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6

THK

ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA

or

ACADIA

BT

W, p. GANONG.

Heprfnted from Bulletin No. VIII. of tl. ^ ^ cural History Society
of New Brutiswk

ST. JOHN, N. B.:

Barnes & Co., Printers.

1889.

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA

OK

ACADIA.

BY W. F. OANONO.

Section I. Introductory.

The following paper is not intended in any sense as an
original scientific communication. It has been written for
the use of students, teachers, and those interested in the
knowledge and development of all of our resources; as a
contribution to the much-needed literature which shall bring
the results of the studies of scientific men, bearing upon
practical questions, within the reach of the people; to present
a synopsis of what is known in this year 1889 of the value,
both actual and possible, to mankind, of all Molluscs living
in the waters of these Maritime Provinces. It is hoptd,
that, within these limits, the work will be found to lack
neither practical completeness nor scientific accuracy.

Such a work is nowhere accessible to Canadian students,
and the rapidly developing interest in scientific education in
these provinces, justifies the hope that this paper will in some
measure fill a want, soon to be, if not already felt.

4 THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

It is particularly appropriate that papers of this character
should be presented to such a society as ours. The highest
function of a local Society of Natural History must be
admitted to be the patronage and encouragement of local
Natural History in its practical and educational, as well as
scientific aspects. In this it has a claim for support and for
sympathy upon government and people, which greater pre-
tensions would not warrant.

The most valuable to man by far, of all the groups of
Invertebrates, is that of the Mollusca. In all ages, in all
parts of the world, savage and civilized men have utilized its
members. The ancient refuse heaps of Europe show how old
is the use of Molluscs as food; ethnologists have shown how
wide-spread and old has been the use of shells for ornament,
for money and for utensils of war and the home; and in more
modern times, there have been found various other uses
dependent upon the more numerous wants of advancing
civilization. Unlike some other groups of animals, then, the
Mollusca have been much observed by practical as well as
scientific men; as in the useful plants, so among these, the
useful forms are known to everybody.

Remembering these facts, we are not surprised to find, in
works dealing with the exploration and early history of these
provinces, that the edible Molluscs were the first Invertebrates
to be noticed, excepting possibly some of the annoying Insects.

Jacques Cartier, the first explorer of the coast of Acadia
who paid any attention to the animals and plants of the places
he visited, does not mention any Invertebrates. It is not
until we come to the works of Champlain and Lescarbot that
we find references to the subject. Ohamplain's work, **Le8
Voyages du Sieur de Champlain," (Paris, 1613), records the
earliest observations on the Mollusca of this region, bat

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACAniA. 6

Lescarbot's " Histoire de la Nouvelle France," was published
^rst appearing in 1609.* Champlain mentions the occurrence
at the present Weymouth Harbor, St. Mary's Bay, Nova
Scotia, of "many Shell-fish, such as Mussels, Cockles and Sea-
snails," which he observed in his exploration in 1604 At St
•Croix now Dochet, Island in the St. Croix River, he found
Cockles, Mussels, and Sea-snails, and in another passage he
incidentally tells us what the Cockle is. Speaking of the
Indians he says, "when they do not hunt, they live on a
shell-fish called the cockle," thus showing that he meant the
•Uam. The Clam, as a food-mollusc, is u- known in Europe its
place being in part taken by the Cardix. or true Cockle, 'for
which Champlain naturally mistook it. By Sea-snails he
probably means the large Whelks, Buccinum undatum and
Lunaha lieros. His only other reference to Mollusca, is in
his description of Bras D'or Lake, Cape Breton, in which he
says,—" there are many islands filled with a great deal of
game and Shell-fish of several kinds, among others of Oysters
which are not of good flavor." In the 1633 edition of his
works, Champlain repeats these notes but does not add any
new ones. They derive their interest from the fact that they
are the very earliest references to our Mollusca known to us.

Ri.i!^".*«'',)T'°"'"i'*°'' "*" '='**'» «°™« «»'•"«"• ones. In "A letter written to M
Richard Hakluyt of the middle Temple, conteinins a r«norf nf tv, ♦ .

again- I tolde you once I doe remember how Tmy traua* e Into \fl. ^^

incc^our: I too.e it'^by reaalTe^t^'nl.t S^'rja«^^^^ Se 27' ^"
found some other mollusc with the Oyster. A llttirfarth^, on fh« ^'^^ ^on-

*«li«,. in which are said to be muskles not vnlilce to hiue pTarle "

6

THE ECONOMIC MOLLCSCA OP ACADIA.

Lescarbot speaks of the occurrence of Mussels at St. Croix
Island, and referring to the natural productions of the
country, says: " I would be forced to make an entire book if
I should discourse on all the fishes which are common to the
Brazilians, Floridians, Armouchiquois, Canadians and Souri-
quois. But I will restrain myself to two or three, after having
said that at Port Royal there are great beds of Mussels, with
which we filled our boats when sometimes we went to those
places. There are also there, Scallops, (Palourdes),* twice as
large as Oysters in size; also Cockles, which have never failed
us." He makes a few other incidental references to this
subject.

The next work to mention our Molluscs, appears to be the
"Description Geographique et Historique des Costes de
1' AmeriqueSeptentrionale,"and the " Historic Naturelle.
de 1' Amerique Septentrionale," by Nicholas Denys, in 1673.
The latter work, especially, contains several references of
considerable interest, though of not much scientific import-
ance. He knew of the occurrence of the Oyster at several
points on the North Shore, notably around George's Bay, at
Malagash (?), Tatamagouche, Pictou, at Cocagne and tha
Bras D'or Lake. Other Shell-fish he frequently refers to, and
mentions their abundance at several places, for instance, the
region near Cape Sable, La Heve Harbor, George's Bay, near
the mouth of Bras D'or Lakes, Tatamagouche, Miramichi,
Bathurst, Port Daniel. He noticed Razor-fish (Coutel-
Ueres), near Cape Sable, and Scallops (Conniffle), at La Heve.
His interesting description of the Squid and of the oyster-
fishery, will be noticed under the sections on those animals.
We have not been able to find that anything on this subject
worthy of note t vs written during the last century. Occa-
sional references to the North Shore oyster-beds occur, but
nothing further. Charlevoix, in his " Historie de la Nouvelle
France," (1744), is said to have referred to the manner of fish-
ing Oysters on the coast of Acadia, which was the same as

'Mr. J H. Duvar tells the writer that the Acadian French of Prince Edwa«l
UOMd ^apply this word to the Quahog. ft appear* to have meant the ScaUop to

THiS ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

■i

I

Denys describes, and the same as is used to-day. During the
■early part of this century, there were many works published,
describing the three provinces and their resources, either for
the encouragement of immigration or similar purposes. Many
of these contain lists of the edible forms, with occasionally
notes upon them. A fair sample of such lists is the following,
taken from Robert Cooney's work, "History of Northern
New Brunswick and Gaspe," published in Halifax, in 1833.
Other Invertebrates are included, the Molluscs being italicized.

Blue crab.

Sea clam.

Smooth cockle.

Shore clam.

Lobster.

Starfish.

Muscle.

Sea crab.

Oyster,

Soldier crab

Razor-fish,

Sea urchin.

Scollop.

Periwinkle.

All of these will readily be recognized by the readers of
the following pages.

In M. H. Perley's report oa the Fisheries of New Brunswick
(Fredericton, 1852), occur some really valuable though very
brief notes, and in the Descriptive Catalogue of the Fishes of
Nova Scotia, by Thomas F. Knight (Halifax, 1866), we
find quite the best account of the economic Molluscs
of these provinces which has appeared up to this time.
On pages 43 to 54 of the latter is an account of the
edible Molluscs of Nova Scotia, written by Mr. John
Willis.* Many valuable notes are found also in the annual
Fishery Reports of the Dominion. The splendid work
recently issued by the United States government, " History
of Useful Aquatic Animals" (Washington, 1884), gives a very
good account of many of our Molluscs, but not with special
reference to our waters. Other works, likely to be of interest
in this connection, are mentioned in the list below.

A complete discussion of the economics of the Mollusca, in

*Mr. Knight sayn that this work by Mr. WilUa, to which was appended a complete
list of the Molluscs of Nova Scotia, had already been published In a colonial periodical.
I have been unable to And, by careful inquiries, wh.at th.if. periodical wag. I
would be deeply grateful to any one who could give me tbit Information.— W. F. Q.

8

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

of the beneficial forms InlllT ! u ,?J""°"« »8 well as
possible quite a natural d vision T 1^°*^ °' *^«««> '^«^« '*
and those which at'a.troAniurr "f T ''"^"^'
Classification will be follo^^dt fhLTper '"^''' ^°' ^''«

importance with different a^e's difflnM T "^"«* ^^''J i"
conditions of civilization ''%''^'^^'^''^ localities, or different

the relative order rbea; folws" '"'"" "^ "^^ ^°°^^^-

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(«)
(7)

Use as food for man.
As bait in the fisheries.
As fertilizers for land.

F»Zr"- '"'""""^ "»P'»«<.n of p,„,.

For the making of dyes.

For dishes and many minor uses.

the oolae" se "hfrerlfC:' '"' "°"' '"'^' '"
and is oneof the m^f^r i . J ""' "°""e«« antiquity

people ha™ tirf trt°i:^';tT°"'T"- ^"^
are lonnd in the world »ndtl^;l y ' "" "" •""' *"'
i* not the be« ,hl, ' """* "PPe™ ""tain, that

with „7 <»t^ ae 3t rif J!;° ""'• *'"' '» ""P"'"""
Though our common Clam t ll ^ ^^' ^""^ "''' ^^'•*«-

wtrhXfHSr"?--==

utilized b/our peoT No dnnnfr '"'"' *'^'''^' ^^« '^''^^
MoUnaee ;re n,^ 1 1'^."^ '"^ '"''" «'«»» '!»' *«»

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

9

The followinjf table, compiled from the work of Dr.
Atwater, will show the respective nutritive values of several
of oar Molluscs, that of beefsteak and salmon being added for
the sake of comparison.

Per cent,
of water.

Per cent.

of
nutrients.

Protein.

Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Mineral
matters.

Beefsteak

60.

40.

19.

20.

1.

Salmon

63.2

86.8

22.6

12.9

1.3

Oyster (0. Vir-

giniana.)
Clam (Mya

87.3

12.7

6.0

1.2

3.5

2.0

arenaria.)

85.0

14.1

11.5

1.0

2.0

2 6

Quahog (Venus

mercenaria.)

86.2

13.8

6.6

0.4

4.2

2.6

Mussel (Mytilus
edulis.)

842

15.8

8.7

1.1

4.1

1 0

Scallop (Pecten

rradiaus.)

80.3

19.7

14.4

0.2

3.4

1.4

Other investigators have obtained results somewhat dif-
ferent from these, which give to the Oyster a higher nutritive
value. Its value as food depends very largely upon conditions
not shown by the table, such as easy digestibility and the like.
For these reasons it is good for invalids and is frequently
prescribed by physicians. It will be noticed that the Mussel
has a higher nutritive value than the Clam, and that in some
respects both are better thau the Oyster.

Important as food-molluscs are to us, they were very much
more so to the Indians who preceded us in Acadia. Every-
where on our coast, where Molluscs are abundant, we find
heaps of shells which were thrown from the doors of the
wigwams when their contents had been removed. These
kept accumulating for ages and in places are acres in extent
and two or three feet in thickness. They consist, upon the
southern coast, chiefly of Clam shells, but also Mussels,
Whelks, Periwinkles, Limpets and the Scallop have been found ,
some of these perliaps carried in accidentally. Mingled with
them are the bones of the principal Mammals of the region,
and household or hunting implements, doubtless lost by their
owners. These camping-places were occupied chiefly in the

1

10

THE EOOXOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

that such wL fhl J^^^^'J^e have historical evidence

Si fish Of rifkVd V^''' "" '''''' " *° '^^""dance of
Therfl ;, «<! °"08'8tence of the savages during the sprinjr »

«uougn to rep ace the omnipresent Mussel.

ferret wLST r*' X' t:' " '"■' "'°" ™''°''""

living Oysters wl* ilV ^ ' ^'^ ^® *' ^"'** ^ <^^at of the

-i^j^ ^ «»i™, rroc. u. S. National Museum. Vol. IV., 1881, pp.

Also I

» Traaa N. a iMtitute. Vol I.. Part n.. 186*. pp. 0^99.

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

11

mud underlying the mnasel-beds. In time the Mussels them-
selves are sure to become valuable, and certain beds should be
left undisturbed. The Squid has been to some extent used
for this purpose, but lately it has become too valuable as a
bait to be so employed.

The shells of but few of our Molluscs are available for
purposes of ornamentation. Most shells of the Temperate
Zone are plain and dull in comparison with the brilliantly
colored and beautifully sculptured forms of the tropic seas.
Hence a review of the subject as far as regards our waters
would be very short in comparison with that of the world
at large. Savage and civilized man have alike delighted to
u^e them for personal and household decoration. Some of our
Whelks or Spindle-shells are frequently seen as ornaments for
mantels m fishermen's houses, and as borders for flower-beds
in their gardens. Mussel-shells and the Cockle (Cardium) are
made into ornamental dijhes, pin-cushions and the like. The
valves of Scallops, particularly of our great Pecten tenuicosta-
■tus, and the Beach Clam (Mactra solidissima) give a good
surface for painting on, and are frequently thus utilized. No
doubt our Trochus occidentalis and species of Margarita could
be used for many minor purposes if they could be obtained in
sufficient numbers; they are as beautiful as most of the shells
made into shell boxes and the like. The Indians of America
used wampum as an ornament as well as for money; the
Jndians of Acadia appeared to have employed it more for the
former purpose than the latter. The subject will be further
considered below.

By far the most important of ornaments yielded by Molluscs
are pearls. The best, as everybody knows, come from the
Persian Gulf and the coasts of Ceylon and Central America,
and are found in the pearl oyster. Several of our Molluscs
yield bodies, which, though pearly in their nature and mode
of fwmation, yet lack the lustre of true pearls. Such occur in
the Horse-mussel, Edible Mussel, and even in Quahogs, Clams
and Oysters, of which t first two have the nearest true pearls
in appearance. Those of the Edible Mussel have had some
commercial value in England. In the Mussels of our fresh

12

THE KCO.VOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

«,'i:.-z-;.'S;rry:."ir'jr;-'

of Dentalinm or Tooth-shells Ami .t *"^''' "*"°««

and those of thl • / ''"^ ^''^ ^^«' ^o^s^ I^'lians

exchlnl ^ '°''' ''^'"P"'" ^«« *b« g'-eat medium of

par. of the .he., ol tZlg irZnTa™ "TtT ''''°

th. M " ".' " ""'" i"t«™l,„g account of i J,al„e To

if rrr ""l'- "^ " '^ W"»""^ escaped the ti:

Ihe Br..,l,.n,, Floridian= a»d Armouoiiquoi,, [i. .., ,he

THE ECOXOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. I3.

Indians from Kennebec to Cape Cod.] make carcanets and
bracelets (called bou-re in Brazil, and matachiaz by our
Indians), from the shells of those great sea-shells which are
called ViOKO^ and are like unto snails, [i. e., the large Conohs.
Sycotypus and thagur] which they break and gather up in a
thousand pieces, then polish them upon a (hot)* stone, so that
they make them very small, and when they have pierced
them, they make beads, like to those which we call procelain.
Among these beads they mingle alternately other beads, as
black as the others I have spoken of are white, made of jet
or of certain hard or black woods which resemble it. [meaning
probably dark purple wampum,] which they polish and make
as small as they wish, and this has a good grace.

"And if things are to be esteemed for their fashion, as we
see exemplified in our merchandise, these collars, scarfs and
i««rW °',y^«^^^ «>• Porcelain, are more valuable than
pearls (netwithstanding no one will believe me in this), for

uslTth"! '1 . r:f *''° P^'^'' ^"''^ °^ «'^^«^- A« ^ith
thinl A n ^? ^^'^ ''°'"''' *^'"^ themselves with such
things, and will make a dozen turns of it around the neck,
hanging upon the breast, and around the wrists and belo;

hL^lT' '^ ?''° '^^"^ ^°°^ '^^'"« ^° '^^' ««»•«' which
hang down even as low as their shoulders. If the men wear any

It IS only some young one who is in love. But at Port Royal
and thereabouts, and towards Newfoundland, and at Tadous-
sac where there are neither pearls nor Vignols, the maids-
and women make matachiaz from the quills or bristles of the
porcupine, which they dye with black, white and red colors
as vivid as possible : for our scarlet has no better luster than
their red dye. But they prize much more the matachiaz wh ch
comes to them from the land of the Armouchiquois and by
at at a very high price. And since they can get but a little
of It, because of the war which these two nations [i. .., the
^ZZ: 't' ^T^"'''^"^^^'-' *^^^« -'^^y^ between 'each
o^^^ttle^bes of glass mixed with tin or lead, which are-

*The word used is gre., which is translated by Erondelles. " hot stone."

14

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OP ACADIA.

traded to them by the fathom-measure for want of an ell-
ineasure As Lesc.rbot points out, the shells from which
the white wampum was commonly made, do not occur upon
the shores of Acadm, and the Acadian Indians do not appear
to have manufactured the purple wampum, though the
material for it was abundant on the North Shore. Denvs
mentions that they wore among their ornaments. " white and
violet porcelain," and goes on to say,-" they make of it also
pendants for the ears, which they have pierced in two or three
places. This porcelain is nothing else than the teeth (dents)
of a certain fish which is taken by the savages in New England
and which IS very rare there and at this time is very much
valued among them; that which is common now, has each
grain of the length of half a finger's breadth."

Prof. Bailey mentions the occurrence of wampum in an
Indian grave on the Tobique, though made, as he thinks, from
the shells of Fresh-water Mussels.

The most noted dyeing material of ancient or modern

fZ'V n^' t r^ '^' '^y"''" P»^P'«' ^»« obtained
from Molluscs which are closely allied to our Purple-shell
(Purpura lapxllus). The latter shell, exceedingly abundant
on our shores, itself yields an unchangeable rich crimson dye
which can easily be obtained. The expense of collecting it
however, is much too great to allow it to be of any commer'
cial value The Long Whelk (Buccinum undatum) also is
said to yield a dye.

Of minor uses for shells, there are very many. Several of
the large bivalves, notably the Scallops and the great Sea-
clam {Madra) are used by fishermen's wives and others for
dishes. The Acadian Indians made their pottery in part
from powdered shells, and no doubt made much use of them
as household utensils. Oyster shells are frequently used for
road-makmg in the United States, and of course could be so
utilized with US. They are said to be among the best of
•materials for this purpose. In the United States, shells of
various kinds, chiefly Oyster and Scallop, are strewn upon the
oyster-beds to give a clean firm surface for the young to
attach themselves to. Oyster-shells are also ground up to be

THE BCONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

15

given to poultry. Prom the Squids a kind of oil can be made,
though we believe it has little value commercially.

Of the indirectly useful Molluscs, doubtless the most
important to Lian, are those which serve as food for the food-
fishes. A list of the Molluscs known to inhabit New England
waters, which are eaten by Cod, Haddock and other large fish,
is given in the "History of Useful Aquatic Animals of the
United States, " pp. 693, 694 and 703. The majority of the
forms there mentioned occur in the waters of Acadia. It may
not be amiss to state here, that the stomachs of fishes are fine
hunting-ground for the conchologist, many species being
found in them, which are rare, or inaccessible in other ways.

Indirectly also those Molluscs are beneficial to man, which,
by forming great tough beds, as the Edible Mussels do, protect
easily eroded sea-coasts from being washed away ; which bore
into and ultimately remove reefs and wrecks which are a bar
to safe navigation, as does the Teredo and its allies; and those
which are beneficial to the oyster industries, the most import-
ant of which is the Periwinkle {Littorina litorea), and some
others.

Among the injurious Mollusca, the Ship-worms must take
first place. Species of Teredo are found all over the world, but
are most destructive in warm waters. They bore into' and
destroy any kind of timber that is under the surface in pure
salt water. Hence, wharves, ships, buoys, breakwaters, are
all attacked, and naturalists and engineers have been put to
their wits' ends to study their habits and find a remedy. In
the following pages will be found some account of their
results. In Acadian waters we have some three or four species;
they are most troublesomo upon the North Shore and Cape
Breton coast, where the warmer summer temperature affords
better conditions for the development of the young, than does
the much colder water of the Atlantic and Bay of Fundy
shores. Those Molluscs which bore into stone {Pholas and
allies) have never done any damage upon our shores.

Among those which may be called indirectly injurious, are
those which are destructive to oyster-beds, 'in American
waters there are a number of these, the chief of which is the

1$

THE ECONOMfC M0LLU8OA OK ACADU.

North Shore. Thi. LZ' Z. \ S™"'"^ "P°" ^'"' o^«
Mm.^^ but little on c^'ltr.f'r r'TT '■" '''' ^"'^^-^
pointed out. tho chief oyster enemL, f If^Vf'. ^ «'««''''«'•«
either absent altoJtheT ror? ."''^"'^*'* ^'"^^^ »••«

built after the fashion of hTsava Js I . ? ^l''^' '^'^^
there is such a store of m„sser:s' X^^ e,.^^^,^';'^-^
be gathered at low tide, but they areirj, i'kTk''^ 7^
Monsieur DeMont's people did nnf/ ./ u ^^^^'e^® 'hat
the biggest and lef t'the'e b t h tS If^T "' ''''
increase." Thus was one of thl ?"®' '" «''°'^ a"^

culture observed by the first «!h. '''°°'\'' ^"°^«'-" '"«""««■
Nothing more eve^of tt stl";V'' ''"" ^' ^-'^'»-
done until the experiment of Hnl M (r'T' *° '^^^^ ^^^'^
Scotia, and Hon Mr Pon' / p ^^•"'/^^F^rlane, in Nova

apolcen of in ZJ^^^^:^^^'''''' ''''''' '' ''

reso!;!:: i^'/ir rntd"^^^ ^-^^-^

Mollusc on our shores is Zt "'^'^''i'''^^^''- No other

-turai ^roductivrssrrcl^ Lxr irBu: "'-' ^^^

food-molluscs came to be extensively used a th«v /' '"''
must, regulations of the fishery should hrT''^^
the first, and not after the TnL ^"'^'^^'^ ^'""^

In the case of the Ovste the^ J ""T ^ ^^^austion.

^igorou. ..ernment inSrlnce not onlv f'' T'''"'' ^"'^

ofthepr. vW.*>dfl hutforthr ^^°'^^®P''°*«ction

ing of ic. >. : V .iW ;/^^°"''»««'»«°t 0^ the plant-

10 . .ituristfi there must be given 00^0017

THE ECO.VOMIO M0LLU8CA uF ACADIA.

ir

»n absolute r.^ht to the product, of their labor .nd protection
from trespassers, but even, if necessary, positive encouragement
in the way of bounties, until Oyster-culture shall become an
established industry of the Dominion. Canada does not now
produce more than a fraction of the Oysters she uses; it is
soon to becon. ■ a question of deriving the greater part of her
J Tr \ ^K^r'"'"''^ ^'^' '" '^' U"'*«'l «^«tes or from

S te? :« T ^''"'''' '" ''' "^^"*' b«^« *>' *•- United
S ates are rap.dly becoming exhausted, and attention is being
directed towards culture. ®

Something should be said here as to the distribution of
Molluscs in our waters. It will be noticed by those who read
the following pages, that many forms are spoken of wi ch

Can/r" '.^"'' °' '' .'^'^"""•^^ ''"^ "«^ «'«-here north of

of ThiH ' ' ""T '" '^' ^''^ "'^""'^y' *he distribution

of which IS c.rcumpolar or arctic. These are two among vlrv
many facts which indicate a curious distribution of an ill
life in Acadian waters. In the southern part of tho Gulf al
aong he North Shore of New Brunswick and Nova Scott
and all around the coast of Prince Edward Island and Cape
Breton occur animals of species identical with those livingTo
he south of Cape Cod. and in most cases they do not occur
in numbers between those localities. The Ovster OuZ!
Drill (Urosalpin.), Plicated Mussel, are a 1 e^ ;« o t^f '
and many others might be mentioned which do no fall with

cl^to^Z:'^'"':'''''- .'" ^^«««yof Fundyandonl
coast of Nova Scotia, south of Chebucto Bay, on the other

Softhlr""' '-'t'' northern, the u'l'.ifoVm,/ ^
water of that region not allowing of the development of ihl
young of such southern forms as'can thrive „?he Gulf L
the latter, the shallow waters, little disturbed by t^Ses can

ditions thus being provided for the young, the adults survive
them in spite of the cold of winter. For the ori Jin ZlZ
condition of affairs we mu. look to g7obJca, ^use the
discussion of which is not in place here." Th^^^stance o^
18, that m times recent geologically (certainly post^glacLl) an

18

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSOA OP ACADIA.

elevation of the land in this region threw the Labrador current
off from the coaet and allowed the water inside the Banks
then near the surface, to become warmed up in summer, as it
IS to-day in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. These forms then
crept northward ana all the coast from Virginia to Newfound-
land was occupied by them. The land is now sinking: cold
currents are coming back to our shores and the southern
animals cannot hold their own against the northern, which
are better fitted for the new conditions. It is probable that
ultimately all of these southern forms will become extinct in
the Grulf, but the time is so remote that the practical man
need not take it into his calculations.

It should be hardly necessary to call attention to the fact
here, that there is yet very much to be learned about the
distribution of Molluscs and other animals upon our shores-
about their habits, their relations to other animals, their use-
f u ness and noxiousness to man. Even in the matter of their
value and palatableness as food there is much need of informa-
tion. There is an abundance of work for every observer to
do, and teachers who interest themselves and their pupils in
such subjects will be repaid many fold, not only by the facts-
observed and training acquired, but by their further initiation
into the spmt of nature and their refreshment by the pure
air of new fields, both figurative and literal.

In the following list, the nomenclature adopted is not in
all cases that of the latest authorities, though such names are
always given in the synonymy. The scientific name given
first IS usually that of Binney's Edition of Gould's Invertebrata
of Massachusetts, though in certain instances where the latter
IS clearly erroneous, as in the Cephalooods, those of other
writers are followed. The work mentioned is the only one
extant which gives an account of our MoUusca, and, unfor-
tunately, is rare and expensive, though it is to be found in
most scientific libraries. Those who wish scientific descrip-
tions and figures should turn to it, and there they will find
references to other works of importance. The list of work»
given below includes only those consulted in the preparation
of this paper. *^

THE ECONOMIC M0LI.U8CA OF ACADIA.

19

An interesting part of the present subject is that of local
names for oiir Molluaca As soon as a species comes to be
much used, it requires a special distinctive name, and such
the fishermen generally give it. As so few of our own Molluscs
are utilized for any purpose, very few of them have common
names, and in such cases we have felt at liberty to adopt for
those lacking them, the best of those by which they are
known to English fishermen. The writer would be very
thankful for any information which could be given him as to
local names applied to Mollusca in any part of these pro-
vinces.

We believe no explanation is needed of the use of the word
Acadia throughout this paper. The three maritime provinces
are, zoologically, botanically and geologically one, and a term
by which they can be collectively designated is a necessity in
scientific if not other writing. Several writers on the natural
history of the region have employed the word Acadia, and
what more appropriate name can ever be used?

Works of Reference.

Descriptive Catalogue of the Fishes of Nova Scotia. By
Thomas F. Knight. Halifax, 1866, 8vo, 54 pp. Pp.
43 to 54 treat of "Edible Mollusca of Nova Scotia."
[This part dealing with Mollusca is in reality by Willis, for Mr.
Knight says: "The author is indebted to J. R. Willis, Esq..
of Halifax, for the following ample description of our Edible
Mollusca, which has already been published in a colonial peri-
odical." Can any of our readers tell us what this periodical
was, and its date? We have not been able to find any trace
of it ]

Mollusca of Nova Scotia. By J. Matthew Jones. Proc.
and Trans, of Nova tScotian Institute of Nat. Science.
Vol. IV., Part III., 1877, pp. 321-330.

Zur Fauna von Neu-Schotland (Nova Scotia) und Newfound-
land. By T. a. Vekkruzen. Jahr. der Deutschen
Malak. Gesell. Vol. V., 1878, pp. 208-330.

lll

no

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

The Marine Mollusca of Now Brunswick. By W P
Ganonq. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. of N. B., No 'vi'
1887, pp. 17-61. ' ^•'

Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusette. By A A

fZ''"; ^^ ^*^^"''°' ^^'^^^ ^y ^- ^' BiNNEY. Boston,
1870, 8vo, viii.-f524 pp., 12 plates and very many
woodcuts. •' ^

Beport on the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound
etc. By A. E. Vebrill. Bep. U. S. Fish Commis-
sion/or 1871-72, pp. 295-778, 38 plates.
British Conchology. By J. Gwyk Jeffreys. 6 vols

London, 1862-69.
Edible Molluscs of Great Britain and Ireland, with
Keceipts for Cooking them. By Lovell Reeve. Lon-
don, 8vo^ pp. 210, date (?) [Not seen by the writer].
Commercial Products of the Sea. By P. L. Simmonds.

New York, 1879, 8 vo, viii. +484 pp. , woodcuts.
Harvest of the Sea. By J. G. Bertram. 2d ed. Lon-
don. 1869.
Contributions to the Knowledge of the Chemical Com-
position and Nutritive Values of American Food-fishes
and Invertebrates. By W. 0. Atwater. Bep. U. S
Fish Commission for 1883, pp. 433.499
A Review of the Fishing Industries of the United States.
7I ?' ^°^^ ^'^^^^' London, 1883, 8vo, 84 pp
(Fishery Exhibition Literature, Vol VI )
Catalogue of the Economic Mollusca, etc., exhibited by
the United States National Museum at the Interna-
tional Fisheries Exhibition. By Lieut. Frakcis
W1N8LOW. Bull. U. S. National Museum, No. 27.

in Bull. No. 14. 1879, pp. 251-259.

Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States. By G
Brown Goodb and others. Section L History of
Useful Aquatic Animals. Section V., Vol. II The
Oyster, Scallop, Clam, Mussel and Abalone Industries.
Washington, 4% 1884, and later.

Fisheries Exhibition Literature, London, 1883-84. 16 vols

aJHE ECONOMIC MOLLUSOA OF ACADIA.

21

1 wish here also, to return a grateful acknowledgment to
ihoee gentlemen whose kindness to me in replying to my
enquiries has added much to the completeness of this paper.
To Mr. John Tilton, Deputy Minister of Fisheries, for copies
^f Fishery Reports; to Mr. J. H. Duvar, Inspector of Fisheries
in Prince Edward Island, and my friend Mr. S. W. Kain, of
•8fc. John, for much information I am narticularly indebted.
Mr. H. Piers, of Halifax, Mr. J. A. Tarner, of St. John, and
Mr. John Sharp of Summerside, have also patiently answered
my troublesome enquiries, for which I am sincerely thankful
to them. The Micmac names of Molluscs have been taken
verbatim from Dr. Silas T. Hand's "First Reading Book in
the Micmac Language." The Milicete, or, more properly,
Passamaquoddy, names have for the most part been given me
by Mr. H. Lyle, of St. Stephen. Figures 3, 5 to 17, 19 and
HI are from Binney's Gould. Figure 4 is reduced from the
same. Figures 18, 30, 22 are from Verrill's Report on In-
vertebrates of Vineyard Sound. Figures 1 and 2 are reduced
from the latter's Monograph on Cephalopods of North-eastern
•Coast of America. All have been reproduced by the Helio-
ity^e Company of Boston.

23

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF AOADIA.

11

Section II.

i li:

li!

A List of those Molluscs op the waters of
Acadia which are Useful or Injurious
TO Man.

Analysis.

A. Useful Mollusca.

(a) Directly useful.

1. As food.

2. As bait in the fisheries.

See Ostrea Virffiniana

Mya armaria,

■ifya truncata.

Peefen tenuicostahu.

Peeten Istandicua.

Pecten irradiant.

Venut mereenaria,

MytUua edulis.
Modiola modiohu,
Solen entis.
Maetra *olidimma.
Mactra ovalia,
Cyprina Islandiea.
Zirphcea erinpata,
Cardium Mandieum.
Litiorina litorea.
Lvnalia heroa.
Buccinum undatutn.
Funut Is/andiats.
Fustts decemcostafut.

See Ommattrephea illecebrosa..
Loligo Pealei.
Mya arenaria.
Mya truncata.
Mytilus edulis.
Maetra lolidissima.
Maetra ovalis.
Buccinum undatutn..
Purpura lapillut.

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

23

^. As fertilizers. See Ostrea Virffiniana.

MytUtu edulU.
Modiola pliccUula,
Ommaatrephea illeetbrota.
Loligo Pealei,

4. For ornaments, including pearl.

See Margantana.

Venus mereenaria.
JUytiltta tduli».
Modiola tnodiolut,
Cardium I»landieum,
Pecten tenuicottatua.
Mactt a lolidiuima.
Buceinum wtdatum.
Fusus Mandicua,
Futus decemcottahu.

See Venus mereenaria.

5. For money,
4. For dyes.

<1)
(2)

(8)
(4)

See Purpura lapillus,
Buceinum widatum.

For dishes and minor uses.

Sse Ostrea Virffiniana.
Pecten tenuicostatui,
Mactra solidissima.
Mytilus edulis.

(i) Indirectly useful.
As food for fishes. See Introduction of this paper, p. 15.

Protection of coasts from erosion, etc.
See MytUus edulis.
Modiola modiolus.

Removal of wrecks and obstructions to navigation.

See Teredo navalis.

Of value to oyster beds. See Littorina litorea,

B. Injurious Mollusca.

(a) Directly injurioue.

1. Destructive to sub-marine timber.

See Teredo navalis.
Teredo norvagiea.
Te'^do dilatata,

>

Aylophaga dorsalit.

24

ill if!
1 1

THK ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.
8- Molluscs occasionally poisonous.

See Mytiluteduiit.
Modiola modiolut.
Pecten tenuieottatua.

{h) Indirectly injurious.
1. Destructive to oyster beds.

See Buccinum cinereum,
Purpura lapillua,
Lnnatia heroa.
Mt/tilus edulis.
2. Destructive to young flsh.

See Ommcutrephea iUecebrow.
Lollgo Pealei.

Class CEPHALOPODA.
1. Ommastrephes lUecebrosa (Lesueur) Verrill.
Ommastrephes sagittatus Ferussac.

Mwmac SoA>m>o.k. PamamajucMy, 8«h tah .i.
^«io(«» ^fflcj, Aloorne. "'I tah su.

Lai's"™" <"' ''--'■-Shoae W.„a t„0™b„-
to NewtoandlMd." ^ "«bu»dMt from Cape Cod

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSC A OP ACADIA.

25

Habits. Tbo Squid is easily recognized and is one of the best

known of our Molluscs. It is the most highly organized of the group,

and in its appearance and most of its habits,

resembles a fish rather than what it really is.
The body is cylindrical, tapering to a

point at the posterior end, and in front bears

a Lead which has ten arms arranged in a ring

around the mouth. These arms bear suclcing

disks on their inner sides, in the two longer

near their extremities only, and in the other

eight quite to their bases. The mouth is arm-
ed with a stout horny beak similar to that of

a parrot. The large and very bright eyes are

on diametrically opposite sides of the head ;

they have lids and a round pupil. The neck

is well marked, sharply separating the head

from the body. On the under side of the

latter, projecting forward, is a stout process

with an opening at its apex which might be

mistaken for a mouth. It is the opening of

the tube or siphon by which water is drawn

into and expelled from a sac inside the body,

this being, as will be explained below, its

locomotive apparatus. A t the posterior end,

attached on the dorsal side, is the broad

caudal fin which extends a little more than a
third (about two-fifths) of the length of the
body proper. It extends out laterally on each
side of the latter and is shaped like the quad-
rant of a circle, the arc being to the front
and the two radii sloping to the extreme pos-
terior end. An average specimen is fourteen
inches in extreme length, the body proper
being eight inches; length of fin about three inches; body one and one-
half indues in diameter.

In the interior on the back of the animal, and running the entire
length of the body, is a translucent, horny pen-shaped structure, called
the " pen." This is in reality the shell, reduced and carried inward

nstead of covering the outside of the animal.

The color is variable in the extreme. The ground color is pale
bluish-white, and in the skin are many chromatophores, or cells
containing colored pigments, any set of which can be expanded
or contracted at the will of the animal. It is thus that the rapid changes
of color are caused— red, orange and brown seeming to predomirj.-.te in
this species. Prof. Verrlll says :— • ' The colors change constantly, when

Fig. I. — Omma»trephe» il-
Ucebrosa. Young male,
three-sevenths of natuntl
size.

26

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OP ACADU.

surface like blushes." different tints pass over the-

its siphon, the Son 6riy^Z^ '^' ^??'''^' '^'"''^^ «' water from

The arms pressed eS t^ether tr^.r" It""^'^ ^"'^ «''''' ^^'o^^'^y-

balance or steady thTLdfwhen,^^ 1f'°^' «°'^ '»>« An- "«ed to

tightly around if when i7goesX l S" ^'1'".^ ''"''''' '' """"'^

backward and the animal go Ca J ^Tl '""'° '"° **' P^'"*^'^

so much less easily Iban U caT^^Vckwar^^ '' ^'''

Herring or mackerel, following the schc^l ,„ ;„\V ' "P°° y"""*^

these flsh by dartinjr in amnnf »h . ° *" **'^ ''^''^t- I* takes

seizing one which if kiUs byl buT' in Th 'w.''?'^ '" °"« «^^«' -'^

move in schools, and are ml active it nieh^TH°' ? "'''■ "'^"'^
in large numbers, on account 7^a u!^. ^^^^'^^^'^ come ashore

When much alarmed theHisXrl with t^h '''''' 'T'""^ ^'""^-rds.
inky fluid which blackens thTwa TaTound tT-''"" """^ '''^ ^'P''°° «">
Nothing is as yet knownTfT, ^? .'* " ^'^^ by many fishes,
-guing from .he st'rucfure of ti^lTd. !? '*'''" ^"'"^^^ V«"'"'
found that the eggs areclst frle fnT?^ " ^^''^' ^"""^«« '' *«» »«
masses on the surface '^' °'''"'' *°^ «««»» «°giy or in

hardlXrfoldTr " '"^°*^ ^^*" «^° ^^« Squid would

fish, and it is only oflate ;ea«!h.f . .' °°^ *°^ °*^''' ^^''^^
tensively used LW t ^ If *' '' ^^ °°™« *<> be so ex-

oiveiyusea. in Newfound and. esDeoiftllr i> ,•= *oi, •
enormous ouantifioo K«fU * ^l *"'P^^'«"J» it is taken in

n.e». wh? Tttm 5»r r """'"y «»"«!» by native fisher-
per h„.dr.r The pli T '"'""3'-«" '» '""J-Ave cent,
taking .Tdeliverin^TTr ""*■'*"'■''''' "'"'>'«' »»

»nmbe, .rn7.n; „«dTf U„ u '. T ™''' ""*' ">" ">,
"be reckoned hiJi • 7^"""^ States vessels alone would

««g.ged in t.ki„rsq"idt uT 'i:°.h. nt''. "1 '°"°'"^

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA.

a?

In Canada it is fast assuming great importance, as the
following table will show. They are officially considered to
te worth $4.00 per barrel, though in certain instances much
higher prices are quoted. To find the number of barrels
•divide the value by four.

VALUE OF EQUID TAKEN IN THK MABITXHE PROVINCES FROM 1881 TO 1887.

1881.

1882.

1888.

1884.

188H.

1886.

1887.

New BruDsw'k
Nova Scotia. . .

19,600

1 50fi
13,200

1 208

17,464

1 1,972
10,782

1 1,892
12,656

1 2,256
17,576

1 2,816
131,280

Total, ....

19,600

118,700

$17,672

112,704

118,948

119,832

1124,096

Prince Edward Island sends no returns. In New Bruns-
wick they are caught chiefly in Charlotte and Gloucester
counties, and in Nova Scotia in Guysborough, Halifax, Vic-
toria and Inverness counties. Large quantities are also taken
•on the Coast of Quebec from the St. Lawrence River to Blanc
ISablon in Labrador.

The Squid is universally taken by means of a "jig." This is
a cylindrical piece of lead two inches long, having an eye at
its upper end, and at its lower a circle of radially arranged,
-nnbaited hooks with the points upwards. These are moved
up and down in the midst of the schools of Squid, and when
•one is hooked (no bait is used) it is quickly drawn up. la
tsing it for bait it is usually cut into three pieces, thus bait-
ing three hooks. When possible it is usod fresh, but upon
long voyages it has to be salted. It is the best bait for cod
Icnown to the fishermen.

In addition to its use as bait it has been employed in New-
foundland as a fertilizer. Ordinarily, it is far too valaable to
1)6 used for this purpose, but when great masses of them are
thrown upon the beaches^ as they sometimes are, it would be
■well for the farmers in the vicinity to remember that they

S8

THE ECONOMIC MOLLCSCA OP ACADU.

them. It is rareW eaten C?i uT^' '' ''"'°« «*^«» '•^'^ bj

the Mai:" ?zj:r:rrbLtef r -"-^ '°™ "■*'

pnt,„g all g«,<i one. aside a, the Squm Tou't »d tor hir

Acadia, says .."Thesaufdfl' '^''V°^ °' ''^^ ^'^^''^ '•»

about like^he cuttle fish fc°''^ '' '"°'^'' '^'^ '^^^^^^^
the length of half Iw /u '''",*™« abound the head of

edge of the water T u! ^? '' "^"^^ °° ^^^ shore at th»
the^and anriavinf thf« 'V'??' "'^ '^ ^^'"^^ *-«rd'

beach which'ii:ss:r;i::^^^^^^^^^^^^

tt:nd;^re;^:;nr fv-^^^^^ ^" '^^^^^^

border of two fin J, ' n^^'"*'^ ""^ ^'^'"^ t^ere is a

shield UrJo/toVJ '''! f u''"^""'^' ^'■'^^ « ""'« r°»«d
the black sl^; 1 7slT p °"'' *"' '"^** ' ^' -«'^«''
are little cuttL fishes Thl' Jf "^"'"'^^ '" ^'•»°««. ^hich

eea as large a^ hog heads ^X^^ '°""'* ''^^'^^ '" *he

where only the iS 1. ^'^^^^.^^"er never come to land,

n the Jer Lnt lirr"^" '° *^''P""8 and autumn."

giant cuttle-fish of Cfo/nl^^^^^^^^^ .' "'"^"^« *° ''^^

Verrill Th« ol- J" ®^^^" "aland, lately described by Prof

«rwhi„h rXn^Sn^.'^T "■ — ""=^°'°b--

THE KCONOMIO M0LLU8CA OP ACADIA.

8»

WoHKS or Rbfkrbnob.
The Cephalopoda of the North-eastern Coast of America.
Bj A. E. Vbrrill. Part II., The Smaller Cephalopoda.
Trans. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol.
v., 1880, pp. 259-446. Also in Rep. U. S. Fish CommiS'
sion for 1879 (published 1882), pp. 211-450. Also ahort
paper in American Naturalist, Vol. VIII., 1874. po.
167-174. ^^

The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks in its relation to the
American Grand Bank Cod Fisheries. By H. L. Osbobn.
American Naturalist, Vol. XV., 1881, pp. 366-372.

Natural History of Useful Aquatic Animals. Pp. 687, et seq.

2. Iiollgo Pealel Lesueur.
Long-finned Sqoid.

llMligo, the ancient name; PeaUi, for R. Peale of Philadelphia.]

DiCTBiBUTiON-. (a) General ',—fio\xth Carolina to Massa-
chusetts Bay. Cape Ann, St. Croix River.
(b) In Acadia ;—St. Croix River.

[In June, 1886, the writer found two specimens of this
species in a weir at the Devil's Head in the St. Croix River.
The only other evidence of its presence in our waters that
we have been able to gather, has been obtained from Mr.
Henry Frye, of Frye's Island, Charlotte County, a close and
accurate observer of all such matters. He says that we have
in our waters two kinds of Squid, the "short-tailed and the
long-tailed." The former must be 0. illecebrosa, and the
latter can be only the species we are considering. It had
not previously been known to naturalists to occur north of
Cape Ann, and its distribution and relative abundance in
our waters are entirely unknown.

It is altogether likely that the specimens from the St.
Croix River belong to the variety borbalis of Verrill, whichr
the latter established for his specimens from Cape Ann, and
which he calls "nothing more than a local or geographical,
variety."] « » f

30

THE ECOWOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

«. .!/^fi"" '° ftPPfiaranco the long-flnned

8<iuld differs little from tbe short-flnned the

most marked difference being indicated by

lielrnHmci. In /.. p^Ui, the caudal fln ex-

tends over one hulf the length of the body,

clearly dUtlnguUhlng it from 0. iUec^brom, in

which It is not more than twoflfths of that

ength. The "pen" in the former is much

broader than in the latter. The egg, are laid

in gelatinous capsules, attached to some sup.

Economics. It is of precisely the
aame use to man as the last species,
though from its more southern range, it
18 httle used for bait. It is the common
Squid south of Cape Cod. It has been
tried as food by the New York Ichthyo-
phagous Club, and pronounced "rather
tasteless."

Works ov Rbferemcr.
As for 0. illecebrosa.

Fig. Z.—Loligo Pealei.
Female, one-thlnl of
natural size.

Class GASTEROPODA.
Z. Fnsng deceincostatug Say.

Tritonium decemcosfatum Midd.
Neptunea despecta Lin., var. carinata.
Neptunea decmncostata Say.

Ten-ribbed Spindle-ahell.

[i^VtiM, a spindle; decemco»tat\u, t«n-rlbbed.]

_ Distribution, (a) (?w«m/;~J^w.water mark to forty
fathoms. Cape Cod to Sable Island.

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OP ACADIA.

n

(b) In Acadia;— (in X. B.) Grand Manan, low-water
mark to forty fathoms, Stimpaon. L'Etang Harbor and
Pasaamaquoddy Bay, Oanonrj. Particularly large, fine and
abundant about low-water mark at Hospital laland, Paesa-
maquoddy Bay; (in N. S.) Annapolis Basin, abundant,
Verkruzen. Halifax Harbor, Jones. LaHave Bank, Jones
(on authority of Verrill.) Sable Island, Goxdd (on authority
of Willis). Not yet reported from Prince Edward Island
or the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Probably rather common in
sand and mud on the Bay of Fundy coast, and perhaps less
so on the Atlantic shores. May be very rare or quite wanting
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Habitr. This Is a very striking shell, and one easily distinguished
from all others by its ten raised revolving ribs. The ground color isadulj
fulvous or yellowish-red, but the ril)8 are darker. Of these there can
always be counted nine, generally
ten and rarely more on the lower
whorl, of which only two, mrely
three, revolve on the upper
whorls. The ribs being large
and very solid, give the shell a
handsome tluted appearance.
The lower end tapers to a canal.
It is about three inches in length,
though frequently somewhat
larger. It seems to prefer mud
and sand bottoms in rather shal-
low water on our coasts, rather
than rocks in deep water as
Oould suggests. In L'Etang
Harbor it is often dredged with
mud, but occurs in greatest per-
fection and beauty In the clean
sand and clear water about low-
water mark, at Hospital or Little
Hardwood Island in Passama-
quoddy Bay. There it lives half-
burrowing in the sand.with only
its spire projecting at times, and Yiq, 3 _
leaving deep furrows behind as sire,
it works its way along. Specimens from this locality are very cleans
and bright and show no trace of the parasitic growihs whicn^

-Fu»}ts decemcostatu*. Natural

:32

THE ECONOMIC MOLIUSCA OF ACADIA.

seem to be always present on specimens from mud bottoms w«

t":j;rir '' '-''- "^-' ^-^ ^^ ^« probabrcrvrus z:

t»n^''''T/^'". ^* ^' ^'^ '^°^"^"' article of food. Willis
te Is us that ,t IS "much scarcer and more esteemed al an
article of food thau Fusus Islandicus." We do no find that

air On'he'B*'^ ^TT ^^^^^^^^ ^orsal'ett
markets On the Bay of Pundy coast at least, it is more

abundant than F. Islandicus, and as it lives nea lotwater

mark, and is not solitary, but gregarious, it may be gltlTered

m larger quantities than the last mentioned species N ve '

theless It IS too scarce to be of much commercial value.

4. Fiigns Islandicus Gould.

Fusus curtus Jeffreys.
Tritonium Islandicum Loven.
Ncptunea curta Verrijl.
Sipho Islandicus Chemn.

Spindle-shell.

iPwnu, a spindle; lOandicui, Icelandic]

iathlTT''^ ^""^ ^^~*^«^-Low.water mark to eighty
fathoms. Massachusetts Bay to Labrador and (M \aZ. \

with Euro^an form) North'Europea'nt^s'^

ib) In Acadxa;~(,n N. B.) Grand Manan, low- water mark
to forty fathoms, Stimpson. Bay of Fundy low' water ZJ^

•Gulf of St. Lawrence over one hundred fathoms, /.'mW ^n

n.rli r""'^ p ^'^^°' *^°°'^*°*' Verkruzen. Hal i ax
Harbor, Joms. Pretty common in deep water arnnTT

.oast, jr,m. Not yet reported from ^^LlEdw^^^^^^^
Probably nowhere very abundant, though to be found onaU
the Bay of Fundy and Atlantic coast.

Habits. This is the species described by Dr. Gould ,.nH„ .r.

iiiii

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 88

^ kTk^ common name of this species is very appropriate, for it tapers
to both ends. The shell Is very graceful, being symmetrically spired
above and prolonged into a slender curved canal below. It is of ^ dull
bluish white color when deprived of its thin horn-
colored epidermis, and is white within. The whorls
«how a few revolving lines. The animal is white
with small irregular specks of black. It is usually
about three inches in length when full-grown.

But little is known of its habits. It probably
lives upon animal food. It occupies rocky bottoms
generally in water from thirty to fifty fathoms in
•depth, though in the Bay of Fundy the strong tides
afiford it at low-water mark the cold water it needs.
It never lives in schools, but singly, on which ac-
count it is difficult to obtain it in any quantity,
and being comparatively scarce it can never be of
much value.

Economics. It may be used as food.
Willis says of it: "Parties who have eeiten Fio.i.-Fususlslan.
It inform me that they consider it quite a diem, one-haif
■delicacy." We do not find that it is ever <>' natural size.
€aten by the fishermen, and it is never for sale in any of our
markets It would doubtless form good bait forced, pollock,
€tc. The shells are used as mantel ornaments in fishermen's
houses.

■5. Bacclnnin cinereum Say.

Urosalpinx cinerea St.
Drill, Borer, Snail-bore.

[Buccinum, a trumpet; cinerea, ashy.]

Distribution, (a) Goneralj-Ahont low-water mark and
in shaUow water. Coast of Florida to Massachussets Bay.
€a8co Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence. ^

{b) In Acadia;— Southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
Vernll. Prince Edward Island, Dawson. Distribution pro'
bably coincides with that of the Oyster, though it seems to
be nowhere abundant.

Habits. It is a very rough, dull-colot«d shell, looking notverv
unhke Bucctnum undal^m, but is smaller, rougher and .«.npr^h. Hshtcr
ia color. It is longer in proportion to its breadth, his the r^^vofving

34

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

lines more marked and tapers to both ends. The adult is about a^
inch ,n length. It has. like other Gasteropod Molluscs, a "tongue "
or lingual ribbon, set with sharp siliceous teeth This,
ribbon can be moved back and forth so that its act»
like a file. It is so arranged that it moves in the arc
of a vertical circle, and by its use the animal can bore a
clean round hole through an Oyster-shell : then by means,
of its proboscis it can suck out the juices of its victim
It deposits its eggs in short-stalked capsules on the
under surfaces of stones. It lives chiefly upon Oysters*,
but to some extent upon other MoUusca. It is said
not to attack the Mussels.

FiG.5. —Buccir,
um cinereum.
Natural size.

Economics. This Mollusc is of importance
to man on account of its destructiveness to
Oysters. Other Gasteropod Mollusca.such as Purpura, Natica,
Nassa, etc., also prey upon Oysters, but their combined ravages
are unimportant compared with those of this species. It
is very destructive to the beds on the coast of Long Island
and New Jersey, and in the Chesapeake. Once having
attacked a bed, it is almost impossible to get rid of it»
Dredging with fine-meshed dredges and the careful destruc-
tion of their eggs wherever found in shallow water, seem to-
be the methods adopted and recommended for keeping them
down. They do not spread rapidly, and its careful removal
from seed Oysters in planting new beds would do much to
prevent its spread. They seem at times to make sudden and
combined attacks on the beds in certain localities. Damage
to the extent of tens of thousands of dollars annually is done
to the beds in the localities mentioned above.

Such is the case in the United States. But upon our
own North Shore we may congratulate ourselves on its com-
parative scarcity. It seems to do but little damage there
This is doubtless due to the fact that it is a rock-loving
species, and the sandy character of the shore is unfavorable
to it. In the United States it is chiefly troublesome in rocky
situations. We have here another exemplification of the
excellence of our North Shore for purposes of Oyster culture,
and another protest against our improvidence and lack of
wisdom in allowing our splendid opportunities not only to lie
unimproved^ but to be positively misused.

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

W0KK8 OP Reference.

35

E. Ingersoll. " History and Present Condition of the Fishery
Industries," U. S. 10th Census, pp. 232-233; aho, " Natural
History of Useful Aquatic Animals," p. 697.

6. Bucclnnm nndatum Linn^us.
Whelk, Long Whelk.

[Buccinum, a trumpet; undatum, waved.]

Distribution, (a) Oenerah-khowQ low-water mark to
SIX hundred and fifty fathoms (Verrill); New Jersey to Arctic
Ocean and around North Atlantic to Great Britain and
France.

(b) In Acadia;— {in N. B.) abundant everywhere on Char-
lotte County Coast; Northumberland Strait, WMteaves. (In
N. S.) Annapolis Basin, moderately abundant, Verhruzen',
whole coast, Jo7ies. Prince Edward Island, Datoson. Probably
abundant around the entire coast of the three provinces.

Habits. It Las been considered by some writers that our common
shore Whelk is not the same species as the Buccinum undatum of
Europe. But those who have given
the question the most recent and most
careful study consider them identical;
and in any event, it does not matter for
our present purpose which is the case.
They are so nearly alike in all respects
that they are one so far as their uses to
man are concerned.

As would be expected from the great
variety of conditions as to temperature,
depth, freshness of water, etc., under
which it is found, this species is quite
variable in form, size and color. Yet
it presents characteristics which enable
it to be always readily distinguished
when once a student becomes acquaint-
ed with it.

The only littoral shell with which it —

can be confounded is Purpura la/pillu». FiQ. Q.— Buccinum undatum.
But, unless quite young, it is much Natural size,

larger than the latter, an average size being three inches in length,

36

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

The waves or rounded longitudinal ridges on the whorls also twelve

good distinguishing character, which .eems to remain constant for all
s.zes and ages, consists in the shape of the lowest part of the fee edge
of tbe opening the apex being considered the upper end of the sheH
In P /«;,,/„, this is more or less angular, and never lower than the

re wounT InB "'";?"'' " ''^"'"' ^""^^ ''^"^^ which the whr„
are wound. In £. undatum, on the other hand, it is alwav evenlv

rounded and always a little lower than the extremity of thel.un 111

The epidermis is generally yellowish, though variable, and til' interio;

of the shell is frequently of a beautiful golden-yelbw. I has be^^n

known to grow to a length of more than six inches

hnt. .^^'!^'u. " °°* "^ *" particular as to the kind of shore or
bottom It inhabits, or as to its depth. Near low-water maik on our
coast. It may be found in mud, sand, gravel, or roeks, feed ng chiefly
on animal food. At Oak Bay, Charlotte County, they occur in uerfec
tion. and their habits may there readily bestudied TLrarfZentTv
seen at that place feeding upon dead fish, and it is chieflVthrougrtS
fondness for such food that they are captured in England and frellnd
There round wicker baskets, a footin diameter, with a hole in heC
baued with cod or other flsh, arranged to allow them to get in but not'
out, an- lowered in from five to fifty fathoms of water, and drawn up
and emptied at intervals, much as our lobster-traps are. Other methods
ere, to lower a baited hoop-net, two feet in diameter, or a loi g H e on
wn..:h small crabs are strung. The Whelks cling to dther of these anS
are readily captured. They must be kept aliv! for bai i^^"'
ti.at .ts love for cod is fully reciprocated, for they are e Uen in g el
numbers by that and other fish, for which it is consequently a 've'y
valuable and attractive bait. We do not know that it has been observed

Its eggs are laid in lens-shaped capsules, one-fourth of an inch in
diameter each containing many eggs. Great numbers of capsules a e
deposited together, forming large irregular rounded masses, which a e
attached to stones or seaweed below low-water mark. The vounsr ha-^
the shell well developed before they leave the capsules. ^ ^

ECONOMICS. This is a Food-mollusc of very great im-
portance in Great Britain. In Vol. VI. of the Fisheries
±.xhibition Literature we are told, "The edible Whelk is
considered a very nutritious and strengthening food, and is
always free from poisonous matter. I have heard fishermen
say that a dish of Whelks does them as much good as a
beefsteak." It may be bor.ght in all the coast towns of Eog-

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 37

land and Scotlaiid, and is esteemed as a luxury by the poorer
Masses of London. To show the importance of Ihis MoHusc
in Great Bntain, it may be said that a sandy flat in Whi stab e
Bay was estimated in 1866 to yield £12,000 worth of Whelks
annually, a part of the product being sold in London market
for food and the remainder sent to the cod-fishing bank for
ba,t. The Great Grimsby fishery is valued JZuyTj^.
500. For food they are best iu August and September but
are in season all the year round. It is said they Thou Id b«
Jjsed the day after being captured, but if boiled' they w 1

In the United States it does not appear to be eaten, and i
used to only a limited extent, if at all, for bait. Dr Kobe

fowLi;: Swrrr "^^ '' '-- '-- --^ ^- ^^^^ ^^^^^

In Acadia it does not appear to be known at all as food
Mr. Willis says that though abundant in Nova Scotia, iwl
•arely used as food.* He tells us further that,-"I i slid
to be quite as nutritious and delicate, by those who have used
It, as the species which is found on the British coast » It 7a
never exposed for sale in our markets, and is unknown e en
by name to dealers in St. John. We do not find tha ttt
used by our fishermen to any extent as bait.

In Europe, the fishermen call the eggs "sea-wash balls »
and as they form a lather with salt water, use them, whe'n
found instead of soap for washing their hands. The shells are
sometime, used as a decoration for the borders of flower bed
and for other similar purposes in places near the sea. It is

ZZt V^\:-''''''''''r'''' ^-f»l Aquatic Animas,"
(p. 699), that this species has been the subject of successful
experiments for the obtaining of dyes, though we at
given any particulars. 6 « me not

Is it not a remarkable fact that a fishery of so great valnn
m Europe should be entirely neglected here? Thfre caii be
no doubt, however, that in the course of time the Whelks
will come to be extensively used in Acadia. This will come

.hoSttis.rpri'^^.m "'"'"'" "'^ '^ '^'''' ••'• ^'^-- »^-- Of con.

"M

jN'

38

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

to pass as the country becomes more populous, and as our
poor classes become poorer, as the history of civilization tells
us they must It is chiefly by the poorer classes that the
Whelk IS used in England. When the fishery does begin to
become of importance, regulations for its protection should be
enforced from the first. In England, the only restriction
that IS found to be needed, is as to the taking of the younff-
those under one and three-fourths inches long must be re-
turned to the water.

n

HI

7. Purpura lapUIus (Lin.) Lamarck.

Purple-shell, Dog-periwinkle, Dog-whelk.

[Purpura, Tyrian-purple BheU ; Ia2mu8. a little stone.]

Distribution, (a) Oeneralj-Between tide marks and
m very shallow water. Long Island (rare South of Cape Cod>
to the Arctic Ocean; around the North Atlantic to Northern
Europe and south to the coast of Africa. North-eastern
coast of Asia to Japan; Sitka, Alaska, and possibly south to
California.

(bj In Acadia;-{m N. B.) Very abundant on the Bay
of Fundy coast from Grand Manan to St. John and probably
much further. Not reported from the North Shore, but
surely occurs there. (In N. S.) Annapolis Basin, abundant
Verh-nze}i; all rocky shores, Jones; Prince Edward Island'
Dawsofi. Probably occurs everywhere on cur coasts in rocky
places and tolerably clear water.

Habits. So variable is the shell of this animal, and so few con-
stant characters does it present that it is difiicult to describe it It is
without doubt, the most variable shore shell we have. Sometimes when
hvmg in very sheltered places, it Is nearly as thin as this paper: a-ain
when exposed on rocky reefs, It may be of a thickness a dozen times a»
great. Sometimes it is wLItc. sometimes orange, or gray, or brown oi-
any neutral shade. While usually of a nearly uniform color, it some-
times shows broad revolving bands, one to three in number, of pure
white on a dark ground. Sometimes quite smooth, again it is flnelv
sculptured with longitudinal lines of raised scales, and there is every
gradation between these extremes. It varies, too, in form, and in length
proportional to the breadth. The only shore form which it rcsemfaie*

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 39

Is the young of the Whelk, Buccinum undabim. From this it differe in
the absence of the longitudinal undulations and in the shape of the
lowest part of the free edge of the opening. As stated under the des-
cription of B. undatum, this in P. lapiHm is more or less angular and
never lower than the lowest point (the apex being considered the upper

Fig. l.-Purpnra fapilhi^. Natural Size.
«nd of the shell) of the columella, or central pillar around which the
-whorls are wound. In B. undatum on the other hand, it is always evenly
rounded, and always a little lower than the extremity of the columella.
Through all its variations, it yet presents a certain individuality of its
own not describable in words, which makes it easily recognizable when
once the student has become familiar with it.

The Purple-shell lives upon rocky shores between high and low-
water marks, particularly near the latter. It rather prefers e.xposed
situations and is often found on ledges exposed to the full force of the
ocean swell. It is very voracious and attacks nearly all of the littoral
Molluscs, into the shells of which it can easily bore an opening by means
of its file-like tongue. One writer tells us that it can bore through the
shell of the common Alussel in from three to five minutes, while others,
■with more show of probability say that it takes two days. Can not some
of our teachers or students who live near the shore, throw some light
upon such questions at this? Through the hole, not larger than a large
pin head, the animal thrusts its proboscis, and sucks out the juices of
its prey at its leisure. The Oyster is a favorite food, and great damage
is done to Oyster -.^.'.s by this species. In England it is considered
"one cf the greatest if not tfie most destructive of the Oyster's enemies."
It has been so bad at times on the English beds that sixpence per hundred
has been paid to colkotors. It also attacks species of Littorina, Limpets,
small Naticas and its own kind. It feeds very largely upon the common
shore Barnacles, £alamt» balanoides, thrusting its proboscis between the
opercular valves of that species. Its egg-cases, urn or vase shaped,
smooth, aboTit one-fourth of an inch long, of a yellow or cream color tinged
■with pink, are found attached in groups on the under sides of stones,
and in crevices of the ledges, at low tide. The young remain m them
until their shell is well-formed and they are able to shift for themselves.

40

THE ECONOMIC MOLLCSCA OF ACADIA.

mo„d, tell. „, i„ hi. "C„i»erd7prX:,aIe Sea " Z
m .he re>g„ of A„g„st„., „„e,K,u.d of„„dd,ed with iv 1
purple sold for about £30 sterliiiij Thi. „ I ^ °

tcdiousness of the procel andM,. „ "' ^'""<">' '!>»
obtained from eaeh' To Lo It i/7„'' """""'^ "" ""'»'
con,aercial.cale, partly on aceoato, ill " "'^'' °" "
beoanse cheaper ^'b^titnterhlbtroErd"? "",!!'
000 inea. insect and later fron, the ooXt "a ' i :c"o.o**

ring to the MoUnso nnder consideration. "If the sLn T;
Purj,ura Upxllm is broken, there is seen on the bacfctf ,1,

linen, ./.el rrir^^^^^^^^^
becomes green, blue and purple, and at last settles into a fine
nnchangeable crimson. Neither acids nor alkalee affect it^
color, and U may be conveniently employed in marking nn
^herean,,dehbleinkisdesirel" And'asMr. Inger "ifldds

abLl .?''''^Tu '^ ^'^ ^°^'«"*^' ^h^refore. hfve go win;
abundant y on tbe.r sea-side rocks little living boftlerof
indelible ink which cannot be excelled by any manuflch rp/

alkali will affect its color." In these facts are shown an

m

THE KCONOMIC MOLLUSCA t.. ACADIA.

41

interesting tlicjgh not commercially valuable use for this
species. It would be far too expensive a process to attempt
to dye with it, but for the purpose suggested (/. e., its use as
indelible inli), it may have a limited local value. Jeflfreys
says the egg-capsules will also give the color, and with less
trouble than the parent animals. Dr. Bell states that this
species was used somewhat as bait for Cod along the lower
St. Lawrence, but we do not know that it has ever been so used
in Acadia.

A more important economic interest in this animal for us
arises from its relation to Oyster-bods and Oyster-culture.
While it gives much trouble and causes much loss to United
States oystermen, it seems to be quite rare and harmless on
the Oyster-beds of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, doubtless owing
to the fact that it lives on rocks, of which there are comparat
tively few in that region. Indeed Mr. Whiteaves did not
find It at all at Shediac. This fact is another to show how
favored by nature are Acadian Oyster-waters, and is an
additional indication of the possibility of profitable Oyster-
culture upon our shores.

8. Lnnatia heros (Say) Adams.
Natica heros (Say).
Bound Whelk.

[Lxmatia, half -moon phaped; heros, a hero.]

Distribution, (a) G'tfwem/;- Low- water mark to forty
fathoms. Georgia to southern coast of Labrador.

(*) In Acadia;— {m N. B.) Abundant everywhere on sand
and mud bottoms on the southern coast, from Grand Manan to
Quaco. Near Dalhousie, 5e//. Shediac, Whiteaves. (In N.
S.) Annapolis Basin and St. Mary's Bay, Verkriizen. All
sand beaches, Jones. Sable Island, very large, Willis.
Prince Edward IsLnd, Daws07i. Probably 'to be found on
sandy and other soft beaches around the entire coast.

Habits. Though this species possesses little economic value, it i»
a most conspicuous shore shell. It is as large as Bucdnum undalum. or

42

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

Is.'

m

foumled for it has a v.ry lew spire, no waves, lines, or sculpturing of
»ny kmd except^ho simple longitudinal lines of growtl,. and an aper'

lure simply rounded below with
no sign of a notch or canal. It
is generally ash colored, and
about two and a half inches long
and two inches broad. It grows
much larger than this, however,
in favorable situations. andWillis
mentions that he has hud speci-
mens from Sable Island measur-
ing four or five inches in length,
and broad in proportion.

The Round Whelk is rarely
found in rocky situations, prefer"
ing sand and mud bottoms. It
Is not as particular about the

Fig. 8.-Luna,!a heros Natural 8iz« f "'^'^ °^!''* ''**"' *' *°''*''''' "'
ifro8. Naturalize, is generally supposed, for it is

found up the St^Croix River at the Raven's Head and perhaps further.
On the flats of Oak Bay. especially on the borders of the deeper parts
U IS exceedingly abundant, and there its habiu may be easily watched'
It not only hves on the surface, but beneath it, the great expanded
muscular foot enabling it to burrow readily.

Everywhere on the flats around our coast, there may be found
valv.s of Mussels, Clams and other shells, many of which show a neatly
bored round hole, one sixth of an inch in diameter. These are the
remains of the vicima of Luuatia. Gracpiog the shell with its powerful
foo , It rasps a hole through it with its flle-like tongue, inserts its
proboscis, and sucks out the juices and soft parts. Not only bivalves
but various Gasteropods* are attacked by it. and it is said even its own
w","^- . T*'''?" ""'''■''^ successfully the great Beach-clnm {Mactra
soh,h>.,ma). It also feeds upon dead fish. Small specimens are frequently
found resembling this species in shape, but showing three revolving
chestnut-co lored bands. These are now considered a varietv of L. kerj
and are called var. trnenata. Its egg-masses appropriately called
_ Sand-saucers are quite common on the flats. The eggs are arranged
in a mass of sand glued together into the shape of a broad bowl open

hadZn'T^^'ouTi*'* summer, at Gate Bay, alalia Buccinum undatum which

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA. 48

«t the l.ottom, and broken on one side." This bowl is two to four
inches m diameter. By holding it up to the light the eggs may be seen.

Economics. It does not appear that the Round Whelk is
used either for food or bait, though it is probably well suited
lor both purposes. Willis says,-" It is slightly sought after
as an article of food, and never offered for sale in any of our
markets." Can any one to whom these pages may come, tell
us of any other uses to which the species is applied?

It is not considered in the United States that it does any
considerable harm to the Oyster-beds. Mr. Whiteaves found
It on the Oyster-beds at Shodiac, but we have no information
as to whether it does much injury. It is eaten by several

S. Littorlna litorea (Lin.) Forbes and Hanley.
Periwinkle, Winkle.
JUic-7nac Chigujich-k.* Acadian French, Biourneau (?).

[LittorOia, Ilttus, the sea-shore; litorea, living on the shore ]

Distribution. («) GTewera/; - Between tides. Long
Island Sound to Gulf of St. Lawrence.

(*) In Acadia;-(m N. B.) Bay of Fundy coast, abundant.
Bay Chaleur, Morse. Northumberland Strait, Dawson. (In
N.S.) North Shore, Datoson. Halifax, abundant, Willis,
Verhruzen. All rocky shores, Jones. (In P. E. L) South
Shore, Wldteaves. Large and abundant on different parts of
the coast, Dawson. It probably occurs in all rocky situations
around the entire coast of the three Provinces.

[This is now almost universally admitted to be an intro-
duced Mollusc. Its home is in Europe and it is exceedingly
abundant on the coasts of Great Britain. It was first reported
from Halifax in 1857, by Mr. John Willis, but Sir William
Dawson states that he collected it in the southern part of the
Oulf of St. Lawrence earlier than this, and Prof. E. S. Morse
received it from Bathurst in 1855. It was found near St. John
by Mr. G. F. Matthew in 1861 or 1862. It was unknown on the

•Applied probably to the nat ve form, £. palUata.

«

44

THE ECONOMIC ilOLLLSCA OK ACADIA

coaat of ^ow England prior to 1808, but ims since spread
southward very rapidly, reaching Caaco Bay about 1873. Cape
Cod ,n 187d, ^e^v Haven. Conn., in 1879. The evidence
beanng upon the question of whether or not it is introduced,
would be out uf place here. It will be found in the work by
the author, cued below].

IlAmTs It is not difficult to distinijulish tins sl.cll from our otlier
sZ IcsTt m" "^' G-teropcls. Our native Periwinkle, /! W/ vl
restmliles i mos closely; but tliat is niucb snmlier. much thinner and
lighter and entirely lacks any of the revolving raised linear well,
nmrked in L. /itorea. This latter character marks it
oir weli from young specimens of Zunatia h,;-0H
From L. mdU it is separated by its greater size and,
tlie greater number and less prominence of its re-
volving lines and by the shape of its mouth or
nperture; in L iWm the latter is nearly round in /,

Fio. 9.-L,Uor,»a Bnccmm umlalvm It is readily distinguished bv the
.W.. Natural absence of a posterior prolongation ot ti:; IhCfinlo

K», acanal Large sp.cimei.s are over an inch in lenirth

but I he average size is a little below this. ^ '

The Periwinkle lives on the rocks between tides. It is a votfetable
eater, and uses its long file-like tongue or lingual ribbon, which is
relatives employ to bore through the shells of other Molluscs for rasn
mg up minute sea weeds from the rocks. It really grazes on these sub-
marine pastures as do cattle on land. This mode of taking us food

resultsindrectvaue toman. forinEn«land Oyster cultivators distribute
hem over the beds to keep the Oysters free from seaweed. It h " 1 1
been observed to attack other Molluscs. From its living on rocks
between tides and possessing considerable vitality, it is liablelo be taken
on ships with ballast, and it was probably in thi^ way that t w- imro
duced into America from Europe.

Economics. This is one of the best of our Food-molluscs
a fact proven by the quantities sold both in foreign markets
aiid our own. It is not used as vet to any extent in the
United States, probably because it is of so recent introduction
and because of its scarcity in the vicinity of the markets of
^ew York-the great mollusc-market of the Eastern United
States. In England there are no exact statistics to show the-
extent of its use, but it is estimated that in London alone-
more than twenty-five hundred tons, worth fifteen thousan(i

THE KCONOMIC MOLLL'SCA OP ACADIA.

4»

pounds, are consumed annually. The consumption in other
places IS enormcM.s also, and many hundreds of peoi)le are
employed in collecting thorn. The average selling price is
one penny a pint. It is eaten in France and probably in oth-r
parts of Europe. There, as with us, it is boiled in salt and
water, and the animal extracted with a pin. In France, and
perhaps elsewhere, pins are placed beside the plates of diners
when these animals are served.

In Acadia our people are beginning to appreciate it. We
do not know that it is as yet eaten by the fishermen, but in
St. John, Mr. J. A. Turner estimates about one hundred and
fifty bushels per year are consumed. Of these, a few come
from Nova Scotia, but the greater quantity are collected by
hand at and near Point Lepreaux. They sell for about two
dollars per bushel wholesale in St. John. A few have been
exported to Montreal.

It Nova Scotia, in Willis' time, twentv-five to thirty years
ago. It was not used for food. At present large quantities
are sola in the Halifax markets. They are gathered on the
neighboring coasts and sell for five or six cents per quart.
At Bedford Basin, Point PleasaT* uid ciher places, the resi-
dents on the shores gather them lor their own use.

In Prince Edward Island, Mr. J. H. Duvar says it is not
eaten.

It would doubtless form good bait, but is more valuable
for other purposes. ItK habit of cleaning sea-weeds from hard
surfaces, utilized as mentioned above by oyster-culturists, may
become of importance to us if there ever should be on our
Gulf of St. Lawrence coast, as nature appears to have
intended there should, a system of Oyster-culture.

As the Periwinkle becomes better known, it will be exten-
sively used, and a time will come when the demand will press
hard upon the supply. Though it can never approach the
Oyster or the Lobster in value, we should none the less take
lesson from the fate of their fishery. As Periwinkles are so
small, the young are almost valueless and are hence not likely
to be taken; but the reproductive season should be carfifullj
determined for our waters, and during that time they should

46

THiS ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OP ACADIA.

be left entirely undisturbed, fts abundance upon our coast
will ensure a bountiful supply for some time to come.

Works of Reference.

Is Littorina litorea Introduced or Indigenous ? By W. F.
Ganong. Avierican Naturalist, Vol. XX., Nov.. 1886*
pp. 931-940 and XXI., 287, 288.

Class LAMELLIBRA.NCHIATA.
10. Ogtrea Vlrslnlana Lister.

Ostrea Viryinica Gmglin.
Ostrea borealis Lamarck.
Ostrea Canadensis Brugui^re.

Oyster, American Oyster.

Mic-mac, Numdumoo-k. Passamaquoddy, Bahsaps-
ske see zik. Acadian French, Huitre.

[Ostrea, an Oyster; Virginiana, Virginian.]

[It is not yet known whether the Oysters of our coast are
to be referred to one or to two species. Most naturalists at
the present time believe the former to be the case, and
this IS the opinion of the writer of this paper. In any
event, it does not much matter for our present purpose
and we can best consider them as one.]

Distribution, {a) General ;-^h^\\o^ water. Gulf of
Mexico to Massachusetts Bay, Southern part of the Gulf of
St. I^wrence and waters contiguous. Formerly also in Port-
land Harbor, Casco Bay, etc.

{b) In ^carfifl;-(in N. B.) Bay Chaleur to Baie Verte,
m all favorable situations. Between Oaraquette Banks
Caraquette, St. Simon's lulet, Shippegan Harbor and Gully.
Tracadie, Tabusintac, Burnt Church, Bay du Vin, and many
other places in Miramichi Bay, Kouchibouguac, Richibucto,
Buctouche, Cocagne, Shediac, Baie Verte. (In N. S.) River
Phihp, Pugwash, Wallace, Malagagh, Tatamagoueho, River

THE ECONOJIIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA.

47'

John, Piotou, Tracadie, Mabou, Margarie, Sydney, Albert
Bridge, County Harbor,* St. Mary's River*, Liscombe Harbor*,.
Jeddore Head,* and nearly everywhere in the Bras d'or Lakes!^
(In P. E. I,) All around the coast in favorable situations.

Habits. A species, with a range as great as this, and one found-
under such diverse conditions, must necessarily present great variations
It would be impossible to give of it a description, eltlier scientific or
popular, which would apply to all of its individuals. Sometimes round
in outlme, sometimes nearly as elongated as the Razor-shell, and with
every gradation between these extremes, presenting every possible
variation as to convexity and corrugation of tlie valves, it must be con-
sidered the most variable bivalve of our coasts. Many of these varia-
tions are due to modes of attachment, overcrowding and other conditions
to be considered below, but others depend upon conditions not yet
understood, particularly those cases in which a certain general form is
characteristic of a special locality.

The Oyster t is a bivalve, as eveiybody knows, with a hinge of

simple mechanism at one end, so arranged as to tend to keep the shell

constantly a little open. This is its position when lying undisturbed on

the bottom, when weakened, or when dead. But the living animal has

the power of closing the valves and keeping them closed by means of the

single powerful muscle, the position of which is marked by the purple

scars, known as the "eye," on the interior of the two valves The

entire interior of each valve has a rather thick, dark-edged fringed

membranous lining called the mantle, which, when fully extended is a

little larger than the valve and extends like a fringe beyond it It is

this mantle which builds the shell. That of one valve is not connected

with that of the other except at *he hinge and at one other point near the

opposite end. Thus the animal is open or exposed nearly all around

and not closed in as it would be if the mantle were almost continuous

as in the Clam.

Of the two valves, one is usually flat and the other couv ex. The lat ter
ifi the under one as the animal lies undisturbed on the bottom, and in its
hollow, as in a dish, lie the other organs. The hinge is at the extreme
anterior end, differing thus from the Clam in which it lies near the back
of the animal. Inside the mantle, and just behind the hinge is the

•Given bylngersoU in U. 8. 10th Census, "Oyster Fishery," on authority of

tAs would be expected from its ffreat economic Importance, the structure and
habits of th« Oyster have been very thoroughly studied, and Its Ufe history is now
as well known as that of any Mollusc. Those who are specially interested will find
the subject very fully treated in the -orks quoted at the end of this article, some of
wbieb axi easily accessible.

48

THE ECOXOMIC; MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

minute mouth, guarded by four large membranous flan« . • . ,
striated on their inner faces. From among them thl*^' , ^''^^
four other larger folds, transversely strTteS and ^^thir", ''''r^'
^v-hich follow the most curved or ventral side to Til T-^'" '^^'''
and around it to end near the straig" te t br !T'%] '"'*'^'"'
generally known to oystermen as the '' beard ''Sy re the ^n!: "h
serve both for respiration as thev do in fl«hoc J , ^ "^' """^

thefood and guid^ it to nj tZtU iTSZ^T^:: ^L''''^
cavty of its own. lies the heart, which in a freshlv nn f ' ,'" "■

■Oyster, can be seen to beat ver^ slowW it hlT^^^^?'"^' ^'""^''^^
auricles and a ventricle, and recefviSe aerated I 'T, ''"''''''"''' *^«
and gill, forces it through the Sou^o™ «' ^ -"^'^

of it through the gills for aeration agaif and so on T. " ""'
system is quite simple, consisting of two eanSornr , "'"""'

mouth Which control the interna? orgZ fnd tl' t. '°''''''''

muscle which control the latter and fhemamle " "'"' *'' ^''''

.e.;df:^^i:^:sr-Serrs„::rr"-?

animal isffen.alera\r.t^rere:TS;"^^^^^^^^^^^
Oyster, though united in the same individual in 1 plrl '"''"'

and there are about as many of one sex Tof the o he" So ''T'" '*
end of the intestine is on the dorsal sirJpnf tL ^ posterior

forced along by minute v^^ratinTotT^^^^^^^^ 7f« ^^^'^^

ventral margin, bathes the EiuLTa ^ZT^TZsZtT' '''
oxygen and food, and passes out by the doLi r„„f • ! ^P ^'"'"' "'
waste matters. The food of 'he Oy fer ^nsi tH ^'V'^'"^^''' '' ''''
Plants, principally that group of thj lat^teT^rrasZ: 17"^^^ ''''

hottoirLTsrwi^thto^^^^^^^^ 2' ^'T ^'^'^™« - -^^y

such situations than in any o'Ser^"^ Sv ''" l"' ''"^" ^^"^^ '"
the surface, and if accidentally covered ^itrml'T '"^ "^ "^°"
are found also upon rocky and even sand '"H^ T'' ^''''^- ^^'^
rapidlyandhavemoreeneLesinsucrpaces w^^^^^^^^^
they are firmly attached to some suppor bv ihe mo!t J^ ^ undisturbed,
is nearly always the left The unnTv!, ,T ''°°''*''' ^^^^^' *W8

the elastic Wnge. an^'ior 'fTe ' 1' T"^'^ ' '^ »'"« ^'^ted by
through the anfm'al as dSbed abtve Tft^ ZT'''"i '' t"^^ "'^'^^

♦Yet it Is never self-fertiUzed, for the etiira am fh«
muurityln each indlTiduftl at different times spematazoa come to

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSC A OF ACADIA. 49

and are ready to attach themselves to some clean fixed sunnorf if ,

not over eljrhlv-tv « „i,i i *■"'', °°f ""^'•- '">""' speclmom,

f rnm , . , ' ^'"«'"can seems to excel its European allv Tn
f.om two to three years it is ready for the market hJX ,

specimens of some localities unLbtedrmm 're torn T^ "'^'

another part of this paper. The Purple S a / // ^"'''° '"

and various parasitic animals do more or less damno-B tt.,! -'loi'uscs,

50

BULLETIN OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Ill' : 'I'

Economics. 0» all invertebrate animals that live in the
sea, perhaps of all .nvertebrate animals whatever, the Oyster
is far the best known. It is very widely distributed, occurring
in nearly all the seas of the globe, and there are some seventy
species recognized. Howfar back dates its use by man we cannot
say, but the shells are found in very ancient kitchen-middena
or refuse heaps in America, and still more ancient ones in
Europe. This rather throws doubt upon the story sometime*
told that their excellence was first made known by an inquisi-
tive walker on the seashore whose finger was pinched by one
and carried for relief to his month. The historical accuracy
of this tale is still further impugned by the fact that the same
is told of the origin of several other excellent edibles.

That the Oyster is a nutritious and otherwise good article
of food, all physicians, chemists and human experience agree.
A discussion of its value compared with other food substances
will be found in the introductory part of this paper (p. 9).
It must be remembered that those tables express merely the
absolute nutritive value of the various substances, and give no
indication of the relative digestibility and other differences
which give this Mollusc its chief value.

Though persons are occasionally found (of whom the
writer is one), who dislike Oysters, we have never heard of
any cases of actual poisoning by them. It is sometimes
thought that those which have the gills of a green color are
injurious, but repeated chemical analysis and careful experi-
ments have shown that they are quite harmless. The green
color is due to a pigment absorbed from their food, which, in
such cases, consists chiefly of a particular kind of Diatoms,
By feeding them other food for a time, their white color
returns, and vice versa, by feeding white Oysters on these
Diatoms they turn green. Indeed the epicures of Europe
esteem the green more highly than the white, and in France
there are beds in which they are carefully fed to make them
green.

The United States is the greatest Oyster-producing country
in the world. According to the census of 1881;, this fishery is.

THE ECONOMIC 3I0LLUSCA OF ACADIA.

fil

worth over $13,000,000 annually,* more than three times the
value of the Cod-fishery. By far the greater portion of thi»
is from natural beds, eighty per cent coming from Chesapeake
Bay. They are exported to Canada and to Europe. There is
but little in the way of Oyster-culture.

In France, elaborate systems of culture prevail, and natural
beds are also extensive; the total yield is about 18,000,00a
francs per year. The total yield from the beds of Great
Britain is estimated at from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000 worth
per year. Holland, Germany, Italy and other European
countries also have their beds, but their production is of less
value. The distribution of the common European Oyster
{Ostrea edulis), seems to correspond pretty closely with the
limits of those shores on which is felt the influence of tho
Gulf Stream.

On the shores of Acadia, the Oyster has probably existed
much longer than man. No doubt the Indians have used it
from very ancient times. We are not able to find that lists of
the shells of any of the Indian shell heaps f which must exist
on our North Shore have ever been published, but they will
surely be found to contain many of the shells of this species. J
A single specimen was found in a shell-heap ten miles east of
Halifax, and they are found in greatest abundance in the
shell-heaps of Casco Bay, Maine, though the Oyster is now
extinct there.

than t" rcTiTucf '''*' ""''' ''"'"■ *'"" *''''' '^ ""' ^'°^ ''""""••''y «* '"-^

tMr. A. Leith Adams, in his "Field and Forest Rambles," p. 85, sayg that h<>
examined shell-heaps ,m, the islands in the Bay of Fundy and on the St. Croix River
and in them occurred th« Quahog and the Oyster. Other observer, who hav^
examined these shell-heaps much more carefully than Mr. Adams had don-, hav^
seen no trace of ether Quahog or Oyster. Mr. Adams' error is very unfortunate
other writers have quoted and been led to wrong conclusions by him.

t Denys seems to imply this. He says, referring to the regi ju about St. Oeoree-s
Bay and the Gut of Canso, " there are found an abundance of good and very larl«
Oysters, and of Mussels, still larger; and also an abundance of SheU-flsh of aU klnrtt
good tfl eat, which are the mos-; important means of subsistence of the sa^ees
during the spring." "•"•bbs

4

I;.

«3

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF AACDIA.

I .

K'!.

>#

The first European to speak of our Oysters appears to have
been Champlain,* who, in " Les Voyages du Sieur de Cham-
plain," Paris, 1613, says that in Bras d'or Lakes, Cape Breton,
" there are many islands filled with a great deal of game and
Shell-fish of several kinds, among others of Oysters which are
not of good flavor."

The next writer to refer to them was Nicolas Denys, in his
*' Description Geographique et Historique . . . de I'Amerique
Septentrionale," and his "Historic Naturelle . . . de I'Am-
erique Septentrionale," 1672. He tells us that good Oysters
were found in the region of the Gut of Canso and the south
shore of St. George's Bay, at Malagash, (apparently) at Pictou,
at Tatamagouche and at Cooagne, and at Grand Pabou. Of
Bras d'or Lakes, he says,—*' There are found there only some
Oysters which are not good when they are newly fished, because
they are too fresh, but they have a property, which is, that
one is able to keep them nine or ten days without their losing
their water, after which they are salt and lose tueir insipic^"
ness, which is caused by the fresh water of the rivers at'the
mouths of which they are fished." And of Pictou River, he
Bays,— "At a league and a half within the river, on the left
hand, there is a large cove where is found a quan'ity of excel-
lent Oysters; those in the passage are almost all round, and
further within the cove they are of immense si. r there are
€ome found as large as a shoe and almost of the same shape,
and all are very full and of good taste." These extracts are
interesting, as showing that the distribution and excellence
of our Oysters were known over two hundred years ago; the
beds have stood a constant strain since then. Denys describes
fully also the method of taking them,which will be referred to
below. A few references to them occur in books of the last
century f and the early part of the present, and since the
publication of the first of the Dominion Annual Fishery

•Excepting the doubtful case given on p. 5, footnote.

t A curious error occurs In a little book, entitled. " The Present State of Nova
Scotia," published in Edinburg, in 1787. It says on p. 119, that Oysters have been
d scovered in Chignecto Bay, " and are now become an article of export to several
places."

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA. . 53

Kepovts, we have had constant information in the Reports of
Mr. Venning, of New Brunswick, and Mr. J. H. Duvar of
Prince Edward Island, as to the condition of the beds. Mr
J. F. VVhiteaves, of the Dominion Geological Survey, has
given them some attention; his reports are mentioned below
In the Tenth Census of the United States, Section X., Mono
graph B, Report on the Oyster Industry of the U. S., pp 3-ii
Mr. Ernest Ingersoll has given a concise account of the his'
lory and present condition of the beds and a not very encour-
aging sketch of their probable future. Other than these we
have found no writers who have discussed the Canadian Oyster-

D6QS* 4

It we pass, now, from human to geoloeical history, the
^rst question which meets us is, how the Oysters came first to
be in the Gulf far removed us they are from their congeners
to the south of Cape Cod? This problem has already been
briefly discussed in the introductory part of this paper (p. 17 )
But the causes whic'. brought about the present condition of
affairs are still at work, and are producing slow but constant
changes ,n the beds. A depression of the land is certainly
going on in this region and must cause changes in tides and
currents, and a more active erosion* of the land and disposi-
tion of silt. To this, rather than to the action of ice, as some
have thought, IS probably to be referred the greater part of
the destruction of former large Oyster-beds, the sites of which
are marked all around Prince Edward Island especially by
immense deposits of dead shells. Oysters, though they flourish
on mud bottoms, quickly perish if mud covers them.

There are other purely zoological causes also at work.
The depression of the land must allow the cold waters of the
deeper part of the Gulf to come nearer and nearer to the
shore, making the conditions more and more favorable for the
hardy northern animals, and less so for the more sensitive
fiouthe T forms. The young of the latter must have warm

♦Mr. J. H. Duvar, In a letter to the writer, says:-" The Islund its«if i. «, »i,.„™
^M me t^atTl^n^ "'%-''^^ "''« ""'■ A-^-^-on. Je^^'^fi"""'"^.

il

54

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA.

li^;

water for their development. A competition must therefore-
be going on between the two, which can eventually result ia
but one way — the extinction of the southern forms.

Butdoes this all mean, that our beds are being exterminated
by a power quite beyond man's control? If so, what would
be the use of Oyster-culture in our waters?

It is true that the ultimate fate of the beds is probably tO'
be total extinction. Only a change in the present geological
processes of this region, a cessation or reversal of ihe present
sinking of the land, can save them. But it must be remem-
bered that the whole process is extremely slow; that it takes
time measured not by years but by centuries. It is so slow
that for all practical purposes it is theoretical rather than real,
and need not enter into the calculations of practical men.
Probably, aside from man's direct influence, i. e., as far as-
natural conditions are concerned, there has been but little
change in the beds during the last two hundred years, and
there will be as little more during the n« .t two hundred.
The very conditions which cause the destruction of old beds,
are making new localities available. There is no doubt, that
before man interfered, and to a certain extent now, new beds^
form in new places as old ones are smothered out; and no
doubt there are, too, many places upon which new ones would
grow, if tides, currents or other agency would once place-
oysters upon them. There is nothing, then, in the geological
history of the Oyster in Acadia, to discourage systematic
culture or vigorous efforts to protect and increase them

It need hardly be mentioned here, that the only Oysters
in Eastern Canada are in the waters of Acadia. The following
table, compiled from the dominion Fisheries Reports, shows
for a period of fifteen years, the value of the Oyster fishery to
each of the provinces ami to all Canada.* They are oflBcially
considered to be worth $3.00 per barrel, and dividing the
value by three will give the number of barrels.

♦There are Oyster-beds on our Pacific coast, but owing to iaferior quality
and lack of care, they are almost valueless.

f!l T

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA.

65

Pi

06

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

Prince Edward Island produces the greatest quantity ;;
New Brunswick comes next, and that of Nova Scotia is rela-
tively insignificant. The centre of the Oyster-trade in the first
of these Provinces is Summerside, and the greater part of the
supply 18 drawn from Richmond Bay. King's County has
very few or no beds. Formerly those of Mali)equJ and
Bedeque were very productive and highly e.st- r-raed. In New
Brunswick, the beds of Shediac and Cocagne have l.oen tlie
most famous, and were among the earliest to become exhaust-
ed. Thirty or forty years ago, those of Caraquotte and Ship-
pegan were the most productive, but to-day those of the latter
place yield but few, and Caraquette and Bay du Vin give the
largest returns. In Nova Scotia, the greatier part are taken
in the Bras d'Or Lakes, at Grand Narrows, Washabuck
Whycocomagh, River Dennis, etc., and at Tracadie, Piigwash'
Wallace and Antigonish on the main land.

In Prince Edward Island, it is estimated by Mr. J.
Sharp, of Summerside, that about one thousand barrels are
required yearly for home consumption in the latter place, and
the same quantity in Charlottetown. Considerable quanti-
ties are also consumed at other places on the Island, but far
the greater portion are exported to New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia, and the upper Provinces. A few are exported to
Newfoundland, and lately a few to Chicago and Milwaukee.

In St. John, Mr. J. A. Turner estimates that no less than
ten thousand to twelve thousand barrels of Oysters are con-
sumed annually; of these all but about five per cent are
native, the United States Oysters being imported during the
close season and in the winter. The former cost about 13.50
per barrel in St. John, and the latter from two to three times
as much.

In Halifax, Mr. Wilson, a large dealer, thinks that from
one thousand five hundred to two thousand barrels are used
annually, and about twice that quantity in the entire Pro-
yince. About one-tenth or less of these are United States
Oysters; the remainder are the greatly preferred natives.
The latter cost about two dollars and fifty cents to importer
and three dollars per barrel to the consumer, while the former

THE ECOJfOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

57

cost from five dollars per barrel upwards, and are imported
chiefly in the winter.

All agree, that price and other conditions being equal
our native Oyster is preferred to the imported, on account
chiefly of its better flavor.

We have not been able to prepare statistics to show the
value of the importation of United States Oysters into Canada.
But It IS enough to say that Canadian beds do not produce-
nearly enough for Canadian needs, and not too much to say,
that Canadian beds are capable of supplying Canadian need*
and much more, if properly managed.

The immense fertilityof the Oyster can find no more
forcible illustration than the above table. That in the face
of reckless and unrestiamed over-fishing, destruction of the
young, polntion of the water by mills, and, in a measure,
by mud-digging machines, cutting to pieces of the beds by
the latter, disregard of the spawning season and other griev-
ances, the Oyster-yield should be actually increasing is sur-
prising enough. This continuation of the «upply, however
has been in great part due to the discovery of new beds al
old ones became exhausted, and the utilization of previously
known but inferior ones; but we must now be well nigh their
end. It 18 interesting to note, as one must in looking over
the Fishery Reports, how the point of greatest productiveness
has shifted about during the past fifty years. Our beds have
always been considered public property,* to be fished by any-

tnfJJ^r^l description of the niwlp „f taking the Oyster prior to 1H72, is not onljr
llonrtodfy ' '"""^ "'"'"''' ^"°"" ''^'"' "' * 'J«'«<«-iption of opera^

'• I have spoken of Oysters In the fli-st book, but I have not told you that ther
are a great n.anna for the winter, when the season does not allow of going a fl hing
IZr. ■ ' r'%°''°V''" '''"^' "^*'' '''^ """"■ To «-t them, the ioe is broken
bottom •^^wfoM'" ' *k'° T '"•°^"'«^«"^"'J-'- P0>«« lo»» enough u, touch Z
bottom. T«o of them are bound together about the middle, then they are opened,

Ths'flZ <'*°"^'- '^*'«i;-«t«''«'> '-m thewaterand thrown upon thrice

Takes the flrnno;.r°;!^ ^r'^r '^'"^ "^ ^^^'•*' p^^^-^^ «°'"« ««"■ ^^other

makes the fire, another shells them for frying, others place them on the coals, two
or three m a large shell, with their water, with crumbs of bread and a l.ttle pepper

weirfluTe T' ^''VmI '""' *'"''•' •"'* '^ '«* ^^^ ^«'«'- -d when th'LTar^
Z^ ^l, T *"^'' *"* '"*''• »"'' '^^ '^°'^ ^^«'' «»°h on« « bag-full on a little
sled, which is made very light for them ; harnessed !ik=- .a hnrse tb-- -oilwlv- r,7nnin^
overthe ice or snow, they are the ones which carry aU the equipa^^ of .he hunterL "
Oysters are still taken in Acadia by tongs or rakes. The diedge is never used.

88

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OP ACADIA.

(I

I'

r 7t *''\"«'«''^'-' »»d J»^« for the rational protection of
the Hshery have been .mperfect o. provided no means for

IZ 7 .' fZ'T.V . '^^''' '' ^^ ''^^ •» '^^'^ «««*««". from
June 1st to the 16th of September, but i8 only partially

observed. The true condition of affairs has been repeatedly
pomted .ut by tlje Fishery Inspectors, and remedies «uggestea
by them Mr_ W. H. Venning. Inspector for New Brunswick,
has urged year after year the necessity for government inter!
ference. and Mr. J. H. Duvar. Inspector for Prince Edward
island, m h,8 very full reports for 1880-87 has repeatedly
Bummanzcd the whole matter. To theeasily accessible reports
of these two Inspectors.! and to that of Mr. Whiteaves. all
oiontioned below those interested in the subject should turn.
In Prince Edward Island, and to a certain extent in the
other Proyinces the value of Oysters as food is rivalled by the
value of their shells as a fertilizer. In the estuaries are im-
•nense deposits of dead shells, the remains of old beds killed
by silt or other causes. These are mingled with fine rich
mud and decomposing animal and vegetable matter, forming
a muck of the richest character. Before the plough the shells
break up and give the land the lime in which Prince Edward
Is and 13 very deficient. This mud is known as Mussel-
mud though in most cases it consists almost entirely of Oyster-
finells. It IS taken by large machines worked on the ice by

i^^R^o *° ''f ):fu"'' ^'- ^' ^""*«^ ^"^«'-' i« his report
for 1879, says-- The digging of Mussel-mud for manure-
Hussel-mud being the shells of old Oyster-beds-is very harm-

Il!fi. .' ir '' ^"' '' '' ''"••"'^y '« ^^ ^°"bted that the
benefit to the country is of more absolute value than the pre-
«ervat.on of the Oyster;" again in 1880. "It is not saying
too much to assert that the product of grass and grain has

1he;y:ieril„"^i;2?ra':jr^^^

subject. ^""^y *'^®^""«° by one personally familiar with the

THE ECOKOMIC MOLI.USCA OP ACADIA.

59

*een increaaed one-third by the use of this mud during the
few years since it began to bo generally made use of." It is
■clear, as there is other tostimony also to show, that the pro-
toction of the Oyster must be so managed as to allow of the
•taking of the Mussel-mud by the farmers.

There are two futures open to the Oyster-industry of
Acadia: free fishing by the people and a lingering death, or
•vigorous government interference and ». great and lasting
prosperity. This is the kernel of the whoU matter— govern-
.ment interference. It has worked ve'I in o .er countries ;
It would, under the same conditions, w< k wel! in this. The
•duty of the government, if it take cha. re of i^ would be two-
fold,—to regulate the fishery on the poJ lie beds and to give
-encouragement to culture by corporations or individuals. As
to the first, the position and extent of beds must be determined,
•and each one given a period of rest, being fished not oftener
•than once in three years; the close season should be vigorously
•enforced; fishermen must, under heavy penalties, return to
the water all Oysters under a certain size; mud-machines
.must be restricted to certain places in each district, being
given ample liberty but not allowed within a certain distance
of any living bed; mills must not be allowed to discharge
sawdust into the water within a long distance of a living bed;
tshing through the ice should be regulated so that refuse
cannot be allowed to fall on the beds. As to the encourage-
ment of culture, laws should be enacted wiiich would give to
a cultunst as good a right to his product, and as full protec-
tion from theft, as has a farmer. Areas in good localities
should be set aside and leased for long jHjriods. but as a rule
the public beds should not be trespassed upon. Some beds
should always be reserved for public fishing; freedom to
take wild game under common sen o conditions, the Dominion
should be very slow to take from its citizens. Private indivi-
duals should be encouraged to take their seed-oysters from
our own beds, as there are none better nor so good for our
►climate. A measure which might be needful would be the
appointment of a commissioner, who should be a man trained
in the beat methods of culture of Europe and the United

60

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

States who coald give his whole time to the work- whononU.

no oni ,e,,g,,„y.„^^^^.^^^^ ^^e needs of our iwn reSof

but also duect the work of private culturists. ^ '

Oyster-culture has been tried in Acadia, but under many

discouragements. Hon. Mr. Pope, in Eichiond Bay P^^ce
Edward Island, and Hon. Mr. Macfarlane, in Walkc/Harbor
Kova scofa have had moderate success.* It ha bee^trtd
too, Hs Gaspe at 3ic and at Seven Islands, in Quebec and in

are used elaborate means of arrestinrr M,V« \

itself. ^ '^ * lifetime, a profession in

There is no doubt that the coasts of the Acadian Ov.t.r
^aon are extremely well adapted for Oyster-culturr Afmost"

died and the property went to hia brother Hon'^'^CP '''"'""''' "^^ ^- ^°P«

Oyster-lot lay vacant for a long time until h. .f^w ,. ^'"' ^^t®'"' '^e

works it profitably." ^ ' "' *""«'^' '»«' y««>- by Mr. Richards, who-

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 61'

everywhere around Prince Edward Island and the New
Brunswick coast are shallow salt lagoons as well as many
places where artificial ponds could be cheaply made. It has
been proven by Prof. J. A. Eyder, that they can be raised in
8ha low ponds from artificially hatched eggs in the United
states, and there is no reason to suppose that the same would
not be possible with us. Seed-oysters of the best quality arc
at hand in the old beds. Another circumstance of the highest
importance is the scarcity of Oyster enemies on our North
Shore. The Starfish, which does annuallv more damage to
the beds of the United States than the euti?-e Canadian fishery
18 worth, 18 rare and does little damage on the North Shore.
Oneold oystermanof Shediac told Mr. Ingersoll, of the United
States Census Staff, that he had only seen three Starfishes in
his life. ] " Drill " (Buccinnm cinereum), though present

not common. Mr. Whiteaves did not find it at all in his
examination of the Shediac beds. The same may be said of
the Purple-shell {Purpura lapillus), another enemy; it is
present but rare, and was not seen by Mr. Whiteaves. The
writer has made a careful examination of a large box of mud
from the North Shore beds, which was taken from the barrels
containing Oysters. In this, among the two dozen or more
species and hundreds of individuals of Molluscs which live
with the Oyster on the beds, not a single specimen of either of
these species was found. Again, on the coast of the United
States, two very destructive animals are the two Conchs or
Winkles, Gasteropod Molluscs several inches in length, the
Sycotypus canaliculatus and Fulgur carica. These are
entirely wanting in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and if our beds
are planted from our own, as they should be, there is no danger
of their introduction. It surely must be en immense advan-
tage to any culturist in our waters, that ome Oyster-enemies
are comparatively harmless and othfs entirely wanting
Boubtless, the reason for the scarcity of the above forms is
due to the generally sandy character of the region, most of
them being rock-loving species. Tiles for Oyster-culture could
be made as cheaply in these Provinces as in the United States,
and it IS possible that some of our slate rocks could be utilized.

62

THK ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

for this purpose. Many other minor conditions are also
favorable, and there is an immense market both in Canada'
•nd the United States, for many times the quantity now
produced.

The Oyster has but few uses aside from those mentioned.
Its shells are used in Oyster-culture, to spread on the beds for
the young to attach themselves to, and they are also much
used in road-making in parts of the United States, and they
have even at times been burned for lime.

Works of Repebbncb.
'(a) General.

Oyster. By J. T. Cunningham and T. Brown Goode.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th Ed., Vol. XVIII
1885, pp. 106-110.

Fisheries Exhibition Literature, London, 1884, Vols,
v., VL and XL

Natural History of Useful Aquatic Animals, Washing-
ton, 1884, 4°, pp. 771-758.

Fishery Industries of the United States, Washington,
4°, Vol. IL, Section V., pp. 507-565.

Reports of the Maryland Oyster Commission.
• <*) Anatomy and Development, etc.

The Oyster, Clam, and other common Mollusks. By
A. Hyatt. Boston, 1884. 65 pp. Several plates.

The Development of the American Oyster. By W. K.
Brooks. Studies from Biological Lab. Johns-
Hopkins Univ., IV., pp. 1-104.

Report on New York Fisheries for 1884. New York
1884.
'(c) Oyster-culture.

Oyster-culture. By W. F. O. Shanks. Lippincott's
Magazine, Vol. XXVII., 1881, pp. 479-493, cats.
[Good popular account at that date.]
Bulletins of the United States Fish Commission from
Vol. I., 1881, up to the present. [Contain records
of culture in America and translations of foreign

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

63^

The Oyster and Oyster-culture. By Karl Msbius.

Eep. U. S. Fish Commission for 1880. (Published

1883). pp. 683-757, and the important papers

following.
Eeport on the Oyster and Mussel Industries of France

and Italy. Rep. U. S. Fish Commission for 1880

(Published 1883). pp. 825-883.
{d) The Oyster in Acadia.

A Eeport on the Oyster-Industry of the United States.

By Ernest Ingersoll. U. S. 10th Census, Section X.,

Monograph B, pp. 3-11.
Notes on the Marine Fisheries, and particularly on the

Oyster-beds, of the Gulf of St. liawrence. By J. F.

Whiteaves. Appendix to Report of Minister of

Marine and Fisheries. Canadian Naturalist. Vol.

VII., 1874, pp. 336-349.
Annual Reports to the Minister of Marine and Fisheries.

Ottawa. Reports of Mr. W. H. Venning and Mr.

J. H. Duvar for various years, particularly 1879,

1880, 1881, and later.
Report of the Commissioners appointed to report on

the Lobster and Oyster Fisheries of Canada. By J.

H. Duvar, Secretary, and others. Ottawa, 1888.

65 pp.

11. Pecten tcnuicostatus Mighels and Adams.

Pecteii Magellanicus Lam.

Smooth Scallop, Scallop.

Mic-mac, Sakskataas-uk. Passamaquoddy, Sah qui-
took yik.

[Pecten, a comb; tenuicoatatua, slender-ribbed,]

Distribution, (a) General;— Extreme low-water mark
to one hundred and nine fathoms. New Jersey (rare south
of Cape Cod) to Labrador.

(b) In Acadia;— {in N. B.^ Grand Manan, ten to twenty
fathoms, rather rare, Gould. Passamaquoddy Bay and Bay

•64

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

l/n\?T'''''T ^"^ °"' '^""'^'•^^ «»d nine fathoms,
Vernll. St Croix River, near Dochet Island, not plenty

Fuller. L^tang and Chamcook Harbors, abundant in former

G^^«o«^ Maces Bay, Perle^j and O. F. Matthew. Northum:

berland Strait, miiteaves. Between Tracadie and Shippeean

Bear Island Bar, Annapolis Basin, extensive beds, Perlev
^^^^'''f^l^^^^'^-^^^^-^^ H. Piers. Whole coast
/o«..andTn//.,. Prince Edward Island, i)ae..w. Probabl^
not so abundant in Gulf of St. Lawrence as in Bay of Fundy
and on the Atlantic coast. ^ ^

r .nJ^^T^' '^^t "' ""' "^ ^^^ '"*''* ^'tractive aiolluscs of our wl.olc
coas Its smooth nearly circular valves, one flat, the other coIvS
and its large ,s,ze (five to six and even eight, in an extreme case inches
m diameter) w.ll readily distinguish it from any other species' nou

reddish color, while free fr::z ;:;z;js s^::i^.;'j^

Senus have, frequently bears many parasitic forms. Barnacle " BryLoa

etc Very many ImvethisvalvecoveredwlthagelatinonscoainlXh
can be easily rer.oved; this is not an epidermis, but colonies ot eompound
A cid.ans of the genus Zeptoeliuum. It is reallv a beautiful sS the
interior bemg smooth, white and satin-like; the exterior ^ neciall v in
young she Is presents delicate and attractive colors, some ;f them £,w
ing beautiful pink and white radiations; while its vdves can be utH^d
for many decorative and artistic purposes. uuuzca

Our Scallop lives upon hard, sand, or mud bottoms, feeding uoon
microscopical animals and plants. It has the advantage over aUothp^-^
of our shelled Molluscs in the ease and speed with wf^h el move
about. The powerful adductor muscle can bring the valv s SCthlr
w>th great force and quickness, ejecting the water^on the Ide Iptsi e
the hinge, and thus shooting the animal several feet in the Zos e
direction. The young Scallops can swim in this way better than he
adults, their shells being much lighter. The souther"^ SZ "^
oiten swims in schools, all together in some definite direction bt^Z
not know that this has been observed in the species we are "^110:
The young are eaten by cod and probably other fishes. "^"""^^""S-

ECONOMICS. Our Scallop is not the species which is of sn
much commercial importance in the United States. The
latter 18 a much smaller species, Peclen irradians, the shell
of which 18 covered with very large radiating ribs. But those

THK ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 6p

•Who have tried them declare that our Scallop is quite as good
food as 18 Pecten irradians. In all probability, methods of
capturing, prei)aring for market, utilization of shells, etc., of
the latter would apply equally well to our species.

Pecten irradians is taken on the coast of the United States
between Cope Cod and New Jersey. It has been found within
the limits of Acadia also, at Sable Island. But it is too rare
to be of any commercial value with us. The annual value of
the fishery to the United States is about $28,000 to m 000

l .nTI '''".r"'"" ''""^"""^ ^y *''^ fishermen for from 70,000
to 75,000 gallons of the edible parts. The fishery gives
employment to about 250 men and 470 women and children.
Mr. Ingersoll, in the paper referred to below (a full and
interesting treatment of the subject) says of the mode of
taking them,-- Scallops are caught by hand-dredging from
ema sail-boat. The dredges are about thirty ^infhes in
•width, have a scraper-blade upon the bottom, and in favorable
weather several may be thrown over from each boat. In
shoal water an iron-framed dip-net is sometimes used on calm
■days. It IS pretty hard work, and entails exposure to very
severe weather " The only part ever eaten is tie large muscle
which closes the valves. These are cut out, cleaned and sent
to market where they are sold by the quart. All other soft
parts are utilized for fertilizers, while the shells are valued
above all others, by Oyster-culturists for catching the Spat or
young Oysters. Their special fitness for this use comes from
their fragility and rapidity with which they fall to pieces
«ner the influence of decay and boring parasiL. The y ung
•Oysters fall apart as the shells break, and overcrowding
dwarfing and distortion is thus prevented. They become
full-grown in little over a year; those born in June of one
yea,- being full-grown by the following October and at their
'best in December. The flesh, while very agreeable to some
persons in spite of its sweetish taste, is to others not onl
•disagreeable but actually injurious, producing sickness.

So much for a southern species. How does our native

.«calopco,npare with it in the particulars above mentioned?

In the work by Mr. Ingersoll, quoted below, he says -

66

THR ECONOMIC MOLLITSCA. OF ACADIA.

"The great Pecten tenuicostatus on the coast of Maine and'
the Bay of Fundy, was fonuerly highly valued by the poople^
of that region, but now is too scarce to appear on the tables
of even • the rich ' except at rare intervals." , . . '« 70he"
huge, smooth-shelled Pecten tenuicodatus of thfl liorth, as big
as a fruit-plate, which formally ahoi.tded on the coast of
Maine, has now become so rare as to be a prize in t)!e cal-inet

of the conchologist rather than an edible .^amraoditj arMsult

unquefftionably due to over-j'reedy catching." We be.Mevc*
that while the casft here stated may be true for the Maine
coast, it is not so i v New Bruvuiwick and jSova Scotia. LargO'
numbers of them stiii live «, L'El;aii«i Harbor and other inlets
both on the New Bn^r^v■iok and Nova Scotia shores of the
Bay of Fundy. From iL.' foruie; locality large quantities aro
occasionally brontht iii Bchoonera to St. John.

Mr. Willis, thirty years ago, said it was common on the
whole coast of Nova Scotia, and that it "furnished the
residents of Lunenburg, Mahone Bay, Chester, etc., with
many a rich treat. In these localities it is said to be very
abundant, and more easily obtained than in most other parts
of the Province." Nicolas Denys knew of their abundance
there, for in 1673, he says of La Have Harbor,— "In which
there are countless numbers of Scallops [Conniffle], which'
are great shell-fish like those which the Pilgrims bring from
St. Michael and St. James. It is excellent eating." The
fishery returns for Nova Scotia give the only official notice of
Scallops which are given for any of the Provinces. That of
1886 gives 300 dozen Scallops as taken in Lunenburg County,
worth fifty cents per dozen, or S150; that of 1887 gives for
the same county 600 dozen, worth |300. In '^qvi Brunswick
a schooner occasionally brings a quantity to St. John fronT
L'Etang Harbor or Mace's Bay where they are taken by
dredges, and they aro sold direct from the vessel. The quan-
tity thus sold is estimated to be about two hundred bushels
annually. It is frequently eaten by the fishermen of the-
Charlotte County coast. In the Halifax market, not many
are sold. The usual price i= fifty cents per dozen, bu*' not
infrequently they bring muc re. In Prince Edward Is),:,?.-!!

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 67

it is sometimes eaten, though according to Mr. J H Duvar
n .3 not much esteemed there. It can be taken he savi'
mo crate quantity. No Scallops are impor ed rom' 'tie
United States into Acadia. . ®

th.t' l"; "'" I""'"' ""^ °"' 'P'"'"^ ^«'' ^««d, as compared with
the southern form, the testimony is all one way. Mr \mt
says that it, and the species, next to be desc ibed p!

hat he had known them, when offered for sale, to sell read v

aoove refers to its excellence, and persons who have triod
both have assured the writer that our Scallon is nnu!? ?
as the southern form. It has the ad^ tg ^l of ?^^^^^
larger than the latter. The muscle, the olflypart eat "^
must be twice the size. ^ '^ ^®°'

The shells are made useful for many purposes, and here
again, our species has the advantage. The halves ar^
frequently used as dishes in fishermen's families and evl
by professional cooks. Indeed, it is said tha^" P^om Us use
by cooks now, this shell [i. e., Scallop shells in genm 7^.
given the name to ' Scalloped ' oysters." The valve o thl

frm%tf '^f^irr' ''' '-'r'"' species,"a!;rd:

lorm part of pm-cushions, needle-books and other lita
ornaments, while the entire valves are sometimes used a!
mantel ornanjents. The smooth, satin-like "er or ace
pa icular y of the flat valves, take both oil and water colot
wel and frequently are used as placques for paintin; upoT
Their use by Oyster-culturists has been already referred to'
and our species ought to be even better adapted for thil
purpose than P. irradians. No doubt there are ma. v other
minor uses found for this attractive shell. ^

rn. Q „ Works of Reference.

iNaturahst, Vol. XX., Dec. 1886, pp. 1001-lOOfi

T.Lfr"".' Z "■•' ^'^ °' "■» «-- pin b^Man i„
Modern and Ancient Times. Br R B n Sf..™.

6

I'

»>

68

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

12. Pecten Islandicns (Miiller) Chemnitz.
Scallop, Iceland Scallop.

[Pecten, a comb; Ulandicus, Icelandic]

Distribution, (a) General;— Low-water mark to one
hundred fathoms. Cape Cod (very rare to the south of it) to
the Arctic Ocean and around the North Atlantic to Northern
Europe and Great Britain.

(b) In Acadia;— (\n N. B.) Grand Manan, twenty-five to
forty fathoms, shelly bottoms, Stimpson. Common in Bay

Fig. 10. — Pecten Mandicm, Natural Size.

of Fundy, low- water mark to one hundred fathoms, Verrill.
L'Etang Harbor, large, though not abundant, Qanong. (In
N. S.) Annapolis Basin, few small specimens, Verkriizen.
Whole coast, Jones. Halifax Harbor, Willis. Not yet
reported from Prince Edward Island. [Rev. George Suther-
land, in his Natural and Civil History of Prince Edward

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 69

Island, 1861. mentions Scallops, " with large ribbed shell

Edward Island This description would apply both to this
jpecies and the following, but better to the latter than tiie
former.] Probably rather common on Bay of Fundy and
Atlantic coasts, and much less so in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Habits. This is a more nortiiein spedes tlian tlie last and 1ps«
abundant .n our waters. It i., much smaller than tt latter rareiv
exceeding four nehes in diameter and is readily distingui bed from it
by us raised radiating ribs, fifty to one hundred'Sn numbe which Tea
closely crowded, transverse, erect sciles. The "ears" or tr! ,
projections from the valves which form the hinge, a uneq IT n'S
and shape m th,s species, though equal in P. t.LoMatus. In habUs it
appears to resemble the latter very closelv livinL' in n/rL^
ro^ky Situations, but moving, taking its foo^d I'nTso'onTnTe ^

Economics. In its usefulness to man, this species cannot
be distinguished from Pecten tenuicostatus. It is equally
good for ood and its shells may be used for the same purpos /
Willis tells us that he has known it to be sold with the la te;
for one shilling sterling, each, in the Halifax market, ana

Se1t'^r^::/:SlrL^x:;^rrtr

m

;(?•

13. Pecten Irradians Lamarck.
Pecten concentricus Say.
Scallop.

[Pecten, a comb; irradiana, radiating.]

Distribution, (a) Generalj-Low-w&ter mark to thirty
^ forty fathoms. Gulf of Mexico and Florida, north to
Massachusetts Bay. f^able Island.
WilS/'' ^'^'^*"'-'' i'^'^ted only from Sable Island, by John

*v JR.--

70

THE ECOXOMIC MOl T.rSCA OV V \DIA.

Habits. This Is the Scaliup whicli its of no much importance in the
United Stales marl^cts. As it is so mfe in Acadia, indeed hardly coming
within the limits of this paptr at all, it is not thought best to describe U
in detail. When found, it may be distinguished from our two Scallops
described above, by the coaixc radiating ribs, about twenty in number,
and the neariy equal "ears" or lateral projections fr^- >• shell,
formiuK the hinge. Its habits resemble those of P. tr ;., Mantis, iJescribed
above. It is possib!-; timt it may 1)0 found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
along with the southern shells there, and if not. it is extremely probable
that it would tlourisli there if introduced. Indeed, as mentioned under
the last species, a Scallop having a '• large ribbed shell and serrated
edge," has been dt, .cribed as living ou the shores of Prince Edward
Island. It may be not improbably this species.

Econom'Lj, Ita use to man may be best described ia
connection witli our native Scallop, as both aro available for
the same pui'ijoses.

14. Mytllus eduUs Linnajus.

Edible Mussel, Black Mussel, Sea Mussel.

Mic-inac, Angadaalow, pi Angadaalak. Passama-
quoddy, Sah tah sis ik.

[Mytilus, the ancient Greek name; edulia, edlble.J

Distribution, (a) General;— lAtiocdX zone to more ^lau
one hundred fathoms. North Car 'inato Arct j Ocean and
circumpolar. On European co t, sout '• ward to diterran^an
and Black Sea; on Asiatic coast to China and Jajmn; oii
Western American coast to California.

{b) In Acadia;— {\n ^' B.) Exceedingly abu riant every-
where on the southern coast from Grand Manan o St. John,
and probably much further. Bay Chaleur, Bell. Sliediac,.
Whiteaves. (Id N. S.) Annapolis Basin and ' .gby Gut,
common, Verknizen. Whole coast, Jone^ ^nx\c Edward
l&\a,vid., Daivson. Very abundant every wha. jn coast of
Acadia.

Hab! rs. Without doubt, this is the most common and abundant
3Iollusc on the coast of Acadia. There is probably not a mile of shore
on our whole coast line which is without it, and everybody who visU»

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 71

^iw!^"^ But' ,r ? '" '";■ '',7*^"' '''"' '' ""^ Horse.rau.ssel. Modiola
nwdwlm But tl.e former is blue-blnck generully. a/.cl the latter is
cheetnu . or ratl.er Its epidermis is. and their situadons or b^b ,a ts a e
different, as w,ll he seen by readiu.r ,be descriptions of hoth ALod
mark to separate them is found in the posi.ioi of the umbo o7rSed
knob around ^vhicb the concentric lines of growth of he Tl e !'«
arranged: this is at the extren.e end in J/. l,u, but set a li t e back

Tlais species varies somewhat in color he variant individuals being
of a darker or lighter horn-color. and generally showing radiatZ
long.tud.nal dark lines. These forms are by some consi.lered to orm a
.d..f.nct vanety_to which the name pclluclJ,^, is given. Within ThJ

Tia. n.-Jfiftihu, eduli,. Natural Size.

IvfrUelt'Jjh'lf nf'"' '"' ^^'^^' ^°^ «f'«° ^-^ beautiful. The
^verage length of adults .s about th.ee inches, though they grow as gre
as five, and even over eight inch-s in rare cases in Europe They vary

SyZTnT "^^."'''"'--^ '^^ variation Of an indiviSual depe'nd ng
Chiefly upon the conditions under which i , has grown

thatthe'edihr/ "V'"'' ''"P""^'""^ *« man.as will be presently seen.
leTl the 1!^ f 7'^'^/'-« gregarious. All visitors to theshore remembe;
well the great » eds. often acres in extent, whici. are found on tl flftU
especially of estuaries. They never burrow, but instead fix hmselve;
by means of a mas. of silky threads which are secreted bv the ZtinH

boftomfof t ? • . ""^ """"^ «™^''' ••"«^«' P'l«« Of ^ha'ves. buoys
'?1T1!' '":^; '*°^'.'; f-' ''l-o^t an V where. They prefer. howevS!
_. .. e! anu mua fiatg where be ater is not quite pure but ha^
Mc ae admixture of rfver water, .he mudflats they^S to/both by

72

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA.

collecting sediment among themselves, packed closely together as Iher
are and by their own decay and d composition. The beds are found;
both between tide-marks and in shallow water, and the latter produce
the larger specimens. Indeed, the largest are found Isolated, for the
crowded, tangled mass in the beds does not allow of large growth

Though ordinarily fixed by the byssus. they can travel a little when
needfu . The foot is thrust far out in advance to attach new threads by
which it draws itself .long, breaking off the old ones behind It lives
upon microscopical animals and plants, chiefly upon the latter It has
some enemies, chief among them, the food fishes, all of which are
MceediDgly fond of it. Crows, the Purple-shell (P. l„pi/h^), the Star-
fish, and (in England) the Sea-urchin, all are destructive to it.

The height of the reproductive season appears to l)e April and May
The young, after leaving the body of the parent, swim about for a few
days and then settle upon some firm surface. They grow very rai)idly
there are cases known in which they have grown to full size (three to
four inches long), in one year. In most cases, however, they require
two or three years.

Economics. Our edible Mussel is, without any question,
identical in all respects with that of Europe. And without
any question, also, it is adapted for the same uses. In Europe,,
the uses to man of this species may be roughly classed under
four heads, the following being their order of importance.

a. As bait In the fisheries.

b. As human food.
e. As a fertilizer.

d. Minor uses for ornaments, etc.

In America the order is quite different. The third in the
list certainly stands drst, but it is difficult to state the order of
the other three, which apparently stand about on an equality.
In Europe, it is a Mollusc of great importance, being second
only to the Oyster; we almost ignore it. There, it entirely
replaces our common Clam, which, though abundant, is
rarely used either for food or for bait. Ih it not a curious
fact that each country should prize the one the other neglects?"
Why do they not each value both? It would be interesting
to learn how this condition of affairs came about in thia
country; in other words, how the early settlers, alwaya
conservative of old customs, and used to European ways,
abandoned them and took to new? Did they imitaie ih©

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSOA OF ACADIA. 73

Indians, who, we know, u«ed the Clam to the almost total
neglect of the Mussel?* And are not the Europeans of to-day
wiser than we in this respect, that they use a form, which,
equally good with the other, lives ou the surface and can be
easily gathered, and besides is susceptible of easy artificial
cultivation anywhere, while we tuke that for which we must
laboriously dig, which requires more special conditions of
soil, and which, only with difficulty, can be artificially
propagated? A consideration, therefore, necessarily brief
of the economics of this species in Europe, may suggest some
useful lessons to us.

(a) Its Use as Bait in the Fisheries.
We are told of its use in England (Fisheries Literature)
that _" The Mussel is admitted on all hands to be the most
deadly bait for salt-water fish; " and again,-" The Mussel ig
perhaps the best kind of hook bait known." What h ve our
fishermen, who use the Clam and the Squid, to say to this?

In England and Scotland it is especially valued, and it i»
estimated that no less than the enormous quantity of one
hundred thousand tons annually are required for this purpose
in Great Britain alone. The single port of Eyemouth required
lor its fishing vessels during the season of 1881-82 eight
hundred and ninety tons of Mussels. Three Scottish villages
have been known to use, in one week, sixty-one tons.

These figures will show what an enormous drain upon the
Mussel beds of Britain there must be for this purpose alone
not taking into consideration those used for food It ha&
been too great for the natural product, and the fishermen
have been forced to importation and to artificial cultivation
in 1881, twelve thousand tons, mostly for bait, were
imported from Holland into England.

They are gathered by those who mako a business of it by
hand, when above low-water mark,, and by a sort of grapnel-
dredge when below it. They are taken to the fishing grounds

fonoX" -" Bu? ;«: SelTiTlh'eT ""T;""* "*«' corroborate, this ,n the
„. «.,"*'. _ ""^ *°®y [*• *•• **>« Mlc-macsl have a auDerntitlon not ♦" -i-h *~

©Bt rtasscis. X ettney cannot give a reason fnr if; " w — 7^. "^

company. geetaKu, eat them, they dlciTltoi^i." " ." ' ' ' N"'*"*""*" '° o-'

74

THE ECOXOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

ahve (our fishermen take their Clams and Squid salted) and
they will rema,n so for some hours (one wmer sa s for two
days) when placed on the hook and suspended in the wa er
It IS thought that this fact is the chief element ,n ts sJcces;
as a ba,t t is used for all kinds of fish which bite at a hook

"nd Whelk Vf" "' ^'^'°"^'' ''° ^-P -ter a d ar fr m
and Whelks {Bmcinum undatum) are sometimes prefe red
the Mussel is much the best all-around bait. The SwedLh
fishermen use it in preference to all others, as probably do
other European fisher-peoples. prooaoiy do

for hli?' ^"-^"^ ^'^''' ^' '""""* fi"'^ that it is ever used
for bait, nor in any part of Canada, except very rarely and
ocally. In Acad.a. we do not know that it is ever used for
this purpose;* can any one tell us the reason? ItT Jre
abundant and more easily obtained than the Clam hT^ a

li:ff' "r'" '' ^P^"' '« P^^^^bly more tenacious o^
life, and has other apparent advantages.

(h) Its Use as Human Food.

^^ a" ^"ropean countries, France probablv uses the mosf
Musse s for food In ifi'y^ fi,« « u ^ '^°^''

worth *lfiO nnrr' ^'', f ^' ^^^ ^^^ery was estimated to be
worth $160,000, m part from natural and partly from culti

in 1873 tlat there was exported from Antwern to P«ri» oi
^.80,000 worth, all taken from naturtl bedT Fforman":
parts of the English coast they are sent inland, whl they
are eaten in all towns, but the greater supply for tL London
market ,s imported from Holland. In London £4 oSo
..orth are sold annually for food, at a price of about 'one
penny per quart, ranking in value as the third shell-fish the
Oystc-r being first, and the Periwinkle second. Statis 'c's for

n^rrnt ifif "^'.T T'"^' ''' '"^^ quantity mu'b
enormous It is used largely as a substitute for Oysters-in
making nsh-sauces, and is also cooked in other ways ll

fishermen wh«n nothing better c^lellti;' ' ''"* '"'' ^•^^ouaily used bjr the

THE ECOKOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 75

Frauce, they are considered good throughout the year, but at
their beet in August and September. J' , ouc

fooi" 'c ^-f '1 f '''''' ^'^ ^''^ '' 'he centre of its use as

find Z r:? '""f''T "' '''''' P^^'^^^^ ^-^ «e«fc
miLd sJ. *«'^ .««""fl value of the Mussel fishery in the
Un ted States is estimated at about 837,500, but of this a small
par only is for its use as food; its chief value is as a fertilise
In Acadia, it is but little used for food. It is very rarelv

Tst John 'TTr; ^"i '^ ^^"'^^ ""'^-- - ''- -S

Tt!LiT' '" ^"'y^'^' Wi"i««^idofitthirtyyearsHgo,that
It could be purchased in the markets when in season, of hvj

aZ^fir ^h" "^""' P"''^ '« ten cents for a half-peck, or
about fifty or sixty cents a bushel.

all fo"r folr ^^""^ ^"'""^ '' ^''' ""' 'PP^^'- ''^ ^^ "««<5 «<^
As to its general excellence as an article of food there can
1)6 no ques lon. Some tables, to show its value compared
with other shell-fish, will befound in the introduction (p.^u
Europe, it is eaten by all classes, but is especially a luxury of
the poor. Gould says that he has been "assured by a friend

t^fTr^^'i ^''^ '''''' '^''' "^•^^^ «««ked it is more
pamtable than the common Clam;" and in this opinion many

rrtlii; b"'""- ^"' '' '''' ""^ ''"-' '^ is undoubtedly
true that there are persons who not only dislike them, but to

^hom they are very injurious. Each person must determine
ihis for himself, using them at first with caution *

It ,s true, also that in addition to this occasional constitu-
tional danger, Mussels are sometimes, though verv rarely
really in themselves poisonous, and injure everybody who ma^
eat of them. Such cases, however, are no more frequent
than poisoning by eating partridges iu the spring is with us
and not nearly so frequent as is poisoning from eating canned
fruits and meats. This, therefore, should be no hindrance to
their use, proper precautions being observed.

'Theaymptoms, which must serve as d-,nD.«r.«l<,n»,a .„_.„. „„,,,, . ,,
neaa aua tbe abdomen and the appearance of "red .pote^n'tot^ ^^ * **

M

l¥

Jl

76

i4

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

<,«a„tit,„f ,.„,' =s .r. t: ," '„.r„;.oTi'° '^;

preca„t,o„s being taken .„ bHng the a„pp,X p:::'::^
(«) Its Use as a Fertilizbr.
When a great bed of Mussels is exposed on a flaf •

».o. „v.. aie. ana a^e^ erCa^te";*:? "t

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 'Jt'

lime of the shells, their animal matter, and the rich silt, ro on
accumulating, and soon form a mass of the richest fertilizer.

.V, V T ^^'' ^^"^ ^*' ^""'^ ^""y recognized, but there-
the living Mussels are far too valuable to be used to any
extent for this purpose; so valuable, that it has been proposed
m England to make it a penal offence to take them for
manure. The latter step is necessary because of the near-
sightedness of the farmers, who would totally exterminate
tnem if allowed.

T 1 ^". ^^®, Y."'^^** ®^^*^'' '* '^ **^®" *^°"& tl^e coasts of Long
Island and New Jersey in enormous quantities for this purpose,
though It does not seem to be much used farther north fts
value to the United States is estimated at $37,500 vearlv
nearly all of which is for its use as a fertilizer.

In Acadia, all have heard of the " Mussel-mud " of Prince
Edward Island and the North Shore of the two other Pro-
vinces. A large part of the Mussel-mud, however, probably
very much the largest part, consists of the remains of the
Uyster. The subject has been considered at some length
under that species. We have found no evidence to show that
the xMussels are taken separately for this purpose.

Upon the Bay of Fundy coast, the farmers make but little
use of what would appear to be a mine of agricultural wealth
at their very doors. Everywhere about Passamaquoddy Bay
there are great beds, the use of which ought greatly to benefit
the land.

(d) Othek Minor Uses.
In England, it has been proposed, and it would be equally
applicable in this country, to plant Mussels on breakwaters
of gravel and other shifting substances, and upon beaches,
exposed to the wearing action of the waves, in order to bind,
them together, just as beach-grass is u.^ed on the sand-dunes
of Cape Cod. They would quickly Sx themselves, and by
their tough, interlacing, tangled byssi or beards would soon.
form a tough but elastic coating.

It is thought also that they can be used to prevent the
ravages of Teredines or Ship Worms on timber of wharves-
aau tne like, by coating the latter completely.

-TO

IHR ECONOMIC MOU.tSCi OP ACADU.

Forbes i-d H™^ V.ay "Th ' °"°°^'' "" """ ™l"«'
colored, and of little vaC lf{ »" """""only small, ill.
■""Oh sought for " ThlTi ^ t'™ '"'™ " ""'''"' timm
and sixpeLe to fo„r liHil' !''°''''" "•'"" ™^ «''"""?

lieporton thePa„„a of1,t ToofBr":- J" "" "'''"'
—"Some years a^o invrr. «^Pooi Bay, p. 241, we are told,

up m ConwaTLy and boi,'^7 .'''' '^ ^^''''^' ^^^ ^^ked
aeed pearls. The^; were bo V^^"*' '° ^^^^^«^ ^'^^^e to get
per ounce. A woln could f ! " 'r''''' '' ^^"^ ^hillin^
this harvest. The Tr ^ as rseT'-'^''";"^^ ^'' ^^^ «*
-terior of the shell is covered ith UtZTTrt''' "'°^^
cences, the result of the effortTnf 1 ^ '^■^'^^ '^'^^«-
itself from a boring sponge ^' '"'"^^^ *° P^^^^^t

us ^Z^.!i:^-;:;:^^o,..^ Of the Sea," tells

-edle-books aid scrtlttt dl^e^inr ^ ^"^^ ^^^^^^
and pin-cushions. They are moZl!; ^ ' ''*'''''' P^"«

weights, and are used as a rpirr. "*" '""'"^'^ ^« P^P^r
for artists. TheMaolsTTv"^'^^'''^'^^'''^^^^^
-hells as tweeters to e a icateth^e h^?' '"''^''^ ^"^^^

^e^SZS^^'^^^^"^--th:r
On MnssBL Cultcpe

^'^rtll\X:zV': X" "^^?^' '- M—s i„

Extensive cultivaMon i. t J. , "'''"""' "•"'" '""'"■'l Ws.

for which we have.rspac1 hei ^mTe"',:' *r*°''

interested, in the volnmoanf.ui', ® ^''"^'^ hy those

ture and othe woTirquoL^ .! J"''"!' "^^'^ ^'^-a-

'tnust suffice here There are two . ^ '''^ ^"^^ ''""'"^

^n Europe; one knownrthe Bwir ^7'/"^'"^^ ^^'^''^'^^

Mussels are taken fTom 1, !r « T'^T'^' ^" ""^''^ y^^^S
irom salt or nearly salt water and trans-

•e Mussels,
* of value,
small, ill-
ous times
e shilling
e "First
are told,
ore raked
ore to get
■ shillings
r week at
lie whole
5 excres-
' protect

a," tells

0 pretty
ses, pins
8 paper
Br paint

Mussel

faces."

lem for

tors, as

1 selves.

3els in
beds.
France
ibject,
those
litera-
^itline
3tised
'oung
rans-

THK ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA. 7^

time at low tides, and where the water is brackish. Both
these conditions seem to be necessary to secure the r ran d
growth and fattening. The presence of some'^h wa te T'
neces condition to success in Mussel culture. The French
method proceeds upon a different principle; it consists in
Placng convenient supports for the Mussel "Spat /' or free"
sw,mm,ng young, to attach themselves to. For "^^^^ puVpot
palisades of coarse wicker-work are placed in the pa h oJ
currents wh.ch would otherwise sweep the young away A
0 n a3 ,hey have attained a length of an inch (AZ^ i/^
little over a year, on an average) they are removed with hooks

lo^^rtT:''''T\ "-''''' ^^«-— moved Labov
i^l .1, J ^"'"' ^'^^^^ "P the beach, and again still

first removal they are ready for market. There are manv of
these Mussel-farms in France, the principal one be nTat tlL

Sn?; at's""v,^"' Chatellairion,a?Esuadet7h:;vo
pac Th. )^'«7-«"r-S«"^«»e, at Arcachon and othe •
places The must perfect system is attained at the latter place
They are also cultivated in the Bay of Kiel in North

Tn ^ ? ? Recommended for catching the Spat.

In England, there is comparatively little done in Mussel

th T' t T /"^'"P^^ '"^ ''' ^-^« had to str ggle w h

t -Istuld h7"/r' ^^^''"^'''"' Itisagreelfhatti
cuitunst should have the same exclusive right to work hi«

sruid be "T^'"'^ P^'^'"^^ ^^^- thefa'rmerand the

fnd her:; :"'"' 'r '^ P^^^*^^ ^^« -'^ ^-^ ^respa
and theft as they are for the other. Such laws, however

an acre of Mussel-beds, properly cultivated, will yield one
hundreu and eight tons, worth a. I... fifty-four iounS pe^ ■

fishm win rfl """'"■"'/ ''""' '■" ''''^'' ^'^^" the Mussel-
fishery will be a large industry. U ,8 to be hoped that it will

80

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA.

ininTvl °°'^ ""^^ ^° ''^'"'^ ^^^ ^"ssel seems to be of

""* ""» v^yscer. it also collects mud &n^ hu oii

Oyster-bed, in this waj! °"° '° '° '"' '"^"^y '<> ""

Works of Reference.

Mussel. By E. Rny Lankester. EncvcloD^dia R,.;f •
9th Ed„ Vol. XVIL, 1884, p. f^o'^'^'^'*'^''^ Bntann.oa,

The Utilization of Localities in Norfolk and S,, nit g •. u,
for the Cultivation of Mussels another IhetflsirBv
Charles W. Harding. Bull U S Pish P • ^

Vol. II. 1882,, pp. 83-88 '^ Commission,

Kepo^t on ^e Oyster and Mussel Industries of Italy. Report
u. S. J^ish Commission for 1880 nn fiS'? '-f^^ j Iv
papers in the same volume ^^" ^ ^' ^""^ °'^'"

Molluscs Musse!s, Whelks, etc., used for Pood or Bait Bv

The Best Means of Increasing the SuddIv of ^T,....^

otl^r Molluscs (Oy.ers e.cepted'Zd^l 'r ^^^ ^^^^^

IZ VuT- ^^ ^- ^- ^' C^^r «"d J. C. Wilcocks

Fisheries Exhibition Literature, Vol XT isi/

413-444, and 445-485. *' ^^^*' PP'

The Mussel Fishery. Fishery Industries of the U. S., Sect 5
Vol. IL, pp. 615-622. ' ^'

The Harvest of the Sea. By J. E. Bertram 2nd Ed
London, 1869, pp. 410-417 ^'

.Poisonous Mussels. Science, Vol. VIL, 1886, pp. 175-I76.

THE ECOxXOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 81

US. Modlola modiolus (Lin.) Turton.
^ytilus modiolus, Lin.
Horse-Mussel.

ModMa, a little nieasure(y); modiolus, a little measure(?).

hundip^fT''''- ic^ ^/«^'-«^;-r.ow.water mark to one

fo north?" T^^'''" '"'''' '^"''^^'"'"'^ '' ^'•^"'^«' «» Asiatic,
to no them Japan; on western American, to California.

{i)InAcadia;-(m^.K) Abundant on the southern
•coast everywhere from Grand Manan at least t S . JohT

fhnnr/ "'?'"'• ^^""^-^-^ Annapolis Basin, somewha
abm^dant r.r^.n.^.«. AH rocky shores, Jo.... (InP.EI)
J.o reported but doubtless occurs. Probably to be found in
rocky situations around the entire coast.

.other"Monu.c '^''it T"' ""T ?'''^' '''''^''^'' M,mu.edulU than any
Wth nT , generally lupirer than the latter, growing to a

length otsKV. and m extreme cases, mentioned by Willis, eight fnehes

Fig. 12.— Afodiola modiolus. Natural size.
It never has the blue black rolnr r,t m j /■ ,,
•epidermis of a dark chestnut obrlnc^' 'S "T"! '" ^°
around which the lines of grow.h ofTh.. «hii. '^'' '"'" '^'°''«

anterior or small extremitv inT i ; k *""' arranged) is at the

Linee margin in this sS '''' '"' "' ^ ^'""^ ^^'^'^ - '^-

•does Vrj" n'SI' 'ILn '"!! '^'^ '^'^^^ >«--«*- ™-^ -

82

THK ECOXOMIC MOLLCSCA OF ACADIA.

wilh them. Tl,eir mode f ? ? "''"^ "^ ^"'-' ""•■^•^ «f gravel

about Pu,s,sa,na uo.." L; ^^1 7''"\^'"'"^' '" '"^ '"^^^"»'«
water with their p<.s erior 'en 1 '""^. ^'' ''"" "'"''-''• 'l-e clear

open. The shells bear^^u;'!, "'"l? '''' '^"»-". Smu, widely
niost important of which rtluJ^/'""' ""'"'"' ""^^ ^■^S'^^^'ble, the

men eat t very rarpiv if a*, n , ^'*^'**-"'^- -^^'le fisher-
Some of thenAelieve ha th H ""'''' ^'"''''"^ by necessity,
the foot from vhritt "'''"' "' " ''"''" "^' P'-'^^'^b'^
been told of two fi h me Sr'T"'"""' "^'^ ^^"^^'^ ^«^
ran short of provl ^nT tI '. T-^'""^^^ ^^ ''^« ^^«lves,
them died a fiwlo rs iate^ 'Vl' ^rt''""^^^ ^"^ «"« «^
by the Mnssels, it "luoS^/^otbt 17^ T ^^"^^^
foot really are the nni«-.n. proDabie that the byssiis and

-I he shells are usually very beantifnl v^uu- u ■
a delicate pearly lustre ^„T,7„u ,'''"' having often
ornamental object Ich a T '1 ""' '^^^"'^^^^ ^'^ ^^^Y
like. Occasiona ly pea nfof T T '"' '^■'"'^^^' ^"^ ^'^^
but we haye not hL^nl^n^JyVr^^ ^" ^^""' ^'^ ^'^^^

toget;ef;r:.iL'rmSiarof r"r^ ^"-^ ^« ^'•'^^

The tough threads VthTts/sSr^'r'^ "^^^"^^•
within reach and a coating TT ^^^^^'^' everything

THE ECONOMIC MOLLL.oa OP ACAmA. gd

16. Modlola plicatula Lamarck.
Bibbed Mussel.

lyfoa^ola, a little „,easure (,; .Ucatula, somewhat fo.dedj

Lawrence. ^ " '" ^"''° ^'^^^ ^^I«''^«- G»lf of 8^

BruSw!:kttt«Tll[r^"^ ^-^^^^^^^ ^'-^ *he Ne.
North Shore 0 Nova SCO !r"7 "^'' the North Shore.
Prince Edward Is7a„d Clf P T M ''"'^^ '' ^ '^'^^'^'
the southern part ofVe Tu ' o^ ^^^^
d'Or Lakes, and possiblv in «. ^awrenco and in Bras

, una possibly m some part of Chedabucto Bay.

couunonor'lIorseVl!'s!erbv?r/i.^'''!'^'^.''°, ^'"'''"Suished from the

shell. These begin near h^h'. Tn^i r "' '""'"^'^ ""' '•'"»- ^' i'»
i. near the hinge and radiate to all the posterior part.

Fig. 13. Modiola plicatula. Natural Size

Acadia, In New Jew. ,„.i .t ur , ™" Purposes in
« a fertilizer, aid t^rpLah.Tf "»^'"°''' " '""P"'^"'
small part of the " Mat C, ^^ X . >'^"^"°''''^ *"™ »

I'l

Iff

84 THK ECONOMIC MOLLUSC A OF ACADIA.

17. Marffarltana arcuata (Barnes) Stimpson.

[The fresh-water Mussels of Acadia have not been
well studied. Willis and Jones mention several species
as occurring in Nova Scotia; Mr. G. F. Matthew knows
of several in New Brunswick; and Dr. Dawson has
reported two species from Prince Edward Island. It
is uncertain how many of these may produce pearls,
perhaps all of them under the requisite conditions.
Mr. Matthew tells the writer th't, Mr. S. E. Gerowhas
identified Mnrgaritana arcuata m the Society's collec-
tion, as the pearl-bearing species of our waters.]

Presh-water Mussel, Fresh-water Clam, Pearl-Mussel.

Mic-mac, Sebooaas-uk.

[Margaritana, a pearl; arcuatit, arched].

Distribution. ('■.;■ 'General ;— Fresh-water streams of
North-eastern Araerivi

(b) In Acadia; (in N B.) Streams of southern counties,
S. E. Geroio, (la N. ;^.) Rivers in Annapolis, Sackville
"River, Willis. All fretih- water streams, Jbne^. Not reported
from Prince Edward Island.

Habits. Our fresh-water Mussels are in general not unlike their
salt-water namesakes in appearance and habits. The epidermis or outer
Bkin varies from straw-color to olive-green, and is not attractive, but
within the shells nearly always show the beautiful changing colors of
mother-of-pearl.

They generally lie partly buried at the bottom of the pond or
stream in which they live, with the posterior end protruding and
gaping open. But by means of their powerful " foot," they can travel
•with some facility, and one often sees on sandy bottoms the long
furrows left by them in their progress. The young are kept for a time
in the gills of the parent. Our eastern species present little variety as
to shape, size and color, but those of the west show the most remarkable
diversity in these respects.

Pearls are, for the most part, found only in old or deformed shells.
Mr. Gerow says that young or even middle-aged specimens very rarely
or never contain them. They ire believed to be formed only as the
result of some disease, injury or irritation to the animal. Some
naturalists have thought that the free perfect pearls are formed by the

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUgCA OF ACADIA.

85

of

■deixnitlon of the pearly material around grains of sand or other
.accidental intrusions, for the sake of rendering the latter less irritating
to liic animal, and thi,-, is the generally received opinion. Tiio pro-
portion of in( viduals containing them is. however, very small' not one
in a tnousand contains a pearl of real value. The Mussels found in
•clear, running, gravelly streams arc mcwt likely to contain ili-m.

Economics. Pearls aro obtained from fresh-wat ssels

in several parts of the world, notably China, Japan, inany,
and formerly, Scotland. They are also found in the United
States, and some rivers have been systematically worked for
them. Those of Scotland were formerly held in high esteem
and have brought very high prices. A complete discussion of
the subject may be found in the papers mentioned below.

In our own waters some very valuable pearls have been
found in the fresh-water Mussel. Mr. S. E. Gerow, of the
Customs, St. John, is the most expert and successful pearl-
fisher of these provinces. The following facts have been
given by him to Mr. S. W. Kuin, and the latter has kindly
allowed the writer to quote them.

" The largest pearl Mr. Gerow knows of that has yet been
found in New Brunswick, weighed fifty-six grains, and was
sold to parties in Philadelphia for four hundred and fifty
dollars. . . . This was found in a brook near Sussex, Kings
County. Mr. Gerow found one himself at Coldbrook, which
weighed twenty-five grains, and he sold it for one hundred
and fifty dollars. It was a very beautiful pearl of splendid
lustre and perfect shape. He found another at the same
place worth one hundred and fifty dollars, and weighing
nineteen grains. Little New River, he says, is a good place
for them. He found one there that weighed eighteen grains,
and sold for one hundred and ten dollars. A man who was
with him found one that he sold for thirty dollars. Mr.
Gerow stated that he had seen a pearl from Nova Scotia that
sold for seventy-five dollars. St. John, Kings and Charlotte
are the only counties where he knows of much search having
been made. Mr. Gerow found another weighing fifty grains,
but it was not symmetrical. It was flat on one side, but of a
^ery good purplish lustre. He sold it in New York for one

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.^sr^ Phone: 716/462-0300
•SSS'.^SS Fax: 716/288-5989

C 1993, Applied Image, Inc., All Rights Reserved

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86

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA

hundred dollars, and another of similar shape in St. John for
tho same price." These, of course, are very exceptional
instances, the great majority of those found being small, of
poor shape and of had color. It must be borne in mind, in
considering these facts, that a great amount of persevering
labor and considerable skill is required to obtain such results.
Its returns are too uncertain to allow the fishery ever to be of
much economic value.

WonKs OF Refehknce.

Pearls. By F. W. Rudler. Encyclopc^dia Britannica. 9th

Ed., Vol. XVIII.. pp. 440-448.
Pearls and Pearl-fisheries. By W. H. Dall. Americaa

Naturalist, Vol. XVII., 1883.

18. Cardluiu Islandlcuui Linn^us.
(arilium ciUatttin Fubr.
Cockle.

[Oirdi'uni, lieait-slia|)ed; lalaiiilicum, Icelandic].

DisTKiiJL-Tiox. {a) General;— ^ear low-water mark to
fifty fatlionis. Cape Cod to Greenland, and circumpolar.
Korthern Eurojie, Behring's Straits, Japan.

(b) In Aca(liaj~(mN. B.) Grand Manan, twenty to forty
fathoms, mud, Stimpson. Rather abundant in sheltered
places, also found in Friar's Cove. (In N. S.) Annapolis
Basin, rare, Verkriizen. Halifax Harbor, Willis and Jones.
Kot reported from Prince Edward Island nor southern part
of the Gulf. Probably occurs in mud and fine sand in many
places in the Bay of Fundy and on the Atlantic coast of Nova
Scotia.

Habits. This is a very wellniarlied species, and, except in its
young stiiges, cannot bo confounded witli any other on our coast. The
valves are of a rounded form, and very convex or much hollowed out.
On each, radiating fan-like from near the hinge, are about thirty-six
raised angular ribs, which, on the free edge, give the shell a scalloped
or crenulated appearance. The epidermis frequently rises into a bristly
fringe on theh: summits, especially in young specimens, and this, with.

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA. 87

iH,!.no '^"l *••" !"""''« «™ «ng»lar. will distinguish the young of

Zl2ui T T *P'^«™"- I' » *n «"r waters from two to two and
•one-half inches long and nearly as broad.

Of its habits, very little is known. It lives nnrtiv hunVfl in r,„A

•or fine sand under a few fathoms of water.' It S f'TaitlgXr

Piu. 14.— Cardium Mandicum. Natural Size.

XbabTv' iZ?'? T"''™'' ?""*' ""^ P^'^^^P^ «"*•"•''«• It would
to n?ini^ J . ?'''° *" " ^'"'^S^ °f '*••&« ™e«l^-«o constructed as

t ::?t;:?:,r ouTtfr ' ^"' " '^^^ ^^'-«'^- ^^ --^^ p-^'^^s^

^hl«^?nT''''\ ^^'' 'P''"'' '^ "«^«''' «° '«^ ^ ^e have beea
mn«r o«''°' T ';*''' ^° ^"'"^*- ^' '' ^°««^t«d in this
Skl«/^T"°'/ ^'^^ '^°'« relationship to the edible
Cockle (Cardmm edule) of Europe ; without doubt it is edible,

re««^ir , {*" ^°^^ '^^'^ "^ '^^ ^"'•"P^a" ^«rm. which i
Z ^irrlT ^ '" °r^^ "" ''^^P«°'«- 'T'^^ chief distinguish-
h? „ n ""T '^' ''^^ '^ *^« non-scientific observer is
the smaller number of ribs, twenty-six. in Cardium edule,
•C. Islandicum having thirty-six.

The European Cockle lives on sand beaches and the banks

*ure that "It jg equally good, raw or cooked, and may be

88

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

eaten in almost any numbers with impunity. It may be-
boiled or roasted, eaten alone, or as a sauce to fish." It i*
gathered all the year round and sells for five pounds a ton
So important is the fishery in England, that two bays alone
produce £35,000 worth of Cockles a year, Morecambe Bay
alone producing £20,000 worth annually, in view of these
facts it is well for us to keep in mind that we have a Cockle
upon our own coast.*

The shells of our species are sometimes employed for
making small articles of ornament.

19. Venus nicrccnaria Linnfens.

Mercenaria violacen Schum.

auahog or ttuahaug, Hard Clam, Round Clam, Little-
neck Clam.

Mie-mac, Boogunumowas-uk. Acadian Frcn-h Pal-
lude (?).

{Venus, Vemis; mercenarin , used in trade],

DisTuiBUTiON. (a) General;-ln shallow water. Florida
to Massacliusetts Bay. Casco Bay and Gulf of St. Lawrence
Has been introduced into Europe.

{b) In Acadia ;-(xxi N. B.) Caraquette, Bell. Bay
Chaleur, Shediac, Whiteaves. (In N. S.) Halifax, 8able
Island and Fishing Banks, Gould (on authority of Willis)
St. Mary's Bay, "pretty abundant," Verkrmen. Whole
coast, common, Jones. Prince Edward Island, Daivson. It

♦ As this paper is passing through the press, the following appears in a Boaton
newspaper, too late for Its Insertion In Its proper place

"New iNDisTRr.-Manehester-by-the-Sea, June 83 A new ind.i«tr„ )..-
tTenrr:'."^''tr""""-- Thescarcity of bait has led the fllhlteTo S'
not touch them, and, as they are tough, they will hold on the hooks nrnTStSr
i„d TTTT *" '"' "■"'" '"'""''^ *" """^ ">«" °" '"e Hats picking CookS:

^e«..3LT'^^*''^ "'".'*"!'" "' ^"■- *"•"■«'' ^«' 2nd, Of Manchester, the writer
received specimens o( these "Cocklea,- which proved to be nc Cn^i,.I <^l
Bimply Buccinum undatum and Lunatia hero,. Cardium, but

for

THE ECOXO.MIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 8(f

18 evidently common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, from Bay
Chaleur to Cape Breton. It seems strange, however, that it
should be reported as being common all around the coast of
NovaScotia, when it is totally unknown upon the Bay of
Fundy coast of New Brunswick. It is probably to be fo'und
wherever the Oyster lives, and being somewhat more hardy,
cccnrs rather beyond those limits.

tPrs ,"/flT" ?'' '^f? ^" well-known to all oystermen and frequen-
ters of fish-markets. It is a bivalve sl.ell. having two very thiek and
heavy valves of a dingy white or ash color. Upon these are well

Fio. l.T. — TewiM merccnnria. Natural Size.

marked, very regular, concentric folds, which become ..uite sharp where
not wen by friction. Insi,'e they are chalky white, e.xcep Tt the
smaller end. where they arc usually of a beautiful purpl . Tl nlgia
Is finely crenulate<l around three-fourths of its circumference. S
shell IS roughly heart-shaped in outline, nbou three and onc-half inches
long when full grown, and two and three-quarter inches high These
characters will distinguish it from any other form found upon oZ

amount in^T'"'' T"'". ^'""""^ '"^'"'"'^ sLells, quite variable ia
amount m others, and is often covered by a thick white glazing in very
old ones, while in certain cases it is wanting altogether " ^ '

Uvtn^^ M T^"" "^ i'^"' ^"'*'- ^''■'^" '">•'•-" ^"'"■»"° «n «"dy shores
living chiefly on the sandy and muddy flats, just beyond low-water
mark, but is often found on the portion laid bare at low water of spring

«0

THE ECONOMIC M0LLC8CA OP ACADIA.

tides. It often inbabif 8 the estuaries wliPrAj»«,« . • ^ ,
a short distance below the sufT' hufi! f. , ""'"^''- '' '^""°^''
surface, with ,Lo shell pLfe.poS h h '°""'' "7""« "^ the
unite<i from the base to near the S and 1 1 °''' '""""' »"'^'''

a broad thin e,lge. by mea," of wlWrh'.? f ' !""'*"''"' '•""' ^'"^

*«nd when nccessirv ""it rllriv \ " "'"'^' ''"'"'^^^ ''"'"'"> the

the <>ys.e™;"on7urNor,fi'reTur;"'' '*•? f""*^ '""""*''' «"

-es it is ^^:s.:;^^sjzz:^t:^y^^: ^-^'^

fn .^""Tr/"'- ^" *'^' ^"'*^^ States this species ranks next

♦13,«0,000. These fignre! wiU .how hl° ^.Se a (ion'"*

of o»r „».er» ™ .re almosu totally negtedmg " ' •'°""'°

South of New York this is the common Clam of th.

«...ket. Between New York and Boston thl aid the 'ft

per bushel The smallest are used chiefly for pickling
They are taken from small boats by raking It LT*
«tens,velynsedasbait. Itaometimesco'ntl pLl If:,,^'
blue, purple, violet or mixed colors but Zv ,'

clear enough to be of any value. ' '^ ^'' ''''^^

This species has been introduced into several places in
Eu ope sometimes successfully, sometimes not. It has been

Ike it te af A ""; '" ^™"''' ^"' '' ^«««' <>»« attempt to
make it live at Arcachon, in the south of France has faiUi

These efforts to introduce it into Europe ehoThow h /h!^^^

8 valued by people who have it not in their own waters L.

they should have a lesson for us who value irmtLthou^?

abundant on our own shores ^^

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. M

poor food, but .fs great use in the United States proves

This species has an interest for us also, from the fact that
the purple part of its shell furnished the material for the purpL

mentioned (p. 12), was made chiefly from the colnmellro or
cen ral columns of the two species otBus.con (also know^ as
^^'bur and S>,cofypu., and sometimes Pymla. The purntB
WHS worth twice as much as the white, and both were made
m the form of tube-shaped beads, perJoraled and no is^d
heir value depended upon their poli'sh and general perfection '
It was a real currency among the Indians, true money and
as one old writer says.-" their mammon.'' It was the' chieJ
medium of trade between the whites and Indilra on ' the
-uthern New England coast. The former, howe er to!k to

ciation of value and many abuses. La^ were oassed
regulating its use in trade, and it continued tore manufactu ed
n.l within about fifty years, for use in the west. A "ry
full and interesting discussion of this whole subject may K
found in the first of the works mentioned below ^

Among the Canadian Indians it was very extensively used
Early explorers (including Cartier) refer to it, and KaiL the
Swediah botanist and traveller, saw it in th; middle of' the
as tcentiiry among the Hurons and below Quebec. Charlevoix

Venus shell, (p. 1.32 and gives a most interesting descriptioa
of t. It was very highly valued by the Indians of Acadia

r'h'ritfor' "'* '"J was use/by them fortnamenj
rather than for money. It was also used by the Acadian

Micmac« h'V '' '''"'"'' '''• ^^«"«'- *«"« that the

Algonquin Legends." mentions that the Passamaquoddys

have_wampimi records at Pleasant Point, Maine. S

•Bee lntro<i,:rtory part of this paper, p. 13.

99

TIIR ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

can be read at

by

mly
has

present

other evidence of its .,«« ,„ Mcamn n,nf n,« •. r^
been ablfl tn fi„<i • '^°*"'* "^"'^ •^he writer has

Bailev in I vr"''r'.'" " ''"''''' '^^^ P'-^'^^^or L- W.

' On t'h«;? . , K "^ ""' ^"^'«^^'« «»"«ti". entitled,
On the I olios of the Stone Age in New Brunswick" 111
n^ent.ons that some shell beads were fonnd with t7e bones o?
a child upon the Tobic.ue Itlver. He says,-.. They woukf
appear to have been derived from the common f re h wat
U.n.siU and AnoUonta), and, considering the imTn

a ees under which they were found, were pr'oba Jy of ue
Ind an and domestic manufacture, rather than imported or
imitative products, .uch as were abundantly made f^r n rle
of barter, in more thickly settled localities " ' ^

was chK ly made, are entirely wanting upon the shores of

the spec es we are now considering, was abundant- vet

in Acadia. He did not know, however, from what the nuri.le

wood. Ihe Quahog must have been extensively used hv
hem a ,,,,, , ,, ,^^„„^ ^^,.^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ve ly use y

learned Iron, the tribes to the south to make it themselves!

WouKs OF 1{i:kekence
Wampum and its History. Jiv Krnest Ingersoll. American
Naturalist, Vol. XVII., l,sS3, pp. ir.r 470 '""'"^'"'
Aboriginal Shell-money. By R. E. C. Stearns. Proc. Cal
Academy, Vol. V., pp. ii3_i,>o. Also American NaT
urahst. Vol. Ill, 1869, pp. I-5 *'

Fishery for Qmihogs. Fishery Industries of the U. S. Sec
v., \ol. II., pp. 595-613.

20. Cyprlna Islandica (Lister) Lamarck.
Black Quahog.

[Cyi,Hna, from Kupri8, a name of Venus; lalaudica, Icelandic]

Distribution. («) G^.^^ra^y-Shallow water to ninety
fathoms. Long Island to Arctic Ocean, and around the

THb economic MOLLl'SCA OP ACADIA. 93

W /n Jm.//«;_(in X. B.) Grand Manan, rarely found
Stt.,pson, Bay of Fundy, six to ninety faJhoms, ^""7/.
^ssamaquoddy B,y, Oanong. NorthLberlund Stra ts,
W7a/.«t-... (In N. S.) Halifax Harbor, common. Jone,
Annapol. Baam. St. Mary's Bay. not abundant. F.,i,.yr;
PnnK M : u . «P«C'»lIy reported, but doubtless occurs.
thrc"oa![ ** '" "^"^ ""' ^''"'^ '^^"^"'^ "'1 '*'-«»"d

IlAiiiTs. Tbis is one of the two or three ^lolluscs noniilMrlv
inc hulecl under the name Quahog-,«„« ....,.„; he , /tie n^
QuHh.g. In general appearance these two shells are much aliki^ tS

FlO. 16.— Cv/w«na hiandka. Natural Size

lue ini^rior of f . tyittvaiana, and ditTers fromMt also In

'94

THE ErOKOMir MOLLUHCA OP ACADIA.

nu.^frT'"'-. ^ "'''"' ""^ ««"^' food-molI«8c, and fre-
quently oaten along with Venu. ^nerceuaria, from ;hic it L
not nana ly d.st.nguishcd except by large dealers I Us aid
by good judges to be of very good'fla/or. W , ts ^ ^t

een, at Lynn Beach, Massachusetts, dozens of men collectini?

heaNystorm. Many of them were shelled upon thespot while

timtdrthr^^'r'^^ *^ ^i""- '^'^y ---^ ^^ •^e ^S y

wnether or not they are ever cast up in numbers nnon o.,r
own shores, but they are taken not in' requenTly d" i g

They are neither abundant enough nor easily enough oS
to make ,t pay to take them for market.^ ^Ve fannot find
that they are ever sold by themselves in our towns Thev
are a food of Cod and perhaps other fishes. ^

21. fliactra solldl^slma Chemnitz.

Jfacfm gujantcn [of Willis].
^pisnla soUdiasima Gray.

SeaKjlam. Giant-clam, Hen-clam, Beanh-clam. Surf-clam.

[UaHra, a kneading-trough; MolidUtirna, verj' solid].

•f.fT,^''''"'l?'°^ ^""^ 6^««er«;;-Low.water mark to ten
fathoms Florida and Gulf of Mexico to Labrador.

^ay of Fundy, low-water mark to ten fathoms. Verrill
Passamaquoddy Bay. large and abundant, Ganon^ sZd7ac
Point du Chene, Whifeaves. (In N. S.) St. Maryl Bay very

THE ECONOMIC MOLLfSCA OF ACADIA.

9B.

arge ^erkruzcn Mahone Bay. St. Margarot'B Uav, Sablo
laand \\ dhs Sandy beaches, whole com, Joue,.' Prince
Lclwun Island. Dawson. Probably occurs in sandy situations
where there is clear water around the whole coast of the three
provinces.

From (I... commcn Clan, it is (lisiinKUislM.,1 |,v its Lrn,,tor .hv an.

tSM.i..s«l,.„c..l,r,.,.,ly away fn.m ,l.e l.ln,^. .o as to kIvo it a ,. iC *
tnan,.„lar «l.a,K.. Wl.cn y.nn,, ,t is covcrul will, a .lull-l.rol^ "^t

Fig. 17. — Mmtia Kiiliili^siiim. Twu-tiii.ils of Natural Size,
colored eiiidnn.is. ul.icl, becomes mostly worn off i„ old specimens,
ami is entirely al.-sent in tl.ose cast up by the waves. Large specimens

frombaMe I.sland seven and one-fourth inches long and six and one-
half .n .m-adll,, and Willis gives them even u larger sfze

II lives only in .sand, and in situations where the water is clear. It
bu MOWS like the common Clam, but not deeply and does not form

CsrSis ""■"' "' ""'' '"' '''"''"■• ^' '' ""^ ""^"^■^••^^ «t the

Economics. It is used for food and is also put up for
bait. Gould says it " is much esteemed by some as an article

06

Till? ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OP ACADIA.

tl» aninml i, cLilv drawn m I . '' " "'" "''"" '' "■"•

The heavy shells are utilized for many purnoses Th«
Indians used them as hoes for their corn fn New En.la?/
and flshermens' wives usp thom # ■•^'ngland,

Thev are oftnn nJ^f '*"" '^'"''P'' skimmers, etc.

In our Provinces it is sometimes eaten by the flshprmon
but we cannot find that it is ever exposed for sae in the Z^'
kets, except rarely in HHlifav \r ^■■ "® ™*'^"

eaten .t i, Mar/.'-B."'!™ I^ "Tndle fi"," " ''

be ,«d ™„re, „„ do„b, oould i. be Z^^lj'oiJL:
22. Mactra oralis Gould.

Mncira ponderosa Stlmp.
Mactra solidissima [of Willis], f

filfactra^kneadlng.trouKh; <>«,/<,. ovalj.

•Another estimate gjves ite value as 87.800 annually
call .V ot.«i.-. when he ra^nti^^'^J^laZi^'' '" •"'^'^ '^^ "^^ -'••»^

THE ECONOMIC M0LLC8CA OR ACAOIA. 97

"Y": (in A. 8.) AnnHj)„l,H Basin, St. Marv'a lUv r,.J

"IB species, that it "sometimes Hnds its wuv tn nui;*.,
market, and is readily disposed of." ^ "•*'''"*

23. Mya arenarla Linnjcus.

Clam. Soft Clam, lon^ Clam, Sand Clam.

^^'7Z\ ^T""^- ^«**«'««^/««'%. Ess-sook (or
«ess.) Acadian French, Cocque.

iMyn, perhaps „.,« of the ancient,; arenaria, living In saml]

Distribution. («) (?e«er«/;_Between tide-marks to
Pra i N 'r.h?? ''° ^"''P^ "^"^ ^^"^'^ t° England and

and^ mul^ tnt"'~^ll ^' ^^ ^^""^*"^ ererywhere in sand
and mud on the southern coast from Grand Manan to SL

commZ IT ^[ •• "^ Annapolis Basin and Bay of Fundv
common, Verkruzen. Halifax Harbour, etc., very commS

98

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

onS

Jones Prince Edward Island, common and large, Datoson.
Abundant on every sand bar. J. H, Duvar, UndoubtedT;

of Acadf^ ''°""°" °^ ^^°""''' "'"""'^ ^^' ^""--^ «°««t

^no.,"^?" '• ,^i° r."^"" °^ *•''' P^P'^'" «^^" '•^qui'-e a description of this
species to enable liim to identify the Oam. Who does not know
this most ubiquitons of Molluscs? But not so manj , erhal havl
acquaintance with its habits. ^ I'omaps, Have

Upon every mud or sand beach
around the sea-coast of Acadia, tlie
visitor will see very many round Jioles,
half an inch in diameter, from which,
Hs he walks near them, streams of water
are frequently forcibly ejected. At the
bottoms of these, at a depth of from six
inches to over a foot, according to
locality and character of the soil, tlie
Clams are to be found, standing up-
right nt the bottoms of their burrows,for
such they are. Yet it does not properly
stand upright in the sense tliat a man
tloes, for it stands head downwards, the
tough, black, protruding part, common-
ly callc: thelieml, not being that organ
at all. If this black part be dissected,
it will be found to consist of two tubes',
the " siphons," bound together, with
thick, toufih walls, both leading into
the general cavity of the animal in which
all of the internal organs lie. The only
other opening into the animal's body is
a small one at the opposite end which
allows the animal to thrust out it»
muscular, extensible "foot." It is by
the use of this foot that it can move up
and down in its burrow, within certain
limits, or form a new one if necessary.
If a Clam be placed upright in some sand at the bottom of a glass
vessel of salt water it will need only careful watching, with perhaps a
httle experimenting, to show that tliere is a current flowing into one of
the tubes-that away from the hinge side and the larger-and a current
out of the other, or the smaller one towards the hinge side The
dissection of another specimen will show the internal organs in position

Toet

•SKell.

Fig.

18. — My a armaria.
One-half natural Size.

THE ECOXOMIC ixOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

9&

^1 fl„7-r /''" '•'"'""' '"'^""S ^"t^'- ™>^«t loathe the four
great, flat gills as it passes downwards towards the mouth These dul
subserve the same function as do those of fishes, for in them tl bfood

Near Z r^'"'' ''' "'•^''"' ""'''^''^ '^"'^ S'^'«« «« 'ts usdJg ses
Near the extreme anterior (though lower) end. guarded by fouS
ear-like flaps, is the minute mouth, and into it are guided by ^ flap!
the minute an m„ls. plant, and crus.acea upon wLh it ffed The
water, now robbed of i,s oxygen and food materials, pas es aron^The
back or h.nge side, taking up useless matters given off by the animal
and passes out through the other tube. These tubes have the poweo
great extension, so that when their owner is safe deep in t b rr^w U
can push them up to the surface and get clear, pur'e water AtT;w
water when the flats are exposed, it retains water enougli to la^ untU
the Ude covers it again, when, doubtless hungrv enough i keeps un an

clr to" tr' "; """'"^^ "^ ^■'^•^'^- '^ ^ i-rutbus enlgh o
come to the surface, it is likely to be snapped up by some flsh for
niany of this tribe dearly love the Clam. It also lives rder'na.^
fathoms of water, where its habits are probably the same Its t me S
reproduction has not been studied carefully in our waS' but noball

Sir. Ryder (see paper referred to below) finds that they give out their
eggs from the tenth of September to the middle of'^olbeT The
young are without shells and can swim freely about for a time a

mZr 'h '"°" *"^" '' ""' '-^"^"^^d f-» "- Vic n ty of "heiJ
or n d Tom'" '"T''"' overcrowding. They soon settIe^o a sand

surface T 1 " T "'T ^"'^'"^ '^^ ^'^^"' ^"■•™- ^^-^ath the
surface. They grow to a length of from one to two inches in seven
months, these lengths being exclusive of the tubes. The nificS
raising of the young is considered very difllcult. though they mly be
transplanted readily to new beds. ^ ^

Economics. This species has two very important uses-
as human food and as bait in the fisheries. For the latter
purpose It 18 very extensively used in Acadia, and also in the
United States. Exact statistics of the quantity used for bait
alone are wanting in the latter country, and the Dominion
riahery Returns probably give but an imperfect idea of the
quantity used in the former. Nova Scotia is the only one of
the Maritime Provinces which gives figures in the reports,
which for the years from 1884 to 1887 are as follows:
1884 750 barrels @ $7- |5,350

1885
1886

1136
970

1887 475 ««

6
5

5,680

4,850-

3,826

($J00 worth U8ed\
as food. /•

100

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

These are taken chiefly in Queens and Halifax Counties.
No doubt the rapid diminution in quantity since 1885 is due
to the greatly increased use of the Squid [which see] since
that time. It is shelled and salted for long voyages, but carried
jliye to the fishing grounds when the latter are near home.
Wilhs tells us that "It is said to be an irresistible bait to both
haddock and codfish." Mr. J. H. Duvar states in his Eeport
for 1880, and subsequently has informed the writer, that they
were formerly much used in Prince Edward Island for
mackerel bait and were gathered by the Acadian French who
sold them to the fishermen for fourteen to fifteen cents per
quart, shelled. Their use is now almost superseded by that
of chopped herring. It is used in Gasps and Quebec even
more extensively than in Acadia.

As an article of human food, it is much more used in the
United States than with us. North of Cape Cod it is the
common Clam of the markets ; south of New York it is
replaced by the Quahog, Venus mercenaria; while between
those places, both are found in about equal quantities. The
very best come from Guilford, Conn., and sell for about three
dollars per hundred. At this place a few of extraordinary
size are found at lowest tides, the shells being six or eight
inches long, and the animal of good flavor. These sell for
about one dollar and twenty-five cents per dozen, the price
for ordinary sizes being from ninety cents to two dollars per
bushel, wholesale. The latter retail in the markets for from
fifty to seventy-five cents per peck, according to size. In
New Haven they are sold only in winter, and considered out
of season m summer, though in New York they are sold
throughout the year. A system of cultivation has been tried
with good results. The total annual value to the United
States of this spec%->8, including the large quantities collected

/ , oii°° t^^ ^^"^ ^"^^^"'^ ^''"'^' ''' according to the census
of 1880, about $330,500. $562,376 according to another
report. It has, however, been estimated by Mr. Earll, of
the U. S. Fish Commission, in a speech made at the London
Fisheries Exhibition of 1883, to be as high as $600 000
annually. These figures do not include those taken on

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA- OP ACADIA.

lOl

the Pacific coast, to which it has been recently introduced
and where it is spreading rapidly. It is sometimes taken by
a system of ploughing, but rarely ; the ordinary weapons for
capturing it, are there, as with us, a simple bucket and shovel,
in England this species is used neither for bait nor for
food, except very locally, being replaced entirely for both
purposes by the edible Mussel, Mytilus edulis. This seems
to us very remarkable and unaccountable, considering to what
an extent other Mollusca are utilized there. It must be
remembered that in England this is called the " Gaper " the
name Clam being applied to a species of Scallop, Fecien

In Acadia no statistics are available to show the annual
value to the three Provinces of this species as food. The
returns m the Annual Fishery Reports give the value of Clams
as bait or else overlook them altogether. By the fishermen
and the people of the sea-port towns it is quite extensively
eaten in New Brunswick, and it is frequently for sale in the
markets. In St. John, Mr. J. A. Turner estimates there are
one thousand barrels per year nold, at an average price of one
dol ar and fifty cents per barrel, wholesale. The largest and
best for city trade are brought from Lepreau.

In Nova Scotia it is very extensively used as food. Willis
says It could be bought in the Halifax market for a shilling
sterling per bushel in the shell, or for about threepence per
quart shelled. At present, over three hundred barrels a year
are sold, the most of which are brought from Cole Harbor
and Chezzetcook. They sell for about ten cents a quart or
SIX dollars per barrel shelled.

In Prince Edward Island it is very little used as food,
being eaten only by the Acadian French, according to Mr. J.
n. iJuvar. It is not improbable that some very large indivi-
<lual8 may be found in favorable situations, such as those
referred to above, from Guilford, Conn. Certainly the sandy
shores and warm summer temperature of the water ought to
favor their growth to a large size.

In the vicinity of the St. Croix River. "Clam-bakps " are «n
institution of venerable antiquity. The Indians probably Had

103

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

them, and congenial spirits from the border towns still delight
to return at times to the ways of their Clam-loving predecessors.
On some favored spot on the shores of that splendid river they
assemble by appointment ; a great fire is built and by it many
stones are heated and made very hot. The embers are then
raked aside and upon the stones is placed a layer of wet sea-
weed, on which a layer of Clams is laid. Then comes another
layer of sea-weed and another of Clams, and so on, the top of
the who being a cushion of sea-weed of extra thickness.
Over the whole mass is perhaps a piece of canvas thrown,
and in such an oven are the Clams slowly steamed to the-
proper degree of deliciouaness. A constant concomitant and
the most pleasing feature of these banquets is the invariable
good-nature and good-fellowship which prevails.

The great heaps of shells on the Charlotte County coast,
made as we know by the Indians, show of how much import-
ance this species was to them. It doubtless formed the bulk
of their food during the summer, when large game was out
of condition, and possibly, as Mr. Matthew has shown, to-
some extent in winter also. The heaps are sometimes two or
more feet deep, and cover several acres. It was probably
used quite extensively by them in Nova Scotia and Prince
Edward Island also, but as yet the shell-heaps of those
Provinces have received but little attention and we hardly
know anything of their number, extent or contents.

Clams as well as Oysters are sometimes found, in which a
considerable portion of the edible part is of a green or bluish-
green color. This has been repeatedly shown by chemists to-
be non-metallic and perfectly harmless, though some think
they have a coppery taste. The color is due to the nature of
the food, being produced when they feed upon certain
diatoms or minute plants (chiefly Navicula ostrearia, var.
fusiformis). Experiments show that the green color can be-
artificially produced by feeding them upon these diatoms,
and that it will disappear in a few days when they are changed
to other diet. The green Clams may be eaten with perfect
confidence.

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.
WoHKS OP Rbfkkbncb.

108

The Oyster, Clam, and other Common MoUusks. By Alpheus

Hyatt. Boston, 1884, 12mo., 65 pp., many figures.
On the Rate of Growth of the Common Clam, etc. By John

A. Ryder. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. V.,

1885, pp. 174-176.
On the Green Coloration of the Gills and Palps of the (Jlam

{Mya arenaria). By John A. Ryder. Bull. U. S. Fish

Commission, Vol. V., 1885, pp. 181-185.
The Clam Fisheries. Fishery Industries of the U. S., Sect.

v., Vol. II., pp. 581-594.

24. Hya tmncata Linnseus.

[Mya, perhaps the ancient mus ; truncata, cut short.]

British Oaper.

Distribution, (a) General; — Low-water mark to below
one hundred fathoms. Cape Cod to Greenland. North
European seas to Great Britain.

(b) In Acadia; — (in N. B.) Grand Manan, low- water mark,
Stimpson. Shediac, Whiteaves. Not abundant on the south-
ern coast. (In N. S.) Halifax Harbor, not uncommon, Jones.
N^ot reported from Prince Edward Island. Probably not
abundant on our coast.

Habits. This species may be distinguished from the common
dam {Ml/a arenaria), by tlie shape of the valves, for in it the posterior
•end, or end from which the tubes protude, is cut sharply off, as its name
signifies, and is not evenly rounded as in Jfya arenaria. The posterior
end also, even when the shell is closed, gapes widely open, instead of
only slightly as an Mya arenaria; whence comes the name, given above,
by which it is known in England. The epidermis is prolonged into a
tube posteriorly helping to give the protection which is lost by the
truncation of the shell. It is from two to thi-ec laches in length. In its
habits it is not known to differ essentially from Mya arenaria,

Economics. It is probable that this species is often dug
with and used for the same purposes as Mya arenaria. Indeed,
as both are variable in form they frequently are much alike,
and it is not probable that they are ever separated by the

104

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

fishermen. They are both useful for the same pur| ■ —
bait and food. Forbes and Hanley tell us that it is eaten -th
in Britain and North America. It is more common in England
than Mya arenaria, but the reverse is certainly the case with
us. It is an important article of food to the Cod, being found
in their stomachs in great numbers, especially on the New-
foundland Banks.

25. Solen ensls Linnaeus.

Var. Americana Gould.
Ensatella Americana Verrill.

Eazor-shell, Razor-fish, Long Clam, Knife-handle.

Mic-mac, Sasabegwit, pi. Sasabegwidul.

[Solen, the ancient name ; ensis, a kind of sword, a scimitar.]

Distribution. («) Cc^jeraZ;— Low-water mark to twenty
fathoms. Florida to Labrador.

(*) In Acadia;— {\n^. B.) Grand Manan, at low water, ia
sand, rare, Stimpson. Eastport, Gould. Bayof Fundy, Verrill.
Passamaquoddy Bay, Ganong. Shediac, Wiiteaves. (In N.
S.) Sandy shores, whole coast, Jones. St. Mary's Bay,
Verhruzen. (In P. E. I.) Common in Northumberland
Straits, Dawson. Probably to be found everywhere on the
shores of Acadia where there \z sand and clear water, though
nowhere very abundant.

Habits. We have upon our shores no Mollusc so strikingly distinct
from all others as this. Its parallel slightly curving sides and squarely
truncated ends are found in no other of our shells, and they give it a
shape which fully justifies the na.-nes of "Razor-shell" and "Knife-
handle," by which it is commonly known. It grows to a length of about
SIX inches, though eight inches is not unknown. The young animal i»
covered with a shining greenish-yellow epidermis, which partly disap
pears in old shells, leaving the latter a dull chalky white. At one end
(the posterior) project slightly two short fringed tubes -united below
their tips. At the other (anterior) end projects the powerful " foot " by
which the animal is enabled to burrow so rapidly in the sand. These
burrows are found only near extreme low-water mark. They are two to
three feet deep, and so rapidly can the animals travel down them tha»

THjs EC0N03IIC MOLLISC'A OF ACADIA.

105

i^

¥.

t

^u

a niHn cannot dig quickly enougb in the sand to catch them. Fre-
quently at low water they may be found at the surface, with about uq
inch of the shell projecting, but if not ap-
proached quietly and seized quickly they
are soon out of reach A method of catch- .^_™,

ing Razor-shells, frequently practiced in yaWKw/

England, is to drop a little salt in the
burrow, adding a little water to carry
it down. This is literally putting salt
on their tails, for they stand head down-
wards in their burrows. The irritated
animal always comes to the surface and
can be seized by the hand. Another
method is to push down the burrow a stout
wire, having at its end a barb or hook;
this pierces the animal and it can be easily
drawn up. Both of these methods would
certainly work with our species.

These animals, like most others which
cannot move about, feed on microscopic
plants and animals, which are drawn into
their bodies with water by one of the fring-
ed tubes, the other being .or the removal of
waste matters. They are rather fastidious
in their habitat, requiring clean sand and
clear water. They are, hence, not found
on rocky shores nor in estuaries. They
are eaten by some fishes, principally by W'\^
the Skates.

Economics. Of Razor-fishes in ■»»
general, Forbes and Hanleytell us, —
" They are among the most delicious
of shell-fish when properly cooked —
broiling is the best method." Willis
says our species is an excellent article
of food, and they have been sold in
the Halifax market for one penny
each. Mr. J. H. Duvar remarks
that when offered for sale at rare
intervals in Halifax, they have found purchasers among
epicures. It seems to be entirely unknown as an article of

W:-:

19. — SoUn enais, var.
Americana,
Natural Size.

106

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OP ACADIA.

food in St. John or Prince Edward Island. The fishermen of
the Charlotte County coast, and of parts of Nova Scotia,
know and esteem them, and the same may be true of the
fishermen of other parts of Acadia. The shells are used for
some ornamental purposes.

All testimony goes to show that it is an excellent food
Mollusc, but its comparative scarcity and the diflSculty of
obtaining it will prevent its extensive use.

Work of Reference.

Fishery Industries of the U. S. Sect. V., Vol. II.. pn.
613-615. ' ^^

Fig. 20.—Solen msis, var. Americana, Half Natural Size.
S., Siphons; Sh., Shell; M., Mantle; F., Foot.

26. Zirphaea crispata (Linn.) March,

[ZiVpAcea,— (?i; crispata, wrinkled.]

Date-fish.

DiSTRiBiT-ioN. (a) Genemls—ShaWow water to seventy
fathoms. Connecticut to Gulf of St. Lawrence. Iceland.
Northern Europe to Great Britain and France. West coast
of America, south to California.

(4) In Acadmj~{m N. B.) Grand Manan, very rare,
Stimpson. Bay of Fundy, eight to seventy fathoms, in hard
clay, FemV/. L'Etang Harbor. (In N. S.) Sable Island, large
specimens, Jones (on authority of WilUs). Prince Edward
Island, boring in red sandstone reefs, Dawson. Probably to
be found in suitable localities all around our coast.

THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF ACADIA.

107

Habits. This is a well-marked sbcll and not like any otheryet
■found on our const. It is a bivalve, each valve of which is somewhat
like that of the Clam. Across the middle runs a furrow, in front of
which the lines of growth rise in regular teeth, which arc entirely
wantinK behind that line. The shell gapes very widely open both before
and behind, and the dorsal margin in front of the furrow is folded over
outwards It does not exceed four inches in length in our waters, but

Fio. 21. — Zirphaa crinpata. Natural Size.

grows much larger to the south and on the west coast. It is a burrow-
ing Mollusc, and lives in hard clay, soft stone or even submerged wood.

Economics. On the coast of California this species is
•extensively eaten. It is, however, much larger than with
us, and is regularly exposed in the markets under the name
of "Date-fish." It is not abundant enough in Acadia to be
of any value. It appears to do no injury in its burrowing, to
any of man's works.

ii7. Teredo navalis Linnaeus.

[Teredo, a borer; navalis, infesting ships.]

Ship-worm.

DiSTKiBUTiON. (a) Oeneral; — In submerged timber,
'Gulf of Mexico to Vineyard Sound. Gulf of St. Lawrence,
abundant. [Massachusetts Bay to Chedabucto Bay, much less
abundant]. Sweden and Great Britain to Sicily; Algeria and
the Black Sea.

(ft) In Acadia; — St. John, Shediac, Pictou, Whiteavea.
2^orthumberland Straits, St. George's Bay, Strait of Canso,

108

THK ECONOMIC MOLU'SCA OP ACADIA.

. Chedabucto Bay and all around Cape Breton, abundant and
very destructive. Also around entire coast of Nova Scotia, but
much less abundant and not troublesome, Martin Murphy.

[As the species of Tendo inhabiting our waters have not
been well worked out, it is quite probable that there exists at
the localities named above other species in addition to T.
navahs. Indeed. Mr. Murphy, in the second of the papers-
quoted below, expressly states that either T. navalie or T.
Norvagica exist all around the coast of Nova Scotia. It is
greatly to be desired that a thorough study of our specie*
should be made, and all are earnestly requested to assist in
this work. Specimens from our waters, either of the animal*
preserved in alcohol, or of the wood containing their burrows
and shells, would be of great value. They should be sent
either to Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, of the Dominion Geological
Survey, or to the writer.

Teredo navalis prefers water warmer than that of the Bay
of Fundy and the Atlantic coast; and hence we find it, though
present, not at all troublesome in these waters. Its range
where destructive, on the other hand, is nearly coincident with
that of the southern fauna of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Mr. Murphy, in his admirable paper on the Teredo in Nova
bcotia, cited below, misses the explanation of this fact It
IS not because these waters are ice-bound in winter that it
exists there, but because their warmer summer temperature
affords more favorable conditions for the development of its
young.]

nf ^T^% ^V'f*'"'"'''°'^''''"^'«^^«*^'-*^»»l'e different species,
of Teredo, of which more than twenty are known, but the group or

5p?«"i''r ^ If,"' '' '"'"^ ••^cogni.able. While diflfering somewhat in
detail, their habits and structure are in general similar, and a description
of one will answer with but few modifications for all

Teredo navalis is the best known of all of the species on account of
Lf T i^'^T, *° ^"""^ ""'' ^°''"°e timber works in Europe, par-

that it IS the most common species in Acadia, but beyond all question it
does occur on the Gulf of St. Lawrence coast.

B„Mtl^lT"^t^r"°'':.*^'"°''""^^""y^"'*^'«^«'*« ^o"^*""" name.
But it is a true Mollusc, and a bivalve like the Clam. Though elongated

and cylindrical, it shows no trace of constrictions. The «nterior end

f

THE ECOXOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA. 109

that burled deepest in the wood, is tlie largeat. nnd nt its extremity \mirs
tlie two valves, greatly reduced and forming the boring apparatus.
Between them occurs the opening through which the slender •' foot "
can be protuded, an organ correppondlnc with the "foot" in the (lam
Except for this opening the mantle or " skin " of the animal is unbn.l<en
until the posterior end is reached, where the body terminates in two
tubes or siphons, corresponding with those in the Clam. Probably one
of these is for the admission of food and fresh water, and the other for
the excr 'Ion of waste water and the wood which passes through the
animal's body. These siphons can be retracted and the burr..w .,uite
closed by two little calcareous valves or pallets, borne near the siphons.
The latter, when the animal is distended, are at or near the surface of
the wood.

In burrowing, the Tmdo generally follows the grain of the wood
but will cross it when necessary to avoid a knot, nail, neighbour's tube.

Fig. 22.— Teredo navalit. Twice Natural Size.

or other obstruction. They never pierce each other's lubes. As the
latter are formed, they are lined by a calcareous layer, more or less-
thick, and firm enough to allow large pieces of it to be removed entire
from the wood after the animal is dead. It is still doubtful what
mechanism the animal employs in burrowing. Many nalura'ists think
the valves, armed by numerous fine constantly growing teeth, form the
apparatus, and that by them the animal eats, or rather flies its way
onward. One observer states, that by breaking away the side of a
burrow, he has actually seen this operation going on; others claim that
the foot accomplishes the work, by the same unknown means by which,
certain limpets can excavate rocks. It is pretty generally agreed, how-
ever, that the Teredo* do not get nourishment from the wood, but bore-
it simply to form a home. Their food consists of minute animals and.
plants, taken into the body through one of the siphons.

ii«

IW THE ECONOMIC M0LLU8CA OF A« .<DIA.

The time of breeding of thii .pedes differs somcwlmt witli the
Jlfiif^ty. but it takes place geiar Oly In the spring or summer months.
Ih^y •rp very prolific. The young nt first ,-«« .wlm freely about, but
Jn « VMjr ihuff time (one writer snys four dux 1,ey nro fully equipped
for their life M,rk. and nttnchlng themselves .., wood, begin to bore
their tunnels. After entering the wood. Ihey increaHe rapidly in Mze
so that the adult burrows are many times larger than those by which
the young ecter. It is thought that as a rule they do not live longer
than a year or eighteen months. They reciuire pure salt water free
from sediment, and cannot generally live In brackish or polluted
situations. Their tubes are sometimes ten inches long, but generally
not more than half that length.

A piece of Teredo-bored wood shows but little outward trace of the
condition within. Except for the small holes made by the entering
young, it may appear (,uite sound, when in reality riddled by the
burrows and composed of almost nothing but their calcareous tubes.

Along with the rmc/o. there is fre(|ueni:y found a small crustacean,
Ln..„or,a hgmrum, which also forms burrows and is very destructive
They work, however, in different ways, for the latter attock only the
surface of the wood, and honeycombing it so thoroughly that nothing
IS left but partitions between burrows, allow it to be easily destroyed by
the waves. As the outside is remov»=d. they progress deeper, and so
rapidly do they work that an inch a year is frequently removed all
around the largest submerged timbers. Theminuie size of the burrows
about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and the absence of a
calcareous lining, as well as the presence of the crustacean Itself, will
always distinguish its ravages from those of the Teredo. It largely
replaces the latter on those parts of th<, shores of Acadia where the
Teredo Aoc^ liltle harm. /. e., on the Atlantic Coast of Nova Scotia and
around the Bay of Fundy, and it does great damage in these localities.
It IS particularly destructive at Digby. The Te,edo, on the other hand,
perforates the wood through and through, and makes it so fragile that
It will break under a slight shock. It seems to have little preference in
regard ti the wood it attacks, the hardest and softest being equally
injured. The southern palmetto Is said to withstand it.

Economics. About the years 1730-32, great damage was
done to the dykes of Holland by this Teredo. A general sub-
inergance of the country was threatened, and the consequent
alarm led to the careful study of the habits and structure of
the animal. Since then, it has appeared in numbers at
different i.e-.,d8. In 1858 fresh alarm was caused, which
resulted :n o appointment of a commission to invePtigate
the whole inb;; ., -».- eji'tHmeut upon different methods for

I

THE ECONOMIC MOLLl- \ OF ACAUiA.

Ill

withstanding its lavages. An account of tiifi work of the com-
mission, by one of its members, is given in the first of the
papers whoso titles are below.

The animals work with extreme rapidity. In San Kran-
Cisco Buy, they have destroyed great timbers within eighteen
uionthb, and even in certain cases within six months. It is
recorded also that in Chesapeake Bay they liuve perforated
BDuilI timbers completely in six weeks. Ships have been
riddled on their first voyages, It is impossible to calculate
the enormous damage annually done by this and allied species
to naval works in different parts of the world.

In our own waters much damage has been done at Pictou
and other places on the North Shore; piles of wharves and
bottoms of ships alike suffer. Mr. Murphy, in his admirable
paper quoted below, says that at Sidney Harbor, Cape Breton,
"the Teredo is seemingly as destructive, if not more so, Cian
at any point on our coast." Mr. Whiteaves, in one of his
reports, tells us that "Ship-worms of large size are said to be
founa at Halifax."

On the southern coast, their work is likely to be confounded
with that of Limnoria Ugnorum, referred to above. It was
probably the work of both together that completely destroyed
within a period of six years a large and strong tide-dam at
Frye's Island, Charlotte County, but it is the Limnoria, as
Prof. Verrill points out, that does the damage to weir-posts
in that region. In St. John harbor they do no damage. Mr.
S. W. Kain tells the writer that piers do not need protection
from Teredo, though Limnoria is somewhat injurious. Pieces
of timber which have been under water for many years show
no trace of the presence of the former, and ships which enter
the harbor infested by them, are free from them within two
days. It is generally believed that this is caused by the great
amount of fresh water in the harbor. Mr. Kain says :
" There seems to be a consensus of opinion among all shipping
men that the Teredo is not found in the Harbor of St. John,
nor in any harbor wheio there is any considerable body of
fresh water." The cause assigned no doubt explains the kill-
ing of those whicb are biought into and their absence from the-

112

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

Harbor, but does not account for their absence from the
remainder of the Bay where clear salt water is found. No
doubt the low temperature of the water in the summer months,
making the conditions for their young so unfavorable, is to be
thanked for our comparative immunity from them.

Such being the relation of Teredo to man's interests, it is
not surprising that great attention and much experiment
have been given by practical as well as scientific men to
methods of circumventing them. The most carefully con-
ducted and systematic experiments on record are those
described by Dr. Von Baumhauer in the first of the works
mentioned below. It obviously does not come within the
scope, as it certainly is not allowed by the limits of a paper
of this character, to describe at length the experiments or the
mode of application of the latter. Those practically inter-
ested are referred to the three papers below, that by Dr. Von
Baumhauer, the very excellent one by Mr. Murphy, and that
by J. W. Putnam, which, though it contains some errors of
natural history, appears to be sound and complete from a
practical standpoint. All of these are easily accessible.

The Commission, of which Dr. Von Baumhauer was a
member, experimented with all means proposed to them by
inventors and others. Eight different methods of coating
wood were tried, including mineral paints, varnishes, poison-
ous substances, etc., but none of them proved of any value.
They tried six methods of impregnating wood with different
substances, including some of the very poisonous salts of
copper, iron and lead, only one of which proved efficient.
The successful one was oil of creosote — a coal-tar product.

This method proved successful when good oil was used,
and to-day it is acknowledged by engineers that the only
efficacious way to preserve timber permanently from the
attacks of the Teredo is to thoroughly impregnate it with
creosote. The process must be thorough, for partially filled
timbers will be destroyed. The mechanics of the process of
impregnation are described in the paper by J. W. Putnam,
referred to below. It consists in forcing the oil under great
.pressure into the previously prepared wood. Woods of loose

I

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSC A OF ACADIA. 113

texture are the best, for they take the oil better. Creosote
•has the advantage also of preserving timbers not only from
Teredo, but from other destructive agencies, for it is a good
^antiseptic.

This method has been tried and found good in our own
waters, as the following passage from Mr. Murphy's paper
proves. Speaking of Sidney harbor. Cape Breton, he says:
"Here the Teredo is seemingly as destructive, if not more so,
than at any point on our coast, and here, about ten years agoi
a coal-loading pier was erected, sufficiently large that three
•ocean-going steamers could load coal at the same time. The
'pier runs out into the harbor. It was erected entirely of pine
trunks, creosoted in Great Britain, and sent out here. It has
•most effectively withstood the ravages of the Teredo, whilst
all other piles in the neighborhood had to be renewed twice."
Mr. Murphy points out the desirability of the establishment
of a creosoting apparatus in Nova Scotia, and of a careful
study of means of overcoming the Linmoria Ugnorum.

There are other methods of protecting marine works from
Teredo which have their value. A timber completely sheathed
with metal is safe; hence copper-bottomed ships are not
troubled. Docks and wharves have been sheathed with
■different metals, but these are eflBcacious only so long as the
surface is unbroken. Accident, the action of the water on
the plates, etc., will not, however, as a rule, long permit this.
A modification of this method consists in covering the timber
with short iron naUs having square, flat heads. But these
must be placed close together, with their edges touching, and
this 18 very expensive. In the American Naturalist, Vol. XVI.
1882, p. mt, another method is described as follows: "His
machinery cuts out a cylinder two inches thick from between
the core and the outside of a log, and of any desired caliber.
By retaining the core and filling the cylindrical excavation
around it with a special cement, it is thought that the
ravages of the Teredo could be confined to the outer part
of a pile so treated, and the core, which is expected to sustain
the needed weight, would be protected by the cement, which
«n Its turn would be preserved from friction by the outer

114

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OF ACADIA.

Hi

if

coating of wood and bark » The writer'a friend Mr K
Miyabe, of Japan, tells him that a countrvman nf vr u
invented a method of preventing its rava^ It con«. .'' ""
process of lacquering. Coatingf of barnac es, w en n lou:
and near enough together so that their bases to^,Phf
protection, but one which it would be difficuuTn' T *

Sficc dent kn »„?,T"°^ """"' "« """« '» "'' ■•«»">° ^
oy accident. An annelid preys upon the Teredo hnf n^f *

an extent sufficient to assist man. Fresh wSe f 'on 'of ^ ^
greatest enemies, and foul water another. 7 m thod of
ndding a ship of them which has been suggesfedl to lake
her for some time into fresh water; but our s'£p owners would
not be long in seeing objectiohs to this. There ZZ^^u
possibility,howeverthatundercertain^irIu^^^^^^^^^^^^
might be protec ed by being built where fresh water Itream'
empty, or even, in some cases, where foul water, su h a come*
from chemical works and the like, could be directed agatt
them. The latter remedy, however, would be too likely to
become worse than the trouble. ^

only'^Vsin^jr b^lfi! ?' ''"^T '^"^ '^ *^« Ship-worms-
only a single benefit to man has been suggested Thev

certainly help to remove old wrecks, both floating Ind sunken
which would be a constant peril to navigation. '

Works of Reference.
The Teredo and its Depredations. By Dr. E. H. Von Baum-
hauer [translated from Archives of Holland, Vol I 1
Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XIIL, 1878, pp! 400-410;

fol^oting. '"°'' '"""'''""^ ^''''' "^« ^"^^^'i ^'^ '^^
On theEavages of the Teredo Navalis. and Limnoria Lignorum
on Piles and Submerged Timber in Nova Scotia.rd the'
Means being Adopted in other Countries to Prevent their
Attacks. By Martin Murphy. Proc. and Trans. Nova
Scot^an Inst. Nat. Sci., Vol, V., Part IV., 1882, pp.

d, Mr. K,

of his hag
>nsi8t8 in a'
1 numerous
3h, form a
0 produce
lus edtiKs}
;ion would
e removed
)ufc not to
le of their
lethod of
is to take
ers would
IS to be a
8 wharves
r streams
as cornea
i against
likely to

p-worms
1. They
sunken.

THE ECONOMIC MOLLUSCA OP ACADIA. 115

The Preservation of Timber. By J. W. Putnam. Scientific

American Supplement, Vol. X., No. 236, July 10th, 1880

3762-3703.
Teredo. By J. T. Oiinningbam. Encyclopaedia Britannica,

9th Ed., Vol. XXIII., 1888, pp. 184-186.
The Teredo or Ship- worm. By R. E. C. Stearns. American

Naturalist, Vol. XX., 1886, pp. 131-136.

28. Teredo Norvaglca Spengler.

[Teredo, a borer ; Korx'agica, inhabiting Norway.]

Ship-Worm.

DisTKiBCTiojr. (a) General; — Cape Cod northward
North European Seas.

(b) In Acadia; — •' Marine slip timbers at Pictou.
(Whiteaves)," Jowes. Further distribution not known. As
stated under T. navalis, much or most of the damage attributed
to that species may be due to this.

Habits. In general similar to T'erorfonawa/w. It would be extremely
difBcult for the untrained observer to distinguish them. Specimens
should be sent to some special student of Mollusca,

Economics. Similar to T. navalis.

i Baum-

Vol. I.J

00-410,

in the

[norum,.
and the
at their
Nova
83, pp.

29 Teredo dilatata Stimpson.

[Teredo, a borer : dilatata, swollen.]

Distribution, (a) General;— South Carolina to Cape
Ann. Sible Island.

(6) In Acadia; — " Very large specimens have been received
from Sable Island, taken from wrecked timbers (Willis),"
Jones.

[There is a possibility that this species may be the follow-
ing, but it is unlikely. It is a southern species, but many
such occur on Sable Island.]

Haimts. In general similar to Xi/lophaffa dormlia. They probably
cannot be distinguished by the untrained observer. This" is a small

i I.

lie

TrtE fiCOXOMlC MOLLUSCA OF AOAWA.

SmSr^' '' "''"^' "' ^"'""'^ "' '"°^- ^' '«^boutLalf an inch In
Economics. Probably similar to Xylophaga dormlis.

ao,

Xylophaga dorsalis (Turton) Forbes and Hanley.

[Xvlophag,,, Wood-eatlng ; doratilis, from plates oh its back.]

[The Teredo dilatnta of Mr. Whiteaves' first report, as he
tells us in his second.]

DisTRiBUTiOK. («) G'.weroZ;- Northern Atlantic ocean.

(b) In Acadia; — New Brunswick and Nova Scotia waters.

Mr. Whiteaves says in his first Report, — " Principal
Dawson informs me that great damages have already been
done to the woodwork of wharves and harbors in Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick, by this species of Teredo.

Hahits Though In general structure, habits, etc., it is probably
quite like Teredo fmvalh, it differs much in appearance. It is from one
inch to one and a half inches long and has the organs more concentrated
than m Teredo, forming a spherical mass from which a slender tube
projects backward bearing the siphons. We find, it showing characters
intermediate between the Teredo, and the genus Pholm; the latter are
shelled bivalves which bore info stone. This species would hardly be
distinguished by the beginner from the last.

EcoNOMica. On account of its smaller size, and conse-
quently short burrows, it is not so destructive as the larger
Teredos, but it nevertheless does much damage both to floating
and fixed timber works in Europe.

Mr. Whiteaves says in his first Report, —"Mr. Nelson
Davis, of Montreal, tells me that the brigantine ' Magdala,*
which was built at St. John, N. B., was completely riddled
by this ship-worm some time ago, on her first voyage from

St. John to Liverpool The whole of the ship's

bottom had to be renewed and covered with copper sheeting
before she was again seaworthy.'*

tf an inch in
nmlis.

Ian ley,

port, as he

m tic ocean.
)tia waters.
' Principal
ready been
"ova Scotia

is probably
is from one
oncentrated
slender tube
I characters
le latter are
1 hardly be

nd conse-
the larger
to floating

r. Jfelson
Magdala,'
ly riddled
age from
the ship's
' sheeting