i (Notonectida-) U. S. Noionecta irrorata (Notonectidx; U. S. Zaiih;, lluminea (Belostoniatidie) Atlantic Sfate.s 'roni.ispis hicincta (C.arcopulx) U. S. 'I'oni.ispis bicincta
Tibicen septen.ieciin (Cicadidx) U. S. Tebinona nionticola (Menibracidx) Northern .States (.eresa hub;i|us (.Meinbracidiv) U. S. Onccnietiipi.i iindata (Tetti-ronid.e) !J. S. Cicad.i tibicen (Cic.ididal .Southern .States Honialodi.sca Lo...iiulata (TettiKonida-) Southern States (^nconietopi.i undala
Dictvopiiara niicrorrhina (Fuljr„rida) .Southern .States Ornienis ,septenfri,.iiis (|-uli.,.riJ:,) Southern .St.ites (.icada dorsata (Cicadida) Western .States Ho,,ialodisca coajrulaui nrnu-nis septentrionis Ornienis pruiiKJsa (Fulsj^oridiv) LJ. S. Poiocera fulijrinosa (FulKorida) U. .S.
i:H
YWA«» *J
Pt-*TE XXVII.
ii
I L
'ms^Kj^i.^s-iZ'v: '-MM -^
^!B^^^^7^Li^r^i
.*^"aiii'uiiw»s«.vw«nBWK^'-*fin:'"iK»s(^i*'— .' . »*in-E~i3ip»-aF i^am-
^Sisr
Th* Whitt Flit* or Alayrodidi
out and the skin is gradually wfirked backwards. At the end of June the adults begin to issue again in numbers, remaining alive for about twenty days. There are three generations annually. When the perfect insect issues from what may be termed the pupa shell, the wings are rollod up and make their appearance with extreme slowness. Just before the adult is ready to issue the pupa shell becomes transparent so that the contained insect, shrunken away from the skin, is plainly soen in all of its stages! The adult just after issuing is at first milk-white except for bright lemon-yellow thoracic lobes. Th adult male is readily dis- tinguished from the female by the anal claspers and by the waxy tufts issuing from the head and from the abdomen. All stages are well repref.entel in the accompanying figures.
249
-%f.'' «BK
THE SCALE /\'SECTS
(Family Cotcida.)
The insects of this family, popularly known as seal insects or bark-lice, include forms of great morphological interest as well as very many of great economic importance. In the latter respect they form very injurious enemies to inost fruit trees as well as to
Kig. 14;.— Diaspis ptntagona. (Autlior's lilmlralwH. 1
many other shade and ornamental trees. Thev occur upon bushes and vines as well and are i v\ n in some instances fou.id upon grasses. The grou,i as a whole is a most abnormal one in its hfe historv. In general terms it may be stated that the eggs are i.iid by the ,idult female either immediately below her own body or at its posterior extreniitv. Certain species do not lav eggs but give birth to living young as do the plaiit-lice. This abnormal h.ibit is not characteristic of any particular group o*' form- but is found with individual species in one or more gener.i. The young on hatching from the eggs .ire si.\-legged, mite-like
=50
Th« Seal* Iniccia
*•'* MJ— "ia»pi* pentagona: adult male. I Aul/i:'r's iHiiilnltioH. j
crc.iturcs, which cniwl Mpidly ;iway from the body of the inothtT, wanJtr out upon the new and tendi-r jiKiwth of the pl.int or triT, and there settle, pushlnjj their beaks throuffh
the outer tissue of the leaf or twij? and feeding upon the sap.
Even at this early stage the male insect can be distinguished from
the female by certain differences in structure. As a general rule
the female casts its skin from three to five times before reaching
the adult condition
and beginning to
lay eggs or to give
birth to young.
With each success- ive molt the insect
increases in size
and becomes more
convex in form.
Its legs and an-
tenn;c become
proportionally re- duced, its eyes be- come smaller and
are finally lost. As
a g.'Peral rule it is
incapable of mov-
intt itself from the
spot upon which it
has once become
lixed after the
second molt, al-
thoutjh certain spe- ... ,,. , , , ,
' riK 144 — "'•i-'^pi- I><:iita),">na. .uliili km.ilc scale
Lies crawl through- iLmoVLd. ' Author's illuslralwii. ,
N
Th« teal* InMctt
*\ US'— I^i^-'pU r>»*. (Afttr ComstMk.)
Kig. 146.— Lecanium nigrofasciatum. (Autkot's Uluitratuii.)
252
r^ssr^i^i ^^f »jBTBKV.-T^?aKi^3r
Th* Seal* Inicctt
Kij; i|7 — rommon hoi hnunv mcjly huK, I till I ) liipiun iiiri. I Ajhr CamilMi.)
out life. The iidiilt female insect then IS a windless, motionless, degraded, and for all practicil purposes lenUss and eyeless creature. She seems simply an animated drop of proto- plasm enclosed in a skin. In the armored scales she is absolutely leaf- less and eyeless. The mouth-parts through which she derives nourish- ment remain functional .md become enlat^^ed from molt to molt. Her body becomes swollen with k^%^ or young and as soon as these are l.iid or born she dies.
The life of the male differs radically from that of the female. Up to the second molt the development remains practically parallel in the two sexes, but after this molt the male larva trans- forms to a pupa in which the organs of the perleitly developed fledged insect become apparent. This change ni.iy be under-one in a cocoon or under .. male scale. The adult male which issues at about the time when the female becomes full grown is an active and rat' er highly organised creature with two bro.id func- tional wings and long vibrating antennx clothed with h.iirs. The legs are also long and stout. The hind wings are absent but are replaced by rather long tubercles to the end of which is ufticul.ited a strong bristle hooked at the 'ipand (itted into a prcket ipnihe hir in.irgin of the w ings. The eves of the .iduit male are very large and strongly l.icetted. The mouth-parts are absent .ind curiously enough their pl.ico is taken bv supplementary eve spots or simple eyes (ocelli). The function of the male seems simply to tind the female, to fertilize her and then die.
The number of generations in scale 'nsecis v.iries greatly and no gener.il statement cm be made.
Thi scale ins^'cts found in the
bug. !..Kiyiop,u.si,mKififc ■ '^""'^^1 ^'•"^'^ W\on- to three i.irge (Ajf.ri.,wsf,ui:, groups, the most important and the
25J
;'
! 11
J li •! )
L'
I
I
I'll
M
,;lr r
The Scale Insects
most abund.int in species of which is the group known iis the armored scales (sulM.miilv Diaspinx), so termed because tlie insect soon alter set- tiinu bei;insthe secre- tion of a scale h\ means of threads of wax exudinji from pores in the body which eventually blend together and form an impervious covering separated from the insect's bodv. The shape and character of this scale is of importance in the classification of the group but the most important characters are found in the anal plate of the bodv of the female insect. A second large group well represented in the United States is the group of naked bark- lice, known as the subfamily l.ecaniin:r. In this group no true scale is formed and the bodv is uslkiIIv well arched so as to become almost hemispherical. The third group (subfamily C.occin.el comprises those forms known as mealy-bugs and re- l.ited forms. These insects have no difTerentuited scale but are all covered with a white waxy secretion, some of them h.iving conspicuous waxy egg sacs at the end of the body of the female. The majority of species of scale insects at present found in the United States are not indigenous to this countrv, but have been introduced from abroad, most o\ them from Hurope.m reuions. on plants and young trees and on fruit ca.-ried to this cnuntrv in the course of commerci.il interchange.
Fig. 141).— Ciittony M;iple Scilc, I'ulvinuria iniiunicnibili^. 1 Aulhur's :lUistratio)i. I
-'54
mmmmimtm
The Scale Insects
Life History of the Oyster-Shell Bark-Louse of the Apple.
(.^htilcispii f,'„i,>niiii Himilic, )
This
IS insi-ct is piobnMv the conimotifst :inJ most widespread ;md consequently tiie Ivst-kiu.wn, of ;.nv of the orchard sc lies" It IS found all over the world. It w..s prob;iMv an Furopean insect onginally-at all events, it was known in'Hurope during the last century-and was probahlv imported int.^ this country on nursery stock by the early settlers. It is found in the United States practically wherever apples and pears are grown m.ire abundantly at the north than at the south, and has often received treatment at the hands of writers on injurious insects. It was
Ki^ 150. — MmiI.i-|ii> iininoruni.
.//I///,.
1 ii.itstratiO}!.
certainly known in this country as early as I7c)4. and it unques- tionably followed apple culture as it progressed to the west. It w.is known in the districts bordering along Lake Michigan in i«4". ;ind in iShS u invaded Iowa and northern Missouri. To-
■I!
•■■»!*
\-i
Tlic Scale InMCt*
day it is prevrfit even in California. It is by no means confined to apple and ft-tT, but is also found upon quince, hawthorn, buckthorn, rarirly upon raspberry and currant, but also upon linden, hop 'f«e. horse chestnut, maple, water locust, honey-
I
I-iK i-i — M)-.i»*t'<- f-mfnim atluli m.il.: an'l f.malu. ( Author's illustration.)
'iuckle, ash. <rim. hickory, cottonwond, willow, poplar, wild ^rape, rowr,. fis<. bitter-sweet, red maple, black ash, white ash, white birch, red birch, and very abundantly upon the lilac, so mat it will U an easy form to cllect and to stuuy. In the winter time. ;f one of the ovster-shcll shaped scales is lifted S/ently With th*: point of a needle, it will he found to contain ,ii the narrow front end the shriveled bf.dy of the female with from 'M,\o uxj -.-iiowi-sh white e^xs packed closely together behind the bf>d\ V/'n-timcs the e^.'^'s will be found to be very lew m numbei. V«.' ?r"n the l.irva or yr.r^.i of a little chalcidid parasite will be founi under the scale, which will account for the destruc- tion of the f-j:K\. In most of the northeastern states the younii hatch from thev.- et^k's during the i.ittrr part of May or early in June (at -.r ^ -lier d..te f.irther south), and wander out upon the twijis and '-illc at once. The youn>4 twigs are the only parts of
2j6
fS!9t!Stms^
PLATt, XXVIII.
\\:
FIG.
7-
K.
M- to. I I.
12.
n- 1 J
111.
"7- is.
K) 2(.)
CICADA.S AND I.EAr-llOPPHRS
Ciiynot.i iiu'r:i ( Mcmbracidic) U. S.
(".ixius .stinmatus (FuIjioriJx) U. S.
iel.iniona moiiticola (Mcnibracidx) Northern States
inatycciuriis aciiticornis (Mfinbracidie) Soullarn States
iMatycotis 4-vittatus (Membiacidx) U. S.
Orticrius rhvparus (Fultiorici.u) Cd.
Tibicoii cruentilora (Cica.lid.e) .Soiitlu'rn State
Mclaiiipsalta par>'ui;i (CkaaiJa) Soutlicni States
I'jbia-n striatipes (Cicadkl.e) Souihern St ites
Tibi en riiiiosa (Cicadidii;) Western St.ites
Icttmi,, heiroiilyphica (Cicadidx) Atlantic States, Sontlier:i
Slates C.ie.ida emctilera (Cieadida'^ Western States _ Cicidi vitripennis (Cicadidie) Sdutiivvestern States I'l.itvpedii p.itnaini (Cicadid.e) .Soullieri) States. Western
States Cicada sordidata (f.icadidx) .Southern States Imtlie expansa (Meinbracid.e) Southern States lanthe cxpans.i (side) (Meinbracid.e) Southern States Otiocerus antoiiii (Fiiluorid.e) Southern States Cicada niariiinala (Cicadid;e) U. S. Aniphiscepa bivittata (bulguridx) U. S.
MiH
The iNi,EcT Bovrf.
Plat-j XXVIII.
HI
11
The Scale Iniecta
the tree which seem to be seriously affected. Older twigs, how- ever are also attacked, and many specimens of the insect may be found upon the trunk. As soon as the young insect finds a suitable position it gradually inserts its beak and commences to grow through the influence of the healthy food sap which it pumps up. Almost immediately, also, the secretion of scale begins. This is first noticed in the form of a white, waxy powder which first is seen in the form of threads, but which soon becomes homo- geneous. In a few days the first molt takes place, not as in the ordinary manner with insects by a series of contractions and exten- sions which work the old skin to the end of the body, from which it is finally freed, but by a sort of loosening and shrinking of the body underneath, all the parts except the proboscis being shed and abandoned with the skin. Strengthened by the secretions from the body, this skin forms the first scale. Presently the skin is shed a second time and mingles with the second secretion, which forms the second scale, which may be noticed at the anterior end of the completed scale of the old individual. As growth continues this second scale becomes too small and is
'I'i
Fig, 152. — The scurfy bark-louse of lliu
apple, Chimaspis furfurus.
( Aut/ior^s illuitratton. )
lifted up into the third portion, while the shield proper is secreted by a series of increments, more being constantly added on behind as the insect beneath grows. When full grown the female is ready for reproduction. 1 he male scale is a perfectly distinct
257
The Scale Iniecti
object, as indicated in the nccompanyinp figure, and the adult male, which makes its appearance at the time when the I'emaii:^ are almost ready for oviposition, is shown at Figure isi. There is but one annual generation in the northern states, and, owing to this fact, the leaves are not attacked, for if the insect were to go on the leaves it would be lost when they fall in the autumn. Upon the fruit it is almost equally rare, although occasionally a specimen is found in such a location. In the south, however, the insect is two-brooded, and the adults of the first generation are found upon the fruit and leaves without danger to the perpetuation of the species, since their offspring crawl back to the permanent portions of the plant before autumn. As a matter of fact, however, even in the south the insect is very seldom seen upon either the leaves or the fruit.
The insect is subject to the attacks of many natural enemies in the course of its growth. The little ladybirds, as the beetles of the family CoccmellidPE are termed, both as larvce and adults feed upon these and other scales. There are five distinct species of chalcidid parasites which lay their ef;gs in the maturing bark- lict, and while the lice aie young and before they have formed a protective scale they are avidly destroyed by the larvae of the syrphus llies, of the lace-winged flies, and by certain small predatory bugs. The most efficient of their natural enemies, however, are probably the ladybirds, since the writer has determined that the internal chalcidid parasites rarely destroy all of the eggs in 'he over-wintering scales. A large number of scales were examined in the late winter and early spring of 1894, with the result that when parasites were found from tv"o to eif,'hteen eggs were found to have escaped destruction, the average number of eggs in uninfested scales being from sixtv-tive to seventv-live. In two cases, where a parasite had issued late in the fall (and the small round hole of issuing is readily perceived in the scale), eleven and five eggs, respectively, were found. The ladybird, however, eats everything.
Li*
»S8
■■i
riMli
iMHii
THE JUMPING PUNT-LIC OR FLE/I-LICE
(Family Psyllidic.)
These insects have two-jointed tarsi, aniennie eight-or-nine- jointed, and the hind legs with somewhat swollen thighs. Their
'^'S '53- — Tachypsylia vtnu>ta i
(After Kiley.)
jumping habit distinguishes them from the piant-lice as indicated m the popular name. Certain species exude quantities of the sweet liquid known as honey-dew. which is also abundantly secreted by the piant-lice and by some of the tree-hoppers and leaf-hoppers. Many forms live in )r;,lls and there are several species which produce galls of different kinds upon the trees of the genus Celtis, commonly known as •'hackberry trees."
i
!| !.
The Jumping PUnl-Lic* or FIca-Licc
Life History of the Pear-Tree Psylla
(Psylla pyricoUt.)
This insect is thi- commonest and the most destructive flea louse in the United States. It i< ci'iiiinon throu^jhout the north-
Fig. 154. — Pear-tree Psylla: ailult (i-maK' nutuial '•i/i- in<lic ated by side line. ( AJler M,<rlalt. I
eastern United States and from Maryland on the south to Michi>(an on the west, it was originally a Kuropean species and is supposed to have been imported into this country about 1832. makinji its first appearance in Connecticut. The ej^g is orange yellow in color and very minute. It is attached to the leaf by a short arm and has a long hair-like stalk pro- jecting from Its end. The newly hatched larva is somewhat larger than th^ egg and yellow in color with crimson eyes. It f.isses through several molts .iiid when nearing the nymphal condition. \\'hich corresponds to the pupa stage in insects which have complete metamorphoses, it is 'eadily distinguished by
_
Tht Jumping Plant-Lice or Kl««-Lic
the liirxi- wing p;ids. Its c
"ig. I <i5 — fear tnc INylla : ./, egg f, u.rxa— Imth ^.Ttaiiy tiilirgcd
f AJhr Milr','tlt I
adult st.igi' in crevices in the with the (irst warm sprinjj days, beginning with the laying of the eggs on the leaves before thev have fully expanded or even placing them m cracks in the bark on the twigs. The larvx hatch in ten to seventeen days and station themselves on the surf.ice ol the leaves or on the leaf petioles. There are four or five generations each summer in Mary- land but fewer farther north.
"lor IS then dark reddish brown. In all the early stages the in- sect IS broad-oval and very much llatiened. resembling "lore neaily some scale in- sect rather th.in a perfect llea-louse. It is also slug- gish m these earlv st.iges. When the nvinph cists its last skin the adult insect emerges, li resembles much more closely a minute cicada or harvest-lly than any other homopterous in- sect. It hibern.ites m the
bark of pear-trees and e-nerges
■u
Kig. 15(1.— Peat trt-L- I'svll.i : pupa.
f .-t/Ur Mirl.lti. I
261
PUNT-LICE
(Family Af/iiiiiiia.)
The pinnt-lice are very numerous not only in pdint of num- bers ul individuals but also of numbers of species. In many respects these insects are abnt>rmal, especially m their method of development, and they have attracted >{reat attention from naturalists since Bonnet discovered, i so years ago, the peculiar
Fig. 157. — Nectarophora pisum ; the grct-npci plant-louse. ( A/tt'r Chitundin.)
phenomenon known as parthenogenesis, which is almost invari- ably the rule amongst these cre:!tures. Their life history is very surprising and their relations with other insects, especially with ants, are most interesting. They are very destructive insects, preying upon practically all culiiv.ited plants, and their rate of increase is so enormous that if it were not for their innumerable
:f.2
m
Plant .Lie*
natural enemies they would proKiMy annihilate the Kruatcr part ol plant life. The classic computation ol Huxley that the unjn- terrupteJ hreedliiK of ten Kenerations of plant-lice from a single ancestor would produce a riuss of orfjanic matter equivalent to the bulk of live hundred millions of human heinKS (ahout the
populatii.fi of the Chinese tmpire) is by no nuans an overestimate, but if anything ■111 under-esti- mate. This ra- pidity in InctJ- ing is lint due
^^^st^ ^ -*"'> JL "IK '" '■'^^"■'""■' p^*^-
f\<Y7^ W ^^ \lf,'l\ spnn«ofasin>!le nr'^i* rf C c female is rather
small, but rather to the earlv aj^e
at which the offsprinff begin themselves U> reproduce. Partheno- genesis, which means the virgin birth, t. <■., the birth of individ- uals from a virgin female, and the fact that with most species and during a l.irge part (if the ye.ir the voung are born alive, atcnuni for this r.ipidity. Gen- eration after generation is pn^- duced in this way but in all cases sooner or later there comes a true sexual generation composed n( both m.iles and feni.ik-s which pair and these females as a rule lay eggs instead of giving birth to living young. In manv cases it is in this egg stage that plant- lice pass the winter. Thus it will be seen that true males make their appearance on'y a single time in a number of genera- tions. Another curiou., fe;."ire in the life of plant-lice is the fact that while the majontv of the generations in the course uf a sum- mer are composed of w ingless females there comes once or twice
*63
a,
KiK. I5<,.-I'l,yll,
■r.i \ustatiix egg ■IJI.r Marlatt.)
.m:'^ ••^:3
r».'iiJ
Plant- Lice
n ' ii
during each season a generation of winged females, thus provid- ing for the dispersal of the species and not only for the dispersal of the species but for the return to a perennial plant in the
autumn from the weeds, grasses and other annual plants upon which the summer generations may have fed.
I'lant-lice are attacked bv a host of natural ene- mies. The little Braconid parasites of the subfamily Aphidiinx are practically exclusively p.irasites of the plant-lice. Their eggs
Fig. ifo — rhylloxiTa v:i>latrix: root form. ;|ie l.lid in the bodv of the
within the body until they reach full growth, and the little four- winged parasite eventually emerges as an adult. Plant-lice
a J, c f VL*
l-'ig. K.i. — rhylloxer.1 vastmiix: k.if gall form. ( AfUr .M.iiLili -
parasitized in this w.-y become swollen and dark in color and can readily be distinguished. These parasites themselves breed with extraordinary rapidity and are frequently responsible for the
gg-gg
wtm
li^'UiA./^^S*^:"?^
Plant-Lice
practical extermination of the hosts of lice which are frequently found in the wheat (ields in the sprinj;. The lady-birds and the iTvas of the syrphus tlies and the tjolden-eyed lace-wing llies as
vvji: .1 'he maggots of certain midges of the genus Diplosis and oti-ers : eed upon plant-lice and in fact derive the greater part of the.r ' od from these creatures. Extreme prolificacy is the means
».hicl, nature adopts to continue the existence of many other- wist unprotected and much harassed species. In this instance, however, it has taken the form of extreme rapidity of develop- ment instead of great prolificacy.
The relationship between plant-lice and ants has b^m often described and is one of the most fascinating topics in the whole field of nature study. The honey dew which is secreted by plant-lice both from the anus and from two tubes upon the back of the abdomen is greatly enjoyed by ants which in a surprisingly intelligent way care for the plant-lice, drive away their natural enemies, carry them bodily to better feeding grounds, recognize the necessity for migrations at times and assist in these migra- tions and actually prepare locations in advance of transportation. The term which is frequently applied to Aphids, viz. "the milch cows of the ants, ■ is a very appropriate one.
Probably the most famous of the plant-lice in the economic sense are the grape-vine Phvlloxera (Phylloxera vashUnx). a species which is said to have cost the French nation more than the indemnity paid to the Germ ins after the Franco-Prussian w.ir. the woolly root-louse of the apple (Shi\oiiciira laingci\i ) erroneously known in most parts of the world as the .Americ.m blight, and the hop-plant Um^c fP/ioroJoii l/iniinli Schninkj. a species which is f.ist becoming cosmopolitan and which for vears har, been the greatest enemy to the hop-growing industry in England and parts of this country.
,f.
}
Life History of the Hop-Plant Louse
(Plioivdon humnli Schrank.)
This insect which we have just mentioned as an extremely injurious species is commonly known as the hop-plant louse and sometimes as the hop blight insect. It is a native of Europe, is a great drawback to the success of hop-growing in England, was
sn^T"
■<'^
Plant -Lice
for many year* known in the hop plantations in central New York and in vxjfhern Wisconsin and has within the last ten years made it's appearance in the extensive hop -growing regions in Washmj^Vyn, (Menon and northern California. All through the Middle and V^uthern States occasionally hop plants are grown in dorjr-yards and this plaiil-louse is found practically every season upon these plants. The hop is an annual plant, dy- ing down to the ground with the first frost in the autumn. It is obvious, therefore, that the plant-louse is to be found upon some other plant during the late fall, winter, and early spring. This alternate fcmd plant as it is called is the plum. Just why plum trees are nearly always found in the immediate vicinity of hop yards is a mystery. The winter egg of the louse is found upon the plum tree usually at the base of the buds and sometimes under the scales of a bud. From these eggs in the spring hatches
t; ■• lirsf generation which is composed entirely of virgin females
...J the mdivid!ja!-i of this generation are known as the stem- mothers. In two or three days after hatching, having migrated
to the minuti^ leaves biirstinn from the
buds, they Im'^.n to give birth to living
young, !li<rve ;ilv^ all being t'-males.
hvery d.jy o( h'-r existence th • stem- mother (iTivtrs birth to several young
varying m n.itnl-fr from two to seven or
eight. I.a'.h of these .ifter reaching the
age of nbffit «r;ght days begins in its
turn 10 give tr.rth to living young, so
that the item-mother may live to see
her grandf.h;ldfcn of the fourth or fifth
ireneration The third generation ,it-
• juires wing%, although all are still
tcmalcs. By the time the winged
generation »nake* its appearance the
hops will have Ix-gun to come up in the fields and the lice
2'/.
KiR. i6j, — rhonidiiTi liumuli: slfin mothiT. ( From Instit l.tft.)
^
m^^i^m
V
n s h n
IS
;e
I-
5t
S,
ie ie
is is
•y
ty
er in id d. es ,es li- ed
I
^
uli:
ice
I'l.ATl XXIX
TRUi; BLir.S
:\ '•• '«
1. Narnia Pallidic . -.is (Coifidx) Wi'st.rn States
2. l.arfiiis citutiis (I'virhocoridx) WcstiTii States
3. Spartoteraditlusa (Cort-idx) Soiitlu-ni States
4. Chelinidea vittifiera (i:ureKi;e) Western States
5. Narnia feniorata (Corcidie) Southern States
h. Aihaplie Carolina (l\rrli<>corid;f) Southern States
7. l.eptopterna dulalnata (Capsidx) l-.a tern States
8. Anasa obliqua (l.oreidie) Western Slates jadera hxmatolnia (Coreidx) Western States Serplius dilatatus (Belostomalidx) Western States Alvdus pilosulus (Coreidie) U. S. Tnlliiis curtulus (Coreida-) Western States Cdrvnocoris.tvphxiis (Coreidie) L). S.
I). Harinostes retlexuUis (Coreidx) Western States
IV (Mliiulus .arie^alus (("iali;ulidx) Southern States
10. NtTtlira stv.irica ((lal^iulidx) Southern States
17. (.atorliintha niendiLa (Cireidx) Southern States
iS. Meculea loUL^a (IVntatomidx) Western States
U). /...his bilolnis (Kediiviidx) Southern States
20. Apiomerus crassipes (Reduviid;ci U. S.
2\. fictn.hodia cinctiventris (Kediiviidx) Western States
22. Diplodus hiridiis (Reduviidx) U. S.
2-i. Mvodocha serripes (l.ygxidx) U. S.
Narvesus caralinianus (RediivMdx) Southern States Heiostonia uhler. (Kelostoniatidx) Hitchia ni^rovittata (Reduviidx) Southern States Py^'olampis pectorahs (Reduvidx) Sor/.hern Slates Prionidus cristatu '. (side) (Reduviidx) Southern States Nahis ferus (Reduviidx) U. S.
Coriscus subcoieoptratus (Reduviidx) Northern States Anisops piatvcnemis (Notonectidx) Atlantic States Metrobaies hesperius (Hydroinetridx) Atlantic Slates 11. Trepobates picta (H.ydrometridx) U. S. 14. Conorhinus varienatus (Reiluviidx) Southern States r-,. Zaith.i aniira (with eti^'s), (Belostomatidxl Southern States 16, Henacus ^jriseus, with eirjrs ot water mite (Hydrachnid).
Atlantic States ■!7, /,11th I aiiura (Belostomatidx) Southern St:'tes iS. laiuiiMirecluis marj,'iuatiis (HvdroiiKtridx) U. S.
24.
2--<.
JS.
^-■^jtagM
The In ect Book.
Flat IT ;■:>;;;<.
I I
I
i
h?^
1 mI
Jk.
riant-Lice
fly to the hops, setM» upon the leaves, and begin to ^ive birth
to the fourth generation which is composed like the second
of wingless parthenogenetic females
and the same proces.s is repeated until
possibly eleven or twelve generations
■n all have been produced. By !he
.ime the twelfth generation makes its
appearance the month of September
has come and hop-picking is well along.
All of the lice at this time acquire wings,
some of them may be of the twelfth
generation, others through the fact that
their ancestors have been late born
through a series of generations may be
only of the (ifth generation. The tirst
to acquire wings in the autumn are
always females and these fly back to the
neighboring plum trees. Later individuals of this generation
and frequently all of the mdividuals of an additional generation
Fig. id4. — I'horodon liu muli : fRglayins f,;male. (From Insci'l I.ij'c.)
II
1l
tl
Kig. Ifj5. — Phorodun huniuli: migrant. ( /-r^mi /iis,a /.:/,•. j
on the hop are true males, the male thus making its appearance for the first and only time in the life round of the species. By
-''7
'
Plant-Lice
thM.me the V h;.vc developed the first issuing fen .les will have settled upon the plum trees and will have given h.rth partheno- ■reneticallv as before to a generation of wingless individuals which comprise the true females-not the virgM. lemales as
Fir. if/i.
-rhorodon humuli : ntiim migrant. ^ From Insect Life.)
before-but the true females which must be fertilized by the m lies So that, bv the time the winged males have developed from the hop and flv back to the plum we have this generation of wingless sexual or true female; awaiting them. Impregnation then takes place, the males die, and these wingless sexual females give birth to ' e winter eggs.
3«S
^£
■■iBi
HBHAii
THE TRUE BUGS
(Suborder Hctcroftcra.)
The true bugs belonj^ to this group and the common squash- bug may be taken as a typical example. In all, the metamorphoses are'incomplete and the mouth-parts are formed into a beak fitted for sucking either the juices of plants or of insects or the blood of fishes, birds or mammals. The wings, when present, ditTer radically from those of the preceding order in that the front wings or wing covers, or elytra, or hemielytra, as they are variously termed are horny at the basal half and membranous for the end portion. When they are folded the membranous por- i'ons overlap, that of the right wing covering that of the left, but there are many exceptions to this rule, and even in the same species, while most specimens will be tbund with the right wing uppermost, there will be some in which the membrane of the left wing is on top.
The order is a very large one, but has not been studied with the same assiduity which has characterized the studv of other groups. There are not more than half a dozen entomologists ir collectors in the United States who specialize in the true bugs. Yet these insects are easily captured and are as readily preserved as beetles and the studying of their varying habits offers a most attractive field. Probably twelve thousand species have been described in the whole world of which only about one thousand six hundred inhabit the United States. This number could be more than quadrupled by careful collecting and, indeed, our most learned authority on the group. Professor P. R. Uhler, of Balti- more, informs me that he infers that we have five thousand species in the United States, of which not more than three thousand species have been brought together in collections, but the number is being added to every month. He thinks that fifty thousand, as an estimate of the existing species in the whole world, would be a very insufficient supposition.
269
:i
*l
"1
im
%. ■
\ \
The True Bug*
In food habits the Hftfrorter.i v.iry puMtlv. Some of them live strictly on the s.ip of ^Un\^. while others are carnivorous, sucking the blood of other insects, and even the blood of vertebrate animals, while still others seem to leed inditferentlv upon plants and animals. Still others seem to require no other nourishment "than the moisture of decaying wood and fungi. Many forms are truly aquatic, others travel about with ease upon the surface, while others seem contined to the shores of streams and ponds and to the sea beach. The majority, however, live inland under the most diverse conditions on trees, plants and shrubs.
The peculiar odor possessed by many of the true bugs is by no means characteristic of all. The disagreeable and character- istic odor of the bed-bug is appro.ximated by that ol the chmch- bug of western wheatlields and bv certain Pent.itomids. Others smell like very ripe or over-ripe fruit, especially pears, while in some coreidx the odor is aromatic and in others it is spicy like cinnamon. This odor is that of a very volatile oil which is secreted as a method of defense from certain specialized glands situated in different parts of the bodv.
It will especially be noticed th.it there is very much vet to be learned about the individual life histories of the true bugs. In very few of the families has a single species been studied with sufficient care to enable the writer to give a good typical lite history. There is probably no one of the great groups of insects which offers so good an opportunity for the collector, the system- atic worker, or the true student of nature who wishes to learn how insects live, to learn so many original and absolutely novel facts as in collecting and studying the Heteroptera. For many years Professor P. R. Uhler has worked practically alone in this country on this easily collected, easily preserved and easily studied group, and although Professor H. K. Summers, and Mr. O. Heidemann have recently taken up this interesting study, an enormous tield is open for scores of workers.
TABLE OF FAMILIES*
A.itennx shorter than the he.id and nearly or quite concealed in a c.ivity beneath the eyes '
. For the- iircaler part of .Ins tal.lc. whuh, h..wc.«. has Wn rearranged the wr„.r ilTnd.;,ad t li. K. Summcs' Hull. 3. Vol. iv. .Agnc. t,p.. h.afo,, of ,he liiiv. Tt-nn., iS(yi.
J70
y W>'WWi
The True Bugs
AntenriiC ,it least .is Idrk .is the hoad. usually troc. rarciv j,ii I'hymalid.c) Ivinn iii a fjroovc alunn the sidf <>t the pro- notum
I— Hind tarsi without claws 2
Hind tarsi with two claws j
2 -Fore tarsi llattencd. ciliated on ed^'e, without claws; head
overlapping' prothorax C.nrixiJiV
Fore tarsi not llatiencd, with two claws; head inserted into prothorax i\fokiti,r/t,U
3— Ahdoin' n with two grooved filaments at tip. torming to- gei ler a respir.itory tube which i.s not retractile, M'/)/,/<r AhdoHien without respiratory tube.
Le^'s formed tor swimmin/; tip of abdomen with two
retr.ictile strap-like .ippenda^es Ri-lostoiihitiilir
Lens lonned lor Vvalking; abdomen with no such ap- pendages.
Oceili absent NaiiiOriJj-
Ocelli present Ga/giili.Lr
4— Antenna' with their b.ises visible from above, usu.illv four- iointed; r.irely llve-jointed. (not countini; the minute in- termediate segments sometimes present.)
Scutellum less than half as long as .ibdomei- s
Anfenn* with their bases not visible from above, live-jointed. Scutellum more than half as long as .ibdomen 14
5— Beak three-jointed, sometimes four-jointed, with basal seg- ment very short and inconspicuous h
Beak four-jointed, with plain bas.il segment 10
(1 — Body very slender; head as long as thorax .... l.iiiniohdliiiiT Body of various shapes, but when slender, head shorter than
thor.ix. Last segment of tarsi more or less bitld. with the cl.iws in- serted before the tip HvJroiihtiuiir
Last segn^ent of tarsi entire, claus at tip.
Hemelytra usually well developed and without cuneus.
When Hemelytra is absent ocelli are present 7
Hemelytra wit t cuneus AiitlioioridLV
Hemelytra rudiment. iry. ocelli absent CinilciJir
7— Hind tarsi with three segments 8
Hind tarsi with two segments 9
271
•t:
Tht True Bugs
8— Bejk loiiK ;inJ slt-nJi-r -
IWak short :i rid stout. ,.m. ,/, /r
Hc-aJ K'lobulous behind the fvc-s Henuo.jpM
Ho..d not so .umu.d '^'•"»"''"-
Q-Occlli present. Fore-thi>{hs greatly widened .... PhymaiuU Ocelli ..bsent. Pore-thighs not greativ widened.
Hemelytra shorter than abdomen t' , ,r
Hemelytra longer tnan abdonu-n lingular
.c^Hemelvtra without cuneus. Membrane with longitudmal
veins which are sometimes indistinct '
Hemelytra with cuneus. Membrane with one or two ce s
at'base, but otherwise veinless \..apiia.<
. i-Membrane either with tour or five simple longitudinal veins ' ' "^^ in which case ocelli are usually P^"^:"^; "^ .^'' J, '"^f, eight forked veins, in which case ocelli are abstn ■ . ..12 Membrane with many. usiK.lly forked, long.tudm,. veins
which are sometimes difficult to see i^"" '-''^
,2_Membrane with four or IW. -imple longitudinal v*;'"- . ' ' Membrane with about eight forked l«n«*t"J'"^'!;;,^;;;,..°;, J'
lacking
,3-Head with transverse incision in front of ocelli ^^^^^^^^^^^
always present ' '- ''
Head without transverse incision. Ocelli usually Present.
rarelv lackint: '• *'
, , Vmv. iointed antenna- with hidden bases. Scutellum
'-•-''"; .rth.m half the length of the abdomen sometimes
,lat, sometimes very convex and '-'^^^■""^ "'' '^./J^,
whole abdomen ^' ntatomuU
nt
: .^i-
THE IVATHR BOATMEN
\fcl
( f'limiljr Conxii/ie • j
The little bugs dI" this family and of the five families which immediately follow are all aquatic in their habits and Ibrm the fs known to most writers as the Cryptoa-rata from the fact I they appear to have no antenna;, since these orjrans ire Hidden below the head, sometimes in pockets. From their aquatic habits they are called HvJroiuris^v or Hydrocorcs in some el the older works, though there are two other .-i' 'ies, the HchriJiT and HyJiontt'tiiJA- which have obvious .Hitti.iix and yet live on the surf,iie of the wat-'r and in damp places.
The Cori.xida: are known as "water boatmen." Thev are mottled bugs of oval shape which are found commonly swimming on the surface of ponds and streams in all : irts of the United States. 1 hey are tlattened below and swim With the back upwards. They can descend below the surface and remain there for a long time since they carry down with them a film of air held bv the fine hairs which cover the body. They are true air breathers. When cold weather comes on. the water boatman, as do other aquatic bugs as well, swims down to the bottom and buries itself in the mud where it remains during the winter and specimens captured in spring are frequently coated with mud The eggs are laid under water and are attached in numbers to the stems of aquatic plants. The eggs of two Mexican species (Corixa inerienaria and C.femorata) are laid in enormous numbers in lakes near the city of Me.xico, and are made into cakes with meal and are eaten by the Indians and half-breeds. They are said to have an agreeable acid flavor. I
• I sually printed in the Ixjoks IWiiiJj, and the type genu» aji Carisa; but the 1 hange from the older L\>n.tiJu and tVrijrj was not justified by the nomer.tUture rules now in force.
--7J
Kig 1C17 -I ,.rix,i interrupts .^ay. (Ajt.r fJtl.r J
r
The W«ter Boatmen
ate some once, but it was a stale museum specimen and had anything but a pleasant taste. These Mexican speces are im- ported into England by the ton as food for game and song birds, poultry and fish. Kirkaldy has computed that one ton contains 2S.ooo.ooo of these insects. ^. ^ ■
According to Miall. Schmidt-Schwedt says that Corixa uses its fore legs to play a tune on its snout, the note being tolerably loud and sustained. They swim rapidly, their hind legs being oar-like, and thev are predatory in their habits, feeding upon other aquatic animals. The beak is strong and sharp and they can pierce the tough skin of ones finger.
Active as these insects are in water they are slow and clumsy on land but when their pools dry up they fly inland in search of oth :r water and are sometimei, attracted to light at night. About forty species occur in the United States, all belonging to the genus Corixa. The full life history of none is known, and an easily made aquarium study of any one of our common species is greatly to be desired.
Uhler says- "Few insects are more sprightly and the aquarium acquires a new interest by the introduction of these easily obtainable creatures."
274
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THE B/fCK SIVIMMERS
(Family Xotoncctiihc.)
These water bugs known as the "back swimmers" much resemble the water boatmen, but are very convex on the back and always swim with the belly upwards. This, in fact distinguishes them from all other water bugs. In their habits they are much like the water boatmen. They are ^^redaceous, and feed upon other water insects and even fish. They are strong
enough to master a good-sized min- now, and a prick from their beak is "^^^^p^^ — ^ ! ^^K ''-^ painful as a bee 1 ^^KF^BMi^ ^H3 ■s\mg. They carry
A ^Hr ^^^^\ ' ^Hl ^'e'ow with them
fl ^^^r I^F g''<-"'terairlilm than
(B W ^'^ "^"^ others, and
have to hold fast with their fore legs to some stone or water plant to prevent themselvi> irom popping up to the surface. They are most active insects, and most interesting creatures for the aquarium. They hibernate in the mud at the bottom of streams, pools and ponds. The eggs are laid in the stems of water plants, which are pierced by the sharp ovipositor of the female. About two-thirds of the egg are pushed into the incision, and the remaining third is left extruding.
About a dozen species are known to inhabit the United States, and these are distributed in the genera hlotonecta, Anisops and Plea.
A good life history of one of our common species such as Nolonecia utuliilata. widely distributed in North America, is still to be written, but could be made out in any school aquarium.
Kig. i6S. — Nolom-cta imdulatd .S.iy : ii|)pti .uid lowtr .side, lx.-ak and leg. ( After /.Ui,'x>'r)
THE ^ATER SCORPIONS
(Family Nepidie.)
liil
ftg, i^«,.-\epii cinerea Unn : a, adult; /■, front
\r.%, •howin)( ({riKiVK In ri-icive rest of
limb; (, egK. < After Mi,M.)
The Nepid* have been called 'water scorpions" because their f'^re lc«* are swollen and fitted for grasping, and rather disiantly rew;mble the cheliccres of a scorpion. The anal end ot the body bear* two long hall-tubes which, when united, form a tube to convey air to the insect when the rest of the body is under water. The water scorpions are either flat and oval or they are long and thin. Those of the former shape belong to the genus Sepa. and of the latter to the genus Ranatra. As with the water b</atmen and the back swimmers, these insects are predatory, and a large share of their food is the eggs of fish, but they aUo atUck small fish and other water insects.
276
HUM
The Water Scorpiona
The eggs are laid in the stems of plants in much the same manner as are those of the hack swimmers, but the egg itself is pushed entirely within the slit made in the plant by the insects'
Fig. 170.— Ranatra fusea. ( A fttr Lugger. )
ovipositor, while tnere protrude several long filaments (seven in t<lepa and two in Ranatra) which are supposed to be pneumatic in function.
The eggs of no American species have been described, and a full life history of any American species is greatly desired.
277
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THE GIANT iVATER BUGS
(Family Bclostotnatida.)
The remarkable insects of this family have long attracted attention. They include the largest of living bugs, are strictly aquatic in their early stages and are predatory in habits, living at the bottom of ponds and feeding upon other aquatic animals in- cluding fish. Their fore legs are fitted for grasping their prey and their hind legs for swimming. When full grown, however, their wings are developed and they llv strongly and for great dis- tances. They have been found in the midst of great cities far from ponds and are attracted to electric lights on the tops of high buildings. So attractive are electric lights to these great bugs that they congregate about them in extraordinary numbers and thousands of them which have fallen to the ground beneath such lights are crushed beneath the feet of passers by. They have in fact become generally known as "electric light bugs." While such hosts of them are destroyed in this way, their numbers do not seem to he reduced, but it is bad policy to have electric lights near lish breeding establishments or artificial fish ponds. The fish ponds in Washington, since the advent of the electric light have become so greatly stocked with these bugs that they are a serious detriment in fish raising. The two most abundant and the largest of our native species are Belosioma amerkanum Leidy and Bena, lis griseiis Say. Both are very large, flat, grayish or brownish bugs and were long confused. The Belostoma has a double groove on the underside of its fore thighs which is lacking on the thighs of the Benacus. The eggs are large and spherical and are attached to the stems of water plants or to some other convenient object. Of Beiiaciis giiseiis Uhler says: "It is the facile master of the ponds and estuaries of the tidal creeks and rivers of the Atlantic States. Developing in the quiet pools, se- creting itself beneath stones or rubbish, it watches the approach of a Poniolis, mud-minnow, frog or other small-sized tenant of
278
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IYatk XXX. TRUK BUGS
nr. I.
Orsilochus putt;itiis (Pentaloiniila-) Southern Slates 2. I';iii«;eus hiliiuMliis (I'ent.itomidie) U. S. ;. CryromeiKis iiiinibilis (IVnt.itoinid*) Southern States
4. Ci.riniekvna atra (IVntatoniidie) U. S.
:,. Tetvra bipunttata (IVntatoinidie) Southern States (1. Irichi.pepla seniivittata (Pentatomida-) U. S. 7. Hurygaster allernatus (Penlatomidic) U. S.
5. HomaMiuis bijugis (Pentn;omid;u) Western St:ttes g. Pachycoris torndus (Pentati)inid;e) Southern States
10. l.ioderma conprua (Pentatninidx) Western States
11. Gvnus delius (Pentatoniida;) U. S.
12. Brochymen.i obscura (lVntatomid;v) Western States ir Brochvinena 4-pustulata (Pentatomidic) U. S.
14. Brochyniena arborea (Pentatomid*) Atlantic States
15. l.ioderma savi (Peiitatoinidx) Western States
10. Prionosoma pedopioides (IVntatomidic) Western States 17. Thyanta custator (I'ent.itoinidie) U. S. iS. Huschistus servus (Pentatoniida-) L). S. ig. Huschistus tristinnuis (Pentatoniida-) 'J. .S.
20. i'odisus spinosus (Pentatomidx) U. S.
21. Acanthosoma cruoiata (Pentatoniida-) Northern States
22. Huthyrhvncht:-. (loridanus (IVntatoMiid;e) Southern States Mutyca ^r^uidis (IV-ntatomida-) Southern States Nezara niaryin^ita (I'entatoniidae) Southern States Podisus acutissiiiius (Pentatomidie) Southern States (Hbaius pujjnax (PentatomidK) LJ. S. Hypseionotus fulvus (Coreid*) Southern States
_S. Mutyca grandis 2 (Pentatoniida-) Southern Slates 2g. r.hondrocera iaticornis (Coreida-) Southern Slates 30. Banasa calva (Pentatoniida-) U. S.
Menecles in>ertus (I'entalomida-) I). S. Nezara viridula (Pentatoniida) Southern States l.eptoglossus corculus (Coreida-) .Southern Slates l.epl.>i:lossus corculus (Coreida-) Southern Stales Metapodius tjranulosus (Coreida-) Western States .Mozena lineolala (Coreida-) Southern .States Chariesterus antennator (nvmph). (Conid.e) U. S.
2S 2<1 27-
^1. U.
^.
IS.
^7-
A.
The Indict Book.
Plate XXX.
i0f
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I 1
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■ r^t'i'Wt.W:
The Oiant Water Bu(«
the water, Vk.ien it darts with sudden rapidity upon its unpre- pared victim, grasps the creature with its strong, clasping fore legs, "lunges its deadly beak deep into the llesh, and proceeds with the utmost coolness to leisurely suck its blood. A copious supply of saliva is poured into the wound, and no doubt aids in producing the paralysis which so speedily follows its puncture in small creatures."
The genus laitha contains similar water bugs of smaller size which have frequently been mentioned and figured from the curious habit of carrying the eggs plastered in a group on the back of the adult insect. For a long time it was supposed that the female sticks her eggs to her own back and the case was sup- posed to parallel in a way, that of the famous Surinam toad. A German observer, Schmidt, however, found that many males car- ried eggs, but the method and purpose of attachment remained a mystery until it was cleared up by aquarium observations made by an American, Miss Slater, who found that the female, vis et armis, customarily lays them on the back of the unwilling male. Sometimes she has to struggle for hours to accomplish her fell purpose, but she does accomplish it in the end and her spouse is converted into an animated baby carriage. Says Miss Slater: "That the male chafes under the buiden is unmistakable; in fact my suspicions as to the sex of the egg-carrier were first aroused by watching one in an aquarium which was tryii.j^ to free itself from its load of eggs, an exhibition of a lack of maternal interest not to be expected in a female carrying her own eggs. Generally the Zaithas are very active, darting about with great rapidity; but an egg bearer remains quietly clinging to a leaf with the end of the abdomen just out of the water. If attacked, he meekly re- ceived the blows, seemingly preferring death, which in several cases was the result, to the indignity of carrying and caring for the eggs."
The full life history of none of these giant water bugs has been properly described in this country. The young Belostomas are said to have two tarsal claws instead of one as when adult, but their growth has not been followed. About lifty species of the family are known, of which about one-half inhabit the United States.
279
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THE CREEPING HEATER BUGS
(Family Saiuoridu.)
These insects are few in number and small in size. They are aquatic and predaceous, llat-hodied and oval. About thirty species are known, and only seven are found in the United States. The commonest of these, Pdocorh fcmorata Beau v., is widely distributed in this country and is found in waters in which
Fig 171.— Ambrysus signorctti Stil. (Aftrr Vkltr.)
there is abundant vegetation. ^ which it creeps and about which It swims in its search for pn , It may be found near the margin of a pool with a grassy bar .ceding on little land insects which have accidental'y fallen int .ne water. It s life history should be studied.
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PlATB XX\I.
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2S
21). VI. 11
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57
3S,
40
41 42
4? 44
TRUh HUCiS
I umIiisIiis \ irJohirius (IVnt.iiomkl.fl U. S.
I'odiMis lynliiH (Pent.ilDniula-) Nuithciii St.iti<
Mnrmiilt-a luKin.s (IVntiitoniiJx) U. S.
k KK> 'it Miiimidi'a liitii'iis
I'lTilliis vl.iiuhis (IVnialiiiniil.i') Wcsti-m ^t.itcs
(.iisMiiipcpU 1 uiulfX (IVniJtoiiiidii') S
l-.^ins of Broihvnu'na annulat.'^
Brochvitifna annul.ifoi' (Pi'iilat imJa;) Allan' States
l,i(><' rira 'ij^ata (IViitatoiniila ) I'. S.
.' ■ /.'I I " '..rjs (iVntaloiiiidx) I' S.
M iigantia hi.'^tiionii.a (l'fiitati>: .iidivl SDiillurn Slatt-s
.Mirctni.s ariihoraKD (IVntatoimd;v( Siiithein Slatt's
I'ldxvs pimiltilatiis (IVntatoiiiul*) Southern Sialts
! Mils tiiriicns (I \>{a:idx) LI. S.
I'> ..IfuiK siitiirfllus (I'vrihoi'oridx) Sduihiiri States
Ml i.i(iiKiiiis U-inoratus (< .ori'id.i') Sniilhirn States
rai!i\!i> ^'i^as ' (Corcidx) Southern States
I'aiinlis ui^M^ . (Cmeiila-i Southern States
Mit.ipmlms termin.ill^ tta>reid«) U. S.
1 iiK(ipellis lasciatiis 1 1.Vi;;uida:) U. S.
OiKiipehis lasiiatiis color var.
(^Ii.inestenis aiileiinator ((.oreidse) U. S,
I.eplocoris 1-vilt.ila ((a)reid.u) Western Slates
Alvdus (.minus (< oivija 1 1' S.
MvJiis Si-spiiiosus (I (III 111, I) I). S.
.Anasa armi;,'era ((^oieidx) Smitheni States
Anasa tristis ((!oreid:iM U. S.
I.eptoulossus phvllopiis (('.oreidx) .Soiitlurn St 'fes
l.ept(>i;lossiis opp.'sifiis ((!oteid;v) 1!. S.
ArchinieriK cak.ii.iliir |(!oreidie) li S
I uthoitlia ^Mle.ilor (CoieiJ.i) U. S.
Sieiiopod I iiiliiiiormis (Kediivida') So itliern Stiles
Keiliiviiis pe!:<on.iiiis (Ki-ilin iihe) U, •
H iiii;iial()i.eriis piiuis (Knhnid.e) S-'uiliem St.iirs
( oiinihlnus sailiXiiisiiL; I (KiJuvide) s .nth. 111 States
I'hvniata erosi (I'livm.itiJie) IJ. S.
Apionienis pklipes IkeJuviila') VV'cslein Si.iie'^
Mi-laiiolestes ahiloinln.ilis (RednviiLv) VV'e--tem .Suites
Mil inolestes pii ipes (Ki'iiiividx) I). S
SirlhePea earinata (Reduvidx) Southiiii Mates
I'rioniiliis cri-titiis (Rediiviilx) Sontliiiii States
Rasahiis hi^i!! Iiis (Ri du\ ulx) VWslerii States
Miivas liiiiMu iveiiiiviiuv) ['■. S.
Sinea diadem. iKeduvida) U. S.
. ;
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f*
THE TO/ID BUGS
(Family Galgulida.)
The odd and ugly little insects of this group have been appropriately termed the "toad-shaped bugs." The short broad body and the projecting eyes, as well as the dull mottled colors, are toad-like. They are not true water bugs, but live in moist places along the banks of streams and ponds. Unlike the
I
Fig. 172— Galgulus .xulalus Kab. (Ireatly enlarged. < Ajltr Luxger. I
true water bugs, they have no ocelli, and are in other ways quite different structurally. It is not a large f..milv, and only twenty species are known, of which three inhabit 'the United States 0^/^«/«i ocuLUu^ Fab. is a common species, and its life history should be thoroughly studied.
281
BHBii
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THE MARSH TREADERS
(Family Limnobatida.)
Fig. 173.— UmnolMiien lineata. (Afltr OmilaciJ
T'.icse are vrry slender aquatic bugs with a greatly prolonged head. W*- have only one species, Limnobates lineata Say, which crawl* around on soft mud or on water, preferring stag- nant po'.d*. It » full life history dots not seem to be known.
281
m
THE PV/ITER ST RIDERS
(Family Hydrometrida.)
In this group belong most of the curious, slender, long-
leggedcreatures known as water striders. which dart about on
he surface of the water with such rapidity that it is very difficult
to capture them. It is a large group and contains many different
forms which are included in several subfamilies. They are
Fig. 174— Hygrolrechus rtmiKis Say (After /.u^^-er. )
found upon salt as well as upon fresh water. They have prom- inent eyes, a stout beak, long antennx. and a usually tapering abdomen. Two different forms of the adult occur with most species, the one winged and the other wingless. The Oceanic terms are most abundant in the Sargasso Sea, resting upon and l^reedinj.- among the great mass of accumulated seaweed When storms break up this great island of vegetation portions of it are earned far and wide, and some of the Oceanic water bugs are therefore brought to our shores.
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The Water Striders
One of the commonest water striders of the United States is Hygrotrerhus reniigis Siiy. It is about a half-inch long, dark- brown in color, and moderately stout. It is everywhere st." skimming about on the surface of mill-ponds or similar bodies of v> ater. It uses its slender, rather hairy hind legs as oars, prac- ti lly rowing Uself. and frequently congregates in groups with otiiers of its kind in quiet places as though to talk over old times. Full-grown specimens are seen towards the end of summer, and
Fig. 175.— Khfum;itohates rileyi. 1 Original.)
at the approach of cold weather they hide awny under the banks of streams in mud or beneath leaves, or at the bottom of the water under stones. ;md wait until spring. As the weather grows warmer they bob up :o the surface of the water .md prepare for egg-laying. The eggs are whitish, translucent, and are loi.g. nearly cylindrical, and blunter at one end than at the other. They are stuck on the leaves and stems of the water plants. The young strider does not issue from the egg by pushing off a cap at the end as do other water bugs, but by
;S4
The Water Striden
bursting through a slit which opens a little below the blunt end of the egg. The duration of the egg stage is about two weeks. An extraordinary water-strider. known as Rheumalobates nlfvi, was found near Washington. D. C, several years ago by Mr. Otto Heidemann, and has since been proved to be rather widely distributed. It is so extraordinary an insect in its general appearance that it has been adopted for the seal of the Entomo- logical Society of Washington. It is found on still waters, such as canals, and is carnivorous in its habits like the other members of the family.
Although the water striders are truly aquatic, they are structurally more closely allied to the land bugs than to most of of the other water bugs, and especially in that they have free and conspicuous antenna, the water bugs of the group Cryptocerata having, as stated elsewhere, the antenna; hidden in a pocket beneath the head.
Life History of a Water Strider
( Hydromitra limata.)
This rather common form is frequently to be found among the aquatic vegetation at the borders of ponds and slow .streams Its life history has been studied and admirably portrayed in the Canadian Entomologist for March. 1900, by Mr. J. O.' Martin of Cornell University. The elongated body of the insect is borne on hair-iike legs and resembles a bit of twig c- grass. There are several generations during the summer, and the insect hibernates as an adult under the rubbish along the ' mks and lays Its eggs , ariv in May. The eggs are laid sii and are glued to the stems of grasses along the stream. Th. ire about two mm. long and are spindle-shaped. The number of eggs must be small, since they are so large that four or five would Jill the abdo.mn of .i female. They are covered with a horny coating which has longitudinal ribs, and are marked with a hexagonal pattern. In seventeen days the young insect emerges Iroin the egg and molts live times before becoming adult. It feeds upon the juices ot insects which fall into the water, and, of course, there are many of these along the grassy borders of
285
m
I*
The Watei Striden
ponds. Mr. Martin has seen ten of these little water bugs sur- round a single insect, ail of their heads in the direction of common interest, and their bodies radiating outward. The body and legs of the bug are covered with minute hairs which prevents the creature from becoming wet, and it is constantly engaged in lifting its legs into the air and drying them, for if they become wet they sink through the surface film of the water.
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286
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THE FLOIVER BUGS
(Family Ant/wcond<e.)
These insects are all small and are distinguished from those of the bed-bug family by the possession of ocelli and winp covers. The latter are usually well developed but are occasionally abbreviated. The head is prolonged. Less than 200 species are known of which only twenty-two are known to inhabit North America. Some of them, however, are very abundant, as the little Triphleps imiJiosiis Say, and are frequently found
Fig. 176 — Tnphlcps insidiosus. / AfUr Kttt-y. f
in the flowers of different plants. Probably all of the Antho- coridae are carnivorous, feeding on other insects and the little Triphleps just mentioned is a voracious enemy of plant-lice, lace-bugs and other small tender insects. .Some forms have been found in ants' nests. The life history of none of them has been worked out in this country and Triphleps insidiosus offers a good opportunity for investigation.
287
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THE BED-BUG FAMILY
(Family Cimicida.)
By more recent authors the family is called Atanthiidae, but the present name is preferable. Only twelve species are known
but the family is notorious because it contains the dis- gusting parasite of human habitations. The other species are all found in the nests of birds and act and much re- semble the true bed-bug. In this group the insects do not possess wings and only rudimentary wing- covers are to be seen. Theyrtretlat- bodied, the ocelli are absent and the beak rests in a groove beneath the head. /F.iijtus hirunJinis Jenyns is common to Europe u.i.i North America and frequently occurs in this country in great numbers in the nests of the common barn swallow. It closely resembles the form found in houses, but is darker in color and has shorter antenna;.
^'ig• '77- — 'tciacus hirundinis. f After Oshorn.)
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Pl.ATK XXXII.
MISCELLANEOUS ()RTHOi»TERA
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I
Peripliini'ta oru-ntalis
2. Orocharis salti'.rix
? F'ctobia ^ermaniL'u
4 Anisolabis niaritima
•-, I'tTiplaneta aiisir.il.s.x
h. IVriph. ;eta americana
7 IVriplaneta Drientalis
8. Ischnopti-ra peiinsvlvanicus
9. Cirylliis borealis
10. (l:canthus fasciatus ?
1 1. (Ktanthus lasiiatus '>
13. Ceuthophilus giaiulis
1 1. DiaphcroiiKTa I'l-murata
14. Brachvstoi.i ma^jna
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Tk- .kt Book.
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Pu>Ti XXXII.
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Tht Btd-Bug Painiljr
Life History of the Bed-Bug
(i 'ux Ucluhu a I.Hin y
Slovenly man hjs carried this ahomipabie bu- to all p irts of the civilized wo -Id. •• Tot. orbn' ^ ,he !,.. onu expression of Its geographic r.mgt- given by Lethierry and Vverin. It has be- come a tn,r .1 nestic animal and has .i.comn.niated itself well to the environm. !if of human ha^^ nations. It has lost its wm^s but has acqu.r. d .1 li.,; hody -hi^h enables 11 to fiidc m the narrowest CMcks of btds and walls. I has Rained the power ol subsisting almost indr' ■iiiely " thoh lood. waiting for its mi-.ils with a patience far .surpassng that of Job.
The eggs of the bed-bug .re m'nute white oval objects each having a rrojectiiu rim an, md one end. They arc laid In cluster-; in sich iievices as are .i>ed by th^- rnaiu-c biii/'. >,r roi' cal- nwnt, and »■. .h iM^^r coni.tin-^ from six to 1 tu eggs Tif eggs hatch in abuj' ^ht d.iv- and the young Inig p !■.: cs ufl I'h lid en- closed within thi projeciiiig rim at the end of the egg. At first the new-born insect is yellowish-white and nc.i v transparent, but becomes d.irker alter it feeds rid grows until the color of the matuie and well-fed insect is! xn. Th.- skin is shed five times and with the last molt the wing pads characteiistic of the adult become apparent. The period of growth from egg to adult varies grc itly with the temperature and the food supply. Marlatt has rt red them under favorable conditions (feeding them upon the he.ilthy and abund..nt blood of a complaisant assistant) in seven weeks, but without food they mav umain unchanged for many w cks. Or linaril but one meal is taken between molts, so that .it least five full meals must be taken before maturity and at least one more by the fem,ile before she is ready for egg laying. Hach female is supposed to lay several batches of eggs. The pronounced odor of this insect is al.so possessed by cer- tain plant bugs and is produced by certain glands (spcning on the back of the abdomen -vith voung bugs and on the underside in
2S9
Fig. 1 -S._ limex Ipttc.lar. ,•
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The Bed-Buf Family
the metasternum with the ndult. With plant bu^s this odor evidently protects them by rendering them nauseous to their bird and other vertebrate enemies. It p-rsists with the bed- bug; but here it is detrimental to the species since it reveals its presence to its greatest enemy— man. , ^ , , ^ .
The belief that bed-bugs breed under the bark of certain trees and that houses built of the wood of such trees will be
Fig. 17i(— I'imcJ li<tul.iriu«; adult. ( A^t/nivn /fm .lAir/.l// '
infested with bug., is due onlv to the resemblance which cer- tain other bugs, .specially the AraduUc which n.^rmallv 1 ve under tree bark, have to the led-bug. And then. ton. Irom the ability which the bed-bug his of undei. -ing prolonged fasts It may be found alive not onlv m houses which have been deserved for a long time, but about old deserted camps in the woods.
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THE SHORE BUGS
(Family Saldida:.)
The active little bugs of this fumily which have been dubbed "shore bugs" by Comstock for the reason that they are always found upon the sea beach or the shores of fresh-water ponds or lakes are not numerous in species, although individuals are phnti- ful. Ninety-seven species have been describeii and about thirty occur in this country. Their color is usually black, brown or drab with whitish ni.irkings. the head is free and the eyes prom- inent They are carnivorous and feed upon other beach inhabit- ing creatures, being frequently seen with the beak thrust into the body of some drowned insect. Every sea beach from Cape Cod to the Florida Keys has some kind of these shy little bugs which resemble tiger beetles in their habits. Some of them burrow under ground. The life history of none of them is well known. yet they offer an a^.j .entiv easy field foi investigation.
One swift .md strong form from Java has been given the generic name ycloctptdd by Bergroth.
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THE THIN-IVINGED BUGS
(Family Htnicoctpluilida:.)
This I* a rrmarkable Limily ol which only twelve species are known, «( which two inhabit the United States. It is allied to the Keduviida:. but the front wings are wholly membranous, with a diitmct venation resembling those of certain saw-flies. The
Fig. I7')<J- llcnU'" i-phalus (ulicLs. KllUt((i:il i Drii^inal I
front IcK* .ire greatly swollen. Ilie American species are Heni- cocephahn culicis Uhl. and H. fnrmuinis Uhl. The former was found by Mr. V. A. Schwar/ under stones on the shores of the Great Salt l.,ike, Utah, and later on the shores of the Potomac River near Washington.
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ASSASSIN BUGS
(Family Rcdiiviiihc.)
This is .1 large and important family of bugs comprising more than two thousand species of which more than one hundred and fifty inhabit the United States. Its forms vary much in structure and have been divided among thirteen subfamilies and three hundred and thirty-six gen- era. All are predatory in their habits and feed on other insects which they pierce and whose blood they suck by means of their strong, sharp beaks. From this food some of the subfamilies are known as "cannibal bugs" or "pirate bugs." Comstock calls them the "assassin bugs.' With many species the beak is so strong as to readily pierce the skins of human beings, and one species, known as the " blood- sucking cone-nose " (Conorliiiius sait- guistiga) so often frequents houses, es- pecially in the southwest, and is so fierce a biter that it is often referred to as " the gigantic bed-bug." It seems, according to Schwarz, to normally inhabit the nests of field mice. Other species, especially Mciiinolesles fficipcs and RcJtnius per- sonalus, were especially abundant in the eastern states in the summer of iS<^8, and their bites were responsible tor the extraordinary so-called "kissing bug scare which was greatly advertised bv li;; iSi k..liniu> iKi>fm. the newspapers. A western species. ""■• '■'""'•■'■'<"'•'•''"■•""•» i RasdhUi binotalus is also a severe bitcr. Of these "kissing
Fig I So. — C'onorhinus sangui
suga. ( l^edrawn from
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bugs ■• ReJuvius Personalia, is a cosmopolitan form which, in the northern states, is found in basements and cellars of dirty houses and preys upon bed-bugs and cockroaches. When immature
it covers itself with dust and pres. nts a very odd appearance.
Some very odd species are found in the subfamily Etnt'siMT. which have been called "thread-legged bugs." Their legs are excessively long and they have a peculiar habit of swinging the body up and down. One of them frequents spiders' webs and robs the spiders of their prey. The eggs of nearly all Reduviids are of very strange appearance and are frequently distinguished by some form of protective resemblance. None of these predatory bugs seem t,) possess the strong and frequently disagreeable odor so characteristic of many of the plant bu^s.
Kig. iSj. - K.is,iliu> hi.i;mtutu>, / Aut/wr's i/luslruli,>ii. )
Life History of the Wheel Bug
(Ari/iis in status L..J
This is a large predatory bug common all through our southern states and Mexico and which extends up into southern
V,g 1S3.— M.l.inolfStes alKlimuiulis. ( Aulluir'i lUuili-ition -
Fig 184.— Milyas linctui. (A/If li'lty )
J94
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Aiiatiin Bu(t
Illinois and New Jersey and even to Long Island and Rhode Island. It is popularly known as the "wheel bug " and some- times by the negroes as the " devil's riding horse " and is referred to in the older books as Reduvius novenarius and Prionolus or PrioniJus cristatus.
The eggs of the wheel bug look like miniature leather bottles standing on end and in hexagonal clusters, seventy or more in a group, and attached to the bark of trees, on fence rails, or where- ever the female chances to be. In this stage the insect passes the winter. In the late spring the cap of the bottle is pushed off and the young bug emerg'-s. The young insect has a blood-red
Fig. 1.S5. — Kmfs;i liiiijipes. ( After Lui^xtt: )
abdomen and its thorax is marked with black. In walking it frequently flevates the ahdomi n, curving it over forwards. It feeds upon soft-bod.i'd insects, its attacks, while young, being conlined mainly to such weak, delicate species as plant-lice. As they K'row larger they attack larger insects and when full-grown destroy large caterpillars. They seem to inject a poison into the wound made by the beak and Glover tells of a bite on his thumb which was severely poisoned and irave him gieat trouhle. After four molts the peculiar crest on the thorjx .ippears which has given this insect its specific scientific ii.mie iiistatiis (crested) and its popular name "wheel bug." This is a semicircular longitudinal crest Ivanni: nine teeth. pr.)ngs ur cogs like a cog-wheel.
The full ^;rown bu^; is sordid black in color. It captures its prey not by agility but by stealth. Its color.ition is protective and it slowly crawls up to some caterpillar < r other insect, ad-
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AktHiin Bugs
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v.incing one leg after another with ,i movement so slow as ahnost to be imperceptible. When once within striking distance, however, the beak is thrust into the victim which is at the same time grasped with the Iront legs with a movement which is quite the reverse of 'ow.
Fig i86. — Arilus 1 ri>iatus. / AfU
The wheel bug is a verv beneficial insect. It is a common in- habitant of southern cities and in such places as Baltimore and Washington is .m important factor in the destruction of the numerous caterpillars which defoliate shade trees.
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IYati XXXIII. l.()N(.-H()RNi;i) AND -^IK )K T-HoRNHl) CRASSHOPHHRS
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2. .Ml-lllJlllin I.IMl.ltUS
1. li.il'itlins .i,^il.itor
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^. SiiiJilih.i pislilhit.i (side)
'1. (1 i.intluis iMpuiictntus
7. Ami'lviorvpli-i uliUri
S. Orcluliimim spiiuilosuin
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q. Tiltix iiri'.'osiis
111. Tfttii;idi':i 1 Mlvniorph.i
I I Oiclu-limiim I'lisilcr
12 Niimntcllix cristiitiis
1 1. (ion.mstc grJM'ii
14. Air,l>lvi'iirvph:i rutmulilnliii
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THE /IMBUSH BUGS
(Family I'/iymntidte.)
The strong and ferocious predntory buKs of this ffroup num- ber only forty-three described species, of which but tivi- live in the United States, yet it is structurally and economically an im- portant family. The head is shaped like that of the Aradida-. the front legs are enlarged and fitted for grasping, frequently lacking
d^Q^£^
Kig 1S7 -Fhymali w<iltfii. (/•'rvm L'. S. Ihft. Ai^. I
the tarsi, and its beak and general appearance ally it to the Reduviidic. These insects are tough and horny, and in the tropics are apt to be armed with spines. Phymata vol fit .Stal.. our commonest species, is yellowish-green in color, with a brown or blackish band across its abdomen. It frequents yellowish flowers like the ox-eye daisy, with which its color harmonizes, disguising its presence from the insects which visit such tlowers, and upon which it preys. From this fact Comstock has c.illed tnese insects "the ambush bugs," and this insect affords our best e.xponent of what Professor Poulton c.ills " specific aggres- sive resemblance"— that is. the resemblance of a proda'orv species to some speci.il dbject to facilitate the capture of its prey. The full life history of n.-rie of the Phymatids is known, and P. '^■olffii should be followed through its lilc round by some careful observer.
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MICTOCOfY MSOIUTION TfST CMAIIT
(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2)
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THE FLAT BARK-BUGS
(Family Amdida.)
These are small, strangely-formed bugs found commonly under the bark of trees, where they feed upon fungus growths. They are all extremely flat, and look, as Comstock says, as if they had been stepped upon. It is these insects which are often
mistaken for bed-bugs and that give rise to the idea that the household pest breeds naturally in such situations. The abdomen is broader than the wings, and frequently encloses them like a frame. It is not a large family, less than three hundred species being known, of which about thirty occur in the United States. The prevailing color of these in- sects is brown, sometimes varied with reddish or pale markings. Aradus crciiatiis Say is the largest of the species found in this coun- try, reaching nearly half an inch in length, and Aradus siniilis Sav and Nettrocteiiits simplex Uhl. are the commonest species in the northeastern states. Mr. Heidcmann has found the eggs of the last-named species. They very closely resemble the eggs of the bed-bug, having the same size, markings, and the same whitish color. The life history of both these last-mentioned species should be carefully worked out, as they represent different sub- families.
Fig. lS8. — Aradus robustus L'hl. (After Lugger. J
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298
H '^
THE LACE BUGS
(Family Tingitidce.)
The curious little bugs of this family have rather aptly been termed "lace bugs" by Comstock from the fact that the wing veins are thickened and form a lace-like pattern in most of the species. These insects are all small, have two-jointed fe-t and usually knobbed antennae. They are all plant-feeders, and
Fig. 1S9. — (iargaplii.i
ang'ilata. I After Chittenden.)
Fig. 190. — Corjthuca
arcuata. (After Comstock.)
the brown, rusty appearance which the leaves of certain trees, notably sycamores, acquire in summer is due to their attacks. Rather more than three hundred and fifty species are known of which twenty-five inhabit the United States, but there are, undoubtedly, many unnamed and undeveloped forms. As a rule the eggs are laid in leaves and young twigs and the whole life of the insect is spent in sucking sap. They usually overwinter as adults hidden away in bark crevices. There are two sub- families and the members of one, Picsmiiuv. are not so lace-like as are the others, the Tliigitiiuv.
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The Lace Bugs
Life History of the Hawthorn Lace Bug
(Ci'iythiua aniuitii Say.^
More than twenty years ago I saw most of the leaves of a Hawthorn tree ai Washington taming brown and rusty and on examining them found the beautiful little Tingitid, shown at Fig. 190, present in all stages of development. Projecting from the leaf surface in groups of from ten to thirty along both sides of the prominent leaf veins were certain mi.iute brown funnel- shaped objects which were found to he the eggs. Each egg is laid on end and is covered with a brown sticky substance which rapidly hardens and holds it to the leaf surface. This brown gum adheres ro strongly to the egg that it is imposs:ble to remove it without crushing the egg, and it is more copious near the ba-. so as to give the appearance of an actual insertion into the leaf tissue. The top of the funnel has a porous cap which the in- sect removes in emerging. The newly hatched bug grows rather rapidly and casts it skin live times before becoming full grown. While yet immature it is "f the same dirty-brown color
Fig. 191. — Corythuca arcuata: eggs and
young- ( After Comstock. )
Fig. 192. — Piesma
cinerea.
(After A'l/cv)
as the substanc;. covering the egg and but little darker than the withering leai. It is of a broad, flat, oval shape, and spines seem ' j project trom almost every portion of its body. It looks, under the microscope, more like a lobe of prickly cactus than anything else. A sticky honey dew is excreted by these bugs and their cast-off skins adliere to the leaf and make it appear as if there were manv more insects present than is actually the case.
During the winter the dead leaves under the trees were found to contain living and healthy eggs, but the insect custo- marily hibernates as a full-grown and winged bug.
300
THE LEAF-BUGS
(Family Cipsidie.)
The usually rather slender and delicate bugs known as "leaf- bugs " or "true plant bugs," having two cells in the wing membrane, belong to this family. More than one thousand species are known, and of these more than two hundred and fiftv inhabit the United States. It is undoubtedly the largest group oi Heteroptera, and thousands of species are as yet undescribed. Mr. O. Heidemann tells me that he has in his collection more than two hundred undescribed species from the United States. They are not all true plant feeders, and very few of them occur in surticient numbers to become important crop enemies. Some .;;■ them habitually prey on other insects, and i have seen Canipto- hrocha granJis sucking the eggs of the imported elin-ieaf beetle (Galcruccllj luteola), while Mr. Heidemann states that LoplJcd nifJia Say once alighted on the back of his hand, and that (with a true scientific interest) he watched it pierce the skin and suck his blood for some minutes. A common species in the east, Omogiiathits biiwtatiis Fabr., frequents the heads oi timothy grass. Ftilviits anthocoroides Uhl. is fcmd commonly on lichens on old stumps. Lvgus praknsis, known as the ■■tarnished plant bug," is present in all (lower and vegetable gardens, and causes what is called the 'buttoning ' of strawberries. T'le natural egg place of this common insect is not known, but the rest of its life has been well worked out by Woodworth, although there is probably one more molt than he has observed, /. t'., five instead of four. Halticiis ulilcri Giard. known as the "garden flea-hopper," is common in gardens and is injurious to flowers and vegetables.
Ill
301
The Leaf-Bug
[■■ i
Typical Life History of a Leaf-Bugr
( Puiilociipsiis liiiiiiliis Fabr.>
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This insect, known as the four-lined leaf-bug, is lound all over the United States east of the R' ky Mountains, and is a common garden pest, sucking the sa^ of gooseberry bushes, currants, dahlias and many other plants The insect passes the winter in the egg stage. The eggs are inserted in slits cut
Fig. 193. — Halticus uhlfri. I Afttr Chittinden.)
lengthwise into the stems of plants extending through the bark and wood nearly half way to the pith. The slits may be ai eighth of inch in length, and into each of them is pushed froni two to fourteen eggs. These are crowded side by side, are about 1. 6 mm. long, smooth, cylindrical, sllghtiv curved, light- yellow in color, and with the outer third capped with a whitf striate portion. Fioin these eggs the voung hatch in the spring — the latter part o( May in central New York — and feed upon the
302
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The Leaf- Bug
tender new growth of leaves for from two to three weeks undergoing five molts. The adult bugs appear early in June and olten spread to the different surrounding plants.' Egg-1 lying begms m the latter part of June : the adults disapp-ar i - July and. as above stated, the insect hibernates in the egg stage' There is only one generation each year in New York, but in the southern states there are more. The voun - insect when first hatched from the egg is of a shining verrr.;;ii color, rr-.arked with large blackish spots on the thorax. The antenna; and legs
Fig. Uy4.— I'dcilocapsus lineatus Kab. : n. adult ; /i, c, immaci Kggs. (After Slmgeri -nd. )
are of a greenish-black color. The red color is retained until the last stage before the adult is reached, then the large black spots on the thorax seem to mark the beginning of wing pads, which have gradually become more and more apparent after each moit. In the adult insect a radical change in color is found. Th ■ trt-neral color is bright orang.>-yellow; the legs and the u ,s are
of dark apple-green, but the wing covers and the i.iorax are marked with four black stripes.
This life history was first worked out by Professor Slinger- land, of Cornell University.
J,
303
THE SQiJ.-iSH-nUG ./W) ITS ALLITS
I ';
I'iiiiii/v I'l'iii,/,.-.)
This is a l.itiic .nut important taniily, divided into many sub- families and containing alunit i.^fX) species of which n.-arly 2(X) inhabit the United States. The >;roup has no pi>piilar name aithiuijih these insects, in common with the members of several allied families are known as "plant bugs. ' (".omstock calls ihe C'oreidic "the squash-bug lamily " after its best-known represen-
Fli;. m; — l.tpl.igK'.-sus pliyn^'pus
Fip. igii — Mctapodius lciii(ir.ilu>
tative, but of course this is not a distinctive name, nor does it seem possible to coin one. The (^oreidx are very diverse in shape and structure, some being broad and clumsv and others thin. Some have curiously moditied legs like the leaf-footed plant bug ( Lcptoglossiis pinllopus) and the thick-thighed Meta- podius ( Mctiipo.lius fcmoriitiis) while others have slender normal legs. All of these bugs feed on the juices of plants and some of
304
ihe Squash-Bug and its Allies
thi-m ;irc Wfll-knr,wn cncmlfs nl crops A Lurious tropical Kcnus- Phvl/oiuorphci- c.irnvs ns v^ns upon its hack. A com- mon species in the western United States known as the box- elder plant huK fLfptiHoris Invittaliisj frequently does much damage to the box-elder trees which Iroin their rapid growth arc commonly planted on western tree claims.
L'fe History of the Squash-Bug
(Anasa tristis Dc Geer.^
The common "squash-bug, ' as this insect is called, is found all ever the United States as well as in Central America. It is a serious enemy to garden plants of the pumpkin lamily (Cmur- hitacccr). but does not damage other vegetation. The egg is 1.5 mm. long, stout, somewhat flattened on three sides and is of a
Fig. ;, — ("ori/us hyalinus.
Fif;, iqS— l.i..ptf)ci)ris trivittata. (From r .V, /),//. ^^-r.y
yellowish-brown or dark bronze color. Fiom twenty to forty eggs are laid in a group, each one rather well separated from the others and placed either on the under or upper surface of a leaf, or on a stem. When tirst hatched the little bug is light green in color with beautiful rose-colored legs, antenna- and beak. Later the head and thorax become black and the abdomen gray. There are five distinct molts and the full grown bug is the dark, sordid, ugly
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The Squath-Bug and lu Allici
.ind ill-smi'llmj; creaturi' ki'mmonly notiLid in vcfji't.ihlc jjardcns. The .idiilt insect hibernaUs, thrusting itself into some protected crevice and lays its ei;^s in the late spring or early summer. These hatch m about iao week- and the insect may become full
^ig iw — Anas.1 .irmiKcra. i AjUr ChitUndcn. i
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grown in less than a month. There is no evidence that there is more than one generation annually from the District of Columbia northward, but further south there are probably more.
Observers need not be surprised at the failure of the eggs to hatch a.« they are frequently parasitized by two minute egg- parasites Hadronotus aitastv and Ocencyrtiis anasce.
306
^SS^S^S^I^S'JSI^-M:
J
THE COTTON ST^IS'HR AND ITS ALLIUS
(Famtly I'ytrlwcondie. j
This IS not a l.irge family. It comprises k-ss than three hun- dred species, and only about twentv-tive are kno- n in the Lnited States. Most of the species are tropical or sub-tropical They are distniRuish-d from the Lv^a-ids by the absence of ocelli. As J rule, thtv are stout, moderately lar^e bugs and
Fig. rcc — I.arj;u» sutcinctus.
are frequently mar.ed with red. The commonest of our native species IS Urgus sUiniufin. an insect of verv wide distrihut.on. since it occurs from New Jersev to Me.xico. ' It is a brownish- black species with the sides u\ the thorax margined with orange or red. It is commonly found along the i orders of oak woods. and the adults appear m July and August. The voung stages are of a brilliant s; ;l-blue color, with reddish legs and a bright red spot at the ba>t of the abdomen.
The full life history of this spades should be worked up.
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The Cotton 3l*lntr anj lit Allict
Life History of th^ Cotton Stainer
I />vsi/, u IIS siitiiultiis 1 1 Si hi . >
This insi-ct. whkh is loiiiul I'XtliiMVi'lv in our Southern St.iti-s. is known popuLirlv hv the ri.inu' i>l the 'votton st.iiniT. ' it IS lound .ilso in the VV ist Indies. Its n.itural food is proKibly .1 rose-m.illow (Hibiscus), hut it feeds upon the bolls .>f the cotton pLint ,ind .iKo sucks the juices of oMn^es. It is ii.jrked with red ind is .1 very be.iutiful insect, and derives its popul.ir name Itoin the tact that it stains the cottor. in the burstiny bolls
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by its e.xcretions. which are of a yellowish color. Experiments h.,ve been made with this insect lookinj/ toward its use as a dye, and the whole substance of the insect can be converted into a ■■ich oranKC-vcllow dye, which can re.idily be (Ixed on woolens or silk by the alum mord..nt liquor. The e^gs. to the number of twenty or thirty, ari' ■' ■. ited upon the leaves or stalks of the cotton plant, an. are ai,>o loosely dropped in the sand. The insect molts five times and breeds apparently steadily all through the year, so that there are several generations. Careful observations on the eggs and the tirst stage are needed.
308
. --*\--.-^
. ^£M-^sm-m'^
THli STILT HUGS
(Fiumly l!,ryti,/ti.)
This Kmup. r.ither closclv :.llii-d to the C.uklx. is of much smaller extent. It mrludes slender plant bu^s which h.ive the thighs thicken, d at the tip. Some ol them are very slender and have lon^'. thiti lejfs, from which fact thev have been termed •'stilt huK's. Op' IX species are known to occur in the United States and the life history of none of them has been c ire- fully worked out. Jaly^u, spnwsm, our commonest specie's a sluvi{ish little insect which is to be f.mnd on the underj-rowth in oak woods, all through th. ^ummer. from Maine to GeorRia and westward to Texas and Arizona, would be a j-ood species to study carefully.
'(■
) '
369
THE CHINCH-BUG FAMILY
(Family Lygaidie.)
W ■: f.
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This is one of the large families of plant bugs, comprising rather more than 1,300 species, distributed in thirteen subfamilies and 208 genera. Of these about 17s species are known in the United States. No good popular name has been proposed for this gro^p. Comstock calls it the " chinch-bug family " from its most famous representative, but of course this is not a distinctive name. The Lygaeids are distinguished from other bugs chiefly by the membrane of the front wing, which has four or tlve simple veins, and by the antenna;, which are inserted low down
on the side of the head. Many of these bugs, when full grown, have the wings either long or aborted, so that in the same species there are both long- winged and short-winged forms. All live on the juices of plants, and the family contains many injurious forms. The most prominent of these is the chinch-bug (Blissiis leinopterusj. a little bug which occurs in Centr.il America and the West Indies and all over the United States and north into Canada. It feeds on Indian corn and on wheat and other small grains and gras.ses, puncturing the stalks, and causing them to wilt. Its great noto- riety as a crop destroyer arises from the incalculable numbers in which it appears in dry seasons. The average annual loss which this insect causes to the United States cannot be less than 820.000,000.
Another very common and destructive insect belonging til this lamily is the so-called "false chinch-bug" { Ny^ius
Fig. 2C2 — Ntyotioch.i serripes Dliv. I Aflcr I.iiXK'-r- I
The Chinch-Bug Family
angustatus Uhl. ) which although it belongs to a different suhfamiiv IS frequently mistaken by farmers for the true chinch-bug. It dam- ages grapevines, strawberry plants and many garden vegetables puncturmg the leaves with its beak and causing them to wilt' The life history of this hug should be worked up. We do not know Its eggs, the number of molts or the number of genera- tions. One of these bugs, known as Mdanochilns numiJeus Say, according to Heidemann. feeds on sycamore leaves and passes the winter in the half-grown condition thrust down in the crevices of the " button bolls."
Life History of the CFiinch-Bug
(Blissus leiicoptcriis Say.^
The chinch-bug is a small, dark colored insect with white wings. It is onlv ^ mm. long and is rather slender. It passes the winter as a full-grown bug, hidden away in clumps of old
Fig. 20J.— Nysius atiKustatu ( After A'll.y. /
Fig. 204.— Klissus Ifucopterus. / After Rilfy.j
grasses or in other protected spots. The egg is nearly 1 mm long, elongate-oval, and of an amber color. About live hundred are laid by each female and are thrust into grass sheaths near the ground, or upon the stem at or under the surface of the ground. They are laid in the spring and the young hatch soon afterwards The newly hatched bugs are pale yellow at first but grow red They molt four times before becoming adult and grou- d.irker in color and the adult is dark gr.iv or nearly black. Over most
I' If
The Chinch-Bug Family
of the United States there are two generations, the eggs for the second generation being laid in late July or wirly August. In all stages the chinch-bug is gregarious and clusters upon grains and grasses in such numbers as to quickly destroy them.
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Fig. 205. — Blissusi Icucopterus. (After Kiley.J
Thev migrate in search of food and after wheat harvest they usually travel to the nearest cornfield and the second generation is developed on this crop. Many of the adults have only half developed wings and this form, which is called •' micropterous "
Fig. 206. — Blissus leucoptenis. {After Kihy. 1
is apparently more abundant near tiu' sea-coast than e' ewhere. A tungus disease is very prevalent in wet weather a J efforts have been made to propagate this disease and (u ;h some measure of success; artiticially introduce it into infested fields.
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Fig.
THE ST/NK-BUGS AND THEIR ALLIES
(Family I\iitnloiiU(/ie.J
In this hirge family of hu^rs. which comprises nearly four thousand species, of which about three hundred inhabit the United States, we find a curious difference in habit in that while
some uf them are exclusively plant feeders others feed both upun plants and upon other insects. This differentiation in habit corresponds in a measure with the subfamily grouping. As a rule these insects are Hat and broad, and the antennx are five-jointed. The scutelium is enlarged and in some (the Scutellerinit) covers the whole abdomen. .Many species possess an extremely bad odor and taste, which has led Comstock to term the f;rnup ''the stink-bug family. " Very many well- known and common insects belong to this group. The harle- quin cabbage buL' ''MuriiJiilia Insfno::- u\i Hahn. i is .1 well- known species in cab- bage Ilckis south ( I New Jersey. It is a Serious enemv to cru- ciferous vegetables. In parts of Georgi.i it is still known as the --.Abe Lincoln bug." .ind m Te.x.is as the •'third-party bug." The eggs are verv
3'3
-.Murgantia hi.-trionica. • .-l/fi-r KiU-y. ,
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The StInk-Bugs and Their Allies
'I
beautiful banded objects, laid in clusters on the leaves of cabbage, and the (ull-grown bug is beautifully mottled with black and red. The so-called spined soldier bug ( Podisus spiiiosus) is a plant- leeder, and also preys upon insects, especially caterpillars. The beautiful bug known as Stiretrus ainhorago IS largely predatory, and feeds upon many J^ ^ — p^ different kinds of insects. The green soldier bug (Nejiira hilaris Say) and the common species known as Ettschistus servns are both Kip J09.— Corimeisna P'^H^ ^^^ animal feeders, puiicaria. / Ajter jhe eggs of nearly all of these insects are
laid in clusters on leaves or other objects, and vary greatly in color and sculpturing. Many of them are para- sitizi J by the little Proctotrypid flies of the genus Teleas.
Brochymena annulata. ( From Insect Ltji.
u
Typical Life History
( Piuiisiis sn-iiviittris Uhl.)
This species which is not uncommcn in the northern states lays Its eggs in small clusters of from ten to thirty each on the l\irk of trees ■ r on leaves or other objects. They are bronze in
J'4
The Stink-Bugs and Their Allies
color growing darker up to the hatching period. They are nearly circular in shape, and are furnished with a well-detined circular cap. The upper part of the eg^' is covered by irregulai rows of minute short spines, while around the edge of the cap is a row of long, curved, knobbed spines. They hatch in ei,i it days, and the insect passes throi^gh live molts, growing gradually, and
H).' 21 1, — .Stirttrus anchorago. i After Chitt,iiJ,ii.
changing in color from yellowish-red to brownish-vellow. There are three generations in the course of the summer, and the insect hiberr .ites in the ;,dult condition under the rough bark of trees, and in similar protected >'tuations. When young they feed upon very small insects and their eggs, but when full-grown will at- tack any insect however large, even full-grown cutwo-ms and the larvx of the Gypsy moth.
.Mr. A H. '''irkland was the first observ.^r to work out the complete |iie history, and from his full account as published in the report of the .Massachusetts Board cif Agriculture on the Gypsy moth (1896) these facts have been drawn.
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THE TRUE LICE
(Subcriiiy Anof'Intn.J
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The true lice are >{ener;tlly referred to in the books as the suborder Parasita. They are ail wingless, degraded creatures, possessing to a marked degree the degradational characteristics which result from a parasitic form of life. They have a thin skin the feet are armed with a single long da'- and the mouth-parts consist of a short tube furnished with hooks, from which rnay be protruded a delicate sucking tube. They are not numerous in species and are all parasitic on warm-blooded animals. The lice which are so commonly found on birds belong to ;• different group and are structurally quite different from Ano- plura. Six genera and about forty species of .Anoplura are known. They are found upon many mammalia, even upon those which live in the water. A curious genus, for example, is found upon seals. The lice of domestic animals and those which are found upon uncleanly individuals of the human race are well known. Three species are found upon human beings in different parts of the world, and Fig. ;i2.— I'ed- are more or less specitlcally attached to this host.
iculus capitis. _, ... , . ..... ,
The conditions of modern civilization, however, are gradually causing these insects to become rare, except in the lowest quarters. Fortunately it would no lon-^er be appropriate, or even oossible, in the dawn of the twentieth century, for a poet of distiticti' n to write lines comparable to those A'hich Robert Burns once composed in the Scottish church.
The eggs of most species are attached to the hairs of the host animal, and the young lice, after hatching, begin immediately to attack the skin. The rate of growth is not recorded, and the einbryological and morphological development of the group is not U'ell known. Here is an opportunity for some enthusiastic student, who can overcome the natur.il distaste for these dis-
3'6
The True Lice
asreeahle parasites, to do some good original work. The old Dutch naturalist, leeuwenhoek, once started an experimental in- vestigation of PiJuii.'ii' xesthiu-iiti. using his own person as tht breeding ground, ut, beyond the conclusion that the species is very prolific, he r. iched no results of particular vnlue. Mercurial ointment is a sov. reign remedy for the species which attack human beings, while different oily mixtures are used with success on domestic animals.
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THRiPS
(Onicr Pliysopoda.)
The very minute insects known as "thrips" belong to this order, which is a very well differentiated group and has apparently no very close relatives among the insects. It is unfortunate that in this country the name thrips has been applied largely by vine- growers to some of the little leaf-hoppers of the family Jassidx (q. v.), but the name was long preoccupied, both popularly and scientifically, by the physopod insects, which, by the way. are
also sometimes called Thysanopter.i. They are very minute, slender in- sects, with four wings which are also very slender and very short, perfectly transparent and practically without veins. They are fringed, however, with long delicate h.iirs and lie along the back of the abdo- men when at rest. The metamor- phosis is incomplete and the mouth- parts are of very curious shape, but probably function in sucking. They areitally intermediate between true biting and true sucking mouth- parts. A striking peculiarity of the mouth-parts is that they fre- quently differ on the two sides. In other words, thev are assymetncal. .Although the metamorphosis is incomplete, what may be called the pupa is not active. The larv;e. however, are not in the least worm-like and resemble the adults, except for the lack of wings. The feet are curiously constructed and have a little bladder-like vesicle at the tip. from which fact the name of the order was derived.
The thrips are found in the ^re.itest numbers in the (lowers of llowering plants and there can be little doubt that thev do
13. — Thrips tritiea
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X*'*"'f' ! '''"'■■"^' ^^' '"'"'■■^ ^° theessenti..! orR^nsof flowers Although the statement has h.c-n made that they sometimes M
form TZ '"'"'■"'• ":^" ^"'''^""' '^ "'" '•'"'■' An inte es ' form m this country hves m the sheaths of timothy grass anS sometimes causes the dying of the heads of the grass Some t.mes they are found under bark and in fungi, and in Austndia some- of them (orm galls on the leaves of acacias. In the United St ,tes however, they are most abundantly found in flowers and'f," quently m the heads of wheat. In greenhouses thnps re
Jh^*^:: a^ "^'"t;'^' ''"^*"" ''" '■''' " ^"-^^ especial.;:^!
on hv r "^ '''"■' -^T'"""'^ ^"^'"J "" chrysanthemums,
•roSv ?h"'' '" "'■'"'"'' ^'°'^'°'"^' ^'"^^ "^-'"y ""^^'^ 'lowers, robjbly the most in|ur.ous species In .his country, however is
the so-called onion thrips which causes tl,. disease known as ibe
c. bbage and cauLflower. squash, turnips, nasturtiums, and many other plants. It is al.so found in Hurope where it occurs on tobacco as well as upon garden plants. It is known as r np, lahaci l.ind. '
It does not seem to be generally known that panhenogensis h^.s been found to occur with thrips. Less than one hundred and lifty spec.es are known, but almost no one has taken the trouble to collect these little creatures in out-of-the-way places and it is reasonable to suppose that the order will be found to be quite numerous in species.
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GRASSHOPPERS, KATYDIDS, CRICKETS, ETC.
(Oniif Orthoptcra.)
This is a I;irgt' .md important ^row^ of insects which com- prises those forms which are known as the straiijht-winned insects and includes the grasshoppers, or true locusts, the lonjj- horned grasshoppers (including; the katydids), the crickets, cock- roaches, walking sticks and leaf insects, and the praying mantkis or rearhorses. in all these insects the mouth-parts are tilted for biting and the metaniorphoses are incomplete, the young when hatching from the eggs resemliling the .idult except for the lack of wings. The eggs are comparatively tew in number and are laid in specialized egg cases. The fore wings are somewhat thickened and rather tough and horny as a rule, though not so much so as the elytra of beetles and at rest lie closed on the back of the insect so as to protect it and the hind wings. They are called tt\^mina. The hind wings are much more delicate and are the important ones in flight. They are furnished with radiating veins somewhat like the sticks of; fan and have short cross-veins forming a sort of network. In repose they fold like a fan and are more or less covered ay the (ore wings. While the order is not such an extensive one in number of species, it is one of very great economic importance, largely through the ravages which the migratory locusts, or short-horned grasshoppers, make upon agricultural crops in various parts c." the world and the numbt 's in which not only these insects but certain other forms occur, while their comparatively large size and frequently con- spicuous appearance, make the group a noted one.
As to size, the Orthoptera probably include the largest of living insects and this is particularly the case in tropical countries. Even in this country, however, it is doubtful whether any insect exceeds in actual bulk the large lubber grasshoppers of our South-
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Gr»i»hoprer«. Kutydidi. Crickcu, etc.
eastern ;inj Southwestern St.ites. It is estimated th.it proh.ibly ten thousand species of Orthopter.i exist in the world, but ihis estin.ite is prob.iblv a sni.ill ,,ne. since, as in the <,ther ^rroups, the smaller .ind more inconspicuous species have not been col- lected in out-ol-the-way places. The .iver.ige trav-"er who picks up specimens, and even the ..ver.>^e collector, when he ^oes to some rarelv visited corner ol Ihe world, will alw.ivs cllect the lar^e and conspicuous thing's ,ind neglect the sm.iller and more insi),'ni(icant specimens. ! rom this habit, it results that in the iar^e museums, like the British Museum, the Berlin Museum and the Vienna Museum, and our own National Museum, lar^e. exotic forms from most portions of the world are well represented but there are comparatively lew of the little dull-colored ones.
I he order Orthoptera affords a peculi.ir interest to the stu- dent of the phenomena of protective and a^Kressive resemblances. The family Phasmidx includes tho.se rem.irk.ijile creatures which are so much like twin's and leaves th.it tliev have been called walking sticks and leaf insects. It also includes the j^reat group of prayinjr mantids which fcv-d upon other insects and which, though slow movers, are enabled to capture their prey by i. -ans of their perfect disguise which, in temperate regions, makes the'n resemble twigs and in tropical regions bn-.-s about an extraor- dinary resembl.ince to (lowering vegetation, some of them being most highly colored, as the tlower mantids. which resem- bles the most conspicuous orchids.
.Another fact which renders this group of especial interest is that many of them are so musical. One often hears of the "song ■■ (tf the katydid, but as a matter of fact, these insects are not vocalists but instrumentalists. Portions of the body are so modified as to produce musical sounds bv the rubbing df one part upon another. In the crickets it is the rubl^ing of the upper \ ngs upon the hind wings, the membr.i.ie being veined in such a way as to produce a chirping .sound. In some of the grass- hopj.ers the sound is brought about by the rubbing of the hind thighs against the edge of the fore-wings, or • tegmin.i." These musical powers are contlned to the male sex and the tunes which they play are, while songs without words, alwavs love song!..
Many of the Orthoptera are great jumpers, their hind thighs being thickened so as to enable them to make great leaps. The common name grassho; per is based upon their facility in this
^
OraHhopfMra, Katydidi, Crickcti, etc.
direction. This reminds mo of the little K'rL who, being told th.it the hectics were Coltoptfr.i .tnd th.it the Initterllies were l.epidopter.i, retn.irked th.it the nr.isshoppers must he 'he ■Cirjsshopter.i.' M.iny ol the Orthopter.i lly well .inJ strongly. The miK'r.itory Kr.isshoppers Ireiiuently lly for hundreds of miles with d.iily rests for lood, sometimes in such enorntous sw;irms js to djrken the f.ice of the sun.
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TABLE OF FAMILIES
Hind thighs stouter, or longer, or both, th.m the other thighs; he.id verticil: ovipositor >;eniT.illv extruded; generally -sinKiTs or chirpers (stridulators) . i
Hind thighs like the other thighs ; he.iJ usually bent under ; ovipositor concealed ; mute j
I— Antennx much lon^fer than the bodv. delicately tapering; .sound-producing orj;.ins at the inner base of the lore wiiiu's (te;,'inin.i); ovipositor usu.iilv prolonged .iic a blade t)r lucdle '. 3
Antennx much shorter than the bodv. not delicately tapering; sound-proilucinn organs on the hind thighs and outer cdiie ot the lore winys; ovipositor composed of a double pair of short plates which diverge at tip. Family W, r/.///./.r 2— Feet (tarsi) four-jointed, nearly similar in stiuctuie on all legs; ovipo-i'-T (unless, as r.irely. coiice.iled) lormmga strongly compri d, generally sword-shaped blade, valves not expanded at tip Family Locusthla-
Tarsi three-jointed, those of the fore or hind legs differing Iroin the others in structure; ovipositor (unless, as rarely. conce;iled) forming a nearly cvhndrical, stniight. or occ.iMinally upcurved needle; v.ilves expanded at tip.
Family Gryllhur
3— Body ov.il. tlattened; head nearly horizontal: rapid runners. Family BlattuLr
Body long, narrow: head free; slow movers 4
4 Head oblique, generally three-cornered; front leus tilted for
grasping, ending in a single claw Family M.uitulcr
He.id ne.irly horizont.il. generally four-crnered ; front legs
like the other lei:s and ending in two claws
Family PlhumiJiV
f^^Jk'C
THE kVALKING STICKS
(I'aniUy I'Juumiiite )
The insects of this family present some of the most striking forms known ..monn the Hexapod... Thev consist of the so-olled '• w;.lkinK Micks." This n;ime is »;iven to them from the remark- able devel.,pment of protective resemhi.mce which h.is brought all of the species to a close imitation of the twi^s of different plants. The family reaches its highest development in the trop- ics, but one species is common in the Northern States. The f miily constitutes the section of Orthopterous insects known to the old naturalists as Gres.soria or walkers, as contrasted with the runners jumpers, and graspers (Cursoria, SaltaK.ria and K.iptoria) The body IS lonK and slender, the head is exserted, the le^'s are long and slender and p.-nerally similar, '.hey «.- ..rally have no wmus althouKh some of the tropical species possess abbreviated win^s I he euK.s have a very curious structure and frequently resemble seeds in appearance. They possess the po .,cr of r-producin- lost limbs, the new limb hein^ weaker than the old one and RenJr illy curved, (.ertain of the tropical forms in this lamilv .v curiously modihed so as to resemble leaves inste.id nf ivviKS.' . e.if insects in the tropics frequently bears.) close a resemblance to vegetation as to deceive a keen observer.
Life History of a common Walking Stick
( Diiipluromcra fiinorata Sav,j
This is the common " walking stick • of the noithern Ignited Mates and is distributed over the gre.iter part of the cour:trv It has been given the popular name of the " thick-thighed walking stick owing to the fact that the femora of the i ;,ujl- lei's ire somewh.it swollen. The eggs, of which each f-rn.ile l.as about one hundred, a.e a little less tl;an 3 mm, long, oval in shape
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The Walking Sticks
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Fig. 214. — 1 liaphtronicru fumorata. / A/Ur A'lic-y. 1
3=4
The Walking Sticks
Slightly compresseJ ..t the sides, and of a polished black color with a whitish stripe on one side. They resemble the small plump seeds ot some leguminous plant. Thev are not laid in clusters or fastened to the plant but are dropped loosely on the ground where they remain through the winter and hatch the following May. Some of them are retarded in their hatching and young walking sticks may be found throughout the summer. In h itch- ing the top of the egg lifts up like the lid of a yessel. The young when lust hatched are 4. 5 mm. long, and of a uniform pale yellow- ish-green color. They live, as a rule, near the ground and drop readily when disturbed. They molt but twice, retainin.r the same color until maturity, and develop rapidly, averaging, under favor- able circumstances, about six weeks from birth to maturity. NA'hen adult the green color becomes gray and brown. This change in color is protective since in the early summer while vegetation is green, the insects .ire also green ; when the foliage turns in the autumn they change color to correspond to a certain extent, and when the foliage is stripped they closely resemble the twigs upon which they rest. The front legs of the insect are stretched out straight in front so as to increase the twig-like appearance. The males are smaller than the females" and frequently retain the green color in the mature condition, follow- ing the rule which holds more or less throughout nature, that the male sex is not so well protected as the female, since upon the latter depends the all-important function of reproduction. There is but one generation annually and. as before stated, the insect hibernates in the egg state on the surface of the ground. In spite of the protection afforded by form and color the insect seldom becomes sulficiently abundant as to be ranked as injurious although it feeds voraciously upon the leaves of pi.ints during all stages of growth after h.itching. In the few instances whe'^e it has become sufficiently abund.mt to do noticeable damage it has been easy to reduce its numbers to a minimum bv burning over the leaves on the ground during the winter time, thus destroying the hibernating eggs. In 1898 this insect appeared in extraor- dinary numbers in a black-ualnut (orest in western New York, so that in the autumn the dropping of the eggs on the leaf-covered earth sounded like a heavy shower of rain.
325
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THE RE/1RHORSFS, OR PR/tV/NG MANTIDS
(Family MantidiC.)
The insects of this family formed the old Orthopterous group, known as Raptoria, or graspers. They are predatory insects, and are characterize i by having a long, slender prothorax, with the first pair of legs fitted for grasping their prey. They are like the Phasmidae, much more abundant in tropical regions than elsewhere, and, while many forms, by their shape and color, exhibit striking instances of protective resemblance, in others are seen in its highest development the phenomenon of aggressive
5. — Stagmomanti» Carolina. 1 Ajur GUncr. i
ii
resemblance. The so-called flower mantids in tropical countries closely resemble the flowers of certain plants, especially brilliant orchids, and in these llowers they lurk awaiting the visits of insects, which they capture. They have various popular names.
): t
The Rearhorses or Praying Mamids
being known in Hnglnnd as "sooth-savers,' or '•pravin-' insects." from the attitude which thev assume when at rest o" when waitmg to grasp another insect. The knees are bent and the front legs are held as though supporting a praver-book In our Southern States they are known as '• mule-killers," from the curious superstition that the brownish liquor which they exude from the mouth is fatal to mules. Thev are more comr.ionlv known, however, in the south, as " ' irhorses," from the rearing attitude assumed when about to grasp another insect. Ihe eggs of the Mantidic are laid in a curiouslv-formed et'g case which Is secreted by the female. They capture their prey bv stealth, crawling upon them so slowly that the motion is hardly observ- able, but when within reaching di.stance the front legs are thrown out with incredible rapidity. They are cannibalistic in .1 hi-,'h degree, and the female often, if not usually, devours the male while in the act of conjugation
Like so many other predatory insects, they have the most vor.icious appetites. Colic and bilious headaches seem unknown to them. Slingerland has brought together .some interesting instances of this voracity in his account of the recent accident;il introduction and establishment of the European Mantis iy/ig,os.i in New York State. His correspondent. Mr. Atwood. writes : "One Sunday a green mantis ate three grasshoppers, each seven- eighths of an inch long, a daddy-long-legs, and then tickled another mantis, and I was obliged to interlere between tliein." It is probable that this common Huropean insect was introduced into northern New York in the egg stage r- -lursery stock. .Another foreign mantid has also recentlv becon.. .icclimati/ej in this country. This is /"I'/zo./,/-.; .sz/nv/.s/.v .Sauss., of Jap.in. This large and striking form ni.ide its appearance about Philadelphia in i8<)6, and in 1900 was quite nunuious.
Life History of a Rearhorse
f Stit!^mo)ii,vi/is iaiv/iiiii. )
This species, which is common throughout the southern United States, extends as far north as New Jersev. It is an austral form, but does not reach the northern limits of the so- called upper austral life zone. The eggs are laid m tough cases
The Rearhorses or Praying Mantul
4
I
^1
iibdut an inch long which ;ire attached to the twips of trees. The case is tou.i,'h and horny, and tiie egps are laid in parallel rows, perhaps forty in a row. issiiinsz from a common longitudinal middle line. All of the eggs stand on end anj. are inclined somewhat toward tlic central channel. A cluster of eggs has a hi. 'ded appearance, hut consists simply of a con- tinuous ribbon of mucous folded in close fluting and having an egg deposited in the bight or angle of each fold. The eggs are deposited simultaneously with the deposition of this ribbon by the mother insect, and the whole mass is at lirstsoft and flexible, but rapidly hardens by exposure to the air. The newly- hatched insect is light yellowish-brown, but after the second molt many of them become green. The number of molts has not been recorded, hut there :ire cer- tainly more than three. At full growth, however, most of the f' nales are green, while the males become brown or gray. There is but one generation each vear. The young hatch in the early summer, but complete their growth in the latter part of the season, and the insect hiber- nates in the egg stage. The eggs are frequently parasitized bv a very peculiar chalcis fly. PoJiii^niott mantis, which penetrates the tough egg mass with its long ovi- positor, and whose larvx feed upon the eggs. Thus egg masses taken by the observer in the uinter ,ind kept for the hatching of the young will frequently in the spring give out these parasites inMead of the young mantids.
Fig. 2\(i. — Sla)im<>mantis
tarnlina : ej;;; L;i>L-s.
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I'lA-rr XXXIV. I.ONG-HOKNEl) AND SHOkT-HoKNHI) GRASSHOPPERS
IK.
1. I'l;itv|ilivlluni coniiivuni
:>. K.iilllus Ciirinntus
•;. BiMipi'don uImIuiii
4. Mchiiiopkis fcMUoratus
S. I'iinixvM llorid.i
(1. iJ.ictvlotLiiii pictum
7. AnisoniDrph.! bupri'Stoides
cS. Br;ulviiotus olx'sa
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Thk IN'ECT D.:or-
PUATE XXXIV.
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COCKROACHES
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Cockroaches
subst.mcfs. tspcciiilly those forms which inhabit houses, hut it is supposed th.it thfir n.ituriil fooil is iIimJ ;iniin;il m.ittcr. Dr. Sh.irp cstim.itis th.it there ;irf live thous.ind species in existence. The species toiind in Amen .111 houses .ire the Aineric.in cock- roach ( Piiif'/,iiii-/ii iiiiu-iuaiiiij, the German cockroach or crotnn bug ( F.itoHa ncnnaniia), Xhii Huropean cockroach or ••black beetle" .is it is known in KngLind ( Pi'riplaiicla niuiilti/isj and the Austr.ili.in cockroach < Pcnpl.iintii Jiistraliisiii ). The c^a cises of the (ierman cuckro.ich is shown in accompanying illustr.itions. The lemale carries the egg c.ise with her until she linds .1 proper place to leave it or until the eggs are nearly ready to hatch. The young roaches grow slowly and pass through a variable
Fig. :iS. Iutii1;i.i germanii.i. i /\\,ira:fii frcm /iii,\, /.i/f. )
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number of molts, sometimes as many as seven. The time re- quired for the development from the egg to the adult mav be pro- longed by .ibsence of food or low temperature, hour or live ye.irs h.ive been said to nave been occupied in this ).,rowth. The t'lerman cockio.ich h.is been shown to reach full-growth in from four and one-half to six months and the American cockroach has been raised from the ei,'g to the adult in about twelve months. No sufficieiitiv careful observations on the life history of the common species .ippear to have been made, hence the "Typical Life History " mu\t be omitted with the insects of this family. The anatomy of f\-n'p/ciihij orlciiliill^ has been c.irefully studied bv Mi. ill and Dennv. * and the American household cockroaches have been treated ;it some length \\ M.irlatt.**
•Thr Animniy ..f tin- Co., kr..;u h.
*• Hiill. .|. N. s. Iii\, f:iit..nii.!o};y l', s. Dfiit. Agric. pp. S4-()5.
Cockroachci
The cockrf.:iche» which h^.ve just been mcntiont-d ir. i.r.icii- callv domesticu-d .,n,n,.,ls in so f.,r ,s thcv have accomm,.d..ted thfiiiMlvcs to the ftivironmi-ntsolcivili/ation. Thev anncir to c.t .ilmost cvcrylhirifr, whcthcT ..nim.l or vfK.t..bk- in its n.iture and thi-v .irc household pests „r the highest r.ink Thev ..re also all of them cosmopolitan, or pr.icticallv so, and have been carried in ships la almost all parts of the world. Our native cockroaches are. most o( them, out-door feeders and .ire exceptionallv cleanly insects. In lact. anv one of the domestic cockroaches, if watched, will be seen const.inilv to make efforts to be.iutifv its person, hckinK its lejjs and its antenn.e in much the same manner m which .. c.it washes its p.iws. A curious observation which the writer once made indicates tii.it it is possible for cockro.iches to .icquire the tobacci. habit. A cioton bu^ of the usual inquisi- 'ive turn of mind inh.ibited my office desk, and as so. mi as I laid .lown my ciKar upon the edjje of the drawer the little fellow invariably came out of his hiding place and worked vigorously at the moist end. At first he was after the moisture but Liter the tobacco taste jjrew and he became as much .iddicted to the habit .IS the most mveter.ite hum.in to- bacco user. It may be worth meiitioninji th.it it seemed to have no appreci.ible effect on its iiealth.
Cockroaches are fond of darkness. They roam about houses .it niirht, and new houses become stocked with roaches through niijirations at ni«ht time from over-supplied adjoining establishments. On a d.irk day in Wash- ington I once saw a migrating armv of cockroaches, incalculable in number, crossing the street from a dirtv restaurant toward buildings opposite. The m.ijorilv of the individuals composing the army were females carrying egg cases, and the observation thus became one of psychological interest since the migratory mstinct seemed to h ive been developed bv an .ippreci.ition of the fact that while the restaur.mt might support the mothers there woul ' not be food enough for the coming children.
331
I't riplant-ta iitalis.
"II
1 'i
1^
dttd
t ^
; J
■J < 111'
THF SHORT-HORm-n CR^SSHOPPHRS OR TRUH lOCUSTS
(I'limtly A, riiiiiiiu.)
The insects of this l.imily .ire fvcrvwhere ;ibunJ;int both in niimbiT of species and iiidividu.iis. They comprise some of the most destriiitive insects known and the migratorv species have devastated the crops ot rnany countries, more especially Russia, portions of South Hurope, Alj^'eria. India, (",ape Colony, the
Fig. rro- McIaiKiplus ili\ aviator. , .l/ur l\il,y. )
Ar^'entine Republic and in former years some of the western United States. In tiie insects of this familv the antenna- .ire short, much shorter th,in the body, the ovioos to>- "■ the f.m.ilv 's short
and composed of four separate plates .ind the t.irsi are three- jointed. The hind lejis are the lon^a-st and usually have stout femora, especially near the base. Amonj; the most abund.mt and injurious species occurring in this country are the western
The Shoft-Horntd Qr«..hopp,rs o, Tru. Losu.l.
Krasshopper ..r n,.«r.a<.ry locust rM.A,«„/s/,,. .(^mus). .„, insoct which dajnani-d westt-rn aKricultuic. cspcci.,ilv u> the- St.it.-s of Kansas, (.oloudo. Nol-i ,^ka ..tul Missouri, in tlu- vo.irs iH-4-,N(, to the- extent ol nK.rc th.m .S.'<x,.<m,.(km,, ;uuI uhuh w.is'thc su'k [cct <,l .m invfsi,K.,tion hy a spvcial Kovornmcnt..! commissi„n last.iiK through several years; the common ied-le«ued locust (Mclaiwplu, h-mur-ruhnmj. .. species closely resemhlinu the forc-Komg but h..vinK shorter wings; the two-Mriped locuM (Mclnwf,!,,. hmttalusj. a widespread lorm which is alnind.int almost every year; the Carolina locust ( Dissuslcnj . .uolnu j ihr common light-bro'. species seen so frequently ..l„ng dusty reads; the Amer , locust (S.lmUnrna awm.,,„„j. more abundant in our S-.uthem States where it occasionally becomes
Fig. 2;2.— Rhomakuni micrniiitnini. ( Ali,r Cider, j
very injurious; and the differential locust ( Miauopiiis .ii(l\-n-ii- Ihiln). a species which h.is recently done great Janu-e to cntt,,ri plantations in Mississippi. Tlu- lubber gr.isshoppci ol l-i„nd.i and Georgia is known .is Rlioiiij/riiiii lun rof>/,riiiii. It varies in color from green lo black and h.is very short wiii-s. It occur. frequently in enormous numbers in the rue-lields near the mouth ol the Savannah Kiver. and is an e.xfen-..ly disa^ree.ible obie.t on which to step; in fact, it reminds one of Th.ukeiay's tamous remark when he swallowed his lir.t s.idJle-iock ,,vster. The correspniKling lubber grasshopper of tl-e Southwest is (BrjLliy- pi-p/iis h:.ii:iius, and is ,i l.irge .-leenish species.
^1
The Short-Horned Grasshoppers or True Locusts
'( f
i
J ■ill
With the short-horned grasshoppers we come to the first of the Orthoptera which are musical. Almost everyone who walks in the fields knows the rattling or crackling sound produced by certain grasshoppers in their flight. It appears to be under the control of the insect. It can produce it or not, just as it pleases. Some give distinct snapping sounds, or separate, loud snaps. Still other grasshoppers play upon their instruments not during flight but while at rest. Professor A. P. Morse tells how he
Fig. 223.— .Melanoplus spretus: laying it.s eggs. / Ajl,-r RiU-y. )
watched some of them (Circotcttix vcrruiuhitus) on Mt. Washington sunning themselves, occasionally elevating the hinder part of the body and rapidly moving the hind thighs up and down against the wing covers, "producing a distinct ■scritching' sound clearly audible at a distance of three or four feet. This act was repeated several times at intervals of a few- seconds. "
Life History of a Grasshopper
(Mdlanopliis athiiis Riley .^
This insect, which is known as the lesser migr.itory locust, is a close relative of the common red-legged locust and the western grasshopper. It occurs commonly throughout the northern United States and has for many years made occasional injurious outbreaks in a restricted region in New Hampshire wlaie local conditions seem to favor its undue increase. The
J34
- - i. • ".'VT-gy ■:
^'l!
The Short-Homed Grasshoppers or True Locusts
eggs arc bid beneath the .surface of the pround in an egg pod in shape some Nm« like a bent llask, the eg^'s in each pod averagin-r Irom f, ':, :r,..r v., thirty-six in number. Each female in the course .. her hfe w.wiu • eposits two of these egg pods althou^rh three ; - d , .en lour \x, been laid bv the same female. The in- sect pa ..: ... the wnuer ' . the egg state and the young locust or grassho^,^>:, „..;J:.c ,„ the .spring. The period between hatch- ing and maturity averages eighty to ninety days and the grass- hopper passes through four to five molts, the young gr., ,oppers attammg their full wings only after the last molt. In about one week after reaching full growth the insects pair and soon com- mence ovipositing. There is but one annual generation in New England, but two in Missouri. Hgg-laying commences l.,te in July and some of the earlier eggs may hatch in the autumn in New England, showing a tendency towards a second generation
335
nmm
..Jf'U'
THE LONG-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS
A
( Family I.ociislidic. )
These insects, known ;is the long-horned gnisshoppers, or green grasshoppers, comprise those species having very long antenna-, longer than the body, having tarsi with four joints in- stead of three, as with the Acridiidx', and possessing in the fe- male sex a long saw-shaped ovipositor which is composed of six pieces instead of four, as with the Acridiida;. They are delicate insects, much more fragile than the short-horned grass- hoppers, and are great singers. The males are usually provided
\ n
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^il
Kip. 22 1- — Orchclirniini vulgau' ; <iml it^ t^^KK"-- ' -■(/•'"' forhcs. y
with .1 music. il j[ip,ir.itus cuiisisting of a curious do\elopment of the Veins and membrane at the base of the wing cover. A curved ovipusitcir permits manv forms to insert their eggs into pithy plants or into the earth. Nearly all of the species are strict veget.ible leedci s although some of them are said to be carnivo-
i ;<>
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♦»-•
,"^mm.jk^r^ ^ ^w^ '^/ ^"
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Plate XXXV. MISCELLANEOUS ORTHOPTERA
I. m
no.
1. Stenopelin.itus fasciatus
2. Microcentrum laurifolia r Orchelimum spinulosuin 4. Anahrus purpurascens
lie. 1. (irvllus abbreviatus 0. Locu^ta luliginosa 7. Stagmomantis Carolina
'■«5C" ■
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II
■ii^rtfeiM^dBiM
'1 11
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mm';^^jMm:i'}^-r.^.j
.».%^^
The Long Homed Grasshoppers
rous The commoner forms ;.ave been c;.lled the meadow grasshoppers. They are the long, slender, delicate species found on grass and low-growing plant . A common representative of this group IS Onlu-hminn vulgarc. Others are kno-vn as the katydids^ from the resemblance of the male call to the word ■ katydiJ. hile others somewhat resemble crickets and are found under stones and rubbish in the woods and in caves I he so-called western axckeXs ( Au^ihriis purpurascci^ mA A simplex) belong to this group, as also do the ferocious looking creatures of the genus Sh-nopelnuilu.. found in the arid regions ot the West and which are erroneously considered as poisonous The long-horned grasshoppers, or green grasshoppers are among the most musical of our orthopterous insects. Fvervone knows the call of the katydid, and everyone knows Holmes' beautiful poem about this interesting creature. Our commonest katydids ordinarily call ••Raty." or say "She did," rather than Katy did. That is to say, they rasp their fore wings twice oftener than three times. " The.se two notes," savs Scudder " are of equal (and e.xtraordinarv) emphasis, the latter about one- quarter longer than the former; or, if three notes are given, the hrst and second are alike, and a little shorter than the last The notes are repeated at the rate of two hundred per minute and while the interval between two series of notes varies to a certain degree, it i,"^ seldom greater than two and one-third sec ids or less than a. second and a quarter.- This is Mr. Scudders 'empt to reduce this note to a scale:
IT!
n\
IT!
Kig. 225. —Song nole of Cyrtophjll
Aju
lum ^uiK.ivuin.
,/,/,■>
It is a noticeable thing with these insects that the day note differs from the night note, and, unlike the katydids, one 'of the long-horned grasshoppers, known as Scudder'ia aiigiistifolia is noisier by night than by day. The day tune is played only in the sunshine, and the night tune after dark or in cloudy weather. Scudder was once watching one of these little creatures in the sunshine. " As a cloud passed over the sun he suddenly changed his note to one with which I was already familiar but without knowing to what insect it belonged. At the same time all the
JJ7
1"
H
--'"W!
Ml
The Long- Homed GrasRhopperi
indivulu.ls around, whose s.milar day sohk I had hoard l^an to rt-spond with the night cry. The cloud passed awav. and the oHKinal note was resumed on all des. The day song ,s reduced to scale by Scudder as follows :
biTWt
bzrwl
1
Fig. .'.'7-1),.) >.,nK „f S.uddt-ru anguMif,,!,., , ,,y/,^ X»JJ,r.J Icbw tcbw Wjw tchw tchw trhw t^h_ ..v_
Hig. 2j;u.— Nighi song of sanit. ^ -Ijhr SatJJir.
Typical Life History of a Katydid
(Microaiitnim ntincnis Say.^
This insect, commonly known as the angular-winped k itv- did, is a common species throughout the more southern portions of the United States, extending as far north as New Jersey on the Atlantic- Coast. This insect hibernates in the egg stige ' The eggs are flattened, oval, of a slate-brown color, about four mm m length, and are laid in a curious double overlapping row on twigs of trees and in other situations. In the south, where the msecl has two generations annually they are even l.iid on the e.'ies of leaves, m which case one row will be found on one side 01 the leaf and the other row on the other side. They are some- .mies also laid in peculiar situations, as on the edge of a tence board, and the writer once received a batch from a western cor- respondent which was foundontheedgeofatreshlv laundried collar which had laid for some time in a bureau drawer. Rijey records oviposition on the edge of a piano cover and on a long piece of cord. The females begin to oviposit in the early fail and continue to lay at intervals until killed by frost. The surface of the twig is first roughened by the j.iws and then the ovipositor IS moved up and the eggs are laid one .liter another, the successive ones being pushed for a short distance under the edge of the one immediately preceding, the number varying from two to thirty
-1j9
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I -■'
The Long-Horned Grasshoppers
:#■
in .1 bunch. Hach Icni.ik' l.iys Irom loo to iso okr^- In the spring the egg splits along its top edge and the yoiitig katydid, Very pale in color, emerges. In Missouri the skin is cast five times and the perlect insect appe.irs Irom July to August, the .songs being most commonly he.ird in the latter month. Mr. ScuJder, who h.is studied the notes ol crickets and grasshoppers from the musical standpoint, st.ites that the day song of the katy- did differs from the night song. In its northern range the insect is single brooded but in the t.ir southern .States there are two generations annu.illy. The eggs of the angular-winged katydid are stung by the curious ch.iicidid parasite known .is Fiipt'/nins piiriihi/is Walsh, called by its describer the "back-rolling wonder" from the fact that the abdomen is frequently turned backwards and upw.irds until it ne.irly re.iches the head, the hind legs being turned in the s.ime direction so that the insect .ilmost forms a ball.
^:
J r
is.
!,i"
340
.'. 't^..;-! »,CiS , A.
'^4'
^
THF CR/CK/:TS
(Fiimi/j CryltiiiiT.)
These insects, commonly known as crickets, have long antenn*. ionfjer than the body, as in the Locuslidie, hut the tars are three-jomted ,nd the ovipositor, when exserted, is spear- shaped. The hi' d li'Ks are Ion*/, and the femora are swollen. Many species are wmgless. Init withthoje which have wings the tegmina, or upper wings, are de- flexed on the outer edge so that they (it closely to the sides of the body. In the male sex the upper wings are frequently curiously mod- ified so as to permit ,in even more elaborate musical appa.atus than is the case with the I ocustida-. The insectr of this family are not nume.'ous from the point of num- ber of species, and but three distinct types are found in the group. These are the true crickets, typified by the coiiimnn lield cricket;
the mole crickets, forms with very short wings, which are sometimes entirely absent, and with moditied front legs, which superficially re- semble those of a mole, and which live during their entire lives under- ground; and third, the so-called tree crickets, pale-colored nocturnal forms which lav their eggs ir, the twigs of different plants, and which sometimes are so abundant that by their egg-laving alone they do con- siderable d.miage to vineyards and to rajpberry and blackberry planta-
341
Fig. i 21;. (;ryllu> di.nif.-tiiu.^, I A/til Mariatt.j
'Kij!. ;:rS. (;r\llus .^.^imiliK.
i^r. ^
The Crickdt
^I'fiii;
tinns. Thf house criLkt-t, or hcirth critkct, Gryllin Jomeslitus, of Huropc, IS not tDiiimon on this continent except in Canadu, but two or three species of lield crickets are occasionally loiind in houses in this country. The common black cricket, found in
^ .(!, J )0 — Analirus simpltx. ( AjUr Kiln I
Rrassy pasture lands or fields, lives in burrows under the «round, issues sometimes in the day, but more usually at night to feed, and tal";s blades of grass back into its burrow. The eggs are laid in the autumn, usually in the ground, and are hatched the tollowmg summer. The mole crickets live alwavs under the ground .ind teed upon the tender roots of forage plants, while the tree crickets are. as their name suggests, arboreal in their habits. The crickets are the most musical of .ill insects. Even the m.ilc mole criiket consoles himself by fiddling, and warms the heart of his mate by pl.iying a tune which is not cheerful enough for a household ditty, but, to our ears, uneducated in the orthop- teran musical culture, sounds more like .1 lament of his sad subterranean f.ite. It has been reduced to scale by Scudder as follows :
fr.
•* '^•^•^^^ 1*1^ ^^^■^■^t
KTfl^ trrO^ grn grn itrn grfl yrfl jrrO grn
Hg. Jji. — Song of tl.c mule criikt't. /After Scu.i.i.r. )
The house cricket, or the cricket of the hearth, plays a more cheerful tup.', or, at all events, it is supposed to mean comfort and a warm fireside anJ a steaming kettle. It is thus not the music but the association of ideas which produces the pleasing effect. Cowper expressed it perfectly \Ahen he wrote :
" Sounds inharmonious in themselves .nnd harsh, Yet, I eard in scenes where peace forever reigns, And rily there, ple.ise highly for their sake."
The n.irne cricket comes from this sound, and is derived from ilic imitative French popular name, "cricri,"and similar
342
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Pl;. /e XXXVI. SHORT-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS OK TRUE LOCUSTS
no. I.
2.
1.
4- S. 6.
Ciomphicerus decussata Mclanoplus minor Melaiioplus..itlanis Melanoplus punctatus Hesperotcttix viridis Circotcttix venuculatus
no.
7. Cephaloc(L'ma costylata
8. Encoptolophus soididus
9. Mi'lanopliis diffiTontialis
10. Melanoplus diffcientialis
11. Hfsperotettix viridis
I:
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-(*..». r>^ :;«
y
The Inse'^t Ecc-
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s?m^'^^7mimimr' ^^H-^^.'^'^^'^msffT^'m^sZE^s^^^ m
The Crickets
descriptive names are applied to it in many foreign tongues. The common field crickets (Gryl/us neglectus, for example; are often very musical at night. Scudder says that sometimes the notes are produced as slowly as two per second, but that they may be twice as rapid. The note is a shrill one. and is said to be pitched at e natural, two octaves above middle c. It is recorded as follows :
•ml CTjTl crrrt onrl erm
Fig. 232.— Song of the field cricket. (A/tir ScuJdir.)
Perhaps the commonest night song, however, is that of the snowy tree cricket (CEcanthus nheus). This insect has a day song as well as a night song, varying much in intensity. There is a distinct relation between the temperature and the number of notes per minute. Professor Dolbear has reduced this to a mathematical formula. He says :
Let T = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit; N = numberof chirps per minute. Then T — so + ^j*-. This would give 100 chirps for 6s degrees Fahrenheit.
This formula has been tested in Massachusetts by Dr. Robert Edes and Mr. Walter Faxon, who find that from actual records the temperature is about 6j degrees to 100 chirps, with an error of variation of one degree or less in four-fifths of the cases. The day song is annotated by Mr. Scudder as follows, and he states that it is a nearly uniform, equally-sustained trill lasting . om two or three seconds to a minute or two. The Insect, however, "often begins its note at a diffr -ent pitch from the normal one— fourth / above middle c— as if it required a little practice to attain it."
Ilirrr_
tr
tr'
■"'g- -JJ— "ay song of the snowy tree cricket, r^/kr S,uilJc-r.J
The night song of the snowy tree-cricket is by far the most familiar one. Riley gave the best description of it when he said that it "is intermittent, resembling a shrill • re-teat, re-teat,
J43
^Em: ^asx^^KTi^^^m^s
iJtoKT'
The Cricket!
re-teat,' with a slight pause between each." Scudder reminds us that Burroughs has called this noise a " rhythmic beat ; " that Thoreau called it "slumbrous breathing, " and that Hawthorne describes it as "audible stillness," and that he says, "if moon- light could be heard it would sound like that." Fitch says that the noise made by these crickets is an invitation to "treat — treat — treat.
Harrington hiis watched one of these concerts closely and 'says, '■ An interesting feature of its concerts is one of which I have not been able to find any mention in books accessible. While the male is energetically shuffling together his wings, raised almost vertically, the female may be seen standing just behind him, and with her head applied to the base of the wings evidently eager to get the full benefit of every note produced."
bp^^{}^^5!^^^-!^^^ WbTbT^ b b
! 1
n i
! H
■H
• -• — •-
Fig. ;j4.— Night song of (he snowy treu cricket, f A/Ur ScuJdir.)
Even the curious cave crickets of the genus Conocephalus have a song. But they sing only by night and in cloudy weather. C. ensiger makes five notes per second and these havj been recorded by Scudder as follows:
bnr chwi chwl chwl chwl chwl chwl chwJ chwl chwl chwt
ehwl chwl chwl chwi
chwi chwl ehwl chw! chwi chwi cliwl
'^ > > /•? > > '^ tt ^ ' \t Fig. 235. — Song of the cave cricliet Conocephalus rmigii. f A/lcr ScuJJer.j
Why has no one ever worked up a full life history, with all of its interesting details, of one of our commonest crickets > It is earnestly to he hoped that some good observer will answer this conundrum with the following words: " Bec;iuse it has been left for me to do, and 1 purpose to do it as soon as possible."
344
EARWIGS
(Order Euplcxoptcra.)
These are the insects which .re properly known by the ver- nacular name earwigs. They are so distinct in structure from another insects that they are now placed in an order by them- selves, although formerly they were considered as belonging to the Orthoptera. They apparently have four wings, but the first pair are horny and small and resemble somewhat the elytra of beetles The second pair are very curiously folded, but' when expanded are almost circular in shape and pos- sess veins which radiate from a common cemer. The mouth-parts are for biting and the metamor- phoses are incomplete. The most peculiar structure of the earwigs, however, is the pair of forceps at the end of the abdomen. These for- ceps are sometimes ve.y large and when opened give the insect a som -what terrifying appearance. They are not used, however,' as weapons of offense although with some of the earwigs which have wings (by no means all of them are winged) one of the forceps is used to assist in folding the
Fnrfi-
hind wing, with the wingless species no use for fig. =56
these forceps has been discovered. Why thev ">"'" ■"'' "'''""
■ . ■ ■ • ' T-,- LA./h/'t..4i,-r.J
The
should have been evolved is a mysterv. name earwig is derived from the general idea'amongst unedu- cated people that these in.sects seek to enter the ears of human beings, causing injury to the sense of hearin- Thi>; ide 1 is a very old one and, of cour.se. is totally unfounded, for the earwi-4 are perfectly harmless. The antiqiiitv of this superstition and the widespread belief in it are evidenced by the tact that these insects have pra. tically the same name in many langua.vs The Dutch. German. Swedish. Danish, Krench. Portucese and .Spanish
Our own
all give It a name with practically this same meaning
I
Ii
345
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ii^,
'i.?j
i>\
14
Earwigs
use of it comes from the Anglo-Saxon eam-icga. In this country especially in the South the same name is applied to the common house centipede. An early advocate of the doctrine of similia similihus curantur anticipated Hahneman by prescribing earwigs, dried, pulverized and mixed with the urine of a hare, as a remedy for deafness.
There are very few earwigs in the Northern States. Some, however, appear in the South and along the Pacific slope, but no damage has been reported from these insects in this country. In Europe, however, and particularly in England, earwigs are said to be injurious and are said to nibble the petals of flowers. There is considerable doubt, however, as to the accuracy of this inference, which seems to have been made by gardeners. The entomolo- gists who have studied the question of the food of the earwigs have been unable to find that they do anything of the sort. They are really carnivorous, living upon dead insects, upon small snails, and upon small living caterpillars. It is sugge.sted that the gardeners have held the earwigs responsible for damage which was really done by other insects, perhaps even the very ones upon which the earwigs have preyed. A curious habit which earwigs are said to possess is t'.iat the females brood over the eggs. They taite the greatest care of them, collect them when scattered and move them from place to place in an endeavor to secure the best position for their development. When the eggs are hatched, however, the female does not care for her young. From this fact it would seem that the female earwig is not as good a mother as the female Psocus, which as we have shown, keeps her young by her after hatching and in fact seems to show a decided appreciation of family ties. All of the earwigs are contained in the single family Forficulidx.
Ihli
346
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Pl.ATF. XXXVII.
SHORT-HORNHI) GRASSH()IM»FRS OR TRUE LOCUSTS
FIG I 2
4
h
Dissosteini vcnusta ScliistociMca ci.imiijtiia (side) Hi'linslus iMlit'oiniciis Sihistocerc;i vagans Mfstiibregma cincta Dissosteira ohliterata
no. 7. Ciomphicerus tlliotii ■S. Aiiloiara scuildcri Q. Trvxalis brcvicornis
10. Diitvophoius micropterus
1 1. Syrhula admirabilis
::szr
•» ■■•-
•Vi'f.
.vEiiiaw^'iir'
The In t i Book.
PuiTS XXXVll.
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THE BIRD-LICE
(Ordtr MalU'phaga.)
The very strange parasitic insects which belong to this order are generally known by the name bird-lice. They differ widely from true lice of the order Heteroptera, suborder Anoplura, and in spite of the fact tl.at they are known as bird-lice some of them occur on mammals. From this fact it is evident that the popular name bird- licc is a misnomer, and it will be well to adi'pt Sharp's suggestion and call the Mallophaga "biting lice" as opposed to the sucking lice of the sub- order Anoplura.
They are very small and have no wings, and the principal characteristic which distinguishes them from the true lice is that instead of having apparently sucking mouth-parts they have biting mouth-parts. They do not suck the blood as do the true lice, but feed upon the feathers or hair of the birds or mammals upon which they are found. Tlieir metamorphosis is incomplete
(lattened, and generally hard; the head is large and Hat: the anten- nae are short, and three to five jointed; the eyes an- simple; the
347
Fig c
iJ. .Mini)p<in M-friatuni ( At'Ur Osborn.)
The bcJv is very greatly
\
Vi
11
JK
4
tr\
h'M
The Biril-Lice
jaws ,irf usu.ill', toothcil .irut pointeJ; the legs irc strong, .ind. curiously cnou^jh. liu- from U'n^ -ire sin r! .mil .<• um-J only in .irrying looJ lo the mouth. When ut rest, thi\ project forward 1 t-neath the hcid. The whole body is usually r.ither h.iiry.
The eg^N .itc tloriKate ovjI and are 'jstined sinj^ly to the I '.ithers (ir h.iirs . ; the host. The youn^, :s-ue hv breaking off a c rcular lid jt the l.irj^er free end o' 'ic cg>?. Iht duration of the f,K sta^'e is not known.
Th n lice when first h ached look .nuch like the full
pn V. .\ II, , .^epl tli.it the head is comparatively larjjer, an»; the ii.nki'^ts of the body are absent u duij. Just before the last ni I some individuals are tjiiite as larjfe .is the adult specimens, "^he question as to whetlier thi v re.illy draw Mood has been taufully studied. There will frequently he seen a large dark blotch indicating' some opaijue contents to the stomach, but a caretiil e.x.mnriation on dissection has shown that this blotch is ccmiposed of bits of feathers, i >ne species is said by Kellofjg to live in the pouch of a pelican, where of course, there is no h.iir, and ab.iut the portion (if the membrane to which the lice Jinn the surface is raw and blmdy, but here KeiloKK thinks that the food IS simply the epidermal scales of the inner u.ill of the pouch.
.Such of these bird-lice as occur upon domes- tic fowls, while not serious pests, undoiibli dly cause poultry consider.ible annoyance simpiv by the irritation of the skin by the sharp leet of the par ^ites. After a hen atTected with birJ-iice dies, the insects either .e or attempt to leave lur bnviv by iMwIm^ slowly lov ird the iie.id (',on- siderinp that they do not feed upon the bli J, but simply upon the leathers, it IS curious thai thev should die after tlu death of the hen. Kellofjp; sufigests that their deati- ■- proba! ,v due to the lack of anim.il heat to which they have been accustomed during the hie of the host.
Aquatic birds are affected with bird-lice qmte as ainind^ntiy as those which never enter the w.iter. and it would not be stra.'ijje if in the lice affectini; such birds should be found some modifi- cation = :l the bre.ithin^ appar.itii-, buttherei such modification .md they are duubticss protected by the ^li, c feathe' . so th.it
The Bird-Lict
they always have .1 sufficient supply of ,,ir even when the bird or a portion n( its body rem.iins unJcr Ihe w.ii.r i.,r v,,n,e time
h IS very r.ire that l-ird-lic- ever ten e ,he body o( the host, but they do ,niKr..tc from one b,rd to ..n^.ther whenever two birds come m contact, as during the nesting season or ..mong birds of Krcgarious habits.
In many c.ses , «iven r.peci, ,f Malloph.i«.. will be found to be coni.ned to a given species oi hitd or mainin.,|, Nit in other cases one species of parasite will be . 'und upon two or more species oi birds. Curiously enough, some of these pj!'asite are lound in Europe .ii biuN wnich d.'fler from those upon whi, id MticalK iie same species of parasn is (uund . North \mcrica. Sevei , species may occur u^ -i the same bird ; for example, at least ve speues be- longmu to three di.stii , t jjener.i have been found upon the common lowl. Nearly all of these are cosmopolit.in in- sects and have been carried upon fowls to all p.irts of the world. Chickens hatched in an incubatoi should >e absolutely free from I ,e and -em.,, - o until they join compa with ,.lder fowls. that ti habit which lens I . j >,( bathir is an etTort on their part to .-t nj of tl these creatures.
TABLE Of i MIL
^ig JJ. t. ■ lies
There is litti, doubt
'hemselves in dust
ritation caused by
nve i ml • . Libial palpi., i nd w 1 foi.i 'ints; four-iointed
Antennae flhforir with ti Aiitennarclubbi .rkn labial palpi . -Antenna- three-,01, ted : ... ,th one clau , found un mam'
4n. ,n« V- ■ , Family TruhoAcctida-
Ant. ,na; hv e-,oin i;-. ,„ v ^th two claw. i found on bir Is
- laisi with o", Jav i..und on mammals. . Kamily GvrohuU
I arsi with t laws lound on birds F.imily Doth.iJa-
Anv deta eu wid- Mtr ., of the habits of the.se i.unilies
will be unnecc -sar' ..> hey d, ^ nr.» ditTer in a ^ufficier tly marked
manner lo ne. sit-ie such trcatnicit.
if
J(i
THE BOOK-LICE AND THEIR ALLIES
(Oniir Corroihiitia.)
The curious little wingless insects known as book-lice, which are found frequently in numbers among old, dusty books in damp places, and the interesting little bark-inhabiting creatures known as Psocids are structurally so different from all other insects that they have been brought together in the order Corro- dentia.
Those which are winged have four wings with prominent veins but very few cross veins. The fore wings are larger than the hind wings, and both are held in a roof-shaped manner over the back when not in use. The mouth-parts are formed for biting, and all of these insects have very incomplete metamorphoses.
The true Psocidx (I regret that there is no popular name for these insects, for they are very interesting, and always attract
attention when seen) live to- gether in curious little col- onies on the bark of trees, especially old trees covered with a growth of lichens, or even upon tlie surface of old fence boards. They possess the power of spinning a cer- tain amount of silk, and each colony is generally covered with a delicate silken web. The eggs are laid together in clusters, and the development of individuals is rather rapid. Psocns venosus is a com- mon form in most parts of the country, and its habits have been described bv Hubbard, who has studied it in its southern range upon the trunks of orange trees in Florida. It is sni:i!l and
J50
Kij;. - lo. Airopos (li\ in.itfiria. f h^iiirawn from .Varuitt. i
Book- Lice and Their Allies
smoky-brown in color, .nd is seen upon the trunks of trees in flocks numbering from a dozen to forty or f.ftv ndiv du .1 Th y feed ,n companies .nd browse upon the lichens, which thv clennly remove from the bark, leaving a cle,,r space- beld them The colomes consist of one or more families, and include md' v-duals of all ages, the wingless young herd ng w th the ^dn f
Wh'n" , ^'^''f ^' •■"^'°"«'' ^^■"^'^'^- '° "ot re'dTlJ tak'fl gh' When alarmed the whole troop huddles together app rentll f„; mutual protection like sheep, but when seized wi^h,/ P.n.c they scatter in every'directioraL^run^'r; /„ ^r ^ th t .h ' '' harmonizing so closely with that of the b rk ^at they are not easily distinguished. Soon after they easseri- ble and begin to eat the lichens. ^ reassem-
Theeggs are oval, glistening white, and are laid upon the bark in batches of fifteen to thirty, deposited on end in semaS rows, and each cluster is protected by an oval, convex shieTd of gnawed-up wood which adheres cLely to the eggs The females brood over the eggs, see that thev.ie not disturbed and when they hatch, lead the young ones forth to pastSe '
This sect is fond of shade and moisture, and is most often seen ,n densely shaded groves and old gardens Tr du ts .ccordmg to Hubbard, hiber, ae, and begi^ breeding'eaWy 'int^
Hubbard has also studied another species, Psoan citricola which >s probably a Southern form. Wilh thi spec 'h e'es .-.re laid in ho ows upon orange leaves in little clusters coverfd With a shield of black excrementitious matter. OverThTs t s retched a slight silken web. The embrvo is pla nly een th ough the .shell, and when ready to hatch air bubbles are n which pass in rapid succession between the mouth-parts "and collect in a larger bubble within the head. From time to , me this larger bubble passes down into the body cavity. The h ad
and then the young .nsect protrudes its hodv. Air continues to P|.s through the neck into the abdomen, which become "r.t J d,.stended and elongated, and this distention causes, probab i the bursting o the hrst larval skin. The process of hatching occupies several days. "
This species lives upon the leaves of plants associited in small flocks, and passes the greater part of Its life Lmg under
J5'
i
.'1
A
"i
Book-Lice .nd Their Allies
i
:; t
the canopies of webs spun over the egg clusters. Here the mother awaits the appearance of her brood, and here the young insects cluster, sallying forth from time to time with the mother in search of food.
The book-lice belong to another family, the Atropidx. They are very small and some of them have been supposed to make a ticking noise which in olden times caused them to be known as "death watches."
These little insects are widely distributed, and are commonly seen on library shelves and in old records in closets. They are omnivorous, feeding on any animal or vegetable matter, and are especially fond of the starch paste used in book bindings or under wall paper. They feed on (lour and meal, and are often found in natural history collections, living on the specimens. They are sometimes found in straw beds and in the straw coverings of wine bottles. A case has been recorded in /iisirt Life in which they bred so extensively in a mattress of hair and corn husks that 'a pin point could not have been put down without touch- ing one or more of the bugs." They swarmed over the sheets and the walls of the room; bureau draws were swarming with them, and the mattress no doubt contained them by the millions.
.1 4'! I
35*
lint ,
Fit
Pi ATK XXXVIII. SHOKT-HORNEI) C.RASSHOPPFRS OR TRUE LOCUSTS
H(..
1. Hippiscus wheelerii
2. Triinerotropis vincuhita
3. Anconia integra
4. Hippiscus h:ilcloiii:inni s. Trinicrotropis suffusa
f). Acrolophitus hirtipes (side)
HG.
7. Trimerotropis cyanipennis
8. Hippiscus nejfiectus
0. (jrcotettix catlin^'lanus
10. Acrolophitus hirtipes
11. Hadrotettix trifasciatus
'I
I
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-IS^T
^m
-d.
The
XXXViri.
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WHITE ANTS
(Onkr /sop t era.)
Although from their peculiarities of structure the insects of this group form a distinct order, there are not many genera or species, and there is in fact but a single family, namely, the Termitid* (unless the curious family Embiidce be included here, which would not seem to be justified). All isopterous insects are known popularly as white ants. As the late Dr. George Marx once remarked jocularly to the writer, '"they are called white ants because they are not ants and because they are not white."
Fig. 241— Termes flavipes : adult male. ( A/li-r Martatt.)
At this late date it is almost hopeless to attempt to change a popu- lar term so thoroughly grafted upon the literature and upon the popular mind, but if people would only call them termites, a short and easy word to pronounce, instead of keeping up the bald mis- nomer—white ants— the cause of accuracy and truth would gain. Perhaps there is a slight superficial resemblance between these insects and ants, but they are structurally radically different. They belong at the opposite end of the insect series and are more closely allied to the stone-flies, the May-flies and even the dragon-
j5J
w
yiA
ri
White Anta
it
■' r
■i.
' !'«
i>
flies, than they are to ants. Perhaps, after all. it is not so much he resemblance of the individu..! ternute to an ant which gave .t thLs name as it was the fact that ail termites live together In communities containing different castes and that thus their social economy is in a way ant-like.
,.v JhI k"^"'' ""'^"■*^'' practically no transformation, that is to say. they have very incomplete metamorphoses. The young ter
Fig. 343.- Tcrmts rtav
'Trl,"; ''"f'P'«"l™'*'>' I"'''-" • '• "ynph of winged female • > wotkir, ./.soldier. I Ajtcr Marlati) * «<:"i*ie .
mite, when it hatches from the egg is an .nctive. crawling six- k-Rged creature, It much resembles the adult, except in s e wherea.s with the ants, it will be remen,'- . i. ,he larva is a footless ^-rub which looks no more like in .duh ■ .,n a garter snke jembies a chipmunk. All species, as ju.s. ,tate ' are so",'' and the communities consist of both wingless and winged individuals
J54
ms^sisra'^smu'^.-.f^K- xdfsmsi T^s:^%ii^m
^
White Antt
The four wings are very lon^ nnd when in repose are laid flat
alonK ,he back extendm« far ivyond .he tip of the abdomen.
They are membranous and most of the veins are lonK'itudinal. The h,nd ^,n^, ,^^ ^f ,,,,^^^ p^^^.^^.,y ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ K^^^
ns the front wings, and across near the base of each wing is a line of weakness along which the wmg breaks off after the so-called nuptial flight. The wingless individuals in each colony are with most species, excessively numerous and as a rule they are di'vided into two castes, namely, the ordinary workers and the soldiers. I he so-called soldiers also exist with the true ants but they have not in these creatures become such a structurally well differen- tiated caste as with the termites. In the latter the jaws have be- come enormously developed and in some cases the soldier is five times the size of a worker. Then, in some species a certain por- tion of the workers have become changed in form particularly by he elongation of the head into a long, nose-like process at the tip ol which IS a hole through which is exuded a fluid which is used in making or mending the walls of the habitation This caste is known as the nasuti. or nosed ones, a term which mu.st at once remind the admirers of Sienkiewicz of the Polish warrior Kharlamp. '
The order Isoptera reaches its highest development in tropi- cal regions, and the reading world has been famili.ir with the main details of the economy of the extraordinary species which build the great ant-mounds in Africa since the davs when Smeathman the English traveler, described them in print more than a hun- dred years ago. The females, or queens, of some of these African species grow to be of enormous size. The abdomen swollen with eggs, sometimes becomes as big as a potato or 20.000 or 30,000 times the bulk of a worker. The rate' at which the eggs are laid is extraordinary and it is stated at sixty a minute, or 80,000 and upwards in a day. Listening to an account of this extraordinary egg-laving, which was given before the Biological Society of Washington by Mr. O. F. Cook, a friend rem.irked to the writer in a whisper, "What a fortune that would mean with eggs at twenty-live cents a dozen!"
In the United States there exist comparatively few species and only one which has a northward range into the territorC occupied by most of the readers of this book. This is T.rmcs fldvipci Koll. It is probably a true American species but was
■
jr^.tfi'v
Whit* Anu
m
nccidentally introduced into Europe many years n^o It de- stroyed the imperial greenhous.s at Schonbron, near Vienna so that they were repL.ced by houses with iron framos. Another species which is widely distributed in the United States but which does not seem to be especially common, is also f.,und in F:urope and is one of the most abundant and destructive termites found there. This is /•<■,,«,, /«.,/.. -«i Rossi. It has not yet been definitely determined whether ti.^s insect is a n 'ive'of Europe or of America. It occurs in all of the Mediterranean countries in Europe and is found in Texas. Kansas. Colorado and Southern Calilornia, and perhaps elsewhere. Another species known as Tcrnu: Inhfonnans Buckley, is a form of curious habits occurring in Texas, in the spring, beneath and within patches of cow-dung, and after midsummer making tubes around grass steins and the stems of other plants, nesting probably deep m thf grounO. Still another Texas form, known as Euternus lugrn-tps Haldeman, is a small species which constructs nests apparently ol cow dung, which are attached to the trunks of trees. Buckley wrote of this form. 'It was about sunset on the 22d ol October, i860, when I lirst saw this species in a field where both workers and nasuti were carrying home seeds of gi.i>ses and weed... Phey marched in dense columns along pathways i.adingto a hole near the base of a stump, into which they entered. • * ♦ They dwell in the ground where they haye rooms, seldom more than one to tv^■o inches long, con- nected by tunnels. • * * After lains-which are of rare occur- rence in that climate-they make semi-cylindrical tubes, which he on the ground with a length of from three to six inches These arched ways sometimes intercept each other, being con- nected with chambers; but they rarely work by day aboye the surface and never in bright sunshine."
Of the commonest of our species. Tcrnm flavipcs, it is greatly to be regretted that no thoroughly good account of its lift- history has been published. The true queen, in fact, has never been found, unless it should turn out that a large queen found two or three years ago by Mr. H. G. Hubbard in the mountains in southern Arizona should belong to this species. In the Northern States Its nests are to be found under almost any decaying log and, although many entomologists have examined these nests' they have never found the queen. From Baltimore southward'
356
White Aniii
and perhiips evt-n a little farther north, this insect heconics . serious pest in houses, particul.irly in old houses which are rather clamp. They make their nests in old beams, such as the m .in door jdsts. and construct innumerable tunnels, running usually with the grain, so that, although a great deal of the substance <.f the wo.,d ;s devoured, the mam longitudinal libers support the buiiding structure lor a long time; in fact, their presence in many cases would not be noticed except for the spring flight of the winged males and females. Quite recently i handsome private residence in the city of B.iltimore was found to have Its timbers on the first floor reduced almost to shells by the workers of this insect. Further south, not only the buildings but even furniture is destr. .yed by them in the same way They seem especially fond of paper, and Korbes has recorded the fact that a collection of books and papers of the state of Illinois was completely ruined bv them. A school library in .South Carolina, which had been left closed for the summer, was found, on being opened in the autumn, to be completely eaten out and rendered valueless. The work of these insects was brought home strongly to the writer on one occasion when a lot of records and documents stored in a vault in the Department of Agriculture was found to be mined and ruined by them; and again, the floor of one of the largest sections of the United .States National Museum was annu- ally undermined anci weakened until it was torn up and replaced with cement. When.-ver an i Id beam is found to have been hollowed out, even if no insects are present, it can readily be identified as the work of termites by the fact that all of the galleries are plastered with a brownish, mortar-like substance composed of excrement, from which, apparently, .ill nojrish- ing food has been taken. In Florida this insect is often thecau.se of great damage to orange trees, working around the crown and in the roots of trees, and altogether it is a thoroughly bad character.
In the most general terms the life of a termite colony is about as follows: After the so-called nuptial flight (which' is made usually at a certain time of the ye.ir. and with Teniics rlafipes it is generally in the spring) composed of winged individuals of both sexes, male and female, and which always, except when it occurs in houses, attracts birds and other insect-eatmg creatures so that most of the individuals are destroyed, the wings cif the
J57
'M
:Iy
i /i!
n.i
!i;
Pi*J
Whltt Anil
survivors break off and they either pair and attempt to start a new colony or thry drop in such a situation that workers from some old colony l,nd them, ,oin forces with them, and thus start a new community. The bodv of the » ^e female, or queen be- gins to swell with e-Ks, Rrows cnorrno v. and exK-layinx com- mences. Unlike • true ants or any of the other social Hymen- optera. the youn- require very little care from the workers They are quite .utivc and verv so(;n feed themselves to some extent. The food of the termites is variabJe. It consists of wood liber, or their own cast skins, or their excrement or the contents of the stomach regurgitated by other individuals or in the case of the soldiers, they may eat dying or even healthy workers. The enlarged head and great jaws of the soldiers unlit them in fact, for my other kind of food. They can not gnaw wood very well. a.nJ, as Sharp has expressed it. 'their condition may be considered to be that ot permanent hunger, only to be allayed by carnivorous proceedings. ' When the nest is distu'bed and the soldiers get excited they dash their jaws around and fre- quently iull their fellows, but of course this is more or iess acci- dental, since they have no eyes. When a Caliotermes wishes fcod. according to Grassi, it strokes the posterior part of tl... bodv of another individu.il with its antennx and by some sort of a rellex action the contents of the alimentary canal of the indi- vidual stroked issue from the anus and are d^vo ired by th, .Mroker. The habitations of all termites are vcrv cleanly which IS accounted for by the fact that they eat evervthmg, the contents of the alimentary canal being eaten again and again until all nourishment has been taken out of it. Hubbard, in Jam li.a found that the young feed upon prepared Ibod which is stored up in the form of very hard and tough round masses, some nests containing many pounds' weight. This m.iterial is soltened by saliva briore it can be eaten. The true queens can be distin- gui.shed at once by the stumps of their old wings as well as later, by their enlarged abdomens: but there are in most co'onies mdivKlu.ils kn..wn as supplementary queens, which are capa- ble ol reproduction up to a cert.iin point and undoubtedly help to c.irry the colony on in case of the death of the true queen I hese supplementary queens are undoubtedly female workers whict have been (ed in a certain way and which develop up to a cen,.in point, although not to the point of becoming winged.
358
Sr'wiamtf''^^- ;S(.z>r'V}i)ai
i
f v
) .
Platk XXXIX. SHORT-HORNHI) C.RASSHOIM'KRS OR TRUE LOCUSTS
(Kl.UUCth lINl-.-THIRl))
1. Spli;ir;ijj;t'tnon hollii '
2. Hippistus rugosus
1. Mcl.iiioplus fcimir-riibrum
4. Spharanemon hollii V
i. ChinKtroccph.il.i viridiUscial.
(). Schistoccra Jainnilka
7. Hippiscus ph;rnicoptetus S. Dissosteiru carolin 1 q. SchisfoctTca sanguinea 10. Schistoccrca anuTicana \ I . Spharanemon xquale
Th« In-fct Dc-ok.
Platk XXXIX
1
ll'
1 1;|
-'-aa
White Ante
Euron. tTwT ^"■'"" '"''^"^'" ^'' "o< l'«n Studied, but in d fferent kmds, makes excavations and builds galleries so that i can move from one point to another without be.ng expos d This suggests that we have as yet omitted to state Iha, all ermues shun the light, except during the nuptia fl ghr n L
w. hTerta" Aft- """" "^ ^"""^^ '"^^"^''y b'in' nitho gh eTesoccu .nfhtel^ spec.es of the genus Hodotermes facetted
uunng ine heat of the day and cut grass. There seems to h^ some question, however, whether these creature relbeTon;
^g de'r/of mo?7'"'^' ^'" '''' "^"^ galleries Uepthf ngni degree of moisture, since in dry air these creatures HiV
iTapp-rt?: r'"%" ^-"^"^""'^ '• ^'^ ^^or:;z.t
P o£b V n IT, '°'" ''^'''''" '° twenty-three months. Probably m the whole range of insects treated in this book here ,s no species which offers a better and mor conve Tent neld of study than the common T,rmes flavipes I ^1^,^^ h^
Just as with the ants, and also with some of the soci.l bees so tha we may. in fact, say just as with all social insec m tS habitations of termites will be found many guest in I'ts Su h .nsects in ants' nests are known as .W...«,i,4/,'yL " , erm't^s nests they are known as Tcr.n,toph,fo.s insects, anlt e stu^ of
h P . ^^hwarz has paid some attention to them ind ^n
pp T^ ir: •',^''^^^-"'--''^«*-" -socicv ofuvishini ; ;r
• pp. 'to. .bi) has given a list of nine species of beetles to mi
Kenuscaritomus Should prove ,o be p.i:;:;:;,;;;;^;:,j:;r'''^
.re-it i; r";;;:^,':"^ '^ '^■''"'"^'^ *" ^-P-" -^^-ns ,s vcrv wood..n ,. K T"'' " ''"^"'"=' •'''"°-^' impossible to erect
N^oodtn teleKraph poles which will last for an v length of tm smce they are tunneled by these creatures and we.:^:;;^ t;;:^r
.?5'>
|
' i |
V |
|
•" 1 |
1 |
|
i |
ti
i IM
/HPT^TBT
1 '
White Antt
fall in an incredibly short time. Accounts of damage done in houses, both in Tropical America and in Africa, as well as in British India, occur commonly in the literature. A striking account, however, of damage in Rhodesia occurs in the Zambesi Mission ^.•(CA/ for January. 1901, written by the Rev. A. Leb(ruf, and which is quoted in Nature. •• • It is no uncommon thing' says the writer ' for the colonist, on returnins? from his day's labor, to find the coat he left hanging on a nail on his cottage wall and the books on the table absolutely destroyed by these tiny marauders." Nor is this all. ' On awakening next morning," writes Mr. Lebtruf, 'you are astonished to see in the dim lig"ht a cone-shaped object rising from the brick floor a short distance from your bed, with two holes on the top like the crater of a miniature volcano. Upon closer examination you discover that the holes have just the si/e and shape of the inside of your "ooots, which you incautiously left on the brick floor the night before.' They have given form and proportion to an ant heap, and nothing is left of them except the nails, eyelets and, maybe, part of the heels.'"
There are certain insects which belong to the family Embiidx which seem to have a relationship to the termites but their de- tailed consideration mav well be omitted from this work, since but a single species is known in North America, namely, 0/igo- ioma hutbarJi Hagen, and which occurs rarely in Florida.
360
?^L«:
'.iClt'i*!
I
t'
THE STONE-FLIES
(Ordii- rUioptcra.)
This orde. is not a large one and contains only the single family Perlidx, of which thirteen genera are represented in North America and less than a himdn^d • pecies. The stone-llies have mouth-parts formed for biting; the body is long and soft and flat ; the wings are four in number and' are membranous, the hmd wings being much larger than the fore wings, folded in plates, and lie upon the abdomen when at rest. The antenna are long and thread-like. The larva; are aquatic and are usually found under stones in running water. The flies are commonly seen about water courses in the tirst warm days of spring, and the cast skins of the nymphs, or pupx, sticking to stones and logs on the banks of streams are very common objects. The eggs are produced in enormous numbers. They are small and are probably dropped on the surface of the water, as with the May-flies, but some of them, even after thev issue from the ab- domen enclosed in a kind of capsule, are carried about by the female. One female may deposit 5.000 or 6,o<k> eggs. The larvae when hatched are very active and are carnivorous in habits feedin<r upon the young of the May-flies and other soft-bodied aquatic animals. They are as a rule very flat m form, which enables them to crawl under heavy stones it the bottom of swift running streams. The head is large and flat .ind the eves are large and compound. They resemble the adults in general structure except that they lack the win- There are as .1 rule two long protruding lil.iments at the anal end of the bodv, and they breathe by means of tr.icheal gills. Th' legs .ire flattened and are fringed with hairs, fitting the insect admir.ihiv for swim- ming. The long antenn;c are present in the larv:e .ilso ,md when the larva is hidden beneath a stone freqiientlv the ant.iinx curve around upwards, app.irently to give it warning of the approach of prey. The j.iws are strong and toothed but .ire hidden by the
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The Stone-Flies
upper lip. The full-grown nymph is not at all pupa-like and is active.
The enormous number of eggs laid by stone-flies indicates that the chances of successful larval growth are rather small and as a matter of fact these larva- are extensively eaten by fishes. It makes no differenc<' to the average fish whether he eats a carniv- orous stone-fly larva or a vegetable-feeding Mav-fly larva. If there were economic entomologists among thr llshes these would devote themselves to the destruction of the stone-fly l.rvje in order that the general food supply of May-flies might be kit un- disturbed for fish food!
We have said that the larvae breathe by means of tracheal gills. As a matter of fact, however, with some species there are no such gills and no spiracles. These larvx must take their oxv- gen from the water through the skin, the ultimate irachex being especially numerous in the spots where the spiracles would be if there were any and the skin at this point is especially thin. This method of breathing has been already mentioned m our accounts of the larv.v of the Chironnmidu- and of the larvae of the internal feeding parasitic Hymenoptera.
An aquarium student with an aquarium so constructed as to maintain a constant current of water will do g(v.d service in fully elaborating the life history o! any of our common species.
36=
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DRAGON-FLIES
(Order Odonata.)
Excepting the butterflies, there are few more attractive and graceful insects than the •'dragon-flies,' as the members of this order are generally termed. They are insects which have always attracted attention, and which are known by a variety of vernacular names, of which dragon-fly is the commonest English
fig 243— A dragon fly : 1 lathi-nii^ lydia.
term. They are known in some parts of the country as " devil's darning needles;" elsewhere as "snake fecdLMs' or "snake doctors;' in Scotland as " flying adders. ' and m some parts of England as '• horse stingers." Aithoutth the insects .irc perlcctly harmless, these names Wtll indicate the e.xistcnce of nuiiHTous popular superstitions. Some believe that they will .sew up the ears of bad boys; others that they sting liorses; still othei.. that thev act as feeders and physicians to snakes, cspeciailv to w.iter snakes.
The Odonata are slender insects with a viry l.irue hiMj which moves most easily upon its slender neck, even r.iating to j
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cunsidcrablf extent. The eyes .ire very l;irgc, but the antenna; are small .ind short. The wings are elongate, nearly equal in size, and have many veins, both longitudinal and transverse, .so that the entire surface ol the wing is cut up into many small cells. The legs are placed near the front ol the thorax, and all curve forward and are used for grasping the prey of the dragon- lly, and never for walking. In fact, the legs are unfitted for walking, although they are u.sed to grasp the twig or other object upon which the dragon-lly may rest. All of the dragon- flies are aquatic In their early stages. The metamorphosis is complete in so far that the larv« differ radically in appearance from the adults, but the pupa is not quiescent at any time. It is very active, and feed, up to the moment when the final meta- morphosis begins. The jaws in ail stages are strong, and both larvx and adults are extremely active and are among the strongest and most graceful flyers of all insects. Their flight is so perfect that it has been seriously suggested that flyirg machines should be modeled .ifter the flight mechanism of the e insects.
A very peculiar feature of the adult is the curious separation in the male of the intromittent organs from th. opening of the ejaculatory duct. The former are placed on the under side of the second abdomin.il segment, while the l.itter are on the next to the last ventral plate. Therefore, befoie copulation, the male curves his abdomen around beneath, so that the ninth segment of the abdomen is brought mtu contact with the second, thus tran.sfer- ring the fertilizing fluid to the intromittent organ. The tip of the abdomen of the female is bent around and joins with the under side of the serond .segment of the male's abdomen, the male frequently grasping the female around the neck with certain appendages at the extremity of his abdoinen. He retains this hold after lertilization, .md frequently liurmg the entire process of egg-laying. Even with such species as d.scend under the surface of the water to lay their eggs the male has been observed 10 still retain his grasp of the female's neck, and to be carried down under the w:uer with her.
Dragon-flies capture their prey on the wing and feed upon almost all flving insects, especially the small ones— that is, the gnats and midges. They alter their direction with peifect facility, and dart here and there, unerringly capturing their prev. Pos- sibly some of the .s iiallest .ire seved with the jaws, but the larc;er
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Plate XL. I 'R AGON HIES
(HIDt'CKl) ONK-TIIIKIt)
Plathi'iiiis lyiliii ; (i il)cllulidx) I). .S.
Pcrithe.nis domiti.. ' (Lihcllululx) U. .S.. e.ist of Mississippi-
Lihelliil.i 4-m;itiilala ' (l.iliclhilkl.ii >J,.rih.rn U .S Humnt- iiiu) Asi.i '
IVnthemis .i..n,itia 5 (l.ihellulida-) U. .S., ...si .,( Mississippi-
V^ I . ArK< nine Ki-piihlic *^
I'lathi'inis Ivdia • (Liinliulidx) U. .S.
IVrithemis Jo.nitia$(l,l,ellulida-) U. .S.. cast of Mississippi;
VV. I., Argentine Rcpuhlic l.ibfllula pulthella .'. (l.ilH-ilulid;i.') (,)ucIh-i-. U. S rramca lacci..t,i (LilHJlulidiL-) N. A., Hawaiian Isiands I'achydipl.ix ioDKipcnnis { (LilH-liiiiidu.-) N. A. .Soinatochloia walshii ' (Cordulidx) White Mis. of N H Me Libcilula vibrans ' (Libcilulidiv) Ka.stcm and .Suuthcrn ll' S ' (.omphus plajfiatus ' (Gomphidx) Ha.stcir. and Southern U S Libcilula piiimbca (Libclluiid.c) N. Y. to S. C. Cclithcmis .lisa $ (Libcilujida-) Can. to Ca., Midi III
An.ix j.ini„>W/Kschnid,.) N. A.. W. L. Hawaiian Islands Kamchatka, (.hm.i
Sympctiiim ublinsuni ' (l.ihclliiliiia;) Norlh.rn N. A.
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ones are undoubtedly captured by the legs, and are consumed during flight, and so rapidly is all this done that it is pr,icticall> impossible to see the operation. The only way, in fact, that one can know that an insect has been captured is, as Ur. Needham expresses it, to see that the place that once knew them knows them no more.
Flies seem to be their commonest food, but l.nge dragon-flies will eat small ones. Leaf-hoppers and even small butterflies and moths are captured by them. Some forms will occasionally pick up a moth from a weed or a grass stem on which it is resting, and even one of the large swallow-tailed butterflies has been seen captured by a dragon-fly, while Williamsori states that he once saw one holding a large wasp in its jaus. The voracity of a large dragon-fly may easily be tested by capturing one and hold- ing it by its wings folded together over its back, and then feed- ing it live house-flies. I should hesitate to sav how many it will accept and devour, as I never tried one to the limit of its capacity. Beutenmuller found that one of the large ones would eat forty house-flies inside of two hours, while a smaller one ate twenty- five in ,e same time. It is an odd fact that a dragon-fly will eat its own body when offered to him. Even when insufficiently chloroformed and pinned, if one revives, it will cease all efforts to escape if fed with house-flies, the satisfying of its appetite making it apparently oblivious to the discomfort or possible pain of a big pin through its thorax. There is one record to the effect that a dragon-fly has been observed feeding upon the flesh of a dead reptile.
Although dragon-flies are frequently very abundant in swampy regions and about ponds, there are times when they swarm in enormous numbers. Koppen, a German entomologist, has published a chronological account of the records of dragon- fly migrations, from 1494 to i8b8. Such migrating swarms seem to have been more frequently noticed in Europe than in this country, but several have been noticed in the United States. For example, Mr. A. H. Mundt, of Fairbury. Illinois, says that between the hours of ^ and 7 P. M.. August i), 1881, "the air for miles around seemed literally alive with these dragon-flies (/Eschna hcrosj from a foot above ground to as far as the eve could reach, all flying in the same direction, a southwesterly course, and the few that would occasionally cross the track of
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the majority could all the more easily be noticed from the very regular and swift course they generally pursued; but even these few stray ones would soon fall in with the rest again. Very few were seen alighting, and all carefully avoided any movable obsta- cles. " This migration was probably caused by the very dry season which had resulted in the drying up of ponds and swamps, and it is pi obable that other similar recorded migrations have arisen from the same cause.
Among the insects killed by dragon-flies there must be, of course, some mosquitoes, although the benetlciai work of these insects in this direction is greater in the larval stage than in the adult. Dragon-flies are day flyers, bit in cloudy weather and toward evening many mosquitoes are undoubtedly killed by them. Dr. E. A. Mearns, U. S. A., (quoted by Beutenmiiller) states that at Fort Snelling, Minn., mosquitoes appeared in vast swarms, and were soon followed by large numbers of dragon-flies after which the mosquitoes were considerably reduced in numbers. Dr. Robert H. Lamborn, noticing in the Lake Superior region the activity of dragon-flies in this regard, years later offered a prize for the best essay on the artificial multiplication of dragon-flies for the destruction of mosquitoes and house-flies. The prize essays by Mrs. Carrie B. Aaron, Mr. Archibald C. Weeks, and Mr. William Beutenmiiller were published in 1890 in a very readable and valuable book, but as might have been foreseen the practical value of Dr. Lamborn's suggestion was not substantiated.
The eggs are laid either in the water or are inserted in the stem of some aquatic plant.
In the dragon-flies of two families there is no apparatus for the insertion of eggs into plant seems, and they are therefore either dropped loosely in the water or attached to submerged objects by means of a mucilaginous ^jbstance which surrounds them. With others, however, there is a curious modification of the end of the body. The sides of the vulva are pointed or roughened, and cut into plant tissue so that the eggs may be pushed into the cuts. Here the female gradually crawls down the stem of a water plant until she is often completely submerged. She is alwavs incased with an air film so that she can continue to breathe under water to a certain extent. The number of eggs is variable, but is usually large. Some ■ ry curious Hymenop- terous parasites live in the eggs of dragon-ilies.
366
Dragon-Plies
When the ep^s hatch the young immediately begin an active, predatory li^'e under the water, feeding upon other aquatic in- •lerts. This food habit is continued throughout their larval or nymphal existence, and as they grow larger they are able to over- power larger and larger insects and even small fish and other aquatic animals. They will kill others of their own kind, and nymphal dragon-flies have been seen to catch and destroy adults m which the wings were not yet expanded. They molt probably a number of times, but the exact number has not been recorded for any species, so far as I know. The most peculiar feature of the larva or nymph is the strange modific.tion of the mouth. There has been a backward growth of the lower lip and this has become hinged so as to form a long, ringed apparatus with sharp teeth at its extremity. It can be folded to cover the lower face like a mask. The structure has been called a mask, and when it is folded the head of a dragon-fly larva seen from the front looks like that of a bulldog. It is more innocent looking than that of a bulldog simply because we know what a bulldog can do, but the moment that the larva approaches near enough to its prey the innocent looking ma-^k is unfolded and darted out, and the probably unsuspecting aquatic insect or small fish is seized by the teeth at the extremity and drawn back into the mouth.
Dragon-fly larvae breathe in a peculiar way modified to some extent with the members of the different families. The rectum is furnished with very many tracheal branches, forming numerous loops and even penetrating the walls of the intestine. Water is sucked into the rectum, and .hese " rectal gills," as they are termed, derive their oxygen from this water. This same feature afiords with some species a means of locomotion, for this water which is sucked in for breathing purposes may be ejected violently, the effect of which is to send the larva ahead. This same principle has been used in certain mechanical toys, and ap- plications have even been made for patents on a similar method of propulsion for vessels. With some there are external abdomi- nal gills, both lateral and caudal while when the nymph be- comes full grown and is ready to leave the water breathing is taken up by certain obscure spiracles. There is still some doubt as to the exact method by which they begin to breathe air after leaving the water, and it is a subject which will bear tnuch fur- ther investigation.
367
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Dragon -Fliei
When the nymph becomes full cirown, it has changed its form from a rather sUnder cr iture to a broad and flattened one, not resembling the slender bodied adults in the least. It crawls out ot the water on the bank upon the stems of water plants or upon the rock and later its skin splits down the back, and the adult dragon-tly emerges. Empty skins of these nymphs are very common objects about watercourses.
Rather more than two thousand species of dragon-flies have been described, and of those something less than three hundred inhabit the United States, of which about two hundred and twenty-tive species are peculiar to this country. According to Kellicott. about one hundred species are found in the State of Ohio, and Williamson thinks that even more are to be found in Indiana. In many places dragon-llies are disappearing, owing to the drainage of their breeding places.
Oil account of the beauty of the adults and the interest at- taching to their habits, they are becoming favorite subjects for I llections, and there are now a number of earnest students of the Odonata in this country. The recent death of the great master of dragon-lly science. Baron de Selys-Longchamps, of Belgium. December ii, 1900, has called renewed attention to this fascinating group.
The nymph dragon-Hies are well adapted to aquarium study. They are easily collected and easily kept. The debris at the bot- tom of ponds can be brought up with a rake, and the nymphs thus collected placed in a bucket and carried home to the aquarium, which should be furnished with sand and aquatic plants. The best time for collecting them is in the spring and early summer.
TABLE OF FAAIILIES
Wings alike, held vertically in repose; eye^ constricted at base, pedunded ' 1
Front wings dissimilar from hind wings, held horizontally in
repose; eyes not pedunded ■ . 2
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Mici;ithyri;i K-uMiict- '. (Libdluli.Lr) H.istern md S,u,..K'm cu.isls ol U. S.
Micrathyii.i hcrcniie V (LiK-lluluhc) Fi.sliTn ;uul S..(iilu-in coasts of U. S,
Miaathyna Kynicc ; (I.ibdluliJ*) Fistcrn and Sodihorn co.ists ol LI. S.
A'.schn-.i n.nstiictj ' (/FlsdimiJ.i') N. A,, Kamciiatk:. Siberi-i
I.ilu-llula.xusti9(l.ilv'luiidx) Mo. and Mas.s. to Vancouver Isl.inds, N. J.. M.I.. (,:,,, Hi.i
I.ilu-IMa cx-usta •• (l.iK-llulidic) Me. and Mass, t„ Vancnver l.slands, N. |.. Pa.. Ga.. Hi.
Hpirvschna horns (Al^cliinidx) N. A., oast n( Mississippi
Mo.solhemis simplicicollis ' (l.iMlulid.i-) II. S., oast ol Kookv
Mountains. M.'X., W. I.. Rah, mi. is Mosothomis simplicicollis V (I.ibolkilid.u) U. S.. oast ol Kockv
Mountains, Me.x., W. I., Bahamas
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I— Wings with at least five cross veins between th.- first and second longitudinal veins and bilore the first brcai< in the wing (.intecuhitals) Family Cahpiti vfiJa-
W.igs with but two such cross veins Family AKrioniJce
2 — Aritecubitals of the first and second rows not meeting except at base of wing 3
Antecubitals of first and second rows running into each other 4
3— Eyes wide apart Family Gomphidce
Eyes touching at a single point Family CorJulcgastridir
Eyes touching for some distance Family A-uhntMr
4— Eyes with tubercles behind Family CorJuluUr
Eyes not tubercled behind Family LibeluUiJa;
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369
D/l MS El -FLIES
(Fiimily Cnloptcrygidii.)
This family and the followin^r. the Agrionidx. are by some l..te authors Kfouped together, the Calopterygids being considered simply of subf;imily rank and called Caloptcrygin*. Both groups, as pointed out in the table, hold their wings vertically in repose; that is to say folded together over the back, instead of spread out horizontally. They are called by some authors damsel-flies.
The species of this family, and especially those of the genus Calopteryx, seem io live preferably in wooded places along the banks of running streams. Their wings are frequently so dark as to appear almost black, and they have also something of a metallic lustre. The body is strikingly metallic, and of an irides- cent green and blue. The large pop eyes, which seer.i almost stalked like those of a crab, are characteristic and distinctive of this and the following group. The flight is not strong, and they are seldom found far from the banks of the stream or pond where they were born und where they lay their eggs.
We have but two genera in this family, namely Calopteryx and Hetaerina. The Hetxrinas have clear w ngs which how- ever, sometimes bear spots near the tip, and in the males have a brilliant red area near the base of each wing. The Hetxrinas are not woodland species like Calopteryx, but are found n^ar running water in the open.
370
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P.mt;il;i flavt-scoiis (Libclliiiidiv) Asia, Africa. Aim-iica Ci'litiieniis oiiiata ' (Lil^ellulidie) Coast uf U. S. from Maine
ti) Florida Ci-iilhi-mis ornata ? (l.ilH'lliilidx) f.oast of U. S. from Maine
to Florida i'antala hviin-niva (Libi'lhilidx) U. S., Mex., (",ui i.Cialapapas
Islands Svnipetruni corruptum (l.ilH-lliilid;e) N. A.,()chotsk Somatochlora i-lonfiata v. minor ((^ordulida;) Northeasiern
U. S. Mairomia ilina-nsis (Cordulidx') Fastern U. S., (^ik-bec .Sympetrum ruhitundum ¥ (Libtlkilid;f) Hastern l'. S. and
Canada Sympetrum ruliitundum ,'. (Libellulidx) Fastern U. S. and
Canada
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FAMILY AGRIONID/E
These are the true damsel flies, and are the small, graceful species with extremely slender bodies and narrow, clear wings, which are very commonly found flying over large bodies of still water, and with which every one who has ever rowed a boat on a fresh water lake must be perfectly familiar. They are found in great numbers in the reedy borders of the fresh water ponds and lakes over the entire country. All of our North American species are small, but in tropical regions they grow to large size, and some South American forms are among the largest species of the order Odonata. They do not fly high in the air, but frequent low-growing aquatic vegetation. The colors as a rule are raiher dull, but the slender bodies of some are brilliantly blue, green or even yellow, and sometimes red.
The family is a large one, and about seventy-five species are known in this country. Lestes and Enallagma are the largest genera.
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TRUE DRAGON-FLIES
(/■'<imi/y Gompltiiiie.)
In this family and the following ones the wings are held horizontally when the insects are in repose; also the eyes are not pop eyes. This group is also by late authors considered a sub- family of the /Eschnidae, and is then called Gomphinae. They are separated from their nearest allies from the fact that their eyes are widely separated. The species are rather large, and with certain forms the end of the abdomen appears much swollen, especially in the male; as, for example, in the interesting form known as Gomphtts vastus Walsh.
Kellicott says of these dragon-flies : " Their habits are various. Some are found only about the rapid streams or wave-tossed lakes; others by reedy pools; while others haun*. sloughs mantled by lily pads. They do not fly about in apparent sportiveness, as do the Libellulas. The females rest among the adjacent foliagt or on the ground in some n irby pathway, repairing at intervals to the water's edge or skimming the roughened surface of the rapid stream or disturbed lake for oviposition. The males rest nearer the water, skirt the bordering aquates, or explore the water far from shore in search of the ovipositing females. Copulation is at rest in low herbage or high up in trees. The female oviposits unattended by the male, and the eggs are washed from the tip of the abdomen by repeated dips into the water either in some quiet nook among the weeds or in other .>pecies far out on the rough surface of swift stream or wind-disturbed lake. Most species f:y in early summer, some in mid, and a few late in summer."
37*
FAMILY CORDLILEGASTERID/E
This group is also consi Jered by recent authors to be simply a subfamily of the i^schnidx. They resemble the species of the forego rig group, but the eyes touch at a single point on the top of the head. They are all large insects, and there are compara- tively low of them in United States. None of thtm are common. The colors . not metallic, but their bodies are u:,ually banded with brown and yellow, the wings for iVf most part being nearly clear.
Needham says: "The imagos are strong of flight and are oftenest seen oursing back and forth over some smr 11 stream, flying on a regular beat, and passing and repassing the same point at intervals of a few minutes. Tne collector may take advantage of this habit and so station himself that he may reach the specimen as it passes and capture it if dexterous enough with the net. The nymphs live on the bottom in shallow water, buried in clean sand or in vegetable silt. Though buried, they do not burrow, but descend by raking the sand from beneath them by sweeping lateral movements of the legs. vVhen deep enough, they kick the sand up over the back till only the elevated lips of the eyes and the respiratory aperture at the tip oi the abdomen are exposed. By placing a iivc nymnh in a dish of sand and water, and watching, its method may be obse. ved in a very few minutes. The whole comical performance reminds one strongly of the descent of .in old hen in a dust bath." The same authority says that, when once placed, the nymph .''ill remain for weeks without changing position, but when some little in-^ect comes nea ■ it throws out its jaws and captures it. One s s was seen m the nymph stage to capture and eat young k.
trout as long as the nymphs themselves.
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FAMILY /ESCHmO/E
This is one of the largest groups of dragon-flies, and com prises many of our largest forms. The eyes meet on top of the head. In coloration and general appearance they are much like the preceding families but with the majority of them the wings are generally clear with only apical brown spots and sometimes they are a little smokv. These large d. agon-flies are abundantly found all through the summer. They are among the first to appear in spring and among the last to disappear in the autumn. Their flight is very strong, and the large -.pecics are most ferocious- looking creatures. In fact, the largest and most powerful dragon- fly in the North American fauna is Epurschiia hcros Fabr. One of the commonest forms which may be seen in many parts of the country is Anax Junius Drury. On account of the strong flight of these insects they are frequently found far away from the place of their birth ieeking their prey in the fields and'about open places in the woods, busying themselves continually in the cap- ture of flies and even larger insects. The male and female of Auax /uiiius paired are common objects flying over the water. The female seems to prefer to lay her eggs in stagnant pools or in ponds where the surface is covered with duckweed and o'her aquatic plants. The female submerges her abdomen in la^ ng her eggs. According to Williamson, this species appears in large and compact ilocks, some of them numbering several hundred individuals, and they pass back and forth frequently near the ground as twilight comes on, seeking e-pecially swarms of midges.
Six genera are represented in this country, mostly the species belonging to the typical genus y^schna.
374
M
PlATF XI III.
1 t
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HG. 1.
DRAGON I'l.lFS
TctMycMK'Uli:! somiMiiuiM ' (('.orduliil.x) H.istiTn U. S. :ind
('.;in:lJ:i I.ilvllul.i l\is:ilis » (Libellulida) ()nt:iriii. IJ. S.. imsI oI Roiky
Moiiiitairis I.IIhIIuI.i itKtsta f (Lik'Huliila') Hastiin U. S. anJ Can.ida Celithfiiiis cponina i (l.itvlkiliJa') IJ. S. tist ol Rocky Mts.,
Cuba Libellula axilkiia ' (Libcllulidx) C.a., l"la.. l.a. l.ibellula axillfiiaV (l.ibelluliiix) (ia.. l-la.. l.a. .Svmpt'triim si'iniiiiuluin ' (i.ibciliiliiia) I). .S. Trainca caroliii.i ' (libilluliilx) Miss, to I'la. Sympctruni .sfinitlrutLiin v (Libfllulidic) U. S.
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F/tMILY CORDUUD/E
With this group we approach the large family Libellulidx, the Cordulidae being distinguished by possessing a single tubercle on the hind border of each eye, and in fact these insects are by most recent authors considered to be simply a subfamily of the Libellulidx, which they resemble in most respects. They are medium sized, or large dragon-flies in which the wings are fre- quently banded with brown, although in some forms the dark markings occur only at the base of the wings, and some are entirely clear. The body colors may be metallic or sordid. These insects, accordmg to Keliicott, oviposit by living close to the surface of the water striking the water occasionall; with the tip of the ab- domen to wash off the eggs.
37$
F/IMILY UBELLUUD/S
1 ' i
i'l'
'. ;
1'
This is one of the l.irni-st dr.ij;on-lly groups in the United States, and comprises some of the most he.iutitui species. With many lorms the winj;s are beautifully banded with brown, either in a series of cross bands or with larj<e blotches which sometimes cover the basal half of the wings. The abdomens of some species are covered with a whitish powder-like substance which is not seen when the insects tirst emer^ie from the nymph, but which, when they grow old is sometimes so abundant as to make the abdomen appear perfectly white. /* ch. acteristic featur* of these forms, especially those of the typual geP" l.ibellula is '.hat the abdomen assumes the sh.ipe of ,i prism, with a strong sharp lon^'itudina! ridge above the tlat sides and a llat underside. In some forms the wing markings are not dull brown, but become yellowish and in the very hand.some and common LiK-llula f>iilihclla, of Drury, the brown spots alternate with milk-white spots. They are very abundant about .stagnant ponds and sue!) pools as harbor water-lilies and rushes. They are favorite lood of the king bird.
The females poise themselves close to the surfaci f the water, remaining almost motionless and striking the water with the tip of the abdomen in the act of laying their eggs.
With the exception of the Agrionidx these are the most numerous dragon-flies in this country.
Needham says that the nymphs are sprawlers upon the bottom, mainly in shallow water, or clamber over fallen plant stems, and are protectively colored.
A single egg-mass of one of these dragon-flies has been observed by Needham to contain i lo.ooo eggs.
Williamson has shown that one of the species has the habit of resting on the top of a rush, each one being, apparentlv, proprietor of a certain territory. When .mother one encroaches, ■he is quickly hustled away by the rightlul and irate owner."
■; 'M
:v.
376
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i 4
ni
II. >i
Mitts \
Plate XLIV. DRAGON FLIES
^- »"^"rn;:f: t«rl <: ^ '--"""
s. Sv,n,vtrun, co> .m '.Ivllulul.) U. S. q. Synnu-Uuni costittruiu * ILHL
ttiiM
m
M
THE MAY-FLIES OR SHAD-FLIES
( Order Epitcmcrida.)
The so-called May-flies, or shad-flics, are the insects which constitute this order. They are known by one name or the other by almost evtry one who has seen them swarming about the electric lights during the summer or who lives in the vicinity of some large watercourse in which these insects breed in in- calculable numbers. Structurally speaking, the adult insects are very interesting creatures. They are distinguished from other insects by their short antennae, their extremely large front wings as compared with the very small hind wings, the absolutely atrophied mouth-parts and the long, slender filaments, two or three in number, at the end of the abdomen. The transformations are complete and the early stages are always passed in the water.
The larvae are active creatures with long, strong legs, and breathe by means of tracheal gills. They both swim and crawl and feed very largely upon vegetable matter, diatoms and confervx being found in their stomachs. They may be found under stones in running streams or swimming among water plants in quiet waters, or they may live at the bottom more or less covered with slime or mu ; Some forms burrow into the sand-banks of rivers. The pupa or nymph is also active and feeds. It has small wing pads, and, when ready to transform, it floats upon the water, and the skin of the back opens and the winged insect flies out. The emergence is extremely rapid and the insect flies away almost immediately alter the skin cracks. A very curious phenomenon occurs with these insects v.hich is not found with any other insect, and that is that there is a m..,t after the fly issues from the nymph. It flies away to the shore, in the con- dition called the sub-imago stage and again the skin splits and the true-imago, or adult, issues. This shedding of the sub-imago skin is said sometimes to take place while the inst;t ij' flving in the air.
The life of the adult is short; in fact, these in.sects were named after the Ephemerides of the Greek mythology, creatures which lived but a day, and from this root comes our common
J77
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4Ji
WM
The May-Flics or Shad-Fliei
word, ephemeral. But they live longer than a day. They do not eat, since, as we have stated, the mouth-parts are atrophied and the alimentary canal is not fitted for the digestion of food; but it has been shown that where the air is not too dry some of them can live for several days. It is stated .'■•it Curtis kept one alive for three weeks; but in general they die within three or four days, and frequently in a few hours, or even less time. The males are readily distinguished from the females from the fact that with the males the hind legs only are atrophied or feeble, while with most females the fore legs as well as the hind legs are too feeble to support the body. When at rest the front legs are generally extended straight in front of the head, and frequently very close together, the anal seta usually slanting upwards. As a rule they remain quiet during the day, limiting ' 'r flight xo the cooler hours of sunlight or extending it later in the evening, just after sunset. Where there is a strong artificial li^iit they will fly until late in the night. The numbers in which these creatures swarm are often e.\traordinary. 1 drove th'-ough a dense cloud of them once on the banks of the St. Lawrence River in the month of June when both the lir and the ground and our clothes looked as though the htuviest kind of a snow-storm were raging. Along the shores of the Great Lakes their bodies are frequently massed in great windrows miles in length and of a very considerable thickness.
Most of them couple during flight, the male undern st. Egg-laying is usually performed in fresh water, though one e.xotic species lays in brackish water. The females of some species dis- charge the contents of their ovaries at once in the form of a pair of egg-clusters. These upon reaching the water rapidly disinte- grate, and the eggs sink to the bed of the river or streim. Others drop their eggs gradually, a few at a time, the female either alighting on the surface of the water at intervals to wash off the eggs that have issued, or she creeps down into the water, enclosed within a film of air, to lay her eggs on the under side of stones, after which she floats up to the surface and either flies away or is drowned. In one case a female has been seen to deposit living larvic.
These insects can readily he bred in fresh water aquaria, but Faton says that it Is iniportanl not to grow Rjiiuiiiu/us in the aquaria, because the sap exuding from its broken stems appears
37S
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Pi ATE XLV.
iS
Fir..
DRAGON FLIES
AiRJ;! violacea ' (Agiionida-) Me. to Va., III., Tex.
Argia sedula v (Aniioniiiii-) Va.. Tex., Ohio. !nJ.
Argi .sediila ' (Agrionidic) Va., Tex., Ohio, Ind.
Argia violacea V (Agnonidx') Me. to Va., 111., Tex.
Libellula .^iemilastiata ' (l.ibellulidic) Ea.stem .iiul Southern
U. S. Libellula auripennis ' (Libellulidx) Coast I'roiii N. Y. to Tex.,
Ohio, Cuba, Isle of Pines I'.ithvdiplax longipennis $ (Libelhilida-) N. A. Lpicordulia priiiceps,', (Cordulidic) (,>iiebec to Ct., Pa., Md.,
C,a., Mich., III., Tex. Didyinops tiansver.saj (Cordulidie) (Quebec to Ga., Mich. ' Kv., Tex.
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Thb In clt r-.oK,
FlATE XLV.
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The May-Fliei or Shad-FliM
to be poisonous to the larvce. After the e^gs hatch the l.irvx hve upon mud or the small vegetation which grows on stones and the stems of large water-plants. Some of them are apparently predaceous. They cast their skins several tii .-s during the first few days after their birth.
These larvx, or nymphs, as all of the eauv stages of the May- flies are called, are very important fish food. Forbes has found them to be the most important food of the white bass, the toothed herring, the shovel-fish and the croppies, while the rock bass, the common perch, the striped bass, the darters, the cat- fish, the suckers, and many other freshwater fish feed upon them very largely. The writer has been appealed to quite recently on the subject of the possible extermination of these insects along the St. Lawrence River, where they cause so much annoyance by their swarming fiight, but their value as food for fish would make such an extermination extremely undesirable. The St. Lawrence is noted for its fine fish and the fishing possibilities attract so many summer visitors to its shores that the tem- porary annoyance of the shad-fiies should joyfully be borne.
The larval life is a long one, lasting from one to three years, and the number of molts is very large. There may be as many as twenty. The adults, as well as the larvae, are favorite fish food. Of the swarms that issue, many meet their ultimate rest- ing place in the water, or more strictly speaking, in the stomachs of fishes. Fishes are so well acquainted with them that imita- tion shad-fiies afford the best bait in certain regions. In England the so-called flies known as duns, drakes, and spinners are all imitations of Ephemerids. Although so enormously numerous in individuals, the Ephemerida is not a large group in number of species, and only about three hundred have been described. There must be very many more, however, and possibly the diffi- culty with which these insects are preserved in collections accounts for the fact that comparatively few have been named. If pinned they shrivel up and dry into such queer shapes that the coloration and structur.il characters become obscure. Good aquarium studies for any of our North American species will be found to be interesting and will be of valuable record.
A very good table for determining the nymphs of May-tlies has been prepared by Needham, and will be found in Bulletin 48 of the New York State Museum of Natural History, Albany, 1901.
379
THE SPRINGTAILS AND FISHMOTHS
( Onit'r Tliysanii nt.)
The insects of this order are usuiilly of very small size, .ind are wingless and have practitally no metamorphoses. They ci m- prije the little insects known as sprin><t.iils. bristletails, lishmoths or slickers. They have three pairs of |i-us, the mouth-parts, often hidden, are formed for biting, and the skm is delicate. The order is supposed to comprise the most generalized or simplest forms of insect life and although there is some reason for considering that they are degener.ite msects the consensus of opinion is th.it they are living representations of primordial insects. .Some of them possess a very remarkable leaping arrangement in the shape of a spring-like process on the under side of the abdomen, which enables them to jump in an extraordinary way, seme of them have long abdominal appendages or processes a* thi' end of the body, and still others have short leg-like processes on the under surface of the abdomen. The order as at present understood comprises two suborders, namely the Cinura and the Collembola. Formerly some curious creatures belonging lo the genus Scolo- pendrella were considered as belonging to this order and were placed in a suborder by themselves — the Symphyia— but it is thought now that these little creatures are more closely rel.ited to the Myriopoda than to the true Insecta.
The two remaining suborders may be separated as follows:
With bristle-like and many-jointed appendages or forceps at the
end of the abdomen, which is composed of ten segments and
does not possess .1 sucker on the ventral side
Suborder Ciiinra.
With .1 forked suckc on the under side of the lirst .ibdominal segment, and the abdomen, which is composed of not more than six segments, furnished witn a spring-like apparatus near the tip. or without appendages. ..Suborder ColUmhola.
380
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rjif
I'l KTt XI.VI.
DRAC.ON n.lHS
(Kllill 1.1) ONI -IHIKU) M(i.
I. I I'stes fi)rcipiitus 'J ( AKrioniJ.c) I). S.
a. Ainphi.iKrion s.uitiuin •'. (Axriotiulx) U. S.
1. Ni'h.iliiima irciio " (AMn'JUiii.^* I .istiTii U. S.
4. linall.iK"!'' i-xsul.iiis V ( AKrii>nkl.i-) Mc. N. Y. to Va., III.. Tix.
5. JA'stts lorcipatus ' (AKrloiiula-) U. S.
6. Aiiiphia^{iion saiicium , (AgiKiriiJxi 11. S.
7. Nehalcnni.i posita v (Aurinnul.i') K.islcrri U. S. and (.aiunl.i
8. fcnall.iKina ixsulaiis ' ( AniioiiJJiu) Mc, N. Y. to Va.. III., Irx. q. Hita-riil.i ;mRTii.ana ' (< ■■•lopti.TVKUl.i") Mc. to Md., west to
Wis. and M...
10. f,aloptiiyxaiij{iistipiiini> ' (t ..iloptirvnid.c) I'-i., < •hio, Ky. (i.i.
11. Heta;iin.i .mu'iic.ni.i v (< aliiptcrvjiidiL') Mc. to Md., west hi
Wis. and M-.
13. C.iloptcryx ni.icul.ita ' (( iJij-' ' u'''*; '■■'-'•■" l^'- ^- ■"''^"•"'■ ij. Arj{ia piitrida * ( AKrJnnida;) jiastcin U. .S. .ind (an.id.i
14. (laloptci'V'X ;fiin,iMiis ' (CaloptcryKid.i') Mo.. Mass.. l-.istiTn
Caiiad.i
15. ('.aloptiTvx inaculata ■; ((■..ilopterv.uidiv) Hastfrn IJ. S.. and
C.inad.i Ih. Aiionialayrion hast.ituni 9 (hl.ick), (A^rionid.i') K.isicrii and
.Soulhom U. .S., (iuba. Haiti. Vi.MU-/iU'i.i. (ialapanos Is 17. Aiiomala}<rHiii hast.itum V (oranj^f), (Aurumulx) Hastrm .I'ul
.Sdiulicrii U. S., (iiiba. Haiti, Vi-ne/iu-la, Cial.ip.ijios Is. iH. Anoiiialaffiioii h.ist.itum ' (A^iionidx) Eastern and Southern
U. S., Cuba. Haiti, Venezuela. Ci.il.ipaKos islanils ui. Heta;rina tricolor i ((^.ilopterynidxl I'a., li.i . Tex.. D. C.
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SUBORDER CINURA
There will be no necessity lor gener;ilizat! s regarding this suborder, aside from the mention of the characters by which it is separated from the Collembola. In this country it is repre- sented by species belonging to three distinct families, which may be separated as follows:
Mouth-parts buried in the head i
Mouth-parts not buried Family LepismatiJiV
I — Anal end of the body with a pair of forceps.. Family yii/jv^r/'ite
Anal end of body with long antenna-like processes
Family CampoJeuice
381
F/IMILY LEPISMATID/E
The little insects which ;ire known to housekeepers, particu- larly in the Southern States, as the silver fish, or (Ishmoths, or slickers, belong to this family. Thev are covered with scales, usually of a silvery appearance, and have three long antenna-like
Fig. 344.— I.cpism.i dcinustua. f Redr.i-vn fr.mi Mirtali
processes issuing from the end of the abdomen. These insects are often very troublesome household enemies of books, papers, starched clothing, and occasionally stored foods. Thev also
JS2
1^
Springtails and Fishmoths
damage the card labels in museums. They move veiy rapidly, and make active efforts to conceal themselves. They shun the light, and slip from the fingers with ease, the silvery scales coming off and, the insect escapes at the ex- pense of its clothing. In damag- ing the cloth bindings of books, it is really trying to feed upon the paste with which the cloth is stuck to the boards. Heavily glazed paper is attractive to them, and they will eat the glaze from draft- ing linen. They are found com- monly in old houses in rather damp places, hut one of our species seems to prefer the vicinity of fireplaces, crawling rapidly over hot bricks and metal and showing most sur- prising immunity from the effects of high temperature. They are readily destroyed by a free use of pyrethrum powder.
Nothing is known about their life history. Their eggs have not een described, and of the number of molts .u)d the rapidity of .evelopment we are absolutely ignorant. None of these points ought to be especially difficult to ascertain.
Ten or more species occur in the United .States, and tho.se which are not found in houses are generally found in decaying wood.
Kip. 245. — l.tpisma saccharina. ( Keilrawn from Marlatt. )
383
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FAMILY jAPYGID/E
These little creatures differ from the other Cinurans in the possession of a peculiar forceps-like structure at the end of the body. They are slender in form, and are found in inoss or in shady places it the edj^es of woods. They look like young earwigs. Nothing is known of their development or life history.
FAMILY CAMPODFJD/E
These little insects have elongate and cylindrical bodies, and the first seven of the abdominal segments bear each a pair of appendages on the under surface. We have only three species in this country. They are found in loose, damp earth in which there is much . ';getable mold.
384
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PlAII Xl.VII.
nRAf.oN Il.lhS
rn;ill;iL:m.i si^iKituni ? (Ai^Tioniil.i') l-jstcrn 1 1. S.
IsLhiuiiii '.crlitalis , (.\l;i Kuiiil.c) h.jskTii U. S. Miki (".;in;icl.i
I iiMll.ii;in.i siirii.ituin ' ( Ai;ri(iniJ;i') h.istcTH U. S.
Isv.hiuii.1 Vi.'iliL.ilis t I AiiiioiiiJa-) h;istelll IJ. S. ;iiui ('..ilKki.i
ImIiihh.i \iM tit. ills ■ ( Aiiiioiiul.i') F:isti-rn IJ. S. ;iikI (^^iniida
Aiyi.i .ipic.ilis +' (Afiru.iiKl.i'l l;.isk-ii) 11. S.
Ar.i;i.i ;ipic:ilis •' (A^'ii(iiiii.l;i-I h.isli-ni I'. S.
l.t'Sti-s MLiil.ix ■ (Af,'ii()niil;u) l;i>ti.Tii II. S.
l.i'stcs rci.t:ini;iiliiris (Auiimiiiix') lasdrn II. S.
.'\ru;i.i putiiJ;i * (AitrioiiiJa') t-..i>i(.rii ['. S. ;iiul (l.mail.i.
Sdiilhi'in I !. S. l.f-ic^ ■•uiiiiiis ' (.At,ni(«nid.i-) III., N. Y., Mi-., M:iss. In ill,iL,'ni.i fivili' V ( A-,'ii(iiiiil;L') N. A. .-\ii;i;t putrid, 1 + (A.nrioiiid.c) l:,i,.tfrri II. S. .iiui (;.in,iil;i.
.Sdiithfrn IJ. S. rn.ill.imtKi civile ' (AiiTinniJx) N. A. IasIos iiliuniiul itiis * (Aijriiniiil.i') II. S. :iiul ('.:m.kl.i Argia bipiinclulalLi I (AgrioiiiiUc) N. J. ,nul I'.i. to Kl.i.
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SUBORDER COLLEMBOLA
This suborder is composed of very minute insects which possess the faculty of springing suddenly, and which when alarmed make use of this means of escaping. They are found in the spring in the Northern States on bright sunny days when the snow is thawing, frequently in great numbers on th>: surface of the snow. They are also fouri.l on the surface of water, m old wells, and even at considerable distances under the surface of the ground feedmg apparently upon vegetable mr/ij.
Five families are represented in the United States, which may be distinguished by the following table:
A ventral spring below the abdomen i
No ventral spring below the abdomen .... Family Aphoruridce
I — Ventral spring on the second from last abdominal segment- • ■ Family PoJuriJcr
Ventral spring on the next to the last abdominal segment. • 2
2 — Abdomen elongate, cylindrical, much longer than broad
Family Entomobryid.v
Abdomen globular, but little longer than broad 3
3 — Last segment of the antennae long, ringed
Family SmynthuridiT
Last antennal segment short, with a whorl of hairs
Family PapirtiJcr
38s
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. J?S^A. '■H-'5to«iiM^'^.** jffc!:
F/IMILY ^PHORUKID/E
This group IS composed of small insects which have no ven- tral spring. They .ire soft-hodied, and move slowly, and are very seldom noticed although not uncommon.
F.-IMILY PODURin/R
The Podurids are among the most abundant of insects, al- though on account of their excessively small si/e they do' not attract much attention.
We have something more than a half dozen species in this country and one of them, Achoruks iinuold. is the form, as one might know from its name, which is commonly found in the late spring upon the surface of snow.
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Fig. ;.((■).— l.tpi(l,Hyrtu> anieriLami>. I Kaira-uu j,jm M.irlatt.)
They are commonly found in deep soil which contains more or less soil humus, and have been taken in a .stiff clay subsoil at a depth of six feet, but they had probably penetrated to this depth by following the path of rootlets. T,,ev are found under the surface of water, on mushrooms, and are common among dead leaves in the woods.
The eggs of one species have been observed. They were fifteen in number, spherical, white, and one one-hundred and eightieth of an inch in diameter.
3S6
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F/IMILY ENTOMOBRY/D/E
The forms lH'lon^{ini; to this l.imily .in- tound m the earth, in caves, in grc-nhouscs, jnd in hothouses, on the bark of old trees,
tj
Fig. 247, — l^pidocyriu.s .nm-ri.
( Arifr .^r.irhtt.j
in cellars, under logs, and in similar localities. (Jne species, Lt'piJanrtiis aiiwrnanus Marlatt, is commonly observed in houses in situations similar to those where one finds the silver- fish or slickers. It is shown in the accompanying .'igures.
The development of none of these insects is understnod, although the eggs of one European species have been recorded as being laid in tne spring.
387
1
M.n
F^MIL Y SMYNTHURID/E
These are Mlol'ular-hodied with lon^ lour-jointed anti-nnx. The ventral spring is composed of a basal portion and two jrms. Wt have a half dozen or more destribed species in the United States. They occur in vcKetabie mold, upon decaying wood, and feed upon the spores and mycelium of fungi. Some are fornd upon aquatic plants, and some under stones in woods. Lubbock, writing of one of these minute insects, Smviithnriis /;//■■// s. says: "It is very amusing to see these little cre.itures coquetting together. The male, which ;s sm.il'er than the female, runs aiound her ,ind they butt one another, standing face to face and moving backwards and Ibrwards l.ke two playful lami.s. Then the female pretends to run away, and the male runs after her, with a queer appearance of anger, gets in front and stands facing her again; then she turns round, but he, quicker and more active, .scuttles around loo and seems to whip her with his antennx; then for a bit they stand face to face, play with their antenn*. and seem to be all in all to one another."
F/IMILY PAPIRIID/E
Thesr little creatures are found in moss, and do not seem to be common, only four species having been recognized m the United States
388
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1 ii
Plate XLVIII.
DRAGON Fl.inS no.
1. Argia tibialis? (Agrioniihv) liaslcrn aiiil Soiilhirn U. S.
2. Argia tihialis ' (AgrioiilJx) Hasti-rii aiui Southern LI. S. ^. I.esti-.s uiicatii.s ' (.Agiio .\dx) U. S. :iiul (Canada
4. Knaliagma (jariiiKiil.itiiiu ' (Agrionida-) Wi.s.. Ohio, III.. Ind.
5. I'liallagma caruiKuiatuiii ' (Agriotiidx, Wis., Ohio. III.. Ind. 0. LestfS congener ' (AgrionidiC) U. S.
7. Hnall.iitnia traviatum 9 (Aurioiiidiv) N. Y.. Mass.. Ohio, Ind..
I). C. S. linallagnia traiviatani ' (Aurionidiv) N. Y.. Mass., OIjo. Ind.,
1 ).('.. c). Htiallagnia calverti (Aurionidx) Northern N. A.
10. Hnallagnia antennatum V (.Agrionid.c) Ohio, N. Y.. low.i,
III., Ind.
11. I'll. ill, luina antenn.itiim ' (.Agrlonid.e) Ohio, N. Y.. Iowa.
III.. Ind. \2. Hiiall.iunia aspersiiin ' F-.istein II. S.
1 ;. Inall.igin.i ihirnin ' Fastern IJ. .S. ;ind Canada, Soiilhern U. .S. i.|. 1 r\tlironiiii.i londitiiin ? Hasterii II. S. south lo 1). ('.. IS. I;r\tiiionini.i conditiini .' l.istern II. .s. south to I) <.'..
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The In. ect Bock'
Plate XLVMI.
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COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS
COLLECTING APPARATUS
The old-fashioned entomologist used to go out armed simply with a net, and pin his captures to the top or brim of his hat. Some of the modern entomologist" 70 into the field laden down with all sorts of apparatus — a large haversack filled with boxes and bottles, two or three different kinds of nets, and with pockets bulging with hatchet, trowel, saw, forceps, knives and other small things. It is just as bad for an entomologist to go out laden down in this way as it is for soldiers to take long marches with unnecessary impedimenta. As a rule one should go out after one class of objects, prer red. however, to capture other interesting specimens, and he should take with him as prime necessities one net (and a proper sweeping net is the most use!".:), one or two cyanide bottles for killing specimens, a few small pill boxes and a few assorted vi; " containin<r dilute alcohol or formalin, and that is really all that is necessary, unless he is after aquatic insects or those which live in old logs or in trunks or branches of trees, in which case a water net or a hatchet will be necessary. Most collecting apparatus can be purchased from dealers in such things. The following firms issue price lists which may be had on appli- cation, viz: Queen & Co., Inc.. 1010 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa.; A. Smith & Sons, ibq Pearl St., New York City; John Akhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; The Kny-Scheerer Co., 17 Park Place, New York City; American . Entomological Co., 1040 DeKalb Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Noyes Bros, ana Cutler. 396 Sibley St.. St. Paul, Minn.
The Net. — There are three main ki"ds of nets — the light butterfly net, the strong be.iting or sweeping net and the water net. The buttertly net, which is .1 very handy one for catching
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Collecting and Preserving Insects
flies, dnigon-flies, ant-lions, scorpion-flies and similar insects with more or less fragile wings, is made in a number of different ways
and several excel- lent ones are for sale by dealers above mentioned. A fairly satisfactory one can be made at home in the follow- ing manner: Bend a strong piece of iron wire into circular shape, the ends being abruptly bent
Fig. 2^S.-
-'i'he tnitterfly net frame. (After Kiky- I
Kig. C49.-The
S^nlK)m net
frame.
down at right angles so as to fit into two grooves cut in the end of a walking stick, to which they are per- manently fastened by a copper wire. A pointed net of silk gauze, tarleton or .Swiss, a thin
Fig. 150. — Beating net, opened and attached to handle, light clUalitV beinij with frame of same folded. , AtUr k'i,s,ii-i',-tUr.i , ■ , '
used, IS then sewn around the wire frame which should previously be covered with some heavier cloth.
J90
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Collecting and Preserving Insects
The Sweeping or Beating MV.— Very many insects feed or
rest upon grasses and low plants, and the beating net, which is
made on the same principle as the butterfly net, is a most useful
instrument with which to collect
these forms. It should have a
strong frame and the cloth of
which it is composed should be
light in color and strong like
cheese cloth. The beating net
is not necessarily pointed but
may be rounded at the bottom.
The collector passes the net
several times quickly over the
low shrubbery or grass and then
sits down to examine his cap- tures and remove them to the
cyanide bottle. The ring of the
beating net should be especially
strong, either of brass or iron and
of one or two pieces and should
be fastened rigidly to the handle
either by means of a special
device, by daiups, nuts and
screws, or by copper wire as
above mentioned. The reason for this special strength is that
sometimes it is desirable to sweep tough bushes or t'^e low
branches of trees.
T'h- Wahr AV/.— The water net may be a simple sag net with a short handle, the frame being oblong and the net or bag being of soine very coarse material like grass cloth or millinet. A sieve net with sides of galvanized iron and bottom of galvanized wire screen is desirable where one is scraping up mud and sand from the bottom of pools for the purpose of sifting out aquatic insects.
The Sin'c. — A sieve with cloth sides is an excellent bit of apparatus for sifting out earth, moss, materials of ants nests, etc.. the size of the wire meshes at the bottom being larger when it is desired to sift the
3s)'
Fig. 2>i, — .\ good liand net.
Fig. 252. — Sm.ill water di( net. r A/Ur A:..y-J
■if
Collecting and Preserving Insects
fragments of old decayed trees and smaller when sifting ants nests and ordinary earth.
Chad and Troucl. — A small stout chisel for securing insects which hide under the bark of dead or dying trees is a useful in- strument. A stout pocket knife will sometimes do the work but something stronger and better adapted to the purpose is desirable. When one is studying underground insects a small trowel is a necessity.
Collecting Forceps.— The entomologist skilled in the use of his fingers and who does not mind an occasion;<l sting or bite does not need forceps, yet a small delicate pair made of steel or brass, very pliable and with rounded tips, is useful in picking up specimens and transferring them into vials and boxes. A little dodge which is used by many entomologists in picking up small msects is to slightly moisten the fore finger and touch it to the insect which will adhere long enough so that it can be dropped
into the cyanide bottle, vial or pill box. A camel's-hair brush is sometimes used for the same purpose.
Fumigator. — This is a bit of apparatus used by European collectors and to some extent by those in this country. It is used for smoking out specimens which hide in cracks in the ground or holes in hard wood, etc. The accompanying figure shows the common form. A smoking-pipe mouth-piece {a) with flexible rubber-joint (b) is attached to the cover (i) of a very large smnkint; pipe head (./). To the mouth (t') of the latter a rubber hose (/') is at- tached, which has a convenient discharge at its end {g). The pipe is filled with tobacco, the latter ignited, the cover screwed nn and the smoke blown through the mouth-piece in any desired direction. ,A puff of tobacco smok- blown gently over the
( Ajkr Kui
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Collecting and Preserving Insects
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Fig. 254.— An entomological haversack,
chased from any dealer
Untbrella. — I he umbrella is one of the most useful imple- ments to the collector since he can collect with it insects which live upon the branches of trees and large bushes. Umbrel- las constructed especiallv for en- tomological pur- poses have the inside lined with white linen und the handle has a joint near the middle so that it can be more con- veniently held
debris on the collecting cloth will often make many specimens move which otherwise play possum.
Haversack. — A haversack of water-proof cloth is convenient but by no means indispensable. It should contain various com- partments of different sizes for storing away nets, sieve, larger implements, boxes and vials.
Hattil Lens. — A hand lens is quite necessary for field work with the smaller forms. Ex- cellent hand lenses are now on the market and can be pur- in microscope supplies.
M!
; I
?;,'
and its mode of u.-^t nicctLr.j
Collecting and Preaervmg Insects
and more conveniently packed away. The opened .ind In- verted umbrcil.i is held with the left hand under the branch and with the right hand the collector heats the branch, jarring the insects into the convex umbrella cover.
Co/h'itiiig Slh\irs.—Thes^ are often used, the blades being composed of Hat, net-like frames looking something like minute tennis rackets. They are useful for picking up delicate insects which would be apt to be dama.^ed by the fingers or tweezers.
i .i
SOME POINTS ON METHODS OF COLLECTING DIFFERENT ORDERS
Hymt'iiop/,rn.— Many Hymenoptera. such as the bees, some oi' the wasps and many parasitic forms, can readily be collected by means of the beating net or sweeping net from flowering plants. The removal of the stinging species from the net is sometimes rather dangerous. The callous collector will pick them up with his thumb and lore linger, never minding the sting, especially as after a few stings his hand becomes practically inoculated, but a good idea is to have an opening in the bottom of the net which s'">>ild be kept tied with a string. When enough insects are ...u^ t they are driven to the bottom by swinging the net rapidly through the air, then holding it tightly together with the hand ju.st above the bottom, untieing the string and shaking the insects into a wide-mouthed cyanide bottle. After they are stupetied the contents of the bottle m.iy be emptied out and the desirable specimens selected. The gall- flies and the parasites are best collected by breeding. The galls of the gall-llies should be collected when mature and kept in closed jars, the jars being occasionally moistened by putting a sheet of damp blotting paper over the mouth.
Hi'iuiptera. — The beating net is used with these insects and they are found to some extent under logs and stones and are also captured in the collecting umbrelja. F'lant-lice should be collected in connection with their food plants and at different seasons of the Near in order to obtain different generations. One should .ilsD collect both winged aiid wingless forms. Bark-lice or scale insects should be preset ved dry /;; situ on the plants. The col- lector should have a series of small envelopes or tlat card boxes
394
£/.^"^^r^
1
Collecting and Preserving Iniccts
in which to place these specimens, writing the date, locality, name of plimt. collector, and any other remarks that may seem desirable. Nothing air-tight, such as tin boxes or closed tubes, should be used lor Iresh material as it nearly always molds. Pill- boxes are sometimes used but are too small to contain a good quantity of material. A good-sized twig or several leaves should be collected for each species.
Dip/i'iii.— Most flies frequent flowers and may be collected with the sweeping net. So many of them are very delicate that the greatest care must be exercised both in collecting and handling. A light sweep net is the best implement and the con- tents should frequently be emptied into cyanide bottles with plenty of blotting paper to absorb the excess of moisture. Collecting shears are successfully used with these insects.
Orthoptera.— These insects are best collected by using the sweeping net.
Collet ting Aquatic Insects.— Vor collecting forms which live upon the bottom of ponds and streams. Dr. Needham advises the use of the common garden rake. With it the debris may be drawn ashore and the insects picked out by hand. Withdrawn from the water they generally make themselves evident by their active efforts to get back. The rake is especially useful in the spring while there is as yet no new growth of well-ro 'ed water weeds to interfere with hauling it. The sieve net previously described is used for bringing ashore mud and sand from the bottom. Those specimens which live above the bottom in still or slowly running water or which crawl among the submerged branches or erect aquatic plants are most of them easily taken by sweeping the plants with any of the forms of water nets. Some of the little ones which cling closely to the water plants can only be discovered by taking he plants out of the w.iter and examining them, a small bunch at a time, in ;i white dish of clean water. Those forms which live in rapids can be had by picking up the stones and examining them. Some may be taken with a water net. Some are captured by wading into the rapids holding the water net with the left hand and lifting the stones in advance with the rake, the disloged insects llo.iting into the water net.
In carrying home a days c.itch a large quantity of water is not necessary. Needham says that it is well to have a pail and to
3'* 5
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m
* - li
R
CoUtcting and Prfi 'ing Inicct*
place within it a few smaller receptacles containing a little water and pack ordinary water weed between these. The smaller nymphs taken may be distributed among these receptacles so as to diminish the chances of having them eaten by the larger and stouter ones which may be stowed away in the weed. The latter does not need to be submerged unless left long uncovered in the sun.
REARING DIFFERENT KINDS OF INSECTS
Even the collector of insects who cares little about habits and life histories desires often to rear his specimens, since they are then in the best condition for the collection and then, too, it is
very difficult sometimes to capture some kinds of insects, or they can be ob- tained only in this way. The methods of rear- ing caterpillars in order to obtain the adult but- terflies or moths h.,< been admirably treated by Dr. Holland in his "But- •rfly Book," and the reeding cages recom- mended by him may be used equally well for many of the insects de- scribed in this volume. The simplest form of such cage is frequently the bis and, as Dr. Holland says, with some species the best method is simply to pot a plant on which the insect is known to fci-d .inJ place it in .1 box over which some mosquito netting is tied. Gl.iss cylinders or even lamp chimnevs placed over sm.ill plants growing in pots, the top being covered with
J 5*'. Kik) in-.ti I \i\ariiini. .//.'.,
«J
Colltctmc and Priiirvinf Inucti
gauze, are frequently used to .iJvantajfe in this wc •, and ^lass jars— from the small test-ti.be to the large morphii.e bottles and fruit jars and up to the large b.ittiry )ais— all may be used in rearing different kirids cf insects. The largi-, so-called Riley breeding cage, shown at Figure as6, is a «ood one. especially if
li
Vig jjj. — Comslock iniprovtd Ui»e for brccdhij; tage ' Ajl^i KiLy i
it is used with the improved base invented by Professor Corn- stock, shown at Figure 2S7. Some verv good breeding jars are sold by the dealers in entomological supplies, but most workers prefer to construct their own cages.
All earth used in rearing insects in the cages or in t!ie bottles should be sterilized and sifted. This is necess.iry in order to destroy disease germs, in order subsequently to regulate the amount of moisture, and in order to destroy predace<ius mites and other insects which might be the cause of damage or con- fusion. In my office we prepare earth readily and in bulk in a galvanized iron oven 2^ x I'j x i foot. The cover is roof- shaped, and lifts off by a central h.iiuilc. There is a circular orifice in this cover to emit steam and faciiitate drying. The oven stands on legs and is heated by a single gas jet from a Bunsen burner placed beneath. Alter two hours' heating the m isture becomes dissipated, and the e.irth becomes dry and is readily sifted. It is then passed through a sieve, and is in proper condi- tion to use either in large boxes for underground insects 01 in the ordinary breeding jars and cages.
397
mgmmmmm
mm
.^ra
^^w^^
IritSli
Ci^Mtcting and Preicrving Inttcit
Professor Comstock h.i> mventod and J-scril-ovi root-ciRe ill I rder to study undcrnround insects. This is i metal cafje v III K'lass sides, made narrow, and with >{alvani/i d iron additional siJi which CM I'e slipped down over thr f.iss ones so .is to ket| the cage dark when not under ob.sei ..ition. Plants and ' sti's are placed in e.irth between I 'wo gLiss sutes, .ind the v\l' ! apparatus IS then placed in the uround. I' t. i be pulled up ..I, I the e t> w.itched thiounh 'iie ^'lass.
Ft ' liisr- i> '.^dinj; upon ^trasses ii s we!! to make .i wooden box two (eel deep with lx)ttoin perfi ated with a lew M er )y|es covered with wire netting and containinR a ^ood supnK f/ fi;rowinf{ gra.ss. The box shruld be of gdod size, say 3 X J \ . u\t Little upright posts or .sticks or laths six inches high shciik! be na:ted to the corners of the box, and gauze mos- quito nettir.ir or something liner tacked over the whole. This kind of a box is of gpod service in rearing grasshoppers, which are the most difficult insects to rear. Confined in a small breeding cage they feed littio, and are apt to fatally exhaust themselvu. in futile efforts t.. e.scape. Boxes for these insects should be about three feet squ.ire, and in the..irth shcjid be growing nc! only grasses but also weeds of various kinds. The long-horned grasshoppers (L(xustidA') are very easy to rear in confinement, and need only be gi\cn an occasional supply of fresh lood. This is the case also with the walking-sticks, and mantids. the latter requiring no moisture wiiatever beyond that which they get from the bodies of their victims.
That reminds me that one of the difficulties encou tered in the rearing of insects is th. pi. per maintenance of the ;ght de- gree of moistine. (lalls oi all kinds are apt t' be left vilher too dry, in which case the isMiing of the insect is d< , lyed far bevond the normal time, or too moist, in which ca.se the\ become Ci.vered with mildew and spoil. If the jar containing nem be ;.!t open they dry no matter how fiequentiv sprinkled. If it be closed mildew trequently puts in its appear.ince. 'his difficulty is ob- viated by keeping them in a .series of jars of the s.ime height, the mouths of the jars being covered with gau/ ■ to prevent the escape of the insects or parasites. Over the wh<>le series is laid a ge sheet of blotting p.ipet whici, is mwistePK i daily and the inseclv seem to thrive uiuler this treatment. In re iring Hvmen- opterous parasites, the breeding jar should be tiglitly closi J ind
CoUtcting and Prctetving inaccta
.111 i)i:cii:.ion.il strip nf niuisteni'd blcitini^ p.ipt-r insi-rii-d or thiv 111. IV he enclosi'il In gLiss tubes with ti^ht ubsoilH-nt stoppors the l.itter heinj{ occ.ision.illv inoistciicJ. Bees tiii-d very little ninis- ture iind give vr'v iiille trouble in rcarint: Woml-burinf,' in- sects u( .ill kinds 111. IV as .1 rule be kept perfectlv drv or only inoistentd everv tw'i' t three weeks. Hl.int-lnigs need Mitiply plenty c/f fresh luod .in.: t.ike c ire oi 'lemselves with coiiip.ir i- tive indiffcrePi e .is to t!uir surr. >undini;s.
Ot all lirv.e ni'iu- are more difliiult to re. ir than i.Kt-dfthe the s.iW-ll s, Their mouth-parts seem to dry inless viiistantK lubru .ited 1 v the saliva produced bv ma-tical, .11 md once ihied the I., va us . illv dies. Fresh load must . onsunily be supplied and 1: po-sil'l< they mu'it t be allowed in descend i.' the sur- face the i ; the 1 iier must be cm •'nliy covered with paper, tor if ti v once i>se their prolej, on a gr.i.n ni .ind thev hold it convulsively I it is .;lMur,t impossible to di- /dge .t so tiiat tiicy are praet illy unbtted ur aji.im li | ig a twig.
The studv of scale insects is a s npli onj. The l>i ij.nts should \'e grown in pots and the insects coloni/ d m it. .V\ost of the species remain stationary or nea.-|y so m.: t\\<. r loca- tion recorded, the exact sifi'ation of e.ich ndivid mI " ier observati.ii being circumscribe ' by .1 r ; of ink marked \ n pen upon the leaf
Till- Ujiiiirn III. — A. ;ost anv of tue ditTerent styiLS of aquaria V ,iich may be pill chase wil- answ. ' : good purpose. A very good one is shown ii ihe .icconi Where it is desired to go rathei horMiijhly
I •
:!oiiatic insei 's .ind u Kere on I para': , 'he app ratus 11; than .1 vtiiirg whk I h.r. ; X I ' J X 1 '_■ .ire pl.u ' en. inch b.ise so as to m ke ' th ■water connectior - IVc i' ic e.ich m.iy i>e independi arr.inged. In ea. « a - • ; bri ad, dcllexed :nd 1
arTilicial r ick-\\ rk --ittr. th-ough .1 T spri:;klei ,>.it: of six or eight chcs mt
IS
1! spi illV oti,
T- :. ^V
th. nv el
ving illustration. 1 the rearing of >onie money in !< r.i'her beliLr -^ aqu.iria e.ich iled ;in .1 tliree
th ;..uii higher than the othi' ihe
c to the other are >o arr.m^ad th.it
■ ae oloel. and the det.iils .11 e siir.plv
-- ;.iped inclined glass >ep!iim with a
e.iih this lip has been constructed an
T • water enters the (irst aqu inum
six pipet' • oritlces. 1, drops i distance
' the V-^ iped septu.ii and ^ force is
n
f>i
HI
ill
!li
Collecting and Prcierving Insects
easily graduated by stop cocks. Rising to tiie height of the de- flexed hp it pours in a broad cascade into the main compartment, impinging on the top of the rock-work grotto. The second or lower aquarium is at present similarly arranged, and derives its supply of water either from the overflow of the first or independ- ently from an overhead pipe, so that its water may be kept either still or running at will. Thus we have arrangements in a small
u
Fig. 258. — A good simple aquarium
space for the rearing of all kinds of aquatic insects. The sliding stream upon the artitkial rotkwork is particularly adapted for such forms as Simulium, and opportunity is also offered for such species as have the habit of crawling out either on rocks or earth, as the case may be.
Collecting and Preserving Insect!
KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS
IS*J""^'
m
The use of alchohol or formaliti is the most satisfactory method of killing most soft-bodied insects. Those with harder bodies should be dropped into a cyanide bot- tle or they may be killed with chloroform.
Till' Cyanide Bottle.— The cyanide bottle is prepared by taking a large quinine bottle or morphine bottle or one of the stout round- bottomed neckless tubes, putting into it a few small lumps of cyanide of potassium and pour- ing over them a semi-fluid mixture of plaster of paris and water. The bottle is then left open for a few hours until the plaster of paris thoroughly dries. The purpose of the plaster is to prevent the moisture from the deliquescing cyanide from reaching the insects and it is well also to put a piece of blotting paper over the plaster When one is collecting insects it would be well to cut into strips some soft absorbent paper and stick the slips into the bottle in such a way that th insects' bodies will not rattle about too much.
•Preparing Inseels for the Cabinet.— \n mounting itisects for the cabinet no pins should be used except those made especially fo' mounting specimens. The long German pins are much to be preferred to the short Eng- lish ones. The best are the Kla-ger pins, the Carlsbad pins and the Vienna pins, all of which can be purchased from the dealer in entomological supplies. The Japanned black pins are the best for most insects since they are not ruined by the verdigris which issues from the bodies of many insects. Specimens should be prepared for the collection as soon after death as possible. If they have been collected in the forenoon they should be mounted the same evening — where possible. Most of the in- sects which we consider in this book should be pinned through the thorax. Grasshoppers and locusts should have one pair of wings spread. Dragon-flies and most other Neuropterous insects
401
■:-^^
Fig. 25Q. — PtK'ket cyanide bottle ( AfUr KiUy I
Collecting and Preserving Insects
ii^
m
b-1
Fig. 260. — Spreading board for Lepidoptera. (After Kiley.)
should have both pairs of wings spread. For this purpose a
spreading board is necessary. Excellent spreading boards are for sale by the dealers but very good ones can readily be made. The spreading board in use for Lepidoptera will answer admir- ably for any of these insects. One is shown at Fig. 260 and needs no extended description except to state that the central grove in which the body of the insect rests should be bottomed with cork or some soft sub- stance into which the pin can be inserted. While spreading, the time required for drying must be determined by experi- ment for a given locality and given time of the year since it depends upon the dryness of the atmosphere.
Insects which are too small to pin are preferably mounted upon little trian- gular cardboard tags. They are glued to the tip of the triangle, the pin being thrust through the base. White shellac or yellow shellac are good substances to use for the glueing. Most of those minute insects may be mounted to advantage on the side with the
back away from the pin, and it is generally ad- visable to mount them with the side upper- most. It must be re- membered that while an insect has one back and one belly it has two sides. Punches for cut- ting tags for this purpose may be purchased from Alter the insect is pinned and dried great care
ng. In all cases the date and
402
Kig. 261. — Insect mounted on card- l)oard triangle, f After Hiley.J
Fig. 262.-
-In.sect i,unch for cutting triangles or points. I After Rth-y.j
the dealers.
should be t.iken with the labe
! it:
III
Collecting and Preserving Insects
1 n 0
Fig. 263. — F'oints for mounting insects. {After Kiley.i
the actual locality should be entered upon the label, and, if the locality is such that there is some doubt that the elevation can in future be ascertained with ease, the elevation shcald be also placed upon the label. The name of the collector should be stuck on the same pin, and the name of the in- sect upon another label on the same pin. That will make three labels, one with the name, one for the collector, and one for the exact locality and date. All labels should be as small as possible, and should be printed in diamond type. After the labelling is done the speci- mens are ready for the cabinet.
The Cabinet.— \n the matter of a cabinet there is consider- able room for the judgment of a collector. The so-called Schmidt insect box is an excellent box for a more or less temporary col- lection, and, in fact, there are many specimens in the museums which have been preserved in these boxes for many years. They are of small and convenient size, book form, cork-lined, tightly constructed, and close very tightly.
m
An insect cabinet
Fig. ;64.— The Marx tray for alcohol specimens. (A/ltr Kilty)
with sliding drawers, glass-covered, can be made by any good carpenter, but great care should be taken to make the joints of the drawers absolutely air-tight. When a collection becomes infested with museum pests or mites or Psocids, it can easily be disinfected by pouring into the box bisulphide of carbon. Great care must be us-.-d in the handling of this substance, however, as it is inflammable. After the drawer has become disinfected, a teaspoonful. mere or less of naphthaline will act as a deterrent against the entrance of other insect pests. For soft-bodied insects which must be kept in liquid, either alcohol or formalin, a permanent arrangement is a very difficult matter. A vial-tray in use by some collectors is a good idea. The one invented and
40J
m
11
Collecting and Pieservlng Iniects
used by Dr. George Matx is shown in the accompanying figure. In mounting insects for the microscope Canada balsam is the best medium for most of them, but it must be remembered that with soft-bodied forms i esh mounts will cloud unless the water has been extracted by passing through successive strengths of alcohol.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I
HYMENOPTERA
I. — CATALOGUES
E. T. Crbsson— CaUU»Kuc of the described «peacs o( North American Hymenoptera. <Proc. Entom. Soc. Phila.. Vol. I. iShi-iM^v E. T. Ckbsson.— Catalogue of species and bibli- ography Part II n! Svnupsis of the Hymen- optera of America, north ol Mexico. Synofwis arid CaUloKue. Price, fj. Transactions of the Am. Kntom. S<k.. Supplementary volume, 1887. Philadelphia. 1887. C. O. DE Dalla Tohrb.— Caulogus Hym-:nop. lerorum. 10 vols. Lcipxic, iVoj-igw.
Vul. l.Tenthmtlnl.U; II, Cynlpid.*; Ill, Ith- neumonliU. rtt. . IV. Br«toiif.l»> : V, Chal. cktklz anil Proctctniptttr ; VI, Chrysidi.i* ; VIl.lFocmlcW*; VIM, FuMore* : IX. Ve« fMx. X, A|4<1». liAch volume i.an t>e pur- chased »ci<antely.
M. — GENERAL WnRKS ON CLASSI- FICATION
E. T. Crbsson. — Synopfcis of the families and genera of the Hymenoptera, north of Mexico, together with a catalogue of the described species a^d bibliography. Transactions Am. Entom. Soc., bupptementary volume, Part I, 1S87.
The se>. nml put contains the Catalogue uf Spe<: les an<l BlbficiffTaphy.
\v H. AsHMHAU.— Classification of the homuils and aawflies. or the suborder Phytophaga. <Can. Entom., i8q8, 7 parts. H. AsHMBAD. — Clasvfication of the bees, or the superfamily Apoidea. <Traos. Amer.
V.
F.ntom. S<K., 1890, pp. 4^100. W. H. AsMMBAi>.— Superfamilies in the Hymen-
iiptera and generic synopses of the families
ThynnidJ?, MyrmosKl^, and Mutillidx.
< Joum. N. Y. Entom. Soc., March, 1899, pp.
45-6c\ W. H- A-^HMRAn.— Classiiicaiion M the enlomo-
philous wasps, or the superfam .y Sphegoidea.
<Can. Entom.. i8^«, 7 parts. W. H. AsHMKAi).— Classification of t^t fossorial,
iiredaceous atui parasitic w?sps, or liic super-
lamiiy Vespoidea. <Can. Entom., ujuxj, pp.
i45~'fl!> 1S5-188, i-tc. W J. KVix— A proposed classification of the
iossorial Hymenoptera oi North America.
<Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1844, pp.
III.— MONOGRAPHS ANP SYNOPSES
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405
Bibliopaphy
^ I
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A. H*Niii.iKM H. — Monojinpliie der mil Nysson und Kenibex verwjndten (irahwcs[icn. 7pArtK. -. Slzlier. K . Alud. d. Wissensch. . Wien , iH»7 'jj I. IS" pp., ii pi*. A. S. Faikamu. — Revision ol tlie F<><iiu>ml Hy* menopteni of North America. I. i'rabrDnidjr ■iiid Nyuonidx. < Hroc. tnlom. Soc. FluU., Vol. VI. lUbd, pp. 14 luand 351-444,
Thh wittit tnilu'ln re0^i<'n» i>f xhe f>ll>>itini{ families l^rri.U, beiiit.eLf.ir. FhlUnihi.l.r. Minir»i.t.r. Mcllin)il.r. Ppni[>hre<lonlJ« an.l Crahruni.l.r.
W, H. Patt<;n.— Lisiof Nonh American larridj. *,PuK. Boston Soc. Nat. Hut.. Vol. XX. iS*>. pp. JHSJI')?-
l4liie I'f ti«'tiera ; Ust <•(, ait't «'■(«> .m. sjie. le-.
W. J. Fox.— Mont^raph of the Nonh American
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S>n..i.scs..f Alis..n. OMlneis an.l Mellinu* W. J. Fox.— The North American Pemphre-
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Henki dp Sai "i kr.— fitudes sur la fa...:ile des Vespides. Monosraphie des jjuepf, .sotialcs oil de la Irihu des Ve-spicns, Paris. |S;{. X vo., pp, 25f>. [Separate work 1
ni-:NHi OK Sais>v KK. — Bfmerkunjien iiber die tiattun^ Ve3[>a, liesonders liber die amerikan- iM.ln-ri Arlen- -..Sttumcr Kntom. Keit.. Vol. XV III, i'*57, pp. 114 117.
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<iivek tallies <>( jfenera ,in>l ^jw. irs.
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A. Mksahv.- Monograi)hi 1 (Jhrysididarum orbis
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Cm. a. Blakb— Slonoeraph of .he Mutiltid.v ol North Anierica. <Tians. Amer. Kntom. Soc.,
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This niomiKMiJi tu|«rM'te« the syn-n-sis I'V the same auth>^ W. J. Fox.-The North American Mutillid*.
<Trans. Amer. Knium. Soc., iH<^,pp. ii.> jifj. H. l)K SAt'ssi'HK and J. Skhkl.— Cauloffus
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L«n«lnii»'i"n .>f (he f weifolnn i«pef. twtth ...tnuln- inti talualile x'nlritiutiun^ to the i.la»ih^atuin "f genera an I tiietJcs
B. D. W'ai.?.h.— On Dimorphism in the Hymenop-
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GiM A V M A V K — Die Genera der gallenbewohnen- dtn (.:ynipiden. <ii)ter Jahresherichi der Communal-Obcrrealschule ini I. Beiirk. Wien, I '^-•< 1 .
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W. H. AsHMFAi)— 1)n the c>'nipidous galls of Florida, with dcscriptiotis ot new species and .synopses f>f the described species of North America. <- Trans. Aner. Kntom. Soc,. Vol. XIV. iSS?. No. 2.PP 125 IS?*,
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Sue.. Vol. IV. 1S71 73. pp. 2.)-*"- L. O. HowARlJ— nescriptions ol North .Xn-erican
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Department oi Agriculture and of llr. C. V.
Riley, "ith biological notes [lirst paperi, to-
5 ether with a list of the descrihed North imerican species ol the family. < Bui. No 5. Div. Entom., U. S. Uept. Agnc, Washington, 188;. L. O. HowAKii.— A generic synopsis ol the Hy- menopterous family Chalcididx. <Kntom. Amer., Vol I. 18S5-S6, pp. i<)7-ii« and 115- ji,, ; Vol. II, pp. J5 j8- L O Howard.— Revision of the Aphelininz of North Amend. <lechnical series. No. 1, Div. Kntom., i:. S. Depl. ol Agnc, i8.)5, PP 44 L <) Howard.— I>i the Bothriothoracine insects of the Iniled States. <Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus , Vol. XVII.pp. (xisJ.ij, i9<;*'. ^ . .
L O Howard— <)n some American phytophaipc Kurytomin.1-. <T«:hnical senej. No. 1, Div. Entom.. I'. S. Depl. Agri<-..„|»'»-
A si.i.n'^l' "( 1"»'""»»":' »'"'»; ., , . W H A-'HMEAD.— A revised genenc table ot the Chalcidini. < Kntom. Amer., i»H8, PP. »7'*8. H A",H>|RAD.— Class.lication of the old family C'halcididi. <FriK. Entom. Soc. Wash., Vol. IV. iSyg. PP J4J J4>) H A^HMHAD— On the genera of the chalcid- Hies helonging to the subfamily Encvnini. <Pioc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XXtl, pp.
W
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W iT'a'shmrad— On the genera of the Cleony. midi. <Proc. Entom. Soc. Wash., Vol. IV,
lS,M, pp. aoo-206. , . r
W H. AsHMBAD — tin the genera of the tu-
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W. H. AsHMEAii -A revised generic Uble ol the
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E T Crisvin.— Descriptions of North American Hymenoptera in the collectiim ol the Entomo- logical S"x:iety ol Philadelphia, cProt Entom. S.K:. Phila., Vol. Ill, 1864, PP
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E T CRRS.S.1N — A list of the IchneumunldJ^ ol NorthAmericj with descriptionsol new species. <. Trans. Amer- Entom S.K., Vol- 1. 181.7, pp. 280 3u; Vol. II, iaiJI<K),PP.8.)-ii4 , E T CRli^-<'■l. — Descriptions ol new Sliecies be- longing to the sublamily Pimplan* found m .\merica. north of Meiico- <Trans Amer. Entom. Soc., Vol. Ill, i''-'>-,7i, PP- '*);'',1- Taliulatn the geiier» Vln.i.l». l'..ly .i.liincU. l,Ivl.la. Arenetra. l^mvn'AH. Xyl-.tiomus, (Al.Mumenis. olth a H«i il all «!». ie> B. U. Walsh— Descriptions tf North AmencaD Hvmenoptera, with no;e« bjr E. T- Cresson- < trans- St. LouU Acad. Sci., Vol. Ill, 187J, pp. 65 i«>. ... 1
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Marshall* .las-*itiiati,.n 1* that reprxlucci hy
Lre«s.,niiihU?yn,.l-.l». , ^ „ ,
W. H. AsMsiEAD— Synopsis of the Hormin* ol
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Sex: . 1*13, PP- J'l 44- , , , . u_i
Edward N^rt.in-— Catalogue of the described
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i868-<H|, pp. 211 i42and 321 3^7-
elves syn,ii«i- lal.l,-s ■•! Kcnrta an 1 spi le» of
l..)<h faniillr-: Ihr rr.Kcrll.c are Irrate.l In
Vol. II. PI' 14i»-|6r- . J
E T Crrssdn— Catalogue ol the Tenthredinida;
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i:rnera ..f Tenlhre-lini'l-'-. *hKh (vis l-een re-
l>r,..!u.eil l.yCress..n In his general v,„rk .>f
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H.
D.
III. MitN(K;RArHS AND SYNOPSES
C. R. Ohtfn Sa( ken —New genera and species
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* H»<.«« -S>lrlvn.ilc»i.nlh«M)rnn«l».in»ir.
l"n "nt,™., law iM». Cmtirurf u, «.-
KVi!I"'°'A'cU...n.-l"". "f <t» Nnnh Amtrian M»miclr..nid*, Ian Knt.im . iSuu.PP "7 '■■ i■M sTm^.ipi.. -MmlmU ad m..n.«raphun, i"i.,ri. Lhry~.i..f Uaa. VratuLivi*, iVi ' H"i.li» -Hen«r..l.Klarum.yn..p.i.«non> nii.4 ■ Sieinntr Knu.ni. Zell.. i»*, PP l»r
Pan I, HriK. B..«i.n Nic Nal Hut. V'.l. XXlll. i»». Pl> iS''-»<~; I'arlll. l.t., pp. I1fr-a*aa.
HEMIPTERA
I _CATAl.OClES ANli IHECK-LISTS y A. I)..HK?<.-Caul.«u» llemipttr.)runi. Siel-
P...'"lV R^':" .« -Chcck-l.iM „l ihj H'^lipte™- " Hjumpltra.,! N..r>l, An«r,c^ P, M„h«l by ih, Hrmiklyn Knfm. Sic.. iW.
royal d'hisum. .ialurell« d« B«l«nue. Hl.tr an.t tl.e Cfy^*.- '"»«•
II. OeNRRM. WI>KKS ON C1.AS.SI-
KlC.VTIiiN. C W Hah^ iM,d (i. A W. Hf.»«I(M-S. «».f- p«« — I'lr wai.ienartaen Inwclen. 10 v..u. NuembcfX. i^ii I'SJ;
I- r"H"AV'v.'.T it J ti. At iiiNKT-Sii«» 11-11;.-
111.
Vlnm«H.l». At*lUjr. Iliii(lll.l.» C> ll»t>t.'
-MONi«;»APIH AMI SVMtiPstl
.H 1 M — Syi>op«ta o( P.y.:(.e,V"I.V,
K.
urellt dcs ln«ctti:«. Pan., ilal. I- SiAi v...il.tuhem pte-.>l<«ita. fWrlin, 1**- ,s^ , lim OnginaUy pitblUlicd m Ihc
r SrM Hemiptera tahnctana, tttcunduin e«- empU Mu«iMalt.i.n.i.e>K,tlK"«..d.«J3Y- ;„lrt. KongI Svtn.k.NetAkjd. Handl..
I (S'^s.'JI^.FDTr.-KiniKe nnie HaupuUIie der ■■ M.'.rph..l.«K uiKl >y.tcmalik der Rhynth..lcn,
Niturh Tid.kr.. iShi, P, "llf- .
P K iMLHn -U.t i>l Htmiplera "I th« rwi.'n ' «e,t..t th. Mi55..tipp. Ri"r. mdudtti* <T>..-^ cnlWi .«i dtirtnn the Haydet, ,.,pl.)rati..,,.. ..I
„( tV l-.:mt..r»:», V„l. 1. t»n. PP. *7-]6i, pls.
P. RlTt.t.Bi.-RtP"""'-"'!"' m«rt« jolltrct.^ I>v P K, rhltrJuriin Iht fxpl..rali..i ...I iV<, ncludinn m.>n.«raphs ..I th« familtc^ I ydnid.t and ■Skfidf .I'd ht Heipiptera >;..llfct,:d hy A s PalLil M 1) I' S i-e.Av- and
C SrA't"-Knunieraii.. H»ti;iplcr..nim, Fidiiit ,11 en l.Ttftkninn ..Ivcr alia httilKkanda Hcni-
rl"mKT^Xc:,k \%V'.AUd" Handl.. ,^0-
C iVl'i '-ilSraii till Heniipi.:n:nai Sy.teni.nik. Olver k. Wt.-Akad, K..rh.. i«7. I'lJ ,,.■;', "i^-
CMAKlf. WiLMAM W....|,>.
Ni.rth American t ivadld.*
i"**. pp. A7*w< . . .
P K l'Hl«it —Pteli'mnary .utvey .il the t iiadlrt*
■ (il Ihe Inlled MateH. AnlllleJ. and Me.ic..
. Tran« MaryUndAiad Mi iVj.pp. i;» f'
A r> MaiLiiiim.*" I'ltadMi-. Amjntan
genera and .petiei -Can. Knp.m., Mart 1.
I ((""wii^'rw*"'" -111' tl... family ►'ulgnrid.i-. with
'' aiivm.,n.ph ..I the <e„u. Ki.fil..ra ..( l-'""'";-
- Tran.. l.inn N« l...nd."i. ^"1. XV 111.
C s'At''-llle aiiitrikaniKhen Pulgi.riden-I Ul-
■ lutigen .yiM.pt. -h l«,thriel)eii. '<letliner
Knu'm ?e,. , v. I XXXI, .St- PP V;;?'L,
W H. AsMXHAii -AKti.ein .yn.psi.ollhe ful- gV.rid.e Km..n, A™,.,.W PP.,i-«. ■i-y-
K * Vam l>i «»« A pielimiiiary review .j| the S.irth Amernai, IKH-Iiatidar. Bui, Huflalo S.K: Nat Sci., \'.>i \ . iSjT. PP ils-aAi. P Van IMiiE. .* li.^er\-ali.tn. ..11 ^.m-* nttnh- emilerbidx. Can. Knl.im . ii*,, pp. iwand
P K*"!'!"!-" -Attl. in a rec<«nitinn "'">"■• N.prlh Ameruan genrn and spelled ..I the .iiu (amilr Kulgi.nd,e. Irani, MaryUnd AtaJ-
Sci.j I.W. pp. .01 ***
Trr4l> /ill*. -.*■ ic. ; ■. .*. C. Stai... i!»lra«tillMei-il,raiiderna.k.inned..m.
Alver. al K.mgl Vel -Akad f.^handl . i««u F W r;,,„iN., •Bih.i.wraphitalandsyn.mYnuial
■ " ul.«ue ..I Ihe dewribed M'r-,br.Kid* ..( \"rtir\merira. Hul. 11' M. Uh. Nat. Hilt , V .1. 111. 1^44. PP ni-4*a .
F W (;:.i.iv.. A »vn..p..» .1 the "ihlarallie.
' and genera..! the Mcmhra ida ..I N..rtn AiiKT-
tca :Tran.. A.ner Knlon.. .Sur.. ■*». pp.
V Si,'.i»..i<'l!T. -Revue irilique du gr...iiw de» Tet-
■ "iM.inidei et dc la Inbu cfe« Cerui.pidcs. - Ke-
vue el Mag. de Z.«.l . V„l. V. ,»,i pp. .Jl-l'ia. p \v c',.,i,tN.. -Syn.Mi.i.'.f 'he Mililamilie. and .lenen . f the N.irth American Ceri.>pld*. with i hiblLwraphical «ul.«ue "I ""'.."^fV.'f' .|>e<.ie«. Hul. 111. Suie Ub..r Na! Hist.,
¥ T>" ilALi' -.A'.ludi- t.t the genui CUst.>plera. *■ Pi'i i..«a Acad. Sci., V„l. 111. .Hg6, pp.
V p'*'van 'iM Vi!F. - V caul...:ue ..( ihe deKTilied Ji.v.,dea ol Ni.rlh America. Trans. Aiiier.
V P Van 1)iii!k,-A lymiptical anangemei.I ol the geneo ..I the N..rth American Jauida:, c-tt, "JS,** ( i..»t..... <.u- .*ii un. *j*-107.
V, Si
'•Tran".' AnieV-Knlom. S<^.. iSkja. PP. WS:107.
..Kf-r— Revue icontigrapliKpie oe. let-
ug,.nide.. Ann. S„i . F.nt.im. de Vnnce,
,Si,-iSfi. wilh t..li.red pUIe»,
V S1..N..KFT -Kiuauur le. Jas.idei StSl. > .eh..
■ e plus p.rticulierenient .ur le« ,V..cephalide.
Put.in, Ann.S.K:. KnPim. de frame. iWv"
C„\K^r^ Wt.ium W.«>li»"KTil.-JasskJ.» "I ^ lllino.,. Pat' I Bui. Ill- ^"^ '-"''• '•^'■
J!^tKJ''.;nd'.!'yrt^i:'-S,ud,e<...N..rJ American iassiidea Pr..c. Davenport Acad.
H.
H
llCIIV.li' ...jj".— •.-
i . V.,1. Vll, |S»S.PP, 4! '"■ (l-i.,?N''aiid'''K'''l>', H,A't'-'i,-C.mtributioli« t.. the Heniinl.-n.u« fauna iil lu«a ■ Proc. Iowa Viad. .Sci.. V.,1. IV, iSj7. pp. i;a-ll4.
< M
J,
^i
411
natl
■I
mm
UibllO|Taphy
i*'
VII.
\nwr.
North , Amt-r.
H «►■»».»■!, im! K I) Bam --Th#fenui r ,llnp
•i«i ««vMew 4t| ihc N.uih Amrnran ki^-
Kr.t |>avcnpiirt At^4<l N,»l Nt i V.'
IV30, |)|) III |j|
M IKh.,„»,.|wl ^ II Ham \ rrvicw ..I -h*
l»jvcniM.fi Ar^d Nil Vi V.-l. Vll, i.jr- i li4 11^. CmAULk Wllll^M W.-.|iW..nrH.-<h. t'. K.r.a*
Ci.^.JuU- P.yihr, V„I V. l!lftj. |>| ■. r'-
K I' ^ANlh/ff -Krvttw..( ihc Nnrtt,
can ^iivciri ••( I'rdiopiiii Knicm.
l«h«, t>y, i6t IJ4. r. p. Van IhicK. \ rrvimim of ih*
AmrrHMn«pr«.ws<>t I'hlrptuu. ■ rr4ii«<
Kniom. Sim., iKm, I'V- 6|-)ta. }. SrAMiRNu. -Sp«t.w» «^ytMmj(ttncm Hnnwitit
frMium. ■ Hilufitf lUI k. Svcntlu Vei-Akad.
Handl , ihjft
V. KAhirH -Die Nurlli Amrm.n, ojircicii nl
<*naihiKlua. (\(n hntdni , ifMi, pp. 11-4J. M. A>.MMRAi>. A Kmrm tymipiii ..* th«
Hvintmopidj-. I,m..ni. Amcr., ^m.. pi,.
iaiii6 *^
P. Vam Ihitm -Rfvirwf.f the Nurth V -ri-
can ipccwi «»l Hvthoicupus. Kntutn. \ » r,,
iH^D. pp. iXi'Hg
Chahi F-> William W.N.i.wonrH N..rth Ameri- can ryphUtcyhmi. - P«ythr. Vol. V.iHHw, pp. ait >!4-
P. (hlliittb.— American l«al hopptra of the " ' ' PuK. V.S. Nat
C. W.
tubtamily Typhli)cyl>in.r.
Mut . Vol XX, iHgf pp. TOij 771 M. (KB"hn -llw srnua ScaphmdcuH. ■ J«»um. fin. S.M N41 HiM . Vol. XIX. .v«, pp. i»7- Mg, J ph
A, t. yiAiwTAv. ii,-0'ntn»)u!i«'na tr.warH 4 monoffniih til ihe Anwrnan Aleumduii . j.Hul- No, M, Trchnkal strict. I>iv. tntom., U. S l>fpt Aerie., ii.«, pp. i-A*
\. Sit.NMkKi -Kwai Mir IciCixhenillri. - Ann. *^'»' Kniom.de Kr^nLc. iS6»*-i(W)
.1. M ( MSTiMK 'KrPonnn»calcin!iect!i. • An- nua' Ktportof iheCommiiaionerol Arriculture (or th* year ilttto, Waiihinffton, iSSi, pp. J7&
). irCoM"! .. Second Rewrt on »cal«in*eilr including 4 nono^fraph of thr subfamily liia- spinx of the family tVxtiri.r and a liat, *iih notes. o( the otJter spec ie* ut stale inwcu found in North America Second Kept>rt ut the
Cornell Universiiy Kiperiment Sution, iSSa- »., "A- *1^*^- ^ ^' • "**3' PP 47 141, pis 1 4 W. H. AsHMFAiK— A generksynopsis of theCoc- cid*. <Tran». Anier. Kntom. Sk;., jNji, pp.
09- 103.
T. D. A. CfMicmBLL— Tables for the drlermina-
tion of the genera of OfctMlar. ■ Can. Kntom.,
i»tgg. pp J7t J7g; jju jr. T. L>. A. C.K KKHH 1,,— A cheik-Ii^t of the C'W-
cid*. Bui Mi. St. Ub Nat. Hist, Vol. IV,
iifc/i, pp n** Mu T. I». A. CiH KKHRi I .— First nijpplemeni to the
check-liMof theCiKickJ*. Hul. III. St. Ub.
Nat. H:st.. Vol. V ;.*», pp iHy jqN. T. l>, A C'(K KSRRi L.— A check-tiAl of the Nearc-
tit C f»tcul.e. ■ Can. Kntom , i''«i4, pp n 16, T. }*. A. CfKKKHPLL, -Table of North American
KefTnes.haftcdonextcrrulcharactent. -- Psyche,
W.
Vol IX. luoo, pp 4^4S
Nkwfi L -On the North American species of
the siihicenera riiaspidioni-i and Hemil>erlesia, of the Kenus Aspidiotus, Contrib, Iiept ZiKiI. Kntom., Iowa St (.oil. Ajfr-t.arid Meth. An?, Nti, I. Auitust^ iHgi,, R. A. CiMiLPV—'rhe CfKCMl Renera Chion.upis a^nd Hemichionaspis. • .Siwc. Bui, M
Agrit. Kxp. Sution, Aujiusi, iSyg pp. t,s. y pis.
N(..—Tlic Kcnu5 Krrmrx in North Anier-
Psyche. July. . (Oo. pp ?»( S4.
O B. Kin..
FkAN/ !/■;«.— Zur Systcmaiili drr " P^ylloden ■ Verh.d. k k, Z.-.l -Bot,.i;e,, m Wien. 1^7^, pp. ^»S 610.
Chdraitrn%ii' s anl tal^ie-i uf tlir l'Lri'[jean «t.t'- bmilir^ an'l t;enen bupcrtnle^ alt pvevluus t UMi6t.atiunk
W H AMiMiAn.-Oii the Aphidid* oi rWkfa wKlj •Icstfipiiona of n«* 4 pet ten I- .mily ('■y! Rl* tan, ► ■torn., Vol XH, iWi
Pl» ii iH
a**mj«..iw.rf . ..I „» ,„,„
C V B"-«V*?'"**J" ' '.1i*"*' Ai»*nir»n Psytlid*, . Pr.K: Hiolot. Sue. Wash.. Vol. [|. im*. ppi
A .l«»»in».| ItM ..fth*N..«h ^..-rrttinl' . II. !» hlit>*rt 'l«M»W.,..l, •i»h,h..r« ».«r„t^r.ii »..# Hr y„\ f*ii.ii(*^, an>l .te»« ni4f. :t* ,if ^,„i, «« H*<wf« rt«l nietirt.
C.W. Maliv, lSyitid.«l«oBdat \mcs Pmc.
Brmiamin |> Waish -«hi ihefeiwraofAphkU ^nd in .he I n..e^ States. fns:. Kniom. hoc. Phlla., Vol. t, i!«6i ittj, pp !-i4-jio.
Cym^* Thomas Notr;. of the Plani u.^ t.Hind n the I'niicd Stair- . Irani, ill. Hor /sTk:
t*n, pp. ijT *u.
A •*>!♦• ..( the (smily. iiKluitliw »h, i,,tM I. ■ rf,.f.-l„.e, (he .tevrti«l.m..7M,',^ -uU. «; nn-l acl.l* >lev n|4l..it« •« m. ,.* W
^"i'*i.L""T .*i''!"( 'h»«P^"'"< il.f irihe Aphtdini family Aphidx. found ' ih. I'niled bfiilcfl. which have been here(of..r' <i4mcd, v.itti dcacnptions of «,nje new spe. .. hul No.
1, 111. Si, Ijlmr, Na», H'-.i . i»7S, pp, j .&.
^' Y-..5'^"*/^.^ M..Niit.i.-Noie, ,.. the Aphidtd*oftbetniiedSia;e;i.withd MTi:..ion« of species .Kturrinc we»t of ilte MiM.ssi-.p., ■ Hu . I .S.<,eo|<i»,4nd <-.«r. Survey .^fee
klle* KUe^ I ,r !.t..l.«y .ikI .lev n|rt|..n ..f .^»r„i
Peftij*ytB.r . .\r,B»ll. .Ie>-rtj^l.„w, .»ilh 01 -
is^iMnal uMe*. ..f » numlier «* At»hiiUi».r.
CvHt H TH.'MAH.-KiBhih Report (.( iheStale Eii.
Iomol»i|i«l on the n^ tn^isand lieneficul ir«erts
of the Suie of lllimnH Third Annvat ReixTt
by Cyrus Ihomas. SurimttieW. i«-y.
Ihc rr|..rt trrti, wti.-r , -n the ,A,iht.lM ,. ,,f ,t,^ I 'ute.I >.UtM anil i. *n rnl.-i^r .,,nt .-ftl.e «.<tli.*« t«t«r In tlie Irjri. Hi l\..n- •>.,
Cboh(.i! R. Bi rKT«>N.-Mon<.!rf;i|,h of .he , iiish Aphides. 4 vols. Ray Son^iy, (.t.nd„n ,^., . 1881.
This U the latent Fur'iofoi •..tk .niht- rstiijU
li'tilalBinif uhlei. t.t th. .IHennliutlun il the
Ifrnera.
J. LirHT«N?*Tmw.-I*s Pureroni. Prtmierr 1 r-
tie. <ienera (ail published.) IViru, ifij,, j.^.
b»t»..r*|W.i*,.A'»Tiilirr •nrll t.MUf^ O. W (»FSTi.i ND.-Sym.psw of the Aph did.r of Mmne»..u. BjI \n. 4. <.rol.«. and Nat. Hial. Survey of Minn., Sr I'aul. i»*r. ' ,"; .^j"**"*'!.' ■* Kencrii symipsiK i.| |(i« Aphidid*. Kntom, Amcr , iwv,, pp. .St ifc. A. W.LI lAMs.-H. st-pUnt !,Mof North Amer- lean AphHlid.e. Spec. Hul. Nu.i,L'niv Nebr Deut. Kntom., iSgi. '
X ViEHHK.- Species veneris Corisa monoffra< phicrd.spojnta-. . Ahliandl. k.m. h<ihm. Oes. der Wis* Prag. Ser. j. Vol. VII, iSy. pp „j-
X. KiPiiPH.- Khymhotr^raphien. drei mon..- Iiraphiscfie Abhandlunitcn. Stn)coridr i i«y. carenus. Noionec(.e. . Abhandl kon. '(K.hm (.es der WiM, I'raif, Ser.j. Vol. VII.iHci vv
W. KiKKAi.r.v, ReviMonodhcNotonectidF Jsrtl. ■ Trans. Kntom. Sir. l,i.ndon ifc- pp. tgi-aaft
■FPH I.Kti.v.- History and anatr.my of the HemipterousgeniisHeloMoma. Joum.Acad. Sci P>iila.. Ser, 1. Vol. I, 1H47. pp ,7 -"V?. pt. .. >s in cjii k. KfUwaimomKraphiquc-iurles Bel- ostomwies. Ann. Sot. Kntom. de France """ pp. i7,t 4'».
Il*^v!l-. !''* 'V''i'"",'n'deni Mon.^raphisth bearbeilet. Verb, k. k. Zool. Bot! (jcs. in Wien, iH?!. pp. jvr44o.
4IS
BibUography
11
M.i..?t.w.itl* Ann. S... ' l.,m IWIui'V
Vir.fc. ,<.».! „.^,,.- « 11. - ■ •' -"•."
K, X. tll'"l'» liHKTt Mvli ■'"' " ■■ ' "I'l"' ..»llH'r(IlHJtWral«ni>« (jfr-i! .t^'tt ,">H|U \l>-
VI ! ilsi, in* iSi li J, ♦ ;■!» 11 M 1.111. Auiii' iiiif "11. »ilir 'H»«
k .1 Aki.ll >"rh i^tM, !•. >I «^■ , (I M Kn m^ Miiiii«ri|>»i'''. »»il>i«"r«ljnim
, Til. l.rremm. ■ A. t s.n.. f . ..n . > ■•' X'* ■
IV K Till' ^■.l^lil^ . .i_.l r, K. i;..n .l»" lhnn4«i .iU.ilnib>r K tlll«r .iurliin ihe ,ili|..»-4h..i„..l iVl. nil > Irtul.in 4IhI (l»«r Sur.!-,-, Viil. Ill ■■■ <. IW IH- UM 4M.
C St*t. Miin<i«rjphiril" 1 -illuHf < ,.irl,ina«
und Vifwwili-M tWrlmri Kmiim /nULbf.,
Vol. HI, .-*,. Hi , ■" J'»-
. SiTAt. lli'i.m till 1' iluvikltrm. knm crfm
|
■ |
rtlv.r. I Vci -AV.!.!. k."l. . .■«'■ • ■• )>^- |
|
o. |
M k»i*f*f N.*hi.i,i mivjict mitiu. i-iinll*. |
|
in,,,. . v, \l.,.l K.-li V..I XXIX, |
|
|
IS:*-!*; |
|
|
¥ |
A, Ikiiii ■""■■ '">""••'!' -1' /"^ |
|
IVarliril, .,'ir.: liH-..!. 1 "- |
|
|
,1, Kmiiii. M^ •■•■•. '' ' '"• |
|
|
Ijlllf 1. |
|
|
A |
Haii.i.ik~ii.- Miimcriii ■ .'. i PliynuinVn, Ann. k. k. Naimli. ft . ,<1.>1V •A""- |
|
1147. Vol. xn. pp. i*; *i" |
|
|
\ |
N CAiiim Tlimn... .'".<• i"IAin»-t •>"•! N, .lll«. .-Ji.uTi, N. \ ►■■■ S.K., M.ir.1.. |
|
K |
1.^1, pp. I 11, J I'l^ Br«..K..TH. S.i'^^ im.tb. >^;-",'''j', *!?''";.'.: |
Crm. Kntom. S..i. W«h.. \..l, H, pp. IJI-
. Suppl., I'uni. A*i4tM: Sih:. IH'hgii
l.VI f, P.1I II iWu.PP. Jcn.
|l„ .1,1, .1, -..flhc-i •l^.ll- IT*- • lil (1 M Kk. T1.K I , ..n.» e« AnuT. -1 liiirtjU in
MiiM-.iHiilrowini . .irval.t .. (ti -t k V«t.-
Akjil 1 irli.. iHjj. H' •'■rf- „ ..,„
(). M. kMici.. Uii.iiii. •. I.ymn.' rm har-
opjf. H.Umgf.irs. V ; >'•*''.; ^ "^i^-
\,.l-lll..Wi; \"l '> r'v\" ' ', '^^
M.»i i,„i..it«,,i I 1 U .(ih-' 1 '1;
H K. SiMMKBi. A K . ' . "', ..psiii _' tic Nc-
.irclir PcnHtomidi-. ■ l»ri)v Iowa A.aJ. Sii.,
E tw:'i.K»i\i..-IWilrMi: tu einer Mon.wphie ilcr Svhikioanurn. Cernur i ZclIKlir. I. h n- Inni.V.il. I, IS).., PP I t'- ,.^,K.,,,ii„M,. iin.l I ..Hiiip! ini ! ■ ,,
lera-Het*-r..i"cra. I'l IS. Natl. M"^ Vol XVI im, *5 5>. >-^'i > , I ,
P R rHii'K.-Sumnur> ■Mht-l"ydnile*»f N'>rtl»
r.s.(.
■ .i..
'ur^cy,
V
ell»i4iiv,..,-,*»*uv*M' '^" !e«HUrhtlM*"--"< Le». Han- I'Wo,
The Hr it tr srr (H«.lf.t .n . ^»--'.
I.Hil* ■ leu r»pece« "Iww ->«. Mirt*hi« r. ■■^vtcn
PHYSAPODA
H *i iKAV .\v V in m| J Irw I the .^i-i*
,.....■.-.-»- . — - l-nu^m M.*i.,
V .i nt. i'«K' fp **•* *>' < 1.
ter..u- lii*ect« in the oilietrlion m1 ihr Bniiith Muwiifi. (Vila .tiKli vol. Supplcm'"' ■ l-oo- d n,i-vj .M , . ^ M I
rtii* |'|.v-4i--U, ...ii.iil^'l fct.in IU!< ^ iitam.
- »il4i. *W tffAl^l IB .f" »uHili-r
M Hf '• t'tl^Ifl^wtiIJfla III « kin'*I«a«' "* * Tht «!* .1 I*pw». ■ PffK, Iw«a A.j'l .. -. \..l ill. iv. VP *'* "-r
I tM»vt.,, „.-,rf i in 1 %(«. ir^.
ORTHOPTERA
I.-
:AT.\i-'»tu rs
('. K. t'httf.
v.. I, 'II. i!<-7. re- rt'' •^' , ... J
S|,.N.>KFi. Keviainn tl.: itn»upe tl< ■^ 1. >-anwcs .U- U famillc cU-s l-VnuionnHts. v\mu»k.de USiKirlr liH'm. d« Kmnte. iS(i . ai.d subsc- nU'-flt vuluilK-* t«' iSa4: . , , . ,,,„.,, i :i Hus^v. -MoiK^raphia Anni>lun.r\im Hriun- in t. 'T an essay <.n the Hritisli -ilH' ut <»t para- RKK inwcts. I^mdon. i-S*!. s'' pl--- . L i; A, <;iMtFi. Insect! epii'M >u- .lul N.»ti- ' KrthirrenundV.iftelns.hin.in.IwinIrn tii-t-kt.-n NavhZeitbnunBtrnv<nl\ 1- Nu/s*h. Umi./ik, lf*T4, ao pis. . .
AmiKHW MrKHAY.-F.Li.nt.nm' 1 1»'. m . o^. -M" u-n- S"«"»» KenMnifton Mu^.-.,. . Scicnte IU,»d-<.">ks. I^.mlon jnd Nes^ \ 'rV, iH??. 1 hr IV.li. uh.li- Air trf jtuil cii I'i' ■ *-* >-■
SAMi'rM. H f^ vtii.ru - (^tatoijue n( ihccUicril>c4 Orth pten f the I'nited Sl^tt-n ^nd Cin^a <l*i.-^ l»4wnix»rt Acad Nil S<i %••!.
viu, *«.
S*llftt. li **<' iii'C^— A ..iu'"int» n* the Or-
thu|ilrr.i r.f N-tiri XmtTK-.t de*' rihcd prrticus
ti) 1^1* - >n)ilh«riinMn Initiiutum Mi34.el-
Un«t>u» t*'ilwi"'r» i^(. !'*''». _ ,
An Hi .h.»t.«-« il, n-'i »*n..nvtjikal, iuf .-f the
11— L<"AL I ISTS I. Slt)NE\ SmIUI — t '"hoPl'T-i c.f the SUtr r>| Maine. ■ Iff. C'Til-iml S.k. Sm. Ht«t ,*.8, PP 141 151 , . ,
A »>n inMiil .1! .nl.>t{i;« 1 ( thr "Mr nt
ill \innr viii. n J"-* -ti (1.. H . *
Cvm -Th.-ma- -a livi'.f the ()rtl.( p.i- - ,!h- nuis, Hul. nu Mu.t. N«l. Iii:t. So. 1 .V^j.
A >\'i 'filnii il list '.{ the (mhnjiter* (ounl In
C. \\ Ikhnlam. — The Ortlii.pUra .-■ Ne». tnnl.iiui '-Ann. Kl;.! Mass Ayr. Col, ,H^. iS' '-1. ...
W. Kll MNM! IIF!' - lUwniHlVe taWIORUe^ 1)1 the < trtbiipteM tnund within tiltv milc« of NrW V-irk I'ity. - 111. I. AniiT. Mus. Nil. Hist. Vol VI i>p. J5t 3" i'^*4.
Ill „(;FN^.RAI. %\ RK-^ tJN CLAShI
Ml , I l>i\ > H S. ri>i>rv — f'.iiidir in the penera .nd ^lassifi- , UKin .it the North American Itrtho^.j.a. I amhridne, Mass , i^r-
1 (,nms.»'.i!.|: -crii'> „ . . .
C. |li.t s\tk \«'N \S .\ ' II ^HM.,~Kevmnn Hu sy^U-me des ( »ril\.i;ilere«i, vt description des e'.|i<c5 •(pi'K'rtef. !>.ir M l..,)nardo Kea de lliTiMtniie ■ Ann Mii-4 v iv Slor. Nat. (;t.-n.-v* MM iS .: PP 1 :v J. G. AiMNi'-i S^«\ll.l F. — Itt^i-iif naiurelle des inv.-i.tcs » 'Tihopttres Fans i^'.). 77*> VP-
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, <*■,'
w
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18., . |>p. J-.J. E. Ul. Stl-V> I^INIX^'HAMI"" FT H. Hai.fn. — Mnn-
o2ra{>hie des Ca topic ry twines, <~ Kul. Acad.
HelK.. Bruswix. 1854. E. UK SkLV: I-<'N<.< HAM1-. HT H. HAfiKN. — Mon
ographifdesliomphines. <.BuI. Aiad. Beljj.,
Brussels, iK0. E. DK Sfi.v> I-<im.champs. — Synopsis des Aerio-
nines. Six parts. <Bul. Acad. he\g. Brus-
Rcls, iS6n jH.
E. iiH .Sflvs [>iN<XHAMrs. — SynopMsdes Cordu- imcs. <Bul. Acad. Bcle.. Imisscls, 1S71.
H. A. Mai. FN. —Synopsis of tlit Udouat.i of Amer- ica < Vntc. Boston Soc, Nat. Hist.. Vul. XVin. iK75.PP. a'>-'/»-
ttitiitltiK tlie kut'taiuily Atfn<>n^a.
E. i)F Shlvs I<4iN(^-HAMrs. — Sviufpsis d'/F.sch- nines. < Bui. Acad Hcljj.. iH.«*i.
K. Ill-- Sfi-Vs I^>n(,( HAMi-i — Kevision rfii S>Tinp.
Nis df!s ARrionincs. <,BuI. Acad. BcIk,, iS*V>. H. A- Ha'.fn. — Syiicipsis tif Uie Odonat jjenus
l.'-uttirliinia. *:'rrans. Anitr. J-ntom. Sue,
|H,,, pp. .1,, J,»,,
H -A. HAi.KN.—Svnopsi.tof theOdonai.i of North America. < Hsyrhc, Vol. V, i.HS., ,fi. N<(. 1, pp. 241 J5". t-aloptcr>'x ; Nu. 3, pp. 303 31)8, .\na«
F. F. Cai VFW I .—Catalogue of the (Monata {rtra^on-tlusi of the vicinity of HhiUdclphia. <Tran.s Amcr. Kniom. Skt., iH.jt, pp. 152- 172. 2 pis.
I) S KuLi.ii.iTT — 'n»e Odonata o! Ohio. <Ohto
Acad. Sci. S|>ecial Ha|>er N'n .:. iS^j. pp. 114,
t pis I. B Wii.i.iAM>^'N — Th" I»raKon-tlies of fndi-
,ina, <'ndiana fleolog. Kt-pt. t. i-y^j-i./jii,
PP "4 .11^. 7 i>t''-
EPHEMERID/E
F. J Pi' I FT — Ml^l<•lre riatiireile nen^raleet par- tiruiicrt.- des inseites Neuroiilt'ri-.s, Secoiide niono-
^.Taphu- : Kamille des Lithetn^rincs. Gcnev.l.
■ Jl4J 45
BsHjAMtN D. WAt!(M.— List of thf- Pwudoncur^ (iptera ot llhmiis contained in tliv cabinet of the writer, with descrintmns of over forty new spei'ies, and notes on tneir structural affinities. ,Pr<K. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.. 1*2. pp. 3f3i 4"J-
Till-, lajiff .i.ntains, .n ]n ^j-yA.i tilil.- ..f llic j(cm?r:i "i liiheri.t-n Iv Benjamin I). Walsh. — tlhservations on certain North .American Ncuroptera, hy H. Haftt-'n, M !>,. ot K«>enifEsberK, Frussu ; translated from the original French MS, and puhlished hy permission of the author, with notes anu descriptions (if alxmt twenty new North Ameri- can species of Fseud<ineuroptera < Prrjc. Entoni. Soc. Fhib., Vol. 11, 1863*4, pp 167-27J
CunMins a nm lifi* atiofi uf thf uMp -if ifrnpf.i if Ilihenn-n.! r. |u. i'y5-n*ft, a taM^ of tli*- -ui- timet "I '.Mriicim*. p. 251. an.l « ■■ S>nii(>ti .li tal'lp -irthe sul'Uiiii lies ')f the fjinily Uilnnati
A. E. Eat<in —A mnnojrraph on the Fphcmeridx Pr t I . The nomenclature of the Kphemerid.r . <Tian». Kntom. Soc. London. 1H71, pp, i-ifi4, <> pis.
A. E. Kat-in.— .A Revisinrul Monograph nf Re- cent Kplienierid.t. or May-tlies. <Trans- Linn. Soc. l..undon; iSS) Wi.O parts.
THYSANURA
K. W. V. Oalla T'lHKE — Hie r.att\in(jen und Ariin der Apterysoffenta. *'4(' FriKram k.k. Staat.\-<;vninasiuni. Innshruck. pp. 23, 1K.J5 .\ « .it,ifi',;,ir .it tlie kn-'un -i"-. n-,
A. 1). MalCii.iivkav-— A catalogue of the Thy- sanura ol Nurth America. <Caii. Kntom , iV,i. pp. 2''7 37*),
A. S. F\t K \Ho —Synopsis of tho Tliysanura of Kssex County. Slass , with descrinlii^n!. o( a few extralimital forms. < Fifth Annual Rt- p<»rt (if the Trustees of the Peabody Academy of Science fur tlie year 1S72. Salem, 1^7;), pp. 2.V5'
John I.rnn'M k. — MonoBrajih ot the C'llltembola and Thysanura. <~ London, Ray Socitly. i'<;i. Ttif intr »ti;' ti-'ii niics the fi>ll l-illi'hirn.liy up \-, ■ l.il.'
A. n. Mac (ill LivKAV— North American Thy- .sanura. III. <Can. Kntom., iS.jj, pp.
21^ J2>.
^>Tl.lp^is nf famfty jai'Viji i '"
A. 1) Ma( (iii-i-ivKAV— North American Thv- hanur.. IV. -.Can Kntom., I'^'jj. pp.
MTi ij".r, .-rfjinilics Aphiniri Ir m.t P -liin-ti- A. Ii MAifitLi ivKAV —North Aniencan lliy- sanura V. <Caii Kntom., i^iiA, pp. I ;5 II'..
•nn.i-s.-s nf lntomorryj li- an 1 hinyiiihuril.v A. I). Mai (iiLLivKAv -Th- Amencan si.ieciesof Isuloma -^tlan. Kntom iS./j, pp. 47-0
416
INDEX
Aaron. Carrie B., 366
Abe Lincoln buy, 313
Acalypter.c, go
Acanthiidx, 23S
Acanthomerid.v, 87, 130
Achorutes nivicola, 386
acknowledgments, xi
Acridiid.v, 322. 332, 341
Acrocerid:v. 134
Aculeat Ilymenoptera. The Habits of
the, 20 Adela, 203 Adler, 55
-Kciacus hirandinis, 288 Aedes, loi, 102 -Kschn, 374
heros, 365 v^i)schnid;v, 369, 373, 373, 374 Agallia sanKuinolenta, 244 aggressive mimicry. 142 agricultural am of I'tAas, the, 46 Agrionida*. 369, 370, 371, 376 Agromyzidr, qj, 1S7 alder Hies, 211 Aldrich, 144, 14; Aleuronia, 318
westwoodii, lis Aleyrodes, 247
citri, 247 Aleyrodicus, 247 Aleyrodidae, 230, 246, 247 ambush bug. The, 2y7 American C(Kkroach, 330
locust, 333
saw-fly, 75 Animophila, 20 Ampulex. 20 Ampulex ruficornis, 20 Anabrus purpurascens, 337 Anabrus simplex, 337 Anasa tristis I)c (ieer, 305 Anatomy of the Hlow-Vly, 164 Anatomy of the Cockro.ich. The, by
Miall and Uenuy. 330 Anax Junius, 374
Andrena vicina, 12 angular-winged katydid, 339 Anisops, 275 Anopheles, lot, 102
claviger-macultpennis-quadrimacula- tus, loi
crucians, 101
punctipennis, loi Anoplura, 32, 227, 3lf), 347 ant, black, 46
black carjwnter, 43 ant-decapitating Hy, life history of, 147 ant-lions, 126, 127, 219 ant, pavement, 43
red, 43, 4(1 Anthocorid.v, 271, 2S7 Anthomyia Flies, The, 171 Anthomyiid:v, 9<->, 171 Anthophorida:, 6, 7 anthrax, 3i, 131 ants, 37
Ants, liees and Wasps, Lubbock, 43 ants, honey, 45
nests, 128
solitary, 32
stinging, 39
stingless, 39
typical life history of, 48 ants, white, 353 Apathus. 15 Aphidid.t.'. 230, 363 Aphis-lions. The, 221 Aphorurid.v, 385, 386 Aphrophorin.v, 241 Ap.d.t.', 6
ApiiKcrid.X', 87, 136 Apocephalus pergandei Cotj, 147 Ajjoidea, Superfamily, 3. 4 apparatus, collecting, 3^^rJ aquarium, the, 399 aquatic insects, collecting, 395 Aradid.r, 272, 2iji), 298 Arudus crcnatus Say. 298 .■\radus similis Say, 298 Archytas, 158
417
ii
Index
' i i;
Arilus crislattis I,,, 294
armored scales. 254
army worm. 159
Ashmead, \V. II., xi, 2. 12. 20, 31, 32,
33. 4'). 5^>. 59. 73 Asilid.u, vSH, 136, 141 Asiloidea. Super-family, SS Asilus sericeiis, 143 Asirnlulum muntanum, 117 assassin buy;s. 2<j3 Aster. 114 Atherix, 126 Atropid.i', 352 Atwood, 327
Australian (utkroach, 330 Axima /.abriskii, 8
Itactha, 150
back rolling; wonder, 340
baik swimmers, The, 275
li.uus, 51
llaik-y, W. W . 212
Hank*., Nathan, xi, 218
bark liie, 113, 250
bat ticks, i()o
beating; net. 39I
l>cdbuy, S2
bed-t.u>; family, the, 2S3
bcd-lui^. Life history of. 2^9
bee, I'timble. 6
commun carpenter, 10
cuckoo, 7 bec-tlies. 137
bce-dy. typical life-history of. 138 bee hives. 126
h(»ncy, (i
larye carpenter, 9
mason, 10. » i
small carpenter. S bees, blunt-ton^ued burrowing;, 12
leaf cnttinii;, 10
obiu'^e-ton^ued carpenter. 12
parasitic. 11
potter. 1 1
sharp tonj^ued burrowjnj,', 12
the true, 4 lleiostonia ameiic.inum, 27S Ilelostom.tihi.t 271. 27S Henacus ^li^eus Sav. J7S Herylid.i-. J7J. V") llelhe. A!brr(lit. 41 lletlnlid.t. 25. 33 lieutfiimtillfr \V , , 365, ^^O bihid aibipennis, 1 ii; Itibumid-c, ^(^. i i') liibiouoiilca. Super-family, 85, 86 biblin^»raphy. 4"=; biv:-eycd llit-s. 14') bird 111 c, ?2. 347 bird ticks. iS?, i8y
biting lice. 347 l>iltacomorpha. ()$
clavijx's Kab., 95 Hittacus, 207 black ant. 4f) bl.ii k lieetle. 330 black carpenter ant. 43 black cricket. 342 black (lies and bufTaio ^nats, 120 black Hy. So black horse fly, 132 Itlepharocera capitata I.oew, 125 Ulattid.-e. 322. 329 Hk'phanKerid.i*, 86. 124 missus Icucoplerus Say, 310, 311 blood-sucking cone-nose, 293 blow-rty, 164 blue-bi)ttle flies, 164, 166 Itoisduval. 49 liombid.r, 6 Ikimbus tx)realis, 14
fervidus Fabr., 12, 14 llombyliiil-v, 87, 88, 134, 137 IJonnet, 262
book-lice and their allies, The, 350 ItorlM)rid,c. 92, 1 87 lioreus, 207 t«Jt-flics. 155
bot-rtics. typical life history of. 155 ISolhriothorax, ?7 bottle, the cyanide. 401 box elik-r plant bu>;. 305 iJrachycera. 84, 86 Hrachjdcutcra ar>;cntata. lS2 l!r.icliy|K'phis maj;iius, 333 lirauer. L., 207. 217 Itrcwer. W. A., l52 bri^llclails. 3S0 Hucklcy, 3«;6 iiuffalo i^nats. 120
tree hopper, life historv of the, 239 Ituj^'oiiia Nlyth, 153 buys, the true, 226. 269 bumblebee. 6
life history of. 12 Iturns, KoU-rt, 316 Hurroujjhs. John. 344 burrowinjf Ik'cs, 12 Husck. Aui;nst. 33 iluttertlies of the Kastern I'niied States
and C'.mada. Tlie, by Scudder. 61 butterfly T.ook. The, \V. [. liuiiand.
!\
button IhiIIs of sycamore, 31 1
cabinet, preparing insects for tlie, 40J
cabinet. The, 403
Cadibs flies, 195. i((6
Cenis, 7()
Calliphora crythrocepliala, 164
Vi
41S
■■■
)i
rallotertnes. 358
C'alopterygiil.s, 369, 370
C'alopterjginx' 370
falopttryu, 370
I'alypterat.v, (Iroup, 8g, qo
Campodeid.v, 381. 384
C'aniix)notid;v,3()
t'aniponotus pcnnsylvanicus, 43, 48,
"47
Camptobrochis gramli'i, 301 t amptimeura picia, 176 Canadian Kntomologist, 2^5 cannibal bugs, 2()3 Capsid.i', 272, 3"' Caratomus, 351; Carolina loiust. 333 carpenter t>ccs, 8, (). 10. 12 cat and dog Ilea, life history of, I(>3 ("atalpa speciosil, 184 tecidomyia destructor Say, 113 larva'. 118
legumenicola I. int., its Cecidomyiiil galls. 114 Cecidomyiid.c-. 53, Slj, 113 Celtis, 25c> CVphid-v, 6() C'ephus pygnmus, (k) Cc-r.itina dupla, 3 I'eratinid.c, 6, 7 C er.ititis capitata, 17S I'eratopogon, 11 1 ( er.ilosmia (Osmia) lignivora, 10 Cercopida', 22c). 241 Icreia bubalus, 23') t'h.itopsis.vnea, 176 ( h.iliidid p.ira>ile, 25^1. 2;7 Chalciiliiidca, 3
Cli.ikidiiidca, Super-family, sfi clialcis Hies, 41), 53, jfi
|).irasile (tn lacc-winged lly, 224 ch.iUis llv, life- history of. 57 Chalybioi; i.trulcum. 22 de I'harmoy, I iKmmcrc/. 20 Ch.iulicHles. 211. 212 L'h.iuliiKles, lim.itus, 21 1
[x-ctiniiorni-> I-.. 211 cheese skipper. 1 71) chicken Ilea. ii)3 chigger. I'i3 chigoe. Ii)3 chinth-bug, :)!" chinch-bug f.iniily, the. 310 chinch bug, life history of, 1X1 t'hionea. <j"i
t'hironiiniid.v. 8s, 110, 3(12 t hironomus. Ill, 112 niinutus. 1 1 1
plumosus. 1 10 chisel, 3q2 1 liittenden, V. II.
\i. 140
ladcx
Chlorochrnn ronici, 236 Chloropsassimilis, 183
graminca, 183 C hrysididx, 25, 32. 33 Chrysis, 32
coTulans, 32 (hrysop.i oculata Say, 234 Chrysopi<l.e, 2iu, 222 ChrVsops, 132, 137 Chrysopsis, 114 cicada, annual, 22 t'icada emarginala, 233 cicada, large dog-day, 22 Cicada septendecim 1... 233 Cicadas, 231 Cicadid.e, 22(), 23I Cimb-x aniericana, 75 Ci -lie.,., ■, 271, 28S Cinura, 380, 381, 384 Circotettix verruculatus, 334 Clemens, Samuel I- (Mark Twain), 41 Cleptcs, 32 Climacia, 221 Clisiocampa americana, 64 Clisiocampa disstria, 64 Cloon, 79
clover seed midge, 115 Coccida-, 230, 24(1, 250 CcK'cinx, 154 Coccinellid.e, 258 cockroach, American, 330 Australian, 330 domestic, 20 Kuropean, 130 (ierman. 330
cockroach' s. 321). 331
Conomy'd.f. 12')
Coleoptfra, 71)
collectirg and preserving insects, 389
collecting apparatus, 381)
coiicx ting aquatic insects. 31)5
collecting different orders, y)4
collcctini; forceps. y)2 shears. 31J4
Collenibol.i. 3S0, 3.S5
Collctid.e, (<
ciunb-horned lish-tlv, 211
Cunistock, I It., 124. '28, 134, >3q- 145, 147. 149. "17. "W. -'*'• 237. 21)3, 21)-. 2c)3. 304. 313. 3'j8
cone-nose, blixxl-suckiiig, 243
loniopterygidc, 210. 218
Coiiiupiervx vicina, 21S
Corioccphalus. 344 ensiger. 344
ConopiiI.e, 81), 154
Conorhiiius sanguisuga, 2'i3
Cool;. <>. !•■.. 3^5
Copidosniii;i. 57
Coipiillc-tl, D. W.. .\i, 83, 07. 1'"^ "'
4IQ
mmm
Index
rf
■ K
Cordulegasterid.T, jCm). J73 lordulid.v, 360. 375 t oreid;v. 370, 272, 3114 C'orisid.i. J73 t'orixa 273, 274
femorata, 273
mercenaria. 273 Corixiil^. 371, 273 Corrudentia, 350 forydalU cornuta I.., 214 Corythuca arcuata Say. ya cutton Mainer. 30S
cotton stainer and its allies, The, 307 cotton stainer, life history of, 308 cott-"!! 'ishion stale, 21 S Co.ille, K. v.. 14, 15 C'owper. \V.. 342 Crabronid.v, H) crane tlifs, 94 crane Hy. lift: history of. 05 creeping water bugs, 'rhe. 2S0 cricliets. 341
western. 337 croton bu;;, 330 fryptoccrata, 273 Clen<iphnra. 95 cuckiK) l>ee. 7
Hies 3'.'
Hies, so called, 25 Culex. nil. 102
pun^-ns Wiedemann, 104 Culicid.v. ^5, (>S currant worm. imp<irted, 74 Curric, Kolla I'., xi i'ursoria. 323. 329 Curtice, Cooper. IS7 Curtis. John. 37S Cuterebra. 155 cyanide bottle. 401 Cyclops. 51
Cyclorhapha, .Section, 84, 89 Cynipoidea, 3. 49, 53 Cynipoiils, 54 Cyrtid.c, 134
daddy-Ion;; le^js, ()4 damsel-flics, 370 d-ince-riies. 144 larv.e of, 145 1 )avidson, .'\,. 32 death watches. 352 deer flies. 131, 132 Delphacin.i', 23; IlelltKephatus ininiicus. 245 llerniatobia cyaniventris. 155 l>croin;ia annulata Hi^ot. 142 del ;i'~ darning needles. 3113 devil's riding horse. 295 Dexia. 162 l>cxiidx, 90, 162
Diamoru* labriskii Cres.. S Piapheromera femorata Say. 323 Uiaspin.e. 254 Diedrmcphala. 244
mnllipes. 244 differential locust, 333 digger wasp, life history of, 22 l»iopsid.e, 92, 179. l8u Diphisis, 113, 265 Ihptera, xi, 79. 80, 81. 10^. I?^.
methftds of collecting. 395
table of the higher groups. S3 IHssosteira Carolina, 333 I)ixa. 97 Dixid.i-. 85. 97
dobson and its family, the. 211 dotwon. life history ■ f. 312 dog-d.iy ^ icada, 22 dog-day harvest fly. 232 I>olirho|x>did;v'. 8' 144, 145 I>ysdcrcus lutureliu^, 308 dragon-flies, 3(^3
tabic (■< families, 368
true, 372 drone-fly, 152 I>rosophila ampelophila, 1S5
flaveoi.i Meig. I ■<») i trosophilidx, 92, 185 dung tlies, 173 dusty. wings. The, 2t8
earwig-. 34c Katon, !7H
Kctobia K'"Tnanica, 330 Edes, Kc.'>crt. 343 Klachistiii.i', =8 electric light bugs, 278 Kmbiid.c. 353 Emcrton. J. H., 8, 12 Eniesin.X'. 294 I'mpld.v. Sa I'.mpididx. 144 Kmpis, 144 Knallagma, 371 Enchenopa hinotata. 23S Encyrtus egg, 50 Entilia siiitiata, 238 E:nlom<ibryid.>-. 3S5. 3S7 Kphenierida, 377. 379 Ephydrid.e, 82, 92, 182 Epi.ischua heros, 374 Kpidapus scabiei. It.8 Eprolxjscidea. SulM)rder. 83, 93 ergatoids, 38
Eriocampoides limacin.i, 7O Eristaiis tenax. 152 Erythroneura vitis. 244 Euantha liturata. |62 E;umenes (rateraa, 3a Eumenid.c, 30
1S9
420
Index
Eup»lmu« mirabilis, 340 Euplectriis comstcKkii. 57 Euplcxoplera, 345 Kuropcan icickroatli, .130 Kuschistus servus, 314 Eutermes nigriccp^, 35'' Kuvanessa untiopa. 51
Kabre, J., 21
false chinch bug. 310
false crane flies, 125
false rear-horses. 217
Kaxon, Waller, 343
Kelt, K. r.. li, 2<'7
Kernald, C. II., lOo, 2^1
liclil cricket, ,143
hsh tlics, 211
lish-tly, comb-horned. :ii
tishnii'iths, 380, 382
Kitch, A., 141. 344
tlal bark-bui;s, the, 2ij8
flat-footed tlies, 140
Hata, 23(1
Hatina-, 235, 236
flea-lice, 25y
ilea, life history of the cat and dog,
'<)3 fleas. 19I
flesh flics, The, 1^3 flies, S3 alder, 211 bee. 137
dance, and lonK-leRged. 144 flat-fcK)tcd, and big-eyed, 14') fish. 211
fruit and gall, 177 gad or horse, 131 harvest, 231 little house. 171 roblicr, 141
small-headed, and tangle-veined. 134 stone, 3(>i syrphus, 150 151
the anthomyia, 171
the Ixit, 155
the caddis. 195
the dung
the flesh. 163
the golilen-cyed l.ice-wini;eil. 222
the grass stem. 183
the humpbacked. 147
the little fruit flies. 185
the nimble, l(?
the s:ill-water. 102
the si-orpion, 206
the snake, 216
the tachina. 158
the thiik-hcad. IC4
the true. 71)
window, and stiletto. 139
flower bugs, the, J87 fly. blue-bottle, 164, 166
;;rrcn-lMitile, 1(14
hcli^r.iuinule. 212
life history of a scorpion, 2"7
the house. iWi " flying adders." 363 Forbes, S, A.. 52. '^f'. 245 357 forceps, collecting, 31J2 forest fly, 188 Koniculid.v, 34fi K<»rmi'"a, 43 Korm.coidea, 3
Kormicoidca, Sniier-family, 37 four-lined leaf-bug, 3i>2 l-,.<. W. II., 147. '48 frit fly, 184
frog-hopi)er5 or spittle insects, 24I frosted lightning hopper, life history
of, 236 fruit and gall flies, 177
flits, the little. 185 I'ulgorid.e. 22i), 235 K'llvius anth(x;oroidcs L'hl, 30I fumigatnr, 31)2 fungus gnats, 117
gad flies or horse flics, 131 gad-fly, 80
life history of. 132 (Jalcnicella luteola. 301 (lalgulid.c. 271, 281 Gal^ulus oculatus Fab.. -^ gall-gnat, life history of. i gall-gnats. 113 gall-flies 53 guest. 55 parasitic. 55 gangrene. 8(t garden flea-h.'pper. 30I (lastrophilus. 15s C.aurax anchora. I S3 Ceoniyzid.e. ()2. 187
(ierman cockroach. 3;o
giant water bugs. The. 27'
(iil>-on. William Hamilton. 2
gigantic bed bug. the, 2<)3
golden-eye. life histury of. 224
goklen-eycd l.,ce-wingcd flies. 221
goldi'n rod. 114
golilwrspcn. 32
Clomphid.c. 369. 372
tiompliin.e, 372
Gomphu^ vastus W.ilsh, ,-.72
(ionio.'iis, }t)
gra[)e-viiie rhyllo.\cr.i. 2(15
grasshopper, life history of. 334 lublH-r. 333 shorthiirned. 333 western, 333
. 25l
'.38
421
Index
grasshoppers. 320
green. 3.V>. 337
The lontj-horned, 33f), 337
The shurt-horneil, 333 C.Mssi, II., i()2, i;.'* Cir.ivc. t aMvcll, grccn-boitle ll>, 1I14 ferien (lies, 74
Rrasshcippirs. 336. 337
soklier l)li>;. 314 <irts-><)ria, 323 Krul), 155 Rrubliy laiilc, 155
I .rviliil.i . 322, 341 (ir\IIu< il..mc^titus. 34a
iift;leitiis. 343 KUest i.;.iil.|Iirs. 55 KVpsy nidth report (!'■)(.). 31!; l.yropUl.i-, 34(,
haliitsnf 'I'c Acultate Ilymcnoptera, 20 h.u kbtrry trfcs, 259 llaJronittus anas.i-. yyd
II t-maliiliia serrata. i(j6 1 lal'liMiian. S. S.. 212 Hall' lu>. 12
paralklus, 12 llaliil.iy, .\. II.. ,3 llaltuiis uhkri ( n.ir.l. 301 hanil lens. 31^3 llarriiiKIon, \V. II., 344 Hart, ( . A.. 95. I2f), 121), 132, 245 harvL-st rtu's. 231 har\f't-nv. 22
do^-.l.ty, 232 havers.kili. 3,(3
hawthorn lace Utg, life Iiisiury of, 300 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 344 hf.irth cricket. 342 Hebriil.c. 273 heel liy. 155. 150 Ileldeni.inn, t',. \i, 270. 2^4. 298,
3'>i. Ill Hellcobia, i'p5 'H■li^:l.lml^^• il\ .212 heli;;ramiiiite-. 21 1 Heloi^i ..'iil.e, 1)1, 174 Hemeroblul.i-, 210. 221. 222 lleniiptera, 3?b llcniiplera. some p .Ints on nielhi«ls of
collecting, VM Heniipten. table (,f suborders, 227 Henicoeephalui.c . 272. 2()2 llenioHephalns cullcis llil.. 2.)2
fornii. iiiis Ihl., 2<^^ llertnelui. 12S
illllcens, 12*^ Hevsi.ui (]y. s,,, 1 1 ■J Iletienna. "170 Ilctcroncurid.e. iji, 173
Meterophaga. 3
Heteroptcra, xi. 227. J69, 270, 347
table of famdleii, 270 llippelates, Si Hlp|«ibosca equina, IS3 lllp|>olx)s( id.e, 93, 188 Hirnioneurj, 134 Hinloternies, 35*) Holland. W, J., ix Ht»lnies. (). \V., 337 Holoriinista. 9$
Kraiulls. ()5 Honioptera. 227, 228 Homoplcra. table of families, 229 Homalomyia brevis, 171
canlcularis. 171 honey ants. 45 honey ants and the Occident ants,
the. 4(1 honey liee. 6 wasps, 25 hop plant louse. 265
I Ife history c>f. 2t»5 Hopkins, A. 1)., iiS horn-tly. I(i6
horn-t.iil larv.e, parasites of, '>8 horn-lail, life history of. 71 horn-tails, (11) hornet, bald f.iced, 27. 28
of Kn^jland and Kurope, 2(> horse tiles. Ho, 131 horse slin;;ers ;'>3 house cricket, 342 house-iiy, Sn, .Si , 32 and lis Ne.ir Uelatiors, The, iWi life history of, 1^7 Hubb.ir.i. II. 1; . 81. 121, 184, 351), 351.
35'". 35» huni|i-backed Hies, 147 Huxley, I., 2fi2 Hydrotnres, 2"3 Ilydnu uris.f. 2, 3 Hydroinrtra liiieata. 285 llydrometrld V. 271. 273, 283 Hydropsychld.e. Ii;7. 204 Ilydroplilid.i'. Ii>7. tot Hy;;rc(techus remiy's. 2^4 Hymenoptera. \i. I. fii). 71)
internal feedin^j p.irasitic, 362
parasitic. 51. 55, (>-
-.onie points on iiicthcds of cullect-
i'lii. 3<W Suborders. Table of, 2 Superfaniilics, I .dilc of. 2, 7 hymenoptcrous p.ira^ilcs ol Jr.lgnn-Hv,
3«) Hypchlenn.t Ui\is, M5 liiie.ita Villers, 155
ichneumon Ilics, ^}, 61
422
ft'i [kj
iDdca
ichncuinon fly, life history of, 'n
Iclineumonoiilea, 3, 'n
imported curiam worm, 74
insects. collcitinK ami presening, ^»q rollertifiE ai|uatu . 3')5 (or the cabinet, preparing. 4"' killing anil preserving, 401 rearing different kirn's of, ,ti/i
Internal parasites, Imw they live, 4')
inlroiUiction. vii
Isoptera, 353, 354. 355
Jaly!>us spinosin, yx) Japygid.v. 3S1. 3^4 Jassid.i , JK). 243 Jassoiilea. 243 jumping planl-lice, 251)
katydid, 337
angular-winged, 330
"song," 321
typical life history of, 330 Katydids. 320
Kellicott, 1>. S., 3'.9, 37» 375 Kellogg, V. 1... '0?, io<). 34* killing and preserving insects, 401 Kirkaldv, i: W., 274 Kirklan'J, .\. 11., 315 kis'ing bug, 2()3 koo-chah-l)ee, iiia Koppen, K.. 3115 Kra;mer, 55
I.a Fontaine, 3<)
I.aboullicne, li)2
lace bugs. The, 2<y)
lacewing tlv. To
lace-winged llics. the golJen-eyed, 2r2
lace-wingcd insects, 2og
ladybirds, 35S
I.i'lius trogodermatis Ashm., 34
1 uniborn, Robert II., 3t>6 lantern-tiies and their allies, the, 235
l.aphria, 1)2
larch saw-tly, 74
Largus succimlus 307
I.asius, 42
leaf-bug, typical life history of, 302
leaf bugs, I he, 301
leaf -cutting bees, 1 1
leaf-fo .ted plant bug, 304
Ieafhopi>er, tvpicd life history of, 245
leaf hopixis. the. 243
I.eb.i-uf. .\, If"'
l.ecaniin I, 254
IxeuwcnlKicl,. 317 l.eidy, Joseph. 60
lens, han.i, 3<)3
Ixpidm yrtus americanus, 3S7
Lepisn>uiid,v, 3S1. 382
I.eptid.e, 87. "6 I.cptmerid V, IQ7, J03 I.eptcK ris trivittatus, 305 I.epti>g.vilcr 1 ;J I.eptoglossus phyllopus, 301 l.estes, 3.M I.cthierry, 2Si| I.eucopis, 1S7
T.ibellula jiulchella I irj'y. 37" I.ibellulas, 372 I.ibellulid.v, ;.6o 375. J7'' lice, the true, Jifi
lilt- History of a bee-ily, typic.l ; ■,' bumblebee, 12 I'halcis lly, 57 common walking-slick, 3.-3 crane lly, <>? digger wasp, 22 j;.id lly, '32 gail-g'.i.it, 115 golden-eye. 224 grasshopper. 334 homta'i. 71 katydid, typical. 33<) leaf-bug. typical, jol Iraf-hopper, typical, 245 mi'ige, I ti mtH.iuiui, 104 parasitic wasp, 14 pear-tree I'sylla, 2fx> rear-horse, 327 scorjiirm lly, 207 water-slrider,, 2.s^ v,hii.- lly, l)pical, ■.i47 ichneumon tly, 04 an-s, typical, 4** b'i!-lties, typical. 155 stiii!< bugs, typical. JI.| iv;;sns, typical, 3;! I ik History c! the ant-d...v api! itin'^ fly, 147 Iwd-bus, 2S1) buffal.. tree hopper, 23') cat ;uid d.'g Ilea, l%i cl-ii-.:l.-l3i'.g 311 cot.jn stainer. 30^ dobvin, 212
fri. ted lii;ht'>i"S hopper, 236 irawtliorn lace b ig, 3'"^ hop t>!iiit louse, 26; ho»s<:.tly, 1S7 nysti.(-si,cii bark louse. 2^5 ' ijcar slug." 76
'■ seventeen > ear l.xust," typical, 233 stjuash bu,;, ,105 wheel bug, 2ih l.ininephiiKi v, I.j7, IiW l.in.nobates bneataS,iy. 232 l.imnobatid.i . 271. 252 I.ininobia, 95
4-'
tatmJk
lades
•'71
Limoaiiu, 187 Limmina renalicius, 1S7 LiotheiJ.T, 340 IJpoptcna. 181, littM house flirn. lociist, 2}t
Ameriran, 313 I'arolina, 333 differt-niial, 333 migratory, 333 rul-lenijf,!. 313 twivstrip.il. 333
typical life history of the ' seveiii> , . year," J33 IxKUstii! c, 3.'i, 3i((. 341 locii'its, true, 332 Lomh.ia [tMlita, 175 IvOncheitl.f, iji, 175 I^nchoptera, 14(1
lutea, I (f> Lonchoplrri.l.v, Sc). i (6 long-horned ^rasshcppers. The 116
337 long-leKKi-d flji-i. 144 14; I.opidta m'dia ."^ay, VM I.owne's Wnalnmyiif ilie Illi)w-Hv,iCi4 lubbei K'-'sshonper, 311 I.ubbock, .Sir John, 43, 44, 146, 3S3 l.ucilia Civsar. 164 1-"KK". O.. 220 I.yga.id,i-, 272, 310 I.ygaids. 307 l.ygus pratensis, 301 lyre-man, 22, 232
Macrnnem.i zebralum, 205 malignant pustule, .■'o, 131 Mallophaga. 82. 347
table n( families, 2A') Mallophora. 142 Maaiiil.i'. 322, 32f), 3; j Mantis rcligiosa, 327 Mantispa itiierrupta, 217
robint ., 217 Mantispiil.i', 210, 217 marth-flies, iic, Marganxlcs. 22i Mark Twain 41 Mark Twain's " Chamr. s.' Marlall. C. 1.., 13, 27. 3(1, marsh treaders, Tlu-, 2S2 Martin. J. (),, 2S5, 39{i Marx, (;™rge, 353, 404 ma.son bee, 10, i ( Mason, O. T., 31 may flies, ^l), yn, ^,2, 377 Mc'"o'jk, II. ( , 4(,, 4S M-'l.arhian, K,. i.|,5 M earns, K. A., 366 Mecoptcra, 2o<.
' I'l.l 224,
33"
>rderH,
^legachilida-, A 10 Megarhinus, 101, 102 Meg.istignui*. 55 de Meijere, 14(1 MrlanolMte* piciiie^. ii,i Melanoplus atlanis Kiley, 334
bivltlaliiH, 333
differeniiali<, 333
femur-rubrum, 333
spretu», 333 Melophagus ovinfis, i<S Membr.icida', 221). ^37, 241 .Meromy/a amrritana. 1.S3 Metap<«liuH ftmoratiis, 304 methoils of collecting; different
... y^
Miall, I., ( ., viii, 274
Miall and Denny, "The .\natomy of
the foi kroarh," 330
Miall and Hammond, in
Miall and W.dker, Tram. Knt. Soc.,
I.onilon, iSi)5, io,S
.Micrixentrum reimervis, 33r)
Micnnlon. 150. 152
Miiropejiil.v. qi, q2, 17,,
midge, life history of, 111
midges, 81, no
migratory locust, 333
mimicry, aggressive, 142
Monomorium minutum, 40
pharaonis, 43, ^(,, 47
Monostegia ros.i-, 74
Morrlos or.inge fruii worm, I7,s
Morse, A. I'. 334
Morse. K. S., 241
mosquito, life history of, lo.)
mosijiiitoes, 80, 81, M2, <>>, 102, 103
moth-flies. The, lo.S
mour.i.ng-cloak buiterHy, 51
mud-ilaiibers, 22
mud minnow, 27S
midr killiTs, 127
Mmult, .\. II., 3(11;
Murgantia histrionica llahn 313
Murtfeldt, Miss Mary V... 20
.\Ius.-a donu-siita, ibb, ifi7
Muscid.i-. 1/1, III,
Musioidea, .^uprr-familv, »■,
museum pi-sis (di-rniistid beetles), 34
.Mutilliil.i, 25, 32, 33, 37
.^Ty(■etophil:^, 117
M\ietophilid.e, S(t, 1 17
Mycetopliilids, iiS
Mydaid.f, 87, 13(1
Mydas.ilifs, 13(1
Mydas (ulvipes Walsh, I3fj
lutcipcnnis l.oew, 136
myiasis, 11.3
in\i,isis interna. 171
-N'vniariil.e. 247
424
ill
IHL
^^«I
■■Mi
Mynpa. 154
Myrio|:KMU, 380
Myrmelconid.r. 910, 2it)
Myrminil.i-. 3i>
My1tlu*tni<i iMiniMrum lloucht-, 3$5
My/initi.v. 31, 33
Nu(ui>ricl;v, 371, aJto
N><t;irinia, 7(t
Ncciiham. J. * i. xii. air, 313. 331. 373.
, 37''. 179. 3'j| Ncmatid.i', 73 Ncmutus criihwnii. 74
rilwwii, 74
vtnlralis Say, 75 \cmc«ilriniil V, H7. 134 Ncm<K:tr:». ^ubscction, ^4 Ncc»pn)sopis. 13 Ncpa, 276. 277 Ncpid.i. 371. 376 nt'I, sweeping; or t^atiny, 31^1 net, ihc, 3P9 nrt. wattT. 301
Nenroctenus simplex Uhl., 2*)S Neuronia. 198
Nfurtmia semif.isciala Say, l<)!i Neuroptfra, 2(>)
Neuropiera. Tahle of Families, 310 Ncuropitroid series, xi. 30 Newport, 7, 49 Nc/ara hilaris Say. 314 nimblf (lies. The, 162 Nomaiiid.v, 6, 7 no-set'-um, II I Notdnecta. 275 Notc)nt'Cl.i unduUta, 275 Nolont-ititl.t . 271, 275 NycleribiiiLf, fji, iijti Ny/ius anyustatus Uhl., 310, ill
Oiionata, 3(^13. 3')3, 371 (.)dontt)myia. I2'i. 12'j
cincta, I2t>
verlcbrala, I2i> Odynrrus. 31. 32 Uaanthus nivcMis. 343 <Kstrid.i'. <><>. 155 (Kstrus ovi-*. 155 Olfcrsia amcritana. 18S Olij^otoma hiilibardi. 3(mi Oncr^nathus binotatiis, 301 onion fly. 17* On iicyrtus anavi-. 30f> ophthalmia, purulent, Bl C)uht.-limum vul^arc. 337 order*^, some points on methods of
collecting different. 3c;4 Orjjyia leuco>tii,'ma, (14 Ormenis pruinosa. 236 Urphncphila tislacea, 124
Isdtx
Orphnephilid.i-. ft6, 134 Oruliil.i', cji 175 Orthopicrj. }2ti, 334
Mime points on methods of collecting,
Orthorhapha. Sectiun. ?*4 Orytsid.i", (m)
CKlM>rn, llcrJjcrt. Ilcj. 343 Ovinid.i-, (}!, 1S3 (Kmia larva. 1 1 (Kmiin.i-, 10 Ostrn Sai ken, H., 153 ojt hot. It? ox warble, lyfl Oxybclid.v, 19 C'xybelus nuadrinotattiK, i*) oystcr-sheli hark loii>e. life hiMory of. 355
I'ackard. A. S.. lo. iio
I'anorpa, 206. 207
I'anorpa rufesccns Kamb., 207
Pant-rpida . 95. 307
I'apiriid.v. 3H5, J^y
I'arasita. 316
parasitic bees. II
aaW tlies, 55
Ilymenoptera, <!i
wasp, life history of. 34 parasites, how internal, live, 49 parasites of horn-tail larvA-, 68 parasites, pr.K ti^trypid, 49 pavement ant. 43 pear s\u^, life history of, 76 pear-tree I'sylla, life history of. 2f)0 ret k ham, (it-o. W. and Kli/at)cth <i., tS I'eckhanu. Phc. iq. 20, 31. 30, 33 I'edicia all>ovitlata Walk.. 95 I'ediculus vestimenti. 317 IVyomyia vicina, 1 72 relecmiil.i', 51 relecinu** [Kihtiiratnr, 52 iVlDtoris fcnior.iia. 2!'0 relop.tii'*. 22 rentatuniid.i-. 272, 313 rcnlatiimids, 270 I'epsis f(irnin*>a. ly^ reri^antli-. rhetKJor, 20, 54. 140, 147. 193 IVrui.ma talifcrniensis, loS
canesicns. luS IVriplaneta aniericana, 330
au'<lralasi.r. 330
ii.'ientaliv. 330 IVrkins, K. l". !,., 12, 20 r.iit.la-. 3bi i h.tlangiida'. ()4
I'hanuni^ tabanivorus Ashm.. 133 I'hasniidi-. 322, 323. 326 I'hila-nus lincatu-i, 241
spuniarius, 241
4^5
.^.
v>
MICIOCOfV MSOlOTtOw TBI CHA«T
,ANSI ond ISO lEST CHART No 2.
I.I
12.8
12.5
1^ 1^ 12.2 *" 2£
1.8
11.2'S 11.4
1.6
J APPLIED IM/IGE tnc
nf.: ;J!U« ■ ^4B9 ■ ^a.
till
Index
|
■1 1 |
|
4 |
'I
m
Phiilips. Miss R. 0.. 121 Phili.pterid.v. 349 I'horMa brassiiw, 172
ceparum. 171 rhoriil-v. Sc}. 147 i'horoiiic.i, Super-family. 88, 89 I'horodon humuli Schrank, 265 rhrvf^anea, I()>
1'hycoilromii.l.v, 91, 174 rhyUu'Cus inleyer Norton, 71 I'hyiiomorpha. 305 I'hylloxera vaslatrix. 265 I'hymata wolftii Stcil, 297 Phymatiti.v. 272, 297 Physopocia, 318 Phytophaga. 23 Piesmin.i'. 21)9 pigeon Trenifx. f»9 Pimpia, 64. (.5, 60. 6S Pimpla inquisitor Say, 64 pink eye. Si. 1S4 Piophila, 179
casei I. inn., 179 Pipunculid.i.', S9, 149 pirate bugs. 293 plant bugs, 304 plant-lice. 113. 226, 223, 262 plant-lice, jumping, 259 I'latypezid.v, >9. 149 Platyura, 117
Platyura pectoralis Coq., 117 Plea, 2 75 Plecoptera. 361 Podagrion n::intis, 328 Podisus serieventris Vh\., 314
spinosus, 314 Poduridx. 3S5, 3.S6 Pa'cilocapsus lineatus Kabr.. 302 points on methcHls of collecting differ- ent orders, some. 394 Polistes, 26, 29
mellitica Say, 25
liietricus Say, 142 Polybia, 30 Polygnotus. 51 Pomotis. 27S Pompilid.e, 30 Poneridc. 39. 47 Pontania, 76 Popenne, K. A.. 36 potter bet's. 1 1 potter-\vavp>i. 30 Poulton. K, It,. 297 Pratt, K. C. xi. iiS praying injects, 327 praying Mantis. 141, 326 preparing insects for the cabinet. 401 preserving insects, collecting and. 3S9 preserving insects, killing and, 401
351
loa 108
Pr nnidu-s crlstatus. 295 Prionotus, 13b. 395 Probosiidea. Suborder, 83 Proconia, 244
undata. 244 I'roctotrypid Parasites. 49 l'rfK:totryi)i(>d.v, 3. 25, 33, 4-), 5 1 Prosopid.v. 12 I'sectra, 79
Pseudoneuropteru, 20<j Psilid.v, 92, 179 I\il()ta. 150 Psilliyrns. 15 I's<)cid.i_-. 350 iNfK-ids, 403 Psocus citricola
venosus, 3=11 T'sorophnra, loi, l'sych»Hiid.v, 85. Psylla pyricola, 260 Psyllid.v, 230. 259 Pterodontia, 134
analis. 134 Pulex avium. 191
irritans. Ig2. I93
serraticeps, 191 I'ulicidx, 191
Pulvinaria innumerabilis. 213 punkie. II I
purulept ophthalmia. Si pustule, malignant. So Putnam, K. \V., 11 Pyrrhocorid.e. 272, 307
Ranatra, 276. 277
Ranunculus poisonous to mav-tlv larvje,
37S
Raphidiid.v. 210, 216 Raptoria, 323 Rasahus binotatus. 2')3 rat-tailed maggots, 152 Rat/eburg. 49 Reade, (has., I'^i rearhurse, 141
life history of, 327 rear-horses. 326
the false. 217 rearing different kinds of insects. 396 rectal gills of dragon-fly larva.', 367 red ant. 43, 46 red-legged locust, 333 reduviid eggs, 294 Reduviid.i.', 272, 293 Reduvius novenarius, 295
personalus. 293 Rheumatubates rileyi, 284 Rhomaieum microplerum, 333 Rhyacophilid.c, 197. 20u Rhyphid.e. 86, 124, 125 Riley. C. V., 32, 54, 55. 234. 339. 343
426
Inde::
rotilier-flics, 141. 142
larv.v of, 142 Korky Mountain Locust. 13S rose chafer, 74 nisf slu;;. 74 Kottincy. 20
" Koyai Dream ISook, Tlic." 39 Kutil'ia, K12
SalJiil.c, 272, 2')I salt" Iter flics, I.-2 Salt.il.iria, 323 sand tlies, 120 Sapronuviil.''. 01, 175 SapygiiU-, 3'- 33 Sarcojihaj^a. 1^14 Sarcoplia^a carnaria, I^>4
sarraceni.e. 164 Sarcopha^id.v. y<), I'J Sarcophila, 1(13 Sarcopsylla jjallinacea. I'j3
penetrans, 193 saw-tlies, 73 saw-lly, American, 75
larcli. 4 scale insects. 22f>, 22S, 250 Scatophajjid.v, yl, 173 Scat' ipse, iig
pulicaria, 119 Scelipliron. 22 Scenopinid.c, SS, 139 Scenopinus fenestralis I, inn., 139
Schistocerca americana, 333
Schmidt, 279
Schmidt-Schwedt, 274
Sclnvarz, K. A.. 22. 32 293. 359
Sciara fraterna. IlS tritici CVk]., 1 iS
Sciaras. IlS
Sciomyzid.v. 91. 174
Sciophila, 117
Scoli.i. 31
Scoliid.c. 33
Scolopendrella, 3>o
scoq)ion tlies, 95, 2(Vj
scorpion Ih , life history of, 207
Scotrid.c. 31
screw-worm tl\'. i''3
Scudder. S. II.. (a. 337. 340. 343, 344
Scudderia anRUstifolia, 337
Scutcllerin.c, 313
Selys-l.onscliamps, li.iron de. itw
Sepsidf. 1)1. <)2, 179
Seric i^tiimalid.c, I97. 202
Setmies cxquisita \Valk.. 203
.Seurat. 1... 50
seventeen-year locust, life history ( the, 233
Severin, 2S9
5-i, 59, fio, 292,
shad-flies. 377
Sharp. I).. 20. 22fi. 330, 347
shears, collecting, 394
sheep tick, fiS
Shizoneiira laliij;cra, 2(tS
shore biik;s, the, 291
short-horned grasshopper, 333
short horned jjrasshuppers, the, 332
Sialid.c, 210, 211
Sialis, 21 1
infumata, 211 Sienkiewic/, II,, 35; sieve, the, 391 Silvanns surinamensis, 140 silver lish, 3S2 Simmons. \V. J.. 192 Simon. 192 Simuliid.i-. So. 120 Simulinm, 120, 4Ckj
pictipes, 121 Siphonaptera, 191 Siricid.c, (»9
Siricoidea, 3, f")
Sjsyra. 221
Slater, Miss, 279
slickers, 3,=o, 3S2
,SIini;erIand, M. V., 303. 327
small-heailcd tlies, 134
Sme.ithman. 35;
Smicra niii-ro;;aster. 129 rufofcmorata. 129
Smith. S. I., no
Smynthurid.v, 3^5, 31*
Smvnthurus luteiis, 33S
snake doctors, 3'i3
snake feeders, 3(13
snake tlies. the. 21(1
snipe tlies. 120
snowy tree-cricket. 343
six'iai wasps and their allies, 2;
soldier bu;;s, OS tlies, 12S
solitary ants. 32 wasps. iS. 30
some points on methods of collecting diflerent orders. 394
sooth-sayers. 327
spear-winjjed tlies, 14'»
Sphecius speciosus Say, 22
Sphecoidea, Super-family, 3, i.-i, 3°
sphenid M.isp. 22
spined soldier bug. 314
spittle insects. 241
springtails. 3'io
squash buj; and its allies, the, 304 life history of, 305 parasites of, 306 f stable-tlv, Itiii
Stanmomaniis Carolina, 327 Stein, 210
I i
a'
Index
Steiida'. (>, II
Stclis minuta, 11
Stenojwlmatus, 337
Stcnoxt*ni*l.v, Si;, 97
Stt'noxfnus johnsoni. 97
stilftto-Hit's. I3(). 140
stilt bu>js. The. 309
vtinj^inj^ ants. 39
stinj^'Ii'ss. 'lilts. 39
slink-hn^s an'! their allies, The. 313
typii;ii life ! ^toryof. 314 stink nies. 232 Stirelrus anchorage, 314 Stonioxys talcitrans, 1C6 stone-riies, the. 361 Stratiomyia. 129 Stratiomyiiti. 126 Stratiomyiiil.v, 87, 12S, 129 Sty'n^aster. 1 54 SumnuTs, if. i;.. 270 sun-tlowers. 114 Surinam toai). 279 Symphyla. 3S0 Syrphid.v. Sq. 150 Syrphoidea. Super-family, 89 Syrphus. 265 Syrphus flies. 149. 150 Systufhus oreas, 138 Systrophus. 137 sweeping net, 391
Tabanid.e, 87. 131. 132 Tabanoidea, Super-family, S6 Tabanus americanus. 132 Tabanus atraius Fat)r.. 132 table of families (uf dragon tlies), 363
{of Iletercptera), 270
of MaMoi'iaya, 349 Tachina l-i ■ -. The, 15S 'I'achinid.e, x^n. 15S r.L'nia (tape wnrm). 192 tanjjle-veined flies. 134 taranluIa-killtT, 30. 136 tarnisheti plant biij^, 30! Taylur. I.. H., Ill Teieas, 314
Telemona montlcola, 238 Tfl- lomus. 51 Tcn<Mlera sinensis, 327 Tenthrt-iinid.e, 7^ Tenthrcdinriidea. 3. 73, 76 Ternu-s fla\i|)es. 35-;, 35(1, 357, 359
Iu(.'itii;;us. 356, 359
tnliiformans, 35*) Tt-rinitid.e, 353
Tetr;imoriuni cc^pitum. 43.46 Tettiiiia hientj^Iyphia, 232 Tettij:onid:e. 24"^ Thaif^'»a atrata, 70 '] bales- ' lunator, 70
Therevid.T. RR, 139, 140 thick-head flies, 154 thick-thi^hcd mclapodius, 304 ihick-thi^hed walking; stick, 323 thin-winj-ed biij^s. The. 293 third-part) biij;, 313 Thoreau, 344 thread lej^jied bu^s, 294 Thrips, 244. 318
tabaci I.ind, 3(9 Thynnid.e, 31 Thysannptera, 318 Thysanura. 2(H) Tibicen prtiinosa Say 23 ticks, the bat, njo
the bird. 188 tineid egg, 50 Tinjjitid.e, 272, 29*; Tinyitin.i', 299 Tiphia wasps, 31 Tiphiid.e, 31, 33 Tipulas, 95 Tipulid.e, 85. 94, loS Tipuloidea. Super-family, 84, 85 toad bu^s, the. 28 1 toad-shaped bugs. 281 TolsK.i. 6 I'orymus, e.-^ Tramp Abroad, 41 X^t-r iiopper-i. The. 237 Tre.iiex. 70 Trenicx coiumba, 69 Trichacis. 51 Trichodectidie, 349 Trichoptera, 195
table of families, 197 Trigonalid;v, 33 Triphleps insidiosus Say, 287 trowel. 392 true l>ees. 4
bugs. 22C
bugs. The, 269
drag<m-flies, 372
flies, 79
lice. "2, 316
locusts, 332 Trypeta fratria l.oew, 178
ludens, 178
pomoneila, 177
solidaginis, 177 Trypetid.e, 53. 91, 177 Trypoxyion, 20, 32 tsetse fly. Si
tussock moth, 34. 64. 60 Typhlocyla vitifex. 244 Twain, .Mark, 41 two-striped t(»ciist, 333
Uhler, V. K., 241. 269, 274, 27S umbrella, 393
428
I »
Index
VcliK-ipcda, I!er;;rotti. y)t Vcrinile ), I2(j. 127 Vespa. 2(i. 142 Vespa ( rabrn. 21)
cuncala, 2i)
jjcrnianica, 27. 29
maculala. 27, 2S Yespfiidea, Supcrfamily, ?. 25, 33, 40 " vinegar tHcs." 1S5 Volucclla, 152
walking stick, life liislury of aiommon,
323 walking; sticks, 323 Walsh, li. I)., 31, 32 War and Peace, (i Wasniann, 42 wasp. dinjjiT. life history of, 22
parasitic, life history of, ;' t w,isps and their allies, the social, 25 wasps, honey, 25
solitary, 30
the solitary. 1 5
typical life history of. 33 water boatmen. 273 water liujjs, the creepinji. 280 water I'U^'s. the ^iant. 27S water net. the. 3<ji water scorpions. The. 276 water-stridcr. life history of, 285 water-stridcrs, the. 2:^3 Wei ster. I'. M.. 24; Wee«s. .Vrchihald C. 366 weepint; trees, 244
western crickets, 337
western grasshopper. 13.S. 332. 333
wheel bug. 2^5
life history of. 21)4 Wheeler. William M., 47 white ants, 353 white Hies. The. 24(1 white Hy. typical life history, 247 white niarktil tussixk moth. 04 Williamson, 365, 3(11, 374 Williston. S, W., 20, 21, 80, no, 153,
I5^ willow slug. T'he yellow-spotted. 75 window-tlies. 139 woiKl-eaters. (n) WtMKlworth. 301 woolly root louse of the ap|)le, 265
Xiphydriid-c. fn)
Xylocopa virginica, 9
Xylocopid.v. '1. 9
Xylocrabro ((.rabro) stirpicol.i, iq
Xylophaga. («)
Xylophagid.v, 12b
yellow fever. 81
Yellow Fever Commission,
Slates Army, Si yellow-jackets, smaller, 27, 29 yellow-s|X)ttcd villow slug, 75
Zabriskie, Kev, J. I.., 3
Zaitha, 279
Zambesi Mission Record. 3('«>
Inited
429
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