vol. i-2
l87U-7^

XC

.1363

THE

CINCINNATI QIURTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

KDITOK AND I'RdPRIF.TOR,

S. A. MILLER,

VOLUME I.

crXCINXATI:

(GAZETTE STEAM -BOOK AND JOB PRINTING ESTABLISIIIMENT.

187 4.

Vol. I. No. 1

JANUARY, ],s74.

7") Cents.

Published dUARTEIlLY; Price, THREE DOLLARS per year.

T II ]■:

CINCINNATI QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

EJJITUK ANK rilOPRIIiXOH,

S. A. MILLER

CONTENTS:

Page.

'•".'■ .'■■j.irns.l 1

((j'uran of Heterocrinus heterodactylus.... 2

Coraurus pli.urexanthenni-; '^

Pasci^olus ; 4

Paseeulus Darwini .)

Pa.sceolus Claudei 6

Glyptoerinus Subglobosus.... ?■

Remarks on the Genus ConchicoHtes. 7

Megaiubonia Jame.si, Strophomena fraeta... 13
Base of Heterocrinus simplex var. grandis.. 13

Ambonychia 14

Anomalodonta 16

Anonialodontagigautea 17

Descriplions of New Species of Braehiopoda ;

by U. P. James 19

Our Frei-h-water Entoraostraca, by V. T.

Chambers 22

Notes on Botany ; by Prof. John Hussey ... 26
From Die Silurische Fauna des WestJichen

Tennessee. Translated by T. Vickers.. 29

Pace.

Indian >rounds ami Skulls in Michijian ; by

Henry Gillnian 35

Land Plants in the Lower .Silurian; by Leo

Lesquereux ,;.. 4?,

Strophomena alternata 4.}

Facts in the Physiology of .Spiders and In-
sects; by John Blackwall 46

Movements of In.sects .on Dry, PoM^IimI,
Vertical Surfaces; by John Black-
wall .11

Hunting of the Beaver ."4

Cincinnati Group 1:3

On Fossil Sponges; by Harvey B. Holl Ga

Geological Survey of Illinoi*!, Prairie:,

etc <i

Definition of Species jl

Prof. Louis Agassiz — Obituary S6

Constitution and By-Laws of the Cincin-
nati Society of Natural History, and
List of Members .■^9

CINCINNATI

1874

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THE CINCISSATI QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Vol. I. JANUAKY, 1874. No. 1.

THE JOURNAL,

This vicinity is not surpassed in geological interest by any locality
in the United States. For the study of fresh water shells and fishes,
probably no part of the Avorld furnishes a more bountiful and desirable
supply for the hand of the conchologist and ichthyologist. Other
departments of natural history, too, are not without their objects of
special beauty and attraction. Indeed, wherever we turn, we are
liable to be met by something new, not only to ourselves, but to the
scientific world.

The hills surrounding Cincinnati have been worn and lined with
paths by Locke, Anthony, James, Dyer, and other indefatigable paleon-
tological collectors, and yet the hunters have been as successful in the
last twelve months in the discovery of new species and rare and re-
markable specimens as they have ever been in any former year ; and
'I we have every reason to believe that future years will be quite as pro-
"^ lific as the past have been. Probably not half the fossil species belong-
•s mg to the "Cincinnati group" have yet been found and described.
r\ Here, then, is a field that will continue for a long time to come to
(V^ attract the attention of the paleontologists, not only of our own country
but those abroad, with an increasing interest, as every new species is
C^ found, figured and described. What is here said in regard to paleon-
^ tological discoveries may be repeated as to nearly every other branch
CJ^ of natural history.

'^" Li such a locality as this the schools should afford every facility for

r?. the acquirement of a knowledge of the objects that surround us, and

I' .a. journal devoted to the publication of scientific matters pertaining to

the locality ought to be supported by able correspondents and willing

2 The Column of Jleterocrinus heterodadyhis.

(Subscribers. About the close of the last year I determiued to attempt
the publication of such a journal, and now offer this issue to the public,
though much of it is necessarily selected matter.

It will not compare with scientific journals long established and
edited by a corps of able contributors, but, if sustained at all, there is
no reason why the local talent can not, at an early day, produce a jour-
nal of original matter equal to any published elsewhere.

The Column of Heterocrinus heterodadijlus ; by S. A. Miller.

The column of the Heteroeriniis heterodactylus may be divided, for
description, into three parts : 1st, that part within about two inches of
the base ; 2d, that part which follows until within about two inches of
the head ; 3d, that part within about two inches of the liead. This
measurement will be applicable to a medium-sized specimen.

When the column emerges from the base it is composed of numer-
ous small pieces, that appear to interlock with each other, but at the
distance of about one fourth of an inch from the base each plate of
the column is composed of five pieces, representing the five partite ap-
pearance of the column, and have ceased to interlock with each other.
The column is here quite round, smooth and regular, each plate appear-
ing to be of nearly the same thickness. From one fourth of an inch
to one half of an inch from the base there are 30 plates, or 150 pieces.
At the distance of one half an inch from the base the five partite struc-
ture begins to be less distinct, and the plates seem to be alternately
thicker and thinner. This appearance becomes more marked as you
move up the cokunn, until at the distance of one inch from the base,
the pieces of the plates have coalesced, so that no five partite structure
is now visible. The smaller intermediate plates now grow thinner and
thinner, until they have completely anchylosed and blended with the
larger plates, and become invisible at the distance of two inches
fi'om the base. As the intermediate plates grow thinner, the column
becomes more beaded in its appearance, so that when tliey have com.
pletely anchylosed and blended with the larger plates the column j^re-
sents the appearance of a string of small beads, each of which is a lit-
tle less than half the length of its diameter.

2d. The length of the second part of the column is unknown, but the
same beaded appearance evidently continues until it approaches witliin
about two inches of the head, ^vhen it assumes the pentagonal form, as
hereafter described. From the quantity of fragments of columns
found, it is likely that this second part was two or three feet, or even

The Column of Heterocrinus hetcrodadyhis. 3

more, in leugtli. I have seen single pieces of it from six to nine inches
in length. The specimen from which the above measurements were
taken shows the beaded part of the column to be composed of forty
plates to the inch. It is in my collection, and shows five inches of the
column attached to the base. The plates in the beaded j^'^i't of the
column are thus seen to be three times as much in thickness as they
are within the first half inch from the base.

3d. The third part of the column, commencing at the head, and
going down (though heretofore treated as representing the whole of
the column), is described by Prof. Meek (Ohio Paleontology, vol. i.,
page 13), as follows :

" Column, comparatively, rathei- large and strong, somewhat dis-
tinctly pentagonal near the body, with more or less rounded angles,
and composed of alternately thicker and thinner pieces ; the latter not
forming continuous discs, but consisting each of five minute sections,
disconnected from each other, and ranged as minute transverse nodes,
coincident with the five angles of the column, and with the minute
pieces at the connection of the latter with the body, that are described
above as sub-basals. Further down the column gradually becomes
nearly cylindrical, and the little intercalated pieces more and more
developed, until they coalesce and form complete discs, scarcely
distinguishable from the othei's."

Only the pentagonal part of the column was known to Prof. Hall
when he described the species (Pal. of X. Y., vol. i., page 279).

The base is cpiite small in proportion to the size of the column, and
frequently two or three, or even more, columns are found closely hud-
dled together in one base, attached to the column of a Glyptocrinus
decadadijlus, or to the column of a Heterocrinus simplex. It is rarely
ever found except attached to the cohunn (jf some other crinoid, and
from the frequency with which it is found in clusters, one upon the
other, or two or more in the same base, it would seem to have i^een a
parasite. It may not have been, however.

The Heterocrinus heterodactylus is found at all elevations about
Cincinnati, from low water-mark to the top of the hills, though good
specimens are by no means common at any elevation. Taylor's creek,
back of Newport, Ky., a short distance beyond the first tollgate, and
limekiln hollow, at the head of Deercreek, have furnished a great many
heads, bases, and columns of this species.

Ceraukus Pleukexaxtiiemus— (Green).— The pvgidium of a trilo-
bite, described in the Ohio Paleontology, on page Tdd, as Acidaspis
ceralepta (?) and figured on plate 14,' fig. 8, is undoubtedly the
pygidium of a Ceraurus pleurexanthemus.

Genus Pasceolus.

Genus Fasceolus. — (Billings.)

This genus was proposed by Billings, as he says : " For certain ovate
or subglobular bodies, resembling the Ldiadites Kcenigi of the Silurian
system, but dift'ering therefrom in the form of the plate-like markings
of the casts of the interior, which in this genus are pentagonal or
hexagonal instead of quadrangular. A specimen from Anticosti
shows that the animal was inclosed in a thin leather-like sack, and
attached to the bottom by a short tubular continuation of this exter-
nal covering. Its affinities appear to be with those of the Tunicata.'"
— [Geological Eep. of Canada for the year 1857, page 342.]

Two species were described from Canada by Prof. Billings : P.
Halli and P. Globosns. In the discussion of these sj^ecies (Paleozoic
Fossils, vol. i., page 392), he says:

"Eichwald, in his Lethcea Rossica, has described and figured two
species, Cijclocrimis SpaiikU and C. exilis, Avhich appear to me to be
either congeneric with our tAvo, or at least to belong to the same
family. Both of Eichwald's species are small globular bodies, covered
with hexagonal or pentagonal plates. The plates of C. Spa?kii have
a tubercle in the center, and a number of obscure rounded ridges
radiating to the sides. He says there is a small oral orifice on one
side, and on the side 02:)posite a rudimentary pedicle. One of his
figured specimens is covered with a tubidar incrustation, consisting of
small cells, which he considers to be a part of the integument itself; it
may be, however, a coral. A fragment of one of the specimens of
P. Halli, from Anticosti, is incrusted in precisely the same manner,
with what I take to be a species of Stenopora. Eichwald places his
genus among the Cystidea ; but the more general characters, such as
a jointed crinoidal colunui, the arms or pinnul!?e, and the peculiar
orifices which characterize all true Gystideans, are not forthcoming.
It is barely possible that his view may be the correct one."

" The fossil called Sphceronites tessalatus (Phillips), from the
English Devonian rocks, has the surface covered with hexagonal plates,
and resembles, in general aspect, a species of Fasceohis. Mr. Pen-
gelly has figured a specimen in the "Geologist," vol. iv., which shows
the interior covered with a net-work of vertical and horizontal ribs,
giving the appearance of the inner svirface of the specimen of Recep-
tacidites calciferus. He proposes a new generic name. Splicer ospcyncjia,
for it. If the specimen figured ' by him be truly of the same species
as that described by Phillips, it would seem that an internal structure,
like that of Beceptacidites, is not inconsistent with an integument of

Genus Pasceolus. 5

hexagonal instead of quadrilateral plates. I do not see, however,
how the net-work figured by ^Nlr. Pengelly can be made to fit hex-
agonal plates, in the way that the squares formed by the stolons of
ReceptacvMes are adjusted."

"M. M. Edwards and Haimehave referred Eichwald's genus Cydocri-
nus to the Zoantharla. Whether they are right or not with regard to
the Russian species, I can most confidently a,ssert that Pa^c^.olm is
not a coral. It may be allied to Meceptaculites, but its true zoological,
position is quite undecided at present."

In describing the P. Halli, he says : '.'A little below the mid-height
of the body there is a small circular elevation, which appears to mark
the place of an orifice ; but as the integument is not preserved in this
part, it c\n not, at present, be positively determined whether there was
an aperture here or not. All that can be said is, that there appears to
have been an orifice where this elevation occurs. The specimens
collected are all casts of the interior, but of the one figured a portion
of the integument remains attached to the matrix. It is about one
third of a line in thickness, of a translucent horny color, the surface
covered with niinute corrugated wrinkles, just visible to the naked eye.
No sutures can be distinguished, and the form of the plates can only
be made out as so many obscure convexities on the outside. But,
where the integument is removed, the cast shows the place of the sut-
ures most distinctly, and that the plates were deeply concave on the
inside."

The LunuUtes (?) dadloloides, of Owen, which was -placed provision-
ally in the genus Pasceolus by Meek and Worthen (111. Geo. Sur., vol.
iii., page 345), is found in the Niagara group of the Upper Silurian,
and the pits on the convex side are described as of "uniform size, and
each one perforated in the middle by a minute circular opening, pass-
ing into the interior ; while those of the under or flat side are imper-
forate, and diminish in size from the periphery toward the center."

Pasceolus Darwini.—(S. A. IVIiller.)

Upper half of body hemispherical ; lower half slightly depressed
from the hemispherical form, and having a central circular depressiju
marking the place where the column or pedicle that supported the
body was attached. In casts, the entire surface is marked by closely
crowded pentagonal and hexagonal depressions, about a line in
diameter, in specimens IJ inches in diameter.

Usually compressed, so as to show a somewhat angular periphery,

Pasceolus Danclni.

but good specimens sliow u round periphery, without change in the
uniformity of the depressions.

It is sometimes found partly incrusted with a bryozoum, but it is
generally clean, showing clearly the depressions, even in specimens
very much compres>ed.

The incrusting bryozoum also shows pentagonal depressions, Avhich
clearly proves that the pentagonal depressions in the Pasceolus were
filled with plates that were a little convex on the outer surface. Some

Fitr. 1. P. TJniiviiii under surfacG.

Fig. 2. P. Darwini upper surface.

[These figures are not shaded .so as to show the depressions, and the specimens are marked
Euich more regulariy pentagonal than the figures.]

specimens show convex pentagonal elevations, but the material in the
convex elevations does not appear to be different from other parts of the
surface, no part of which shows any cellular structure. The pentagonal
concave depressions in the bryozoum appear perfectly smooth, thereby
indicating that the plates of the Pasceolus were smooth.

One specimen has a perforation about forty-five degrees from what
appears to be the apex, but whether it marks an opening to the
interior or not I am unable to say. If it does, however, it would seem
strange that out of fifty other specimens, nearly as good, none of them
show anything of it. I broke one specimen into two parts, and polished
the surfaces, but discovered no cellular structure.

Fragments and poor specimens are rare on the hills back of Cincin-
nati, at an elevation of about 400 feet above low water-mark. I found
good specimens about two miles soutji of Maysville, Kentucky, in a
railroad cut, that came out of a layer of marl, al)out two feet in thick-
ness, between the harder stratified rocks. In the same excavation I
found Glyptocr'uius deeadadijlus, Ortliis sinuata, SteUipora cuithcioidea,
large Orthis lynx, and other fossils that are found at Cincinnati, from
350 to 450 feet above low water-mark.

Pasceolus ClaudeL — (S. A. Miller.)

Body spherical, witliout any depression where the column or pedicle
was attached. Entire surface marked by closely crowded i^entagonal

Pasceolus Claudei.

or hexagonal depressions, about J^th of an incli in diameter. Diameter,

^ to f of an inch.

" It differs from P. Danvini in size, and in having no depression where

Fig. 3. P. Ckmdei, upper surface.
[The pentagonal depressions are not as regular in the figure as they are on the specimen.]

the pedicle was attached. It is possible that it might be the young
of P. Darwini, but at present I think it is a distinct species.

Found associated with P. Danvini, about two miles south of Mays-
ville, Kentucky, but not found at Cincinnati, nor elsewhere, so lar as
yet known to me.

Glijptocrinus Suhrjloboms.—(}li:EK.)
Is so for separated from G. Di/eri, that it should be regarded as a
good species. It is treated as only a variety of G. Dyeri in the "Ohio
Paleontology," page 34, though Prof. INIeek says that it is quite possible
that it may be a distinct species. It is undoubtedly farther separated
from G. Dyeri than the latter is from G. decadactyhis, and had Prof.
Meek had other specimens before him it is more than likely he would
have treated it as a distinct species.

Remarl-s on the Genus Conchicolitei of NicMson.—i^. A. I\Iiller.)
Genus Cjnchicolites (Nicholson.) [Am. Jour, of Science and Arts,

March, 1872, and Loud. Geo. Mag., Feb., 1873, vol. x., p. 54.]

" Animal social, inhabiting a calcareous (?) tube, attached in clus-
tered masses to some solid body. The tube conical, slightly curved,
attached by its smaller extremitv- The wall of the tube thin, its ex-
ternal surfoce devoid of longitudinal stride. The tube tliin, composed
of short imbricated rings, but apparently destitute of any cellular
structure. Ca.st of tlie tube composed of short conical rings, its sur-
face completely smooth, and destitute of striai or furrows."

ConchicoUtes corrugatas (Nicholson).

" Tubes growing socially in clustered masses upon the shells of mol-
luscs ; calcareous ; destitute of vesicular structure ; conical, and gently
curved. Attached by their smaller extremities, sometimes for the

8 Remarks on the Genus ConchicoUtes of Nicholson.

space of a line or more ; and either partially free, or contiguous to one
another throughout the remainder of their course. Length of the
fully grown tube ^ inch or a little more ; diameter of tube at mouth
J^th inch. Tube composed of conical, imbricating rings, about forty in
the space of an inch (about four in the space of f^h inch), giving
the tube a strongly annulated appearance "

The specimen figured and described as above was from the collection
of Dr. H. H. Hill, of this city, though he received no cre'dit for it,
and was found on the hills back of Cincinnati, where other specimens
have also been found. Prof. Nicholson says of the specimen further :

" The exquisite preservation of the specimen from which the above
description is taken enables me to settle definitely certain points con-
nected with the structure of ConchicoUtes, about which my specimens of
C. gregarius had left me in doubt. It is now certain, as I had pre-
viously conjectured, that the tubes in this genus agree with those of
the modern Serpulce in being calcareous, and that they differ altogether
from the extinct genus Cornul'des, in being altogether destitute of any
cellular structure. They differ from Serpulce in having the tubes com-
posed of a succession of imbricated rings, the wider ends of which are
directed toward the .mouth of the tube. From the extinct Ortonia,
again, they differ not only in the circumstance just mentioned, but in
their social clustered habit of growth, and in the fact that the tube is
not attached along the whole of one of its sides."

"The specimen exhibits the tubes of more than thirty individuals
of ConchicoUtes corrugcdus attached to the spire of Cyclonema hilix,
The tubes are all attached to the shell by their smaller ends, and ra-
diate from their points of attachment, somewhat like the spokes of a
Avheel. Each tube is conical, circular, or nearly so, in section, and
widening out gradually from its apex to its mouth. When carefully
examined, it can readily be made out that the tube really consists of a
succession of short, calcareous rings, of a conical form, inserted one
Avithin the other — this structure being especially perceptible in the
interior of the broken tubes. From the exterior, however, the appear-
ance is more that of a succession of strongly marked ridges or annula-
tions, which completely surround the tube, and are separated by slight
depressions or flattened interspaces. None of the tubes are perfectly
straight, but all are more or less curved, especially toward their at-
tached ends. The extent of the attached portion of the tube varies,
being mostly from one to two lines. Their unattached portions run
generally (in any two contiguous tubes), more or less, nearly parallel to
one another ; but though in contact in many instances, it is doubtful
if they are actually adherent, and they are most probably not so.

Hemarks on the Genus Conchicolltes of Nicholson. 9

Distinguished from C. gregarim "by its greater average length, and
much greater diameter, by its much less closely crowded habit, aud by
its much more strongly marked annulations.''

After Prof. Nicholsou had founded the genus Conchicolltes for these
singular Tubicolar Annelides in March, 1872, he founded another
genus, to wit, Ortonia, in October, 1872, for the reception of other
Tubicolar Annelides that do not seem to be removed from Conchicolites
by more than specific differences. An examination of the three species
described by him in any good cabuiet in this city^ to wit, C. corrugatus
0. conica, and 0. minor, and a comparison with his descriptions of each
of them must convince a person that they all belong to the same genus
Conchicolites, and if, as generally believed, Odonia conica is the same
that Prof. Hall has had from this place, and identified with Tentaculites
flexitosa of New York, which name it has borne here for man}' years,
the names will be, when written in full, Conchicolites corrugatus, Con-
chicolites flexuosa, and Conchicolites minor.

The following is the generic description of Ortonia :

Genus Ortonia (Nicholson), October, 1872. [London Geological Mag-
azine, vol. ix., p. 446.]

" Animal solitary, inhabiting a calcareous tube, which is attached
along the whole of one side to some foreign body. Tube slightly flex-
uous, conical, in section cylindrical, or somewhat flattened laterally,
and subtriangular. Walls of the tube thick, cellular along the surface
opposite to the attached portion, markedly annulated along the sides."

" In shape the tubes are markedly conical, their section being circu-
lar, or at times somewhat trigonal. Almost all the tubes, though in
the main straight, are more or less curved and bent toward their
smaller, closed extremities. The widest extremity of the tube opens by a
more or less nearly circular aperture ; and the continuity of the tube,
from its open to its closed extremity, is not interrupted by any internal
septa. The surface-characters of the tubes are of a very remarkable
character. Upon the surface, diametrically opposed to that along
Avhich the tube is attached to the shell, the tube is of a cellular char-
acter, 'exhibiting numerous rounded pits or alveoli, which strongly
remind one of the peculiar cellular structure of the tube of Cornidites.
This peculiar structure occupies a narrow belt running down the tube,
along its dorsal or free surfiice ; and from both sides of this belt there
proceeds a series of strong, annular ridges, or rings, which pass round the
tube, to disappear on its fixed margin. These rings are not separated
by secondary intermediate annulations, nor do they exhibit any longi-
tudinal striatiou. Sections of the tubes, however, show that these

10 Remarks on the Genus Conchicolites of Nicholso7i.

riugs are just as visible on the interior of the tube as they are exter-
nally."

"No reasonable doubt can be maintained as to the zoological posi-
tion of Ortonia. It is unquestionable that we have to deal here with
a true Tulncolar Annelide, nearly allied to the recent Serpuke. Ortonia
is still more nearly related to the extinct genus Cornnlites, from which
it differs in its much smaller size, and in being attached along the
whole of one side, instead of by its smaller extremity only. It differs,
also, in having the peculiar cellular structure of the tube confined to
a definite })ortion of its surface, and in being altogether destitute of
longitudinal striation. From ConchicoUtes, again, Ortonia is distin-
guished by the much more complete mode of its attachment, and by
the fact that the tubes are never attached socially, in clustered masses,
growing side by side, as is the case in the former genus."

The specific character of Ortonia minor [Nicholson, February, 1873.
Lon. Geo. Mag., vol. x., p. 26], is as follows:

" Tube calcareous, solitary, attached by the whole of one side to
some foreign object. Length of tube from ygth to VVths of an inch ;
diameter at mouth from 2^^-^^^ ^^ 2^5*'^^ ^^ ^^ inch. Tube marked with
transverse ridges or annulations, which are sometimes faintly marked
on the side opposite to the attached surface, and the number of which
is^ about fifteen in the tenth of an inch. Tube, in general, strongly
curved toward its smaller extremity."

He says : "It does not appear to have any cellular structure of the
tube. In Ortonia conica, however, this cellular structure is confined
entirely to a small portion of the tube (namely, to that portion opposite
to the attached surface), and the absence of even this in the present
shows that it can not be regarded as a generic character. The only
approach to the same structure which I can detect in Ortonia minor is,
that the transverse rings, or annulations, which surround the tube, be-
come faint or obsolete on the side opposite to the attached surface.
Even this, however, is by no means constant, and the rings are some-
times completely continuous over the whole unattached surface of the
tube."

" Though often occurring in great numbers' together, the tubes of
OHonia minor, like those of Ortonia conica, are, strictly speaking,
solitary ; that is to say, they do not, like the tubes of Serpuke, or Con-
chicoUtes, interfere with one another, or come into contact, except acci-
dentally. The tube is generally pretty nearly circular in section,
though sometimes slightly trigonal, conical, and always more or less
curved. Sometimes it is simply curved like a horn ; sometimes it is
curved like the letter S; and sometimes the smaller extremity is

Banarls on the Gem(S ConchicoUtes of Niehoh^on. 11

twisted into a flat spiral. I can detect no lonjiitudinal striatiun, but
the tube is covered with very numerous transverse ridges (at least 150
in the space of an inch), which are generallv better marked on the
sides than on the back of the tube. In very small, presumably young
specimens I have been unable to determine the existence of these
ridges, and even in fully grown examples they are more strongly
marked in some than in others. The tube is always attached along its
Avhole length, and in no case is any portion free, as is the case in Con-
cJiicolites."

Prof. Nicholson had other specimens from Cincinnati, of which he
said :

"They consist of minute, conical, flexuous or curved tubes, about
jLth inch in length, opening by a circular aperture at their widest ex-
tremity, and having their surface wrinkled with irregular rings or
anr.ulations. In all their essential characters these tubes seem to agree
with Ortonia minor; but they differ in the very important point that
they are not attached to any foreign body, but, on the contrary, are
perfectly free. I do not think they can possibly be referred to Ten-
taculites, since they are flexuous, or in some cases irregularly curved,
Avhile thev are destitute of the strong and regular annulations of the
typical species of this genus. Xor can they be referred to Ortonia, un-
less we believe their occurrence in a free state is an accidental circum-
stance, due to their having become detached from the body on which
they grew, prior to fossilization. This is a possible explanation, though
an unlikely one. At present I am inclined to believe that we have here
a Tubicolar Annelide, which, like Ditriqm, was free in habit; but I shall
delay naming and describing these remarkable fossils until I may be
provided with more ample materials."

Ortonia conica (Nicholson), October, 1872. [London Geological

Magazine, vol. ix., p. 448.]

The Oiionia conica is described as follows by Prof. Nicholson :
" Tubes growing attached to the shell of some mollusc, varying in
length from J to |^ inch, with a diameter of about -jLthofan inch at the
mouth. Lateral annulations of the tube varying in number from 30
to 35 in the space of an inch. Surface smooth and completely desti-
tute, so far as observed, of longitudinal strice. Tubes truly solitary.
Location and position, Cincinnati, Ohio."

The specimen here engraved (fig. 4) is from the same cart load of
earth that produced the specimen figured by Prof. Nicholson in the

12

Remarks on the Genus ConcMcolites of Nicholson.

Lon. Geo. Mag. They were from the stone quarry on tlie east side of
the Avonclale pike, near the top of the hill, at the head of Deercreek.
This specimen is a better one than that which Prof. Nicholson had, and
clearly shows longitudinal sti'ite under a magnifying glass, Avhicli are
barely visible to the naked eye. Wliy the tubes should be called sol-
itary I am unable to imagine, for tliey are generally found in clusters,
as shown in the figure. Sometimes, however, a single one is found

Fig. 4. ConcMcolites [Orloiiia) conica. Nicholson.

loose, or attached to a coral or a shell, or laying flat on a rock.
"Whether single or in clusters they are not confined to the shells of
"some mollusc," but are found attached to shells and corals indiscrim-
inately, and as frequently on a slab, without attachment to either shell
or coral, as anywhere else.

The external surface of the Conchlcolites cornigatus is not destitute of
longitudinal strise, as asserted by Prof Nicholson, but, on the contrary,
such stride are plainly visible with an ordinary glass on good specimens,
and they can be detected with the aid of a good glass on the sj)ecimen
belonging to Dr. Hill, wdiich Prof. Nicholson figured and descril)ed.

So far, then, as the longitudinal strise are concerned, they are com-
mon to both the Conchicolites corrugatus, and Conchicolites {Ortouia) con-
ica, though the longitudinal furrows may be the most distinct in the
latter. No difference, either, can be determined in their social habits,
for they are both found in clusters, and though the C. conica is some-
times found alone, and the C. corrugatus has not been identified in that
position, it does not follow, from any kind of logic, that it may not yet
be thus identified.

They differ so little from each other that the only distinction worthy
of a specific name is founded in their method of attachment. Conchi-
colites corrugatus seem to attach at the point to some object, and they
also seem to adhere together all along the tube. They are found some-
times radiating from a point, and so densely crowded together that the
upper surface, j)resenting the openings of the tubes, has an ajppearance

Eemarhs on the Genus Coii-cJiicoUtes of NicJiGlson. 13

somewhat like the cells of a coral. The ConchlcoUtes conica seems to ad-
here to each other when piled one on top of the other, as is often the
case, and to adhere to whatever object they attach to throughout the
whole length. I have a cluster of six having their points together,
and attached throughout their whole length, which make a conical
shaped mass, but do not show how or to what they were attached.
The cluster was found detached, as it is now.

The two species, therefore, are not generically separated, and as
Conchicolitcs is the oldest genus, the Ortonia conica will fall into that
genus, and be called ConchicoUtes conica, unless it is really the Tentacv-
lites flexuosa of Hall, which I am inclined to believe, in which case it
will be known as ConchicoUtes flexuosa. Ortonia minor, for the same
reason, will be ConchicoUtes minor.

I do not pretend to be able to throw any light upon the question of
their atfiaities with Serpake, or their classification as Tabicolar Anne-
Udes, and do not deny that it is possible that there are generic distinc-
tions between them, but simply present the above facts, with the
expression of an opinion that the differences pointed out and o])served
do not more than distinguish sj)ecies.

Megamhonia Jamcsl. — (Meek. )

By an inadvertence of some kind Megambonia Jamesi is twice
callei- 31. Cincinnatiemis, on page 138 of the "Ohio Paleontology."
This book is a valuable contribution to science, but a little care
would have made it more valuable, by preventing some of the
typographical and other mistakes that occur in it.

Strophomenafraeta. — (Meek.) — The Strophomena fracta (Meek), page
91 of the " Ohio Paleontology," would seem to be a good species, and
not a mere variety of S. alternata, because it differs, both externally
and internally, from the latter, and there are no shells marking the
gradations from one to the other that distinguish mere varieties, so
far as known.

Heterocrhms simplex var. fjranclis. — (Meek.)— The crinoid l^ase, on plate
2, fig. 6 (cl, e,f), of the "Ohio Paleontology," is much more likely to be
the base of a Heterocrhms simplex var. grandis than the base of an Ano-
malocrinus incurvus, as suggested.

14

Genus Ambonychia.

Genus Amhonyehia (Hull), 1847. [ral. of N. Y., vol. i, p. 1G3.]
[Greek ambou, the boss of a shield, and onijx, a claw or talon ; in
allusion to the rounded, incurved umbones in the typical species.]

" Equivalve, inequilateral, compressed, alate or subulate posteriorly,
obtuse and abruptly declining, or curving downward on the anterior
jnargin. General form somewhat obliquely ovate, gibbous or inflated
toward tlie umbones and on the center of tlie shell ; cardinal margin
very oblique, or approaching a line parallel to the direction of the um-
bones, which are often incurved at the extremity, and equal or project
beyond the line of the anterior extremity ; surface marked by more or
less prominent concentric strise — strong undulations or fine radiating
strire. Muscular impressions large : one in each valve."'

[Note to the genus Ambonychia, with cuts from "Pal. ofN. Y.," vol.
3, p. 2G9-523.]

" Figure 5 shows the hinge line, tlie cardinal teeth f, and the lateral
teeth tt. On the anterior side the mai-gin of the shell is sinuate, for
the passage of the byssus h. The latter character is likewise more dis-
tinctly shown in figure 6, which is an anterior view of the right valve.''

l-iK.

Fig. G.

" There are two strong teeth beneath the beak, while at the posterior
extremity of the hinge line there are three lateral, elongate and slight-
ly curving teeth, the hinge area being striated longitudinally." Tlie
A. radiata has a single large and nearly central muscular impression.

Fossils of the genus Ambonychia are found throughout the Cincin-
nati group, from low water-mark at Cincinnati, to the Upper Silurian
in Ohio, and at Versailles and Richmond, Indiana. Whether any one
species extends through this great depth or not is at least extremely
doubtful. The form most common at Cincinnati, within two hundred
feet of low w^ater-mark, appears to agree with Hull's Trenton limestone
species, A. bdllitriata, which he described as follows :

Genus AmbonycMa. 15

"Obliquely subovoid, ventricose, very inequilateral, height much
greater than the length ; umbones very ventricose, and extended into
long and incurved beak;^, which bend forward at their extremities ; an-
terior margin not alated, or extending beyond the beaks ; posterior
side compressed, subalute ; base regularly rounded ; cardinal line short,
very oblique to the umbones ; surface marked by fine radiating stride,
with a few elevated concentric lines of growth."

" Tills beautiful fossil shell is readily distinguished by its external
form and markings. The umbones are extended into long incurved
beaks, which are very ventricose, and rise abruptly from the shell to-
Avard the summit ; the central and lower part of the shell is regularly
convex, becoming more compressed toward the margin. The anterior
side extends almost in a right line from the beaks toward the base."
[Pal. of K Y., vol. i., p. 163.]

I have the hinge line of this species from the excavation for Colum-
bia avenue, at an elevation of about 150 feet above low water-mark.
It exactly agrees with figure 5 above.

The form most common about the stone quarries at tlie top of the
hills back of Cincinnati has been by Prof. Hall himself referred to his
species from the Hudson river group, A. radiata. This is the most
common AmbonycMa in the Cincinnati group, though it is very rare
to find anything more than a mere cast of the fossil. It prevails
higher up m the rocks quite as abundantly as it does at Cincmnati,
and in a condition quite as unsatisfactory and imperfect. It is de-
scribed as follows :

" Equivalve, obliquely obovate, extending into acute curving beaks ;
anterior slope nearly straight above and rounded below ; posterior slope
obli(pie, scarcely alate ; surface marked by twenty -five to forty strong,
simple radii, which are crossed by fine, concentric strite ; radii flat.
tened upon the top; the intermediate spaces are regulaiiy concave
grooves, narrower than the radii, and marked by the concentric stride."
[Pal. of K Y., vol. i., p. 292.]

Another form, the A. Costata, is described in the "Paleontology of
Ohio," vol. i, p. 130, from a point 350 feet above low water-mark, at
Cmcinnati. It is distinguished from the A. radiata " by its small num-
ber and more widely sejiarated costa;, and rather compressed, narrow
form," and " in having its costre separated by flat interspaces, instead
of regularly concave grooves, narrowei- than the radii."

These are all the species that have been clearly identified in the
Cincinnati Group, that belong to this genus, unless it should be the
A. Casei, which I believe to belong to another genus (Anovialodonfa).
There are, however, other species, unless the A. radiata had many var-

IQ Genus Anomalodonta.

ieties, for there are at Richmoiit], Indiana, two types of casts, and many
variations from these types ; and there are about Cincinnati casts that
vary in form and size from those that can be clearly identified with the
known species. And the saniG may be said of other localities within
the Cincinnati Group. A good shell, showing the exterior, may be
found, if looked for, that will send a flood of light over many of these
unsatisfactory and undistinguished casts. Indeed, it is likely that
there is not, to-day, a single fossil genus, in the Cincinnati Group, but
that will have new species placed under it by future discoveries, not-
withstanding that the hills of Cincinnati have been hunted by collec-
tors for more than forty years, and the prevailing impression that there
is nothing new under the sun.

Genus Anomalodonta. — (S. A. Miller.)

Character : Equivalve, inequilateral, byssal sinus on the anterior
side, immediately below the beak, cardinal tooth or elevation beneath
the umbone sloping posteriorly from the beak. Cartilage grooves
running from the cardinal tooth beneath the beak to the termination
of the vving posteriorly, and varying in number in the same species
with the size and age of the shell, and having the same number of car-
tilage grooves on the anterior side of the cardinal tooth, that run
together as they pass into the byssal sinus, immediately beneath the
beak, which vary in number under the same circumstances. Adduc-
tor muscular impression on the anterior side, below the byssal sinus.
The other muscular impression probably placed posteriorly on the
wing.

This genus will include the Ambonychia alata (Meek). " Ohio Pal.,"
vol. i, p. 131. Mr. James has a specimen of this species, which shows
enough of the hinge line to leave no doubt that it is not an Ambonychia,
and that it must be placed in this genus. And it will probably in-
clude the Megaptera easel (Meek and Worthen). "111. Geo. Sur."vol. iii.,
p. 337, and "Ohio Pal.," vol. i., p. 132, because the general appearance,
and the apparent thickening of the shell on the posterior wing, renders it
most likely that it does not possess the internal markings of the genus
Ambonychia, and quite probable that it does possess the hinge line of
this genus.

The Anomalodonta alata and Megaptera Casci are both found in the
upper part of the Cincinnati Group, in strata about the equivalent of
the Versailles rocks, where the Anomalodonta gigantea is found. The
Merjapiera Casei being found at Richmond, Indiana, and the Anomalo-
donta alata in the vicinity of Morrow, Ohio.

Anomalodonta gigantea.

17

Anomalodonta gigantea. — (S. A. Miller.)

Shell equivalve, inequilateral, alate posteriorly and compressed, more
convex toward the urabones and anterior side, anterior side abruptly
declining, beaks rather sharp and sliglitly incurved. Surface marked
by 30 to 40 strong radii, same width as intermediate spaces, which are
concave grooves marked with concentric stride, giving much the same

Fig. 7. A. gigantea. Left valve showing hinge line and muscular impression.

external appearance as those of an Ambonyckia radiata. Shell marked
exteriorly, toward the margin, with lines of growth and concentric
stripe, which cross the radii, rendering it likely that concentric strire

Fig. 8. A. gigantea. Eight valve, hinge line.

crossed the radii over the whole surface of the shell, though they ap-
pear now to be smooth. Byssal sinus immediately below the beak

18 Aiiomalodonta gigantea.

anteriorly, about J of an inch in diameter in a large specimen. Height
of the shell from 2 to 4 inches, greatest breadth about | less. Shell
(^uite thick about the umboues and wing, but thinner toward the base.
Large cardinal tooth or elevation beneath the umbones, and sloping
posteriorly from the beak. The cardinal elevation on the left valve

Fig. 9. A. giganfea. External surface.

having a depression to receive a corresponding elevation, though slight,
on the right valve. From the cardinal tooth there are from 4 to 18
lateral cartilage grooves extending posteriorly to the end of the wing,
and terminating with the shell, and there are the same number of car-
tilao-e grooves on the anterior side of the cardinal tooth that imme-
diately run together as they pass into the byssal sinus. The cartilage
grooves vary in number with the age and size of the shell. The shell
is thickened on the anterior side, and appears to show lines of growth
passing through the sinus to its base. A large muscular impression is
found near the anterior margin, half Avay from the sinus to the base of
the shell, and there are appearances that indicate another muscular
impression on the posterior wing of the shell, near its termination.
Greatest depth of a valve in a large specimen, \ an inch.

This is the largest bivalve yet known in the Cincinnati Group.
It may readily be distinguished from the Anomalodonta data by the
surface markings, though the general outline form of the two shell.^
are nearly the same.

I found this species near Versailles, Indiana, about 40 miles west of
'Cincinnati, and about 300 feet below the Upper Silurian rocks ; and I
also found what I believe to be a cast of the same at Kichmond,
Indiana. I do not know that it can be found elsewhere, but the prob-
abilities are that it can be found in the upper part of the Cincinnati
Group, from Madison to Richmond, and at other places.

OrtJiis cyclns — James. 19

Descripthns of Xew Species of Brachiopoda, from tJie Loicer Silurian
Bods — Cincinnati Group ; by U. P. James.

Orthis cyclvs. — (James.)

[^Cijclus, in allusion to the circular form of the shell.]

►Shell small, much compressed, sub-circular, broader than long ;
length, about six sevenths of the breadth ; cardinal line about two
thirds as long as the greatest breadth of the shell ; margins rounding
from the extremities of the cardinal line to the front, presenting an
outline of more than two thirds of a circle ; slightly sinuous in the
front ; valves very thin and closely drawn together for more than two
thirds the surface area.

Dorsal valve convex above the middle, but nearly flat toward the
free margins, with a slight mesial sinus from near the beak extending
toward the front. Beak very small, slightly projecting, not incurved ;
hinge line straight and narrow, short ; foramen very small, filled by
the cardinal process of the other valve. Interior shallow, with quite
a strong mesial ridge extending, in some cases, to the front, in others,
flattening out before reaching the front margin. No definite muscular
impressions below the teeth ; internal surface showing the striae of the
exterior of the shell distinctly.

Ventral valve nearly flat, more than two thirds of the surface
area, convex on the umbone, quite abrupt, with a slight mesial ridge
flattening out toward the front margin. Beak projecting beyond the
dorsal valve, incurved ; area much higher than the dorsal valve,
sloping rapidly toward the extremities of the hinge line. Interior:
teeth prominent ; lateral muscular cavities, under the hinge line, at
the sides of the teeth, deep ; muscular scars, none ; quite a deep
mesial sinus extending from the cardinal process about half way to
the front margin. External striae distinctl}' shown through the shell,
as in the dorsal valve.

Surface of valves covered with prominent, rather coarse radia-
ting striie, which bifurcate before reaching the free margins, and are
strongly curved back along the hinge line. Numerous very fine
concentric lines between and across the striae ; with, occasionally,
strong imbricating lines of growth in some specimens.

Length of mature, rather large, individuals, 0.42 inch ; breadth,
0.50 inch.

This shell resembles 0. emacerata, Hall, but differs in the coarser
striae and internal markings, and is scarcely half the size of mature
specimens of that species. It also bears some resemblance to 0. mul-

20 Orthis (Flatystroplra) Cijplm—Jcvme?.

tiseda, James, but the ventral valve of that species is not compressed,
is decidedly convex from the free margins, and the dorsal valve
concave, and it is a more robust shell than this, the radiating strite
finer, and internal markings quite different.

Position and locality : Cincinnati Group, about 75 feet above low
■\vater-mark of the river Ohio, at Cincinnati.

Orthis (Platydwphia) cypJia. — (James.)

ICypha, in allusion to the remarkable convexity of the dorsal valve,]

Shell medium size; extremely gibbous; hinge line forming spine-
like projections, being over two thirds longer than the greatest breadth
of the shell below ; shell broader than long ; convexity equaling the
body below the hinge extensions ; cardinal area narrow, and finely
striated at rignt angles with the length. Dorsal valve, remarkably
fl^-'^ated mesial fold, with slopes commencing a little below the beak,
and extending to the front, at an angle of about 80 degrees to the
main body of the shell, where tliey turn at nearly right angles and
continue to the free margins ; beak incurved, not elevated above the
other valve ; the mesial fold consists of two costre. Ventral valve,
beak incurved, not elevated, nearly in contact with the other valve.
Sinus very profound, extending to the front, which is bent over to
nearly half the thickness of the shell beyond the cardinal line of the
dorsal valve ; one strong elevated plication in the center of the sinus,
and an obscure rudimentary one on each side ; lateral slopes concave.

Twenty-two to twenty-six angular costee on each valve, about eight
of which commence on the cardinal line, and do not extend to the
beak.

The line of junction of the two valves is nearly flat, or slightly
rouijded, and has a remarkably zig-zag appearance, forming, where the
sinus and mesial fold join, the letter W.

Interior unknovin.

"Width along the caixlinal line one and a half inches, half way
below the hinge line less than one inch ; length three quarters of an
inch.

This shell resembles somewhat some of the larger specimens of 0.
crassa, Meek, but it is more gibbous, has a more profound and lengthy
sinus, greater length of hinge line, and finer and more numerous
costse.

Position and locality : Cincinnati Group, "Warren county, Ohio.

OvtJiis (Platydrophia) craxm. — (jMeek.)
In the Ohio Geological Survey, part ii., vol. i., Paleontology, page

Ort}us (^Platystrophia) crassa — Mel:

21

117, plate 10, fig. 3, :\Ir. Meek describes a s-hell a.s OdJus dentata.
Pander, and expressess doubts as to its being the form intended liy
Pander for that species. The specimens were wrongly put up for jNIr.
Meek. Pander's 0. dendata not being sent.

I now propose the above name for the shell described by Mr. ]\ieek.
After comparing with 0. latkodata, James, he says :

" Its hinge line, generally, about equals the greatest breadth of the
valves, but may be a little less, or a little greater, than the breadth.
Its lateral slopes are always abrupt, and much less compressed than 0.
laticostata; but, like that variety, its mesial sinus is large, and very
profound, with angular margins, and its mesial fold strongly elevated.
In old individuals the valves become often remarkably gibbous, the
convexity exceeding the length and nearly equaling the breadth,
being much increased by the prominence of the mesial fold, and the
elevation of the plications forming the margins of the sinus. It differs
from 0. laticodata in generally having but a single strong plication m
the sinus, and only two on the mesial fold ; though we sometimes see
an individual with the commencement of a second smaller plication oc-
cupying one of the slopes of the sinus on one side of the middle one,
and very rai;ely one with a third one on the other side. Where rudi-
mentary plications exist in the sinus, they usually give origin to cor-
responding, partly developed plications on the slopes of the mesial fold
of the other valve. All the plications are simple, and excepting the
rudimeutai-y ones mentioned, quite coarse, prominent and angular ;
the number on each lateral slope being constantly five or six."

I will add, that different individuals of this species vary considerably,
some of the smaller ones being less than half an inch long and five-
eighths inch wide; the larger ones over an inch long and one and
a quarter inch wide. Some specimeus, the cardinal line is not over
half the greatest width of the shell ; others, it is more than the great-
est width below ; but, taking a number of individuals, the difference
from one to the other is found to be very gradual.

Position atid locality : Cincinnati Group, between 300 and 400 feet
above low water-mark of the Ohio River, at Cincinnati.

OrtJiis (f) Morroivensis.— (J A^iES.)
Shell oval, broader than long, cardinal area narrow, and about or.e
third of the greatest width of the shell ; foramen narrow, extending tj
the beak ; dorsal valve convex, sloping rather abruptly from a mesial
elevation to 'the free margins ; mesial elevation extending to the
front; beak incurved; ventral valve convex, with a triangular
mesial sinus, narrow at the beak and spreading out rapidly to the

(

22 Our Fresh-water Entomostraca. — Chambers.

front; front slightly sinus; surface marked by about seventeen
angular costa3 on each valve, which are simple except in the sinus
•where but one extends to the beak ; two others commence a little be-
low ; and on the mesial elevation of the other valve, where two bifur-
cate near the beak and again near the front. Interior unknown. '

Length a little less than j^^ths of an inch ; breadth, a little over
xVhs.

This shell bears some resemblance, in the beak and cardinal area, to
0. (?J cUa. Hall, but very slight in other respects. I have seen only
one specimen, but it differs so much from any other species that there
seems no doubt of its being distinct.

Pusitlun and localitij : Cincinnati Group, Warren county, Ohio.

Oar Fresh-water Entomostraca ; by V. T. Chambers, Esq., of Coving-
ton, Kentucky.

Life everywhere ! What myriads of living forms surround us in
earth, air, water, everywhere — except in the fire ; and if the ex-
periments of Dr. Bastian and other abiogenesists are reliable, then
their opponents are driven to the conclusion that there are multitudes
of living germs which can endure, without losing their vitality, de-
grees of heat greater than are sufficient to burn many other substances.

But it is not of these minute and elementary forms of life, only dis-
cernible under the higher powers of the microscope, that I propose
now to write ; nor yet even of those higher forms of infusoria, as Par-
amecium, Stentor, etc., which swarm in every drop of stagnant water,
and with which all microscopists are familiar.

Nevertheless, though much higher in the scale of organization, and
much larger than these forms, the little entomostraca require the aid
of the microscope for their elucidation, and even of its highest powers
for the study of their anatomy ; and though less numerous than infu-
soria, yet they swarm in incredible numbers throughout the summer
in the waters of our ponds and streams, and when the droughts of
summer have entirely evaporated the water, they and their eggs may
still be found in the moist earth, into which they likewise retreat from
the cold of winter.

But what are the entomostraca? They belong to the anulose sub-
kingdom, together with insects, shellfish, worms, etc., and to the class
Crustacea, containing lobsters, crayfish, etc., forming one division of
that class. Dr. Baird, in his "Natural History of the 'British Ento-
mostraca," published by the Ray Society, says they " may be charac-
terized by their being all aquatic ; by their being covered with a shell

Our Fresh-ivater Entomostram — Chambers. 23

or carapace, which is of a horny or coriaceous texture, and formed of
one or two pieces, in some approaching in appearance to a bivalve shell,
in others being in the form of a buckler, which completely, or in great
part, envelopes the body of the animal; by their having branchire
attached to the feet, or organs of mastication ; by their feet behig
jointed, and all more or less ciliated ; and by their undergoing a meta-
morphosis, or regular change of shell as they grow, in some amount-
ing to a species of transformation."

Like other animals, they have been subdivided by naturalists into
families, genera, and species, according to their structural differences,
size, and differences in ornamentation.

One division, the Branchiopoda, of Dr. Baird, is divided by him into
two orders, the Phillopoda and Cladocera. Each of these orders contain
several genera; but as we propose to give account only of species
which we have met with in this locality, we only refer to the two Phil-
lopoda genera, Branchippm and Edheria, neither of which is mentioned
by Dr. Baird, though Branchippus is very nearly allied to the beauti-
ful little fairy shrimp, the Chirocephcdus diaphamus, of that author.
We have met with but a single species of Branchippus, the B. vernahs,
Verrill, and that only in a single pool. In the " bottom" land, known
as Taylor's flats, and lying just south of Covington, ou the stream
euphoniously designated as " Bank Lick Creek," are numerous ponds,
abounding in all sorts of pond life ; but in only one of these, and that
one a mere puddle, but a few feet in diameter, and entirely dry
throughout the summer, have we met with B. vernalis.

In this little pool it may be taken in great numbers in April. It is
sometliing over half an inch Ipng, white and translucent, with the post
abdomen or tall stained rust red, and the apical portion of the Ontenmv
of the same hue. The eyes are borne on short stalks above the head,
and it has thirteen pairs of branchiferous feet, which are constantly in
motion, aiding it in locomotion as well as affording it respiration. Its
motion is exceedingly graceful, and when a number of these delicate,
fragile, little creatures are placed in a glass of clear water they afford
a pretty and interesting sight swimming, or rather easily floating, head
upward, through the water. Possibly this species may prove to be
distinct from B. vernalis, Verrill. The allied Chirocephalm duiphanom
has not been discovered in this country, but is common in England
and on the European continent. Prof. Verrill (Sill. Am. Jour., vol.
Iviii., p. 244) separates from Branchippus proper two other closely allied
genera, under the names Branchinecta, of which he describes two
species from Labrador and Greenland, and Heterobranchippus. He-
terobranchippus was subsequently recognized as a Streptocephalus, and
B. vernalis made the type of a new genus, Enbranchippus. Artemia, an-

24 Our Fresh-ivater Entomostraca — Chavihers.

other genus of the same family, Artemiadce, Jones, Brandiipodidce,
Baird), is found in brine pits, and Prof. Verrill Qoe cii) describes a
species from the Great Salt Lake. Ncbalia is the only extant genus
of the allied family Ncbaliadce, of which two genera (Hymenocharis and
Cercdiocaru), are found fossil in the Silurian strata. Ajyus, of the allied
family Apodidce, is extant, and it, or a closely allied form, has been
found fossil in the coal measures. EntomoconcJvm, also of the coal, is
considered a Fliillopod by Prof. Owens (Paleontology, p. 42); but Prof.
Rupert Jones, from its resemblance to the recent Heterodesvivs (Brady),
places it among the Hidocypridce. Ditlmrocaris is a fossil genus of
the Apodidce, lAmnadiaddi and Limnefis are recent genera of the
family Lhnnadiadie, which contains also Esthcria, recent and fossil,
extending back to the Devonian sej"ies. I have met in this locality
with a single species of Estlierla, undescribed, I think ; but it may be
one of two species recently described by Dr. Packard.

Six species of this genus, from North America, have been described.
When found at all they usually occur in great nunibers, and some of
my specimens were given to me by a gentleman who informed me that
they were taken in a wagon track or small puddle, where they were so
abundant that a dip of the hand would take half a dozen. But the
single speciipen taken by me Avas under very different circumstances.
In a pond, which, because of its convenience and the multitude and va-
riety of microscopic forms it affords, has been my favorite collecting
ground, I one day dipped up a specimen in an iron spoon. It surprised
me greatly, l)ecuuse I had dipped and dredged in that pond so often
and so long that I thought I knew everything it coulil aiford, and had
never met with an Edheria; and the most diligent search has failed to
reward me with a second specimen. The body and branchiferous feet
remind one somewhat of Branchippus, but the resemblance is very
general. The eyes are not stalked, and, in fact, scarcely deserve to be
called eyes, as they are not even crystaline, but are simply two small
pigment spots confluent on the median line of the forehead. The head
is produced beneath into a short beak, as in the family Daphnkuhv.
The larger antenme are furcate, many-jointed, and armed with long
cilia, one branch being shorter than the other; the smaller antennse are
very short ; there is no long post abdonien or tail like that of Bran-
cJiippus, but the post abdomen is short, and ends in two pairs of spines,
one above the other, and each curving upward ; and along the back,
toward the tail, is a row of small spinous pr(^jections, reminding one of
the vertebrate apophyses, and the branchiferous feet are more numer-
ous than in Brcuichippns. But the most marked difference is that
Edheria inhabits a small bivalve shell, resembling those of some mol-
luscs; and Avhile dredging for another specimen of my Edheria, I found

Onr Fresili-xoaier Eiitomostmca — Chambers. 25

•

a single specimen of a small mussel, so like it in size and form that I
was not convinced of the difference until I took it in my fingers. But
the mussel shell is hard and calcareous, while that of the Edheria is
thin, flexible and chitchitnous. It is attached to the body of the animal
just behind its head, and is composed of a series of concentric laminse
or rings, which Dr. Baird supposed to represent each an annual growth.
But his conclusion may perhaps be doubted. In the specimen taken
b}- me I counted thirty-five such rings, and it is almost incredible that
this defenseless little creature had successfully weathered all the vicis-
situdes of pond-life for thirty -five years. Estheria swims by jerking itself
along through the water with its long antennae, aided by motions of the
abdomen, making, as it were, a series of successive jumps, and resem-
bling rather the jerking motions of Daphrua than the gentle and grace-
ful undulations of Branchippus. The young, also, atone stage, bear
some resemblance to some adult Daphnke, as, however, those of Bran-
chippus and Chirocephalus likewise do ; the resemblance, however, is
not very close. The specimen taken by me carried a saddle of eggs
across the back, just behind the point of attachment to the shell. The
eggs were very numerous, some hundreds I should say, though I did
not count them, very small, globular, and pale yellow. The specimen
died from injury received in handling it, and only four of the eggs
hatched, and all of these died before the third month. I regretted
tins the more, because if its development has been heretofore observed,
I am not aware of it, and I was anxious to trace its course. All the Fhil-
lopocla undergo metamorphosis, and Estheria is no exception to the rule.
In its first or Nauplius stage, just emerged from the egg, it closely resem-
bles Dr. Baird's figure (Nat. His. Brit. Ent., plate 5) of Chirocephalus
diaphanous at the same age, but it is even a more simple and elementary
form (approaching somewhat to the young of Cyclops). The projecting
antennse of Dr. Baird's figures are represented by SetJB only ; the pos-
terior pair of limbs is not so much developed, and the thorax is less
distinct from the abdomen, which is notched at the apex. It was first
observed at 3 p. m., and at 9 p. m. the only change observed was that
the limbs were more distinct, and had a more definite outline ; the tho-
rax was more distinct from the abdomen, the apex of which was dis-
tinctly furcate. At 9 a. m.- next day the projecting points at the apex
of the abdomen (post abdomen) were much better developed, the
limbs, thorax and abdomen were very distinct from each other ; the
branchiae were rudimentary, and a shield (the beginning of the shell)
covered the head and thorax above, and a similar, but smaller shield,
attached only by its anterior margin, covered the ventral surface of
the thorax.

The next family in the arrangement of Prof. Rupert Jones, which I

26 Notes oil Botcvmj — Hvssey.

have followed, is the Lpperditiadce, all the genera of which are fossil.
Entomis Beyrichia Priviitia and Leperditia are found on the Silurian
rock.s. Beyrichia, indeed, is not very uncommon in the rocks of the
"Cincinnati uplift." Kirkby a is found in the carboniferous period.
The Trilobites of our Silurian rocks are regarded as an extinct family
of Phillopada. Like many of the above mentioned genera they were
salt water species. Various new species of Apiis, Streptocephalns lAm-
nadla, Limneti, and Edherid are described by Dr. Packard in Silliman's
Journal for 1871, p. 109, and in the Am. Mag. Nat. His., series 4,
vol. 8.

Notes on Botany ; by Prof. John Hussey, Ph. D.
Trichomanes radicans. — This fern is now fairly entitled to a
place in the flora of the northern United States. The discovery is due
to the observing habits of Dr. H. H. Hill, of Cincinnati, who, in com-
pany with the late Dr. McConnell, visited the caves in Carter county,
Kentucky, during the summer of 1871. Daring an exploration in the
vicinity of the caves, Dr. Hill, on the lookout for objects of natural
history, made the discovery of this fern. Not knowing the name of
the plant, he distributed some specimens at Cincinnati. Some fronds
were sent to correspondents, some of whom, supposing they were the
subjects of a. trick, and that the specimens came from a Cincinnati
hothouse, did not deign to return a civil answer. It seemed incredible
that the Trichomanes radicaiis should be obtained in Northeastern Ken-
tucky. During the winter of 1872-3, Dr. Hill gave me specimens
which I decided to be Trichomanes radicans. I then determined to
visit the locality, and, accordingly, in the month of August, 1873,
embraced Carter county, Kentucky, in an extensive collecting tour
wdiich I was making. The caves are in limestone, which is cut and
exjiosed by deep drainage valleys, but the caps of the cliffs are com-
posed of sandstone. Had I not secured the services of a guide, who
had been with Dr. Hill, it is not at all probable that I should ever have
found the few square feet on which the plant is growing. On the
under side of the overhanging sand-rock, perhaps twenty feet from the
exposed face, which looks to the east, where the upper and lower beds
are so near together that one must literally crawl to reach some por-
tions of the mass of fern, I found a space of about one rod in length
by two or three yards in width, covered with a completely interlaced
web of the radiating stems of the 2:>lant I was seeking. The pendent
fronds were green and fresh, although the face of the sand-rock was
scarcely moist, this being the dry season. The disconnected sandstone
ridge, cut up into a labyriathine maze by the drainage, depends solely

Xotes on Botany — Hussey. 27

for moisture upon the natural rain-fall. It is no dripping rock, such
as the ^ncojHfoif^ rarfica?ts usually flourishes upon. This may account
for the rather inferior size of the fronds from this locality. I brought
awa}' many specimens, and have succeeded in growing the fern in a pot,
under glass, in my house.

I found in the same neighborhood Asplenium trichomanes, A. pinna-
tifidum, A. ebetieum, A. vxontanum, and A. riita-muravia ; Cainptosoms
rhyzophyllus ; Felice, airopurpurea, and many others. The Abies cana-
densis grows to a large size, with long, straight trunks, in the valleys,
and the Taxiis baccata var. canadensis is quite common.

PoLYPODiUM ixcAXUM. — This fern is found growing on trees, on
Brush Creek, Adams county, Ohio, and also at Eock Springs, about
twelve miles from Louisville, Kentucky. I have never seen any men-
tion of it as being found on the lower Wabash, but, from the nature of
the flora of that river, I think it may be confidently looked for there.

Asplenium montantjm. — Very fine specimens of this fern were
gathered by me near the entrance to Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, in
August of last year. They were growing on limestone, and the fronds
measured from nine to ten inches in length. Many of the fronds are
bifurcated at some point between the middle of the frond and the apex,
or sometimes even lower down, giving the appearance of two fronds on
one stipe.

Asplenium pinnatifidum. — I found in connection with the last a
variety of Asplenium pinnatijidum, which I deem worthy of mention.
These are some of the points in which it differs from the more usual
form : It is pinnate, the pinnse, as in many ferns, becoming more con-
fluent as they approach the apex. The apex, in my specimens, is less
prolonged, but is fertile throughout its entire length, as in ordinary
typical specimens. The divisions of the more usual fern touch, or,
more generally, overlap. The pinnse of my specimens are distant, the
interval between the lower pinnse being equal to the width of the
pinnse themselves. The lower pinnse obscurely lobed and denticulate.
The stipe is not so broad, and is brownish black at base, soruetimes
two thirds of the length. I did not see any other form in the vicinity
of Mammoth Cave, nor did I see the Comptosorus rhyzophyllus, though I
regard it quite probable it occurs there. If it deserves to be called a
variety, I suggest the name Asplenium pinnatifidmn var. pinnatum.

BoTRYCHiUM LLTfARioiDES VAR. DissECTL'M. — For Several seasons I
have found, early in the spring, now and then, a stray plant of this
species. The sterile frond only remained, and it was thick and hardy
in aspect, and dull in color. These plants had evidently wintered
over, and may be regarded as hardy in 'this latitude. They are low,
and easily covered with leaves, *and readily escape observation. This

28 Notes on Botany — Hm$eij.

fall, in October, I took up and potted a fine specimen of the var. dis-
sectum. Alxdit the middle of December the fertile frond withered, and
I removed it. The sterile frond, on the other hand, has remained un-
changed until this time (January 16), and 1 do not doubt that it is
hardy. I therefore conclude that the sterile frond of Botnjch'mm
lunar ioides is hardy. Like the Aqolenewn ruta-vmravia, which is
hardy, the sterile frond of B. lunarioides will perish before or at the
time the new frond springs up.

Ophioglossum vulgatum. — On removing some roots of this fern
from the ground, last fall, into pots, I observed that the new frond had
already started, and was about one half inch in length. They have
rem;iined, up to this date, just as they were when they were removed
from the ground. I suppose this is a habit of the species.

The Botanical Directory for North America and the West
Indies. — This is the title of a publication giving the names of all the
working botanists in the territory embraced. It has just been issued
as part of one of the numbers of the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical
Society of New York City. It gives, first, the names and the specialty, if
any, of the botanists knoAvn to the editor, with the name of the State
appended in which he resides ; then follows another list ot the names,
under the States, with full postoffice address.

List of Trees and Shrubs of Ohio, in the "Report of the Ohio
Agricultural Society for the year 1872." — This list, made out by Prof.
Tlussey, is accompanied by an address by the same person on our
Forest Trees, their Distribution, Age, etc. The idea is set forth and
illustrated in the address, that the distribution of our trees depends, in
great measure, upon such circumstances as favor the germination of
the seed and the growth of the young plant for one or more seasons.
Such trees as have a vigorous growth in their early stages are more
widely disseminated. Those that are less so, but only flourish when
young in the shade of other trees, or in favorable seasons, are not so
widely disseminated. Uniformity of species is regarded as indicatmg
a comparatively recent forest ; a great variety, a more ancient forest.
A practical inference is that the most of our forest trees will flourish
in places where they are not now found, as in prairies and the western
plains, if the young trees are cultivated a few years from the seed.
The tree will grow under csltivation where the seed will not germi-
nate, and if it germinates, where it will not grow without care at first.
We want more exact information in regard to the lines which bound
species. The publication of correct local lists of plants is greatly
desired by botanists.

Die Silurische Fauna des WestUchen Tennessee. 29

From Die Silurische Fauna des WestUchen Tennessee. By Dr. Fee-
DiXAND RcEMER. [Trail. -latetl by Thomas Vickeus, for tliis
Journal.]

I. Spongke. — The occurrence of Spongue in the older formations,
down as far as and including the Zechsteui, is very rare, when we com-
pare it with the frequency of these bodies in certain divisions of the
Jura and Chalk formations, and in the seas of the present epoch. From
the Zerhstein we know, through King, of a few ill shaped and badly
preserved forms, concerning which, in part at least, it is still doubtful
whether they belong to the Spongke. In the carboniferous group no
remains have hitherto been found which can with certainty be said to
belong to this class. In the Devonian rocks, their appearance, aside
from a few altogether doubtful substances, is limited to a small species,
described by the brothers Sandberger as Scjjplua constricta^ occurring
in the limestone of Vilmar; its state of preservation, however, like
that of all the fossils in the above locality, is so unfavorable, that in
this case, also, there are still doubts as to its really belonging to the
sponges. It is only the Silurian series that can show any considerable
number of undoubted Spongke. Hitherto, it is true, they have been
observed only in isolated places. Several larger species are found in
an accumulation of Silurian diluvial bowlders, near Sadewitz, not far
from Oels, in Silesia, of which Oswald has given a description, and for
some of which he has created the genus Aidocopium. More numerous
and better preserved are the species of our fauna from Tennessee,
which I am about to describe. That they b^ong to the Spongice is
just as certain as the Silurian age of the strata in which, they are
embedded. They are petrified, as most of the sponges of the Chalk
and Jura formations are, and exhibit in their interior a texture alto-
gether analogous to the later sponges, perforated by canals, and the
interstices filled with countless little spicula, grouped in the form of
stars. They lie in the same calcareous strata with numerous un-
doubted Silurian Crustacea, crinoids, and zoophytes, and are frequently
found embedded in the same piece of rock with the latter. The fre-
quency of the individuals is so great that they form an essential part
of the fauna. It is surprising that they are not found in the precisely
contemporaneous strata of the State of New York (Niagara Group of
the New York State geologists), though numerous fossil species are
identical in the two formations, nor in the contemporaneous Wenlock
limestone of England. On the other hand, however, from the lime-
stone of the Island of Gotland, which otherwise so nearly resembles
that of Wenlock, we have the A^tylospongki pnemorsa, and another

30 Die Sihtrische Fauna des Westlichen Tennessee.

species, very numerous, but still undescribed, which agrees with a
species of Sadewitz. In general, all the Silurian sponges that haVe yet
been found seem to belong to the geognostic level of the limestone o^
tlie Island of Gothland. Up to this time no sponges, that can with cer-
tainty be determined, have been found in the lower division of the
Silurian Group.

That, in spite of the calcareous nature of the strata, the petrified mass
is always siliceous can evidently be not accidental, but certainly de-
pends upon the essentially siliceous constitution of the corporeal sub-
stance of the animal during life. [The substance of living sponges is
also in great part siliceous. I have received through Prof. Steensti'up,
in Copenhagen, pieces of the well known, large, goblet-formed spongke
vesparia, Lam., in which all organic substance has been destroyed by
means of white heat. The form and structure of the sponge has re-
mained entirely unchanged, which can only be explained by the foct,
that, according to an analysis by Forchammer, the species contains in
its fresh condition seventy-five per cent, of silica.] By means of this
physical constitution other silica, dissolved in water, has been attracted
in the process of petrifaction, and the hollow space of the texture
filled up by it just as during the life of the animal; the calcareous na-
ture of the shell and spines of the Echinidce causes the compact sparry
calcareous constitution of the fossil Echinidce. It is certain that be-
tween the living and the fossil sponges there is no such important and
thoroughgoing difference in the compactness of the texture, as D'Or-
bigny (Cours ele.nent de Pal. et Geol., 209), and after him Pictet
(Traite de Paleontol., e»l. 2, torn, iv., 530), assumes, when they found
upon it a' separation of the spongke into two great divisions (Amor-
phozoaires a squelette corne nnd Amorphozoaires a squelette testace).

A highly remarkable peculiarity of the sponges here to be described
is that they are wanting in any sort of epitheca. All sponges in existing
seas adhere to the bottom, either directly, by the lower surface of the
body itself, or by means of a pedicle, into which the body narrows it-
self at the end. [Only the Tethya Uncurium, Lam., and, as Sars has
told me, a small living sponge, growing on the northern coast of Nor-
Avay, appears to form an exception among living sponges, being free,
and yet it remains to be determined whether they are always and in
all stages of their development free.] All well preserved sponges of
the Chalk and Jura formations exhibit an epitheca of greater or less
size and distinctness. The deviation from this rule in the Silurian
sponges is therefore altogether unexpected. Moreover, the preserva-
tion is so complete, and the number of individuals so great, that the tact
has been determined with certainty. In no one of the numerous exist-

Die S'diirische Fauna des WestUchen Tennessee. 31

ing specimens of Astylospongia pi'cemorsa (^Siphonia prcemorsa, Gold-
fuss) is there a trace of an epitheca to be seen, but in all of them the
semi-circular under side is regularly rounded, without any interruption.
So, also, the hundreds of specimens of the remarkable Asinwspongia
meniscus are on their flat underside quite smooth, with no scar or pro-
jection whatever which could be regarded as an epitheca. Ail these,
bodies must have lived free at the bottom of the sea, with the excep-
tion, perhaps, of there being partially sunk in sand or slime. All
other sponges from the paleozoic strata, that have thus far been discov-
ered, also exhibit the same peculiarity, particularly the apple-formed
Aulocopium species, which Oswald has described from tlie Silurian dilu-
vial bowlders of Sadewitz, near Oels, and a still undescribed sponge,
about the size of a man's hand, of a thick disk form, notched on the
edge, that is found at Sadewitz, and in the Island of Gothland. Hence,
it seems that, in general, all sponges of the first period^ in striking con-
trast with the sponges of later formations, and of the present time, xoere
free. If, on the whole, in all the lower classes of animals, we regard
the stationary condition as a sign of a lower grade of organization than
the free condition, the above fact is all the more remarkable for the
reason, that, having in view the general indisputable perfection of or-
ganisms with the rising gradation of the sedimentary rocks, we should
expect just the opposite to be the case. Moreover, the regularity in
form of the Silurian sponges, as more particularly manifested in the
Adylospongia prcemorsa, and Astrceospongia yneniscus, is evidently depen-
dent on this free condition, for we know that in general, in the lower
classes of animals, the freer forms have greater regularity of shape
than the stationary ones, wherein the size and form of the epitheca
partially determines the form of the body.

Several yeai's ago I gave an enumeration of the sjjonges now to be

described, in Von Leonhard's & Bronn's Jahrbuch fiir Mineraloo:ie.

Here the description of them is given more completely and enlarged,

especially by the knowledge of the interior structure of several species.

Genus Astylospongia (Dr. Ferd. Roemer).

This globular, or thick, disk-formed, and almost regularl}^ circular
sponge is free, not attached. The inner texture is formed by little,
very regular, star-shaped bodies, which are connected with each other
by their rays. Larger canals run from the center, in the form of rays,
to the surface, and are crossed by concentric canals. Even during
the life of the animal the body must have been of a toleral)ly com-
pact nature, inasmuch as it is never found compressed. The petrifac-
tion is always siliceous.

The typical species of this genus has been known for some time

32 Die Silurische Fauna des Westlichen Tennessee.

under the name Sij)hon{a prcemorsa. The decidedly free, not attached
condition, is the princii^ul character which separates this genus from
the genuine S'qjhonia of the later formations, and justifies the creation
of a separate genus. Besides, the body being composed altogether of
little regular stars, connected together, is a peculiarity not found either
in the genuine Siphonia, nor in any other sponge genus of the later
formations.

The genus, with its not numerous species, appears to be limited to the
upper division of the Silurian Group.

ASTYLOSPONGIA rK.EMORSA (Gold.)

Siphotnn prccmorsa, Goldfuss Petref. Germ., 1, 17, t. G f . 9 (1826).

" " Hisinger Leth. Suec, 94, t. 26 f. 7 (1837)

" ". Eichwald Silur. Schichtensyst. in Esthland, 209.

" '• Maximilian, Herzog von Leuchtenberg. Beschreibung

einiger neuen Tliierreste der Urwelt aus den Silu-
risclien Ivalkschichten von Zarskoje Selo.. St. Pe-
tersburg (1824).

" " Fred. Rcemer in Leonh. u. Bronn's Jahrb. (1848, 684).

" " Ferd. Ecemer in Lethje geogno-st. ed. 3, Th. ii., 154

t. 27, f. 21 (1852-1854).

" ezcavata, Goldfuss Petref. Gerra. 1, 17, t. 6 f. 8 (1826).

" " Bronn. in Leth. geogn. ed. 3, Th. v., 75 (1851-1852).

" stipitata Hisinger Leth. Suec. 94, t. xxvi., f. 8.
Jerea excavuta, D'Orbigny Prodr. de Pal. strat. ii, 286 (1850).

A free, almost globular sponge, with a truncated and disk-formed,
depressed crown, and a completely rounded or somewhat truncated
underside. The concave crown exhibits a number of larger openings,
the mouths of perpendicular pipes. From the edge of the crown there
radiate over the sides irregular and partially branching furrows.
Although a proper epitheca is never observed, yet, in the specimens
from Tennessee, the lower end is sometimes truncated by a small, smooth,
circular surface, on which the body rests. In older specimens the fur-
rows radiating from the crown are often much deeper and broader.
The whole body is then often no longer perfectly globular, but some-
what depressed. The whole lower half of the sponge is, moreover,
sometimes bordered with wart-like prominences.

Several specimens, which I caused to be cut and polished, have
shown a very peculiar constitution of the inner texture of this sponge.
The whole mass consists of small, very regular, star-formed bodies,
with six rays, which may be seen with the unaided eye, but more dis-
tinctly with a glass, and which are so connected together that a ray
from one star runs directly into the ra}' of the star next to it. Be-
tween the stars, which are composed of opaque siliceous matter, there

Die Silurische Fauna des Westlichen Tennessee. 33

remain spaces filled with a transparent, yellowish brown chalcedony.
These spaces are radial and concentric canals. The little stars one is
inclined to regard as spicula grouped in that form. It is only surprising
that no framework corresponding to the horny skeleton of the typical
si^onges is visible between these stars, and that no space is left for such
a framework between the thickly crowded stars. At any rate the
spongy character of the body is indisputably proved by the above men-
tioned inner structure, even though the outward form were not suffi-
cient proof thereof. Moreover, there are also European specimens in
the diluvial bowlders of the North German plain wliich exhibit pre-
cisely the same interior structure, as I have convinced myself from the
cut specimens in the Berlin Museum, to which Beyrich called my
attention.

The geognostic position of this species, which had been observed for
a long time, and in many places in Europe, was uncertain, until the
discovery of it in Tennessee. It is most frequently found as loose
bowlder stone in the diluvial of the North German plain, from Holland
to Konigsberg. The circumstance, that the other species of the genus
Siphonia, to which it was ascribed, all, or at least the great majority,
belong to the Chalk formation ; further, the mode of preservation in
dark, flint-like silica, which nearly corresponds to the manner of preser-
vation of many chalk sponges ; and, finally, its being found with other
fossils, demonstrably belonging to destroyed Chalk deposits, made the
origin in strata of the Chalk formation probable, and as a matter of fact
this origin w*as universally accepted. Hisinger, indeed, mentioned the
•species of the Island of Gothland, yet, in accordance with the words
"ad littoria maris Gothlandiise rejecta," used to designate w'here it was
found, he regarded it as bowlder stone foreign to that place. Accord-
ing to the Duke of Leuchtenberg it is found at Pulkowa, near Peters-
burg, but even he does not with certainty regard the there contiguous
Silurian strata as its original place of deposit. By means of my obser-
vation of the species in contiguous Silurian strata, in the State of Ten-
nessee, every doubt in regard to the true place of deposit of this species
has been for the first time removed. The numerous specimens (26)
collected there agree completely with those in Europe. Their size
varies, like those of Europe, from a hazelnut to that of an apple. In
the larger specimens the crown is often flattened, as if it were eaten
out, apparently, in consequence of a disintegration, while the sponge was
still alive. Beside the always visible central oj^enings the almost
plain surface of the crown exhibits in this case horizontal canals, radia-
tino; from the center toward the circumference.

After the Silurian strata have been determined in America to be

34 Die Silurische Fauna des Wedlicheii Tennessee.

the original place of deposit of the species, it can no longer be doubted
that the specimens which occur in Europe also have their origin in
these strata. All the specimens found in the diluvium of the North
German plain, in so many j^laces, certainly come from the destroyed
Silurian strata of Northern Europe, and, indeed, from the Upper Si-
lurian strata of the age of the limestone strata of the Island of Goth-
land, which are contemporaneous with those of Tennessee. As a mat-
ter of fact the Gothland species is frequently and manifestly found in
the original place of deposit. I have seen in the Gymnasium Collec-
tion at Wisby beautiful specimens, as large as apples, and \ myself
picked up one from the strand at Wisby. Finally, the Berlin Museum
(and this is decisive), possesses specimens from Wisby, which are still
embedded in Silurian limestone. In the University Collection, in
Christiania, I have this year seen a sponge, coming from the dark blue
Silurian limestone of that region, which I, although it is only imper-
fectly preserved, ascribe to our species.

Siphonia excavata is synonymous with Astylospongia prcemorsa. This
species was created l)y Goldfuss from a single specimen from the Bonn
Museum, which differs from the original sjiecimen of the Siphonia
prcemorsa only by a deeper excavation of the crown, coming from dis-
integration. The peculiar, concentrically Avrinkled coating of the under
.side (similar to the epitheca of some anthozoa, but occurring also in
other fossil .sponges), which the specimen exhibits, I have observed in
another specimen of the Siphonia j}roemorsa, from the Island of Goth-
land, If, therefore, these two species are to be united into one, this
latter must receive the name Astylospongia pnemorsa, because this name
Avas given to the species in the condition of perfect preservation, while
the name SipJtonia excavata was given to a disintegrated specimen. So,
also, Hisinger's Siphonia stlpitata is evidently, from the ' drawing and
description, not a different species, but merely a specimen in which the
concave crown is covered with an accidental, conically projecting
appendage of silica. The statement of D'Orbiguy (pro drome ii., page
286), who calls the species Jerea excavata, and says that it is found in*
the chalk of Maestricht, is just as erroneous as manj' other statements
of that author in regard to the places where, outside of France, fossils
are found.

Note. — The above description of the genus Astijlospongia, and the
species A. prcemorsa, seems to be confined to siliceous sponges ; but
-other naturalists are of the opinion that they may be calcareous —
that the fossilization, Avhether siliceous or calcareous, depended upon
whether the infiltrating water held silica or lime in solution, and not.
njjon the constitution of the sponge while living. One thing is cer-

Indian JloumU and Skulls hi Michigan. 35

tain about it that may be readily demonstrated : the fossil sponge
found iu the Niagara Group, near Waldron, Indiana, is not siliceous,
but is calcareous ; moi-eover, it belongs, without much doubt, to the
genus Adylospongia, though I have not seen one polished, to show the
spicula, and bears the name among collectors of the Adijlospongia prw-
morsa. While the Adylospongia, from the Niagara Group, iu Tennessee,
is siliceous, it is calcareous from the contemporaneous strata in Indi-
ana. The i:)hilosophy of its fossilization is clearly shown in the article,
iu tliis journal, by Harvey B. Holl, of England, and the error of Dr.
Roemer, in supposing them to have been siliceous while living, clearly
pointed out. It "was but natural for Dr. Roemer to have supposed
them all to be siliceous, because he saw none others among his collec-
tion from various parts of the world. His mistake, however, illus-
trates the danger of generalization from a limited number of facts.

Indian Mounds and Skulls in Michigan. Residt of Explorations of
Mr. Henry Gillman. From the Sixth Annual Report of
the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and
Ethnology, Harvard College ; Prof. Jeffries Wyman, Curator.
[From Am. Jour, of Science and Arts, January, 1874.]

A collection made by ^Iv. Henry Gilman, from a mound on the
Detroit river, Michigan, explored by him for the Museum, consists of
liuman remains and various objects buried with the dead. The latter
are of the common kinds, such as stone chisels, one of much beauty,
made of dorite, and highly polished, a spear point, arrow points, stone
pendants, a stone boring tool, beads and ornaments made of shell and
copper, an implement made of an antler, a miniature vase of the size
of a common thimble, and two large and perfect vases of the oval pat-
tern, and ornamented over the whole surface with cord marks.

One of the skulls, that of a fully adult person, is worthy of notice
for its diminutive size, and for a remarkable extension of the lines
for the attachment of the temporal muscle toward the top of the head.
The average capacity of the Indian cranium, as given in the tallies of
^lorton and Meigs, is eighty-four cubic inches, and the minimum
observed by them sixty-nine cubic inches. That from the Detroit
river mound measures only fifty-six cubic inches, or less than sixty-
seven per cent, of that of the average Indian. In ordinary skulls the
ridges of the temporal muscles on the two sides of the head are sepa-
rated by a space of from three to four inches, seldom less than two,

36 Indian Mounds and Shdls in Michigan.

while in the Detroit mound skull this space measures only three quar-
ters of an inch ; and in this respect it presents about the same condi- •
tions as the skull of a chimpanzee. As the two other crania from the
same mound offered no such peculiarities, the skull which has just
been described must be considered simply as an extrenae case of indi-
vidual variation from the ordinary form. There are no signs of arti-
ficial deformity.

The single tibia accompanying this collection is somewhat flattened.
Mr. Gilman, under an appropriation made by the trustees, has ex-
plored a series of mounds at the head of St. Clair river, and the col-
lections made by him have been received, and were accompanied with
the following report :

The mounds situated at the head of the St. Clair river extend from
south of Fort Gratiot for one and one half miles northward", along the
west shore of the river and of Lake Huron. It is altogether probable
that they reach much farther, both northward and southward ; but I
have traced, examined, and liilly identified them for the distance men-
tioned. Similar works have been found on the opposite side of the
river, in Canada. Isolated mounds in the interior also exist, an inter-
esting example of which is seen on the west shore of the Black river
(a tributary of the St. Clair), at a point about one and three quarter
miles southwest of Gratiot ; the mound referred to having been exposed,
some years ago, by the grading of a road through it, resulted in the
loss of a large amount of valuable relics.

With few exceptions, all these mounds have a general resemblance,
and bear the appearance of terrace-like embankments, from ten to
twenty and twenty-five feet in height ; they are much longer than
wide, and run nearly parallel to the general direction of the river and
lake shore, which here does not vary much from north and south.
They are mostly of the Drift formation, subsequently modified or added
to by man for the various objects for which they were occupied,
whether for the purposes of interment, habitation, or the manufiicture
of the rude implements connected with the daily life of that period ;
and, from the topographical features and the geographical position,
they must have formed favorite places of retreat in war time.

Mound No. 1 is composed chiefly of sand and gravel, is about t^vo
hundred feet long by fifty feet wide, and is fifteen feet above the level
of the river. It has rather abruptly curving sides, and is built on a
slope of the ridge, of Drift formation, on which the village of Gratiot
stands.

A large excavation, made about fifty feet from the south end of the
mound, disclosed the remains of four human bodies, at a depth of four

Indian 3IoH)ids and Skulls in Michigan. 37

feet from the surface. In an area of about ten feet square the four
crania, with a portion of the accompanying bones, were taken out, but
were in so decayed and tender a condition that, with the exception of
a skull and a few of the long bones and vertebra, they mostly fell to
pieces. The bodies evidently were buried in a sitting posture. This
was very apparent in one case, where the femora were found bent upon
and above the tibise, the vertebrie, etc., resting upon these, while the
skull lay on top, face downward, as though it liad leaned forward
originally, and had finally fallen over into that position. This cranium
is that marked skull No. 1, Mound No. 1 ; and the vertebrae and
other bones thereto belonging may be found correspondingly marked.
With these remains were associated fragments of pottery, the bones
of fishes and birds, flint chips, and some stone implements of the
rudest character. These last were mostly water-worn bowlders,
apparently used as hammers, and almost invariably shattered ; and net
sinkers, flattish, irregularly elliptical stones, notched on the edges or
partially grooved toward the center. It is interesting to notice that
the tibiae present the peculiar compression which I have found so
marked a characteristic, and in such extreme degree in the tibite from
the mounds on the Detroit river and the River Rouge, Michigan,
establishing the fact that these, too, were platycnemic men.

After excavating to the depth of six feet, the coarse gravel of the
Drift was encountered ; but no further objects of interest being met
with, the opening was extended in other directions to the westward,
so as to open a lateral trench through the mound. This revealed
several fireplaces, solid beds of black ashes, from one foot to eighteen
inches thick, with fragments of pottery and bone, flint chips, sinkers
and broken hammers interspersed. The fireplaces were invariably at
or near the surface of the mound, showing it to have been occupied
for habitation subsequently to being used for burial purposes. Open-
ings made at two points, about fift}^ feet from the north end of tlie
mound, and also at a third point, half-way between these and the first
excavation, added no fa^ts of special interest. Two excavations were
then made at twenty -five feet from the south end of the mound, show-
ing fireplaces with the beds of black ashes, two feet thick, and inter-
mingled relics, similar to those of the fireplaces already mentioned.
Some of the fragments of pottery taken out here were uncommonly
thick and coarse. Beneath were small pieces of the bones of man, but
nothing further worthy of mention. The encroachment of the town
on this mound, and on those to the west of it, prevented a more
satisfactory examination.

The oldest residents (some born and brought up here) knew nothing

38 Indian Mounds and Skulls in Michigan.

of tlie character of tlie inound, though they remember that many years
ago it was covered witli a large forest growth.

]\Iound No. 2, which lies two hundred feet northwest of Mound No.
1, is over five hundred feet in length by from one hundred to one
hundred and fifty feet wide, and of the general height of twelve feet
above the level of the St. Clair river. It is bounded on the north by
a small stream, known as McNeil's creek, which also runs southwardly
all along its eastern slope, as well as a part of the south end of the
mound. The ordinary observer will scarcely fail to notice that this
mound is something more than the work of nature. Its sides have a
graceful, gradual slope, with the exception of the side fronting the
river, wliich is abrupt and terrace-like, even where not washed by the
creek. Between the creek and the River St. Clair is some low lands
with ponds, where are a few outlyuig mounds, small and of slight
elevation. About two hundred feet of the south end of Mound No. 2
is a clear of trees, except on the sides, and is covered with a smooth,
green turf. Excavations were made in a number of places, showing
that this entire end of the mound was covered with a solid crust of
black ashes, from eighteen inches to two feet thick. So hard and solid
was this crust, that layers of it, in large pieces, several inches square
and thick, were taken up unbroken. Fragments of pottery, showing a
great variety of patterns, bones of animals, birds and fishes (some of
the larger bones evidently smashed), flint flakes and chips, with stone
implements, consisting principally of arrowheads, hammers and sinkers,
were found intermixed with the ashes. The abundance of the sinkers,
and particularly of the broken hammers, is a remarkable feature.
Though such rude utensils, a. selection from them is preserved, so as to
give an idea of their character. I have not found elsewhere a similar
condition of things, and believe that this end of the mound furnishes a
nearer approach to the "refuse heaps" of the Atlantic coast than any-
thing I have seen elsewhere on the shores of the Great Lakes. The
absence of the shell deposit, however, makes a marked difference. I can
not find that those ancient inhabitants of this region had much recourse
to shell-fish as an article of diet. The great abundence of fishes, and the
ease with which they were captured, together with the multitude of
land game, left them under no necessity to use the inferior fresh-w^ater
mussels for food.

From the large quantity of pottery fragments and broken hammers,
together with the thiclc bed of ashes covering so wide an area of this
raound, I incline to think that this must have been a point where the
pjannfacture of their pottery was carried on to an unusual extent.
The broken hammers may be accounted for by their having been frac-

Indian Mounds and Skidls in Michirjan. 39

tured iu pounding the grains used as food, and in cracking the bones
of animals for the extraction of the marrow, indications of which are
not wanting. The pottery found in both these mounds exhibits an
unusual variety of patterns ; though not a single utensil was taken out
entire.

For want of time the investigation of the northern part of the
mound, which is elevated at its center from two to three feet above
the portion covered with the ash-bed, was confined to three points.
No additional information was obtained, hoAvever, further than estab-
lishing for it-a like origin with the other mounds.

All the northern portion of the mound, and also the sides of the
southern portion are covered with a large second growth of trees.
These consist chiefly of White Pine (P'ums strohus L.), Scarlet Oak
(Quercus coccinea Wang.), White Oak (Q. alba L.), and Basswood
(Tilia Americana L.). The trunks of some of these trees have a diam-
eter of from eighteen inches to two and one half feet. A few decayed
stumps of the original forest still remain ; these average four feet iu
diameter.

Mound No. 3. — -After the exploration of four other mounds, three
lying northward, tlie fourth northwestward of Mound No. 2, which
contributed no additional facts of particular value, other than their
identity of origin with the rest of the group, attention was next
directed to Mound No. 3, which proved to be the most interesting of
the entire series. This mound is situated three quarters of a mile
northeastward of Mound No. 1. It is about five hundred feet in
length, and in breadth varies from seventy to ninety feet ; while its
height above the surface of Lake Huron is twelve feet, or not more
than five feet above the general level of the surrounding land. In
general direction it corresponds to the other mounds, and there is little
in its appearance to suggest its character or call the attention of any
other than a practiced eye.

A large excavation was made at its widest part, and about its cen-
ter. Within two feet of the surface the bones belonging to a single
body were unearthed, but in so tender a condition, from age, that they
mostly crumbled to pieces. A few bones of birds and fishes were
found with them. Some of the decayed roots of an oak tree stump,
ten feet to the westwai'd (and which will be further alluded to), had
grown over and around these bones. The excavation was deepened,
widened, and carried farther to the eastward, opening a trench to the
depth of six feet, but only small fragments of human bones resulted.
The trench was then opened to the westward, toward the stump of the
oak. When at the depth of five feet we came to a skull (No. 1,

40 Indian Mounds and Shdls in Michigan.

Mound 3), Some of the bones first taken out overlay this, and
decayed roots of the oak, as thick as a man's arm, stretched above it.
The other bones belonging to the body appear dwarfish. It was
buried with the head to the east, and the legs seem to have been
drawn up, and not stretched out at full length. On removing these
remains, we found, immediately underneath, a third body, placed so
closely that the skull of the upper rested on that of the lower. At
the head was a large quantity of the bones of birds and fishes, in a
compact mass, as though once held in some wrapping or vessel which
had decayed. These were pressed against the skulls, so that in some
cases they adhered to them, and are, no doubt, the remains of the
food placed with the dead. Such of the bones as could be removed
are preserved, but a great portion crumbled to pieces. This body w^is
buried with the head to the eastward. The roots of the oak tree had
penetrated the bones in many cases, the long roots presenting some
interesting examples of this, as the roots in their natural growth had
first filled, then burst, the bones, so that in several instances the parts
of the bone surrounded the now decayed root imbedded in it. Such
pieces as held together are forwarded. This tree, which evidently
belonged to the second growth of timber, was, I think, a scarlet oak
(Quercus coccinea Wang.), as the majority of the wood covering the
southern half of the mound, is of this species, together with white pine.
. The decayed stump was two feet in diameter at the base, and at one
foot above the ground divided into three trunks or main branches,
each nine inches in diameter. These had been cut down, apparently,
many years ago ; and as between the first and two subsequent burials
must have occurred, in all probability, some lapse of time, and the oak
must have S2:)rung up, reached its growth, been cut down, and its
stump finally have decayed long afterw-ard, some slight idea may be
had as to the age of the first burial.

The trench was now opened to the oak stump, when, from directly
beneath it, skull No. 3 was taken out with the accompanying bones.
Upon this skull lay a plate of mica, five by four inches, of a quadri-
lateral shape, the corners worn off. A pebble of water-worn coral
rested upon the mica, as if to keep it in place. About the neck of the
deceased a necklace of remarkable construction had apparently been
hung. This uncommon ornament was composed of the teeth of the
moose, finely perforated at the roots, alternating with wrought beads
of copper of diflferent lengths, and the perforated bones of birds, stained
a fine green color, the stain, in a few pieces preserved, being wonder-
fully fresh. Small portions of the cord to Avhich they had been
attached are still partially preserved and remain in the apertures of

Indian Mowids and Skidls in Micldgan. 41

the copper beads. I suppose that the teeth alternated with the copper
beads and the stained bones. One copper bead, which adheres by its
oxidation to the perforated part of a tooth, sustains this conclusion.
A rude stone axe, partially polished, lay beside these remains. All
indicated that the dead had been peculiarly honored in his burial, and
that he had been, perhaps, a noted personage.

Immediately to the northward of this body another was taken out,
skull No. 4, with the remaining bones. These were under the edge
of the oak stump, and, as well as the remains of No. 3, Avere sur-
rounded with masses of roots. Both bodies lay nearly side by side,
and at the same vertical plane, five feet below the surface. As in the
other cases, the bones of birds and fishes were found with the remains,
but in small quantity.

The excavation was next carried southward, through the center of
the mound, for a short distance ; but no relics being met with other
than a few fragments of broken hammers and flint chij)s, it was next
opened in the opposite direction, northward, thus giving it the form of
an irregular Latin cross. When a few feet to the northward of the
remains last taken out (No. 4), we came upon skull No. 5, and follow-
ing up the indications, recovered such of the remaining bones as could
be preserved. With this body a flint arrowhead and some other rude
stone implements were found ; also a number of small shells, the
species of which I have not determined, but which appear to have
been used for some special purpose, perhaps as ornaments, as they
were ground smooth at the base. About twelve of these were recovered,
but there must have been many more originally, as a large number of
them crumbled to dust, and also some of them might easily have been
overlooked. A short distance westward of the last relics skull No. 6
was taken out. The accompanying bones, as in the cases of the others,
were very tender, and it was with extreme difficulty that any of them
were recovered. Tibise exhibited the compression previously referred
to in a marked degree. A large mass of fish bones lay in front of
this body, which, like the previous remains (skull No. 5, etc.), was
buried placed on its right side, Avith the head toward the east and the
limbs drawn up closely. to the chest. It is possible that they may
have been buried in a sitting or crouched position, and have afterward
fallen over ; but I think they were buried as first mentioned. The
absence of pottery with the interments in this mound is worthy of
note, only two fragments being found in any part of the mound, and
these apparently accidentally dropped.

Isolated excavations in different places throughout the extent of
Mound No. 3, as also in a mound sixty feet to the west of it, contribu-
ted nothing specially entitled to record.

42 Indian Mownh and SkvU>< in Michigan.

Mounrls Nos. 4, 5, etc— ^lound No. 4 is eight hundred feet north-
east of Mound No. 3. It is three hundred feet long by from thirty to
fifty feet wide, and is a low, sandy ridge, with a series of nine conical
elevations running along its length, and rising two or three feet above
its general level, they having a diameter of 'from twenty -five to thirty

feet.

Mound No. 5 is fifty feet to the westward of Mound No. 4, and is
of a conical shape, forty feet in diameter, and nearly twelve feet above
the level of Lake Huron, lieing between three and four feet higher
than No. 4. Two other mounds of a smaller size but similiar shape
lie to the nortli of it.

From Nos. 4 and 5 were obtained a few stone implements, frag-
ments of bones and pottery, with flint chips and the usual bowlder-
hammers, mostly fractured. Our limited time prevented as thorough
an investigation of these mounds as their appearance certainly war-
rants. I believe the removal of those conical elevations in Mound No.
4 would be rewarded with interesting discoveries.

Other mounds to the northward and westward, belonging to the
series, were also examined to the extent of confirming their claims to
a like origin with those more thoroughly explored. A mound south
of Mound No. 1 (the first investigated) contributed a few stone imple-
ments, which are forwarded. The large implement apjjcars to me to
resemble a spade, but may have been designed for some other use than
that apparently indicated.

In conclusion, I would say that the facts observed fully prove tliis
extensive group of mounds a rich field for more exhaustive research.
And here I repeat the interesting fact, that all the tibise unearthed
invariably exhibited the compression or flattening characterizing
platycnemic men. Unfortunately the bones generally crumbling to
pieces prevented satisfactory measurements. But suflicient evidence
was obtained (in connection with my discoveries in other parts of
I^Iicliigan) to establish the point, that this race, from the Detroit
river to the St. Clair and Lake Huron, was marked with platycncmism
to an extreme hitherto unobserved in any other part of this country,
or perhaps any other country in the world. I can not but believe,
from what I have seen, that future investigation will extend the area
in which this type of bone is predominant to the entire region of the
Great Lakes, if not of the Groat AVest ; or, in other words, that at
least our northern " mound-builders" will be found to have possessed
this trait in the degree and to the extent denoted. I am unable to say
whether this peculiarity prevails in our modern Indian or not.

With the exception of the rude stone hammers, and the sinkers, the

Land Plants in the Lower Silurian. — Lei^querenx. 43

number of perfect stoue implements seems to me unusually small
throughout this entire series of mounds. The question arises : Had
this people the habit of sometimes breaking the stone implements cast
into the burial mounds? Or, were broken ones selected for this purpose,
as being of little other use?

On JRemains of Land Plants in the Lower Silurian ; by Leo. Lesquereux.
From the Amer. Jour, of Science and Arts, January, 1874.

[The gist of the following remarkable statement, from the pen of a
distinguished naturalist, may be taken with a grain of skepticism. It
will require further proof before the discovery of land vegetation in
t!ie Cincinnati Group becomes an admitted scientific fact.]

From a recent discovery it now seems that traces of land vegetation
exist in the Lower Silurian strata of this country. A few months ago
I received from Rev. H. Hertzer two specimens, representing branches
or small stems, of a species, referable to Sigillaria, and reported to have
been found by Dr. S. S. Scoville on Longstreet creek, near Lebanon,
Ohio, in clay beds positively referable to the Cincinnati Group of the
Lower Silurian. The discovery of the remains of land plants in this
formation is too remarkable a fact to be accepted without positive evi-
dence. Being at that time about to take the field for geological
explorations, I merely took a sketch of the specimens, and returned
them to the owner, purposing to examine more closely into the mat-
ter at a future time, either by going to Lebanon, or by corresponding
with Dr. Scoville. On my return, as Rev. Mr. Hertzer had parted
with the specimens, I sent to Dr. Scoville a sketch of the fossil under
consideration, in order that he might recognize it, if it had been in his
hands, and with the request to positively state whether he himself
found the specimens, and when, and whether he had any more of the
same kind. Li his answer, he writes: "I can say now most emphat-
ically, that I found on Longstreet creek, about six miles east of
Lebanon, a fossil which resembles the sketch accompanying your letter
in all the essential features. The specimen was, I think, in two pieces,
or perhaps Mr. Hertzer took only one piece. I know within a rod or
two where it was found. Its position or horizon, in the Lebanon beds,
■was about the middle. Should any one question the accuracy of my
statement in regard to the discovery of a specimen of this character,
in the locality designated, I would refer them to Mr. S. R. O'Neall of
this place, who has paid much attentian to geology, and who will sup-
port my assertion, so far, at least, as to say : that I have described to
him several times, and even but a few days since, the specimens under

44 Land Pleads in the Lower Silurian. — Lesquereux.

consideration.'' In a postscript to this letter, Mr. O'Neall confirms the
statement in regard to th6 specimens in question.

There can be, therefore, no doubt as to the locality where these
vegetable remains have been found, or the geological age of the strata.
The clays of the Lebanon beds are full of Trilol)ites, of the same species
that abound in the clay beds at the base of the Cincinnati Group —
Calymene senaria. The only question to be settled is the true character
of the plant which the specimens represent.

As I have said above, there were two fragments of small stems or
branches, referable to the same kind of vegetable; one, more complete,
about two inches thick, cylindrical, the whole substance transformed
into soft, gray clay, the bark, or the outer surface only, distinctly
moulded into clay, as is generally the case in specimens of this kind,
and marked by rhomboidal, continuous, enlarged bolsters, surrounding
the stem in a spiral, bearing at the middle a small oval or rhomboidal
scar, less distinct, however, though well recognizable, and presenting
the characters of stems of Sigillaria Serlii Brgt. or S. Menardi Brgt.
The study of the specimens, as far as I was able to do it, left me unde-
cided only in regard to their positive reference to the one or the other
of tliese two species, on account of the somewhat obscure form of the
internal scars. Though the Cincinnati Gi-oup has remains of Fucoids
of large size, none has as yet been found there, to my knowledge, as
large as these stems. And the peculiar form of the bolsters, placed
in spiral around the stem, similar in form, equal in size, regularly con-
vex, preclude the supposition that the remains represent some new
kind of marine plants, or are attributable to a concretionary structure.
We have, therefore, to admit them as representative of land plants,
and thus to recognize the existence of traces of land vegetation in the
Lower Silurian, tlie lower part of the Cincinnati Group being the
equivalent of the Trenton Group of New York.

[The occurrence of vegetable remains in clay beds abounding in
remains of Trilobites is not subject to objection. The Coal-measures
of the West have strata of shale, clay, limestone, even sandstone,
where animal and vegetable remains are found together in abundance.
I have foimd Trilobites in the shale overlaying coal beds at Summit
Portage, Pennsylvania, with Sigillaria, Stigmaria, etc., and species of
the same kind of animals, with plants too, in sandy clay beds of the
upper Coal-measures of Indiana.]

This discovery is the more remarkable, since we have, as yet, no
records of vegetable remains from the Silurian of North America,
except fragments of stems and rhizomes of Psilophyton, observed by
Dawson in the Gaspe Group of Canada. On these Dr. Dawson remarks :

Land Plants of the Lower Silurian — Lesquereux. 45

"Accordingly, it is in Gaspe that, as yet, we have the only link of con-
nection of the Erian (Devonian) flora with that of the Silurian period.
In the marine limestone of Cape Gaspe, holding shells and corals of
Lower Helderberg age, along with some indeterminable plants, prob-
ably Fucoids, we have, as already stated, fragmental steins and dis-
tinct rhizomes of Pdlophyton, some of them showing the scalariform
axis well preserved. These fragments must have been drifted from
the land; and, as in the immediately succeeding Lower Devonian
beds, Pulophyton is associated with Prototaxites, Arthrostigma and Cala-
mites, but is the most abundant of the whole, it is not unlikely that
in the Upper Silurian land it was associated with plants of these
genera." In Europe, too, the first remains of land plants have been
found in the Lower Devonian, and, as yet, only a single specimen of a
Sigillaria, described by Guppert as S. Hammannana. It was found as
early as 1806, by Hausmann, during his geological exploration of
Scandinavia, in a red Devonian quartzite, just above strata of the Upper
Silurian, where Favosites iwlymorpha Avas identified. Guppert, from
whom these details are quoted, remarks that, on account of the pres-
ence of this species of Favosites, Murchison admitted these strata to
be Lower Devonian.

With the exception of the Lebanon sj^ecimen, the geological forma-
tions of the United States have not afforded, as yet, any records of land
plants earlier than those of the Lower Devonian. In Ohio and Ken-
tucky vegetable remains of this kind have been found at diflfei-ent
places, mostly in concretions, including trunks or fragments of wood
representing species of Conifers of the section of the Araiicarice,
together with Lycopodiaceous plants : Stigmaria, Sigillaria, and Lejn-
dodendron. In Pennsylvania a Lepidodendron, L. Priraa^imm Rogers,
and a Sigillaria have been obtained from the same horizon. These
fragments are as yet rare, and have not been satisfactorily determined,
on account of the imperfect character of the specimens, mostly petri-
fied pieces of wood, whose structui-e is studied with difliculty. It is
certain, however; that in the Middle Devonian we have representatives
of three distinct groups of vegetables : the Cellular Cryptogams, in
a quantity of marine plants, the Vascular Cryptogams, in Lycopodi-
aceous plants; Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, etc., and the Pha^nogamous
Gymnosperms, in the Conifers.

Strophomena alternata. — In the note referring to the locality and i:)osi-
tion of the Strophomena alternata, page 91 of the "Ohio Paleontology,"
there occurs the following mistake, to wit : " In Ohio, none of its varie-
ties occur much below the tops of the hills at Cincinnati." The fact is
that some of its varieties occur at all elevations above low water-mark.

46 Fads in the Phjsiology of SjAders ami Insects. — Blackwell.

A Succinct Review of Recent Attempts to Explain Several Remarlcable Facts
in the Physiology of Spiders and Insects. By John Blackwell,
F. L. S. [From Jour, of Pro. of Linnrean Society, vol. vii., p. 154.
My friend, Mr. Meade, in his valuable report " On some Points in
the Anatomy of the Araneidea, or true Spiders, especially on the In-
ternal Structure of their Spinning Organs," has been induced by his
researches to adopt the opinion that these animals can propel from their
spinners, to a considerable distance, fine lines, formed of the viscid fluid
secreted by appropriate organs, situated in the interior of their abdo.
men. This hypothesis, based on zootomical considerations, being di-
rectly opposed to tlie conclusions arrived at by myself, from numerous
carefully conducted experiments, merits an impartial examination.

After having briefly stated the general results obtained by his dis-
section of several species of spiders, and minutely described the organ-
ization of the internal vessels that elaborate the material which, on
issuing from the papillse connected with the spinners, forms filaments
of extreme tenuity, Mr. Meade remarks, " 1 have now arrived at the
most interesting, but most difficult part of my task, viz., the question
whether there is anything in the structure of the silk-forming organs
that will decide the question as to the power of spiders to eject their
threads to a distance. Looking at the strong fibrous coat ou the ducts
of the membraneous sacs, and the fibrous tissue surrounding the glands
themselves, I think tliatthey must possess a powerful contractile power,
which may also be increased by the muscular coat of the integument,
enabling the spider to compress its abdomen. May not the striated
bands of inuscular fibers, which run in a parallel direction down the
middle of the abdomen quite into the interior of the spinnnerets, and
surround the termination of the ducts, also assist in this object? They
are not attached to the tegumentary coverings of the spinnerets like
the other muscles, and can not, therefore, be for the purpose of moving
these processes ; their action must be to draw the spinnerets inward."
Such is the evidence supplied by dissection in support of the opinion
that spiders can forcibly eject their lines to a distance.

Now, it is manifest, from well known physiological facts, that the
muscles distributed to the spinning organs perform various functions :
the office of some being to give motion to those'parts, of others, to close
either the minute aperture in the dilated base of the tubular papilla?,
or that of the fine ducts which terminate the vessels that secrete the
fluid employed by spiders in the process of spinning, as its issue from
the papilliB can be instautaneously prevented at the will of the ani-
mals ; others, moreover, must possess a contractile force sufficient to

Facts in the Physiology of Spiders and Insects. — Blackwell. 47

propel the fluid to the open extremity of the delicate hair-like papillas,
exactly as the non-viscid fluid, propelled by the couti'action of the muscles
connected with the vessel that secretes it, passes out of, but is not
ejected in a stream from, the minute orifice situated near the extrem-
ity of the fang that teimi nates the folces.

To this extent I am prepared to admit the influence of the muscles
that contribute directly or indirectly to the action of the spinning
apparatus ; but that a remarkable viscid fluid, which immediately
becomes concrete on exposure to the air when drawn out in a filament
of such marvelous tenuity as the lines produced by spiders, can, not-
withstanding its extreme levity and flexibility, and quite ii-respective
of the size of the animals producing it, be propelled by any physical
power with ^rhich they are endowed in a straight line of many feet ht
length, through a resisting medium liable to rapid fluctuations like the
atmosphere, does appear to be in the higliest degree impi'obable, and
is, as already asserted, directly at variance with the result of an exten-
sive and elaborate experimental investigation of the subject, a brief
abstract of which 1 proceed to give.

Spiders, if placed on wooden or metallic rods set upright in glass
vessels with perpendicular sides, containing a suflicient quantity of
clean water completely to immerse their bases, in vain attempt to effect
an escape from them in a still atmosphere; all their efl'orts to accom-
plish their desired object, though perseveringly persisted in, proving
quite unavailing when they are placed under a glass shade, or in any
situation where the air is not liable to be disturbed. However, should
individuals thus insulated be exposed to a current of air, either natur-
ally or artificially produced, they instantly turn the abdomen in the
direction of the breeze, and emit from the spinners a little of their
viscid secretion, which, being carried out in a line by the current, be-
comes connected with some object in the vicinity, and aftbrds them the
means of regaining their liberty. This line uniformly moves in the
direction and with the velocity of the stream of air ; but if, while pro-
ceeding from the spinners, it be subjected to the action of a lateral or
opposing current, it immediately becomes deflected from its course by
the new. impulse thus imparted to it.

I may here remark that numerous species belonging to various^
genera of spiders, — -Drassus ater, Clniflo similis, Ergatis latens, Tegena-
ria civilis, Cuelotes saxatilis, Dysdera crythrina, and Oonops pulcher, for
example, — though provided with highly organized spinners, yet do not
appear to be endowed with the instinct to avail themselves of a current
of air for the purpose of transmitting their lines to a distance.

The manner in which the lines of spiders are drawn out from the

48 Facts in the Physiology of Sjyiders and Insects. — BlachweU.

spinners by a current of air admits of an easy explanation. As a
preparatory measure the extremities of the spinners are brought into
contact, and viscid matter is emitted from tlie papilla; ; they are then
separated by a lateral motion, which extends the viscid matter into
filaments connecting the papillae ; on these filanieuts the current im-
pinges, drawing them out to a length which is regulated by the will of
the animal, and on the extremities of the spinners being again brought
together, the filaments coalesce and form one compound line.

The only legitimate deduction from the foregoing experiments,
which have been frequently repeated under every variety of circum-
stances likely to affect the result, appears to be that the lines produced
by spiders are not propelled from the spinners by any physical power
possessed by those animals, but that they are invariably drawn from
them by the mechanical action of external forces.

Sec 2. The importance of the greatly diversified form of the re-
markable organs connected with the radial and digital joints of the palpi
of male spiders, in aftbrding valuable specific characters in numerous cases
in which species so closely resemble each other in size, color and econ-
omy, as scai'cely to be distinguished, except by minute differences in their
external structure, is beginning to be duly appreciated by arachnolo-
gists, whose attention hitherto has been almost exclusively directed to
investigations having for their object the discovery of the function
performed by those organs — a highly interesting problem undoubtedly,
the solution of which long continued to exercise the skill and ingenuity
of zootomists and physiologists. Though the palpal appendages are
now known to have a strictly sexual character, and have, in fact, been
demonstrated by experiment to constitute a true intromittent organ,
absolutely essential to fecundation, yet no direct communication has
been ascertained to exist between them and certain vermicular vessels
situated in the abdomen, and usually regarded as testes, whose ducts
terminate in ' the space intermediate between the branchial stigmata.
M. Duges has attempted to oljviate this difficulty by shrewdly suggest-
ing that these parts may have been voluntarily brought together
prior to the act of copulation, and then proceeds to ask, " le conjonc-
ture" (palpal organ) " ferait-il alternativment I'oflice de siphon ab-
sorbant et dorgane ejaculateur ?" — a question which he answers in the
following terms : "cela se pent, mais je n'ai rien pu observer, qui
justifiat directement cette conjecture."

In a concise notice of a work on the habits of the Arachnida, by A.
Menge, given in the "Reports on Zoology," for 1843 and 1844, p. 195,
published by the Ray Society, the following passage occurs : " Copu-
lation. It v.as reserved for the author to solve the physiological

Facts in the Physiology of Spiders and Insects. — Blachwall. 49

enigma which this act had hitherto presented. The spoon-shaped
palpi of the males are in fact the copulative organs, with which they
take the semen from the appropriate openings of the seminal ducts on
the base of the abdomen, and transfer it to the sexual opening of the
female. The procedure is carefully described in various spiders."
Kot having had an opportunity of perusing the work of M. Menge, I
am unable to state the particular observations which have led to a
conclusion so precisely in accordance with the supposition previously
entertained by M. Duges.

This view of the subject I am incompetent either to confirm or
refute, as in the course of extensive and minute investigations I have
not succeeded in observing the act above described ; and yet in
numerous cases it ought to be very apparent, as the shortness of the
palpi would render a strong inflection of the cephalothorax toward
the inferior surface of the abdomen absolutely requisite, before they
could be applied to the part indicated as the seat of the seminal ducts.
I shall conclude these remarks with the statement of a few facts
bearing upon the question, which have come to my knowledge in pur-
suing researches relative to the generation of spiders.

In the act of copulation, the extremity of the organ of each palpus
of the male, in a state of tumefaction, is usually introduced alternately
into the vulva of the female, and that many times in succession, with-
out being once brought into contact with any part of its own abdomen,
though it is very frequently conveyed to the mouth ; and I have ob-
served a male Lycosa higiibris apply its right palpus eighty times, iri
the manner above described, to the vulva of a female (both of which
had been placed in a clean glass phial), without the possibility of Ijring-
ing it into contact with the inferior surface of its abdomen, except by a
very conspicuous change of position ; and as an equal number of similar
acts were performed by the left palpus, we have the extraordinary fact
of the palpal organs being employed 160 times during this greatly pro.
tracted process, unaccompanied by any contact whatever with the part
where the seminal ducts are considered to terminate.

A male Agelena labyrinthica, confined in a phial, spun a small web,
and among the lines of which it was composed I perceived that a drop
of white, milk-like fluid was suspended ; how it had been deposited there I
can not explain, but I observed that the spider, by the alternate appli-
cation of its palpal organs, speedily imbibed the whole of it. Perhaps
the only safe conclusion to be drawn from this very remarkable circum-
stance, taken in connection with the previously well ascertained office
of these parts, is, that it affords a complete answer in the affirmative
to the question, asked by M. Duges, namely, "le conjoncture ferait-il
alternativement I'office de siphon absorbant et d'orgaue ejaculateur ?''

50 Facti in the Phydology of Spiders and Inseda. — Blackwall.

Sec. 3. My explanation of the means Avliereby various animals are
supported in their movements on the vertical surfaces of highly pol-
ished bodies having recently been called in question, I am induced to
offer a few remarks in vindication of its accuracy.

Mr. Tuffen West, in treating "On certain Appendages to the Feet
of Insects subservient to Holding or Climbing,'' advocates the hypoth-
esis, that the papilla; distributed over the inferior surface of the pulvilli
of flies and other species of the class Insecta act separately as indepen-
dent suckers, adhesion being assisted by the emission from each of a
small quantity of fluid. This view of the subject, being absolutely
irreconcilable Avith the results of observations and experiments re-
garded as having established a wholly different conclusion, I am not
prepared to adopt. That fluid is emitted from the papilla connected
with the pulvilli of the house-fly and flesh-fly when in motion is un-
questionable, as finely pulverized nitrate of silver brought into contact
. with those parts is immediately acted upon by it ; but that its agency
is merely to effect a more complete vacuum between the climbing ap-
paratus and the plane of position is evidently inadmissible. This fluid,
which appears to possess a moderate degree* of viscidity, assumes a
gelatinous consistency when coagulated by exposure to the atmosphere,
and by its adhesive property enables animals provided with the requi-
site organs to move with facility and security on the vertical surfaces
of dry, highly polished bodies. In confirmation of the exijlanation of
the phenomenon here insisted on, many fiicts might be advanced ; but
it will suffice, in the present instance, to direct attention to one, the
decisive character of which can not be mistaken.

That flies are not supported on the vertical sides of highly polished
bodies by the pressure of the atmosphere, experiments Avith the air-
pump plainly demonstrate ; for they can not only traverse the upriglit
sides and the interior of the dome of an exhausted receiver, Avhile their
. j)hysical energy is unimpaired, but individuals occasionally remain fixed
to the sides of the glass after they have entirely lost the poAver of lo-
comotion— a circumstance Avhich can only be explained by admitting
the adhesive property of the fluid emitted from the extremity of the
papillse on the inferior surface of their pulvilli.

To the same cause must also be attributed the poA\-er of spiders that
are provided Avith scopulae or tarsal brushes, to run Avith celerity on the
A'ertical surfaces of highly polished bodies, as those instruments consist
of numerous appendages, slightly curved doAA-nward, and someAvhaten.
larged toward their extremity, Avhich is densely covered on its inferior
surface with minute, hair-like papilla^ for the emission of a viscid fluid,
but which, from their organization, can not possibly contribute to the
formation of a vacuum.

Movements of Insects. — BlachvaU. 51

The foregoing solution of this interesting physiological problem I
have reason to believe is applicable not to insects ami spiders alone,
but also to some species of reptiles.

Facts Relative to the Movements of Insects on Dry, Polished, Vertical
Surfaces. By John Blackwall, F.L.S. [From Journal of Lin-
iiaeau Society, vol. viii., p. 136.]

As objections continue to be urged against the opinion that flies and
other insects of various species are enabled to move on the vertical
surfaces of highly polished bodies, by the emission of an adhesive
fluid from the numerous, hau'-like papillae distributed over the inferior
surface of their pulvilli, the statement of a feAv plain facts for the con-
sideration of dissentients, and especially of those who still advocate the
hypothesis, that flies, in such instances as those referred to above, are
supported in their movements mainly by the pressure of the atmos-
phere, may, perhaps, be deemed deserving of attention.

Without the slightest intention to undervalue the importance of
microscopic researches into the organization of the parts in question, I
may be permitted to remark that the careful observation of phenomena
and judiciously selected and skillfully conducted experiments afford
equal if not superior advantages with regard to the determination of
the function they perform ; and that the two methods of investigatic n
should be pursued contemj)oraneously, and, as for as opportunities
will admit, in combination.

Having clearly ascertained, by repeated inspections of the pulvilli of
flies under the microscope, both in a state of action and repose, that a
vacuum can not possibly be formed between them and smooth surfaces
to whicli they are applied, unless the papilla; with which they are pro-
vided separately contribute to produce such an effect, it was imme-
diately perceived that a decisive test of the truth or fallacy of this
conjecture might be obtained by means of the air-pumji, and the result
of its application was to demonstrate, not only that flies can traverse
the upright sides and the interior surface of the dome of an exhausted
receiver, while their physical energy is unimpaired, but also to estab-
lish the important fact that individuals occasionally remain fixed to
the sides of the glass after they have entirely lost the power of loco-
motion, a circumstance which admits of only one explanation, namely,
that an adhesive fluid is emitted from the extremity of their papilla^.
The' sole suggestion hitherto advanced, which has even the appearance
of at all affecting the validity of the conclusion thus arrived at, is, that
the specific gravity of flies is so low that a very slight degree of

52 3Iovements of Liseds. — Blackivall.

adhesive power is sufficient to sustain tlieni in the position they
occupy ; but, low as it undoubtedly is, it greatly exceeds that of
atmospheric air, and it is evident that the efficiency of the adhesive
agency to support them on a polished, vertical surface in vanio, thus con-
ceded, must be ample to enable them to move on the glass of our windows
in perfect security, under ordinary circumstances, without the adventi-
tious aid of atmospheric pressure ; the question of specific gravity,
therefore, may be safely eliminated as being of no moment in any
attempt to solve this interesting physiological problem.

The argument so much relied upon by opponents, is, that if flies
retained their position on polished, vertical surfaces by means of an
adhesive fluid emitted from the hair-like papillae on the inferior surface
of their pulvilli, they would, after remaining long in any situation,
be unable to quit it by any muscular effort they could employ,
"without seriously injuring those delicate parts, in consequence of the
tenacity that the fluid would acquire by dessication ; -whereas, it is well
known that their movements are not in the least impeded by this cir-
cumstance. Plausible as this reasoning is, it appears to be based on
the erroneous supjwsition that the properties of the fluid resemble
those of animal glue, or vegetable gum, an assumption which is at
variance with all the particulars that have been ascertained in connec-
tion with the phenomenon ; in fact, the fluid merely assumes a gelatin-
ous consistency on exposure to the atmosphere, and is readily removed
from the pulvilli, when redundant, by the customary mode of cleans-
ing those organs employed by insects, which it could not possibly be
were it of the tenacity implied by the foregoing conjecture.

That flies are unal^le to walk on polished, vertical surfaces when
breathed upon, till the aqueous vapor expelled from the lungs is copi-
ousl}^ condensed thereon is an acknowledged fact ; but it does not ap-
pear to be known that when thus treated they can not even retain the
position they occupy, whether they make any visible effort to do so or
not, a circumstance that seems to be quite inexplicable on the hypo-
thesis that they are sujDported by the agency of atmospheric pressure,
but which admits of a satisfactory explanation on the principle of a
solvent fluid acting upon a gelatinous and moderately adhesive animal
secretion ; and these remarks apply to numerous species of insects, and
also to spiders provided with scopuke ; but the latter, when they per-
ceive their footing to be insecure, frequently attach themselves to the
spot by emitting from their spinners a little of the viscid material of
which their silken lines are formed, that possesses the property of being
insoluble in water.

In spring, summer, and autumn, house flies may frequently be seen

Movements of Insects. — BlachmlL 53

adhering so firmly to the upright surfixce of the glass of ^vinclo^v5 that
they are incapable of extricating themselves, though they make every
exertion to accomplish that object, yet, when breathed upon, till the
aqueous vapor exhaled is condensed about them, they speedily foil
from the spot to which they were previously attached so strongly.
Now, that this remarkable affection of the house-fly can not be caused
solely by a low state of atmospheric temperature, as it has been sur-
mised, is evident from the circumstance that it often occurs in the
hottest period of the year ; in the mouths of July and August 1804,
upward of twenty instances of this curious foct were noticed ; it
must be ascribed, therefore, either to feebleness, resulting from some
other cause, or to an increase in the adhesiveness of the fluid emitted
from the papilla in the act of climbing. If it should still be insisted
upon, that the phenomenon is the result of atmospheric pressure, it
behooves the advocates of that hypothesis to explain in what manner
a little condensed vapor causes the liberation of insects that are unable
to accomplish the act by their own unaided eflbrts. That an organ
deemed capable of so entirely expelling the air from the space
between its extremity and smooth surfaces with which it is brought in
contact, so as to produce a vacuum, should yet be incompetent to effect
the exclusion of so dense a fluid as water, does certainly appear to he
in the highest degree improbable.

[The adhesion of flies to the glass of windows and to other surfaces,
toward the end of summer and in autumn, is usually caused by the
growth from the interior of the body of a parasitic fungus (^SporemlO'
nema miiscce, Fries : Empusa muscce, Cohn.) — G. B.]

The promptness and celerity of the movements of flies in an inverted
position, or with their backs downward, on highly polished surfaces,
and the certainty with which their hold is immediately secured when
they alight upon them, would seem to preclude the possibility of the
employment of muscular force on such occasions, adequate to the
expulsion of the air between their delicate climbing apparatus, and the
plain on which they move, to the extent required for the formation of
an efl[icient vacuum ; but every difficulty is at once obviated by ad-
mitting that a minute quantity of moderately adhesive fluid, whicli
acquires a gelatinous o6nsistency on exposure to the atmosphere, is
emitted from the organs of sustentation. Unexceptionable evidence
that such is the case has been obtained by observing that the extremity
of each papilla becomes cauterized when subjected to the action of
finely pulverized nitrate of silver ; and that insects, when traversing a
vertical surface of glass, leave upon it a visible and enduring trace of
their path, for the better perception of which a lens, having a high de-
gree of magnifying power, should be employed.

54 Katuml Hidory and Hunting of the Beaver.

Though perfectly satisfied that the conclusion deduced by me from
the experiment with the air-pump rests on too secure a basis to ])e sul)-
verted, yet a desire to remove all apparent difficulties which may be
thought to militate against the view that I have promulgated of the
means by which numerous species of insects and spiders, and even some
reptiles, are enabled to move on dry, polished, vertical surfaces, must
serve as my excuse for obtruding once more on the attention of natur-
alists a subject that has been the occasion of so much controversy.

On the Natiiral History and Hunting of the Beaver (Castor canadensis,
Kuhl) on the Pacific Slo2)e of the Eocky 3fountains ; by Ashdoavn
H. Green, Esq. With Supplementary Notes by Egbert Brow^%
Esq.,F.R.G.S. (Communicated by James MuRiE, M.D., F.L.S.)
From Jour, of Proceedings of Linntean Society, vol. x., p. 301.

I have been for three years almost constantly engaged in trapping
beavers, so that what remarks I may have' to make on their habits and
history, though somewhat at variance witli the stereotyped notions
prevalent in compilations, are yet the result of niy own independent
observations.

About January their tracks may be seen in the snow near the outlet
of the lakes where young fir trees grow. At this time they prefer
young fir trees as food to any other kind of tree, the reason, doubtless,
being that at this period the sap has not risen in the willow^ or alder
(Alniis oregana). It is not often that females are caught in the spring;
and the males seem to travel about, as the runs are not used so regu-
larly as they are when the beavers are living near.

Some of the beavers become torpid during January, especially those
living near lakes, swamj:)?, or large sheets of Avater wliich are frozen.
They do not lay in a store of sticks for winter use as stated by Captain
Bonvilie (^Yashington Irving's "Adventures of Captain Bonville"),
as one day's supply of sticks for a single beaver would fill a house — and
if a stick were cut in the autumn, before the Avinter Avas over, it would
have lost its sap, and Avould not be eaten by the beaver. A beaver
never eats the bark of a tree that is dead, though he may guaAV a hard
piece of wood to keep his teeth doAvu. A little grass is generally found
in the houses, but is used as a bed and not for food.

If February is an open month, tlie beavers begin to come 'out of
their retreats, and frequent any running Avater near them ; but it is
generally INIarch before the bulk of them come out of Avinter quarters.
AVhen they come out they are lean; but their furs are still good, and

Natural Hidory and Hunting of the Beaver. 55

continue so till the middle of May— though if a trapper thought of
revisiting the place, he would not trap after April, so as to allow them
to breed quietly.

About the end of iNIarch the beaver begins to " call." Both male?
and females "call" and answer one another. Sometimes on one " call-
ing," half a dozen will answer from different parts of the lake. I have
known beavers to "call" as late as^ August. Males fight during the
rutting-season most fiercely. Hardly a skin is without scars; and
large pieces are often bitten out of their tails. The beaver holds like
a bull dog, but does not snap. It shakes its head so as to tear. When
trapped, it will face a man, dodge a stick, and then seize it, taking
chips out of it at every bite. It seems to attack from behind.

The period of gestation is known with little certainty, as they are
never trapped in sununer. The female brings forth some time about
the end of June ; and it is a year before a beaver is full grown ; and
even then it has not the emhonpoint of an elderly beaver.

I have read that the beaver breeds at any time during the year ; but
this can not be, or all the kittens that are trapped in the fall would
not be of the same size. It produces from three to four at a birth.
The teats are placed between the fore legs. The young (called kittens)
whimper like young puppies when suckling, even when two months
old. The females prefer deep, sedgy lakes to bring their young up in,
and they feed on grass about that time of the year (July or August).
They feed on willow about April, INlay, and June. I can not say
whether they are born blind or not, but suspect so. They are very
fond of Avater-lilies (Nuphar advena, Ait.) in the spring. It is with
me a matter of uncertainty whether. the female litters in a house,
under the ground, or in the dry sedges ; but I should think, under
o-round or in the houses. In the autumn more females are caught
than males. Trapping commences in September, and continues to
]\Iay ; after that the trappers leave them alone, so that I do not know
much about their doings in the summer.

They begin to build their dams about July or August, as soon as
the summer floods begin to subside. For this purpose they generally
choose a bend in the stream, with high and clayey banks, and com-
mence by felling a large tree that will reach across the water; or they
fell a tree on each side of the water, so as to meet in the center. They
then float sticks from 6 to 4 feet long down to the dam, and lay them
horizontally, filling in the spaces with roots, tufts of grass, leaves, and
clay or mud. The branches of the first tree are the perpendicular sup-
ports, almost all the remaining sticks being placed horizontally and
crosswise. The last six or eight inches in height is very insecurely
constructed, being nothing but mud and leaves.

56 Natural History and Huntintj of tlie Beaver.

The highest dam I ever saw was only about 4 feet 6 inches ; but
the generahty of them are not above 2 or 3 feet. The action of the
water, by bringing down mud, gravel, or fallen leaves, strengthens the
dam, by making a sloping bank against it ; and, the willow sticks of
which it is composed sending forth their roots and shoots, the dam in
course of time becomes a fixture, bound together as strongly as well
could be. The winter floods almost invariably destroy the upper part
of the dam, which is reconstructed afresh every year. The shape of
the dam, is almost always semicircular, with the crown of the arch
down stream, thus reversing the prder of things ; but I have no doubt
this is in consequence of the heads of the first or principal trees being
floated down stream when they are first thrown. The body of water
raised by these dams varies, of course, according to the fiill of the
original stream, from a small hole of 20 feet diameter to a lake of miles
in length. In the former case the beaver builds his house close to the
dam, so as to get depth of water, and there saves himself from any
hungry lyanther (Fells eoncolor, L.) or wolf, who might feel inclined to
indulge in beaver meat. The beaver also burrows into the banks of
streams, always taking care to have two entrances, one under (or close
to) the water, and a smaller air-hole on laud. With a good dog capi-
tal sport may be had on some of the smaller rivulets leading into or
out of a lake. The houses are formed of water-logged sticks, placed
horizontally in the water. They have always two or more entrances,
and a small chamber with a little grass for the beaver to lie on. The
top of the house is constructed very thick, to guard against attacks by
animals. Mud and roots are used to make the house solid ; but no
mud is seen from the outside, as the top is covered with loose sticks
left there by the beaver after taking the bark off". The houses are
generally about 4 feet in height, and about 6 feet in diameter on the
outside, and would hold about four beavers, though I have known
small houses to hold two only.

The traps generally used in securing the beaver are large steel traps
with a strong spring at each end, and fastened with a chain, from 4 to
6 feet in length, to a pole, which is stuck in the bottom of the water as
far out as the chain will allow, so that the beaver, when he feels the
trap, may run into deep water ; and as he gets tired, the weight of trap
taking him down, he drowns. A beaver, when trapped, never tries
to get to land, but makes a dive for the deepest water ; and should the
water be shallower than four feet, he will, in a short time, amputate his
foot so as to relieve himself. He always takes his foot oft' at a joint,
and draws the sinews out of his shoulder instead of biting them
through. The stump heals up ; and I think the beaver is none the

Natural Hidory and Huntincj of ihe Beaver. '' 57

worse for it, though he gets shy, and, perhaps, tells the other beavers
to beware of traps. A beaver is generally caught by his fore
foot ; and should the trap be set too deep below water, his toe-nail
only gets caught. The traj) is set in the beaver-run, or just
where it springs into a hole in the bank. It must not be set in
too shallow water, for then he amputates his foot, or in too deep,
for in that case he does not get caught at all, but swims over the
trap. The proper depth to set a trap is 5 inches. The beaver is then
caught by his fore foot. Sometimes the teeth of a beaver are found
to have grown beyond their proper length. I once saw one with the
lower teeth 3^ inches beyond the gums. He Avas caught in a trap,
and was miserably thin ; but, singular enough, he had about the finest
fur I ever saw\ He was an aged animal. It is rare to see a beaver
which has been trapped with its teeth whole, as they are often broken
in trying to get out of the trap. A full-grown beaver weighs about
34 lbs. I am not an anatomist ; but still I do not think there is any-
thing very peculiar about its internal structure, except that the heart
weighs a mere nothing — the cavities being so very large. An old
beaver when shot sinks, a kitten floats. A good skin will weigh 2^
lbs.; but it is very rarely that one weighing that amount is caught in
Vancouver Island. The Hudson's Bay Company give only from 75
to 85 cents per lb. at Victoria for peltries, so that a trapper now-a-days
can not get very fat at the work. There are at present very few
beavers on Vancouver Island or the main-land, compared with what
there must have been some years ago ; but they have been increasing
for the last six years ; and no doubt by the time beaver skins come
into fashion again there will be a plentiful supply.

Supplementary Notes by Mr. Brown.

The following I add as an appendix to the foregoing observations of
my friend, Mr. Green, whose opportunities for studying the animal
were much superior to my own during my travels in Northwest Amer-
ica, and whose account is valuable as being the plain unvarnished
notes of a hunter — a narration of facts very familiar to him, Avritten
with no reference to preconceived notions or received theories. First,
therefore, regarding the range of the beaver. It is found all over
British Columbia, Oregon, Washington Territory, and even south to
California, and north to the limit of trees. It is not, however, found,
as far as I can learn, in the Queen Charlotte Islands, but is abundant
in Vancouver Island, though, curiously enough (in such a manner is
history written). Colonel Colquhoun Grant, in his " Description of
Vancouver Island" (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol.

58 ^ Natural HUtory and Hunting of the Beaver.

xxvii., p. 268), mentions that he has seen traces, and was not aware
that the animal itself had been found. The fact of the matter is, he
could have found abundance not far from his own door. Near Vic-
toria, in jMr. Yales' Swamp, and in one near Dr. Tolmie's, are several
Ijeavers ; and on the road to Cadborough Bay there are, in a small
stream near where the road crosses, the remains of an old dam. In
the interior they are almost everywhere abundant and on the increase,
lii a swam2:)y lake near the mouth of the Cowichan Lake we found
many; and an extensive swamp near the entrance of the Puntledge
Lake was a great stronghold. On Young's Creek, flowing into the
same lake, were many dams. In the spring of 1866, when crossing
the island from Fort Rupert to the head of Quatseeuo Sound with
some Indians, a great portion of our route lay among these beaver
ponds and dams. All through this district beavers swarm. The
camps of the Indians were full of them ; and the women laid before
us the daintiest pieces of the meat, or exhibited to their white visitor
all sorts of curiosities in the shape of foetal beavers and beaver's teeth
with which they were gambling, using marked ones in much the same
manner as our dice. At the Hudson Bay Company's Fort we lived
upon beaver during that spring — beaver roasted and beaver broiled ;
beaver tail and beaver joint ; beaver morning, noon, and night ! In
regard to the beavers' houses, I am forced to come to the conclusion
either that travelers who have written regarding the beaver in the
country east of the Rocky Mountains have woefully taken advantage
of a traveler's license, having listened to mere hearsay wonders with-
out seeing for themselves, or that the habits of the beaver differ much
in different parts of the country.

It is only after they have been pointed out to you that the "houses"
can be recognized, as they seem like loose bundles of sticks lying on
the water. In a recent account of the beaver in the British provinces
in North America, by an anonymous writer, the houses are described
as being exactly the same as I have seen them in the West, and not
plastered domes. The vigilance of the little builders is so great, that
it is rarely, unless closely watched 'for a long time, that they can be
seen. A passing traveler rarely surprises them at their work.

My friend, John Tod, chief trader in the Hon. Hudson's Bay Com-
pany's service, during a long residence at Fort M'Leod (a post of that
Fur Company, situated in the northern portion of British Columbia),
has communicated to me his observations, which, differing in some
respects, substantiate in the main those of Mr. Green. The beaver
has from four to ten young — most often four, sometimes eight, rarely
ten. It carries its young six months. It produces in May. When the

Natural H'ldory and Hunting of the Beaver. . 59

female is sroiug to have younsr the male takes the vouuo" of last year
(for sometimes as many a.s three generations will remain around the
paternal abode), and goes up a river several miles, remaining there
until the female has produced.

The dams here, as everywhere else, are perfectly constructed, and
with an opening in the middle for the current. The only approach to
plastering their houses, which I have observed, is its giviug a self-
satisfied "clap'' of the tail on laying do^vn its load. The loads are
carried between the top of the fore paws and the under surface of the
head. The trailing of the tail along the ground gives the vicinity the
appearance of being plastered. The house has two flats ; the Ijottom
one is on a level with the water ; the top one is used to sleep in, and
has communication with the water through the bottom. The top one
has direct communication with the land. Sometimes they live in
merely a tunnel or cave. In winter the Indians go along the edge of
the ice, sounding with a stick ; and wherever there is the opening of
one of these tunnels, the sound being different, he watches and plugs
up the opening. If these holes or tunnels are used as escapes from
the houses, they break into the latter. If the beaver is not in, the
Indian makes a hole in the ice. He then makes a great noise, and
watches the rippling of the water to see if he is there, because his
motion will have that effect. When alarmed he generally rushes for
his hole ; and finding it closed, he is often shot in his endeavor to
escape. In trajyping, some strong-smelling stuff (commonly castoreum
in rum or cinnamon) is spread on the path. The trap is then set in
the water, close to the bank, and covered with about four inches of
water. The beaver, attracted by the strong-smelling substance, gives
an approving slap of his tail, and starts off, if anywhere in the neigh-
borhood, to investigate the booty ; and as he is leaving the water,
gives a "purchase," so as to spring up the bank on the very place
where the trap is concealed. His food is principally willows. The
bark is preferred, though the wood is eaten when nothing else can be
got. It will gnaw through thick trees, apparently for the top foliage ;
for immediately the tree falls the beavers spring on the branches of
it. A stump showing beaver-gnawing is not unlike Indian chopping
(small irregular chops) ; and novices in the back woods often mistake
them for Indian "sitrn." Laro;e trees are universally felled so as to
fail Avith the head to land, because, if required for floating down, the
branches would impede it being floated off, while the difficulty of
dragging it down is not so great, over and above the fact of the imped-
ing branches being easily gnawed off. Much ingenuity is displayed to
effect the fall of the tree in the proper position. I have often, in my
walks and sails along the solitaiy rivers of the western wilds, seen

60 Natural History and Huntinrj of the Beaver.

three or four beavers piloting a large tree clown stream, and noticed
that when they were approaching its destination they shoved it into
the eddies inshore. They always cut down the trees above their lodges,
never on any occasion below. In winter they have a store of food secured
at some convenient distance frovi their abodes. "When they require any
they start off to get it. They do not eat there, but bring it to their
house, and there make their meal. Of the almost human intelligence
of the "thinking beaver" the stories are innumerable ; but many of
them are much exaggerated, or even fabulous (such as BufFon's
account). The following is tolerably well authenticated, ray inform-
ants vouching for the accuracy of it : In a creek about four miles
above the' mouth of Quesnelle river, in British Columbia, some miners
broke down a dam, in the course of the operation for making a ditch,
at the same time erecting a wheel to force up the water. Beavers
abounded on this stream, and found themselves much inconvenienced
by these proceedings. Accordingly, it is said that, in order to stop
the wheel, the beavers placed a stick between the flappers, in such a
way as to stop the revolutions of the wheel. This was so continually
repeated night after night, and was so artfully performed, as to pre-
clude the possibility of its being accidental.

In " j^otes on the Habits of the Beaver," presented to the Eoyal
Physical Society by Mr. James M'Kenzie, of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany's service, and to all appearance most careful and trustworthy
details are given, differing somewhat from those related by IMessrs.
Green (in the foregoing paper) and Tod.

When I lived among the Opicheshaht Indians, at the head of the
Alberni Canal, V. I., I heard much about Attoh, the beaver, but
remarkably little to the credit of its sagacity. They look upon it as
a common-place animal, requiring no particular skill to trap. They
used to tell us all sorts of stories about it ; but I think they all con-
tain a vein of fiction. Mr. G. M. Sproat has gathered some of this
information into his excellent " Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,"
to wliich I refer. The beavers lie in these houses, as the Indian
expresses it, "like boys;" but when the female has young ones, she
goes into a separate bed or chamber, I could not ascertain Avhich.
There is no storv in a beaver-house for convenience of chausre in ca?e
of floods ; the waste-way is generally sufficient to carry off" any extra-
ordinary quantity of water. In the Alberni country, at least, the
houses on the banks of lakes are abandoned when the water is very
high ; and the beavers go to small streams, which they form into a
succession of diminutive lakes ; in these they breed. He sleeps dur-
ing the day, and comes out at night to feed. He can not see far, Init
he is keen of scent. The Opicheshaht approach to leeward at night,

Natural History and Hunting of tlie Beaver. 61

and spear the beaver, from a canoe, as he floats, eating a branch taken
from the shore ; or they shoot him Avhen he is in shallow water, but
not in deep water, as he sinks on receiving the shot. They also block
up the opening into his house, break through the wall, and shoot or
spear him.

The flesh of the beaver, especially when first smoked and then
roasted, is not at all unwelcome as an article of food. The tail, when
boiled, is a noted article of trappers' luxury, though, forsooth, if the
truth must be told, rather gristly and fiit, and rather too much for the
stomach of any one but a northwestern hunter or explorer. "He is
a devil of a fellow," they say, on the Rocky Mountain slopes ; he can eat
two heavers^ tails!" The scrapings of a beaver's skin form one of the
strongest descriptions of glue. The Indians at Fort jNI'Leod's Lake
use it to paint their paddles ; and the water does not seem to affect it.

When beaver was 308. per lb., Rocky-Mountain beavers were
piled up on each side of a trade gun until they v.ere on a level
with the muzzle, and this was the price ! The muskets cost in
England some 15.5. These were the days of the "free trapper" —
joyous, brave, generous, and reckless — the hero of romance, round
whom many a tale of daring circles, the love of the Indian damsel, the
beau ideal of a man, in the eyes of the half-breed, whose ambition
never rose higher than a coureur de bois — a class of men who, with all
their failings, we can not but be sorry to see disappearing from the fur
countries. The fall of beavers' peltry rang their death-knell ; and, as
a separate profession, trapping is almost extinct, being nearly altogether
followed, at uncertain spells, by the Indians and lower class of half-
breeds. The world is fast filling in ; the emigrant, with his bullock-
team and his plough, is fast destroying all the romance of the far
West — fast filling up with the stern prose of the plow and the reap-
ing-machine and the whistle of steam what was once only claimed by
the pleasant poetry of the songs of the voyageur, the coiireur de bois —
the hunters and trappers of the great fur companies ! But perhaps it
is better after all !

The beaver is easily domesticated, and learns to eat any vegetable
matter, but requires water occasionally. One kept at Fort M'Leod
got blind : but if it got access to water, it laved some on its eyes, and
generally in an hour quite recovered its sight. It used to gather car-
penter's shavings together, and carry them to the door ; if the door
was shut, it forced them up against it, finishing with a slap of its tail,
as jf it were building a dam. It had a great antipathy to the Lidians.
It would come into the Indian Hall, where the natives were seated, as
is their wont, back to the wall. It would first take their fire-bag, then
their axe, and so on until it had carried everything to the door.

02 Natural History and Hunting of the Beaver.

greatly to the amusement of the Indians. It would then attempt
vigorously to eject the owner of the articles. Its "weakness" for gnaw-
ing exhibited itself in a very ^unpleasant manner ; for occasionally, in
the morning, the whole of the furniture was prostrate, the beaver hav-
ing gnawed through the legs of the tables and chairs !

This leads jue to remark that the beaver might be easily natu-
ralized again in Britain ; and though I can not recommend them in
the light of a drawing-room pet, yet I can conceive no more pleas-
ant inhabitant of our lakes and rivers. We must remember
that at one time the beaver was an inhabitant of these islands,
but became nearly extinct. This was, of course, not the Castor
Gmadensis, but the C. fiber, Linn. ; for the remains found in
Britain have now been decided to befong to the latter species, which is,
I believe, not yet altogether extinct in Scandinavia. We have, however,
historical accounts of its former abundance in this country ; and I can
not better conclude these desultory notices than by recapitulating the
information we possess regarding it as a former inhabitant of the
British Isles, referring for a inore particular account of it as a Scottish
animal, extinct within historic periods, to Dr. Charles Wilson's " Ke-
searches on Castoreum and the Beaver in Scotland." The earliest
notice of it we know is in the ninth century, viz., in the Welsh Laws
of Hywel Dha, where we read of it even then as a rare or valued
animal of the chase ; for while the marten's skin is valued at twenty-
four pence, the otter's at only twelve pence, that of the Llosdlydan,
or beaver, is valued at the great sum of one hundred ai\d twenty
pence, or at five times the price of the marten's, or ten times the price
of the Otter's. It thus seems, even in the times of the heptarchy, to
have been on the decrease ; its sun had early begun to set. In the
year 1158, Giraldus de Barri (or, as he is variously called, Sylvester
Giraldus, or Giraldus Cambriensis), in his droll account of the itinera-
tion he made through Wales, in company with Baldwin, Archbishop
of Canterbury (Avho journeyed thither in order to stir up the Welsh
to join in the Crusades, and who afterward followed the train of Rich-
ard Coeur de Leon, and fell before Acre), tells us that in his day it
was only found on the river Teivi, in Cardiganshire, and gives a
curious account of its habits, derived in part from his own observa-
tions. In John Ray's time many of the places in the neighborhood of
the river bore the name of Llymjraf range, or the Beaver Lake, and
for all we know to the contrary, may to this day. About the same
time it was i:)robably known in Scotland, but only as a rare animal.
Hector Boece (or Boethius, as his name has been Latinized), that
shrewd old father of Scottish historians, enumerates the fihri, or bea-
vers, with perfect confidence, as among the inliabitants of Loch IS^ess,

Natural Sistonj and Hunting of the Beaver. 63

whose fur was in request for exportation toward the close of the
fifteenth century ; and he even goes further, and talks of an " incom-
parable number," though perhaps he may be only availing himself of
a privilege which moderns have taken the liberty of granting to
mediaeval authors when dealing with curious facts. Belleudan, in a
translation of Boethius' -'Croniklis of Scotland," which he undertook
at the request of James YI., about the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury, while omitting stags, roedeer, and even otters, in his anxi^ety
for accuracy, mentions " bevers," without the slightest hesitation —
" 3Iony ivyld hors and amang yamc are mony matrikis (pine martens),
bevers, quhitredis (weasels) and toddis (foxes) the furrhujs and shja-
nis of thame are coft (bought) ivlth rjret jjrice amang uncouth (foreign)
merchandis." It is, however, more than probable that the worthy his-
torians were influenced by a little national pride when they recorded
the beaver as an inhabitant of Loch Ness in the fifteenth century, as
no mention is made of it in an act dated June, 1424, though martrich,
furmartes (polecats), otters and toddis are specified. They were,
perhaps, so strongly impressed by the wide-spread tradition of its
existence in foi-mer days, as to be led to enumerate it among the ani-
mals of Scotland in those times ; and it may be mentioned in passing
that both worthies boast immoderately of the productions of their
country. At the beginning of this century (at least) the Highlanders
of Scotland had a peculiar name for the animal— Losleathan or
Dobhrau losleathan, " the broad-tailed otter." According to Dr.
Stuart, of Luss, in a letter to the late Dr. Neill, quoted by Prof.
Fleming, a tradition used to exist that the beaver or "broad-tailed
otter" once abounded in Lochaber. That may be so or not ; but at
all events it does not now exist anywhere within the bounds of the
British islands ; and a considerable doubt might be still thrown on
the accounts of the old writers, were not remains continually dug up
in all parts of the country. I would finn hope that in a few years it
may agnin be an inhabitant of our lakes and rivers.

The Cincinnati Group.
The Cincinnati Group is now an established technical terra to desig-
nate that part of the Lower Silurian formation exposed in the West-
ern States that was formerly called either the Trenton limestone, ov
the Hudson River Group. It is the equivalent of the Hudson Eiver
Group, and probably part or all of the Trenton Group. The black
slate or Utica shale found in New York and in Canada, between the
Trenton and Hudson Eiver Groups, is wanting in the Western States,
and it is therefore impracticable to have the same classification, as
many fossils are common to both groups.

64 The Cincinnati Group.

The exposure at Cincinnati was known for many years as the Tren-
ton Group, both at home and abroad. Prof. Hall, of New York, and
Sir Charles Lyell, both considered it as the equivalent of the Trenton^
Later, however, Prof. Hall and others regarded it as the equivalent of
the Hudson River Group ; and, finally, during the progress of the
Geological survey of Illinois, Meek and Worthen proposed to desig-
' nate it as the Cincinnati Group. The reasons urged by them seemed
to be satisfactory to all naturalists and geologists of the country, and
the name was quickly adopted by the Indiana and Ohio geologists. It
is now as firmly established as the name of any group belonging toauy
formation, and its signification as fully comprehended.

The only subdivision of the Cincinnati Group, founded either upon
the stratigraphical appearance or fossil contents of the rocks that has
yet been ascertained, is marked by the wave-like rocks at an elevation
of about two hundred feet above low water-mark at Cincinnati, and
even such a subdivision would be, to say the least, of very doubtful
utility. These wave-like rocks are composed in a very large part of
fragments of crinoids, principally of the Ileteroainoiis simplex, and
appear to have been formed by the action of the waves in first break-
ing to j)ieces the animal skeletons, and then leaving them in ridges, as
if to mark for all future time the coarse of the waves. These rocks
are found in all the hills about Cincinnati, and as far east as Plainville.
They have not yet been examined with that care necessary to deter-
mine whether they all mark the same course, or substantially the
same course, of the waves, but many of them have a north and south
direction, thus indicating an east and west wave, if it be true that
they are the result of the action of waves.

A number of fossils are found below these rocks that have thus far
not been found above them, and, on the other hand, many have been
found above that have not been found below. Among those found
below, ami not known above, are Triarthrus Beckii, Leptoholus lejy'is,
Modiolopm anodontoides, Ambonychia bellistriata, Orthis emacerata, and
the undescribed crinoid with the unusually smooth column. The fos-
sils found above that are not found below are too numerous to mention.
The fossils which are common to both elevations comprise more than
half of all those found below these rocks. And vet on further exam-
ination it may appear that the causes which led to the formation of
these ^^ aves on the rocks also caused a considerable change in the ani-
mals that inhabited the ocean at this place. At present, however,
there is too little known on which to base definite conclusions, or to
found a subdivision that would be of any advantage to the collector,
or to science.

Harvey B. Holl — On Fossil Sponges. 60

.Oh Fo.'<.-''d Sponges. — [From the London Geological Magazine, vol. ix.,

pp. 309-343, July and August, 1872. By Harvey B. Holl, M.D.,

F.G.S.]

I. Introduction. — It has been said, with some degree of trufh,
that our knowledge of the low^er forms of life has advanced 7)a7-ipass». with
the improvements in the construction of microscopes ; and, no douV)t,
very considerable progress has been made in some departments of
investigation within the last few years. In the vegetable kingdom
more especially has this been the case; and with respect to animals,
the structui-e of the Protozoa has been especially elucidated by able
observers, the Spongiadne chiefly by the labors of Dr. Bowcrbank.

Among the lower forms of extinct life progress has necessarily been
slower, especially as regards the sponges ; for although new forms have
been described from time to time, the group collectively has never
received that strict treatment of which it seems capable. Much has
yet to be done toward the attainment of a better knowledge of their
structure, mode of growth, and variation in form within the limits of
the species, and not until this has been accomplished can a right
understanding of the true affinities of the several members of the
group be arrived at, or any successful attempt made at arrangement of
the species and genera.

The little interest which appears to attach to the study of fossil
sptniges may possibly be due, in great measure, to the difficulties which
lie in the way of a rigid determination of the species. This is owing
to the inconstancy of the characters on which specific distinctions have
been based ; and consequently an enormous number of species have
been created, the described characters of which are in many cases
equally applicable to other forms, which are, nevertheless, totally dis-
tinct. Hence the subject is involved in a confusion which is rendered
still more perplexing by the circumstance, that many of the original
types on which the descriptions were based can no longer be traced.
The means, therefore, of identifying the species is by no means easy,
and in some cases it is impossible to identify them. As an example, \vc
may mention the Spongites elavellatus, Mantell, from the chalk, of which
there are two distinct forms, the one composed of a network of inoscu-
lating fibers, the other constituted entirely of branched and tubercu-
lated spiculte. The same may be said of the sponges included in the
genera Ckenendopova, D'Orb., Cupidospongia, D'Orb., etc., some of
which are spicular, and others fibrous, and yet are precisely similar in
their general appearance. In all these cases there are no means of
clearing up the doubt, except by reference to the original type.

6G Harvey B. Holl — On Fossil Sponges.

Like their living uimlogues, tlie fossil sponges are liable to great
variation in form, and other external and obvious characters ; and the
remarks of Dr. BoAverbank on this subject are equally applicable to the
extinct as to the living species : ["There is no class of animals in -which
the form varies to so great an extent (as the living sponges) according
to difference of locality or other circumstances ; and even where there
is a striking noi'mal form, it is rarely thoroughly developed until the
animal has reached its full maturity." Spongiche (Ray Soc. ) vol. 1, p.
o. "As a generic character, form is inadmissible, inasmuch as each
variety of it is found to prevail indiscriminately in genera differing
structurally to the greatest possible extent.' [Ibid, p. 156.] Yet, on
external characters alone nearly all the generic and specific distinctions
of the fossil sponges have been framed, and very slight variation in
external configuration, in the disposition of the oscules, or even in the
geological position, has been thought sufficient for the creation of dis-
tinct species. Nevertheless, if we except the Foraminifera, there is
no class of animals in which the outward characters are less stable,
and like these, in conformity with the same low state of organization,
there are none that have enjoyed longer range in geological time.

The insufficiency of mere external character for the purpose of dif-
ferentiating the sjDonges, and the consequent difficulty experienced in
framing specific descriptions precise enough for their identification has
been long felt. This renders it desirable to discover, in the miuuter
structure, characters of a more permanent nature. With respect to
the living s.ponges, this has indeed been done, more or less successfully,
by Dr. Bowerbauk. He finds " in the skeleton and in the form and
disposition of the spiculie, characters which, however Protean the form
and color of the sponge may be, can always be recognized with cer-
tainty." Can the same means be made available for the extinct spe-
cies ? Obviously there will be many difficulties in the way, for in the
latter we have to deal with the skeleton alone, modified by fossilization ;
whereas in the former all the structures are in a condition admitting; of
minute investigation. Nevertheless, very conimonly, enough of the
minute structure can be made out in the fossil to render it a most im-
portant means of discriminating the species. The external appearance
is all Init valueless for this purpose.

II. Prior to the time of D'Orbigny no attempt had been made to
systematize the genera established by Lamoureux, Goldfuss, De Blain-
ville, Michelin, Reuss, and others. M. D'Orbigny, however, conceiv-
ing that the fossil sponges had for the most part an organization en-
tirely distinct from that of the recent species, divided De Blainville's
class Amorphozoa, into two orders, viz., the Jwrnyand the stony sponges.

Harvey B. Holl — On Fossil Sponges. 67

The former- contained but a single genus, Cliona ; the latter he subdivi-
ded into five families, based entirely upon external characters, viz.:
1, the OceUarid(c ; 2, the Siphonida^ ; 3, the Lymmrklce; 4, the ^par-
sispongidcc; and 5, the Amorphospongidce. At the same time he pro-
posed many new genera. These were constituted partly of species
which had been distributed by his predecessors among genera estab-
.lished on recent forms by Lamarck and Sehweigger, and adopted for
fossil species by Dr. Goldfuss.

Pictet, and more lately De Fromen telle, have followed D'Orbigny in
the view which he took respecting the stony character of the skeleton
of the fossil sponges. The Fetrospongida; of Pictet, and the Spongitaria
of the French author, correspond to the " Amorpliozoaires a squelette
iestaci " of D'Orbigny. M. Etallon also entertains the same view.
He includes among the fossil horny sponges none but the Clionidre ;
and in speaking of the Petrospongidce observes, that the skeleton is solid
" like that of the Zoantharia, and formed doubtless in the same man-
ner," In fact, nearly all the authors, with the exception of ]MM. Cap-
ellini and Pagenstecher, appear to entertain similar views respecting
the nature of the skeleton in this large group of fossil species. D'Or-
bigny and De Fromentelle maintained that the fossil sponges had origi-
nally a solid, unyielding skeleton. This opinion was partly based on
the supposition that they would not otherwise have escaped compres-
sion, and partly on the circumstance that Polyzoa, Serpulse, Ostreidaj,
etc., frequently found attached parasitically to the surface of the sponge,
have been observed to exhibit the worn appearance produced by the
rolling of hard bodies on the sea bed. Moreover, they say that com-
pressed specimens show more or less distinctly the signs of fracture.
But while this may be true of some of those sponges that had a solid
siliceous framework, it certainly is not generally the case, and exam-
ples of Hippalimus, Ischadites, Moiiierxa, and many other sponges,
more or less distorted by compression, are sufficiently abundant. That
they should not — especially the cup-shaped sponges — be more often
compi-essed than they are, may perhaps be a matter of surprise. But
this is probably due to the circumstance that the fine muddy sediment
in which they were entombed had so insinuated itself into the inter-
spaces of the sponge as to afford an equal amount of support on all
sides. [The compression often observed in fossils, especially those of
the older rocks, is probably due to the squeezing to which they have
been subjected in the change of position and contortion of the beds in
which they occur, rather than to the dead weight of the superimposed
sediment. It is now well known that starfish and other soft animals,
even at the great depths of mid ocean, are not compressed, owing to the

68 Havveij B. Hull — On Fossil Sponges.

pressure being applied equally on all parts. Prof. Surs dredged
.sponges, actinozoa, true molluscs and worms at a depth of 800 I'atli-
oms, and the Swedish deep sea dredges, in the expedition to Spitzber-
gen, brought up crustacea, mollusca, and annelides at depths of from
0,000 to 8,400 feet. Quoted in the Intellectual Observer for Dec,
1866, p. 400, from Annals of Nat. History.] Moreover, some further
explanation will suggest itself when speaking of the sponges of Far-
ringdoD, and the manner in which fo.ssilization of the sponge appears
to have often taken place.

Whether Polyzoa and other parasites are really more frequent on
the fossil than on the recent sponge, is a question I am not prepared to
answer. But M. De Fromentelle is certainly not correct in saying that
tliey never occur upon recent sponges; and very frequently the adhe-
sion of the parasites to the fossil sponge is more apparent than real,
being produced solely by the cementing influence of fossilization, and
by the nature of the matrix in which they are imbedde<l. In any case,
unless the Polyzoa grew upon dead individuals, the nature of the
skeleton could have had no influence upon the parasite, as, whatever
it may have been, it was equally invested by the sarcode of the animal.
That the serpulre and ostreidte sometimes become attached to the
sp )nge while living is apparent from their having become partially
embedded in the sponge tissue which has grown over them ; but it is so
also with recent sponges : and as regards the worn appearance of the
parasites and other foreign bodies occasionally found attached to the
sponge, it is quite possible that they may have undergone attrition be-
fore they became adherent ; and, moreover, the fossil itself may have
been derived from jn-e-existing deposits, as were the Oalitic forms
found in the gravels of Farringdon.

But there is, in fact, no real ground for assuming with D'Orbigny
and others that the skeleton of the fossil sponges was necessarily always
solid and resisting, like that of the recent Dadylocahjx, Stucth, the
Farrea of Bowerb., etc. Many of the siliceous sponges no doubt were
so ; but as regards the calcareous ones it may be observed that among
recent species, according to Bowerbankj "carbonate of lime, as an
•elem.ent of the skeleton, is known only in the form of spicula." h\
some cases, as will be shown hereafter, the fibers or twigs were origi-
nally complex, formed of bundles of spicula, like the twigs in many
of the recent species, and were afterward consolidated more or less
• completely by the fossilizing process. But there is no evidence that
in others it may not have been keratose, either with or without the
•accessory spicuja. Some of our recent horny sponges are not less resist-
.ant than the solid siliceous fibrous species, and are certainly less fria-

Harveij B. Hnll—Oit Fo.<^Al Sponger.

69

ble. Ill the fossil, however, the horny fiber is rephiccd by silica lime,
or iron. That the tissue in the fossil is not iclentical Avith that of tin-
original sponge, may be inferred from the circumstance that we com-
monly find all the sponges from one locality, or one deposit, in the same
mineral condition. Thus, all those from the carboniferous limestone of
the Great Orme's Head are silicified ; but so also are the associate
Zoophytes, Conchifera and Gasteropods, etc. All the sponges fj'ora the
Farringdon green sand are calcareous, while those of Warminster are
all siliceous. The sponges of the English Oolite are all calcareous :
those of the chalk are either silicified or else in the state of moulds or
casts, the walls of which are stained with peroxide of iron. [Both
Lchadites and Phjlospongia occurred to Eichwald sometimes calcified, and
sometimes converted into bisulphuret of iron, more or less peroxidized.
His Manon deforine from GherikoflT, was silicified, while the examples of
the same species from the environs of Poulkowa were all calcified.
Lethcea Eossica, p. 339. Ischadifes Kcmicju occurs in our British Upper
Silurian rocks, both as a calcareous and a pyritized fossil.]

It has been thought that the iron staining of the moulds and their
refilling with pyrites renders it probable that in the original sponge the
fiber was keratose. That in the horny sponges pyritous casts may be
more frequent than in the others is highly probable, but the amount of
sulphur in the keratose is far too small to enter into combination with
all the iron in the cast in accordance with the theory implied ; and as-
suming that the original skeleton of the sponge was keratose, there is
no reason to suppose that the .mould would not be refilled in harmony
v,ith a general law, /. e., the cast was siliceous when deposited from
Avater, holding in solution silica rendered soluble by the presence of
lime and alkalies ; calcareous from waters holding lime in solution by
the aid of an excess of carbonic acid ; iron in other cases, and even
bisulphuret of lead has been found replacing carbonaceous matter in
the plant remains of the Lias of Dunraven. The manner in which
the mould is refilled with silica was precisely similar to that by which
it is made to replace the carbonate of lime in the tests of the moun-
tain limestone mollusca of the Great Orme's Head, the Portland rocks
of Tisbury, or the green sand of Blackdown. The Ostreida? and Ser-
pulte, and other parasites attached to the surface of the Warminster
sponges are frequently like the sponge tissue, in the condition of sili-
ceous casts. As shown by Liebig, silica, when long in contact with
lime in alkaline solutions, becomes soluble, and hence it is that we so
often find the sponges of the chalk encased with silex, or with the in-
terstices filled with a more or less porous mass of the same material,
which is altogether adventitious to the sponge tissue. In a similar

70 Harve-ij B. Holl— On FusmI Sponges.

manner the mould may (36 refilled 'with carbonate of lime. On the
other hand, an originally calcareous sponge may become converted into
a siliceous fossil, as we see in the case of the mollusca of the Great
Orme's Head and elsewhere, and that an interchange of this kind has
actually taken place seems necessary to explain the fact that siliceous
and calcareous s])onges are not usually found associated in the same
spot.

That the calcareous sponges, those of the English Oolites for instance,
are merely casts of the original structure may be shown in another
way. If, then, sections of the fibers may be made sufficiently translu-
cent for the employment of a quarter-inch power of the microscope, it
will be seen that the fiber has often the asbestiform structure radiating
at right angles from a central axis, i^eculiai'ly a mineral arrangement,
and especially of carbonate of lime. Tiie structure of true sponge
fiber on the contrary is concentric. The preservation of the sponge,
therefore, in its fossil state, depends very much on the nature of the
sediment in which it is embedded, and in the mode of its entombment.
Hence they are met with but rarely in stiff' ai-gillaceous deposits ; and
although abundant in Mesozoic times, they are absent from all the
clayey members of the series, such as the clays of the Lias, and the
Oxford and Kimmeridge clays ; yet they occur in continental beds of
corresponding ages, but differing in litliological character. At the
same time it is possible that the muddy wMtors of the seas in v.'hich
these deposits were thrown down, may have been ill adapted to the well-
being of the sponge, nevertlieless they are met with in the Linguia
Flags and in the Upper Silurian Shales.

The condition of the sponges of the gravel pits of Farringdon is re-
markable, and may, perhaps, tend to throw some light on the mode in
which fossilization of the sponge takes place in calcareous and such
sandy deposits as contain lime, and help to explain, in some manner,
the absence of compression in the fossil. Every tw'ig of the sponge
presenting a free surface throughout its entire thickness, is invested by
a thin coating of minute dog-tooth crystals of carbonate of lime, form-
ing a complete crust over the fiber, much in the same manner as moss,-
etc, is encrusted by a calcareous spring, These crystals seldom ex-
ceed yiy of an inch in height, the average being about y-Jy-g- of an
inch, or e^-en less ; and on their sui'face they are slightly tinged by
peroxide of iron. All the other fossils of the same locality are simi-
larly coated with these minute crystals, even to the interior of the cells
of the Polyzoa. When slightly acted upon by dilute acids, the crys-
talline layer is removed, and the cast of tne sponge fiber exposed ;
but if this action of the acid be contamed, the whole is dissolved
usually without leaving any trace of siliceous sjjicula.

Harvey B. Roll— On F(m'l Sponges. 71

Tnis sand mid gravel, in which the.?e fossils are embedded, are loosely
cemented by carbonate of lime, and it is by no means -certain at what
period, after the sponges were entombed, this coating of crystals was
deposited upon them. But it is quite possible that something similar
to what has taken place in these Farringdon fossils may occasionally
occur in other cases as a preliminary to fossilization, in consequence of
the sponge, deprived of its sarcode, having long soaked in water
charged v.ith carbonate of lime.

The ordinary mode in which fossilization takes place, however, is in
one of the two"^ following ways : either the sponge after the destruction
of its sarcode becomes infiltrated by fine sediment, which completely
fills up the interstices and forms, as it were, a mould of the sponge
skeleton, in which the fossilizing process takes place ; or, the sponge is
simply buried in the deposit, which forms a nidus about it, filhng per-
haps the tubules and oscular passages, or even the superficial parts of
the tissue, but leaving the latter for the most part open and pervious,
into which mineral matter is carried in solution and there deposited.
The result of this may be, either to fill up the interspaices entirely, or
merely to encrust and consolidate the fibers as in the sponges of the
gravels of Farringdon ; but in either case there is formed around the
fiber or twig, a mould, in which the fossilization process takes place,
which is the same precisely as that which is known to take place m fos-
sils generally, viz., the removal of the original material of the skeleton,
and its replacement by another. These changes are greater and more
complete in proportion to the antiquity of the deposit in which the

fossil occurs.

III. Pictet converted D'Orbigny's fiimilies into tribes, and intro-
duced some additional genera created by Giebel, King, etc. ; and, ex-
cept in the description of new genera and ' species by Reuss, Pvoemer,
Salter, Eichwald and others, the subject remained very much where
D'Orbigny left it, until M. De Fromentelle proposed a new arrange-
ment, based upon what he terms the "organs which serve for the nu-
trition of the sponge," viz., the tubule, oscules, pores, etc. Like D'Or-
bigny, he divides the sponges into two orders : 1st, the Spongiana,
which comprises only recent genera ; and 2d, the Spongitaria, which
contains all the fossil genera, with the exception of the doubtful group,
the Clionidaj. The second order is further divided into three sub-orders:
1, those sponges which have one or more tubules {the Spongitaria
tabalosa) ; 2, those that have oscules, but no tubule (Spongitaria os-
culata) ; and 3, those that have neither tubule nor oscules (Spongitaria
porosa). Each of these sub-orders is further divided, thus: the tubu-
lar sponges into those in which the tubule is solitary, and those iu
which it Is grouped, and also into those with oscules and those without

72 • • Harvey B. Holl — On Foml Sponges.

pjcules. The oscultli- sponges are similarly subdivided, according to
form, disposition of the oscules, and presence or absence of an epi-
theca. Lastly, the porous sponges are divided into those that are more
or less regularly cup-shaped, and those that assume some other form.

In this arrangement no importance is attached to the nature of the
sponge tissue as a character. In fact, M. De Fromen telle states that
he considers it to have " a value altogether secondary, for it is not the
form or composition of the skeleton which determines the functions,
but the futictions themselves which give to the animal the particular
form which characterizes it.'' It is not necessary, however, here to
discuss this question, further than to observe, that the power which
the sponge has to secrete a siliceous spicular framework in one case, or
a fibrous rete in another, implies an inherent difference in the nature
of the animal, however mueli they may resemble one another in exter-
nal character. It will be desirable, therefore, to consider the value of
these organs for a moment before proceeding further, and in so doing
it will be well. to draw on the living sponge for aid.

1. Form. As already observed, form, taken alone, is of little value
even as a specific character, for whether it be cup-shaped, or tubular, or
polymorphous, it is not distinctive, inasmuch as it is common to sponges
widely differing in all other characters ; and, indeed, as remarked by
Dr. Bowerbank, trusting too implicitly to outward configuration has
led to the placing of spicular and fibrous sponges side by side in the
same genus. Moreover, the foriii varies greatly at different periods in .
the growth of the same individual ; and even in the cup-shaped sponges,
commonly the most constant as regards this character, there is a wide
difiference in the figure of the old and young individuals of the same
species. Hence it is that we know so little of the young condition of
many of the fossil sponges, which are not recognized as such, but are
regarded, for the most part, as distinct species.

A circumstance which illusti-ates how the form of the sponge is lia-
ble to be governed by accident is mentioned by Dr. Bowerbank in
speaking of tlieir reproduction, and is so suggestive that I quote his
own words: "On a fragment of a bivalve shell, twenty or thirty
sponge gemmules had located themselves, the largest of which did not
exceed 3^77 of an inch in diameter, and their distance apart is about
equal to their diameter. In their present state," says Dr. Bowerbank,
" it is evident that they are separate developments ; and it is equally
evident that a slightly further amount of extension would have caused
them to merge into one comparatively large flat surface of sponge.
We see by this instance that a sponge is not always developed from a
single ovum or gemmule, but, on the contrarv, that manv ova or gem-

Haivey B. Roll — On Fo^nl Sponges. 73

nmles are often concerned in the prodr.cticn of one large individut.l ;
and thi.s fact may j^robabl}^ account for the comparatively very few
small sponges that are found." Thu.s, the form of the sponge may be
modified, in some instances, by the number of gemmules or ova that
may happen to be grouped together, for it is well known that sponges
of the same species readily unite when in contact.

It is necassary to bjar th353 facl;? in view, for i!i mo5t of the higher
groups of life, whether living or extinct, variation in form is restricted
to within very narrow limits, and therefore it is one of the mast im-
portant chai'acters we possess in the determination of the species.
Nevertheless, even in the sponges it is not without a value, for in cer-
tain fossil genera the more matured individuals appear to be tolerably
constant in this respect, as for instance the VentriculUes, hchadites,
GuettarcUa, etc., but at the same time the young condition of these
genera are unknown to us, or, if so, have been regarded probably as
altogether distinct; the youngest individuals which ai-e recognized
with certainty have already attained, comparatively speaking, consid-
erable dimensions,

2. The Cloaca. — The cloaca or tubule may be either isolated or
grouped. It may extend nearly the entire length of the sponge, or
only a part of the way, as in Siphonia. It-is distinguished from the
oscules by its lai-ger size, the evenness of its walls, and often by the
orifices of the excurrent canals or oscules opening into it. The cloaca
is essentially an ejaculatory passage, and in those fistulous sponges
having oscules on the outer surface, these latter are the orifices of
incurrent, not of excurrent, canals, and in the living sponges are some-
times protected by a diaphragm, formed of long, simple, slightly curved
(acerate) spicula, but which would necessarily be lost in the fossil.

In the young sponge the cloaca is sometimes absent, as is often the
case in the earlier period in the growth oi' SipJwiiia pi/rlformis, in which
the place of the cloaca is occasionally found occupied by a group of
small tubules, which ultimately either becomes converted into one
large fistulous opening by the breaking down of the intervening tissue,
or is surmounted by the true tubule. In its earlier condition, therefore,
it presents the characters of Jerea, and only becomes converted into a
veritable Siphonia as it approaches maturity. On the other hand, in
old fistulous sponges, the margins of the cloaca sometimes break down
and become fissured, and at length converted into an irregular cavity,
in which it is difficult to recognize the characters of the original tubule.

3. Tlie Oscules. — The oscules are the orifices of the incurrent and ex-
current canals. By all authors who have written on the fossil sponges,
however, they have been regarded solely in the light of ejaculatory

74 Harvey B. Holl — On Foml Sponges.

openings, but tlie study, of the recent species has enabled Dr. Bower-
bank to ascertain that this is not the case, and that in the tubular and
cyathiform sponges, those only which open into the cavities appertain
to efferent canals ; while those situated on the exterior lead into the
canals which are destined to give passage to the incurrent streams of
nutritive fluid. In all the tubular and cup-shaped sponges, therefore,
their office may be inferred by their position. In the amorphous
sponges they are scattered over the surface either singly or in groups,
sometimes on mamillary elevations or ridges, sometimes in pits or
depressions, and are probably ejaculatory orifices, imbibition taking
place through the pores and interstices of the sponge skelet(ni. They
are permanent organs, and vary greatly in size, proximity, and regu-
larity in their distribution. Occasionally several grooves radiate from
the margin of the oscule, and in other species there is no distinct
orifice, but the grooves terminate internally in three or four small pores,
wliich then supply the place of the single oscule; but even these are
sometimes scarcely i)erceptible, as in the Silurian Stromatopora (Stelli-
spongla) cnnsteUuta (Hall). These stellate grooves, or " Sillom, " are
not, however, physiologically distinct from the oscules ; and the
smaller grouped tubules, as for instance those in Jerea (Polypothecia)
dichotoma (Bennett), and' J", pyriformia (Lamour), etc., do not differ from
oscules, except in their greater length.

4. Tiie Pores. — Besides the oscules, palcontological writers are in the
habit of speaking of the pores. It must be understood, however, that
by this term they designate not the temporary openings in the sarcode
of the animal during imbibition, to which it is properly applied, but
merely the interstices in the tissue of the skeleton in the dead sponge ;
for in the living state these interstices are more or less completely filled
with the sarcode. In some sponges there are no orifices, either of incur-
rent or excurrent canals, that are distinguishable either by form, size, or
position, from the ordinary interstices of the sponge tissue, the whole
being formed of a nearly uniform rete ; and in these cases the pores
or interstices must supply the place of the larger orifices, although
closed by the sarcode during the intervals of active inhalation and
exhalation ; moreover, in those sponges possessing well marked
incurrent orifices it is still probable that the whole of the external
surface is more or less an inhalent one, through the interspaces of the
rete, according to the exigencies of the animal.

5. The Epitlieca. — Among the fossil sponges some portion of tlie
surface, especially externally, toward the base, is frecpiently observed
to be either without pores or they are so minute as to be invisible,
and the sponge then appears as though covered by a more or less smooth

JSarve]! B. Holl—Gn Fossil Sjionges. 75

or .slightly wrinkled membrane, wliich has been regarded by D'Orbigny,
DeFromen telle, F. A. Koemer, and others, as analagous t(^ the epitheca
of the Zoantharia ; and the occurrence of this epitheca has been held
to be an additional evidence of the stony nature of the sponge skeleton.
When examined microscopically, by means of thin sections, howeyer,
it appears that this epitheca is due to the filling up of the interstices
of the superficial parts of the sponge, Avhich in the situations hi which
it exists is finer and more condensed than elsewhere. This greater
density of the surface may be seen in many recent sponges, the super-
ficial portions of the tissues being closer and finer than that of the
interior, which Avas foi'med during an earlier and more active period
in the growth of the sponge. But either from having arrived at
maturity, or at a period when the growth was temporarily arrested,
for in some sponges the growth is intermittent, or, as appears sometimes
to be the case, from some local cause, the tissue at the surface assumes
a closer arrangement. Thus, in the common Halidiondria jmnicea, the
surface over greater or less portions frequently presents a condensed
appearance, with scarcely any visible interspaces, the outer superficial
portion being made up of a densely matted layer of spicula, placed for
the m4)st part parallel to the surface ; and the same is true of many
fibrous sponges, as shown by Dr. Bowerbank. In some of the fossil
sp mges a simdar modification of the tissue at the surface appears to
have obtained, especially in certain cup-shaped and cylindrical sponges,
and in the calcareous fossils in which this has been the case, the inter-
stices, from their extreme minuteness, are more or less filled with
carbonate of lime. Thus, a species of Cupuh^ponrjia, common in the
gravel pits of Farringdon, frequently presents on its interior a smooth
surface, described by the late Daniel Sharp as a membrane. But if a
number of individuals of this species be examined, it will be observed
that although it sometimes completely lines the interior of the cup,
it more often only occurs in patches ; and that while some of the
interstices are blocked up, there are others that remain open, and
this not as the consequence of fri'^tion or weathering, but as the result
of fossilization. It is, however, in some of the sponges of the Oolite
that we see this infilling of the interstices most distinctly, in some of
the cylindrical forms especially, the whole of the sponge, except its
summit, appearing as though invested by a sheath, but which, weie it
really of the nature of a true epitheca, as the Zoantharia, it would be
difficult to comprehend how the functions of the animal were carried
on. [It is not here necessary to discuss the question of a "dermal
membrane," as this would of course perish with the sarcode, and about
which, moreover, some difference of opinion appears to exist, the

7G Harvey B. HoU — On Fo.<4l Sjmiges.

facility with which the pores open and close, to admit or check
the inciirrent streams of water, and the readiness with which the
sarcodal mass is repaired after injury, and unites on contact with that
of another individual of the same species, are focts which have been held
to militate against the 'possession of such a structure. That the sup-
porting tissue in certain ]-ccent species becomes closer and otherwise
modified at the surface is clearly ascertained, and in some species there
is a crusticular layer of embedded ovaries, abounding in minute spicula,
beneath the surface of thesarcode. There is likewise a sponge common
on the coast at Tenby, in which, in some individuals, the base and for
a little distance above it does appear, in the dried condition, to be
invested by something like a membrane, which terminates upward in
a well defined and thickened or slightly wrinkled margin ; the kerato-
spicular tissue of the sponge immediately beneath it is more densely
reticulated than in other parts of the animal ; but I was unable to
satisfy myself that it constituted a true membi'ane as distinct from the
sarcode. That this soft structure may, under favorable circumstances,
so impress the mould of the fossil as to produce the appearance
described as an epitheca, may be possible ; but this is altogether different
from the Sclerotic sheath which invests the exterior in the Zoantha-
rla.] It is more than probable that this structure is nothing more
than the cast of the impi'ession or mould of the outer surface of the
sarcode of the sponge, perhaps slightly thickened, but it is not con-
stantly present even in the same species. For example, there is a
small cylindrical sponge, not infrequent in the Coral Rag at BuUington
Green, near Oxford, in which more or less of this so-called epitheca is
met with in some individuals, while the greater number show nothing
of the kind. It appears, therefore, that the epitheca is sometimes
only a result of fossilization, and is sometimes probably the cast of the
outer surface of the sarcode which has left its impress on the mould ;
that it is absent in the earlier and gi'owing stages of the sponge, and is
not constantly present in the matured individuals of those species in
which it occurs ; and, moreover, that it sometimes results from the
contact of foreign bodies, in consequence of the increased density of
tissue which such bodies are apt to produce. Its value, therefore, even
as a specific character, is not great.

Simple as DeFromentelle's arrangement may at first sight appear, it
is open to the objection that it is based upon characters that are not
always very constant, or very well defined, and are liable to graduate
from one into another. Moreover, it unites in one genus or species
individuals which, having a very close similarity in external appear-
ance, are totally different in the organization of the skeleton, and, on

Harvey B. Hall— On Fotis'd Sponges. '77

the other hand, it separates others, wliich, though differing in out\vard
characters, are closely allied in their structural details ; for, however
great may be the similarity in form or disposition of the oscules, etc.,
the power to secrete a framework composed of spicula in one case, or
entirely fibi'ous in another, ajipears to indicate a difference in the nature
of the sarcodal mass of higher importance than mere outward con-
figuration, wliich we know^ from the study of i-ecent species is
frequently subject to considerable variation, either from age, local
peculiarities, or other circumstances. Thus Dr. Bowerbank, in illus-
tration of the amount of variation observable in recent sponges, refers
to our common British Halichondria panicea, which, when of small size,
has the oscules " situated on the surface of the sponge, and are scarcely,
if at all, elevated above the dermal surface ; while in large specimens
of the same species we find them collected in the inside of elongated
tubular projections or common cloaca, which vary from a few lines only
in height and diameter to tubular projections several inches in height,
with an internal diameter of half or three quarters of an inch. When
they attain such dimensions, their parieties are often of considerable
thickness and their external surfiice becomes an inhalent one, like the
body of the sponge." [Here we have an example of an oscule passing
into a cloaca as age advanced, and an amorphous sponge becoming a
fistulous one.]

IV. About the same time that "M. de Fromentelle's Memoir
appeared in the Transactions of the Linmean Society of Normandy,
M. Etallon communicated to the Society Jurassiene some papers on the
sponges of the Upper Jurassic rocks, in which he proposed a new-
arrangement of the species and genera, based on the structural details
of the skeleton. As he treats only on those fossil sponges which belong
to the Upper Jura, his classification is necessarily incomplete ; but it
is, nevertheless, sufficiently so to foreshadow his views on the subject
generally. Like D'Orbigny, he regarded the Clionlda as horny
sponges, and forms them into an order by themselves ; while the
testaceous sponges, included in the Petrosponrjldce of M. Pictet, he
divides into orders — 1st, the Did)/onoc(dida' or spicule-bearing sponges,
and 2d, the Spongutires vermicales, or ti'ue Fetroi^pong'uhK. [The
CUonida' are, however, only the accidental occupants of the cavities
in which they are found, having located themselves in the excavations
formed by Annelida? and the terebrating mollusks. For the most part
they are spicular sponges.]

With respect to the first of these groups, M. Etallon observes :
" There are among the testaceous sponges, which do not enter into
the family of Petrospongidce , some that have their skeleton made up of

78 I Harvey B. HoII — On Foml Sponges.

little ueedle-.-^hapod spicula, Avhich are merely held together by the
parenchyma? or sarcode of the animal, and of which, in certain forma-
tions, we find the .scattered remains ; but in other species these needle-
shaped spicula are always anastomosed, so as to form little stars, united
together by the extremities of their rays.'' It is to this group that he
gives the na ueof Dictt/onoeAdidcp, and lie vdescribes these stellate spicula
as being formed by the enlargement of the two extremities of a slender
cylindrical spicula, which thereby becomes cone-shaped at the end, and
unite, by the circumference of their base, with neighboring cones, to
form a six-rayed spicula with a central noeud ; and in the center of
this knot or noeud M. Etallon believes that there exists a cubic space,
which is subdivided by vertical and hoi-izontal lamina} placed in the
axis of the rays into eight chambers. There result^ from this arrange-
ment a framework composed of horizontal, vertical, and radiating rods,
having a knot at their jioint of intersection, and this eight-chambered
noeud mav be regarded as standing in the place of the octohedral
structure of ]Mr. Toulmin Smith.

AVhile agreeing with M. Et.dlon, that there are certain sponges con-
structed on a general plan of intersecting horizontal, vertical, and rad-
iating rods, a plan, indeed, which still obtains at the present day, the
writer is far from admitting that this is the ordinary plan on which the
spicular sponges are organized, and he has entirely failed to detect any
trace of that subdivision of the cavity of the noeud into the eight cubic
chambers described by M. Etallon. [In some stellate spicula, prob-
ably in all, at the point where the central canals of the rays unite in
the n(jcud, there is an hexagonal space, as noticed by this author, but
the appearance of vertical and horizontal laminae are referable to an
optical effect of light.] Moreover, the manner in which it is suggested
that the skeleton is made up — for as its development can not be traced
in the fossil, it can be nothing more than a suggestion — is altogether
opjioscd to what we know of the growth of spicula in general ; and
the study of the recent siliceous and calcareous sponges gives no coun-
tenance to the supposition that radiating spicula are formed by the
union of the rays. On the conti-ary, as observed by Dr. Bowerbank,
" however closely the spicula may be brought into contact with each
other, or with siliceous fiber, they do not appear to unite or anastomose,
while fiber, whether siliceous or horny, always anastomoses when it
comes into contact with parts of its own body, or of those of its own
species." Tiie growth of the sponge tissue is outward, not interstitial,
and the parts ()nce formed and fully developed undergo no further
change. Judging from analogy, the development of the spiculum
always proceeds from the centei-, and growth takes place by additions

Harvey B. Holl — On Fo^nl Sponges. 79

to the thickness of the rays and at the points, and the occurrence of
radiate spicula in the same individual sponge of all sizes, from the ma-
tured condition down to extreme smallness, always preser\nng the
radiate form, is entirely again<t the view of M. Etallon. If union
ever takes place, it is probably the result of fi^silization, in cases where
the points of the rays are in contact, and it is then brought alx)ut,
probably, either by adventitious deposit or in the replacement of the
original structure — the mineral which has infilled the mould has run
together.

Nevertheless, the labors of ^I. Etallon are a move in the right direc-
tion, and it appears probable from his' research, that by a careful inves-
tigation of the structural details of the fossil sp)uges, it may be possible
ultimately to arrive at results whicli may lead to an arrangement of the
species and genera more suited to the requirements of the day than the
artificial systems of D'Orbigny and DeFromentelle. The time, however,
is probably not yet come for this to be attempted, the more especially
as the arrangement of the reoent species is far from being settled.

V. Two conclusions are suggested by the foregoing remarks : 1st,
that the present state of the fossil sponges aflSjrd no certain indication
of theif condition during life ; and 2d, that in the diSerentiation of
the genera and species the same principles must l>e kept in view in the
fossil as in the recent sponge. Some of the oldest fossil sponges were
as highly organized, apparently (if the term is admissable to these
humble forms of life}, as those of the present day, as for instance Pro-
to-ipongia of the Lingula Flags and Ludlow Rocks, the Silurian lidiadites,
and the Devonian Sphcero.'^pongia te.<*erata. The Protospongia, iu fact,
belong to that general type of Cyathiform sponges, formed of elongated,
vertical, and horizontal rods or fibers, which become more abundant in
the Oolitic and Cretaceous rocks, and have their representatives even
iu the present day.

The Amorphospongidse first make their apj)earance in the Silurian
rocks, and occur more or less abundantly in the calcareous marine
deposits of all the succeeding epochs ; and species are still living in
our present seas, for which, as far as external appearances are concerned,
at any rate, it is difiicult to find good distinctive characters. The
cup-shaped and cylindrical forms of this group commence in the Devo-
nian and carboniferous limestones, and in the Mortiera rertebralU (De
Konninck), we have a depressed form of the latter, which, in the moun-
tain limestone (?) of India attained greater vertical development.
There are recent forms, which, to all appearances, are undistinguishable
either in figure or in the texture of the rete, and the only appreciable
difierence that can exist mu-t be in the structure of the fiber. SipJio-

so Harveij B. Hall — On Fossil Spojiges.

nui pyrlfonnis is apparer.tly a still living i^pecie^!, Avell preserved speci-
mens from Blackdown, presenting^ no external character to distinguish
them from the recent form, nor with certainty do its structural details.
The Warminster specimens are seldom Avell preserved ; but in the flints
of the chalk thin sections sometimes shi)\v the sjiicular structure of the
cords, of which the skeleton of the sponge is chiefly composed.

All the fossil sponges, exclusive of those masses of scattered spicula
found in the mountuiu limestone chert of the Great Orme's Head, the
Lias of Glamorganshire, or the flints of the chalk, etc., appear to he
capable of being arranged in four groups, having a common character,
viz.: 1st, those in -which the skeleton is built up, mainly of fibers or
elongated spicula, which cross each other more or less at right angles,
but which in the cylindrical forms of this group assume in part a radia-
tuig arrangement; 2d, those in which it is constituted of variously
formed spicula, heterogeneously arranged ; 3d, those in Avhich this
skeleton consists of a rete, the cords of which are formed of spicula ;
and 4th, those formed of a rete of fibers in which spicula, if present,
were only accessory, and which, judging from the general structure of
the fabric, were probably kcratose or horny s})onges. Xo doidjt the
first tv/o groups trench upoji each other, in so far that the rectangular
structure is frequently accompanied by accessory stellate, and other
spicula ; and the last iwo may be often difficult to differentiate, in con-
sequence of the structure not being sufficiently well preserved. These,
however, are difficulties which the paleontologist has to contend with
constantly, and which it is his object, with time and opportunities, to
I'emove. Many a fossil conchifer has been moved fj-om genus to genus,
until the structure of its hinge was a-scertained ; many a mollusk is still
uncertain as regards its affinities to existing genera. But on their re-
lation to existing genera and species, which can be arrived at only by
patient inquiry into structural details microscopically, by means of
thin sections or otherwise, can the differentiation of the fossil spongia-
dae be satisfactorily made. Occa.<ionally the structure, especiallv in
the silicified sponges, is so admirably prepared as to render this not dif-
ficult ; but until their true affinities to recent species have been studied
from a str'icthj zoological point of view, our knowledge concerning them
nuist be wanting in scientific precision. The result of such inquiries
will probably be to reduce many genera to the lower grade of species,
and many species to mere varieties or conditions of growth. In com-
mon with other forms, equally low in the scale of organization, the
sponges appear to have endured through a long range of time, subject
only to modifications, which scarcely amount to specific distinctions.

Geological Survey of Illinois, Prairies, etc. 81

Geological Survey of Illinois, Prairies, etc.

The fifth volume of the geological survey of the State of Il|iuoi.?,
for ability displayed, excellence of engravings, and neatness and cor-
rectness in the execution of the work, has not been surpassed, if it
has even been equaled, by any other publication on the science of
geology in the United States.

The first 300 pages of the volume are devoted to a general geologi-
cal description of a few counties. The next 300 pages contain paleon-
tological descriptions of invertebrates from the carboniferous rocks,
which are beautifully engraved on 32 lithographic plates at the end of
the volume.

The following, from the preliminary chapter upon the causes which
led to the formation of the great prairies of that State, is quite inter-
esting :

"The largest portion of this part of the State is prairie land. In
it all kinds of prairies may be seen, such as the high upland prairies,
the river bottoms or alluvial prairies, and the low, wet swamp lands.
There is' quite a diversity of opinion as to the origin and formation of
these treeless and grass-covered regions of the Northwest. One theory
attributes them to annual fires sweeping through the grass, and kill-
ing every tree germ and young tree almost before they could take root.
In some places the fires are supposed to have encroached, year by year,
upon the forests ; in other places, as for instance along the streams, in
the deep hollows, or in wet places, where the fires would be checked,
the timber would spring up and displace the prairies. Another theory
accounts for the treeless character of these plains from the lacrustine
origin and nature of the prairie soils and subsoils. Trees will not nat-
urally grow in this sedimentary, finely comminuted prairie soil accord-
ing to this theory. Others attempt to explain j)raii'ie phenomena by
atmospheric and climatic influences, marking out certain zones of mois-
ture and dryness. They bound forest and prairies by certain isotlier-
nial lines. Another theory, advocated with force and plausibility by
Professor Lesquereux, in the first volume of the geological reports of
this State, finds all our prairies to originate from causes similar to those
which form pe&t beds, and are in fact incipient peat beds, drained be-
fore completed. In his own clear language, he finds " that all the
prairies of the Mississippi valley have been formed by the slow reces-
sion of sheets of water of various extent, first transformed into swamps,
and by-and-by drained and dried. The high, rolling prairies, the prai-
ries around the lakes, those of the bottoms along the rivers, are all the

82

Geological Survey of Illinois, Prairies, etc.

result of the smue causes, and form a whole in an individual system,"
No one of these theories is sufficient to explain all the phenomena
noticed in making an examination of the prairies. As in most such
cases in theoretical geology, all of them perhaps contain some truth,
and may be applicable to localities more or less extended. The burn-
ing of the forests, in a few cases, doubtless, has changed timber into
prairie land, and prevented the timber from invading small tracts of
the prairies. But the sweeping, consuming autumnal prairie fires are
not sufficient to account for the origin of our wide prairies, else prairies
would be found scattered through all the timbered regions of the con-
tinent. Neither is atmospheric causes sufficient, for the observations
of meteorologists show the annual precipitation of moisture, in the form
of rains, over our northwestern prairies, quite as evenly and exten-
sively as in the timbered regions of the eastern and northern parts of
the continent. The chief causes of the treeless character of our
prairies are undoubtedly found in the soil itself.

It is very true that trees, even those whose native habitats seem to
be the damp alluvial soils of our river banks, will flourish and grow
when planted upon the prairies ; but the artificial process of planting
seems to fit the soil for their reception. Even vines, Indian corn, and
many other sorts of vegetation, will flourish when thus artificially
planted, but never would grow naturally and of their own accord up-
on the grass-bound j^rairie sod. The prairie soil is naturally adapted
to the growth of prairie grasses, and the prairie grasses not only resist
the growth of trees, but actually kill them out. By destroying the
grasses and sods and cultivating the trees, they will grow vigorously.
The prairie soil has certain antiseptic properties, and ulmic and other
acids, which give it a sourness. The prairie grasses naturally flourish
in such a soil. These properties in the soil, and these grasses, are all
unfavorable to the growth of trees ; and it is only when their influences
are counteracted by cultivation, or other local causes, that trees will
grow in health and vigor. Cultivation does destroy this sourness in
the soil ; and I believe that if all the cultivated prairies of the State
were suffered to relapse into uncultivated wastes, instead of going back
to their prairie condition, they would become eventually covered with
brambles, thickets, and growths of timber.

In this part of the State, along the Mississippi, Rock river, and
other streams, much of the alluvial bottom subject to annual overflow
is covered with timber. There are, however, alluvial prairies along
these streams timberless, and for the most part sandy and coarse-
grained, and entirely different in composition and .texture from the
usual Illinois upland prairie.

Geological Survey of Itlinois, Prairies, etc. 83

The swamp lands of Whiteside, Lee, and Carroll counties afford a
fine illustration of Professor Lesquereux's theory of the gradual trans-
formation of swampy , boggy ponds, marshes and swales, into the black,
spongy moulds of our richest prairies. Aquatic vegetation, the grad-
ual encroachment of the land into ponds, the slow drying of our wet
lands, and the gradual filling up of the ponds by successive growths and
decays of aquatic vegetation, is building up rapidly sour-soiled, treeless
prairies. The processes are similar to those forming the peat beds.
The results of the processes are curtailed and modified, and a peaty-
soiled prairie is formed instead of a bog or bed of peat.

But the high rolling prairies of Carroll, Stephenson, Winnebago, and
parts of Ogle and Whiteside counties, with, in many instances, but
thin soils covering the coarser drift materials below, do not show
so plainly the same sort of originating causes. They are interspersed
with numerous small groves of timber. These grow along the alluvial
mixed soil of the streams, and upon the ridges and patches thrown up
and beat together by the waves and currents of the broad, lake-like
expanse of water, which covered this part of the State immediately
subsequent to the glacial ice period. A few of these drift ridges, as in
northwestern Ogle county, are treeless, owing perhaps to fires, or
other local causes.

Excessive humidity of these high rolling, somewhat sandy prairies
does not exist, and can not satisfactorily account for their treeless
character. Neither do they bear in their soils and subsoils the evi-
dence of having once been swampy, marshy plains.

When the waters of the broad, shallow, fresh water sea, once extend-
ing south and west of Lake Michigan, were slowly drained off", either by
the breaking away of southern water barriers, or the slow upheaval of
this whole region, parts of the bottom were undoubtedly left as broad
marshes, swales and bogs, which assumed in due course of time a peaty
character ; but other parts must have been left comparatively dry, and
covered, with the fine impalpable sediment, constituting the basis of
our present prairie soils. The swamp and peat lands of Lee, Whiteside,
and Carroll counties afibrd fine examples of the former condition of
things ; the rolling, drier, sandier prairies of Stephenson, Winnebago,
and parts of Carroll and Ogle counties, afford just as fine illustrations
of the latter condition of things, while Boone county exhibits very
plainly both.

The treeless nature of the marshes is very satisfactorily accounted
for upon Professor Lesquereux's theory of the origin of the prairies.
The treeless character of the high prairies must be accounted for by
the nature of the soil itself; the natural tendency of an herbaceous,

84 Definition of Si)ecies.

rather than of an arboreal vegetation, to gain and keep possession of the
prairie soil, aided ])erhaps by fires and other local causes.

Tliese views of mine may contain erroneous suggestions. I have
had no special means to examine soils, or compare wide extents of
prairie regions with each other. I arrive at my own conclusions from
simple observations of the prairies in th'is part of the State. I am
satisfied that no one theory j^et advanced, as to the origin and forma-
tion of the prairies, will account for all their phenomena, even in this
limited portion of the State. Combined causes, operating with different
degrees of force, in different parts of the great prairie regions of the
countr}' — sometimes one cause predominating, sometimes another, and
sometimes all together — are more in harmony, it seems to me, with
the effects left for our observation.

Definition of Species.

Wallace says: "In estimating these numbers (of Papilionidce) I
have had the usual difficulty to encounter, of determining what to con-
sider species and what varieties. The Malayan region, consisting of a
large number of islands of generally great antiquity, possesses, compared
to its actual area, a great number of distinct forms, often, indeed, dis-
tinguished by very slight characters, but in most cases so constant in
large series of specimens, and so easily separable from each other, that
I know not on what principle we can refuse to give them the name
and rank of species. One of the best and most orthodox definitions
is that of Pritchard, the great ethnologist, who says, that ' separate
origin and distinctness of race, evinced by a constant transmission of some
characteristic pecidiarity of organization' constitutes a sjiecies. Now,
leaving out the question of ' origin,' which we can not deterniine, and
taking only the proof of separate origin, ' the constant transmission of
some charactei'istic pecidiarity of organization,' we have a definition
which will compel us to neglect altogether the amount of difference be-
tween any two forms, and to consider only whether the difierences that
present tliemselves are ^^ermanent. The rule, therefore, I have en-
deavored to adopt is, that when the difference between two forms in-
habiting separate areas seems quite constant, wdien it can be defined in
Avords, and when it is not confined to a single jjeculiarity only, I have
considered such forms to be species. When, however, the individuals
of each locality vary among themselves, so as to cause the distinctions
between the two fi)rms to become inconsiderable and indefinite, or
where the differences, though constant, are confined to one particular
only, such as size, tint, or a single point of difference in mai'kiug or in
outline, I class one of the forms as a variety of tlie other.

Definition of Species. 85

"I find as a general rule that the constancy of species is in an inverse
ratio to their rano-e. Those which are confined to one or two islands
are generally very constant. When they extend to many islands, con-
siderable variability appears ; and when they have an extensive range
over a large part of the archipelago, the amount of unstable variation
is very large. These facts are explicable on Mr. Darwin's principles.
When a species exists over a wide area, it must have had, and prob-
ably still possesses, great powers of dispersion. Under the different
conditions of existence in various portions of its area, different varia-
tions from the type would be selected, and, were they completely iso-
lated, would soon become distinctly modified forms ; but this process
is checked by the dispersive powers of the wdiole species, which leads
to tlie more or less frequent intermixture of the incipient varieties,
which thus become irregular and unstable. Wliere, however, a spe-
cies lias a limited range, it indicates less active powers of dispersion,
and the process of modification under changed conditions is less inter-
fered with. The species will, therefore, exist under one or more per-
manent forms, according as portions of it have been isolated at a more
or less remote period." [Wallace on Natural Selection, p'age 141.]

Mr. Darwin, in his summary to chap. 2, p. 67, of his "Origin of
Species," says :

" Varieties can not be distinguished from species except— first, by the
discovery of intermediate linking forms ; and secondly, by a certain in-
definite amount of difference between them ; for two forms, if differing
very little, are generally ranked as varieties, notwithstanding that they
can not be closely connected ; but the amount of difference considered
necessary to give to any two forms the rank of species can not be de-
fined. In genera having more than the average number of species iu
any country, the species of these genera have more than the aver-
age number of varieties. In large genera species are apt to be closely,
but unequally, allied together, forming little clusters around certain
other species. Species very closely allied to other species apparently
have restricted ranges. In all these several respects the species of
large genera present a strong analogy with varieties. And we can
clearly understand tliese analogies .if species once existed as varieties
and thus originated ; whereas these analogies are utterly inexplicable
if spe«es are independent creations.

It is the most flourishing or dominant species of the larger genera
within each class which on an average yield the greatest number of
varieties ; and varieties tend to become converted into new and distinct
species. Thus, the larger genera tend to become larger ; and through-
out nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to become

8(5 Tlie Late Professor Louis Agassiz.

etill more dominant, by leaving many modified and dominant descend-
ants. But, by steps the larger genera also tend to break up into
smaller genera. And thus the forms of life throughout the universe
become divided into groups subordinate to groups."

The Late Professor Louis Agassiz.

[From Harpers' Weekly, Januarj' 24, 1874.]

Few events during the year 1873 have created a more profound
impression in the United States than the decease of Professor Louis
Agassiz. He was born in the parish of Mottier, near Lake Neu-
chatel, Switzerland, in May, 1807, and at a very early age devel-
oped a taste for scientific pursuits. His studies were prosecuted at
the colleges of Lausanne and Zurich, as well as at the universities of
Heidelberg and Munich.

His earliest special work was that upon the fishes of Brazil, as col-
lected by Von Martius. Next to this came " The Natui-al History of
the Fresh-water Fishes of Europe," which, as far as published, had spe-
cial reference to the Salmonidce, and upon Avhich it is still a principal
authority. He was best known, however, during his residence in
Europe in connection Avith his researches upon the fossil fishes, and
those upon the characteristics and conditions of the glaciers of Switzer-
land and other countries, and the detection of traces of past glacial
action in difterent portions of Europe. Other important works pub-
lished in Europe are the "Memoirs on the Casts of Mollusks," the
"Monographs of Echinoderms," the " Nomenclator Zoologicus," and
the " Bibliographia Zoologize."

In 1846 Professor Agassiz visited the United States, at the expense
of the King of Prussia, for the purpose, primarily, of making himself
familiar with the natural history and geology of the country, and also
to deliver a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute, Boston. Ou his
arrival in this country he found so rich a field for scientific inquiry
that he concluded to remain permanently, and in 1848 accepted an
invitation to become a member of Harvard University. Shortly after
this he proceeded on a tour to Lake Superior with some of his students,
the results of which are embodied in an octavo volume, entitled:
"Lake Suj)erior: its Physical Character, Vegetation, and Animals,
compared with those of other and similar Regions."

One of the earliest papers published by him in the United States
was "The Classification of Lisects from Embryonical Data," printed by
the Smithsonian Institution, in its " Contributions to Knowledge," in
1850. His most voluminous work was entitled " Contributions to the

The Late Professor Louis Agassis. 87

Natural History of the United States," of which four quarto volumes
have appeared, devoted principally to the turtles and radiates. "The
Principles of Zoology," prepared conjointly with Dr, A. A. Gould, of
Boston, was for a long time used as a text-book in the schools of the
United States. The proceedings of the societies and associations in
Boston and elsewhere, and the volumes of the "American Journal of
Science," and other sc*ientific and literary serials, contain numerous ar-
ticles of greater or less magnitude from his pen. He also furnished
important contributions to various works by other authors, as to Nott-
Gliddon's "Types of Mankind," etc.

In 1865 Professor Agassiz made a visit to Brazil, at the expense of
Mr. Nathaniel Thayer, an account of which was published in a hand-
some volume in 1867. In November, 1871, he started on a voyage
round Cape Horn in the ^United States Coast Survey steamer Hassler,
reaching California in the summer of 1872.

During the whole period of his residence in this country. Professor
Agassiz was diligently occupied in collecting materials with which to
enrich what he was determined should be the most complete and best
appointed museum of natural history in the world, and at the time of
his death he had measurably accomplished his purpose. Numerous
expeditions were made by him for the purpose of gathering zoological
objects, and collectors were dispatched to or engaged in various por-
tions of the world with the same intention. These, with spontaneous
contributions from all directions, brought a continued influx of mate-
rial to Cambridge. The expedition to Brazil, and that around Cape
Horn in the Hassler, were greatly productive ; to such an extent, in-
deed, as to require a considerable time yet to come before the material
can all be properly assorted.

The intensity of Professor* Agassiz's labors had naturally the effect
of injuring his healtji, and for some years past his physicians have in-
sisted upon a relaxation; but so powerful were the temptations that it
was almost impossible to prevent his going beyond his strength. His
voyages to Brazil and around Cape Horn to California were of eminent
service to him, and his friends had sti-ong hopes for the future ; but it
is probable that the labors consequent upon the establishment of the
Penikese Summer School of Natural History had a great influence in
the final breaking down of his health.

Much restored by a short vacation spent at the White Mountains,
on his return to Cambridge he entered upon his duties connected with
the museum of comparative zoology with renewed zeal ; and, probably
in consequence of exposure in this connection, he was taken ill, and
died at 10.15 p.m., Sunday, December 14, at the age of si.s:ty-seven,
universally lamented.

88 The Late Professor Louis Agassiz.

He was in constant receipt of communications from all parts of the
country in reference to matters of science or curiosity, and however
inappropriate to his specialties, an appeal to " Professor Agassiz " was
supposed to be all that was necessary to settle any question. This, o"-
course, drew upon him a great deal of labor in the way of correspon-
dence, which must have been extremely burdensome.

The School of Natural History which was established by him in
connection with Harvard College had a great influence upon the
scientific development of the country, and a large number of his pupils
are now exercising the function of teachers elsewhere, or either are of
have been engaged in important original investigations. Among those
who may be especially mentioned in this connection are Professor A.
E. Verrill, of Yale College, Dr. William Stimpson,. Professor A.
Hyatt, Professor N. S, Shaler, Mr. F. W. Putnam, Mr. J. A. Allen,
Colonel Theodore Lyman, his son Alexander Agassiz, Professor Henry
James Clark, Dr. Charles Girard, and others.

The great range of Professor Agassiz's studies and acquirements,
embracing nearly every department of science, enabled him to appre-
ciate most thoroughly their mutual bearings ; and it was seldom, indeed,
that in any scientific gathering a communication was made on any sub-
ject which he was not able to discuss and to illumine, and in many in-
stances to establish important generalizations from facts which had
previously seemed isolated and of no special meaning. With all this,
however, he was extremely modest in regard to his own acquirements,
and was accustomed to say that all he felt he could claim, as constitu-
ting any special merit on his part, was the generalization that the suc-
cessive appearance of life in geological times is essentially represented
and illustrated by the successive changes of embryological develop-
ment at the present day.

Any account of the scientific as well as the, personal history of
Professor Agassiz is incomplete that does not mention Mrs. Agassiz.
To her especially does the world owe the publication of his essays, lec-
tures, and many special works, which in most instances were written
out and in large part prepared for publication by her. The compan-
ion of all his journeys, she was ever by his side to take down from his
lips the utterances of the master mind, and, by her thorough sympa-
thy in all his pursuits, and her great business and social qualifications,
able to relieve him from many duties that would have wasted time be-
longing to the world at large, at the same time warning off" with sleep-
less vigilance aught that might tend to injure his health.

Constitution and By-Laws. 89

CONSTITUTION

OF THE

CINCINNATI SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

AETICLE I.

The society shall be called the Cincinnati Society of Natural
History.

ARTICLE II,

It shall consist of resident members, corresponding and honorary
members, and patrons.

ARTICLE III.

All members shall be chosen by ballot after having been nominated
at a preceding meeting. The affirmative votes of three fourths of the
members j^resent shall be necessary to a choice. The nomination of
corresponding and honorary members shall proceed .from the council.
Any person who shall contribute at one time to the funds of the so-
ciety a sum not less than one huadred dollars, shall be a patron. Any
resident member who shall at one time contribute one hundred dollars
to the funds of the society, shall be considered a life member, free from
assessment.

ARTICLE IV.

Eesident members only shall be entitled to vote, to hold office, or to
transact business. Corresponding and honorary members and patrons
may attend the meetings and take part in the scientific discussions of
the society.

ARTICLE V.

The officers of the society shall be a president, two vice-presidents,
a corresponding secretary, a recording secretary, a treasurer, a libra-
rian, a custodian, and curators, who together shall form a board for the
management of the concerns of the society, and be called the council.

ARTICLE YI.

Officers shall be chosen by ballot, and a majority of votes shall be
sufficient for a choice.

ARTICLE YII.

By-laws for the more particular regulation of the society shall from
time to time be made.

ARTICLE ^^:^.
The constitution may be altered or amended in any of the preceding

90 Constitution and By-Laws of the

articles by a vote to that effect of three fourths of the members pres-
ent at any two consecutive meetings of the society, the members
having been first duly notified of any proposed alteration, but the arti-
cle which immediately follows this shall be unaltei'able.

ARTICLE IX.

The consent of every member shall be necessary to a dissolution of
the society. In case of a dissolution the property of the society shall
not be distributed among the members of the society, but donors may
claim and receive such donations as they have made to the museum,
and the remainder shall be given to some public institution, on such
conditions as may then be agreed on, and the faithful performance of
such conditions shall be secured by bonds with sufficient penalties for
the non-fulfillment thereof.

B"Z"-XiJL"WS.

ARTICLE I. — OF MEMBERS.

Section 1. Any person of respectable character and attainments
residing in the city of Cincinnati, or its immediate neighborhood, shall
be eligible as a resident member of the society. Elections shall be
held at the regular meetings of the society. Nominations must be
made in writing, by three members, at least one month previous to the
time of elections. Such nominations shall be made to a committee,
consisting of the president, recording secretary and treasurer, who
shall report upon the same before balloting. Every person elected
shall, within six months from the date of his election, pay into the
treasury an initiation fee of five dollars, and subscribe an obligation
promising to conform to the constitution and by-laws of the society ;
and, until these conditions are fulfilled, he shall possess none of the
rights of membership, nor shall his name be borne upon the roll of
members.

Sec. 2. Corresponding members shall consist of persons residing at
a distance from the city who may be mterested in the study of natural
history, or desirous of promoting the interests of the society. Hon-
orary members may be selected from persons eminent for their attain-
ments in science, on whom the society may wish to confer a compli-
ment of respect, Neither shall be required to pay an initiation fee or
contribution.

Sec. 3. Persons who have been unsuccessful candidates for admis-
sion shall not be again proposed as members until after one year.

Cincinnati Society of Natural History. 91

Sec. 4.. Any member may withdraw from the society by giving
written notice of his intention, and paying all arrearages due from him.
Any member who shall neglect to pay his dues during the year for
which the same are payable, upon being notified by the treasurer at the
end of the year, and not paying within one month thereafter, shall
forfeit membership.

Sec. 5. Members may be expelled from the society by a vote of
three fourths of the members present at a stated meeting, by a notice
given at least one month previous.

ARTICLE II. — OF OFFICERS AND THEIR DUTIES.

Section 1. The president shall preside at meetings of the society
and of the council, shall preserve order, regulate debates, and conduct
all business proceedings.

. Sec. 2. The vice-presidents shall perform the duties of president
in his absence, in the order of seniority in office.

Sec. 3. "The corresponding secretary shall conduct the correspond-
ence of the society and shall keep a record thereof, shall keep the
common seal, acknowledge all donations, notify corresponding members
of their election, and receive and read to the society all communica-
tions which may be addressed to him.

Sec. 4. The recording secretary shall take and preserve correct
minutes of the proceedings of the society and council, in books to be
kept for that purpose, shall have the charge of all records belonging
to the society, shall notify resident members of their election, and
committees of their appointment, shall call special meetings when
directed by the president, and shall notify resident members of all
meetings, and officers of all matters which shall occur at any meeting
requiring their action.

Sec. 5. The treasurer shall have charge of all money and other
property of the society, excepting the museum and its contents, and
excepting also such property as may be placed by the council in the
hands of trustees, shall collect all fees and assessments, and receive all
donations in money which may be made to it, shall pay all accounts
against the society when the same shall be approved by a vote of the
council, shall keep a correct account of all receipts and expenditures,
in books belonging to the society, and shall at each annual meeting,
and at other times when required by the council, make a detailed
report of the same.

Sec. 6. The librarian shall have charge of the books belonging to
the society, or deposited for its use, and of the publications of the
society ; he shall observe and enforce such regulations as the council
shall from time to time make for the use of the books.

92 Constitution and By-Laws of the

iSec. 7. The custodian shall be a person of acknowledged scientific
attainments; he shall have general charge of the building and its
contents, shall have free access to all the collections at all times, and
shall act in concert with the curators, to whom he shall bear the relation
of adviser and assistant ; in case of the absence or neglect of curators,
he shall act in their stead, and perform their duties ; he shall prepare
and read at the annual meeting a report of the state of the museum,
compiled from the special report made to -him by the curators ; he
shall keep a book to be called the donation book, in which shall
be recorded, under their respective departments, all donations to the
museum, with the date and name of donor ; and he shall perform
such other duties as may be prescribed by the council, and mutually
assented to.

Sec. 8. The curators shall be intrusted with the care of the
museum. They shall, as soon as possible, after a donation is made, or
specimens received, deposit them in their respective cabinets ; each
curator shall have his particular department allotted to him at the
time of his election, shall arrange the specimens in that department
according to some system approved by the custodian, and, so far as
jiracticable, label them Vith the names they bear in such system ; he
shall, also, as far as is practicable, keep a correct catalogue of articles
in his care, and shall be authorized to select duplicate specimens from
the cabinet, and, with the assent of the custodian, effect exchange there-
with; each curator shall make a written report to the custodian a
month previous to the annual meeting, concerning the collection under
his charge, the additions made during the year, and the important
deficiencies which exist.

Sec. 9. The council shall control all expenditures of money, make
rules for the use of the library and museum, and special rules for the
direction of the librarian and custodian, and shall elect annually a
committee of five members, to be called the publishing committee ;
the council shall have full power to act for the interests of the society
in any way not inconsistent with the constitution and by-laws.

Sec. 10. The council shall annually appoint three trustees, one of
Avhom shall be treasurer ex-officio, to whose charge shall be intrusted all
the funded property of the society, with power to sell and re-invest
according to their judgment.

ARTICLE III. — OF ASSESSMENTS.

Section 1. Every resident mefnber shall be subject to an annual
assessment of five dollars, payable on the first Tuesday of April in
each year, but no assessment shall be required of an}' member during
the six months succeeding his election.

ig

Cincinnati Society of Natural Hidory. 93

Sec. 2. The president and treasurer shall be empowered to exempt
Qiuh dleniio) a member from assessment, when, from peculiar circum-
stances, they may deem it for tlje interest of the society so to do.

ARTICLE IV. — OF THE LIBRARY.

Section 1. Members and patrons of tlie society only shall have
access to or take books from the library, but the council may, by
special vote, extend the use of books to others than members, specifying
the conditions under which they may be taken.

Sec. 2. The rules and regulations of the council, for the use of
the library, shall be printed and exposed in the library rooms, and a
digest of them affixed to the volumes themselves.

ARTICLE V. — OF THE MUSEUM.

Section 1. Members of all classes, and the public generally, shall
have access to the museum, at ■ such times as the council shall
determine.

Sec. 2. No specimens shall be removed from the museum, without
the leave of the custodian and the curator of the department to
which they belong, Avho shall take a receipt for the same, and be
responsible for their restoration in good order.

article VI. — OF committees.

Section. 1. The committee on publications shall, from time to time,
cause to be published, and superintend the publication of such papers
read to the society, and such portions of the records of the proceedings,
as may seem to them calculated to promote the interests of science, so
far as the funds appropriated by the council shall permit, it being
understood that the committee shall not be held responsible for any
opinion expressed in said publications. The said committee shall also
have authority to effect exchanges for other scientific publications.

Sec. 2. The council shall, previous to every annual meeting,
appoint a committee whose duty it shall be to audit the accounts of
receipts and expenditures of the corporation.

article VII. — OF lectures.

Section 1. Public lectures, Avhen adjudged expedient by the
council, may be given under the auspices of the society.

article VIII. — OF meetings.

Section 1. A meeting shall be held on the first Tuesday in April,

annually, for the choice of officers and other general purposes ; at this

meeting an annual report, embodying the several reports of the

curators and librarian shall be read by the custodian, and a report

94 Constitution and By-Laws.

on the state of the funds by the treasurer, who shall also present an
estimate of the necessary expenses of the ensuing year.

Sec. 2. Regular meetings of the so.ciety shall be held on the first
Tuesday evening of every month, unless when suspended by a vote of
the societ3^

Sec. 3. Nine members shall form a quorum for business.

Sec. 4. The order of proceeding at meetings shall be as follows :

1. Record of the preceding meeting read.

2. Candidates for membership proposed.

3. Balloting for members.

4. Written communications read.

5. Verbal communications made.

6. Business called up by special resolution or otherwise.

7. Donations announced. •

8. Adjournment.

ARTICLE IX. — CHANGE OF BY-LAWS.

Section 1. The by-laws of the society may be altered or amended
by a majority vote of the members present at any meeting, provided
that the members of the society shall have been duly notified one
mouth previous of an intended change.

officers of THE SOCIETY.

John A. Warder, President.

Dr. W. H. Mussey and S. A. Miller, Vice-Presidents.

L. S. Cotton, Corresponding Secretary.

John M, Edwards, Recording Secretary.

H. Wood, Treasurer.

H. H. Hill, Librarian.

R. B. Moore, Custodian.

R. M. Byrnes, Curator of Mineralogy.

S. A. Miller, " " Paleontology.

Dr. C. a. Miller, " " Conchology.

V. T. Chambers, " " Entomology.'

John Hussey, " " Botany.

Chas. Dury, " " Taxidermy.

D. S. Young, " " Ichthyology.

Dr. W. H, Mussey, " " Comparative Anatomy.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

F. P. Anderson, M. D. Rob't Brown, Jr.

Ludlow Apjones, R. M. Byrnes,

List of Members.

95

J. B. Chickerinq,
Robert Clarke,
Lucros Curtis,
V. T. Chambers,
Julius Dexter,
Charles Dury,
C. B. Dyer,
Jno. M. Edwards,
H. H. Hill,
R. E. Hawley,
W. H. jMussey, M. D.
R. C. McCracken,

C. A. Miller, M. D.
S. A. Miller,

AVm. Owens, M, D.
Henry Probasco,
J. Ralston Skinner,
J. A. Warder, M. D.
E. S. Wayne, M. D.
E. Williams, M. D.
Horatio Wood,
H. C. Baum, M. D.
L. S. Cotton,
J. F. Judge, M. D.
Wm. Clendenin, M. D.
J, B. Hoffman,
E. W. Kittredge,
A. J. Howe, M. D.
E. Rives, M. D.
Theodore Gazley,
John Hussey,
P. G. March,
Chas. p. Taft,
' M. F. Force,
G. W. Harper,
Alfred Yaple,

D. S. Young, M. D.
R. H. Stone, Jr.
A. G. Weatherby,

J. L. Thornton, M. D.
Miss Hallie Cotton,

E. F. Bliss,

Mrs. Mary J. Pyle,

James B. Daniels,

R. B. Moore,

Henry Earnshaw,

Haryey Myers,

E. L. Anderson,

W. H. Taylor, M. D.

Thomas Wood, M. D.

Joseph Earnshaw,

A. E. Heighway, M. D.

C. R. Stuntz,

George Huntington,

H. H. Raschig,

Geo. Mendenhall, M. D.

E. Hardy,

Geo. M. Maxwell, D. D.

A. E. Tripp,

J. W. Hall,

P. R. Taft,

Oscar Rammelsberg,

P. S. Conner, M. D.

AV. L. Avery,

T. a. Corcoran,

O. E. Newton, M. D.

J. Taft,

Alice Williams,

E. M. Williams,

Cyrus Mendenhall,

h. s. bosworth,

James W. Vance, M. D.

Geo. Sutton, M. D.

Robert B. Warder,

S. E. Wright,

M. K. Maginnis,

Morris S. Shipley,

J. Y. Rodgers,

Jacob Traber,

AViLLiAM A. Fillmore,

William Colvin,

S. W. Stanage,

A. L. Helm,

0. D. Norton, M. D.

96

List of Members.

T. L. A. Geeve, M. D.
Ferdinand Eenz,
Charles G. Boerner,
Fisher W. Ames, M. D.

C. D. Robertson,
Chas. F. Thomas, M. D.
J, jS^. Laboyteaux,

P. B. Swing, Hon.
Wm. Carson, M. D.
Geo. Ward Nichols,
Mrs. Geo. Ward Nichols,
a. t. goshorn,

D. H. James,
B. W. Foley,
Abner.G. Thorp, M. D.
George Hoadly',
Daniel Beard,
Charles H. Carr,
Paul Mohr,
Charles E. Brown,

S. A. Charles,

J. H.

H. H. Tatem,
Robt. S. Hamilton,
J. B. Steves, M. D.

H. W. LOWRY,

S. S. Davis,
Wm. Means,
Wm. Judkins, M. D.
J. L. Dryer, M. D.
H. C. Whitman,
Wm. B. Foster,
J. D. Wells,

J. H. MUNCE,

Miss M. C. Montfort,
Geo. a. Smith,
Wm. H. Cook, M. D.
Geo. W. Ransom,
Lennie R. Freeman,
L. M. HosEA,

Jameson, M. D.

W. H. Broadwell,
A. Curtis, M. D.
Hunt, M. D.

Robert Buchanan,
George Graham,
Robert Clarke,

LIFE MEMBERS.

U. p. James,
John L. Talbott,
S. T. Carley,
d. e. bolles.

honorary member.
Nathaniel S. Shaler,

coerespondiktg members.

Robert Dempker,

Richard Owens, M. D., LL.D.

J. A. Tingley, Ph. D.

E. T. Cox,

J. B. Reynolds, M. D.

Chas. E. Stetson,

Rev. Sam'l Findley,

J. Q. A. Warren,

W. McK. Heath,
J. H. Klippart,

U. T. CURRAN,

Miss Rachel Bodley,
John W. Byrkit,
Gen. Aug. V. Kautz, U. S.
Thomas F. Moses, M. D.
Geo. W. Lawrence, M. D.

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CTNCINNATI QUARTERLY

X)

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Knrini; AN i( i'i;iii'i;ii |-. )i:,

s. A. :mii.ler

CONTENTS:

Page.
P.)-iiii.jii 111' i!ii- (.iiiciiinati O-roup in the
ecological Column of Fossiliferoiis
Uocks of North Auierica; by S. A.

.Miller •■• 9'

Monogi-niih of ihc Crustacea of the Cin-
cinnati Group; by S. A. Miller US

Cypvlcardites 1'"

Cypricardites Hainesi ; by S.A.Miller... U7
Streptorhynchus (?) Hallie; by S. A.

Miller Hf*

Modiolopsis moiUolari.s HO

MoUiolopsia Versailleiisis ; by S. A. Mil-
ler l''d

Desciiptions of one New Species of Lep-
tieua, and two New Species of Cyclo-
noma, from the Cincinnati Group; hy

U. P.James..... I'jl

Nullipores; by U. P. James VA

Method of Hearing Lepidoptera; by A. O.

Welbcrbv 164

Page. !
Xew Kqiiine Maminal.s, fi'iiu ilp I'crliury

Formation; by O. 0. Marsh 1i}7

Trichinfc .spiralis 1«0

Notice of the a]>pearanco of the Roch.s at

Blue Lick Sprinfis, in Nicholas cfmn-

ty, Ktntueky; by (j. AV. Hansom

On the Phenomona of Variatiou and (jco-

logical distribution, as illustrated by

the Papilionidie of the Malayan

Region: by Alfred R. Wallace, E.s(|....
From Ancient Mining on the Shores of

Lake Superior; by Chas. Whittlesey. lT;i
Ancient Works in Jhe Ohio Valley.

From Pre-Hi.storic liaces; by J. AN'.

Fo.ster 182

The Cincinnati Tablet ,.v 188

Kxpressious of tlie Cat .., ..^ 188

From die Silurische l-'auna des Westlichcn

Tennessee; l>y ]>r. Ferdinand Rienier. 190
Palictnanon eratera l;'2

ItU

ii;i

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1874

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Vol. I. APRIL, 1874. No. 2.

The Position of the Cincinnati Group in the Geological Column of Fos-
siliferoits Eoeh of Noiih America. (By S. A. Miller.)

In the early days of the science of geology, the known strata of rocks
were divided into systems or formations, each of which was supposed
to represent a great period of time, during which no great changes
occurred in the condition of the earth, or the animal life that inhabited
it. The commencement of each system or formation was supposed to
mark a new era of creations, and its close to represent a great cata-
clysm that destroyed all animal life, and effected great and wonderful
changes on the surface of the earth.

Later, however, these systems and formations Avere found to be of
much greater depth than at first supposed, and as the science of
geology became better knoAvn, they were subdivided into groups, each
of which was found to be as distinct and marked in its character as
the separate systems and formations were.

And, finally, it was found that the systems and formations were more
imaginary than real. That they did not mark periods of time during
which there was great repose on the surface of the earth, nor were
they ushered in with special creations of organic life, nor closed with
violent cataclysms that destroyed every living thing. On the contrary,
as the examinations and discoveries began to perfect the geological col-
umn, and paleontology became a science, it was ascertained that the
special evidences of creations, and cataclysms were missing, and that
the never ceasing change which now takes place is the only criterion
by which to judge of the changes in the past.

98 TJie Position of tJie Cincinnati Group.

The geological column is therefore to be regarded as one continuous
whole, commencing at the base of the metamorphic rocks, and con-
tinuing without interruption, and without any break in animal life up
through the sedimentary deposits of the present time. The division
into systems or formations is retained for convenience to embrace a
collection of consecutive groups having some character in common, but
not to be understood as necessarily embracing every group having such
common characteristic, nor as denying that any group in one system
or formation may not have the same lithological appearance, or possess
some of the same fossils that a group in another system or formation
may have or possess. The division into groups is likewise one of con-
venience, though it is much more expressive, and less liable to be misun-
derstood in its actual significance than the older division into systems
or formations. By a group we understand, a series of rocks either hav-
ing the same general lithological appearance, or, though quite difterent
in appearance, having the same fossil contents in general, or sometimes
merely signifying the exposure of the strata at a particular locality.

In general it is only through a knowledge of paleontology that
strata or groups of rocks at distant places can be compared, and their
order of superposition determined. Such knowledge is the key which
unlocks and opens to view many miles in thickness of the surface of
the earth, and carries us back on a train of thought and observation
through many millions of years in time, and through the history of
animal development from the highest vertebrate animals of to-day to
the foraminifera of the Laurentian Group.

The strata of rocks constituting the Cincinnati Group, though situ-
ated at a station on this road far below the fossil remains of the verte-
brate kingdom, are yet in the upper half of the geological column of
fossiliferous rocks not only of North America, but of their equivalent
in Europe and throughout the world.

The immense exposures of the Laurentian, Huronian and Quebec
rocks, in separate sections in Canada, the Potsdam in Tennessee, the
Catskill in Pennsylvania, and the Coal Measures in Nova Scotia, have
afforded the opportunities for measuring the groups having the great-
est thickness without appealing to the fossil contents for any assistance;
nevertheless the determination of their order of superposition with re-
gard to each other has somewhat depended upon their fossil contents,
and that of adjacent underlying or superimposed strata, while many of
the smaller groups have been placed in the geological column, after a
careful examination and thorough knowledge of their fossil contents,
which alone has enabled us to determine their relative position.

Prof. Meek, in the introductory remarks to his report on the paleon-
tology of Eastern Nebraska, says :

The Position of the Cincinnati Group. 99

" There are probably few well informed geologists who will, at the
present time, maintain that the occurrence of a very similar, or even
the same group of fossils, at widely separated localities, necessarily
proves the rocks in which they are found to be of exactly contempor-
aneous origin. The most that is now generally maintained in this re-
gard is, that such identity or correspondence of types, at very distant-
ly separated parts of the world, indicates that the strata in which
they are embedded were formed during the prevalence of identical
or similar physical conditions at some time during the same great
geological epoch, and that they hold the same, or nearly the
same, relative position in the geological column of their respective
districts. For instance, although a stratum in the Eocky Moun-
tains, containing the remains of very nearly the same fauna as some
particular subdivision of the Devonian system of Europe, might, for
aught we know, be hundreds of years older or newer than that par-
ticular division, we Avould have little or no room for doubting that
it belonged to the great Devonian series, or possibly even to some
definite known horizon in that series. We could, moreover, very posi-
tively assert, in such a case, that it would be, according to all past ex-
perience, useless to seek there at any lower geological horizon for
workable beds of coal, or to expect to find Silurian rocks, or any of
their peculiar products, above, supposing there had been no overturn-
ing of the strata at the particular localities.

" Hence, although paleontology does not enable us to ascertain the
exact actual ages of rocks, when applied with due caution and skill in
connection with a careful observance of their stratigraphical arrange-
ment, and lithological and other physical characters, it does afford the
means of fixing their relative ages, as well as of identifying the same
beds at different localities, within given fields of observation, with
very considerable precision. It is, therefore, not merely one of the
more important aids to the geologist in his investigations, but in the
present state of geological science, it is the only sure guide in classify-
ing and determining the order of succession of rocks, where this can
not be done by their actual continuity or obvious superposition."

The Laurentiau series of metamorphic rocks forms the base of the
sedimentary strata, and has an estimated thickness of 32,750 feet.
(Geo. of Can., 1863, p. 45.) It takes its name from the Lauren-
tian Mountains of Canada. Eozoon Canadense and other fossil fora-
minifera have been found at the base of the Grenville band of lime-
stone, which is placed about the middle of this great series. The
estimated depth of the Laurentian series to the lowest place at which
the Eozoon Canadense has been found, is 16,500 feet. Sir W. E. Lo-

100 The Position of the Cincinnati Group.

gan (Geo. of Can. 1866, p. 19) describes the Grenville band in which
the fossil is found as follows :

"The general character of the rock connected with the fossil pro-
duces the impression that it is a great foraminiferal reef, in which the
pyroxene masses represent a more ancient portion, which having died,
and become much broken up, and worn into cavities and deep recesses,
afforded a seat for a new growth of forarainifera, represented by the cal-
careo serpentinous part. This in its turn became broken up, leaving,
however, in some places, uninjured portions of the organic structure.
The main difference between this foraminiferal reef, and more recent
coral reefs, seems to be, that while with the latter are usually asso-
ciated many shells and other organic remains, in the more ancient one
the only remains yet found are those of the animal which built the
reef."

The next series of rocks overlying the Laurentian are called the
Huronian, which, on the north shore of Lake Huron and to the east-
ward, consists of quartzites, chloritic slates, bands of limestone chert,
jasper and slate conglomerates, not less than 18,000 feet in thickness.

On Lake Superior, Sault Ste. Marie, Mamainse, and other places, they
are exposed from 10,000 to 16,208 feet in thickness. An approxi-
mate estimate of the thickness of this series on Michipicoten Island,
says Mr. MacFarlane, is 18,500 feet. And if we compare the rocks of
Michipicoten Island with those of Mamainse, it would appear that the
lower rocks of the latter series do not come to the surface at Mich-
ipicoten Island, and that the higher rocks of the Michipicoten se-
ries have not been developed at Mamainse, or lie beneath the waters
of the lake to the southwest of the promontory. It would there-
fore appear just in estimating the thickness of the upper copper-
bearing rocks of the eastei'n part of Lake Superior (which are Huron-
ian), to add to the Mamainse series the above mentioned 4,000 feet
of resinous traps, or porphyrites, which would make the whole thick-
ness at least 20,000 feet. (Geo. of Can., 1863, pp. 55, 67, 86 ; Geo.
of Can., 1866, pp. 182, 141.)

The metamorphic strata, equivalent to the Laurentian and Huronian
series of Canada, is described in Safford's Geological Survey of Ten-
nessee, p. 178, as many thousand feet thick in that State. Fossil re-
mains of foraminifera have been found in it. They have also been
found in the metamorphic rocks of Europe, several thousand feet be-
low their surface.

Next above the Huronian or metamorphic rocks lies the great Silu-
rian formation, named by Sir K. I. Murchison, in memory of the an-
cient Silures who inliabited Wales, where he first studied the exposure

Tlie Position of the Cincinnati Group. 101

of the rocks. He subdivided it into the Lower Silurian and Upper
Sihirian formations, and those names have been adopted in this coun-
try almost without exception. The Lower Silurian is divided nito
groups or subdivisions in ascending order, as follows :

1st. The St. John's Group, consisting of black shales and sandstones,
resting conformably upon still older schistose rocks, at St. John's, New
Brunswick, 3,000 feet thick. (Geo. of Can., 1866, p. 235.)

2d. The Potsdam sandstone, which takes its name from Potsdam, m
Northern New York, where it is well developed, and consists of a fine-
grained, even-bedded sandstone, traversed by parallel vertical jomts.
It is about 2,000 feet thick in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, 1,147
feet at the Straits of Belle L^le, 2,020 feet at Bonne Bay, Newfound-
land, and from 500 to 2,500 feet in thickness at other places in Canada.
It is divided into three great sub-groups in Tennessee, in ascending or-
der, as follows : 1. Ocoee conglomerate and slates; 2. Chilhowee sand-
stone ; 3. Knox Group. The Ocoee conglomerate and slates takes
its name from the Ocoee River, and is 10,000 feet in thickness. The
Chilhowee sandstone takes its name from the Chilhowee Mountain,^ and
is 2,000 feet thick. The Knox Group takes its name from Knox
couiitv, and is 7,000 feet in thickness ; thus making the total thick-
ness of the Potsdam 19,000 feet in Tennessee. (Safford's Geo. of

Tenn., p. 158.)

3d. The Calciferous Group, which is exposed in Illinois, Missouri,
Tennessee, New York, Pennsylvania, Canada, and other places, usual-
ly less than 500 feet in thickness, is 1,315 feet thick in Missouri. (Geo.
of Mo., pp. 60, 116), and 1,839 feet in Newfoundland. (Billing's Pal.,

p. 208.)

4th. The Quebec Group, which is subdivided into the Levis, Lauzon
and Sillery. The Levis division comprehends the Philipsburgh rocks,
which are 4,860 feet thick, in addition to 1,285 feet of the Orleans
section, making the whole division 6,145 feet thick. The Lauzon di-
vision reaches nearly 4,000 feet in thickness, and the Sillery 2,000
feet, making the maximum depth of the three divisions of this group
12,145 feet. (Geo. of Can., 1866, pp. 30, 36.) Some of the fossils of
this group are found in both the Chazy and Calciferous rocks, and the
Canadian geologists for a time supposed it to be the equivalent of
these rocks, but later investigations have shown that it has a fauna of
its own, and that it offers beds of passage from the Potsdam to the
Trenton founa, in addition to those of the Chazy and Calciferous.
(Billing's Pal., p. 64.)

There is in Newfoundland an important series of strata, having a
thickness of 2,061 feet, lying below the Levis formation, and above the

102 The Position of the Cincinnati Groiqh

Calciferous, which has not been recognized in Canada. It thus appears
that the Levis formation not only lies above the Calciferous, but more
than 2,000 feet above it. Yet it holds a large number of trilobites of
tlie Potsdam type, and several species which certainly do occur in the
Calciferous. '(Billing's Pal, p. 876.)

5th. The Chazy limestone, which takes its name from Chazy, Clinton
county, New York, has an extensive range over New York, the Island
of Anticosti, and Canada, but is seldom found over 300 feet in thick-
ness.

6th. The Black river and Birdseye limestone, which is found in
Canada, and the Island of Anticosti, in New York, Missouri, and
other places, usually of no very important thickness, but in Pennsyl-
vania its maximum is estimated at 5,500 feet. (Geo. of Penn., vol. i.,

]). 105.)

7th. The Trenton Group, which takes its name from Trenton,
Oneida county. New York, is highly fossiliferous, and is found almost
everywhere on the continent where the Lower Silurian rocks are ex-
posed. In New York, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Illinois, and Canada,
its greatest thickness does not exceed 1,000 feet, while on the Island
of Anticosti it reaches 1,700 feet, and in Tennessee 2,500 feet. (Geo.
of Tenn., p. 160.)

8th. The Black slate or Utica shale, which is confined in its range
to Pennsylvania, New York, and Canada, and reaches its greatest
thickness in Pennsylvania, at 400 feet. (Geo. of Penn., vol. i., p.
105.)

9th. The Cincinnati Group, which is situated at the top of the Low*
er Silurian, and has a total thickness exposed in Kentucky, Ohio, and
Indiana, of about 1,000 feet, is the equivalent of the Hudson River
Group of New York, whicli is exposed from 500 to 800 feet. It is the
equivalent of the Matinal Shales of Pennsylvania, which are 1,200
feet thick, and the Cape Girardeau limestone of Missouri, which is
165 feet in thickness. It is 150 feet thick at Green Bay, and other
places in Michigan, 250 feet at Chicago, as found by boring an artesian
Avell, and from 150 to 200 feet at other places in Illinois. It is 500
feet thick at Cape Rich, on Georgian Bay, 960 feet on the Island of
Anticosti, 800 feet at Colling wood, Canada, where it is interposed as
in New York between the Trenton and Medina Groups, while its
greatest thickness in Canada is 2,000 feet. (Geo. of Cau., 1863, p.
200.)

The maximum thickness of the Lower Silurian, at the places men-
tioned, is thus seen to be 46,684 feet, and the fossiliferous part of the
metamorphic rocks, 36,500 feet. Total, 83,184 feet, or fifteen miles

Tlie Position of the Cincinnati Group. 103

and three fourths, from the top of the Cincinnati Group to the base of
the fossiliferous rocks. As we have here estimated the greatest thick-
ness of the Cincinnati Group from Canada at 2,000 feet, the true po-
sition will be best understood by estimating the depth below the base
of the Cincinnati Group at fifteen miles and a quarter. In other
words, if all the formations were fully represented here in their great-
est thickness, we would expect to find fossils by digging and boring at
Cincinnati all the way down for fifteen and one quarter miles. The
fact is, however, that part of the earth has always been dry land, whilst
another part has been covered with an ocean. The dry land has al-
waA's been worn away, as it is at the present time, by the action
of rain and atmospheric causes, whilst the ocean bed has gradually
filled up, as the Atlantic ocean fills to-day by sedimentary deposition,
so slow it may be that one foot of deposit represents more than one
thousand years, but nevertheless a true chronicle of the lapse of time.
The maximum thickness, therefore, of each of the several groups of strata
belonging to the greater geological formations, is the measure of the lapse
of the time that transpired during its deposition on the ocean bed, and
when placed together, in their order of time and deposition, these groups
constitute the true geological column. And where any group of
strata is missing, the column of animal life is likewise connected in
some manner by its fossil contents elsewhere. The lapse of time is
estimated by the thickness of the rocks, and the internal evidences of
the manner of their formation. And it is a general rule that where
fossils are abundant, and varieties numerous, the deposition of rocks
was extremely slow, and where the fossils are well preserved, scarce
and uniform in their appearance, the deposition was much more rapid.
The larger part of the rocks, too, have the appearance of having been
deposited from mineral matter held by the water in chemical solution,
so extremely slow, that a Bryozoan could grow on a shell for many years,
within one sixteenth of an inch of the mud, without ever being troubled
with its near approach, or finding out in old age that he could reach
with his cilia any nearer the bottom than he could in his youth. It
has been most clearly proven by paleontological testimony, that there
was no break in the continuity of animal life during this immense
period of time, and especially it is clearly demonstrated that there was
no break during the deposition of the nine miles in thickness of the
rocks of the Lower Silurian era, and yet the Trilobites and the Ortho-
ceratites were the highest organized and largest developed animals that
had an existence. Each succeeding group of rocks contains additional
varieties and species, and represents a more numerous and higher
development of animal life, ranging from the foraminifera to the

104 llie Position of the Cincinnati Group.

cephalopoda and Crustacea of the ocean, but never containing even a
fragment of a land invertebrate.

This great thickness of the Lower Silurian rocks of North America
is fully equaled by the Lower Silurian of Europe, and especially of
England and Scotland, where it is estimated at 50,000 feet (Murchi-
son's Siluria, p. 174). And the development of animal life, as shown
by the fossil contents of the strata of Europe, was precisely the equiv-
alent of that in America.

Overlying the Cincinnati Group, we have the Upper Silurian rocks,
which are subdivided in ascending order, into : 1st, Oneida conglomer-
ate ; 2d, Medina sandstone ; 3d, Clinton Group ; 4th, Niagara Group ;
5th, Onandaga Salt Group; and 6th, Lower Helderberg.

The Oneida conglomerate is 400 feet thick in Pennsylvania, and
500 feet in New York. (Rep. 1st Dist., N. Y., p. 356.)

The Medina sandstone is 350 feet thick in l!j"ew York, between the
mouth of the Niagara and Lewiston ; 618 feet at Barton, Canada, and
1,150 feet in Pennsylvania. (Geo. of Penn., vol. i., p. 105.)

Lnmediately overlying the Cincinnati Group, in Ohio, and other
Avestern localities, we find either the Clinton or Niagara Group, and a
somewhat general change of species in animal life ; a few, however, pass
,from the Cincinnati Group even to the Niagara. In New York and
other eastern localities, however, where the Oneida conglomerate and
Medina sandstone are interposed between the Cincinnati and Clinton
Groups, the fossils graduate from one group into the next higher,
v.-ithout greater changes than are to be found within each separate group,
and in such manner as to show that there was no break in animal
life. The same state of facts exist in England, Scotland, Wales, and
Bohemia, where the fossils pass from the Lower Silurian to the Upper
Silurian, in such manner as to demonstrate that there was no great dis-
turbance of the animals that lived in the sea, if indeed there is any
evidence to show that a greater change took place, either on land or
sea, than that which is taking place to-day, or takes place during the
deposition of any group of strata.

Prof. Billings says that on the Island of Anticosti there is " a de-
posit of argilaceous limestone, 2,300 feet in thickness, regularly strati-
lied, in nearly horizontal and perfectly comformable beds. All the
facts tend to show that these strata were accumulated in a quiet sea,
in uninterrupted succession, during that period in which the upper
part of the Hudson River Group, the Oneida conglomerate, the Me-
dina sandstone, and the Clinton Group, were in the course of being
deposited in that part of the Paleozoic ocean now constituting the
State of New York and some of the countries adjacent. If this view

•

The Position of the Cincinnati Group. 105

be correct, then the Anticosti rocks become highly interestuig, because
they give us in great perfection a fauna hitherto unknown to the pale-
ontology of North America. When the great thickness of the rocks
between the Hudson Eiver and Clinton Groups is considered, it be-
comes evident that a vast period of time must have passed away dur-
ing their deposition ; and. yet, as the Oneida conglomerate is unfossili-
ferous, and the Medina sandstone has yielded but a few inconspicuous
species, we have been almost wholly without the means of ascertain-
ing the natural history of the American seas of that epoch. The
fossils of the middle portion of the rocks of Anticosti fill this blank
exactly, and furnish us with the materials for connecting the Hudson
River Group with the Clinton by beds of passage containing some of
the characteristic fossils of both formations, associated with many new
species which do not occur in either. (Geo. of Can., 1856, p. 249.)

The Medina sandstone in Western New York, in some localities, is
highly fossiliferous, and in some places the fossiliferous part reaches a
maximum, says Prof. Hall, of more than one hundred feet.

The Clinton Group is only estimated, in Ohio and other western
localities, at 50 feet or less in thickness. In New York and Canada
from 50 to 400 feet, and on the Island of Anticosti at 610 feet ; but
in Pennsylvania it reaches the great thickness of 1,620 feet. (Geo. of
Penn., vol. i., p. 106),

Prof. Hall says of this group: "In the western portion of the
State (N. Y.) the limit between the Medina sandstone and Clinton
Group is well defined, and the materials very distinct ; but, in the cen-
tral part of the State, we find the same conditions which operated dur-
ing the deposition of the Medina sandstone to have been continued into
the Clinton Group. The latter commences by a shaly deposit, which
is soon succeeded by alternations of sandstone, in character precisely
like the Medina sandstone. The general character of the marine vege-
tation of the two periods is similar ; and a peculiar type of plants
commences its existence in the Medina sandstone, and terminates in the
Clinton Group. When we examine the Clinton Group in the central
part of the State, its analogies are chiefly with the Medina sandstone ;
and it is there a powerful and important formation, presenting, how-
ever, great variation in its successive beds, and characters in every re-
spect truly protean. In its western extension, the Clinton Group as-
similates in character to the Niagara Group, and in the western dis-
trict has nearly lost the character which it presents in Oneida county.
At the same time that the group assumes a more calcareous character
in its western extension, it loses the fossils which were typical of it,
and becomes charged with fossils peculiar to calcareous strata. Thus,

lOG The Position of the Cincinnati Group.

while we find its lower beds, from Wayne county westward to the
Niagara river, characterized by peculiar fossils, we find the' upper beds
containing many species which pass upward into the Niagara Group.
Indeed, there is no line which can be designated between these two
groups which shall mark the limits of the organic products. It is
true, nevertheless, that by far the greater part of the fossils of the two
groups are distinct ; and the small number in the lower Group, of
those which we regard as proper to the Niagara Group, are for the
most part inconspicuous, and not so well developed as they are in the
Niagara."

Again, he says :

" In tracing the Clinton Group westerly, we find its aflSnities more
with the rocks below, or that the material and fossils recognized on
the one side as the Clinton formation are not strongly separated ffom
the upper beds of the Hudson River Group ; and studied in these lo-
calities alone, they might be regarded as constituting part of the same.
On the other hand, the Niagara becomes defined as a calcareous group,
and the line between it and the strata below is strongly drawn. The
base of this limestone would everywhere be recognized as the base of the
Upper Silurian rocks, while the strata below are marked by fossils
which belong to the Lower Silurian fauna."

The Niagara Group consists of the Niagara shales and limestones, and
the Guelph and Leclaire Groups. At Lockport and Niagara Falls it
consists of 80 feet of shales and 164 feet of limestones. The Guelph
Group takes its name from the town of Guelph in Canada, where it is
about 160 feet in thickness. It is like the Niagara limestones on
which it rests, a dolomite, and on Manitoulin Island, where the lime-
stones are 405 feet thick, it is 100 feet in thickness. The greatest
thickness in Ohio, Indiana, or Illinois, will not, probably, exceed 400
feet, but in Tennessee it is found 1,700 feet thick, and is subdivided as
follows : 1st, Clinch Mountain sandstone, consisting of shales and sand-
stones, 700 feet ; 2d, the White Oak Mountain sandstone, 500 feet ;
3d, the Dyestone Group of shales and sandstones, which takes its
name from an iron ore which is sometimes used as a dyestone, 300
feet; and 4th, the Meniscus limestone, which takes its name from a
lens or menicus-shaped fossil sponge, named by Roemer Astreaspongia
meniscus, 200 feet.

Prof. Hall says :

" The rocks of this group, where best developed in Western New
York, consist of a mass of shale, succeeded by one of limestone, the
passage from the former to the latter taking place by the gradual in-

The Position of the Cincinnati Qroup. 107

crease of calcareous matter. The upper or terminating limestone of
the Clinton Group is succeeded by a soft argillo-calcareous shale, which
maintains its character unchanged for a thickness of 80 to 100 feet.
Thi'oughout the greater part of this it abounds in fossils, nearly all of
Avhich are quite distinct from those in the beds of the Clinton Group.

" In the western part of New York, the lithological characters of
the Clinton and Niagara Groups are so similar that they could well be
united. The fossils also of the two groups, though generally distinct,
are nevertheless generically similar, and several species pass from the
lower to the higher group. The upper limestone of the Clinton Group,
which forms a strong line of demarkation between the two, contains in
its western extension several fossils usually regarded as peculiar to the
Niagara Group. Among these may be noticed the Caryocrimis ornatus,
and the Hypanthocriniis deeorus. It can not be denied, therefore, that
there is a gradual approximation in the two groups, both in lithologi
cal and paleontological characters, as we trace them westward within
the limits of the State of New York. Still farther west, the assimilation
becomes more perfect, and there appears to be no line of separation
between the two groups. At the same time the fossils appear to be
commingled." (Pal. of N. Y., vol. iii., p. 106.)

The Onandaga Salt Group takes its name from Onandaga county,
New York, where the salt springs have been extensively wrought. It
is sometimes called the Onandaga limestone, or the Gypsiferous series.

Its outcrop in New York is traced from Montgomery county, where
the formation is represented by a thin band, westward, till it attains, in
Wayne county, a thickness of 700, and even 1,000 feet, and, finally, re-
duced once more to less than 300 feet, crosses the Niagara river into
Canada, whence it is traced northwestward, forming a band between
the outcrops of the Corniferous and Guelph formations to Lake Hu-
ron, and thence to Mackinac. (Geo. of Can., 1866, p. 263.)

This formation, in its lower part, is made up chiefly of marls and
thin shaly limestones, which include the gypsum and salt. Its upper
portion consists of magnesian limestones, often yielding hydraulic or
water lime, and is, hence, sometimes distinguished as the water lime
gi'oup, though really forming a part of the Onandaga formation. It
attains a thickness in Canada of 800 to 1,000 feet. (Geo. of Can.,
1866, p. 237.) But in Pennsylvania, where it is called the Surgent
red marl, it is only 350 feet thick. •

The Lower Helderberg Group is so termed from its complete develop-
ment along the base of the Helderberg Mountains. In some parts of
the Helderberg Mountains, and in other parts of New York, it rests di-
rectly upon the water lime beds, which is the uppermost member of the
Onandaga salt group.

108 The Position of the Cincinnati Group.

It was separated in New York by Vanuxem into five subdivisions in
ascending order, as follows ; 1st, Water lime group or Tentaculite lime-
stone, 200 feet thick, some layers of which yield hydraulic cement,
from which the subdivision took its name. This group crosses into
Canada, where it is found 45 feet thick ; 2d, Pentamerus limestone, 30
feet thick, at Cherry Valley, and which took its name from the abund-
ance of Pentamerus galeatus found within it ; 3d, Delthyris shaly
limestone, 70 feet thick, in Albany county, which took its name from
the abundance of Sjnrifera macropleura, and S. pachoptera, formerly
called Delthyris ; 4th, Encrinal limestone, 25 feet thick, which took its
name from the quantity of broken encrinites it contains. It has also
been called the scutella limestone, from a shield-like pelvis of a crinoid
found in it ; 5th, Upper Pentamerus limestone, 75 feet thick, and
which took its name from the Pentamerus pseudogaleatus, with which it
is characterized.

While this group is only from 100 to 200 feet thick in Ohio and the
western States, and only from 400 to 500 feet thick in New York, it is
1,720 feet thick in Pennsylvania, and at Gaspe, Canada, where it lies
immediately beneath the Oriskany sandstone — it is 2,000 feet in thick-
ness. (Geo. of Can., 1866, p. 260.)

From these estimates we find that the' rocks belonging to the so-
called Silurian system, overlying the Cincinnati Group, are 7,970 feet in
thickness, or about one mile and a half. They contain the fossil re-
mains of no vertebrate animal so far as yet known. They show, how-
ever, the uninterrupted course of oceanic life from one group to anoth-
er, as the same is shown by their equivalents in Europe and other parts
of the world.

Prof. Hall says :

" The fossils of the Lower Helderberg are analagous to the fossils
of the Niagara Group, which is everywhere evident from comparison,
and the graduation is so slow, from one formation to the other, that they
are grouped together in one system, the Upper Silurian."

Next above the Upper Silurian rocks come the Devonian, from Dev-
onshire, England. They are subdivided in ascending order, into : 1st,
Oriskany sandstone ; 2d, Upper Helderberg ; 3d, Hamilton Group ;
4th, Portage Group ; 5th, Chemung Group ; and 6th,'the Catskill Group.

The Oriskany sandstone takes its name from Oriskany, New York.
It is found only 10 feet thick in Ohio, but in Illinois, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, New York, and Canada, its thickness varies from 100 to
300 feet.

Prof. Hall says :

" The lines of demarkation between subordinate groups, and the line

The Position of the Cincinnati Group. 109

of separation between systems, are equally strong, and that the whole
series may be regarded as a succession of minor groups ; that the
strong lines of division are almost always due to the absence of some
formation, which, if present, would show a gradation to the next ; and
these subdivisions into systems have been made dependent on the im-
perfection rather than the perfection of the sequence. Thus the strong
line of demarkation between the Silurian and Devonian which exists
where the Lower Helderberg Group is absent, is softened to a gentle
gradation through the intervention of these strata and the Oriskany sand,
stone. Where these are present in all their members, the line of sep-
aration becomes less sharply defined, and we have some evidence that
there may exist other intermediate members, or a more full develop-
ment of those now known between the two formations." (Pal. of N.
Y., vol. iii., p. 35.)

In Southern Illinois, the Oriskany sandstone of the Devonian system
is underlaid by a group of silicious limestones, that in their upper
beds contain well marked Devonian fossils, and below those that seem
to be characteristic. Upper Silurian forms ; thus forming beds of pas-
sage from the Upper Silurian to the Devonian systems. This group
seems to hold about the same relation to these two systems that the
Anticosti Group of Canada holds between the Upper and Lower Silu-
rian of that country. This group is called the " Clear Creek lime-
stone," and is limited in its outcrop to the counties of Jackson, Union,
and Alexander, first making its appearance in the blufis of Mississippi,
at the lower end of the ridge known as the " Devil's backbone," in
Jackson county, and continuing along the river bluffs to Clear creek, in
LTnion county, where they are fully developed, and where they probably
attain their maximum thickness of from 250 to 350 feet. (Geo, of 111.,
vol i., p. 125.) Subsequent investigations, and a more complete col-
lection of the fossils which belonged to the upper and lower divisions
of the mass, led to the conclusion that the upper division represented,
at least in part, the Oriskany period, and the lower, the Delthyris
shaly beds of the Lower Helderberg series. And in accordance with
this view, without any well marked line of separation on lithological
grounds, but supported by an examination of the same beds in Perry
county, Missouri, the upper 200 feet, at the maximum thickness, is
placed in the lower division of the Oriskany period, and the lower
200 feet, at the maximum thickness, is placed in the Lower Helderberg
period. (Geo. of 111., vol. ii., p. 8; vol. iii., p. 24.)

The Upper Helderberg group, in its fullest development, consists of
four members, the Cauda galli grit, the Schoharie grit, the Onandaga
and Corniferous limestones. The first, when characteristic, is a dark.

110 The Position of the Cincinnati Group.

gritty slate, which, even in its unaltered condition, has a cleavage ver-
tical to the line of deposition, and is generally destitute of fossils ; but
with surfaces covered with curved, fucoid-like marking, which have
given it its name. This rock constitutes beds of passage from the
Oriskany sandstone, and graduates above into the Schoharie grit,
which is an arenaceous limestone, weathering to a brownish color, and
succeeded by the gray, subcrystalline, coralline formation, which is
known in New York as the Onandaga limestone, while the Cornifer-
ous limestone consists of the higher, dark-colored chert beds of the
group. (Hall's Pal., vol. iii., p. 43.)

The Cauda galli grit takes its name from a fucoid, having some re-
semblance in form to the tail of a chicken cock. It is 70 feet thick
in New York, where the Schoharie grit is only four feet in thickness,
but in Pennsylvania and in New Jersey, northeast of the Delaware
water gap, these two groups, called the Post Meridian grits, are 300
feet in thickness. (Geo. of Penn., vol. i., p. 107.)

The Onandaga limestone is only from 20 to 50 feet thick in New
York, and, though traced over a great extent of country, it rarely ex-
ceeds that thickness. In Missouri it varies from 10 inches to 75 feet
in thickness. (Geo. of Mo., p. 108.)

The Corniferous limestone, takes its name from the chert found in
it that breaks with a horny fracture. It varies from 100 to 200 feet
in thickness in Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New York. It is
from 300 to 400 feet thick in Michigan, and 850 feet thick in Tilson-
burg, Canada. (Geo. of Can., 1866, p. 268.)

The maximum of these subdivisions of the Upper Helderburg Group
is therefore 1,225 feet. Each subdivision in New York is character-
ized by distinctive fossils, but in Canada several of the most charac-
teristic species belonging to the Oriskany sandstone ascend through
each of the overlying subdivisions into the Corniferous Group.

The Hamilton Group, in its fullest development, consists of the Mar-
cellus shale, Ludlowville shale, Encrinal limestone, Moscow shale, Tul-
ly limestone, and Genessee slate.

Prof. Hall says :

"The Hamilton Group consists, in Eastern New York, at base of the
black Marcellus shale, including some bands, of goniatite limestone.
Next succeeds a hard, compact, calcareo arenaceous shale, which, under
atmospheric influences, crumbles into angular fragments. This is fol-
lowed by more arenaceous bands, and by bands of soft, slaty shale, with
arenaceous shale or argillaceous sandstone, and with some thin bands of
limestone, which are almost entirely composed of organic remains.
Toward the western part of New York, the coarser materials gradually

Tlie Position of the Cincinnati Group. Ill

diminish, and we find an increasing proportion of soft shales, with a more
general diffusion of the calcareous raatterj and the mass is terminated
by a limestone. Finally, from the Genessee river to the western limits
of the State, the entire group, above the Marcellus shale, which is per-
sistent, consists of dark, soft shales and bands of limestone. Thus the
lithological characters are at the east, an olive shale and "sandstone ;
at the west, a grayish-blue, calcareous shale, with bands of limestone.
(Pal., vol. iii., p. 46.)

The Hamilton Group is more than 1,000 feet thick in Eastern New
York, and 1,150 feet in Eastern Pennsylvania. (Geo. of Penn., vol. i.,
p. 107.) It thins out westerly to 50 feet in Missouri, and 100 feet in
Tennessee, but maintains a thickness in Canada of from 300 to 600
feet.

The Portage Group is 1,400 feet thick in Eastern New York, and
1,700 feet thick at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania. (Geo. of Penn., vol.
i., p. 108.) It thins out westerly and northerly. The black slate, or
Huron shale, in Northern Ohio, is a part of this group, and has an aver-
age thickness of from 300 to 400 feet.

The Chemung Group is about 2,000 feet thick in Eastern New York,
but at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, it is 3,200 feet in thickness. (Geo.
of Penn., vol. i., p. 108.) It thins out westerly to 400 feet in North-
ern Ohio, and'200 feet in Missouri. While the Hamilton, Portage, and
Chemung Groups in New York are, combined, only about 4,000 feet in
thickness, and in Pennsylvania do not much exceed 6,000 feet, at
Gaspe, Canada, they are 7,036 feet, though this estimate may include
the Catskill Group,

The passage from the Silurian formation to the Devonian, at Gaspe,
Canada, where the rocks are exposed 9,000 feet in thickness, is not
evidenced by any change in the lithological character of the rocks, and
is hardly determinable from examination of the fossils. The lower
2,000 feet is classed with the Helderberg Group in the Silurian, but it
may include the Oriskany sandstone of the Devonian series. The up-
per 7,036 feet are supposed to represent all the other groups in the
Devonian formation of New York, but the divisions are not clearly
marked as in New York, nor readily separable from an examination of
either the fossils or the rocks. (Geo. of Can., 1863, p. 396 ; do., 1866,
p. 260; Hall's Pal., vol. iii., p. 45.)

The shales and sandstones of the Catskill Group form in their great-
est-expansion, at the Catskill Mountains, a mass of at least 3,000 feet in
thickness. The group is composed of red and greenish or olive shales
and shaly sandstones, with some gray and mottled sandstones and
conglomerates. (Pal. of N. Y., vol. iii., p. 51.)

112 Tlie Position of the Cincinnati Gi^oup.

In Pennsylvania this group is divided into : 1st, The Ponent red
sandstone, which is 5,000 feet thick in its southeastern outcrops ; 2d,
Vespertine conglomerate and sandstone, which is 2,660 feet in thick-
ness, near the Susquehanna. Making the total thickness of 7,660 feet.
(Geo. of Penn., vol. i., p. 108.)

The rocks of Devonian age are therefore 15,235 feet, or nearly three
miles in thickness, and are connected together by their interlocking
fossil contents, and united with those of Silurian age, precisely as the
Lower Silurian Groups are related to each other.

The Devonian rocks are followed by the Carboniferous, which are
divided into : 1st, Lower Carboniferous ; 2d, Carboniferous conglomer-
ate ; 3d, Coal measures ; and 4th, Permian.

The Lower Carboniferous Grouj), in Nova Scotia, consists of reddish
and gray sandstones and shales, conglomerates and thick beds of lime-
stone, with marine shells and gypsum, having a thickness of 7,636 feet.
(Acadian Geo., pp. 118, 127, 178.) Li Pennsylvania it is 3,000 feet ;
in Ohio, 640 feet ; in Illinois, 1,500 feet; in Missouri, 1,145 feet, and
in Tennessee, 1,250 feet in thickness. On the Island of Bonaventure,
it is about 2,000 feet in thickness, or with the Carboniferous conglom-
erate, 2,766 feet, and contains the EatoniajJecidiaris, which is found in
the Devonian rocks of New York.

The Carboniferous conglomerate is 1,400 feet in thickness in Penn-
sylvania (Pal. of N. Y., vol. iii., p. 59), and entirely thins out before
reaching the Mississippi river. It is only from 100 to 200 feet thick
in Ohio.

Prof. Hall says : "it was evidently formed from the fragments of
older formations, drifted, water-worn, rounded and deposited with the
larger pieces at the base, and the whole cemented together with smaller
pebbles and sand. The depth of the formation in Pennsylvania and
its thinning out to the north and west shows the current to have been
from southeast to northwest, and probably indicates the close proxim-
ity of the source in a southeasterly direction. In Michigan the thinning
out is toward the south, or in a contrary direction. In Illinois the
formation thins out from the west toward the east. The character
of this formation, its manner of deposition, the currents which must
have existed to distribute it, all indicate that this continent was an
archipelago at the era of the Carboniferous conglomerate."

There is a thickness of 10,000 feet from the summit of the Hamil-
ton Group to the base of the coal measures in Eastern Pennsylvania,
and 12,000 feet in the Anthracite region, while in the northwestern
part of that State, it attains a thickness of only 2,000 feet. (Geo. of
Can., 1866, p. 239.)

The Position of the Cincinnati Grotip. 113

The coal measures are 14,570 feet thick in Nova Scotia (Acadian
Gcio., p. 177), 8,000 feet in Pennsylvania, 2,000 feet in Ohio, 2,500 feet
in Tennessee,; 1,200 feet in Illinois, 640 feet in Missouri, 2,000 feet in
Kansas, and a greater thickness westwardly, in Nebraska,

The maximum thickness, therefore, of the carboniferous rocks is
23,606 feet, or nearly four and one half miles.

The Triassic and Jurassic formations have been variously estimated
as to thickness in several western territories. There can be no doubt,
however, that, at the maximum, 3,000 feet of these rocks intervene be-
tween the carboniferous and cretaceous rocks, as will be seen from the
report of Prof. Newberry, geologist to Ives Colorado Expedition,
Hayden's Reports on Montana, Wyoming, etc., and the Geological Re-
ports of the Pacific R. R. Survey.

The Cretaceous Group is subdivided in Tennessee in the ascending
order, into : 1st, Coffee sand ; 2d, Green sand, or shell bed ; 3d, Ripley
Group. The Coffee sand takes its name from Coffee Bluff, or a sup-
posed resemblance in color, and is 200 feet in thickness. The Green
sand takes its name from the green grains found in it, and is 350 fee
thick. The Ripley Group is 500 feet in thickness, making the maxi-
mum depth in Tennessee 1,050 feet. (Geo. of Tenn., p. 165.)

It is subdivided in Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana, in ascend-
ing order, into : 1st, Eutaw Group ; 2d, Tombigbee sand ; 3d, Rotten
limestone ; 4th, Ripley Group. The Eutaw Group takes its name from
Eutaw, Alabama, and is about 400 feet in thickness, and is the equiva-
lent of the Coffee sand of Tennessee. The Tombigbee sand takes its
name from the river of that name, and is about 100 feet thick. The
Rotten hmestone is about 1,200 feet in thickness, the Ripley Group is
about 350 feet thick. Making the total thickness in tliese States 2,050
feet.

The Cretaceous Group is, however, much thicker than this on tlie
great plains west of the Mississippi, where 3,000 or even 4,000 feet
will probably not be an overestimate.

The Tertiary Group of Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana, is di-
vided in ascending order, into : 1st, Northern Lignitic ; 2d, Claiborne
Group ; 3d, Jackson Group ; 4th, Vicksburg Group ; 5th, Grand Gulf
Group. The maximum thickness of all is about 1,500 feet. The
Tertiary, on the Alantic coast, falls far below this maximum, but it
exceeds it in Texas and the western territories. The Miocene strata
alone, of California, is 2,211 feet in thickness, and Prof. Blake estimated
the total thickness of the Tertiary series of strata in that State at
not less than 3,000 feet. On the coast range of mountains the Tertiary
is supposed to be the thickest of any part of the continent, and to
much exceed 3,000 feet.

31-i T/te Position of the Cincinnati Group.

The Post Tertiary may be estimated at 1,000 feet, including the
drift sand and gravel.

The total thickness of the strata which have been deposited since
the deposition of the Cincinnati rocks is thus shown to be 57,816 feet,
or nearly eleven miles. The total depth of the geological column, as
thus represented, is nearly twenty-seven miles. All of which will
more readily appear by the following tabular statement :

A Tabular View of the Maximum Thickness of the Fossilltferous Forma-
tions, their Divisiom, and Groups, as Found in the Carefully Explored
Parts of Noiih America, beginning with the Lowest Group, and Ascend-
ing through the Series.

1 fit. Metamorphic :

Feet.

Laurentian series from the Eozoon Canadense 16,500

Huronian series 20,000

2d. Lower Silurian :

St. JolinsGroup , 3,000

Potsdam ._. 19,000

Calciferous 1,839

Quebec .- 12,145

Chazy 300

Black river and Birdseye .'i,,500

Trenton 2,500

Utica Shales • 400

Cincinnati Group 2,000

8d. Upper Silurian :

Oneida Conglomerate and Medina sandstone 1,650

Clinton Group 1,625

Niagara Group 1,700

Onandaga Salt Group 1,000

Lower Helderberg 2,000

4th. Devonian :

Orisl<anj'- sandstone 300

Upper Helderberg 1,225

Hamilton Group 1 150

• Portage Group 1 700

Chemung Group 3 20O

Catskill Group 7 660

5th. Carboniferous :

Lower Carboniferous * 7 636

Carboniferous conglomerate 1 400

Coal measures 14 570

.Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 115

Feet.

6th. Triassic and Jurassic 3,000

7th. Cretaceous : 4,000

8th. Tertiary , 3,Ooo

9th. Post Tertiary 1,000

Total thickness 141,000

This is about twenty-six miles and seven tenths. When the country
is more closely surveyed by geologists, a few thousand feet will pro-
bably be added to this column.

. Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. (By S. A. Miller.)

Every collector of fossils in the Cincinnati Group, and every student
of its paleontology will bear testimony to the great difficulty ex-
perienced in finding either the specific or generic descriptions of fossils,
both of which are necessary, in order to become reasonably satisfied of
the correctness of the names by which they are known, or to become
acquainted with the information and labors of our predecessors, or to
acquire any definite knowledge of the science. Many of the generic
descriptions, and some of the specific, have never appeared in any
American publication, and both the home and foreign descriptions are
so dispersed among scientific publications, that it requires a library
worth several thousand dollars to contain them all. To obviate this
difficulty in part, I have compiled the following monograj)h of the
CLASS CRUSTACEA. The characters of the class, the orders, and
the families are nearly all copied from British Paleozoic Rocks, by
]\IcCoy, as are also some of the generic and specific characters. Other
generic and specific descriptions are from the works of Green, Hall,
Meek, Jones, etc. I have added only one new species, Leperdiiia
Bxjrnesi, and the description of only a few heretofoi-e unknown parts,
but I have pointed out the localities and the range of several species
which may have a scientific value, and be of some assistance to col-
lectors. Nor do I regard the tracks (fig. 11), for the first time
figured as of slight importance. If they are tracks, and I think there
can be no reasonable doubt of it, they are most likely those of a crus-
tacean, and, if so, probably those of an Asaphus.

Burmeister Avas of the opinion that trilobites must have possessed
tender, soft feet, which were not used to creep about the bottom of
the ocean, but were used only in swimming. That they swam in an
inverted position, close beneath the surface of the water, the belly

116 Monogra'pli of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Grouf.

upward, and the back downward, and that they made use of their
power of rolling themselves uj) into a ball as a defense against attacks
from above. If they possessed feet adequate for swimming purposes,
they must have been sufficient to make these tracks, either when the
trilobite was accidently thrown to the bottom of the ocean, or Avhen
cast on shore. Indeed, if the trilobites possessed feet either sufficient
for the purpose of creeping or swimming, they must have been fully
competent when coming into contact with the soft, blue mud, to make
these tracks. As it is the opinion of the learned naturalists that trilo-
bites had some kind of feet for the i:)urposes of locomotion, I feel justi-
fied in concluding that there is nothing unreasonable in supposing
these tracks to be the impressions of the " soft, tender feet," or hard
feet, as the case might have been, of an Asaphus. Such suppositions
are not to be regarded, however, as scientific facts, but simply as
sufficient to warrant the placing of the tracks provisionally with that
genus. If they swam in an inverted position, it is difficult to under-
stand what purpose some of the spines could have served, and especially
such as those which ornament the cephalic shield and back of the
Acidaspis Clncinnatiemis. I am inclined to think that if they swam, it
was with their back upward.

Class Crustacea.

The animals of this class have a hard -jointed integument, com-
posed of a thick, internal, spongy chorium or vascular cutis, a colored,
pigmental layer, and a cuticular, secreted, external layer ; these three
layers are at first all equally flexible and continuous ; subsequently,
transverse wrinkles appear, which gradually become segments, by the
cuticle acquiring calcareous matter, principally carbonate of lime, with
a little phosphate of lime and magnesia (and according to some, a
little " chitine," as in insects) ; these solidified bands become segments
by separating posteriorly from the lower layer or chorium, which re-
mains flexible, and permits the various [motions. ^_Each segment is
believed (for they can seldom be all demonstrated) to consist of six
pieces, two tergal pieces above (separated by \i median longitudinal
suture), two similar sternal pieces below, an epimerian piece on the
upper half of each side, and an episternal piece forming the lower half
of each side. In the lower Crustacea the segments are very numerous,
distinct, and nearly alike, but they gradually coalesce in the higher
types, coinciding with the condensation of the nervous centers. No
segment ever bears more than one pair of appendages, a fact which is
used to demonstrate the true number of the segments which may be

Monograph of tJie Crudcicea of the Cincinnati Group. Ill

anchylosetl into the apparently undivided head or thorax of many
groups. In the majority of Crustacea the first seven joints belong to
the head, and bear the organs of sense and parts of the mouth, the
next seven t^? the thorax (according to ]M. Edwards), bearing the or-
gans of locomotion ; this last thoracic joint being always defined by
the male sexual openings, and the last seven to the abdomen contain-
ing the principal viscera, and having the anus in the last joint. The
first ring bears the eyes when they are present, the second and third
rings bear the two pair of antenna, which are absent only in the low-
est types, the fourth bears the mandibles, the fifth and sixth the jaws,
the appendages of the succeeding rings varying in shape and use ac-
cording to the group. Digestion : the complex mouth is always on the
under side of the head, composed of the lahrum or upper lip, a labium
or under lip, jau--feet, mandibles, maxilke, palpi, etc., which it is unne-
cessary to describe, followed by a short, vertical cesophagus, leading to a
large, globular stomach, directly over the mouth (often containing sharp
tubercles for triturating the food), from which, as in all the annulata,
a straight intestine leads to the anus ; there is a well developed liver.
Circulation by a well developed heart, placed befiind the stomach, of
mixed blood, which imbibes the chyle from the intestines. Respira-
tion, in the higher groups, by gills, w^hich are modifications of the
flabelliform appendage of certain legs : in the lowest, apparently by
the whole surface of the body, without special organs. Nervous system,
on the plan of the subkingdom Aniiculata. Hearing : the higher
groups hear well, the ear being situated in the base of the second pair
of antenna. Sight: a few parasitic groups are blind in their perfect
state, but nearly all the rest have perfect eyes, either simple or semi-
compound. The simple eyes are small, two or three in number, of a
single set of lenses, each eye covered by a round, smooth cornea ; tlie
semi-compound eyes are an agglomeration of simple eyes, each with its
set of lenses and separate twig of optic nerve, the group of eyes covered
by one simple, smooth, external cornea (true compound eyes, having a
separate facet of the outer cornea for each eye beneath). Reproduc-
tion : sexes alwavs distinct and in different individuals.

" The class Crustacea is naturally divisible into the five following or-
ders, commencing with the lowest in organization : 1st, Cir)~ipedia, or
Barnacles ; 2d, Suctoria, or the little, parasitic Crustacea with tubular
mouths; Sd, Entomostraca ; -ith, Edriophthalma; oth, Podophthalrna, or
most highly organized and having pedunculated eyes (crabs, lobsters,
etc.)

Third Order — Entomostraca.
The little Crustacea which compose this order are very variable in

118 Monograpli of the. Crustacea of the Cincinnati Groujy.

their characters ; they include a vast number of the most minute Crus-
tacea known ; ail those inclosed in a Ijivalve, shell-like carapace (an
extension of one of the cephalic rings) belong to it. They have no
-gills, but breathe by flat, membranaceous, vascular vesicles, attached to
the thoracic extremities, and representing the flabelliform appendage
and palpi thereof, modified for the purpose, or by the surface of the
body only. The eyes, whether simple or comjDound, are covered by a
smooth cornea. This order, which is of more importance to the geolo-
gist than all the rest of the class, is divisible into three tribes, named
according to the structure of the feet : 1st, Phylhpoda ; 2d, Pcecilopoda ;
3d, Loj)hyropoda.

First Tribe — Phyllopoda.

These have the feet extremely numerous, and, as their name implies,
all leaf-shaped. They form extremely numerous, thin, membraneous
lobes, subservient, to respiration. The tribe is divisible into the fol-
lowing families: 1st, Lymnadiadce ; 2d, LeperditidK ; 3d, Apodiadce;
4th, Trilobltadce; 5tl», Branchipodiadae; 6th, Dapliniada (or Cladocera).

Family Lymnadiadce — (McCoy).

Body entirely inclosed in a vertical, bivalve, calcareo-corneous, ob-
long carapace, opening along the ventral margin; head adhering to the
carapace ; twenty to thirty pair of membraneous, respiratory feet ; two
eyes, either united in one central mass or separate, one soldered to each
valve.

The t}^-)e of this family is the recent genus Lymnadiadce. It is made
to include, however, the genera Beyrichia, Cythere, etc.

Genus Beyrichia — (McCoy, 1855).

" Bivalve, rotundato-quadrate or longitudinally oblong, ends un-
equal ; anterior, posterior, and dorsal margins convex, and surrounded
by a sharply defined, narrow, tumid border or rim; ventral margin
simple, straight or concave ; sides tumid, strongly divided into lobes
by very deep, nearly vertical furrows, extending from the ventral more
or less towai'd the dorsal margin."

'to'

Beyrichia- Oculifer — (Hall, 1871).
Carapace small, seldom exceeding 7-100 of an inch in length, by

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 119

3-100 to 4-100 in its greatest breadth, in the largest specimens ; valves
obliquely subreniform, broadest near the anterior end, ^vith a straiglit
hinge line, which is a little shorter than the greatest length of the
valve ; anterior end projecting beyond the hinge ; center moderately
convex with a proportionally broad, deep channel, just within the mar-
gin, extending all around it, except for a short distance at the poste-
rior extremity, near the dorsal margin. The. body of the valve is
crossed obliquely by two broad, deep furrows, having their origin on
the dorsal margin, the posterior one, situated a little more than one-
third of the length of the valve from the posterior extremity, and ex-
tending fully two thirds across it ; the anterior furrow is situated just
behind the anterior third of the length, and its lower portion is more
strongly curved forward than the other. Eye tubercle large, pedun-
culated, very prominent, and spreading at the top, its surface equal to
about one third the width of the valve, and its height at the posterior
margin equal to the breadth at the top, while the interior margin is
):)ut little elevated, giving an obliquely sloping, circular surface, with
denticulated border. This surface, under a strong magnifier, is seen
to l^e covered by five eye-like facets, similar to those of the eyes of
trilobites of the genus Illa^nus.

Found abundant in the rocks of Mount Auburn, 390 to 440 feet
above low water-mark, and at about the same elevation on all the hills
surrounding Cincinnati. Rarely, if ever, seen below 300 feet above
low Avater-mark, but extending from its commencement to near the
Upper Silurian. It is a common fossil.

Beyrichia Tumifrons — (Hall, 1871).

Carapace small, subreniform or semi-elliptical, dorsal margin straight,
nearly as long as the entire length of the valve ; anterior and posterior
extremities equal in width, or sometimes having the anterior a little
wider ; extremities sharply rounded, basal margin very broadly
rounded. Surface of valves moderately convex, with a deep, narrow
marginal groove on the basal margin, which becomes obsolete on the
ends before reaching the dorsal angles, leaving a shar]) carinate border.
Body of the valve strongly constricted by two deep, oblique sulci, the
posterior one Originating in the basal gi'oove, and extending obliquely
backward two thirds across the valve ; the second extends entirely
across the valve, at about one third the length from the anterior end, and
is strongly curved backward in the middle, so that the anterior portion
of the valve forms a rounded area, which is often the most prominent
part of the body, though in some specimens the central ridge is equally

120 Monogra'ph of the Crudacea of the Cincinnati Groiip.

prominent. Surface minutely granulose ; length about 6-100 of an
inch, width about 3-100 of an inch. It differs from the B. oculifer in
being destitute of the j)romiuent eye tubercle.

Found at low water-mark, under the bank of the Ohio, at Fulton ;
at the excavation for Columbia avenue 160 feet above low water-
mark ; on the run back of Plainville, and generally at all exposures be-
low 300 feet above low water-mark. It is a common fossil.

Genus Cythere — (Muller, 1785).

" Carapace often very convex, especially on the ventral portion ;
sometimes smooth and setigerous, generally pitted, and occasionally
reticulated ; varying in outline from an acute oval to an irregular ob-
long ; in the first case it often resembles a peach-stone in miniature ;
in the latter case a central and two posterior tubercles sometimes give a
character to the valves ; and in each case the anterior, and sometimes
the posterior hinge forms an indistinct angle on the dorsal edge ; the
hinge line of each valve occupies about the middle third of the dorsal ■
margin, and presents a ridge or bar and a furrow, the bar on one valve
corresponding to the furrow on the other ; the bar is sometimes blended
with the edge of the valve, and is occasionally finely crenulated ; it is
more or less developed at its extremities into cardinal processes or
teeth, which with still stronger, but isolated teeth at the ends of the
furrow, on the opposite valve, form the anterior and posterior hinges
of the carapace ; the ventral margin of each valve is more or less in-
curved near the middle, where its edge is frequently produced (as also
occasionally in Cypris) into a thin, projecting, laminae curvilinear plate.
The posterior border being always depressed and contracted, and fre-
<iuently notched at its dorsal angle, forms a low sub-acute marginal rim
or "posterior lobe," of varying breadth."

CytJiere Cincinnatiensis. — (Meek, 1872.)

Carapace valves varying from transversely suboval to subcircular ;
moderately and rather evenly convex, the greatest convexity being in
ike neutral and anterior regions ; without any visible tubercle or nodes ;
s'^entral margins rounded or semi-oval, and but slightly unequal or
siJiiekened ; anterior and posterior margins more or less rounded, the
former being more broadly rounded generally than the latter ; hinge
iinargin very short, very slightly sinuous just behind the umbones, and
jrojjnding into the posterior margin, so as scarcely to produce any
\,yjsible angularity ; umbones, near the anterior, a little tumid, rising

3Ionograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Crroiqy. 121

very slightly above the hinge, and rounding off regularly into the
anterior margin ; surface nearly smooth.

It varies much in form and size : one specimen having length, ^-^-^j
inch ; height, —^ inch ; convexity, ^y^ inch ; another having length,
■^^ inch ; height, yf ^ inch ; convexity, y-^-jj inch ; other specimens
being both larger and«smaller.

Found on the east side of Avondale pike, back of Cincinnati, with
Odhis hellula, from 360 to 400 feet above low water mark. As this is
the only locality known to me, it is the only one I can point out, but
it has been found at other places at about the same elevation. It is a
rare fossil.

Fa m ily Leper d it idee.

Genus Leperditia (Ronault, 1851), as redefined by Jones.

Animal inclosed in a vertical, bivalved carapace. Carapace inequi-
valved ; somewhat resembling a tamarind stone and other legumina-
ceous seeds. Carapace valves smooth, convex, horny in appearance,
nearly oblong, longer than broad, bean-shaped, inequilatoral, posterior
half broadest ; dorsal border straight ; ventral border nearly semi-cir-
cular ; anterior and posterior borders oblique above, rounded below,
the valve margin passing from each end of the hinge line in an oblique
direction downward and outward, to about half the breadth of the
valve, where it meets the curved ends of the ventral border, and so
forms the more or less angular extremities of the valve, the former of
which is narrower and sharper than the latter.

Valves \mited along their upper (dorsal) borders by a simple linear
hinge ; the two extremities of hinge border form angles with the an-
terior and posterior borders in each valve.

The right valve larger than the left, being broader, and overlapping
completely the ventral border of the opposite valve, and to some ex-
tent its anterior and posterior borders. The overlapping ventral bor-
der of the right valve forms a thick, blunt keel to the closed carapace.

Each valve is somewhat depressed toward the dorsal border ; this
border in the left valve is thicker than that of the right, and some-
times slightly overrides it. The ventral margin of the left valve
is turned suddenly inward, forming a thin plate, projecting into the
cavity of the carapace. The line of junction of the inverted border,
or ventral plate, and the outer surface of the valve is angular, and
bears a slight sulcus and moulding, against which the overlapping edge
of the right valve abuts. The dorsal or the ventral profile of the
closed valves is elongate, acute oval ; the end view of the closed valves
is more or less ovate.

122 Monogra-ph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group.

Rather above and in front of the center of each valve, and on its
most convex portion, nearly all the species of the genus present a
slishtlv raised, circular or suboval swelling:, havine; a diameter of from
one fifth to one quarter of the breadth of the valve's surface. This
SAvelling is distinguishable by a local change of color or of surface con-
dition, and marks the place of a corresponding l*ounded pit, excavated
on the interior surface of the valve so deeply as to render the tissue of
the valve at the swelling somewhat diaphanous. The cast of this pit on
an inner cast of the valve is strongly marked, having a greater relative
height than the external swelling. The swelling has usually a reticu-
lated appearance, resulting from vascular impressions on the test ; and
from a slight sulcus at the margin of the pit a set of delicate canals,
tortuous and inosculating, excavated on the interior of the valve, ra-
diate forward, downward and backward, gradually becoming fainter
toward the edges of the valves.

Anterior to the central tubercle, or "lucid spot," and nearer to the
dorsal margin, is a smaller, but prominent, tubercle on each valve,
with a corresponding internal pit. This little tubercle (the anterior
tubercle) is usually seated' on or at the edge of a slightly raised area of
irregular outline ; and behind it a short, shallow, vertical sulcus, com-
mencing at the dorsal margin, is usually apparent.

LepercUtia Cylindrica — (Hall, 1871.)

Carapace minute, seldom exceeding yl^^ths of an inch in length,
nearly twice as long as wide ; valves very convex and cylindrical, the
anterior and posterior ends sub-equal and strongly rounded ; . cardinal
line much shorter than the length of the valve ; tubercle obsolete.
Surface smooth. Valves do not overlap on the basal border.

Found within eight feet of low water-mark under the Ohio River
bank in Fulton, now part of Cincinnati, at the excavation for Colum-
bia avenue, 160 feet above low water-mark, and near the tops of the
hills about the city. It is a common fossil, and has an extended range.

Leperditia viinutissima — (Hall, 1871.)

Carapace minute, less than rooths of an inch in length, the width
being about two thirds of the length, greatest at the anterior third,
giving a broadly ovate outline, with a straight cardinal margin, about
two thirds of the length of the valves. Surface of the valves smooth,
rising into an obtusely pointed prominence at the anterior third of the
length; basal margin of the valves not overlapping so far as ascei-
taiued.

3Ionograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Groiqr 123

Found associated with Leperditia cylindrica at various elevations
about Cincinnati, but much less abundant.

Leperditia Byrnesi — (S. A. Miller.)

Fig. 10 — Leperditia Byrnesi Magnified view.

Carapace minute, about :jJ-„th of an inch m length, width one third
less than length, greatest at the posterior third, with a straight cardinal
margin or hinge line nearly the length of the shell. Valves moder-
ately convex. Tubercle at the anterior end, near the dorsal margin,
obtuse and apparently directed posteriorly, with a depression or sulcus
reaching to the dorsal margin, at the base of the tubercle on the poster-
ior side. Tubercle or spine on the posterior third, near the dorsal mar-
gin, rising to an acute point, higher than the anterior tubercle, and pro-
jecting to or beyond the dorsal margin. There is a corresponding
internal pit for each tubercle and mesial elevation between them.
Surface smooth.

The specific name is given in honor of Dr. E. M. Byrnes, of Cincin-
nati, an ardent student of natural history, active member of the Cin-
nati Society of Natural History, and indefatigable collector of fossils,
shells and minerals.

This species is found within a range of from 7 to 14 feet above low
water-mark, under the bank of the Ohio River in the First Ward of
Cincinnati. I^ot observed elsewhere, but this may be owing to the
fact that it is so small as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye.

Third Family Trilobitadce.

Body covered (with a few exceptions) by a longitudinally trilobed
crust, the head and abdominal segment anchylosed into distinct ce-
phalic and caudal shields, the thoracic segments alone remaining dis-
tinct and movable.

The cephalic shield is approximately semi-circular ; when most fully
developed it presents the following parts : An external, thickened
"limb" or '•'margin," often prolonged backward at the lateral angles into
"ivings;" the shield is visually divided into two i^ieces by a suture pe.
culiar to trilobites, termed the "eye line" or "facial suture," being con-
tinuous from one side to the other near the front margin, descending

124 Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group.

with a slight outward curve to the eye, over which it makes an abrupt
outwarrd curve to define a small semi-circular lobe, improperly called
the "eye lid ;" its direction from the lower end of the eye varies ac-
cording to the genus, and forms a very valuable character ; in
some cases the eye lines do not join in front of the glabella, but cut
the anterior margin separately, thus dividing the shield into three
pieces, and in Calymene, to this latter disposition is added a peculiar mar-
ginal transverse "rostral suture," dividing the head into four pieces.
These sutures exist in no recent Crustacea, being now only known in
true insects.

By some paleontologists all outside and anterior to the eye line is called
the "c/ieefe," and all Avithin or posterior to it is called the "glabella;"
by a greater number of writers, however, the latter term is used only
for the elevated middle portion of the head, and the triangular de-
pressed space on each side form the cheeks, through the middle of which
the eye line runs ; the glabella is divided by not more than three lateral
sulci into never more than four lobes ; at the base of the glabella a
strong furrow going across is called the "nech furrow, behind which is
the "neck segment" or spira ; these sulci indicate the attachment of
the buccal muscles. The eyes are reniform, prominent, situated in a
gap in the eye line, beneath and external to the eye lid ; they have all
the "semi-compound eyes," the outer thin layer of the cornea being en-
tire and smooth, the inner thick layer facetted and perforated. Bur-
meister notes that the larger the eye of living Crustacea the thinner
the cornea ; hence, why the large-eyed Phacops, having a thin, easily
lost, outer cornea, seems to have a facetted eye, I (McCoy) have
drawn attention to a deej) puncture on each side of the anten-
nary lobe, in the furrow separating the glabella from the cheeks near
the front margin, w^iich I have called the "antennary puncta," and
which, I conceive, gave passage to small antennte, like those of Bran-
chipus, of which organs they hold the normal position. Attached to
the under side of the anterior edge of the head is an ovate crustaceous
piece, varying in shape according to the genus, its anterior part is di-
lated into two horn-like processes, following the curve of the anterior
margin of the shield, the surface of this organ is marked with fine,
irregular impressed strite, like the rest of the under surface of the
crust of trilobites ; it is believed to be immovable, and corresponds to
the enlargement in front of the mouth in some of the re(3ent
Phyllopoda, and is, as in them named, the " Hypostoma." The Thorax
is formed of a variable number of segments (constant for each genus),
forming the movable portion of the crust between the cephalic and
caudal shields ; it is in general strongly trilobed longitudinally, the

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Chicimmtl Group., 125

middle and most convex portion termed the "axis," and the Literal,
lobes or pleurae ; each segment has the axis divided,, in many genera,
into a raised, posterior, exposed portion, and a depressed anterior arti-
cular portion, which is concealed under the preceding segment when
the animal is extended, becoming visible as it rolls up, or on the frac-
ture of the edge of the preceding ring ; the pleiirce are straight or bent
down at the end ; in the latter case the end often " sharpened at its
anterior edge for contraction," or provided with a triangular "/acei,''
one of its sides parallel with the anterior edge, its base at the distal ex-
tremity, and its apex reaching about one third toward the axis, its
thickened posterior margin joining the anterior margin of the segment
at an obtuse angle, at the point where the end of the pleura begin s to
bend down, has, from its form, been called the "knee" by Pander
Portlock, etc. ; the same point has been by others termed the "ful.
crum.'' In most cases a deep groove extends transversely from the
axis along the middle of each pleura as far as the " knee," and then
its extremity is often bent backward at an obtuse angle. I propose to
term this the "pleural groove," and Dr. Burraeister suggests, with
great probability, that the membraneous gill feet were attached to the
corresponding ridge on the under side ; caudal shield, or " pxjgidium,^''
semi-elliptical, of one solid piece, axis and side lobes generally with
transverse false segmental furrows, rarely corresponding in number
on the axis and sides, and not admitting of independent motion.

Burmeister says, " That the Trilobites do not belong to any of the
still living families of the Crustacea, ]3Ut represent a distinct group,
most nearly related to the Aspidodraca ; that their organization, how-
ever, exhibits pecularities, which at the present day do not occur
together in one family, but are dispersed in several heterogeneous
groups — while trilobites corresjDond in many essential points, if organi.
zation with the Aspidostraca, and are not related to any of the still liv-
ing groups of Crustacea, there are various important and even typical
differences between them. These differences consist principally in the
numerical proportions of- the thoracic rings, since, although the latter
certainly vary among the Aspidostraca, they may yet be reduced to
several constant fundamental numbers (6, 9, and 12) ; whilst the trilo.
bites only exhibit a constant number of rings for each separate genus,
and the total number can not be reduced to certain, unchangeable,
fundamental numbers, or numerical types. (In attempting to ascer-
tain with certainity the number of thoracic rings, we certainly meet
with the obstacles that we do not know, nor ever can know, the posi-
tion of the sexual openings among the trilobites, which position alone
indicates with certainty the boundary of the thorax, etc.) * ^ *

126 Monograph of the Cnidacca of the Cwcinnati Group.

Trilobites, in point of the funtlamental numbers of their thoracic rings
are not constructed according to the law Avhich we have discovered
to obtain among all Crustacea of the present world.

The earlier types of creation seem to present the various peculiarities
of several groups passing into one another, resulting in forms, which
exhibit in association, although incompletely the peculiarities now found
detached and characteristic of very distinct groups. In proportion to
the geological age of the extinct species, the running of the various
typical forms into one structure is more marked, and therefore the
peculiar and organic individuality and distinctiveness less obvious.

Prof. McCoy divided the family TrUohitadce into five sub-families :
lat, Agnostince 2d, Harpedince ; od, Ogygince ; 4ih, Paridoxincc ; 5th,
Asaphince.

Third Subfamily Ogygince,

Body flat, broad, oval; thorax as long as the head, four to eight
thoracic segments ; pleurte flat, sickle-shaped, horizontal, having a
pleural furrow not reaching the margin, ends not produced into spines ;
jio facets, pygidiurn nearly as large as the head ; eyes small or absent.

The Ogygince include the flat-sided trilobites not entering into the
group of Faridoxincc ; unlike them, however, the body is very short
and wide, and the pygidium, instead of being diminutive, is nearly as
large as the head, giving a broad oval form to the body ; the thoracic
segments are only from four to eight in number, never facetted, and
their exti-emities are never prolonged into spines.

This subfamily includes the geaera Trimieleus Lichas, etc.

Genus Tmmckus — (Lhwyd 1698).

Cephalic shield semi-circular, the limb broad and flat, with several
rows of impressed, cup-like puncta on both surfaces ; spines of the ex-
ternal angles very long ; glabella pyriform, without lateral furrows ;
cheeks spherical triangles, without eyes or eye lines ; generally a small
spine on the neck furrows ; tliorax of six joints, lateral lobes twice the
Avidth of the axis, flat, straight, with parallel sides, slightly deflected
at their free ends, pleural groove broad, shallow, not reaching the mar-
gin ; pygidium triangular, with a deflected margin, axis with about
seven segmental furrows, sides flat, with about six segmental divisions,
each subdivided by a faint line toward the end.

Trimieleus Concentricus, — (Eaton, 1832).
Cephalic shield nearly semi-circular, the posterior angles produced

Monograph of the Cnistacea of the Cincinnati Group. 127

into long, slender, straight spines, which reach half as far as the
pygidium ; glabella very prominent, broad, ovate, finely granulated ;
marginal fillet wide, regularly rounded and marked in front by three,
four, or five rows of deep, rounded pores or punctures ; these rows in-
crease by one or two additional ones on the sides of the shield, and
toward the lateral posterior angles are often irregularly scattered.
Thorax with six segments ; lateral lobes much wider than the axis.
Pygidium three times wider than long, and obtusely mucronate.

It is extremely rare to find more than the cephalic shield and spines
of this trilobite. Specimens showing the thoracic segments, though
poorly, have, however, been found at and about Cincinnati. Its range
seems to be from the lowest exposure of the rocks in the Cmcinnati
Group to about 250 feet above low Avater-mark at Cincinnati. In many
places within this range the fragments of the cephalic shield, the
punctured fillet and the spines are in great abundance, though good
specimens of the cephalic shield and spines are not.very common in the
best localities.

Genus X/c/^rts— (Dalman, 1827).

Body ovate, very flat ; siuface granulated ; head semicircular ; glabella
large, semi-oval, with one long segmental furrow curving inward and
clownward from the upper third of the glabella on each side, nearly
to the neck furrow, partially inclosing two large oval spaces, and close
to the ends of the neck furrow a posterior pair of furrows inclose a
very small trigonal lobe on each side ; neck segment broader than the
base of the glabella ; cheeks small ; eyes moderately large, reniform ;
eye line cutting the outer margin in front of the angles ; thorax of ten
segments, j)leura flat, falcate, each with a fine slightly sigmoid pleural
furrow, not reaching the margin ; pygidium semi-oval, axis undefined,
the latteral furrows, instead of encircling the end, converge about the
middle, and diverge again toward the posterior margin, which they do
not reach ; tw^o short segments at the anterior convex part ; side lobe,
flat, of two broad falcate ribs on each side projecting beyond the mar-
gin, each with a fine mesial duplicating groove; middle lobe semi-elhp-
tical, pointed, a small divisional line coming ofl" from the middle of the
dorsal furrow on each side, curving downward and outward toward its
extremity, so as partially to include an oval space on each side."

Lichas Trentonensis — (Cokrad, 1842).
'Buckler ventricose, granulated or pustulate, somewhat fine-lobed ;

128 Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati 'Group.

glabella clavate, narrow behind, arched and expanded in front, ex-
tending beyond the center of the inner lateral lobe ; pygidium com-
posed of two or three articnlations above, with a fonrth and last, which
is very long, and abruptly narrowing toward the extremity ; lateral
lobes with three articulations on each side, which are marked by a nar-
row groove for about one third of their length ; central lobe separated
from the lateral lobe by a deep, narrow groove."

This species is found very rarely about Cincinnati at an elevation of
about 400 feet above low \Yater-mark. A. good specimen of either the
cephalic shield, thorax, or pygidium is regarded as very rare. Its
range is not known.

Fourth Subfamily Paradoxince.

Pleura, flat, horizontal, without facets, with a straight pleural
groove, and terminating in spines inclining backward.

This subfamily is composed of a group of long-bodied trilobites,
having for the most part large, cephalic shields, with the angles pro-
longed into spines, and very small, flat, caudal shields of few segments,
none of them, I (McCoy) believe, can roll into a ball ; their pleura are
very wide and horizontal, not bent downward at the ends, so that the
body is flat ; they are destitute of facets, and havealong, straight, pleural
groove extending their whole length, dividing each into two tumid
portions, one or both of which are extended into long, sharp spines in-
clining obliquely backward. This latter character, of all the pleurpe
terminating in separated spines, gives a peculiar physiognomy to the
trilobites of this group. The thoracic segments vary from eight to
twenty-three in number.

This subfamily includes the genera Acidasjns, Ceratiriis, etc.

Genus Acidaspis — (Murchison, 1839).

" Cephalic shield wider than long, subquadrate or semi-circular,
margin tumid, often spinous, lateral angles forming long, slender
S2oines ; glabella convex, narrow in front, not reaching the front margin,
with two or three lateral lobes on each side, base prolonged backward
into one or two long, thick spines ; antennary pores usually distinct,
close to the front of the glabella ; eye line tumid, cutting the margin
on each side in front of the glabella, and extending from the eyes,
which are very small, to the posterior margin rather nearer the angles
than the glabella on each side ; thorax of eight joints, axis convex,
narrow ; pleurce wide, perfectly flat, each with a nearly mesial pleural

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 129

furrow parallel with the margin, the upper portion thickest, prolonged
beyond the posterior, and terminating in a long spine, deflected at a
considerable angle backward ; pygidiiim small, semi-circular, axis very
short, of two joints, sides flat, with but one segmental furrow, ending
in a long spine at the margin of each side, the rest of the margin with
many smaller spines."

Acidaspis crosotus. — (Locke, 1842,) as defined by Meek.

Body small, with a general subovate or sub-elliptic outline, rather
distinctly convex ; cephalic shield sub-semi-circular, and rather moi-e
convex than the body, apparently rounded in front, with the lateral
angles produced into slender, mucronate, somewhat curved spines,
that extend obliquely outward and backward to points opposite the
fifth or sixth thoracic segment ; glabella, including the neck segment,
one third longer than wide, with an oblong sub-elliptic outline, the
widest part being slightly behind the middle and between the eyes ;
lateral lobes, two on each side, of slightly oval outlines, with their
longer diameters directed a little obliquely outward and forward, the
posterior one being slightly larger than the anterior, while both are
separated by as well defined furrows from the central, rather narrow
part of the glabella, as they are separated from each other, or from
the cheeks on each side ; anterior lobe about as large as all four of
the lateral lobes, twice as wide as the narrowed central part of the
glabella behind it, and apparently rounded in front ; between the
lateral lobes and each eye a kind of outer or supplementary lobe, or
protuberance, as large as each two of the lateral lobes, occurs ; while
from the outer side of each of these protrudes the small prominent
palpebral lobe, which arrangement places the small eyes quite remote
from each other ; eyes unknown, but apparently small, prominent
and directed laterally; movable cheeks not well preserved in the
specimen studied, but apparently narrow, and sloping abruptly froin
the eyes laterally; neck segment comparatively large, prominent,
with a central tubercle, and well defined by the neck furrow, which
arches forward in the middle.

Thorax nearly twice as long as the cephalic shield, and about one
fourth wider than long, exclusive of the produced extremities of the
pleurae, with its segments strongly arched upward, but not forward.
Lateral lobes, comparatively, rather depressed, and rounding oflf grad-
ually toward the lateral margins ; pleurse terminating in mucronate
spines, directed outward and more or less backward, the posterior ones
being longer, and directed more nearly backward.

130 Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group.

Pygidium small, and with its mesial lobe composed of about three
seginents ; lateral lobes consisting, apparently, of about three or four
segments, each of which terminates in an acute spine, the lateral ones
of which are larger than the others, and curved backward.

Entire surface, comparatively, rather coarsely granular, the granules
being larger on the head than elsewhere ; while on each of the pleurse
a larger granule or very minute tubercle occurs, at a point about half
way out to the knee, or geniculation, at which latter point there is also
some ai:)pearance of another, thus making two rows of these coarse
granules along each lateral lobe.

Entire length, exclusive of the spines of the pygidium, about 0.25
inch ; length of head, 0.08 inch ; breadth, exclusive of lateral spines,
0.15 inch; breadth between eyes, 0.10 inch ; length of thorax, about
0.11 inch ; breadth of same antei'iorly, exclusive of the extended ends
of the pleurse, 0.14 inch.

The specimen above described by Prof. Meek, belonging to Dr. C.
A. Miller, was found at Ballfiice Creek, below Sedamsville. I found a
specimen 0.40 inch in length back of Plain ville. I also found speci-
mens in the excavation for Columbia avenue, about 160 feet above low
water-mark. Its range extends at least from low water-mark to 250
feet above and probably much more. It is, however, regarded as a rare
fossil, esi^ecially in a good condition.

Acidaspis ceralepta — (Anthony, 1838).

This species is known only from the pygidium, which is sub-semi-cir-
cular in outline, and has two long, divergmg spines, with six short
digitations between them, and three on each posterior lateral margin.

Fragments of the margin of a cephalic shield, having much shorter
spinous processes than the Acidasjns Cincinnatiensis, may belong to this
species. It has been urged that the cephalic shields having a project-
ing spine from the base of the glabella, which are found about Cincin-
nati, belong to two different species; if so, one of them may belong to
this species, the other one we know belongs to the Acidaspis Cincin-
natiensis.

Acidaspis Cincinnatiensis — (Meek) .

This species was described from a pygidium by Prof. Meek, on page
167, and, engraved on plate 14, fig. 3, of the Ohio Paleontology.

From a specimen in the cabinet of Dr. H. H. Hill, I am enabled to
throw some more light upon it. The specimen shows but little of the

Mono(jraph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 131

shell or exterior covering, but it is a good representation of the cast of
almost every part of the bocl\', and, from its appearance, there can he
but little, if any, doubt that figures 3, 4, 6, and 7, on plate 14, of the
Ohio Paleontology, belong to the same species.

The body is sub-circular in outline, granulous, and surrounded with
spines ; length, one and oue tenth inches; width, nine tenths inch.

Cephalic shield more than twice as wide as long, margin thickened
and spinous lateral angles, produced into long, slender spines. Length
of cephalic shield, four tenths inch ; width, nuie tenths inch, and lengtli
of spines surrounding margin, one tenth inch. Glabella, with two lateral
lobes on each side, and i)rojecting poiteriorly, showing where the spine
attached, which projected back over the middle lobe of the trilobite.

The glabella, with this projecting spine, is the part of this trilobite
most frequently found, and was known here by the name of Acidaspis
crosotm (Locke) previous to the application of that name by Prof.
Meek to another species. It is most likely that Prof. Locke described his
species from fragments of this species, though he may also have had
before him fragments of the form to which his name has been confined
by Prof. Meek. It is better now to retain the names as suggested by
Prof. Meek than to change them, because there is nothing lost by so
doing. Prof. Meek suggested that if this spinous glabella should be
found to belong to a species distinct from the Acidaspis Cincinriatiensis,
it might be called the Acidaspis Bhyncocephalus, but,' as it is now evi-
dent that it belongs to this species, the proposed name Acidasjiis
JRhyncocephalus may be striken from the list of names.

The thorax consists of nine segments, without the neck segment,
each of which has a depression on the anterior margin, giving a double
appearance ; this forms an exception to all other species in this genus,
which have only eight segments. The middle lobe is strongly convex,
and ^^oth inch in width. The lateral lobes are flat and the pleurte ter-
minate in spines about jotli of an inch in length, ^yllich curve outward
and backward. The anterior margin of the pleurte terminate in a short
spine. The length of the thorax is A inch. The following is the de-
scription of the pygidium and part of the thorax, by Prof. Meek :

Pygidium, exclusive of its spines, about three times as wide as long,
and approaching a sub-semi-circular outline ; its anterior margin being
straight all the way across, and about one third of its posterior margin
in the middle transversely truncated, while on each side of this the pos-
terior lateral margins are straight to the anterior lateral angles ; mesial
lobe prominent at the anterior end, where it is about as wide as each
lateral lobe, but, becoming rapidly depressed and narrowed posteriorly,
composed of only two well defined segments ; lateral lobes flat, except-

132 Monogra'pli of the Cnistacea of the Cincinnati Group.

iug a riclge that extends obliquely backward and outward from the an-
terior segment of the mesial lobe, across each, to the posterior lateral
margins, where these ridges terminate in prominent, rounded, diverg-
ing spines ; while the posterior lateral margins between these spines
and the lateral angles are each armed with four smaller, slender
spines, directed obliquely backward and outward. Four similar spines
also occupy the truncated middle parts of the posterior margin between
the two larger ones ; surface smooth, excepting a few very minute,
scattering asperities on the spines.

The pleurse of the posterior thoracic segment are smooth, and have
each a strong mesial ridge extending straight outward to the lateral
extremity, where it curves abruptly backward and is produced into a
long, sharp spine, extending as far backward as the longest spines of
the pygidiuni, or farther.

Length of pygidium, exclusive of spines, 0.19 inch; breadth, 0.55 inch.
Transverse diameter of first thoracic segment in advance of pygidium
0.70 inch, length of each pleurte 0.23 inch; anterio-posterior diameter
of the same 0.08 inch, length of larger lateral spine of each 0.38 inch.

Fragments of this species are found at all elevations, from low water-
mark to the top of the hills back of the city, but they are most abun-
dant in the lower 200 feet of the rocks. The specimen belonging to
Dr. Hill was found in the marl in Eden Park, less than 200 feet above
low water-mark.

Genus Ceraurus — (Green, 1832) as redefined by McCoy.

Cephalic shield granulated, semi-circular, lateral angles prolonged in-
to spines ; glabella clavate, reaching the front margin, gibbous, with
three subequal, segmental furrows on each side, the basal one retro-
flexed ; eyes, small in the midst of the cheeks ; eye line going from
their base directly to the outer margin, which they cut considerably in
front of the angles ; thorax of eleven segments ; plenne wider than the
axis, each having its origin thickened into a large, oblong tubercle,
cleft by a deep, diagonal, pleural sulcus ; a little beyond this a small,
rounded tubercle, beyond which the extremity is flat and falcately
pointed ; pygidium with a short, four-jointed axis, and the margin pro.
duced into three strong spines- on each side, the anterior largest.

Chirurus of Beyrich is merely a synonym, and should therefore be
suppressed.

Ceraurus pleurexanthemus — (Green, 1832).
Cephalic shield crescentiform, with a prominent connate articulation

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 133

at the base, and the posterior angles extended into long curved spines ;
eyes small, distant, sublunate, granulated (not reticulated) ; glabella
clavate, more or less convex, deeply four lobed on each side, leaving
the front one broader ; thorax with eleven articulations ; pygidium
with four (scarcely five) anchylosed articulations in the axial lobe,
and three on each lateral lobe, the upper of these lateral articulations
thickened and extended into a long, curved spine, the others terminat-
ing in blunt points ; surface entirely papillose or granulated, the ce-
phalic shield with scattered larger tubercles ; two ranges of sinall papil-
lose tubercles along the center lobe, and three ranges of mammillary
tubercles on each lateral lobe ; labrum sub-trigonal in outline, convex
in the middle, and granulous over the surface. A depression near the
margin of two sides forms a marginal rim, from the terminations of
which it attaches to the cephalic shield.

The whole surface, when perfect, is papillose. Upon all parts of
the cephalic shield are interspersed small mamillary tubercles, and two
similar ones on each articulation of the axial lobe, making two ranges
of tubercles. Each articulation of the lateral lobes presents three
large mammillary tubercles ; the first formed by an oblique furrow
from the upper side of the articulation, downward and outward ; the
third by a furrow from the upper edge downward and inward, or
toward the axis ; the meeting of these furrows leaves above them the
second or middle tubercle.

A good specimen of this species is extremely rare, and even frag-
ments are by no means abundant in any known locality. It is found
at the quarries back of Cincinnati, at all elevations, from 300 to 450
feet above low water-mark. Probably the labrum is found the most
frequently of any fragment of it.

Ceraiinis icarus — (Billikgs, 1859).

General outline ovate sub-elliptic, moderately convex. Cejjhalic
shield nearly semi-circular, rather more than twice as wide as long,
regularly rounded anteriorly, and nearly straight behind, excepting
near the lateral angles, where it curves somewhat abruptly backward,
on each side, into the lateral spines, Avhich are small, and scarcely ex-
tend farther back than to the second thoracic segment. Glabella, ex-
clusive of the neck segment, about as wide as long, with its lateral
margins so nearly straight and parallel as to make its breadth almo.-^t as
great anteriorly as behind ; separated from the cheeks by narrow but
well defined furrows, that unite around the front, so as to leave a very
nari'ow border between its anterior margin and that of the cephalic

134 Monograph of fJie Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group.

shield ; lateral furrows Avell defined, and extending inward on eacli
side, about one third the entire breadth ; posterior lateral lobes a little
smaller than the next two on each side in front of them, and sometimes
nearly isolated by the furrows immediately before them, being so
oblique as nearly or quite to run into tile neck furrow before reaching
the middle ; succeeding two lateral lobes on each side, nearly trans-
verse ; anterior lobe larger, about twice as wide as long, rounded on
each side, and somewhat straightened across the front. Neck segment
well defined, arched upward, so as to be as high in the middle as any
part of the glabella in front of it, and Avider in the middle than at
either end ; neck furrow rather distinctly arched forward in the mid"
die. Cheeks sloping anteriorly and laterally from the eyes, with the
continuation of the neck furrow along their posterior margins strongly
defined, straight, transverse, and terminating laterally some distance
Avithin the margins, where they meet nearly at right angles a furrow
that passes forAvard on each side to the anterior end of the glabella ;
outside of the latter, a more sh.alloAV furrow also passes around the lat-
eral borders. Eyes of moderate size, scarcely as prominent as the mid-
dle of the glabella, situated their own length in adA'ance of the posterior
margins of the cheeks, and nearly the same distance from the front of
the same ; visual surface a little arched, and showing under a good
lens, when moistened, very minute reticulations, that seem to be
mainly seen through the thin crust. Facial sutiires starting at the
middle of the anterior margin of the head, and cutting rather close
around the anterior lateral corners of the glabella ; thence extending
backward, with a slight outward obliquity to the eyes, Avhere they
make slight curves (to form small, moderately prominent, palpebral
lobes) to the posterior end of each eye ; from AAdiich point they extend
outAvard at first Avith a slight forward obliquity, after Avhich they are
deflected backward andoutwai-d, so as to cut the lateral margins a little
in advance of the points Avhere the continuations of the neck furroAv
along the posterior margins of the cheeks Avould intersect the same if
continued outward.

Thorax about twice as long as the cephalic shield, nearly as Avide
anteriorly as long, and distinctly trilobate ; axial lobe scarcely equal-
ing the breadth of the lateral lobes anteriorly, and proportionally a
little narroAver behind, but rather distinctly more prominent and
rounded ; segments eleven, nearly transverse, and regularly arched
upAvard. Lateral lobes a little flattened on top, nearly half Avay out-
Avard, at which point they slope oflT rather abruptly laterally ; i)leura3
straight and transverse for nearly half their length, Avhere they are
geniculated, obscurely subnodose, and curve downAvard and a little

Monograph of the Crustacea cf the Cincinnati Group. loo

backward, to their falcate extremities, whicli lap upon each other in
rolled up specimens, about half their breadth, each a little thickened
and divided at its inner end, by a short oblique furrow, into two little
subnodose prominences.

Pygidium small, transversely sub-elliptic, being twice as wide as
long, and broadly rounded in outline behind ; axial lobe small, and
composed of three obscurely defined segments ; lateral lobes large, and
composed each of three segments, which terminate at the margin in
moderately prominent, somewhat thickened digitatious, the anterior of
which are largest, somewhat carinate on top, and strongly curved
backward, wdiile the others decrease in size inward to the central two,
which are smallest.

Surface finely and obscurely granulated, excepting that of the cheeks,
which is sometimes marked with very small pits.

Length of the largest known specimen, 2.15 inches; length of head,
0.62 inch; breadth of head, 1.22 inches; length of thorax, 1.1-')
inches; breadth of thorax, 0.60 inch ; length of pygidium, 0.37 inch ;
breadth of pygidium, 0.65 inch.

One or two good specimens have been found at Richmond, Indiana,
and one or two other specimens in the upper part of the Cincinnati
Group elsewhere, but it is so extremely rare that it will never orna-
ment many cabinets.

Fifth subfamily Asaphime — (McCoy).

PleurjB bent down at the end, and having distinct trigonal facets;
thoracic segments eight to thirteen.

This subfamily may be looked upon as the type of the entire grouj),
and contains the most perfectly organized trilobites. They all have
the power of rolling themselves into a ball, and they are the only trilo-
bites having the triangular facets at the anterior part of the extremi-
ties of the pleurae. They have a compact, ovate forni, and from the
deflection of the margin all are of considerable depth.

This subfamily includes the genera Asaphus, subgenus Isotelus, Caly-
mene, Dalmanites, Triaiihrus, etc. •

Genus Asaphtis. (in a wider sense than BRO>fG, by McCoy).

Head and tail nearly equal; eye's w-ith a firmly fixed, thick cornea,
wnth a smooth external surface ; ficial suture cutting the posterior mar-
gin of the cephalic shiejd within the lateral angles ; thorax with eight

136

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Grovp.

m

to ten segments, havnig large facets, and distinct, wide, nearly straight
pleural grooves, not reaching the margin ; glabella indistinctly defined
in front ; pygidium, with the segments, usually indistinctly marked,
the axis generally distinct and annulated, Avhen traceable always
elongate conic (of the ordinary type).

Contains the following subgenera : 1st, Asaphtis; 2d, Isotelus.

Tracks of an Asaphus (?)

This figure ought, upon its face, to carry conviction that it represents
the tracks made by the feet of some animal. There
are, however, some additional facts that may be here
stated. On the same slab, about two inches to the left
hand of these tracks, there are four similar impressions,
that seem possible to have been those of the left feet, if
the figure shows the tracks of the right feet. On an-
other slab there are as many tracks as those here en-
graved, which follow each other in the same order, as
i well as a number of tracks Avhich indicate movements
in other directions. I think it quite clear that there
are too many marks of the same kind, which are regular
in their order, to leave any reasonable doubt about their
origin.

They are presumed to be the tracks of a crustacean,
because no animal of any other class known to the Silu-
rian rocks could have made them. It being admitted
that they are the tracks of a crustacean, the conclusion is
inevitable that they are either the tracks of an Asai^hus
or of an unknown animal. If an Asaphus made tracks,
and it is the opinion of naturalists that it did, or might
have done so, they would have been as large as these,
and, for ought that is now known, these are just such
tracks as it would' have made. While such is the proba-
bility, we would not, of course, resort to an hypothesis
based upon an unknown fossil.

The foot seems to have been trifid more than two thirds
of its length, and if webbed, as the impression indicates,
would have been a good paddle for swimming. The
posterior part of the foot, instead of leaving an impres-
sion, has left an elevation. This is an anomaly not easily
solved, unless upon the hypothesis that the web feet were
">" used generally for swimming, and not for walking, and

^'iuA^phlf^f that when used for walking, the folded web, at the pos-

'l

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 137

tei'ior part of the foot, as the animal pressed forward upon the an-
terior part, drew the mud up after it, leaving a correct impression
of the anterior part, and an elevated representation of the posterior
part.

The specimens were found by C. B. Dyer, Esq., on shale, from an
excavation on the west side of the Walker Mill road, in Cincinnati,
about 100 feet above low water-mark, and are now in his collection.
I do not know that any other person has been so observing as to find
them.

Subgenus Isotelus — (DeKay, 1824), as redefined by McCoy.

Large elliptical; huckler semi-elliptical, with the angles rounded, or
produced backward into spines ; Glalella indistinctly defined ; eye
lines meeting at an acute angle at the front margin, thence diverging
backward, slightly approximating again about the middle of their
length, Avhere the " hiant" eyes are situated, and again diverging to cut
the posterior margin, near the angles ; thorax of eight segments, axis as
■wide or wider than the lateral lobe, the ends of the pleural rounded
with a strongly marked triangular facet and pleural groove ; pygidium
resembling the buckler in size and shape, trilobed and generally with a
broad, smooth margin ; axis and lateral lobes with fine segmental fur-
rows or smooth.

Asaphus (subgenus Isotelus) megistos — (Locke, 1842).

The cephalic shield is anteriorly nearly pei-fectly elliptical, broadly
and thinly margined, posteriorly arcuate, and terminated at the angles
by spines or pointed processes, extending backward, beyoiid the two
first thoracic segments. The eyes are prominent, large, furnished ex-
teriorly, each, with a crescent-shaped cornea, and j^laced rather nearer
to the posterior edge than to the outer margin of the shield. From
the corner of each eye a sutural line extends forward, meeting at the
anterior margin of the shield, and inclosing a lozenge-shaped, leaf-like
frontal space. A thorax, with eight segments, middle lobe, sub-cylin-
drical ; lateral lobes somewhat flattened, and descending abruptly at
their lateral extremities, which are broad, flat, and rounded beneath,
and admirably fitted to sliding over each other when the animal should
contract or roll himself, according to a well known habit of the genus.
Pygidium posteriorly elliptical, anteriorly circularly arcuate ; length,
horizontally, less than two thirds of the width, having two obscure,
longitudinal depressions, continuous with the abdominal furrows, and

lo8 Monograpli of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group.

converging toward an obscure posterior tubercle. The anterior outline
of the pygidium exhibits three slight lobes (corresponding with those
of the thorax), the two exterior of which are very distinctly marked
by a transverse depression.

When the posterior shell of the tail is decorticated, an interior shell
is exposed, which forms all around a deep trough, or "cavetto," beauti-
fully marked with a "venalian" of eccentric curved and branched lines.

The above-named jDosterior tubercle is very nearly the focus of the
elliptic outline of the pygidium, is just anterior to the marginal cavetto,
and is the center around which the curved lines originate, each passing
a little further back than the other, and advancing outward and for-
ward, until they successively disappear on the anterior margin of the
cavetto.

It is distinguished from the A. gigas by the aculeate processes or
spines, by the perfectly elliptic terminations, by the simple (not raised)
margin of the shield, and by the proportions of the pygidium, the
gigas having the length four fifths, and the megistos three fourths only of
the width. The latter is also much more prominent than the former,
and the pijgidium and sides much more abrupt in their descent.

Fi-agments are abundant throughout the blue limestone, from low
Avater-mark in the Ohio to at or near the Upper Silurian, but a good
specimen is extremely rare.

The fragments indicate that it sometimes reached 20 inches in length,
and near 12 inches in breadth. The best specimens' found do not gen-
erally exceed 3 or 4 inches in length. No locality can be pointed out
at which a reasonably good specimen would be certain to reward a three
days' search by a collector.

Asaphus (subgenus Isotelus) gigas — (DeKay, 1824),

General figure oval oblong, with the sides rather straight, and entire^
surface finely punctate ; head rej)resenting a spherical triangle, obtuse,
or more or less rounded at the posterior extremities, convex, descend-
ing from between the eyes to the anterior border, which has a narrow,
raised rim ; eyes elevated, prominent, subpedunculated, strongly sup-
ported on the inner and concave side by a projection of the glabella ;
cornea oblong, lunated, highly polished ; facial suture continuing from
the center of the front, nearly parallel to the margin, until in a line
with the eye, when it turns backward, and leaving the eye upon the
maxillary portion, turns outward and backward, coming out at the
base of the shield distant from the angle ; thorax with eight articula-
tions, the middle lobe about once and a half the breadth of the lateral

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 139

lobes, the longitudinal grooves continued slightly into the buckler, and
more distinctly into the caudal shield ; the lateral lobes are rounded at
their extremities, and flattened in such manner as to allow each lobe
to slide easily under the lobe immediately preceding. Caudal shield
subtriangular, convex, equaling the head in size, with the posterior
termination rounded ; on the central part, when decorticated, a slight
elevation may be traced, which has the appearance of a continuation
of the middle lobe.

It varies in size from less than an inch in length to 18 inches or
probably more. Fragments abound throughout the blue limestone,
from the lowest exposure to the highest. Good specimens are rare,
though not so extremely rare as good specimens of the megistos.

There is a marked difference in the proportions that the head shield
bears to the tail plate, and the tail plate to the abdominal sections in
sj)ecimens of different sizes. This variation gave rise to the species
Isotelus planus (De Kay), though it can be no more than a variety.

A rolled up specimen was described Isotelus stegops (Green), though
from the description it does not seem to have presented any very great
variation from a tyj^ical si^ecimen.

Genus Calymene — (Brong, 1822).

Cephalic shield semi-circular, with a reflected anterior margin, and
obtusely rounded lateral angles ; glabella narrower in front than at base,
sides marked with three maxillary furrows and tubercles on each side,
the anterior smallest ; eyes about the middle of the cheeks, reniform,
prominent, strongly facetted ; eye line advancing to the anterior margin,
where being confluent with the marginal suture it joins that of the
opposite side ; over the eye it makes a small curve outward, defining
a semi-circular eye lobe, from whence it extends to the lateral angles,
which it bisects on each side ; thorax of thirteen rings, axis very convex,
lateral lobes wider than the axis, bent do^\n at their ends with large
facets, each with a strong pleural groove, angularly bent down and con-
fluent at its end with the posterior margin ; 'pygiclkim narrower than
the buckler, semi-oval, with distinct seven, nine, or eleven joints,
prominent axis, and broad convex, lateral lobes, the segments of which
are flat, about equal to the axial in number, and divided by a sulcus at
their ends.

In a wider sense, by McCoy, it is described as follows :
Lateral angles of the head obtusely rounded, exactly bisected by the
facial sutures ; eyes small, "hiantf glabella narrower in front than at the
base; thoracic segments thirteen.

140 3fonograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group.

These trilobites differ remarkably from Phacops in the structure of
their small eyes, which are seldom or never preserved, seeming to have
been of so delicate a nature as to fall out on the animal's death, leaving
a hole in the cephalic shield, where they were set, whence Dalman's
term "hiant," The head differs from Phacops in its blunt, lateral
angles, and the glabella being wider at base than in front, and in the
course of the eye line ; the body differs, in having thirteen instead of
eleven segments.

Calymene senaria — (Conrad, 1841).

Cephalic shield semi-circular or sublunate, regularly rounded in
front, or slightly projecting in front of the glabella, with a distinct
thoracic ring at the base ; posterior angles sub-acute or rounded ; gla-
bella separated from the cheeks by a deep, broad groove, wider behind,
or often of nearly equal width throughout, with three tubercles or
lobes on each side, the anterior one often obscure ; cheeks triangular ;
eyes truncate conical, situated a little outward from the inner edge of
the cheek ; facial suture terminating nearly in front of the eye ; thorax
with thirteen segments, those of the lateral lobes with a deep groove
extending from the base more than half way to the extremities ; py-
gidium small, with seven segments in the middle lobe, and five in each
lateral one, the latter with an impressed line or shallow groove the
whole length.

It is found throughout the entire exposure of the Cincinnati Group
of blue limestone, at all elevations. It is sometimes rolled up and
sometimes extended. It varies in size from an eighth of an inch in
length to 2J inches. Good specimens are much more abundant than
those of any other species of trilobites, though in many places only
fragments are to be found.

Some specimens are closely covered Avith tubercles, as those found
at the cutting for Columbia avenue, and at other places, from low
water-mark to 200 feet above, while they are smooth generally and ap-
pear never to have been tuberculous in the higher rocks, though this
is, according to Burmeister, the result only of having lost the tubercu-
lous covering. Different specimens present different proportions in
many parts of the body. The anterior part of the cephalic shield is
much longer and projects farther up in some specimens than in others,
while some are longer in proportion to their width than others, and
differ in other minor particulars.

The Calymene callicephala (Green),'' described in 1832 in Green's Mo-
nograph, and sold as cast No. 2, was, in my judgment, a large speci-

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. 141

men of this species. I come to this conclusion from the description,
the place where found being the Cincinnati Group, and from the en-
graving in Burmeister's INIonograph of trilobites ; indeed, I do not
believe there is any doubt about it. I know no reason why the
fossil should not retain the name callicephala (beautiful head), instead
of the name senaria, nine years later, and much less expressive.
But the paleontologists of the whole country seem to have adopted the
name senaria, and as there may be some reason for it that I do not un-
derstand, I have retained that specific name instead of callicephala
(Green), in deference to their action or judgment, as the case may be,
and against my own opinion ot what ought to be the rule of action.

Cahjmene Christyi — (Hall).

General form elongate ovate, symmetrical ; body gibbous, the
pygidium equaling the length of the head. Head semi-circular, the
frontal border expanded, and gradually narrowing on the sides ; the
posterior angles terminating in a short, sharp spine. Glabella wide,
slightly narrowing toward the front, regularly convex, strongly defined
by the dorsal furroAvs, a little concave in the middle of the base ;
occipital furrow well defined, nearly straight, and in right line with
the cheek furroAvs ; posterior furrow oblique, defined, but not deep ;
the middle one nearly rectangular to the axis, while the anterior one
is but slightly indented. The posterior lobe is much wider than the
middle one, and about the same width as the anterior one. Cheeks
small. Eyes very prominent.

Thorax with thirteen segments ; the axis salient, and a little wider
in the middle than the lateral lobes ; the articulations of the latter
flat, or slightly curving, for a little more than one third their length,
when they are suddenly bent downward.

The pygidium is gibbous, semi-elliptical, with the axis very prom-
inent, and marked by seven or eight rings, the last one being longer
and more prominent, with a minute, scarcely defined node at the
extremity ; lateral lobes marked by six flattened ribs, the last one of
which is minute, the expansion being continued in a narrow, flattened
border around the posterior extremity.

It is distinguished by the form of the glabella and the shallow fur-
rows Avhich leave the lobes flattened, and not convex and rounded, and
and by the minute spine at the posterior angle of the head shield.

Found near Oxford, in the upper part of the Cmcinnati Group, and
named in honor of Prof. Christy.

142 Monogj-a'ph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Growp.

Genus Dalmanites — (Emmerich, 1845).

"General form, hucUer, glabella, eyes, and eye lines, as in Phacops, but
the latter lobes of the glabella more equal ; not contractile ; thorax of
eleven segments; pleuri'pedes curved backward, and generally pointed
at their extremities, facets very long, narrow rhomboidal, slightly de-
fined ; pleural groove strong, slightly sigmoid and oblique (not angu-
lated) ; pygidium elongate, generally pointed, axis with from twelve to
twenty -two segmental furrows, sides with fewer (about half the num-
ber) strong ribs, usually duplex, confluent at their ends with the thick-
ened entire margin ; hypostoma with a dentate edge."

Dnlmanites Carleyi — (Meek, 1872).

Cephalic shield about twice as wide as long, rounded in front, and
more or less straight behind, so as to present a nearly semi-circular
outline, exclusive of the produced posterior lateral extremities; which
are about as long as the glabella, rather broad anteriorly, and tapering
rapidly to the posterior ends. Glabella Avide in front and rapidly nar-
rowed behind, defined by a moderately distinct furrow on each side,
and not very prominent at any point ; anterior lobe comparatively
large, transversely elliptical or sub-rhombic ; lateral lobes small, and
sepai-ated by furrows that extend inward, so as to leave only a very
narrow central space ; anterior pair each sub-trigonal, about twice as
large as the middle lobe, which is transversely ovate, while those of
the third or posterior pair are smallest ; neck furrow moderately well
defined, and continued as posterior marginal furrows of the cheeks
nearly to their outward margins; occipital segment comparatively
rather wide anterio-posteriorly, and elevated and convex in outline be-
hind ; palpebral lobes ascending and narrowing rapidly outward to the
summit of eyes. Cheeks sloping laterally from the eyes, rather ab-
ruptly, to a shallow marginal furrow, that is continued so as to form a
very narrow margin around the front of the glabella. Eyes moder-
ately large, situated full half their length from the posterior margins
of the cheeks, and elevated somewhat above the height of the glabella,
truncato-subconical in form, the visual surface curving round, so as to
form about three fourths of a circle at its base ; lenses of compara-
tively moderate size, showing about seven in a vertical row at the mid-
dle, and twelve or fourteen in the longest oblique rows ; surface of an-
terior lobe of glabella showing small obscure granulations ; other parts
of the cephalic shield nearly smooth, or less distinctly granular.

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cmcinnati Gi'oup. 143

Length of cephalic shield, exclusive of the posterior lateral spines,
35-lOOth inch, including do., 60-lOOth inch; breadth, 67-lOOth inch ;
anterio-posterior diameter of eyes, 12-1 00th inch ; height of same on
outer side, 8-lOOth inch.

Thorax with eleven segments, axial lobe strongly convex, lateral
lobes flattened, pleurie curved backward and obtusely pointed at their
extremities ; gradually tapering from the neck segment to the pygid-
ium. Length of thorax, 6-lOth inch ; greatest breadth, 7-lOth, and
tapering to 5-lOth inch.

Pygidium sub-trigonal, rather depressed, as Avide as long, very nar-
rowly rounded or almost sub-angular behind ; the posterior exti-emity
being curved a little upward ; mesial lobe depressed, but a little more
convex than the lateral, and of about the same breadth, or slightly nar-
rower at the anterior end, and narrowing to the posterior extremity,
which does not reach the margin, composed of about thirteen distinct
seo-ments, and two or three other very small, obscure ones behind these ;
lateral lobes separated from the mesial lol5e by moderately distinct fur-
rows, and sloping off gently, ^vith slight convexity of outline, to the
lateral and posterior margins, showing each, about thirteen segments,
which are not fuiTOwed, and extend very nearly, but not quite, to the
margin, the smaller posterior ones being directed very obliquely back-
ward ; surface showing rather fine, irregular, scattering granules.

Length of pygidium, tVo*^^ "^^^^ > breadth, f^fo^^"' inch.

Found at Cincinnati, from 300 feet above low water-mark to near
the top of the hills. Extremely rare. Dr. R. M. Byrnes has a fine
specimen, rolled up, and Prof. Harper has a fine specimen, extended.

Dcdmanitcs hreviccps — (Hall, 1866).

Body broadly ovate in general form, its greatest width across the
base of the cephalic shield. Head sub-crescentiform, the anterior mar-
gin very slightly produced in front of the glabella. Frontal lobe of
glabella transversely elliptical, the breadth nearly twice as great as the
length ; separated from the anterior lobe by deep, narrow furrows-
Anterior lobe transversely subovate, prominent ; middle and posterior
lobes obsolete, occipital ring narrow, distinctly defined.

Eyes very prominent, with five lenses in the central, vertical range,
but the number of vertical ranges can not be determined ; palpebral
lobe depressed. The outer border of the movable cheeks is thickened
and rounded, and the space between the border and the eye depressed-
The posterior spines long and broad, reaching to the sixth thoracic seg-
ment.

144 .Monograph of the Crudacea of the Cincinnati Group.

Thorax with the axial lobe highly convex, and the lateral lobes
strongly geniculate, subequal in width, rapidly tapering posteriorly
from the fourth or fifth segments. Segmentg curved forward on the
top of the axial lobe, and the furrows on the pleura strongly marked.

Pygidium obtusely pointed behind, the lateral borders inclosing an
an angle of about 120°, the anterior border rounded; the number of
articulations not clearly defined, but apparently numbering about ten
or twelve, besides the terminal one ; those of the lateral lobes have been
more numerous. The entire surface finely pustolose.

Not found at Cincinnati, but found in Warren county, in the upper
part of the Cincinnati Group. Sometimes found rolled up and some-
times extended. Extremely rare.

Genus Prcetus — (Steininger, 1831).

Cephalic shield semi-circular, surrounded by a thickened margin ; the
jiosterior angles do not project perceptibly ; the glabella is very con-
vex, parabolic, rounded at the anterior part, undivided, without any
lateral lobes ; at the posterior part it is- as broad as the margin, to
which it is immediately joined. The facial suture projects over the
anterior cephalic margin on a line with tlie eyes, is thence directed
toward the eye, forms the covering plate, and runs at first straight,
afterward in an S-shaped curve, to the posterior margin, which it
penetrates beyond the center, in an .oblique direction toward the ex-
ternal part. Eyes of moderate size, very prominent, smooth, joined
rather closely to the glabella. Body axis ten-jointed, the joints grad-
ually more narrow toward the posterior part, strongly arched, abruptly
separated from the lateral lobes by a peculiar furrow, these lobes having
an oblique indentation.

" Caudal shield corresponding with the cephalic, but smaller, the
axis highly arched, short, distinctly articulated, the sides furnialied with
slight furrows or obsolete ribs, the margin even, but having a very
acute angle. The surface of the shell almost smooth, but with distinct
traces of granulation on the glabella, and on the cheeks beneath the
eye."

Prcetus parviusculus — (Hall, 1866).

Body, in. general form, broadly ovate, widest across the base of the
cephalic shield. Head sublunate, produced into long, sharp spines at
the posterior angles of the cheeks. Glabella elevated, broadly sub-
comical, rounded in front, concave behind ; furrows not visible.

Monograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group. ' 145

Eyes comparatively large and prominent, separated from the glabella
by a somewhat deep groove ; border of the head broad and flattened.

Thorax having the axial lobe very prominent, narrower than the
lateral lobes ; segments scarcely arching forward in the middle ; lateral
lobes geniculate, and having the extremities of the pleura directed
backward and distinctly furrowed to near their outer extremities.

Pygidium small, semi-circular, regularly rounded behind, and the
anterior margin straight to near the lateral angles, where it is abruptly
curved backward. Axial lobes narrow, not reaching to the posterior
border of the shield ; marked by five small annulations, with about
the same number on the lateral lobes, which are less distinctly marked.
Surface smooth or very finely granulose.

This species has been found at Cincinnati, but only two specimens
that I am aware of. They were both found near the top of Vine street
hill.

Prcetus Simrhcki— (Meek, 1872).

General form, exclusive of the spines of the cephalic shield, ovate
sub-elliptic, with moderate convexity. Cephalic shield having the
form of one of the halves of an ellipse divided through its shorter
diameter, its posterior margin being straight, and its anterior narrowly
rounded ; posterior lateral angles produced into long, sharp spines, that
extend back nearly or quite the entire length of the thorax ; glabella
nearly one third the breadth of the posterior part of the head, sepa-
rated from the cheeks on each side by a well defined furrow, but with-
out having the neck furrow distinctly marked ; other details of glabella
unknown. Eyes sublunate, nearly their own length in advance of the
posterior margins of the cheeks.

Thorax- having eight segments. Mesial lobe moderately prominent,
scarcely equaling the breadth of the lateral lobes anteriorly, and taper-
ing more rapidly backward, with its segments not arching forward.
Lateral lobes less convex than the middle one ; pleurre nearly straight
and transverse, or very slightly curved backward, and furrowed for a
little more than half way out with their extremities rounded in front?
and nearly rectangular behind.

Pygidium sub-semi-circular, about one half as long as the cephalic
shield, and provided with a smooth, flattened margin. Mesial lobe
moderately prominent, narrower than the lateral; tapering posteriorly,
where it terminates rather abruptly, without passing quite upon the
flattened margin, showing only very obscure traces of five or six seg-
ments on its anterior half. Lateral lobes more depressed than the

146 . Mojiograph of the Crustacea of the Cincinnati Group.

mesial one, and with their flattened margin leather more than one tliird
the breadth of the anterior end of each, and each showing obscure
traces of six or seven furrowed segments.

Entire surface smooth. Length of a specimen, 0.54 inch ; breadth
at the widest point across the posterior part of the head, 0.25 inch ;
length of head, 0.27 inch ; length of pygidium, 0.11 inch.

The specimen belonging to Dr. H. H. Hill was found in the excava-
tion for Gilbert avenue, in Eden park, about 180 feet above low-water
mark.

Genus Triarihrm — (Green, 1832).

General form, an elongated ellipse, rather pointed at the tail ; cephalic
shield somewhat semi-circular, deeply trilobate, rounded off laterally
without projecting spines ; glabella of equal width from base to front,
trilobed on each side, rounded and convex in front, neck segment dis-
tinct. Thorax with thirteen segments, middle and lateral lobes of
equal width, axial lobe convex, with a central row of minute spines ;
pygidium obtusely semi-circular, witli six or seven segments.

Tlie name was from the three articulations in the glabella, then sup-
posed to be the three articulations of the abdomen.

Triarthriis Beckl — (Green, 1832).

t

General form, an elongated ellipse, narrower at the posterior extrem-
ity, sides somewhat straight ; cephalic shield broadly semi-oval, rounded
on the margin posteriorly ; glabella of equal width from base to front,
rounded and convex in front and deeply trilobate on each side, prominent
thoracic ring at the base, having a minute spine on the middle of the cen-
tral lobe ; side lobes narrowing and pointed in front ; eyes indistinct,
situate at the point of union between the side lobes and the margin an-
terior to the third lobe of the glabella ; thorax with thirteen segments,
lobes of equal width, and narrowing toward the pygidium ; axial lobe
convex, and having a short spine or prominent tubercle on the back of
each segment, forming a row of spines from the neck segment to the
pygidium ; lateral lobes somewhat flattened, each segment deeply
grooved along the middle, and obtusely pointed ; pygidium with seven
segments in the middle lobe and five in the lateral lobes ; posterior ex-
tremity obtuse. It varies in size from half an inch to one and a half
jiiches in length.

In Mr. Dyer's collection there are some very good specimens.

Cypricardites Hainesi.

147

found while excavating for a well in Fulton, now a part of Cincinnati,
at an elevation of fifty or sixty feet above low water-mark. It has
been found in the bed of Taylor's creek, just below an old null-dam,
above Newport, Kentuck}', at an elevation of about fifty or sixty feet
above low water-mark. I found a fragment on a rock up Taylor's
creek, above where the Alexandria pike first crosses it, at an elevation
of about 150 feet above low water-mark. Good specimens ornament
but few cabinets, though a great deal of search has been made for them.

Genus Cyimcardiies — (Conrad, 1841).

Equivalved, profoundly inequilateral ; hinge with four or five un-
equal cardinal teeth, anterior one largest and most prominent; lateral
teeth short and very remote from the cardinal teeth.

Cypricardites Hainesi — (S. A. Miller).

Equivalve, inequilateral ; margins subparallel, diverging posteriorly ;
beaks sharp, projecting over the hinge line and slightly incurved ;

Fig. 12. Ci/pticardiles Hainesi.

Fig. 13. Interior of the left valve.

umbones sub-angular, with a ridge extending posteriorly and curving
toward the base, where it becomes obsolete ; cardinal teeth unknown ;
lateral teeth two, one much longer than the other ; muscular impression
below the beak anteriorly.

The cardinal teeth, in the valve, figure 13, being destroyed, as shown
by the letter t, the number and character could not be ascertained.

Surface marked by fine concentric lines.

Length 1/q inches ; width ^f "^*^'^ '■> gi'eatest depth through the
umbones -||^ inch.

The specific name is given as a compliment to Mrs. M. P. Haines,
an earnest and devoted naturalist of Richmond, Indiana, who has col-
lected a very fine cabinet and studies to appreciate it.

148

Sfreptorhynclins (f) Hallie.

Locality and Pos'd'wn. — I found the specimens about a mile below
Eichmoncl, Indiana, at an old quarry, near the toi^ of the hill, in a field
on the east side of the creek. JNot observed elsewhere, so far as known.

StreptorhyncJms (f) Hallie.— (8. A. JMillee.)

Fig. 14. Slrf2>lorliiiiicha!<(?)
Hallie. Dorsal valve.

Fi'. 15. Interior of dorsal valve.

Fig. 16. Interior of
ventral valve.

Shell sub-trigonal in outline, concavo-convex, deflected laterally,
resupinate, rather thin and frail ; hinge scarcely equaling the greatest
breadth of the valves ; length and breadth about f of an inch.

Dorsal valve convex in the central part, flattened on the umbone
and deflected laterally ; surface marked by moderately coarse, radiating
striiie, which increase by intercalation of smaller ones ; area linear,
beak not distinct from the edge of the area. Interior, showing cardinal
process to be very small and divided into two teeth-like parts, directed
a little forward and flattened on their faces ; socket ridges small, short,
and oblique ; mesial I'idge scarcely perceptible, without a magnifier,
radiating striise plainly visible.

Ventral valve moderately concave in the central and anterior
regions, but slightly convex at the beak, which is perforated and pro-
jects slightly beyond the edge of the area ; surface marked by radiating
striae, which increase by even bifurcations ; area narrow and sloping
laterally ; foramen closed by a rounded deltidium for the reception of
the cardinal teeth of the dorsal valve. Interior showing trigonal hinge
and circular cavity ; marked by radiating striae.

This species belongs to the same genus that the shells commonly
known as Strojihomena fiUtexta, S. subtcnta, S. planumhona, S. plcinocon-
vexo, etc., belong to. They are not, however, included in the genus
tStrophomena, and Prof. Hall has suggested that they might be placed
in the genus StreTptorhjnclms, while Prof. INIeek "would leave them
in the genus Hemipronites. The probability is that a new genus should
he, formed to include them and a few other species.

The specific name is given as a compliment to Miss Hallie Cotton,
■who was the first lady to join the Cincinnati Society of I^atural His-

3Iodiolopsis modlolar

IS.

140

tory, and at a very early age has developed a remarkable taste for
natural science.

The specimens were found in the excavation for Columbia avenue,
about 150 feet above low water-mark. Not observed elsewhere so far
as known.

UocUolopsis modiolaris — (Coxrad, 1838).

Somewhat obliquely oblong ovate, narrowed before, expanded and
obliquely truncated posteriorly ; basal margin usually contracted or
slightly arched upward ; cardinal line extended straight or slightly
curved ; beaks moderately prominent near the anterior extremity ; an
oblique, scarcely defined ridge, extending to the posterior basal mar-
gin ; surface marked by concentric undulations ; muscular impression
distinct, close to the anterior extremity.

The hinge line of this species and the internal markings never hav-
ing been illustrated, I have caused to be engraved the following figure:

Fig. 17. Hinge line and internal structure of Modiolopsis modiolaris.

The hinge line is toothless, and marked by a ligamental depression,
commencing justanterior to the beak and extending to the posterior part
of the shell The external ligament was situated between and anterior
to the beaks, and extended posteriorly to the end of the hinge line.
The muscular impression is circular and deep, and situated immediately
below and subanterior to the beak, and not anterior to it, as appears in
the cast. A mesial ridge extends from the beak to the base of the
shell, separating the muscular impression from the umbonal cavity.
Pallial line distinct, and marked by irregular pits.

The beak of the shell scarcely extends lieyond the hinge line, and is
less prominent than it would appear, judging from the cast alone.

This siDecies is quite common on the hills back of Cincinnati, and has

150

3Iodwlopsis Versaillesensis.

an extensive ran^e, but it is very rare to find anything more than a
niere cast. It is found quite common from 300 feet above low water-
mark to the rocks of the Upper Silurian, and is rarely found below 300
feet above low water-mark.

3fodiolo2ms Versaillesensis— (^8. A. Miller).

Fig. 18 — Modiolopsis Versaillesensis.

Fig. 19 — Modiolopsis Versaillesensis. Hinge
line and muscular impression.

Equivalve, inequilateral, oblong, expanded and compressed poster-
iorly ; basal margin contracted or arched upward, below the beaks ;
cardinal line straight ; beaks near the anterior extremity, and slightly
more prominent than those of the Modiolopsis modiolaris ; umbones sub-
angular and extending obliquely, posteriorly ; surface marked by con-
centric lines ; muscular imi^ression circular and deep, below and anter-
ior to the beak ; mesial ridge between it and the umbonal cavity ;
hinge line plain and smooth, except a slight ligamental depression
below the beak.

Length of specimens examined varying from f inch to 2i inches ;
breadth and thickness in proportion to length.

This species differs from the Modiolopsis modiolaris, in having a more
prominent beak, more angular umbones, different hinge line, and lig-
amentary attachments, and in having the muscular impression farther
anterior to the beak. Casts of the two species might not be distin-
guishable from each other.

This species was found Iw me at Versailles, Indiana, about 300 feet
below the rocks of the Upper Silurian, and associated with Anomalo-
donta gigantea, Anodoiitopsis (?) Milleri, Pleurotomaria troindoplxeva, Tel-
linomya occidentalis, etc.

Descriptions of new species of Leptcena and Cyclonema. lol

Descriptions of one new species of Leptcena, and two sp)ecies of Cyclonema
from the Lower Silurian Rocks. Cincinnati Group. By U . P. James.

Leptoena Aspera. — James.

[Leptaena rugosa.— J a^es. Catalogue of L. Silurian Fossils, 1871.]
[Zjepdxna sericea (?)— Meek. Pal., Ohio, 1873.]

[^Aspera, in reference to roughness.]

Shell small, transverse ; width nearly twice the length ; hinge line
generally about equal to the greatest width of the shell farther forward —
in some individuals more — and sharply pointed at the extremities (nearly
all of the uninjured specimens taken directly from the clay bed have
the extremities of the hinge line thus pointed); lateral margins round-
ing quite abruptly to the front.

Dorsal valve concave, the slope dropping, in most cases, nearly at
right angles under the beak and about half the length of the cardinal
line, in others the slope is gradual ; beak not projecting ; area narrow,
drooping forward ; cardinal line straight,, and having a crenulated ap-
pearance, most conspicuous when held to a strong light ; wrinkles
commencing at the hinge line and extending inward, obliquely, cross-
ing the striae at nearly right angles.

Ventral valve moderately convex on the umbone ; cardinal line
sloping slightly from the beak to the lateral extremities ; beak not in-
curved ; cardinal area much the widest in the middle, and nearly par-
allel to the plane of the valves ; foramen triangular, appearance of
crenulations as in the other valve ; wrinkles not so plain.

Surface of both valves marked by fine radiating striee, about every
fourth or fifth one stronger than the others, which extend from the
hinge line about two thirds or three fourths of the distance to the free mar-
gins, Avhere they are interrupted by rough eleviitions (generally most so
on the ventral valve), continuing to the edge of the valves, which are
much thickened up. This roughness does not extend in all cases to
the lateral margins, iimnediately in front of hinge line, and in the doi-sal
valve it is sometimes entirely wanting. It is found on the small,
young shells as well as old ones.

Figures referred to this species are published in the Pal. of Ohio,
vol, i., part 2, plate 5, 3/ and Sg, but they do not show the rough
surface ; the radiating strise being made to continue to the free mar-

gins.

Leptcena rugosa (a synonym) was pre-occupied for another shell — now
known as Strophomena tenuistriata (Sowerby) — hence the change of
name.

152 Descriptions of new species of Leptcena and Cyclonema.

Length of some large specimens about half an inch, breadth one inch ;
others are nearly as long as broad.

The typical form was found about 150 feet above low water-mark of
the Ohio River, at Cincinnati, but varieties are found at other locali-
ties all through the Cincinnati Group.

Cyclonema pyramidata — (James) .

[Cyclonema pyramidata. — James. Catalogue of Lower Silurian Fossils, 1871.]

Shell obliquely pyramidal ; broader than high ; base expanded ;
slope from apex to base quite regular ; volutions four, flat or slightly
depressed ; suture shallow ; a narrow, angular shoulder on the upper
edge of the first volution, in some cases ; surface ornamented by
revolving lines, about every fourth one, on the body whorl, much
stronger than the ones between, crossed by fine striie or lines of growth,
having a backward direction ; on the upper whorls every other one of
tlie revolving lines stronger than the intermediate one. The body
whorl makes a large portion of the shell ; slope of the vmder side to
the outer lip sharply rounded, to the inner lip and umbilicus nearly
flat, or rounding inward ; inner lip, of old specimen, thickened ; outer
lip thin, and sharp at the edge, and slightly projecting at the junction
with the outer line of the volution. Aperture rounded, or suboval-

Breadth of a medium size specimen, 14 lines; height, 11 lines.

This idiell bears some resemblance to C. bilix, Conrad, but it is
much more expanded at the base, and the volutions are flat or slightly
■depressed, whilst in C bilix they are more or less inflated, and the
suture deeper, and the outline quite different.

Position and Locality. — Cincinnati Group, about 350 or 400 feet
above low water-mark of the Ohio River, at Cincinnati ; but it may be
found at other localities and at different horizons.

Cyclonema j^MciMate—( James) .

[Cyclonfma fluctuaia. — James. Catalogue of Lower Silurian Fossils, 1871.]
[ Cyclonema bilix var. lata. — Meek. Palffiontology of Ohio, 1873.]

\_Fluctuata referring to the wavy surface.]

Shell turbinate, depressed ; breadth greater than the length ; volu-
tions four or five increasing rapidly in size, the first one flattened on
the under side ; aperture suboval, oblique ; suture broad and deep ;
inner lip thickened, outer lip thin and sharp. Surface marked by

Descriptions of new species of Leptocna and Cyclonema. 153

revolving lines, varying in size and distinctness, in some examples being
sharp and prominent, in others scarcely visible to the naked eye,
crossed by fine strise, or lines of growth, ■which, to the sharply defined
ones, give the shell a beautifully ornamented appearance. Volutions
with oblique undulations, and a broad revolving depression near or
above the center, most conspicuous on the body whorls, sometimes
extending to the apex.

Height of a large specimen about IJ inches, bi'eadth 1^ inches.
Small ones, less than f ths of an inch in height and breadth.

The above is the typical form, but examples are found vaiying
gradually to a narrow body whorl, narrow, shallow suture, and conical
form, and decidedly longer than wide ; all having the peculiar wavy
or undulating surface more or less distinct, with other features in com-
mon, so that it is impossible, or very difficult, to find a dividing line.

Figures 5e, 5/*, and 5g, plate 13, Paleeontology of Ohio, vol. i.,
part 2, show the extremes of this species.

Position and locality : Lower Silurian formation, upper part of the
Cincinnati Group, Warren and Clinton counties, Ohio, and other local-
ities in Ohio and Indiana.

Nullipores — (U. P. James.)

I have occasionally found, during years past, a thin substance cover-
ing surfaces of our fossil corals, clusters of crinoidal columns, etc. (of
the Cincinnati Group), that Palasontologists, whom I have consulted,
could not explain. The following extract from Dana's work on Corals
and Coral Islands, published 1872, seems to throw some light on this
obscure fossil form :

" Nidlipores. — The more important species of the vegetable king-
dom that afford stony material for coral reefs are called Nullipores.
They are true Algje, or sea-Aveeds, although so completely stony and
solid that nothing in their aspect is plant-like. They form thick, or
thin, stony incrustations over surfaces of dead corals, or coral rock,
occasionally knobby or branching, and often spreading lichen-like.

" They have the aspect of ordinary corals, especially the Millepores,
but may be distinguished from these species by their having no cells,
not even any of the pin-punctures of those species.

" Beside the more stony kinds, there are delicate species, often
jointed, called Corallines, which secrete only a little lime in their tis-
sues, and have a more plant-like look. Even these grow so abundantly
on some coasts, that, when broken up and accumulated along the shore

154 Method of Rearing Lepidoptera.

hy the sea, tliey make thick calcareous deposits. Agassiz has de-
scribed such beds as having considerable extent in the Florida seas."

>[; 1^ ^ ^ ^ ^Jji

"Though in the midst of the breakers (the reef of the coral atoll),
the edge stands a few inches, and sometimes a foot above other parts of
the platform ; the incrusting Nidlipores cover it with varied tints, and
afford protection from the abrading action of the waves."

Tliere are no coral reefa in the Cincinnati Group, so far as now known,
but the Nullipores attach themselves to dead corals under other condi-
tions.

Meiliod of Rearing Lepidoptera — Entomological Memoranda. By A. G.

Wetherby.

The writer having had some experience in rearing various species of
Lepidoptera, offers in the following pages an account of the method em-
ployed, hoping it may be of service to those who desire to become better
acquainted with the habits and transformations of this most interesting
and beautiful division of insect life.

In the study of Lepidoptera, as in the study of everything else, close
acquaintance with the object studied is of the first importance, and this
can only be had when the species are under the eye at all times. It is
a fact, not so well known as it should be, that by imitating natural con-
ditions so far as they are favorable, and avoiding them so far as unfa-
vorable, insects may be reared in much greater perfection than they
grow native, as too great heat, too much wet, drouth, violent agita-
tion by storms, and other vicissitudes to which they are exposed in a
state of nature, may be almost wholly avoided, and the entire life of
the insect become a period of undisturbed and quiet growth.

In-order to insure such success, the first essential is a good breeding cage,
or vivarium. Having tried various plans, I now offer one which will
meet all requirements, and which any handy boy of twelve or fourteen
years can construct for himself, at an outlay of one dollar or less.

Get tivo pieces of inch pine or poplar board, two feet long and sixteen
inches wide, and foxir pieces one and one half inch square, and twenty
inches long. To one side of one of the pieces of board nail two strips
of inch stuff, ^'across the grain,'' near the ends, to prevent the board
from warping, and to serve as the feet of your cage. To each corner
of the other side nail one of the four pieces above mentioned. You
now have the bottom and corner posts of your cage. To the other end

Method of Bearing Lepidopteva. 155

of these posts nail the other board, and the frame of your cage is com-
plete. Now stretch good mosquito netting around both sides and one
end of your frame, fastening it with leathered tacks to the edges of the
top and bottom board, and also to the corner posts. 'The cage is now
finished, except the door, for which make a frame of the same size as
the end of the cage left open ; stretch the mosquito netting over this
frame, hang your door to one of the corner posts by leather hinges of
the proper length, and your apparatus is all complete. It only remains
to find the larvae on their food-plants ; place branches of the food-plant
in jars of water, cover the top of the jar with cotton, to prevent the
larv?e from crawling down into the water, put them on their food, set
them in the cage, and you have nothing to do but watch them feed,
moult and grow, until they are ready for the final change to the chrys-
alid state. Of course the food must be renewed as often as it be-
comes in the least degree withered and stale.

In such a cage as the one described the writer has reared great num-
bers of many diurnal Lepidoptera, as well as the nocturnal and crepus-
cular species.

All lepidopterous larvre, when about to assume the pupa state,
change color, become restless, refuse food, and those that undergo their
transformation in the ground leave the food plant and wander uneasily
about the bottom of the cage. These signs should never be disregarded, as
they show an effort of instinct to find a suitable locality in which to undergo
the wonderful change from the larval to the pupa stage. The larvae
of Eacles imperiaUs (Hiibner), one of our largest and most beautiful of
nocturnals, which is of a bright green color during the feeding season,
in a few hours changes to a dirty brown along the back and sides ; the
feet lose the power of holding to the branches of the food plant ; the
skin of the insect becomes stiif and horny ; it descends to the bottom
of the cage, and crawls clumsily around, seeking an outlet for escape.
The same facts, in different degrees, may be noticed of nearly all spe-
cies. When this is the case, fill a large earthen jar or wooden bucket
two thirds full of mellow loam ; put your larva; into the vessel, tie a
piece of mosquito netting over the top or invert a bell glass over them.
In a few hours, after having wandered around the sides of the jar
many times, they bury themselves, and no further trouble is neces-
sary than to set the jar in a moist, cool cellar, until the following spring.
Larvee of the same age, fed in the same cage, and in the same way,
u'ill differ a week or ten days in coming to maturity ; but all may be placed
in the same jar for the final change, care being taken to disturb the jar
as little as possible while untying the netting or removing the bell glass,
to put in the succeeding specimens. When your larvae are all fuU

156 Method of Bearing Leindoptera.

fed, and have gone down in the jar, wet a thick piece of woodland
rqoss, put it over the top of the jar, and set them, as above stated, in
a cool, moist cellar, and they will be in good condition for "'planting^
in the spring.

This last operation is necessary, in order that your specimens may
be perfectly expanded, and that they may be carefully watched during
the season of the last metamorphosis, from the pupa to the imago.
Fill a large jar nearly full of the same mellow loam ; thrust the finger
in this to the depth of an inch and a half or its whole length (accord-
ing to the size of your pupa), and at an angle of about sixty degrees.
In the hole made by the finger, put your chrysalid, head uppermost,
and beside it a small, smooth stick, letting the latter project from the
earth five or six inches. Having continued this operation until as
many chrysalids are planted as the jar will accommodate, cover them
over with the loam to the dejith of an inch or more, set your jar and
its contents in a breeding cage, sprinkle the surface occasionally with
pure rain water, and in due season your imago will leave its pupa
prison-house, ascend the little stick, dry and expand its wings, and
you can then kill and mount it for your collection (by a process to be
explained in a future paper), or use it for the further propagation of
the species. If your larvae are those of species which spin cocoons, no
jar of earth, or removal from the vivarium will be necessary, as they
spin their cocoons to the branches, and among the leaves of the food-
plant, and may be left undisturbed until the following spring, in the
same position, by placing the cage in a cool, moist cellar, or outhouse*
free of mice. In the spring these will crawl out of the cocoons, clinging
to the cocoon or the branch to which it is fastened, and when the wings
are fully expanded, may be treated as before mentioned. In the way
above described the writer has reared, from the ega-s of a sinojle female,
fifty four images of the T. polyphemus, being at liberty to observe all the
moults, feeding habits, resting and sleeping habits, and other points of
interest connected with their growth and development. It is well to
remember, that young larva?, just hatched, often refuse the food-plant,
unless confined. In such cases put them in a glass bottle, with tender
leaves of their food, and cork the bottle. They will soon commence
feeding, and may, in a day or two, be removed to the cage. The
cages should be kept out of the sun, and where there may, at all times,
be a free circulation of air. These conditions may genei-ally be found
at the north side of houses, where the cage may be suspended to a nail
driven in the wall.

The writer intends to follow this j^aper with others, giving notes of
habit, time and place of collecting, food-plant and appearance of species,

New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary Formation. 157

and such information as he hopes may be of use to those who wish to
engage, practically, in the study of this most interesting and useful
branch of natural history. It is a great pleasure to have fine, perfect
specimens of any species for such study ; but the pleasure is much
greater when the student can say to his friend, that he has reared his
specimen from the egg, observed its entire habits of life, and secured
and preserved it himself, to be

" A thing of bcaiily, and a joy forever."

--ind this any earnest person can do, with a little careful observation
and pleasurable labor, and with great mental profit. To stimulate a
taste for such recreations, that give pure enjoyment without the possi-
bility of evil consequences, is the chief object of this article.

Neiv Equine 3fammals, from the Tertiarxj Formation. By O. C. Marsh.
From The Kn\. Jour, of Sci. and Arts, for March, 1874.

Prof. Marsh has described some new equine mammals from the Ter-
tiary formation of the western territories, in the March number of the
American Journal of Science and Arts, and thrown a great deal of
light on the origin of the horse. He has described a genus under the
name of Oruhippus, from the Eocene of Wyoming and Utah, the skel-
eton of Avhich, in its general features, is decidedly equine, but the ani-
mal was only about the size of a fox. Another, under the na&e of
Miohipims, from the Miocene of Oregon, somewhat exceeding a sheep
in size, and with longer limbs. And another, under the name of
Pliohippus, from the Pliocene of the Niobrara River, about the size of
the ass. He says in conclusion :

"The large number of equine mammals now known, from the Ter-
tiary deposits of this country, and their regular distribution through
the sub-divisions of this formation, afford a good opportunity to ascer-
tain the probable lineal descent of the modern horse. The American
representative of the latter is the extinct Eqims fraternis (Leidy), a
species almost, if not entire!}', identical with the old world Equus cahal-
lits (Linn), to which our recent horse belongs. Huxley has traced
successfully the latter genealogy of the horse through European ex-
tinct forms, but the line in America was probably a more direct one,
and the record is more complete. Taking them as the extreme of a
series Orohippxis agilis (Marsh), from the Eocene, and Equm fraternis
(Leidy), from the Quaternary, intermediate forms may be intercalated

158 New Equine MamiivtU from the Tertiary Formation.

with considerable cei'tainty, from the thirty or more well marked
species that lived in the intervening periods. The natural line of de-
scent would seem to be through the following genera : Orohippus, of
the Eocene ; Miohippm and Anchitherium, of the Miocene ; Anchippm
Hipparion Protohippm and Pliohippusy of the Pliocene; and Equu-f,
Quaternary and recent.

The most marked changes undergone by the successive equine genera
are as follows : 1st, increase in size ; 2d, increase- in speed, through
concentration of limb bones ; 3d, elongation of head and neck, and
modifications of skull. The increase in size is remarkable. The
Elocene Orohippus was about the size of a fox. Miohippus find Anchither-
ium, from the Miocene, were about as large as a sheep. Hipparion
and Pliohippus, of the Pliocene, equaled the ass in height ; while the
size of the Quaternary Eqnus was fully up to that of the modern horse.
The increase of speed was equally marked, and was a direct result
of the gradual modification of the limbs. The latter were slowly con-
centrated by the reduction of their lateral elements and enlargement
of the axial one, until the force exerted by each limb came to act
directly through its axis, in the line of motion. This concentration is
well seen, e. g., in the fore limb. There was, 1st, a change in the
scapula and humerus, especially in the latter, which facilitated motion
in one line only ; 2d, an expansion of the radius and reduction of the
ulna, until the former alone remained entire and effective; 3d, a short-
ening of all the carpal bones, and enlargement of the median ones,
insuring a firmer wrist ; 4th, an increase hi size of the third digit, at
the expense of those on each side, until the former alone supported
the limb. The latter change is clearly shown in the following dia-
gram (here omitted), which represents the fore feet of four typical
genera in the equine series, taken in succession from each of the geo-
logical periods in which this groupof mammals is known to have lived.
The ancient Orohippus had all four digits of the manus well developed.
In Miohippus, of the next period, the fifth toe has disappeared,
or is only represented by a rudiment, and the limb is supported
by the second, third, and fourth, the middle one being the largest.
Hipparion, of the later Tertiary, still has three digits, but the third
is much stouter, and the outer ones have ceased to be of use, as they
do not touch the ground. In Equus, the last of the series, the
lateral hoofs are gone, and the digits themselves are represented only
by the rudimentary splint-bones (the modern horse occasionally has
one of the ancestral hooflets developed usually on the forefoot). The
middle or third digit supports the limb, and its size has increased ac-
cordingly. The corresponding changes in the posterior limb of these

New Equiiie Ifammals from the Tertiary Formation. 1513

genera are very similar, but not so manifest as the oldest type (Oro-
hippus), as the latter is by its Miocene relative. A still older ances-
tor, probably the ci'etaceous, doubtless had five toes in ea(;li foot, the
typical number in mammals. This reduction in the number of toes
may, perhaps, have been due to elevation of the region inhabited,
which gradually led the animals to live on higher ground, instead of
the soft lowlands, where a po'ydactyl foot would be an. ad vantage.

The gradual elongation of the head and neck, which took place in
the successive genera of this group during the Tertiary period, was a
less fundamental change than that which resulted in the reduction of
the limbs. The process may be said to have already began in
Orohipjnts, if we compare that form with other most nearly allied
mammals. The diastema, or " place for the bit," was- well developed in
both jaws even then, but increased materially in succeeding genera.
The number of the teeth remained the same until the Pliocene, when
the front lower jiremolar was lost and subsequently the corresponding
upper tooth ceased to be functionally developed. The next upper
premolar, which in Orohippus was the smallest of the six posterior teeth,
rapidly increased in size and soon became, as in the horse, the largest
of the series. The grinding teeth at first had very short crowns, with,
out cement, and were inserted by distinct roots. In Pliocene species,
the molars became longer and were more or less coated with cement.
The canine teeth were very large in Orohippus, and in this genus, as
well as those from the Middle Tertiary, appear to have been well devel-
oped in both sexes. In later forms these teeth declined in size, espe-
cially as the changes in the limbs afforded other facilities for defense,
or escape from danger. The incisors in the early forms were small,
and without the characteristic pit of the modern horse. In the genera
from the American Eocene and Miocene the orbit was not inclosed
behind by an entire bridge of bone, and this first makes its appearance
in this country in Pliocene forms. The depression in front of the orbit,
so characteristic of Anchitherlum and some of the Pliocene genera, is,
strange to say, not seen in Orohippus, or the later Miohippus, and is
wanting likewise in exisihg horses. It is an interesting fact that the
peculiarly equine features acquired by Orohippus are retained persist-
ingly throughout the entire series of succeeding forms. Such, e. g., is
the form of symphysial part of the lower jaw, and also the charac-
teristic astragalus, with its narrow, oblique, superior ridges, and its
small articular facet for the cuboid.

Such is, in brief, a general outline of the more marked changes that
seem to have produced in America the highly specialized modern Eqicus
from his diminutive, four-toed predecessor, the Eocene Orohijyjms. The

160 Trlcldnce qnraUs.

line of descent appears to have been direct, and the remains now known
supply every important intermediate form. It is, of course, impossible
to say with certainty through which of the three-toed genera of the Plio-
cene that lived together the succession came. It is not impossible that
the later species which appear generically identical, are the descendants
of more distinct Pliocene types, as the persistent tendency in all the
earlier forms was in the same direction. Considering the remarkable
development of the group throughout the entire Tertiary period, and
its existence even later, it seems very straiige that none of the species
should have survived, and that we are indelited for our present horse
to the old world.

Triclihice spiralis:

The recent excitement in this vicinity about the Trichince spiralis,
and especially at Aurora, Indiana, where several persons died from
eating diseased jiork, renders any information upon this subject ex-
tremely interesting, even though it may not be exactly new.

In volume ix., page 205, of the Journal of the Linnean Society, Avill
be found the experiments with Trichince spiralis, by Cobbold. He gave
human flesh containing Trichince to several dogs, a guinea pig, and a
hedge hog, all of which died in a few days, and their muscles were
found to contain living Trichina'. A piece of the hedge hog was fed to
a cat, and another piece to a dog, both* of which died within a few
days, presenting the same result. Several feedings of this flesh were
administered to a pig, which was kept ten months and then destroyed.
It was estimated to contain 16,000,000 living Trichince. inclosed within
perfectly formed capsules, none of which latter exhibited any traces of
calcareous deposition. A piece of the human flesh was given to a dog,
and in sixty-nine hours afterward the dog \\ as killed, and sexually ma-
ture living Trichince were found developed in its flesh. The parasites
were found in the tongue of a trichinized German subject, at the hos-
pital, so closely agglomerated that the point of a needle could not be
thrust between the capsules. If all his flesh had been infested to the
same extent, it was estimated that he would have contained one hun-
dred million living Trichincv.

An ounce of the trichinized human muscle flesh was administered to
a sheep, which was killed in two and a half months afterward, and no
Trichince could be found in it. Two cliickens Avere fed with the same
material, and at their death no Trichince Avere observed. A croAV Avas
fed on the flesh of a trichinized terrier dog, and in a few months there-

Notice of the A'ppearance of the Bocks at Blue Lick Springs. 161

after was killed, but no trichince were found in its flesh. Several
feedings of the trichinized flesh from the guinea pig, to a sheep, to
a chicken, and to a goose, failed to develop any trichince in these
animals.

From his experiments he inferred -that carniverous mammals, and
especially those which subsist on a mixed diet, are most liable to enter-
tain trichince, and that herbivorous animals are not likely to be so
infested, though other experimenters had succeeded in rearing muscle
trichince in a calf.

Some of the trichinized pork from Aurora was exhibited by Dr.
Sutton, at the February meeting of the Cincinnati Society of Natural
History. It appeared healthy to the naked eye, but under a micro-
scope every part of it showed the parasites coiled, twisted, and amassed
together.

Notice of die Appearance of the Rocks at Blue Lick Springs, in Nicholas
county, Kentucky. (By G. W. Ransom.)

A peculiar appearance is presented in the pavement at the fountain
at Lower Blue Lick Springs, in Nicholas county, Ky, At the junc-
tion of the flags, which are ordinary limestone, there is an elevation of
half an inch, with a breadth of about the same extent ; this occurs
only at the joints of the stones. It is about twenty years since the
pavement was laid, and at that time there Avas no inequality in the
surface. What has caused this variation, so uniformly, at the same
distance from the edges of the stones ?

On the Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution as ilhis-
trated' by the Papilionidce of the Malayan Region. By Alfred R.
Wallace, Esq. [From the Transactions of the Linnean Society,
vol. XXV., p. 1.]

When the naturalist studies the habits, the structure, or the affini-
ties of animals, it matters little to which group he especially devotes
himself; all alike offer him endless materials for observation and
research. But, for the purpose of investigating the phenomena of
geographical distribution, and of local or general variation, the several
groups differ greatly in their value and importance. Some have too
limited a range, others are not sufficiently varied in specific forms,
while, what is of most importance, many groups have not received that
amount of attention over the whole region they inhabit, wLich could

162 Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Didrihntion.

furnish materials sufficiently approaching to completeness to enable us
to arrive at any accurate conclusions as to the phenomena they pre"
sent as a whole. It is in those groups which are and have long been
favorites with collectors, that the student of distribution and variation
will find his materials the most* satisfactory, from their comparative
completeness.

Preeminent among such groups are the diurnal Lepidoptera or but-
terflies, whose extreme beauty and endless diversity have led to their
having been assiduously collected in all parts of the world, and to the
)uimerous species and varieties having been figured in a series of
magnificent works, from those of Cramer, the contemporary of Linnasus,
down to the inimitable production of our own Hewitson. But, besides
their abundance, their universal distribution, and the great attention
that has been paid to them, these insects have other qualities that
especially adapt them to elucidate the branches of inquiry already
alluded to. These are the immense development and peculiar struc-
ture of the wings, which not only vary in form more than those of any
other insects, but offer on both surfaces an endless variety of pattern,
coloring, and texture. The scales with which they are more or less
completely covered, imitate the rich hues and delicate surfaces of
satin or of velvet, glitter with metallic lustre, or grow with the change-
able tints of the opal. This delicately painted surface acts as a register
of the minutest differences of organization — a shade of color, an
additional streak or spot, a slight modification of outline continually
recurring with the greatest regularity and fixity, while the body and
all its other mend^ers exhibit no appreciable change. The wings of
butterflies, as Mr. Bates has well put it, "serve as a tablet on which
Nature writes the story of the modifications of species ; " they enable
us to perceive changes that would otherwise be uncertain and difficult
of observation, and exhibit to us on an enlarged scale the effects of
the climatal and other physical conditions which influence, more or
less profoundly, the organization of every living thing.

A proof that this greater sensibility to modifying causes is not
imaginary, may, I think, be drawn from the considerati(;)n that while
the Lepidoptera as a whole are of all insects the least essentially varied
in form, structure, or habits, yet in the number of their specific forms
they are not much inferior to those orders which range over a much
wider field of nature, and exhibit more deeply seated structural mod-
ifications. The Lepidoptera are all vegetable feeders in their larvte
state, and suckers of juices or other liquids in their perfect form. In
their most widely separated groups they differ but little from a common
type, and offer comparatively unimportant modifications of structure

Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Didribution. 163

or of liabits. The Coleoptcra, the Diptera, or the H3-iiienoptera, on
the other hand, prei^ent ftxr greatei- and more essential variations. In
either of these orders we have both vegetable and animal feeders,
aquatic, and terrestrial, and parasitic groups. Whole families are
devoted to special departments in the economy of nature. Seeds,
fruits, bones, carcasses, excrement, bark, have each their special and
dependent insect tribes from among them ; whereas the Lepidoptera
are, with but few exceptions, confined to the one function of devouring
the foliage of living vegetation. We might, therefore, anticipate that
their population would be only equal to those of the sections of the
other orders that have a similar iniiform mode of existence ; and the
fact that their numbers are at all comparable with those of entire
orders, so much more varied in organization and habits, is, I think, a
proof that they are in general highly susceptible of specific modifi-
cation.

The Papilionidaj are a family of diurnal Lepidoptera which liave
hitherto, by almost universal consent, held the fii'st rank in the order ;
and though this position has recently been denied them, I can not
altogether acquiesce in the reasoning by which it has been proposed
to degrade them to a lower rank. In Mr. Bates' most excellent paper
on the Helicouidse, he claims for that family the highest position,
chiefly because of the imperfect structure of the fore legs, which is
there carried to an extreme degree of abortion, and thus removes
them further than any other family from the He.speridre and Hetero-
cera, which all have pei'fect legs. Isow it is a question Avhether any
amount of difference which is exhibited merely in the imperfection or
abortion of certain organs, can establish in the group exhibiting it a
claim to a high grade of organization ; still less can this be allowed
when another group, along with perfection of structure in the same
organs, exhibits modifications peculiar to it, together with the posses-
sion of an organ which in the remainder of the order is altogether
wanting. This is, however, the position of the Papilionida;. Tlie
perfect insect possess two characters quite peculiar to them. jNIr.
Edward Doubleday, in his " Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera," says :
"The Papilionidse may be known by the apparently four-branched
median nervule and the spur on the anterior tibite, characters found
in no other family." The four-branched median nervule is a character
so constant, so peculiar, and so well marked, as to enable a person to
tell, at a glance at the wings only of a butterfly, whether it does or
does not belong to this family ; and I am not aware that any other
gioup of buttei-flies, at all comparable to this in extent and modifica-
tions of form, possesses a characrer in its neuration to which the same

164 Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution,

degree of certainty caii be attached. The spur on the anterior tibise
is also found in some of the Hesperidffi, and is, therefore, supposed to
show a direct affinity between the two groups ; but I do not imagine
it can counterbalance the differences in neuration and in every other
part of their organization. The most characteristic feature of the
Papilionidoe, however, and that on which I think insufficient stress
has been laid, is undoubtedly the peculiar structure of the larvse.
These all possess an extraordinary organ situated on the neck, the
Avell known Y-shaped tentacle, which is entirely concealed in a state
of repose, but which is capable of being suddenly thrown out by the
insect when alarmed. When we consider this singular apparatus,
which in some species is nearly half an inch long, the arrangement of
muscles for its protrusion and retraction, its perfect concealment during
repose, its blood-red color, and the suddenness with which it can be
thrown out, we must, I think, be led to the conclusion that it serves
as a protection to the larvae, by startling and frightening away some
enemy when about to seize it, and is thus one of the causes Avhich
has led to the wide extension and maintained the permanence of this
now dominant group. Those who believe that such peculiar struc-
tures can only have arisen by very minute successive variations, each
one advantageous to its possessor, must see, in the possession of such
an organ by one group, and its complete absence in every other,
a proof of a very ancient origin, and of a very long continued modifica-
tion. And such a positive structural addition to the organization
of the family, subserving an important function, seems to me alone
sufficient to warrant us in considering the Papilionidse as the most
highly developed portion of the whole order, and thus in retaining
it in the position which the size, strength, beauty, and general struc-
ture of the perfect insects have been genex'ally thought to deserve.

The PapilionidtB are pretty widely distributed over the earth, but
are especially abundant in the tropics, Avhere they attain their maxi-
mum of size and beauty, and the greatest variety of form and coloring.
South America, North India, and the Malay Islands are the regions
where these fine insects occur in the greatest profusion, and where
they actually become a not unimportant feature in the scenery. In
the Malay Islands in particular the giant OrnithojDterse may be fre-
quently seen about the borders of the cultivated and forest districts,
their large size, stately flight, and georgeous coloring rendering them
even more conspicuous than the generality of birds. In the shady
suburbs of the town of Malacca two large and handsome Papilios
{Memnon and Nephelus) are not uncommon, flapping with irregular
flight along the roadway, or, in the early morning, expanding their

Phenomena of Variation and, Geograghicul Distribution. 165

wings to tlie invigorating rays of the sum. In Auiboyna and other
towns of the Moluccas, the magnificent Deiphobus and Severus, and oc-
casionaly even the azure-winged Ulysses, frequent similar situations,
fluttering about the orange-trees and flower-beds, or sometimes even
straying into the narrow bazaars or covered markets of the city. In
Java the golden dusted Avjuna may often be seen at damp places on
the roadside in the mountain districts, in company with Savpedon,
Bathycles, and Agamemnon, and less frequently the beautiful swallow-
tailed Antiphates. In the more luxuriant parts of these islands one
can hardly take a morning's walk in the neighborhood of a town or
village without seeing three or four species of Papilio, and often twice
that number. No less than 120 species of the family are now known
to inhabit the Archipelago, and of these ninety-six were collected by
myself. Twenty-nine species are found in Borneo, being the largest
number in any one island, twenty-three species having been obtained
by myself in the Vicinity of Sarawak ; Java has twenty-seven species ;
Celebes and the Peninsula of Malacca, twenty-three each. Further
east the numbers decrease, Batchian jiroducing seventeen, and New
Guinea only thirteen, though this number is certainly too small, owing
to our present imperfect knowledge of that great island.

In estimating these numbers I have had the usual difficulty to en"
counter, of determining what to consider species and what varieties.
The Malayan region, consisting of a large number of islands of gener-
ally great antiquity, possesses, compared to its actual area, a great
number of distinct forms, often indeed distinguished by very slight
characters, but in most cases so constant in large series of specimens,
and so easily se^Darable from each other, that I know not on what prin-
ciple we can refuse to give them the name and rank of species. One
of the best and most orthodox definitions is that of Pritchard, the
great ethnologist, who says, that "separate origin and distinctness of race,
evinced by a constant transmission of some characteristic pecidiarity of or-
ganization," constitutes a species. Now leaving out the question of
" origin," which we can not determine, and taking only the proof of
separate origin, "the constant transmission of some characteristic pjeculia riiy
of organization," we have a definition which will comj)el us to neglect
altogether the amount of difference between any two forms, and to con-
sider only whether the differences that present themselves are perma-
nent. The rule, therefore, I have endeavored to adopt is, that Avhen the
diflTerence between two forms inhabiting separate areas seems quite
constant, when it can be defined in words, and when it is not confined
to a single peculiarity only, I have considered such forms to be species.
When, however, the individuals of each locality vary among them-

166 Phenomena of Variation and GeograpJiical Distribution.

selves, so as to cause the distinctions between the two forms to become
inconsiderable and indefinite, or where the differences, though constant,
are confined to one particular only, such as size, tint, or a single point
of difference in marking or in outhne, I class one of the forms as a var-
iety of the other.

I find as a general rule tliat the constancy of species is in an inverse
ratio to their range. Those which are confined to one or two islands are
generally veryconstant. When they extend to many islands, consid-
erable variability appears ; and when they have an extensive range
over a large part of the archipelago, the amount of unstable variation
is very large. These facts are explicable on Mr. Darwin's principles.
When a si^ecies exists over a wide area, it must have had, and prob-
ably still possesses, great powers of dispersion. Under the different
conditions of existence in various portions of its area, different varia-
tions from the type woidd be selected, and, were they completely iso-
lated, would soon become distinctly modified forms ; but this process
is checked by the dispersive powers of the whole species which leads
to tlie more or less frequent intermixture of the incipient variety,
which thus become irregular and unstable. Where, however, a
species has a limited range, it indicates less active powers of dispersion,
and the process of modification under changed conditions is less inter-
fered with. The species will, therefore, exist under one or more per-
manent forms, according as portions of it have been isolated at a more
or less remote period.

What is commonly called variation consists of several distinct phe-
nomena, which have been too often confounded. I shall proceed to
consider tliese under the heads of — 1st, simple variability ; 2d, poly-
morphism; 3d, local forms; 4th, co-existing varieties ; 5 th, races or
subspecies ; and 6th, true species.

1. Simple variahiliiy. — Under this head I include all those cases in
Avhich the sj)ecific form is to some extent unstable. Throughout the
whole range of the species, and even ni the progeny of individuals,
there occur continual and uncertain differences of form, analogous to
that variability which is so characteristic of domestic breeds. It is
impossible usefully to define any of these forms, because tliey are
indefinite gradations to each other form. Species which possess these
characteristics have always a wide range, and are more frequently the
inhabitants of continents than of islands, though such cases are always
excei)tional, it being far more common for specific foi-ms to be fixed
within very narrow limits of variation. The only good example of this
kind of variability which occurs among the Malayan Papilionidas is in
Fapilio Severm, a species inhabiting all the islands of the Moluccas and

Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Didrihuthn. 167

New Guinea, and exhibiting in each of thera a greater amount of in-
dividual difference than often serves to distinguish well-marked spe-
cies. Almost equally remarkable are the variations exhibited in most
of the species of Ornlthoptera, which I have found in some cases to
extend even to the form of the wing and the arrangement of the
nervures. Closely allied, however, to these variable species are others,
which, though differing slightly from them, are constant and confined
to limited areas. After satisfying oneself, by the examination of
numerous specimens captured in their native countries, that the one
set of individuals are variable, and the others are not, it becomes evident
that by classing all alike as varieties of one species we shjill be ob-
scuring an important fact in nature, and that the only way to exhibit
that fact in its true life is to treat the invariable local form as a distinct
species, even though it does not offer better distinguishing characters
than do the extreme forms of the variable species. Cases of this kind
are the Ornithoptera Priamus, which is confined to the islands of Ceram
and Araboyua, and is very constant in both sexes, while the allied
species inhabiting New Guinea and the Papuan Islands is exceedingly
variable ; and in the island of Celebes is a species closely allied to the
variable P. Severns, but which, being exceedingly constant, I have
described as a distinct species under the name of Papilio Pertinax.

2. Polymorphism or Dimorphism.— By this terra I understand the
co-existence in the same locality of two or more distinct forms not
connected byjintermediate gradations, and all of which are occasionally
produced from common parents. These distinct forms generally occur
in the female sex only, and the intercrossing of two of these forms does
not generate an intermediate race, but reproduces the same forms in
varying proportions. I believe it will be found that a considerable
number of what have been classed as varieties are really cases of pohj-
morphism. Albinoisra and melanism are of this character, as well as
most of these cases in which well-marked varieties occur in company
with the parent species, but without any intermediate forms. Under
these circumstances, if the two forms breed separately, and are never
reproduced from a common parent, they must be considered as distinct
species, contact without intermixture being a good test of specific
difference. On the other hand, intercrossing without producing an
intermediate race is a test of dimorphism. I consider, therefore, that
under any circumstances the term, " variety," is wrongly applied to
such cases.

The Malayan Papilionidre exhibit some very curious instances of
polymorphism, some of which have been recorded asS'arieties, others,
as distinct species; and they all occur in the female sex. Papilio

168 Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution.

Memon, L., is one of the most striking, as it exhibits the mixture of
simple variability, local and polymorphic forms, all hitherto classed
under the common title of varieties. The polymorphism is strikingly
exhibited by the females, one set of which resemble the males in form,
with a variable paler coloring ; the others have a large spatulate tail
to the hinder Aving, and a distinct style of coloring, which causes
them closely to resemble P. Coon, a species of which the sexes are alike
and inhabiting the same countries, but with which they have no direct
affinity. The tailless females exhibit simple variability, scarcely two
being found exactly alike even in the same locality. The males of the
island of Borneo exhibit constant differences of the under surface, and
may therefore be distinguished as a local form, while the continental
sj)ecimens, as a whole, offer such large and constant differences from
those of the islands that I am inclined to separate them as a distinct
species — P. Androgens, Cr. We have here, therefore, distinct species,
local forms, polymorphism, and simple variability, which seem to me
to be distinct phenomena, but which have been hitherto ail classed
together as varieties. I may mention that the fact of these distinct
forms being one species is doubly proved. The males, the tailed and
tailless females, have all been bred from a single group of the larvae,
by Messrs. Payen and Bocarme, in Java, and I myself captured in
Sumatra a male P. Memnon, L., and a tailed female P. Achates, Cr.,
" in copuJa."

Papillo Pammon, L., offers a somewhat similar case. The female
was described by Linnaeus as P. Polytes, and was considered to be a
distinct species till Westermann bred the two from the same larvse (see
Boisduval, " Species Generales des Lepidopteres," p. 272). They were
therefore classed as sexes of one species by Mr. Edward Doubleday, in
iiis " Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera," in 184G. Later, female speci-
mens were received from India closely resembling the male insect, and
this was held to overthrow the authority of M. Westermann's observa-
tion, and to re-establish P. Polytes as a distinct species ; and as such it
accordingly appears in the British Museum List of Papilionidse in 1856,
and in the Catalogue of the East India Museum in 1857. This discrep-
ancy is explained by the fact of P. Pammon having two females, one
closel}^ rasembling the male, while the other is totally different from it.
A long femiliarity with this insect (which replaced b}^ local forms or
by closely allied species, occurs in every island of the archii^elago) has
€onviueed me of the correctness of this statement ; for in every place
where a male allied to P. Pammon is found, a female resembling P.
Polytes also occurs, and sometimes, though less frequently than on the
continent, ajiother female closely resembling the male ; while not only

Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution. 169

has no male specimen of P. Poli/'es yet been found, but the female
{Polytes) has never yet been found in localities to which the male
(Pammon) does not extend. In this case, as in the last, distinct species,
local forms, and dimorphic specimens have been confounded under the
common appelation of varieties.

But, beside the true B. Polytes, there are several allied forms of
females to be considered, namely, P. Theseus, Cr., P. Melanides, De
Haiin, P. Elyros, G. R. G., and P. Romulus, L. The dark female
jfigured by Cramer as P. Theseus seems to be the common and perhaps
the only form in Sumatra, whereas in Java, Borneo and Timor, along
with males quite identical with those of Sumatra, occur females of the
Polytes form, although a single specimen of the true P. Theseus, C. R.,
taken at Lombock, would seem to show that the two forms do occur
together. In the allied species found in the Philippine Islands (P.
Alphenor, Cr., P. Ledebouria, Eschsch., P. Elyros, G. R. G.), forms
corresponding to these extremes occur along with a number of inter-
mediate varieties, as shown by a fine series in the British Museum.
We have here an indication of how dimorphism may be produced ; for
let the extreme Philippine forms be better suited to their conditions
of existence than the intermediate connecting links, and the latter will
gradually die out, leaving two distinct forms of the same insect, each
adapted to some special conditions. As these conditions are sure to
vary in different districts, it will often happen, as in Sumatra and Java,
that the one form will predominate in the one island, the other in the
adjacent one. In the island of Borneo there seems to be a third form ;
for P. Melanides, De Haan, evidently belongs to this group, and has
all the chief characteristics of T. Theseus, with a modified coloration
of the hind wings. I now come to an insect which, if I am correct,
ofiers one of the most interesting cases of variation yet adduced.
Papilio Romulus, L., a butterfly found over a large part of India and
Ceylon, and not uncommon in collections, has always been considered
a true and independent species, and no suspicions have been expressed
regarding it. But a male of this foi'm does not, I believe, exist. I
have examined the fine series in the British Museum, in the East India
Company's Museum, in the Hope Museum at Oxford, in Mr. Hewit-
son's and several other private collections, and can find nothing but
females; and for this common butterfly no male partner can be found
except the equally common P. Pammon, a species already provided
with two wives, and yet to whom we shall be forced, I believe, to as-
sign a third. On carefully examining P. Romulus, I find that in all
essential characters — the form and texture of the wings, the length of
the antenna}, the spotting of the head and thorax, and even the

170 Fhenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution.

peculiar tints and shades with which it is ornamented — it corresponds
exactly with the other females of the Pavimon group; and though,
from the peculiar marking of the fore wings, it has at first sight a very
different aspect, yet a closer examination shows that every one of its
jnarkings could be produced by slight and almost imperceptible mod-
ifications of the various allied forms. I fully believe, therefore, that I
shall be correct in placing P. Romulus, as a third Indian form of the
female P. Pammon, corresponding to P. Melanides, the third form of the
Malayan P. Theseus. I may mention here that the females of this group
have a superficial resemblance to the Polydorus group, as shown by P.
Theseus having been considered to be the female of P. Antiphus, and
by P. Eomulus being arranged next to P. Hector. There is no close
affinity between these two groups of Papilio, and I am disposed to be-
lieve that we have here a case of mimicry, brought about by the same
causes which Mr. Bates has so well explained in his account of Heli-
conidse, and which thus led to the singular exuberance of polymorphic
forms in this and alHed groups of the genus Papilio. I shall have to
devote a section of my paper to the consideration of this subject.

The third example of polymorphism I have to bring forward is
Papilio Ormemis, Guer., which is closely allied to the well known P.
Drechtheus, Don., of Australia. The most common form of the female
also resembles that of P. Erechthexis ; but a totally different looking in-
sect was found by myself in the Aru Islands, and figured by Mr. Hew-
itson under the name of P. Onesimus, which subsequent observation
has convinced me is a second form of the female of P. OrmenuB.
Comparison of this with Boisduval's description of P. Amanga, a speci-
men of which from New Guinea is in the Paris Museum, shows the
latter to be a closely similar form; and two other specimens were ob-
tained by myself, one in the island of Goram, and the other in Waigiou,
all evidently local modifications of the same form. In each of these
localities males and ordinary females of P. Ormenus were also found.
So far there is no evidence that these light-colored insects are not
females of a distinct species, the males of which have not been discov-
ered. But two facts have convinced me that this is not the case. At
Dorey. in New Guinea, where males and ordinary females closely allied
to P. Ormenus occur (but which seem to me worthy of being separated
as a distinct species), I found one of these light-colored females closely
followed in her flight by three males, exactly in the same manner as
occurs (and, I believe, occurs only) with the sexes of the same species.
After watching them a considerable time, I captured the whole of
them, and became satisfied that I had discovered the true relations of
this anomalous form. The next year I had corroborative proof of the

Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Didribution. 171

correctness of this opinion by the discovery in the island of Batchian
of a new species allied to F. Onnenus, all the females of which, either
seen or captured by me, wei-e of one form, and much more closely re-
sembling tlie abnormal light-colored females of F. Ormenns and F.
Fandion, than the ordinary specimens of that sex. Every naturalist
will, I think, agree that this is strongly confirmative of the supposition
that both forms of female are of one species ; and when we consider,
further, that in four separate islands, in each of which I resided for
several months, the two forms of female w^ere obtained, and only one
foi'm of male ever seen, and that about the same time M. INIontrouzier
in Woodlark Island, at the other extremity of New Guinea (where he
resided several years, and must have obtained all the large Lepidop-
tera of the island), obtained females closely resembling mine, which,
in despair at finding no appropriate partners, for them he mates with a
widely different species, it becomes, I think, sufiiciently evident that this
is another case of polymorphism of the same nature as those already
pointed out in F. Fammon and F. Memnon. This species, however, is
not only dimorphic, but trimorphic ; for, in the island of Waigiou, I ob-
tained a third female quite distinct from either of the others, and in
some degree intermediate between the ordinary female and the male.
The specimen is particularly interesting to those who believe, with Mr.
Darwin, that extreme difference of the sexes has been gradually pro-
duced by what he terms sexual selection, since it may be supposed to
exhibit one of the intermediate steps in that process which has been
accidentally preserved in company with its more favored rivals, though
its extreme rarity (pnly one specimen having been seen to many hun-
dreds of the other form) would indicate that it may soon become
extinct.

The only other case of polymorphism in the genus Papilio, at all
equal in interest to those I have now brought forward, occurs in Amer-
ica ; and we have, fortunately, accurate information about it. Papilio
Txirnus, L., is common over almost the whole of temperate North
America; and the female resembles the male very closely. A totally
different looking insect, both in form and color, Papilio Glaucns, L.,
inhabits the same region ; and though down to the time when Bois-
duval published his " Species General," no connection was supposed to
exist between the two species, it is now well asceratuied that P. Glaums
is a second female form of P. Turnus. In the "Proceedings of Ento-
mological Society of Philadelphia," Jan., 1863, Mr. Walsh gives a very
interesting account of the distribution of this species. He tells us that
in the New England States, and in New York, all the females are
yellow, while in Illinois and further south all are black ; in the inter-

172 Fhenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution.

mediate region both black and yellow females occur in varying
proportions. Lat. 37° is approximately the southern limit of the
yellow form, and 42° the northern limit of the black form ; and, to
render the proof complete, both black and yellow insects have been
bred from a single batch of eggs. He further states, that out of thou-
sands of specimens he has never seen or heard of intermediate varieties
between these forms. In this interesting example we see the effects of
latitude in determining the proportions in which the individuals of each
form should exist. The conditions are here favorable to the one form,
there to the other ; but we are by no means to suppose that these con-
ditions consist in climate alone. It is highly probable that the existence
of enemies, and of competing forms of life, may be the main deter-
mining influences ; and it is much to be wished, that such a competent
observer as Mr. Walsh would endeavour to ascertain what are the
adverse causes which are most efficient in keeping down the numbers
of each of these contrasted forms.

Dimorphism of this kind in the animal kingdom does not seem to
have any direct relations to the reproductive powers, as Mr. Darwin
has shown to be the casein plants, nor does it appear to be very general.
One other case only is known to me in another family of my eastern
Lepidoptera, the Pieridce ; and but few occur in the Lepidoptera of
other countries. The spring and autumn broods of some European
species differ very remarkably ; and this must be considered as a
phenomenon of an analogous though not of an identical nature.
Araschnia prorsa, Central Europe, is a striking example of this alternate
or seasonal dipmorphism, Mr. Pascoe has pointed out two forms of
the male sex in some species of Coleoptera belonging to the family
Anthribidaa, in seven species of the two genera Xenoceriis and Mecocerus
(Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1862, p. 71) ; and no less than six European
Water-beetles, of the genus Dytiscus, have females of two forms, the
most common having the elytra deeply sulcate, the rarer smooth as in
the males. The three, and sometimes four or more, forms under which
many Hymenopterous insects (especially ants) occur, must be con-
sidered as a related phenomenon, though here each form is specialized
to a distinct function in the economy of the species. Among the
higher animals, albiuoism may, as I have already stated, be considered
as analogous facts, and I met with one case of a bird, a species of
Lory (^Eos fuscata, Blyth), clearly existing under two forms, since I ob-
tained both sexes of each from a single flock.

The fact of the two sexes of one species differing very considerably
is so common, that it attracted but little attention till Mr. Darwin
showed how it could in many cases be explained by what he termed

Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution, 173

sexual selection. For instance, in most polygamous animals the males
fight foi' the possession of the females, and the victors, always becom-
ing the progenitors of the succeeding generation, impress upon their
male offspring their own superior size, strength, or unusally developed
offensive weapons. It is thus that we can account for the spurs and the
superior strength and size of the males in gallinaceous birds, and also
for the large canine tusks in the males of the fruit-eating Apes. So
the superior beauty of plumage and special adornments of the males of
so many birds can be explained by supposing (what there are many
facts to prove) that the females prefer the most beauty of plumage and
perfect-plumaged males, and that thus slight accidental variations of
form and colour have been accumulated till they have produced the
wonderful train of the peacock, and the gorgeous plumage of the bird
of paradise. Both these causes have no doubt acted partially in insects,
so many species possessing horns and powerful jaws in the male sex
only, and still more frequently the males alone rejoicing in rich colors
or sparkling lusti-e. But there is here another cause which has led to
sexual differences, viz., a special adaptation of the sexes to diverse
habits or modern life. This is well seen in female butterflies (which
are generally weaker and of slower flight), often having colors better
adapted to concealment ; and in certain South American species {Fapilo
torquatus) the females, which inhabit the forest, resemble the jEneas
group, which abound in similar localities, while the males, which
frequent the sunny, open river-banks, have a totally different coloration.
In these cases, therefore, natural selection seems to have acted inde-
pendently of sexual selection ; and all such cases may be considered
as examples of the simplest dimorphism, since the offspring never offer
intermediate varieties between the parent forms.

The distinctive character therefore of dimorphism is this, that the
union of these distinct forms does not produce intermediate varieties,
but reproduces them unchanged. In simple varieties, on the other
hand, as well as when distinct local forms or distinct species are crossed,
the offspring never resemljles either parent exactly, but is more or less
intermediate between them. Dimorphism is thus seen to be a
specialized result of variations, by which new physiological phenomena
have been developed ; the two should therefore, whenever possible, be
kept separate.'!'

* The phenomena of diviorphism a.nd polymorphism may be well illustrated by supposing that
a blue-eyed, flaxen-haired Saxon man had two wives, one a black-haired, red-skinned Indian
squaw, the other a wooly-headed, sooty-skinned negress — and that instead of the children
being mulattoes of brown or dusky tints, mingling the separate characteristics of their parents
in varying degrees, all the boys should be pure Saxon boys like their father, while the girls
should altogether resemble their mothers. This would be thought a sufficiently wonderful

174 Fhenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution.

3. Local form, or variety. — This is the first step in the transition from
variety to species. It occurs in species of wide range, when groups of
individuals have become partially isolated in several points of its area
of distribution, in each of which a characteristic form has become
segregated more or less completely. Such forms are very common in
all parts of the world, and have often been classed^ as varieties or
species alternately. I restrict the term to those cases where the
difference of the forms is very slight, or where the segregation is
more or less imperfect. The best example in the present group is
Fapilio Agamemnon, L., a species which ranges over the greater part
of t)-opical Asia, the whole of the Malay archipelago, and a portion of
the Australian and Pacific regions. The modifications are principally
of size and form, and, though slight, are tolerably constant in each
locality. The steps, however, are so numerous and gradual that it
would be impossible to define many of thim, though the extreme forms
are 'sufliciently distinct. Papilio Sarpedon, L., presents somewhat
similar but less numerous variations.

4. Co-existing variety. — This is a somewhat doubtful case. It is when
a slight but permanent and hereditaiy modification of Ibrm exists in
company Avith the parent or typical form, without presenting those in-
termediate gradations which would constitute it a case of simple var-
iability. It is evidently only by direct evidence of the two forms
breeding separately that this can be distinguished from dimorphism.
The difficulty occurs in Papilio Jamn, Esp., and P. Evemon, Bd.,
which inhabit the same localities, and are almost exactly alike in form,
size, and coloration, except that the latter always wants a very con-
spicuous red spot on the under surface, which is found not only in P.
Jason, but in all the allied species. It is only by breedhig the two in-
sects that it can be determined whether this is a case of a co-existing
variety or of dimorphism. In the former case, however, the difference
being constant and so very conspicuous and easily defined, I see not
how we could escape considering it as a distinct species. A true case
of co-existing forms would, 1 consider, be produced, if a slight variety
had become fixed as a local form, and afterward been brought into
contact with the pai-ent species with little or no intermixture of the
two ; and such instances do very probably occur.

fact; yet the phenomena liere brought forward as existing in the insect world are still more ex-
traordinary; for each mother is capable not only of producing male ofl'spring like the father,
and female like herself, but also of producing other females exactly like her fellow-wife, and
altogether differing from herself. If an island could be stocked with a colony of human
beings having similar physiological idiosyncrasies with Papilio Pammon or Papilio Ormcnus,
we should see white men living with yellow, red and black women, and their ottspriug always
reproducing the same types; so that at the end of many generations the men would remain
pure white, and the women of the same well-marked races as at the commencement.

Phenomena of Variation cuid Geographiad Distribution. 175

5. Race, or suhpecies. — These are local forms completely fixed and
isolated : and there is no possible test but individual opinion to deter-
mine which of them shall be considered as species, and which varieties.
If stability of form and "the constant transmission of some characteristic
peculiarity of organization " is the test of a species (and I can find no
other test that is more certain than individual opinion), then every
one of these fixed races, confined as they almost always are to distinct and
limited areas, must be regarded as a species ; and as such I have in
most cases treated them. The various modifications of Fapilio Ulys-
ses, P. Peranthus, P. Codnis, P. Eurypilus, P. Belenu.^, etc., are ex-
cellent examples ; for while some present great and well-marked,
others oflfer slight and inconspicuous differences, yet in all cases these
differences seem equally fixed and permanent. If, therefore, we call
some of these forms species, and others varieties, we introduce a purely
arbitrary distinction, and shall never be able to decide where to draw
the line. The races of Papilio Ulysses, L., for example, vary in
amount of modification from the scarcely difiering New Guinea form
to those of Woodlark Island and Xew Caledonia, but all seem equally
constant ; and as most of these had already been named and described
as species, I have added the New Guinea form under the name of P.
Penelope. Wie thus got a little group of Ulyssine Papilios, the whole
comprised within a very limited area, each one confined to a separate
portion of that area, and, though difiering in various amounts, each
apparently constant. Few naturalists will doubt that all these may
and probably have been derived from a common stock ; and therefore
it seems desirable that there should be a unity in our method of treat-
ing them : either call them all varieties or all species. Varieties, how-
ever, continually get overlooked ; in lists of species they are often alto-
gether unrecorded; and thus we are in danger of neglecting the inter-
esting phenomena of variation and distribution which they present. I
think it advisable, therefore, to name all such forms ; and those who
will not accept them as species may consider them as sub-species or
races.

6. *%ec!'es.— Species are merely-those strongly marked races or local
forms which, when in contact, do not intermix, and when inhabiting
distinct areas are generally believed to have had a separate origin, and
to be incapable of producing a fertile hybrid offspring. But as the
test of hybridity can not be applied in one case in ten thousand, and
even if it could be applied, would prove nothing, since it is founded
on an assumption of the very question to be decided— and as the test
of separate origin is in every case inapplicable— and as, further, the
test of. non-intermixture is useless, except in those rare cases where

176 Phenomena of Variation and Geographical Distribution.

the most closely allied species are found inhabiting the same area, it
will be evident that we have no means whatever of distinguishing so-
called "true species" from the several modes of variation here pointed
out, and into which they so often pass by an insensible gradation.
It is quite true that, in the great majority of cases, what we term
"species" are so well marked and definite that there is no difference of
opinion about them ; but as the test of a true theory is, that it ac-
counts for, or at the very least if not inconsistent with, the whole of
the phenomena and apparent anomalies of the problem to be solved, it
is reasonable to ask that those who deny the origin of species by varia-
tion and selection should grapple with the facts in detail, and show
how the doctrine of the distinct origin and permanence of species will
explain and harmonize them. It has been recently asserted by a high
authority that the difficulty of limiting species is in proportion to our
ignorance, and that just as groups or countries are more accurately
known and studied in greater detail the hmits of sjDecies become set-
tled. This statement has, like many other general assertions, its por-
tion of both truth and error. There is no doubt that many uncertain
species, founded on few or isolated specimens, have had their true na-
ture determined by the study of a good series of examples : they have
been thereby established as species or as varieties ; and the number
of times this has occurred is doubtless very great. But there are other
and equally trustworthy cases in which, not single species, but whole
gi'oups have, by the study of a vast accumulation of materials, been
proved to have no definite specific limits. A few of these must be ad-
duced. In Dr. Carpenter's "Introduction to the Study of the Foram-
inifera," he states that "there is not a single specimen of plant or ani-
mal of which the range of variation has been studied by the colloca-
tion and comparison of so large a number of specimens as have passed
under the review of Messrs. Williamson, Parker, Rupert Jones, and
myself, in our studies of the types of this group ; " and the result of
this extended comparison of specimens is stated to be, " The range of
variation is so great among the Foraminifera as to include not merely
those difl^erential characters which have been usually accounted speci-
fic, but also those upon which the greater part of the genera of this
group have been founded, and even in some instances those of its or-
ders" (Foraminifera, Preface, x.) Yet this same group has been
divided by D'Orbigny and other authors into a number of clearly de-
fined/amines, genera, and speciea, which these careful and conscientious
researches have shown to have been almost all founded on incomplete
knowledge.

Professor DeCandolle has recently given the results of an extensive

Fhenainenaof Variation and Geographical Distribution. 1<'

review of the species of Cupitliferce. He finds that the best knowu
species of oaks are those which produce the most varieties and subva-
rieties, that they are often surrounded by a provisional species; and,
with the fullest materials at hLs command, two thirds of the species he
considers more or less doubtful. His general conclusion is, that "in
botany the loicest series of groups, sl'^vaeieties, varieties, and races,
are very badly limited; these can be groupedinto species a little less vaguely
limited, xchi'ch again can be formed into sufficiently precise ge>'EEA.'' This
general conclusion is entirely objected to by the writer of the article in
the "Natural HLstory Review," who, however, does not deny its appli-
cability to the particular order under discussion, while this very differ-
ence of opinion is another proof that difficulties in the determination of
species do not, any more than in higher groups, vanish with increasing
materials and more accurate research.

Another striking example of the same kind is seen in the genera
Rtibus and Rosa, adduced by ^Ir. Darwin himself; for though the
amplest materials exist for a knowledge of these groups, and the most
careful research has been bestowed upon them, yet the various species
have not thereby been accurately limited and defijied so as to satisfy
the majority of botanists.

Dr. Hooker seems to have found the same thiiig in his study of the
Arctic flora. For though he has had much of the accumulated mate-
rials of his predecessors to work upon, he continually expresses himself
as unable to do more than, group the numerous and apparently fluctu-
ating forms into more or less imperfectly defined species.

Lastly, I will adduce ^Mr. Bates' researches on the Amazons. Dur-
ing eleven years he accumulated vast materials, and carefully studied
the variation and distribution of insects. Yet he has shown that many
species of Lepidoptera, which before offered no special difficulties, are
in realitv most intricatelv combined in a tangled web of affinities, lead-
ing by such gradual steps from the slightest and least stable variations
to fixed races and well marked species, that it is very often impossible
to draw those sharp dividing lines which it is supposed that a careful
study and full materials will always enable us to do.

These few examples show, I think, that in every department of na-
ture there occur instances of the instability of specific form, which the
increase of materials aggravates rather than diminishes. And it must
be remembered that the naturalist is rarely likely to err on the side of
imputing greater indefiniteness to species than really exists. There L-
a completeness and satisfaction to the mind in defining and limiting
and naming a species, which leads us all to do so whenever we consci-
entiously can, and which we know has led many collectors to reject

178 Plvenovxena of Variation and Geographical Distribidion.

vague intermediate forms as destroying the symmetry of their cabinets.
We must therefore consider these cases of excessive variation and in-
stability as being thoroughly well established ; and to the objection
that, after all, these cases are but few compared with those in which
species can be limited and defined, and are therefore merely exceptions
to a general rule, I reply that a true law embraces all apparent excep-
tions, and that to the great laws of nature there are no real exceptions
— that what appear to be such are equally results of law, and are often
(perhaps, indeed, always) those very results which are most important
as revealing the true nature and action of the law. It is for such rea-
sons that naturalists now look upon the study of varieties as more im-
portant than that of well fixed species. It is in the former that we see
nature still at work, in the ver}' act of producing those wonderful mo-
difications of form, that endless variety of color, and that complicated
harmony of relations, which gratify every sense, and give occupation to
every faculty of the true lover of nature.

Variation as specially influenced hi/ Locality.

The phenomena of variation as infiuenced by locality have not
hitherto received much attention. Botanists, it is true, are acquainted
with the influences of climate, altitude, and other physical conditions,
in modifying the forms and external characteristics of plants ; but I
am not aware that any peculiar influence has been traced to locality',
independent of climate. Almost the only case I can find recorded is
mentioned m that repertory of natural history facts, "The Origin of
.Species," viz. : that herbaceous groups have a tendency to become
arboreal in islands. In the animal world, I can not find that any facts
have been pointed out as showing the special influence of locality in
giving a peculiar fades to the several disconnected species that inhabit
it. What I have to adduce on this matter will therefore, I hope,
possess some interest and novelty.

On examining the closely allied species, local forms, and varieties
distributed over the Indian and Malayan regions, I find that larger or
smaller districts, or even single islands, give a special character to the
majority of their Papilionidse. For instance: 1. The species of the
Indian region (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) are almost invariably
smaller than the allied species inhabiting Celebes and the Moluccas.

2. The species of New Guinea and Australia are also, though in a less
degree, smaller than the nearest species or varieties of the Moluccas.

3. In the Moluccas themselves the species of Amboyna are the largest.

4. The species of Celebes equal or even surpass in size those of Am-

Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior. 179

boyua. 5. The species and varieties of Celebes possess a striking
cliaracter in the form of the anterior \vings, different froin that of the
allied species and varieties of all the surrounding islands. 6. Tailed
species in India or the Indian region become tailless as they spread
eastward through the archipelago.

From Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Supe^-ior. By Charles
* Whittlesey.

By whom \veve the ancient* mines wrought? I have already given
reasons going to show that it was not the present Indian race by whom
these mines were worked.

As yet no remains of cities, graves, domicils, or highways have been
found in the copper region. As the race appears to have been farther
advanced in civilization than their successors, whom we call the abo-
rigines, they probably had better means of transportation than the
bark canoe. They might thus carry provisions a great distance by
water. Then* mine works are open cuts exposed to the day, which in
the winter in this country, where snow lies from three to five feet in
depth, could not be occupied comfortably without shelter. ^ISTo re-
mains of such coverings have been discovered, nor is it probable that
any traces of such should now be recoverable. On the upland the
thermometer descends to minus 38 deg. This would not render these
trenches absolutely untenable, but would present great difficiilties in
working them. Even in modern shafts and galleries, that are closed
by self-shutting doors, frost penetrates to a depth of twenty and thirty
fathoms. It is frequently necessary to put stoves in the upper levels,
in order to prevent their being filled with ice. It would, therefore, be
barely possible, by no means ])rofitable, to work in open trenches dur-
ing winter. The miners could readily bring with them in the sprin*>-
supplies for three months, and before these were exhausted the same
craft might return for additional supplies. After spending the months
of summer, the miners could return to their homes for winter, carry-
ing with them the mineral ol)tained during tlie season.

In relation to their dead, it may have been a custom, perhaps a part
of their religion, to restore the bodies to their friends. If tlie number
of operators was not great, and the mortality was no greater than it is
now, this would not have been a great burden. In case there were no
women and children, the proportional number of deaths would be less
than at present. It is now, for the season of navigation, not far from
five in 1,000, including females and children, and including also those
killed by accident.

180 Ancient Mining on the SJiores of Lake Superior.

All the ancient excavations hitherto examined could have been made
with our means of working, at less expense than lias been incurred
during the last ten years. But we must allow much for the imperfect
modes of operating, and thus increase the number required to do the
same work ; we must also, on the other hand, conclude that the old
mines were wrought a great length of time, and infer that a less mining
force was kept up than we have in our times.

In the prosecution of mining in this remote region, not only would
the deaths be few, but among them such distinguished persons as were
entitled to sepulchral mounds or moi^uments would not be found in
great numbers. The absence of artificial mounds, therefore, need not
excite surpinse.

The Mound-builders consumed large quantities of copper. Axes,
adzes, chisels, and ornamental rings are so common among the relics in
Ohio as to leave no doubt on this subject. We know of no copper-
bearing veins so accessible as those of Lake Superior to a people resi-
ding on the waters of the Ohio. Neither are there any others now
known that produce native metal in quantities to serve as an article of
commerce. Specimens of pure copper are found in other mines of
North America, but not as a prominent part of the lode. The imple-
ments and ornaments found in the mounds are made of metal that has
not been melted. They have been brought into shape cold wrought, or
at least without heat enough to liquefy the metal, and were therefore
produced from native copper. In the Lake Superior veins spots of
native silver are frequently seen studding the surface of the copper,
united or welded to it, but not alloyed with it. This is not known of
any other mines, and seems to mark a Lake Superior specimen wher-
ever it is found. It also proves conclusively that such pieces have not
undergone fusion, for then the pure white spots would disappear, form-
ing a weak alloy. Copper with blotches of native silver has been taken
from the mounds. Dr. John Locke, of Cincinnati, possessed a flat-
tened piece of copper weighing several pounds, Avhich was found in the
earthworks at Colerain, Hamilton County, Ohio, having a spot of sil-
ver as large as a pea forming a part of the mass.

At the first view of the logs which supported the mass of the Min-
nesota vein, the marks of the tool by which, they were cut brought to
mind the old copper axes I had seen in Ohio figured by Mr. Squier.
The cut was about an inch and three tenths wide, not smooth like that
of a perfectly sharp edge, and not deep enough for a modern ax or
hatchet. No such axes have been found on Lake Superior. Those of
Ohio may have been used as a chisel, although ]\Ir. Squier thinks a
handle was attached to them. The difference between the ax and the

,y

AiicieM ^fining on the Shores of Lake Superior. 181

chisel is principally in the taper of the ax toward the head. No groove
or eye has been uoticed by which to insert a handle, but the Peruvians
had means of flistening a handle to a similar instrument without either.
There are also chisel-like tools from the Ohio mounds almost identical
Avith those I have already figured. James McBride, of Hamilton,
Butler County, Ohio, has in his possession four of them, found in 1855
near that place, that may be regarded either as chisels, axes, or adzes.

How much time has passed- since these mines were wrought, or since
they were abandoned, is a question of great interest. The timber
found in some of the ancient mines is in a better state of preservation
than that of the Ohio mounds ; but it does not follow that it is more
recent. Most of the pieces exhumed were covered by water or wet
earth. In a northern climate the decay of wood is slower than in
warmer regions. The timber itself is mostly resinous, which assists in
its preservation. The wooden cob work that remains in the Ohio
tumuli, hitherto examined, always lies above water, and the loamy
earth in which it was l^uried does not wholly exclude the atmosphere.

In the Grave Creek mound the timber was very much decayed, but
the chambers, including the skeletons, were elevated above the natural
surface, and the surrounding earth was dry. These circumstances
being considered, it does not follow that the wood work of the mounds
is the most ancient because it is the most decayed.

The living trees now standing, with their roots entwined among the
mauls, skids and shovels of the old miners, are reliable witnesses as to
the least space of time since the mines were abandoned. The age of
such trees varies from 300 to 350 years. Beneath the shade of tho.^e
patriarchs of the forest are the prostrate and rotten trunks of a preced-
ing generation.

General Harrison, in a discourse before the Historical Society of
Ohio, adds another score to the tally of ages that have passed since the
earthworks were evacuated. When ground that has been cleared of
its timber is abandoned, the second growth differs from the first in
kind. It is not until several generations of trees have disappeared,
that such places produce the varieties which constituted the original
forest. The same thing is observed on Point Keweenaw, where a
sweeping fire has consumed or deadened the resinous trees of the moun-
tains, the first succeeding growth is that of birch and aspen.

In process of time, however, the balsam, cedar, pine, and hemlock
resume their ancient domain, overshadowing and obscuring the decid-
uous trees. On the ancient burrows, and in the old pits of Lake Su-
perior, the same kinds of timber flourish now as are observed in the
surrounding forest. These works could not have been carried on.with.

182 Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior.

out destroying the gro^vth of timber of that day. Before the pines,
and other evergreens that now occupy these places, overcame the
birch and aspen trees, one or two genei-ations must have passed away.
Is it going too far, on the strength of this evidence, to place the aban-
donment of the mines at a distance of 500 to 600 years from our times?

There may have been inhabitants covering large territories for long
periods who have disappeared without leaving any monumental evi-
dences of their occupation. If the North American Indians had been
destroyed by a general pestilence before Pamphilo de Narvaez landed
in Florida, what traces of them should we be able to find? They have
left no distinctive marks of their existence impressed upon the soil.
8ome faint signs of cultivation in the shape of little hillocks or hills of
corn, not eatirel}'- obliterated as yet, are the sole vestiges of centuries.
But avoiding all mere conjectural speculations, the following conclu-
sions may be drawn with reasonable certainty :

An ancient people extracted copper from the veins of Lake Superior
of whom history gives no account.

They did it in a rude way, by means of fire and the use of copper
wedges or gads, and by stone mauls.

They had only the simplest mechanical contrivances, and conse-
quently i^enetrated tbe earth but a short distance.

They do not appear to have acquired any skill in the art of metal-
lurgy, or of cutting masses of copper.

For cutting tools they had chisels, and probably adzes or axes of
copper. These tools are of pure copper, and hardened only by con-
centration or beating when cold.

They sought chiefly for small masses and lumps, and not for large
masses.

No sepulchral mounds, defenses, domicils, roads or canals are known
to have been made by them. No evidences have been discovered of
the cultivation of the soil.

They had weapons of defense or of the chase, such as darts, spears,
and daggers flf copper.

They must have been lumierous, industrious, and persevering, and
have occupied the country a long time.

Ancient Works in the Ohio Yallcij. From Pre-historic Races. (By J.

"\y. Foster.)

The ancient earth-works in this valley have been so elaborately
described by Squier and Davis, that I shall only refer to their labors

Ancient Works in the Ohio Valley. 183

so far as may be necessary to illustrate the ethnography of the United
8tates. Not only are the banks of the Ohio at frequent intervals
crowned by these structures, but those of the subordinate streams, such
as the AVabash, the Scioto, the Miami, and the Muskingum, entering
from the north ; and those from the opposite side, such as the Kena-
whas, the Cumberland, and Tennessee. The number of tumuli in
Ohio alone is estimated by the authors before referred to at 10,000,
and the number of inclosures at from 1,000 to 1,500. Ross County,
of which Chiliicothe is the capital, contains 100 inclosures and 500
mounds. These facts, I think, clearly indicate that this region must
formerly have sustained a dense population, who derived their support
mainly from agriculture.

In many of these works we met with a feature which plays but a
subordinate part in those before described, but which here becomes
the most conspicuous, and impresses the beholder most forcibly as to
the unity of design and mathematical precision which have been car-
ried out in their construction. I refer to the elaborately constructed
Avails of earth or stone with which the mounds are inclosed. In these
walls the geometrical figures of the square, the circle, the octagon, and
the rhomb are represented ; there are, too, gateways, parallel lines,
outlooks, and other forms — the whole forming an intricate and yet
harmonious system.

The most intricate, if not the most gigantic of all the Mound-build-
ers' Avorks, occur in the Licking Valley, near Newark. They occupy
a plain between Raccoon Creek and the south fork of Licking Creek,
which is elevated from thirty to fifty feet above those water-courses, and
extends over an area of two square miles.

I can only give a general description of the magnificent system of
works here displayed. Starting at the south the observer finds him-
self inclosed in a nearly circular embankment, twelve feet high and
fifty feet broad at the base, with an interior ditch seven feet deep and
thirty-five feet wide. At the gateway, which is marked by two
parallel lines eighty feet apart, the parapets rise to the height of
sixteen feet, with a ditch thirteen feet deep, making the altitude in
the interior about thirty feet. These walls do not form a true circle,
the respective diameters being 1,250 and 1,150 feet. The aKea inclosed
is upAvard of thirty acres ; and this site was fixed upon, and none
could be more picturesque for holding one of the annual State fairs.
In the center is a mound in the shape of a huge bird-track, the middle
toe being 155 feet, and the other two 110 feet in length. In front
is a semi-lunar embankment, slightly elevated, which is about 200
feet in length. No one whose mind is susceptible to whatever is grand

184 Ancient Works in the Ohio Valley.

in nature or in art can view with indifference this magnificent work ;
not in nvins, except so far as it may have been crowned with palisades,
but as perfect as on the day of its abandonment. " Here," as Squier
well remarks, "covered with the gigantic trees of a primitive forest,
the work truly presents a grand and impressive appearance ; and in
entering the ancient avenue for the first time, the visitor does not fail
to experience a sensation of awe, such as he might feel in passing the
portals of an Egyptian temple, or in gazing upon the ruins of Petra of
the Desert."

Passing out of the gateway, a broad passage, lined by walls of no
great height, leads to an irregular square, containing about twenty
acres. A low mound marks each corner, and also each central entrance,
except in the west wall. From the northeastern gateway there ex-
tend parallel lines, connecting with a series of low walls, as intricate al-
most as a Cretan labyrinth, and there is an arched line of circumvalla-
tion, embracing numerous low mounds and one small circle. Near the
center of the northwest wall there is another gateway, with a broad
and gently curved avenue, leading to the octagon, which incloses an
area of fifty acres. The angles of this structure are not coincident, al-
though the sides are nearly equal. Opposite each entrance there is a
pyramidal mound, about five feet high, and eighty by one hundred
feet at the base. From the gateway on the southeast side, parallels,
three hundred feet long and sixty feet apart, conduct the observer
into another true circle, about one-half mile in circumference, and en-
closed an area of twenty acres. Outside the circle and opposite gate-
way there is a work of peculiar structure. "It would seem," remarks
^Ir. Squier, " that the builders had originally determined to carry out
p.irallel lines from this point, but after proceeding one hundred feet,
had suddenly clianged their minds and finished the inclosure, by throw-
ing up an immense mound across the uncompleted parts. This wall,
which may be taken as constituting a part of the wall of the inclosure,
is one hundred and seventy feet long, eight feet higher than the
uoneral level of the embankment, and overlooks the entire work."

From the octagon, parallel lines diverge southwest, which may be
traced for two miles. Similar parallels, nearly a mile in extent,
diverge eastward, inclosing a series of circles about two hundred feet
in diameter, together with a series of less diameter, and form a line
of communication between the different parts of the system.

A pond, occupying an area of about one hundred acres, now drained,
existed just outside the works, and its western mai'gin was marked by
four inconspicuous mounds.

No one, I think, can view the complicated system of works here

Ancient WorJcs in the Ohio Valley. ' 185

displayed, and stretching away for miles, without arriving at the con-
clusion that they are the result of an infinite amount of toil, expended
under the direction of a governing mind, and having in view a definite
aim. At this day— with our iron implements, with our labor-saving
machines, and the aid of horse power— to accomplish such a task would
require the labor of many thousand men continued for many months.
These are the work of a people who had fixed habitations, and who,
deriving their support, in part, at least, from the soil, could devote
their surplus labor to the rearing of such structures. A migratory
people, dependent, upon the uncertainties of the chase for a livnig,
would not have the time, nor would there be the motive, to engage in
such a stupendous imdertaking.

When in the spring of 1788 the first settlers, under the Ohio Land
Company's purchase, arrived at the mouth of the Muskingum, where
they proposed to lay the foundations of a town, they were astonished
at these evidences of former occupancy by a people who had some
claims to be ranked as civilized. The Directors passed a resolution,
reserving the two truncated pyramids and the great mound, with a
few acres attached to each, as public squares. The latter is now used
as a public cemetery; and the rites of Christian burial, as enacted
there each year, are probably not more solemn and impressive than
those which were enacted upon the same spot centuries ago, by a
people whose very name and lineage have become lost.

These works, as shown by the survey of Colonel Whittlesey, occupy
the river terrace or second bottom, being bounded by the alluvium
on the one hand and the hills on the other. The area covered is
about three fourths of a mile long, and half a mde broad. There are
two irregular squares — one containing fifty acres, and the other twenty
seven acres— together with the crowning work standing apart, which
is a mound thirty feet high, elliptical in form, and inclosed by a cir-
cular embankment. The walls of the larger square are between five
and six feet high, and twenty or thirty feet broad at the base. With-
in the inclosure are four truncated pyramids, three of which have
graded passage-ways to the summit. The largest is one hundred and
eighty-eight feet long, one hundred and thirty-two feet wide, and ten
feet high. These pyramidal forms are interesting, as establishing an
affinity between their builders and those of the Gulf States, who, to a
great extent, as has been shown, discarded the circular form. From
the southern wall a graded way, one hundred and fifty feet broad, and
lined by embankments from eight to ten feet high, extends for six
hundred feet, to the immediate valley of the Muskingum.

The walls bounding the smaller square are less conspicuous, and

186 Ancient Worh'in the Ohio Valley.

there is an absence of all pyramidal structures, but at the entrance of
each gateway there is a low circular mound. From the central gate-
way, in the southeast wall, there is an embankment extending nearly
to the entrance of the circle which incloses the great mound, and to
the south and east, at an early day, similar embankments could be
traced, crowning the brow of the terrace, which is here delta-shaped.

The great mound near Miamisburg, Ohio, sixty eight feet high, and
eight hundred and fifty feet in circumference, far surpasses in dimen-
sions that which the Greeks erected over the body of Patroclus.

" They still abiding, heaped the pile,
An hundred feet of breadth from side to side
They gave to it, and on the summit placed
With sorrowing hearts the body of the dead."

Grottoes occupied by Mound-builders.

The conglomerate at the base of the Coal Measures, and other for-
mations in the Ohio Valley, often crop out in bold ledges, and in many
places have weathered into deep recesses with overhanging roofs, thus
forming grottoes, which were undoubtedly used by the Mound-builders
for shelter, and also for sepulchres, but it is difficult, in most instances,
to discriminate between their vestiges and those of the modern Red
JNIan.

About two miles west of Rome, Perry County, Indiana, in the Ohio
Valley, according to MS. notes placed in my possession by Prof. E. T.
Cox, in one of the rock houses, formed by a projecting ledge of sub-
carboniferous sandstone, fifty feet in thickness, without a visible seam
(interposed between the two horizons of Archimedes limestone), occur
two ancient graves, the dimensions of which are about 4i^X2^ feet,
oval in shape, and planted witlj flat stones, sloping inward, which form
a perfect casing throughout. One had been dug into, exposing frag-
ments of a human skeleton, but the other remains intact. The bottom
of the rock house is made of fragments of stone which have fallen
from the overhanguig roof, intermixed with cla}'. This deposit has
not been penetrated in the search of human relics. Without the line
of the eaves' drippings is a mass of sandstone, 3X8 feet, tumbled
from above, in which, and running with the rift, are two mortar-like
excavations, about two feet apart, ovoidal in shape, 6X8 inches, and
tapering down to the depth of twenty inches. Two excavations of a
similar character were observed by Prof. Cox, near Leopold, and he
was informed that others exist near Rome. Their position, far above
the neighboring streams, and their direction in reference to the bed-
rock of the region, convinced him that they were not "pot-holes"

Ancient Worhs in the Ohio Valley. 187

formed by an imprisoned bowlder, but that they were of artificial

ongni.

According to the same authority there is a high hill bordering the
valley of the Saline River, in Illinois, on which there is a walled fort,
the walls being from four to five feet high, and inclosing less than an
acre. On the south side access is cut off by a precipitous descent, in
the form of a cliff, from forty to fifty feet in height, but on the north
side the sloj^e is gradual and very rocky. The walls conform to the
crest of the hill, which is very narrow, and the form of the fortified
position is that of an irregular square. Inside a number of holes, now
nearly filled, are seen, which may have been caches for storing provi-
sions. A narrow and zigzag passage, easily defended, leads down
to the river. The inhabitants call this locality " Stone Fort."

The region, embracing the mouth of the Wabash River, in Indiana,
and the Kentucky shore opposite, including Greenup and Union
counties, is thickly studded with mounds. These were explored by
the late Sidney S. Lyon, who in a private letter remarks, that he has
seen the works of the Mound-builders in many vStates, but in no other
locality has he ever seen anything to compare in extent and import-
ance with those at this point. "If the mounds, ash-heaps, bone-beds,
etc., are any evidence of a formerly populous and settled country, it is
to be found here. In my examinations, 1 find nearly one hundred
mounds in an area of one hundred acres."

Proceeding up the valley, we find the high banks of the river
crowned at frequent points by tliese ancient works. At Vincennes,
the Wabash is bordered by a broad alluvial tract, and the bluffs of
Loess attain a height of one hundred and fifty feet. The highest
mounds occur near the line of junction, and I am of the opinion that
the builders* shaped into form some of the knolls formed at a time
when the river extended to the foot of the bluffs. In 1859, according
to Mr. William Pidgeon, it became necessary to remove a mound on
the alluvial track in the suburbs of the city. It was about sixteen
feet in height, W'ith a diameter of sixty-six feet, and a section exhibited
five distinct strata. The first or lowest, consisted of a bed of human
bones, arranged in a circle, eighteen feet in diameter, closely pressed
together. Around the outer edge of this circle, the stratum was
thinner than in the center. Skulls, tibisej ribs, and vertebrae were
promiscuously mingled, as though a pile of bodies had been heaped
up. Over this was a uniform layer of tough, greyish clay, thirty-three
inches in thickness, succeeded by a layer of Avhat appeared to have
been ashes, with occasional fragments of bone ; and above this a twelve
inch stratum of surface soil ; and the whole was covered with clay.

188 The Cincinnati Tablet.

From the numerous skeletons disclosed in this excavation, and the
promiscuous manner ^in which tliey were mingled, Mr. Pidgeon was
disposed to regard this as a " battle burial mound."

The Cincinnati Tablet.

J. W. Foster, in the Appendix to Pre-historic Races, says : I have
purposely declined to discuss the ante-Columbian relations which many
conjecture to have existed through the voyages of the Northmen to
Vinland, and of the Welsh, under Prince Madog, to some supposed
point in the Southern States, for the reason that if such an intercourse
was ever established, these people have left behind no memorials.
The Runic inscription, which the Danish antiquarians profess to recog-
nize on the Dighton rock, is to the American ethnologist but the crude
picture writing of the savage. The alphabetical characters inscribed
on the " Grave Creek Stone," and the " Holy Stone of Newark'* with
its Hebrew letters, which have called out from philologists a wonderful
amount of learning, one is disposed involuntarily to associate with the
famous stone which served as the basis of Mr. Pickwick's fame.

The "Cincinnati Tablet," which was supposed to bear " a singular
resemblance to the Egyptian cartouche," was fresh with the dust of
the graver when the artist first attempted to palm it off as a genuine
relic of the Mound-builders.* " The Round Tower of Newport," in-
stead of being a Norse monument, ^turns out to be but a wind-mill,
built by one of the Rhode Island governors ; and "The Skeleton in
Armor," which the poet has wrought into a fine ballad, represented
simply all that was mortal of a Narragansett Indian, rigged out in
European trappings.

The Rev. Morgan Jones, who swore that in his travels among the
"Doegs" of the Tuscarora Nation he found a people with whom he
could converse familiarly in the Welsh language, may have been a
very worthy man ; but we are disposed to question the truthfulness
of a statement at this day, when the author deems it necessary to
fortify it by a self sought oath.

Expressions oj the Cat.

Mr. Darwin says :

" A cat when feeling savage and not terrified assumes a crouching
attitude, and occasionally protrudes her forefeet, witli the claws ex-
serted, ready for striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed

'•'Whittlesey, " Archseological Frauds," 1872.

Expressions of the Cat 189

from side to side. The hair is not erected — at least it was not no in the
few cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backward., and
the teeth are shown. Low, savage groAvls are uttered. We can under-
stand why the attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with
another cat, or in any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from
that of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the
cat uses her forefeet for striking, and this renders a crouching position
convenient or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a
dog to lie concealed and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can
be assigned with certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side
to side. This habit is common to> many other animals — for instance to
the puma when prepared to spring, but it is not common to dogp or to
foxes, as I infer from Mr. St. John's account of a fox lying in wait and
seizing a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and
various snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It
would appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncon-
trollable desire for movement of some kind, oAvins: to nerve force beingr
freely liberated from the excited sensorium ; and that as the tail is left
free, and as its movement does not disturb the general position of the
body, it is curled or lashed about.

All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in com-
plete antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, w^ith
slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected ;
and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress.
The desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of
mind, that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs
of chairs or tables or against door posts. This manner of expressing
affection probably originated through association, as in the case of dogs,
from the mother nursing' and fondling her young; and perhaps from the
young themselves loving each other and playing together. Another,
and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been
described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even old
cats, when pleased, alternately protrude their forefeet with separated
toes, as if pushing against and sucking their mother's teats. This
habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something, that
both apparently are derived from actions performed during the nurs-
ing period. Why cats should show affection by rubbing so much more
than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact with their masters,
and why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst
dogs always do so, I can not say. Cats cleanse themselves by licking
their ow^n coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand,
their tongues seem less Avell fitted for the work than the longer and
more flexible tongues of dogs.

190 Die Silnrisdi Fauna des Westlichen Tennessee.

Cats >vlieu terrified stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
well known and ridiculous fashion ; they spit, hiss, or growl. The
hair over the whole bod}', and especially on the tail, becomes erect.
In the instances observed by me, the basal part of the tail was held
upright, the terminal part being thrown on one side ; but sometimes
the tail is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one
side. The ears are drawn back and the teeth exposed ; when two
kittens are playing together the one often thus tries to frighten the
other. From what we have seen, all the above points of expression
are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back. I am inclined
to believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst they ruffle
their /eathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make themselves
look as big as possible, so cats st|ind upright, at their full height, arcli
their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and erect their hair
for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said to arch its
back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the Zoologi-
cal Gardens, have never seen any tendency to this action in the larger
feline animals, such as tigers, lions, etc., and these have little cause to
be afraid .of any other animal. ,

Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different
sounds. The purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspira-
tion and expiration is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah,
and ocelot, likewise purr ; but the tiger when pleased, emits a peculiar
short snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids. It is said
that the lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not jjurr.

From Die Silurische Fauna des WesflicJien Tennessee. By Dr. Ferdi.
NAND R(EMER. [Translated from his Journal].

Astylospongia Stellatim-sulcata. [Dr. Ferd. Rcemer.]

A globular sponge, varying in size fi"om that of a hazle-nut to that
of a walnut, Avhose surface is covered with furrows, that run together
in centers, that are irregularly distributed over the surface, and of an
obscurely stellate form.

There is no particular point on its surfiice from which one may
start its description. The curve and structure of its surface is alto,
gether so similar, that one can not distinguish between a top and a
bottom. Larger openings are not perceptible upon the outer surface.
This especially distinguishes this species from Astylosijongia jirainona ,

Die Silurische Farina des Westlichen Tennessee. 191

many specimens of wliich, on account of the obscurity of their furrows,
would otherwise be mistaken for it. It exhibits in its interior, a tex-
ture composed of countless little spicula, grouped in the form of stars,
entirely analogous with the Astylospongia pr<jemorsa. On the other
hand, there are no such large canals radiating from the center, as are
to be observed in the other species, and the concentric canals observ-
able therein seem to be here altogether wanting.

General A^ipearance : I have before me fourteen specimens of this
species, the smallest of which is of the size of a hazel-nut, and the
largest of which is of that of a walnut. Besides the difference in size,
these specimens may be distinguished especially in respect to the clear-
ness and number of their furrows. Several of these specimens are in
jmrt still embedded in pieces of Silurian limestone. The substance of
the petrification of all these specimens is as with Adylospongia prcemorsa
siliceous.

Astylospongia inciso-lobata — (Rgemer).

A round, depressed spheroidal sponge, which is divided with from
six to eight deep, incisive furrows, running down over the sides from
the top, and reuniting in the center of the under side, forming at the
circumference unequal rounded lobes. The texture is everywhere
equally compact or finely porous. Larger openings are not to be ob-
served, and a surface attachment or epitheca is wanting. Some speci-
mens, of a form almost entirely globular, and hardly depressed, with
irregular shallow furrows, very much resemble the preceding species ^
and it is possible that both species are connected together by interlink-
ing forms or transitions.

Its inner structure was not observed, and in that far its belonging to
that species was left in doubt. On the other hand, the absence of an
epitheca is beyond all doubt.

Of the six specimens before me the largest is an inch in diameter.
This is embedded in a piece of hoi-nstone, with which is ingrown at the
.>ame time a piece of the calix of an Encalyptocrinus.

Astylospongia imbricato-articulata — (Rckmer) .

Incomplete cylindrical, rather thickening toward the top, with its
surface covered with ring- formed intervals from top to bottom. The
top is concave, and at the bottom of the concavity displays from six to
eight larger openings. It is observable from a cross section that these
openings are the mouths of pipes, which run through the whole length

192 . Palcemanon cratera.

of the sponge. It is also observaUe from a cross section tlmt long slits,
l)ranching outwardly, and becoming by degrees smaller and more
obscure, radiate from the axis toward the circumference of the sponge,
running through the larger openings. In this species, too, as in the
A. prcemorsa and A. stellatim sulcata, the inner texture of the sponge is
composed of numerous small bodies, hanging together in the shape of
stars. We can distinguish these very plainly on the outer circum-
ference, which forms the lower end of the specimen, by the fractured
edges of the surfaces, in that part where the substance of petrifaction is
transparent, blue-gray chalcedony. These stars, however, seem to be
more irregular than ui the other two species, and generally to be four-
rayed instead of six. Without this concurrence of its inner structure
it might be doubtful to what genus to ascribe it, as from the want of
the lower end of the simple specimen, that I have before me, and from
the cylindrical form of the body, it could hardly be determined.

Its almost cylindrical or rolling form and ring-like prominences
make this species somewhat resemble the Scyphla-articulata (Goldfuss),
and also the Seijphia-cijlindrica (Goldfuss), var. rugosa of Streitberg,
However, the Jura species are wanting in the inner perpendicular pipes
belonging to our species, and Scyphia-articulata is, moreover, dis-
tinguished by a beautiful cross-barred surface.

Palwmanon cratera — (Rcemer) .

A sponge, bowl or goblet-shaped, w^ith its whole surface covered
with dispersed larger openings, having between them smaller openings,
like tlie points of needles. The larger openings are much more distinct
and better defined upon the upper depressed surface than upon the
side surfaces, upon which they are often wholly unrecognizable.
Irregular furrows or streaks are drawn from the hollow of the edge
that circumscribes the upper side running over the outer side. The
lower end is formed by a horizontal plane, truncated surface, similar
to that of the A-dylospongia prcemorsa. Sometimes, but more seldom,
it is rounded off. At times, too, the upper surface is much less
depressed. In those cases forms are presented which are similar to the
Astylospongia prcemorsa, and it seems to me not at all impossible that at
one time complete transformations between the twH) species occurred.

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LE/ITOR^AXD PROPRIETOR,

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CONT

Page. I
Proi«*i^Kir',Fi'cy, of Zurich, an<1 some Araer- i

icanTeneina; by V. T. Chambers 193 !

Monograph of the LaraeJlibranchiata of !

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Die Silurische Fauna des Westlichen Ten-
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People who have no Idea of a Supreme
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THE CINCINNATI QUARTERLY

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Vol. I. JULY, L874. No. 3.

Prof. Freif, of Zurich, and some American Teneina. — By V. T. Cha3I-
BERS, Esq., Covington, Kentucky.

How few persons seem to know, or be alive to the world of beauty
which surrounds them. With the mass of mankind who give no atten-
tion to nature or her beauties, this can not be otherwise; but even
with those who really love nature, who love to study her works and
Avays, how little of it is known outside of some special province to
Avhich they have applied themselves. The specialist gives himself up
to the study of his favorite branch of science, and finds himself fully
occupied with the beauties, or the material for thought and specula-
tion which he finds there. But there is another class of persons who
have much love for nature, who would gladly walk in her quiet, pleas-
ant paths, but who have not the time or means to devote themselves
earnestly to the pursuit of science ; yet, for these also is a rich field
of instruction and amusement open, did they only know how to look
for it, where to find it. And yet no gi-eat learning, or expense, is
necessary for the gratification of such simple desires as these. Let us
point out a single instance, and it will suffice to show the way to
others.

Pluck yonder leaf from the sugar maple, on the under side of it
you will find a blotch, looking like a dead spot in the leaf; it ap-
proaches an oval form, and evidently the deadened portion of the leaf
has shrunken, so as to cause a little curve in the leaf ; pluck another,
a dozen, dozens of them, the blotch is always alike. Singular that so
many dead spots, of the same size and appearance, should be found on
so many leaves, if they are merely dead blotches! But straighten out

194 -P^o/. Frey, and some American Tcneina.

one of the leaves to its original form, as near as may be, and behold
the deadened portion of the under surface tears open, sliowing the
upper surface nearly intact, and a little cave formed inside of the leaf
by the shrinkage of the under surface, and in this cave we find only a
little caterpillar ! Nothing very worthy all this trouble in that, cer-
tainly. Well, turn over one of the leaves, and then on the other sur-
face you will find a blotch of a difierent kind ; it is flat, the upper
surface of the leaf is deadened and loosened, but there is no cavity
under it. Open it. We find still onl)^ a caterpillar. It differs, how-
ever, from the preceding one ; that was like ordinary caterpillars,
nearly cylindrical-f-this is depressed, almost flat. Pluck yet this other
leaf from the wild cherry ; you will observe on its upper surface a
very narrow, winding black line, bordered with crimson on each side.
It winds and curves about like the undulations of some tiny, gaily
colored serpent, yet a three cent piece will cover the whole of it out of
sight. Hold it up between you and the light ; at its larger end you
will see still only a caterpillar, exceedingly minute, and differing from
each of the others. These are what we call mined leaves, and the
mines are those of three, perhaps four species of MiGvo-Lepidoptera.
But what are Micro- Lepidopteraf Well, you may translate it literally,
little scale-wings, just as you may call butterflies and large moths, big
scale-wings. They are little moths of the family Teneina; the same
family to which " the moth," that good housekeepers complain of,
belongs. But the family is a very large one, and, to say the truth,
many members of the family seem to be very little akin to each other,
except in a Darwinian sense. The clothes moth, the housekeepers'
enemy, has nothing to brag of in the way of beauty, and certainly
still less in the way of usefulness ; and besides, although it has man-
aged to give its name to the family Teneina, it is hardly in any sense
a fair representative of the family ; in fact, it is rather a disgrace to
the family. But the little leaf-mining species contain among them
the gems, I had almost said, of the animate creation. Minute as they
are, and requiring the aid of a good pocket lens, or better still, a mi-
croscope of low power, to bring out their beauties, they excell by far,
in my judgment, all the flowers, birds, butterflies, etc., of the animate
kingdom. Perhaps a majority of the plants in any one region, cer-
tainly a great number of them, have each a species mining its leaves
in the larva or caterpillar state. But it is not in that condition that
they are beautiful, by any means. All of their adornment is lavished
on the imago, as naturalists call it, that is, the perfect insect, the moth,
after it has passed through its metamorphosis, and taken flight on its
long fringed wings. And if these lines should fall under the eye of

Vrof. Frey, and some American Teneina. 195

any of our lady readers, we advise tliem to collect a lot of mined leaves
from a variety of plants, assort them, and place each different kind of
mine in a separate, small glass jar, keeping the jar closed, so as to keep
the leaves fresh as long as possible, and await patiently, say a week or
two, for the moths to emerge ; then place an empty glass jar over the
first one, so that the moths will run or fly up into it ; close them up
in it, and kill them with the fumes of a few drops of chloroform, being
careful all the while not to injure them by rubbing off the scales which
clothe them, and then examine them with the lens, or microscope, as
before mentioned, and if I have exaggerated their beauty, why, it will
be nothing more than other men have done for the "lady reader" afore-
said, many a time before.

But what has all this to do with the Zurich Professor ? Why, this
much : It has served to introduce to your acquaintance the 3f{cro-Lepi-
(loptera, as if you will but study the few species mentioned below, you
will be enabled to judge whether the "American colleagues," as the
Professor calls them (i. e., Dr. Brackenridge, Clemens, late of Pennsyl-
vania, and your humble servant, the writer), have been guilty of the
sins of omission and commission with which he charges us, or vice
versa.

Prof. Frey, of Zurich, and Mr. J. Boll, of Bauragarten, have lately
issued a little brochure on some of the Micro- Lepldoptera of the United
States, which seems to call for some notice at the hands of students of
this group, in this country. The part of Mr. Ball in the matter
appears to have been confined to collecting insects with their mines
and larvse, with information as to their localities, habits, food, etc.,
and it seems to have been well performed. The descriptions of species
and criticisms upon the work of others are evidently from the pen of
Prof. Frey, and to him the praise or blame attaches so far as praise
or blame are due for the brochure now before us.

It appears from an introductory notice that a large collection of the
rained leaves of differerent species of plants, from the vicinity of Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, was made by Mr, Boll, in the fall of 1872; but
unfortunate private events caused Mr. Boll to return to Switzerland in
the same winter, '* in stormy haste," as the Professor tells us, so that he
could not assort the material, but was compelled to jumble together
the mixed mass of leaves of various kinds ; and, as any one accustomed
to rearing Micro-Lepidoptcra knows, very little that was satisfactory
could result therefrom, for most of the larvse would fail to come to
maturity, and of those that did, very little could be learned, as to the
food-plant mine and larvse. What the species were which Prof. Frey
succeeded in describing will be mentioned further on.

196 Prof. Frey, and some American Tencina.

The Professor informs us that, as far as practicable, he has compnred
the species described by him with the descriptions of Brackenridge,
Clemens, Chambers, and others, but much, in fact most, is left "in un-
certainty by these short and defective descriptions." Now, taking this
broeJmre as a fair specimen (which we hope and believe it is not) of the
Professor's work, the shame of American Micro-Lepidopterists would be
great indeed, if their labors, either in the way of descriptive Avork, or in
careful original investigation, should be found to fall to the low level
of this little pamphlet, which, for the Professor's reputation, had better
have remained "in the womb of time forever." It would be easy
work for any Micro-Lepidopterists to determine by a single comparison
of the descriptions in this pamphlet, with as many taken at random
from the descriptions of Dr. Clemens, which is most justly chargeable
Avith " brevity and uncertainty, and defectiveness and obscurity."
The Professor is profuse of good advice to Americans, to look to Europe
and European authors, and to what they have done as our ensamples ;
but, unfortunately, this pamphlet does not incline us to look further in
that direction, and I shall show such miserable carelessness, or in-
capacity, on the Professor's part to learn what has been done by Dr.
Clemens and others in this country, that it will not be necessary to
comment on the absurdity of the dictum quoted above.

Now, our subjects, the "micros," are very little, but one thing is yet
smaller, one that has appeared to me the infinitely little — and that is
the practice of indulging in personal quarrels among naturalists about
their work, the practice of calling hard names, and of accusing each
other of all the crimes named in the decalogue, and many not there
named, as e. g., of stealing each others species; that is, giving a new
name, or it may be, a new description to a species already well known,
and then attaching the name of the author of a new description to the
name with which he has rechristened the old species, like a tail to a
kite, or as if the author expected the rechristened insect to fly away
into immortality, bearing the author's name with it. Authors' quar-
rels do no one aii}^ good, the authors themselves become ridiculous,
they batter each other with bad names, and make their readers laugh
at them, if they do not become too much disgusted for laughter. I there-
fore shall have no quarrel with Prof. Frey, on account of the unfounded
charges against American Micro-Lepidopterists above mentioned,
nor on account of any injury, real or supposed, done to me by his lit-
tle pamphlet, but for the sake of the truth of history, and to prevent
mistakes and confusion into which the pamphlet might lead future in-
vestigators as to nomenclature, habits of insects, etc., the paniphlet
must have criticism. In fact, I do not think that the charges of ob-

Prof. Frcy, and some American Teniina. 197

scurit.y, brevity, etc., against American entomologists are meant to
give rise to any ill will. It is only the natural, paternal way of the
European entomologist when writing of the inferior co-labour in the
barbarous West ; the quiet, perfectly natural assumption by the Pro"
fessor, of the superiority of European work and European notions over
those of outside barbarians, who are being "educated up;" and it
makes no sort of difference whether the Professor has ever seen or
known anything about the subjects under discussion, nor whether the
outside barbarian has been all his life as familiar with it as "household
words." As Prof. Frey, therefore, meant no offense, none shall be
taken ; we shall write in perfect good nature, only for the sake of
science and the truth, using the knife only to lay bare such blunders
and errors as the Professor may have fallen into ; and when, as here-
after mentioned, he writes Lithocolletis gemmea, Frey, for Parredopa
robinlella, Clem., I shall not accuse him of tying his tail to another boy's
kite, but shall content myself with simply showing that the insect is
P. robiiiiella, Clem. , and can not, nor ever could, possibly be considered a
Lithocolletis. So, I propose to show that the confusion among Ameri-
can Micro-Lepidopterologists, of which the Professor says so much,
exists only in the mind of the Professor ; and, when the Professor
failed to recognize " common species," undescribed in any descriptions
of American writers, it may possibly be the fault of the Professor, ,
and not of the descriptions, or the species may be new instead of
" common species ; " for American Micro-Lepidopterists know what
multitudes of undescribed species are yet to be found within the limits
of the continent.

But I must, I fear, sometimes accuse the Professor of a disposition
for species-making ; and as to the charge of brevity in descriptions,
whilst we are glad to plead in extenuation so good an example in this
respect as Prof. Frey has set us in this brochure, yet, I must remind
him that brevity is the soul of some other things besides wit, and that
a description which by an apt phrase, or by catching and noting, as it
were, by intuition, or at a single glance, the real specific characters,
fixes the species, is worth a dozen pages of circumlocution, which at-
tempt to define by words some indefinable tint or shade, by which
some unnamed color passes into some other combination of prismatic
hues, incomprehensible to any sense but vision, and unnameable by
words ; as frequently happens amongst creatures of such beautiful,
varied, and ever-changing hues, as are some of these little beings, where,
literally, sometimes each several scale performs the office of a prism,
and the colors change with every movement of the object or the eye;
in view of all this, I can not see the urgent necessity that Prof. Frey

198 Prof. Frey, and some American Teneina.

should " insist against Prof. Zeller, that" a small portion of an insect,
about one eighth of an inch long, is a " darker shade of yellowish " in-
stead of a " brownish red," as Prof. Zeller asserts. In fact, no one can
successfully paint in words, however profuse, the infinitesimally fine
gradations of color among these many-hued beings. The Professor
seems to believe fixedly in the fixedness of species, and a specific de-
scription is incomplete, brief, or wanting in some other essential quality,
which does not enable him to recognize, without trouble, every speci-
men of the species, which may be brought before him — however varia-
ble the species and however changeable its prismatic hues ; there
would seem to be no room for variation in his system, so far as species
are concerned, though he is by no manner of means so strict as to
genera; most Micro-Lepidopterists attach great importance to the
neuration of the wings as determining generic differences. Not so our
Professor. I have alluded above to his displacement of Farreciopa
robiniella, Clem., and his misplacing it in LithocoUetis as L. gemmea ,
Fi-ey. The neuration of the species is distinctly and unequivocally
that of the genus Gracilaria, it has scarcely a character in common
with LithocoUetis, yet the Professor places it in the same generic
group Avith true species of LithocoUetis, and even such aberrant species
as LithocoUetis ornateUa, which has the neuration unusually simple ;
and he includes in the same group a new species, which he calls Litho-
coUetis aenigmateUa (an excellent name for such a description !) which,
according to his own description, ought only doubtfully, if at all, to be
placed in that genus ; thus he groups in LithocoUetis doubtful and
true forms of that genus, together with a species having the characters
of a Gracilaria, and in this group he describes several new species, and
mentions sevei-al others, which he says he can not recognize in the de-
scriptions of his American colleagues. Do such new and unrecogniza-
ble species belong in LithocoUetis at all ? Was it not an error to place
them there? that is, in LithocoUetis, as recognized by all other ento-
mologists ; indeed, given such a heterogenous group as will contain
Parrectopa robinieUa, Clem., LithocoUetis ArgeidinoteUa, Clem.,
L. ornateUa, Cham., and L. AenigmateUa, Frey, and what may not be
placed in it? In looking up the new and unrecognized species, one
would feel no certainty that the true LithocoUetis is the group in which
they are to be found they might belong anywhere else, for all this
hrochure shows.

Another idea that the Professor loses no chance of reiterating, is
tlie wonderful likeness of the new and old world Teneina, as if he had
made a discovery of the "first water." There is nothing whatever
new in it ; every man has already learned that much, who has seen a

Prof. Frey, and some American Teneina. 199

dozen of our indigenous species, and has compared them with as many
from Europe, or with the figures in Stainton's Nat. Hist. Tin. The
Teneina differ in this but httle from other insects, except that like
most other lowly forms of life they are more universally dispersed.
The genus Gracilarui, for instance, is found in England, Asia, and
Holland, and in the United States from Cambridge to California, and
the closely allied genus Coriscium goes with it. But the species of the
United States are like those of other countries besides Europe, in some
respects. Thus Corisdiim alhanotella, Cham., though not strictly resem-
bling any species known to me, yet resembles rather more than any
other Glacilaria nitadula, from New Holland, figured by Mr. Staintou
in Trans. Lond. Ent. Soc, 1863, plate 10, fig. 9, as to the form of the
marks, though the ground color is more like G. callicella, Stainton, loe.
cit. But then, on the other hand, a collection of "micros" from Texas,
containing over seventy species, differ more from the Teneina of Ken-
tucky than these do from those of England.

Upon one other point I likewise wish to take issue with the Profes-
sor, and at the same time with such other Micro-Lepidopterists as have
not been to a great extent collectors of these insects in all their stages.
My experience in this respect has not been small, and I knoiv that the
common opinion, or at least the coram'^n mode of expression, as that
there are two (or more) broods of a certain species in a year, or, that
the larvse may be found at such a time, and the pupae at such a time,
and the imago at such a time, and not other times, are erroneous, so far,
at least, as most of the little leaf-mining species are concerned. Some
species hybernate in the imago state (as LithoeoUetis^ rohiniella, Clem.j,
some as pupse, as do most species, and others as larvse (as does L. Cin-
cinnatiella, Cham.) They make their first appearance at different sea-
sons. L.rohinielki, Clem., of course may be found early ; L. crcttcegeUa,
Clem., Tesclieria, malifoballa, Clem., and othei's, apj)ear here in Mareh;
L. hicidicostella, Clem., and L. hasi&ligella, Clem., and others a little later,
and L. ornatella, Cham., Gracila7'ia(^Parveetopa) r(^i7nella^ Clem., the spe-
cies of Antispila Aspidisca, and some others, do not apj^ear till early
June, unless May be very warm. Most forms begin to oviposit in
the leaves in May, but the locust-feeding species usually do not until
June ; and I assert it as a fact, which any one can verify, that, con-
stantly, with any one of these species, the larvse may be found in their
juines at all times, from their first discovery until the fall of the leaves^
and the same is true of the pupse, and of the moths, from their first
appearance until the leaves fall ; thei-e is no interlude. Of course
there are only a certain number of descendants from any given fesaale,
but that does not affect the case. They ai'e constantly laying egg^.

200 Pi'of- Frcy^ and some American Teneina.

constantly undergoing their metamorphoses, and one so-called brood
is larval, while at the same time another is pupal, and another in the
imago. It is altogether a matter of climate. Gracilaria (Parredopa)
robtniella,C[em. , ceases to mine only when the leaves fall, that is, in the
central States in October or November, but in Southern Louisiana
they may still be found feeding in December.

But, leaving these general remarks," let us turu our attention
especially to the species which Prof. Frey has dealt with in this little
pamphlet, and to his fitness for the task which he has undertaken, of
describing intelligejitly, and identifying American lUicro-Lepidoptera,
and of criticising American laborers in the same field. He describes
four species of Gracilaria ; the first is G. superbifrontella, Clem., and,
wonderful to relate, Dr. Clemens has been guilty of so much brevity
in his description, that he has described the insect in all three of its
states, and its mine and food plant, in sixteen lines of coarse print, so
well that the Professor can not help recognizing it at a glance, where-
upon he devotes nearly twice as much space to confusing the subject
as Dr. Clemens did to making it clear. Prof. Frey then gives us a
characteristic description of a species under the name Gracilaria ele-
(jantella, Frey, with the correct statement, that none of Dr. Clemens'
species approach it ; but in which we recognize at once, on carefully
comparing his description with our specimens, Gracilaria Packardella,
Chamb., Canadian Entomologist, vol. iv., p. 27.

The Professor gives this thu'd species the name Gracilaria mirabilis. I
am not satisfied about this species. Prof. Frey's descriptions, when com-
pared with specimens of G. geiella, Cham., Can. Ent., vol. vi. (described
erroneously as G. plantagini&ella, vol. iv., p. 10), indicate, so far as I
can understand the Professor's description, a close similarity, if not
identity, between the insects described by Prof. Frey and myself, at
least, as to the markings on the wings ; but the markings of the head
and its appendages seem to dift'er. Future investigations must settle
the matter as to whether mirabilis is a synonym for geiella. I am not
able to recognize in the Professor's fourth description any species
known to me — he calls it G. astericola, and states that it mines the
leaves and corymbs of Aster cordifolia, which siDecies and others of
aster are numerous in this locality ; but I have never found the leaves
of any of them mined by any insect except by Batatis matutella, Clem.

Prof. Frey then gives a species of Coriscium, which, if I understand
his description, is certainly new. Dr. Clemens described no species of
this genus, and I have described but one, C. albanotella, a very hand-
some and singular oak-feeding species, and it is certainly (I think)
not Prof. Frey's C. Paradadoxum.

Prof. Frei/, and some American Teneina. 201

The Professor has clone wisely in stearing clear of the genus Ornix,
a very troublesome one to manage, in this country at least.

The next genus which the Professor takes in hand, is Lithocolletls,
and his first species which he calls L. querdtoriim, is evidently L. Fitch-
ella, Clem., which had previously been described by Dr. Fitch as
Argyromiges qtiercifoUcUa, but the specific name being already in use
for another species. Dr. Clemens changed it to L. Fitchella.

The next species, L. Hagenii, is probably new ; at least, I am not
able to recognize in Prof. Frey's description any LitJiocolletis yet made
known in this country.

Then come some remarks on the question, whether a micro which he
bred from the leaves, and calls L. Longestriata, is identical with L.
Argentifintriella, Clem., a question on which I, of course, can say nothing,
not having the insects, nor full descriptions of them.

Prof. Frey's next species is marked, provisionally, L. alniella, Zell.
He does not describe it, but states that he had a male, which, at first
sight, he believed to be this species, but closer inspection yields doubts.
The Professor has been lucky if he has had either a new or old species
from a mine in an alder leaf. With the closest search, I have never
been able to find a micro of any kind feeding in or on alder leaves,
and had given them up in despair. He also mentions rearing (from
what?) a species which he does not name or describe, but which he
states resembles the European L. acerifoliella^ Zell., (jC. sylvella of Stain-
ton's Nat. Hist. Tin.,) and it is probably L. hamadryadella, Clem.

I am unable to recognize in Prof. Frey's new species, L. intermedia,
any species known to me. It evidently belongs to the same group
with L. celtisella, Cham., Avhich is our nearest congener of L. coryli-
foliella, as figured by Stainton, Nat. His. Tin., vol. ii., but is nearly as
close to L. Vimintella, loc cit. It differs from Corylijoliella, in having
the ground color frequently much brighter, much more densely
flecked with black ; the first dorsal and first costal white streaks touch
each other, are not quite so oblique as in that species ; are very dis-
tinctly dark margined, internally, and the rather dense dusting of the
apex appears to be on a faint white ground. There are also
the usual lines on the thorax. But it is astonishing what a different
insect it appears to be when worn or rubbed a little, and even
frequently without, in its natural condition ; it is a very variable
species, especially as to the intensity of the ground color and markings ,*
some species being very pale, and Avith the markings and dustings
very indistinct. I am almost persuaded that L. nonfasciella, Cham., is
not a true species, and that it was described from varieties or worn
specimens of this species. But then there can be no probability that

202 Trof. Frey^ and some American Teneina.

L. intermedia will also prove to be only one of the million varieties of
this species. The apical spot and little costal streaks, near the
apex, identify it sufficiently. CeltiseUa is found in this vicinity by
thousands, and, in some places, a visit at almost any hour of every day
would afford a dozen specimens, from April to October. L. obsoleta,
Prof. Frey's next species, is much more likely to be a pale or worn
form of L. celtisella (like L. nonfasctella^ than L. intermedia. I have
seen pale and worn specimens of celtisella, to which Prof. Frey's de-
scription of ohsoleta might apply. But this is all guess-work, from a
description which does not give even the ground color, excepting by
reference to another European species, which it is said to resemble
in some respects.

L. mirifica, the next species, may be L. ostrycefoliella, Clem., if Prof.
Frey has made it up from damaged specimens. The color and mark-
ing of the wings seem to be identical, except that osti'ycefoliella, accord-
ing to Clemens, has four costal streaks, Avhile mirifica has, according
to Frey, only three. But the fourth one in ostrycefoliella is indistinct,
in the cilia, and might well escape observation if the cilia at that part
of the wing were injured. The description of mirifica is not altogether
so satisfactory as it might be, and the markings of the head do not
agree with those of octryoefolidla so well as those of the wings, which
agree in a striking manner. If not the same, it is certainly a very
closely allied species. The description given of this species, and of
the preceding, are nearly the same, especially as to the wings, except
that, as before stated, I am rather in the dark as to the ground color
of obsoletella, and the description does not say whether or not it has a
basal streak ; all of which is allowable in a Zurich Professor ! L.
Sciidderella, Frey, we likewise fail to recognize in any of our species.

L. consimilella, Frey, is tritcenicella, Cham., or some new and very
closely related species, though I scarcely doubt that it is tritcenicBlla.
My only doubt arises from the statement that the breast of consimilella
is of the same hue with the wing, and he gives no description of the
thorax. The breast in trit(£nicella is dirty whitish. Nor have we any
doubt that Prof. Frey properly identified some of his specimens with
L. argentinoteUa, Clem. But in the name of chaos and confusion what
has L. umella, Cham., to do with it? Why does the Professor make
iimella, Cham., asynonymn for argentinoteUa, Clem.? As well might he
make our common blue-bird (Sylvia syatis, Wilson) identical with the
blue-jay, (Garulus cristatus), because he might happen to find their nests
in the same tree. It is true ArgentinoteUa, Clem., and ulmella, Cham.,
do happen to mine the leaves of the same tree (different kinds of elm),
but let us note the differences throughout their lives, and imagine, if

Tmf. Frey, and some American Tcueina. 203

we can, how the Professor ever made this egregious blunder. The in-
sects do not even belong to the same group in the genus. But first it
must be mentioned that Dr. Clemens long ago announced that there
were two forms of larva in this genus : one is the ordinary cylindri-
cal form, which is perhaps the most common form, the other is a de-
pressed, almost flattened form, with the ventral legs scarcely apparent ;
indeed, the cylindrical form seems a much more highly developed ani-
mal, internally as well as externally, than the flat form, and if the dif-
ferences of the imagos were as great as those of the larvae no ento-
mologist would think of classing them in the same genus ; yet, never-
theless, an imago derived from a cylindrical larvse will frequently be-
long to the same group, and be marked very much like one derived
from the flat group. ISio species of LithocoUetis is known to have larvae
belonging to both forms. L. Cindnnatiella , Cham., comes nearest to
this. It really seevu to have two forms, one the ordinary flat larvae,
and the other I have usually found alive in the winter, a much larger
larvae, almost cylindrical, but yet depressed and differing much more
from the cylindrical larvse than it does from the ordinary
flat form. Its mouth parts are those of the flat form, and
so are the feet, but more distinct and better developed. Conse-
quent on differences of form, are those of life and habit. Thus
the cylindrical larvae stands erect and crawls, like any ordinary
caterpillar, on its feet, and owing to this and to the form of its head
and mouth, its mine must he tentiform, that is, the parenchyma is eaten
out between the upper and lower cuticles of the leaf, and one side or
the other becomes somewhat drawn, so that the cavity within becomes
roomy and tentiform, as I before explained as to the mines of the sugar-
tree leaf miners. In two species that we know, the cavity is such that
the cocoon of the pupa is suspended in it like a hammock, by a thread
from each end. The flat larvae rather wriggles than crawls, and by
reason of its form it does not need a tentiform mine ; and by reason of
the form of its head and mouth parts, it can not make one. The mine,
therefore, is always flat. I have observed, also, that the flat mine and
larvae are always on the upper side of the leaf, except in the case of
L. ornateUa, and the cylindrical larvae and tentiform mine usually, but
by no means always, are found on the under side of the leaf. L. rohin-
iella, Clem., and L. tiUiceella, Cham., are standing exceptions to this
rule, and I once saw a leaf of the elm with two mines of L. argentino-
tdla, Clem., on the under surface, and one on the upper surface, from
which I had all these specimens. Mr. Stainton (page 63, of his edition
of the Clemens papers) says, he "doubts much whether we have in
Europe anything like the second (flat) group of the larva?."' From an

204

Prof. Frey, and some American Teneina.

inspection of the plates in Nat. Hi.-^. Tin., I suspect, however, that Mr.
Stainton may be in ei-ror about this. I have made these remarks to
illustrate the difference between the two forms of mine and miner,
which are common in the United States, and only add the fact that, so
far as I have observed, all the larva) of white species of Llthocolletis,
as e. g., L. argent ifimhriella, Clem., L. Clemcmella, Cham., and the
European L. Heegeriella, and L. Cramerella, have cylindrical larvi€,
whilst perhaps most — not all by any means — of the darker colored
species are of the flat group. This, however, by the way. I now pro-
ceed to notice the differences between Argendnotella and Ulmella,
which Prof. Frey unites without examination :

L. Argentinotella, Clem.,

Has the mine tentiform, and nearly always

on the under side of the leaf.
The larva is cylindrical.

L. Ulmella, Cham.,

Has the mine Hat, and always on the upper
side of the leaf.

The larva is flat.

As to the description of the imago, I notice only the points named
in the respective descriptions by Dr. Clemens and myself, as the Pro-
fessor had no other xcay of learning the differences betiveen the species, except
from these descriptions. He never saw L. ulmella.

Antense, silvery.
Front and tuft, silvery.

Thorax, pale reddish saffron ; wings of same
hue, with a rather short, unnxirtjined, silvery
basal streak. (The basal streak is in the
middle of the wing).

Wings with firp. costal streaks and four dorsal
streaks of the same hue. The tirst costal
and dorsal streaks are unmargined; the
first dorsal being near the inner angle of
the base, tapering to a point in the middle
i)f the wing, from a very broad base; the
first costal streak, rather slender, and only
halt as long as the fiist dorsal. The second
costal and dorsal connected about the mid-
dle of the wing, and dark margined toward
the base, by a line much curved in the
middle. Third costal and third dorsal op-
posite, and each dark margined internally.
The fourth dorsal about midwas' between
the foarth arid fifth ccv^a? streaks; sometimes
the fourth dorsal and costal streaks witli a
few internal scales, sometimes unmarginal.

At the ajiex is a small scattered patch of
black scales.

Antense, silvery white; the apical two thirds
annulate with brownish.

Face and palp, silvery white; the tuft inter-
mixed with golden. Legs and under sur-
face silvery white.

Anterior wings bright golden, inclining to
orange, with a white streak alonrj the dorsal
margin, f rum the base, to the cilia, where it is
deflexed, and parses oti to the dusted portioix
of the a.pe.r, which <s ?iaar the pasterior margin ,
and is dark brown or a white ground.

Three small costal silvery streaks; the fir^t
and second beinj; near the middle of the
costal margin; the second one is tlie
largest, and the third is small and near the
apex. There is some variation in the size
of costal streaks, and in the extent of the
apical dusting, and sometimes the costal
streaks are faintly dark mai'gined. ( The
description does not mention dorsal streaks,
because there are none.)

Apex dusted dark brown on a white ground.

Now, how Prof. Frey, on these two descriptions, and with a specimen
oi Argentinotella before him, but none of ulmella, that being his only
means of comparing the species, could conceive them to be the same, we
can not conceive. But it Avas worse even than this, though this shows

Prof. Frey, and some American Tcneina. 205

reckless carelessness in comparing the descriptions. The cylindrical
larva and tentiform mine of Argentinotella were unknown until I pub-
lished them, on p. 148, Can. Ent., about the middle of the page, and
on tliat same page, toward the bottom, so near together that he could
not cast his eye upon one description without seeing the other, and
only separated from each other by a few lines on the species L. basistri-
gella, Clem., mentioning its tentiform mine and cylindrical larva, is my
account of L. ulmella, and its flat larva and mine, and the statement
that it resembled L. basistrigella, the next preceding species. Professor
Fi-ey got his account of ulmella, and his account of the mine and larva
of L. argentinotella from that source, for they have never been pub-
lished elsewhere, and yet he gives idmella as a synonym of Argrntino-
tella! Is this the sort of European natural history which American
naturalists are invited to follow, instead of their "brevity," "defective-
ness," and "confusion?" In one place the Professor expresses some
astonishment that he Avas not able to recognize two of his species in
any of our descriptions. After such work as this, the wonder would
seem to be that he ever succeeded in recognizing anything.

The next species which Prof. Frey mentions, he thinks, is a varietv
of the European L. trifasciella, having "one more white hook" than
the European species has ; but he does not tell us where the white
hook may be found. I have already suggested the probability that
L. consimilella, Frey, is L. tritcenicdla, Cham., and, beside, Z'. trifasciella
is already too strongly marked for tritcenicdla, and as the mine of
consimiella is unknown, it is more likely to be iritcenicella, which mines
the iron wood, Oystra virginica, on the upper side of the leaf, than it is
to be trifasciella, which, like its European namesake, mines the leaves
of honeysuckles (Lonicera sempervirens). I therefore concur with
Professor Frey, that the species here described by him may be a
mere variety of the European L. trifasciella. But if so, it has, prob-
ably, but recently arrived in this country, and has not as vet spread
far, like Pieris rapce, among the butterflies ; for faithful searchings of
all sorts of honeysuckles, in the Middle and Southern States, has wholly
failed to furnish me a lepidopterous mine, though I have found a dip-
terous one abundant.

The next of Prof. Fre}''s species, Avhich he calls L. ignofa, is probably
L. helianthisella, Cham., very similar to L. amhrosicella, Cham. I
think there can be little-doubt of this. L. helianthisella was bred by
me in the spring of 187^, and described, as one among many species ,
in a MS. furnished early in 1873 to the editors of the Can. Ent.,
and which has since been appearing in that periodical, as their space
will admit. Professor Frey does not 'describe liis next species, which

206 Pi'of. Frey, and some American Teneina.

he calls L. Bos'onica, otherwise than by pointing out some minute
points, wherein it seems to differ from the species just mentioned ; these,
I think, there are not specific differences, and as to the difference of
size, there is something about that which is curious, though not, I
think, of specific value. I have frequently, both bred from the mines
and captured minute species of L. omatella, Cham., and L. crataigellu,
Clem. ; these little specimens are not more than one half as long as
those of the ordinary size, and differed from them only in size, and in
having the colors less brilliant, more deadened, so to speak. The
mines from which I bred them were the ordinary forms of the mines
of those species, both in form or size.

The next species, L. auronittns, Frey, we are unable to recognize in
any American species.

Prof. Frey then proceeds to what he calls the Acacia feeding species
of Lithocolletis. He must, however, use the word acacia only in a
very wide sense, since the European micro, L. stednensis, which he
seems to consider one of the group, mines leaves of Alnus (elder).
We know of no species feeding on acacia proper, though all the
species referred to feed on species of Robinla, Desmodlum, Amphi-
carpeoe and Lespedczia, closely related Leguminous \Aimi^, except Stetin-
ensis. The first species mentioned in this group, is called, by Prof. Frey,
L. omatella, Cham., and he states that " the mines of the Acacia have
caused him (the Professor) great cudgeling of his head," "while he has
unfortunately arrived at no definite conclusion," whilst the American
entomologists, as to these, find themselves in a "wonderful confusion ;''
"which, however, could be ended in one summer easy." He states that
one species (what species ?) was left at Cambridge, and two others were
reared at Zurich, one of which reminds him of L. stednensis, and which,
from his short notes, must be L. ornetella, Cham.; and another, which is
clearly Parrectcpa rohinieVa, Clem., for which the Professor attempts,
unjustifiably, to substitute the mine Lithocolletis gemmea, Frey. Now,
noticing each of these points in the Professor's notice of L. ornatdla,
and Prohiniella, we ask why does the Professor add the [?] to the
noun L. omatella, Cham.? If it was because of a doubt whether it
really was ornatella, the slightest reference to the description of that
species in the Canadian Entomologist ought to have satisfied him that
it was the same, and if it did not, then we assure him, from his own
notes on the species, that it was L. ornatella, C^ham. If it was from a
doubt whether L. omatella, Cham., is not a synonym for the European
species, L. stetinensis, we can assure him that if the account and figure
of stetinensis, plate 5, vol. ii., of Nat. Hist. Tin., edited by Mr. Stainton,
Professor Frey, and others, is at 'all correct, ornatella is a very differ-

T?rof. Frey^ and some American Teneina. 207

ent insect. It differs as follows : If Mr. Stainton's surmise, before
mentioned, is correct, viz., that the flat larva is not found in Europe,
then the larva of stetinensis must be cylindrical, while that of ornafella
is flat. Sletinensis mines alder leaves, and the mines, as figured loc. cit,
differ decidedly from those of ornatella, in the leaves of black, and
flowering locust trees (^Rohinia pseudaccia and R. Hinpida'), which are
smooth, placed indifferentl}' on either the upper or the under surface
of the leaves, which are not folded nor creased in any way by then:.
L. stetinensis passes the pupa state in the mine, at least I judge so from
Mr. Stainton's statement, the L: helianthum, H. Sch., was the only
species hitherto known which leaves the mine to pupate ; ornatella
leaves the mine to pupate. Stetinensis has the tip of theantense white,
ornatella has it of the same brown hue with the remainder thereof.
Stetinensis has a median basal white streak on the forewings, which is
wanting in the forewings of ornatella. Sletinensis has one more dorsal
white streak than ornatella (the one nearest the apex of the forewings).
The costal and dorsal spots have not relatively to each other the same
position in the two species. In our judgment these are more than sufii-
cient differences to base new species on ; in addition thereto, stetinensis
has a black spot at the apex of the wings, and ornatella has none. In
what confusion are American Micro-Lepidopterists about all this ? None
whatever. The confusion, if it exists at all, is all in the Professor's
own thoughts, and so it ought to be, after the tremendous head cudgel-
ing he seems to have given himself about it. In fact, there ought to be
a high court of Entomology to determine how much cudgeling of the
head, or other punishment, an entomologist ought to suffer, who pro-
mulges such a disturbing element as this brochure, into waters as quiet
and placid as these were before Professor Frey got into them v/ith this
brochure. But such cudgeling as the Professor gives himself is hardly
adequate punishment for such riotous misconduct, entomologically
speaking, as a man is guilty of when he makes L. Argentinofella, Clem.,
synonymous with L. ulmella, Chambers, or when he publishes new
descriptions, and new names for half a dozen old insects, and makes
confusion worse confounded by such comments as the Professor makes
on P. rohiniella, Clem. But, jesting apart. This little pamph-
let has put more confusion into American micro-lepidopterology, than
everything else put together that has ever been written on the subject.
Mr. Stainton, somewhere in his edition of the Clemens' papers, states
that he had determined not to publish anything on this subject until
it had first passed through the hands of American Micro-Lepidopterists
(or something to that effect, I can not now refer to the passage) — the
value of the result of such a course is evident in Mr. Sainton's edition

208 P^'oj. Frey, and some American Teneina.

of the Clemens' papers; and the utter confusion which must result
from a repetition of such brochures as this of Professor Frey, is equally
as evident to all.

But we repeat, where is the confusion about L. ornalella? The
whole history of it is given in Can. Ent., vol. iii., pp. 8, 54, 161, 182,
and 205. It will there be seen that the larva was first known to
Dr. Fitch, who, however, wrongfully attributed to it the mine of
L. rohinieUa, Clem., and got the larva and mine confused with some
species of Anacampsis, but he knew nothing of any Lithocolletisornatella.
That was confusion. Next Dr. Clemens incorrectly denied that there
was any such mine, and determnied properly that the larva was one of
the flat Lifhocallctis group, which he had not met with, and did not
believe it existed on the locust, and that the mine was that of L. rohin-
ieUa, Clem. Still I admit there was confusion, though less of it.
Then I found on the leaves both the larva described by Dr. Fitch,
each in its proper mine, and bred L. ornatella from one, and L. rohinidla
from the other. Thus, L. ornatella has been made known in all of its
stages and habits. Where, then, is the confusion? And it has since
been bred hundreds of times from other nearly allied plants, as well
as from locust leaves.

The next locust miner is one of which Prof. Frey says little more
than that he thinks he has found it (or its mines) among Mr. Bollo's
material, viz.: Lithocollelis rohinieUa, Clem., subsequently described by
Dr. Fitch, Avho also described as dififerent species three micros much
like it, all of which, however. Dr. Clemens, and I since him, after
rearing multitudes from their mines in locust leaves ( Rohinia pse^ulac-
acia and R. hisjnda), both on the upper and under sides, and from
JDesmodium and allied genera have concluded to be new varieties of
L. rohinieUa. Where, then, is the confusion about this species ?

Dcpressaria rohinieUa, Packard, has never been considered doubtful.
Neither has GelecliiapseudaccacieUa, Cham. But little is known about
these two species beyond the description. I have mentioned (Can.
Ent., vol. iii., p. 87) a Gelechia like larvae, dwelling in a tube of
"frass," which it had constructed inside of the mines of L. rohinieUa,
and which, as they are not the larvoe of G. pseudaccaciella, must be the
larvse of some new species ; and I have occasionally observed Galechia
larvffi swinging by thin little threads from locust leaves, which may be
the same with the tube dwellers above mentioned ; and, at all events,
is the larvse of an unknown species. Gracilaria desmodifoliella feeds
on leaves of desmodium. Its life history is known, and there is no
confusion about it. These are the only micro larvse feeding on locust
leaves yet made known (except the two next mentioned below), and

Prof. Frcy, and some American Teneina. 209

although the imago has not been bi'ed from either of the hist named
larvae, yet there is no confusion about them, and the whole matter is
understood, and the life history has been given of all the described
species. The only other species which mine the leaves of the above
mentioned plants are the Parrectopa rohiniclla, Clem., and F.
Icsjjedeztcfoliella, Clem. Prof. Frey, by giving a new description and
a new name, tries to throw some doubts over the question, whether
an insect bred by him from locust leaves was the P. rohiniella, Clem.
But to every one familiar with the insect and its habits it is evidentlv
the same, and LithocoUetis gemynea, Frey, can not supplant Parrectopa
rohiniella, Clem. There is not the slightest confusion about the insect,
it is all about the name. Prof. Frey calls it L. geonmca, because of there
being already one L. robiniella. If this insect is transferred to Lithocol-
letis, it must drop its specific name, rohiniella, and Prof. Frey gives it
a new one, viz. : LithocoUetis gemmea, Frey. If Dr. Clemens was
right in creating a new genus for it, then the name that he gave it
stands Parrectopa rohiniella, Clem. If, as I think, the insect belongs
to Gracilaria, then it is properly Gracilaria rohiniella, Clem. To us
it seems to have no very great relationship to LithocoUetis, for the fol-
lowing reasons : Dr. Clemens, as well as myself, was well acquainted
with the mind, larvse and imago, and it never occurred to either of us
that it was with any projiriety a LithocoUetis. Prof. Frey does not
know the mine or larva. Dr. Clemens, seeing that it would not be
placed in LithocoUetis, and that it did not belong in Gracilaria, as he
seems to have restricted that genus, viz., to Zeller's section A of it,
found no alternative but to erect a new genus, Parrectopa, for it — limit-
ing Gracilaria to Zeller's section A, but receiving it, as it is generallv
understood (a not altogether homogenous genus which the time had
not yet come to divide into other genera), I saw no imp]'opriety in
placing it in that genus, from many of the smaller species of which it
does not difter generically. The same characters which show that it
does not belong in LithocoUetis, show that it does belong in Gracila-
ria (unrestricted, though not in the Gracilaria of Dr. Clemens, that
is section A of Zeller). Now, the fact is, that there is scarcely any-
thing in common between this species (and P. lespedezwfoliella must go
with it) and a true LithocoUetis. The mine is unlike that of any Litho-
coUetis, so is the larvae, which is much more like that of a Gracilaria.
It has a habit, like some Gracilaria, of retreating and hiding along the
midriff of the leaf, so that the mine seems to be empty. It has the
habit, like many Gracilaria, and like no LithocoUetis (unless Dr.
Clemens' suggestion about L. crata'gella, Clem., is correct) of leaving
an old mine and making a new one in another leaf, and unlike all

210 Prof. Frey^ and some American Teneina.

LilhocoUetis, except L.ornatelht, Cham.,andL. helianthemeUa, H. S., it
leaves the mine to pupate, as do most species of Gracilaria. Then, when
we come to the imago, the tuft on the vertex is much more like the long,
loose scales, which slightly roughen the head of some species of Gracila-
ria, than it is like the erect tuft of Litliocolletis. Dr. Clemens was
mistaken in the statement that it has no maxillary palpi ; they are dis-
tinct, though small, as they are in some small species of Gracilaria,
but both the maxillary and labial palpi differ in form and appearance
from the palpi of Lithoeolletis, being more like those of some small
Gracilaria. The form of the head is more like Gracilaria, and, above
all, the form and neuration of both the fore and hind wings are those
of a Gracilaria, and not at all those of Lithoeolletis. Hence, I think I
am right in placing it in Gracilaria, as generally received, though per-
haps not in Gracilaria as restricted by Dr. Clemens. Certainly it can
never be properly placed in Lithoeolletis. Where, then, is this wonder-
ful confusion which the Professor tells the American Micro-Lepidopter-
ists are in, and about which he gave his unfortunate head that terrible
cudgeling ? If it exists at all, it is only on the question whether the
name of this last species (there is no trouble about the insect) should
stand Parrectopa robiniella, Clem., or Gracilaria robinidla, Clem, —
Lithoeolletis gemmca, Frey, is frayed out.

The only remaining species mentioned by Prof. Frey in this genus,
is L. cenigmatella, Frey, which seems to be not in all respects a
Lithoeolletis. I do not recognize any form known to me in this descrip-
tion-.

The Professor then proceeds to the genus Tischeria, of which he thinks
that he bred five species : ten from oak leaves, and one each from the
apple, one from rubus (blackberry), and one from rose leaves. As to
these, all we can say is, that, as to the oak-feeding Tischeria, the less
said the better, until some one will study carefully the whole life
history of this group. There is more confusion already about this
group than about all the species of Gracilaria and Lithoeolletis in the
United States, although the described species do not amount to more
than one tithe of either of the other genera. We think it very proba-
ble that entomology would be better off to-day, if Dr. Clemens, I, and
Prof. Frey had entirely omitted all notice of the oak-feeding species of
Tischeria. As to the species bred from the apple, rubus and rose, I
believe that it is only one species, T. Malifoliella, Clem., under three
names ; the other two names, T. cenea, Frey, and T. roseticala, Frey,
being added for the same species when feeding on the rubus and the
rose. As early as 1871 (Can. Eut., vol. iii., p. 28), I mentioned the
fact that T. Malifoliella, Clem., fed on the blackberry (rnhns villosns)

Monograph of the Lamcllihranchiata. 211

and the raspberry {B. occidentaUs) , as well as upon the apple, haw
(cratc^gus) , sweet-scented crab (Pi/rns coronaria), and added the remark,
it also probably fed on other rosacece, and now Prof, Frey has bred it
from the rose. Are we to have a distinct name for an insect every
time it is discovered feeding on a new plant ? I have not seen the
rose-feeding species, but we have seen no reason whatever for con-
sidering the sjDecies bred from the rose, as in any way specifically
distinct from those bred from the apple, haw, and pear. Lithocolletis
cratcRgella, Clem., affords a parallel case. Dr. Clemens observed that
it fed on the halv (cratcegus) and wild cherry (Frimtts serotind), and I
have recorded it from crakegus, Pyrus coronaia, quince (cydonia vul-
garis) and the flowering or Japan quince {Cydonia- japonica). I do
not know but that it would be better to check the species-makers, by
writing in advance, Tischria craicegella, T. pyriella, L. prunidla, L.
pyrieUa^ L. cydoniella, and L. japonicella, according to the plants
they are bred from respectively, and calling them phytophagie varieties.
No, that will not do, for they are not even varieties, otherwise than in
their food.

Monograph of the Lamcllihranchiata of the Cincinnati Group.

(By S. A. Miller.)

This class is known by several names. The oldest name, "Bivalvla,'
of Linnaeus, under the rules adopted by the English naturalists thirty
years ago, takes precedence over all other names ; but on account of
its liability to mislead, as brachiopods are bivalves, it has not been
very generally adopted. Cuvier called the class Acephala, and La-
marck called it Conchifera, and their names are adopted by many
naturalists. Blainville, in 1814, described the class as LamellibrancJd-
ata, and from its seeming appropriateness it has come into very gen-
eral use in this countr^.

I have borrowed the descriptions of the class and the orders from
British Palaeozoic Rocks, by McCoy ; but I have not attempted to
put the genera in the families to which they belong. McCoy and
Woodward have placed the genus Amhonychia in the family Aviculidce,
and I presume for the same reasons they would put Megamhonia and
Anomalodonta in that family. But these genera seem to me to have
a closer affinity w'ith MijaUna and other genera belonging to the Mgii-
lldce, than they have with the Aviculidce. One can not help being
struck with the resemblance between the hinge line of the Myalina
subqiiadrata and that of the Anomalodonta gigantea. It is quite prob-

212 Monograph of the Lamellibranchiata.

able, however, that these equivalve shells, with a large byssus, belong
to neither of these families, but to some other family. The fact is,
that, until quite recently, but little attention was paid to the internal
structure of Lower Silurian shells belonging to this class, and conse-
quently but little was known of their fami^ly relations. The hinge
lines of the Avicnla, Amhonycliia, CijpricanUtes and Tellinomya, have
been known for only a few years; the hinge line of Anodontopsis, if it
be the hinge line of that genus, was first figured in the Ohio Pale-
ontology, in 1873; and within the present year I have figured and
described,, for the first time, the hinge lines of the Anomalodonta, Mo-
diolopsis and Cijcloconcha ; while we are yet wholly ignorant of the
hinge lines and internal structure of the Oriho)iota, Cleidophorm, and
other genera, and numerous species, belonging to tliis class, and found
within the Cincinnati Group.

FoT these reasons [and the further fact that I have not had the time
to devote to the study of the generic affinities of these shells, necessary
. to trace out their relations, or to throw any particular light on the sub-
ject], I have omitted the arrangement of the genera into families, in
this monograph. It is a matter of very grave doubt whether any per-
son is justified in describing a species, when he finds it necessary to
follow the generic name with an interrogation point, and especially
from a mere cast, and there can be no doubt that he is wholly inex-
cusable for attempting to arrange genera into families without full con- »
fidence in the correctness of the classification.

I have described one new genus (Cycloconcha) , and two new species,
for this monograph, and have omitted to include any species about the
existence of which, in the Cincinnati Group, I entei-tain any doubt.
It is not a diflicult thing to find casts that we are unable to specifically
identify, but to give each of them a name, or to call them by the
names of the casts that have been figured from New York, Canada, or
elsewhere, from a slight resemblance merely to the engravings, would
not add anything to our knowledge of the science, but would rather
be a stumbling block in the way of advancement, consequently, I have
omitted them. It is an indisputable fact, however, that several new
species will be added to this list, either by new descriptions or by
future identification with those already described elsewhere.

Class Laviellibranchiata — (Bl AIN ville) .

This class has two shelly valves, placed at right angles to their
position in the Palliobranchiata, one valve being, applied to each side ;

Monograph of the LamcUihrancliiitta. 213

they are connected by a ligament, -within which is an elastic substance,
termed cartilage, which forces the valves open ; the valves are closed
in the lower groups by one central adductor muscle, and in the higher
types by two or more. Respiration (as the name implies) is effected
by lamellar branchire, or gills, which are four, crescent shaped, and
attached to the inside of the mantle ; one pair on each side of the
visceral mass. Each valve is lined by a lobe of the mantle, and the
attachments of the muscular fibers, for retracting its edges,' form the
pallial scar in the shell ; in the low types the lobes are open and dis-
connected, as in the Palliohranchs, and there is little or no foot ; in the
higher types the edges of the two lobes are united posteriorly, and
produced into two tubular siphons ; one branchial, through Avhich the
water enters to the gills, and carrying nutrient particles to the mouth ;
the other anal, through which the impure water constantly flows out,
the currents in each case jjroduced by vibratile cilire ; the attachments
of the line of muscular fibers for retracting the siphon form the
"pallial sinus" in the shell of such as have the siphons. The animal
is without head or cephalic organs of sense ; the mouth is at the
anterior end, without organs of mastication, having two strap-shaped,
sensitive tentacles on each side, the upper pair of which correspond, on
a reduced scale, with the spiral arms of the Brachiopoda ; the lower
pair (which equal the upper in size)' are analogous to the transverse
brachial, fringed part below the mouth in the same ; a short oesophagus
leads into a pear-shaped stomach, leading to a convoluted intestine,
the straight terminal portion, or rectum, perforating the heart and
terminating at the base of the anal siphon, or over the posterior
adductor. The liver is a large follicular mass, enveloping the stomach ;
a glandular mass, partially surrounding the rectum, is called kidney,
by Owen, from uric acid having been found in it, but is marked ovary
by Milne Edwards (both agree that the ovary in the female and testis
in the male surrounds the intestine). The foot, when it exists, is a
symmetrical, fleshy, extensile organ, developed from the ventral
aspect of the body ; the enveloping muscular fibers are transverse, tlie
action of which protrudes the foot, and longitudinal, the action of
which retracts it. In the lower bivalves (jnonomyaria), the heart is of
a single auricle, and one ventricle, perforated by the rectum ; in the
higher groujxs (Dhnyaria), the veins from the gills open into two
auricles, which open into one fusiform ventricle, perforated by the
intestine (in Area the ventricle is double). An artery from each end
of the ventricle distributes the blood. Nerves — in the monomyaria the
principal ganglion is on the ventral convex edge of the adductor, to
which it sends branches, as well as to the gills and mantle ; two

214 Monograph of the LamelUhranchiata.

yellow filameiits extend to the mouth, where anothei' pair of ganglia
supply the tentacles, and give off a delicate ring round the oesophagus.
In the Diinyaria the main pair of ganglia (branchial) are at the under
edge of the posterioi* adductor, sending, as before, cords to the supra-
03sophageal ganglia, between the mouth and the anterior adductor ;
numerous other small ganglia are developed in various positions.
Healing — Cycla^ has at the anterior part of the labial tentacles a cavity,
with a cretaceous, oscillating nucleus, considered by Dr. Siebold to be
the ear. Sight — Peden has numerous small eyes round the edge of
the mantle, but most of the types are blind. Developnent — the
spermatic filaments discharged from the males are drawn in by the
branchial currents of the females. The young, or embryo, of the
dimyarian genus Anodon, have only a single adductor, as in the
monoiHT/aria, and possess a byssus. The shells are extra-vascular, of an
external cellular or fibrous and a thin internal nacreous layer, form-
ing the hinge teeth. ' .

This class is divided into three orders: 1st. Pletiroconcha ; 2d.
Isedrolotila ; 3d. MacrotYachia.

Order Pleuroconcha — (D'Orb) .

Shell inequivalve, unsymmetrical. Animal unsymmetrical ; lobes
of the mantle disunited, never forming siphonal tubes ; pallial impres-
sion consequently entire. Natural position — resting on the side.

They are fixed to foreign bodies, either by a byssus or by the sub-
stance of the lower valve ; the shells in the latter case being remarka-
ble for the irregularity of their growth.

This order contains the following families: 1st. Anomiida- ; 2d.
Ostreidce; od. Etheridcc ; 4th. Chamidce; 5th. Spondylidie ; 6th.
Pectinictce; 7th. Aviculidce, etc.

The family Avicididce (wing shells) is described as follows :

Shell inequivalve, very oblique, resting on the smaller (right)
valve, and attached by a byssus ; epidermis indistinct ; outer layer
prismatic, cellular ; interior, nacreous ; posterior muscular imj)ressiou
large, subcentral, anterior small, within the umbo ; pallial line irreg-
ularly dotted ; hinge line straight, elongated ; umbones anterior,
eared, the posterior ear wing-like ; cartilage contained in one or several
gi-ooves ; hinge edentulous, or obscurely toothed.

The genus Avkula belongs to this family.

Order, Isedrolotila — (McCoy).
Shell equivalve, symmetrical ; animal, having the mantle usually

Monograph of the LameUihrancJiiata. 215

opeti throughout, not forming siphons ; the pallial impression always
simple and entire ; two or more muscular impressions in each valve.

The order contains the following families: 1. Limidce ; 2. 3Iytilida:
3. Arcadce ; 4. NucuUdce ; 5. Trigoniidce ; 6. Unionidce ; 7. Lucinidce. ;
8. CycIasidcB ; 9. Cyprinidai; 10. Astartidce ; 11. Tridacnidcc ; 12. Car-
diidce, etc.

The fliuiily Mytilidce is described as follows : Shell elongate, oval,
narrow in front, "widening posteriorly, more or less closed (equivalve,
pallial impression entire), cartilage very long, marginal or nearly so,
supported by an internal plate nearly parallel with the hinge line ;
beaks close to the anterior end or terminal ; two or three muscular im-
pressions in each valve. Animal: mantle more or less open; gills
fringed or entire ; mouth with appendages ; foot narrow, tongue-
shaped, with a fibrous bygsus at its base, to attach the shell to foreign
bodies, having a small sinus in the anterior part of the ventral margin,
from which an oblique, impressed furrow extends toward thq beak, de-
fining the anterior lobe.

The genera Modiolopm, Cyp'ieardltes, etc., belong to this family.

The family Trigonidcc is described as follows : Shell equivalve, close,
trigonal, with the umbones directed posteriorly ; ligament external ;
interior nacreous ; hinge teeth few, diverging ; pallial line simple.

The genus Lyrodesma belongs to this family.

Genus Avicida, Klein — (Bruguire).

[Etym. — Avicula, a little bird.]

Shell obliquely oval, very inequivalve ; right valve with a byssal
sinus beneath the anterior ear ; cartilage pit single, oblique ; hinge
with one or tw'O small cardinal teeth, and an elongated posterior tooth,
often obsolete; posterior muscular impression (adductor and pedal)
large, sub-central ; anterior (pedal scar) small, umbonal.

Avicula demissa — (Conrad, 1842).

Obliquely subovate, compressed, extended posteriorly into a broad,
triangular wing ; anterior wing short, obtuse ; surface marked by close,
sharp, imbricating, lamellose strias ; posterior wing extending beyond
the line of the posterior extremity of the shell ; anterior and posterior
margins nearly parallel, and but slightly obli(jue.

It is characterized by the sharp elevated concentric striaj, which are
crowded together on the posterior wing, and at its junction with the
body of the shell.

216 Monograph of the Lamellibranchiaia.

9

This species has not been observed by me below about 200 "feet
above low water-mark. From this point it is found throughout the
blue limestone to the Upper Silurian, into which it probably joasses.
The convex valve is a common fossil, and is found showing the interior
side about as frequently as the exterior. A specimen showing both
valves is, however, quite rare. It is very much larger in the upper
part of the Cincinnati Group than it is in the lower part or about the
city of Cincinnati. Specimens are found about Richmond, Indiana,
four inches or more in length, and the same may be said of it at other
places.

Avicula hisjieta — (Conrad, 1842).

Shell obliquely subrhombnidal, depressed, convex ; hinge line ex-
tended ; anterior wing short, obtuse or rounded ; posterior wing tri-
angular, acute, extending a little beyond the margin of the shell;
surface marked by unequal concentric striae and stronger wrinkles,
and longitudinally, along the middle of the shell, by obscure radii.

It is found at all elevations about Cincinnati higher than 200 feet
above low water-mark. Hanng a frail shell ; good specimens are not
common.

Genus 3Iodiolopsis — (Hall, 1847).

Character, equivalve, inequilateral, elongated, becoming broader pos-
teriorly ; umbones near the anterior extremity, which is marked by a
single, strong, muscular impression, as in modiola. A sinus often
extends from the anterior side of the umbones obliquely backward,
leaving the anterior portion separated as a kind of lobe. Surface
marked by fine concentric striae ; shell thin.

One of the most prominent characters is the strong muscular im-
pression, which is close to the anterior margin : this is often visible in
the shell, forming a little circumscribed elevation, and more conspic-
uous in the cast, where it is usually well i)reserved. There is often a
slight contraction or sinus below, or posterior to, the umbones, but this
is not always conspicuous. The shells of this genus are, for the most
part, smooth, or marked only by fine concentric lines, indicating the
laminae of the shell, and they are generally free from angular ridges.

Modiohpsis modiolaris — (Conrad).
[See page 149, April No. of this Journal.]

Modiolopsis Versaillesensis — (S. A. Miller.)

[See page 150, April No. of this Journal.]

3Ionograpli of the LamcUihranchiata. 217

Modiolopsis anodontoides — (Conead ) .

General figure subelliptical, very convex ; beak elevated, with a
strong angular ridge extending to the posterior basal margin ; cardinal
margin nearly straight; posterior extremity obliquely truncated ; base
contracted just below or a little posterior to the beak ; surface marked
by strong concentric striae ; length a little more than twice the height.
It is readily recognized by its great umbonical elevation, and the prom-
inent oblique cai'ina extending from the beak to the posterior basal
extremity.

This species was placed by Conrad in the genus Cypricardites, and
removed by Hall into the genus Modiolopsis, where I have left it, for
want of knowing the hinge line and internal structure. It is most
likely, however, that it belongs to neither of these genera.

It is found opposite the foot of Fifth street, in Kentucky, and oppo-
site the mouth of the Little Miami river. Its range, so far as is
known, is limited between low water-mark and 200 feet above. It is
not common, by any means.

' Modiolopsis tnincatus — (Hall, 1847).

Oblique, transverse, subtrapezoidal ; the cardinal and basal mar-
gins diverging fi*om the anterior extremity, convex ; beaks near the
anterior extremity, with an obscure elevated ridge extending obliquely
to the base ; posterior extremity obliquely truncate ; muscular impres-
sion very distinct, a little in advance of the beaks, and at the anterior
extremity, in the cast, projecting beyond the margin.

It differs from 31. modiolaris, in that it is proportionally broader ; the
beaks are closer to the anterior extremity, while the muscular impres-
sion seems to be placed upon the very margin of the shell.

The shell of this species is unknown.

It is found at the quarries back of Cincinnati, from 300 to 450 feet
above low water-mark. Its exact range is unknown, and good casts
are very rare.

Modiolopsis termincdis — (Hall, 1847).

Subcylindrical, elongated, very gradually expanding from the ante-
rior extremity ; beaks subacute, near the anterior extremity ; surface
smooth, or with fine concentric stride.

In the perfect shell the beaks extend nearly, or quite, as far as the
line of the anterior margin.

This fossil has only been found as a cast, and it is by no means cer-

218 Monograph of the Lamellihranchiata.

tain that it belongs to the genus Modiolopsis. It is very scarce, a good
specimen ornamenting but few cabinets. It is occasionally found at
the quarries back of Cincinnati, from 300 to 450 feet above low water-
mark.

Genus Cypricardites — (Conrad).

[See page 147, April No. of this Journal.]

Cypricardites Hainesi — (S. A. Miller.)

[See page 147, April No. of this Journal.]

Since this description was Avritten, I have spent two days at Rich-
mond, Indiana, and succeeded in finding valves with the cardinal teeth
preserved. There are two cardinal teeth (at t, Fig. 13), rather obtuse,
width a little greater than the length.

Cypricccrdites Sterlingensis — (Meek and Worthen).

Shell obliquely rhoraboidal, or rhombic subcordate, being cordate
in outline as seen in an anterior or posterior view, and more or less
rhomboidal as seen from either side. Posterior margin very obliquely
truncated, Avith a long slope ; posterior basal extremity produced and
very narrowly rounded ; basal margin ascending forward with a mod-
erately convex curve, and rounding upward into the very short, more
or less rounded, anterior margin. Hinge line short, ranging at an angle
of about 45 to 50 degrees from the umbonal axis. Umbonal ridges
very prominent, or subangular, from the posterior side of the beaks
obliquely backward and downward to the posterior basal extremity ;
area above and behind this ridge, flattened in each valve ; and that
below arid in front of it more or less convex. Surface unknown.
Posterior muscular impression large, nearly circular, faintly marked,
and placed near the middle of the posterior truncated margin. An-
terior muscular scar smaller, more oval, and placed nearly against the
anterior margin.

liength, measuring obliquely from the most prominent part of the
front to the posterior basal extremity, 2.14 inches ; height at right
angles to the hinge, 1.75 inches ; convexity, 1.25 inches.

Found in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, at Richmond,
Indiana.

Cypricai'ditesf carinata — (Meek).

Shell small, rhombic-cordate, very convex along the oblique umbonal
slopes, posterior margin apparently obliquely truncated ; posterior basal

Monograph of the Lamcllihrancldata. 219.

extremity more or less angular in outline; basal margin rounding and
ascending obliquely forward from the posterior basal angle ; anterior
side extremely short, or with its margin descending and curving back" .
ward into the base from immediately in front of the beaks; hinge line
short, and a little inflected, so as to form a kind of small area or
escutcheon behind the beaks ; beaks prominent, rather oblique, nearly
terminal, strongly incurved or subspiral, and distinctly compressed
anterio-posteriorly. so as to be sharply keeled on top, the keel being
continued as a less angular iimbonal ridge backward and downward to
the posterior basal extremity; flanks in front of the umbonal ridge
evenly convex, Avhile the space above and behind it, near the beaks, is
somewhat concave. Surface only shov,'iug obscure traces of lines of
growth. (Hinge and interior unknown.)

Length, measuring obliquely from the posterior basal angle to the
most prominent part of^the umbonal keels, 0*65 inch ; anterio-posterior
diameter, measuring parallel to the hinge line (the specimen being
defective behind), 0*40 inch; convexity of the united valves, 0*50
inch ; length of hinge about 0'30 inch.

Found near the top of the hills back of Cincinnati. Range un-
known.

Sedgwickiaf fragllis — (Meek).

«
Shell rather small, apparently very thin, longitudinally oblong or

suboval, rather distinctly convex along the umbonal slopes from the
beaks toward the posterior basal margin, and down near the anterior
side, while just under the beaks a rather strongly marked impression
descends, widening and deepening as it approaches the base; basal
margin subparallel in its general outline to the dorsal, but diverging
more or less j^osteriorly, where it is most prominent, while it is rather
distinctly sinuous toward the front ; posterior margin wider than the an-
terior, and more or less truncated; anterior extremity very short, and
rounded, or somewhat truncated; hinge line straight, and shorter than
the entire length of the valves, apparently very slightly inflected behind
the beaks, which are raised a little above the cardinal margin, incurved,
contiguous, flattened on the outer sides, and placed near the antei'ior
end, with a slight forward inclination. Surface ornamented with mod-
erately distinct lines, and irregular minute wrinkles of growth.

Found at the quarries back of Cincinnati, about 350 feet above low
water-mark. Range unknown.

o^

Sedgivickia f coin2)ressa — (IVIeek) .
Shell longitudinally oval, compressed, about one fourth longer than

220 Monograph of the Lamellihranchiata.

high, cuneate posteriorly, and more convex in the central and anterior
regions, with a slight concavity descending from the beak to the base
of each valve; posterior margin regularly rounded; base straight, and
parallel to the cardinal margin in the middle, and rounding up to the
anterior and posterior margins; anterior side short, rounded or some-
what truncated, but apparently most prominent below ; hinge line
shorter than the valves, straight behind the beaks, but rounding into
the posterior margin at the extremity, erect behind, with some appear-
ance of a narrow space for an external ligament farther forward ; beaks
about one fourth the length of the valves from the anterior margin,
raised a little above the cardinal margin, nearly contiguous, but not
much incurved. Surface of a cast, that seems to be a little weathered
or smoothed by attrition, showing obscure marks of growth. Length,
0-77 inch; height, 059 inch; convexity, 0'29 inch.

Found at the quarries back of Cincinnati, about 350 feet above low
water-mark. Range unknown.

Scdgwiclda (^Grammy da?) N'eghcki — (Meek).

Shell transversely ovate, about one third longer than high, rather
distinctly compressed, most convex and most elevated in the central
and umbonal regions, and compressed-cuneate behind ; anterior margin
rounding from the lower end of the lunule into the base, which forms
a nearly semi-oval curve, its most prominent part being near the mid-
dle ; cardinal margin apparently straight, and declining posteriorly
from the beaks ; posterior margin rather narrowly rounded ; beaks
moderately prominent, and scarcely one third the length of the valves
from the anterior margin. Surface ornamented with regular, distinct,
but not very prominent concentric costie, that become suddenly obso-
lete on the posterior third of the valves. Lunule narrow, but sharply ^
defined.

Length, about 1-04 inch; height, 0*67 inch ; convexity about 0-.35
inch.

Found in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, in Clinton county.

ft

Cardiomorpha f f ohiiquata — (Meek).

Shell small, rhombic-cordate, veiy convex, higher than long ; pos-
terior margin sloping rather abruptly, and subtruncate, or a little con-
vex in outline from the posterior extremity of the hinge to the pos-
terior basal extremity, which is more or less angular, or narrowly
rounded; basal margin short, nearly straight or a little convex from

Monograpli of the Lamellihranclnata. 221

the posterior basal extremity to the front ; anterior margin short or
truncated from immediately in front of the beaks obliquely downward
and backward to the base, which it joins at an obtuse, slightly rounded
angle ; hinge line very short, ranging at an angle of about fifty degrees
to the umbonal axis, and apparently having its margins a little inflected
behind the beaks; beaks very prominent, oblique, nearly or quite ter-
minal, and strongly incurved ; posterior umbonal slopes subangular
near the points of the beaks, but becoming rounded below, while the
dorsal region between this and the hinge is a little concave ; anterior
umbonal slopes forming a kind of ridge, that extends at something less
than a right angle to the hinge to the anterior basal margin, tlie an,
teiior side, thus circumscribed, being somewhat flattened, and, as seen
from the front, presenting a cordate outline. Surfoce ornamented with
small, very regular, simple, concentric costie, that seem to be obsolete
on the anterior and posterior portions of the valves. (Hinge and
interior unknown).

Length parallel to the cardinal margin, about 0.45 inch; height,
at right angles to hinge, to the tops of the beaks, about 0.45 inch;
length, measuring from the points of the beaks obliquely, to the j)OS
terior basal extremity, 0.57 inch ; convexity, 0.39 inch.

Found near the top of the hills back of Cincinnati. Range un-
known.

Genus Orthoiiota — (Conead, 1841).
Shell elongated, margins parallel, umbones anterior, back plaited.

Orthonota jmrallela — (HAll, 1847).

Shell extremely elongated and very narrow ; anterior extremity
rounded, and contracted just forward of the beaks ; cardinal margin
straight or gently arched ; posterior extremity rounded, broader than
the anterior ; basal margin slightly arcuate ; beaks near the anterior
extremity having an obscure carina, extending obliquely toward, but
not reaching, the posterior basal margin ; surflxce marked by fine con-
centric strise, and a few oblique, strong wrinkles, along the dorsal
margin.

Width one third the length. In specimens embedded in shale, and
much compressed, the surface is regularly convex, and the oblique,
elevated carina, becomes obsolete. The cast is smooth, with scarcely
any evidence of the oblique folds on the cardinal margin.

This fossil is known only as a cast, which is by no means abundant.
It is found at the quarries about Cincinnati, but its range is not known.

222 Monograph of the LameUibranchiafa.

Orthonota contracta — (Hall, 1847).

Subcylindrical, slightly arcuated; beaks distinct, acute, with a
prominent oblique carina extending toward the posterior basal n rgin,
which is arcuated, and the shell much contracted below and p( lerior
to the beaks ; dorsal margin broad, rounded, the valves strongly
marked by oblique folds.

The base is arcuate, and distinctly contracted or sinuate a little be-
hind the beaks. It differs from 0. parallela, in having more acute
and distinct beaks, with cardinal margin broader.

This fossil is known only as a cast. It is scarce at the quarries, and
its range is unknown.

Orthonota pholadis — (Conead, 1838).

Shell profoundly elongated, ventricose ; dorsal and basal margins
parallel ; posterior side rugose, or with short undulations near the
dorsal margin. Length, If inches.

The form believed to belong to this species is quite rare at the quar-
ries back of Cincinnati, and is found only as a subcylindrical cast. It
range is not known.

«

'to

Genus Cleidophorus — (Hall, 1847).

\_Cleidophorus, in allusion to the clavicle in each valve, anterior to
the beak].

Shell equivalve, inequilateral ; hinge without teeth or crenulations ;
surface (particularly in casts), marked by an oblique linear depres-
sion, extending from the anterior cardinal margin toward the base,
indicating the place of the clavicle ; surface concentrically striated.

Cleidophorus fahida — (Hall, 1845). >

Shell minute, or very small, transversely subelliptic, mo derately
convex; extremities narrowly rounded, the anterior end being nar-
rower than the posterior ; basal mai'gin forming a broad semi-elliptic
curve ; beaks rather depressed, slightly tumid, and j^laced a little in
advance of the middle ; dorsal margin sloping gently from the beaks,
the anterior slope being rather less gradual than the other, and, in the
cast, a little concave in front of the beaks. Anterior muscular impres-
sions distinctly defined by the internal ridge, which leaves a rather
deep furrow just in advance of each beak in casts of the interior.

Length of a medium sized specimen, 0.06 inch ; heigiit, 0-03 inch ;
convexity about 0.02 inch.

Monograph of the LamelUhranchiata. 223

It is fouud from 300 feet above low water-mark, at Cincinnati, to
the top of the Cincinnati Group. It attains a much larger size in the
upper part of the Group at Versailles, Indiana, than it does in the
hills about Cincinnati.

Genus Amhonyclda — (Hall).

[See page 14, January Ko. of this Journal.]

AmhonycMa radiata — (Hall) .

[See page 15, January No. of this Journal.]

Amhony cilia bellisiriata — (Hall).

[See page 14, January No. of this Journal ]

* Amhonychia costata — (James).

[See page 15, January No. of this Journal.]

Genus Anomalodonta — (S. A. Miller).

[See page 16, January No. of this Journal.]

Anomalodonta gigantea — (S. A. Miller).

[See page 17, January No. of this .Journal.]

■ Anomalodonta alata — (Meek, 1872).

Shell attaining a moderately large size, subtrigonal in general out-
line, compressed posterio-dorsally, and more convex in the umbonal and
anterio-central regions ; umbonal slopes ranging at an angle of about
fifty degrees below the hinge' line, and broadly rounded ; hinge line
straight, very nearly or quite equaling the greatest anterio-posterior
diameter of the valves, and ranging nearly at right angles to the
anterior side of the same ; posterior alation very large, not separated
from the swell of the umbonal and central regions by any defined sul-
cus, slightly rounded at its immediate extremity above; posterior
margin faintly sinuous a little below its intersection with the hinge
margin above, thence sloping forward and downward, and finally
rounding into the regularly rounded base ; anterior side more or less

224 Monograph of the LamelUbranchiafa.

concave, and nearly vertical above, but rounding regularly into the
base below; beaks terminal, rather pointed, rising little ,bove the
hinge line, and directed a little obliquely upward and fc /ard, with
more or less inward curvature.

Surface marked by 24 to 28 simple, strong, radiating costa3 to each
valve, that are nearly equal in breadth to the furrows between ; those
on the central portions of the valves passing nearly straight from the
lieaks obliquely to the posterior basal margins, those on the anterior
side curving more or less forward below, and those near the cardinal
margin curving a little upward behind. Crossing all of these cost®
and the furrows between, are numerous fine crowded lines, and at
regular distant intervals, a few strongly defined imbricating marks of
growth that curve parallel to the basal and posterior margins.

Height, 2.30 inches; breadth, 2.20 inches; convexity, about 0.80
inch. Found near Freeport, Warren County, and in Clinton County,
Ohio.

Anomalodonta Cosd — (Meek and Worthen).

Shell trigonal, compressed, subequi valve, extremely inequilateral,
posterior side long, compressed and strongly alate ; the wing very large,
produced, pointed, and not separated from the alate posterior margin
by a distinctly defined sinus ; margin bebw the wing sloping ol>
liquely forward to the basal angle ; cardinal margin the longest part
of the shell, straight, and much compressed from immediately behind
the beaks ; anterior side truncated nearly vertically from the beaks,
about half way down the front, thence sloping slightly backward to
the basal angle ; basal margin produced downward, and terminating
in a distinct angle, slightly in advance of the middle. Umbonal slopes
very prominent, angular, or sometimes apparently bicarinate, straiglit,
and extending from the beaks, near the anterior margin, to the most
prominent part of the base, ranging at an angle of about sixty-five
degrees below the horizon of the hinge line, and provided with a longi-
tudinal sulcus below the middle of the valves. Beaks straight, rising
a little above the cardinal margin, and quite terminal. Surface orna-
mented with distinct, irregular, alternately larger and smaller thread-
like radiating strice, with less distinct concentric lines, and a few dis-
tinct, stronger marks of growth, which sometimes form prominent,
imbricating subspinous projections on the umbonal angle.

Length, 2 inches; height, Vlo inches; convexity, 0-64 inch.

Found in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, at Richmond,
Indiana.

Monograjih of the Lamdlihranchicda. 225

Genus Megamhonm — (Hall, 1859).

Shell equivalve or subequivalve, inequilateral, subovoid, usually
very gibbous in the middle and toward the umbones ; anterior side
often lobed or auriculate, a strong muscular impression occupying a
considerable portion of this part of the shell ; posterior cardinal margin
expanded, more or less compressed and frequently alate ; hinge line
crenulated on the anterior end ; teeth numerous.

Surfoce marked by concentric laraince of growth, and often by fine
radiating stria).

The entire structure of the hinge line is unknown ; and the grouping
of the species has been mainly determined by external form and mark-
ing and the large anterior muscular scar, which is a conspicuous fea-
ture in most of the species.

Megambonia Jamcsi — (Meek, 1872).

Shell rather large, a little obliquely subovate in general form, rather
convex, the most gibbous part being somewhat above and in front of
the middle, more or less abruptly cuneate posteriorly and below ; basal
outline regularly rounded ; posterior margin rounding into the base,
and ascending with a convex curve and forward inclination to the pos-
terior extremity of the hinge, which is not in the slightest degree alate
behind ; anterior margin rounding into the base below, and slightly sinu-
ous under the lobe-like protuberance or rudimentary wing above, which
is convex, slightly more prominent than the margin below, and defined
from the swell of the umbonal regions on each side, by an oblique
sulcus extending to the hinge margin in front of each beak; hinge
equaling about two thirds the anterio-posterior diameter of the valves ;
beaks rather prominent, or rising distinctly above the hinge line, but
slightly oblique, and distinctly incurved; umbonal slopes broadly
rounded ; longer axis of the valves moderately oblique to the hinge
line. Surface ornamented by veiy regular, rounded, simple, and de-
pressed radiating costee, a little wider than the furrows between, and
numbering about five in a space of 0.30 inch, near the middle of the
lower margin.

Height about 2.50 inches; anterio-posterior diameter, 2.16 inches ;
qonvexity, 1.50 inch.

Described from a single specimen — a cast of the exterior, with por-
tions of the ventral and anterior ventral margins broken away, and the
right beak projecting above the left from disi^lacement. It showed
distinct indications of a well defined, moderately wide cardinal area,
widest under the beaks, and narrowing to the extremities of the hinge.

Found at Cincinnati, about 350 feet above low water-mark.

226 Monograph of the Lamellihranchiata.

Genus Lyrodesma — (Conrad, 1841).

Equivalve, inequilateral ; trigonia shaped, elongated, posterior
area striated, hinge with from five to nine diverging prominent cardi-
nal teeth, transversely striated ; ligament external.

Lyrodesma plana — (Conead, 1841).

Subrhomboidal, compressed; posterior margin widely and obtusely
truncated ; posterior basal margin rectilinear and striated ; extremity
rounded ; cardinal process semi-circular, and marked by eight diverg-
ing teeth.

This fossil is found at the quarries back of Cincinnati. It is quite
rare, and its range is unknown.

*

Lyrodesma Oincinnatiensis — (Hall, 1871).

Shell small, subrhomboidal in outline, and obtusely pointed at the
posterio- basal angle; valves moderately convex with a subangu-
lar umbonal ridge and narrow cardiiial slope; anterior end rounded
and passing into the more broadly rounded basal line; posterior end
oblique, pointed below ; hinge line short ; beak very small. Hinge
plate occupied by six angular, crenulated, radiating teeth, which, diverg-
ing from beneath the beak, are strongly arched upward between their
origin and extremities; crenulations minute, but very distinct ; muscu-
lar impressions and pallial line not observed.

Differs from L. postriata and L. plana in the much shorter form
and in number of teeth.

Found at different places, within 300 feet of low water-mark. It is
a rare fossil, and the extent of its range is not known.

Genus Anodontopsis — (McCoy).

Equivalve, inequilateral, compressed ; general form rotundato-quad-
rate or subtrigonal ; posterior side wide; round, or obliquely sub-
truncate, anterior end slightly contracted in front of the beak ; beaks
small, prominent, nearer to the anterior than the posterior end ; hinge
line shorter than the shell, with a posterior, long, slender, lateral tooth
or cartilage plate, extending just below it (double in the right valves),
and another similar but shorter one in front of the beaks ; anterior and
posterior muscular impressions, simple, ovate, the latter longer and
stronger than the anterior ; occasionally a slight clavicular I'idge ex-

Monograj)h of the Lamellibrancluata. 227

tends from in front of the beak behind the anterior adductor impres-
sion, leaving a furrow in the cast; pallial impression entire; (occa-
sionally one small cardinal tooth beneath the beak); surface smooth or
concentrically lined.

Aiiodonfopsis (?) unio)ioides — (Meek).

Shell thin, subovate, rather compressed, most convex slightly above
and in advance of the middle ; anterior margin regularly rounded ;
basal margin forming a broad semi-elliptic curve, or nearly straight
along the middle ; posterior margin sloping from the posterior extrem-
ity of the hinge above, and rounded into the base below ; hinge line
straight, apparently rather short ; beaks depressed nearly to the hinge
margin, small, and placed between one fourth and one fifth the length
of the valves from the anterior end. Surface showing only a few
distant subimbricating marks of growth.

Length, 1.75 inches; height, 1.14 inches; convexity, 0.63 inch.

Found about 350 feet above low water-mark, at Cincinnati. Range
not known. Very rare.

Some of the casts that are usuaMy supposed to belong to the genus
Modlolopsis probably belong to this species. I do not believe, how-
ever, that it belongs either to the gexixi^ Anodontopsis ov Modlolopsis ;
indeed, I think it is very far removed, at least from the former, but as
I don't know into what genus it should be placed, I have left it where
Prof. Meek has left it.

Anodontopsis f Milleri — (Meek).

Shell ovate, rather compressed or only moderately convex, the great-
est convexity being a little above and slightly in advance of the mid-
dle, extremities more or less narrowly rounded, basal margin longi-
tudinally semi-elliptic in outline, the most prominent part being near the
middle; cardinal margin sloping from the beaks at an angle of 130 to
135 degrees, and rounding into the lateral margins ; beaks only mod-
erately prominent, somewhat obtuse, and not very convex, placed
more than one third the length of the valves from the anterior end.
Surface smooth, or only with obscure lines of growth.

Length of a medium sized adult specimen, 0-83 inch; height.. 0-59
inch ; convexity, 0'30 to 33 inches.

The hinge may be characterized as having one rather well defined,
subtrigonal, or somewhat obliquely extended cardinal tooth under the
beak of the right valve, and a corresponding pit under the beak of the

228 MonograpTi of the LameUihrancliiafa.

left valve, with sometimes a slight prominence or riidimeutary cardinal
tooth just in advance of this pit; while of posterior lateral teeth there
is in the right valve one long tooth ranging parallel to, the cardinal
margin, with a parallel furrow above and below it, for the reception
of two long posterior laterals in the left valve, the lower one of which
is more prominent, and the upper merely linear or rudimentary. The
furrow between these two posterior lateral Jeetli of the left valve is
well defined, and receives the corresponding tooth of the other valve.
Below the lower of these furrows, on the posterior side of the right
valve, there is a very slight marginal ridge, that may sometimes
assume the character of a second posterior lateral, but it is most promi-
nent anteriorly, where it connects \vith the cardinal tooth», of which
it seems rather to be an oblique posterior prolongation than a distinct
tooth. On the anterior side, there is one shorter anterior lateral tooth
in the right valve, also ranging parallel to the hinge margin, and above
and below this a little furrow for the reception of two small anterior
laterals in the left valve, which receive between them that of the right

valve.

The pallial line is certainly simple, and the muscular impressions
Aveli defined, the posterior one being larger than the other, and pro-
vided with a small accessory scar above, just under the posterior ends
of the posterior lateral teeth. The ligament or cartilage was probably
small and internal, as there are no traces of an external ligament to be
seen, the valves fitting close all along the hinge margin. No lunule
or escutcheon is to be seen in any of the specimens.

Found about 300 feet below the Upper Silurian rocks, at Versailles,
Indiana.

Genus TelUnomya — (Hall, 1847).

[From Tellini and Mya, from the form of the shell.]

Shell equivalve, equilateral or subequilateral, closed, smooth, or
marked by lines of growth ; ligament external; hinge line curved,
sometimes subangular, with a continuous series of small curved trans-
verse teeth, which diminish from the extremities to the beak, beneath
Avhich they are much smaller ; muscular impressions double, two ante-
rior and two posterior, one large and strongly impressed, the other
smaller, lying above and between the larger one and the hinge line ;
pallial impression simple.

In the larger species known, the hinge line is only slightly arcuate ;
while among the other species we find many variations in the curva-
ture, and it sometimes becomes distinctly angular, as in T. cuneata.

Monograph of the LameUihranchiata. 229

In some species the teeth on either side of the beak curve outward
from it, and in others inward, toward the beak on both sides. The
teeth are often very minute immediately beneath tlie beaks.

The shells of this genus vary from elliptical to ovate and subtrian-
gular forms, many of them being contracted on the posterior side ;
they are usually of moderate thickness, though one S2:)ecies is very
thick and strong. Some of the species have a distinctly impressed
lunule. The lesser muscular impression • is often a small pit, placed
directly beneath the hinge line, and between it and the large nmscular
impression. The beaks are usually of medium size, pointed, rarely
ventricose, approximate or in contact, never sub-spiral.

The relations of this shell are among the Avcadce and approximate
to the Nucala in their general character, and to which genus they have
usually been referred. They differ from that genus, however, in the
absence of the ligaraentary pit beneath the beak, and in the presence
of an external ligament and double muscular impressions.

Tellinomya (?) ohliqua — (Hall, 1845) as redefined by jNIeek,

Shell very small, compressed, subcircular, appi'oaching subquadran-
gular ; height and breadth about equal ; anterior margin short and
rounding into the rounded basal margin ; posterior margin subtruncated,
or more or less rounded; beaks elevated, nearer the anterior margin ;
dorsal margin sloping from the beaks, the anterior slope being the
more abrupt, and the margin behind the beaks straighter, more
compressed and sharper ; sui"iace smooth ; internal casts showing the
muscular impressions to be, comparatively, rather distinct. Hinge
unknown.

Length of a medium sized specimen, 0.06 inch ; height slightly
less ; convexity, 0.03 inch. It varies, however, from less than half
this size to more than double as large.

It is found throughout the Cincinnati Group, from low water-mark in
the Ohio river t(j the Upper Silurian rocki^. It should be regarded as
a common fossil.

, Tellinomya pedunculoides — (Hall).

Shell small, sub-circular in outline, with the posterior end slightly
prolonged below the middle, giving a little obliquity to the shell ; pos-
terior cardinal border obliquely sloping to the point of greatest exten-
sion ; anterior and basal borders regularly rounded ; beaks small ;

230 Monograph of the LamelUhranchiafa.

general surfoce of the valves depressed convex. Hinge plate strongly
arcuate, more abruptly curving in the middle, occupied by ten or
twelve teeth on each side of the center, those in the middle being
nearly straight, becoming more and more bent and angular toward the
extremities ; muscular impressions large and distinct ; pallial line
strongly marked, situated considerably within tlie border of the valve.
Surface characters of the valves not observed.

Tellinomya Hllli — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. '20. Tellinomya Ililli. Internal part of a valve slightly magnified.

Shell somewhat oval in outline, the posterior end prolonged, with
the cardinal border nearly straight, until it bends somewhat circularly to
the point of greatest extension ; anterior end quite regularly rounded ;
basal margin forming a semi-elliptic curve; beaks near the anterior
end moderately p-omuient, greatest convexity immediately behind the
beaks; surface smooth. Hinge line occupied by three small teeth
anterior to the beak and ten small teeth posterior to it. Some diffi-
culty has been experienced in determining the number of teeth from
their indistinct character in the specimen examined, and it may be
that there are actually more than we have stated. Muscular impres-
sions and pallial line not observed.

The very slight curvature of the hinge line and the minute character
of the teeth, as well as their straight transverse character, may leave
some doubt as to whether or not this shell belongs to the genus TelU-
noniya.

The specific name is given in honor of Dr. H. H. Hill, of Cincin-
nati, who has been an active collector in various departments of natural
history for a number of years, and very prominent in the organization
and management, from the beginning, of the Cincinnati Society of
Natural History. His private cabinet sparkles with mineral gems, is
ornamented with the rarest and finest specimens of the workmanship
of the Indians and the Mound Builders, and bears upon its shelves
many of the choicest fossils from the Cincinnati Group.

I found this species in the upper 50 feet of the Cincinnati Group,
about three miles south of Osgood, Indiana, and nearly fifty miles
west of Cincinnati. The valves were found quite abundant, though
not well preserved, on slabs, associated with Beyrichia striato-marginatns.
An entire specimen was not found.

Monograph of the Lamellihranchiala.

231

Genus Cycloconcha — (S. A. IMiller).

[Cijdoconcha, in allusion to the circular form of the shell.]
Shell equivalve, equilateral or subequilateral, circular or subcircular
in outline, and marked concentrically. Hinge line having the cardinal
teeth in the middle, with a lateral tooth of about the same length on
each side.

Cycloconcha mediocardinalis — (S. A. Miller).

\_Mediocardinal'u, in allusion to the position of the cardinal teeth in
the middle of the hinge line.]

Fig. 21 — Cycloconcha mediocardinalis.

Fig. 22— Hinge line and interior of riglit valve.

Shell equivalve, slightly inequilateral, subcircular in outline, sur-
face smooth, with the exception of fine concentric lines of growth,
beaks projecting slightly beyond the hinge line, but not incurved.
Hinge line having one small cardinal tooth beneath the beak, deeply
bifid, and one lateral tooth on each side of about equal length. The
cardinal tooth is somewhat trigonal, slightly arcuate on the posterior
side and prolonged posteriorly, Pallial line is not distinct in the spe-
cimen examined, nor are the muscular impressions, though one may be
doubtfully traced at the anterior end of the anterior lateral tooth.

Greatest length of specimen, 36-60 inch ; greatest breadth, 28'60
inch.

Tlie general form of this shell has a striking resemblance to the
modern Cyelas.

Found back of Newport, Kentucky, at an elevation of about 150
feet above low water-mark, and at the excavation for Columbia avenue,
in Cincinnati, at about the same elevation. As I only know of two
specimens having been found, and one of them a valve, both of which
I found myself, I am compelled at present to mark the species rare.
Range unknown.

232

Cyrtoceras VaJlandigliami — Bcyricliia Duryi.

Cyrtoceras Vallandighami — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 23— Cyrtoceras Vallandighavvi.

Shell rather stronglj^ curved. Section nearly circular, the dorso-
ventral diameter a little longer than the lateral, occasioned by an oval
prolongation for the siphuncle on the dorsal margin.

Surface smooth so far as observed. Siphuncle small and in contact
with the shell on the dorsal side.

The specimen figured has 19 septa ; length in a direct line on the
dorsal side, |§ inch ; ventral side, f-§ inch ; diameter, large end, from
ventral to dorsal side, f i inch ; small end, i^ inch ; length of septa on
the dorsal side, at large end, -g^ inch ; small end, -^-^ inch.

The chamber of habitation has been broken from the large end, and
has not been observed in other specimens.

The specific name is given in honor of Mr. George Vallandigham, of
Cincinnati, an active collector, who found the specimen near the top of
the hills at Cincinnati, Other collectors have found fragments and
inferior specimens, but it may be regarded as an extremely rare
sjjecies.

Beyrichia Duryi — (S. A. Miller).

. Fig. 2i— Beyrichia Duryi. Magnified
25 diameters.

Fig. 25 — Interior of left valve,
nified 25 diameters.

Mag-

Shell small, semi-elliptical, rounded at both ends, and slightly trun-
cated obliquely at the dorsal angles. More convex anteriorly than
i posteriorly. A single depression, slightly arcuate, extends from the
dorsal margin two thirds across the shell, situated about one third the
length from the anterior end. The outer edge of the border around
the basal margin is notched or finely crenuiated. This is plainly
visible in an entire specimen.

Beyricliia striato-marginatiis. 233

The interior of tlie valves is characterized by a line of crenulations
on tlie inner border of the rim, as well as upon the outer border. The
crenulations on the inner border are the most prominent, and from
whicli the rim is depressed to the outer boi'der.

Length, about -g^ths of an inch; width, about ^%ths of an inch.

It may readily be distinguished from the Beyrichia tumifrons, Avhich
it most nearly resembles, by the single depression across the surface,
instead of two sulci. It dilfers also in having a wider rim and being
smaller in size.

I found this species on the top of Vine street hill, in Cincinnati,
about 430 fbet above low water-mark. Not observed elsewhere. This
may be, however, on account of its being so small that it is scarcely
visible to the naked eye.

The specific name is given in honor of Mr. Charles Dury, of Cin-
cinnati, a devoted naturalist and artist, whose handiwork in taxidermy
and in the preparation of insects ornaments the finest museums in
the city, and whose mind is broad enough to lead him to embellish
his own cabinet with the fossils of the Cincinnati Group.

Beyrichia striato-mavginatus — (S. A. Millee).

Fig, 26. — Beyrichia st nalo-marginatus, magnified about 20 diameters.

Shell small, semi-elliptical; dorsal margin straight, rounded at both
ends ; basal margin elliptical. Valves strongly convex, with a single
depression extending from the middle of the dorsal margin, at right
angles, about half the breadth of the shell. Border one thind the
width of the shell, and finely striated or lined from the shell outward.

Length about -g%th inch, and width about ^^^th inch; convexity
nearly as great as the width.

I found this sj^ecies in the upper fifty feet of the Cincinpati Group,
about fifty miles west of Cincinnati, and about three miles south of
Osgood, Indiana.

234 Beijrlclda Chamhersi — Tentaculites Eichmondensis.

Beyrichia Chamhersi — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 27 — Beiiriehia Chambersi, magnified about twelve diameters.

Shell small, subreniform, dorsal margin straight, nearly as long as
the entire length of the shell, basal margin subelhptical ; anterior end
wider than the posterior. The body of the valve is crossed by two
broad, deep sulci, one of which is situated immediately behind the eye
tubercle in the anterior third, the other in the middle third of the
shell. The projecting basal margin is marked with a depression
throughout its length, and bordered with a carinated edge.

The eye tubercle is about as long as the breadth of the shell, and
rises like a half cone from the extreme anterior end, with the flattened
face in the rear marked by fine oblique lines, very much resembling in
appearance, when magnified, the teeth of a comb.

Greatest length of the shell about y^-th inch ; breadth, one third less.

This species is readily distinguished from all others by the remarka-
ble eye tubercle. In other respects it most nearly resembles B. oculi-
fer (Hall), though not exactly correspondmg with it.

I first found it in the excavation for Columbia avenue, in Cincinnati,
about 150 feet ' above low water-mark ; subsequently I found it at
Richmond, Indiana, in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, thus
indicating that its range is co-extensive with the exposure of the blue
limestone. I found, however, only one slab at Richmond and two at
Columbia avenue bearing the fossil, and do not know of any others
having been found, but, considering its great range, we must expect to
find it in some locality in great abundance, and the only reason this
has not thus far been accomplished is most likely owing to the extreme
minuteness of the fossil.

The specific name is given in honor of our most eminent naturalist
and learned entomologist, V. T. Chambers, Esq., of Covington, Ky.

Tentaculites liichnondensis — (ii. A. Miller).

Tube free or detached, straight, conical, gradually tajoering from
the aperture to an obtuse point. Surface marked by strong encircling
anuulations or constrictions, which are crossed by very fine, regular,
longitudinal strice.

Butliotrcphls ramulosus. 235

Length of a specimen about one inch ; diameter at the aperture
about \\ lines ; width of the annulatious at the aperture about half
line, which gradually diminish to less than one quarter that size, and
become nearly obsolete as they approach the closed end of the tube.

While some of the tubes appear to be slightly curved toward the
l^oint, yet the numbers observed, which are broken across each other
and across coral stems and other inequalities of the surface with which

Fig. 2S—Tentaculiies Richnumdensis, maguified frum 1 inch to 1^ inches in length.

they came in contact (as shoAvn by Fig. 28), indicate that the tubes
were very slightly, if at all, flexuous.

They Avere found in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, near
Eichmond, Indiana, by Mrs. M. P. Haines, on slabs, dispersed and
scattered in every direction, in great abundance. They do not appear
to have ever been attached to each othei* or to any other body, nor to
have lived in clusters, yet on one particular slab, not more than six
inches square, in the cabinet of Mrs. Haines, there may be more than
a hundred tubes scattered, wholly without order, in every direction. A
slab, however, of that size, with a dozen of these tubes on it, may be
j'egarded as a reasonably good specimen.

The tubes have a marked resemblance to ConchicoUtes f flexuosa
(Hall), though they may be readily distinguished by their much
larger size, straight instead of curved form and free instead of attached
habit. While I think that the latter are not always curved nor always
attached, yet that is the general condition in which they are found,
but this sjiecies does not appear to have ever been attached, and it is
doubtful whether it was in the least flexuous in its living state.

Buthotreplm ramnlosus — (S. A. Miller).

Fossil ramose ; stems branching ; branches bifurcating, with very
little change in size. Diameter of stems and branches from yV^^^ ^^
-jJ^th inch. Structure not distinct, but has a granular appearance, as
if from some change in its character.

This fossil appears to have formed the nucleus around and through
which blue clay nodules, from two to ten inches in diameter, were
formed at the bed of the ocean.

These clay nodules, or indurated marl stones, form entire layers of
strata for hundreds of feet in length, between six and twelve feet

236

Letter from Professor Nichohon.

above low water-mark, under the bank of the Ohio river, in the first
ward of Cincinnati, below Mowry's car wheel works. They are also
found on the Kentucky shore, opposite the foot of Fifth street, and
opposite to and above the mouth of the Little Miami River.

Fig. 29. — Biitholrephis ramulosus, showing the ends and the brandling stems as they appear

on a nodule.

The fossil is not known except in these indurated blue marl stones,
where it is found ramifymg them in every direction. Nor is it known
in the nodules of the same general character which are found in the
liigher rocks of the Cincinnati Group.

It is a common fossil.

Letter from Professor Nicholson on the Genera Conchieolites and Ortonia.

University College,

Toronto, March 30, 1874.

S. A. Miller, Esq.,

Editor of the Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Science:

Sir — I observe an article by you in the first number of the Cincin-
nati Journal of Science, in which you criticise the genera Conchico,-
lites and Ortonia, founded by me, as well as some of the species of these.
I have not time at present to attempt to reply to the criticism at length,
but I trust you will allow me to make a few remarks upon two of the
points touched upon in your paper, and that you will give publicity
0 this letter in the next number of your valuable journal.

Letter from Professor Nicholson. 237

111 the paper to which I Jiave alluded, you come to the conclusion
that the differences which separate the genera Conchicolites and Ortorda
are of merely specific value, and that the species which I have named
OHoma conica and 0. minor, will have to stand as Conchicolites conica
and C minor. As regards this point, you must allow me to remark
that your conclusion is illegitimate, and not, under any circumstances,
permissible. The validity, or the reverse, of a genus, is invariably
tested by the first species of the genus which may have been described,
and no genus can be abolished upon the ground that species not belong-
ing to it have subsequently to its definition been placed under it. It
is possible (though I do not think it to be the case), that there may
be nothing more than specific diflerences between the forms described
by me as Conchicolites corrugatus, Ortonia conica, and 0. minor; but
this could in no way affect the value of the genus Ortonia. My genus
Conchicolites was not founded upon C. cornigatns, but upon C. gregarius;
and tbe characters of this latter are beyond all question such as to
demand a generic separation from the forms subsequently referred by
me to Ortonia.

If, therefore, you should prove to be right as to the close affinity
between Ortonia conica and Conchicolites corrugatus, you would still be
in error as to the conclusions which you draw from this fact. Instead
of this fact necessitating the abolition of the genus Ortonia, and the
reference of 0. conica and 0. minor to the genus Conchicolites, it would
simply necessitate our removing Conchicolites corrugatus to the genus
Ortonia. We should thus have under Ortonia the three species, 0.
corrugatus, 0. conica, and 0. minor ; and the genus Conchicolites would
then contain only the single species, C. gregarius. I do not think that
this course will be adopted; for the specimen described by me as Con-
chicolites corrugatus was very unlike those which I refer to Ortonia,
more especially in the fact that the tubes are only attached by their
bases ; but under any circumstances, the validity of the genus Ortonia
will remain unaflTected.

In the second place, it is implied that I did not give credit to Dr. H,
H. Hill for the discovery of the specimen of Conchicolites corrwjutm
described by me. As regards this point, I would simply mention that
(as stated in my paper,) the specimen in question was forwarded to
me by Prof. Orton, that the name of its discoverer was not mentioned
to me, and that I Avas consequently unable to state l)y whom it had
been discovered in the first place. Indeed, from the fact that Prof.
Orton, no doubt from pure inadvertance, did not mention to me who
had discovered the specimen, I presumed that it belonged to the State
collection. Whilst, therefore, my apologies are due to Dr. Hill for

238 Letter from Professor NicJwIson.

not mentioning liis name in connection Avitli ConcJdcorites corrugatus,
I trust he will find no difficulty in believing that my omission to do
so was due to ignorance, and by no means to willful neglect.

I remain yours faithfully,

H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON.

[Professor Nicholson first described the genus Conchicolites founded
upon the species Conchicolites gregarms, and no doubt is entertained
about the generic and specific characters. He next described the Con-
chicolites corragatus, and if he was right in placing this species in the
genus Conchicolites, then there can be little dqid^t that the genus Ortonia
is a synonym, and should be stricken from the list of names. He
described the genus Ortonia, founded upon the species Ortonia conica,
and in his own language : " The validity, or the reverse of a genus, is
invariably tested by the first species of the genus which may have been
described." Now, this conica and cormgatns can not be distinguished
by generic differences, and it remains an open question whether or not
they belong to the same species. Furthermore, the fonica, corrugatus,
and minor, so far as differences have yet been ascertained, must be
placed in the same genus.

The question first to be considered is whether or not the corrugatus
belongs to the genus Conchicolites. It certainly does in the opinion of
Professor Nicholson. It does in my opinion. By turning to pages 7
and 8 of the January number of this journal, the render can compare
the specific description with the generic, and no doubt he will arrive
at the same conclusion. If he has a specimen of the corrugatus and
compares it with the generic description, he will necessarily come to
.the same result. Such comparison and observation must be satisfac-
tory.

The next thing to be considered is whether the conica, on which the
genus Ortonia is founded, is generically distinct from Conchicolites. Of
course it ciui not be so distinct unless it differs generically from the
corrugatus. Professor Nicholson says, it " is distinguished by the much
more complete mode of its attachment, and by the fact that the tubes
are never attached sociall}-, in clustered masses, growing side by side."
But the fact is that one species has about as complete and full attach-
ment as the other, diflTering possibly in the fact that corrugatiis attaches
at the point as well as at the side, while conica attaches only at the
side ; and that both species are alike in social habits, and found alike
in clustered masses. These are all the points of difference relied upon
by Professor Nicholson, unless he claims that the corrugatus is com-
posed of a succession of imbricated rings, the wider ends of which are

Descriptions of'Nc%o Species of Fossils. 239

directed to^Yard the mouth of the tube, while the conica is a flexuous
tube, uot composed of such rings. If there is such difference, I have
been unable to discover it, and until that difference is established I
shall insist that there is no genus Ortonia, and that the three species
described, from Cincinnati, by Professor Nicholson, are Conchicolites
corriigatus, Conchicoliles Jlexuosa (conica?) and Conchicolites minor. ^ —
Editor.

Descript[o)is of New Species of Fossils from the Loxcer Silurian Formation,
Cincinnati Groiipi By U. P. James.

Avicida corrugata — (James).

. Shell (left valve) oblique, subrhomboidal ; cardinal line greater
than the breadth of the shell farther forward ; umbone prominent ;
beak compressed ; anterior ear rounded on a line with the margin of
the shell ; posterior ear triangular, extending beyond the margin
below. Anterior umbonal slope abrupt ; posterior slope gradual to
the point of the ear and the back margin. Surflice marked by
crowded concentric lines of growth, strongly corrugated from the
umbone to the front, giving to that part of the surface a finely sculp-
tured appearance, but not extending to the wings or ears.

Breadth, measuring along the cardinal line, about one inch ; length
from the beak obliquely to the front, seven eighths of an irch.

Position and locality — upper part of the Cincinnati Group, Wayne
county, Indiana. Collected by U. P. James.

Avicula Welchi — (James).

Shell oblique, about as long as broad ; cardinal line extending a
little beyond the margin of the shell posteriorly, forming a slightly
projecting ear; anterior not projecting; beak rather prominent; um-
bone somewhat elevated; anterior slope abrupt; posterior slope abrupt
to the Ijase of the wing, tlien very gradual to the margin back. Sur-
face mai'ked by fine concentric lines.

Breadth of a large specimen, about three lines ; length from the
beak, obliquely, to the front, a little less than three lines.

I name this beautiful little species after Dr. L. B. AVelch, of Wil-
mington, Ohio, an enthusiastic worker in the paleontology of South-,
western Ohio.

Position and locality — upper part of the Cincinnati Group, Clinton
county, Ohio. Collected by U. P. James.

240 Deifcn'j^fhns of Xtic SjH'cus of loi'sih.

Stirptorhyiich us {Strophomemi) cloutjata — (J ARiKs) .

Slu'll !?ubtripMi!il : rcsupiiiato, brondor tlisin Kitisr; ciinliiial Hikm^x-
toiulod boyoiul tlio width oi the shell tarthoi I'orwartl, dolKn'ti'd at the
anji'los ; sludl narriuving rapidly to tho iVont, giving it a triaugidav out-
lino.

Ventral valvo concave ; hoak somewhat olovated and projecting,
minutely perforated; cardinal area rather wide, narrowing gently from the
beak to the extremities ; loramen triangular, closed. Interior showing
the hinge teeth prominent and sharp, subtrigoiial, roughly striated on
the cardinal line ; dental ridge extending forward, nearly inclosing an
(>val-shajied depression, divided by a slight mesial ridge ; cardinal mar-
gin linear anil iMominent ; outside of the oval-shaped depression,
towanl the free margins, in perfect specimens, the surface is coarsely
punctured, and the margins roughly thickened.

Dorsal valve convex in the middle, sloping rapidly to the free mar-
gins ; depressed or nearly Hat on the umbone aiul at the beak ; a shal-
low mesial sinus, in some cases from the beak to the middle of the
shell; beak not projecting; cardinal line straight, linear. Interior
showing the cardinal process small, divided at the beak into two sharp
tooth-like parts, directed oblitpiely forward ; socket elevations promi-
nent, slightly obliiiue. Other interior features not observed.

Both valves covered with fine radiating striiv of nearly uniform
size, increased by interstitial addition, and crossed by delicate concen-
tric lines.

Breadrl\ of a large specimen, along the cardiunl line, isl^ inches ;
length, from beak to front, less than one inch.

Position anil locality — upper part of the Cincinnati Group, in Ohio
anil Indiana. Collected by U. P. James.

Strophomcim dceUvh — (James).

This shell is remarkable for tlie manner in which it is arched or
bent i>ver. Cardinal line of the ventral valve straight ; area narrow ;
beak slightly projecting; cardinal line pointed at the extremities, ex-
tending, apparently, beyond the width of the shell below (owing to
the sudilen depression or curve of the lateral margins, directly forward
of the points of the cardinal line, it has this feature") ; lateral and front
margins bent over at nearly right angles with the plane of the exterior
of the valve. iShell slightly convex from the beak to the extremities
of the cardiiial line, and about two thirds of the distance from beak to
front, givintr to the umbonal convex surface a snbtriamridar form.

DvM'Tiptioii* of K'^w Sp^xMi» of FomlU. 241

y{(.Tc. -tl -ir. I.', If -tlu. Mit-i of tb« i^bell if bent suddeiily ovfer. Burfkc*-
c>. ling ptria;, a oesutral and FtroDg OBe mor^

jMiOHiiiieiit tban tbe others ; abotit everj fourth or fifth striae larger
than the ones between ; crossed hy fi^ne con centric liEes. Btria; iii-
creased hj interstitial addition. Dorsal valve not observed.

Width, measuring aiong the cardinal jixie, seven eigbtlis of an inch :
length about the «ame. ,

Fo.-itioTi an<3 loeality — Cincinnati G-rouj), near Boyd's station, on th-
K<-ijtucky Central Kailroad, about 30 miles south of CincinnatL

Co]] '-'-ted by U. P. James.

Slr^'torh^ncJius ( Strop homcwi) oatusta — (J AMES J.

Shell subquaidrate, or semi-oval, resupinate, cardinal line varyinir
from a -kittle less to a little more tlian the width (if the shell farthej-
forward, deflected at the extremities- Ventral valve broadl}^ concave :
beak, in old specimens, promraent and projecting, perforated ; cardinal
area broad in the middle, narrowing to tbe extremities ; foramen tri-
angular, closed ; from six to sixteen strong plications at right angles,
or sloping inwardly along the cardinal line. Interior — Cardinal edgt-
prominent ; hinge teeth sharp, oblique ; dental ridge encirclrDg a sau-
cer-shaped cavity, open in front, with rather an obscure mesial ridg<-
and coarse oblique striae. The whole interior outside of the cavity
sh^we a rough or coarsely punctured surface.

Dorsal valve slightly convex on the disk, sloping to the free mar-
gins, and curving upward at the extremities of the cardiual line ; flat
or depressed near the beak ; cardinal line nearly striught, area lineaj- :
plications as on the other valve. Interior — Cardinal process bifid,
prominent; sockets trigonal, rather deep, oblique ; socket ridges prom-
inent ; four or five longitudinal ridges commencing just below the caj-
<linal process, extending about two thirds of the distance to the front :
other parts of the surfac.e, to near the free margins, roughly granu-
lated ; striated along the lateral and front margius.

Surface of both valves fexterior) covered with rounded radiating
striae, increased Ij}^ implaiitation, of nearly uniform size in some cases, iii
others alternating, or every third or fourth one stronger than the one>
between, crossed by fine concentric striae, which, in some nf thf oldf-t-
specimens, is rather obscure.

Breadth of a large specimen, on the cardinal line, 1^ inche'S ; length .
1^ inches. There is, however, some variation in these proportions,
and some r»f the young shells are not much over half an inch each
wav.

242 Notes on Fresliicater Molhisca.

This shell has been labeled Strophomena suhtenta, Conrad (>S. plicafa,
James); but it is clearly distinct froin that species, the only resem-
blance being the plications on. the cardinal line, and they differ
materially, being much less in number, in suhtenta, more oblique, and
less distinct; shading off in different individuals to almost nothing.
The internal markings are very different.

Professor Billings, in his work on the " Palaeozoic Fossils of Canada"
(p. 130), has a shell, described and figured, strongly resembling our
species, and referred to S. suhtenta, Conrad, which (for the reason
given) it does not appear to be.

Position and locality — upper part of Cincinnati Group, in Ohio and
Indiana. Collected by U. P. James.

Notes on Fre&Inoater Mollusca, found in tJie vicinity of Chicago, Illinois.

By W. W. Calkins.

The writer lias pretty thoroughly worked up the species inhabiting
waters contiguous to Lake Michigaiii, and connected with it. A large
part of the shore, for many miles south and east of Chicago, is low and
marshy. At no distant day the lake extended mueh farther inland
than it does now. But having receded, the waters left a low coast and
immense swamps, bayous, and small streams, which cover thousands
of' acres. The Calumet Swamps formerly had their northern limit
about eight miles from the Chicago river. But the .rapid growth
of the city, and the speculation in real estate has now re-
deemed a large portion of what were a few years 'ago ' barren,
watery wastes, as far as South Chicago, at the mouth of the
Big Calumet river. Immense ditches, affording effective drainage,
traverse the country in every direction, so that land valued only
a few years since at not over ten cents an acre, is now selling
for as many hundreds. In the same bogs, where, four years ago,
]iaught was heard but the croak of the frog and the scream of water
fowl, may now be seen the surveyor's stakes, and placards advertising
to the passer-by the advantage of buying a few s^vamp lots. Here I
have often collected hundreds of molluscs. Now, the dry earth and
peat deposits are filled with the dead shells. In the pursuit of
my favorite science, I am now obliged to travel from twelve to fifteen
miles. Calumet, Hyde, and Wolf Lakes, and the Calumet river, are
the mosi accessible points for the collector, and South Chicago a good

Notes on Freshioafer Mollusca. 243

starting point. A sraa'l dredge with a handle from fourteen to twenty-
feet long, and a boat, arc indispensable, as most of the species are found
in deep water. I have often dredged up as many as a thousand shells
at a single haul. Some species still live in the Chicago 'river, notwith-
standing the immense sewage of the city. The species enumerated in
this paper are also common to Lake Michigan. The following is the
result of my observations :

Limncea reflexa, Say — A \qyj abundant shell in all our waters.
Lhnmm zebra, Tryon — Abundant in the Calumet and other streams.
Without doubt, the same as reflexa; only found in July and August,
when L. reflexa changes, under the influence of the atmosphere and a
hot sun, from its usual appearance to more brilliant colors. Limncm
appressa, Say — This beautiful species i^ very abundant in the Calumet
river, and in the lakes" before mentioned. It attains a larger size than
any I have seen from other points. L. appressa and L. jugidaris, of
Say, have both been referred to L. stagnaUs, Linn. But the first I
consider a distinct species. It is always longer and more slender, a
character that maintains itself fully in the young shells. L. jugularls
more resembled stagnalis, especially in the dilation of the last whorl.
Both species may be found in the same localities. Limncea palustris,
Muller — A varied slicU .and abundant. Limna caperatcea, Say —
Abundant. Lhnmm umbrosus, Say — An abundant shell. AVhether
entitled to the name of a distinct species, I will not assume ta say.
Of the genus Physa, two species are found in our waters — Physa
grjrina, Say, and Fhjsa heterostropha, Say; I have not, as yet, seen
any others. The PJiyms. excel all other Limna^idce that I have seen in
the quickness of their movements and their tenacity of life. • I have
seen them attack bugs Avith the greatest ferocity, and drag them
beneath the water. When removed from their native element, they
live twenty-four hours or more, and exhaust themselves in the vain
effort to reach a more agreeable situation. The following species of
PlunorbincR occur plentifully : i^^«. campamdatus, Say ; Pla. irivolvls^
Say — very large; Pla. parvus, Lea.; Pla. hicariaatua, Say. Of
Segmentina, we have S. armigera, Say. The genus Valoata is repre-
sented by V. tricarinata, Say, in the deeper waters, and V. sincera,
Say, in the swamps. The former I dredged from a depth of fourteen
to twenty feet. The finest species of univalves we have, is V. contcc-
ioiclcs, W. G. B. The shells are found in the Chicago river, but
finer and more abundant specimens come from the Calumet and Lake
Wolf. Mclantlw suhsoUdm, Antli., are found abundantly. Melantho
coarctata, Lea, occurs in the Chicago river. This is probably the
exilis, Anth. Of the smaller species, BjOi. ohiusa, Lea, I brought up

244 Remarks on the Ifnio Sai/ii and Unio Camptodon.

in the dredge from the depth of fourteen feet. Somatogyrus depresm^,
Tryon, I also found at a depth of twenty feet. Amnicola Cincin-
raitimsis, Anth., I dredged from the same localities as the two former
species. There is some doubt, however, whether this is that or a new
species. Of the family Strepomatidce,, so prolific in species south of the
Ohio river, and so interesting to the naturalist on account of its varied
forms, we have but two representatives in this section ; they are Try.
i>uhidare, Lea, and Gon. livcscens, Menke. Both are diminutive in size
compared with those fr(.m other localities. The depth and semi-stag-
iiancy of the waters, and unfavorable food, are undoubtedly the cause
of this. Sp/ia'Hinns are very abundant at all depths. 'Among them
are Sph. simile, Say; Sph. partumeiam, Say; Spjli. transvermm, Say.
We have the following Pisidiums : P. ahditmn, Prime., and P. com-
pressiim, Prime. The family Unionida'. furnishes the following species :
U. cormitus, Barnes; U. gracilis, Barnes; U. gibhosus, Barnes; IT.
luieolns, Laui. ; U. occidens, Lea; U. rectus, Lam.; U. pustrdosm,
Lea; U. pusiidatns, lueix ; U. ruhiginosus, Lea; U. elegans, Lea; U.
undulatus, Barnes ; U. verrucosus, Barnes ; U. ellipsis. Lea ; U. tuber-
cidafus, Barnes. In the subgenus Margnritana, we have 31. com-
planata, Barnes. Of Anodontas: Ano. Jootiana,Liea,; Ano. imbecillis.
Say; Ano. p>lana, Lea. The foregoing embraces the species collected
by myself within the last four years. The bivalves are so common and
well known that they present few points of interest. The univalves
are likely to prove most interesting from the diversity of form in
described species, which has occasioned numerous synonyms. The
enormous synonomy of American shells is well known. Take, for
instance, the genus Succinea and Physa. When every part of the
country shall have been thoroughly worked up, and suits of shells have
undergone the analysis of study and comparison, we shall have a
ireneral loeeding out of superfluous species. This process will leave but
a small number, comparatively, entitled to a permanent place in the
catalogue. Such a work might bring dismay to species-makers, but
would be for the lasting benefit of conchology, and save the future
investigator much labor and ])erplexity.

Remarks on Unio Sayii and Unio Camptodon, before the Cincinnati Society
of Natural History, at the Meeting in May. By Dr. C. A. Miller.

1 desire to offer a few remarks this evening upon conchological nom-

enclaturef l->ut more especially upon Unio Camptodon, Say, and it^

Reinarka on the Unto Sai/ii and i'nio Oarnjifodon. 245

generally received synonym, Umo Sat/ii, Ward. I sluill present for
your consideration the original descriptions and remarks of Mr. Say
upon the Unio Camptodon, and of Mr. Ward upon the Unio Sayii, and
afterward the names of such shells as are regarded by Mr. Lea, in his
synopsis of 1870, as synonyms of this species.

A correct and undisputed nomenclature is the first thing necessary
in the study of any subject, and the most important point to be settled
in the pursuit of this portion of natural science. Want of uniformity
in regard to this has ever been the dark spot upon the body politic of
the shell world. Why a poor, little, innocent shell should be burdened
with so many names, and its moral standing materially affected in its
own country by long and bitter qontroversy, respecting its true and
lawful name, is a subject of deep interest to the conchologist ; and
when the shells shall each be know'n by a single name, the beauties oi
this branch of natural history will be more readily appreciated, gen-
eral interest may be excited, and couchology may become a popular
study.

I shall now proceed to give you ]Mr. Say's description of Unio
Camptodon, Dr. Ward's description of Unio Sayii, and a few re'marks
thereon of my own.

Unio r.amptodon — (Thomas Say).

[American Conchology, part 5, plate 42. August, 1832. Specimen from New Orleans.]

Shell moderately thin, transversely oblong-oval, a little compressed,
dark brownish or blackish; beaks with regular small undulations,
behind the middle but remote from the posterior edge, but little prom-
inent ; ligament slope somewhat compressed, with two distinct com-
pressed lines ; umbonal slope not elevated above the level of the disk ;
anterior margin a little prominent toward the base, and round -d ;
lunule large ; posterior margin prominent, extending far behind the
beaks and rounded ; base a little contracted in the middle; Avitliin,
milk white ; teeth — a single, rather long, oblique, undivided primary
tooth in each valve ; lateral teeth rather slender, toward the tip a little
arcuated. Beaks distinct from the posterior margin; lamelliform
teeth arcuated at tip.

Unio Sayii — (Dr. ChaFvLes J. Ward).

[Araei-ican Jounml of Seienca. January, 1839. Vol. a^ p. 268, Specimen from OMo.]

Shell subrhomboidal, inequilateral, transverse, compressed; valve

246 JRcmarJiS on the JJnio Snyii and Uiiio Camptodon.

thin, beaks sliglitlj prominent, incurved, and divergingly wrinkled;
cardinal teeth oblique, dngle in the right and double in the left valve ;
lateral teeth slightly curved ; nacre white. Diameter, 1; length, 1.6;
}>readth, 2.8 inches.

Shell inequilateral, transverse, subrliomboidal, compressed ; poster-
ior and superior margins rectilinear ; basal margin curved ; anterior
margin regularly rounded ; valves thin, translucent ; beaks slightly
prominent, incurved, and divergingly wrinkled, placed near the anter-
ior margin ; umbonal slope subcarinate, carina somewhat elevated ;
ligament long, nari-ow, nearly straight and partially concealed ; epi-
dermis pale yellow, inclining to cupreous on the umbos ; glabrous,
with indistinct capillary rays of a lighter color extending over the
whole disk ; lines of growth black, and very distinct ; two faintly im-
pressed lines diverging from under the points of the beaks and extend-
ing to the posterior basal margin; cardinal teeth very oblique", not
prominent, single in the right and double in the left valve, slightly
crenate ; lateral teeth lamellar, slightly curved ; anterior cicatrices
distinct, posterior confluent, dorsal situated horizontally across the cav-
ity of the beaks and distinct ; cavity of the beaks shallow and rounded ;
nacrie white, slightly iridescent over the entire surface of the valve,
with faintly impressed strife or rays diverging from the cavity of the
beaks and extending to the basal margin.

Since Mr. Say mistook the anterior for the posterior margin, and
the posterior for the anterior margin of our fresh water bivalves, this
must be taken into consideration when reading and comparing his
description of a shell with that of other writers.

After the description of Unio campfodon, Mr. Say makes the fol-
lowing observations :

"This interesting new shell was sent to me by Mr. Barabino, who
discovered it ojiposite to New Orleans, in ponds. An exterior view
of the shell would not immediately distinguish it from Alasmodonta
edentula, nobis, but the inner surface is quite different, and the arma-
ture of teeth separates them genericall3\"

Upon a careful comparison of the descriptions here given, and an
equally careful inspection of the shells, we find numerous points of
difference between them ; differences so great as to enable us readily
to distinguish either shell, and to select them easily from all other
shells known. Our attention is necessarily directed, in the first place,
to the general contour of each shell and its external appearance ; then "
to the interior surface of the valves. In the Unio camptodon we ob-
serve a slight depression on the disk, which is continued to the basal
margin, causing tl\e shell to be slightly arcuate, its length really

Die Silnrische Fauna ilex Westlichen Tennessee. 2-47

shortened, and its sides compressed, as though it had grown between
two rocks, and was thereby unable to attain its full size. Posteriorly
the shell retains its length, so that the upper and basal margins seem
to remain exactly parallel for a distance of fully one half the width of
the shell. The beaks contain about six small undulations, yery short,
and apiDear nearly parallel, extending lengthwise.

In the Uhio Sayii we have a full rounded umbo, the basal margin in
conformity with this is yery much curyed, regularly approaching the
ligament slope, so that the shell posteriorly tapers steadily, and almost
uniformly to the posterior margin. The beaks present ten or more
undulations or wrinkles ; but we see they more nearly conform to the
direction of growth, each succeeding wrinkle being larger and ex-
tending nearly around the former, causing the beaks to be wrinkled in
the direction of the width, and occupying the first year's growth of the
shell-.

When we examine the internal surface of the yalyes, we readily
distinguish those differences in the number and position of the teeth,
which are always regarded as of so much importance in classifying the
Niades. In the camptodon we have a single cardinal tooth in each
valve ; in the Sayii, we have tioo cardinal teeth in the left, and only
one in the right valve, a difference sufficient alone to characterize
them as distinct species. I trust that I have called attention to
enough important points of difference to remove all hesitation about
placing the Unifi Sayii in our list of Cincinnati shells, and in excludinsi-
the camptodon therefrom. It is really a southern shell, never haviny-
been found in this region.

Mr. Lea. gives as a further list of synonyms for the Uaio camptodon :
Utiio declivia, Conrad; JJnio electrinus, Reeve; ITiiio rhomhoideics, Dr.
Ward's MSS. ; and Uaio subcroceus, Conrad.

From Die Silurkche Fauna des Westlichen Tennessee. By Dr. Fer-
dinand RcEMER. [Translated by Chas. W. Dietrich, for this
journal.]

Genus Palaomanon. — (Rcemer).

This is a free sponge, entirely detached, of a cup or goblst form,,
displaying upon its upper surfiice large dispersed openings, the space
between the openings having the appearance of a very finely punctured
web.

This genus is distinguished from all sponges in the later formations
l)y the absence of any epitheca. It is hardly possible to include it

248 Die Silurische Fauna des Westlichen Tennessee,

with Astylospomjia, with which, however, it has the common distinc-
tion of having no epitheca, on account of the gradual deflection of
its outer structure, and the larger- openings dispersed over the whole
surface. Thus there arose the necessity of creating a new genus, the
exact definition of which is, as yet, not clearly determined. Its name,
when settled upon, should indicate its similarity with the forms included
under the genus Manon, in the more recent formations.

Genus Astrceosj)ongia — (Rcemer) .

A globular-formed, unattached sponge, its surface and entire
mass filled with star-shaped bodies, which, though very regularly
formed, are dispersed without regard to any order ; but it displays no
distinct canals or pipes.

The absence of an epitheca is as well determined in this genus as in
Adylospongia. Not a trace of an epitheca can be discerned in the
several hundreds of specimens of this singular geuus. In all of them
the lower part is uniformly flat or rounded. The body must have lain
simply with the flat lower side next the bed of the sea.

The star-shaj)ed bodies, dispersed over the surface and throughout
the mass, are of a very different construction from the small stars that
appear in Astylospongia. They are, moreover, larger than the latter,
so much so that they appear upon- the most superficial inspection of the
sponge to the naked eye as noticeable bodies. Besides, they are
mutually unattached, and do not, like those of the Astylospongia, hang
together by their rays. The mass lying between the stars is wholly
shapeless, and presents neither openings nor any other organic texture.

Astra'ospongia meniscus. — (R(emer).

A round, globular-shaped body, concave at toj) and convex at bot-
tom, having its whole surface and entire inner substance filled with
regular six-rayed stars, dispersed about, in no particular order.

This is, in several respects, a remarkable body, and owing to the
great number of the specimens, it is looked upon as one of the most
notable elements of the Fauna. Its most noteworthy mark consists
in the small star-shaped bodies which are always to be found dispersed
over the surface and in the substance of the body. They are formed
of six rays, resembling wheel spokes, with pointed ends, which always
intersect each other, at their centers, with remarkable and unexcep-
tional regularity, at an angle of 60 degrees. The size of the star is

Die Silurische Fauna den Wcstlichen Tennessee. ' 249

generally from 2^"' to 3'" from the extremity of one ray to that of its
corresponding opposite one ; yet there are some that are smaller, and
some appreciably larger. The diameter of the rays is generally about
V". However, when the star is very small, the diameter is also
smaller, being at times not much more than a hair's breadth. Not sel-
dom, too, there are between the larger stars smaller ones of the same
forito, with thinner rays, and they are also easily distinguished from the
former, by a lighter color and a semi-transparency. In this case it
would seem, upon the whole, as if the larger stars were formed by the
incrustation of the smaller sort. Indeed, this formation of the larger
stars seems to be very probable, in some specimens, in which the upper
surface presents only a few stars, with very heavy and thick rays, but
in which the entire remaining surface is covered with irregular round
protuberances or tubercles, which only occasionally are grouped into
indistinct stars. At times, too, the rays of the stars are crossed length-
wise by a furrow, but this would appear to be only the effect of disin-
tegration.

In regard to the arrangement of the stars no regularity can be dis-
covered. On the upper depressed surface, however, where they
appear most numerous and distinct, they always lie in a position par-
allel with that surface. Beneath those that are nearest to the upper
surface other stars are visible, which also present, in respect to those
lying above them, no regularity, but are entirely covered by them,
without any order whatever. As a rule, the stars on the lower convex
side of the body are much less distinct and numerous than on the upper
side. Ordinarily but few separate and indistinct traces are to be seen
of them on the latter side. Yet, there are specimens in which the
stars appear as perfect and numerous on the lower as on the upper side.
In such cases they are often very plainly discernible on the inclined or
almost perpendicular side surface of the lower half, and lie in a plane
paiallel with the outer side. From disintegrated or fractured speci-
mens, it is clearly to be seen that the stars are also distributed through-
out the inner mass of the body. The spaces between the stars,
throughout the whole thickness of the body, are filled up with a homo-
genous fossil substance, in which no further organic structure can be
discerned. In one of the specimens before us there is a coarse fibrous,
or thin, prismatic separation (or disconnection) visible, so shaped that
the fibers or their prisms nui almost perpendicularly to the upper con-
cave surface.

The substance of the fossil is in contrast with the structure of the

sponges previously described, from the fact that in this genus a light

,gray calcareous matter predominates. The stars especially are thus

250 Die SiluriscJie Fauna des Westlichen Tennessee.

composed, A fracture of the pieces generally presents the leafy struc-
ture of calc-spar. In the middle part, however, there is commonly a
nucleus of dark horn-stone impregnated with calc-spar discernible, and,
at times, silicification also pervades the greater portion of the inner
mass.

In respect to the outer form of the specimens, it is, on the whole,
very commonly globular ; without being, however, altogether devoid
of certain deviations and irregularities. The upper surface is often
only slightly depressed and almost level, and in other cases very much
hollowed and almost of a cup form. In the latter case, the bottom part
is of unusual thickness, and the entire appearance is that of a coarse
cup. Only one specimen presents an entirely irregular form ; it has
the appearance of having been jD^essed together at the sides, and on
■ one side is prolonged into a grooved formed continuation. The whole
form of this sjDecimen, which appears to have been compressed between
foreign bodies in the development of its regular forms, leads us to the
conclusion that the animal, in life, was possessed of a certain degree of
flexibility or j^lasticity. Not one of the numerous specimens before us
presented the faintest trace of an epithica. The body, when alive, was
manifestly unattached, and lay on the bed of the sea with its concave
side turned upward.

In respect to the zoological relationship of this body, the general
form, which no other class of animals possess, as well as its appearance,
would indicate that it is connected with the sponges, but in many
other respects this species would appear to be wholly peculiar. What
-vs, first of all, the meaning of the star-shaped bodies? They can be
nothing other than spiadcc, or silicious needles. Yet tTiey have never
been found in any living or fossil sponges, in such regular star-shaped
groups or in such magnitude. Moreover, the calcareous nature of the
fossilized substance is remai'kable. Most fossil sponges, and especially
all the other species wdiich occur in the same strata, are silicious.
Here, on the contrary, the fossil is almost entirely calcareous. This
proves beyond a doubt that the chemical composition of the living
body was essentially different from that of others occurring with it, •
and Avhich are always complete silicious sponges. This species belongs
apparently to the calcareous sponges, which, as Professor Steenstrup,
of Copenhagen, has shown, are frequently found in the seas of the
present epoch, near the sponges in which silica predominates.
Through the courtesy of M. Steenstrup, I have in my possession a
specimen of an undescribed species of the calcareous sponges of Green-
land, which contains three-pointed spicules, plainly visible to the'
naked eye, and easily dissolved in muriatic acid. This sj)ecies of the

Die Silurisclic Fauna des WcatUchen Tennessee. 251

1
iving kinds seems to me to be analogcvus with the Silurian species

Avhich we are describing.

We shall now compare our species with the fossil described by Yon
Konig, under the title of BlumcnbacMum glohosum, one of the numer-
ous sponges described from other points of view. The author, in his
not very extensively diffused work, Icones fossilium seciiles, page 3,
describes it as follows : BlumenbacMum nob {Polypi corticaii). Poly-
pariura globosum, externe undique obsitum stellulis prominentibus
subquadratis, sa;pe confluentibus, punctato-porosis, interne caverno-
sum, substantia fibroso cellulosa.

Blumenhachiian globomm n. Ex calcareo, ut videtur, transitionis.
Exemplaria duo in Museo Britannico asservata, indigena sunt; sed
locum natalem nondum compertura habemus.

At first sight the description and representation of the figure
appeared to me to so accurately resemble the fossil of Tennessee, that
I referred the latter to the same genus, and described it under the title
of BlumenbacMiim meniseus. But the more recent description and
representation of the Blumenbachiuni globosum by Lonsdale, in Mur-
chison's Silur. Syst. II., 680, plate 15, fig. 26, in which it is placed
under the head of Bryozoa, shows that it is wholly distinct from the
American fossil. Moreover, Morris Catal. of Brit. Foss., 2d Ed., 1854,
p. 129, places this species as synonymous with the Theonoa globosa,
Vv'^ood (Am. Nat. His., vol. xiii., p. 13), under the Bryozoa, taken from
the crag of Suffolk. As it is to be presumed that the last named English
author saw the original specimen of Konig, the relationship which I
had previously referred with the American fossil falls to the ground.

On the other hand, the Acanthospongia silmiensls, described by
McCoy (Synops. of the Silur. Foss., of Ireland, Dublin, 1846,-67),
and taken from the Silurian strata at Cong, in the County of Galway,
seems to be related to the Astraiospongia. According to description it
forms an oval body, fwo inches in length, filled with spiculi?e, in the
form of a cross (X), and from two to six lines in width.

Occurrence — This species is the most frequent fossil of the Fauna,
and I have, myself, collected several hundred specimens. I found
them to be most frequent in the neighborhood of Brownsport, near
Mound Glade. On Bea:r Grass Creek, too, near Louisville, this species
is to be found in strata of the same age, but less well preserved.

Theocostegites Heniisjyhcericiis — (Rcemek).

A semi-circular polypidom of from one to two inches in diameter,
having its entire upper surflice covered with small cellular openings,

252

Die Sihirische Fa una dcs Wcstlichen Ttfinessee.

irregularly dispersed, the spaces between being filled with a compact
coral mass ; .the flat lower surface, on the other hand, displaying only
concentric wrinkles. At first sight this species would seem to resem-
ble the Cha'tetes Petropolitanus, but further investigation shows that
the cellular openings are not polygonal and do not touch each other, as
in the latter, but are circular and separated by intermediate spaces, whose
diameter is once again and sometimes twice as great as that of the open-
ing themselves. The manner of the distribution of the cellular open-
ings is something like that of the HelioUfes, but whilst there the spaces
between the openings are porous, in this case, at least upon the upper
surface, the spacer are perfectly compact, without pores and holes. A
Ijorder, generally somewhat raised fi'om the surface and plainly visi-
]}le, surrounds each opening.

All these characteristics conform entirely to the genus of Edwards
and Haime. Yet I am by no means certain of the identity of the
American fossil with that described by the French author ; on the
contrary, I have some hesitation in placing them in the same category.
For, in the first place, the inner structuie of the specimens before me
could not be ascertained, and then the cellular openings have compar-
atively a notably smaller diameter than that of the other species of
Theocostegites. In the smaller specimens the openings are of a needle
form, and hardly visible to the naked eye as distinct points. When the
upper surface is disintegrated, the cup-shaped openings are much wider,
and the i-esemblance with the Calamopora or Chcetetes is more apparent.
But then the cups are separated by much denser pai'titions than in the
latter genus.

Orthis jisslplica — (Rcemer. )

Shell depressed, convex, transverse, oval, long cardinal line not,
liowever, equal in length to the greatest breadth of the shell. Sur-
face covered with numerous (40 in the whole contour), radiating
curved plications, which increase in number, either through bifurca-
tion, or by intercalation, similar to bifurcation. The new plications
are much less distinct than the chief folds, in as much as they run into
the latter and become merged with it. The spaces between the
radiating folds are marked by sharply projecting transverse lines.
The perforated valve (ventral valve, Davidson,) is moderately convex,
and provided with a distinct, moderately elevated umbone. The other
va ve is flat, with its middle part slightly depressed.

The general appearance of this species corresponds so nearly witli
many other species of this genus, that at first sight it would appear tc*
be a well known form. When, however, we undertake to define it,

Introduction to the Sytiopsis of the Acrididoc.. 258

we soon find tliat it can not be included with any of the known forms.
Its chief characteristic lies in the dispoifition of the radiating folds.
The increase of the latter occurs, indeed, as in other similar and
related species, principally by intercalation, but the new folds do not
occupy the middle of the intermediate space, but approach nearer one
fold than tlie other, which gives it the appearance of bifurcation.
The fact, too, is remarkable, that the new folds, which in other species
rapidly attain the distinctness of the older ones, here retain their in-
feriority in size to a notable distance from their beginning. It differs
from .Orthis Jissicosta, Hall, in its smaller size, finer plications, and
transverse markings, as well as the unequal convexity of the valves.

From the Iidrodudion to the Synopsis of the AcrididcK of North America.

By Cyrus Thomas, Ph. D.>:'-

Acrididce is the name of a family of insects belonging to the order
Orthoptera. This order embraces a large number of species, which dif-
fer much in appearance and characters, and are known in this country
generally by the common names, earwigs, cockroaches, devil's-horses,
walking-sticks, grasshoppers, and crickets. Each of these names, ex-
cept the next to the last, repi-esents a distinct family of the order,
thus :

Earwigs Forficulixtrp.

Cockroaches ,.Blattic/a:.

Devils-horses NayiUdm.

"Walking-sticks Phasmidce.

Grasshoppers. -[ ^<^ridida^.

Crickets OryUidm.

It will be seen that the common name, grasshoppers, embraces two
families, Acrididw and Locustidce, but these are quite ea.sily distin-
guished from each other. Locustidce includes those species usually
found on the grass and trees, which have very long, thread-like anten-
nffi — generally longer than tlie body of the insect ; the tarsi, or feet,
are four-jointed, and the fejnale has an exserted ovipositor, more or
less curved and sword-shaped. Most of the species have vrings, yet
there are a number entirely wingless, which reside on the ground.

Acridida: includes those species which usually reside on the ground.

'' These explanations are so clear and instructive as to make them well wortliy a reprint.

254 Introduction to the Synopsis of the Acrididce.

and are distinguished fi-om the Locastidcc by the following characters :
The antennas are comparatively short, never exceeding the body in
length, and composed of from fifteen to twenty-five joints ; thetarsi
are three jointed ; the fem.ale is furnished at the tip of the abdomen
with four very short, corneous pieces, two of which curve upward and
two downward. This family includes the locusts of the eastej-n con-
tinent (the seventeen-year locust of the United States is a very ditfer-
ent insect, belonging to an entirely different, order). The common,
red-legged grasshopper, which often does much injury to the crops ifi
the States, is a familiar example of this family, and the destructive
grasshopper of the West is anotlier.

The Acrididce undergo an imperfect metaraorphpsis ; that is to say
the larviB and pupce resemble the perfect insects, except in size and in
the development of the wings. This is also true of all orthopterous
insects, and forms one of the characteristics of the order.

Tlie External Structure and Tenninologij. — In describing the insect
it is to be understood as in its natural position — on its feet — the front
legs standing forward, the middle and posterior ones backward, and
the Avings closed. As a matter of course, to examine the wings we
must spread them, and to see the under side of the insect we must
reverse it ; but the rule applies to the relative position of the parts
described. The vertex of the head is considered the extreme front,
and the tip of the abdomen the extreme posterior. "Anterior," or
" before," will then signity in the direction of the front of the head :
"posterior," or "behind," the opposite direction; "above," toward
the upper surface or back; and "beneath," or "below," toward the
under surface. The entire external surface is considered as divided
into four planes, reaching from one extremity to the other, as follows :
The "back," or "dorsum," which is the upper surface, horizontal ;
the "under," or "ventral, "surface, also horizontal, and the "sides" as
vertical planes.

It is true there are wide variations from this theoretical form, espe-
cially in those species which approach a cylindrical shape, or where
the dorsum of the promotum is raised into a high, sharp crest ; yet, by
retaining the idea of this theoretical form the shape and position of the
parts may be more easily understood where figures can not be intro-
duced. This idea is to be retained thi-oughout, even in describing the
separate |)arts ; thus, w^e speak of the dorsum or back and sides of the
head, the dorsum of the thorax, etc. "Longitudinally" and "length"
will then signify in the length of the direction of the body ; " trans-
verse" and "width," from side to side; "height" and "depth," up
and down. It may appear useless to add such explanations as these,

Introduction to the S^tiopsis of the Acrididce. 255

yet those who are but beginners in entomology are frequently puzzled,
in reading the description of a part of the body of an insect, to know
in what sense the author uses these terms ; for example, whether
"length" means in the direction of the longest diameter of the part,
or in the direction of the length of the insect ; but by knowing that
these terms are always used with reference to the whole insect, there
will be no difficulty in understanding the description. It often hap-
pens that by following this rule rigidly the width of a part exceeds its
length, yet this must not cause us to vary from it.

The body of the insect is naturally divided into three distinct parts,
each bearing certain appendages :

First- — The head and its appendages, the antennce and palpi.

Second — The thorax and its appendages, the wings and legs.

Third — The abdomen and its appendages, the cerci and ovipositor.

The head varies considerably in shape, yet the t}'pical form may be
considered an oblate spheroid, with the longitudinal diameter (from
the neck and through to the face) the shortest, and its perpendicular
diameter the longest. In some species the upper portion of the
front is prolonged into a cone or pyramid of greater or less length (as
in Tryxalis Opotnala^ etc.) ; in one genus (Acrolophitus) the vertex rises
obliquely upward, in the form of a short cone or pyramid. Viewed
from the side, it presents, in many species, a triangle — the face, which
form<? the longest line, being directed ft'om the vertex obliquely under
toward the breast {Opomala, O.xycoryp]ms, Stenobothrus, etc.); in other
species it presents a parallelogram, the greatest length being up and
down — (Edipoda, Acridiiim, Calopteims, Pezotettix, etc.

In describing the head, its external surface may be considered with
reference to four planes — the dorsum, the two sides, and the front.
If a line be drawn across the back part, from the posterior margin of
one eye to the posterior margin of the other, the portion lying behind
this line, reaching to the marghi of the pronotum, will represent the
occiput.

The vertex is the portion included between the eyes, and extends
forward to the point where the. head commences to descend to the
face ; the extreme anterior point is sometimes called the fadigium.
The variations in the form and surface of the vertex afford important
generic and specific characters. In a few instances it ascends anterior-
ly, is somewhat horizontal, but is generally more or less deflexed ; is
advanced and pointed or triangular in front {Tryxalis, Opomala,
Stenobothrus, Tragocephala) ; is obtusely rounded and blunt without
carvings {Boopedon) ; is narrow and slightly furrowed {Caloptemis^ ;
and is broad and even transverse, that is, broader than long. Some-

256 Introduction to the Synopsis of the Acrididce.

times the margins are raised so as to inclose a foveola, or shallow cell,
between the eyes, -which is called the median foveola, or central foveola,
of the vertex. The shape and character of this foveola appear to be
constant in the species, and even in some genera, hence its import-
ance ; but caution is to be observed in comparing dried specimens,
especially dried alcoholic specimens, with descriptions taken from
living specimens, and the reverse, as the shrinking often causes con-
siderable variation from what it is when living. The lateral foveola are
two small cells, situated on the margin of tlie vertex, one on each side,
near the front border of the eye, sometimes on the upper surface, near
the edge ; in other species immediately below the margin, on the
deflexed portion. These are sometimes linear {Sienohothrm) , some-
times very small and triangular {CEdlpoda), or quadrangular, but in
many genera are wholly absent.

The face (fades) is the deflexed portion in front, extending down-
ward from the antenna to the transverse suture, which separates it
from the clypeus ; it is generally transversed, up and down, by three
carince or keels, more or less distinct ; the median carina, or frontal coda,
is the one extending down the middle from the fastigium,and in which
the middle ocellus is placed. This carina is generally more or less sul-
cate or channeled ; when the channel is deep, dividing it into two
keels, the face is said to be quadricarinate. The two lateral carince ex-
tend downward from the front margin of the eyes, often bending^ out-
ward toward the corners of the ftice. Between the frontal costa and
lateral carina are the antennal foveola, or pits, in which the antennae
are inserted. The cheeks (gena:) are the convex portions of the sides
below and rather behind the eyes.

Sometimes the face is deflexed, that is, directed under and back-
ward toward the breast, but generally it is vertical or nearly so.

The portion of the head described constitutes the skull, on which
are placed the eyes (ocidi), the simple eyes (ocelli), and the antennae.
The position and shape of the eyes afford both generic and specific
characters ; as regards position, whether on the sides or advanced near
the front, approximate to or distant from each other, prominent or the
opposite, oblique or vertical ; in respect to the shape, Avhether they are
globose, ovoid, elliptical, elongate, or pyriform.

There are three simple eyes (ocelli) ; one (ocellus) is placed immedi-
ately above the base of each antennae and near the margin of the eye,
and one in the frontal costa, between the antennae.

The antenna; are inserted in the front of the head, a little below the
eyes, and consist of a number of joints, varying, according to the spe-
cies or genera, from fourteen to twenty-four; they seldom exceed one

Introduction to the Synopsis of the Acrididoi. 257

half of the body in length, but (in the Korth American species) are
always longer than the head ; the usual form is cylindrical, but i?i
manv species they are enlarged and prismatic at the base, and in a few
are somewhat enlarged at the tips. The joints arc numbered from the
base toward the apex, the first joint being the largest and subglobose,
or somewhat flattened. The face is terminated below by a transverse
sutui-e, called the dypecd or nasal suture. The dijpem is the next piece
below the suture, and is usually in the form of a transverse parallelo-
gram, and "tucked" at the sides. Attached to the lower margin of
this is the lahrmn or upper lip, the lower corners rounded, and the
lower margin generally notched ; the upper half has a quadrangular
impression, giving this portion the appearance of a separate square
piece. The suture which separates the upper lip from the clypeus may
be called the labial suture.

The labrum covers the mandibles, or strong, corneous, upper jaws,
which are furnished on the inner margin with strong teeth or serra-
tures, presenting both cutting and grinding surfaces ; thus admirably
adapting them to the voracious habits of these vegetable-eaters.

Immediately behind these are the maxilke, or under jaws ; the basal
portion or body is somewhat triangular in form ; the outer lobe (galea)
is slightly dilated, and has a small joint at the base ; it is hollowed on
its inner margin, which covers the inner lobe. The latter is elongate
and narrow, terminating at the apex with two sharp teeth. Near the
base of these jaws are attached the maxillary pal^n, one palpus to each
jaw ; these appendages resemble short antenna?, and consist of fine
joints, the first and second -being minute, the other three are longer,
and usually about of equal length.

The under side of the mouth (or in Acridida;, as in many other fami-
lies of insects, we might more properly say, th.e back or hinder part)
is covered by the labium, or lower lip, which is large, and consists of
two lobes ; the outer lobe is more or less circular in form, its surface
near the exterior margin being crossed by an indenture, which gives
to it, when closed, the appearance of a mandible. This member is
also furnished with two appendages (labial palin), resembling the
the maxillary palpi, but are shorter, and composed of but four joints,
the first or basal joint being very small, and often scarcely perceptible.
The tongue (lingua) is well developed, thick, fleshy (and somewhat
spatulate in form in Acridium Americanum) ; it is situated immediately
forward of tlie labium, and between the maxilla?, and its minutely
pappillate surface certainly indicates that the sense of taste is well
developed. The head is connected with the thorax by the neck (col-
lu.m), which is but a short cylindrical ring, usually hid % the pro-
notum ; it is not used in describing genera or si^ecies.

258 Introduction to the Synopsis of the Acrididce.

The thorax is the middle portion of the body, to which arc attached
1 he ?ix legs, and also the four wings, when present. In order to ac-
commodate the strong muscles necessary to the motion of these mem-
bers, it is the most robust of the three parts of the body. It consists
of three parts, each composed of several pieces ; the front portion,
which bears the first pair of legs, is the prothorax; the middle portion,
which bears the middle pair of legs and the upper wings (elytra) is the
vu'sothorax ; the posterior portion, which bears the third pair of legs
and the under wings (iving^ proper), and to which the abdomen is
joined, is the metathorax.

The different surfoces of these divisions are distinguished by sepa-
rate names ; thus the dorsal portion of the protothorax is the prono-
tum, and the ventral portion the prostermim; the dorsal portion of
the mesothorax is the mesonotum, and is usually covered by the pro-
notum ; the ventral portion is the Hfesosfer/mm; the dorsal portion of
Tl\e metathorax is the meianotum; the ventral surfiice the metasteriium .
The whole of the under surface of the thorax taken together is tht-

df'.rnum.

The most important of these divisions, in describuig genera a)id
species, is the pmnotum ; this is the shield which covers the front part
of the body immediately behind the head, reaching down the sides,
nearly or quite to the insertion of the front legs ; it usually extends
back on the doi'sum of the thorax, so as to cover the base of the
elytra ; but in the subfamily Tetttgino} it extends back over the abdo-
men to its extremity. Its surface is considered with reference to three
planes — the upper surfjxce (dorsum) and the two sides ; but there are
wide variations from this typical form. When these areas are clearly
distinguishable there is a raised line, sharp angle, or obtuse ridge run-
iiino- alonir each margin of the dorsum, where it connects with the
side ; these are called the lateral carina;. In most species of the family
there is a raised line or keel along the middle of the pronotum, called
the median carina ; this is sometimes but an indistinct line, in other
species it is quite distinct ; in some slightly elevated, when it is said to
be sub-cridate ; and sometimes it is quite elevated, when it is called
cristate. Tiie term carina is sometimes, though with doubtful pro-
priety, applied to the obtusely-rounded angle formed by the deflection
of the sides of the pronotum from the dorsum (as in Caloptenus, and
even in Pezotettix, where the pronotum is almost cylindrical). I have,
therefore, in some cases, introduced the term humerus or humeral angle.
to represent this part when it can not properly be called a carina. In
some cases the sides slope upward to the median carina, leaving no
lateral cariila or angle (as in Tropidolophus and Tropidacris) ; in other

Tnd'oduction to the Sj/nopsis of the Acrididce. 259

ca^es (as in Mesops Boopeclon, some species of Opomala, etc.) the pro-
notum is cylindrical. The lateral carina? afford important generic and
specific distinctions, by their relation to each other, shape, etc., as to
whether they are parallel or convergent, straight or curved, cou-
tiniious or interrupted. The front margin of the jironotuni seldom
presents any angular points, being usually obtusely rounded or trui\-
cate ; but the posterior extremity generally extends backward, in a
rounded or angular form, upon the base of the elytra ; in a few cases
(as Chrysochraon, and some species of Pezotcttix, in which the elytr.a
and wings are wantmg) the posterior margin is truncate. The poi-
terior latercd margins are the hind margins running down from tlie
extremity of tlie dorsum to the posterior angle of the sides.

The body of the pronotuin is generally divided into* four lobes bv
three transverse sutures or impressed lines ; the lobe, or portion next
the head, is the .anterior lohe, the hindmost one the posterior lobe, the
other two the middle lobes. In many species the two anterior im-
pressed lines are indistinct, or w-anting, but the posterior one is .nearly
always present, except in the Tdtigince. These lines are sometimes
designated by the numbers 1, 2, and 3, beginning with the front one
and counting backward.

The general form of the pronotum affords verv important chai-ae-
ters : sometimes the width is uniform and the sides are j^arallei;
sometimes they diverge posteriorly ; at other times they apj)roach eaoii
other in the middle, in which case the pronotum is said to be constricted,
but this terra applies only when the narrowest point is between tlie
extremities. Its surface also varies : is smooth, punctured, rugose, or
tuberculate.

The mesonotum and metanotum are hid by the pronotum and the
wings, and are not used in descriptions, except in the case of a few
wingless species of Pezotettix.

The proaternum, or under side of the prothorax, is short, and is
either smooth, that is, it is without either tubercle or spine, or it is
furnished with an obtuse tubercle, or a conical spine, called the prvs-
ternal spine. The species furnished with this spine are said to have
the prosternum armed or mucromde (Opomala, Mesops Romalea, and all
the group of Acridini) ; when the prosternum is without a spine it is
smooth or unarmed (as Tryxalis, Pyrgoraorpha and the entire groupi.:,
(Edipodhii and TeUigini). This spine is either subcylindrical (;r
cuneiform, obtuse or acute, straight or curved, etc. : these differenc<.'s
furnishing either generic or specific characters. Those species without
the prosternal spine generally have the prosternum marked with a
transverse curved groove, more or less distinct.

2G0 Introducllon to the Si^noj^sis of (lie Aci-ididce.

The ma^ostermim is the broad piece of the under tide that lies between
the middle legs, and is marked with one or more indentures. It
varies slightly in form, and may be used in describing species, though
I believe tliis has not been done, except in a few instances in Fischer's
Orthoptera Euro'pea. The pieces in front of the middle legs, extending
obliquely up the sides, are the episterna of the mesothorax ; the pieces
situated externally to and adjoining the insertion of the middle legs,
are the epimera of the mesothorax.

The metastermnn is the under surface of the metathorax. and is sit
uated between the bases of the hind legs, and is usually marked with
a single or double indenture in the middle. The episterna and ephnera
of the metathorax correspond very nearly in relative position with
those of the mesothorax.

These thoracic rings on their internal face furnish support for the
strong muscles necessary for the vai'ious movements of the wings and
legs ; and if we strip them of their appendages, and cut off the pos-
terior projection of the pronotiyin, limiting it to the length of the pro-
thorax, we will at once see that they are true homologues of the ab-
dominal segments, changed from the typical form only so far as is
necessary for the support and operation of the organs of locomotion.

The legs, as in other insects, are divided into several parts or joints,
as follows : the coxa is the basal joint, by which the leg is connected to
tlie bodv; it is short in J.cridi(i«', but is usually enlarged. The iroc/i-
.anter, which is the next joint, is small, and can be best seen in the
anterior pair of legs. The third piece or joint is the thigh {femur'),
and is the largest portion of the leg. The fourth piece is the tibia or
shank, and is attached to the tip of the femur. The terminal portion,
which rests upon the ground, is the tarsus or foot, and is composed of
three joints ; the first, or basal, and the third (or terminal) joints,
being longer than the second (or middle) joint. The first has two
transverse indentures on the under side, which give it the appearance,
when seen on this side, of being three pieces, thus making the tarsus
appear five-jointed ; but seen from above, this shows but one, and the
entire tarsus but three joints. The third, or terminal' joint, is fur-,
nished at the tip with two claws (ungues), between wdiich in all the
groups, except Tettigini, there is a circular piece or pad (pulvillm).

The posterior legs are much longer and stouter than the anterior or
middle pair, in order to fit these insects for leaping. The thighs or
femora are swollen or iucrassated near the base, to accommodate the
muscles necessary for this purpose. The external face, v,'hich is some-
times called the dish, is marked by numerous, alternate, minute ridges
and furrows, running obliquely in^vard and forward from each margin

Introduction to the Sj/nopsis of the Acrididce. 2G1

toward a longitudinal middle furrow, giving the entire disk a pinnate
appearance; hence these minute ridges are sometimes alluded to as
the pinnce of the femur. The disk is bounded above and below by a
-mall but usually distinct carina.- Along the middle of the upper edge
runs another keel, to which the name xipper or superior carina is fre-
quently applied. This is sometimes simply a raised line or angle ;
but in other cases, especially in some genera of the group Q^dipodini, it
is quite prominent. The inferior edge is generally channeled for the
reception of the tibia vhen folded up. The outer margin of this chan-
nel or sulcus is the loiver or inferior carina, and generally corresponds in
prominence with the upper one. The femur aftbrds some useful char-
acters in describing species, by its length, as compared with that of the
abdomen ; by its size, whether comparatively slender or broad, by the
greater or less prominence of its carina, etc.

The method by which the tibia is articulated with thd. femur, ad-
mirably adapts it for leaping. The apex of the femur is suddenly
expanded vertically, but deeply channeled, leaving a plate on each
side, between which the base of the tibia is inserted. This has here
two sl;ort, right-angular bends, the articulation being at the sides of
the first angle with the lateral plates of the femur ; thus leaving a
short lever extending upward, to which the strong extensor muscle, is
attached. The flexor muscle is attached beneath in the second angle,
which, enables the insect to draw the tibia upward into the channel of
the femtir.

• The posterior tibiiB are furnished at the apex with about four strong
spines, pointing downward, to give secure footing in leaping. The
posterior face is furnished for about two thirds of its length from the
apex with two rows of spines, one row on eachmargin.

The organ.s of flight consist of two upper wings, elytra, and two
under wings, to which the name ivings (alee) is usually applied.

The elytra are generally in the form of an elongate oval, or an eh n-
irate parallelogram, narrowed at the base and rounded at the apex.
In the perfect insect they usually reach to, or extend beyond, the tip
of the abdomen ; but there are numerous exceptions to this rule in
many species, being much shorter than the abdomen, and in a few
wholly wanting. When the elytra are absent, the wings are also
absent. When folded and at rest, a portion lies horizontally upon the
Ijack, the remainder, and much the larger portion, being deflexed
vertically against the sides of the abdomen. The upper edge, whicli
forms the margin of the suture along the back when they are closed,
is usually termed the posterior or anal margin, by most authors, as
thev consider them spread; but 1 usually employ the word "upper,"

2fi2 Inti'odiicdon to the S^/nopsis of the AcridhJw.

VA alluding to this portion, as I consider them closed when describing
them. I also usually call the opposite edge the lower margw, by
most authors named tlie mdal or anterior margin. The area of each
elytron is divided into three fields by two strong, longitudinal nerves ;
tiie larger of these nerves (or veins, as they are sometimes called),
which runs a little distance from and sub-parallel to the anterior or
lower margin, is the externa median nerve ; the other, which runs
from near the middle of the base obliquely upward toward the posterior
or upper margin, usually reaching it a little beyond the middle, is the
interno median nerve. The three fields into which the area is divided
have received different names, in order to designate them w-ithout
circundocution. The anal, posterior or upper field, is the portion between
the interno median nerve and upper margin, and rests horizontally on
the abdomen when the elytra are closed. The anterior, marginal or
Ivwer field, is the portion between the externo median nerve and lower
margin, being the lower area on the side when the elytra are closed.
Tiie discoidal, intermediate or middle field, is the space between the
two nerves mentioned; it is very often referred to simply as the disk
of the elytra. Th.Q angle of the elytra is the longitudinal ridge formed
along the interno median nerve, by the sudden fiexure from the hori-
zontal to the vertical portion when closed.

iYhen describing the wings they are supposed to be fully spread.
Ttie terms dhh and base are sometimes, though not properly, used
interchangeably, referring to the moiety of the wing next the body.
At other times dish is properly applied to the middle portion. I use
the term sub-marginal area, to designate that portion between the
anterior margin and next strong nerve ; margin, when used without
any qualification, signifies the front margin. The nerves, or veins, are
tlie ribs which run from the base to the outer margin, and form the
lines of plication when at rest. The nervides, or velnlets, are the minute
C\-ansverse ribs running from one nerve to another. When these are
placed regularly, like the rounds of a ladder, they are called scalariform.
In many species, especially of QiJdipodini, the basal half of the wing
i,5 colored red, yellow, or some other bright color, which is often
"hounded exteriorly by a black or fuscous band, extending across the
face, from the anterior to the posterior margin, generally curving along
the latter, to or toward the posterior or anal angle ; in other species the
greater portion of the wing is black or fuscous, Avhile in a large num-
ber the entire wing is pellucid.

The abdomen is the posterior part of the body which is attached to
the metathorax. It is generally sub-convex on the under side, and
siiglitly compressed hiterally or sub-carinate above. It is composed of

Introduction to the ^Tjnopsis of the Arridida'. 2fio

some eight ov nine corneous rings or segments, which decrease m siz-'
toward the apex (though in some genera, HBCaloptenus and Pezotettix,
the terminal segments of the male are somewhat enlarged). The typi-
cal number of segments of the abdomen, according to Lacaze-Duthicr-
(who is followed by Dr. Packard, in his "Guide to the Study of
Insects"), is eleven. But if we count the dorsal segments in the
female, to and including the point where the upper and lower plates
separate for the extrusion of the ovipositor, there are really but nine.
It is true that the ninth, wdiich folds over the upper valves of tlic
Dvipositor, shows two transverse folds besides the terminal piece over
wliich the pre-anal -plate rests ; each of these is counted as a segment
by Lacaze-Duthiers, thus making the eleven ; but the incisions mark-
ing these folds are incomplete, not reaching the lower margin of the
plate. Between the second of these folds and the terminal piece on
each side issues a short process, not extending beyond the apex of this
piece ; these appendages are the cerci.

Fischer says the abdomen in both the male and female consists of
nine distinct segments. Westwood remarks that the inferior surface
of the abdomen in the male consists of eight segments, but only of*
seven in the female. Lacaze-Duthiers says the sub-genital is formed
by the seventh sternite (ventral scgntent) ; if we consider the piece .
which projects forward into the posterior margin of the metasternum
as belonging to the venter, and as representing the first sternite, which
I am inclined to think it does, then there are eight ventral segments
(steruites) in the female, and nine in the male.

Each abdominal ring is, or is supp>osed to be, composed of six pieces,
soldered together, three to each lateral half; but for all the purposes
of the present work, w^e may consider them as composed of but tv.o
l)ieces or plates, an upper or dorsal plate, called the tergite or dorscd
!>egment, and the lower plate, called the sternite or ventral segment. The
under surface of the abdomen, as a whole, is the venter.

On each side of the basal segment is a large cavity, either of a semi-
orbicular or lunar shape, which is closed on the inside by a very
slender skin of a whiteish color. This is the tympanum, and is sup-
posed by some entomologists to have a certain influence upon the act
.of striduiation, while others believe it to be the organ of hearing; the
latter appears to be the more generally received opinion at present.

The apex of the ventral portion in the males curves uj)ward, some-
what in the form of the prow of a vessel ; this curved portion, in some
species appears to form the last ventral segment (sternite), but m
others a transverse impression is seen, separating the apical surface
from the rest. This apical portion has received several ditfcrent

264 Iiitroduci'ton to the Synopsis of the Acrididce.

names : as, mh-gcaital lamina, . sjih-anal plate. In some genera and
species (Tnjxalis, J/e.sop.?,.some Opomala, etc.) the tii) is entire, while
in others it is notched.

The pre-anal lamina, or super anal plale, is the triangular piece
which in both sexes lies over the anal aperture.

The ovipositor of the female consists of four corneous pieces, two of
which curve upward and two dow^n ward, usually called the valves;
but Lacaze-Duthiers, who has made the genital organs a special study,
applies different names to the separate pairs, thus : the upper pair are
his episfernites, because they are above the little central piece, which
he considei-s the representative of the ninth sternite ; the lower pair
are his tergorhuhdites.

Dr. Packard says: "The ovipositor, with its accessory pieces, con-
sists of a sub-genital plate formed by the seventh sternite ; the ninth
segment is complete, and the blades (tergo-rhabdites) composing the
ovipositoi- consist of three secondary pieces united together between
them."

Internal Structure.

•

The nervous system, according to Leon Dufour, consists of a double
nei-vous chord, extending from the head to the tip of the abdomen
aluiig the lower part of the body, expanding at various points into
ganglia, which emit a greater or less number of branches to the right
and left. These ganglia are classed in three groups, according to the
part of the body in which they are situated — cephalic, thoracic, and
abdominal. The cephalic ganglion is the largest of the number, and is
deeply emarginate in front, giving it the appearance of being somewhat
bilobed ; in Tryxalis this feature appears to be most strongly marked.
In each of the thoracic divisions there is a ganglion, that of the meta-
thorax presenting the largest number of branches.

The abdominal ganglia, of which there are some six or seven, are all
small, except the last, which is next in size to that of the head, emitting
to each side three important branches, connected, doubtless, with the
o-enerative organs. This system is more prominently developed in the
Acrididce than in any other family of the order, which has induced
Leon Dufour to give them the highest rank in the order.

The digestive system consists of an alimentary canal, extending
almost direct from the mouth to the extremity of the abdomen, which
is divided bv constrictions into four apartments or divisions. The first
{ccsophagus) is somewhat inflated in its posterior half, giving it a sub-
conical shape, and is contained in the thorax. The ^yroventriculus
proper, which is formed in other families of this order, is wanting- in

Idiroduction to the Synopsis of the AcriJiJce. 2G5

the Acrldhke, its functions, according to Leon Defour, being performed
by the pyloric valve, which is situated at the posterior extremity of the
first portion, where it joins the next. The second, according to the
author named, is the chylific ventricle, and is the longest portion of the
canal, though not more expanded than the posterior portion of the
oesophagus ; its form is subcylindrical. The two last divisions are
somewhat smaller than the previous ones, and constitute the intestines.
The hepatic organ consists of a number of simple, elongate, cylindrical
filaments, uniting with the digestive apparatus at the junction of the
second and third apartments.

The salivary glands are but slightly developed in this familv, reach-
ing their simplest form in the Tettigince,

The respiratory apparatus of the Acrididce does not differ materially
from that of the other insects, consisting of a number of elastic anasto-
mosing tubes or tracheae, which have their orio'in and communicate
with the external air at the stigmata, or little inouths, one of which is •
placed on each side of the thoracic and first eight abdominal segments.

The ovaries consist of two tubes, which are attenuate for a short dis-
tance near the base (posterior extremity, where they x;nite), but
beyond which they are inflated, terminating at the extremity in a long,
slender, cylindrical tube. From the inner side of the inflated portion
extend a number of multilocular tubes, tapering to the extremity;
these, when fully expanded, resemble, in their position and ajDpear-
ance, with regard to the main tubes, the teeth of a comb ; but their
natural position is one of great beauty, folded together from each
side, with their points projecting forward, appearing like delicate
chains. The seminal receptacle consists of a pedunculated vessel,
whose closed extremity is dilated into a pea-shaped vesicle, forming
the capsula seminis.

It has been repeatedly stated that the species of this family lay
their eggs in a cocoon-shaped mass, covered with a tough, glutinous
secretiou, var\'ing in number from fifty to one hundred. This
may be a very common method, but it is by no means universal.
It is the method followed by the migratory locusts of Europe, and,
from what I learn, I am satisfied it is the same with the destructive,
migratoxy species (^Caloptenus spretus) of the West; but it is not the
method followed by Acridium Americanum, which I have noticed
digging into and depositing its eggs in the hard-trodden ground. I
have also obtained the eggs of C. femur-ruhrum in rotten wood, where
they were phiced without any apparent regularity, and without con-
nection by any glutinous secretion. ]Mr. S. I. Smith has noticed the
game thing in regard to Chlcealtis consper&a, except that the eggs are
placed in two rows.

2G6 Introduction to the Synopsis of the Acridida'

All the species, so far as I am aware, lay elongate-cylindrical eggs',
tliose of Chhealtis conspersa, according to Mr. South, being about 0.25
(jf an inch in length, while those of (Edipoda corallipes, according to
luy own observations, are about 030 of an inch long, and slightly
bent. The young of the latter species, just before leaving the eggs,
are exactly like the young larva, the legs being neatly folded against
the sides of the venter and sternum, the tarsi resting against the
sternum ; the antennse are laid down over the sides of the face.

The eggs are usually laid in the latter part of the summer or in
autumn, and remain in their place of deposit until the following spring
or summer, when they are hatched ; yet it would appear, from the
number of larvffi we often see late in autumn, that some species in the
southern and central portions of the United States produce more than
one brood in the year ; but our information is not sufficient to speak
positively on this point.

These insects attain their full growth by simple moltings, the larvie
and pupse resembling the perfect form, except in size and development
of the wings. According to Zinnani, the Italian Calopteni undergo
their first moltings about the fortieth day after exclusion from the egg,
the second about twenty days afterward, and the third about sixteen
days later ; but the number of moltings does not appear to be uniform
in the different genera, six being the number usually given by the dif-
ferent authors. According l^o Koppen, Pachytylas migratorius molts
four times, the fourth molt producing the perfect insect.

The sounds which are made by the Acrididoc, according to Mr. Scud-
der and Landois, are produced in two ways, first by rubbing the inner
surface of the hind legs against the outer surface of the elytra ; and,
second, by rubbing together the upper surface of the front edge of the
wings and the under surface of the elytra. According to Landois, the
inner surface of the hind femur is furnished, along the lower margin,
with a longitudinal row of minute, elegant, lancet-shaped, elastic teeth,
varying in number from eighty-five to ninety-three, which are scraped
acru- the nerves of the elytra, thus producing sound.

Tlv species which employ the first method stridulate while at rest,
producing a low, buzzing sound; this is the usual, though not univer-
sal, method of the Blenohothri. Those Acrididm which produce sounds
])y rubbing their wings and elytra together, stridulate only during
flight, and, as remarked by Mr. Scudder, "are nearly all confined to
the genus (Edipoda" producing a shorp, crackling sound, resembling
tlie noise of burning stubble. Each species appears to have its pecul-
iar note, so that, having a knowledge of ihe-Orthoptcra oi a given
locality, we can at once distinguish the species by the sound made.

On the ParalleHsrii of Ooal-Seains. 267

The soft, pattering sound nnide by some species of Acridimn and Ca-
Inptenus during flight, is probably due simply to the beating of the air
by the wings, as it does not appear to be confined to sex, the males
only of grasshoppers being furnished with apparatus for producing
notes.

On the Parallelism of Coal-Seams. By J. S. Newberry. [From the
Am. Journal of Science and Arts, April, 1874,

• In the first volume of the final report of the Geological Survey of
Oliio, Professor E. B. Andrews advances a theory in regard to the
successive deposition of coal strata which, if permitted to go unques-
tioned, might seem to commit the other members of the geological
corps to its approval, whereas, as a matter of fact. Professor Andrews
stands quite alone in its support. Very briefly, his theory is this:
1st, That coal-seams have accumulated iu marshes along the sea shore,
and, therefore, at or near the water-level ; 2d, That the subsidences
by Avhich several coal-seams w'ere successively formed and buried were
continental and general; and, 3d, That the coal-beds, from their
mode of formation, must necessarily be parallel to each other, and,
hence, a discrepancy iu the distances from a. given coal-seam, taken as
a base, to two or more outcrops of what might be considered the same
seam, is a proof that the coal of these outcrops belongs to different
seams. Professor Andrews also says that he has never seen a coal-
seam dividing into two or more distinct seams, or two seams approach-
ing each other.

While not questioning the accuracy of Professor Andrew's' report of
his own pbservations, I am compelled to say that the facts observed by
myself are not only discordant "with his, but are such as seem to me
to be incompatible with his theory. In the northern half of the Ohio
coal-field, numerous instances of the approach and divergence of
plainly continuous coal-seams might be cited. For example : On one
tract of coal land in Hubbard, Trumbull county, the distance which
separates , the first from the second coal-seam, varies from 44 to 100
feet; coal No. 1 showing conspicuous waves or folds, while No. 2 is
nearly horizontal (M. C. Read). At Fredericksburg, Wayne county,
the distance between the two limestone coals, Nos. 3 and 4, is only
20 feet, but on tracing these seams down the valley of the Killbuck,
they ai-e seen to gradually diverge, until, at Millersburg, they are

2G8 On tie Parallelism of Coal-Seams.

80 feet apart. At Fredericksburg again, the distance between coals
No. 4 and No. 6 is only about 30 feet ; but in passing from this point
eastward to Mineral Point, Tuscarawas county, the interval increases
to 104 feet ; coals No. 5 and 5a coming in between them. At Steu-
beaville, the interval between coals No. 6 and No. 8 varies from 502
to 564 feet ; while, going westward, this interval diminishes to less than
400 feet along the western outcrop of the Pittsburg seam. On the
banks of the Ohio, between Wheeling and Bellaire, the two coal-seams
next above the Pittsburg bed are seen, in a single exposure, to vary
from 12 to 35 feet in the distance which separates them. On the
banks of the Ohio, west of Wheeling, coals No. 8 and No. 9 are about
150 feet apart ; three coal-seams, 8a, 8b, and 8c, being interposed
between them. Thirty-five miles west of this locality, the distanee
between coal 8 and coal 9 .is only 50 feet, with no intermediate seams
(Stevenson), iit Morgautown, West Virginia, on the east side of the
Monongahela, the interval between the Pittsbui-g coal and the next
succeeding one above (Redstone) is over 50 feet, consisting of lime-
stone, 14 feet ; shale, 3 to 10 feet ; sandstone, 35 feet. On the west
side of the river, three miles below, the distance between the Pittsburg
and Redstone coals is less than 20 feet; the limestone remaining con-
stant, the sandstone having entirely disappeared (Stevenson).

Any required number of cases like the preceding might be cited, but
these, as it seems to me, will suffice to show; that the intervals between
our coal-seams are not constant. I learn from Professors Dawson,
White, Cox, and Worthen, our most experienced coal geologists, that
similar examples to those I have cited are not uncommon in the coal-
fields which they have so carefully studied.*

The fixllacy of the theory of Professor Andrews, as I think, consists
in the su])position that the subsidence of our coal areas has been ahvays
continental or general; whereas, as it seems to me, the evidence is
varied and abundant that this subsidence w'as often very local, and
that in the long interval which elapsed between the formation of one
coal-seam and the accumulation of carbonaceous • matter above it, tb.e
strata were sometimes warped and folded in the most local and cora-
j)licated way. It is also apparent that the deposition of the materials
forming the strata of the coal-measures was often quite irregular.
This is conspicuously shown by the limited reach of the great sandstone
wedges which sometimes locally separate or replace the_ more constant
elements, the limestones, shales, and coal-seams. In some instances
these beds of sandstone occupy narrow troughs of erosion ; sometimes

■■'■ See also the report of Professor Kainsay, in the Report of the CoalCoiuuilssioiiers (England),
vol. i., pp. 121 and 145.

Description of part of Wyoming Territory. 2G9

they form broad, lenticular sheets. It seems to me that we have some
evidence that the local accumulation of these beds of sand produced
local displacement of th'e mud on -which they were deposited, just as
they do at the mouth of the Mississippi, where the displacement results
in the formation of "mud-lumps." But the theory of Professor An-
drews seems to me not simply untrue, but as calculated to do positive
and practical harm, since teaching that a discrepancy of interval
argues a want of identity in coal-seams, it tends to multiply their
numl)er and produce confusion in their classification.

Interesting Description of a part of Wi/oming Territory , from the intro-
duction to "Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Bridger Fvrmhtionf
by Prof. Joseph Leidy.

Fort Bridger occupies a position in the midst of a wide plain, at the
base of the Uintah mountains, and at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet
above the ocean level.- The neighboring country, extending from the
Uintah and ^Yahsatch mountains on the south and west to the Wind
river range on the northeast, at the close of the cretaceous epoch, ap-
pears to have been occupied by a vast fresh water lake. Abundance
of evidence is found to prove that the region was then inhabited by
animals as numerous and varied as those of any other fauna, recent or
extinct, in other parts of the world. Then, too, a rich tropical vege-
tation covered the country, in strange contrast to its present almost
lifeless and desert condition.

The country fippears to have undergone slow and gradual elevation,
and the great Uintah lake, as we may designate it, was emptied, ap-
parently in successive portions and after long intervals, until finally it
w\as drained to the bottom.

Tlie ancient lake deposits now form the basis of the country, and
appear as extensive plains, which have been sulijected to a great amount
of erosion, resulting in the production of deep valleys and wide basins,
traversed by Green river and its tributaries, which have their sources
in the mountain boundaries. From the valley of Green river the flat
topped hills rise in succession asaseries of broad table lands or terraces
extending to the flanks of the surrounding mountains.

The snows of the Uintah, Wahsatch, and other mountain ranges are
a never-failing source to the principal streams ; but many of the lesser
Ijranches, dependent for their supply on the accumulated snows of
winter in ravines of the lower hills and plains, completely dry up as

270 Description of port of Wyominr) Territory.

tlie snows disappear with the approach and advance of summer. The
country for the most part is treeless and destitute even of large shrubs,
excepting along some of the water courses. The principal streams are
fringed with trees, consisting of cotton wood and willow, and the val-
leys through which they run produce mostly rushes and sedges, with
some coarse grasses, as Elymus condensatus and Triticum repcns. Hol-
lows of the hills and narrow valleys, favorable to the retention of mois-
ture, support forests of small aspens. The higher terraces and foot
hills approaching the mountain ranges are covered with dense forests
of aspens, pines, and firs, with a rich undergrowth of herbaceous
plants. The great mountains themselves present a broad belt of pines
and firs, from which project the rocky summits as bare of vegetation
as the wide plains at their base. Many of the lower hill sides and hol-
lows in certain situations are sparsely covered with cedars, most of
which are very old in appearance, and remarkably distorted, twisted
and broken.

The principal growth of the plains consists of sage bushes, curiously
distorted and split, so as to remind one of the cedars just mentioned.
In some places the sage bushes are mingled with or replaced by t!ie
grease wood (sarcobatus vermiculatus) . Wide, bare, path-like intervals
surround the bushes, or the spaces are occupied by scanty grass, which
formerly furnished food to the buffalo, now become extinct in this
region and elsewhere west of the Rocky Mountains.

The fossils for the most part are derived from the more superficial
deposits of the great Uintah basin, which Prof. Hayden has distin-
guished as the Bridger group of beds. These compose the terraces or
table lands in the neighborhood of Fort Bridger, and consist of nearly
horizontal strata of variously colored, indurated clays and sandstones.
As the beds wear away, through atmospheric agencies, on the naked
declivities of the flat-topped hills, the fossils become exposed to view,
and tumble down to the base of the hills, among the crumbling debris
of the beds.

The flat-topped hijls or terraces of the Bridger basin, rising from
broad valleys and extended plains, form the most conspicuous objects
of the landscape. A similar condition of the country, alternating
with boundless plains and great mountain heights, forms a character-
istic feature of a great part of the region west of the Mississippi.

The flat-topped hills, table-lands, bench-lands, or terraces, as they
are variously named, seen from lower levels, are usually called
" buttes," especially when they are of limited extent. The name is of
French origin, and signifies a bank of earth or rising ground. The
name is likewise applied in a more restricted sense, to the prominent

Descriplion of part of Wyoming Territory. 271

irregularities of the deeply eroded and naked declivities of the more
extended terraces. The buttes, therefore, vary in extent from a mere
mound, rising slightly above the level of the plains, to hills of varied
configuration, reaching to the level of the broader tuttes or terraces.
In the course of ages, the wearing away of these has been enormous, ,
and still coptiuues under the usual atmospheric agencies, while the
detritus is spread out on the plains below.

From the lower plains, the neighboring terraces, when of circum-
scribed extent, appear like vast earthwork fortifications, and when
evenly preserved on the declivities for a considerable distance, reminds
one of long railway embankments. Frequently the terraces are so
eroded and traversed by narrow ravines, that they appear as great
groups of naked buttes rising from the midst of the plain, or assembled
around the horizon, closely facing and flanking the more distant and
extended lands, as if to protect .them. Nothing can be more desolate
in appearance than some of these vast assemblages of crumbling buttes,
destitute of vegetation and traversed by ravines, in which the water-
courses in mid-summer are almost all completely dried. To these
assemblages of naked buttes, often worn into castellated and fantastic
forms, and extending through miles and miles of territory, the early
Canadian vovagers gave the name of " Mauvaises Terres." They
occur in many localities of the Tertiary formations west of the Miss-
ssippi river.

In wandering through the " jMauvaises Terres," or " Bad Lands," it
requires but little stretch of the imagination to think oneself in th.a
streets of some vast ruined and deserted city. No scene ever impressed
the writer more strongly than the view of one of these Bad Lands.
In company with his friends, Drs. Carter and Carson, he made an
expedition, in search of fossils, to Dry Creek Canon, about forty miles
to the southeast of Fort Bridger. The caiian, or valley, is bounded
by high buttes, and contains a meadow of rushes, traversed by a stream
which is liable to be dried up in the latter part of the summer, whence
the name of the canon. On ascending the butte to the east of -our
camp, I found before me another valley, a treeless, barren plain,
probably teu miles in width. From the far side of this valley, butte
after butte arose and grouped themselves along the horizon, and looked
together in the distance like the huge, fortified city of a giant race.
Tlie utter desolation of the scene, the dried up water-courses, the
absence of any moving object, and the profound silence which pre-
vailed produced a feeling that was positively oppressive. When I then
thought of the buttes beneath my feet, with their entombed remains of
multitudes of -animals forever extinct, and reflected upon the tirru-

272 • Description of pari of Wyoming Territory.

\vhen the country teemed withlife, I truly felt that I was standing on
the wreck of a former world.

The buttes are often especially designated from some supposed re-
semblance, or other character, as Church Butte, Pilot Butte, Grizzly
Butte, etc.

As before intimated, the more superficial table-lands of the Bridger
basin, as they appear m the vicinity of Fort Bridger, are composed of
nearly horizontal strata of various colored, indurated clays and sand-
stones. In most localities visited by the writer the clays predominate,
and are usually greenish, gi-ayish, ash-colored, and brownish. When
unexposed they are compact, homogeneous, and of stony hardness.
In composition they vary from nearly pure clay to such as are highly
arenceceous, and gradate into those in which sand largely predominates,
and they usually contain few or no pebbles. They appear to be more
or less fissured, and break with an irregular and somewhat couchoidal
fracture. Exposed to atmospheric agencies, moisture and frosts, they
readily disintegrate, and the declivities of the buttes, generally en-
tirely destitute of vegetation, are usually invested with crumbling
material from a few inches to a foot or more in depth. Yv'hen this
loose material is wet it forms a tenacious mud, and along the course of
stireams in the ravines, the deepest and most treacherous mire. Baked
by the sun upon the plains, it fixes the drift pebbles and other stones
as firmly almost as if imbedded in mortar.

In some localities the clays of the buttes abound in freshwater
shells, as Unio, Melania, Plauorbis, etc. Less frequently in other
places they contain land-shells, as Helix, etc.

The sandstones are more frequently of various shades of green, but
are also yellowish, and pass into shades of brown. They are compact
and hard when unexposed to the weather, and are usually fine-grained,
but also occur of a gravelly constitution. They are fissured in com-
paratively large masses, wdiich assume a rounded form as they are worn
away, so that a ledge of sandstone projecting from the declivity of a
butte will appear like a row of cotton bales. As they disintegrate less
rapidly than the contiguous clays, masses are often o])served resting
upon cones and columns of the latter. contri])uting greatly to the
picturesque and sometimes fantastic appearance of the buttes.

Many of the table-lands and lesser buttes in the vicinity of the
Uintah Mountains are thickly covered with drift from the latter, con-
sisting of gravel and bowlders, of red and gray, compact sandstones,
or quartzites. The drift material is usually firmly embedded in the
surface of the plains, so as to appear like a pavement. The bowlders
are generally small, but assume larger proportions, approaching the

, Description of part of Wyoming Territory. 273

Uin talis. In many cases tbe drift completely covers the terraces or
buttes, descending upon the declivities so as entirely to conceal their
structure. Usually, however, it accumulates in the ravines of the
declivities, leaving bare the intervening ridges of light-colored clays
and sandstones. Many of the buttes are nearly" or quite free of drift
material ; some again are strewn with fragments of rocks, consisting of
the harder materials from the terraces themselves, and these likewise
occur mingled with the drift -pebbles and bowlders from the mountain
heights.

The stone fragments from the buttes consist of harder siliceous and
calcareous clays, impure limestones, jasjiers, and less frequently agate
and chalcedony. In some instances they consist of singularly black,
incrustated and rounded sandstones, somewhat of the character of the
septaria. Specimens of these occasionally bear a resemblance to fossil
turtles, and when found with the harder crust broken, they look like
turtle-shells filled with a sandstone matrix.

In the buttes in the vicinity of Carter Station, on the Union Pacific
Railroad, I observed many large nodular and cylindroid masses of
agate. These have a concentric arrangement of layers resembling that
of fossil wood, for which they ai'e taken. Many of the masses con-
tain a nucleus of amber-colored crystals of calcite.

Nodules of chalcedony, with dendritic markings, occur in some of the
buttes. These, together with the condition of many of the fossils of
the buttes, indicate the presence of a considerable proportion of soluble
silica in the waters of the ancient lake. In some of the sandstones
the fossil shells have had their lime completely replaced by clear
chalcedony.

Occasionally, strata of limestone, mostly impure, from the admixture
of clay and sand, are found in some of the buttes. A frequent con-
stituent also is fibrous arragonite, or satin spar, in thin seams. Many
of the bare mounds of clay among the buttes are thickly strewn with
fragments of this arragonite.

The stones imbedded in the surface of the plains and buttes, in some
positions favorable for the purpose, are highly polished from the con-
joined action of the wind and sand, and when seen in the slanting
light of the early morning or evening sun, appear like myriads of
scattered mirrors. In many positions the stones, no matter what may
be their composition, are all blackened. The phenomena I could not
explain.

In many places the stone fragments from the declivities of the
terraces, strewn over the lower buttes, or distributed over the plains, aiT
splintered or flaked in a remarkable manner. The jaspers, especially.

274 Description of part of Wyoming Territory.

are often broken in such a way that they appear as spawls from rude
implements of art, or even resemble the latter. Some of them are
certainly the work of primitive man, but the vast proportion, often
scattered over miles of surface, are j)robably accidental forms. These
I suppose to have been produced by stones striking one another in the
descent from declivities, as they have been carried down, perhaps, by
glacial movement. The softer rocks of the buttes, those which are too
soft for stone works of art, are also observed broken in the same way
as the hard ones. In experimenting on some large splintered slabs of
jasper, from the buttes of Dry Creek Canon, I found that a quick
l)low of a hammer would send off, with a ringing sound, a long, sharp
flake, reminding me of the primitive knives or scrapers of the stone age
of man.

Between the well finished implement and the accidental spawl every
gradation of form may be observed among the scattered stones of the
plains and buttes.

Many of the accidental forms, as well as those more nearly resemb-
ling artificial implements, if they are not actually such, appear greatly
to differ in age. Some of the specimens are as sharp and fresh in
appearance as if but recently shivered from the parent block, while
others are so much worn and so deeply altered from exposure, that
they look to be of ancient date. In some of these old looking speci-
mens, the jasper, originally brown or black, has become dull white and
yellow, the depth of one fourth of an inch from the surface.

[In this relation I may take the opportunity to refer to one of the
simplest of stone imjilements still in use, and which, if it had alone
been found among the flaked materials of the buttes, would certainly
have been viewed as an accidental spawl. During my stay at Fort
Bridger the Slioshone Indians made a visit to the post, and encamped
in its vicinity for a week. Being the first time I had an opportunity
of seeing a tribe of Indians, I felt much interest in observing them.
While wandering through their camp I noticed the women dressing
buff;ilo-skins with a stone implement, the only one of this material I
found in use among them. A serrated scraper of iron was also
employed, but the stone implement was clearly a common and import-
ant one. It was a spawl from a qaartzite bowlder, made by a single
smart blow with another stone. It is circular, or oval, plano-convex,
and with a sharp edge. The implement, according to Dr. Carter, who
is quite familiar with the language and habits of the Shoshones, is
■called by them a " teshoa." By a happy accident I learned that it
was not a mere recent instrument, incidental to the time and place.
While on an excursion after fossils, in company with Dr. Carter, I

Description of part of Wyoming Territory. 275

noticed on the side of a butte a few weathered human bones, to which
I directed the attention of ray friend. On further examination wc
found others, t(>gether with some perforated canines of the elk, and
one of the identical " teshoa," above described. Dr. Carter observed
that the Shoshones sometimes buried their dead upon the top of promi-
nent buttes, and these remains had fallen from the grave of a squaw,
which, in the course of time, had become exposed by the wearing
away of the edge of the butte. The bones and elk-tusks were much
weathered. Their appearance, and the probable circumstance that
several years had elapsed before the butte could wear away to reach
the grave, appear to be sufficient evidence that the " teshoa" was an
implement of common use.]

Astheclavs and sandstones of the Bridger terraces and buttes
crumble away, a variety of remains of terrestrial and fresh water ani-
mals are exposed to view. In some of the buttes they are compara-
tively abundant ; in others, they are rare. The fossils consist of the
bones and teeth of vertebrates, and tlie shells of molhiscs. Fragments
of silicified wood also occur, though not frequently. Shells of the
sandstones are composed of chalcedony ; but those imbedded in the
indurated clays usually retain their carbonate of lime.

The fossil bones are completely petrified ; that is to say, their more
perishable constituents have been replaced mainly by silicious matter.
They are frequently as black as ebony ; and the teeth are usually black,
with the enamel highly lustrous. Often they are brownish, with a
greenish aspect, derived from the greenish matrix in which they were
imbedded. They are also found of a yellowish clay color and duller
aspect.

Many of the bones are more or less crushed and distorted, as a re-
sult of the pressure of the superincumbent strata. The fragments are
generally but slightly dislocated, showing that the crushing occurred
while they were imbedded. The stronger bones are often well pre-
served, especially the rami of lower jaws and teeth, and the smaller
bones of the wrist and ankle. Whole skulls are exceedingly rare, and
when discovered are much crushed and distorted. Turtle shells are
among the most frequent fossils, but are usually more or less fractured,
crushed and distorted. In searching over the buttes, little piles of
bone fragments are often seen diverging from a prominent point ;
these, on examination, generally prove to be the remains of a turtle
shell, which, after exposure, has fallen to pieces.

Generally the fossils are sharply preserved ; that is to say, they
rarely have a rolled or water-worn appearance, indicating that bones
and shells were soon enveloped in mud at the bottom of comparatively

276 Description of imrt of Wyoming Territory.

quiet water. In the gravelly strata rolled fragments of bones are
found.

Nearly all the fossils collected from the Bridger beds have been
collected as loose specimens, picked up on the surface of the buttes.
No excavations have been made into tlie latter in search of fossils, ex-
cept to exhume a jiartially exposed bone, or some parts of a skeleton
supposed to be contiguous to specimens lying in view on the surface.
Usually only a few pieces of a skeleton have been found together, and
in no instance has a complete one been discovered which has been
brought to my notice. Generally, too, there has been no certainty that
bones or fragments found together belonged to the same skeleton, and
in most instances they have appeared to belong to several different
animals.

The remains of vertebrates thus far discovered, in the Bridger Ter-
tiary formation, represent all classes, excejDt Batrachians, and these, no
doubt, formed members of the ancient fauna ; but their delicate bones
have, as yet, escaped detection.

The remains of mammals are especially numerous, and they belong
to many genera, most of which are extinct, and had not been previous-
ly described or found elsewhere. The greater proportion of the mam-
mals were odd-toed pachyderms, whose nearest living allies are the
tapirs. Proboscidian and equine forms appear to have been sparsely
represented. Even-toed pachyderms were comparatively few; and
ruminants, whose remains are so abundant and varied in the later
Tertiary formations east of the Rocky Mountains, appear to have been
absent. The other remains of mammals belong to rodents, insectivores,
and carnivores, nearly all of extinct genera, not previously described,
nor found in other localities. Primates,' bats, marsupials, and eden-
tates, ai'e probably represented, but have not been certainly recognized
among the fossils which I have had the opportunity of examining.
The nature of the formation from which the remains are obtained' is
such, that we do not expect to find evidences of the remaining orders
of mammals.

No remains of birds have come under my notice ; but Professor
Marsh, who has explored the Bridger Tertiary beds with unusual
facilities and great diligence, has reported the discoveiy of specimens
which he attributes to half a dozen species of two extinct and pre-
viously unknown genera.

Of reptiles, the remains of turtles are, perhaps, the most abundant
fossils met with in the buttes of the Bridger basin. They belong to a
number of different genera, several of which are extinct, but other?
belong to genera still in existence. Most of them are aquatic forms,

The Earthworks at Fort Ancient, 277

but one, at least, was a laud tortoise. The number of species and
genera is in striking contrast with the single species, represented by a
multitude of individuals in the Tertiary deposits of White river,
Dakota, and Niobrara river, Nebraska.

The turtle remains mostly consist of the shells, often nearly com-
plete, and sometimes including other bones of the skeleton imbedded in
the interior matrix.

The remains of crocodiles, which are entirely wanting in the White
river and Niobrara Tertiaries just mentioned, are frequent in the
Bridger beds, and represent several species.

Remains of lizards also, allied to the modern iguana and monitor,
are found as associates of the Bridger fauna.

Professor Marsh has likewise reported the discovery of remains of
serpents, which he ascribes to several species and genera.

i\[ultitudes of well preserved fresh water fishes are found in the Green
river shales. They are chiefly cyprinodonts and herrings, and, for the
most part, have been described by Professor Cope. ,

Black, shining, enameled scales, teeth, and vertebr£e of ganoid fishes
are frequent among tlie fossils of the Bridger beds.

The Tertiary strata of Green river and its tributaries, including the
latter, as indicated by the character of the vertebrate fossils, are much
older than the tertiaries of the Mauvaises Terres of White river, Da-
kota, and of the Niobrara river, Nebraska. They overlie the cretaceous
rocks, with which they are unconformable, and they are probably con-
temporaneous with the Eocene formations of Europe.

The Eadh Works at Fort Ancient.

On Tuesday, the 23d day of June, 1874, the Cincinnati Society of
Natural Hist(jrv made an excursion to Fort Ancient, to view some of
the ruins of great earthworks, constructed by an unknown race of peo-
ple, whom the archaeologists call the Mound Builders.

A special car was chartered for the occasion, and at 9 o'clock, A.M.,
it left the depot of the Little Miami Railroad, and arrived at Fort
Ancient about 11 o'clock. The distance is forty-two miles.

The company consisted of Dr. W. H. Mussey, Dr. Gustav Bruehl,
U. P. James, Dr. C. A. Miller, Dr. H, H. Hill, wife and the Misses
Hill, Dr. J, L. Dryer, Dr. R. M. Byrnes and wife, R. B. Moore, wife
and ladies, L. !S. Cotton, wife and ladies, Paul Mohr, Jr., and the

278 The Earthivorks at Fort Ancient.

Misses Mohr, J. A. Williams and wife, Miss M. Montfort, S. A. Miller
and wife, and others, amounting in all to about fifty persons. The
company met at Fort Ancient J. Kelly O'Neil, Dr. Scoville, from
Lebanon, and others.

The train stopped on arriving at the west end of the fortifications,
about a mile from the station, and let the party off to ascend a very
steep hill, two hundred and thirty feet high, densely covered with
undergrowth and briars. The day was quite warm, which was another
obstacle in tlie way of a pleasant ascent to the top of the hill. But
the enthusiasm was great, and in a short time these difficulties were
overcome, and the whole party were within or seated upon the earth-
works which at this point are from ten to twenty feet high. Here the
party dispersed to pursue their separate plans for pleasure and instruc- •
tion. Some hunted land shells, some botanical specimens, and others
followed the meandering course of the earthworks, and speculated
upon the people that constructed them, whence they came and whither
they Avent; what they were constructed for, and whether or not
they were ever completed, and served the purpose for which they were
constructed. The collections were displayed, and the speculations de-
livered while the party constituted a picnic under the large beech
trees at the east end of the earthworks, on the old Lebanon and Chilli-
cothe pike. Here, near the east end of the works, resides a clever
farmer, from whose well we obtained plenty of cool water. He seemed
to be of the opinion that, the earthworks were constructed by the Jews,
about the time of Jesus Christ, and there are many other persons
Avhose opinions ai-e about as lucid.

Since Prof. Locke made the survey of these earthworks in 1843,
some changes in the grounds have occurred, and a few discoveries have
been made, though we are but little better informed in regard to the
works than we were then. A hirge field has recently been cleared
within the west fortification, which is now cultivated in corn, and
some additional clearing has been made in the east fortification, but
the most of the ground is covered with dense undergrowth and briars,
making it difficult to examine and survey the whole fortification.

Prof. Locke describes the works as follows: "This work occupies a
terrace on the left bank of the river, and two hundred and thirty feet
above its waters. The place is naturally a strong one, being a penin-
sula, defended by two ravines, which, originating on the east side, near
to each other, diverging and sweeping around, enter the Miami, the
one above, the other below the woi-k. The Miami itself, with its
precipitous bank of two hundred feet, defends the western side. The
ravines are occupied by small streams. Quite around this peninsula,

The EarthvJorJis at Fort Ancient. 279

on the very verge of the ravines, has been raised an eml)ank?3ient of
unusual height and perfection. Meandering around the spurs, and
reentering to pass the heads of the gullies, it is so winding in its
course that it required one hundred and ninety-six stations to com-
plete its survey. The whole circuit of the work is between four and
five miles. The number of cubic yards of excavation may be approxi-
mately estimated at six hundred and twenty-eight thousand eight
hundred. The embankment stands in many places twenty feet in
perpendicular height ; and, although composed of a tough, diluvial
clay, without stone, except in a few places, its outward slope is from
thirty-five to forty-three degrees. This work presents no continuous
ditch ; but the earth for its construction has been dug from convenient
pits, which are still quite deep, or filled with mud and water.
Although I brought over a party of a dozen active, young engineers,
and we had encamped upon the ground to expedite our labors, we
were still two days in completing our survey, which, with good instru-
ments, was conducted with all possible accuracy. The work ap-
proaches nowhere within many feet of the river; but its embankment
is, in several places, carried down into ravines, from fifty to one
hundred feet deep, and at an angle of thirty degrees, crossing a stream-
let at the bottom, which, by showers, must often swell to a powerful
torrent. But, in all instances, the embankment may be traced to
within three to eight feet of the stream. Hence, it appears that
although these little streams have cut their channels through fifty
to one hundred feet of thin, horizontal layers of blue limestone, inter-
stratified with indurated clay-marl, not more than thi-ee feet of that
excavation has been done since the construction of the earthworks.
If the first position of the denudation was not more rapid than the last,
a period of at least thirty to fifty thousand years would be required for
the present point of its progress; But the quantity of material
removed from such a ravine is as the square of its depth, ^Yhich
■\YOuld render the last part of its denudation much slower, in vertical
descent, than the first part. That our streams have uot yet reached
their ultimate level, a point beyond which they cease to act upon their
beds, is evident from the vast quantity of solid material transported
annually by our rivers, to be added to the great delta of the Missis-
sippi. Finally, I am astonished to see a work simply of earth, after
braving the storms of thousands of vears, still ?o entii-e and well

*»

years,

marked. Several circumstances have contributed to this : the clay
of which it is built is not easily penetrated by water; the bank has
been, and is still, mostly covered by a forest of beech tx-ees, which
have woven a strong web of their roots over its steep sides ; and a fine
bed of mo?.sJ^PQhjtrichum) serves still further to afford protection."

280 The Earthworks at Fort Ancient.

The embankment maybe characterized as broken up in short pieces,
for every cue or two hundred feet there is an opening through it, and
situated upon the extreme margin of the steep hill-sides, winding and
twisting about the heads of gullies, and projecting peaks of the hill, as
formed by the erosive powers of the atmosphere, the storms, and other
natural causes, except where it crosses the plain at the northeastern
part of the fortification. Here there are openings about every two
hundred feet, and the embankment is very high, even now near twenty
feet, though the ground was cleared before Prof. Locke made his survey
in 1843.

The mounds that were once so conspicuous within the eastern fortifi-
cation have been plowed down, until they rise but very little above the
level of the surrounding plain, and will not be noticed by the casual
observer unless directly pointed out.

Two mounds are situated a short distance south of the eastern part
of the fortification, between which the old Lebanon and Chillicothe
pike is located. These mounds show the effects of the powerful
denuding agencies in the atmosphere. They have been cleared for
many years, and are now very much flattened, appearing to be less
than ten feet higher than the pike, though it is likely they were once
as high, or even higher, than the embankment of the fortification. It
is said that a pavement of thin limestones has been discovered a foot or
more below the surface of the ground, and extending several hundred
yards in a southeast direction from these mounds, and I saw in the
field near by many of these flat stones that had been plowed up, and
upon digging a footer more in depth at this place found the pavement,
and lifted up some of the thin, badly weather-worn stone, which had
evidently been placed where found, because the diluvial soil and drift
was several feet thick below them. The excavation and work at this
place was under the direction of Mr. Hosea and J. Kelly O'Neil, who
were fully satisfied that they were liftiiig up the pavement laid by the
subjects of the king of the "Mound Builders," anywhere from ten to
five hundred thousand years ago, as it best suits the imagination, always
being willing to rise or fall a peg or two to suit the taste of the inquis-
itor.

A ditch runs east and west, in a line with these mounds, west of the
pike, and a few hundred feet south of the fortification, the purpose
of which belongs to that department of archjeological hermeneutics yet
unexplored. A few acres of ground surrounding these mounds is said
to be remarkably rich and productive, and from the dark and alluvial
appearance, one naturally comes to the conclusion "that here the stock
was kept, or the ofial deposited in such quantities that time has failed

The Earthivorks at Fort Ancient. 281

to carry iiway the spongy mould arising from decaying vegetable and
animal matter.

No doubt many exceedingly interesting and important discoveries
v*ill be made in the future, tending to throw light on the objects and
purposes of this wonderful construction. All that we can at present
assume as an absolute certainty is, that it is the work of intelligent
man. Investigation, thus far, has not gone beyond the surface of the
ground, and the presence of wells and cisterns, or of pavements, can
only be ascertained by excavation.

Any one examining these works must come to the conclusion that
they were erected for defense, and that by a race of men who under-
stood something of the art of war ; indeed, much more than can be
reasonably attributed to the roving propensities and unstable habits of
the American Indian aborigines found upon the continent by the first
discoverers of this country. The extent, too, of these Avorks, viewed
in the light of military fortifications, proves beyond peradventure that
they were raised not for the protection of a tribe more or less numer-
ous, but of a powerful people, raised to war and used to war's alarms ;
for within these formidable lines there might be congregated, at a
moment's notice, fifty or sixty thousand men, with all their materials
of war, women, children, and household goods. The Roman legion,
w'e are told, required only a square of seven hundred yards to efiect
the strongest encampment known to the ancients of Europe and Asia,
so that, upon a similar basis, the investment of these fortifications
must have been the work of a very formidable body of men indeed,
and such as we read of only in the great wars of the Roman emper-
ors with the barbarous hordes that swept from the North, or the
masses that were hurled upon each other in the days of the first cru-
sades. The supposition that the works were of a military character,
seems to me not only to be the most probable, but the only one, in the
absence of any clue, history or. tradition, in the minds of the aborigines,
that can be reached.

The openings, visible at intervals of one hundred and two hundred
feet, and which pass through the embankment, may have been pro-
tected with gates, or movable timbers, for the purpose of closing them
at night, or in times of apprehended danger. We can readily conceive
how these embankments might have been thrown up around the city
or town in which the chief administrative officer of the nation resided,
to guard against sudden attacks and surprises on the part of the neigh-
boring peoples. But whatever conclusion may be arrived at, upon the
mere surface evidence, must be undoubtedly greatly modified by
further research, and it is to me a matter of surprise that so singular

282 Notice of Modiolopsis pholadiformis.

and interesting a subject in the midst of a poi^ulous and inquisitive
people, and only an hour's ride from a large and flourishing cit}^ has
not hitherto received a greater measure of investigation.

Nofice of Modiolopsis plioladiformis (Foster and Whitney).

Since writing the preceding monograph, I found, at Richmond, In-
diana, the cast of a modiolopsis, having a small part of the shell near
the hinge line, which shows strong folds or ribs starting from the hinge
line toward its base, and I believe it is most likely that it is Foster and
Whitney's Lake Superior species, Modiolopsis plioladiformis, which
they describe as follows :

" Shell oval obovate, elongate ; base slightly arcuate in the middle ;
convex in the middle and compressed toward the posterior extremity ;
umbones prominent, hinge line slightly arched, and in some specimens
nearly straight ; muscular impression, large and strong, near the an-
terior extremity ; surface marked by. strong folds or ribs, which, orig-
inating on the hinge line, diverge and curve gradually downward to the
base."

The strata at Richmond, Indiana, are the equivalent of the rocks
on the shore of Little Bay desNoquets, where Foster and Whitney pro-
cured their specimens. Beside the strong ribs starting from the hinge
line toward the base is a peculiar and remarkable feature, which indi-
cates with almost unmistakable certainty that our specimen belongs to
this species. The subject, however, will bear farther investigation,
and if it shall appear that our specimen does not belong to this species,
then it will belong to an undescribed species. .

People who have no Idea of a Supreme Poioer.

There is a general impression that all tribes of people have possessed

.some idea of a Supreme Power, that guides and directs all things. But

this is a mistake. There are many tribes of people even now that

have no notions upon the subject, as will appear from the following

extract from Sir John Lubbock's work on prehistoric times :

" According to Spix and Martins, Bates and Wallace, some of the

People who have no Idea of a^Stij)reme Power. 2S3

Brazilian Indians were entirely without religion. Burmeister con-
firms this statement, and, in the list of the principal tribes of the
valley of the Amazons, published by the Hakluyt Society, the Chun*
chos are stated 'to have no religion whatever,' and we are told that
the Curetus ' have no idea of a Supreme Being.' The Toupinamhas
of Brazil had no religion. The South American Indians of the Gran
Chaco are said by the missionaries to have ' no religion or idolatrous
belief or worship whatever ; neither do they possess any idea of God,
or of a Supreme Being. They make no distinction between right and
wrong, and have, therefore, neither fear nor hope of any present or
future punishment or reward, nor any mysterious terror of ^ome
supernatural power, whom they might seek to assuage by sacrifices or
superstitious rites.' Bates tells us 'that none of the tribes on the
upper Amazons have any idea of a Supreme Beiilg, and consequently
have no word to express it in their languages.' Azara also makes the
same statement, as regards many of the South American tribes
visited by him.

" Father Baegert, who lived as a missionary among the Indians of
California for seventeen years, affirms that ' idols, temples, religious
worship, or ceremonies, were unknown to them, and they neither be-
lieved in the true and only God, nor adored false deities,' aud M. de la
Perouse also says that they ' had no knowledge of a God, or of a
future state.' Colden, who had ample means of judging, assures us
that the celebrated ' five nations,' of Canada, ' had no public worship,
nor any word for God,' and Hearne, who lived among the North
American Indians for years, and was perfectly acquainted with their
habits and language, says the same of some tribes on Hudson's Bay.

In the voyage of the Astrolabe, it is stated that the natives of the
Samoan and Solomon Islands, in the Pacific, had no religion, and in
the voyage of the Novara, the same is said of the Caroline Islanders.
The Samoans, have neither moraes, nor temples, nor altars, nor
offerings, and consequently none of the sanguinary rites observed at
the other groups. In consequence of this the Samoans were considered
an impious race, and their impiety became proverbial with the people
of Rarotonga, for, when upbraiding a person who neglected the wor-
ship of the gods, they would call him "a godless Samoan." On
Damood Island, between Australia and New Guinea, Jukes could find
no "traces of any religious belief or observance." DuradaAvan, a
Sepoy, who lived sometime with the Andaman Islanders, maintained
that they had no religion, and Dr. Mouatt believes his statements to be
correct. Some of the Australian tribes also are said to have no religion.
In the Pellew Islands, Wilson found no religious buildings, nor any
sign of religion.

284 People lolio have no Idea of a Supreme Power.

Mr. Wallace, who had excellent opportunities for judging, and
whose merits as an observer no one can question, tells us, that among
the people of Wanumbia, hi the Aru islands, he could find no trace of
a religion ; adding, however, that he was but a short time among them.'

The Yenadies and the Villees, according to Dr. Shortt, are entirely
without any belief in a future state, and again. Hooker tells us that
the Lepchas of Northern India have no religion. Captain Grant
could find " no distinct form of religion" in some of the comparatively
civilized tribes visited by him. According to Burchell, the Bachapins
(Caffres) had no form of worship or religion. They thought that
everything made itself, and that trees and herbage grew by their own
will. They had no belief in a good deity, but some vague idea of an
evil being. Indeed, the first idea of a god is almost always as an evil
spirit.

Speaking of the Foulahs of Wassoulo, in Central Africa, Caillie
states: "I tried to discover whether they had any religion of their
own; whether they worshiped fetishes, or the sun, moon, or stars;
but I could never perceive any religious ceremony among them."
Again, he says of the Bambaras, that, "like the people of Wassoulo,
they have no religion," adding, however, " that they have great faith
in charms."

Burtoii also states, that some of the tribes in the lake districts of
Central Africa "admit neither God, nor angel, nor devil." Living-
stone mentions that on one occasion, after talking to a Bushman for
some time, as he supposed, about the Deity, he found that the savage
thought he was speaking about Sekomi, the principal chief of the
district.

Speaking of the Esquimaux, Boss says: " Ervick being the senior
of the first party that came on board, was judged to be the most
pi-oper person to question on the subject of religion, I directed Sach-
euse to ask him if he had any knowledge of a Supreme Being, but
after trying every word used in his own language to express it, he
could not make him understand what he meant. It was distinctly
ascertained that he did not worship the sun, moon, stars, or any image
or living creature. When asked what the sun or moon was for, he
said, to give light. He had no knowledge or idea how he came into
being, or of a future state ; but said that when he died he would be
put into the ground. Having fully ascertained that he had no idea of
a baneficent Supreme Being, I proceeded through Sacheuse to inquire
if he believed in an evil spirit, but he could not be made to under-
stand what it meant. He was positive that in this incantation he did
not receive assistance from anything, nor could he be made to under-
stand what a good or an evil spirit meant.

Glossary of a few Palceotiiological Terms. 285

In some cases travelers have arrived at these views very much to
their own astonishment. Thus, Father DobritzhofFer says : " Theo-
logians agree in denying that any man in possession of his reason can,
without a crime, remain ignorant of God for any length of time. This
opinion I warmly defended in the University of Cordoba, where I
finished the four years' course of theology begun at Gratz, in Styria.
But what was my astonishment, when, on removing from thence to a
colony of Abipones, I found that the whole language of these savages
does not contain a single word which expresses God or a divinity. To
instruct them in religion it was necessary to borrow the Spanish word
for God, and insert into the catechism, ' Dios ecnam caogerik,' ' God,
the Creator of things.' "

Those who assert that even the lowest savages believe in a Supreme
Deity, affirm that which is entirely contrary to the evidence. The
direct testimony of travelers on this point is indirectly corroborated by
their other statements. How, for instance, can a people who are
unable to count their own fingers, possibly raise their mind so far as
to admit even the rudiments of a religion? Again, fetish worship,
which is so widely prevalent in Africa, can hardly be called a religion.
And when the missionaries introduced a printing press into the Feegee,
"the heathen at once declared it to be a god."

Glossary of a few Palceojitohgical Terms, the Accent and Pronunciation
of which are not obvious. By Prof. E. W. Claypole, of Antioch
College.

I. — Brachiopoda,

Athykis — Sig., without a door. Ety., Greek a, not or no, and Supc^, a
small door or ivindoiv, in allusion to the deltidium which, in this
genus, is obsolete.

Fentamerus. — Sig., five paiied. Ety., Greek -e^^re, five, and /j.ep off, a
part, in allusion to the fifth small chamber occurring in the central
part of the shell.

Atrypa. — Sig., without foramen. Ety., Greek a, not or no, and rpuTza,
a% opening. It is not easy to see why this name was given, as the
foramen is present in the species of this genus. It is one of Dai-
man's terms. Woodward, speaking of it, says : "The term 'atrypa,'
like all Dolman's names, is objectionable."

286 Glossary of a few Pitlceontological Terms.

Strophomena. — Sig., a bent crescent. Ety., Greek ffrpofi, a turning,
and /j-i'^i, a crescent, in allusion to the bending of the valves to one
side or the other, as the shells reach full size. This term has al*
most completely superseded Dalman's Leptoena (finely striated),
though, in some respects, with doubtful advantage in point of
etymology.

Crania. — Sig. , like a shull. Ety. , Greek -/.pfvAm, the upper part of a skull,
from its resemblance. The pronunciation, cra'nia, is sometimes de-
fended on the ground that the Greek word for a skull is xpwAo-^,
and that the usual adjective form derived from it does not exist.
But it is not unusual to form an adjective in coining new scien"
tific terms from the Greek, if such adjective be not already in
existence, and then to use it as a generic or specific name. Ret-
zius, the Swedish naturalist, in giving the name, would have used
cranion, or cranium (the Latin form), itself, and not the plural
crania, had he iutended to employ the noun. Moreover, it is the
rule to employ adjectives in the feminine gender, when they are
used as generic names in conchology, as they are understood to
agree with the word concha.

Calceola. — Sig., a little shoe. Ety., Latin calceolus, diminutive of
(calceus) a shoe; alluding to the form of Cdlctdla sandalincC) the
type of the genus.

DisciNA. — Sig., disclike. Ety., discus, a flat round plate, and the adjec-
tive termination, inus, implying resemblance or affinity.

Obolus. — Sig., a small round disc. Ety., Greek ofju/.uq, a small coin.

Delthyris. — Sig., ivith triangular foramen. Ety., Greek osXza* aletter
in the form of a triangle, and ^'^optq, a dooricay. Dalman's synonym
for the genus Spirifera of Sowerby.

Trigonotreta. — Sig., with pierced deltidium. Ety., Greek rptyovov, a
triangle, and rpsro';, pierced. Kunig's synonym for Spirifera.

Uncites. — Sig., hooked. Ety., Latin uncus, a hook, and Greek affix
£rc<j, implying possession or resemblance. This term, like many
others, is a hybrid, but takes in common with others similarly
formed the accent and quantity of its Greek termination.
. Chonetes. — Sig'., like a funnel. Ety., Greek xove, a small funnel.

The numerous compounds of the Greek word d^upiq, a small doorway,

should all be pronounced with the "y" short, and the accent on the

preceding syllable, as Hypothyris, "having a foramen below,'" (i.e.)

the beak. Hemethyris, "having half a foramen." Acanthothyris,

" havyig a foramen beset with spines."

On the other hand all compounds of the Greek word zpuza, a foramen,

should be pronounced with the "y ' long, and accented as atrypa.

Reviews and Booh Notices. 287

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Professor Meek, in a series of critical articles in the American Jour-
nal of Science and Arts, commencing in March of the present year,
has reviewed many of the fossil species figured and described in the
fifth volume of the Geological Survey of Illinois.

He suggests that Actinocrinites ddicatiis and A. penicillm, j)]. xi'u.,
fig. 2, are probably the young of the genus Strotocrinus, which latter
genus holds a higher position in the scale of development than the
former. That the genus Zeacrinus (Troost) is probably only a synonym
of Hydreionocrinus (Koninck). That Fusilina gracilis and F. ventri-
eosa, pi. xxiv., figs. 7, 8, are only varieties of F. cylindrica. That
Aviculopecten neglectiis (Geinitz), pi. xxvi., fig. la, b, c, d, should be
placed in a new genus. He, therefore, i^roposes to write the name
Fuchondria negleda (Meek). That fig. 8, pi, xxvi., is an Avicuhpeden
carhoniferus (Stevens), instead of Xucula jmrva, as stated by mistake.

His criticisms upon the crinoidea are the reflections of a learned
paleontologist, and must be studied in connection with said fifth vol-
ume, in order to be fully appreciated.

The legislature of Ohio, about the close of the last session, provided
for publishing two more volumes of the Geological Survey. The
statutory provision is as follows :

" For preparing for publication, engraving, printing, binding, and
publishing parts one and two of the second volume of the report of
the Geological Survey of the State, sixty thousand dollars, to be
expended under the direction and supervision of the supervisor of
printing and secretary of state ; and the secretary of state is hereby
authorized to purchase a sufficient supply of super-royal paper to
provide fly-leaves for said volumes ; two of said reports, to be paid for
out of this appropriation."

It is to be hoped that the work will be very carefully prepared.

We have received a copy of " Guyot's Grammar School Geography,"
just published. It contains numerous maps, very carefully prepared
and neatly executed, presenting a better view of the geography of the
surface of the earth than is to be found in any atlas of equal size yet
published. It contains also a vast amount of information not readily
obtainable elsewhere, and, taken all in all, is a school geography of
inestimable value, and one that we do not hesitate to recommend for
general use in the higher grades of public schools. Published by
Scribner, Armstrong & Co., of New York, at $2. C. B. Ruggles,
agent for Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, care of Geo. E. Stevens Si
Co., 39 West Fourth street, Cincinnati, Ohio.

288 Reviews and Booh Notices.

Also, a copy of "Guyot's Physical Geography," containing 24 maps
and many illustrations. The maps show the lines of equal magnetic
declination, distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes, structure of the
several continents, marine currents, isothermal lines, winds, rains, dis-
tribution of vegetation, and of useful minerals and the races of
men, and other valuable meteorological and physical phenomena.
They are alone worth much more than the cost of the book to the stu-
dent or the naturalist. The book contains useful information relating
to the formation and drainage of rivers and lakes, the results of oceanic
movements, the distribution of heat, circulation and phenomena of the
atmosphere, and other matters affecting the geographical surface of the
earth, which every student should comprehend before leaving school,
but the book will nevertheless always be quite handy to have about a
library. Published and for sale same as last.

" I^and and Fresh Water Shells of Lasalle Co., Illinois," is the title
of a pamphlet of 48 pp., by W. W. Calkins, Esq., of Chicago, Illi-
nois. The pamphlet contains descriptions of about one hundred species,
and one plate, upon which is figured Helix albolabris, H. clausa, H.
multiUneata, H. 'profunda, H. Pennsylvanica, H. alternata, H. solitaria,
Succince obliqua, Hy. lineata and Try. Lewisii. It is a local monograph
very creditable to the author, and may be procured by application
to him. Price, one dollar.

We have received the advance sheets from the Keport of the Bureau
of Agriculture of Tennessee, relating to the Coal and Iron of that
State, from J. W. Newman, Esq. It flatters the prospects of the
future mining interests of that State. The report can be procured
of J. B. Killebrew, Secretary of the Bureau of Agriculture, Nashville,
Tennessee.

We are indebted to the Hon. H. B. Banning for " Mineral Resources
West of the Rocky Mountains, 1873;" "Geological Survey of Mon-
tana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah, 1872;" "Contributions to the Ex-
tinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories, by Joseph Leidy,"
and " Synopsis of the Acrididca of North America, by Cyrus Thomas
Ph. D."

We take pleasure in calling the attention of every person interested
in educational matters to the advertisement of the unparalleled series
of school books, published by Wilson, Hinkle & Co., of this city.
Their text-books are in general use in all schools, public and private,
throughout this section of countiy, and the rapid progress of the
scholars and high standing of the schools is traceable directly to the
unequaled merit of these works.

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T ir i:

CINCINNATI QirAPvTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

KDITOH AXD I'I!<tPI!Ii:T01!,

S. A. iSXILLKK

CONT

Page.

Some facts and eoiisi(lerati<jDs about Fort
Ancient, Warren county, Ohio; by L.
M. Hosea 2S9

Monograph of the Gasteropoda of the Cin-
cinnati Group , 302

Notes on the MoIIu.scan Fauna of Xorth-
ern Illinois; by W. AV. Calkins .321

Remarks upun Iho genus Anonialodonta,
and the words Megaptera and Opis-
thoptera, and the species gigantea
and alata .320

Doscripiions of New Species of Braehio-
poda, from the Lower .Silurian Forma-
tion, Cincinnali Group; by U. 1*.
James 333

On the so-called Land Plants from thi>
Lower Siluiian of Ohio; Uv .). S.
New 1)1 Try 335

ENTS:

Xoles and ICinifa una fniMici- | ap( r Iiy V .
T. Chambers, on I'roi. Frey, an.l

some American Teneina ...,., :5.3S

On the parallelism of Coal-Seams; by K.

B. Andrews.... ."540

Megalograptus; by S. A. Miller 313

Megalograptus Welehi; by S. A. Miller.... 3-J:;
Lichenocrinus tuberculatus; S. A, Miller. 3Ji;

Treinatis Dyeri; by S. A. Miller 3-17

Beyiichia Eichardsoni; by S. A.Miller... .347 i
(rlyptocrinus Forn.shoUi ; by S. A. Miller 'Uri ■
Rules for rendering the Nomenclature ■ 1
Zoology Uniform and Permanent,
adopted by the British Association

for the Advancement of Science .?•"!

Ob.'iervations upon Stcnopora fibrosa and

the genus Chetetes :5fis

.\ncient Relics found iu Cincinnati...... 3T'>

Reviews, Btrok Notices, etc... 377

CIXCIXXATI

1874

l-KI.S IKI) BY THK I I .MI.N> All 'i.^/KTIK III.

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GUYOT'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

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THE CINCINKATI QUAETEELT

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Vol. L OCTOBER, 1874. No. 4.

Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient, Warren County,

Ohio. By L. M. Hosea, Esq.

Arcliseology, which, as has been well said by Sir John Lubbock, is
the link between geology and history, has of late years assumed an
importance in the scientific world second to no other branch of inves-
tigation. In various quarters the mists hitherto enshrouding the early
history and condition of mankind seem to be breaking away, and we
may hope at some day to be able to trace back the devious line of
struggling humanity to where it first emerges from absolute barbarism,
or possibly from a lower scale of physical being, unless our investiga-
tions ultimately lead us to a higher state of primitive civilization from
which the rude condition of the stone age was a degradation. Al-
though a science yet in its infancy, it has borne fruits of no mean im-
portance, as we must admit when we consider the investigations of Dr.
Schliemanu, upon the site of ancient Troy; of JNIr. George Smith, in
Assyria ; and of Auguste Mariette, in Egypt ; to say nothing of the
labors of antiquarian geologists who have antedated man's existence
some thousands of years by the discovery of human remains and works
of art coeval with older geologic periods.

It is much to be hoped that the enthusiasm for archaeological inves-
tigation, so prevalent among European scholars, may develop in this
country a corresponding emulation which will throw light upon the
mysterious monuments of an antiquity peculiarly our own. It seems
hardly credible that a nation like ours, occupying a front rank in all
that marks a refined culture, should so long remain indifferent to those
evidences in our midst — yearly impaired by time and the hand of im-
provement— of ancient empires, possibly older than those of the
so called old world.

290 Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient.

These were not the rude empires of savage and uncultivated races.
Tlie complicated system of remains traceable from the great lakes
through the verdant valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio, through
jMexico and Central America, and southward along the western slopes
of the Andes through Peru into Chili, indicate a powerful, cultivated
and peaceful race, and a Avell organized government. AVhence they
came, whither they went, or who they were, are questions Avhich
deserve our careful consideration, aided by a comprehensive and thor-
ough examination of the memorials which they left.

Doubtless every reader of the Journal is familiar with the general
characteristics of tlie works scattered over the Middle and Southern
States, many of which are still traceable even where the plow has been
for years engaged in the work of obliteration. They are not merely
the slight elevations which mark the temporary lodgment of nomadic
tribes, nor the simple burial mound which all nations have at some
time erected in memory of their dead. We here behold a system
of works projected upon a grand scale, and distinguished by such fea-
tures of magnitude, engineering skill, astronomical and geometrical
knowledge, as stamp the builders a race far superior in culture to the
later Indians. While the greater number of these were evidently con-
structed for peaceful purposes, connected probably with the religious
system of the builders, many others are defensive military structures,
exhibiting the same marked features of magnitude and skill.

To the latter class belongs Fort Ancient, a brief description of
which appeared in a previous number of the Journal. This fortifica-
tion is one of the largest, and in many respects the most interesting of
its kind in the United States ; and, singularly enough, no satisfactory
account of it appears in any of the published works upon our antiqui-
ties, excepting a brief description and survey made by Professor Locke
many years ago, and quoted by subsequent writers. Our present ob-
ject is to describe some of its features — the result of a few days' per-
sonal examination — which have escaped observation hitherto. To ex-
hibit these intelligibly it is necessary to recall the general features of
the work as described by Professor Locke.

As observed by him, Fort Ancient occupies a spur or promontory of
the general plateau projecting into the valley of the Little Miami,
elevated two hundred and thirty feet above its waters. The walls of
cireumvallation, over five miles in extent, and inclosing an area of
more than seventy acres, compose, properly sjieaking, two forts, con-
nected by two nearly parallel lines of embankment, skirting a narrow
ridge, and forming a passage which is defended by two large mounds
and a cross wall.

Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient. 291

The position, naturally one of great strength in a military point of
view, is improved to the best possible advantage by lines of entrench-
ment, so placed as to enfilade all the more accessible points of ingress.
Vast quantities of river-worn limestones, laid with some degi-ee of
regularity into a wall, form the skeleton of the embankment, over
which the earth is massed to a height varying at the pi'esent day
from five to twenty-five feet. From a rude outline resemblance to the
continent of North and South America, some fanciful observers have
expressed the opinion that such resemblance was contemplated by the
builders; but, in the absence of any reasonable foundation for such
belief, we may safely adopt the more obvious conclusion that the
outline of the work was made to conform to the topography of the hill
which it crowns, so as to form the strongest defense.

Upon first entering this stupendous fortification, one is irresistibly
impressed with its vast antiquity. The rounded sectional outline of
the wall, and the debris extending its base where the rains of ages
have deposited the loose earth washed from the slopes ; the numerous
breaks caused by the overflow of surface water ; and the deep gorges,
evidently formed since the construction and abandonment of the
work, which drain the interior, all indicate a condition requiring
centuries to produce. The native forest within a few years densely
covered the entire fort within and without. Giant beeches, oaks, and
other trees of slow development, stand indiscriminately within the
inclosure and upon the walls, and at their feet lie the prostrate trunks
of others fully as large, in all stages of decay; and scattered every-
where around them are the little hdlocks and depressions which mark
the spot where trees still more ancient grew and fell.

[Judge Force, in his interesting pamphlet on the Mound Builders,
notes, upon the authority of Judge Dunlevy, of Lebanon, an entire
absence of such hillocks; whence he concludes, the present forest is iu
the vigor of its first growth, and argues the comparatively recent
abandonment of the w'ork — say, a thousand years ago. I ventured to
question the correctness of this statement when it appeared, as con-
trary to my own recollection of observations made years ago. From a
recent and careful examination of the ground, with this j)oint in mind,
I am able to state, both upon my own investigation and the testimony
of old residents who have been familiar with the locality from boy-
hood, that such hillocks are now and have always been observed
within the fort and upon the walls, just as they exist in the oldest
forests of the country; and, further, that the growth and general
appearance of the forest upon the fortified terrace is identical with ,
that of the surrounding country. The presence of poplar trees,

292 Some Fads and Considerations about Fort Ancient.

\vlucli has been thought by some to indicate a more recent growth, is
a feature not confined to Fort Ancient, but common to that side of
the river, and extends over a large area,]

The variation in the height of the wall, before remarked, was
evidently designed. Wherever the inclination of the extei'ior slope
renders the work more accessible, tbe wall is higher and stronger, and
is correspondingly less so where a precipitous declivity renders a
strong defense unnecessary. Thus, where it crosses the neck of the
fortified terrace at its junction with the main plateau, a point easily
assailable, it is more elevated than elsewhere. At this point, also,
the ditch is exterior to the work and still exhibits a depression of
three or four feet, twenty feet wide.

Another artificial ditch, the object of which is not apparent, extends
from a point about one hundred feet in front of the wall at this part,
in a direction parallel to it for three or four hundred feet, until
merged in the great ravine separating the fortified terrace from the
main land on the southeast. At other points there is a ditch upon
the inside, caused, apparently, by excavating earth for the wall, the
precipitous sides of the terrace forming an ample protection against

assault.

These excavations are frequently so considerable as to suggest a
special design in their construction. The utility of such reservoirs is
so obvious we may easily suppose they were contemplated by the
liuilders for storing water to the use of those within the work. To
these, however, must be attributed many of the so-called "gateways,"
W'here the overflow of water has washed away portions of the wall,
and formed deep gorges, extending far into the interior and draining
it into the larger ravines outside.

The terrace inclosed by the main portion of the work, adjacent to
the general plateau, is now cleared and under cultivation ; so that
upon entering the fort upon the Chillicothe road, from the west, an
imposing parapet, nearly twenty-five feet in height, and forming part
of the eastern wall, stands in plain view, about a quarter of a mile
distant, boldly outlined against the sky. A few large trees, survivors
of the original forest, tower aloft, like huge sentinels, standing upon
the summit of the embankment, and form conspicuous objects to the
view from points several miles eastward.

The wall is here, as elsewhere, pierced by numerous openings or
breaks of half its depth, one or two hundred feet apart. Through one
of these, which probably formed the main eastern entrance, the Chilli-
cothe road emerges from the fort and passes between two circular
mounds situated just without. A shaft, sunk twelve feet to the bot-

Some Facts and Comideratiom about FoH Ancient. 293

torn of one of these, showed the mound to consist of a homogeneous
loam, much compacted, and exhibiting the mottled appearance caused
by heaping togetlier earth from different localities. The only remains
discovered were minute fragments of charred wood distributed through
the mound, and, near the surface, a few bones of an ox, somewhat
decayed, but evidently an intrusive burial, probably by the later Indi-
ans who occupied the fortification.

Two other mounds, now almost obliterated by cultivation, stand
within this portion of the work. An examination of these showed
them to be places were long-continued fires were had, but for what
purpose was not evident, as no remains of pottery or other manufac-
tures were discovered in the vicinity. The earth was burned to a con-
siderable depth, and covered by the debris of burned rock in great
quantities.

From the two exterior mounds above mentioned formerly extended
two low parallel walls of earth, about fifty or sixty feet apart, nearly
half a mile eastwardly to another mound, around which the walls met,
forming an enlarged circle. These walls, which have now entirelv
disappeared, except where division fences cross and protect them from
the plow, bordered a roadway leading to the mound.

The care and labor expended in constructing a roadway so marked,
suggest certain reflections which are not devoid of interest in this con
nection. First, it is to be observed that the mound is situated one or
two degrees north of east from the main gateway above mentioned,
the roadway pursuing a straight line between these points. A similar
variation from the true points of the comjiass exists, it is believed, in
some of the similar works in the Scioto and Miami valleys, and also in
Florida and Mexico, where there would appear to have been an inten-
tion to locate Vv'alls, avenues, or elevated teocalli, uj)on east and west
lines. What means the builders had for determining the points of the
compass, we are ignorant; but from the manifest skill displayed in
other features of construction, we may suppose that in this they pos-
sessed some fixed and uniform method of determination. The design
appai-ent in locating works of this kind, especially pyramids and ter-
races, was to obtain an unobstructed view of the sun in his rising and
setting, and may be traced even in the two pyramids of Teotihuacan,
traditionally sacred to the sun and moon, situated eight leagues from
the city of JNIexico, northeast of Lake Tezcuco, which, in the opinion
of Baron Humboldt, are the most ancient of all the Mexican struc-
tures, and Avhich served the Aztecs as models in the construction of
the pyramid of Cholula. It would be difficult to account for this var-
iation, if upon investigation it should be found uniform, unless con-

294 Some Fads and Considerations about FoH Ancient.

nected in seme way with the obliquity of the ecliptic to the earth's
axis of rotation ; yet, if such connection could be established, it might
furnish a clue to the age of the works, in view of the measui-able ten-
dency of the ecliptic, in the course of ages, to coincide with the plane
of the equator. The present angle at which the earth's axis is inclined
to the plane of the ecliptic is 23° 28', and becomes less by forty-eight
seconds in a century ; which would require, in round numbers, nearly
eight thousand years to account for a variation of one degree. If we
are willing to believe with Alfred Kussell Wallace, that the safe side
of opinion, as to the antiquity of the human race, is with the large
figures, and that '-half a million years have probably elapsed since
flints of human workmanship were buried in the lowest deposits of
Kent's cavern ("Torquay "), we need not be staggered by the results to
which such a theory would lead us. Possible changes in the position
of the earth's equator might account for this variation, although Sir
Charles Lyell has advanced strong ai-guments against supposing such
change to be taking place. Whatever be the result, the point is one
deserving of investigation.

Next, the uses to which the mound and roadway at Fort Ancient
were devoted, of course, rest largely in conjecture ; but it seems not
improbable, from various similar features in other works, that upon this
mound were conducted the religious ceremonies peculiar to the worship
of the sun. Among many other similar works, in various localities, one at
Mount Royal, on Lake George, East Florida, corresponds closely with
this. As described by Bartram : "A noble Indian highway led from
the great mount on a straight line three quarters of a mile, first
through a point of the orange grove, and thence through an awful
forest of live oaks, terminated by palms and laurel magnolias on the
verge of an oblong, artificial lake, on the edge of an extensive
green, level savannah. This grand highway was about fifty
yards wide, sunk a little below the common level and the earth
thrown up on each side, making a bank about two feet high,"
Parallels leading out to a place of saci'ifice, or to a temple, are often
met with in ancient Mexican remains. They were found also at Ports-
mouth, in this State, and elsewhere, as described by Squier and Davis.
Bartram also mentions other instances in Georgia.

Acting upon this general belief as to the uses of the mound and
parallels, an examination was made of the space formerly bounded by
the walls, which was rewarded by the discovery of a well laid pave-
ment of flat river-worn stones, eighteen inches to three feet beneath
the present surface, whose width could not be determined by the lim-
ited means at command, but it was traced for some distance in its

Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient. 295

length, and no doubt extends over the entire space between the fort
and the sacrificial mound. Coming here upon the palpable evidence
of the former use and connection of the mounds and roadway, the im-
agination was not slow to conjure up the scene which was doubtless
once familiar to the dwellers of Fort Ancient. A train of worshipers,
led by priests clad in their sacred robes, and bearing aloft the holy
utensils, pass in the early morning, ere yet the mists have risen from
the valley below, along the gently swelling ridge, on which the ancient
roadway lies ; they near the mound, and a solemn stillness succeeds
their chanting songs ; the priests ascend the hill of sacrifice and pre-
pare the sacred fire ; now, the first beams of the rising sun shoot up
athwart the ruddy sky, gilding the topmost boughs of the trees ; the
holy flame is kindled — a curling wreath of smoke arises to greet the
coming god ; the tremulous hush which was upon all nature breaks
into vocal joy, and songs of gladness bui'st from the throats of the
waiting nuiltitude as the glorious luminary arises in majesty and beams
upon his adoring people — a promise of renewed life and happiness.
Vain promise! since even his rays can not penetrate the utter darkness
which for ages has settled over this people.

In the immediate vicinity, outside of the main eastern gateway, in-
credible quantities of flint chips, consisting of fragments of arrow heads,
knives, needles, awls, etc., may be gathered from the newly-plowed
ground after a shower. These are found in the space of an acre, and
exhibit most beautiful specimens of chalcedony, quartz, and other sil-
iceous rocks of various colors. Some of these fragments, found in a
half hour's search, rival the finest specimens of the Colorado moss-
agate.

Passing thence along the embankment, which forms an elevated path,
with occasional detours to avoid the ravines washed out from the in-
terior, the observer, by following the devious windings of the wall, can
not but notice the manifest skill by which, as before remarked, the
radiating spurs of the natural terrace, which would render assault more
easy, are guarded. At the southern extremity of the larger fort the
connecting passage, leading into the smaller work, is guarded by a cross
embankment or wall, with a central opening protected by the doubling
of the wall in the manner of the TIascalan defenses of Mexico. At the
southern extremity of the connecting way stand the two mounds before
described, compelling passage between them through a narrow space,
easily guarded. The space inclosed by the small fort, crowning the high
blufl', around whose base the river winds, has recently been cleared and
put under cultivation. The portion nearest the river i ' the site of a
comparatively modern Indian village. The evidences of such occupa-

296 Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient.

tion are circular ridges, thirty or forty feet in diameter, formed by exca-
vating the earth in a circle to the depth of a foot and heaping it around
the circumference. Catlin, it will be remembered, described the Mandan
villages of the upper Missouri as built in this manner ; the elevation
thus formed serving as the foundation of their lodges — a mode of build-
ing which he seemed to consider peculiar to that tribe, who, he says,
migrated from the Ohio valley in ancient times, " bringing with them
some of the customs of the civilized people who erected the ancient for-
tifications." The comparatively fresh and recent appearance of these
remains forms a perceptible contrast to the ancient appearance of the
genei-al fortification, which, in connection with other circumstances to
be mentioned, shows satisfactorily that this occupation was subsequent
to the construction of the work itself.

These lodge marks are thirty or forty in number, disposed in nearly
regular order. On the north they extend toward, and in one or two in-
stances overlap, two nearly rectangular spaces, containing perhaps each
an acre, readily distinguishable after a rain, by the exceedingly black
and rich appearance of the soil as contrasted with the surrounding sur-
face. An examination into the cause of the superabundance of veg-
etable mold in these places revealed a vast quantity of human and
animal bones, fragments 'of pottery, arrow heads, and other flint im-
plements, stone implements, and a few of bone, all confusedly broken
and turned up by the plow and intermingled with incredible numbers of
enormous flat limestones.

Excavation, necessarily limited, as the ground was under present
cultivation, disclosed only limestones accompanied by similar frag-
ments. The sj)ecimens of pottery ware found here in a few hours'
search were none larger than the hand, yet represented no less than
sixty-five different vessels, composed of dark clay, well burned and
tempered with pulverized muscle shells, siliceous and micaceous sand.
They were evidently urn-shaped vessels, deposited with the dead in
this spot, and, from the uniform blackened appearance of their interior,
suggested the presence of fire within, as a means of hardening the clay.
Some of these fragments contain exterior designs of geometric figures,
skillfully wrought, graven in the plastic clay by a blunt point or
pressed by an annular instrument, like a reed or cane. The body of
the vessels presented a similar appearance to those described as made
within wicker moulds and retaining the imprint of the matrix — a style
df ornamentation in these vessels produced by numerous parallel lines
crossing each other obliquely, in sets, graven by a toothed instru-
ment, like at;omb.

These burials, from the fact that the Indian village had been located

Some Facts and Comideratmis about Fort Ancient. 297

over them and apparently without reference to their existence, and
also from the generally ancient appearance of the remains, were thought
to indicate an earlier date than the occupation by the Indians. That
there is no very great difference in these dates, however, is evident by
a comparison of the bones thrown out by the plow with those of the
Indians bui-ied in the vicinity, as will be noticed. Although the con-
ditions of the latter burials are more favorable for preservation, the
remains are decayed to about the same degree. About the lodge
marks of the village itself no remains of any kind were found.

The occupants of the village seem to have buried their dead upon that
portion of the fort wall contiguous to their dwellings. The character-
istic marks of intrusive burial are apparent in the examination of
graves which are numerous upon the embankment in the vicinity.
These are rarely more than two or four feet in depth, and contain
each a single skeleton*, buried with the head toward the east, in a rude
stone cist, formed by placing flat stones on edge at the sides of the
body and covering Avith similar stones. Despite the apparently
favorable conditions for preservation of the bony structure of a human
body thus buried, in the mound-shaped parapet, which readily sheds
the water, in some cases the skeletons are found exceedingly decayed,
and one such cist was opened in which the body was entirely resolved
into earth, except a few bones of the hand. By great care, hov/ever,
two skulls were recovered entire and preserved for examination.
These exhibit unmistakable evidences of belonging to the Indian race.
The foot, also, that in no case are anv relics found interred with ihe

7 7 ^

dead in these graves, also distinguishes them from the burials within
the fort.

One other fact, however, bearing upon the question of the com-
parative age of these minor remains, may be disposed of here. Frag-
ments of pottery, in connection with human and animal bones, identical
with those found within the fort, were observed in an original deposit
upon the present bank of the Miami, a few rods above the railway
station at Fort Ancient, subject to overflow ; but, as the freshets,
now almost of yearly occurrence, were unknown in our western streams
before the destruction of the forests, the fact of ov^erflow, as an element
in the consideration, loses much of its importance. The main fact
established, is, that these remains are coeval with those found within
the fort, and that both were deposited after the river had reached its
present bed.

The portion of the fort wall where the Indian burials are most
frequent, is that which approaches nearest the river, and is a spot
whose extreme beauty in situation and surroundings exhibits the

298 Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient.

noble respect for the dead which led to its selection as a final resting
place for the children of nature. The primeval forest still covers the
wall and a portion of the precipitous declivity to the river, an almost
sheer descent of two hundred and thirty feet. Projected far out into
the valley, the point of observation is one which commands an exten-
sive prospect of wood and field, stretching several miles to the north-
ward, until a sudden turn of the valley shuts off the view. Through
this lovely vale the "blue Miami" wends its way, between leaf-fringed
banks, ever changing, ever the same under the radiant sky of June
to-day, as when they whose moldering remains now attract our wonder-
ing gaze, roamed ages ago upon its shores, or, wearied from the chase,
sported in its limpid stream.

About half way down the declivity, at this point, the three parallel
terraces described by Prof. Locke are still to be observed, now covered
with a dense and almost impenetrable undergrowth. The river here
suddenly expands into a large oval basin, of such extraordinary depth
and regular cincture as to seem an artificial formation. It is said, that
when the railroad was under construction around the base of the bluff,
the declivity being such as to require a foundation for the road-bed
partially built up from the river bottom, the great depth of the basin
was a serious obstacle, and a vast amount of material was required to
make the railway embankment of the requisite width. This portion
of the river has for years been designated by residents in the locality
as the "deep-hole," and twenty years ago, after being partially filled
by the debris of the railway bed, was over thirty feet deep. It is now
nearly twenty feet in depth, with a bottom of soft mud, washed in by
freshets. The shores exhibit no such conditions as would create a
whirlpool or other excavating agency during high water; and in the
apparent absence of any natural cause, we might be justified in assum-
ing that it was excavated by the Builders, in connection with a subter-
ranean communication between the fort and the river, in which case the
terraces before mentioned would appear to have been designed as
stations for guards, to protect the mouth of such passage from hostile
attempts during a siege. An unusually large depression within the
fort, nearly opposite to this point, now filled with soft mud, washed into
it from the surrounding surfaces, gives some color to this supposition ;
especially, in connection with a tradition of the existence of some sub-
terranean passage within the fort, founded upon the disappearance and
reappearance of game when pursued, which is held by residents who
have been accustomed to hunt in the woods of the vicinity.

But, warned by the length of this article, it remains only to speak
of one or two exterior features, of which no mention has been made by

Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient. 299

those who have visited this most interesting monument of antiquity.
On the side of the river opposite, the hills rise to the same height with
the fortification ; half way up the acclivity is a level terrace or road-
way, extending for one or two miles in either direction, and, perhaps,
much farther, wide enough for two wagons to pass abreast ; though
now broken in numerous places by the hill-side wash, it was evidently
once continuous, and, with little repair, might be used as a wagon-way,
A few rods north of the Chillicothe road, on the same side of the
river, upon the summit level of the plateau overlooking the river, are
the still traceable remains of a lunette or semi-circular embankment,
three feet high and fifty feet in diameter, with other walls less dis-
tinct, and a few low mounds, all presenting an exceedingly ancient
appearance and covered with the primitive forest.

On the east bank, about a mile above the northern extremity of the
fort, upon a high spur extending out to the river, is a mound from
which a signal from the work could be transmitted a considerable dis-
tance northward. Its probable use for such purpose is indicated by
burned rock and other debris of fire upon the summit. No other
mounds or similar monuments exist in the vicinity, so far as could be
ascertained.

This fortification has been known to the whites for nearly a century,
during which time it has never been occupied by any tribes of Indians.
According to tradition the Delawares in early days inhabited that
portion of the State, and roamed the neighboring country. They uni-
formly disclaimed all knowledge of the origin or purpose of the works,
to whom they were as great a mystery as to the white settlers. They
were the occasion of much misapplied labor, however, by reporting a
treasure buried in some forgotten spot upon the walls by a party of
their own tribe, of whom a blind squaw alone survived. The numerous
old excavations in and about the embankment attest the faith of the
pale faces in the story, and exhibit a degree of zeal in excavation,
which, had it been properly applied, might have enlightened posterity
upon the question of the origin of the work itself.

The examination of Fort Ancient, the results of which have been thus
briefly presented, lead to the following conclusions : The fortification,
though built for defensive purposes, seems, from the absence of war-
like implements among the remains observed, never to have been the
scene of a hostile contest. It has been suggested, that a people dwell-
ing upon the elevated plateau in rear built the forts as places of
refuge from attack. The entire absence of remains upon the plateau,
however, negatives this view. It appears more probable that the lax-ger
fort was a walled town, from which, in case of necessity, the inhabit-

o

00 Some Facts and Considerations about Fort Ancient.

ants could retreat into the smaller work, Avhere, defended on all sides
by the precipitous declivity, they had only to guard the connecting
passage between. The Tlascalan gateway and the two mounds in
the connecting passage were manifestly constructed to defend against
invasion from the larger fort. It is true that the only evidences
of such occupation thus far discovered, are in the heaps of debris
from long continued fires, in mounds which have been leveled by
the plow ; but when we consider the long period which has elapsed
since the abandonment of the work, and the vigorous and exuberant
growth which every year adds to the accumulation of vegetable deposit
over the remains of the ancient people, we may reasonably anticipate
the discovery of certain evidences of their occupation whenever ex-
cavations are made deep enough to reach them. The plow only turns
up those lying near the surtace and marking a comparatively recent
period ; and the remains thus far discovered, with few exceptions, may
be assigned with certainty to the later Indians who successively occupied
the entire area covered by the remains of the ancient builders of these
works. Some of the arrow and spear heads found in the fort and upon
the adjacent hills exhibit a finer material and finish than is common
among implements of the Indian races, and fragments of stone imple-
ments, gathered in the ancient burial ground before mentioned, cor-
respond in finish and shape with some of the incomprehensible imple-
ments taken from the Scioto mounds. But in general, there are no in-
ferences to be drawn from the few specimens recovered, which exclude
the supposition that they were used by the later occupants. A beauti-
ful discoidal stone of red ferruginous quartz, pierced in the center, an
axe of green-stone, pierced for a handle, and fragments of flat, rec-
tangular stones, such as are supposed to have been used for various pur-
poses—such as sizing threads, weaving, sinking nets, or as "gorgets"
or badges of oflPice — are perhaps the only relics thus for found upon
which any supposition of an earlier origin could be based. Yet, the
fort itself, hoary with age and imposing in its magnitude, bears inter-
nal evidences which exclude the restless Indian from all consideration
of its orio-in ; while the remains of the sacrificial mounds and the
avenue connecting them, and the elevated roadway upon the river
slopes opposite the work, seem to connect the Builders with that remote
race whose record is still to be deciphered from the palimpsest of Mex-
ican and Central American archeology.

Fort Ancient belongs unquestionably to the same era as the works of
the Scioto valley and others of great antiquity. Its place in the gen-
eral system of defenses extending through Ohio, has been noticed by
Judge Force in the pamphlet to which allusion has been made. It is
manifest that it is not the erection of a single tribe, for an independent

Some Fads mid Consideraiioiu ahoxd Fort Ancient. 301

defense, but is a link in the chain drawn across the path of an
invading and successful enemy, and as other links had been broken,
this, though intact, was abandoned as untenable.

There can be little doubt but that the ancestors of the present In-
dians were the invaders who drove the peaceful and more civilized
Mound Builders from their seats and exterminated their race and name.
Ages may have elapsed before their final extinction was complete, and
those Indians existing within the historic period may have thus
lost — as it appears they had — all trace of the builders of these monu-
ments.

In the protracted contest betAveen the savage hordes of Asia and the
Mound Builders we might naturally expect to find — in those tribes
which were in the van of the invading host, and therefore longest in
contact with the more cultivated native races — a higher civilization
than would be acquired by tribes in rear. Such, indeed, we find to be
the fiict, according to Bar tram, Du Pratz, and other early travelers, who
witnessed among the Creeks, Cherokees, Natchez, and other southern
tribes, many features of superiority to their brethren of the north in
the arts and amenities of civilized life. Yet, although they had im-
bibed something of the peculiar civilization of the Mound Builders, it
came to them at so remote a period that they had lost all tradition of
the earlier race, even while they acknowledged to Europeans that
these works were constructed by a people far more ancient than them-
selves. Such is the distinct testimony of Bartram concerning the
Creeks or Muscogulges, the most civilized of all the Indian nations,
and the Natchez, whose customs more nearly resembled the ancient
Mexicans.

In this view, supposing the first invaders from the shores of Asia to
have been turned southward by the topographical features of the
westet-n coast of America, and to have penetrated Mexico and Central
America even before the natives of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys
were disturbed, we would look to those countries, which were probably
the fountain-head of the Mound Builders' civilization, for those greater
modifications of the Indian character which they presented at the
period of the Spanish conquest. And Avhile the period of occupation
by these northern tribes had been sufficiently great to impress their
physical characteristics upon the entire people of both North and South
America, and to absorb or exterminate whatever of a distinctive earlier
type existed, the savage intellect was not able to grasp fully the refined
and complicated system which they conquered. Engrafting upon a
nobler stock their barbarous ideas, they possessed, at the conquest by
Europeans, the hybrid civilization which has been characterized as
the most singular spectacle the world ever witnessed — a system whose

302 Monograph of the Gasteropoda.

anomalous and inconsistent features can not be reconciled upon any
theory of indigenous growth. Any view of the subject, based upon
speculative or theoretical grounds, must be held open to modification
by the results of actual investigation. Yet, this would seem to be a
fair deduction from all the facts known, and reconciles many appar-
ently conflicting inferences drawn from relics found in and about the
works themselves.

Whether this earlier race were identical with those whose remains,
closely resembling the singular Central-American bas reliefs, were
found in the catacombs of the arid salt desert of Atacama, and pro-
nounced by Dr. Morton to be a race differing in important physical
characteristics from all known types of human beings, we perhaps shall
never know with certainty. But there is every reason to hope
that when the field shall have been more thoroughly gleaned, and the
remains more intelligently classified, and when the gloomy coverts of
Central American forests shall have yielded up all their treasures ; and,
especially, when the hieroglyphics shall have received the careful study
of scholars familiar with Egyptian and other ancient modes of thought
and expression, instead of neglect and indifference, that the history of
the ancient dwellers of Ohio will be told as a component part of the
great civilized race, whose primal seat was in tropical America, or,
possibly, in the lost Atlantis of Plato.

Until these explorations can be made, a labor which seems to be the
peculiar province of antiquarian societies or of government, we must be
content to regard the problem still unsolved and wander yet longer in
the mazes of conjecture, seeking the clue which will lead us to a knowl-
edge of the true ethnic relations and history of the Mound Builders,
whose struggle against the tide of invasion, which finally overwhelmed
and exterminated them, is attended by silent though eloquent witnesses,
like Fort Ancient and other similar works.

Monograph of the Gasteropoda of the Cincinnati Group.

This class of Mollusca takes its name from the broad, muscular, disk-
like foot attached to the ventral surface, upon which the animal creeps
slowly along, with a gliding motion. This movement is produced by
the successive expansion and contraction of the foot, which is well
shown by the common snail when climbing a pane of glass. Tlie
shell, with which the animals are furnished, as in other 3£ollusca, is
secreted by the edge of the mantle, and usually forms a conical, spirally
twisted tube. The right side of the Gasteropoda is usually the largest,

Monograph of the Gaderopoda. 303

which directs the convolutions of the spire in that direction. Such
shells are called dextral. All fossil shells of this class, yet found in the
Cincinnati GrouD, have their convolutions or whorls turned in this
direction, and are hence dextral shells. In a few species of existing
shells, and in some monstrosities of dextral species, the spire turns in
the opposite direction ; these are called sinistral shells. Occasionally a
sinistral shell is found among the dextral species of common snails ; it
is, however, quite rare.

In the spiral shells, the progressive winding of the tube produces a
more or less distinct central axis, called the columella, which runs from
the apex to the base of the shell, where it forms the inner margin of
the aperture, from Avhich the animal protrudes \Yhen in motion. The
columella is usually hollow, and terminates at the base of the shell with
a small opening, called the umbilicus. The last whorl of the shell is
called the body xohorl, from its receiving the body of the animal when
retracted. The remaining whorls form the spire; and the impressed
line which separates the whorls is the suture. The margins of the aper-
ture are called the lips ; the outer lip (labrum) forms the convexity
of the shell ; the inner lip (labium) is usually formed by the
columella, and is hence denominated the columellar lip. The two
lips are sometimes continuous and sometimes separated by a notch,
which is often, in the siphonated species, produced into a canal. The
shells of the genus Fusispira have the aperture prolonged at the base
into an extended canal, while the lips of Cyclora are continuous. The
junction of the outer lip with the preceding whorl is frequently marked
with a notch, for the reception of the excurrent siphon, and the outer
lip, at the greatest convexity of the body whorl, is frequently marked
with a slit, as in Pleurotomaria and Murchisonia. The margin of the
aperture is sometimes termed the peristome, and when the aperture is
formed in part by the columella, such part is sometimes called the %oall
of the aperture. Prof. McCoy characterizes this class as follows :

"Nearly all the Gasferopoc/a enjoy powers of locomotion, and receive
their name from the gastric surface of the body being flattened into a
disk-like foot, for creeping ; they inhabit salt or fresh water, or the
land ; they are all provided Avith a distinct head, usuallv furnished with
two tentacles, and perfectly formed eyes ; the mouth is provided with
contractile lips, and two or three horny jaws ; frequently the tongue is
strap-shaped and set with sharp, hooked points, serving either to rasp
seaweed food for the phytiverous groups, or capable of boring holes
through shells, to reach the food of the carnivorous genera; the mouth
opens into a long, winding oesophagus, receiving at the sides the ducts
of large salivary glands ; this ends in a large oval stomach ; from

304 Ilonograph of the Gasteropoda.

which an intestine extends, winding through the great liver and ovary,
passing through the bronchial cavity along the base of the gills, term-
inating at the branchial opening, usually on the right side of the head.
In some genera the stomach is armed with calcareous spines, or, as in
Bulla, with three large grinding plates, concave outwardly. The
liver is extremely large and lobulated ; the ovaries are large, granu-
lated masses, enveloping the intestine opening into a large oviduct
(which is also the uterus of the ovo viperous species), running parallel
to the inner edge of the rectum, separated from it by a slender renal
duct, and all opening at the same point ; the testis forms a more com-
pact gland farther back (in the apex of univalve shells), sending its
vas deferens close along the oviduct. The heart is systematic, and has
one auricle (or in Haliotis, chiton and Fissurella two) receiving the
oxygenated blood from the gills, which, flowing into the ventricle, is
thence distributed to the body through an aorta extending from its
apex. The eyes never exceed two in number, but are perfectly formed,
having a transparent cornea, a large, sj^herical, crystalline lens, with a
small intervening space for the aqueous humor, and a circular pupil-
lary opening left by the choroid or pigmental layer. The organ of
hearing consists of two round vesicles, adhering to the anterior oesoph-
agal ganglia, and containing numerous calcareous, oscillating otolites.
The shell varies greatly in form and position, according to the group,
but is formed in all from the calcification of shells formed in layers
under the epidermis, by the edge of the mantel, and irregularities in
form of its edge, produce corresponding spines, tubercles, etc., on the
shell, which the animal is able to absorb again when they become in-
ternal by the spiral growth of the whorls. There are usually three
distinct layers in the univalve shells. All the orders are hermaphro-
dite, except the Pedmibranchiata, in which the sexes are distinct. The
7iervous system is greatly more centralized than in LameUibranchiata, and
the principal ganglia approximated to the head, there being usually a
great pair of supra oesophagal ganglia, or brains, supply the eyes, ten-
tacles, etc., and a great suboesoj)hagal mass of ganglia giving off nerves
to supply the foot, the gills, the viscera, etc., connected by cords form-
ing a nervous collar."

The Gasteropoda are divided into two sub classes, the Heteropoda or
Niicleobranchiata, which includes only a single order, and the Gastero-
poda proper.

The Gasteropoda form two natural groups ; one breathing air {pul-
r>ibniferd) , the other water (hramchifera) . None of the pidmonifera
belong to the Cincinnati Group. The branchifera are always provided
with a shell whilst in the egg, sufficient to conceal them entirely when

3Ionograph of the Gasteropoda. 30")

first hatched, with a closed opercuhim. Instead of creeping while
young, they swim with a pair of ciliated fins springing from the sides
of the head. Their development may be profitably studied in the
Melania and Puliidina of the Ohio river.

Cuvier divided the branchifera into the following orders : 1. Pec-
tinibranchiata ; 2. Scutihranchiata ; 3. Cyclobrauchiata ; 4. TubuUbran-
chiata ; 5. Tectibranchiata ; 6. Inferobranchiata; 7. Nudibranchiata.
Later authors have united the first four of the above orders into one
order, calling it the Prosobranehiata, and the last three into another
order, calling it the Oputhobrancldata. The OpisthobrancJiiata are all
hermaphrodites, and very few of them are inclosed in shells ; they are
not known in the Cincinnati Group.

The Gasteropoda of the Cincinnati Group, therefore, belong to the
NudeobrancJiiata and the Prosobranehiata.

The Nudeobraneliiata (Blainville) are so called because the respira-
tory and digestive organs form a nucleus on the posterior part of the
back. They are all inhabitants of the ocean, where they swim about
raj)idly, instead of creeping on the bed. This order is divided into two
families: 1. Atlantidce; 2. i^iroZfVte, and some authors include a third
small family, Sagittidce. The Atlantido; have a discoidal shell, large
enough to contain the whole animal when contracted ; and the gills
are contained in a regular branchial cavity. Sometimes they possess
a delicate operculum. This family has been subdivided into various
families, as Bellerophontidce, etc. It includes the following genera of
this monograph, viz.: Bellerophon, Bucania, Cyrtolites, Microceras. The
Firolidce are either entirely naked, or furnished with a small, conical
keeled shell, which incloses the intestinal nucleus, and which very
much resembles the Carinaropsis, the latter genus may not, however,
belong to this family.

The Prosobranehiata (M. Edwards) have a spiral shell, into which
they can retract themselv^es at pleasure ; the mantle forms an arched
chamber over the back of the head, in which the branchiaj are-
situated, together with the orifices of the alimentary and generative-
organs. The branchiiB are pectinated or plume-like, and situated iib
advance of the heart. The sexes are distinct and nearly all the species
are marine. This order is divided into more than twenty fixmilies,
and these again are divided into sub-families. The family Haliotidir
is characterized as follows :

Shell varying in form from elongate conic to depressed and ear-
shaped ; aperture wide, indented by the last whorl ; nacreous, and
with one exception, having either a deep slit or row of foramina in the
thin, simjile, outer lip, leaving a band which extends back along the

306

Monograph of the Gasteropoda.

whorls of the spire ; animal usually too large for the shell ; foot wide,
oval ; operculum rudimentary, or none ; eyes on long pedicles at the
base of the tentacles ; mantle notched or perforated opposite the cor-
responding apertures in the edge of the shell, to admit the water to
the respiratory cavity when the animal is contracted ; pectinated
nearly equal.

This family, among other genera, includes Murchisonia, Pleurotomaria,
Baphistomia.

Genus Bellerophon — (Monfoet).

\_Etym. — A fanciful ajipellation from Bellerophon, a fabulous hero
of Greece.]

Shell symmetrical, involute, globose, or discoidally coiled, few
whorled ; whorls often sculptured ; sometimes dorsally keeled ; aper-
ture sinuated and deeply notched on the dorsal side.

Bellerophon hilohatm — (Soweeby, 1839).

Involute, subglobose, height and width about equal ; aperture bilo-
bate, large, subreuiform ; surface marked by fine stride, which, ascend-
ing from the umbilicus, form a broad arch on the side of the shell, and,
bending downward, meet in an abrupt curve on the dorsal Ime.

It is exceedingly rare that the shell of this species is found in the
Cincinnati Group, but the casts are found at all elevations from low
water-mark to the Upper Silurian formation. The casts, too, are gen-
erally very unsatisfactory, and it can not be said they are particularly
abundant at any elevation.

Bellerophon Mohri — (S. A. Millee).

Fig. 30. Bellerophon 3Iohri.— This figure is unsatisfactory, because not sufficiently angulated,

and appearing too much compressed.

Shell involute; outer volution abruptly expanded at the aperture,

MonograpJi of the Gasteropoda. 307

both in length and breadtli ; inner volutions comparatively small ; dor-
sura angulated and strongly keeled ; outer lip, rapidly expanding in a
rounded outline upon each side of a shallow sinus, curving abruptly at
the point of greatest expansion, and, with the inner lip, forming a line
nearly at right angles with the plane of the volutions ; inner lip thick-
ened and bearing a prominent node in the middle ; surface nearly
smooth in the specimens examined, but faint traces of fine lines may
be observed, curving with the shape of the shell downward from the
sinus, at the outer edge of the expanded aperture.

Aperture two inches in breadth, while the body whorl, just at the
commencement of the expansion, is only one half inch across it in the
same direction.

This species is remarkable for the strongly carinated dorsum, and for
the great expansion of the aperture in proportion to the size of the
inner whorls composing the body of the shell.

The specific name is given in honor of Paul Mohr, Sr., of Cincinnati,
an experienced and extensive collector of fossils and minerals, and
member of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History.

I found the species at Richmond, Indiana, in the upper part of the
Cincinnati Group, associated with Cypricardites Hainesi

Genus Bucania—(HAhL, 1847).

\_Etijm. — Bukane, a trumpet ; from the form of the shell.]

Convolute ; spire equally concave on either side ; volutions in the
same plane, all visible, outer one ventricose, inner ones usually angu-
lated on the edge, concave on the ventral side ; aperture rounded-
oval, somewhat compressed on the inner side by contact with the next
volution, laterally and dorsally abruptly expanded.

It diflTers from Bellerophon, in having all the volutions visible, and
gradually increasing in size.

Bucania expansa — (Hall, 1847).

Convolute, trumpet shaped ; volutions three, subangular, the last
one elongated, rapidly enlarging and abruptly expanded at the aper-
ture ; aperture broadly semi-circular, or sublunate, with a sinus at the
dorsal side ; dorsal line obtusely carinated ; section of the last volu-
tion, below the aperture, subtriangular ; of the inner volutions, sub-
elliptical, with the extremities obtusely angular ; original surface
striated.

308 3Ionograph of the Gasteropoda.

Found at Riehnioiid, Indiana, near the upper part of the Cmcinnati
Group, Confined, probably, to a range withm fifty feet of the Upper
Sihn-ian fin-mation. Casts only are found.

Bucania costatus — (James, 1872).

&'

Shell thin, composed of two and a half to three rapidly enlarging
rounded volutions, the inner of which are contiguous, or possibly very
slightly embracing, while the last half turn becomes a little discon-
connected from the others ; umbilicus rather large and deep ; dorsum
rounded, and without any traces of a keel ; aperture nearly circular,
slightly sinuous on the dorsal margin. Surftice ornamented by dis-
tinct, raised, revolving lines, or costse, which increase in number by
the intercalation of smaller ones between the others, as the shell in-
creased in size, so as to present an alternately larger and smaller
series, or, at some stages of growth, showing three smaller between each
two of the largest, in which case the middle one of the smaller three
is usually a little larger than the other two; crossing the whole, thin,
raised laminae of growth generally occur, at irregular distances, and
between these, numerous minute, crowded, transverse strise may be
seen, by the aid of a magnifier.

Greatest diameter, about 0.84 inch ; convexity of the body volution,
about 0.54 inch.

Mr. James placed this species in the genus CyiioUfes, and Professor
Meek followed Oyrtolites, with the interrogation point of ignorance,
and while I am not sure that they are not both right, I, nevertheless,
believe it belongs to the genus Bucania, in which I have placed it.

I found one specimen on the top of the hill back of Cincinnati, at
an elevation of about 400 feet above low water-mark; other specimens
have been found in the vicinity of Morrow^ in Warren county, at a
little greater elevation. It is considered a very rare species.

Genus Cyrtolites — (Conrad, 1838).

\_Etyin. — Kiirtos, curved; I'dhos, stone.]

Shell thin, symmetrical, horn-shaped or discoidal, with whorls more
or less separate, keeled and sculptured.

Cyrtolites oriiatus— (Conrad, lS38j.
Convolute; sj)ire equally depressed on either side; volutions, two or

Monograph of the Gasteropoda. 309

three (rarely more than two visible), rapidly enlarging toward the
aperture ; shell sharply and strongly carinated upon the back, and
obtusely angnlated upon the sides ; ventral side obtusely angulated,
Avith a narrow, deep groove on the summit, for the reception of the
dorsal carina ; aperture but slightly expanded, quadrangular ; section
quadrangular ; dorsal slopes marked by strong, obliquely transverse
ridges, which extend to the angle on the side of the volution ; entire
surfa(3e marked by fine transverse stride, the spaces between which are
crossed by finer curving ones, giving the surface a cancellated appear,
ance.

It is the type of the genus Cyrtolites.

The range of this species i^ co-extensive with the Cincinnati Group,
but it usually occurs in the form of mere casts, which do not preserve
the surface markings. It is frequently found incrusted with a bryo-
zoum so minute as not to destroy the shape of the oblique transverse
ridges, which mark the slopes from the dorsal margin to the angles ou
the sides of the volution. Well preserved shells are quite rare, though
I found good specimens near Versailles, Indiana, about 300 feet below
the Upper Silurian rocks.

Cyrtolites Dyeri — (Hall, 1871).

Shell small, laterally compressed, consisting of two or more volu-
tions, the outer one embracing the inner for about half its breadth,
bearing a moderately wide umbilicus, in which may be seen a portion
of the preceding volution ; sides of the volution convex, obtusely sub-
angular near the margin of the umbilicus, into which it curves ab-
ruptly and more gradually declines, with a slight convexity toward the
salient subcarinate dorsum. Transverse section, cordiform, broadest
near the umbilical margin.

Surface of the shell marked by from eight to twelve nearly equi-
distant revolving ridges, with sometimes smaller intermediate ones,
and also crossed by numerous closely arranged transverse lamellose
ridges, having a double backward flexure between the revolving lines
and a general retral direction toward the keel of the shell.

Found in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, east of Maysville,
Ky., at Clarksville, in Clinton county, and near Freeport, Ohio, at
about the range of the Glyptocrinus Nealli. While its distribution is
so general, it is yet a rare fossil, owing probably to its ratlier small
size, and, except when the shell is well preserved, inconspicuous ap-
pearance.

310 3fonograph of the Gasteropoda.

Cyrtolites elegans — (S. A. Miller).

Shell convolute, the outer volution on the ventral side receiving,
in a narrow groove, the sharp dorsal carina of the inner volution and
part of the whorl ; about two volutions somewhat compressed and
rapidly enlarging ; sharply carinated on the dorsal margin ; greatest
convexity near the umbilical margin ; transverse section somewhat
cordiform ; aperture deeply notched on the outer margin.

Surface marked by numerous, transverse, undulating, subimbricat-
ing lamellae, or raised lines, having a slight forward direction from the
keel of the shell.

Diameter of a full-sized spe:'imen, |tli inch ; greatest convexity,
jth inch.

It is distinguished from Cjrtolites compressus, with which it has
sometimes been confounded, by being smaller, fewer whorled, having
outer whorl embracing more of the inner whorl, and by having un-
dulating lamellae much closer, not so regular, nor undulations so great,

Fig. o\ — CyrtoHtes elegans. Magnified two diameters.

and havi ag a stronger forward direction from the keel of the shell.
It is distinguished from Cyrtolites Dijeri, which it most resembles, by
being destitute of the revolving lines or ridges, and having greater
flexure in the forward bearing, transverse lamellae. Figure 2, plate
13, of the Paleontology of Ohio, though a very poor representation of
the specimen, I have reason to think belongs to this species. Prof.
Meek says of it :

" One specimen, in Mr. Dyer's collection, from the Cincinnati rocks,
only shows about five of the revolving ridges on each side, and these
are very obscure. Its dorsal keel has a marginal line on each side,
and shows the raised marks of growth crossing the very narrow space
betAveen these to be distinctly curved backward, like those usually
seen on the band of Pleurotomaria. In some respects this form
resembles C. compressus, Conrad, but it differs materially in having the
undulating lamellaj of growth much more crowded, and in the presence
of obscure I'evolving lines. It seems to me to be only a variety of the
above described species (CyrtoUfes Dyeri)."

The obscure revolving lines, which Prof, Meek thought he dis-

Monograph of the Gasteropoda. 311

covered, were merely the rows formed by tlie flexures of the trausverse
lamellse and not revolving lines at all. The beautiful cancellated
appearance of the Ci/rloUfes Di/eri is wholly wanting in this species.

It has never been found in the range of CyrtoUtes Dyerl, which is
600 feet or more above low water-mark. Found on the hills within
and about the city of Cincinnati, from 400 to 475 feet above low
water-mark. It is rare.

The specimen figured is from the collection of C. B. Dyer, Esq.,
and is a good representation of it.

Cyrtolites carinata — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 32.—Ci/rloUles carinita. Magainecl two diameters.

Convolute; spire equally depressed on either side ; volutions two or
more, very rapidly enlarging toward the aperture ; shell sharply and
strongly carinated on the back and sides ; dorsal slopes plain between
the two carinated edges, with the exception of fine transverse lines
which take their rise on the dorsal keel, and arching slightly forward,
pass over the lateral carina and down the ventral sides in parallel lines.
These lines, even in good specimens, are nearly obliterated on the dorsal
sides, but preserve their character quite well on the ventral slopes.
Section quadrangular.

This species may be readily distinguished from Cyrtolites ornatm,
which it most resembles, by the sharp carina on the sides and absence
of the " oblique transverse ridges," which characterize that species. The
fine curving lines, too, are wanting, so that it never presents a cancel-
lated appearance, at least not on any specimen observed. I think, too,
that it enlarges more rapidly toward the aperture.

Its range is unknown, but the specimens collected, so far as I have
information upon the subject, have been found within two hundred
feet of low water-mark, at Bold Face Creek, opposite Fifth street, and
at the excavation for Columbia avenue.

Genus Microceras — (Hall, 1845).

{Microceras— in allusion to its small horn shape.]

Shell small, smooth, convolute ; volutions few, horizontal, rapidly

312 Monograph of the Gasteropoda.

(liminisliing from the aperture ; siibcarinatecl upon the back ; whorls
contiguous, but not involute.

Microceras inornatus — (Hall, 1845).

Sliell very small ; volutions about two, rapidly increasing in size,
slightly embracing, most convex near the umbilicus, and obtusely cari-
nated or angular upon the back ; carina more conspicuous near the
mouth and gradually becoming obsolete ; umbilicus scarcely as wide
as the dorso-ventral' diameter of the outer volution at the aperture,
and rather deep; aperture somewhat quadrangular; surface smooth.
Diameter, 0.07 inch ; convexity, 0.04 inch.

Prof. Meek suggests that this species should be placed in the genus
Cyrtolites, for, he says, "I know of no other reasons than their small
size, smooth surface, and perhaps their less acutely angular dorsal mar-
gin, for separating them from that genus." These reasons seem to me
sufficient for retaining the name of Hall's genus, Microceras. There is
u wide gap between such minute, smooth fossils and the large, sculp-
tured CijrtoUtes.

It is found in the run at Plainville, on Vine street hill, at Versailles,
Indiana, and generally at all elevations throughout the Cincinnati
Group. It is not, however, very abundant at any locality. Those
found by me, at Versailles, are about four times as large as those
found at Plainville.

Genus Cyclora — (Hall).

Shell minute, smooth, consisting of few whorls; aperture circular.
Prof Meek suggests that this genus probably belongs to the fiimily
Rissoidoi.

Cyclora m inula- — (Hall).

Shell small, smooth, wider than high ; volutions about three,
rounded, increasing rapidly in size, so that the last one forms the
larger bulk of the shell ; spire dej)ressed ; suture deep, almost chan-
neled ; aperture circular, lip thin ; umbilicus small.

This species has a range, from low water-mark in the Ohio river, to
the Upper Silurian rocks, and is dispersed almost throughout the Cin-
cinnati Group, It varies in size in different localities. In some localities
it is so minute as to appear a mere speck, without the aid of a glass,

Monograph of the Gasteropoda. 313

but at Vei'sailles, Indiana, I found specimens having a height of about
/^th inch ; breadth, -^^t\\ inch. It is a very common fossil.

Cyclora (?) parvula — (Hall).

Shell small ; spire elevated, conical ; volutions three, increasing
moderately in size to the last whorl, which rapidly enlarges, the upper
ones being nearly round, and the lower one angular at the middle ;
suture very deep, in* consequence of the convexity of the whorls; aper-
ture nearly circular, slightly projecting downward, and angular at the
outer margin ; umbilical perforation very small; surface smooth.

It varies considerably in size ; a medium specimen has a length of
about e\th inch; breadth about /^th inch.

Found back of Plainville, on Vine street hill, at Versailles, and at
other places throughout the Cincinnati Group, associated with 0.
minuta. It is, however, comparatively rare.

Cyclora Hoffmanni — (S. A, Miller).

Fig. 33. — Cyclora Hoffmanni. Magnified about ten diameters.

Shell very small ; .spire elongated, volutions five or six, round, in-
creasing very gradually in size ; suture deep, in consequence of
the great convexity of the whorls ; aperture nearly circular, projecting
slightly downward ; surface smooth.

Length of a medium sized specimen, -^oth inch; width less than
•^^th inch. The length is nearly three times as great as the width.

It is found in the run back of Plainville, associated with (7. minuta
and C. parvula.

The specific name is given in honor of John W. Hofiinaun, of Cin-
cinnati, a member of the Society of Natural History, and active col-
lector of fossils. He found the Anomalocritius incurvus (which is fig-
ured in the Ohio Paleontology, from my cabinet), and more recently he
discovered an Asaphas (Isotelus) megistos, about eleven inches in
length and seven inches in breadth.

314 Mo)iograph of the Gasteropoda.

Genus Carinaropsis — (Hall, 1847).

[From lis resemblance to Carinaria.']

Symmetrical, subconical, patelliform, siibangulated or carinated on
the dorsal line ; apex incurved or convolute ; aperture oval, narrowed
posteriorly.

Carinaropsis patelliformis — (Hall, 1847).

Obliquely subconical, patelliform, the apex incurved and extended
in a line with or beyond the margin, obtusely carmated upon the dor.
sal line ; aperture broadly oval, slightly narrowed posteriorly ; surface
marked by fine concentric sublamelliform striae.

The fossils referred to this species are quite rare ; one, which I have,
I found at the quarries back of Cincinnati ; Dr. R. M. Byrnes has one
that he found about the city, but does not recollect where, and Mr.
James has the best one I have seen, which he found several years ago,
but does not remember the locality. Its range is therefore unknown.

Genus Murchisonia — (D'Aechiac).

Shell elongated, many whorled ; whorls variously sculptured, and
zoned like Pleurotomaria ; apertui-e slightly channeled in front; outer
lip deeply notched. The appearance is somewhat like an elongated
Pleurotomaria.

31urchisonia heUicincta — (Hall, 1847).

Elongated; spire composed of eight or more volutions, which are
regularly convex, and somewhat rapidly enlarging from the apex; vo-
lutions moderately o])lique, marked upon the center by a flat spiral
band, which is margined by slight sharp elevations ; striae bending
backward from the suture to the mesial band, upon which they make
an abrupt curve forward ; aperture rounded, extending below, with
the columellar lip nearly straight.

This is a large and beautiful species, known by its moderately
ascending spire and regularly ventricose whorls, which render it read-
ily distinguishable in its usual condition, as casts of the interior. The
mesial band divides tlie volution almost equally, producing no appre-
ciable elevation except at the sharp marginal carina ; and where these
are worn down, as they sometimes are, the volutions preserve their
equal convexity.

Monograph of the Gasteropoda. 315

It is known in the Cincinnati Group only in the form of casts, but
these so nearly resemble the description that no doubt seems to be en-
tertained about the identity of the species. It has a wide range,
being nearly coextensive with the group, and is reasonably abundant
in many localities. It is a common fossil.

Murchisonia gracilis — (Hall, 1847).

Slender, elongated ; volutions not less than ten, ventricose, suban-
gulated on the middle, very gradually increasing in size from the apex
toward the aperture ; surface marked by a carinal band upon the cen-
ter of the volution, with curving stride above and below. Casts of the
shell are entirely free from the anguhir carina.

This fossil is likewise known only in the form of a cast in this local-
ity, with from six to eight volutions. Its range is veiy extensive, but
it is not remarkably abundant.

Murchisonia hicincta — (Hall, 1847).

Obliquely subconical ; spire elevated, acute ; volutions four or five,
angular, rapidly enlarging toward the aperture ; last one ventricose
below, tricarinate, the lower carina hidden by the suture of the next
volution at the upper inner angle of the aperture ; central carina on
the outer angle of the volution, margined on either side by a sharp,
elevated line, with a narrow groove between, producing a double spiral
band; aperture oblong, angulated below; surface marked by fine,
sharp stripe, which bend gently backward, and are but slightly un-
dulated in passing the first carina, from whence they turn more sud-
denly backward to the mesial band, making an abrupt, retral angle,
and then bending forward below, pass in a vertical direction to the
suture. In the last volution, the striae pass vertically to the lower
slight carina, which corresponds with the suture in the other volution*),
and from thence bend slightly backward, curving into the umbilicus.

The specimens referred to this species are usually mere casts ;
sometimes, however, part of the shell is preserved, but the finer strife
I have never seen. Its range seems to be confined to the lower part
of the Cincinnati Group, probably not found over 300 feet above low
water-mark.

Genus Fusispira — (Hall, 1871).
Shells fusiform, imperforate, spire more or less elevated, with rounded

316 Monograph of the Gasteropoda.

volutions ; aperture elongate-ovate, or elliptical, produced below,
forming a subrimate canal ; columella slightly twisted, without folds ;
peristome sharp ; surface smooth.

The shells have the general form of Fusvs, and particularly the group
Tritonofums of Beck ; being smooth shells Avith subequal extremities,
but the columella is much less twisted, which gives to them a more
erect aspect. They differ from SuhuUtes in not being truncate at the
base of the columella, and in being destitute of the deep basal notch
characteristic of that genus.

Types, Fusispira ventricosus and F. terehriformis.

Fusispira terehriformis — (Hall, 1871).

Shell terete, acute (subfusiform) consisting of about six, gradually
increasing, depressed convex volutions, the last one of which forms
about two fifths of the entire length of the shell, exclusive of the
anterior prolongation ; aperture narrow, obliquely elliptical, strongly
modified above by the preceding volution, and prolonged below, form-
ing an extended canal ; surface apparently smooth ; apical angle about
thirty degrees.

This species is found at the quarries back of Cincinnati, though good
specimens are very rare. Its range is not known.

Fusisp ira su bfus iformis — (Hall) .

Fusiform, elongated ; spire rapidly ascending ; volutions about six
or more, flattened, lower one large and veutricose ; aperture oval,
acutely extended below ; surface unknown.

All the specimens yet discovered are casts, which preserve no part
of the shell or external markings. It is readily distinguished from
F. terehriformis, by the greater obliquity of the volutions, which are
flattened, and never present the regular convex outline of that species.

The specimens referred to this species are quite rare, and have been
found in the lower part of the Cincinnati Group.

Genus Pleurotomaria — (Defrance).

\_Etym. — Pleura, side, and tome, notch.]

Shell, trochiform, solid, few whorled, with the surface variously
ornamented ; aperture subquadrate, with a deep slit in its outer margin.
The part of the slit, which has been progressively filled up, forms a
band round the whorls.

Monograph of the Gasteropoda. 317

Pleurotomaria siibconica — (Hall, 1847).

Trocliiform ; spire elevated, apex acute ; volutions about five, flat-
tened above, with a projecting carina just above the suture; last
volution strongly cariuated on the outer edge, and marked with a
spiral band, ventricose below ; aperture transverse, subquadrate, an-
gular on the outer side and round below; surface marked by fine striae,
which bend gently backward from the suture, and more abruptly on
the lower part of the whorl ; spiral band a distinct groove, margined
by sharp elevated edges, upon wliich the stride bend backward in an
abrupt curve ; below this the striae bend gently forward, and thence
curving backward, terminate in the umbilicus ; longitudinal striae
crossed by transverse, sharp, elevated lines, which are finer than the
longitudinal ones.

The casts referred to this species are found in the upper part of the
Cincinnati Group, at Weisburg, Richmond, and other places.

Pleurotomaria tropidophera — (Meek).

Shell rather small, obliquely rhombic in general outline, as seen in
a side view ; height somewhat greater than the breadth ; spire conical,
with an apical angle of about 70 degrees to 90 degrees ; volutions four
to four and a half, each flattened, or sometimes slightly concave above,
with an outward slope from the suture to a prominent angle, that passes
around the middle of the body turn, and below the middle of those of
the spire, to which it imparts a somewhat turreted appearance ; suture
moderately distinct, but not channeled ; lower side of body volution
sloping rapidly inward from the mesial angle, a little below which there
usually revolves an obscure, undefined ridge ; aperture rhombic, sub-
quadrate. Surface nearly smooth, but sometimes showing under a
magnifier very obscure lines of growth, that curve very strongly
backward as they approach the angle around the middle of the body
volution, both above and below ; thus indicating the presence of a deep
sinus in the lip, widening rapidly forward, though there is no defined
revolving band at the angle.

Height, 0.55 inch; breadth, 0.50 inch.

I found this species at Versailles, Indiana, about fifty miles west of
Cincinnati, and 300 feet below the rocks of the Upper Silurian. It is a
rare species.

318 Monograph of the Gasteropoda.

Plenrotoniaria Hall!. — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 34 — Pleurolomaria ffalli, maguilied two diameters — apex broken off.

Shell rather small, about two whorls, rapidly enlarging toward the
aperture ; spire short ; slightly convex on top and plain below, with
the exception of the projecting aperture, and marginal band, giving it
in one view a plano-convex appearance ; umbilicus closed ; edge of the
outer volution marked with a sub-cylindrical band, leaving a slight
depression on the upper and a marked curved groove on the lower side ;
aperture rapidly expanded below and notched at the band.

The specimen figured has the shell partly removed from the last
whorl, and the upper side so worn as not to show any surface mark-
ings. The band at one place shows rovolving lines. The lower side
seems to be well preserved, and has no surface markings.

I found this specimen about 340 feet above low-water mark, and do
not know of another specimen at this time.

The specific name is given in honor of J. W. Hall, Principal of the
Covington schools, curator of paheontology in the Cincinnati Society of
Natural History, and famous, too, for his peculiar trait of collecting
large quantities of fossil corals, and making the rough places smooth.

Genus Raphistoma — (Hall, 1847).

[Etym. — Gr. raphe, a seam or suture, and stoma, mouth ; from the
suture or seam-like appearance in the upper side of the aperture.]

Shell depressed, turbinate ; discoidal spire, with three to five volu-
tions ; suture close ; umbilicus moderately large ; aperture subtrigonal;
upper side of the volutions marked by a kind of seam or suture, pro-
duced by the sudden tendency backward of the striae, which leaves a
slight notch in the edge of the aperture.

The slight notch in the upper edge of the aperture, which is marked
in the progressive growth of the shell, by a simple seam or bending in
the striae, is somewhat similar to the notch and band of Pleurotomaria;
but the outer angle of the volution presents no band, but a simple
bending of the stria?.

Monograph of the Gasteropoda. 319

Raphistoma lenticularis — (Conrad).

Shell lenticular ; breadth generally a little more than twice the
height ; convexity often nearly equal above and below ; volutions
about four and a lialf, flattened or slightly concave, with a moderate
slope above, coincident with that of the spire, the outer or last one
sharply carinate around the periphery, and convex below, the greatest-
convexity being near the umbilicus, into which the slope is abrupt ;
suture merely linear, and not very distinctly defined ; umbilicus nearly
as wide as the outer volution, as seen in internal casts ; aperture trans-
versely rhomboidal, the breadth being about one fourth wider than the
height.

The specimens, which may be very doubtfully referred to this
species, are found at different elevations throughout the Cincinnati
Group. They are usually mere casts. Prof. Hall referred lenticularis
to the genus Pleurotomaria, and if this reference is right, then, I
think, that the specimens found here belong to another species. The
specimens found here seem to me to have the generic characters of
Raphistoma, and an examination of specimens having the shell appar-
ently very little worn, discovered none of the striaj marking the sur-
face of this species.

Genus Cyclonema — (Hall).

fGr. xyxAoc, amhifus, and vs/^a, filum, in allusion to the elevated
thread-like striae marking the surface of several species.]

Shell turbinate, thin ; ^spire short, consisting of few volutions, which
increase rapidly from the apex ; aperture large, rounded anteriorly,
and somewhat flattened on the columellar side ; umbilicus none ; sur-
face strongly marked by spiral, thread-like striae, which are cancellated
by finer striae.

The shell has no slit or indentation in the outer lip, or band upon the
volution. The surface is marked by elevated striae, parallel to the
direction of the volutions, and the spaces between these are marked
by finer striae, crossing the others obliquely ; the latter, however, are
often obsolete.

Cyclonema hilix (Conrad), is the type of the genus.

Cyclonema hilix — (Conrad).
Obliquely conical ; spire short, composed of four or more volutions.

320 Monograph of the Gaslerofodd.

which are somewhat appressed above and veutricose below ; last volu-
tion somewhat flattened on the lower side ; aperture rounded, or
slightly transverse ; surface marked by numerous, strong, spiral carinse,
which frequently alternate with finer ones ; these are crossed by fine
strise, which, commencing at the top of the volution, pass obliquely
backward to the base, or into the umbilicus, sufl^ering no alteration of
their direction upon the carinse.

This is a common form found at the quarries about Cincinnati, and
has a range very near or quite coextensive with the Cincinnati Group.
The shells differ very much in general appearance, and vary in size
from one fourth of an inch, or less, to more than an inch in height.
Prof. Meek characterized them as " varying from rhombic subglobose
to conoid-subtrochiform," which is sufficiently lucid without further
explanation.

Prof. Meek figured a form in the Ohio Pala3ontology, for which he
proposed the name C hilix var. lata. It is so much depressed as to be
decidedly wider than high, and has along with the usual fine, regular,
revolving lines, and minute oblique strise of growth, strong, oblique,
rounded ridges, interrupted by a broad, shallow depression around the
middle of the upper slope of the body volution. This is the same
described by Mr. James, as C. Jluctuata, on page 152 of the April
number of this Journal. Its range commences more than 300 feet
above low water-mark, and extends to near the Upper Silurian, being
but little less in extent than the C. hilix, though it is comparatively
quite rare.

I now propose the name Cydonema hilix var. conica, for the form
figured as a Cyclonema hilix, in the Ohio Paleontology, plate 13, figure
5gr, and characterize it as follows : shell conical, about one fifth longer
than greatest breadth ; volutions about five, flattened, usually rather
more convex on the lower than upper side ; suture ve^y shallow ;
aperture subquadrate and expanded belowj surface marked with
revolving lines, crossed by regular, finer, oblique lines, and occasion-
ally irregular, oblique ridges, giving it a beautiful cancellated appear-
ance.

It will be readily observed that this is one of the extreme forms,
within the varying characters ascribed by Prof. Meek to this species.
But there is this reason at least for giving it the name of a variety :
it has never, to my knowledge, been found at Cincinnati, though Prof.
Meek had such information, as it seems, respecting the specimen he
figured. It is found at an elevation of about 600 feet above low water-
mark, thirty or forty miles east, west and north of Cincinnati, and has
a more restricted range than Prof. Meek's var. lata.

Notes on the MoUuscan Fauna of Northern Illinois. 321

For C. pyramidata (James), see page 152, April number of this
Journal.

Cyclonema varicosa — (Hall).

Shell turbinate ; height and greatest breadth about equal. Spire
consisting of about four volutions, which increase rapidly in size, the
last one extremely ventricose ; the lower side somewhat flattened near
the upper part of the columella, which is straight and thickened.
Aperture as wide as high, transversely semi-oval.

Surface marked by strong revolving striae, about three of which on
the upper volutions and four or more on the last volution become more
strongly developed, and give a subcarinate form to the volutions ;
between these the striie are fewer and unequal. The revolving striaj
are crossed b}' finer lines of growth, which on the upper volutions are
nearly uniform, but toward the aperture become crowded, unequal,
and sublamellose.

This species resembles the Cyclonema percarinata, but is more ventri-
cose, with different surface markings. It is larger, more ventricose, and
very differently marked from C. bilix. It is regarded by some, how-
ever, as merely a variety of C. biliv. It is found on the hills back of
Cincinnati, but is not common.

Cyclonema percarinata — (Hall).

Somewhat obtusely conical, ventricose ; spire short, obtuse ; volu-
tions three or four, rounded, marked by numerous spiral carina, which
are crossed by vertical or undulating striee ; aperture not distinctly
visible, but apparently it is broadly oval or rounded ; umbilicus none.

It is distinguished by the numerous spiral, elevated ridges or carina?,
which mark the surface.

It is found at Cincinnati, from low water-mark to about 250 feet
above, though it is not abundant at any known locality.

Notes on the Mollnscan Fauna of Northern Illinois. — By W. W.

Calkins.

The author hopes to publish at some future time a complete mono-
graph of all the mollusk species of Illinois, giving a figure of each, and
embracing in the work such new facts as he may obtain in regard to

322 Notes on the MoUuscan Fauna oj Northern Illinois.

the distributiou of species in the State, their classification , etc. It is
probable that nearly all the American terrestrial species have been
described. But much work yet remains in the department of aquatic
moUusca in rectifying past errors, eliminating synonyms, and fixing the
geographical limits of species. The latter has now become the most
important matter claiming the attention of the naturalist. We may
not presume to see many new species added to the already formidable
list, but we shall have the position of those now imperfectly known
more fully settled ; and we may expect to see several of Thomas Say,
which are at present classed among the synonyms, restored to their
proper places as species. In regard to the classification and grouping
of species, we may consider the present systems as transitional. Some
species now treated as subgenera, will, when that ceases to W'ork, be
treated as genera. The family Unionidaj will be revised, and new
groupings arranged, more in accordance with the common characters
among some of the members. The Strepomatidse will afford a fruitful
field of investigation for some time to come. This family presents the
most remarkable study in the wdiole range of American conchology.
When we reflect that nearly five hundred species have been described,
and about ninety jjcr cent, of these from waters south of the Ohio
river, we can form some idea of the varieties in this single group of
the mollusca. Not less interesting are Melantho and Vivipara. From
them we may hope to establish seven or eight permanent species.
Though the process of future study and research will no doubt cut
down the number of species, yet enough will remain to demonstrate the
extraordinary development of American molluscous life. The following
are common to the northern half of the State of Illinois :

Family Helieidce. — Genus MacrocycUs — (Beck). ^
31. concava, Say. This carnivorous species is very abundant and of
large size.

Genus Zonites — (Montfokd).

Z. arboreus, Say; Z. viriduhts, Menke. Z. fulva, Drap. Z. cellaria,
Muller. The latter is an introduced species, and found in great num-
bers around greenhouses where foreign plants are kept. It is the same
no doubt as H. gla2)hyra, Say, Z. minuscula, Binney. Not abundant,
so far as I have observed. Z. lineata, Say ; abundant.

Helicince. — Genus Putula — (Halde) .
H. alternata, Say. H. alternata — a variety resembling mordax. H.
solitaria, Say, H. striatella, Anth. H. ]}crspectvva, Say. All the pre-
ceding, except the last two, are very abundant.

Notes on the Molliiscan Fauna of NoHhern Illinois. 323

Mesodon — (Raf) .

H. albolahris, Say. H. mnltilineata, Say. H. pennsj/lvanica, Green.

H. exoleta, Binney. H. thyroidns, Say. IT. clausa, Say. H. j)rofunda,

Say. H. diodonta, Say. The latter has been given me as from

Illinois ; I have never found it myself. Known as H. Sayii, Binney.

Stenotrema — (Raf) .
H. Jnrsuta, Say. H. monodon, ^ack. H. monodon,var. LeaVi. Ward.

Strohila — (Moese).
H. labyrinthica, Say. Very abundant.

Genus Pupa — (Drap).
Pupilla.
P. pentodon, Say. Very abundant.

Leueocliila.
P. fallax, Say. P. armifera, Say. P. corticaria, Say. All abundant.

Genus Succinea — (Drap).
S. ohliqiia, Say. S. avara, Say. S. rettisa, Lea. The latter species
is very abundant in the calumet swamps. I believe these are all the
species of Succinea that can be found in the northern half of the State.
But I have known as many as seven species reported from one county.
I have not been there. Nor can I credit any such number as existing
in a single small district.

Limnopliila.
Family Auriculidce. — Genus CarycMum — (Muller).
C. exiguum, Muller. Very abundant.

• Family Limnceidce. — Genus Linmcea — (Lam).

L. refiexa, Say. L. pallida, Ad. L. hitmilis, Say. L. desidiosa,
Say. L. caperata, Say. L. j^O'l^siris, Muller. L. sfagnalis, Linn.
L. appressa, Say. L. umhrosus, Say. L. zebra, Tryon. L. catas-
copium, Say. All abundant.

Genus Phi/sa. (Drap).
P. gyrina. Say. P. liildritliiana. Lea. I think the latter may be
retained as a distinct species, though considered by some to be the
same as the former. Both are abundant.

Genus Bulinus — (Ad.)
B. liypnorum, Linn. Abundant.

324 Notes on the Mollusean Fauna of Northern Illinois.

Genus Flanorbis- — (Guet).

Pla. glahratus, Say. Pla. campanidatns, Say. Pla. trivolvls, Say.
JPla. cicarinatiis, Say. Pla. dejlechis, Say. Pla. parvus, Say.

Segmentina — (Fl.)
S. armigera, Say. Very abundant.

[Genus Ancyhis — (Geof).

Anc. tardus, Say. Associated with this species may be fi)und the
nest of an insect, Phrygania. This nest resembles the valvata in
shape, and is built of sand and mud cemented together.

Family Valvatidce. — Genus Valvata — (Muller).

The two species, V. tricarinata, Say, and V. sincera, Say, are found
in abundance. These may eventually be united in one species.

Family Viviparidce. — Genus Vivipara — (Lam).

V. interiexia, Say. V. s^ihpurptirea, Say. V. contectoides, W. G.
B. The latter very numerous.

Genus 3Mantho — (Bow).

M. subsolidiis, Anth. This shell becomes thinner in the northern
part of the State and is called Integra. M. decisiis, Say. M. rufus,
Halde. M. coarctata, Lea. Forms resembling ohesiis and exilis also
occur.

Genus Lioplax — (Teos.)
L. suhcarinata, Say. Abundant.

Family Rissoidce. — Genus Amnicola — (G. & H.) •

A. porata, Say. A. cincinnatiensis, Anth. Both these species are
abundant.

Bythinella — (Tand).

B. ohtnsa, Lea. Very abundant.

Somatogyriis — (Gill) .
S. depressus. Try on. Abundant.

Pomatiopsis — ( Teyon) .
P. lapidaria, Say. P. cincinnaiiensis, Lea. Very abundant.

Family Strepomatidce — (Halde).

Notes on the Molluscan Fauna of Northern Illinois. 325

Pleurocera — (Raf) .
P. suhilare, Lea. P. lewisii, Lea. Both abundant. The latter
Avill probably prove to be a good species.

Gon iobas is — (Lea) .

GoH. Uvescens, Menke. Gon. depygls, Say. All other reported
species of Goniobasis from this section may be referred to one of the
above.

ConcTiifera.
Family Cijcladidce — (W.)

Genus Sphaerium.

S. simile, Say. S. partumeimn, Say. S. occidentale, Pr. S. trans-
versnm, Say.

Genus Pisidium — (Pfr.)
P. abditum, Pr. P. compressum, Pr.

Family Unionidce.

U. oesopus, Green. U. alatus, Say. U. anodontoides, Lea. U.

cornutus, Bar. U. capax, Green. U. coccineics, Lea. U. crassidens,

Lea. U. donaciformis, Lea. Do., var. zigzag. U. dorfeuillianus, Lea.

U. elegans, Lea. U. ellipsis, Lea. U. ebeniis, Lea. IF. gracilus, Bar.

IT. gibhosus, Bar. U. iris, Lea. U. luteolus, Lam. U. loevissimns.

Lea. U. ligamentinus. Lam. IT. metanevrus, Raf. U. multiplicatus,

Lea. U. monodontus, Say. IT. novi-eboraci. Lea. IT. occidens, Lea.

IT. obliquus. Lam. U. orbicularis, Hild. XT. pushdosus, Lea. IT.

piistulatns, Liea. IT. plicatus, hesneur. IT. parvus, 'Bar. IT. rectus, ham.

IT. rubiginosiis, Lea. U. retusus, Lam. U. securis. Lea. IT. spatnlatus,

Lea. U. solidus, Lea. IT. tuberadatus. Bar, IT. triangidaris. Bar.

U. trigonus, Lea. IT. undulatus. Bar. IT. verrucosus, B;ir.

Margaritana — (Schum) ,

M. complanata, Bar. M. confragosa, Lea. ]\I. rugosa, Bar. Jf.
marginata, Say. 31. deltoidea. Lea.

Anodo7ita — Brug.

A. edentula. Lea. A. ovata. Lea. A. ivibecillis. Say. A. corpulenta,
Cooper. A. suborbiculata, Say. A. grandis, Say.

326 RemarJcs upon the Genus A)wmalodonta, etc.

Bemarks upon the Genus Anomcdodonta and the words 3Iegaptera and OpU-
thopteni, and the species gigantea and alata. [From the American
Journal of Science and Arts, for September, 1874.]

In the first issue of the Cincinnati Journal of Science, I observe
that the editor, Mr. S. A. Miller, proposes a new genus under the
name of Anomalodonta, to include a group of shells allied to Amhony-
chia of Hall. These shells constitute a very interesting type, evidently
belonging to the family Aviculidae. Like Amhoni/chia, they are desti-
tute of an anterior wing, but have, posteriorly, a very large one, which
gives the shell a trigonal outline. Mr. Miller's type specimens show
them to have a broad striated area, such as Myalina possesses, with,
at the anterior end of the hinge, an oblique fold or ridge, not properly
a tooth perhaps, together with a corresponding depression in one or
both valves. We see just such characters in the broad forms of Mya-
Ilna, as for example in M. ampla of Meek and Hayden, so that,
although generically distinct from Mr. Miller's shell, there seems to be
little to distinguish the latter, except outline and radiating costa3, un-
less he is right in stating that his shell has a large impression of the an-
terior adductor muscle, which, in view of the affinities of the shell, is
very impi-obable, especially so large an impression and in so loAV a posi-
tion as he has figured it. Compared Avith Ambonychia, the hinge of
his shell differs materially, in wanting the two anterior well defined
teeth of that genus and also its three elongated posterio-lateral teeth.

This genus Anomalodonta was proposed for a group of shells identi-
cal with the one for which Meek and Worthen proposed the subgeneric
name of Megaptera, in the Proceedings of the Chicago Academy of
Science in 1866. Mr. Miller himself states that his proposed genus
Avill include Ambonychia {Megaptera) alafa Meek (Ohio Paleon
tology, vol. i., p. 131), of which he says Mr. U.P.James has specimens
showing the same hinge characters. He also states that his proposed
genus will include, among others, Megaptera Casei of Meek and
Worthen, which is the type species of Megaptera. In short, he pro-
poses a new genus to include the type of a previously established one,
together with another species of the same, described by one of the
authors of the forenamed genus. Megaptera has unquestionable
priority, and must stand before Mr. Miller's name and all others also ;
unless, however, the name Megaptera may be objected to on account of
its previous use by Dr. Gray for a genus of whales. Even in that
case Mr. Miller's name could not stand, because Mr. Meek, in the
Proceedings of the Philadelphia Acadamy Natural Sciences, 1872, pro-

Remarks upon the Genus Anomalodonta, etc. 327

posed to use the name Ophthoptera as a substitute in case such objec-
tion should arise. Indeed, I am informed by a friend that Mr. Meek,
in his work, now in manuscript, has decided to use the name Ojns-
thoptera Casei and 0. alctta for Mrgaptera Casei and M. alata.

The fact that Meek and Worthen did not describe the hinge of
Megaptera, which was unknown to them, in their generic diagnosis,
has no bearing upon the question of priority. If it were otherwise,
few genera of fossils would be allowed to stand after the discovery of
more perfect specimens than the original workers possessed. Nor does
the fact that Meek and Worthen called theirs a subgenus affect the
question, for the rule covers such cases as well as others, and the use
of such a designation under similar circumstances indicates on the part
of an author a degree of caution that all true naturalists will approve.

Further, upon comparing Mr. Miller's description of his species
gigantea with Meek's alata, I am unable to find that the former possesses
characters sufficient to separate it specifically from the latter. Mr.
Miller seems to have relied solely upon the large size and the preserva-
tion of concentric stria; of his shell to separate it from M. aJata. As
Mr. INIeek distinctly mentions the existence of the striae in his shell,
Mr. Miller's species seems to be reduced to the very insufficient ground
of size alone. C. A. W.

I presume, from the initials, that the author of the foregoing criti-
' cism is. Prof. C. A. White. In answer to it, I shall, first, call atten-
tion to the fact, that the Professor is unable to find, that the species
gigantea possesses characters sufficient to separate it specifically from
the alata. This difficulty, which he has encountered, may be owing
to the imperfect description, by Prof. Meek, of the alata, or to ray im-
perfect description of the gigantea. It certainly is the fault of one of
us, or his own mistake, for the specific differences are so strongly
marked as to leave no doubt upon the subject.

I am inclined to think that it is his mistake, for, however imperfect
the descriptions may be, a glance at fig. 9, on page 18, of the January
number of this Journal, and fig. 10, plate 12, of the Ohio Paleontology,
ought to have suggested some important specific differences, even to a
tyro in paleontology. But let us compare the descriptions of the
surface markings as pubdislied :

1, Gigantea. — " Surface marked by 30 to 40 strong radii, same width
as intermediate spaces, which are concave grooves, marked with con-
centric striae, giving much the same external appearance as those of

328 JRemarlcs upon the Genus Anomalodonta, etc.

an Amhonychia radiata. Shell marked, exteriorly, toward the margin,
with lines of growth and concentric striaj, which cross the radii, ren-
dering it likely that concentric stride crossed the radii over the whole
snrface of the shell, though they appear now to be smooth."

2. Alata. — " kSurface ornamented by about 24 to 28 simple, strong,
radiating costse to each valve, that are nearly equal in breadth to the
furrows between ; those on the central portions of the valves passing
nearly straight from the beaks obliquely to the posterior basal margins,
those on the anterior side curving more or less forward below, and
those near the cardinal margin curving a little upward behind ; in
some examples, crossing all of these costse and the furrows between,
are numerous, fine, crowded lines, and at regular, distant intervals a
few strongly defined, imbricating marks of growth, that curve parallel
to the basal and j)osterior margins."

Now, let us see what are the specific differences here manifest to an
ordinary paleontologist :

1. The glgantea has 80 to 40 strong radii, while the alata has 24 to
28. Let it be borne in mind, that the chief specific differences between
the three species of Amhonycliia (radiata, hellistriata, and costata}, are
founded upon as little variation in the number of the radii, or costse.

2. The radii on the gigantea are the same width as the intermediate
spaces, and have much the same appearance as those on an Amhonycliia
radiata, while the radii on the alata are nearly equal in breadth to the
furrows between, but those on the central portions of the valves pass
nearly straight from the beaks obliquely to the posterior basal margin,
while those on the anterior side curve forward below, and those near
the cardinal margin curve upward behind. Here is a very important
distinction, for while the radii curve on the alata, the spaces between
them grow wider and wider, but they increase very little in width, if
at all, as plainly appears by the figure of Prof. Meek, referred to
above ; thus ditfering widely from the Amhonycliia radiata and the
gigantea, as shown by the description and figure above referred to.
Indeed, no other shell of the same, or an allied genus, found in the
Cincinnati Group, possesses this peculiarity in the same degree as the
aJata.

3. The gigantea is marked exteriorly, toward the margin, with lines
(jf growth, while the alata has at regular distant intervals a fev/
strongly defined, imbricating marks of growth, that curve parallel to
the basal and posterior margins. There is no resemblance at all
between the two species in this regard, and this ought to be apparent
to any one, as well from the descriptions as from a view of the engrav-
ings ; but, for the purpose of enlightening the Professor upon this speci-

Remarks upon the Genus Anomalodonta, etc. 329

fie difference, as he, probably, has never had the pleasure of seeing
either species, I will add, that there are no imbricating lines of growth
on the gigantea, except near the margin, and that they lie flat upon
the shell and are not visible on the interior part of the shell, and are
not, therefore, preserved on casts of the interior. While the imbrica-
ting lines on the alata are placed at regular intervals across
the shell, as shown by Prof Meek's figure. They do not always
lie flat, but frequently curve up, so as to allow a knife blade to
be introduced between the two parts of the shell, and when viewed on
the interior, one part of the shell appears as if laid upon the other,
like clapboard shingles on a log school-house, and the depression inci-
dent thereto produces a corresponding elevation on the casts. This
difference alone is sufiicient to characterize the species.

But, the Professor says, that "Mr. Miller seems to have relied
solely upon the large size and the preservation of concentric strise of
his shell to separate it from M. alata" I do not know where the Pro-
fessor acquired this information, for I certainly never entertained or
expressed any such views, or wrote anything to warrant any such
inference. The declaration is, therefore, not onl}^ untrue, but wholly
gratuitous. The only comparison made with the A. alata, consisted
in the bare statement, that it was readily distinguished by the surface
markings. And so it is, as shown by the descriptions, and by the en-
gravings, and the fact is plain to every one who has seen the speci-
mens ; and, lest the Professor should be of the same opinion still, it
may be proper to state that the concentric strise referred to are com-
mon to the Anomalodonta gigantea, A. alata, Amhonychia racliata, and
other species belonging to these genera.

As it must be quite evident to every one, that the specific difter-
ences between the alata and gigantea are obvious, from an exterior or
interior view of the shells, and may be detected in the casts, we will
pass on to the other points made by the Professor, where the blunders,
if not so apparent, are yet quite as bold.

In the July number of this Journal, page 211, some doubt is ex-
pressed about classifying such equivalve shells as the Anomalodonta
and Ambonycliia in the inequi valve family Aviculidce and a compari-
son is drawn between the hinge lines of the Anomalodonta and Myalina.
One can hardly help thinking that the Professor has read this, though
he don't say so.

The learned paleontologist, Prof McCoy, placed the genus Amhony-
chia in the fixmily Aviculidce, but only casts w'ere then known, and he
supposed it to be an ine(|uivalve shell, and lesser Professors since his
time have continued the same classification, without apparent exam-

330 liemarl's upon the Genus Anomalodonta, ete.

illation ; notwithstanding that, it does violence to every family charac-
teristic of the Aviculicke, save the attachment by a hyssus, which is not,
by any means, peculiar to that family. Receiving nothing in science
through faith, though only an amateui', I shall retain my infidelity, until
some reason is given for such classification. It is not, therefore, suifi-
cient to say, they " evidently belong to the family Aviculidce," but rather
self-sufiicient and pedantic in a critic.

The Professor asserts the improbability of the situation of the mus-
cular impression in a shell that he has never seen, from reading a
description and looking at an engraving, that would seem to be wholly
incomprehensible to him; but notwithstanding the "monstrous im-
probability of the jjossibility " of his comprehending it, it is neverthe-
less a fact, that the muscular impression is neither too large nor in too low
a position. Nor is it larger in proportion, or placed in a lower position
than the muscular impression of an Ambonychia. It may be a fact,
however, that the engraving makes the muscular impression appear to
hug the anterior part of the shell rather too closely ; if so, it is because
the engraving does not clearly define the line of separation. This,
however, can not mislead any one, and practically amounts to noth-
ing.

We now come to the consideration of the generic name. It is here
that the Prof, seems to have done his best at misrepresentation, and
for what purpose I am at a loss to comprehend. What are the facts ?
Let us look at the 3d volume of the Geological Survey of Illinois,
pages 337 and 338. We here find that Meek and Wortheu proposed
the subgeneric name Mcgaptera and specific name Casei, for a shell of
which they said, "It has the hinge teeth (at any rate, those just in
front of the beaks) of Ambonychia," and they said " we have conclu-
ded to leave it provisionally under Ambonychia." Consequently the
shell was named " Ambonychia {MegaptenC) Casei (M. & W.)" Noth-
ing can be clearer than the fact, which may be soon ascertained, that
if this Casei has the lateral teeth of an Ambonychia, it will be simply
an Ambonychia Casei, It can never be an Anomalodonta, because it
has the cardinal teeth of an Ambonychia. In 1872, Prof Meek pub-
lished a description, on page 319 of the Proceedings of the Phil. Acad,
Nat. Sci., of Ambonychia {Megaptera) alata and appended to it a note,
the whole of which Vvas republislied on page 131 of the Ohio Paleon-
tology, in 1873. In the note so published in 1872, after showing that
the name Megaptera had been pi^eoccupied, Prof. Meek says, " If it
should be thought desirable to substitute another name for this group,
typified by M. Casei, and the species here described, I would propose
to call it Opisthoptera.^'' In 1873, Prof. Meek still retained his names,

Remarks upon the Genus Anomahdonta, etc. 331

Amhonycliia (^MegaptercC) Casei and AmhonycMa {Megaptcra) alata,
and never used or adopted the name Opisthoptera, which, in 1872, he
said, " if it should be thought clesirahle" he " loould propose "

The name Opisthoptera, then, has not become a paleontological term,
and when it is " thought desirable" Prof. Meek may propose to use it,
as Meek and Worthen proposed to use Megaptero,, for shells having the
cardinal teeth of Amhongchia ; but he never can proi:)ose to use it for
shells having the cardinal tooth and hinge line of the Anomahdonta.

In January, 1874, I made and clearly defined the genus Anomah-
donta, for shells having a peculiar hinge line, before wholly unknown,
founded upon the species A. glgantia. From part of a hinge line of A.
ahia, in the possession of Mr. James, I ascertained that its cardinal
teeth Avere not those of an AmhonycMa, but were peculiar to the
Anomahdonta, and, from the general shape of the shell, I then believed
what I am now more fully assured of, that the hinge line of the two
sjiecies was substantially the same, and, consequently, that i\\e Amhony-
cMa alata would become the Anomahdonta alata (Meek). At that
time, I suggested that the genus Anomahdonta would, prohably, in-
clude the AmhonycMa (Megaptera) Casei, hut I am now of the opinion
that the character of its cardinal teeth alone exclude it. I be-
lieve, however, with Prof. Meek, that it may become the type of a
new subgenus under AmhonycMa, because its lateral teeth, though
unknown, are probably different from the true AmhonycMa. I do not,
however, from the statement of Prof. Meek, think that it can wear the
name Megaptera according to the rules of nomenclature, nor the name
Opisthoptera, until actually proposed and used by somebody.

As to 3Iegaptera, it having been previously used for a genus of
Avhales, it can not be used for the generic name of shells, under the
tenth rule of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
which is now a law to all naturalists ; this rule and the reasons for its
adoption are as follows :

"It being essential to the binomial method to indicate objects in
natural history by means of two words only, without the aid of any
further designation, it follows that a generic name should only have
one meaning ; in other words, that two genera should never bear the
same name. For a similar reason, no two species in the same genus
should bear the same name. When these cases occur, the latter of the
two duplicate names should be canceled, and a new term, or the
earliest synonym, if there be any, substituted ; when it is necessary to
form new words for this purpose, it is desirable to make them bear some
analogy to those which they are destined to supersede, as Avhere the
genus of birds, Pleciorhynchus, being preoccupied in ichthyology, is

332 Remarks upon the Genus Anomalodonta, etc.

changed to Plectorhampus. It is, we conceive, the bounden duty of an
author, when naming a new genus, to ascertain by careful search tha.t
the name which he proposes to employ has not been previously adopted
in other departments of natural history. By neglecting this precaution,
he is liable to have the name altered and his authority superseded by
the first subsequent author who may detect the oversight, and for this
result, however unfortunate, we fear there is no remedy, though such
cases would be less frequent if the detectors of these errors, would, as
an act of courtesy, point them out to the author himself, if living, and
leave it to him to connect his own inadvertencies. This occasional
hardship appears to us to be a less evil than to permit the practice of
giving the same generic name ad lihitum to a multiplicity of genera.
We submit, therefore, that

" Sec. 10. A name should be changed which has before been proposed
for some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species in
the same genus, when still retained for such genus or species."

The law of nomenclature, having disposed of Megaptera, reaches
out its hand and suppresses, at least for the present, Oputhoptera.
Because only one of the autliors suggested the name with an if and
a doubt, and did not himself adopt it, as plainly appears by refer-
ence to the publication in the Ohio Paleontology, above referred to, and
if he had positively proposed the name, it would have fallen under the
twelfth rule governing naturalists, and the reasons therefor, as follows :

" Unless a species or group is intelligibly defined when the name is
given, it can not be recognized by others, and the signification of the
name is consequently lost. Two things are necessary before a zoologi-
cal term can acquire any authority, viz., definition and publication.
Definition proj^erly implies a distinct exposition of essential characters,
and in all cases we conceive this to be indispensable, etc." Therefore :

" Sec. 12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some pub-
lished work, should be changed for the earliest name by which the
object shall have been so defined."

The only generic characters ever given to Megaptera, and conse-
quently the only ones that Opisthoptera, if alive, can inherit, are the card-
inal teeth of an Amhonychia, and a long posterior wing ; and the right
of possession of these is dependent upon ascertaining that the lateral
teeth in the posterior wing of the Casei is essentially different from the
lateral teeth in the posterior wing of the Ambonychia. And if pos-
session is ever acquired, the characters will only be subgeneric, and
Avill include, so far as yet ascertained, but one species, whose name
Avill then be Ambonychia {Opisthopttra^ Casei (M. & W.)

The genus Anomalodonta, having a cardinal tooth and hinge line

Desoiptions of Neiv Species of Brachiopoda. 333

wholly different from the Amhoni/chia, can never be affected by it or
any subgenus under it. So far, then, as anything is yet known the
genus Anomalodonta will hold its place in the zoological column, rep-
resented by at. least two species, Anomalodonta gigantm, the type, and
Anomalodonta alata.

Deseriptiom of New Species of Brachiopoda, from the Lower Silurian
Formation, Cincinnati Group. — By U. P. James.

Strophomena gibbom — James,

S. gibbosa— J. MiBS. Catalogue of Lower Silurian Fossils, Sept. 1871.

Shell fragile, semi-oval ; cardinal line extended to or a little beyond
the Avidth of the shell farther forward, deflected at the extremities ;
lateral and front margins regularly rounded. Ventral valve slightly
convex in the umbonal region, but at about one third or one half the
distance from the beak, toward the front and lateral margins, it curves
suddenly upward, then rounds off, and is deflected as suddenly the
other way to the front and sides, forming a high rounded ridge, giving
to the shell a decidedly gibbous form ; this hump extends to about ^th
of an inch of the cardinal line on each side, where the shell is rather de-
pressed from the umbonal slopes outw^ard to the deflected extremities
immediately in front of the cardinal line ; cardinal area linear ; beak
rather prominent, projecting, minutely perforated ; six to eight slight
wrinkles on the umbonal region. Surface covered by fine radiating
striaj, increased by interstitial additions, somewhat variable in size on
the front slope, but quite uniform on the unibone and to the lateral
margins; crossed by fine concentric stria. Interior not observed.

Dorsal valve (exterior) gently concave to about the middle, Avhere it
makes a sudden curve, conforming to the shape of the other valve ;
the two valves are so closely drawn together as to leave scarcely any
visceral space ; beak very little elevated above the cardinal line ; area
no more than a rather sharp edge of the hinge ; radiating strite, as far
as observed, same as on the ventral valve. Interior nearly flat, or
slightly convex, to the base of the ridge in front, and laterally to
within about one quarter or one eighth of an inch of the cardinal line,
where there is a flat depression extending to the lateral margins ; the
curve to the front from the top of the ridge is abrupt, corresponding
to the exterior; cardinal process bifid, erect, rather prominent, curving
slightly anteriorly, crenulated posteriorly, and sloping in the same di-

334 Deseriptiom of Neiu Species of Brachiopoda.

rectiou ; socket ridges short, crenulated, oblique ; rounded, low, wavy
elevations just beyond the points and in front of the socket ridges ; a
small but rather deep pit immediately in front of the cardinal process,
from which extends a low mesial ridge to about the middle of the shell
forward, where it fades out ; the concentric wrinkles of the exterior
show through slightly, and the radiating strire plainly, with small, but
distinct, radiating rows of papilla, which are rather distant from each
other, to the ridge, but crowded together on the front slope and toward
the lateral margins ; no muscular scars observed.

Width of a specimen of medium size, measuring from the points of
the hinge line, l^i\\ inch ; length, about three fourths of an inch.

Position and locality : Cincinnati Group, about eighty feet above low
water-mark of the Ohio river, at Cincinnati. Collected by U. P.
James.

Specimens of this shell were submitted to Mr. Meek, when he was
making up his report for the first vol., part ii., of the Paleontology of
Ohio. He considered it a variety of StropJiomena rhomboidalis, Wilck-
ens. Probably the material now at hand is better than he had for
comparison. Strophomena tenuistriata, Sowerby, he placed also as a
variety of S. rhomboidalis, and identical with S. gibbosa. Between
these three forms there seems to be wide variations. Some of the dif-
ferences are :

The shell of S. tenuistriata is much thicker, the concentric wrinkles
stronger, and the radiating striae much coarser than S. gibbosa, and the
umbone more prominent. The interior of the dorsal valve of ^S'.
gibbosa, viewed posteriorly, shows the bifid cardinal process as erect and
at right angles with the plane of the shell, whilst it curves or leans
outwardly in the case of S. tenuistriata, and viewed from the front of
the shell the two parts are more spreading in S. tenuistriata than gib-
bosa ; the socket ridges much shorter and less prominent in tenuistriata
than gibbosa ; there is scarcely any depression immediately in front of
the cardinal process of tenuistriata, where the pit is quite decided in
gibbosa. Owing to the frail structure of the shell I have not been able
to procure a good interior view of the ventral valve of gibbosa for com-
parison, but the differences stated, together with the fact that S.
gibbosa is found only at a horizon about 80 feet above low water-mark
of the Ohio river at Cincinnati, and S. tenuistriata some 400 feet higher
in the rocks, and none of either species, that I have ever heard of, oc-
curring anywhere within or between these horizons, would seem to justify
its being placed as a distinct species. At any rate, if considered as
varieties only, they mark distinct horizons in the rocks in the west,
each holding its place constantly — S. gibbosa the lower nart of the Cin-

On the so-called Land Plants from the Lower Silurian of Ohio. 335

ciniiati Group (Lower Silurian), S. tenuistriata the upper part, and S.
rhomboidalis in the Upper Silui-ian (Niagara Group).

The material I have at hand from the Niagara Group of Indiana
shows a still more marked difference between S. rhomboidalis and *S.
gibhosd and tenuistriata, than between the two latter, in almost every
feature, but more especially the internal structure.

Strophomena squamula — (James),

S. squamula — James. Catalogue of Lower Silurian F<)s.«ils, Sept. 1S71.

Shell small, thin, semi- oval in outline, broader than long ; hinge line
varying from a little more to a little less than the greatest breadth of
the shell farther forward.

Dorsal valve slightly concave or nearly flat ; cardinal line straight ;
cardinal area linear ; a slight depression immediately forward of the
beak. Surface covered, with fine, rounded, radiating strife of nearly
uniform size, increased toward the free margins by bifurcation.

Ventral valve slightly convex ; beak and hinge line slightly project-
ing ; cardinal area narrow, a little the widest in the middle ; foramen
triangular and nearly closed by the cardinal process of the other valve ;
a strong mesial rib extending from the beak to the front ; surfiice
covered by fine, rounded, radiating strife, which bifurcate once or twice
before reaching the free r:iargins ; the striae starting at and near the
beak more prominent than the branching ones ; crossed by very fine
concentric lines, visible only under a good magnifier, and even then
in some cases quite obscure. Visceral space very little, the valves
being so closely drawn together, translucent. Interior not observed.

Breadth of a full sized specimen, f ths of an inch ; length, i an inch.

Position and locality : Cincinnati Group, about 350 feet above low"
water-mark of the Ohio river, at Cincinnati.

Collected by U. P. James.

On the so-called Land Plants from the Lower Silurian of Ohio; by J. S.
Newberry. [From the American Journal of Science and Arts,
August, 1874.]

In the January number of this Journal [republished in the January
number of this Journal, page 43], ^Ir. Leo Lesquereux describes
two fossils found in the upper portion of the Cincinnati Group, near
Lebanon, Ohio. These he considers as the remains of land plants, and

336 On the so-called Land Plants from the Lower Silurian of Ohio.

refers tliem to tlie geuus Slglllaria ; and this case is cited as the first
instance where plants so highly organized have been met with in Lower
Silurian rocks. Through the kindness of the Rev. H. Hertzer, to
whom the specimens in question belong, they had been in my possession
some time before the publication of Mr. Lesquereux's notice, and I had
examined them with some care, for the purpose of determining, if pos-
sible, their botanical relations. I had also made careful drawings of
them, of which copies are herewith submitted. As the result of
my examination, I am compelled to say that I fail to find, either in
the external characters or internal structure of these specimens, any
satisfactory evidence that they represent land plants ; still less, that they
form species of the genus Siglllaria. Their external markings are
foirly represented in the accompanying figures [here omitted because
not necessary to a full comprehension of the subject], and they exhibit
no internal organic structure whatever. They are simply casts in earthy
limestone, without carbonaceous matter or any traces of woody tissue.

The smaller specimen is a discoid section of a cylindrical trunk, of
which the external surface is very smooth, but is marked by a
reticulation not unlike that of one section of the genus Sigillaria. I
did not discover, however, any dots or tubercles in the center of the
meshes, such as are referred to by Mr. Lesquereux, and which, were
they present, might be supposed to represent the place of the nutrient
vessels of the leaves. Taken by itself, I should say that this specimen
might be a sponge, or some other low form of marine life, quite as well
as a Sigillaria. Since it is so small and forms so little of the original
organism, I think it would be unsafe to make it the base of any general
and important conclusion.

The larger specimen is represented, like the other, of natural size.
This is also a cast of a nearly cylindrical trunk, of which the external
surface is roughened by irregularly disposed and unequally sized
lenticular prominences. These resemble, in a rude way, the leaf scars
borne by the trunks of some lycopodiaceous or cj'cadaceous plants, but
they do not exhibit the spiral arrangement, nor the details of structure
which the leaf-scars of such plants almost uniformly retain in the fossil
state. In the interior of this trunk are seen a few of the irregularly
scattered points of carbonaceous matter, but they are not continuous
fibers, and to my eye show no traces of cell structure.

Taking all the characters of these interesting fossils into considera-
tion, I am disposed to regard them as casts of the stems of fucoids. Had
they been land plants, they would almost certainly exhibit more
distinctness and regularity of surface marking, some coating of carbon-
aceous matter, and some traces of organic structure. A large number

On tJie so-called Land Plants from the Lower Silurian of Ohio. 337

of specimens of sea-floated land plants, which we have found in the
Devonian limestones of Ohio, all assert their botanical affinities by
these characters. The remains of fucoids, on tiie contrary, consist
almost universally of mere casts of their external surface, carbonaceous
matter and internal structure having both entirely disappeared.

The physical condition of the region about Cincinnati, during the
Lo\ver Silurian age, strengthens the conclusion that the specimens
under consideration are not the remains of land plants. As I have
shown elsewhere,* the Cincinnati arch was raised at the close of the
Lower Silurian age. Subsequent to that time it formed a group of
islands, which, during the Devonian age, were probably covered with
luxuriant terrestrial vegetation. But during the period when the
Cincinnati Group was deposited an open sea occupied all this part of
the Mississippi Valley. The shores of this sea were formed by the Blue
Ridge, the Adirondacks, the Canadian Highlands, and the Eozoic area,
on the south shore of Lake Superior, nowhere nearer than 500 miles
from the locality where these specimens were found. In these circum-
stances we must regard it as extremely improbable that specimens of
two species of land plants should be floated from this far-off* shore, and
should be deposited together in the calcareous sediment accumulating at
the sea bottom, near where Cincinnati now stands. That fucoids
should be found there is, however, not at all strange, for they float to
all parts of all oceans, and other fucoids are frequently met with in.
the Cincinnati Group of this vicinity.

For the reasons given above, I should hesitate to rest upon these
specimens so important a conclusion as that promulgated by Mr..
Lesquereux. I would not be understood, however, to assert positively
that they are not the remains of land plants, for they are too imperfect
to be decisive of that question, but only this, that they do not afford
characters which permit me to accept them as evidence of the existence
of land plants, and certainly not of Sigillarice in Ohio, during the
Lower Silurian age.

The remains of what have been called land plants have been discovered
in the Lower Cambrian sandstones of Sweden, and two species of
these have been described (Eophyton Linneamim, Torell, and E. Toreli,
Linnarsson). The specimens are said by all geologists not to be the
remains of algae, but they are considered to be vascular cryptogams
or monocotyledons. It is not certain, however, that they are not
thallogens, as all traces of structure are lost, and nothing is left but
the impression of the external surface.

=•■ Geological Survey of Ohio, vol. i, part i, page 93.

[ In September, 1871, I read an essay before the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, to
show there was an island elevated in this locality, at the close of the Lower Silurian period,
which I called the island of Cincinnati. The same view, however, was entertained by several
geoloffist-s long before the Ohio survey had an existence.— Ed.]

338 Notes and Errata on a Former Paper.

The evidence of the existence of land plants during the Upper
Silurian age is more satisfactory. Prof. J. W. Dawson, of Montreal,
has announced the discovery of vascular cryptogams in the Upper
Silurian strata of Gaspe, Canada. Here, with a large number of
fucoids, a few specimens have been found, which he refers to his
genus Psilophyton, In these the scalari-form axis and the outer fibrous
bark both remain, and serve as guides in their classification.

With these exceptions, no land plants are reported below the
Devonian. On this point, however, the evidence is all negative, and
highly organized land plants may be at any time found in the Lower
Silurian rocks. Indeed, the variety and high rank of the Devonian
flora prepares us to expect such a result. Strict accuracy compels us
to state, however, that up to the present time positive proof of the
existence of land plants in the Lower Siluran has not been met with
in other countries, nor is it furnished by the specimens under consid-
eration.

Notes a7id Errata on a former paper, by V. T. Chambers, on Prof.
Frey, and some American Teneina.^

Correction of the typographical errors in the article by V. T. Cham-
bers, Esq., on Prof. Frey, and some American Teneina, viz:

Page 195, line 15, for "as" read "and;" and line 24, for "Ball '
read "Boll."

Page 197, line 3, for "colabour" read "colaborer;" and line 21,
omit the word " undescribed."

Page 199, line 6, for "Holland" read "New Holland;" and line
30, for ''malifobaUa" read " malifoUeUa.^'

Page 200, line 24, for "this" read "his;" and iu the last line
for " paradadoxum " read " paradoxum."

Page 203, line 22, for " larvce" read " larva."

Page 206, line 20, for "lespedezia" read ^'- lespedeza ; '^ and same
page, line 34, for " noun" read "name."

Page 207, line 10, for " heliantMim" read Jielianthemella."

Page 208, line 15, for " larvoe " read " larva ; " line 22, for

* The typographical errors which have occured during the year, are generally such as are quite
manifest to the reader. A few occurred where the proof was not read by the editor, for in-
stance Palseomanon on page 192 misspelled Palxmanon.

Notes and Errata on a Former Paper. 339

"Bollo's" read "Boll's;" line 28, for "new" read "mere;" line
86, for " galechifa" read " gelechia."

Page 209, line 4, from bottom, for " midriff" read " midrib."

Mr. Chambers adds to the list of plants, on which he has found
Tischeria malSfoliella feeding, the dewberry, Ruhus canadensis, found
since the publication of the July number, and further says :

When my former paper was written, 1 was led, from the fact that
Prof. Frey gives Pareciopa robiniella, Clem., as a synonym of his
LithocoUetis gemmea, and from the best understanding that I could
then get from his description, to believe that he had specimens of P.
robiniella before him, and that he was simply redescribing P. robiniella,
Clem., as L. gemmea, Frey, and I was fortified in this conclusion by
the fact that under his description of L. gemmea he remarks, that "the
mines of Robinia pseud accacia" (Black Locust), "consist of a common
LithocoUetis dwelling, with a smooth edge, in which the caterpillar is
transformed." (This is certainly the mine of LithocoUetis robiniella,
Clem.); " or, again, in a digitated mine of the upper side " (which is
evidently the mine of Parectopa robiniella, Clem.); " or, thirdly, in an
upper and under side mine of rounded not much serrated shape," (which
is very clearly the mine of LithocoUetis ornatella, Chamb.) All these
mines, and the larvae which inhabit them, and the insects bred from
them have been thoroughly known to me for years. L. robiniella and
P. robiniella were thoroughly known to Dr. Clemens, and so was L.
robiniella, and the mine and larva of L. ornatella to Dr. Fitch. These
mines and insects are found all over the United States, where the
locust tree is found, and no other mines except those of the butte
Hispa siduralis, have ever yet been found in locust leaves, though they
have been made the objects of careful investigation from New York
and Minnesota to New Orleans.

It is evident, however, from a closer study of Prof. Frey's paper, that
his identification of P. robiniella, with L. gemmea, as described by him,
is very wide of the mark. P. robiniella, Clem., can not possibly he iden-
tified with either of the forms described by Prof. Frey, under L.
gemmea. These forms appear to me to be much nearer to ornatella, than
to Parectopa robiniella, or to LithocoUetis robiniella. Indeed, a specimen
of L. ornatella, with the second fascia interrupted in the middle, might
pass for L. gemmea, but for the white-tipped antennae and spot at the
apex of the wings, which Prof. Frey gives to his L. gemmea. I
do not think, however, that it can be a variety of ornatella. Prof. Frey
evidently had the " digitated mine " of Parectopa robiniella, Clem.,
before him, but just as evidently he did not breed that species from
them ; at all events he has not described it in his brochure, nor anything

340 On the Parallelism of Coal-Seams.

approaching to it. The only point in which L. gemmea, as described
by Prof. Frey, seems to resemble it is the white tips to the antennae.
In no other respect does his description apply to P. robiniella.
What then is L. gemmea, Frey ? It seems to me that Prof. Frey, is
mistaken in supposing that it was bred from locust leaves. Such a
mistake might well be made in such a confused jumble of leaves as
Prof. Frey had, and as it is certainly neither P. robiniella nor L.
robiniella, it must, if bred from the locust, be either a variety of L.
ornatella, or a new species. The description scarcely admits the first
of these alternatives. But if it is a new species, I do not think it can
be a leaf miner of the locust, in view of the close study and observation
which the locust miners have received in this country. The confusion
of Prof. Frey's different kinds of leaves, and the fact that he only
mentions the three mines in locust leaves, which were already known
to belong to L. robiniella, L. ornatella, and P. robiniella. I think,
then, that L. gemmea is not a locust leaf miner, and for the present it
is impossible to say whether or not it has been previously described.
Very certainly it is not P. robiniella, Clem., nor anything like it. At
present it is utterly unknown and unknowable to everyone, save Prof.
Frey.

In addition to what has been formerly said, as to whether P. rob-
iniella, Clem., is or is not properly a Gracilaria, I will add, that the po-
sition of the legs in the living specimens is the same as in Gracilaria,
though the anterior portion of the body is scarcely so much elevated
as in larger species of Gracilaria, and the pattern of coloration closely
resembles that of G. salicifoliella, Cham., and less closely G. hollairella,
Zell.

On the Parallelism of Coal-Seams. — By E. B. Andrews. [From the
American Journal of Science and Arts, July, 1874.]

In the April number of this Journal [republished in the July num-
ber of this Journal, page 267], Dr. Newberry calls in question my
views of the general parallelism of coal-seams, derived from the study
of our Ohio coal-measures, and thinks them not only "untrue" but
"calculated to do positive and pratical harm." The only point of dif-
ference between us, of any interest to science, is, whether the ancient
shore lines, Avith their coal-marshes, subsided in an even and uniform
way, or very unevenly, so as to bring each marsh to greatly varying

On the ParaMdism of Coal-Seams. 341

depths below the water level. I am led to hold the former opinion,
while he strenuously maintains the latter. In ray district, and in the
portions of his district — i. e., the one under his special supervision —
that I have examined, and also in the bordering States of West
Virginia and Kentucicy, I find a general parallelism of the seams of
coal, implying an even and uniform subsidence. This makes system
possible and stratigraphy useful in our coal-measures. If, on the other
hand, the subsidence were uneven and irregular, no coal-seam can have
its proper and exact horizon, and all things are in confusion. If, for
example — and I quote one of the cases given by Dr. Newberry in his
article — coals No. 8 and No. 9 are, at one place, 150 feet apart, and
have three coal-seams, 8a, 86, and 8c, intercalated between them, and
a few miles away they are only 50 feet apart, with no intercalated seams,
the mind is left in confusion and perplexity, and the practical identifica-
tion of coal-seams is well nigh impossible. The theory of unequal sub-
sidences, of "very local subsidences," of "warped and folded strata," isit-
self very confusing, for it requires us to believe that the old shore areas
held themselves in statistical equilibrium near the water's edge, during
the long periods in which the vegetable matter of the coal-marshes was
accumulating, and then settled below the water level with all sorts of
pitches and irregularities. That there could be such alternations of
perfect rest and equipoise, with irregular and lawless subsidence, in a
region never disturbed by igneous or other forces which have left any
traces of themselves, appears theoretically highly improbable.
According to Dr. Newberry's published sections, while his coal seam
No. 5 settled down 20 feet in one place, it settled in another 130 feet,
and further on, in the same direction, only 32 feet. Among the illus-
trations and proofs of this confusion-theory adduced by Dr. Newberry,
is the varying distance between his coal seams No. 1 and No. 2. That
the Briar Hill, or lowest seam in Mahoning and Trumbull counties, is
very irregularly bedded, I readily concede. It was laid down in
patches and strings in the depressions of an uneven surface of Waverly
or conglomerate, a surface which had probably been long subjected to
subaeriai erosion. When this very undulating surface, with the coal-
swamps filling its basins and winding hollows, subsided below the
ocean, the introduction of the proper coal-measure stratification began,
and then occur horizontally arranged sediments. Hence, the next
seam of coal above is, according to Mr. Reed, in a "perfectly horizontal
position" over areas where No. 1 shows great irregularities. Now,
Avhat I should expect in northeastern Ohio, would be this : That all
the subsequently formed seams of coal would be formed under the con-
ditions of No. 2, and not after the manner of No. 1, whose conditions

342 On the Parallelism of Coal-Seams.

are entirely exceptional. The lowest seam of coal in Jackson county,
in my district, is similarly uneven ; but the next seam above — the
Anthony seam — is perfectly regular and uniform, and in parallelism
with all the seams above it. This parallelism is turned to practical
account in the sinking of shafts and other explorations for seams of
coal. The position of one being known, that of the rest is known.
With the other alleged proofs of irregular subsidences I have no personal
knowledge, excepting of the case drawn from the region of Belmont
and Guernsey counties, directly bordering my district. This is the
case already referred to where coals No. 8 and No. 9 approximate,
with a loss of three intercalated seams, viz. : 8a, 8b, 8c. I have
especially investigated this case, and find no tendency to convergence
. between No. 8 and No. 9. Everything proceeds westward regularly.
For example, the (so-called) intercalated seam No. 8c is one of the
great and continuous seams of my district, and sweeps through county
after county, always 85 to 100 feet above No. 8, or the Pomeroy seam.
Now, if the plane of seam No. 9, starting on the Ohio river, near
Wheeling, at an elevation of 150 feet above No. 8, gradually dips to
within 50 feet of No. 8, cutting the plane of the great seam, 8c, in its
passage, we have in this the most wonderful fact in all the stratigraphy
of coal-fields. The faith of scientific men in this fact will be livelier
when Dr. Newberry points out the line of intersection of the two coal
planes. I have used his numbering of the coal-seams. There is very
great difficulty in accurately numbering our Ohio coal seams, if we
begin at the base of the series, since such are the inequalities of the
surface of the Waverly that coal No. 1 in one place is not coal No. 1
in another, and, consequently, sections taken at different points, and,
especially, if so taken by different men, working without concert and not
collating their work in the field, will be very conflicting. The make-
shift of "intercalated seams" only adds to the confusion.

Dr. Newberry's method, of condemning my views on the authority
of names, is one often used, but it has no place in science. I could
adduce many and great names in favor of my theory of general paral-
lelism. Of course I do not claim parallelism in any absolute or
mathematical sense, for no marsh would constitute a perfectly even
plane ; and in the subsequent compression of the sediments between
seams of coal, the oozy mud in one place would be more compressed
than the sands of another. This would give a little undulation to the
planes of the coal-seams. I have recently found some interesting illus-
trations of this. But I hold to a general and well-marked parallelism,
such as makes the stratigraphy of our coal-fields a system of symmetry
and beauty, and of the highest practical value to all who Avish to know
the location and range of coal-seams.

Genus Megalograptus. 348

Genus Megabgraptus — (S. A. Miller).

\_Etym. — Gr. megale, great ; graptos, writing ; in allusion to the
remarkably large size of the polyp.]

Generic characters. — Body large, cylindrical, or subcylindrical,
covered with polyp cells, and bearing fronds with spinous processes.

In the absence of more than detached pieces of the typical species,

Megalograptus Welclii, reference to its characters are necessary to a
very clear comprehension of the genus.

Megalograptxis Wehhi — (S. A. Miller).

m

ITI (Tl

>?i© e> 5'^<r>'^<rv.<^^<^ *,o -^o"^

'^-,t^<^i'\

i»)

Fig. Z5— Megalograptus Welchi. Cylindrical part of the body showing polyp cells.

Body large, cylindrical, or subcylindrical and covered, like all other
graptolites found in the Cincinnati Group, with a jet black film of car-
bonaceous matter, which readily burns in a flame. Over the outer
surface there are numerous irregularly distributed circles of the film,
which I regard as the compressed cells of the polyp. Fig. 35 repre-
sents a specimen, three inches in diameter, and a little over two inches
in length. It has been compressed to about one half an inch in thick-
ness, but the compression has not so destroyed the edges, as to prevent
the tracing of the entire circumference. The cells, as shown in the
figure, though not any too numerous, yet, on account of the white

344

3Iegalograptus Welchi.

color, appear more brilliant than they do in the specimen, and the
same may be said of the cells on figures 36 and 37. This, however,
was unavoidable, and is probably not very objectionable.

The connection of the parts shown by figures 36 and 37, with the
cylindrical part of the body, has not been observed, but, from the
numerous fragments of all parts, found crowded together in the blue

■'33333 3
■ - 3 3 3 3 ■*,

333333 ^3 3

Via 3? 3 3 'j? A

Fig. 36. — Megalograplus Welchi. Frond showing the spinous processes.

marl, and the appearance of the large end of the best preserved fronds,
and the broken appearance of the ends of the cylindrical part of the
body, the conclusion seems almost inevitable, that they form part of
the same animal.

Figure 36 represents a frond from the collection of Dr. L. B. Welch.
It was evidently somewhat conical in shape, though now flattened ;
the spinous processes were, too, like thorns, though now flattened.
The frond seems to have been separated into sections, though the

Fig. 31.— Megalograplus Welchi. Frond showing the spinous processes.

section marks, which consist of mere depressions in appearance, ai'e not
shown in the figure. The first section mark crosses just below the first
four spines, the next one from just above the four spines to the first
saw-tooth -like projection, the next one from above the next cluster of

Megalograptus Welchi. 345

spines to the next saw-tooth, and so on, to the top ; thus dividing the
frond into six sections. The first section is quite irregular, because of
broken edges. The second section has four spines, one of which has
its point directed downward, another has its point directed upward,
and the other two are directed nearly at right angles to the frond.
The projection, like a saw-tooth, on the opposite side, may have been
produced by pressing together the body, which, at this place, was
suddenly contracted. Indeed, the saw-tooth projections all seem to
me to have been formed in this manner, and, therefore, to represent
the amount of the contraction of the frond at each tooth. The si^ines,
too, may not have been one above another, because compression would
give them that appearance, whether they were in line or not, and one
specimen examined indicates that they were not placed in line, one
above the other, as they appear. The third section has evidently had
one spine broken off from the lower side, and, therefore, had three
spines, only two of which remain. The fourth section has the appear-
ance of having had three spines, but the lower two represent a broken
spine which was longer than the upper one. The fifth section has two
spines, the upper one of which is the longest. The sixth section ter-
minates in a spine at the top, and appears to have borne a spine upon
the opposite side from the other spine. Part of the film has been
decorticated from this specimen, and hence the exact surface covered
by the cells could not be ascertained. It is quite clear, however, that
the cells were not placed on or close to the spines, while they covered
the greater part of the balance of the frond. The line separating the
celluliferous part from the non-celluliferous part in the engraving is,
therefore, only approximately correct.

Figure 37 may be separated into three sections : the lower one, having
three spines, and being broken at the lower end, showing the film on
the opposite side, and being compressed to one eighteenth of an inch in
thickness ; the second section has two spines ; the third section may
be somewhat fragmentary on the top. The part of this specimen
showing the cells is quite clear, but some of the film is removed from
the central part and toward the spines, consequently the cells may
have extended nearer to the spines than they are shown in the figure.

Another specimen, at a point where it is one inch in diameter, bears
five spines, two of which project downward, and two upward, the
upward projecting spines being the longest. It is broken off an inch
and a half below these spines, where it rapidly enlarges to one and a
half inches in diameter.

The specimens were all found in a bed of blue marl, in the upper
part of the Cincinnati Group, near Clarksville, Clinton county, Ohio,

346 lAchenocrinus tuber culxdus.

associated with Glyptocrinus O'NeaUi and Dendroerinus Casei. It has
not been found elsewhere so far as known.

The specific name is given in honor of Dr. L. B. Welch, of Wilming-
ton, Ohio, who first discovered the species and called attention to it.
Moreover, he has been a collector of fossils and a student of paleontolo-
gy for many years, and has a splendid cabinet of rare fossils belonging
to this locality.

Licliejwcrinus tiiherculatus — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 38. LicJienocrinus tuherculatus. Enlarged nearly two diameters.

Body discoidal, circular in outline ; lower surface, or surface of
attachment, flat, or conforming to the surface to which it is attached ;
upper surface strongly convex or subhemispheric, with a deep circular
depression in the central part, around the column ; upper surface of
body composed of numerous, irregularly arranged, thin, pentagonal or
hexagonal plates, nearly uniform in size, smooth on the under side and
highly convex or tuberculated on the outer surface. Excluding the
plates immediately surrounding the column, within the central depres-
sion, which are much smaller than the others, the remainder will num-
ber about one hundred. Interior filled with upright lamelliform plates,
radiating from a central point, on which the exterior plates appear to
repose. Column i>entagonal, length unknown.

Diameter of a medium-sized specimen xg^th inch, convexity yV^h inch ;
but Mrs. M. P. Haines, of Richmond, Indiana, to whom I am indebted
for the specimen engraved, informs me that she has recently found
specimens varying from yVtli to -^^^^ of an inch in diameter.

It is distinguished from L. crater if ormis, which species it most
resembles, by its tuberculated plates. It differs, too, in its greater
convexity, more abrupt central depression, and greater uniformity in
the size of its plates.

It is found in the vicinity of Richmond, Indiana, in the upper part
of the Cincinnati Group. Small specimens, very closely resembling
this species in general outline, are found near Clarksville, in Clinton
county, Ohio, but differing, in the specimens examined, in this impor-
tant regard, that the plates appear to be smooth instead of tubercu-
lated.

Trematis Dyeri — Beyrichia Richardsoni. 347

The range of the three species of Lichenocrinus, thus far described in
the Cincinnati Group, may be characterized, so far as known, as follows :
the cvateriformis, from low water-mark to 300 feet above ; Dyeri, from
200 to 500 feet above ; tubereulatits, if it should include the Clarksville
specimens, from 500 to 800 feet above, but if the Clarksville specimens
belong to a distinct species, then the tuberculatus must be confined to the
upper 200 feet or less of the group.

Trematis Dijeri — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. ^9— Trematis Dyeri. Imperforated valve, enlarged about two diameters.

Shell elongate, subovate ; valves unequally convex ; upper or im-
perforated valve strongly convex ; umbo projecting slightly beyond
the margin ; surface marked with twenty or more distinctly elevated,
regular, concentric lamellse, giving the valve a rough appearance. No
punctations have been observed upon this valve, and no radiating
strife are visible upon the exterior or interior side. Lower or ventral
valve slightly convex ; umbo subcentral ; surface punctate, and
marked with concentric lines ; oval slit, for the passage of the pedicle
fibers of attachment, narrow, and situate between the umbo and pro-
jecting beak of the opposite valve.

Hinge and internal structure unknown. Length of specimen |th
inch, and greatest breadth about -j^ths inch less.

The specimen engraved is from the collection of C. B. Dyer, Esq.,
in whose honor I have given the specific name. He found it on the
hill back of Cincinnati, but its range is unknown. It is an extremely
rare fossil.

Beyrichia Bichardsoni — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 40— Beyrichia Bichardsoni. Magnified 6J^ diameters.

Shell small, somewhat rectangular, rounded at each end, and trun-
cated obliquely at the dorsal angles ; narrow border on the ends and

348 Glyptocrinus FormJiellL

around the basal margin, A convex elevation rises on the dorsal mar-
gin, at the posterior end, crosses, parallel with the border, to the basal
margin, and running along the basal margin, gradually enlarging, ter-
minates in a somewhat tuberculous elevation at the anterior end.
Another convex elevation rises on the dorsal margin, within the pos-
terior third, and crossing the valve at right angles, terminates within
the semi-elliptic curve formed by the preceding elevation. Tubercle
rises like a little cone near the dorsal margin and line of the anterior
third.

Length of shell about 0.08 inch, breadth about 0.05 inch.

Found near Wilmington, in Clinton county, Ohio, in the upper part
of the Cincinnati Group, at about the elevation of Dendrocrinus poly-
dadylvis.

The specific name is given in honor of Mr. J. M. Richardson, of Wil-
mington, the collector, who well deserves the compliment for his devo-
tion to the science, energy as a collector, and unbounded generosity in
the distribution of specimens among his paleontological friends.

Glyptocrinus 'Fornshdli — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. W— Glyptocrinus Fomshelli.

Cup obconoidal, about one and a half times as high as wide,
and tapering to the column. Basal pieces, five, pentagonal in outline,
wider than high. First radial pieces much larger than the basals,
heptagonal, nearly as wide as long, and inserted in the angles pro-
duced by the junction of the basal pieces. Second radials octagonal,

Glyptocrimis Fornshelli. 349

as long as the first, but not as wide. The third radials are heptagonal
in outline, about the same size as the second, and each supports upon
its upper sloping sides the secondary radials.

There are five secondary radials, the first two of which are nearly as
large as the primary radials ; the others much less.

The interradial series consists of one hexagonal piece in the first
range, resting between the superior sloping sides of the first primary
radials ; two in the second range ; three in the third ; and above these
as many as tAventy pieces irregularly disposed in ranges, varying in
outline from pentagonal to heptagonal, and gradually becoming smaller
as they approach the top of the cup. The inter-secondary radial areas
are each occupied by a series of about twelve pieces ; the first piece is
heptagonal in outline and rests between the upper sloping sides of the
first secondary radials ; this is followed by a single hexagonal piece,
which is followed by ranges of two pieces each, until the top of the cup
is approached, when as many as three small pieces intervene between
the secondary radials.

Each basal piece is marked with four converging lines on a side, one
of which on each side reaches the base of the plate, the others approach
each other but leave an open space through the middle, lined with
small dots. From a subcentral point in the first radial, a depression
runs through the angle of junction with the basal plates, upon each
side of Avhich are four diverging lines, forming a continuation of the
lines marking the basal plates. These lines approximate a square with
a depression running diagonally from corner to corner (from subcen-
tral point of first radial to base of cup at the angle of the column), and
having four parallel lines upon each side, shortening as they approach
the corners. (These four parallel lines are the four converging lines
on one side of the basal plate, and four diverging lines on the lower
part of the first radial.) From the subcentral point of the first radial
a line runs direct to the subcentral point (upper part) of the third
radial, where it bifurcates, and, passing over the secondary radials, ter-
minates in the free arms.

Each triangle on the radials, formed by one side of the plate, and
lines drawn from the subcentral point to the angles, is marked with
parallel lines at right angles to the side of the plate, leaving an open
space from the center to the angles. These lines continue over on the
interradial pieces, each one of which has a subcentral point, from
which it is marked in like manner. The lines never cross each other,
and seldom come together. A row of dots usually separates the ends
of the lines as they approach each other. The entire cup is therefore
ornamented with figures, formed by fine lines running diagonally in

350 Glyptocrinus Fornshelli.

squares, rectangles, rhomboids, etc., or forming triangles ; their an-
gles being situated in the central or subcentral points of the pieces,
or at their junction, making it the most beautifully sculptured criuoid
known to the Cincinnati Group.

The arms begin to rise on the third secondary radial and become
free on leaving the fifth, without a bifurcation. They rise vertically
from the last attached brachial piece, and consist of a series of round
wedge-shaped pieces, each of which supports a pinnule. They bifur-
cate on the twelfth piece from the third secondary radial, and again
and again bifurcate from the twentieth to the fortieth piece. They are
long, round, and smooth upon the outside. The pinnules are long and
very closely arranged along the inner lateral margins of the arms ;
they are composed of joints four or five times as long as wide. The
long, smooth arms, their frequent subdivisions, and the long, dense
jnnnules add very much to the exquisite beauty of this species.

The column is of full average size, compared with that of other
species of the genus. It is sharply pentagonal and composed of alter-
nately thicker and thinner pieces, the former of which project very
slightly beyond the others ; the perforation is distinctly pentagonal,
but it is surrounded with a circular depression in each plate, which
gives the column the appearance of being round and encased with
pentagonal rings. In exposed and weather-worn plates the circular
piece falls out, which has led some, on looking at detached plates, to
suppose the perforation to be round.

Looking at this species from any point of view, our interest is at once
excited. It is remarkable in the structure of its column, and this
becomes more worthy of observation, when we reflect, that it is the
only species in this genus having its column sharply pentagonal. It
sends up its free arms above the cup, without a bifurcation, which is
strikingly in contrast with G. decadactylus and G. dyeri. It possesses
great beauty, being the handsomest fossil ever found in the Cincinnati
Group, if, indeed, it is not the most exquisite ever found in the whole
range of the Lower Silurian rocks of Europe and America. And, too,
it is not a little remarkable that it should have remained unearthed
and unknown through all the years of toil and search which this
locality has undergone, and finally be discovered, within the past sixty
days, by a young collector, in no inconsiderable abundance, in com-
pressed masses, forming almost entire slabs or strata of rocks.

The specific name is given in honor of the discoverer, F. L. Forn -
shell, Esq., of Morrow, Ohio, who also furnished the specimen for
illustration and description in this Journal. It was found in a branch
of Todd's fork of the Miami, a few miles east of Morrow, in the upper

Rules for Rendering the Nomenchtwe of Zoology Uniform. 351

part of the Cincinnati Group, associated with Dendrocrinus caducem,
CijHoUtes dyeri, and other fossils peculiar to that range. Fragments of
the column, and plates from the cup, have been found at other place?
in that locality, but not elsewhere, so far as known.

Rules for Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform and Perma-
nent, repoHed and adopted at the Ticelfth 3Ieeting of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Iwld at Manchester, in June, 1842.

PART I. — RULES FOR RECTIFYING THE PRESENT NOMENCLATURE.

Limitation of the Plan to Systematic Nomenclature.— In proposing
a measure for the establishment of a permanent and universal zoo-
logical nomenclature, it must be premised that we refer solely
to the Latin, or systematic language of zoology. We have nothing
to do with vernacular appellations. One great cause of the neglect
and corruption which prevail in the scientific nomenclature of zoology,
has been the frequent and often exclusive use of vernacular names in
lieu of the Latin binomial designations, which form the only legitimate
language of systematic zoology. Let us, then, endeavor to render per-
fect the Latin or Linnsean method of nomenclature, which, being far
removed from the scope of national vanities and modern antipathies,
holds out the only hope of introducing into zoology that grand desid-
eratum, a universal language.

La%o of Priority the only effectiud and just one. — It being admitted on
all hands that words are only the conventional signs of ideas, it is evi-
dent that language can only attain its end effectually by being perma-
nently established and generally recognized. This consideration ought,
it would seem, to have checked those who are continually attempting
to subvert the established language of zoology by substituting terms of
their own coinage. But, forgetting the true value of language, they
persist in confounding the name of a species or group with its definition;
and because the former always falls short of the fullness of expression
found in the latter, they cancel it without hesitation, and introduce
some new term which appears to them more characteristic, but which
is utterly unknown to the science, and is therefore devoid of all author-
ity. If those persons were to object to such names of men as Long,
LiUle, Armstrong, Golightly, etc., in cases where they fail to apply to
the individuals who bear them, or should complain of the names
Gmgh, Lawrence, or Harvey, that they were devoid of meaning, and

352 Rules for Rendering ilie Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform.

should hence propose to change them for more characteristic appella-
tions, they would not act more uuphilosophically or inconsiderately than
they do in the case before us ; for, in truth, it matters not in the least
by what conventionrJ sound we agree to designate an individual object,
provided the sign to be employed be ^tamped with such an authority
as will suffice to make it pass current. Now, in zoology, no one person
can subsequently claim an authority equal to that possessed by the
jjerson who is the first to define a new genus or describe a new species ;
and hence it is that the name originally given, even though it may be
inferior in point of elegance or expressiveness to those subsequently
proposed, ought as a general principle to be permanently retained.
To this consideration we ought to add, the injustice of erasing the name
originally selected by the person to whose labors we owe our first
knowledge of the object ; and we should reflect how much the permis-
sion of such a practice opens a door to obscure pretenders for dragging
themselves into notice at the expense of original observers. Neither
can an author be permitted to alter a name which he himself has once
published, except in accordance with fixed and equitable laws. It is
well observed by Decandolle : "L'auteur meme qui a le premier etabli
un nom n'a pas plus qu'un autre le droit de le changer pour simple
cause d'irapropriete. La priorite en effet est un terme fixe, positif, que
n'admet rien, n'arbitraire, ne de partial. " For these reasons, we
have no hesitation in adopting as our fundamental maxim, the "law of
priority," viz. :

§ 1. The name originally given by the founder of a group, or the
describer of a species, should be permanently retained, to the exclu-
sion of all subsequent synonyms (with the exceptions about to be
noticed).

Having laid down the principle, we must next inquire into the limi-
tations which are found necessary in carrying it into practice.

Not to extend to Authors older than Linnoeus. — As our subject matter
is strictly confined to the hinoviial system of nomenclature, or that which
indicates species by means of two Latin words, the one generic, the
other specific, and as this invaluable method originated solely with
Linnaeus, it is clear that, as far as species are concerned, we ought not
to attempt to carry back the principle of priority beyond the date of
the 12th edition of the " Systema Naturae." Previous to that period,
naturalists were wont to indicate species not by a name comprised in
one word, but by a definition which occupied a sentence, the extreme
vei'bosity of which method was productive of great inconvenience. It
is true that one word sometimes sufficed for the definition of a species,
but these rare cases were only binomial by accident_and not by princi-

Rules fm- Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform. 353

pie, and ought not therefore in any instance to supersede the binomial
designations imposed by Linnseus.

The same reasons apply also to generic names. Linnseus was the
first to attach a definite value to genera, and to give them a systematic
character by means of exact definitions ; and, therefore, although the
names used by previous authors may often be applied with propriet^-
to modern genera, yet in such cases they acquire a new meaning, and
should be quoted on the authority of the first person who used them hi
this secondary sense. It is true that several of the old authors made
occasional approaches to the Linnsean exactness of generic definition,
but still these were but partial attempts ; and it is certain that if in our
rectification of the binomial nomenclature we once trace back our
authorities into the obscurity which preceded the epoch of its founda-
tion, we shall find no resting place or fixed boundary for our researches.
The nomenclature of Kay is chiefly derived from that of Gesner and
Aldrovandus, and from these authors we might proceed backward to
^lian, Pliny, and Aristotle, till our zoological studies would be frit-
tered away amid the refinements of classical learning.

We therefore recommend the adoption of the following proposition :

§ 2. The binomial nomenclature having originated Avith Linuteus,
the law of priority, in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to
the writings of antecedent authors.

[It should be here explained, that Brisson, who was a contemporary
of Linnseus, and acquainted with the " Systema Naturae," defined and
published certain genera of birds, which are additional to those in the
12th edition of Linnaeus' Avork, and which are therefore of perfectly
ffood authoritv. But Brisson still adhered to the old mode of designa-
ting species by a sentence instead of a word, and therefore, while we
retain his defined genera, we do not extend the same indulgence to
the titles of his species, even when the latter are accidentally binomial
in form. For instance, the Ferdix rnbra of Brisson is the Tetrce riifu.<
of Linnaeus ; therefore, as we in this case retain the generic name of
Brisson and the specific name of Linnaeus, the correct title of the
species would be Perdiv rufa.']

Generic names not to be canceled in subsequent subdivisions. — As tlu'
number of known species which form the ground work of zoological
science is always increasing, and our knowledge of their structure
becomes more complete, fresh generalizations continually occur to the
naturalist, and the number of genera and other groups requiring
appellations is ever becoming more extensive. It thus becomes neces-
sary to subdivide the contents of old groups, and to make their defini-
tions continually more restricted. In carrying out this process, it is an

354 Rules for Rendering the Nomenchture of Zoology Uniform.

act of justice to the original author that his generic name should
never be lost sight of; and it is no less essential to the welfare of the
science, that all which is sound in its nomenclature should remain un-
altered amid the additions which are continually being made to it. On
this ground we recommend the adoption of the following rule :

i^ 3. A generic name, when once established, should never be can-
celed in any subsequent subdivision of the group, but retained in a
restricted sense for one of the constituent portions.

Generic names to be retaiwd for the typical portion of the old genus. —
When a genus is subdivided into other genera, the orignal name should
be retained for that portion of it which exhibits in the greatest degree
its essential characters as at first defined. Authors frequently indicate
this by selecting some one species as a fixed point of reference, which
they term the " type of the genus." When they omit doing so, it may
still in many cases be correctly inferred that the first species men-
tioned on their list, if found accurately to agree with their definition,
was regarded by them as the type. A specific name or its synonyms
will also often serve to point out the particular species which by im-
plication must be regarded as the original type of a genus. In such
cases we are justified in restoring the name of the old genus to its typ-
ical signification, even when later authors have done otherwise. We
submit, therefore, that

§ 4. The generic name should always be retained for that portion of
the original genus which was considered typical by the author.

Examjjie. — The genus Picumnus was established by Temminck, and
included two groups, one with four toes, the other with three, the
former of which was regarded by the author as typical. Swainson,
however, in raising these groups at a later period to the rank of genera,
gave a new name, Asthenuriis, to the former group, and retained Picum-
nus for the latter. In this case we have no choice but to restore the
name Picumnus, Tem., to its correct sense, canceling the name Asthe-
nurus, Sw., and imposing a new name on the three-toed group which
Swainson had called Picumnus.

When no type is indicated, then the original name is to be Icept for that
subsequent subdivision ivliich first received it. Our next proposition seems
to require no explanation :

i^ 5. When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not
perfectly clear and indisputable, then the person who first subdivides
the genus may alfix the original name to any portion of it at his dis-
cretion, and no later author has a right to transfer that name to any
other part of the original genus.

A later name of the same extent as an earlier to be wholly canceled. —

Rules for Beidenng the Nomendatare of Zoology Uniform. 355

When an author infringes the law of priority, by giving a new name to
a genus which has been properly defined and named already, the only
penalty which can be attached to this act of negligence or injustice, is
to expel the name so introduced from the pale of the science. It is not
rio-ht, then, in such cases to restrict the meaning of the later name so
that it may stand side by side with the earlier one, as has sometimes
been done. For instance, the genus Monaidiis, Vieill., 1816, is a pre-
cise equivalent to Lophophorus, Tern., 1813, both authors having
adopted the same species as their type, and therefore when the latter
genus came in course of time to be divided into two, it was incorrect
to give the condemned name Monaulm to one of the portions. To
state this succinctly:

§ 6. When tAvo authors define and name the same genus, both mak-
ing it exactly of the mme extent, the later name should be canceled in toto,
and not retained in a modified sense.

This rule admits of the following exception :

§ 7. Provided, however, that if these authors select their respective
types from diflferent sections of the genus, and these sections be after-
ward raised into genera, then both these names may be retained in a
restricted sense for the new genera respectively.

Example. — The names CEdemia and Melanetta were originally co- ex-
tensive synonyms, but their respective types were taken from different
sections, which are now raised into genera, distinguished by the above
titles.

[No special rule is required for the cases in wliich the later of two
generic names is so defined as to be less extensive in signification than
the earlier, for if the later includes the type of the earlier genus, it
would be canceled by the operation of section four ; and if it does not
include that type, it is in fact a distinct genus.]

But when the later name is more extensive than the earlier, the fol-
lowing rule comes into operation :

A later name equivalent to several earlier ones is to be canceled. — The
same principle which is involved in section six will apply to section eight.

§ 8. If the later name be so defined as to be equal in extent to two
or more previously published genera, it must be canceled in toto.

Exwnple.—Psaroeolius, Wagl, 1827, is equivalent to five or six
genera published under other names, therefore Pmrocolim should be
canceled.

If these previously published genera be separately adopted (as is the
case with the equivalents of Psarocolius) , their original names will of
course prevail ; but if we follow the later author in combining them
into one, the following rule is necessary :

356 Rules for Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform.

A genus compounded of two or more 'previously proposed genera, whose
characters are noiv deemed insufficient, should retain the name of one of the^m.
— It sometimes happens tliat the progress of science requires two or
more genera, founded on insufficient or erroneous characters, to be
combined together into one. In sucli cases the law of priority forbids
us to cancel all the original names and impose a new one on this com-
pound genus. We must, therefore, select some one species as a type
or example, and give the generic name which it formerly bore to the
■whole group now formed. If these original generic names differ in
date, the oldest one should be the one adopted.

§ 9. In compounding a genus out of several smaller ones, the
earliest of them, if otherwise unobjectionable, should be selected,
and its former generic name be extended over the new genus so com-
pounded.

Example. — The genera Accentor and Prunella of Vieillot not being
considered sufficiently distinct in character, are now united under the
general name of Accentor, that being the earliest. So also, Cerithiwn,
and Fotamides, which were long considered distinct, are now united,
and the latter name merges into the former.

We now proceed to point out those few cases, which form exceptions
to the law of priority, and in which it becomes both justifiable and
necessary to alter the names originally imposed by authors.

A name should be changed ivhen previously apjdied to another group
which still retains it. — It being essential to the binomial method to indi-
cate objects in natural history by means of tivo words only, without the
aid of any further designation, it follows that a genei-ic name should
only have one meaning, in other words, that two genera should never
bear the same name. For a similar reason, no two species in the same
genus should bear the same name. When these cases occur, the later of
the two duplicate names should be canceled, and a new term or the ear-
liest synonym, if there be any, substituted. When it is necessary to form
new words for this purpose, it is desii-able to make them bear some
analogy to those which they are destined to supersede, as where the
genus of birds, Plectorhynchus, being preoccupied in ichthyology, is
changed to Plectorhampus. It is, we conceive, the bounden duty of an
author, when naming a new genus, to ascertain, b}^ careful search, that
the name which he proposes to employ has not been previously
adopted in other departments of natural history. By neglecting this
precaution, he is liable to have the name altered, and his authority
superseded by the first subsequent author who may detect the over-
sight, and for this result, however unfortunate, we fear there is no
remedy, though such cases would be less frequent if the detectors of

Rules for Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform. 357

these errors, would, as an act of courtesy, point them out to the author
himself, if living, and leave it to him to correct his own inadvertencies.
This occasional hardship appears to us to be a less evil than to permit
the practice of giving the same generic name ad libitum to a multipli-
city of genera. We submit, therefore, that

§ 10. A name should be changed which has before been proposed
for some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species
in the same genus, when still retained for such genus or species.

A name whose meaning is glaringly false nmy be changed. — Our next
proposition has no other claim for adoption than that of being
a concession to human infirmity. If such proper names of places
as Covent Garden, Lincoln's Inn Fields, New Castle, Bridgewater, &c.,
no longer suggest the idea of gardens, fields, castles, or bridges, but
refer the mind with the quickness of thought to the particular localities
which they respectively designate, there seems no reason why the
proper names used in natural history should not equally perform the of-
fice of correct indication, even when their etymological meaning may be
wholly inapplicable to the object which they typify. But we must remem-
ber that the language of science has but a limited currency, and hence
the words which compose it do not circulate with the same freedom and
rapidity as those which belong to every-day life. The attention is con-
sequently liable in scientific studies to be diyerted from the contempla-
tion of the thing signified to the etymological meaning of the sign, and
hence it is necessary to provide that the latter shall not be such as to pro-
pagate actual error. Instances of this kind are indeed very rare, and in
some cases, such as that of Momdon, Gaprimulgus, Paradisea apoda and
Monocidus, they have acquired sufficient currency no longer to cause
error, and are therefore retained without change. But when we find
a Batrachian reptile named in violation of its true affinities, Mastodon-
'saurus, a Mexican species termed (through erroneous information of its
habitat) Picm cafer, or an olive colored one 3fuscicapa atra, or when a
name is derived from an accidental monstrosity, as in Picus semirostrls
of LinniBUs and Helix diyuncta of Turton, we feel justified in cancel-
ing these names, and adopting that synonym which stands next m
point of date. At the same time we think it right to remark that this
privilege is very liable to abuse, and ought therefore to be applied only
to extreme cases and with great caution. With these limitations we
may concede that

§ 11. A name may be changed when it implies a false proposition,
which is likely to propagate important errors.

Names not clearly defined may be clumged. — Unless a species or group
is intelligibly defined when the name is given, it can not be recognized

358 Rules for Bendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform.

by others, and the signification of the name is consequently lost. Two
things are necessary before a zoological term can acquire any authority,
viz., definition and jmbliccdion. Definition properly implies a distinct
exposition of essential characters, and in all cases we conceive this to
be indisi^ensable, although some authors maintain that a mere enumer-
ation of the component species, or even a single type, is sufficient to
authenticate a genus. To constitute publication, nothing short of the
insertion of the above particulars in a printed book can be held sufficient.
Many birds, for histance, in the Paris and other continental museums,
shells in the British Museum (in Dr. Leach's time), and fossils in the
Scarborough and other public collections, have received MS. names,
which will be of no authority .until they are published. Nor can any un-
published descriptions, however exact (such as those of Forster, which
are still shut up in a MS. at Berlin), claim any right of priority till pub-
lished, and then only from the date of their publication. The same
rule applies to cases where groups or species are published, but not
defined, as in some museum catalogues, and in Lesson's 'Traite d'Orni-
thologie,' where many species are enumerated by name, without any
description or reference by which they can be identified. Therefore,

§ 12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some pub-
lished work, should be changed for the earliest name by which the
object shall have been so identified.

Specific names, when adopted as generic, must be changed. — The
necessity for the following rule will be best illustrated by an example.
The Corvus jyyrrhocorax, Linn., was afterward advanced to a genus
under the name of Pyrrhocorax. . Temminck adopts this generic name,
and also retains the old specific one, so that he terms the species
Pyrrhocorax Pyrrhocorax. The inelegance of this method is so great
as to demand a change of the specific name, and the species now stands .
as Pyrrhocorax ulpinus, Vieill. We propose, therefore, that

§ 13. A new specific name must be given to a species when its old
name has been adopted for a genus which includes that species.

N. B.- — It will be seen, however, below, that we strongly object to
the further continuance of this practice of elevating specific names into
generic.

Latin orthograjyhy to he adhered to. — On the subject of orthography
it is necessary to lay down one proposition.

§ 14. In writing zoological names, the rules of Latin orthography
must be adhered to.

h\ Latinizing Greek words, there are certain rules of orthography
known to classical scholars which must never be departed from. For
instance, the names which modern authors have written Aipunemia,

Rules for Eenderinfj the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform. 359

Zcnophasia, poiocepliala, must, according to the laws of etymology, be
spelt jEpycnemia, Xenophasia, and poeocep I a la. In Latinizing modern
words, the rules of classic usage do not apply, and all that Ave can do
is to give to such terras as classical an appearance as we can, consist-
ently with the preservation of their etymology. In the case of
European words, whose orthography is fixed, it is best to retain the
original form, even though it may include letters and combinations
unknown in Latin. Such words for instance, as Woodward!, Kniyliti,
BuUocki, Esclischoltzi, would be quite unintelligible, if they were Lat-
inized into Vudvardi, Cnichii, BuUocci, Essolzi, etc. But words of
barbarous origin, having no fixed orthography, are more pliable, and
hence, when adopted into the Latin, they should be rendered as classical
in appearance as is consistent with the preservation of their original
sound. Thus, the words Tockiis, aicsuree, argoondat, kimdoo, etc.,
should, when Latinized, have been written Toccm, ansiire, argunda,
cundu, etc. Such words ought, in all practicable cases, to have a
Latin termination given them, especially if they are used generically.

In Latinizing proper names, the simplest rule appears to be to use
the termination us, genitive i, when the name ends with a consonant,
as in the above examples ; and ius, gen. il, when it ends with a vowel,
as Laireille, Latreillii, etc.

In converting Greek words into Latin, the following rules must be
attended to :

Greek.

Lalin.

at

becomes

se.

ei

((

i.

oq

terminal

us.

ov

<(

urn.

00

becomes

u.

ot

((

oe.

u

(<

y-

i-eek.

Latin.

0

becomes

th.

<P

ph.

X

ch.

K

c.

v/.

nch.

r

ng.

When a name has been erroneously written, and its orthography
has been afterward amended, we conceive that the authority of the
original author should still be retained for the name, and not that of
the person who makes the correction.

PAET II. — KECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE NOMENCLATURE

IN FUTURE.

The above propositions are all which, in the present state of the
science, it appears practicable to invest with the character of laws.

360 Rules for Renderltig the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform.

We have endeavored to make them as few and simple as possible, in
the hope that they may be the more easily comprehended and adopted
by naturalists in general. We are aware that a large number of other
regulations, some of which are hereafter enumerated, have been pro-
posed and acted upon by various authors who have undertaken the
difficult task of legislating on this subject ; but as the enforcement of
such rules would, in many cases, undermine the invaluable principle
of priority, we do not feel justified in adopting them. At the same
time, we fully admit that the rules in question are, for the most part,
founded on just criticism, and, therefore, though we do not allow them
to operate retrospectively, we are willing to retain them for future
guidance. Although it is of the first importance that the principle of
priority should be held paramount to all others, yet we are not blind
to the desirableness of rendering our scientific language palatable to
the scholar and the man of taste. Many zoological terms, which are
now marked with the stamp of perpetual currency, are yet so far de-
fective in construction, that our inability to remove them, without in-
fringing the law of priority, may be a subject of regret. With these
terms we can not interfere, if we adhere to the principles above laid
down ; nor is there even any remedy, if authors insist on infringing
the rules of good taste, by introducing into the science words of the
same inelegant or unclassical character in future. But that which
can not be enforced by law, may, in some measure, be effected by per-
suasion ; and with this view we submit the following propositions to
naturalists, under the title of recommendations for (Jie improvement of
zoological nomenclature in future.

The best -names are Latin or Greek characteristic ivords. — The classical
languages being selected for zoology, and words being more easily re-
membered in proportion as they are expressive, it is self-evident that

§ A. The best zoological names are those which are dei-ived from the
the Latin or Greek, and express some distinguishing characteristic of
the object to which they are applied.

Classes of Objectionable Names. — It follows from hence that the fol-
lowing classes of words are more or less objectionable in point of taste,
though, in the case of genera, it is often necessary to use them, from
the impossibility of finding characteristic words which have not before
been employed for other genera. We will commence with those which
appear the least open to objection, such as

a. Geographical names. — These words being for the most part adjec-
tives can rarely be used for genera. As designations of species they
have been so strongly objected to, that some authors (Wagler, for in-
stance) have gone the length of substituting fresh names wherever

Rules for Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoohgrj Uniform. 361

they occur; others (e. g. Swaiuson), will only tolerate them when they
apply exdmivdy, as Lepus hibernicus, Troglodytes europaus, etc. We
are by no means disposed to go to this length. It is not the less true
that the Eirundo javanica is a Javanese bird, even though it may occur
in other countries also, and though other species of Hinindo may occur
in Java. The utmost that can be urged against such words is, that
they do not tell the iL-hole truth. However, as so many authors object
to this class of names, it is better to avoid giving them, except when
there is reason to believe that the species is chiefly confined to the
country whose name it bears.

h. Barbarous names.— Some authors protest strongly against the in-
troduction of exotic words into our Latin nomenclature ; others defend
the practice with equal warmth. We may remark, first, that the
practice is not contrary to classical usage, for the Greeks and Romans
did occasionally, though with reluctance, introduce barbarous words
in a modified form into their respective languages. Secondly, the
preservation of the trivial names which animals bear in their native
countries is often of great use to the traveler in aiding him to discover
and identify species. We do not, therefore, consider, if such words
have a Latin termination given to them, that the occasional and judi-
cious use of them as scientific terms can be justly objected to.

c. Technical names.— AW words expressive of trades and professions
have been by some writers excluded from zoology, but without suffi-
cient reason. Words of this class, when carefully cKosen, often express
the pecuhar characters and habits of animals in a metaphorical man-
ner, which is highly elegant. We may cite the generic terms Arvi-
cola, Lanius, Pastor, Tyrannus, Regidus, Mimus, Ploceus, etc., as favor-
able examples of this class of names.

d. Mythological or historical noHies.— When these have no perceptible
reference or allusion to the characters of the object on which they are
conferred, they may be properly regarded as unmeaning and in bad
taste. Thus, the generic names Lesbia, Leilus, Remus, Corydon, Padphxe,
have been applied to a humming-bird, a butterfly, a beetle, a parrot,
and a crab, respectively, without any perceptible association of ideas.
But mythological names may sometimes be used as generic, with the
same propriety as technical ones, in cases where a direct allusion can
be traced between the narrated actions of a personage and the observed
habits or structure of an animal. Thus, when the name Progne is
given to a swallow, Clotho to a spider. Hydra i_to a polyp, Athene to an
owl, Kest07' to a grey-headed parrot, etc., a pleasing and beneficial con-
nexion is established between classical literature and physical science.

e. Comparative names. — The objections which have been raised to

362 Rales Jor Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Unijorm.

words of this class are not without foundation. The names, no less
than the definitions of objects, should, where practicable, be drawn
from positive and self-evident characters, and not from a comparison
with other objects, which may be less known to the reader than the
one before him. Specific names, expressive of comimrative size, are
also to be avoided, as they may be rendered inaccurate by the after dis-
covery of additional species. The names Picoides, Emherizoldes, Pseii-
dolmcinia, rubecidoides, niaxlmus, minor, minimus, etc., are examples of
this objectionable practice.

/. Generic names compounded from other genera. — These are in some
degree open to the same imputation as comparative words ; byt as they
often serve to express the position of a genus as intermediate to, or
allied with, two other genera, they may occasionally be used with ad-
vantage. Care must be taken not to adopt such compound words as
are of too great length, and not to corrupt them in trying to render
them shorter. The names Galloparo, Tetraogallus, Qijpaetos, are exam-
ples of the appropriate use of compound words.

g. Specific names derived from persons. — So long as these complimen-
tary designations are used with moderation, and are restricted to per-
sons of eminence as scientific zoologists, they may be employed with
propriety in cases where expressive or characteristic words are not to
be found. But we fully concur with those who censure the practice
of naming species after persons of no scientific reputations, as curiosity
dealers (e. g. Caniveti Boissoneauti) , Peruvian priestesses (Cora ama-
zilia), or Hottentots (Klassi).

h. Generic names derived from persons. — Words of this class have
been very extensively used in botany, and therefore it would have been
well to have excluded them wholly from zoology, for the sake of ob-
taining a viemoria technica by which the name of a genus would at once
tell us to which of the kingdoms of nature it belonged. Some few per-
sonal generic names have, however, crept into zoology, as Guvieria,
Mulleria, Rossia, Lessonia, etc., but they are very rare in comparison
with those of botany, and it is, perhaps, desirable not to add to their
number.

i. Names of harsh and inelegantpronnnciation. — These words are grating
to the ear, either from inelegance of form, as Huhua, Yuhina, Craxi-
rex, Esch- Scholtzi ; or, from too great length, as chirostrongylostiniis,
Opeiiorhynchus, brachypodiodes, thecodontosaurus, not to mention the
Eualiolimnosaurus crocodilocephaloides of a German naturalist. It is
needless to enlarge on the advantage of consulting euphony in the con-
struction of our language. As a general rule it may be recommended
to avoid introducing words of more than five syllables.

Rules Jor Bender ing the ISiomenclatiire oj Zoology Lmjomi. 863

h. Ancient names of animals applied in a \wong sense. — It has been
customary, in numerous cases, to apply the names of animals found in
classic authors at random to exotic genera or species which were wholly
unknown to the ancients. The names of Cebus, Callithrix, Spiza, Kitta,
StrutJms, are examples. This practice ought by no means to be encour-
aged. . The usual defense for it is, that it is impossible now to identify
the species to which the name was anciently applied. But it is certain
that if any traveler will take the trouble to collect the vernacular
names used by the modern Greeks and Italians for the vertebrata and
mollusca of Southern Europe, the meaning of the ancient names may,
in most cases, be determined with the greatest precision. It has been
well remarked that a Cretan fisher-boy is a far better commentator on
Aristides' " History of Animals," than a British or German scholar.
The use, however, of ancient names, ichen correctly applied, is most de-
sirable, for, "in framing scientific terms, the appropriation of old
words is preferable to the formation of new ones."

I. Adjective generic names. — The names of genera are, in all cases,
essentially substantive, and hence adjective terms cannot be employed
for them without doing violence to grammar. The generic names of
Hians, criniger, cursorius, nitidula, etc., are examples of this incorrect
usage.

in. Hybrid 7iamcs. — Compound words, whose component parts are
taken from two different languages, are great deformities in nomen-
clature, and naturalists should be especially guarded not to introduce
any more such terms into zoology, which furnishes too many examples
of them already. We have them compounded of Greek and Latin,
as Dendrofaleo, Gymnocorous, Monoculus, Arhorophila, jlavigaster ;
Greek and French, as Jaeamaralcyon, Jacamerops ; and Greek and
English, as Bidlockoides, Gilhertsocrinites.

n. Names cloi^ely resembling other names already used. — By rule 10,
it was laid down, that when a name is introduced which is identical
with one previously used, the later one should be changed. Some
authors have extended the same principle to cases where the latter
name, when correctly written, only approaches in form, without wholly
coinciding with the earlier. We do not, however, think it advisable
to make this law imperative, first, because of the vast extent of our
nomenclature, which renders it highly difficult to find a name which
shall not bear more or less resemblance in sound to some other ; and,
secondly, because of the impossibility of fixing a limit to the degree of
approximation beyond which such a laAv should cease to operate. We
content ourselves, therefore, with putting forth this proposition merely
as a recommendation to naturalists, in selecting generic names, to avoid

364 Bales for Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform.

such as too closely approximate words already adopted. So witli
respect to species, the judicious naturalist will aim ut variety of desig-
nation, and Avill not, for example, call a species vireiis, or virescens, in a
genus which already possesses a virldis.

0. Corrupted words. — In the construction of compound Latin words,
there are certain grammatical rules which have been known, and acted
on for two thousand years, and which a naturalist is bound to acquaint
himself with, before he tries his skill in coining zoological terms. One
of the chief of these rules is, that in compounding words, all the radi-
cal or essential parts of the constituent members must be retained, and
no change made except in the variable termiuations. But several
generic names have been lately introduced which run counter to this
rule, and form most unsightly objects to all who are conversant with
the spirit of the Latin language. A name made up of the first half
of one word, and the last half of another, is as deformed a monster in
nomenclature as a mermaid or a centaur would be in zoology ; yet we
find examples in the names Corcorax (from Corvus and Pyrrlwcorax),
Cypsnagra (from Cypselm and Tanagrd), Merulaxis (^Menda and Lynal-
laxis), Loxkjilla (Loxia and Fringilla), etc. In other cases, when the
commencement of both the simple words is retained in the compound, a
fault is still committed by cutting off too much of the radical and vital
portions, as is the case in- Bucorvus (from Buceros and Corvus'), Ninox
(^Nisus and Noctua), etc.

p. No7isense names. — Some authors having found difficulty in select-
ing generic names which have not been used before, have adopted the
plan of coining words at random, without any derivation or meaning
whatever. The following are examples : Viralva, Xema, Azeca, Assim-
inia, Quedius, Spisida. To the same class we may refer anagrams of
other generic names, as Dacelo and Cedolu of Alcedo, Zapornia oiDorzana^
etc. Such verbal trifling as this is in very bad taste, and is especially
calculated to bring the science into contempt. It finds no precedent
in the Augustan age of Latin, but can be compared only to the puerile
c[uibblings of the Middle Ages. It is contrary to the genius of all lan-
guages, which appear never to produce new words by spontaneous
generation, but always to derive them from some Other source, how-
ever distant or obscure. And it is peculiarly annoying to the
etymologist, who, after seeking in vain through the vast store-house of
human language for the parentage of such words, discovers at last that
he has been pursuing an ignis fatuus.

q. Na lies previously canceled by the operation of § 6. — Some authors
consider that when a name has been reduced to a synonym by the
operations of the laws of priority, they are then at liberty to ap^Jy it

Rules for Rendering the Xomenehture of Zoology Uniform. 365

at pleasure to any new group whicli may be in want of a name. "We
.consider, however, that when a word has once been proposed in a
given sense, and has afterward sunk into a synonym, it is far better to
lay it aside forever, than to run the risk of making confusion by reis-
suing it with a new meaning attached.

r. Specific names raised into generic— It has sometimes been the
practice in subdividing an old genus, to give to the lesser genera so
formed the names of their respective typical species. Our rule 13
authorizes the forming of a new specific name in such cases, l)ut we
further wish to state our objections to the practice altogether, consider-
ing, as we do, that the original specific names should, as far as possible,
be held sacred, both on the grounds of justice to the authors and of
practical convenience to naturalists. We would strongly dissuade from
the further- continuance of a practice which is gratuitous in itself, and
which involves the necessity of altering long established specific names.
We have now pointed out the principal rocks and shoals which lie
in the path of the nomenclator, and it will be seen that the naviga-
tion through them is by no means easy. The task of constructing
a language which shall supply the demands of scientfic accuracy on
the one hand, and of literary elegance on the other, is not to be incon-
siderately undertaken by unqualified persons. Our nomenclature pre-
sents but too many flaws and inelegancies already, and as the stern law
of priority forbids their removal, it follows that they must remain as
monuments of the bad taste or bad scholarship of their authors to the
latest ages in which zoology shall be studied.

Families to end in idee and Subfamilies in mice.— The practice sug-
gested in the following proposition has been adopted by many recent
authors, and its simplicity and convenience is so great that we strongly

recommend its universal use.

f § 5. It is recommended that theasserablages of genera, termed /ami-

lies, should be uniformly named, by adding the termination idee to the
name of the earliest known, or most typically characterized genus in
them; and that their subdivisions, termed subfamilies, should be simi-
larly constructed, with the termination mce. These words are formed
by changing the last syllable of the genitive case into idee or ince, as
strix, Str'gis, Strigidce, Buceros, Bucerotis, Bucerotidie, not Strixidce,

Bucridce.

Specific names to be written xvith a small initial— A convenient memo-
ria technica may be eflected by adopting our next proposition. It has
been usual, when the titles of species are derived from proper names,
to write them with a capital letter, and, hence, when the specific name
is used alone, it is liable to be occasionally mistaken for the title of a

366 Rules for Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform.

genus. But if the title of species were invariably written with a small
initial, and those of genera with a capital, the eye would at once dis-
tinguish the rank of the group referred to, and a possible source of
error would be avoided. It should be further remembered that all
species are equal, and should therefore be written all alilce. We sug-
gest, then, that

§ C. Specific names should always be written with a small initial
letter, even when derived from persons or places, and generic names
should be always written with a capital.

The authority for a species, exclusive of the genus, to be followed by a dis-
tinctive expression. — The systematic names of zoology being still far
from that state of fixity which is the ultimate aim of the science, it is
frequently necessary, for correct indication, to append to them the name
of the person on whose authority they have been proposed. When
the same person is authority both for the specific and generic name,
the case is very simple, but when the specific name of one author is
annexed to the generic name of another, some diflBculty occurs. For
example, the Muscicapa crinita of Linnaeus belongs to the modern genus
Tyrannus of Vieillot ; but Swainson was the first to apply the specific
name of Linnceus to the generic one of Vieillot. The question now
arises, whose authority is to be quoted for the name Tyrannus crinitus f
The expression Tyrannus crinitus, Lin., would imply what is untrue,
for LinuiBus did not use the term Ttjrannus, and Tyrannus crinitus,
Vieil.,is equally incorrect, for Vieillot did not adopt the name crinitus.
If we call it Tyrannus crinitus, Sw., it Avould imply that Swainson
was the first to describe the species, and Linn£fius Avould be
robbed of his due credit. If we term it Tyrannus, Vieil, crinitus, Lin.,
we use a form which, though expressing the facts correctly, and there-
fore not without advantage in particular cases, when great exactness is
required, is yet too lengthy and inconvenient to be used with ease and
rapidity. Of the three persons concerned with the construction of a
binomial title in the case before us, we conceive that the author Avho
first describes and names a species which forms the groundwork of later
generalizations, possesses a higher claim to have his name recorded than
he who afterward defines a genus which is found to embrace that
species, or who may be the mere accidental means of bringing the
generic and specific names into contact. By giving the authority for
the specific name in preference to all others, the inquirer is referred
directly to the original description, habitat, etc., of the species, and is at
the same time reminded of the date of its discovery, while genei'a being
less numerous than species, may be carried in the memory or referred
to in systematic works, without the necessity of perpetually quoting

Eules for Eendering the Nomenclature of Zoology Uniform. 367

their authorities. The most simple mode, then, for ordinary use, seems
to be, to appeal to the original authority for the species, when not ap-
plying to the genus also some distinctive mark, such as (sp.), implying
an exclusive reference to the specific name, as Tyrannus crlnitus, Lin.
(sp.), and to omit this expression when the same authority attaches to
both genus and species, as Ostrea eduUs, Liu. Therefore,

§ D. It is recommended that the authority for a specific name, token
not applying to tlie generic name, also should be followed by the distinc-
tive expression (sp.)

New genera and species to he defined amply and publicly.— A large
proportion of the complicated mass of synonyms which has now become
the opprobrium of zoology, has originated eithei- from the slovenly and
imperfect manner in which species and groups have been originally
defined, or from their definitions having been inserted in obscure local
publications which have never obtained an extensive circulation.
Therefore, although under § 12 we have conceded that mere insertion
in a printed book is suflacient for pnblication, yet we would strongly
advise the authors of -new groups always to give in the first instance a
full and accurate definition of their characters, and to insert the same in
such periodical or other works as are likely to obtain an immediate and
extensive circulation. To state this briefly,

§ E. It is recommended that new genera or species be amply defined,
and extensively circulated in the first instance.

The names to he given to siihdivisions of genera to agree in gender with
the original genus.— In order to preserve specific names as far as possi-
ble in an unaltered form, whatever may be the changes which the
genera to which they are referred may undergo, it is desirable, when
it can be done with propriety, to make the new subdivisions of genera
agree in gender with the old groups from which they are formed.
This recommendation does not, however, authorize the changing the
gender or termination of a genus already established. In brief,

§ F. It is recommended that in subdividing an old genus in future,
the names given to the subdivisions should agree in gender with that
of the original group.

Etymologies and types of new genera to he stated. — It is obvious that
the names of genera would, in general, be far more carefully con-
structed, and their definitions would be rendered more exact, if authors
would adopt the following suggestion :

§ G. It is recommended that in defining new genera, the etymology
of the name should be always stated, and that one species should be
invariably selected as a type or standard of reference.

368 Observations upon Stenopora fibrosa, etc.

Observations upon Stenopora fibrosa and the genus Chetetes.
No class of fossils found within the Cincinnati Group has been regarded
by collectors with the same degree of uncertainty, as the corals. No
one scarcely has relied upon the name by which any coral found at the
Cincinnati quarries was known, save, perhaps, two or three species.
And, as the sequel will show, this uncertainty, strange as it may seem,
has not been without foundation. The most common coral, yea, the
most common fossil in the group, has hitherto borne the name of a
genus that has never been found within it, and likewise Avorn an erro-
neous specific name. And, yet, this same coral was the second fossil
collected and described from this locality. The Isotehis gigas was pub-
lished by DeKay in 1824, and the Calamopora fibrosa by Goldfuss, in
1826.

After the most careful examination of hundreds of specimens, pol-
ished and unpolished, fractured and weather-worn, under the most
favorable circumstances, the fact that no coral possessing the generic
characters of Chetetes 'was ever found within the Cincinnati Group seems
too clearly established to leave a remnant of doubt upon the subject.
And that the corals which have been generally known under the gen-
eric name of Qietetes belong to the genus Stenopora seems quite clear.

The genus' Chetetes was founded by Fisher in 1837, upon the type
species C. radians, obtained from the carboniferous rocks of Russia.
It is an essential generic characteristic that the walls of the tubes are
inseparably connected together, owing to the fissiperous method of
reproduction. Now, the walls of the tubes of the corals from the
Cincinnati Group readily separate, and the evidences are incontestible
that the method of reproduction was exclusively gemmiparous.

For this reason, the Chetetes peiropolitanus, found in the Lower Silurian
rocks of Russia, in which Lonsdale discovered the divisional lamina of
one tube developed within the area of one which preexisted, does not
exist in this locality.

For the purpose, however, of more clearly establishing this fact in
the mind of the reader, the generic characters of Stenopora and Chetetes,
as well as the specific characters of fibrosa and petropolitanus, are here
reproduced, with the remarks of Lonsdale upon the generic characters
of Chetetes.

Genus Stenopora — (Lonsdale).

Pol^podom polymorphous, composed of round or polygonal tubes, radi-
ating from an imaginary axis to the surface, where the bounding ridges
are tuberculated ; young tubes interpolated by latei-al budding

Observations upon Stenopora fibrosa, etc. 369

between the old ; tubes constricted at irregular distances in planes par-
allel with the surface, and partially closed at the orifice by a concave
diaphragm, perforated in the center ; no connecting tubuli nor for-
amina.

In some species the tubes are polygonal throughout, in others they
are polygonal in the middle where closely packed, and round near the
surface where further apart. The interior of the tubes exhibits only
imperfect diaphragms, perforated in the middle.

Stenopora fibrosa— {GoiSD¥\]BB, 1826).

Corallum polymorphous, usually forming cylindrical branches com-
posed of polygonal tubes (usually six in the space of one line), slightly
and irregularly flexuous, nearly straight in the middle, abruptly bend-
ing outward to the surface, near the sides ; edges and sides smooth, or
marked in parts with strong, close irregularities of growth, forming
tubercles on the angular edges and wrinkles across the sides ; young, in-
terpolated tubes rapidly reaching their full diameter ; substance of the
tubes thick, the interior cylindrical, traversed by numerous diaphragms,
at irregular distances, usually the width of the tubes apart, sometimes
in places irregularly crowded ; surface having a net-work of polygonal
ridges, with an inner concave space, in which is the small round aper-
ture.

This species was founded by Goldfuss, in 1826 (Petrefacta, pp. 82,
215, tab. xxviii, figs. 3 and 4; tab. xxiv. fig. 9), upon speci-
mens obtained from Lexington, Kentucky. The branching forms of this
species are the most common and abundant corals found about the
Cincinnati quarries.

Stenopora lycoperdon — (Say).

Corallum massive, hemispherical or subhemispherical, growing from
a flat, expanded, round or somewhat oval, membraneous, concentrically
wrinkled base. Tubes minute, fiber-like, traversed by diaphragms, and
in all other respects corresponding with Stenopora fibrosa. The size,
form, and concentrically wrinkled base are the only characters by
which these two species can be distinguished, if indeed one is not
merely a variety of the other.

Prof. Hall, in the description of this species under the name of
Chetetes lycoperdon, in the first vol. of the Paleontology of New York,
says, that the " coral increases by subdivisions of the parent tube, or

370 Observations upon Stenopora fibrosa, etc.

by the successive addition of lateral or marginal tubes." It is quite
true that it does increase in one of these ways, and it is equally true
that it does not in the other. In other words, it does increase by
lateral tubes, either interpolated or marginal, but it does not increase
by subdivisions of the parent tube. Its method of growth was simply
gemmiparous, and therefore it belongs to the genus Stenopora, and not
to Chetetes.

It includes all the massive forms found at the Cincinnati quarries,
some of which weigh five pounds or more, and is regarded by McCoy
as merely a variety of Stenopora fibrosa.

All the numerous forms of branching and massive corals found at
Cincinnati, which are composed of masses of aggregated tubes, crossed
by diaphi-agms, belong to these two species.

The following remarks concerning the genus Chetetes, by W. Lonsdale,
are taken from his work on the paleozoic corals of Russia, as published
in vol. 1, p. 593, of "Russia and the Ural Mountains."

Chetetes — (Fischer).

So greatly do the corals referable to this genus resemble Favosites
(Calamopora) that all the authorities, except M. Fischer, by whom paleo-
zoic species have been described, have considered them as belonging
to it. M. Fischer, in his summary of characters, observes, that Chcetetes
is distinguished from Favosites {Calamopora) by the absence in the
tubes of "diaphragms" or transverse laminse. This statement prob-
ably originated from an examination of specimens of CJietetes radiants,
in which species the diaphragms are often very widely separated, and
not unfrequently have been almost altogether removed by decomposi-
tion. In this respect, therefore, Chetetes does not differ from Favosites ;
but it differs in the absence of connecting foramina as well as in other
essential structural characters.

When a specimen of Favosites, retaining in part the substance of
the original coral, is vertically fractured, the walls of the adjacent col-
umns separate readily, and the exposed surfaces are clearly shown to
present the outer side, by exhibiting the irregular lines of growth, and
by the total absence of any attached fractured edges of diaphragms.
At the re-entering angles, formed by the meeting of the planes of two
a^Jjacent columns, there may likewise be generally traced an undis-
turbed line -of separation. In those cases in Avhich mineral matter
has wholly replaced the original substance of the coi'al, and has also
been moulded on its structural markings, the same tendency to divide

Observations upon Stenopora fibrosa^ etc. 371

along the outer side of the walls is retained, the exposed surfaces
equally exhibiting the irregular lines of growth, and the absence of
fractured diaphragms. Care, however, must be taken in those species
which, like Favosites alveolaris, have the connecting foramina on the
angles, to detect the line of separation along that junction, as the
structural inequalities are there often great, and the dividing seams in
consequence concealed. . In some cases, also, an apparently perfect
blending is produced by a projecting foramen, being received within
a corresponding opposite cavity. In all these instances, nevertheless,
the exterior sides of the broad planes of the columns arer easily parted,
and their true nature may be clearly recognized.

On the contrary, in Chetetes, the Avails of adjacent columns seem to
be inseparable, or formed of intimately united laminse. In extensive
sections of Chetetes radians, having the interior of the tubes but slightly
coated with infiltered matter, not a single instance was discovered of
the outer side of a wall. Many flat, vertical planes were noticed as
well as re-entering angles formed by the junction of two walls, situated
obliquely to the general surface of the specimen ; but in every case the
flat plane, or the re-entering angle, could be traced upward or down-
ward, till it passed within the area of a tube, and therefore ascer-
tained to be an inner portion of the same tube exposed by fracture ;
or, if this could not be eflfected, a careful examination of the edges of
the planes never failed to prove that they were rough, and that the
unevenness was due to the remains of walls which had projected from
them, and had constituted inner sides of destroyed columns. In other
specimens of the same species retaining the original substance of the
coral, but having the tubes filled with calcareous spar, not a vestige
of the outer surface of a wall could be discovered, and in others again,
in which the animal structure had been replaced by infiltered matter,
characters analogous to those of Favosites could in no wise be per-
ceived.

These difierences are believed to be necessary results of the distinct
mode by which additional columns were developed in each genus.

In Favosites, the additional tubes dependent on the growth of the
polypes originated, so far as the author is acquainted with the genus,
either in gemmules, deposited in interspaces, or developed on the ex-
treme margin of the parent polype. In either instance, a perfect
individuality immediately took place, and the young animal, which
rapidly attained considerable lateral dimensions, constructed its tube
without the area of the parent column, building up the walls unas-
sisted by its neighbors. In almost every example, the sides of the sur-
rounding tubes are impressed by those of the interposed tube, indicating

372 Observations upon Stenopora fibrosa, etc.

that the whole grew contemporaneously, and that the struggles for space
of the vigorous, rapidly es oanding young polype, interfered with the
outline of the walls of the fiv 1-grown animal, which necessarily possessed,
on account of its lateral enlargement having ceased, no power to resist
such encroachments. From the mode of development having been thus
wholly interstitial, it is inferred that the exterior surfaces of adjacent
walls must naturally and easily separate. It- is further inferred, that
the polypes, at the superior boundary of the coral mass, had no common
connection, but were perfectly circumscribed and separated.

The essential manner of developing additional tubes in Cheietes was,
however, by a subdivision within the area of the parent. On exam-
ining transverse sections, particularly those in which the coral is but
slightly coated with infiltered matter, a plate will be frequently seen
projecting from one or more sides, and by extending the research,
similar laminee will be found to range quite across, effecting either
a simple subdivision into two areas, or a complex one into three or
even four. These intersected spaces are easily distinguished by the
plates springing from sides, and not angles. Again, in a vertical
section of such specimens, thin interrupted laminae will be readily
detected, ranging perpendicularly within many of the tubes. They
are not usually continuous for any distance, but they perfectly agree
in their nature with the plates just noticed, and the want of persistence
may be rightly assigned to the perishable tendency of the coral.
Cases, however, were observed of plates which extended without
interruption, and probably from their first development for more than
an inch. In such examples, the walls of the original tube ranged
regularly upward, but svith a slight divergence, and the introduced
laminffi, at first not quite medial, gradually assumed that position.
From this plan of producing additional tubes, it is presumed that
there could be no natural tendency in the component structure of the
walls to divide into two plates, as in Favosites ; and, further, that the
polypes, by which a mass of tubes was formed, had a community of
existence, and were united at the outer boundary of the coral in one
animal layer.

Based on these imperfectly explained structures, the following pro-
visional generic charactei's are proposed :

A polymorphous polypidom, formed of tubes, closely aggregated
and transversed by diaphragms; walls inseparable; additional tubes
produced by subdivisions, within the ^rea of the parent tube, or by
extensions of the polype along the margin of the coral mass.

To suggest grounds for specific distinctions in fossil corals, of so sim-
ple a composition, is extremely difficult, especially when characters

Observations upon Stoiopora fibrosa, etc. 373

dependent upon the limits of growth have not been ascertained. So
far, however, as the describer's observations have extended, the distinc-
tions in the arrangement of the diaphragms afford, apparently, one
means for inferring differential structures; those variations implying
it is presumed, peculiarities in the form of the polypes. In the
remarks upon Chetetes radians, it is shown that the diaphragms are
distributed in concentric or parallel bands, and often at considerable
distances the bauds being composed of a single series of plates, or of a
variable number of closely situated laminai, whilst in the account of
Chetetes iietropditamis it is explained that the diaphragms are irregularly
distributed over the whole area of a vertical section. In other fossils
belonging to the genus, but not included in this notice, distinct pecu-
liarities were observed. It is further suggested that the characters
exhibited by well preserved, terminal edges of the tubes might afford
some aid in specific determinations ; a protected surface of Chetetes
radians, which presented probably a periodical renewal of growth,
having the edges surmounted by a series of very prominent tubercles.
The above remarks are not offered with the idea that the characters
alluded to could constitute alone specific distinctions, but they are ad-
vanced with a hope that they may assist in discovering essential
structures.

Chetetes petropolitanus.

Globular, hemispherical, or inversely conical ; tubes polygonal ; irreg-
ularly arranged ; diaphragms not in bands, but unequally distributed
throughout the tubes.

Favosites petropolitanus (Pander, 1830).

Calamopora fibrosa (Eichwald, 1840).

A. careful examination of specimens, agreeing with M. Pander's
figures, and general remarks, led to the inference that they possessed
all the essential generic characters of Chetetes.

M. Pander considers the globular, hemispherical, and conical speci-
mens described by him as varieties of one species, and it is believed
that the differences which may be noticed internally depend on the
conditions under which the polypidom was developed. In a well
preserved hemispherical specimen, two inches in diameter, and 9 lines
in the thickest part, the tubes did not radiate suddenly from the center,
but the lateral increase had been produced by the successive addition
of marginal tubes, which sprung from the base and slightly inclined
outwai'd.

The concave under-surface of the same specimen exhibited, besides

374 Observations upon Stenqwra fibrosa, etc.

concentric irregularities, the oblique lower terminations of the tubes,
arranged in a manner which resembled radiating lines. In a conical
specimen, IJ inches in height, and an inch in diameter at the upper
(broad) extremity, the increase in width had also resulted from a sim-
ilar mode of production ; but all the tubes necessarily ranged vertically,
and the conical surfoce exhibited also circular irregularities, as well as
terminations of the tubes, though less distinctly in that specimen than
in another of the same form. A mass of a nearly globular shape, 2h
inches in one diameter, and 3 in the other, had the surface almost Avholly
weathered, and therefore exhibited no clear characters ; but, internally,
the arrangement of the tubes agreed with that of the hemispherical
specimen.

The original walls of the coral were apparently almost membranous,
and liable, under some conditions, to irregular contractions, as well as
considerable deviations in the line of growth; but in the large globular
mass such inequalities were far less conspicuous.

The diaphragms, exposed in vertical sections, of all varieties of form,
were distributed over the whole surface, and without the least indica-
tion of grouping in bands. In the hemispherical and conical speci-
mens, which exhibited considerable irregularities in growth, the dispo-
sition of the diaphragms was very unequal ; while in the large globu-
lar mass, tiie plates, without observing any definite order, were
uniformly distributed. In some portions, however, of the other
varieties the number of plates corresponded; and the differences
displayed, may, it is believed, be rightly assigned to circumstances
which affected the mode of growth or production of the polypes, and
consequently modified the distribution of the diaphragms.

With respect to the development of additional tuljes within the area
of those which pre-existed, it may be stated that divisional laminJB
were noticed in transparent, vertical slices of the hemispherical and
globose varieties, though less distinctly in the latter than the former ;
and that while in a similar section of the conical specimen they were
not satisfactorily detected, a transverse slice exhibited clearly divisional
lamina, rano-ing from opposite planes. The whole of these specimens,
moreover, proved clearly the powers which the polype mass possessed of
extending laterally and producing marginal tubes.

Chetetes petropoliianm having been considered identical with Favosites
(Oietdes) fibrosa var. ghbosa of the Eifel, it is necessary to observe, that
in vertical sections of a specimen of the latter fossil, which belonged to
M. de Verneuil's cabinet, perpendicular divisional lamiuse within the
tubes were noticed, also fragments of the original coral, exhibiting only
interior surface walls, similar to those of Chetetes radians ; and it was

Ancient Relics found in Cincinnati. 375

therefore inferred that the fossil ought to be removed from the genus
Favosites. As regards the species, it may be stated that the diaphragms
were uniformly rare, without any signs of disturbed growth. The
height of the specimen was 7 lines.

Ancient Relics found in Cincinnati.

The point of the hill east of the old Brighton House, in the city of
Cincinnati, called Riddle's hill, has long been known as an Indian
burying gi'ound, but was never explored, until within the past thirty
days.

On the 28th of August, Dr. H. H. Hill and G. W. Vallandingham
opened two graves, one of which proved to be a double grave. In the
single one they found a few broken bone awls, bear's tusks, flint chips,
human teeth in good condition, human bones badly decayed, and some
small flakes of mica. In the double grave they found one flint knife,
four flint arrows heads, several bear's tusks, the lower end of each of
which had been cut ofi" diagonally, so as to form a sharp edge on the
exterior, or side of greatest curvature ; two wolfs teeth, wiih the bone
ground ofi" of the low^er portion ; four beads, two made of bone, and
the others of the teeth of some animal ; a fragment of a sandstone
pipe, some small pieces of mica, human teeth, and badly decayed
bones.

On the 31st of August, Dr. Hill resumed work in the same graves,
and found two points of deer's horns, a bone awl, some flint chips,
animal teeth, and more human teeth, and decayed bones. In the after-
noon he opened another grave, two rods east of the first, and found the
bones of two adults and one child, so much decayed that the sex could
not be ascertained ; one flat, siliceous, black-banded slate gorget, with
two holes in the central part, drilled from both sides ; half of a gray,
siliceous, banded slate gorget, ' preserving, three holes (it probably con-
tained six) ; half of a brown, siliceous, banded slate gorget, preserving
one hole (it probably had contained two) ; one limestone gorget,
having six holes, broken in three pieces, and much changed by chemi-
cal action since its burial ; some bear's tusks, cut ofl^" in the same man-
ner as the others, small scales of mica, and one stone hatchet, usually
called a bark peeler, or skin dresser.

On the 5th of September, Dr. Hill again resumed work in the'first
diggings, and found two arrow heads, a number of bear's teeth, beads,
broken bone awls, and scalfes of mica, two fragments of a large shell

376 Ancient Relics found in Citicinnati.

{Pijrula), and a large Pyrula lying by the side of a skull, which was so
badly decayed that it could not be preserved. The Pyrula had the
center cut out, changing it into a dipper, a very useful article to the
original possessor, and now highly prized by its owner, though slightly
broken at the large end. All teeth found were well preserved.

On the 7th of September, the work was again resumed by Dr. Hill,
accompanied by E. B. Moore, Esq. They found a piece of a large
shell, carved on the inside, but the figure can not be determined, be-
cause part of it has been broken away ; one siliceous, banded slate gor-
get with two holes, drilled from both sides ; three limestone gorgets,
almost destroyed by time and chemical action ; a few bear's tusks,
beads and awls, and some large pieces of mica.

On the 11th of September, the work was resumed by Dr. Hill, Mr.
Moore, Mr. Vallandingham, and a laborer. They found a great many
bear's teeth, arrow heads, bone beads, bone awls ; two copper awls
about one and a half inches in length, with handles made of the points
of deer's horns ; scales of mica, human teeth, and decayed bones.

On the 19th of September, Dr. Hill resumed the work, and found
two bear's tusks, three wolf's teeth, two arrow heads, and portions of
the lower jaw of some small animal. Again, on the 20th of September,
Dr. Hill found two small bone awls, one large arrow head, and some
flint chips, part of a deer's horn, a lot of polishing stones, and two
small hand hammers.

The bones in'some of the graves were much more decayed, and more
nearly obliterated than in others, though none of the human bones
were found in a condition suitable for preservation. The partially
destroyed limestone gorgets speak, too, of the high antiquity of
these burials. None of the interments could have been made three
feet deep, and probably not much over two feet, or the depth at which
the remains are at present found.

We have evidently here the cemetery of a tribe of Indians who
buried the body and personal effects of the deceased in the same
grave ; or, if not the whole of the personal effects, yet a rej)resen-
tation of them. It may be inferred from these relics that the posses-
sors lived by hunting with the bow and arrow, and dressed in the skins
of animals. The clothing, and bows and arrows have disappeared, but
the arrow heads, flint chips with which the bows and arrows were
scraped, stone implements used in dressing the hides, and polishing
stones with which they were made, and the bone and copper awls used
in making the habiliments, remain in almost as good condition as when
in use. Beads, made of the teeth of wolves, were worn either as adorn-
ments or trophies of the chase. The bear's tusks, not having been

Beviews, Booh Notices, etc. 377

j)erforated to be worn, and every one having been ground to a sharp
edge at the base, on one side, were used for some purpose unknown.
The so-called "gorgets," too, which consist of thin, flat, rectangular
stones, from four to eight inches in length, an inch to an inch and a
half in width, and an eighth to a quarter of an inch in thickness, hav-
ing two or more perforations in the central part, were used for some
purpose not fully understood. They have generally been supposed to
have been ornaments or badges of distinction, and are hence called
" gorgets," but this use has not, by any means, been definitely ascer-
tained. Some idea of ornament seems to be manifested in the carving
on the shell, and it is to be regretted that no more of it is preserved.
These people must have acquired some idea of the size of the continent,
however vague, for no doubt can be entertained that the copper awls
came from the Lake Superior region, and the Pyrulas from the Gulf
of Mexico.

BEVIEWS, BOOK NOTICES, Etc.

The Journal. — This number completes the first volume of the
"Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Science," and we take this oppor-
tunity to express our obligations for the favorable notices, and
criticisms, it has received from the National Normal, American Journal
of Science and Arts, and all the Cincinnati daily papers, Times,
Enquirer, Gazette, Commercial, Star, Volksblatt and Volksfreund.

The work must speak for itself, and, therefore, no further review
will be made, than to mention the fact, that twenty-five new species,
belonging to the fossil remains, of the Cincinnati Group have been
named, figured and defined, and that three genera, before unknown,
have been added to the column of animal life during the year,
without mentioning other published matter. But little, however, of
the great store-house of animal remains of the Silurian age has yet
been explored, and no department has been exhausted. Relics of
ocean life, un proclaimed and undiscovered, doubtless exist in the
bosom of every hill, and lie scattered on the exposed banks of surplus
earth from every quarry, awaiting the services of the pick and shovel,
or the hand of the collector to make them known to the paleontologist
for definition and classification. If the Journal is published the
ensuuig year, it is not difficult to foresee from whence as many new
species will be derived for description and publication as have been
defined and illustrated during the present year.

378 Reviews, Booh Notices, etc.

Cooley's Physical Science Series. — These books upon Natural
Philosophy and Chemistry, for graded schools and academic classes,
are intended to fill the mind of the student with practical information,
and to discipline it in modes of thought and observation. The matter
has been judiciously selected and thoroughly systematized. Technical
words are fully and clearly defined, and to this is added an illustration
or the description of an easy experiment, for the purpose of bringing
the meaning of the words and purport of the text to the comprehen-
sion of the merest child. The plan of the work is so pleasing, and the
arrangement so plain and instructive, that an industrious child might
master the philosophy and the science without the aid of an instructor.
An intelligent teacher, however, could not fail with these books to im-
press the entire matter upon the minds of each and every one, if he or
she simply performed the experiments in the presence of the class. If
the author intended to make Physical Science easy, and to place the
knowledge of it within the reach of every child in the country, he has
most successfully accomplished his work. Scribner, Armstrong & Co.,
publishers, 6"54 Broadway, New York. C. B. Ruggles, Agent for
Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, care Geo. E. Stevens & Co., Cincin-
nati, Ohio.

Elements of Natural Philosophy, by S. A. Norton. — This
work, by an experienced teacher of the science of Physics, is method-
ically arranged and thoroughly illustrated. The definitions are full,
clear, and precise. The student is first introduced to a full and com-
prehensive statement of the properties of matter ; this is followed by
the philosophy of the mechanics of solids and fluids, undulations,
acoustics, optics, effects, distribution and soui'ces of heat and elec-
tricity, etc. Nothing seems to have been omitted from any depart-
ment of the science that would tend to make the work available as a
text-book, nor has anything been included that is not in its proper
place. The copious illustrations and accurate statements lead the
pupil at once to correct ideas of the phenomena of nature, without the
constant aid of a teacher. All obstacles are removed from the road to
a knowledge of the subjects treated, and on every hand are provided
the most pleasant and instructive retreats for thought and observa-
tion. The work will be found in the unparalleled series of school
books published by Wilson, Hinkle & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Resources or Tennessee. — Mr. J. B. Killebrew, Secretary of tbe
Bureau of Agriculture of Tennessee, assisted by Messrs. J. M. Saffbrd,
C. W. Charlton, and Bentley, has prepared and published a work of

Reviews, Book Notices, etc. 379

about 1,200 pages, on the " Resources of Tennessee." It treats of the
geology, mineralogy, climate, soils, products, population, and wealth of
the State. Almost every industrial pursuit has received attention,
and such statistics and information as might be expected to be ser-
viceable to persons desiring to emigrate to that State have been care-
fully collected together. The entire area of the State is about 42,000
square miles, or 26,880,000 acres, which is divided into eight great
natural divisions, as follows :

1. Tlie UmJcas, on the eastern border, having an average elevation
above the sea of 5,000 feet, and an ai-ea of 2,000 square miles. This
division is too mountainous to be of much agricultural importance.

2. TJie Valley of East Tennessee, having an average elevation above
the sea of 1,000 feet, and an area of 9,200 square miles. This division
is a fluted region — a succession of parallel ridges and valleys — and
one of the most beautiful, populous and fertile portions of the State.

3. Tlie Cumberland Table Land, having an average elevation above
the sea of 2,000 feet, and an area of 5,100 square miles. The soil of
this division is thin, unproductive, and of no agricultural importance,
but buried in the plateau are large quantities of coal and iron awaiting
the construction of the Cincinnati Southern Railroad, large invest- ■
nients of capital, and a great demand, when it will become one of the
important divisions of the State.

4. TJie Highlands that encircle the basin of lowlands in the center of
this State, having an average elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea, and
an area of 9,300 square miles. The soil of this division is of varying
fertility, but altogether it is a region of considerable wealth and agri-
cultural importance.

5. The Central Basin, having an average elevation of about 700 feet
above the sea, and an area of 5,450 square miles. This is the best ag-
ricultural region in the State, and the center of wealth and civilization.
It is called the Garden of Tennessee.

6. The Valley of the Tennessee, having an average elevation above the
sea of 350 feet, and an area of 1,200 square miles. This division is
irregular, swampy, sparsely settled, and in comparison with the last
almost a wilderness.

7. The Plateau of West Tennessee, having an average elevation above
the sea of 500 feet, and an area of 8,850 square miles. This is a great
plain, that slopes gradually toward the Mississippi. The streams are
sluggish, and the soil fertile, and capable of sustaining an immense
population.

8. The 3fissmip2ii Bottoms, having an average elevation above the sea
of 295 feet, and an area of 900 square miles. This is a low, alluvial

380 • Reviews, Booh Notices, etc.

plain, witli many lakes and morasses. The soil is of inexhaustible
fertility, and when reclaimed from the dense fjrests and . wild vegeta-
tion, will be the great center of agricultural wealth.

All the leading geological formations, from the inetamorphic rocks
to the Tertiary, are well developed. The soils are nowhere more
varied, and the climate presents almost every phase from a tropica^
summer to a frigid winter. For the study of geology and mineralogy
no State in the Union is more attractive.

More than one half of the State is yet covered with the unreclaimed
forest trees, among which are the white ash, blue ash, red ash, water
ash, beech, birch, red cedar (in the counties of Marshall and Bedford,
solid cedar logs have been cut that would square twenty-four inches
for a distance of thirty feet), chestnut, wild cherry, cotton wood,
cypress, dog wood, white elm, slippery elm, wahoo, balsam fir, black
fir, black gum, sweet gum, shell-bark hickory, thick shell-bark hickory,
common hickory, pignut hickory, small-nut hickory, linn, black locust,
honey locust, sugar maple, swamp maple, wliite maple, red mulberry,
white oak, red oak, post oak, chestnut oak, black oak, scarlet oak,
black jack oak, swamp white oak, overcup oak, yellow oak, chinquapin
laurel oak, Spanish oak, willow oak, bear oak, yellow pine, white pine,
blue poplar, white poplar, yellow poplar, sassafras (a section of a sassa-
fras tree exhibited at the Industrial Exhibition, in Nashville, measured
five feet in diameter exclusive of the bark, which was one and a half
inches thick), sycamore, tupello, white walnut, and black walnut.
On the Cumberland table-land, in the eastern part of Morgan county,
walnut trees grow six feet in diameter, and rise to the height of more
than one hundred feet. One of the reasons that induced the city of
Cincinnati to invest $10,000,000 in the Southern Railroad was to get
access to this timber. [?] It is a curious fact, however, that a great
deal of walnut timber is shipped from Ohio to the Eastern States, and
even to Europe, and that the Tennessee timber will, sooner or later, be
shipped direct to the Atlantic coast.

This work of the Bureau of Agriculture of Tennessee is much more
valuable than the books generally published by State Boards of Agri-
culture, and is creditable alike to the industry and ability of its authors.

Indiana Geological Survey. — We are indebted to Dr. G. M.
Levette for the Geological Survey of Indiana, for the year 1873,
from which we take the following interesting matter relative to
the Mound-Builders : _ •

" It is not alone in Europe that we find a well founded claim, of high
antiquity, for the art of making hard and durable stone, by a mixture

Revieivs, Booh Xotices, etc. 381

of clay, lime, sand, and fragments of stone ; for I am satisfied that this
art was possessed by a race of people Avho inhabited this continent at
a period so remote that neither tradition nor history can furnish any
account of them. They belonged to the Neolithic or polished stone
age. They lived in towns, and built mounds for sepulture and worship,
and protected their homes by surrounding them with walls of earth
and stone. In some of these mounds, specimens of various kinds of
pottery, in a perfect state of preservation, have, from time to time,
been found, and fragments are so common that every student of
archfBology can have a bountiful supply. Some of these fragments
indicate vessels of very great size. At the Saline springs of Gallatin
county, Illinois, I picked up fragments that indicated, by their curva-
ture, vessels five to six feet in diameter, and it is probable that they
are fragments of artificial stone pans, used to hold brine that was
raanufactui'ed into salt by solar evaporation.

" Xow, all the pottery belonging to the Mound-Builders' age, which
I have seen, is composed of alluvial clay and sand, or a mixture of the
former with pulverized fresh water shells. A paste made of such a
mixture possesses in a high degree the properties of hydraulic Puzzuo-
lava and Portland cement, so that vessels formed of it hardened with-
out being burnt, as is customary with modern pottery. The. frag-
ments of shells served the purpose of gravel or fragments of stone, ''s
at present used in connection with hydraulic lime in the manufacture
of artificial stone.

" Instead of softening in water, as they would if made of clay
alone, the shells give to the composition hydraulic properties, and
vessels made of it harden on exposure to air and moisture. When
filled with water and meat, pots made of this material could be placed
over the fire and heated without fear of breaking them. These ancient
artizans must have been aware of the advantage derived from a thin
body to resist breakage from expansion and contraction from the heat
of the fire. I have a beautiful vessel, from the ' Bone Bank,' made of
artificial stone, which has ears, and is otherwise formed like an old
fashioned cast-iron dinner-pot. It is five inches across the mouth, and
seven inches in diameter at the bulge, five inches deep, and only one
eighth of an inch thick. The bottom is smoked black, which goes to
show that it was suspended over the fire for cooking purposes.

INDEX

Acidaspis, 128.
Acidaspis ceralepta, 130.
Acidaspis Cincinnatiensis, 130.
Acidaspis crosotus, 12!).
Acrididie, 'JtbS.

Agassiz, Prof. Louis, obituary, 86.
Ambonycliia, 14, 223.
Ambonycbia bellistriata, 14, 223.
Ambonycbia costata, 15, 223.
Ambouycbia radiata, 15, 223.
Ambonycbia (Mogaptera) Casei, 224, 326.
Ancient mining on Lake Superior, 179.
Ancient relics found in Cincinnati, 375.
Andrews, E. B., 340.
Anodontopsis, 226.
Anodontopsis ( ?) Milleri, 227.
Anodontopsis ( ?) unionoides, 227.
Anomalodonta, 16, 223, 326.
Anomalodonta alata. 223, 326.
Anomalodonta gigantea, 17, 223, 826.
Anomalodonta (Megaptera) Casei, 224,

326.
Asapbina?, 135.
Asapbus, 135.
Asapbus gigas, 138.
Asapbus megistos, 137.
Asapbus, tracks of, 136.
Asplenium montanum, 27.
Asplenium pinnatitidum, 27.
Astra30spongia, 248.
Astrajospongia meniscus, 248.
Astylospongia, 31.

Astylospongia imbricate articulata, 191.
Astylospongia inciso-lobato, 191.
Astylospongia pr»morsa, 32.
Astylospongia stellatim sulcata, 190.
Avicula, 215.
Avicula, corrugata, 239.
Avicula, demissa, 215.
Avicula, insueta, 216.
Avicula, Welcbi, 239.
Aviculidaj, 214.

Banning, Hon. H. B., 288.
Beaver, bunting of, 54.
Bellerophon, 306.
Bellerophon bilobatus, 306.
Belleropbon Mobri, 306.
Beyricbia, 118.
Beyricbia Cbambersi, 234.
Beyricbia Duryi, 232.
Beyricbia oculifer, 118.
Beyricbia RicbarUsoni, 347.
Beyricbia striato-marginatiis, 233.
Beyricbia tumifrons, 119.
Black well, John, 46, 51.

Botanical directory, 28.

Botany, notes on, 26.

Botrycbium lunaroides var dissectuta,

27.
Bracbiopoda, from Cincinnati Group, 19,

Bridger formation, 269.

Britisb Association for Advancement of

Science, 351.
Brown, Robert, notes on beaver, 54.
Bucania, 307.
Bucania costatus, 308.
Bucania expansa, 307.
Butbotrepbis ramulosus, 235.

Calkins, W. W., 242; 288, 321.
Calymene, 139.
Calymene Cbristyi, 141.
Calymene senaria, 140.
Cardiomorpba obliquata, 220.
Carinaropsis, 314.
Carinaropsis patelliformis, 314.
Cat, expressions of, 188.
Ceraurus, 132.
Ceraurus icarus, 133.
Ceraurus pleurexantbenus, 3, 132.
Chambers, V. T., 22, 338.
Cbetetes, 370.

Chetetes petropolitanus, 373.
Cincinnati Group, 63, 97.
Cincinnati tablet, 188.
Cleidopborus, 222.
Cleidophorus fabula, 222.
Coal seams, parallelism of, 267, 340.
Coucbicolites, 7, 236.
Conchicolites corrugatus, 7, 236.
Concbicolites flexuosa, 11, 236.
Conchicolites grcga-rius, 236.
Concbicolites minor, 10, 236.
Constitution of Society of Natural His-
tory, 89.
Cooley's Physical Science Series, 378.
Crustacea, monograph of, 115.
C^ycloconcba, 231.
Cycloconcba mediocardinalis, 231.
Cyclonema, 310.
Cyclonema bilix, 319.
Cyclonema bilix var conica, 320.
(Cyclonema bilix var fluctuata, 320.
Cyclonema bilix var lata, 152, 320.
Cyclonema bilix var pyramidata, 152, 321
Cyclonema percariuata, 321.
Cyclonema vai'icosa, 321.
Cyclora, 312.
Cyclora Hotfmanni, 313.
Cyclora miuuta, 312.

Index.

38c

Cyclorapnrvula, ni3.
Cypricunlitcs, 147, 218.
Cypricardites carinata, 218.
Cypricardites Ilaiiicsi, 147. 218.
Cyitricardites Steiiiiigensis, 218.
Cyrtofei-as Vallaiuligtiami, 232.
Cyrtolites, 308.
Cvrtolites carinata, 311.
CVnolites Dveri, oHO.
Cyi tolites elegaus, 310.
Cyrtolites ornatus, 308.
Cytbei-e, 120.
Cytliere Ciucinuaiieusis, 120.

Dalnianites, 142.
Dalmanites brevieeps, 143.
Dalmaiiites Carlevi, 142.
Dietrich, Chas. W., 247.

Entoraostraca, fresh water, 22.
Entoniostraca, order, 117.
Equine mammals, 157.
Errata, 338.
Expressions of the cat, 188.

Fort Ancient, 277, 289.
Frey, Professor, 193, 338.
Fusispira, 315.

Fusispira subfusiformis, 316.
Fusispira terebriformis, 316.

Gasteropoda, monograph of, 302.

Geological survey of Illinois, 81.

Geological survey of Indiana, 380.

Geological survey of Ohio, 287.

Gilman, Henry, 35.

Glossary. 285.

Glyptocrinus Fornshelli, 348.

GlVptocrinus subglobosus, 7.

Green, Ashdown H., on the beaver. 54.

Gdyot's Grammar School Geography, 287.

Guyot's Physical Geography, 288.

Heterocrinus heterodactylus, column of,

2.
Heterocrinus simplex var grandis, 13.
Hall, Harvey B., on sponges, 65.
Hosea, L. M., on Fort Ancient, 289.
Hussey, Professor, 26.

Indian mounds and skulls in Michigan,

35.
Indiana geological survey. 360.
Insects, movement on polished surfaces,

51.
Isedrolotila, 214.
Isotelus, 137.
Isotelus gigas, 138.
Isotelus megistos, 137.

James, U. P., 19, 151, 153. 239, 833.
Journal prospectus, 1.
Journal, review of, 377.

Lamellibranchiata, monograph of, 211.
Land and fresh water shells, 288.
Land plants in the Lower Silurian, 43,

335.
Leperditia, 121.
Leperditia Byrnesi, 123.

Leperditia cylindrica, 122.

Leperditia niinutissiraa, 122.

Leidy, Prof., 2ti9.

Lepidoptera. method of rearing, 154.

Leptena aspera, 151.

Les(iiicreux, Prof., 43.

Lichas, 127.

Lichas Trentonensis, 127.

Lichenocrinus tuberculatus, 346.

List of trees and shrubs, 28.

Lymnadiadaj, 118.

Lyrodesma, 226.

Lyrodesma Cincinnatiensls, 226.

Lyrodesma plana, 226.

Marsh, O. C, 157.
Meek , Prof., 287.
Megalograptus, 343.
Megalograjitus Welchi, 343.
Megambonia, 225.
Megaml)onia Jamesi, 13, 225.
Microceras, 311.
Microccras, inornatus, 312.
Miller, Dr. C. A., 244.
3Iodiolopsis, 216.
Modiolopsis anodontoides, 217.
Modiolopsis modiolaris, 149, 216.
Modiolopsis pholadiformis, 282.
Modiolopsis terminalis, 217.
Modiolopsis truucatus, 217.
Modiolopsis Versaillesensis, 150, 216.
MoUusca, freshwater, 242.
Molluscan fauna of Illinois, 321.
Monograph of Crustacea, 115.
Monograph of Gasteropoda, 302.
Monograph of Lamellibranchiata, 211.
Murchisonia, 314.
Murchiitonia bellicincta, 314.
Murchisonia bicincta, 315.
Murchisonia gracilis, 315.

Natural Philosophy, 378.

Newberry, J. S., 267, 335.

Newman, J. W., 288.

Nicholson, Prof., 2S6.

Nomenclature, rules of, 351.

Norton, S. A., 378.

Notes and Errata on a former paper, 338.

Nullipores, 153.

Observations on Stenopora fibrosa and

the genus Chetetes, 368.
Ogyginw, 1-6.

Ophioglossum vulgatum, 28.
Opisthoptera, 326.
Orthis crassa, 20.
Orthis cyclus, 19.
Orthis cypha, 20.
Orthis fissiplica, 252.
Orthis Morrowensis, 21.
Orthonota, 221.
Orthonota contracta, 222.
Orthonota parallela, 221.
Orthonota pholadis, 222.
Ortonia, P, 236.

Pala;omanon, 247.
Palffiomanon cratera. 192.
PapilionidK of the Malayan Region.
161.

384

Index.

Paradoxinaj, 128.

Parallelism of coal seams, 267, 340.

Pasceolus, 4,

Pasceolus claudei, 6.

Pasceolus Darwini, 5.

Phenomena of variation in tlie Papilio-

nidre, 161.
Phyllopoda, 118.

Physical science series, Cooley's, 378.
Physiol o^ry of spiders and insects, 46.
Pleuroconcha, 214. ,
Pleurotamaria, 316.
Pleurotomaria Halli, 318.
Pleurotomaria tropidophera, 317.
Pleurotomaria subconica, 317.
Polypodium iucanum, 27.
Position of Cincinnati Group, 97.
Proetus, 144.

Proetus parviusculus, 144.
Proetus Spurlocki, 145.

Ransom, G. W., 161.

Eaphistoiiia, 318.
Raphistoma lenticularis, S19.
Relics of Indians found in Cincin'i, 375.
Resources of Tennessee, 378.
Reviews, book notices, etc., 287, 377.
Rocks at Blue Lick Spriggs, 161.
Rojmer, Dr. Fred., 29, KO, 247-.
Rules of Nomenclature, 351.

Sedgwickia (?) compressa, 219,

Sedgwickia ( 't) fragilis, 219.

Sedgwickia ( ?.) neglecta, 220.

Silurian fauna We'st Tenn., 29, 190, 247,

Society of Nat. History, Constitution, 89,

Society of Nat. History, members, 94.

Species, definition of, 84.

Spiders and insects, 46, 51.

Sponges, fossil, 65.

Spongire, 29.

Stenopora, 368.

Stenopora fibrosa, 369.
Stenopora lycoperdon., 369.
Streptorhynchus elongata, 240.
Streptorhynchus Hallie, 148.
Streptorhynchus vetusta, 241.
Strophomena declivis, 240.
Strophomena fracta, 13.
Strophomena gibbosa, 333.
Strophomena squamula, 335.
Supreme power, 282.

Telliuomya, 228.
Tellinomya Hilli, 229.
Tellinomya obliqua, 229.
Tellinomya pectunculoides, 229.
Teneina American, 193, 338.
Tennessee, resources of, 378.
Theocostegites hemisphericus, 251.
Thomas Cyrus, Ph. D., 253.
Tracks of an Asaph us, 136.
Triarthrus, 146.
Triarthrus Becki, 146.
Trichina} spiralis, 160.
Trichomanes radicans, 26.
Trematis Dyeri, 347.
Trilobitldffi, 123.
Trinucleus, 126.
Trinucleus coucentricus, 126.

Unio camptodon, 244.
Uuio Sayii, 244.

Vickers, Thomas, 29.

Wallace Alfred R., 84,161.
Wetherby, A. G., 154.
White, C. A., 326.
Whittlesey, Charles, 179.
Wilsou, flinkle& Co., 288, 378.
Wyoming Territory, 269.

Zoology, rules of nomenclature, 351.

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Page.

Discovery of Dieotyles (Platygonus) com-
pressus; by J. H. Klippart 1

The Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group ;
by S. A. Miller : 6

A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mounds ; by
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kins 78

Page.

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and Art 87

American Archteology 90

Ancient Burial Custom 91

Mound Explorations 92

The Missouri Mound 9-t

Mollusca 95

Meteorology 95

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THE CINCINNATI QOARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Vol. II. JANUARY, 1875. No. 1.

Discovery of Dicotyks (Platygomis) compressits, Le Conte. By John
H. Klippart, of Columbus, Ohio.*

f^ lu the month of April, 1873, workmen were engaged in digging

sand on the banks of the Olentangy river, at the crossing of Olen-

tangy and Montgomery streets, in the corporate limits of the city

of Columbus, Ohio ; and in the course of their labors discovered,

'^ embedded in the sand, a "nest" of bones of some animal, to them

unknown. A messenger was despatched with a basketful of these

S bones to my office, when I at once made arrangements to secure the

■^ entire lot, and whatever more might be discovered in the course of

^ their excavations. A week later they advised me that they had dis-

Qp covered another "nest," which I secured also — going in person and

superintending the removal.

J5 These bones were exceedingly friable ; in several instances a tibia

0:5 broke, or rather crumbled, when made to support very little more

<^' than its own weight. The mass of bones were embedded in a calcareous

,- clay, intermingled with a very generous quantity of calcareous sand.

After carefully removing the bones from the clay in which they were

embedded, they were placed in a kettle containing, say, four gallons

of boiling water, in which one pound of the best glue had been dis-

*Read before the American Association for the Advancemeut of Science, at its nicetiug at
Hartford, August, 1874.

2 Dicotyles (Platygo^ms) compressus, Le Conte.

solved ; and kept at the boiling point for the space of one hour after
^he bones were immersed. Nearly all the bones treated in this man-
ner were restored to a comparatively great degree of firmness and
solidity; more especially such ones as wei'e fractured, or in which the
internal structure was exposed. But this process — the only one with
which I am acquainted for the purpose of restoring the gelatine to the
bones — has its disadvantages. I found that nearly all the " bases " and
"heads'' of femurs, humeri, ulnte, and other bones, separated from
the shafts ; and it was by no means an easy process to replace and
unite them again.

Before proceeding to give a detailed description of the bones, it is,
perhaps, not inappropriate to describe the geological formation of the
locality in which they were found. From the northern boundary of
Delaware county, until near its junction with the Scioto river, within
the city limits of Columbus — a distance of about thirty-five (35) miles—
the Olentangy, flowing nearly due south, flows on the outcrop of the
Huron shales ; the left bank being the shale outcrop, and often some-
what precipitous. In this shale bank or outcrop, septaria abound :
the extremes in size of these septaria range from two inches in diame-
ter, or perhaps even less, to more than ten (10) feet in diameter ;
those from one to two feet in diameter being the most abundant. The
right bank of the Olentangy is of "valley drift," and beyond it,
westward, for many miles, the surface of the country is very level.

About eight miles west of the Olentangy, on the north boundary
of Delaware county, is the Scioto river, which flows a little to the
east of south, so as to unite with the Olentangy in the city of Colum-
bus. The Scioto, however, flows over a bed of corniferous limestone.
The valley between these two streams, as well as the country for miles
east and west of it, is covered with a deep drift. When boring the
artesian well in the State House yard, this drift was found to be one
hundred and twenty-three feet thick at that point. But the drift on
which the State House and the city in its immediate vicinity are built,
differs very materially from that in which the remains or bones were
found. The one hundred and twenty-three feet of material deposited
on the fifteen feet of shale, which intervenes between it and the cor-
niferous rock, is material undoubtedly due to the action of glaciers
and icebergs. From a record kept at the time of boring the artesian
well above mentioned, the augur passed through the following thirteen
strata :

Dicotyks {Phdijgonus) compresms, Le Conte.

Ft.from
surface.

Ft. in
thickii's

Strata.

Ft.from
surface.

Ft. in
tliickn's.

Strata.

1

1

1

Surface earth.

8

42

18

Blue clay.

2

3

2

Brown loam.

9

45

3

Clay and gravel.

3

14

11

Gravel and sand.

10

50%

5%

Quicksand.

4

IS

4

Blue clay.

11

54K

4

Clay and gi-avel.

5
6

20
23

2
3

Common sand.
Quicksand.

12
13

123
138

68K
15

H'd pan, cemented |
clay, sand & gravel
Shale and slate.

7

24

1

Leafy blue clay and
sand.

These strata, or rather deposits, with the excej^tion of Nos. 6 and
10, are exceedingly inconstant. Within two squares from the artesian
Avell, No. 3 has diminished on the southward to less than three feet,
and 5 and 6 are entirely w\anting ; on the northward it is less than half
as thick as at the well, and rests upon yellow clay. The irregularity
in thickness of these strata, the disappearance of some in short dis-
tances, the appearance of otb.ers not in the series at the well, are evi-
dences of the deposits not being subjected to the assorting action of
water, and therefore I conclude they were deposited by glaciers and
icebergs ; and I prefer to ascribe the deposit, at least the lower seventy-
five feet, to glacial action. I think there can be little doubt that the
valley of the Scioto, that is that area extending from the left bank of
the Olentangy to the right bank of the Scioto, is certainly due to
glacial action. At Mr. Little's quarry, in the town of Delaware,
about a mile west from the right bank of the Olentangy, and at a
slight elevation above the bed of the stream, was found a quartzite
bowlder, at the terminus of a great groove which it had ploughed;
and in so doing had broken into fragments and displaced many of the
upper thin strata of the quarry. This quarry is in the upper portion
of the corniferous limestone. Erratic, or drift bowlders, are found
throughout the material on which the city of Columbus is built — are
found beyond the banks of the Scioto as well as in the valley.

There is no doubt that the line of drainage of the Olentangy and
Scioto, from their entrance into Marion county, the former on the
eastern boundary and the latter on the western, to their junction at
Columbus, in Franklin county, is due to glacial action ; and that the
entire area embraced between them, throughout this distance, was
once a single sheet of water, and whilst in this situation the waters
did much erosive work. During the subsequent submersion, this
" bay " was filled up with eroded material from higher grounds, and

4 Dicotyles (Platygonm) C07npr€ssus, Le Conte.

was " worked over," assorted, and deposited in such strata as we now
find it. Wlien it emerged, the old line of drainage was resumed, but
as the volume of water had vastly diminished, two small streams were
formed, the Olentangy occupying the eastern bank of the former
stream and the Scioto occupying the western. Then came another
submergence, and during this period there was deposited a stratum of
clay, varying in places from two to five feet in thickness. This last
stratum of clay is found superimposed on the sti^ata of sand in the
valley, as well as on the higher table lands, thus presenting indisputa-
ble evidence that the clay was deposited after the valley had assumed
its present form, so far as its precise topography is concerned. Fig. 1
presents a section taken from the State quarry, along the line of the
" Shortline" railroad, and above the junction of the Olentangy with
the Scioto. The line " E" is the surface of the ground on the line of
the Shortline road ; the dotted line "D" is some rods north of the
railway and is at the junction of Olentangy and Montgomery streets,
where the remains were found. D to E is a gentle declivity.

Fig. 2 represents a section taken diagonally across the corner of the
lot from Montgomery street to Olentangy street. After having pene-
trated about twenty (20) feet from the opening of the bank, and at a
depth of eight (8) feet from the surface, the remains of six of the
smallest animals were found embedded in the calcareous clay and
sand, as indicated at "A"; after proceeding some six feet farther and
four feet deeper, the remains of the six larger animals were found at
" B," The digging proceeded from southeast to northwest; the
"snouts," or rather the tusks, were the first portions of the skeleton
which presented themselves. The group of remains marked "B"
were almost directly under a side track of the railway on Olentangy
street, and further excavation in that direction could not be made
without endangering the safety of the track. In order to obtain this
last group of remains it was necessary to deviate from the northwest to
a due north course, thus presenting a square east and west face of the
deposits or formation. This face presented the matter in a new light ;
it was observed that the strata immediately above the remains were
confused, presenting evidence of disturbance, so far as the deposits of
sand and gravel were concerned, whilst the overlying clay was, so far
as the eye could discern, entirely intact or undisturbed.

The animals were lying side by side, with their heads toward the
southeast ; their death was sudden and violent, the jaws were crushed,
skulls fractured, the left side of one lower jaw was driven into the
palate, and various other evidences of sudden and violent death were
manifest. On the contrary, there was no evidence whatever that the

Dlcotijles (Plafijgonm) ccmpresms, Le Coute. 5

animals were destroyed by other, or carnivorous animals, and then
dragged into the burrow, which evidently existed when the animals
were placed there. The bones are entire, except where broken from
very manifest pressure ; they present no appearance of having been
gnawed, or " crunched." In f\ict, a portion which I succeeded in keep-
ing intact, except to remove the earthy matter, proved to be a portion
of the spine, with the scapulas in proper position, humeri, radiie and
ulnse ; the metacarpal bones all in proper position, and the articula-
tions were apparently not disturbed since the embedding or death of
the animal. The evidence — the undisturbed condition of upward of
two feet of superincumbent clay— is to the effect that the animals met
their fiite and were embedded before the last submergence of this
portion of the globe.

These bones are the remains of what animal ?

These remains or bones are those of an animal of the family Suidte.
This is evident from the structure of the feet, which in this family
have three or four toes, two median, and one or two shorter lateral,
shod with hoofs, and the lower incisor teeth, Avhich are beveled for-
ward. A comparison of the fossil skull — although not fossil in the
ordinary acceptance of the term, yet fossil, because " dug out of the
ground "—with that of the domestic hog shows, however, generic
diiferences. The skull is more conoidal as regards both cranium and
face, presenting no marked angles in common with that of the hog.
The median line is convex, its highest point some distance in front of
the occiput. There is no intertemporal space; the temporal ridges
meeting to form a crest. The superior portion of the occiput is rela-
tively much smaller than in the hog. There is an interval of nearly
two inches between the canines and premolars, the former being
shorter, stouter, and less curved than in the hog. The molars and
premolars are arranged in straight lines, those on opposite sides
parallel, the palate is very narrow, an inch only in width between the
teeth. In front of the superior canines is a deep triangular fossa in
which rest the inferior canines in the closed mouth, so that these teeth
are covered by the upper lip and probably never lie external to it, or
become as long as in the hog. Perhaps the most important osteologi-
cal character is the formation and position of the glenoid cavity for
articulation with the lower jaw. It is concave and comparatively very
small, being only /gths of an inch in median transverse diameter, and
situated in the middle of the zygomatic arch 1.8 (li^otli) inches in
front of the styloid process. In the hog this process is an inch wider,
flat, and rests upon the posterior root of the zygomatic arch, and im-
pinges upon the body of the temporal bone, and its posterior border

6 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Growp.

lies on nearly the same transverse plane as the styloid process. Other
peculiarities might be noticed, as, for instance, the comparatively large
external auditory meatus, occupying a position much anterior and in-
ferior to that of the hog. The orbit is more nearly closed by bone
than in the hog.

These differences seem to indicate an animal more carnivorous than
the hog, while the comparative smallness of the superior portion of
the occiput suggests less of a rooting disposition. I may here suggest,
that, could it be shown that, in his day, large mollusks abounded in
the soft bottoms of shallow streams and estuaries, the conditions of his
comfortable existence would seem to have been fulfilled.

A comparison with other living genera of this fixmily shows a very
near relationship to the peccaries. Prof. J. S. Newberry assures me
that in a comparison with the skeleton of the Mexican and the South
American peccary, it is found to be twice as large as the Mexican, and
a little larger than the South American. No detailed comparison of
the entire skeleton has yet been made, but, on comparing the heads of
the different species, there are differences apparently sufficient to con-
stitute three distinct species, making the fossil one under discussion a
new species. Themost striking peculiarities, however, of the head of
the fossil species are the small incisors, somewhat larger canines, thin-
ner and more compressed form of head, the evei'sion of the lower and
posterior angles of the lower jaw.

Portions of this fossil animal have frequently been found in several
States of the Union, but there is no record of anything more than a
portion of a jaw or a cranium found in any one locality. To find a
round dozen of nearly entire skeletons in one locality is therefore most
extraordinary, and I hope and trust that out of this quantity of ma-
terial some comparative anatomist will not only determine its place in
the scale of creation, but will make a precise description of it.

Monograph of the. Glass Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

The class Brachicqwda was proposed by Cuvier in 1805, for bivalve
shell-fish having a pair of long, ciliated and usually spiral arms, by the
action of which a current of water is produced that carries the par-
ticles of food to the mouth, which is situated close to the base. In
1814, Blainville proposed the name Palliohranchiata, for the same class,
which is used by some naturalists in preference to Brachiopoda. They

Brachioj)oda of tlie Cincinnati Group. 7

are distinguished from the LameUibrancJdata by the absence of any
special branchial apparatus, the respiratory function being performed
by the mantle, and by the structure of the shell.

They are all marine shells, equal sided and inequivalve. The valves,
instead of being placed on each side of the animal as in the LameJli-
branehiata, are situated above and below it ; so that they are called
dorsal and ventral, instead of right and left valves. The ventral valve
is usually larger than the dorsal and projects beyond it at the beak,
where it is generally perforated to allow the passage of the attaching
ligament. Sometimes, however, the shell is attached by the beak,
and in other cases, as in the Lingididce, the attaching peduncle passes
out between the umbones. The dorsal valve is always free and
imperforate.

The valves are usually articulated by two curved teeth, springing
from the ventral valve and locking into corresponding cavities in the
dorsal valve. In Crania and some other genera having a flat ventral
valve, usually adherent, the hinge line is destitute of teeth. The
valves are opened by the "cardinal muscles," and closed by the
adductors. The body of the animal usually occupies only a small
portion of the cavity of the shell, close to the hinge.

With the exception of the corals, more than three fourths of all
the fossils found in the Cincinnati Group belong to this class.

In the preparation of this Monograph, I have used the best defini-
tions of the S2:)ecies accessible, and particularly the re-definitions by
Prof. Meek in the Ohio Paleontology.

The following are the characters ascribed to this class by Prof.
McCoy :

"This class .contains a large group of symmetrical, usually thin,
sharp-edged shells. The border of the mantle is little developed, and
the group derives its name from two long arms, one on each side of
the mouth, which may be regarded as an enormous development of
the labial palpi of LameHibranchiata, among which Anomia alone
shows anythuig appi'oachiug the same development. These arms are
hollow tubes, coiled or doubled up, and capable of a greatei" or less
protrusion by the contraction of a doubly oblique set of muscular
fibers, Avith which they are coated, acting on the fluid contained
within them; they unite in fi'ont of the mouth, and have their outer
margin fruiged with filaments, the motion of which, wdiether protruded
.beyond the shell or not, is supposed to produce a strong current of
water, conveying nutrient particles toward the mouth ; the absence in
them of large blood vessels shows they are not respiratory. The edge
of the mantle is also fringed with long, fleshy, or semi-corneous filaments,

8 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

covered, like the surface, with microscopic cilise, and exciting currents
of pure water over the surface for respiration, the blood being exposed
to it in four thick, branching pallial vessels in the lower, and two simi-
lar in the small or upper valve ; these great vessels communicate with
a vascnilar sinus, ventricle, or heart, on each side of the body, and
from the opposite ends of these hearts come the vessels supj^lying the
viscera. Dir/estion: the mouth is in the middle, close to the base of
the ai-ins, leading (in Terebratula) by a short (esophagus into a wide
stomach, surrounded by a liver or group of hepatic follicles; the
stomach bending a little, ends in a short, straight intestine (convoluted
in Linrjnla), terminating on the right side. Nervous system: a nervous
collar, with small ganglionic swellings surrounds the oesophagus, and
gives off twigs to the mantle and the adductors."

The Brachiopoda found in the Cincinnati Group belong to the fol-
lowing families: Lingulidce, Craniidce, Discinidce, Rhynchonellidce,
Orthidte, and Spirijeridce.

Family Liugididce — (D'Orb) .

Arms free, fleshy, inrolled, without shelly supports from the valves,
capal>le of being entii'ely protruded beyond the shell, provided with
long, firm fimbrite ; valves unconnected by a hinge; pedicle of at-
tachment passing out between the beaks of the two valves, neither of
wliich are notclied or perforated. Shell corneous,, dense, fibrous, sub-
equivalve, equilateral. There is a heart-like vessel on each side,
about one third the length from the beak, giving off one large trunk
on each side ; the subdivisions of the branchial vessels give off vas-
cular loops, arranged as separate lobes of the mantle, resembling the
gills of the higher Mollmca, and subservient to respiration ; close to
the Ix'ak are the conjoined imprc^ssions in each valve of the posterior
pair of muscles ; at aljout one third the length of the shell in front of
them are two small, ovate, approximate ovaries, exterior to which are
the large impressions of the decussating muscles which produce the
sliding motion of the valves on each other. Just in front of the ova-
ries are two very large oval lobes of the liver, a third lobe of which is
placed in the median line immediately in front of the posterior pair,
and is flanked on each side by a rather small, oblique, ovate impres-
sion of the anterior pair of adductor muscles in each valve ; consider-
ably in front of these, in the median line, are the conjoined, triangular
impressions of the anterior pair of muscles, which extend into the
])ediclc at the posterior end.

This family includes among other genera, the Lingula and Leptobolus.

Bnich'iopo'la of the Cindnnati Group, 9

Genu.s Lhujula — (Bruguiere, 1792).

[Etym. — Lingula, a little tongue.)

Subequivalvo, equilateral, longitudinally ovate or subpentagonal,
both valves channeled equally at the beaks, for the passage of the
pedicle (one beak a little longer and more pointed than the other,
which latter has a narrow, internal, flat area) ; internally, each valve
has a thickened pad in the middle, and the shorter one has in front of
it a prominent internal septum.

The species of this genus grow wider proportionally with age.

Lingula quadrata — (Eichwald, 1829).

Subequivalve, equilateral, broadly oval, depressed convex; sides
nearly straight and parallel, or slightly curved; extremities nearly
equal in width, the first broadly rounded, cardinal extremity slightly
narrower and somewhat angularly sloped ; beak marginal, not promi-
nent; exterior surface of the shell marked by strong concentric stria?,
and along the middle by distinct longitudinal striae, which are equally
visible when the outer shell is exfoliated. A longitudinal depressed
line marks the shell from the beak nearly half way to the base.

It is disthiguished by its very large size and subelliptical form. It
varies in length from one inch to an inch and a half, and in width
from three fourths of an inch to an inch.

Its range is co-extensive with the Cincinnati Group, but good speci-
mens are extremely rare.

Lingula Fan Hornei—(S. A. Miller)

Fig. ]. — Lin/ulu Van II(jinei.

General form acute, elongate ovate ; beak of dor.sal valve projecting
beyond the beak of the other valve; valves about equally convex
along the middle and compressed toward the front ; surface marked
with concentric lines.

Length of specimen, 0.75 inch; greatest width, 0.47 inch; convexity,

0.18 inch.

10 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Whore the shell is exfoliated from the anterior half of the clorgal
valve, lines are shown radiating from a depression, in the middle part
of the cast of the interior, which terminate before reaching half way
to the lateral margins ; and also two curving lines or depressions sit-
uated about half way from the middle to the lateral margins and
coming together in the middle, near the anterior margin.

A groove marks the median line of the cast of the interior of the
smaller or ventral valve for more than half its length ; it commences
below the beak, at about the line of the first quarter, and terminates
within the last quarter.

Found from 400 to 600 feet above low Avater-mark. The specimen
figured I found at Versailles, associated with Anomalodoiita gigantea,
about 300 feet below the Upper Silurian rocks. It is quite rare.

The specific name is given in honor of Mr. W. C. Van Home, a
gentleman of no ordinary paleontological attainments, now a resident
of LaCrosse, Wisconsin, and General Manager of the Minnesota South-
ern Eailroad.

lAnguIa Norwoodi — (James) .

Fig. 2. — Linrjula Norwoodi.

Shell elliptical in outline; regularly convex; surface marked by
concentric lines ; beak rather prominent.

Length, about i'\ths inch; breadth, rVhs inch.

Named in honor of Prof. J. G. Norwood, of Columbia College,
Missouri, formerly State Geologist of Illinois.

This beautiful little species was found by Mr. U. P. James, near
Cincinnati. Rano'c unknown.

Genus Leptobolus — (Hall, 1871).

[Eti/in. — Minute and obulus.]

Shell seml-phosphatic, fragile, minute, more or less elliptical, ovate
or subcircular, with moderately (or sometimes more extremely) convex
valves, which are concentrically marked on the exterior surfiice ; ven-
tral valve Avith a distinct . area and pedicle groove ; interior with an
elevated subquadrate muscular area; dorsal valve a little thickened
on the cardinal margin, with slightly elevated, trifid, muscular impres-
sions.

Bracldcpoda cf the Chtcinnati Group. 11

Leptobolus ??/))>— (Hall, 1871).

Shell minute, ovate, or broadly elliptical in outline, about fths as
Avide as long, and seldom exceeding ^l^^ths of an inch in length;
moderately convex, the greatest convexity being about one third of the
length from the 1)eak ; ventral area thickened ; pedicle groove strongly
defined ; muscular impression broad, extending more than one third
the length of the valve ; muscular ridges of the dorsal valve strongly
marked, the central one extending two thirds the length of the
shell, the lateral ones diverging from each other at an angle of
about 45°, and extending nearly to the middle of the valve; extremi-
ties bifid. Surface of the valves concentrically marked by fine lines
of growth.

Found on the clay nodules below Mowry's foundry, in the first ward

of the city of Cincinnati, within twelve feet of low Avater-

mark, associated Avitli Leperdlt'm Btjrnesl and Lichenocriniis crateri-

formis Its range, so far as knoAvn, is confined to the lower rocks of

the Cincinnati Group.

Family CmnUdce—(D'ORB).

Shell thick, pyramidal, calcareous, Avithout muscle of attachment ;
free or fixed by the substance of the loAver or ventral valve ; arms
spirally fixed among themselves, not extensile, nor supported by
apophyses ; thickened margin of the valves, Avith ramified impressions
of the fimbriated edge of the mantel.

This family includes the genera Crania and Pholidops.

Genus Crania — (Ketzius. 1781).

[E/ym. —Krancia, capitate.]

Shell A^ariable in shape, inequivalve, circular, subquadrate, trans-
verse or elongated, partially or extensively attached by the substance
of its loAver or ventral valve ; rarely free ; upper or dorsal valve more
or less conical, vertex subcentral ; no articulated hinge or ligament,
the A-alves being kept in place by the action of four muscles, Avhich
pass in a somcAvhat oblique manner from one A^alve to the other ; the at-
tached or ventral valve is generally the thickest, Avith or without a
straight more or less produced beak, and false area. External surface
smooth, spiny, or variously ornamented by radiating costa> or foliaceous
expansions ; the concentric lines of growth passing uninterruptedly over

12 BracMopoda of the C'mchmatl Group.

the valves and area ; structure calcareous and tubular. Iii the in-
terior, four principal scars formed by the adductor muscles are observ-
al^le. The anterior pair are approximate and placed close to the
center, behind -which a prominence is sometimes visible in the ventral
valve. The posteror pair are situated near the cardinal edge, and are
widely separated. The muscular impressions of the attached valve are
sometimes slightly convex, at others deeply excavated ; those of the
dorsal valve are convex, the center pair sometimes developing very
prominent apophyses. The interior of the attached valve is surrounded
by a raised and thickened border, exhibiting the tubular shell
structure in a cons^iicuous manner. The disk of each valve exhibits
more or less distinct impressions of the vascular system, which is sim-
ply digitated.

Crania scahiosa — (Hall, 1866).

Shell somewh.^t less than medium size, usually discoid or little
elevated, but sometimes prominent, irregular in outline ; margin thick-
ened, apex of dorsal valve eccentric, varying in different individuals.
Surface of valve having usually strong lamellose lines of growth, Avhich
are sometimes obscured by the roughness of the substance to which
the specimen is attached, showing through the shell or causing it to
grow irregularly, by which it often assumes the features of the foreign
body. Interior showing the two anterior muscular impressions situated
posterio-centrally, and the two posterior muscular impressions a
little farther separated from each other, and situated close to the car-
dinal edge.

It is a common fossil throughout the Cincinnati Group, at all eleva-
tions above 200 feet from low water-mark.

Crania Icelia — (Hall, 1866).

Shell small, discoid or moderately convex on the upper valve, some-
what narrowed toward the cardinal border. Apex of the dorsal valve
minute, not prominent, situated about one third the length of the
valve from the cardinal margin.

Surflice marked by fine but very sharply elevated radiating strite,
which are sometimes tortuous, and frequently increased by implanta-
tion; ventral valve and interior unknown.

It was first found at Cincinnati, about 400 feet above low water-mark,
and extends from thence to near the Upper Silurian rocks. It is not,
however, a common fossil.

Brcxldopoda of the Cincinnati Grouj). V^

Crania Dyerl — (S. A. INIilleu).

Fig. 3. — Crania Di/eri.

Shell small, circular ; dorsal valve prominent, conical ; apex cen-
tral. Surface marked by six or seven fine, sharply elevated, concen-
tric ridges or laniellose lines of growth. Ventral valve and interior
unknown.

Diameter of specimen, 0.20 inch ; convexity, 0.07 inch.

Found within 250 feet of Ioav water-mark, at Cincinnati. Extremely
rare.

The specimen figured is from the magnificent collection of C. B,
Dyer, Esq.. in whose honor I have given the specific name.

Crania multrpundata — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 4. — Crania muliipvnctafa.

Shell small, subrectangular or irregular in outline ; dorsal valve
moderately prominent ; apex subcentral or about one third the length
of the valve from the cardinal margin.

Surface marked by numerous fine punctures, just visilile to the naked
eye, but giving the shell a highly ornamental appearance under an
ordinary magnifier. Ventral valve and interior unknown.

Length of specimen, 0.32 inch; width, 0.24 inch; convexity, 0.07
inch.

The specimen figured I found near the upper part of the hills in
Cincinnati. Mr. C. B. Dyer has a specimen, collected in the same
range, and it is so in the collection of U. P. James, Esq.

Genus PhoUdojos — (Hall, 1859).

Shells small, patelliform; apex subcentral, eccentric or terminal.
Surface marked by concentric lamella; of growth, which are more ex-
panded on the posterior side. Interior a shallow oval cavity, with
bilobed muscular impressions ; the margin flattened or slightly deflect-
ed and entire.

14 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Pholidops cincinncdienm — (Hall, 1872).

Shell small, ovate in outline. Larger valve about one fifth longer
than wide, with height one third to one fourth the breadth. Apex
obtuse, near half way between the middle and the larger end. An-
terior end narrowly rounded, posterior end somewhat more broadly
rounded, or almost subtruncate. Surface ornamented by six or seven
subimbricating marks of growth. Smaller valve unkno^yn.

Length, 0.14 inch; breadth, 0.12 inch; height of larger valve, 0.04
inch.

This species is quite rare, and yet it has been found, at Cincinnati, at
nearly all elevations, from low water-mark to the top of the hills, back
of the city. Its range is, therefore, not limited to less than half the
thickness of the Cincinnati Group, and is probably more extended.

Family Discinidce.

Animal attached by the means of a muscular peduncle, jDassing
through the ventral or lower valve, a sht in the hinder portion, or a circu-
lar foramen excavated in the substance of the same valve. Arms fleshy ;
valves unarticulated.

This family includes with other genera the genus Trematis.

Genus Trematis — (Sharpe, 1847).

Animal unknown ; shell somewhat depressed, suborbicular or trans-
versely oval; both valves slightly and unequally convex, giving a len-
ticular form to the shell; umbo of the upper or imperforated valve
submarginal, slightly projecting. Lower or ventral valve with a sub-
central umbo, behind which a narrow, oblong, oval slit reaches to near
the posterior margin, and afforded passage to the pedicle fibers of
attachment.

Internal disposition unknown ; a wide cardinal margin is visible in
the imperforated valve.

Trematis terminalis (f) — (Conrad, 1847).

Shell very obtusely subovate or orbicular; ventral valve nearly
flat, with a narrow, deeply depressed pedicle opening about one fourth
the length of the shell and extending to the' margin of the shell

Bracldopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 15

beneath the beak of the other valve ; dorsal valve very convex in the
middle and posterior regions, and depressed anteriorly ; beak pointed
and projecting beyond the opposite valve.

Outer shell of l^oth valves very thin and smooth about the beak and
unibonal regions, but regularly punctate on other parts in lines radia-
ting to the margins. Where the nonpunctate shell is exfoliated, no
radiating strise or punctate structure is visible ; l)ut where the punctate
shell is exfoliated, the inner shell, to the unaided eye, appears to be
marked by regular radiating striee, with fine puncta between them.
A magnifier, however, shows the radiating stride to be only the lines
between the furrows, produced by the punctate structure.

Length of the largest specimen known to me, 0.82 inch ; width, 0.84
inch; convexity, 0.22 inch.

This specimen may belong to a new species, so I have referred it to
Conrad's species, with a doubt. It is rare and its range unknown.

Trematls (.?)/fosa— (Hall, 1347).

Shell orbicular; dorsal valve very convex, greatest convexity in the
central part and sloping in all directions ; beak marginal ; surface
radiated with numerous, fine, elevated, thread-like strise, which are alike
visible on the exterior and interior part of the valve ; strife increased
by intercalation. Interior marked by two rather large, subcircular,
muscular impressions, situated a little anterior to the beak, and sepa-
rated by the median line. Ventral valve unknown.

Length of a large specimen, 0.54 inch; width, 0.56 inch; convexity,
0.30 inch.

Found on the hills back of Cincinnati, and at many other places,
])ut its range is not very definitely known. Good specimens are quit(i
rare.

This species evidently belongs to a new genus or a sub-group under
the o-enus Trematls. The character of the two muscular impressions,
and the absence of the punctate structure in the outer shell, that
characterizes both the terminalls and mlllepunctata, must separate this
species, at least, subgenerically, from all other shells found in the Cin-
cinnati Group.

For Trematl>i Dyeri—(S. A. Miller), see vol. 1, page 347, of
this Journal, October, 1874.

16 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Trematis millepiinetata. — (Hall, 1866).

Shell suborbiciilar, transverse on the ventral side and lenticular in
profile, and varying in size from one quarter to one half inch or more
in diameter.

Ventral valve strongly convex below the middle, more depressed
above ; with a narrow, deeply depressed pedicle opening, the margins
of wdiich are flattened for a space nearly equal to the breadth of the
opening.

Dorsal valve more elongate, most convex above the middle ; the
l)eak pointed and projecting considerably beyond the opposite valve ;
Avith a depressed or concave triangular area.

Interior of the dorsal valve marked near the middle by two com-
paratively large, semicircular or reniform muscular scars, the breadth
across the two more than equal to one third of the diameter of the
valve ; the center of the valve has also a slight mesial septum.

Surface strongly punctate in concentric curves passing from the
center of the shell outward, extending through the shell near the
front of the valves, and distinctly marking the cast ; inner layers of
the shell not punctate.

It differs from the T. terminalis, in being more transverse, with a
less convexity of the ventral valve and more prominent beak of the
dorsal valve ; and also in the character of the punctate structure.
The Trenton species is distinctly punctured, the puncta passing through
the shell, showing most distinctly on partially exfoliated specimens ;
while in this species they are entirely confined to the exterior layers
of the shell. It is also destitute of the radiating striiTe found in T. ter-
minalh, when the shell is partially exfoliated.

The largest specimen known to me is 0.82 inch in length; 0.92 inch
in width ; and 0 28 inch in convexity.

Family Rhynchonellidce.

Shell impunctate, oblong, or trigonal, beaked; hinge line curved;
no area; valves articulated, convex, often sharply plaited; foramen
beneath the beak, usually completed by a deltidium, sometimes con-
cealed ; hinge teeth sujjported by dental plates ; hinge plate deeply
divided, supporting oral lamellae, rarely provided with spiral processes;
muscular impressions grouped as in Terehratula ; vascular impressions,
consisting of two principal trunks in each valve, narrow, dichotomising,
angular, the principal posterior branches inclosing ovarian spaces.

Brachiojioda of tJie Cincimiati Group. 17

Genus Rhynchonella — (Fischer, 1809).

Shell trigonal, acutely beaked, usually plaited ; dorsal valve elevated
in front, depressed at the sides ; ventral valve flattened or hollowed
along the center ; hinge plates suj)porting two slender, curved lamellse ;
dental plates diverging.

Khynchonella capax — (Conrad, 1842).

Shell medium size, varying with age from compressed subtrigonal
to large subglobose, old examples being often more convex than
their diameter in any other direction ; posterior lateral margins some-
what straightened and converging to the beak, at about a right angle
in young shells, but becoming more rounded in the adult ; lateral
margins rounding to the front, which is more or less distinctly sinuous,
or nearly straight in the middle.

Dorsal valve generally a little more convex than the other, most
prominent in the middle, and rounding abruptly, or sloping more
gently from the central region in all directions ; the more elevated
part forming, anteriorly, a depressed mesial ridge, that is nearly flat, and
occupied by four plications on top, and rarely continues two thirds of
the way to the strongly incurved beak, while on young or compressed
individuals it is faintly marked even anteriorly ; lateral slopes each
occupied by four to seven or eight simple, angular plications.

Ventral valve with its beak abruptly pointed, and very strongly in-
curved upon that of the other valve, in adult shells, but less distinctly
curved, and showing a small opening under its apex, in young ex-
amples ; mesial sinus deep and well defined in gibbous specimens, and
less so in the young or more compressed forms, never quite reaching
the point of the beak, and always having three simple, rather angular
plications in the bottom, that extend, like the others, to the apex of
the beak, in well preserved specimens; lateral slopes each occupied
by from five to seven simple i^lications.

Entire surface of both valves marked by numerous, very regular,
strongly zigzag, prominent, sublaminar marks of gro'wth, that become
nearly or quite obsolete, sometimes, on old examples.

Its range is confined to the rocks constituting the upper 250 feet of
the Cincinnati Group, but it is the most abundant and common fossil
within that range, and one of the best preserved. It can be picked up
almost anywhere north of the Ohio river, from 40 to 60 miles from the
city of Cincinnati.

18 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Wiynclionella dentata — (Hall, 1847).

Shell rather smaller than the medium size in this genus, trigonal-
subglobose, generally slightly wider than long, and usually, in adult
examples, quite convex ; posterior lateral margins nearly straight, or a
little convex in outline, and converging to the beaks at nearly a right
angle ; anterior lateral margins rounded or subangular ; front usually a
little sinuous, as seen in a direct view of either valve.

Dorsal valve more convex than the other, particularly in the anterior
central region, where it is often very prominent, being elevated in the
form of a distinct mesial ridge, that is divided into two plications by a
central furrow ; lateral slopes rounding off more or less abruptly, and
each occupied by from four to five simple, rather angular, radiating
plications ; beak strongly incurved.

Ventral valve (as seen in a side view) somewhat strongly arched
from beak to front, or more or less compressed in the central region,
and abruptly curved up at the front and beak ; mesial sinus commenc-
ing small near the beak, and widening and deepening (with sloping
sides and a single central plication) to the front, where it equals about
one half the entire breadth, and terminates a more or less produced,
subtrigonal marginal projection, curved up nearly at right angles to
the plane of the valve, and fitting into a corresponding sinus in the
edge of the same ; lateral slopes generally quite abrupt from the edges
of the mesial sinus, and each occupied by about five single subangular
plications ; beak incurved, but not so closely upon that of the other as
to conceal the small foramen under its apex.

Surface of both valves with the plications continued to the points of
the beaks, and imparting to the interlocking anterior margins, a sharply
zigzag outline ; while on well preserved specimens, very fine, obscure
lines of growth may be seen, by the aid of a magnifier, crossing the
plications and furi'ows between them, parallel to the zigzag anterior
and lateral margins ; though these lines are nearly or quite obsolete,
excepting near the front.

Found at Kichmond, Indiana, and at other places in the upper 100
feet of the Cincinnati Group, in moderate abundance. The R. capax
commences a hundred feet lower, and has passed its turning point of
greatest abundance before this species appears in the rocks.

Family Orthidce (sometimes written Orilmidce).

Shell transversely oblong, depressed, rarely foraminated ; hinge line
wide and straight ; beaks inconspicuous ; valves plano-convex or con-

Braehiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 19

cavo-convex, each with a hinged area notched in the center; ventral
valve with prominent teeth ; muscular impressions occupying a saucer-
shaped cavity, with a raised margin ; adductor central ; cardinal and
pedicle conjoined, lateral, fan-like ; dorsal valve with a tooth-like car-
dinal process between two curved brachial processes ; adductor impres-
sions quadruple ; vascular impressions consisting of six principal trunks
in the dorsal valve, two in the ventral ; the external branches turned
outward and backward, inclosing wide ovarian spaces. Indications
have been observed, in several genera, of horizontally coiled, spiral
arms; the space between the valves is often very small. The shell
structure is punctate, except in a few instances, where the original
texture is probably obliterated.

Some authors prefer to classify the shells of this fiimily under the
name Strophomenidce. It includes, with other genera, the Orthis Hemi-
pronites, Strophomtna, and Leptena.

Genus Orthis — (Dalman, 1827).

[Etym. — Orthos, straight].

Shell variable in shape, suborbicular or quadrate ; valves equally or
unequally convex ; socket valve sometimes slightly concave, with or
Avithout a mesial fold or sinus ; hinge line straight, generally shorter
than the width of the shell; both valves furnished with an area,
divided by a triangular, open fissure, for the passage of the pedicle
fibers ; beaks more or less incurved — that of the larger valve generally
more produced; surface smooth, striated or ornamented by simple
bifurcated or intercalated ribs ; structure minutely or largely punc-
tated; valves articulating by means of teeth and sockets. In the
interior of the larger, or ventral, valve the vertical dental plates form
the walls of the fissure, and extend from the beak to the bottom of the
shell ; between these a small, rounded mesial ridge divides the muscu-
lar scars, which extend over two elongated depressions, margined on
their outer side by the prolonged bases of the dental plates ; the car-
dinal muscles appear to have occupied the greater portion of the
anterior divisions of these two depressions, the pedicle muscles occu-
pying the external and posterior part of the same space ; the adductor
was probably attached to each side and close to the mesial ridge. In
the socket valve the fissure is partially or entirely occupied by a more
or less produced simple shelly process, to which were aflixed the cardi-
nal muscle fibers ; the inner socket walls are considerably prolonged
mto the cavity of the shell, under the shape of projecting laminae, to

20 BracMopoda of the Oincbmati Group.

the extremity of which free, fleshy, spiral arms may, perhaps, have
been affixed. Under this shelly process, a longitudinal ridge separates
the quadruple impressions of the adductor, which on each side forms
two deep, oval depressions, placed obliquely one above the other, and
separated by lateral ridges branching from the central one; the
pallial vessels, as well as then- numerous minor bifurcations or veins,
have often left impressions within the ^valves; the principal trunks
seem both more numerous and better defined in the socket valve ; after
extending in a somewhat radiate or sub-parallel direction from the
muscular scars to near the anterior region, they sweep round sub-
marginally on both sides of the valve, leaving wide ovarian spaces
and giving off a series of smaller branches.

OHkis testudmaria—(DAiMAi^, 1827).

Suborbicular, plano-convex ; cardinal line straight, shorter than the
width of the shell ; ventral valve convex, much elevated toward
the beak, often with an elevated ridge down the center ; beak small,
slightly incurved; dorsal valve flat, or with a longitudinal depression
along the center, which often produces an emargination in front ; car-
dinal area small ; foramen small, triangular ; surface covered with fine
striiB, which bifurcate toward the margin, and are crossed by elevated,
thread-like lines, giving them a crenulated appearance. In the
interior of the dorsal valve the cardinal process is situated between
two small, projecting, deviating, brachial lamime, while the quadruple
muscular impressions are small, and divided into parts by a rather wide
mesial ridge. In the ventral valve the muscular area is moderately
developed, elongated, and forked in front.

It is generally supposed to be common throughout the Cincinnati
Group, at all elevations, but forms usually classed with it in the lower
half of the group, now bear other names. Its range may, therefore,
be restricted to the upper part of the group, unless the midtiseda and
3Ieeki are regarded as varieties only. And, indeed, there is no form
found within the Cincinnati exposure that exactly agrees in the size
and situation of the muscular scars with the European specimens, and
it might be proper to class even the form that prevails in the upper
part, Avhich most resembles the type specimens of Europe, as a variety
under a distinct name.

OHMs Meeki — (S. A. Miller).

Shell small, plano-convex, rather depressed, transversely truncato-
suboval, the length being about five sixths its breadth ; hinge line,

Brachiopoda of the Cindmwiti Group. 21

perhaps, always a little shorter thau the greatest hreadth of the valves ;
lateral margins generally rouudiug to the hmge, most promment at, or
a little behind, the middle, and rounding to the front, which is usually
somewhat straightened, or very faintly sinuous at the middle; or,
presents a regular semi-circular outline.

Dorsal valve i^arly flat, or slightly convex on each side of a shallow,
mesial sinus, that commences very narrow at the beak, and usually
widens rather rapidly to the front; beak very small, scarcely projectmg
beyond the edge of the area, and not incurved ; area low at the middle,
and narrowing off to nothing at the lateral extremities of the hinge,
slightly arched, and directed obliquely backward; foramen very
small, and filled by the cardinal process. Interior very shallow, and
provided with a slender mesial ridge that extends about half way
forward from the hinge, between the muscular impressions, which are
not usually well defined ; scars of posterior pair of adductor muscles
smaller, and usually deeper, than the anterior, and situated close buck
under the brachial processes ; those of the anterior pair three or four
times the size of the posterior, suboval in form, and extending to
near the middle of the valve ; cardinal process very small and trifid ;
brachial processes, comparatively, rather stout and prominent ; inter-
nal surface having the radiating strire of the exterior rather distmctly
imj)ressed through, as it were, in consequence of the thinness of
the shell, and finely granidar, the granules being apparently con-
nected wdth the punctate structiu-e of the shell.

Ventral valve compressed convex, the greatest convexity being near,
or a little behind, the middle, along a more or less prominent unde-
fined ridge, that sometimes, but not always, imparts a subcariuate
appearance to the central and umbonal regions; beak small, projecting
somewhat beyond that of the other valve, abruptly pointed, and rather
distinctly arched, but not strongly incurved; area about twice as
high as that of the other valve, and with its sharply defined edges
sloping to the lateral extremities of the hinge, directed and arched*
obliquely backw^ard with the beak ; foramen having near the form of
an equilateral triangle, but rather narrow^ed upward to the apex of
the beak, and partly occupied by the cardinal process of the other
valve. Interior showing the teeth to be moderately prominent; con-
cavity for the muscular impressions very shalloAV, small, somewhat
bifid anteriorly, and not defined by a very distinct margmal ridge ;
scars of divaricator muscles apparently narrow, and situated on each
side of a shallow mesial depression, which seems to include, far back
at its posterior end, those of the very small adductors, merely separated
from each other by a hairline ; impressions of ventral adductor muscles

22 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

apparently wider and shorter than those of the divaricators ; stride and
fine granules of the interior as in the other valve.

Surface of both valves ornamented by numerous, distinct, radiating
striae, that usually bifurcate about three times between the beak and
free margins; posterior lateral striae so strongly curved that a part of
them run out on the hinge line. Numerous, verjuminute, regularly
disposed, concentric lines may also be seen by the aid of a magnifier,
most distinctly defined in the furrows between the much larger radia-
ting stripe ; while a few distant, sub-imbricating, stronger marks of
growth are usually seen in adult shells.

Length of a medium-sized, mature specimen, 0. 60 inch ; breadth,
0.75 inch; convexity, 0.25 inch.

This species is described in the Ohio Paleontolocjy , vol. i., page 109,
as 0. emacerata, and fully illustrated on plate 8, figs. 1 a to d, and
figs. 2 a to g.

The typical specimens 2 a to g, are quite common at the quarries in
Hamilton, Butler county, associated with 0. ella, 0. belhda, 0. jissi-
costa, 0. pUcatella, 0. sinuata, Glyptocrinus decadadylus, and other
species indicative of a range from 300 to 400 feet above low water-
mark, at Cincinnati.

It may readily be distinguished from 0. emacerata, for which it has
been mistaken, by the following characters, to wit: It is smaller,
striffi not so fine, mesial sinus on the dorsal valve and mesial ridge on
the ventral valve more distinct and better defined, greatest convexity
of the ventral valve more central ; greater cliflference m the size of
the anterior and posterior muscular scars of the dorsal valve, and an-
terior scars more nearly oval in outline. It has not been found associated
with the 0. emacerata, and, so far as known, has a range commencing
about fifty feet above the range of the latter, and extending to near
the top of the exposure of the Lower Silurian rocks. The largest
specimens that I have seen were found near Oxford, in Butler county,
Ohio. It is abundant, and has an extensive range.

Orihis muUisecta— (J aues, 1873),

Shell small, [sul:)circular, plano-convex, or sometimes concavo-con-
vex, hinge line shorter than the greatest breadth of the valves ;
valves thin.

Dorsal valve nearly flat, or having a concentric depression through
the middle ; mesial sinus undefined or indistinct ; beak small, not
incurved ; area low at the middle, and narrowing oflf to nothing at the

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Groiq). 23

lateral extremities ; foramen very small and filled by tlie cardinal
process. Interior flat ; mesial ridge extending to about the middle of
the shell, without any well defined termination ; scars of posterior pair
of adductor muscles a little smaller than the anterior pair, from which
they are separated by a very fine line, or, more generally, not dis-
tinctly separated ; • cardinal process very small, conical, obscurely
trifid on the posterior side ; brachial processes slender, prominent, and
directed obliquely forward ; surface granular and showing the radiat-
ing strioe.

Ventral valve convex, with elevated mesial ridge, greatest convex-
ity just behind the middle ; beak arched, projecting slightly ; area
moderate, narrowing laterally ; foramen an equilateral triangle, partly
occupied by the cardinal process of the other valve. Interior strongly
concave, showing moderately prominent teeth ; dental laminse extend
from the base of the teeth forw^ard,' gradually becoming more indis-
tinct as they fade away in a circular line to the mesial depression,
forming a heart-shaped cavity for the muscular scars ; surface granu-
lar and showing the radiating stride.

Surface of both valves ornamented by fine radiating strice, that
increase by bifurcation ; lateral striae curved so that a few of them
run out on the hinge line ; concentric striae plainly visible with the
aid of a magnifier, and sometimes visible to the unaided eye ; imbri-
cating marks of growth usual. Length of an average full grown speci-
men, 0.50 inch ; breadth, 0.58 inch ; convexity, 0.20 inch. They vary,
however, from one fourth this size to one half larger.

It is abundant at nearly all exposures from low water-mark, at Cin-
cinnati, to 250 feet above ; after this, as we ascend the strata, the form
which I have called Orthis Meeki prevails in its stead. It would be
impossible to determine where one form begins and the other ends, as
they clearly intermingle, and leave the constantly recurring impres-
sion that they are not specifically distinct. Take, however, either
young or old specimens from an elevation of 150 feet, and comj)are
them with like specimens in age from an elevation of 400 feet, and
the distinction is manifest, both externally and internally. It differs
from 0. Meeki, externally, as follows : It is smaller, more circular,
because of the shorter hinge line ; dorsal valve flatter and more usually
with a concentric indention. It is distinguished from 0. emacefata,
which hi associated with it in a limited range, both externally and
internally, as will be seen from the description of that species. I have
been unable to point out satisfactory differences between this form and
that described by Mr. James, as Orthis Cyclus, in this Journal, vol.
i., page 19, January, 1874, though jNIr. James may be correct in the
distinguishing characteristics he has designated.

24 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Orthis emacerata — (Hax,l, 1860).

Shell semi-elliptical, length and width about as 5 to 7 ; hinge line
nearly equaling the width of the shell. Dorsal valve flat, with a
slight depression down the center ; area extremely narrow. Ventral
valve depressed convex, slightly elevated at the beak, which is
inclined over the area, but scarcely incurved ; an undefined elevation
extending from the umbo toward the front, and sometimes quite to the
margin of the shell ; area narrow, almost linear.

Surface finely striated ; stria? bifurcating, curving upward and
running out on the hinge line. Interior of the dorsal valve, with two
small teeth and a small cardinal process; valves thin.

It is distinguished readily from the 0. testudinaria by the internal
markings of the valves, by the thinner shell and finer external
striae, there being at least 20 more on the margui of shells of equal
size. The depression in the center of the dorsal valve and elevation
in the center of the ventral valve are less cons]3icuous, and the hinge
line proportionally longdr, generally, than in 0. testudinaria.

[This definition is from 13th Reg. Eep., N. Y., page 121.]

It is found at Columbia avenue and Torrence road, 160 feet above
low water-mark. It was found in the excavation of Deercreek tunnel,
at the same elevation. It is not abundant, and seems to have a very
limited range. Having hunted the quarries at Hamilton, in Butler
county, and for other reasons that are elsewhere made apparent, I
do not believe that this form is found at that place, 'or in that horizon.
I have never known it to be found over 200 feet above low water-
mark, at Cincinnati.

Prof Meek, in the Ohio Paleontology, described a shell as 0. emacerata,
and illustrated it with eleven figures, and gave the localities and
position for it at Cuicinnati, 250 feet and more above the Ohio, and at
Hamilton, in Butler county, Now, while I regard Prof. Meek as one of
the best and most careful paleontologists, and have freely copied his
labors in this monogi-aph, I am, nevertheless, quite confident that he
did not describe or illustrate the 0. emacerata, and that he did not have
the species before him.

To account for this mistake, let us look at the following facts: Prof.
Me^k's figures, plate 8, figs. 2 a-g, are (I believe), Hamilton, Butler
county, specimens, and 1 a-d are from Cincinnati, or some other place.
He was, doubtless, informed, by some mistake, that these were identified
here, or known here as 0. emacerata, and after examining them, and
ascertaining that they were distinct from 0. tedudinaria, with exi^res-
sions of grave doubt he referred them to Hall's species 0. emacerata,

Bmchiojwda of the Cincinnati Group. 25

and proceeded to redefine it. And here he made another singular
mistake ; in his quotation from Prof. Hall's definition, he says : "lam
in considerable doubt whether it was this or the following form
to which Prof Hall applied the nanfe 0. emacerata. His remark,
that his type has finer stri^, and the depression in the middle of its
dorsal valve usually deeper, and the mesial elevation of the ventral
valve more prominent than in the form most generally referred to,
0. tedudinaria, would seem to indicate that he had the following form
in view, and regarded that here under consideration as the 0.
tedudinaria."

It will be observed that Prof Hall said just the reverse of what is
here ascribed to him. He said : " The depression in the center of the
dorsal valve, and elevation in the the center of the ventral valve, are
less conspicuous, and the hinge line proportionally longer, generally,
than in 0. tedudinaria."

With hicorrect information, and through inadvertence, Prof Meek
has well defined and illustrated a form (heretofore generally identified
as 0. tedudinaria) as typical of Hall's species emacerata, but which I
regard as distinct from both, and certainly far removed from the
emacerata. I have called the form described and pointed out by Prof.
Meek, 0. Meeki, and it matters but little whether it is regarded as a
variety of tedudinaria, or as a distinct species, because it is at least a
form that may be generally recognized.

The 0. emacerata may be farther distinguished, as follows : It is larger
than the 0. multisecta, with which ;t is associated ; its valves are thin-
ner, strire finer, greatest convexity nearer the beak, and nearer semi-
elliptical in form ; the muscular impressions on the dorsal valve are
larger in proportion to the size of the shell, differ a little in shape,
being irregular, sub-trapezoidal in outline, and the cardinal process
is more distinctly trifid ; the muscular impressions on the ventral valve
are wider, and better defined, with proportionally a much stronger in-
dentation on the sides at the line of separation of the scars. It may be
further remarked, that there is no graduating of the shells called
multisecta into this form, so far as observed, though they are abundant
in the same rocks, and above and below them.

OHhis lynx — (Von Buch, 1837).

Shell attaining a large size, nearly equivalve, wider than long,
with a transversely oval, subquadrate outline, or, in old specimens, often
becoming so gibbous as to assume a subglobose form ; hinge line either
a little less or exceeding the greatest breadth of the shells ; cardinal

26 Bracliiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

extremities obtusely angular, rectangular, or acutely angular ; lateral
margins convex, nearly straight or sinuous behind and rounding to the
front, which is sinuous, rounded, or somewhatprominentat the middle;
beaks and cardinal areas of the two valves nearly equal, the former
incurved and approximate, or sometimes contiguous.

Dorsal valve most convex, greatest convexity near the middle,
mesial fold rounded, moderately prominent, commencing near the
beak, and continuing forward, gradually widening and rounding with
the curve of the valve to the front ; lateral slopes convex ; beak pro-
jecting beyond the hinge margin, strongly incurved ; cardinal area
well developed, nearly as wide as that of the other valve, directed
backward, and more or less incurved ; foramen broad, triangular, and
not closed by the cardinal process. Interior showing cardinal process
to be very small, or merely having the character of a low, linear ridge in
the rostral cavity ; posterior pair of muscular impressions corrugated,
and decidedly larger, and more widely separated than the others.

Ventral valve with a mesial sinus corresponding to the fold in the
other valve, and terminating at the front in a rather short, somewhat
rounded projection, that curves more or less upward into a sinuosity
of the same size and form in the margin of the dorsal valve ; beak
less strongly incurved than that of the other, and slightly more promi-
nent at its apex ; cardinal area one fourth to one third higher at the
middle than that of the dorsal valve, and narrowing less rapidly
toward the lateral extremities ; beak incurved, projecting beyond the
margin ; foramen approaching in form an equilateral triangle.
Interior witli hinge teeth moderately prominent and trigonal ;
muscular cavity comparatively small, elongate-oval, sides nearly
parallel, scarcely reaching the middle of the valve, well defined by
the dental ridges, and sometimes extremely profound.

Surface of each valve ornamented by 16 to 24 strong, more or less
angular, radiating plications, of which 3 to 5 occupy the mesial sinus,
and 4 to 6 the mesial fold ; plica'tions usually simple, but sometimes
bifurcate once ; lines of growth near the free margins present a zigzag
ap|)earance in crossing the plications and furrows ; surface sometimes
shoAving under a magnifier minute granules.

Shells regarded as belonging to this species are found at Cincinnati,
within 250 feet of low water-mark, and from thence extend through-
out the Cincinnati Group. Large specimens are rare until an
elevation is reached of about 400 feet, and the earlier forms usually
have a length and breadth greater than their convexity. At 425 feet
a bed is reached, about ten feet in thickness, containing the largest of
specimens ; these usually have a convexity about equal to their length.

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 27

This bed seems to be 60 or 80 feet thick, back ofMaysville, in
Kentucky. Specimens vary in size from that of a pea to that of the
largest wabiut.

OrtMs Icdicosta — (James, 1873),

This form scarcely attains to more than two thirds the bulk of the
larg-est specimens of the 0. lynx, and is always less gibbous, proportion-
ally wider on the hinge line, with more angular posterior lateral
extremities, and even in the largest individuals it is a much thinner
shell. It likewise differs in having its mesial sinus wider and much
more profound at the front, and its mesial fold more elevated and an-
gular ; while its lateral slopes are decidedly more compressed, those on
each side of the sinus being always concave, and the margins of the
sinus very prominent and angular, which, together with the prommence
of the mesial fold, and the greater length of the hinge line, impart a
general angularity of appearance not seen in the lynx. In the sinus
there are nearly always three plications, the lateral two being smaller
than the middle one, or sometimes rudimentary; while occasionally
one of them is obsolete, leaving the large one as usual, in the middle,
and a smaller one on one side only. The mesial fold has generally
four plications (never more), the middle two being usually larger and
more prominent than the others, and separated by a larger and deeper
furrow. Its lateral slopes have generally only from five to seven large,
simple, angular plications on each side of the fold and sinus ; these
being decidedly larger than on specimens of hjnx of corresponding size.

Internally the ventral valve differs from the hjnx, in having the
cavity for the muscular scars much less deeply impressed, owing to the
fact that the shell did not thicken within, as in that form, as it ad-
vanced in age. Interior of dorsal valve shows the same rudimentary
cardinal process ; while its muscular scars are moderately defined, the
posterior pair being corrugated and much larger, as well as more
widely separated than the anterior.

Length of a large specimen, 0.86 inch; breadth, 1.40 inches;
convexity, 0.88 inch.

Found"^ on the hills back of Cincinnati, from 300 to 400 feet above
low water-mark, and at other localities, but the extent of its range is
not known. It is moderately abundant.

Orthis dentata — (Pander).

This form is much smaller than the 0. laticosta and always proportion-
ally narrower m its transverse diameter. Its hinge line, generally, about

28 Braclviopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

equals the greatest breadth of the valves, but may be a little less or a
little greater than the breadth. Its lateral slopes are always more
abrujit and much less compressed than the laticosta, but like that
form its mesial sinus is large, and very profound, with angular margins,
and its mesial fold strongly elevated. In old individuals the valves
become often remarkably gibbous, the convexity exceeding the length
and nearly equaling the breadth [the old individuals here referred
to in Prof. Meek's description are usually found clustered together,
and I believe they are the same defined by Mr. James, as 0. crassa,
in vol. i., page 20, of this Journal, January, 1874] ; being much in-
/3reased by the prominence of the mesial fold, and the elevation of
the plications forming the margins of the sinus. It also differs in
having but a single, strong plication in the sinus, and only two on
the mesial fold. All of the plications are simple, and excepting the
occasional rudimentary ones, quite coarse, prominent and angular ;
the number on each lateral slope being constantly five or six.

Found from 250 feet above low water-mark to the top of the hill^,
back of Cincinnati, and at other places.

For Oiihis cypha (James), see vol. i., page 20, of this Journal,
January, 1874.

Orthis acitfi/'irato— (CoNEAD, 1842).

The most common form is much extended on the hinge line, which
usually terminates in acutely angular or even mucronate lateral
extremities, thus causing the breadth to be sometimes twice, or even
three times the length of the valves. Others have the hinge not more
than one fifth greater than the length. In all of its variations of propor-
tional length and breadth, it agrees in having three, or very rarely
four, simple angular plications in the bottom of the sinus, and four or
very rarely five on the mesial fold, which is always rounded, and
comparatively little elevated. All of its plications are simple, and
smaller, and more numerous than those of the lijnx, latlcosta, dentata (f),
there being on each side of the mesial fold and sinus from 11 to 18,
making the entire number from 26 to 40 on each valve. The speci-
mens with extended lateral extremities have the most j)]ications, but
only about the same number reach the beaks, as on those less dilated,
because they run out on the lateral extensions on the hinge line.

This form becomes quite gibbous with age, the gibbosity being,
generally, most obvious in the specimens least extended on the hinge
line, some of those with the most produced lateral extremities having
the middle portions of the valves qiiite as convex as any of the others

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 29

of the same anterio-posterior dimensions. In these the lateral slopes
are very concave, and the anterio-lateral margins sinuous and strongly
converging toward the front. The mesial sinus is well defined, and
widens and deepens rather rapidly forward ; and as the mesial fold is
proportionally less elevated, the front is often thus caused to be dis-
tinctly sinuous in the middle.

Old specimens become quite thickened within, and consequently
have the cavity for the muscular attachments in the ventral valve very
deep, and similar to the lynx. The surface granulations are usually
very beautifully preserved.

Found at Madison, Richmond, Clarksville, and generally, wherever
the upper 200 feet of the Cincinnati Group is exposed. I have never
knowH it to be foimd at an elevation of less than 600 feet.

Orthis borealis — (Billings, 1859).

Shell rather under medium size, transversely oval-subquadrate, or
truncato sub-oval, the length and breath varying, with relation to
each other, from as 9 to 11 to 11 to 12 ; both valves convex; hinge line
shorter than the greatest breadth of the valves (which is usually a
little in advance of the middle), meeting the lateral margins at more
or less obtuse angles ; lateral margins rounding to the front, which is
rather broadly rounded, or possibly sometimes faintly sinuous at the
middle.

Dorsal valve sometimes slightly more convex than the other, its
most prominent part being near, or a little behind the middle, usually
sloping rather more distinctly to the lateral margins than toward the
front, where there is generally a broad, very low, undefined promi-
nence, or mesial elevation ; beak moderately prominent and arched,
but not strongly incurved ; area about half the height of that of the
other valve, directed backward and more or less arched. Interior un-
known.

Ventral valve most convex near the umbo, and sloping sometimes
rather abruptly toward the posterior lateral angles, while the anterior
central region is depressed, so as to form a broad, very shallow mesial
sinus, sometimes extending backward nearly or quite to the middle ;
beak more prominent than that of the other valve, rather abruptly
pointed, inclined backward and moderately arched ; area broad-tri-
angular, well defined, and tapering to the lateral extremities of the
hinge, inclined and a little arched backward with the beak ; foramen
rather narrow, so slightly higher than its breadth at the hinge. In-
terior unknown.

30 Brackiopoda of tJie Cincinnati Group.

Surface of both valves ornaraented by distinct, rather prominent,
radiating ribs, about forty of which may be counted on each valve of
a medium-sized specimen ; the furrows between the ribs equaling the
breadth of the ribs themselves ; larger individuals sjometimes having a
few of the ribs bifurcating once, and an occasional smaller one inter-
calated between two of the larger, so as to increase the whole number
at the free margins to about fifty. Concentric strise nearly or quite
obsolete ; but in old specimens, one or more sub-imbricating mai"ks of
growth may sometimes be seen near the free margins.

Breadth of a large specimen, 0.74 inch ; length, 0.64 inch ; convexity,
0.33 inch.

Found at Frankfort, Kentucky, and at other places in the lower part
of the Cincinnati Group ; but rare.

Orthis plicateUa — (Hall, 1847).

Broadly semi-oval, nearly equivalve, length and breath about as 3
to 4 ; surface marked by simple, strong, angular, radiating plications,
about 20 to 28 on each valve, crossed by simple, elevated, concentric
lines, which are more distinct in the depressions between the costae,
and often obscure or obsolete upon their exposed surfaces ; valves
nearly equally convex, Avithout sensible depression or elevation on
either one, meeting at the edges in a straight line ; cardinal line not
extending beyond the width of the shell ; area narrow ; dorsal foramen
extending to the beak.

It is found at Cincinnati, from about 300 feet above low water-mark,
to the top of the hills. Its range, so far as known, is from 300 to 500
feet above low water-mark, and it is not rare where the rocks of this
horizon are well exposed. It is usually found where the 0. fissicosta
abound.

Orthis fissicosta — •( Hall, 1 847) .

Serai-oval, with the cardinal line somewhat less than the width of
the shell ; area narrow ; foramen narrow, triangular, reaching to the
apex ; dorsal valve moderately convex, with the beak extending and
slightly incurved ; ventral valve moderately convex in the middle
and depressed at the sides ; surface marked by angular costae, which
become bifid and trifid on the center or toward the margin of the shell ;
number of costae about 19 or 20.

Found at Cincinnati, from 300 to 400 feet above low water-mark, and

Bracldopoda of the Cincinnati Gh-oup. '^1

thougli Prof. Hall obtained, as he says, "but a single specimen near
Cincinnati, showing that the shell is comparatively rare," yet it would
not be extraordinary for a collector to pick up a hundred specimens
in a day, at an elevation of about 34:0 feet, back of Cincinnati. It is
found at Hamilton, Butler county, near Lawrenceburg, Indiana, and
in Warren and Clermont countie's, showing that it is persistent in its
range, which is probably confined between 300 and 500 feet above low
water. It is rather more abundant than its associate, 0. iMcatella,
from which it may readily be distinguished by its divided costse.

OHliis triplicatella — (Meek, 1873).

This'forra has some resemblance to fissicosta, and some to plieateUa.
Prof. Meek says, it has the "same form, coarse costse, and general
appearance of 0. plicatella, but differing in attaining a larger size, and
in having the area of the ventral valve decidedly lower, and the beak of
the same more incurved than in any well characterized specimen of
that form. It also differs in having the costse much more widely sep-
arated by deeper furrows, and each giving off a small lateral division
from near the middle of the valves; the main ones, however, continu-
ing larger and more prominent to the free margins, thus forming
bundles of three ribs, with a wide, deep depression between." The
internal characters still remain unknown, and the only specimens I
have seen are those I sent to the Smithsonian, for Prof. Meek's study.
I believe, however, that it is a distinct species for one reason more than
those urged by Prof. Meek. Large fissicosta and plicatella have thick,
firm shells, while these specimens appeared to have rather light, thin
shells. It may be only a variety of fissicosta.

Largest specimen— breadth, 1.04 inch ; length, 0.70 inch ; convexity,

0.40 inch.

Found up lime-kiln hollow, in Cincinnati, at an elevation of about
350 feet above low water-mark, associated with fissicosta.

Orthis feeKitk— (James, 1873).

Shell very small, longitudinally semi-oval, or transversely sub-oval,
moderately gibbous, sub-equivalve ; breadth always greater than the
length ; hinge line a little less than the greatest breadth of the valves ;
posterior lateral extremities abruptly rounded, or sub-angular ; lateral
margins rounding to the front, which is broadly semi-el^ptic in outline,
or sometimes a little straightened, or even very faintly sinuous at the
middle. Interior unknown.

32 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Dorsal valve less convex than the other, with usually a very slight,
scarcely perceptible mesial depression near the umbo, that rarely, if
ever, extends forward to the middle; beak small, projecting slightly
beyond the edge of the area, and merely a little arched ; area of com-
paratively moderate height, flat, or somewhat arched, and inclined
more or less obliquely backward anS upward ; foramen forming a
nearly equilateral triangle.

Ventral valve most convex near the umbo, and perhaps always
showing a very shallow, broad, undefined mesial sinuosity at the front ;
b^k moderately prominent, pointed, inclined backward and a little
arched, but not incurved ; area comparatively rather high, or from
twice to three times the height of that of the other valve, well defined,
a little arched, and inclined obliquely backward and down warct; for-
amen narrow, triangular, and extending to the point of the beali.

Surface of both valves ornamented by very fine radiating striee, most
of which bifurcate two or tree times between the beaks and free mar-
gins ; the lateral ones being moderately arched.

Length of a medium sized specimen, 0.23 inch ; breadth, 0.28 inch ;
convexity, 0.13 inch.

Found associated with 0. pUcatella and 0. fissicosta, on the hills back
of Cincinnati, and at the quarries at Hamilton, in Butler county, at
an elevation of about 350 feet above loW water-mark. It is a rare
fossil.

Orthis (?) elh— (Hall, 1860).

Shell small, ovate ; valves nearly equally convex ; hinge line ex-
tremely short, being scarcely more and sometimes less than one third the
width of the shell, and scarcely afiecting the contour of the cardinal mar-
gin, which slopes from the beak of the ventral to the lateral margins a
little above the middle of the valve. Dorsal valve gibbous, sub-cir-
cular ; the beak extending a little above the hinge line, and the area
extremely short. Ventral valve broadly ovate, sloping from the
beak ; beak produced beyond the line of the opposite valve, and pointed,
not incurved; area twice as long as high ; foramen narrow and extend-
ing to the apex of the beak, and sometimes truncating the extremity.

Surface marked by from fifteen to twenty simple, abruptly rounded
or sub-angular plications.

The short hinge line and area, and the produced beak of the ventral
valve, are characteristic features. They differ very much in size and
in the number of striaj. Length sometimes a little greater than the
breadth, and breadth sometimes a little greater than the length.

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 33

Length varies from one eighth to half an inch, though usually about
one-fourth of an inch.

It is found at the quarries surrounding Cincinnati, at an elevation
of 340 to 400 feet. It is found at Hamilton, Butler county, at a cor-
responding elevation. It is not a common fossil.

For Orihis (?) morrowensis (James) see vol. 1, p. 21, of this Journal,
January, 1874.

Orthis costata — (Hall, 1845).

Semi-circular or semi-oval ; surface marked by about twelve strong
ribs ; area well defined, proportionally large ; hinge line scarcely equal
to the width of the shell, which is about one fifteenth of an inch.

This is a very minute fossil, and known to me only from the top of
the hill at Mount Auburn, in Cincinnati, at an elevation of about 400
feet above low water-mark. It is possible that it is the young of 0,
plicatella.

OhMs James i — (Hall).

Shell transversely semi-elliptical ; hinge line equaling, or a little
greater than the width of the shell below ; the length a little more than
half the wadth, and sometimes nearly two thirds. Cardinal extremi-
ties compressed, and usually truncate or rounded. Dorsal valve con-
vex, becoming gibbous, with a shallow, often scarcely defined sinuosity
in the middle ; hinge line slightly rising toward the beak, which is not
incurved ; area narrow, but distinctly defined ; foramen broad, and
showing a narrow process, which rises as high as the plane of the area.
Ventral valve much elevated toward the beak ; the sides somewhat
flattened, and the middle sometimes a little depressed toward the front;
the beak slightly arcuate, and the wide area nearly flat and moderately
inclined backward ; foramen large, and extending to the apex.

Surface marked by twenty to twenty-four simple, strongly rounded,
slightly arching, primary strife, which, by intercalations of secondary
striae, are often increased to twice that number on the margin.

Often the striae are simple throughout, and, when well preserved,
ai-e always marked by fine, thread-like, concentric strise, and toward the
margin a few lamellae of growth.

This species, in general form, resembles O. plicatella, but the area
is much larger, and extends to the salient cardinal extremities ; while
in that species the extremities are usually rounded, and the shell is a
little rounded below.

Found at Cincinnati, at an elevation of about 400 feet.

34 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Orthis clytie — (Hall) .

Shell larger than medium size, semi-elliptical, the length about as 4
to 5, or as 7 to 9, plano-convex or concavo-convex ; hinge line less
than the greatest width of the shell ; cardinal extremities rounded.
Dorsal valve flat or concave, with a longitudinal depression along the
center ; cardinal area linear, not incurved ; ventral valve moderately
convex ; sometimes more elevated or subangular along the middle,
toward the beak ; area narrow, longitudinally striated, and extending
a little more than two thirds of the shell ; foramen wide ; beak scarcely
incurved. Muscular impression deeply divided ; in the middle of the
inner division of each lobe, more deeply impressed, and extending two
thirds of the length of the shell from the beak ; the outer portions
flabellate, and margined by an elevated ridge ; the whole interior sur-
face granulose, and the visceral area margined by a thickened eleva-
tion, which becomes, in old shells, a defined ridge. The striae are
shown along the inner margin.

In the dorsal valve the inner surface is finely striato-granulose, and
outside of the submarginal ridge the striae are stronger. The muscu-
lar impression is comparatively small, distinctly circumscribed, with
central ridge thin, prominent cardinal process, and strongly defined
dental fossets and corresponding crural processes.

The surface is finely and somewhat evenly striated ; the striae on the
ventral valve often more prominent than those on the dorsal valve.

This is a very well marked and distinct species, which in the deeply
bifid muscular impression differs from any other species in this group
of strata ; while in other features it is readily distinguished.

Found at Paris, Kentucky.

OHMs occidentalis — (Hall, 1847),

Shell attaining a moderately large size, wider than long, varying
from transversely subquadrate to semi-oval, becoming quite gibbous
with age ; hinge line exceeding, about equaling, or sometimes a little
less than the breadth of the valve at any part farther forward, lateral
extremities moderately compressed, varying from rather acutely to
more or less obtusely angular ; lateral margins often a little
sinuous behind, but sometimes straight or convex in outline, but
rounding to the front, which is nearly always a little sinuous, and
sometimes rather decidedly so in the middle.

Dorsal valve more convex than the other, especially in the large

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 35

adult examples ; its greatest convexity being, generally, a little behind
the middle, on each side of a shallow, undefined mesial sinus, generally
extending from the front to the umbonal region, but sometimes nearly
or quite obsolete, or only represented by a slight flattening along the
middle ; swell of the umbo comparatively prominent, and often pro.
jecting backward further than the beak of the other valve ; beak rather
strongly incurved ; area of moderate height in the middle, but sloping
to the lateral extremities, sharp along the margin, and more or less
strongly incurved, foramen broad, triangular, and not closed by the
cardinal process. Interior with scars of the adductor muscles situated
on each side of a low mesial ridge, which is narrower between the
anterior than the posterior pair, which latter are placed far back under
the brachial processes, and rather strongly striated, but without well
defined margins ; anterior pair somewhat trigonal, and usually each sep-
arated from the posterior by an obscure transverse ridge, but without
well defined anterior margins ; cardinal process merely presenting the
appearance of a compressed or sharp ridge, much lower than the surface
of the cardinal area ; sockets distinct ; brachial processes directed
forward, and more or less laterally, usually sharp on their inner under
edges ; vascular scars unknown.

Ventral valve most convex at or near the apex of the beak, from
near which it slopes more rapidly to the front and lateral margins than
to the anterior lateral, the anterior region being impressed so as to
form a broad, more or less deep, undefined mesial sinus, that dies out
before reaching the umbo ; beak rather elevated, but not projecting
backward, abruptly pointed very nearly straight, or sometimes slightly
arched at the point ; cardinal area rather high at the beak, but sloping to
the lateral extremities, flat or slightly arched, and usually standing nearly
at right angles to the plane of the valve ; foramen generally higher
than its breadth at the hinge line, and extending to the apex of the
beak. Interior showing the cardinal margin to be prominent and
sharp, and the hinge teeth well developed ; cavity for the reception of
the muscular scars deep, nearly or quite reaching the middle of the
valve, obcordate in form, and bounded by a prominent ridge, continued
forward from the bases of the hinge teeth, and curved a little back-
ward at the central point of the front, where they meet impressions of
the divaricator muscles (cardinal of some) deep ; while those of the
adjustors are so small, and pushed so far aside, as to occupy the sides
of the dental plates, and thus to be out of sight in a direct view ; those
left by the adductors are narrow, elongated, and situated on each side
of a mesial ridge, that is divided along the middle by so wide and
distinct a furrow as to appear almost like two linear ridges ; transversely

36 Brachiopoda of the Citicinnati Groiip.

striated cavity within the beak very small, and broad triangular, free
margin crenate within, while the surface between these and the deeply
impressed muscular cavity is usually smooth, or sometimes very
minutely and obscurely corrugated ; vascular markings unknown.

Surface of both valves ornamented by distinct, rather prominent,
radiating strise, which on the dorsal valve nearly always increase by
intercalation, and curved gradually outward on the posterior lateral
regions ; while on the ventral valve they generally increase by bifur-
cation, and are nearly straight on all parts. A few distant imbricat-
ing marks of growth are also usually seen around the free margins of
adult examples, while well preserved specimens show minute but not
crowded, prominent, concentric lines crossing the much larger radiating
strise, and the furrows between them.

It is found from about 300 feet above low water-mark, at
Cincinnati, to the Upper Silurian rocks ; becoming most abundant in
the last 100 feet of the upper part of the Cincinnati Group.

OrtJiis sinuata — (Hall, 1847).

Semi-oval, with a sinus in front ; cardinal line scarcely equal to the
width of the shell ; dorsal area large, triangular ; foramen triangular,
reaching to the beak, the upper margins sloping rather abruptly from
the beak; ventral area narrow, linear; foramen broad, triangular, with
a distinct medial tooth, which reaches as high as the area ; dorsal valve
convex, its greatest elevation at the point of the beak, which is acute ;
a depression along the center, which becomes a sinus in older
shells ; ventral valve regularly convex in young specimens, gibbous,
somewhat emarginate and elevated in front in older specimens ; surface
marked by strong, regular rounded stride, which bifurcate in a nearly
uniform manner about half way to the base ; striae crossed by elevated,
subimbricating, concentric lines. A few imbricating lines of growth
are distinct toward the margin of the older shells.

It is distinguished from the 0. occidentalis by the stronger and more
prominent strice, which more regularly bifurcate. The beak of the
dorsal valve is more elevated and acute, giving a greater height to the
dorsal area. The ventral valve is about equally convex or gibbous,
but it never exhibits any depression along the center. The depression
or sinus in the dorsal valve is usually more abrupt, deeper, and often
accomipauied by a corresponding elevation on the ventral valve, which
does not occur in the 0. occidentalis. The young shells are more
gibbous and have the beak of the dorsal valve more elevated and
acute.

Bvachiopoda of (lie Cincinnati Group. 37

It is first found iu the hills back of Cinciunati, at an elevation of
about 320 feet, and continues to the top of the hills. It is found at
Versailles, and Weisberg, Indiana, in Butler, Warren, and Clermont
counties, Ohio, and generally wherever the rocks are well exposed,
from an elevation of 320 feet, at Cincinnati, to the top of the rocks of
the Cincinnati Group. Though good specimens can hardly be said to
be abundant.

OHhis retrorsa — (Salter, 1858).

■ Shell attaining a large size, varying from transversely suboval to
truncato-suboval, or subquadrate, the length being about four fifths its
breadth ; hinge line shorter than the greatest breadth of the valves,
or about equaling their length, with its lateral extremities abruptly
rounded or very obtusely subangular; lateral margins more or less
convex in outline, and rounding to the front, which is either regularly
rounded or somewhat straightened along the middle ; valves decidedly
unequal, or concavo-convex.

Dorsal valve evenly and sometimes rather distinctly convex, the
most prominent part being near, or a little behind the middle, with
the anterior and lateral slopes, particularly the anterior, more gradual
than the posterior ; umbonal convexity projecting a little beyond the
hinge ; beak incurved ; area of moderate height, but with its sharp
margins sloping oft" to nothing near the extremities of the hinge, more
or less strongly incurved, so as sometimes to stand at right angles to
the plane of the valves ; foramen broad triangular. Interior imknown.

Ventral valve convex at the point of the beak, and thence sloping
toward the lateral and anterior margins; the anterior central, and
sometimes the lateral regions, being more or less concave ; beak obtuse,
or abruptly pointed, and strongly incluaed forward; cardinal area
broad, triangular, well defined, flat, and so distmctly inclined forward
as to place the apex of the beak some distance in front of the hinge
margin ; foramen narrow-triangular, being often a little higher than
wide, and extending to the apex of the beak.

Interior with muscular cavity rather deep, distinctly quadrangular,
scarcely reaching the middle of the valve, and sharply defined by a
raised margin, which is perfectly straight and uninterrupted across the
front ; while its lateral margins are each waved a little outward, along the
middle, to make room, as it were, for the scars of the ventral adjuster
muscles, which are moderately distinct from those of the longer trian.
gular divaricators ; scars of the adductor muscles well defined, and

38 Brachiopoda of the Cinmmati Group.

occupying a narrow, subcordate depression, which tapers gradually
forward to an acute extremity between the anterior ends of the divari-
cator scars. Hinge teeth apparently rather small and weak. Vascular
markings consisting of two princijml trunks, starting from the anterior
lateral angles of the muscular cavity, and each immediately dividing
so as to send one main branch obliquely outward and backward, with
more or less subdivisions, and another forward with an inward curve,
and also giving off more or less subdivisions on the anterior lateral side.

Surface ornamented by rather coarse, rounded, radiating striae, some
of which, on the ventral valve, are entirely simple, and others bifurcate
once or twice ; while on the dorsal, they increase in number by th©
intercalation of shorter ones between the longer; there being, on a
moderate-sized adult shell, about three series of the intercalated ones,
the longest of which nearly reach the beak, and soon become as large
as the largest, and between these there are a few very short, small
ones, near the free margins, and a few others of intermediate length
and thickness. A few rather distinct, imbricating marks of growth
are usually seen near the free margins of adult specimens ; while under
a magnifier, minute concentric lines may be seen crossing the striae
and interspaces, and on protected parts of the surface, a strong magni-
fier also shows very minute asperities, regularly arranged, and having
the appearance of minute, hollow, spine-bases, that sometimes leave
minute pits when entirely worn off.

Breadth of a moderately large specimen, 1.17 inches; length, 0.95
inch; convexity, 0.47 inch.

Found at an elevation of about 500 feet, in the Cincinnati Group,
near Oxford, and near Morrow, Ohio. It is a rare species.

Orthis suhqtiadrata — (Hall, 1847).

Shell attaining about a medium size, rather distinctly resupinate,
somewhat wider than long, subquadrate in outline ; moderately convex ;
cardinal margin shorter than the breadth of the valves, and rounding
abruptly at the extremities into the lateral mai'gins, which round and
converge forward ; front a little sinuous or straightened at the middle.

Dorsal valve more convex than the other, its most prominent part
being near the middle ; mesial sinus small, and rather shallow, some-
times continued back nearly to the umbo, or in other instances
scarcely more than reaching the middle ; beak very short, or little
distinct from the edge of the area, and moi'c or less arched ; area
narrow, directed obliquely backward and downward. Interior with

Braehiopoda of the Cindnnati Group. 39

scars of the adductor muscles moderately distinct, the posterior pair
being situated close back under the brachial processes, one on each
side of a well defined rounded ridge, that becomes suddenly smaller
between the anterior pair; cardinal process rhombic subconical,
moderately prominent, and having its posterior sides marked by deeply
impressed, divaricating strise ; sockets well defined ; brachial processes
rather strong, and directed obliquely forward and laterally, internal
sm-face, excepting the radiately striated front and lateral margms,
nearly smooth.

Ventral valve a little convex at the umbo and flat, or slightly con-
cave, between the umbo and the front and lateral margms, but
sometimes having a low, very obscure, mesial elevation toward the
front ; beak small, and very short, or scarcely equaling that of the other
valve, arched at the apex, but not strongly incurved ; area about twice
as high as that of the other valve, well defined, tapering rather rapidly
toward the lateral extremities, arched with the beak, and directed
backward and downward at decidedly less than a right angle to that of
the other valve ; foramen broad, triangular and partly occupied by the
cardinal process of the other valve. Interior with muscular scars,
occupying a rather deep, bilobate impression, extenduig nearly or quite
to the middle of the valve, and usually defined by a low ridge most
distinct on each side ; scars of adductor muscles small, separated by a
mere trace of raised line ; those of the divaricator muscles of moderate
size longitudmally striated, and having their narrowed ends extending
backward, nearly to a small triangular, transversely striated space,
occupying the mterior of the beak ; those of the ventral adjuster mus-
cles smaller and shorter than the divaricators, and situated nearly
under the hinge teeth, which are moderately prominent, subtrigonal
and oblique ; vascular markings with their lateral divisions curving up
backward, and sending ofi* several branches, while the other divisions
extend forward and bifurcate so as to occupy the anterior region ;
anterior and lateral margms crenate within by very short strife.

Surface of both valves ornamented by moderately stout, radiating
striffi, the posterior lateral of which curve so strongly that a few of
them run out on the cardinal edge before reaching the lateral margins ;
strise of ventral valve nearly always increasing by bifurcation (some of
them dividing two or three times) ; while those on the dorsal valve
generally increase by the intercalation of shorter ones, between the
longer. A few distinct subimbricatmg marks of growth are sometimes
seen toward the front and lateral margins ; while on perfectly preserved
specimens the radiating strise may sometimes be seen to be rough-
ened by minute, elevated, concentric Imes, that are more or less
interrupted in crossing some of the strise.

40 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Length of a well developed specimen, 0.96 incli; breadth, 1.30
inches; convexity, 0.43 inch.

Found at Madison, Versailles, Weisburg, Richmond, Oxford, Free-
port, Clarksville, and generally wherever the rocks are exposed
within about 200 feet of the top of the Cincinnati Group. Good
specimens are not, however, very common at any locality,

OrtJiis inscuJpta — (Hall, 1847).

Shell generally rather under medium size, wider than long, sub-
quadrate, or transversely truncato-suboval ; hinge line nearly always a
little less than the greatest breadth of the valves and meeting the
lateral margins at an angle of usually more than ninety degrees ;
lateral margins generally moderately convex in outline, at or near the
middle, and rounding regularly to the front, which is nearly always a
little sinuous in the middle; valves moderately and nearly equally
convex.

Dorsal valve with its greatest convexity usually a little behind the
middle, on each side of a narrow, but moderately deep mesial sinus,
that extends from the beak to the front ; posterior lateral region dis-
tinctly compressed ; beak but little prominent, and more or less
incurved ; area moderately developed, narrowing rather rapidly to the
lateral extremities, directed backward and more or less strongly arched ,
foramen broad, triangular, and partly occupied by the cardinal process,
which usually projects slightly beyond the surface of the area and is
laterally compressed. Interior showing the brachial processes to be
rather prominent and diverging, and the sockets for the reception of
the teeth of the other valve distinct ; scars of the adductor muscles
(occlusors of some) situated on each side of a strong, prominent
mesial ridge, behind the middle of the valve, those of the posterior
pair being very narrow anterio-posteriorly, and placed back directly
under the brachial processes, nearly out of sight in a direct view,
while the anterior pair are larger, oval in form, and extend forward
nearly to the middle of the valve ; vascular markings consisting of two
principal lateral trunks, that extend outward and forward from the
anterior adductor scars, but immediately bifurcate, sending each a main
division backward and outward, and another forward, each with sub-
ordinate branches, while between these principal trunks there are two
pairs of smaller ones and traces of a few other still smaller, all directed
forward.

Ventral valve about as convex as the other, but having its most

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 41

gibbous part further back, near the umbo, from which point its surface
slopes off regularly to the front and lateral margins, without any dis-
tinct mesial elevation or depression ; beak moderately prominent or
projecting backward more or less beyond that of the other valve, and
somewhat arched but not properly incurved ; area two or three times
as high as that of the other valve, near the beak, and sloping off
rather rapidly to the lateral extremities, directed obliquely backward
and downward, and a little arched with the beak ; foramen usually
higher than wide. Interior showing hinge teeth to be prominent and
subtrigonal ; cavity for the reception of the muscular impressions
scarcely extending forward to the middle of the valve, tapering a
little toward the front, where it is more or less emarginate in the
middle, moderately well defined by a rather obscure, marginal ridge,
and divided within longitudinally by a low double ridge, that usually
extends forward beyond the muscular cavity, where it suddenly con-
tracts to a very narrow, obscure, single ridge, that again expands or
bifurcates farther forward ; scars of the divaricator and adjustor mus-
cles not very distinctly separated, and those of the adductors not
clearly seen in the specimens examined; ovarian areas compara-
tively rather large, and each occupied by a number of raised linear,
rather distant, and sometimes bifurcating ridges or lines, that radiate
forward and laterally.

Surftice of both valves ornamented by distinct radiating strise, that
increase both by division and intercalation, and are crossed by much
smaller, regular, distinctly defined, imbricating, concentric marks, that
are more prominent between than upon the radiating strise, and pre-
sent a zigzag appearance, by being deflected backward on the stri«
and forward on the depression between them ; a few much shorter
imbricating marks of growth are also usually seen near the free mar-
gins of adult specimens.

Length of a mature specimen, 0.60 inch; breadth, 0.78 inch; con-
vexity, 0.35 inch.

Found about 100 feet below the Upper Silurian rocks, at Weisburg,
Clarksville, and other localities. At Weisburg, it seems to be confined
to strata about three feet in thickness. Good specimens are rare, but
valves are more abundant.

Genus Hemipronites (Pander, 1830), as redefined by Prof. Meek.

Shell varying from truncato-orbicular to semi-circular, or orbicular
subquadrate, more or less convex, the inequality of the valves varying

42 Brachiopoda of the Cinc'm7iati Group.

greatly with the species ; surface marked with radiating, generally
straight strire, and sometimes with rounded, radiating plications.
Hinge usually shorter than the greatest breadth of the valves ; provided
in the ventral or larger valve with two teeth, situated one on eacla side
of the mesial fissure, and fitting into corresponding sockets in the
other valve. Structure probably always inipunctate.

Ventral valve with its beak more prominent than that of the dorsal,
often bent or twisted, but not regularly incurved ; area generall}' high,
sometimes extremely so, its mesial fissure always closed, in adult shells,
by a convex pseudo-deltidium. Hinge teeth supported within by two
dental plates, which converge under the area toward the beak. Scars
of cardinal and adductor muscles occupying about one third to one
half the length of the valve (between the beak and the middle) and
forming two elongated, oval impressions, more or less deeply excavated,
one on each side of a mesial ridge or septum.

Dorsal valve generally with its beak compressed and projecting little
beyond the cardinal margin ; area usually very narrow or rudimentary.
Cardinal process large, prominent, and bifid ; either slightly convex
or concave on the inner side, with each division more or less grooved
or emarginate at the extremity of the outer side ; on each side of, and
connecting with this, are the well developed socket plates. At the
bottom of the valve the quadruple scars of adductor muscles occupy
about one third the length of the valve, being arranged in pairs on
each side of a short mesial ridge.

This genus occupies a place in animal development between the
genera Strophomena and Orthis, and is supposed to include filitexta,
subtenta, planumbona planoconvexo, nutans, Ilallie, etc.

It is here to be observed, that Prof. Davidson and other authors on
brachiopoda entirely ignore the name ITemipronites, because, as I pre-
sume, it was not properly defined by Pander, and substitute for it
Streptorhyjichus (twisted beak), proposed and defined by Prof. King, in
1850. The following are the characters of the genus Streptorhyiichus,
as redefined by Prof. Davidson :

"Shell inequivalve, convex or concavo-convex, externally sti'iated.
The smaller valve is semi-circular, the larger or ventral one possessing
a prolonged and oftentimes bent or tAvisted beak ; hinge line rather
shorter than the width of the shell. The area in the larger valve is
triangular, with a fissure covered by a convex pseudo-delridiura. A
small, narrow, rudimentary area exists, likewise, in the smaller valve.
'No foramen is observable, but the cardinal process is at times seen
partially extending under the deltidium.

" In the interior of the larger or ventral valve a strong hinge tooth

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 43

is situated on cither side at the base of the fissure, supported by a den-
tal ridge or plate ; these diminish in size as they converge under the
area toward the extremity of the beak. At the bottom of the valve,
under the beak, and extending a little beyond, are the impressions left
by the cardinal and adductor muscles, which occupy about one third of
the length of the valve ; they form two elongated oval scars, more or
less deeply excavated, and separated by a rather wide mesial ridge.
In the interior of the smaller or dorsal valve the cardinal process is
largely developed, being composed of two testaceous projections, which
are either slightly convex or concave on the side facing the interior,
but grooved or bidentated toward the extremity of their outward sur-
face ; the socket plates are large and partly united to the lower portion
of the cardinal process. Under these, on the bottom of the valve, are
seen the quadruple impressions left by the adductor, which occupy
more than a third of the length of the valve, and are arranged in
pairs, divided by a short, rounded mesial ridge."

The species found in the Cincinnati exposure of the Lower Silurian
belong to a sub-group having the following characters :

Beak of neither valve prolonged, but, on the contrary, projecting so
slightly, as to be scarcely distinct from the edge of the area ; hinge line
usually as long or longer than the width of the shell further forward ;
lateral extremities usually rectangular or terminating in regular points
more or less deflected ; beak of ventral valve perforated.

Interior of dorsal A'^alve with bifid cardinal process ; more or less
distinct mesial ridge, and longitudinal furrows ; socket ridges short
and oblique. Interior of ventral valve with hinge teeth, divergent,
oblique, and moderately developed ; dental ridges encircling or nearly
encircling a more or less saucer-shaped cavity, in which are situated
the muscular scars, separated by a more or less defined mesial ridge.

I have followed Prof. Meek in using Hemipronites instead of Strep-
torhynchus, though in the Ohio Paleontology he has, as I think, erron-
eously called it a sub-genus. Prof. Hall uses the name Streptorhynchus
for all these shells.

Hemipronites filitexta — (Hall, 1847).

Shell semi-oval, length usually less than the breath ; hinge line gen-
erally greater than the breadth at any point farther forward ; lateral
extremities usually somewhat acutely angular, and deflected ; lateral
margins a little sinuous posteriorly, and rounding to the semi-circular
front.

Dorsal valve flat in the umbonal region, and evenly convex in the

44 Brachiopoda of the Cincimiati Group.

anterior central and lateral portions, and curving downAvard, around
the front and lateral margins ; area narrow, or nearly linear, and di-
rected obliquely backward and upward ; beak not distinct from the
margin of the area.

Interior showing cardinal process short and divided into two low
diverging parts, directed obliquely forward and outward, and flattened
on their posterior faces ; socket ridges longer and stronger than in
planumboim ; mesial ridge low and terminating before it reaches the
middle of the valve. On each side of the mesial ridge and between it
and the socket ridges three parallel ridges start forward ; those nearest
the socket ridges are low and short ; those adjoining the mesial ridge
become stronger as the mesial ridge fades away, and form coarse strong
ridges as they pass the middle of the valve, and do not terminate until
they have nearly crossed tlie valve ; the other two ridges are not quite
so large, and are a little shorter than the last. Other light lines and
granulations in the cavity of the shell do not preserve uniformity of
appearance in different specimens.

Ventral valve nearly flat, or slightly convex in the umbonal region,
and broadly and deeply concave in all the central and anterior central
parts, but curving upward around the front and lateral margms nearly
parallel to the free margins of the other valve ; cardinal area of mod-
erate height, extending the whole length of the hinge, but sloping
rather distinctly from the beaks laterally, flat and directed nearly at
right angles to that of the other valve ; beak very small, and only
projecting slightly beyond the margin of the area ; foramen closed by
the usual convex pseudo-delitidiura, which is deeply sinuous on its in-
ner margin, for the reception of the cardinal process of the other valve.
Interior with cardinal edge but slightly prominent ; hinge teeth sub-
trigonal, oblique, and but moderately developed ; dental ridges prom-
inent, strong, and encircling a rather large, deep, saucer-shaped cavity,
one third to one half the length of the valve, and marked within by
an obscure central ridge, and on each side of this by rather strong
radiating furrows ; anterior and lateral margins a little thickened
within, and divided by the crossing, apparently, of the vascular mark-
ings into short obscure ridges ; entire internal surface sometimes show-
ing, under a magnifier, a very minute, obscurely granular appearance.

Surface of both valves ornamented by numerous fine, subequal,
crowded and rounded strise, that increase by intercalation. Concentric
stride may be seen with the aid of a magnifier, A number of strong
plications or wrinkles extend from the edge of the area on each side of
the beak on each valve a short distance at right angles to the cardinal
line, or slope a little inwardly.

Bracli'iopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Length of a large specimen, 1\ inches; breadth, If inches; convex-
ity, a little over one third of an inch. But specimens vary in their
proportions and differ widely in size. One specimen, four fifths of an
inch in length, one inch in width, has a convexity of one fifth of an
inch.

This species, though widely dispersed, has a very limited range
(at about 700 feet above low water-mai'k) in the Cincinnati Group,
and is not particularly abundant at any locality. Richmond, Indiana,
is about as good as any locality for collecting it.

Streptorlnjnclms vetvsta (James) vol. 1, p. 241, Cin. Quar. Jour, of
Sci., July, 1874, seems to be very closely related to this species.

Hemipronites planwnhona — (Hall, 1847).

Shell medium size, concavo-convex, semi-oval ; hinge line generally
longer than the breadth of the shell forward ; lateral extremities more
or less compressed and deflected ; lateral margins contracted poster-
iorly and rounded to the front, which forms a regular semi-circular
curve.

Dorsal valve flat in the umbonal region, and rather strongly and
evenly convex in the central and anterior regions, from which it rounds
oflT abruptly to the front and lateral margins ; beak not distinct from
the edge of the sublinear area. Interior showing small cardinal pro-
cess, depressed, divided to its base into two diverging tooth-like parts,
flattened on their posterior faces and directed obliquely forward and
outward : socket ridges short and oblique ; mesial ridge low, extending
but a little distance forward, and the space between it and the socket
ridge, on each side, is occupied by a moderately distinct muscular scar.

Ventral valve broadly and rather deeply concave in the central and
anterior regions, and slightly convex at the beak, which is very small,
scarcely projecting beyond the edge of the area and usually minutely
perforated ; area moderately high, extending the whole length of the
hinge ; flattened and inclined a little backward ; foramen closed by a
prominent, rounded, pseudo-deltidium, that is transversely striated,
and rather broadly sinuous in its inner edge for the reception of the
cardinal process of the other valve. Interior showing hinge teeth well
developed, trigonal and striated on their posterior sides ; dental lam-
inae extend forward from their inner bases, so as to nearly encircle the
saucer-shaped depression for the muscular scars, which is sometimes
divided by a small, linear mesial ridge ; cardinal margin prominent and
sharp within on each side of the hinge teeth ; anterior and lateral

46 JBrae'iiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

regions more or less thickened within, and roughened by the crossing
of the vascular markings, which are scarcely visible on any part
within this zone.

Surface of both valves ornamented by numerous fine, closely
crowded radiating striae, sometimes alternately larger and smaller, the
smaller ones being shorter and intercalated. Concentric lines are
sometimes visible with the aid of a magnifier. Some specimens show
imbricating marks of growth near the free margins.

Length of a medium specimen, three fourths of an inch ; breadth,
an inch ; and convexity, one fourth of an inch.

Found at Versailles, Weisburg, Kichmond, Freeport, Clarksville >
and other localities in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group. Its
range seems to be confined to the rocks from 600 to 800 feet above
low water-mark. It is common within this range.

Semipronites suhtenta — (Cone ad, 1847).

This species so closely resembles H. planumbona that one might be
classed as a variety of the other. The chief differences are as follows-:

The striae ornamenting the valves are possibly coarser on the sub-
tenta than on the planumbona, and a few wrinkles on the valves di-
rected inward and backward from the edge of the area on each side of
the beak characterize the subtenta.

Its range is the same as that of planumbona and it is specially abun-
dant at Richmond, Indiana.

Strophomena plicata (James) of the Ohio Paleontology is a synonym
for this variety or species.

Hemijironites nutans — (James, 1871).

Shell subtrigonal, strongly concavo-convex, comparatively thick
and strong ; hinge about equaling the breadth of the valves.

Dorsal valve remarkably convex, with a prominent anterior region,
somewhat like a mesial ridge near the margin ; umbonal region flat-
tened ; beak not distinct from the edge of the area ; area sublinear
and directed backward. Interior with short bifid cardinal process ;
sockets deep, subtrigonal and very oblique ; socket-ridges prominent,
thin, and continued obliquely forward and outward with an inward
curve, so as to form the lateral margins of the muscular impressions,
which are well defined, rather deep, strongly striated, and separated

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 47

by a short, mesial ridge coming from the base of the cardinal process;
while near the middle of the anterior edge of each there is sometimes
an oblique prominence ; central region, in front of the muscular im-
pressions, showing four obscure parallel ridges running directly for-
ward, and separated from each other by three shallow, narrow furrows,
in the middle of each of which there is a raised line ; the other parts
of the internal surface are marked with granulations and obscure
ridges.

Ventral valve nearly flat, Avith a backward slope in the umbonal re-
gion, and distinctly concave further forward, in the anterior central
region ; anterior and lateral margins abruptly curved downward, par-
allel to those of the other valve ; beak scarcely distinct from the mar-
gin of the area, which is sublinear flat and extends the entire length
of the hinge ; foramen trigonal and covered by the convex pseudo-
deltidium, which is sinuous on its inner edge for the reception of the
cardinal process, and a kind of pseudo-deltidium of the other valve
formed by the continuation of the socket plates. Interior with the
anterior and lateral margins geniculated, so as to form a marginal ridge
that is deeply and somewhat regularly furrowed across, while the
ovarian spaces within this marginal ridge are more or less flattened and
granulated; hinge teeth moderately prominent, transversely subtri-
gonal, and striated on their anterior and posterior faces ; dental ridges
extend forward and curve together, so as to form an elevated margin
to the deep subcircular cavity for the reception of the muscular im-
pressions ; muscular cavity reaching near the middle of the valve, with
its rim slightly notched (not emarginated) at the middle of the front ;
slender mesial ridge in the bottom, with narrow adductor muscular
scars on each side.

Surface of both valves ornamented with fine radiating striae that in-
crease by intercalation, and concentric strise which are visible only
with the aid of a magnifier.

Length of a mature specimen, 0.80 inch ; breadth, 0.90 inch ; con-
vexity, 0.50 inch.

Found in Warren and Clinton counties, in the upper part of the
Cincinnati Group, between 500 and 700 feet above low water, at Cin-
cinnati. Not yet known in Indiana in the same range.

For Hemipronites elongata (James) see vol. 1, page 240, of this
Journal, July, 1874.

48 Brachiopoda of the Ciiieinnati Group.

Hemipronites planoeonvexa — (Hall, 1847).

Shell medium size, somewhat plane on one valve and convex on the
other, semi-oval ; hinge line usually longer than the breadth of the
shell further forward ; lateral extremities deflected.

Dorsal valve flat on the umbone, and evenly convex over the centra
and anterior regions ; beak not distinct from the edge of the sublinear
area. Interior showing bifid cardinal process directed upward and
outward, a little flattened on the posterior faces ; sockets deep and
oblique ; socket ridges oblique, prominent ; mesial ridge low, round,
and extending to the middle of the valve while the spaces between it
and the socket ridges are occupied by distinct muscular scars ; whole
visceral cavity irregularly, longitudinally, furrowed.

Ventral valve nearly flat, but slightly concave in the anterio-central
region, and convex at the beak, which scarcely projects beyond the edge
of the area ; beak minutely perforated ; foramen closed by a promi-
nent, rounded pseudo-deltidium, that is transversely striated and
broadly sinuous on its inner edge, for the reception of the cardinal pro-
cess of the other valve ; area moderately high and tapering to the lat-
eral extremities, making it broadly triangular, flat, and sharply inclined
backward. Interior showing hinge teeth well developed, sharply tri-
angular and divergent, while from their inner bases obscure dental
ridges are projected that partly encircle the usual saucer-shaped de-
pression for the muscular scars ; mesial ridge dividing the muscular
cavity small, linear ; cardinal margin prominent and sharp within on
each side of the hinge teeth ; vascular markings irregular.

Surface of both valves ornamented with moderately coarse striae,
that usually increase by bifurcation, sometimes by intercalation, which
are crossed by distinct concentric lines of growth and obscure markings.

It is found at Cincinnati, about 380 feet above low water-mark, and
does not seem to have a range of ten feet in thickness ; whether or
not it is found higher or lower elsewhere I am not informed. It is
reasonably abundant where found.

For Hemipronites, Hallie (S. A. Miller), see vol. 1, page 148, of
this Journal, April, 1874.

Hemipronites sulcata — (Vernuil, 1848.)

Shell small, more than semi-circular in outhne, moderately convex,
subequivalve, the dorsal valve being more convex at the middle of

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Ch'oup. 49

the front, and the ventral in the umbonal region ; hinge line equaling
the greatest breadth, lateral margins intersecting the hinge nearly at
right angles, and rounding to the front, which is regularly rounded,
or sometimes faintly sinuous in the middle.

Dorsal valve flat at the umbo and raised into a rounded, more or
less prominent mesial elevation at the front ; beak scarcely distinct
from the cardinal margin, which has a very narrow area. Interior

Fig. 5. — Interior of Dorsal Valve.

showing cardinal process short and deeply bifid, with very diverging
socket ridges on each side, and a small mesial ridge extending forward
from its base about one fourth the length of the shell ; sockets for the
teeth of the other valve well defined, and rather wide apart ; muscu-
lar scars subquadrate and longitudinally furrowed from the socket
ridges ; vascular markings well defined and somewhat harp-shaped
anterior to the muscular scars ; punctate structure distinct.

Ventral valve a little convex at the umbo, and impressed or bent so
as to form a shallow mesial sinus at the front, that rarely extends back
to the middle ; area well defined, rather high, flat, and a little inclined
back over the hinge ; foramen closed by a triangular, convex, pseudo-
deltidium ; beak not projecting or incurved, but inclined backward
with the area and perforated by a minute circular aperture at the apex.
Interior with cardinal edge sharp and distinct ; hinge teeth oblique,
trigonal, and prominent ; dental laminse extending forward and curv-
ing a little, but not meeting at the ends, forming a deep, somewhat
half elliptical cavity, marked with an obscure, central ridge, and
parallel radiating furrows.

Surface of both valves ornamented by rather fine, more or less
bifurcating, radiating striae, which are crossed by finer strise and dis-
tinct marks of growth.

Length of a large specimen, 0.G3 inch ; breadth, 0.84 inch ; con-
vexity, 0.20 inch.

This form may be readily distinguished from the H. simiata, by
both the internal and external characters. Indeed, no two species
in the genus seem to be farther apart in their internal markings.

Figure 5 is a representation of the internal part of the dorsal valve
from a .specimen in the collection of Mr. U. P. James.

50 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Found in the upper part of the Cincuinati Group, at Richmond,
Indiana, Freeport, Oliio, and many other localities, at an elevation of
about 700 feet. It can hardly be called rare, though it is not by any
means abundant.

Hemipronites sinuata — (Emmons, 1855).

Shell semi-circular, moderately convex ; valves nearly equal, the
dorsal most convex in the central and anterior regions and the ventral
near the umbo ; hinge nearly or quite equaling the greatest breadth ;
margins rounding regularly to the front, whicli forms a semi-circular
curve with rarely a slight sinuosity at the middle.

Dorsal valve flat at the beak, which is not distinct from the cardinal
margin, raised in the middle at the front, so as to form a low, broad,
undefined mesial prominence ; cardinal area narrow and inclined back-
ward. Interior with a low, small, deeply bipartite cardinal process,
from which diverge three small ridges, the two lateral of which extend
obliquely outward, to form the margins of the rather well defined
sockets for the reception of the teeth of the other valve, while the
third ridge is central, and extends a short distance forward ; muscular
scars not visible.

Ventral valve moderately convex at the umbo, perforated at the
beak, with a broad, shallow, undefined depression at the front ; lat-
eral regions more or less flattened ; cardinal area well developed, ta-
pering to the lateral extremities, flat, and inclined obliquely back-
ward ; foramen closed by a prominent, triangular deltidium. Interior
showing a somewhat saucer-shaped cavity, formed by the low, sharp
dental laminae extending forward from the inner side of the rather
well developed, oblique cardinal teeth, and curving a little toward each
other, without meeting at their inner ends ; muscular scars not vis-
ible.

Surface of both valves ornamented with rather coarse radiating
striae, most of which bifurcate once or oftener, while occasionally a
shorter one is intercalated ; crossing the whole are occasionally con.
centric marks of growth and finer striae, which are visible only with the
aid of a magnifier.

Length of a medium specimen, 0.65 inch ; breadth, 0.88 inch ; con-
vexity, 0.20 inch.

Found about 320 feet above low water-mark, at Cincinnati, near
Avondale pike, and at other places, though not common.

Pi'of. Meek described this species in the Ohio Paleontology under
the name Strophomena sinuata (James), with a doubt as to whether or

BracMopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 51

not it was identical with Strophomena sinuata (Emmons). After care-
fuUv examining the subject, I have no doubt that Dr. Emmons
obtained his specimens from Cincinnati, as he says he did, and that he
figured and described this species.

Genus Strophomena — (Eafinisque, 1827).

[Etym.—Sfropkos, bent; mene, crescent.]

Sliell semi- circular, usually widest at the hinge line, concavo-convex,
depressed, radiately striated ; area double ; ventral valve with an
angular notch, progressively covered by a convex pseudo-deltidium ;
umbo depressed, perforated by a minute foramen ; muscular depressions
four, central pair narrow, formed by the adductor; external pair fan-
like, left by the cardinal and pedicle muscles; dorsal valve with a
bilobed cardinal process between the dental sockets and four depres-
sions for the adductor muscle.

There are no apparent brachial processes in the dorsal valve of
Strophomena, and it is possible that the spiral arms may have been
supported at some point near the center of the shell, as in Prodticta.

Strophomena alternata — (Conrad, 1838).

Shell varying in size from three fourths of an inch in length to two
inches or more, semi-oval, breadth usually greater than the length ;
hinge line usually longer than the breath of the valve further forward ;
lateral extremities usually compressed and deflected ; lateral margins
roundins: forward to the front in a semi circular outline, or sometimes
rounding in the middle, so as to present a subtrigonal outline.

Dorsal valve flattened in the urabonal and cardinal regions; more or
less concave in the central and anterior portions, and more or less
curved upward around the anterior and lateral margins ; beak small,
projecting slightly beyond the sublinear area, which is directed nearly
backward. Interior with bifid, strong, cardinal process, diverging
obliquely forward, flattened and longitudinally striated on the pos-
terior faces ; sockets for the reception of the teeth of the other valve
well defined ; socket ridges very small and uniting behind the cardinal
process, to form a kind of ftilse deltidium ; muscular scars compara-
tively small and deeply impressed immediately in front of the cardinal
process, on each side of a small, short, mesial ridge, and nearly
surrounded by a low, obtuse ridge, formed by a thickening of the valve,
and more or less longitudinally and irregularly furrowed ; anterior and

52 BraeMojwda of the Cincinnati Group.

lateral margins more or less geniculated at the margin of the visceral
cavity ; whole surface more or less irregularly furrowed and granulated.

Ventral valve more or less convex at the umbo and over the visceral
cavity; lateral and anterior margins more or less curved downward ;
area of moderate height, flat, and directed obliquely backward, forming
with the area of the other valve an acute angle ; beak very small,
scarcely distinct from the margin of the area and minutely perforated ;
foramen broadly triangular, and arched over above by the pseudo-
deltidium, which is deeply sinuous on its inner edge ; the sinus being
nearly or quite closed by the dental process and pseudo-deltidium of
the other valve. Interior with hinge teeth moderately prominent,
remote and widely divergent ; dental ridges obscure, and extending
obliquely outward and forward ; scars of adductor muscles narrow,
long, and closely approximated or almost in contact; those of cardinal
muscles on each side very large, fan-shaped, but shallow, separated
sometimes by a small ridge in advance of the adductor scars, and
marked by radiating furrows and ridges ; anterior and lateral margins
usually marked by striae and scattering granulations.

Surface of both valves ornamented by numerous radiating stride, that
increase on the ventral valve mainly by intercalation of smaller striae,
and on the doi'sal valve by division, thus making the stride more uni-
form in size. Subimbricating marks of growth are usually seen near
the free margins of large shells and concentric strise may be detected-
by the aid of a magnifier.

This species, with its varieties, has a range co-extensive with the
Cincinnati Group, and is remarkably abundant. It differs so much in
size and convexity, and in its proportions, that the dimensions of one
shell would throw but little light upon the species. The form usually
found, from low water-mark to two hundred feet above, is thin and
frail, about one and a half inches, or a little more, in length and
breadth, which are about equal ; greatest width of the shell a little
more than the length of the hinge line, and quite regularly concave on
the dorsal and convex on the ventral side. ' The forms which come in
at and about 300 feet above low water-mark, many of which continue
to the Upper Silurian rocks, are quite numerous ; some of them are
quite flat and thin, with acute lateral extremities and no imbricating
lines ; others are strongly convex, thick, having many imbricating
lines of growth around the margins, from the line of the visceral cavity
to the edge, with lateral extremities somewhat truncated. Between
these two forms there are no two shells exactly alike, and they differ in
dimensions from three fifths of an inch in length to two and three fifths
inches, and quite as much in width, and proportionally as much in

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group, 53

convexity. Variety frada, of Meek, I regard as a good species, and
var. nasuta (Conrad), var. alternistnata (Hall), and var. loxorhytis
(Meek), I regard as good varieties, possessing somewhat constant char-
acters, to separate them from the type species.

Strophomena alternata var. 7ictsuta — (Conrad, 1842).

Shell subtrigonal in outline, more deeply concave on the dorsal
side, and more extremely convex on the ventral side than typical
forms of alternata; an obtuse, undefined, mesial ridge on the ventral
valve continues to the middle of the front, giving the shell its sub-
trigonal outline. The shell is usually thick and heavy, and strongly
marked in the interior with muscular scars and furrows.

Length of an average specimen, 1.30 inches; breadth, 1.50 inches;
convexity, 0.54 inch.

Its range commences about 400 feet above low water-mark, and
terminates within about 200 feet, as near as I have been able to
ascertain.

Strophoinena, alternata var. alternistriata — (Hall, 1847).

Shell semi-oval, wider than long, cardinal line extended, lighter,
thinner, and less abruptly curved and thickened on the margin than the
typical alternata ; striae more uniform in size and finer than in alternata
proper ; and the shell has a shining luster, like L. sericea.

Its range seems to be about as great as that of the alternata, and I

't3^

am not sure but that the form found within 200 feet of low water-
mark should rather be classed with this variety than with the typical
alternata (though its striae are coarse and hinge line truncated), in which
latter case its range would even be the greatest, though it is much
less abundant.

Strophomena alternata var. loxorhytis — (]Meek, 1873).

Shell large, moderately concave on the dorsal, and convex on the
ventral valve antero-centrally ; hinge line extended with lateral
extremities acutely angular and flattened ; both valves marked near
the cardinal margin, toward the lateral extremities, with six or eight
distinct, more or less oblique wrinkles, similar to those on Hemipronites
subtenta.

This form is found near the upper part of the Cincinnati Group.
Its range is probably between 600 and 800 feet above low water-mark.
It is not common.

54 BracMopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Strophomena frada — (Meek , 1873).

Shell semi-elliptical, thin and fragile, longer than wide, hinge not
extended, lateral extremities rectangular ; lateral margins straight and
rounding forward to the front in a semi-circular outline.

Dorsal valve flattened in the umboual and cardinal regions, more or
less concave in the central and anterior regions, and curved very
moderately upward around the anterior and latei'al margins ; beak
scarcely projecting beyond the edge of the almost linear area. Interior
with flattened, bifid, cardinal process directed obliquely forward, and
longitudinally striated on the posterior faces ; sockets for the teeth of
the other valve, and socket ridges moderately distinct ; muscular
scars well defined and deep, situated nearly one eighth of an inch
anterior to the cardinal process, and separated by a well defined
mesial ridge ; muscular scars furrowed longitudinally, but the balance
of the surface of the visceral region is free from lines, furrows or
granulations.

Ventral valve a little convex at the umbo, compressed over the
visceral region, and more or less curved downward at the anterior and
lateral margins ; beak scarcely distinct from the margin of the area,
and minutely jjerforated ; area flat and directed backward on a plane
with the anterior margin of the shell ; foramen broadly triangular and
arched above by the pseudo-deltidium. Interior with hinge teeth •
moderately prominent, remote and widely divergent ; dental ridges
oljscure, and extending obliquely outward and forward; mesial ridge
separating an ovate visceral region, moderately distmct ; visceral region
marked with irregular radiating furrows and ridges ; anterior and
lateral margins granulated.

Surface of both valves ornamented with coarse radiating striae, and
distant imbricating laminae of growth.

Length of a medium specimen, 1.30 inches ; breadth, 1.20 inches;
convexity, 0.32 inch.

Found at Cincinnati in aggregated masses, about 400 feet above
low water-mark ; its range seems to be confined to a few feet in thick-
ness. While the strata at some places is literally a mass of these shells,
yet, on account of their thin and frail character, it is not easy to obtain
good specimens.

It is readily distinguished externally from the S. alternata, by its
thin, fragile character, distinct imbricating lamellre, and acute angle
produced at the junction of the area of the two valves ; and on the
Ulterior by the flattened, elongated cardinal process, anteriorly situated

Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 55

muscular scars, aud smooth visceral region of the dorsal valve, and
termination of the furrows and ridges in the visceral region of the
ventral valve, in an oval outline, Avithout extending into the reflected

margm.

StropJiomena tenuistriata — (Soweeby, 1839).

Shell semi-circular, wider than long ; hinge line longer than the
breadth of the valves further forward ; lateral extremities acute and
sometimes deflected.

Dorsal valve flat in the cardinal and central regions, and curved ab-
ruptly upward on the anterior and lateral margins ; beak very small
and projecting slightly beyond the edge of the area, which is sublinear
and directed nearly backward. Interior with light, bifid cardinal pro-
cess directed obliquely forward and flattened on the posterior faces ;
sockets for the reception of the dental ridges of the other valve mod-
erately well defined ; dental ridges low and gradually lost in the thick-
ened circular elevation surrounding the muscular scars ; narrow ele-
vated mesial ridge separating the two circular muscular impressions,
which are situated just forward of the cardinal process; bottom of
muscular scars marked with longitudinal lines, deepest near the cardi-
nal process ; outside the subcircular elevation surrounding the mus-
cular scars the surface is granulated and irregularly marked with
more or less obscure longitudinal or oblique lines ; anterior and lateral
margins abruptly curved or geniculated over an elevated zone, bound-
ing the visceral cavity, and marked with transverse obscure lines and
granulations.

Ventral valve convex on the umbo and flattened over the cardinal
and central regions, and curved abruptly downward on the anterior
and lateral margins ; beak distinct, perforated and projecting a little
beyond the edge of the area ; area of moderate height, gradually nar-
rowing from the beak toward the extremities, and forming with the
area of the other valve an acute angle. Interior with dental ridges
divergent, and produced into a subcircular thickening of the shell or
elevated ridge surrounding the muscular cavity, except at the opening
on the anterior side ; obscure mesial ridge separating the muscular
cavity, which is longitudinally aud irregularly lined ; whole interior
surface marked with obscure lines and granulations.

Surface of both valves ornamented with numerous round, i-adiating
striae, that increase by intercalation and bifurcation on each valve ;
about six strong, concentric wrinkles over the visceral cavity mark each
valve, and fine concentric striae may be seen with the aid of a
magnifier.

56 Brackiopoda of the Cincinnati Gmip.

The proportion as to length, breadth, and convexity, is not uniform
by any means. Length of one specimen, 0.84 inch ; width, 1.44 inches;
convexity, 0.40 inch. Length of another, 0.76 inch ; width, 1.20
inches ; convexity, 0.40 inch. Specimens are found varying from less
than one fourth the size of these to one fourth larger.

This species abounds in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group
(from 500 to 800 feet above low water-mark, at Cincinnati), at almost
every locality. And it also extends through the entire group, unless
the form described by Mr. James as S. gibbosa, vol. i., p. 333, of this
Journal, October, 1874, is to be regarded as a distinct species or variety.
I think, however, that Mr. James' form is at least a good variety.

For StrojjJiomena squamida (James), see vol. i., page 335, of this
Journal, October, 1874. This form is regarded by collectors, generally,
as the young of S. alternata, but I am inclined to think with Mr.
James, that it is a distinct species.

For Strojihomena declivis (James), see vol. i., page 240, of this
Journal, July, 1874.

Genus Leptena — (Dalman, 1828).

Semi-circular, depressed, entering valve concave, the other evenly
convex from the hinge line, which is as long as the shell is wide;
cardinal area distinct, slightly rhomboidal, about equally formed of
both valves ; the convex or receiving valve has a triangular opening
nearly filled by the projecting angle of a rhomboidal, two or four-
lobed boss at the beak of the entering valve, leaving only a minute
perforation, separated by a small pseudo-deltidium from the apex;
punctured structure minute, often indistinct or obsolete ; internal sur-
face rough, with little points ; entering valve Avith a small, bifid tooth
at the beak, in front of which are two small diverging ridges, between
which is a moderate longitudinal sejitum. Some species show a
minute tubular foramen at the apex of the beak.

There is but one species generally recognized (L. sericea) in the
Cincinnati Group, though Mr. James has characterized one of the
forms as distinct from the others, under the name L. aspera, vol. i.,
page 151, of this Journal, Aj)ril, 1874.

Brachiapoda of the Cincbinati Group. 57

Leptena sericea — (Sowerby, 1839).

Transversely oblong, substance of the shell thick, very coarsely
fibrous; hinge line slightly exceeding the width of the shell; cardinal
angles acute, sides gently convex, slightly converging; front nearly
straight, wide ; receiving valve much and regularly arched to the
deflected margins ; greatest depth at one third from the beak ; enter-
ing valve slightly flattened in the rostral portion, rather abruptly arched
to the margin ; greatest depth at two thirds from the beak ; often
a few small, converging wrinkles on each ear ; both valves radiated
with extremely fine, haii--like strise, separated by sulci ecpialing them
in size, containing close rows of very minute punctures ; at mtervals
of from one half to one fourth (near the margin) of a line apart
certain of the striae become about twice the size of the others, including
betAveen each pair from five to ten smaller ; about thirteen to sixteen
striae in the space of one line, in the middle of front margin, at
three Imes from the beak; cardinal area in each valve low, triangular;
that of the receiving valve about a third larger than that of the
entering valve ; rostral tooth very large, five-lobcd, nearly filling the
triangular foramen of the receiving valve, which is as Avide as high,
and the apex of which is closed by a small deltidium ; internal cast of
receiving valve showing two very short cardinal teeth bordering the
triangular boss of the foramen, diverging at about 135°, from the ends
of which proceed two longitudinal, slightly incurved, slightly diverg-
ing ridges (forming slight furrows on cast), forming the outer boundaries
of two long, prominent, obtusely ovate muscular impressions, wide,
and only separated near the beak by a very slender sulcus of a mesial
septum, scarcely one third the length of the shell; anterior boundaries
sharp, diverging at about 70°, inclosing between them a prominent
semi-eliiptical mesial space, and narrowing the anterior ends of the
muscular impressions, from each of which extend four or five thick
diverging and dichotomising impressions of the pallial and ovarian
vessels, a couple of similar dichotomising impressions on each side of
the mesial space, and three or four very short ones on each lateral
margin ; the rest of the surface marked with obscure traces of the
external striffi, punctured in lines, the punctures becoming much
larger at the margin, between the branches of the pallial vessels;
interior of entering valve concave for two thirds the length from the
beak, the margin abruptly arched over, very closely punctured (not
in rows), and marked at the edge with numerous, short, simple ridges;
two very short cardinal teeth diverge from the rostral tooth ; muscular

58 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

impressions with very prominent boundaries all round, eacli one oblong,
depressed, and nearly smooth in the middle, or subquadrate, slightly
longer than wide ; the two together transversely oblong, one third
wider than long, the width equaling the length of the valve ; the two
prominent inner boundaries leave a deep sulcus between them, at the
anterior end of which only a very short mesial septum is developed,
not reaching nearly to the beak ; interior of the muscular impression
nearly smooth, each divided by a faint diagonal ridge ; the space
immediately in front of the impressions coarsely pitted and marked
with a few obscure, branching impressions of pallial vessels, none of
which are visible on the deflected front; cardinal angles irregularly
punctured, and with minute wrinkles. Width, eight lines ; proportional
length of receiving valve, iVo^^^s inch; of entering valve, rVo^^^
inch; depth of entering valve, j^^o^pths inch; depth of receiving valve,
,Yoths inch.
Its range is co-extensive with the Cincinnati Group.

Family Sphiferidce.

Shell free, inequivalve, varying greatly in form and ornamentation,
according to the genera and species ; with or without a cardinal area ;
oval appendages large, provided with calcified, ribbon-shaped sui)ports,
which are spirally coiled, so as to form two cones, the apices of which
are directed outward toward the lateral margins of the valves ; shell
structure fibrous or fibro-punctate.

Animal unknown; apparently sometimes attached by a muscular
peduncle.

This family includes Zygospira and Tremafospira, with other genera.

Genus Zijgospira — (Hall).

Shells bivalve, equilateral, inequivalve ; surfiices plicate in the
typical species ; a sinus on the dorsal valve. Internal spires arranged
somewhat as in Atrypa, with a broad loop passing from the outer limbs
of the spiral band entirely across, from side to side, near to or above
the center, and close to the inner side of the dorsal valve.

(Z. modeda, typical sp.)

Zygospira modesta — (Say).

Shell small, suborbicular or plano-convex, sometimes a little wider
than long; posterior lateral margins converging to the beaks at an
obtuse angle ; lateral margins rounded to the front, which is sometimes
straight or slightly sinuous.

Bracldopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 59

Dorsal valve Avitli a shallow, midefincd mesial sinus of moderate
l^readth at the front, but narrowing posteriorly and usually fadino; out
before reaching the umbo ; surface on each side of the sinus gently
convex centrally, and sloping gradually to the lateral margins ; beak
but slightly prominent and incurved.

Ventral valve with a more or less elevated mesial ridge, generally
most prominent near the middle, and somewhat depressed anteriorly,
while the slopes on each side are distinctly compressed ; beak small,
abruptly pointed, perforated, projecting beyond that of the other valve,
and rather distinctly arched ; margin on each side of beak carinated,
so as to give the appearance of a kind of false cardinal area.

Surface of each valve ornamented by about eighteen simple, rounded
plications, of which one at the umbo and five at the front of the dorsal
valve occupy the mesial sinus ; the one extending from the umbo
(or central plication) is the largest, and corresponds with a deep
furrow in the middle of the mesial ridge of the ventral valve ; about
four plications occupy the mesial elevation of the ventral valve, two
on each side of the deep central furrow ; marks of growth obscure and
surface obscurely punctate.

Found throughout the Cincinnati Group, at all elevations, in great
abundance, and in a good state of preservation.

Zygospira Cine innatietms — (James) .

This variety or species differs from the last in its larger size, greater
proportional breadth, more prominent mesial elevation, deeper furrow
in the middle, deeper mesial sinus, and more spreading and coarser
lateral plications. Its lateral margins are generally much compressed.

Prof. Meek thinks it may be only a robust variety of Z. modeda.

Found on the hills back of Cincinnati, associated with the modesta, at
elevations from 250 to 400 feet aljove low water-mark.

Zygospira headi — (Billings, 1862).

Shell attaining a medium or rather large size, longitudinally oval,
the front being regularly rounded, and the lateral margins more
broadly rounded, or sometimes slightly straightened along the middle ;
valves both rather evenly convex. Dorsal valve a little less convex
than the other, its greatest prominence being near the middle, but
without any traces of a mesial ridge ; beak very short and incurved.

60 Brachiopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Ventral valve with its greatest convexity behind the middle ; mesial
sinus almost obsolete, or only consisting of a slight flattening along the
middle of the anterior slope, on each side of which the lateral slopes
are sometimes very slightly compressed ; beak only moderately
prominent, obtusely pointed, and strongly incurved upon that of the
other valve, while on each side of it a slight carination extends
laterally, so as to give somewhat the appearance of a false area.
Surfxce ornamented by fine, even, simj)le, radiating striae. Interior
unknown.

Length of medium sized specimen, 0.61 inch; breadth, 0.52 inch ;
convexity, 0.34 inch.

Found in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, at an elevation of
about 600 feet above low water-mark, near Clarksville, in Clinton
county, Ohio, and about ten miles south of Maysville, Kentucky. It
i s regarded as a rare fossil.

Genus Treviatospira — (Hall, 1859).

[Etym. — trenia, foramen; speira, spire.]

Shell transverse, elliptical or subrhomboidal, inequivalve, furnished
with internal spires (arrranged as in sjnrifer). Hinge line shorter
than the width of the shell ; cardinal angles rounded. Valves articu-
lated by teeth and sockets; beak of ventral valve produced or
incurved, and truncated by a small, round perforation, separated from
the hinge line by a deltidium. A deep, triangular pit, or foramen,
beneath the beak of the ventral valve, which is filled by the closely
incurved beak of the dorsal valve. False area sometimes defined.

Surface marked either with strong, simple plications, or finer fascicu-
late or bifurcating strise, which cover also the mesial elevation and
depression. Shell structure punctate.

This genus is regarded by some authors as a synonym for Retzia.
(King, 1850).

Trematospira (f) quadripKcata — (S. A. Miller).

[E(y7n. — Quadriplicata, in allusinn to the four costce on the mesial elevation of the dorsal valve.]

Shell transversely suboval, subglobose ; dorsal valve most convex;
posterior lateral margins somewhat straightened and converging to the
beak ; lateral margins rounded to the front, which is nearly straight in
the middle; area none.

Dorsal valve strongly convex, most prominent in the middle

Braclilopoda of the Cincinnati Gronjp. 61

or a little anterior; mesial ridge prominent as it approaches the middle
and anterior parts, and consisting of four simple, angular, radiating
costae ; lateral slopes each occupied by six similar costse, regularly slop-
ing to the margins ; beak closely incurved beneath the beak of the
ventral valve.

Ventral valve moderately convex ; mesial sinus not quite reaching
the beak, but deep and well defined in the middle and anterior
regions, and containing three simple, angular, radiating costse ; lateral
slopes each occupied by six similar costse gradually curving to the
margins ; beak prominent, perforated (?) and slightly incurved upon
that of the dorsal valve.

Fig. 6.— Front view. Fig. 7.— Dorsal view.

Surface of both valves marked bv distinct lines of growth crossing
the plications. Sometimes the mesial ridge of the dorsal valve in old
specimens becomes so prominent as to be humped anterioi'ly. Interior
unknown.

Length of specimens collected varymg, from 0.34 to 0.66 inch;
breadth, from 0.32 to 0.74 inch; convexity, from 0.18 to 0.48 inch.

I collected this species in the railroad cut at Paris, Kentucky, but do
not know the exact position of the rocks in the Cincinnati Group. I
suppose them to be somewhere in the upper part. It may be that
this species should be classed in the genus Ehynchonella.

Trematoqyira (f) granulifera — (Meek, 1872).

Shell transversely oval, length about four fifths the breadth, moder-
ately convex, convexity of the two valves being nearly equal; lateral
margins rather narrowly rounded in outline ; front and anterior lateral
margins broadly rounded, or perhaj)s the former sometimes straight
or slightly sinuous in outline in the middle ; cardinal margin nearly
straight on each side, and sloping at an angle of about 140° from the
beaks toward the lateral extremities.

Dorsal valve nearly evenly convex, its greatest prominence being
sliglitly behind the middle, provided with about tliirteen simple,
angular, radiating plications, five of which on the middle are smaller

62 A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mounds.

thau the otliors (the middle one being smallest and not continued to
the beak) and forming together a very low, flattened mesial elevation,
scarcely rising above the general convexity ; beak rather strongly
incurved.

Ventral valve of much the same form as the other, excepting that
its beak is somewhat more prominent, j^erforated (?) and incurved
upon that of the other valve ; while two of its middle costre are much
smaller than the others, and the first one on each side of these is inter-
mediate in size between the smallest central ones and the largest on
the lateral slopes ; these four smaller ones being a little depressed, so
as to form a shallow mesial sinus that is not continued to the beak.
Crossing all of these plications of both valves are numerous fine lines
of growth ; while the entire surface, as seen under a magnifier, is
occujiied by minute projecting points, like grains of sand, and between
these, a higher magnifying power shows the whole surfiice to be very
minutely and regularly punctate. Interior unknown.

Length, 0.37 inch; breadth, 0.50 inch; convexity, 0.27 inch.

Found at Cincinnati, but exact elevation unknown.

Prof. Meek suggests that this species may be identical with Retzia
Salteri, of Davidson.

A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mounds. (By L. M. Hosea.)

Not far from Springfield, Missouri, stands an imposing mound, erected
by races who dwelt ages ago in that locality, exhibiting, in a marked
degree, those characteristics which seem to identify the Mound-
Builders of the Mississippi valley with the extinct peoples of tropical
America. Until recently, no examination other than of the surface
had been made of this interesting monument, which is now shown to
possess features of great interest bearing upon the inquiry as to the
religious customs of the pre-historic races of the United States.

The mound in question, as we gather from the accounts of news-
paper correspondents, is situated twelve miles north of Springfield, in
Green county, two miles east of the Bolivar road, and crowns the sum-
mit of a hill, which gradually rises to an elevation of three hundred
feet above the surrounding country.

It is of earth, interspersed with large, limestone bowlders, "some of
which, exposed upon the sides and summit of the mound to the action

A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Moumh. 63

of the elements, present an iippearancc described as resembling -worm-
eaten hickory or ash, but more deeply corrugated. The general form
of the mound is a truncated cone, whose base diameter is five hundred
feet; summit diameter, one hundred and thirty feet; and perpendicu-
lar altitude, sixty-two feet.

A correspondent of the St. Louis Times thus describes its salient
features :

" Encompassing the mound on all sides — save a causeway on the
north — is a trench, about two hundred feet wide, and now about
five feet deep, though it has apparently filled several feet in the
ages that have elapsed since its excavation. From this moat was
doubtless taken the earth used in rearing the mound. The ap-
proach or causeway which leads across the trench from the north
is ten feet in width. Ascending from this causeway to the sum-
mit of the mound are the remains of a rude flight of stairs, constructed
originally of roughly hewn stones. Most of these steps are now dis-
placed, and quite a number have rolled down into the trench below,
but there is unmistakable evidence that they were at one time
arranged in regular order of ascent, and could doubtless be again
replaced in position by an intelligent architect.

" By a series of investigations, I found that about a foot beneath the
surflice there was a regular and solid platform of stone covering the
entire top of the mound. This platform, though constructed by rude
and unmechanical hands, is placed in position with a precision and
firmness that might well defy the ravages of the elements in all coming
ages.

"x\bout twelve feet from the northern edge of the mound, and
directly on a line with the approach and stairway, I noticed a very
perceptible elevation of the earth, covering an area of about twenty
by fifteen feet, and driving a pick into the elevated ground, the point
struck upon solid rock a few inches below the surface. Knowing the
rock struck was considerably more elevated than the general level of
the layer of stone, I drove my pick into the elevation in several other
places, always finding solid rock near the surfiice.

" Determined to investigate further, I called my assistants to my aid,
and soon a considerable portion of a large flat rock was laid bare.
Pushing our work, we soon unearthed a piece of workmanship that an
antiquarian would have worked a w^eek to bring to light. The newly
discovered curiosity consisted of a flat rock, twelve feet long, ten feet
wide, and eleven inches thick. The center of the stone was hollowed
to a depth of six inches, with a margin of about one foot around the edge.
"At the south end of the stone, a round hole, five inches deep and

64 A Brief Chapter on Sacrifcial Mowids.

four in diameter, was drilled. Among the dirt taken out of this
basin hewn in the stone, was a large, fossil tooth, and a piece of a
small, broken, stone column, and several bits of pottery Avare."

Brief and unsatisfactory as it is, the student of American archaeology
will not fail to recognize in this description a type of the Teocalli,
whose bloody rites filled the conquerors of Mexico with horror and
amazement.

The conventional form of the Aztec Teocalli was a four-sided-trun-
cated pyramid of several stages, on whose summit were the sacrificial
altai's whereon victims were immolated, and temples containing the
shrines and images of the gods. The Aztecs took as then- model for
these structures, the great pyramid of Cholula, reared by the Toltecs
at a much earlier period, in imitation of the elevated pyramids of
Teotiliuacan, which are said to be the most ancient of all, and are ascribed
by dim tradition to an extremely ancient race, called Olmecs. In the
venerable monuments last mentioned we have the oldest known type
of pyramidal structures on the North American continent. The two
largest were four-sided, and faced the quarters of the heavens. Three
stages of each are yet visible. Flights of steps, constructed of hewn
stones, led up to flat summits, upon which were discovered fragments
of altars. The larger structure, or "House of the Sun," as called in
the language of the Aztecs, wa.s six hundred and eighty-two feet
square at the base, and two hundred and twenty-two feet in height.
The smaller, or "House of the Moon," was of about half these
dimensions. Surrounding them, covermg a vast plain, were other
tumuli of earth and stones, disposed with regularity in groups,
forming straight lines or squares with avenues between. Ancient as
are these hoary monuments, their existence reaching back into a
period of which history aftbrds no account, and even tradition is well
nigh silent, they nevertheless mark an advanced period of art, pre-
ceded— as Bayard Taylor says of the earliest Egyptian antiquities — by
a lt»ng stage of unrecorded development.

Tlie pyramid, regarded as a highly developed type of the simple
tumulus, affords, by its peculiarities of structure, and use a legitimate
means of tracing the ethnic relations of the builders. Hardly a
variation from the common form of the Teocalli of tropical America,
is unrepresented in the earth mounds of the United States. The
Missouri 'mound under examination, corresponds in the feature of
a stairway leading directly to the summit, with the pyramids of Teoti-
huacan— the earliest type of which we have any account ; while the
flat summit and altar indicate an identity of use. Structures built
upon this plan are not uncommon throughout Central America and

A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mounds. 65

Mexico, and are generally admitted to belong to an earlier period than
the Aztec domination. Papantla, Tu.sapan, and Mi,«antla, in Mexico,
and Uxmal, Palenque, Chi-Chen, and other localities in Central
America, exhibit fine illustrations of this peculiar type, all of which
were erected as suVjstructures for temples of worship, or as elevated
platforms for sacrifices. In the United States the representatives of
this class of pyramidal structures consist of mounds, in the form of
truncated cones or pyramids, whose summits are reached by graded
ways, affording an easy mode of ascent. Elevations of this class are
more common in the southwest than elsewhere, but may, nevertheless,
be observed in many of the Ohio earthworks. Illustrations occur at
the Cedar Bank works, in Ross county, as aLso in the Portsmouth,
Newark, and Marietta groups, in Isolated structures of thLs description,
which, as we progress southward into Alabama, Mississippi and Louisi-
ana, become more numerous, massive in character, and elaborate in
detail, until they reach their greatest development in the highly orna-
mented stone pyramids of Mexico. The great mound at Cahokia,
Illinois, may be mentioned as a magnificent example of this class.

The imposing pyramid of Cholula, which served the Aztecs as a
model for their Teocallis, marks a departure from the foregoing type.
Its construction, according to the researches of Humboldt, Is to be
ascribed to the Toltecs, who invaded the vale of Anahuac, by the
traditional accounts of the Aztecs, at a period corresponding with the
sixth or seventh century of our era. In form, it may be described as
a succession of truncated pyramids, one above another, forming, at
each stage, terraces, connected by stairways. Of these stories, four
remain, constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks and layers of stone,
now so resolved by the elements, and overgrown with vegetation, as
to be almost undlstinguishable from a natural elevation. Upon close
examination, however, the regular courses of brick used in its con-
struction, and portions of the stucco which once encased its exterior,
may still be discerned.

The great Teocalli, in the city of Mexico or Tenochitlan, which had
been completed by the Aztecs shortly before the conquest, and
may be regarded as the type or representative of most of their
later structures of that class, consisted of a series of half cubes or
truncated pyramids, diminishing in size as they rose one above another,
with connecting stairways so placed as to compel an entire circuit of
the terraces, by the tram of priests and worshipers, at each stage of
the ascent to its summit. The only noticeable difference in these
two types, is in the manner of reaching the summit — in the
first, by a direct stairway or graded ascent, and in the second, by a
mode compelling a circuit of the entire structure.

66 A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mounds.

Representatives of the second class are equally common among the
mounds of the United States. A similar modification of the means
Uf ed, however, in accomplishing the ascent, is to be observed in the
spiral pathway leading to a truncated summit. An illustration of this
is observable in the Portsmouth group of works, in a mound of this
descriiition, surrounded by numerous parallel walls or embankments.
Examples also occur in Kentucky, Tennessee, and other Southern
States. A group described by Bartram, deserves especial note in this
connection, situated on the Savannah river, about five miles above
Fort James (Dartmouth), and consisting of " conical mounts of earth
and four square terraces." Of the principal mound, he says:

"The great mound is in the form of a cone, about forty or fifty feet
high, and the circumference of its base 200 or 300 yards, entirely
composed of the rich, loamy earth of the low grounds. The toj) or
apex is flat ; a spiral path leading from the ground up to the top is
still visible, where now grows a beautiful, spreading, red cedar; there
appear four niches excavated out of the .sides of this hill, at diflerent
heights from the base, fronting the four cardinal points; these niches
or sentry boxes are entered into from the winding path, and seem tQ
have been meant for resting places or lookouts."

Similar niches were observed in some of the Teocallis of Mexico.

The uses to which these mounds were put were undoubtedly
identical, both in the United States and Mexico, and indicate a simi-
larity in modes of worship and customs pertaining to the religious
ceremonial, which leaves little doubt astothesubstantialidentiiy of the
two races, at a period far anterior to the Aztec supremacy. In the
vague and often incomplete accounts of works of this kind in the
United States, we are uninformed whether there existed, at the time
of their discovery, any traces of the altars which in Mexico were found
upon the level summits of the Teocallis, and upon which the barbar-
ous Aztec priest was wont to stretch the quivering form of his victim,
in the bloody and revolting sacrifices of his worship. It would seem
that, in some cases at least, temples crowned their summits, of which
no remains have survived the ravages of time. In a forest-bearing
country like the fertile valleys of the Mississippi, it is altogether
probable that the abundance of wood led to its almost exclusive use as
a material for the erection of such structures upon the mounds, which
in a few years decayed and left no trace ; and we are therefore left to
infer their former existence solely from the design apparent in the
erection of elevated foundations, and from the more enduring
evidences remaining on similar elevations in tropical America. What
remains of these monuments, taken as a whole, corresponds exactly

A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mowiids. 67

with the imperishable structures of Mexico, modified only by the
different conditions which our own country presented— one class being
of earth, the other of stone or brick. To the same modifying influences
may be attributed the erection of wooden temples, that in the course
of ages have decayed and became resolved again to earth ; while in a
rocky and at best sparsely wooded country, doubtless soon denuded
of timber by a teeming population, nature compelled resort to a material,
which, by indelibly preserving the results of art, reacted upon art itself,
and thus produced magnificent pyramids and temples which compare
with the finest efforts of ancient oriental nations.

In the Missouri mound, however, we have more substantial proof in
the stone altar, that in form also marks a period antedating the Aztec.
The Aztec altar or stone of sacrifice was usually a single rectangular
block, with a convex top, over which the body of the victim was
bent in such a way as to facilitate the tearing out of the palpitating
heart from the upturned breast; but among the antiquities of a more
ancient date, discovered in Mexico and Central America, are altars
with the upper surface hollowed into a basin-shaped cavity, with a
groove or channel leading from it, similar to the one in question.
Such altars were not unknown to other ancient nations who practiced
similar rites. Tacitus, speaking of the ancient forests of Anglesea,
the stronghold of Druidical worship in England, describes such altars of
stone upon which the blood of slaughtered victims was evaporated.
The numerous remains of altars and dolmens, discovered there in
recent times, comprise many corresponding precisely, in the feature in
question, with the altar-stone of the Missouri mound. Such a depres-
sion is the universal characteristic of the altars covered by the so-called
"altar-mounds" of Ohio, though none of these, so far as known, consist
of a single stone. They are generally composed of burned clay or
stones, heaped with care into symmetrical forms, and rest upon the
original surface of the ground. The depressions, in most instances, are
found to contain calcined human bones and fragments of utensils or
ornaments, deposited with the dead in whose honor the mounds appear
to have been raised; and from the uniformity of this circumstance,
in mounds of this description, their construction is mferred to have been
solely for sepulchral purposes, or at least in connection with sacrifices
performed for the dead. It is probable that the so-called "signal
mounds," and high hills, upon whose summits the evidences of long
contmued fires are apparent, served the purpose of the Teocallis among
the ancient Mound-Builders, as places of general sacrifice and also
signal stations, as was the case among the Aztecs. The debris of burned

68 A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mounds.

stones and clay always present upon these elevations, are probably
the remains of altars similar to those discovered in the altar-
mounds ; and we do no violence to probability in further attributing
the construction of a more elaborate and enduring altar of a
single stone to the same development in arts which the
mounds themselves exhibit, in their general features, as we proceed
southward.

It is said that the custom of the Chinese, 2,300 years before our era,
was to offer sacrifices to the supreme being. Chanty, on four great moun-
tains, called the four Yo. The sovereigns, finding it inconvenient to go
thither in person, caused eminences, representing these mountains, to
be erected near their habitations. Heaven was thus worshiped upon
a mound round and high, to represent the sky; and Earth, upon
a tumulus square and low, to represent the earth. However satis-
factory may be the clue thus afforded to the origin or meaning
of these forms, the frequent reduplication of the square and circle in
the mounds, and also in the earthen inclosures of the Mound-Builders,
is a circumstance worthy of careful examination. The Creeks, who
may have remotely derived the elements of their semi-civilization from
the mysterious race of the mounds, displayed the same attachment to
these forms in their public structures. They too, in common with
other southern tribes who may be supposed to have felt, more or less
directly, the influence of the civilization of the extinct races whom they
or their predecessors supplanted, were sun-worshipers, and maintained
a continual fire, as we are told by Bartram and other early witnesses,
within a circular edifice, called the " Kotunda," which, from its form,
was held to be a symbol of the sun.

From the considerations thus briefly adduced, we can not doubt the
prevalence, among the Mound-Builders, of religious customs in the
main similar to those prevailing among the Mexican races before the
conquest ; and the substantial identity, in type as well as in details of
construction, of the elevations upon which religious rites were cele-
brated, leads to an inference of a similar identity of the races who
constructed them in both sections of the continent.

Though ignorant of the minor features of their sacrificial worship,
excepting so far as adopted by the Aztec races, there is no reason for
supposing the cannibalism prevalent among the Aztecs as part of their
ritual, was practiced by the Mound-Builders. On the contrary, this
barbarous custom of the Aztecs originated, according to their own
testimony, among themselves ; and was a feature entirely inconsistent
with the more humane and elevated system which they appropriated
from the Toltecs and other races who preceded them. The Missouri

A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Mounds. 69

mound, as has been shown— as indeed do all the structures of that class
in the United States — more nearly resembles the earlier Toltec struc-
tures which served the Aztecs as models for their own ; and hence
our inferences as to the religious system of the Mound-Builders, point
to the same elevated source — a system Vihich, according to the tradi-
tions of the Aztecs, embraced a policy in some respects as rational as
any of modern times.

It is evident, that whatever may have been ihe religious belief and
practice of these ancient people, it was the prominent and pervading
feature of their civilization. Kelio-ious works and tombs alone remain
to attest their devotion, while private dwellings and other structures
have long since crumbled into dust. Noble obelisks, porticos, pyra
mids erected as pedestals for temples, and massive structures of stone,
accurately fitted and covered with intricate and elaborate carving, lie
buried and forgotten in the gloomy recesses of Central American for-
ests, or nestle among the picturesque heights of Mexico, all bearing
the stamp of the religious zeal and veneration of the builders. The
more unpretending works of the United States bear equally unmis-
takable evidence of their sacred character.

The peaceful and elevated character of the Toltec system, upon
which the Aztecs engrafted their barbarous customs, was one of its
distinguishing features. Their supreme deity was a benevolent being,
whom they held in such reverence as to deter any attempt at embodi-
ment in material forms. His chief representative, among the inferior
deities, was the god Quetzalcohuatl, whom they venerated with almost
equal fervor. To this beneficent being, they ascribed their knowledge of
the arts of civilization and government; in which respect Osiris of the
Egyptians presents a striking analogy, strengthened by the fact, that,
according to the respective traditionary mythologies, after teaching these
arts, both dej)arted to other nations to impart the same knowledge.

The advancement made by the ancient Mexicans in astronomy, is
also important to be considered in connection with the uses made of the
elevated Teocallis. As the rise of astronomical knowledge among the
Egyptians is attributed to the pastoral custom of tending flocks
by night, under cloudless skies, so it may be referred among the
American races to the custom of observing the firmament, during
the long watches of the night, from the elevated platforms of the
Teocallis. "That they should be capable," says Prescott, concern-
ing the ancient Mexicans, " of accurately adjusting their festivals
by the movements of the heavenly bodies, and should fix the true
length of the tropical year with a precision unknown to the great

70 A Brief Chapter on Sacrificial Monndi.

philosophers of antiquity, could be the result only of a long series of
nice and patient observations, evincing no slight progress in civilization."

The location of the temple or sacrificial mounds of the United
States, bears, in every instance, an obvious reference to an unob-
structed view of the firmament, and especially of the sun in his rising
and setting. Structures of this character are most frequently placed
upon east and west lines. Judge Yaple, of Cincinnati, who has
been familiar from boyhood with the mounds of the Scioto and adja-
cent valleys, gives this as their most prominent characteristic ; and
other investigators concur in a sinylar observation respecting such
works elsewhere. These peculiar features bear direct reference to the
same intimate connection between the religious ceremonial and ob-
servations of the heavenly bodies which distinguished the Aztec
system.

The generally received opinion as to the astronomical use of the
" telescopic tubes" of the Mound-Builders, founded upon observations
of a similar instrument represented in sculpture in South America,
Central America, and Mexico, may be referred to in this connection.
Several of these tubes were discovered in the Grave Creek mound —
an elevation of the class described — and in many other mounds in var-
ious localities. President John A. Williams, of Daughters' College,
Harrodsburg, Kentucky, possesses a tube of this kind, found in a cave
in Tennnessee, so peculiarly and exquisitely wrought as to leave little
doubt upon this subject, notwithstanding Mr. Jones, in his "Antiqui-
ties of the Southern Indians," assigns an entirely different use to these
implements.

What has been said of the pyramidal elevations of North America,
aj)plies with almost equal pertinency to those of the southern part of
the continent, especially that lying westward of the Andes. Peru is
especially rich in the remains of an ancient civilization, existing before
the time of the Incas. The region about Lake Titicaca, Old Huanuco>
and Tiahuanaco, is covered with the wrecks of a civilization moi-e ad-
vanced in the arts of masonry, architecture and sculpture, than any
pertaining to the Inca dynasty. Although these remains display cer-
tain characteristics which distinguish them in detail from the struc-
tures of the north, yet the objects of their construction were evidently
similar; and, so far as they relate to the religious ideas of the builders,
indicate a sentiment common to all the early American races, which
finds no counterpart among the nations of the Old World. Pyramidal
elevations, assended by graded ways and terraced structures, are still
visible, and by their frequency suggest the same general customs which

A Brief Cfuipter on Sacrificial 3founds. 71

distinguish the ancient people of ]\Iexico and Central America, not-
"witlistunding the minor differences which belong to a separate develop-
ment in arts springing from a common source.

In conclusion, we may say, that while the problem of ancient Amer-
ican civilization is yet without solution, there is reason to hope that
the growing interest in the subject may develop results commensurate
with its importance. The question : Who were the Mound-Builders? is
yet unanswered. There is abundant internal evidence in their remains
that they were closely identified with races inhabiting the tropical re-
gions of America, and, perhaps, for considering their settlements in
the great basins of the Mississi])pi and Ohio as colonies emanating
from Mexico at a very ancient period. But whether the ancient
Mexicans and kindred nations are to be regarded in the light of in-
digenous races, or as immigrants from Asiatic countries, is a question
difhcult of solution. Wliiie Baron Humboldt, whose researches entitle
his conclusions to great weight, regards the Tolcecs, and the other more
ancient tribes whose names are preserved in Central American tradi-
tion, as northern iuviiders of the vale of Anahuac, Mr. Squier, whose
opportunities were perhaps equally good, believes they emanated from
regions still further south. Both may be right; and if we conceive of a
race and civilization existing at a more remote period than Humboldt
takes into account, extending their settlements through Texas and up the
Mississippi and its tributaries, and afterward dispossessed and driven
out by a great wave of invasion from the north, of which the Toltecs,
Olmecs, and other tribes, led the van, many of the difficulties attend-
ing the inquiry are removed. We are then remanded to Mexico and
Central America, whose monuments and inscriptions have thus far
bafiiyd interpretation, as the fountain-head of the Mound-Builders
civilization. Although the unsettled political condition of those coun-
tries has for years rendered investigations of their ruins precarious
and unsatisfactory, we may at least hope that this condition of things
will cease, and permit a more thorough and extended examination, in
methods developed by the experience of recent years in other coun-
tries.

When the impression, so pi-evalent among European scholars — that
the pre-historic races of America were rude savages, destitute of cul-
ture, aud without remains worthy of study — shall be removed, and the
magnificent ruins of Central America, with their sculptured inscrip-
tions subjected to the critical examination of men "learned in the
learning of the Egyptians," it is highly probable that these interesting
problems will receive solution, and the Mound-Builders assigned at
least a relative position in history.

72 Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of the Glacier.

Review of the Present State of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of the
Glacier. By Pros'. E. AV. Claypole, B. A., B. Sc. (Lond.),
Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio.

The motion of the Swiss glaciers down their rocky channels had
attracted the attention of those who lived in the neighborhood long
before it became an subject of study to men of science.Their alternate
advance and recession had rendered them, for ages, dangerous ene-
mies to the farmer of the upland valleys of Switzerland.

Sometimes for years they shrunk back into their mountain glens,
tempting the villager to undertake the task of removing the huge
mounds of snow, and of reclaiming the masses of sterile clay they had
left behind them. And again, perhaps in his own life-time, or in that
of his son, or grandson, they advanced, and almost before the hus-
bandman could reap the profits of his labor, ruthlessly plowed up
and swept down before them, crop, and sod, and soil, with the hut of
the proprietor, and sometimes the Avhole village to which he belonged.

When at length awakening science began to ask the cause of this
mysterious movement, an easy and obvious answer was found in the
natural properties of ice. The glacier slid down the valley. This
explanation of the j^henomenon, which is associated with the name of
the Swiss naturalist, De Saussure, has maintained its ground for many
years, under the name of "the sliding theory of glacial motion," in
spite of the manifest difficulty of conceiving how even so slippery a
substance as ice could slide down an almost level valley, with a rough
or rocky bottom, to which, during some part of the year, at least, it
was more or less frozen. In De Saussure's own words — "These fro-
zen masses, carried along by the slope of the bed on which they rest,
disengaged by the water (arising from their fusion, owing to the natu-
ral heat of the earth) from the adhesion which they might otherwise
contract to the bottom, sometimes were elevated by the water, must
gradually slide and descend along the declivity of the valleys or moun-
tain slopes (croupes) which they cover. It is this slow, but continued
sliding of the icy masses (glaces), on their inclined bases, which car-
ries them down into the lower valleys, and which replenished contin-
ually the stock of ice in valleys warm enough to produce large trees
and rich harvests."*

But it can be proven by the principles of mechanics, that a sliding
glacier must slide with increasing velocity until it becomes an ava-
lanche, and this objection alone may be considered fatal to De Saus-

* Voyages dans les Alpes, p. 535.

Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of the Glacier. 73

sure's theory. In addition, however, to this, it fails to account for
more than a small part of the phenomena brought to light by recent
and accurate observation in the Alps, and, in consequence, has long
been altogether abandoned.

Another theory was put forth by De Charpentier, which was free
from the difficulties besetting that of De Saussure, inasmuch as it sup-
plied another motive foi'ce than the apparently insufficient one of
gravitation. He took advantage of the expansion of water in freezing,
and suggested that the water from the surface of the glacier, produced
by the heat of the sun, flowed into the crevices in its interior, and
there was again frozen, and by its expansion forced the glacier to
move in the line of least resistance, that is, downward. This has
received the name of the "dilatation theory" of glacier motion, and
though, no doubt, sometimes a real, is, like De Saussure's, an altogether
insufficient cause ; not being capable, on the most liberal construction,
of accounting for more than a very small fraction of the movement
observed. Like its predecessor, it is now, consequently, quite aban-
doned.*

The experiments of Agassiz and J. D. Forbes, in 1841 and 1842.
upon the glacier of the Unteraar and the Mer de Glace, formed an
epoch in the study of the subject. Correct data were ihen for the
first time given to the world, by which to test the adequacy of any
theory to acoount for glacier motion. Tried by this test, the two above
mentioned signally failed. It has been asserted that the movement
was made by fits and starts, but these experiments proved that it was, on
the contrary, slow and continuous. It had also been assumed that the
ice moved as a sii gle mass; whereas, it was now shown that the
motion is differential, inasmuch as the middle moved faster than the
sides, and the srtrface faster than the part below. The movement
also, it was now found, had been very much under-estimated by early
writers, and instead of amounting to only 1 5 or 20 feet in the year,t
the Mer de Glace actually moved, as the villagers had always main-
tained, at the rate of about a yard a day.

The unhappy controversy which ensued between these two colaborers
in regard to priority of claim, and which has been revived since their
death, is well known and need not be noticed here. It will be sufficient
to observe, that the result of these experiments suggested to the mind
of J. D. Forbes a theory of glacier motion, which had also occurred
some years earlier to M. Rendu, bishop of Annicy, an earnest student
of the subject, and which he has left on record. This theory is strik-

* See Charpentier Essaisur les Glacier, 1841, and Agassiz Etudes sur Ics Gltciers, 1840.
t Ebel " Swiss Guide Book."

74 Review of the Controversy Regarding ike Motion of the Glacier.

ing, and at first appears in the liighest degree improbable, yet, when its
one great postulate has been granted, it explains many of the
phenomena more satisfactorily than any previously promulgated.

Ice, on this, which is called the viscous theory, is assumed to be a
body possessing the same proi:)erty of plasticity as pitch or treacle,
and capable, like them, of flowing in a channel and of spreading itself
out over a flat surface. The glacier, in this view, resembles a river,
and flows according to the same laws and in the same manner, subject
only to differences which result from the lowuess of the degree of
viscosity assigned to ice even by the strongest advocates of the theory
in question.

Possibly it was the absence of any plausible competitor, as mucli as
its own logical claims, which enabled this theory to command so large
a measure of acceptance during so many years. It was ably expounded
by its originator, and as ably defended by others equally or more
eminent in j)hysical science in its original form.*

But it can scarcely be said to exist in its original form at the present
day. It has fallen ; and the blow beneath which it fell, came from a mathe-
matician. In assuming that ice flows as water flows in essence, and that
the flovvof the two difler only in degree, Forbes had made an assumption
that could be proved or disproved. Liquidity is a consequence of vrant
of cohesion between the molecules of a substance, or else of the subjec-
tion of their mutual cohesion to the influence of heat. In any case, a
certain force is needed to make the most mobile liquidjflow, and this force
increases with the cohesion, until the substance ceases to be liquid or even
viscous. The amount of force required to make molecule slide over
molecule, as occurs in the flow of liquid and semi-liquid bodies, is called
the shearing force, and must be determined by experiment in every case.
In the solid bodies this shearing force is very high, amotfnting in wrought
iron to 50,000 lbs. per square inch, and great pressure is needed to
make their particles slide one over the other. The solidity of ice ren-
dered it doubtful, how far the motion of a glacier could be attributed
to the yielding of this substance' under the mere force of gravitation,
and the late Henry Moseley, Canon of Bristol, England, investigated
the subject, and published his researches in a paper printed in the
Proceedings of tlie Roijxl /S'oc/ef?/ 0/ io/;(Zo?^, for March, 18(J9; in two
papers, contributed to the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophi-
cal Magazine for JMay and August of the same year ; and in a paper
read before the British Naturalists' Society, and published in their
proceedings, for December, 18G9. He determined the shearing force

*We say, " in its original form," because the question at issue is not, " Does ice behave
like a viscous body?" which is not doubted, but, '• Is ice viscous?"

Review oj the Controversy Regarding the Motion of the Glacier. 75

of ice by a sories of experiments, and applying his results to the j^Ter
de Glace, concluded that in the conditions under which the ice in that
glacier moved, the unit of shear could rot be less than 75 lbs. per
square inch, whereas, gravitation could only produce the observed
movement of the glacier, en the supposition that the unit of shear did
not exceed 1.3489 lbs. per square inch. So vast a difference
between the two — the required force being between fifty and sixty
times as great as that which could be allowed to gravity — led Mr.
Moseley to sura up his results by saying, that "the IMer de Glace would
only descend by its weight, if the ice were of the same degree of hard-
ness as soft putty, and of the same specific gravity." "The unit of
shear," he says, "in soft putty, is from 1^ to 3 lbs. per square inch.'
The mechanical objection has never been refuted, and at the present
day the theory that ascribes viscosity to glacier ice can only be said
to exist on account of the lack of any other to take its place.

Canon Moseley, it is true, put forward a theory of his own, after
having so seriously assailed that of Mr. Forbes. He proved by experi-
ment that a plate of lead, lying on an inclined plane, and subject to
alternations of heat and cold, gradually creeps down the plane, and
with force sufficient to draw out nails if it had been secured by them
to the plane. From this he was led to the opinion that a glacier under
changes of temperature, must, in like manner, creep down its sloping
bed, in consequence of the alternate expansion and contraction that
must ensue. But he seems to have overlooked the fact revealed by
some of Agassiz' experiments, that the body of a glacier does not
share the changes of temperature that prevail on its surface. The
possible limits, therefore, between which the temperature of a pk'eier
can vary, are too slight to afford sufficient exjiansion even to a substance
so expansible as ice.* Moreover, as has been well pointed out by
Mr. Grose, of the English Geological Survey, "it follows, that a glacier,
instead of moving more rapidly" (as in the case) "during summer than
in winter, should, according to Mr. Moseley's theory, have no motion in
summer whatever,"t — the range of temperature attributed to the glacier
being between limits absolutely incapable of effi^cting the expansion of
the ice in the smallest degree. "|

This fourth theory of glacier motion having been disposed of, the
field was left comparatively clear, but for some time no competitor
appeared to claim the dangerous honor. Faraday's discovery of
regclation seemed to suggest a m.ethod of accounting, in some degree,
for the continuity of the mass during its motion. He found that two

*The co-efficient of the expansion of ice is .00(i(i2i-56' for 1° Fah. It is, therefore, twice ae
dilatable as lead, and more so than any other known solid body.

fi. E. d- D. Fhih. Maj., Sept., 1870. XL. E. & D. Pfiilo. Mag., -Ith Series. Vol. x. p. 303.

76 Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of the Glacier.

pieces of ice in a melting state, if brought together, unite and become
one. It was therefore suggested by Tyndall, that this newly discovered
property of ice might be made to supersede the necessity of assuming,
with Forbes, a plasticity, of which there was no proof, in order to
account for the changes of form exhibited by the glacier in the course
of its progress. Tyndall argued, that the ice might be broken into
thousands of fragments, and that these would, under the pressure,
again unite and form a single mass, adapting itself in this way to any
new shape that might be requisite. By this means he endeavored to
explain the passage of the Mer de Glace, which at the junction of its
tributary stream is 2,597 yards wide, through the narrow gorge of
Trilaporte, the width of which is only 893 yards.

But this glacial theory, if such it can be called, leaves the subject
in even a worse position than did the viscous theory of Forbes,
inasmuch as it supplies no moving force to account for the motion of
the ice. Granted, that the ice moves and breaks, regelation may
then account for cementation of the fragments into one mass. But by
denying the plasticity of ice, the very posssibility of its motion is
destroyed. Canon Moseley has shown* that a solid body, such as
glacier ice, would show no tendency to flow down the slope of the
Mer de Glace, but would stand as firmly on its base, unless urged by
a pressure from behind, as Avould a column of ice of one square foot in
area, and of the same height as the glacier. If then the ice breaks,
it is not plastic enough to flow, and if it is not plastic enough to flow
under the influence of gravitation, it must be urged on by some other
force, sufficient to overcome its high unit of shear. What that force
is, the theory in question does not suggest. If put forward as a help
to the viscous theory, it proves a dangerous ally. Regelation can not
occur without antecedent fracture, and fracture excludes the funda-
mental assumption of the viscous theory.

Moreover, regelation does not occur unless the ice is in a melting state,
or at 32° (F.) of temperature, whereas a glacier is more solid during
the winter, when the thermometer ranges below the freezi-ng point,
than in the summer, when the ice is comparatively soft and thawing
over its whole surface. The fractures therefore produced by the
movement of the ice in winter should not close until the warmth of
spring has again raised the temperature of the ice to regelation point,
or 32° (F.)

The experiments by which Prof. Tyndall has endeavored to prove
that ice can change its form by means of its property of regelation —
beautiful as they no doubt are— lie open to an objection which renders
thetu irrelevant. He has compressed snow under hydraulic power,

* Proceedings of the British Naturalists'' Society, for 1869.

Review of Hie Controversy Begarding the Motion of the Glacier. 77

so that when turned out it had become a mass of perfectly clear ice —
an effect, as he urges, due to its having regealed when the molecules
were brought very closely together. In the case of a snowball made
by the hands of a boy, this explanation is no doubt true, for the
pressure is small ; but when the force of the hydraulic press is brought
into use, can Prof. Tyndall assert that the snow did not wholly, or m
great part, melt in consequence of the lowering of its congelation point,
and freeze again on the removal of the pressure ? If so, the regela-
tion to which he appeals is quite a different process from that of
Faraday— occuring below, instead of at the freezing point; under
great, instead of little external pressure ; and throughout the mass, in-
stead of only at the surface. Logically, therefore, it seems as if Prof.
Tyndall, in making the suggestion, with a view, apparently, to sup-
port the Viscous Theory, has cut away from under the theory the
very ground upon which it has previously maintained its foothold.
It is, manifestly, impossible to hold at the same time both Forbes'
theory and Tyndall's explanation of it.

It should be borne in mind, that all writers who seek to explain the
motion of glacier ice, by a resort to forces sufficient to overcome
this length unit of shear, are bound to include in their explanation a
solution of the difficulty, that the swiftest movement is found in the
middle and at the surface. In seeking such a force in the weight of
the ice itself, or in that component of the weight, which acts horizon-
tally, they are met by the fact, that at the surface, where the move-
ment is swiftest, the weight is least ; in other words, the greatest
result ensues when the smallest force is employed. The horizontal
component of the weight of the first foot in depth, on a slope so low
as that of the xMere de Glace, is almost nothing, while the shearing force
of the ice is as great there as at any point of the glacier, supposing it
to be in a frozen state. It is impossible, therefore, that the mere
weight of the ice can supply any motive power sufficient to shear the
upper layers, whatever it may be able to effect at greater depth in the

mass.

From this difficulty, however, those are free who attempt to ac-
count for the motion, not by introducing a force of high intensity to
overcome the full shearing force of the ice, but by resorting to some
means of undermining that resistance to such a degree, that the
horizontal component of gravity in the glacier may be sufficient of
itself to produce the whole movement observed. There has been,
therefore, of late years, a disposition to work in this direction for a
solution of the problem, and to seek a clue to it in some of the less
obvious properties of ice. The further consideration of this will be
the subject of the second part of this paper.

78 Review of the Development of Natural History as a Science.

Hevieiv of the Develiypment of Natural Hidonj as a Science.
By W. W. Calkins.

Said the great, the lamented Agassiz : "I have devoted my whole
life to the study of Nature, and yet a single sentence may express all
that I have done." This confession, coming from one who occupied the
very highest rank among the learned, and who desired no greater
epitaph than that of Teacher, reveals to us the simplicitj^ and grandeur
of the man. It suggests that the grace of modesty might be cultivated
by most people with great propriety.

Since man was first created, he has been engaged in studying the
world of animate and inanimate objects around him. From the time
when Adam investigated the properties of a certain apple in the garden
of Eden, our race has been employed in the constant endeavor to
account for its own existence as well as that of other objects, by study-
ing the diverse plans underlying the whole. As the first rude efforts
seem to us like childish displays, so, when the present era shall become
antiquity, our attainments in knowledge will no doubt appear small
indeed, in comparison with the advances that shall mark the future
age.

For two thousand years natural history has occupied a prominent
place among the sciences. Aristotle was the first prominent natural-
ist, and the founder of the science. As evidence of this we have
his "Hi-itory of Animals," a work which contains the full results of
ancient learning in this department, and surprises us by its minuteness
of detail and the knowledge of the subject which it evinces. One
other fact is also worthy of notice, that, considering the boasted
superiority of our present civilization, does not reflect favorably upon
our system of education. In Aristotle's time, two thousand years ago,
text-books of natural history were in common use, and the study was
pursued with vigor, while we are still without elementary works of
this kind adapted to the young beginner. Therefore, the knowledge
on this subject to be acquired in our schools is limited. We are,
however, gradually working up to the point where the systematic study
of natural history in the school will be indispensable and popular.

After eighteen hundred years, Linnaeus resumed the work where
Aristotle left it, and until he appeared as the lawgiver of science, we
find that very little progress had been made in the study of natural
history. Pliny added but little to what had been done by Aristotle.
An mteUectual darkness, hanging like a pall over the middle ages,
followed the enlightened period of Koman and Grecian history, and gave

Review of the Development of Natural Histonj as a Science. 79

us nothing. The sixteenth century witnessed a temporary revival in this
and other branches of learning. The minds of men were then chiefly
occupied in contemplating the policy and achievements of those great
military heroes, the emperor Charles V., Frances IV., Philip 11.,
and Henry IV., while the religious tendencies of the age found
expression in Luther and the Reformation. The naturalists of
this century were mainly occupied in studying local species, and
disputing over ancient authors; therefore, their labor did but
little good beyond keeping alive some interest in the study. The
seventeenth century witnessed remarkable advances in general
knowledge, but men had not yet ceased wondering over the successful
revolt of the Netherlands, and the brilliant military careers of Gustavus
Adolphus, Wallenstein, and Tilly.

In an age when war formed the chief occupation of men, and the
profession of arms furnished almost the only avenues to distinction, it
is no marvel that learning was neglected, or cultivated merely by the
few. It was reserved, then, for Linnaeus, in the last century, to
break the spell that had for so many ages retarded the development
of natural science, and strike the key-note that aroused the
scholars of Europe from their lethargy. Aristotle had given us
genera and species. He had divided the animal kingdom into the
Enaima and Anaima, or blooded and bloodless animals. But he failed
to provide any well defined system of classification, by separating
animals into their natural groups ; or to describe them, except Ln the
common language of the day. Linnteus, beginning where Aristotle left
off, established, in addition to genera and species, classes and orders.
He divided the animal kingdom into six classes : Mammalia, Birds,
Reptiles, Fishes, Insects, and Worms. But defects were discovered
in this grouping. The class Mammalia he at first called the Quadru-
pedia, meaning four-legged, fur-bearing animals, bringing forth
living young, thus excluding a division of mammalia, the Cetaceans, or
whales, etc.

This classification of Linnseus at once aroused the attention and
provoked the criticism of naturalists. The result was salutary. The
defects of the new system were pointed out, and the important prin-
ciple of a classification founded upon internal structure — by which
animals are grouped upon common structural characters — was estab-
lished. Linnaeus, in "his ^sterna Naturoe, corrects many of his pre-
vious errors. The active study of natural history led to many other
classifications besides that of Linnaius; to him, however, belongs the
credit of awakening inquiry in this direction, and of making the first
attempt at a comprehensive system of grouping, that should embrace

0 Review of the Development of Natural History as a Science.

all animals. The magnitude of the task will be appreciated, when
we consider the confusion and ignorance then prevailing in the science,
and the vast extent and variety of species. These now number two
hundred and thirty thousand.

But Linnaeus did more. Prior to his time, research, confined
mainly to continental Europe, had, as I have already hinted, been
carried on in a limited and desultory manner. Each naturalist had
studied his own immediate neighborhood or province, describing the
species he found in the vernacular tongue. From want of communi-
cation, naturalists were but little acquainted with each other's labors.
It became necessary to have a common scientific language and mode of
expression that should be intelligible to all scholars, and at the same
time embrace the elements of simplicity and adaptability. The bino-
mial system, devised by Linnaeus, contained exactly these elements,
and the strongest proof we have of this fact, was its approval and
adoption by all naturalists. The confusion that had before existed on
account of the different names and languages employed, was now re-
lieved by the use of one language — the Latin.

This achievement, while it placed Linnaeus in the front rank of
investigators, gave an unusual impetus to the study of natural history.
We find, however, that Linneeus' classification did not meet with the
same success. Its defects did not escape criticism from Lamarck,
Ehrenberg, Von Baer, Cuvier, and other great naturalists. Had we
time, it would be interesting to review in detail the labors of these
scientists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and observe how
slowly, step by step, the truths of science were discovered and estab-
lished. Each contributed, more or less, to the final result. But all,
with the exception of Cuvier, failed to reach the grand principles of
classification.

It was Cuvier, then, who so far unlocked the secrets of creation, as
to discover the plans upon which all animals are built. When he
announced his theory, dividing the whole animal kingdom into four
classes : Eadiates, Mollusks, Articulates, and Vertebrates, the scientific
world stood amazed, as though a revelation had been made from
Heaven. Cuvier's discoveries Avere, however, the legitimate product
of intelligent thought and research. The founder of comparative
anatomy was not one who skimmed over the surface of things.
Others had studied external and specific characters ; Cuvier went
deeper. He examined the internal organization and relations of animals.
He tells us that comparison was the secret of his success. The result
embodied the four plans of creation above mentioned. These divisions
lie based on certain characters entering into the structure of animals.

Review of the Development of Natural History as a Science. 81

We hardly know which to admire most, this discovery, or the system
of comparative anatomy, resulting from its application. Both may be
considered as eras in the study of the sciences. Neither were received
at first with absolute credit. The first met with much opposition, but
time has fully verified the conclusions of Cuvier, The system was too
short and simple for those naturalists, who, like some at the present
day, have such a fondness for classification, that they overlook great
natural laws underlying the construction of animals, and fimcyiug they
see in some peculiarity or abnormal form a new species or principle,
forthwith make divisions and subdivisions ad infinitum.

The views of Cuvier, Avhich have withstood successful criticism for
nearly three quarters of a century, lead us to draw the following con-
clusions : First, that Cuvier's four classes embrace all known animals ;
Second, that there is thought and harmonious law as the basis of all,
the whole directed by one will — the Creator ; and Third, that the num-
erous divisions of the four great groups mentioned, such as classes,
orders, families, genera, species, and the subdivisions of these, to be of
value, should be formed in accordance with characters expressed in
nature. Otherwise, they are artificial distinctions, tending to lead us
away from what we seek, and that which is the basis of all science —
the tridh.

Another great discovery, hardly less important than those men-
tioned, was that of Yon Baer, in embryology, i. e., the fiict that all
animals are produced from the egg, and though alike at first, grow to
maturity on four diflerent plans. Embryology is yet in its infancy.
Agassiz made some of his greatest discoveries in this science, and it
furnishes one of the most attractive and promising fields open to the
explorer.

I have now pointed out some of the great epochs of natural history,
barely stating prominent facts, omitting, from necessity, details con-
nected with its growth, and names that have become distinguished in
its development. Its history, for fifty years, has been that of rapid
progress. In common with all other branches of knowledge, it has
had its eras of brilliant achievements. But the latter part of the last,
and the beginning of the present century, were particularly marked
by great discoveries. It has been said, that after revolutions the
intellectual vigor of nations is always quickened. It was so in Ger-
many, France and the United States.

This country has been honored in being the adopted home of one
man, who, by his labors and discoveries in natural history, his sim-
plicity and greatness of soul, has done more for the science than any
mau'since Cuvier. The present century has produced hosts of distin-

82 TJie Zoological Society of Cincinnati.

guished naturalists, who have labored successfully in their particular
departments, but Agassiz, at the time of his death, probably, ranked
first among living contemporaries. In conclusion, I have only to
remark, that this and other of the sciences, entering as they do into
our thoughts, occupations and lives, should, as far as possible, be
popularized, by providing liberally for their support and study in all
our schools and scientific institutions.

The Zoological Society of Cincinjiati.

This organization having become a fixed fact, and the practical
realization of its plans in a measure accomplished, we feel sure that
all lovers of science will join in acknowledgments to those worthy gen-
tlemen, through whose liberality, energy, and public spirit, alldifiiculties
in the way of its creation have been overcome, and the foundation laid
for a permanent institution, which may, at no distant day, rival the
older enterprises of Europe.

The true way to popularize science, is to bring the objects of scien-
tific investigation within the reach of the many, and any enterprise
having this for its aim, deserves the cordial good-will and support of
the community. Scientific museums, art galleries, industrial expo-
sitions, and zoological collections, open to the public on easy terms,
do as much, or possibly more, for the education of the people at large,
than public libraries. Perhaps it is hardly proper to institute such
a comparison, inasmuch as these supplement the schools and libraries
in affording an opportunity to verify the results of book-training by
actual observation. The mode in which they contribute to the general
education of the people, however, is by exciting an interest in the
objects of nature, that by reflex action naturally leads the mincl to
inquire into the relations of those objects, and the laws by which they
are governed. But to the young, who are engaged in the study of
science in our schools and colleges, these institutions are of more direct
and living importance. They afibrd material for object teaching,
which no private or public institution of learning could gather or
maintain. Each lesson — each newly acquired fact, is thus stamj)ed
upon the mind of youth with a vivid and ineffaceable reality which
thenceforth becomes part of the mental constitution. By such modes
are to be trained the minds of our youth, if they would be able to

The Zoological Society of Cincinnati. 83

grapple with the scientific problems of the future. The intellect of
to-day demands facts — sifted and tried — as the basis of all speculation ;
and the future demand will be even more inexorable. It therefore
behooves us to provide liberally for that demand ; and, as a step in
this direction, the creation of a zoological garden with the object, as
declared in the Constitutionof the Society, of promoting the "study and
dissemination of a knowledge of the nature and habits of creatures of
the animal kingdom," is one which entitled its projectors to the grati-
tude of every citizen who appreciates the value of education.

We are enabled, through the kindness of the officers of the Society,
to present a brief history of its origin and organization. Prior to any
public suggestion of the matter, Mr. Andrew Erkenbrecher, President
of the Acclimatization Society, had, through the Secretary of that
body, corresponded with the celebrated naturalist. Dr. A. E. Brehra,
with a view of obtaining an estimate of the cost of a Zoological Garden
established upon European models, requesting statistics in regard
to those already established in Europe, and all othe r available infor-
mation pertinent to the subject.

The reply of the distinguished scientist, containing many valuable
suggestions, and accompanied by the annual reports and statements of
several European societies, was laid before a meethig of the Acclimati-
zation Society, held at the rooms of the Cincinnati Board of Trade,
June 19th, 1873. At this meeting, a resolution, oifered by Mr. John
Simpkinson, was adopted, providing for a committee charged with
the duty of digesting a plan of operations. The committee, consisting
of Messrs. Andrew Erkenbrecher, John Simpkmson, and George H.
Knight, subsequently called a meeting of citizens understood to be
favorable to the proposed enterprise, for Monday, June 30, 1873, at
which Dr. Lilienthal, Mr. Simpkinson, and others, delivered spirited
addresses, a large sum of money was subscribed, and resolutions Avere
adopted providing for the incorporation of a Society whose capital stock
should be 6300,000. In conformity with this action, Messrs. Simpkin-
son, Erkenbrecher, C. Oskamp, Knight, and A. Tenner, subscribed
articles of incorporation under the name of the " Zoological Society of
Cincinnati," which were duly filed and recorded, according to law, on
the 11th dav of July, 1873. The first meeting of the newly formed
Society, was held at the Board of Trade rooms, on July 28th, and the
following named gentlemen elected Directors to manage its afl'airs, viz. :
Joseph Longworth, J. Simpkinson, A. Erkenbrecher, A. Pfirmann,
John A. Mohlenhoff*, Charles P. Taft, John Shillito, George K. Shoen-
berger and Julius Dexter. The Board of Directors thus constituted,
immediately organized and elected the following named officers, viz. :

84 The Zoological Society of Cincinnati.

Joseph Longworth, President; J. Simpkinson, Vice-President;
Cleaaiens Oskamp, Treasurer ; Charles P. Taft, Eecording Secretary ;
and A. Tenner, Corresponding Secretary. Messrs. Juhus Dexter,
Charles P. Taft, and A. Tenner, were appointed a committee to draft
a constitution and l3y-laws for the Society, who submitted the results
of their labor at a meeting called for the purpose, August 15th, and
the same were finally adopted by the Society, at the first regular
annual meeting of stockholders thereafter, on January 5th, 1874.
From the constitution, as adopted, Ave make the following extracts :

" Sec. 1. The name of the Society shall be ' The Zoological Society
of Cincinnati.'

" Sec. II. The object of the Society shall be .the establishment and
maintenance of a Zoological Garden at Cincinnati, and the study and
dissemination of knowledge of the nature and habits of creatures of
the animal kingdom.

"Sec. XVI. Stockholders shall be entitled to receive for each
share of stock up to the number of five, twenty single tickets of ad-
mission each year, or one season ticket. All season tickets shall be
issued in the name of a particular person, which shall be registered,
and any season ticket presented by any other person than the one to
whom it is issued, shall be forfeited," etc.

At the same meeting, a new election of officers being required by
the constitution annually, Messrs. Longworth, Shoeuberger, Dexter,
Taft, Horton, Simpkinson, Erkenbrecher, Mohlenhoff, and Pfirmann,
were elected directors, to serve for the terms of one, two, and three
years, respectively ; and upon the organization of the Board of Direc-
tors, the following named gentlemen were elected officers for the year
1874, viz.: Geo. K. Shoenberger, President ; A. Erkenbrecher, Vice-
President ; Charles P. Taft, Secretary ; Clemens Oskamp, Treasurer ;
and A. Tenner, Corresponding Secretary.

On April 27, 1874, Julius Dexter was elected President of the As-
sociation, vice Geo. K. Shoenberger, resigned ; and subsequently, C.
Oskamp, was elected a director, vice S. D. Horton, resigned.

As will be seen from the foregoing summary of its history and organi-
zation, the Zoological Society is a strictly private enterprise, not in
any way dependent upon municipal aid for its existence or success.
Many years, and a large expenditure of money, will be required for
the full development of the plans acbpted, but with the means already
secured, the society will be enabled so far to complete the improve-
ment of the site selected, as to open its Garden to the inspection of the
public in the summer of 1875, with a collection of animals larger than
is possessed by any other society in this country.

The Zoological Society of Cincinnati

85

The zoological gardens of Europe are conducted upon the plan
adopted for this one, and receive, in the way of donations from various
sources, a large part of their collections, and, in many cases, the build-
ings for their shelter. While ours may not expect to receive aid of
this nature to the same extent, yet there is little doubt that the liberal
sentiment already displayed toward the enterprise will continue and
increase to a degree which will, in a few years, abundantly relieve it

from any embarrassments attending its foundation. ]\Iany of the
animals now in its collection, together with trees and shrubbery for
the adornment of the grounds, have been contributed by friends of
the enterprise, and many more are promised.

The Garden, containing 69 acres, will, when completed, be a de-
lightful park, where hill and vale, grassy lawn and blue lakelet, flash-

"86

Addaspis O'Nealli.

ing cascade and rustic bridge, will alternate in attracting the eye,
forming vistas of varied beauty, as seen amid grouping foliage. The
collection of animals to be displayed, brought together from all parts
of the world, will be sheltered and cared for in and about ornamental
buildings, erected in varied and suggestive styles of architecture —
Gothic, Norman, Oriental, etc. Much of the ground work is com-
pleted, and the remainder is being rapidly pushed forward, with the
expectation of finishing the grading of avenues and the planting of
trees by the summer of 1875. The shelter-houses will require a longer
time for their completion.

The illustration presented herewith, shows the ground-plan of the
Garden, with location of avenues, lakes, bridges, cascades, and shelter-
houses. By reference to the numbers, the exact positions will be more
readily understood from the following list :

1. Buffalo house.

2. Prairie dog house.

3. Cattle iuclosure.

4. Aviary.

5. Elephant and hippopotamus.

6. Camel, giraffe and antelope.

7. Kangaroo inclosure.
8 Deer house.

9. Tower.

10. Small deer house.

11. Large bear pit.

12. Eagle inclosure (house for birds of

prey).

13. Restaurant.

14. Orchestra stand.

15. -Monkey house.

16. Ostrich house.

17. Chamois.

18. Wolf house,

19. Carnivorary and winter house.

20. Beaver pond.

21. Owl castle and small bear pit.

22. Large lake (water fowl).

23. Goat inclosure. ^

24. Sheep inclosure.

25. Wombat house.

26. Otter pond.

27. Seal pond.

28. Coney 'burrow.

29. Fox house.

30. Fowl house.

A. Large entrance house.

B. Small entrance house.

C. Large cascade and rustic; bridge.

D. Small fountain in front of restau-

rant.
Places for the following houses have
not yet been assigned:

Swine house.

House for different small climbing

animals.
Squirrel house.
Craile house.
Doves' cote.
Llama.

Addaspis O'Nealli — (S. A. Miller).

Body medium size, subeUiptical in outline, only slightly convex,
tuberculated.

Cephalic shield a little more than twice as wide as long, somewhat

Editorial Miscellany. 87

semi-circular, margin consisting of three subequal arcs and produced
into rather strong spines that extend obliquely outward ; lateral arcs
spinous ; eyes prominent, directed outward. Glabella twice as long as
wide, with two lateral lobes on each side, the anterior ones somewhat
oval in outluie, the posterior ones situated between the eyes, and
the central lobe somewhat circular in outline ; glabella terminatmg
posteriorly in a short spine, which projects over the middle lobe of the
trilobite to the fifth segment ; neck furrow rather distinctly marked.

Fig. 0,—Acidaspis O' Nealli.

Thorax about twice as long as the cephalic shield, and exclusive of
the produced extremities of the pleurse, a little longer than wide ;
consisting of eight segments ;. middle lobe strongly convex ; lateral
Jobes depressed ; pleurse terminating in rather long mucronate spines
directed outward and backward, posterior ones a little longer,
and directed more nearly backward.

Pygidium small, axis short, sides flat, except a ridge that extends
obliquely backward and outward from the anterior segment of the
mesial lobe across each, and terminates in a prominent, rounded, diverg.
ing spine. Between these two projecting spines the specimen shows
no spines, though it may have had four minute ones of about equal
size. There are apparently two mmute spines on each side of these
projecting spines.

Length of specimen, exclusive of spines, 0.65 inch; breadth, 0.45
inch ; breadth between the eyes, 0.20 mch.

The specific name is given in honor of the collector, J. Kelly O'lSTeall,
of Lebanon, Ohio, who found it in the upper part of the Cmcinuat
Group, near Lebanon.

EDITORIAL MISCELLANY.

The Cincinnati Museum of Science and Art. — Mr. Henry Pro-
basco, to whose taste and munificence the city of Cincinnati already
owes so much, recently, upon two public occasions, has announced the
fact that he and other gentlemen of wealth have in contemplation the

88 Editorial Miscellany.

details of a plan for establishing, in this city, an institution similar in
its general design to the South Kensington Museum, of London,
"which is to be in its nature educational, devoted to the culture of
science and art among the people at large.

The importance of such an institution in the Queen City of the West,
already recognized as a growing center of musical and artistic culture,
can hardly be overestimated, if the noble project is so consummated as to
subserve the interests of education in the highest and best sense.

The cultivation of the mind through the ©ye, is universally recognized
as one of the nv)st efficacious modes of modern education ; and the col-
lection, in one convenient building, of objects for illustrative reference
in the various departments of natural science and the fine arts, can not
but exercise a most important influence upon the general culture of
the community.

Something has been already accomplished in this direction — so far,
at least, as relates to Natural History — by a society of some years' ex-
istence in this city, composed of persons more especially devoted to tech-
nical scientific culture. This organization, known as the " Cincinnati
Society of Natural History," has already accumulated a valuable col-
lection of objects illustrating the various departments of Natural History
and pre-historic Archeology, which needs only a proper and secure
place for its deposit, to be veryjargely increased by donations, now with-
held because of the insufficiency and insecurity of the present rooms.

The same remarks apply with little modification to the fine library
and collection of antiquities of the "Historical Society of Ohio." These
societies, Avith their valuable treasures, are quartered in small garret-
rooms of the College Building, on Walnut street, practically inaccessi-
ble to the general public, and exposed to all exigencies of fire.

Both of these societies, composed of men of exceptional culture,
deeply interested in promoting the special objects of their association,
could be made valuable auxiliaries in perfecting the f)l<iii announced by
Mr. Probasco. They might be united as departments of an institute
which should include any others contemplated by the founders ; and the
stimulus thus afforded to nuclei already in existence, would be productive
of results far exceeding those attainable in any other way. A live
and permanent interest would thus be maintained in each department,
under the control of persons devoted to the particular objects of its
creation ; and a fire-proof and convenient building for their exhibition
would attract to such collections a vast number of valuable and inter-
esting objects now buried in comparatively useless private cabinets.

— In this connection, we may refer to the American Museum of
Natural History recently established in the old arsenal in Central

Editorial Miscellany. 89

Park, New York, to which Miss Catherine Wolfe has lately presented
a conchological collection, numbering 50,000 specimens, costing 810,000.

The municipal government of that city is now erecting a magnificent
building for this museum, of very large proportions, for the first
section of which — one eighth of the ultimate structure — the sum of half
a million dollars has been appropriated. The city is only to erect the
buildings, the cost of collecting and preserving the specimens being
defrayed by a private society. The success attending the opening of
this museum to the public is said to have been something remarkable,
no less than ten thousand peofde visiting it daily. The departments
represented in its splendid collection are such, in variety and classifi-
cation, as to offer invaluable opportunities for special investigation, and
are already attracting scientific men from distant parts of the country.

The Zoological department comprises the collections of Prince
Maximilian, of Xeurvied, M. Vedrey, and M. Vereaux, containing
nearly 4,000 specimens of mounted mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes,
including skeleton forms.

The collection of North American Birds contains 2,500 s^^ecimens;
Lepidoptera are represented by 10,000 specimens ; Beetles aad Insects
by 4,000 specimens, besides a collection of foreign insects as yet un-
classified. Mollusca are well represented by various collections,
including the magnificent donation of Miss "Wolfe, which occupies an
entire story, accompanied as it is by a rare conchological library of
10,000 volumes.

The Entomological department comprises 8,000 specimens of Amer-
ican Coleoptera^ representing 3,000 species ; also, sixteen skeletons of
the gigantic fossil Moas, of New Zealand. Mineralogy is represented
by 7,000 cabinet specimens. The museum also includes the fine
collection of pre-historic remains, belonging to Dr. Davis, formerly of
Ohio, which contains many typical and rare forms of utensils used by
the ancient Mound -Builders of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys.

Besides those mentioned, there are other collections which will be
classified and arranged when the society occupies its new building It is
the intention of the projectors to establish a system of scientific lectures
by persons eminent in the various departments of science, and to keep
the collections open to the public on easy terms.

— While upon this subject it may not be uninteresting to refer, also,
to the magnificent museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia. This organization, which assumed the shape of a
legal entity in 1812, was formed by persons, who, prior to that time,
met at each other's houses for the purpose of mutual instruction in
Natural Efistory, and of devising the plan of the present institution.

90 Editorial Miscellany.

The museum was opened in 1828, and has, since 1841, published its
proceedings in an interesting and valuable series. One of the most
important features of this museum, is the splendid collection of human
Crania, begun by the late Dr. S. G. Morton, and said to be the finest
in existence. This collection, increased by various subsequent addi-
tions, now contains upward of 1,300 specimens, including many of
great rarity and value. Among the more ancient races represented,
are the Phojnician, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Hindoo, Peruvian of
the Inca race, ancient Peruvian, Aztec, Otomie, Pames, Chichimec,
Hispano-Mexican, etc. ; besides a full collection of specimens of the
early and more recent tribes of Indians of the United States and
Canadas, Caribs and Brazilians. In the collection of mummies are
many specimens of Egyptian art ; also, two natural mummies, or
desiccated bodies, from the arid salt-desert of Atacama, lying between
Peru and Chili, supposed, by Dr. Morton, to be representatives of the
long extinct race whose profiles are sometimes figured in Centra
American sculpture. Perhaps no collection in the world affords the
ethnologist so good an opportunity for comparative study.

American ARCHiEOLOGY. — It is the desire and purpose of the edi-
tors,, in response to a general and increasing mterest in the subject, to
devote more attention than hitherto, to the inquiry concerning the
ethnical history of the pre-historic races of this country, as a legit-
imate and important branch of scientific investigation. In this view,
communications from investigators, containing new and interesting
matter, will be given due space and consideration. It is highly impor-
tant, however, that the facts should be presented with accuracy and
detail. The subject has been already sufficiently embarrassed by
speculations founded upon inaccurate or insufficient observations ; and
phlogistic theorizing must give place to experimental methods, ere we
can hope to advance our knowledge in the true direction.

While, therefore, soliciting information from our readers and cor-
respondents who have given the subject attention, we would impress
upon them the importance of holding the imagination in check until
all the /acts have been properly exhausted. It often happens, in prac-
tical investigations of this nature, that the result is rendered in a
measure valueless, by the ommission to note fully the circumstances
under which a given examination is made, or the precise relation of
objects recovered to surrounding conditions. For the same reason,
the student, who seeks knowledge by a comparative study of remains
gathered in museums, is often embarrassed, and his labor rendered
vain, by the absence of similar information.

Editorial Miscellany. 91

The value of such details is indicated in the following extract from
a letter recently received from Prof. Henry, the distinguished head of
the Smithsonian Institution, at Washington.

" It is our object to trace the development of a particular idea, or
the use of a given material, over the entire extent of its range, so as
to judge of the comparative relationships and affinities of the people
in different sections of the country. The concurrent use of a certam
material, such as copper, over a wide extent of country, while the
material itself is confined to a single locality, has an important bear-
ing on the question of the domestic commerce of the aborigines ; while
the reproduction, in different materials, of some particular form, over
an extended region, indicates, to a certain extent, a common origin,
or, at least, a close intercourse."

The importance of such careful an4 detailed observation pertains
to all archaeological inquiry ; but it Ls doubly necessary in the
present case, Avhen we consider, what we have before remarked in a
similar connection, namely : that the page here presented to our scru-
tiny is a palimpsest from which the characters inscribed by later, and
perhaps inferior, races, are to be eliminated before we can hope to
decipher the record of the true autocthones.

Every circumstance bearing upon the actual or relative age of
remains, is, therefore, of the highest importance. Depth and charac-
ter of soil; excavation of ravines; change in line of watercourses;
type of mound structures, and theii* position in respect to river-terrace
formations ; annular growth of trees ; thickness of vegetable deposits ;
material and style of minor relics — all are matters to which the closest
observation should be given, together with others which will suggest
themselves to the practical archseologist.

AxciENT Burial Custom, — Prof. E. W. Claypole, of Antioch
College, Yellow Springs, Ohio, sends us a brief note of the discovery,
in his neighborhood, of a human skeleton, somewhat decayed, in a
.gravel bank, about a foot or so beneath the surface, with a sheet of
mica covering the face of the skull ; and suggests the inquiry : whether
the practice of placing mica over the face was common in burials
among the early settlers of Ohio.

Presumptively, upon the information furnished, the remains are
aboriginal — the presence of mica, under similar circumstances, being
a feature not uncommon in burials of the ancient and perhaps the
more recent aborigines of the United States. The mineral is often
discovered in the earth-mounds, and in the vicinity of ancient works
in nearly every section where there are remains of the Mound-Build-

92 Editorial Mheellany.

ers. No original deposit exists within the State of Ohio. Mr. Jones,
in liis "Antiquities of the Southern Indians," alludes to the frequent
oceurrence of "isinglass mirrors," or dises of mica, not only in the
ancient graves and mounds, but also upon the sites of old Indian vil-
lages and in relic-beds, in Georgia. Squier and Davis bear similar
testimony concerning the tumuli of Ohio.

Prof, Kerr, r»f the Geological Survey of North Carolina, from the
evidences of ancient mica-mining operations, disclosed in clearing out
pits formerly supposed to have l^een excavated by Dc Soto, believes
the soui'ce of supply resorted to by the Mound-Builders, for this min-
eral, existed in the mountainous regions of his State. Our markets
are now chiefly supplied from that locality.

Mound Explorations. — Prof R. D. Smith, Principal of the Co-
lumlna Athenaeum, Maury county, Tennessee, sends us the following
interesting account of a mound exploration recently made by him,
assisted by, Dr. W. A. Smith of the same institution :

" Since my last letter to you we have ojjened the large mound, of
which I have before spoken, situated four or five miles north of this
plaf;e (Columbia). The mound is a four-sided truncated pyramid,
say 80 by 30 feet at the base, with a level summit about 50 l:)y 20 feet
in area, and is about 25 feet in perpendicular altitude. Forty years
ago, large trees, two and two and a half feet in diameter, grew upon
this mound, but no trace of them now remains. Before the war the
level top of the mound was used by an old negro as a garden spot.
At present it is covered with a thick growth of cane, f< nir to six feet
high.

" We made an opening in the top of the mound in the center, say
nine feet in diameter. The first three and a half feet of excavation locxs
through soil, evidently made from decaying. vegetable matter since its original
construction by the Mound- Builders. (This may assist you in determin-
ing the age.) After passing through this soil the "made earth" could
be easily distinguished, and it was- here that the only "find" was dis-
covei'cd. Near the center of the mound we found an opening in the
top. aljoiit twenty inches in diameter, and about twelve inches deep,
in the form of a pot, made by excavating the earth and plastering the
hole with mud, then partially burning it. Within this receptacle Ave
found pieces of charcoal— some oH them six inches long. This I take
to be good evidence of the original height of the mound, and that all
of the earth above has been formed since ; and, also, that it was a sac-
rificial mound.' The excavation Avas continued to the level of the sur-
rounding country, but without further results."

Editorial Miscellamj. 93

— We have italicised the .statement relative to the deposit of vegetal )le
matter upon the original surface, for the purpose of directing attention
thereto, and eliciting inquiry as to the average rate of such depof^it in
the ordinary forests. Although the accumulation of decayed vegeta-
tion, year by year, is perhai:)s hardly susceptible " of such accurate
measurement as the alluvium of rivers, which, like the Nile, are subject
to periodic overflow, yet data could perhaps be gathered from which
approximate results might be ascertained.

— The same diligent observers send us also an account of an explora-
tion made a week or two previous, which we reproduce as bcarhig
upon the inquiry suggested by Prof. Claypole :

" The mound opened is situated seven miles south of Columbia,
about midway between the Pulaski and Campbellsville roads, near
Bigbyville, upon a hill-side commanding one of the most beautiful pros-
pects m the country. It would measure aljout thirty feet in diameter
at the base, and about seven feet in perpendicular height. All that
we found was a portion of one skeleton — some of the feet bones, por-
tion of a thigh bone, and a fragment of an arm. We could trace
other portions, but they were too much decomposed to be taken out.
On the face and both hands were plates of mica — one of which I send
you. Near one of the hands were two teeth of some animal ; one
crumbled upon exposure to the air, the other is nearly perfect, which
please accept, and tell us what it was used for. Both were exactly
alike. Could not find any traces of pottery, or implements of any
kind. From what I can learn, this section of country was not used
by the Indians as a place of residence, but simply as a hunting
ground — their regular camps being to the west of this, in Lawrence,
Hickman, and othe» counties."

The tooth received was that of a bear. It was ground flat on op-
posite sides, on one of which were two small holes, drilled through in-
to the nerve-cavity. The specimen was identical with those obtained
recently by Dr. Hill, from the aboriginal graves upon Brighton Hill,
near Cincinnati, and supposed to have been attached, by means of a
string passing through these holes and the nerve-cavity, to the breast
of the wearer, either as an emblem of prowess or badge of office.

The discovery of these teeth, prepared in precisely the same man-
ner, at points so distant from each other, v.'ould seem to favor the lat-
ter supposition, inasmuch as such coincidence could hardly be acci-
dental (as would be the case if worn to indicate the personal achieve-
ment of the wearer), and therefore presupposes a conventional sig
nification common to widely separated tribes, which " indicates, to a
certain extent, a common origin, or, at least, a close intercourse," es-

94 Editorial Miscellany.

pecially when considered in connection with the practice of burial, of
which mention has heen made.

— The Missouri Mound.— Since going to press, we have received
from Dr. S. H Headlee, of St. James, Missouri, an interesting letter
concerning the mound near Springfield, described in the paper on
"Sacrificial Mounds" in the foregoing pages of this issue, from which
we extract the following :

"The mound you speak of is located in Greene county, in this
State, about 12 or 14 miles north of Springfield. It is about 37° 20'
north latitude, and 16° west from Washington City. According to
the local survey of the State, it is in Kange 22, Town. 31. It is sixty
feet high, its diameter at the base is 350 feet; at the top 130 feet.
It is surrounded by a trench (except about 20 feet at the north), about
200 feet wide and 4 feet deep. How much this may have filled in the
past is hard to determine. On the north-west there is a deeper ex-
cavation, about 200 feet across, and 6 or 7 feet deep. These trenches
are where the materials came from to build the mound, as the rock
and clay in the mound are the same as those that compose the top of
the hill on which it is situated. The north side has an easy approach,
with a great many large loose rock, which may have composed a stair
way, but of this I am not positive. There are a great many rock in
the mound, but whether they are put in regular layers or not, is hard
to determine from an external survey. Some of them, especially to-
ward the top, seem to be in layers ; others appear to be loose. The
rock is a vermicular sandstone. In the deep cut on the north-west
corner are found numerous fossils, such as I have not been able to
discover in any of the geological formations near. The formation ^
near, in which there are any fossils, is the lower carboniferous, and
all the specimens obtained have been either carbonate of lime or a
silicate, but these are seemingly an oxide of iron. The inference is,
that they have been brought there and left by the Mound-Builders or
the worshipers that came after them, as this is evidently a sacri-
ficial mound.

This mound is on the highest point on the highest hill, in a very
hilly country, and which rises some three hundred feet above the
valleys by which it is surrounded. It is situated in a rough, broken
region, with plenty of water and timber around and near, but very
little tillable land nearer than five miles. It is the only work of its
kind in all the south-western portion of the State so far as I have any
information. When my father settled in that country, forty years ago,
the few remaining Indians could give no account of the mound or its
builders; and it evidently does not belong to the present race of

Editorial Miscellany. . 95

American Indians. Although familiar with this mound from my boy-
hood days, when I would gaze on it with Avonder not unmixed with
awe— standing there all alone among the wild hills, the imperishable
record of a dead and forgotten race — it never occurred to me to
examine it with any accuracy, until last May, while on a visit to my
father, and then I could only give the time to a surface survey. But
it is my intention to visit that country again, between this and the
coming spring, and institute a careful exploration, and if I should find
anything of value to the inquiry into the habits and history of the long
perished races on this continent, it will be a pleasure to me to confer
with you, and submit the results to your consideration.

— MoLLUscA. — W. W. Calkins, of Chicago, in a recent communica-
tion, states, that since the publication of his paper on " Land and
Freshwater Shells of LaSalle county, Illinois," in a previous number of
this Journal, he has identified the following species in addition to the
one hundred and five enumerated in his catalogue : Unio parviis —
(Barnes) ; H. imlehella — (Muller) ; and H. costata — (Muller), said to
be a strongly ribbed variety of H. pidchella, and Ancylus tardus —
(Say), which sj^ecies he found in the Vermillion river, clinging to
small stones. The variety costata are very distinctly marked. He
observes that they have been found in other sections, and follows
Binney in placing them as above.

— Meteorology. — The following interesting summary of observa-
tions of atmospheric phenomena, obtained from the Signal Service ob-
server at this point, should be read by all who would converse intelli-
gently upon that all-absorbing topic — " the weather:"

The Atmosphere. — The circulation of the atmosphere around the
earth bears a striking analogy to the waves of the ocean, except that
the atmospheric waves are of vastly greater dimensions. It extends in
height to the point where the two forces arising from the earth's rota-
tion and the earth's attraction are about equal. The vapor of water
contained in the atmosphere is the prime influence disturbing its
equilibrium. This vapor absorbs heat and renders the air Hght, caus-
ing it to ascend. The earth's surface absorbing the greater portion of
the sun's rays, the air is heated principally at the bottom, when it as-
cends and loses its heat by radiation most rapidly at the top. As this
light, moist air ascends into the upper regions, where the temperature
gradually becomes lower, the vapor of water of which it is largely com-
posed condenses, and when the upward cm-rents have no longer power
sufficient to uphold this aqueous accumulation, it is precipitated in the

96 Editorial Miscellany.

form of rain, or snow. Dry air, on the other hand, by reason of its
greater weight, has a tendency to sink downward and exert a pressure
upon the earth. During the prevalence of a southerly or equatorial
current of air we find, therefore, a low barometer and coraj)aratively
high temperature ; while under a northerly or polar current the op-
posite holds true. In the one case the currents move from the warmer
regions of the earth, passing over warm countries and great bodies of
water, continually absorbing vapor, and in their upward movements
forming clouds by condensation and finally rain. In the other case,
the currents coming from the polar regions are cold and have a
greater density, causing a high barometer, and correspondingly low
temperature.

Storms. — Storms are more or less violent and extensive commotions
of the atmosphere. As a general thing, they are accompanied by a
fall of rain or snow, and ofttimes by thunder and lightning, although
the storm area may extend beyond the area of rain or snow. Ascend-
ing currents of air naturally encounter less pressure, and in consequence
the air expands, and in expanding cools at the rate of 38° for every
two miles of ascent. The vapor which it contained at the earth's
surface is carried with it, and the cold produced by expansion condenses
a portion of this vapor into cloud. When cloud begins to form, the
latent or inappreciable heat of the vapor is liberated", increasing the
temperature of the air in the cloud, which expands in volume and
continues to ascend as long as its temperature exceeds that of the
surrounding air. By reason of the expansion of the air in the forming
cloud, especially after rain begins to fall, the air spreads out in all
directions above, while near the limits of the cloud, owing to its
greater weight, it sinks downward, and a portion of it seeks the center
of the upward current, the remainder flowing as a gentle wind outward
from the limits of the cloud. In consequence of the air spreading out
more rapidly above the cloud than it runs in below, storm areas extend
with great rapidity, until they frequently attain a diameter of more
than a thousand miles.

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THE CISCHSATI QOAP.TERLY

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Vol. II. APRIL, 1875. No. 2.

Tineina of the Central United States.— By V. T. Chambeks.

^6yle, gen. nov.

Though the species described below is very near LitJiocolletis, I have
felt compelled to erect for it this new genus. The neuration of the
fore wings is exactly that of Lithocolletis, except that the marginal
veins other than the first costal and first dorsal are very indistinct.
That of the hind wings is nearer to that of Ch'acilaria, the subcostal
proceeding almost straight to the apex, but being very faint. The dis-
cal (?) vein is furcate on the posterior margin, and the median (?) is short
and simple ; but the costal margin is not at all excised, rather in this
respect resembling Elachuta than either LithocoUetis or Gracilaria. The
head of the single specimen before me is smooth, and fi'om its appear-
ance I think it never had a tuft, though as the vertex is a little de-
nuded, it possibly may have had a small one ; the form of the head and
the antenna? are those of Lif/ioco^/eEs, the antennae not reaching the apex
of the wings ; the maxillary palpi, though small, are distinct, resemblin.!,
those of some of the small species of Gracilaria, while the labial palj,
are a little larger than in JAthocoUetis, and smaller than in Gracilario
with the second joint somewhat clavate, and the third more than ha'
as long as the second, and pointed, thus resembling in form the palpi (
a true Gelechia more than those of L'dhocolletis. In the dead inse-
the maxillary palpi are porrected and the labial recurved, drooping .
little. The tongue is small and sparingly scaled, and the cilia a
about as in LithocoUetis.

98 Tineina of the Central United States.

A. fasdella (n. sp.)

Head and palpi silvery white, except a small brown spot on the
outer surface of the second joint of the labial palpi at the tip ; antennae
fuscous, paler toward the base. Legs white, with brown spots on the
anterior surface of the first and second pair. The thorax is silvery
Avhite. The fore wings, as far as the basal one fourth, are pale or yel-
loAvish brown, margined with brown behind, then follows a wide, silvery
white fascia; then a wide pale brown one margined with darker brown
behind, extending to the middle of the wing, and followed by a second
narrower white fascia ; then follows another brownish band, also dark
margined behind and followed by a third white one, which is narrower
than the preceding ones ; then follows another dark margined brown
one ; behind which is a fourth (narrow) white fascia, just before the tip,
which is brown. There are thus four white fascia, separated by brown
ones, and the base and tip of the wing are brown. The under surface is
also brown ; the brown fascia of the upper surface are tinged in some
lights with pale golden. The second white fascia is a little oblique ;
the others are nearly straight. The fringes are silvery, a little flecked
with brown at their base, where they adjoin the brown fascia. Abdo-
men brown above, silvery white beneath, and the apical tuft is silvery,
tinged with golden. — Al. ex., five sixteenths inch, Kentucky.

In a paper now in the hands of the Editors of the Canadian Ento-
mologist for publication, I have described a species under the name of
llieisoa mnltifasciella, which closely resembles this insect in ornamen-
tation. The palpi of that species are about twice as long as in
this species, and the colors are less showy and bright.

LiTHOCOLLETis — L. symphoricarpceeUa (n. sp.)

Brownish golden palpi of the general hue, but paler internally ; fiice
yellowish white; tuft, thorax and primaries brownish golden, deepening
toward the apical part of the wings ; there is a rather indistinct,
whitish, median basal streak and two siLvery white fascia, both inter-
nally dark margined, the first about the middle of the primaries, the
other at the beginning of the cilia. Apex dusted with brown. There
is a short, rather indistinct, oblique, white, costal streak close to the apex.,
and no hinder marginal line in the cilia. Under surface of the body
brown, in some lights steel blue, with prismatic reflections. Al. ex., \
inch, Kentucky. Larva cylindrical, mine tentiform, in the under side

Tineina of the Central United States. 99

of leaves of the Indiau currant or red waxberry {Symphoricarpus vul-
garis). I have not found it in the allied snowberry.

L. Mariccella (n. sp.)

Face and palpi white, terminal joint of the palpi brownish externally ;
tuft orange yellow; thorax and primaries golden; antenna? white,
annulate with brown ; primaries with two white fascia, one about the
basal fourth, the other about the middle, both distinctly dark margined
internally; before the cilia, a costal and opposite dorsal white streak,
nearly meeting on the median line, and dark margined internally ;
just before the apex, an oblique, very distinct white streak, sometimes
extending almost across the wing. No hinder marginal line ; cilia a
little paler than the wing. Al. ex., one fourth inch.

Three specimens received from Miss Mary E. Murtfeldt, of Kirk-
wood, St. Louis county. Mo., who informs me that they were bred from
larvse of the cylindrical group, making a tent mine on the under
surface of leaves of the Indian currant or red waxberry (Syin-
phoricarpus v]jlgaris). She has also sent me a specimen of the mined
leaf. The mine is larger than that of the preceding species, L.
symphoricarpceella, and so is the imago, and the two insects are not at
all likely to be mistaken for each other. This species is much more
likely to be mistaken, by the tyro, for L. ornatella, but is very readily
distinguished in the larval state by the following characters : the larva
of i. ornatella mines locust leaves, belongs to the flat group, and the mine
is flat on the under and upper surface indifterently, and it leaves the mine
to pupate ; while this species has a cylindrical larva, which mines only the
under surface, the mine being tentiform, and it pu})ates in a strong, white,
roundish or oblong cocoon within the mine. The imago is less brilliant
than that of ornatella, the tuft is larger, and orange or reddish orange,
while that of ornatella is maroon brown, and the face of ornatella is
brilliant metallic (like silver or polished steel, according to the
light), while the face of this insect is white; the thorax and base
of the wings of ornatella are rich maroon instead of golden, and
there is a distinct, maroon brown hinder marginal line, which is
wanting in this species. There are also other less striking differences.
Miss Murtfeldt, in whose honor I have named this species, sends me the
following notes of the mine and larva :

"Larva found Oct. 25, making a tentiform mine on under side of
leaves of Symphoricarpvs vulgaris. Length one fourth inch ; diameter less
than one sixteenth, cylindrical orsubcyliudrical, tapering slightly both

100 Tineina of the Central United States.

v/ays from the middle segments. Head very small, flattened, polished,
honey yellow; jaws edged with rose color. General color of the body
translucent golden yellow, immaculate. Incisions quite deep, two or
three fine hairs on each side of each segment. The mine is made quite
spacious by the wrinkling together of the under cuticle of the leaf.
The frass is collected in one end of the mine. The insect pupates
inside its mine, inclosed in a strong, white, roundish or oblong cocoon,
similar in appearence to, though not so dense as, the cocoon of Chrysopa.
The chrysalis is elongate, pointed, with the sheaths of the wings and
legs extending almost to the tip of the abdomen, and of a honey yellow
color."

L. lyshnachice'lla (n. sp.)

The larva is cylindrical and very small. It makes a very small
tentiform mine on the under side of the leaves of (Lyshnachia lanceolata)
the loosestrife. The imago is, no doubt, very small — probably not larger
than L. desmodiella, Clem., which is the smallest known species of this
genus ; but I have not succeeded in rearing it.

L. ambrosioiella. — Ccm. EnL, vol. iii., p. 127.

It is necessary to make some corrections of the specific description
of this species, as follows, viz.: The basal streak is sometimes confined
to the wing, and does not pass back out on to the tegular and thorax ;
neither are the face and under surface deep steel blue, as stated ; this
error must have been caused by some peculiar direction or character
of the light by which it was viewed ; they are rather of a shining me-
tallic white, and there is a saffron yellow spot on each side of each ab-
dominal segment ; the legs are of the same metallic hue with the ab-
domen, but the tarsi are annulate with black ; the anterior tibia? are
fuscous on their anterior surfaces, and the posterior are saffron yellow.

I have bred the species mentioned loc. cit. as mining leaves of Helian-
thus gigayitea since the former note was written, and find it to be this
species, as I supposed. It is very different from the species described
post as L. helianthivorella, especially as to the character of the mine.

L. helianthivorella (n. sp.)

I do not deem it necessary to give a full description of this species,
but will simply point out the particulars in which it differs from
L. anWrosiceella (sup.) : First — the mine of ambrosiceella is very small,

Tinema of the Ceiiiral United States. 101

and is not visible on the upper surface until the upper cuticle begins
to die, when the larva is fully grown. The mine of L. helianihivorella
is more than twice as large as that of amhrodceella, and is most distinct
on the upper surface, when it produces a tubercular swelling.

Second— the larva of amhrosiaella has the head obscurely streaked
and clouded with fuscous. I have never found these markings on the
head of the larva of helianthivoreUa. ♦

Third — the imago of heliantluvorella has a small white spot on the
dorsal margin of the primaries, which is wanting in ambroskceUa. The
costal and dorsal streaks, which in avibrosiceella are simply white, have
a brilliant metallic gh)ss in helianthivoreUa, and the latter species is
the largest, having an alar ex. one twentieth of an inch greater than
ambrosiceella. This appears to be a small difference, but when all other
parts of the body are developed in the same proportion, it makes a
very considerable ; and when the insects are placed side by side, it
makes a very striking difference in the size and appearance of the m-
sects. I have compared numerous specimens of the two species, and
notwithstanding their close resemblance, I have no doubt that they
should be considered distinct species.

L. argentinotella, Clem.

In a single instance I have found this species mining the upper sur-
face of elm leaves. Neither the mine, nor larva, nor insect, differed
fj-om those of the under surface of the same leaf. Prof. Frey, of Zurich,
has strangely confounded it with L. uhiella, Cham.

L. alba-notella (n. sp.)

Head, palpi and antenna; glistening snow white ; extreme apex of
the antennae dark brown ; thorax white ; primaries brilliant golden,
rather pale, with a short, median, white basal streak, faintly dark mar-
gined toward the costa ; basal fourth of the costa white (the base of
the wings is also white, I think, but is a little rubbed, so that I can
not be certain) ; four rather large, snow white costal streaks, the first
of which is just before the middle of the costa, and the fourth is near
the apex; three snow white, rather large dorsal streaks, the first of
which is a little before the first costal streak, and the second and third
of which are respectively opposite the second and third costal streaks,
with which they sometimes meet, so as to form fasciae First costal
and first dorsal somewhat oblique. First three costal and the three

102 Tineina of the Central United States.

dorsal streaks all faintly dark margined before, the dark margin of the
first costal being the most distinct ; wings not dusted, but with an exceed-
ingly minute and indistinct apical spot. Al. ex., one fourth inch.

The larva is cylindrical, and makes a small tentiform mine on the
under surface of the black jack (Quercus nigra). This species ap-
proaches most nearly to L. argentinotella, Clem. It is one of the Avil-
low oak miners mentioned in the Canadian Entomologist, vol. v., p. 1G6.

L. quercibdla (n. sp.)

Glistening snowy white; extreme tips of the antennae brown. A
pale golden basal streak begins on the costa, at the base, and passes
l)ack parallel with the fold to the golden apical portion of the wing,
and is interiorly very faintly dark margined ; apical third of the fore
wing pale golden, with a black apical spot, and dark brown hinder mar-
ginal line at the 6a.se of the dorsal and apical cilice. In the pale golden
portion of the wing are three silvery costal and one silvery dorsal
streak, all dark margined before. The first costal streak is larger than
the others and its dark margin is somewhat oblique ; the dark mar-
gins of the other streaks are straight ; the dorsal streak is opposite to
the first costal. Extreme costal cilias tipped with fuscous. Al. ex.,
one fourth incli.

Tlie larva is cylindrical, and mines the under surface of the leaves of
black jack {Quercus nigra), and the mine is usually near to the edge.
It is one of the. mines mentioned as mining willow oaks. Can. Ent.,
vol, iii., p. 166.

This species is between L. Clemensella and L. lucidicostcUa, having
the basal streak as in the latter, but having a less portion of the wing
golden, and a larger portion white, as in Clemensella.

L. fuscocosteUa (n. sp.)

Glistening snowy white ; antennse pale yellowish ; primaries snowy
white, with the apical half pale golden, with a pale golden basal streak
extending from the base of the costa along the costal margin to the
golden apical half of the wing, and internally very faintly dark mar-
gined ; in the golden apical part of the Aving are fo%ir short and (except
the first) straight costal streaks, all faintly dark margined before, the
dark margin of the first being more distinct than those of the others,
and also being oblique and produced along the extreme costa to the
base. The streaks are nearly equi-distant. There are two short and

Tincina of the Central United States, 103

nearly straight white dorsal streaks, respectively, opposite the second
and third costal streaks, both dark margined before; the dark margin
of the second being at its apex, confluent with the dark brown hinder
marginal line, which extends along the base of the dorsal and apical
cilise. Extreme costal ciliae tipped with dark brown, ciliae white, apical
spot black. Secondaries pale yellowish white, cilia? white. Both j)airs
fuliginous beneath. Al. ex., one fourth inch, Kentucky.

The larva is cylindrical, and makes a small tentiform mine on the
under surface of leaves of white oaks (Q. alba and Q. bicolor). The mine
is at the edge of the leaf, and the leaf is folded down over it.

This species resembles the preceding one very closely, and I would
place it between that species and L. lucidicostella.

L. unifasciella (p. sp.)

Face, palpi, and under surface of the antennae, silvery white. Upper
surface of the antenna3 dark brown, tuft silvery white, mixed above with
pale golden, which becomes deeper at the sides ; thorax and anterior
wings rich reddish orange ; there is a silvery white, slightly oblique
fascia just behind the middle of the wing, nearest the base, on the
dorsal margin, and curving slightly toward the base, near the costal
margin, with small dark brown spot on the costa, margining it before,
and distinctly dark, margined behind, the dark margin being produced,
both as a streak along the costa and a parallel one along the middle of
the wing, the streaks spreading and uniting about the beginning of the
costal ciliis, thus inclosing an oblong patch, which is not dusted; the
fascia is but little angulated, and does not have the appearance of two
confluent streaks ; apical margin, along the base of the dorsal cilise,
very densely dusted with brown — the dusting in some specimens being
connected with the dusted streaks above mentioned. A dark browu
wider margined line at the base of the dorsal and apical cilise. CiViSQ
yellowish. Al. ex., one fourth inch, Kentucky.

The larva belongs to the second or flat group, and mines the upi)er
surface of leaves of the black oak (Q. tinctoria). The maculae and
transparent spots are distinct. Head whitish. First and second maculae
dark brown, the others pale yellowish or pale brown. Frass scattered,
mine oval at first flat, but afterward corrugated along the middle.
It belongs to the same group as L. bethunella, which also mines the upper
surface of leaves of Q. tinctoria ; and it resembles bethwiella closely as
to the fascia, dusting and general color, but it lacks the costal and
dorsal streaks of that species, and the fascia of bethunella is formed by

104 Tineina of the Central United States.

the confluence of the costal and dorsal streaks, and is angulated. I have
met with a specimen (bred) which I believe to belong to this species,
but in which the dusting was almost entirely absent, possibly it may
be a distinct species.

L. ^riferella, Clem.

I have bred this species from the leaves of the black jack (Qiier-
cus nigra), and have found it so often in groves of Avhite oak (Q. alba)
and black oak (Q. tinctoria), where there were no black jacks near,
that I think it must mine the leaves of those species also.

L. Castaneceella (n. sp.)

Face and palpi silvery white ; tuft, thorax and anterior Avings reddish
golden (or pale reddish orange?); antennas dark brown, with a faint,
narrow, whitish annulation at the base of each joint, toward the apex;
each alternarte joint is white, as is also the case in L. bethunella and L.
unifasciella. There is a small white spot on the costal margin of the
anterior wings, about the basal fourth, and therein it differs from miifas-
eiella and a silvery ftiscia just beyond the middle (as in umfasciella, but
not dark margined on the costa before, as in that species). The wing
behind the ftiscia is dusted along the middle, the dusting extending
over the entire apex. A small, white costal streak at the beginning of
the costal ciliae, and another small one just before the apex, both in
the dusted portion as in bethunella. A dark brown hinder mar-
ginal line, formed by the dusting, at the base of the cllise. Al. ex.,
one fourth inch, Kentucky.

The larva is flat, and mines the upper surface of leaves of the chestnut,
{Castanea Americana), and of a species of oak. (The leaf was too much in-
jured to determine the species of oak). When it was gathered from
oak, the mine was supposed to be that of L. haviadryadeUa, and the
larva was not closely observed, and it was placed in a large breeding
cage with several other well known species, for the purpose of getting
duplicates. Subse(|uently, on looking over them, I was surprised to find
that this Avas an unknown ribbon like mine : not corrugated along the
center, and with the pupa lying naked on a few threads of silk. It was
then separated from the other mines, and produced this species. The
imago is between bethiinella and imifascieUa, having some, but not all
of the streaks of bethunella, which are wanting in unifasciella. The
fascia resembles that of unifasciella more than that of bethunella. The

Tineina of the Central United States. 105

characters of the oak leaf mme were caused, I tliiuk, by coufiiieniont in
the breeding cage ; those from the chestnut resembled those of L. be-
thunella.

Lyonetia — L. ajndstrigeUa (n. sp.)

Snowy white ; antenna; faintly tinged with fuscous ; before the middle
of the dorsal margin of the primaries is a blackish, or, in some lights,
golden brown streak, pointing obliquely backward: just behind the
middle is a larger one, and behind this again is a patch or streak of the
the same hue extending along the dorsal margin to the beginning of the
cilia. Behind the disc, and continuous with the second dorsal streak,
is a narrow, linear, median streak, of the same hue, which extends
through the middle of the apical part of the wing, to a small golden
broAvn patch, where it is deflected to the dorsal margin, passing around
the golden brown patch, and along the dorsal margin, at the base of
the cilia, to and around behind the circular, shining, apical spot,
which is behind the -golden brown patch ; in its course it touches the
blackish margined patch before the cilia ; and the portion of it which
extends along the base of the cilia contains two minute white
dorsal streaks, the last of which is very small and very close to
the apical spot. On the costal margin, about or a little behind the
middle, is a rather indistinct blackish streak, which is continued just
within and parallel to the margin for a "short distance toward the base ;
behind it is another larger and more distinct streak, and behind this is
another still larger and more distinct, all of the same hue, and pointing
obliquely backward and behind them at the base of the cilia are three
other small and indistinct ones of the same hue, pointing obliquely
forward, the last being very close to the apical spot. AL ex., one
third inch. Captured at the light in Kentucky, in August.

Another specimen, taken about the same time, I was inclined to
regard as distinct, but, remembering the fate of two or three suppose^
European species, which i)rove to be only varieties of L. cJevekella, I am
inclined to regard this as not specifically different froni the species
above described. I have not seen L. speculella, Clem., but evidently
this can not be it, as Dr. Clemens does not mention the fuscous line
which passes through the apical pait of tho wing, and the costal
markings appear to differ. However, considering the ran^ 3 of vai'ia-
tion in derckella, in Europe, it is possible that both xpeculdla and the
species above described may be mere varieties of it.

106 fimiii& i)f (h. CcMiml thi*M ^m^

yelKnvifih. Theiie k ft jvs^le Aif««^«Hi* «j»t «n ilie tki^ftl nmtfjin «>f thp
prlmrtHen, befotvthe mi»l(U»*, ftutt ihe Gxlriemc ftj>i<>al |>ftnof t^»« jMit*»rt« j«»*
is Very \)»\p pAApM yp\\<m, with ft hlftek pfvtit ftl the «j>fi5t, Th»'r<» «r« ht
they^^llowiahrtpiof^l \\f\H two t»lrt<^l< <*«vafftl fitn^ft^a, ftn«l on<* <lo»>ftl otii^, mA
mp. trftiisveiw. Ptrw^k in (he <^ilia M^iiui the ?|v<>( ; \\\o rtr^t «^<v?lftl
stt^ftk irt V6ty ohliq^e, plftc<?d hefor^R the ftpieftl »p<>f, |x>inting toNVfti-*!
hut not (|uite tx^chihg Jtj the seemuJ im \m\mu\\mU\- 1«» tl>e K|w>ti U»«>
•torpfti streftk i» rthlifjitG fttui «>|>fy(>»Ue hs the fir^t eoRtftl o»e, ftn<i Jwth of
the*^ ftt^ mftrgin^fl hftmnvl^- iyehitul with iiiilveiy white, vi^. ^-., thtw
eighths itieh*

A RihiJrle ppeeimen .Rme to thn light ftt f^m|> l^ee ?^)M ing, of the
Kentucky geologieal Mifvey, in K'lmon«);>on e«^nnty, in the<i«\>ly jWH of
^ul^'i The eyeeftiw in thin ».j>eeie* («e?ient ft cingnlav i^tinotnv^, the
seftleR 1>eing ftt-rftngwl in ft fietiew of ftlte^nftte e«meentiie t^\v*\ tl^e tip
of the t>rimAj lew ftfe tufne*} np, or- mthev- t>ent ontwftt^K

r»n'U.miNwtr»i!— /*. po^^vMh (n-. «pv)

(^Iwtening *now white ; ft|>ieftl i\\\w\ of tl^e |>rimftH<^ *nrt\tww< with
gohien yellow. 11^eh» ft)^ five, shni% hli^eki?»h e^st^l ntm\ks *'*^ fi*"**
vety ohiifjjne ftt the Iveginning of the eilift^ the «^iheiii' in \H\^ (6ili» ^ tt\e
ftflh ip( <^pjv>site the ftjvie?^! ?|v<^t, ftn«l ft lit<le Ivei^in*! it^ tV^v^ the ftj'»ieft^
Bjyot two hlrtek Btveftkp! ♦liv-evge tht'o\>gh the ft))ieftl eilia^. I'hrw «lo»>ftl
Hlftekish iitreftkp, the ^m Iveing V'^ety v^Wivine, ftn<< j>lftee««< «)p|yo?iitie the
«e<(*f>n<l An<^ thii^l efo^tftl Btt^eftk* ; the f«e<(>onvll i* very <>Wi<|ue^ <>|^)XN?.ile
the lJl^it'<t ft,n<l fonrth e<>?<tftl i«tti«ik?<, mA jvoint* t'OWftixl mA ftlm<>Mt ftt-
tftittB the ft)>ieft1 ^jvot; the thii^i <lom»l i? oi^jvvMte l*> mA ftlm*»t ev^H-
tinnon«« with the fifth eo?<tftl pitves^k. The xhh'A ^wA ^)W\\\ e^'wtal
?tfertk* ftve ft little ivearef t<vgethev tlv?in the <>thenfc. \asA<^\ )i.i<|e <>f ftll
tlve wingB Bnrt\i?(e<l with fn?f<^>nFi<. At. m.^ «yne finnih it^eh, Ke*Mn< Vv

The Iftirvft mine* the n^jyef wwrlfi^ee <)f tl^e leftV'e* of jx^|>lftiTi! (I\ //w,v
^/ii/v. ftrt<l /*. v/im.'itiipm). The mine i« v^y win<ling, whiie> with ftee»t4<ftJ»
in(iii»tinet line <)f tmtii. ti ih«^mMeji( thftt. 'of l\ iM^i^m^/imSA. /*.
mfvxfth n^ineiit the leftv^ <^f jx^j^lftif^! in Kt»iv>j>e> hnt it *^\m to \^
quite <li(^erent ftv>m tlii« giveeieH,

P. li^iiiMmhiimf^O/t, (n. *|V.)

I am iniable to iliwtingniRh thi* *|ve<^ie* fmm 1^. ijk'lfnli^k^ Chftm.^ hy
Any ehfti'aete«i¥ of tlie iiM^ w^ in^dedli) in **vy w^^- exe^t^t l\y tl^e n^ine^.

f^ueimA ^ Om iOmismt Cmit^A StAf^ 107

-, - ■ of /*. f'. '., w iV.

^m. fJ^Mi^AJiaAajt ii^f^aii^wi-, in SiHiUwym ltft«!»»cky. thrvHiglwvwt liw

■ ixftv <5^s |(k :J07. \\\\> win** w <jwit<» (Vwtt

. in iHai ^' ' ' ■ t isi A nAtrou ' *

/*, ) . . \<yX. lii<» nAnnt>w-<vr Unc tvf \*h!<ih U i« <^ , ^

abrtiii ovtvr iW. «AttK» limif»«) *|vfcr«», iw «h^h an <vxtwa iHai th<» mitt**
U>ivk» Uk« A Ur^ ttliUic^ Wt>teh <«\ tho, utv<l(*r *iirf*d<^. of tho. W\k*i»
of , ■ Wt.^ «trm)^ 10 «iy, I Ivavt* «tlm<v»f a* oft«^«

lM\Hi imtti tU« s^mt^ sort »>f mmt^^ in th<» sAm<» *orl of !< -Ytl

at :' n<* (im«^, anci fmm iht* jiam*^ vin<», a form >\hu;u ia>>.' th«*

>-' ■- '' -^Afi^^iidU^ ^x\\ iji un<li>tiMgtu>haUle^ fhun /V 4'»>>-

- an <^ttf4mly ditTomnl n\in<» in grajx? Ichiv«*».
/*. ^ ^ , firom anoiht^r quit<^ <itrti^ivnf mi«»^ in gTttp»*

l<vjvv<«, is in the imajT^ in(<»m»<Hiiat«* ly<^iwxH»n /\ t an«i llt<»

form of «rw^v7^!>.»Vrt, cic^svrilxni /oiCs *ii. Thai i*, ihcw i* a min<* In
gra|>c ]o^v<»!» quito tlij.unol from any otii<^r, ami whioh jmy^iucfH^ onty
jP. ' ■ (hort> w anofhor di>t4n<^t mln<» in sjrajvo l<^arf-*, t*h»<*h

pnHlun> i'n(\ /* t'ifift^/ilA; f' a min«^ in fhol<^a\'<v» of /»^»wy.».40W

idt^^tical with thai of l\ j ..,. ....V», in ^r-»>.. I'^vvw, hut whi<^h |Mt)f-
<iuc<» an imairt) intlis-tingnishaUU^from /'. : "t : an<l, aji-nln, iht^tc-

is a mint^ in the lonvos of nmfw^Apiii^ v^^ry <li*linc»i frtrn* all of tho*** aly^vr
mt^ntiontHl, \^i whi^^h |>nHUiwsi ixsti ti\rm* of tht> im«{^^, one of «h(oh
retwmUU^ /'. viti^ttjulftt^ htit ij>, n<>vrrt.h<»ltH*i*, cli?f Jnt'f. from It, an4 th«»
«)thor i)( which in itu\\- t\AW«> from J\ *•

lt>:vvt», \Vort> not tiu» ilun M-su^tv?* j^ {|j,i mint^ *n i;,«(-.ii, •m .<.>iim -.
s-mmgly inclinotl to Ix^liovo tluu all t>f tlu i» siKii^it'* wcjv. varylnsr {«^rm»
of onc> »|Kvii?!i. Huf, on that h\ (KUhosis, it wotjUl hoilitHf^ulf to aotHMinl
for tht» tli(ron^nc»<»ti lK»lw-w»n lh«» imrt^nv* axmI min«w of -» an<l

viti^nfiih fji^m frrajw U^avtw, I > anil i » mSnc» the u|)|)«ir

Aiul nm.pfi')ip«idl*x only llu> lowor unrtatH! t)f the lenx o*.

1 know ihi'* »|i«. U-- Hilly In the tar\^l *lttte, {in<l n :ij'i'«ni' to l»e

108 Tineina of the Central United States.

very rare. I have only twice met with it; on both occasions in South-
ern Kentucky, in July, and in each case the larva was just dead in the
mine, and the parasitic larva which had killed it was lying beside it.
It mines the upper surface of Smilax cjlahra leaves. I have never
found it in Northern Kentucky, though Smilax is abundant. The
mine is of a snowy white, with a central line of frass, long and \vinding,
and resembles that of P. liriodendronella, Clem., in the leaves of the
tulip tree (L?r?Wen(?/'on, tulipfera'); liriodendronella, however, mines both
surfaces of the leaves, not, as Dr. Clemens states, the under surface
only. I have not succeeded in breeding the species, which I believe
to be P. liriodendronella, from leaves of magnolias. At p. 207, vol. iii.,
in the Canadian Entonwlogist, I have stated that the species of mag-
nolia so mined were M. glauca and M. grandiflorea. It may mine
those species, but the leaves in which I have taken it ■were those of
the cucumber tree, M. acuminata, and the umbrella tree, M. uvihrella.
The mines in poplar, magnolia, liriodendron and smilax leaves are sim-
ilar to each other, Avhite, with a line of frass, and the second and
third, and possibly the first and fourth, are found on both sides of
the leaves, long and winding ; at some part winding in concentric cir-
cles. The mines of vitigenella and liquidambarisella resemble each
other : they are like small snail tracks, indistinct, long and irregular,
and confined to the upper surface, and show no line of frass. The
mine of Arnpelopsiella is always on the lower surface, and by conflu-
ence of its narrow lines becomes a white blotch.

The mines of vitifoliella, and the mine of the unknown species
mentioned in the Canadian Entomologist, vol. iii., p. 208, are long,
Avinding., irregular, distinct, with a central line of frass, and confined
to the upjier surface.

TiscHERiA. — T. tinctoriella (n. sp.)

Palpi and face saffron yellow : vertex, thorax and anterior wings
rather deep saffron yellow, dusted with dark brown; the dusting is
rather dense along the margins of the wings and in the apex, and there
is a patch of brown scales on the dorsal margin, at the beginning of the
cili». Al. ex., over one fourth of an inch, Kentucky. »

The larva mines the leaves of the black oak (Quercvji tinctoria) and
the chestnut (Castanea americaiia). The mine is very singular, and is
one of the prettiest mines that I have seen. Before I had seen the
larva, I supposed it to be the mine of a lAthocolletis. At first a small
portion of the upper cuticle of the leaf, nearly circular in outline, is
loosened ; then the larvce proceeds to construct a circular nidus or

Tineina of the Central United States. 109

depression, lined with silk, and precisely like that of many species of
LiUiocoUdh of the flat group ; at one side of this wlm is the little
circular aperture from which the frass is ejected, and from which the
imago ultimately makes its egress; then the mine is spread out from
the nicZzts, in every direction, except on the side of the aperture. It is
white, streaked with short, zigzag, purple lines, which are especially
abundant on ihenklm. When alarmed, the larva retreats into its nidm,
and in it it also passes the pupa state. It is altogether unlike any
other mine that I have seen.

T. hadiiella (n. sp.)

Very pale lemon (almost creamy) yellow, becoming slightly reddish
along the apical half of the costal margin and around the apex. Palpi
and antennffi of the general hue. A small spot of scattered brown scales
at the beginning of the dorsal cilia; a row of scattered brown scales
around the apex, at the base of the cilise, and a similar row along the
basal half of the dorsal margin. Al ex., one fourth inch, Kentucky.
The larva mines the upper surface of leaves of the ^yhite oak {Quercm
alba). The mine, while fresh, is white ; when dry, it becomes slightly
yellowish. It resembles the mine of T. malifoUella, being oblong and
of irregular outline, and when mature the upper cuticle becomes
corrugated. It is usually placed near the edge of the leaf, sometimes
at thredge, in which case, when it is mature, the edge of the leaf is
folded upward, over it. Possibly this may be T. zellerieUa, Clem., but it
is almost impossible to recognize any of these closely resembling species
in Dr. Clemens' brief description. I have another species (?), at least an
insect more deeplv colored, bred from mines in leaves of Q. obtusilobia,
which I suppose to be zdleneUa. Both mines resemble that described
by Clemens as that of zellerieUa, and they may both prove to be lighter
or darker shades of that species.

T. qiiercivorella (n. sp.)

Face, palpi and antenna very pale yellowish; vertex darker yellow ;
thorax and primaries pale lemon yellow, the primaries becoming
tinged with red at the apex, where they are sparsely dusted with paJe
brownish red; cilise of the general hue. Hind wings and cilia) palo
yellow or fulvous. The most striking colorational peculiarity abou
it is the large fuscous patch on the under side of the wings (both pairs,
at the base. Al. ex., nearly one third inch, Kentucky.

110 Tineina of the Central United States.

The larva mines the upper surface of the leaves of Quercus nigra
and Quercus obtmiloba. The mine is at the edge of the leaf, which is
curled upward, over it.

Possibly this may be T. citripenella, Clem., but I can not at all re-
concile his description of that species Avith the markings of this. His
account of the mine agrees better with this, but he does not say what
species of oak he found it on, nor does he mention the conspicuous
broAvn spot on the under surface of the fore wings, though he mentions
something like it on the hinder pair.

T. fuscomarginella (n. sp.)

Golden yellow ; the fore wings more reddish, and becoming deeper
toward the apex, where the margins, especially the costal margin, is
deeply suffused with purplish fuscous, which in some lights is distinctly
purple. Ciliae reddish yellow, tinged with fuscous along the costa.
Al. ex., one fourth inch, Kentucky. The fuscous margins of the
fore wing and the character of its mine distinguish it from other
known species.

The larva mines the leaves of white oaks (Quercus alba) on the
nnder surface, at the edge, the leaf being curled downward, around the
mine.

T. zetleriella (f)— Clem.

Dr. Clemens does not say what species of oak is the food plant of
this species, and his description is not definite enough for a species of a
group, the species of which resemble each other as closely as do our
oak-feeding Thclieriw, I am therefore not certain that my specimens
belong to this species. My supposed zellcriella were bred from mines
on the upper surface of Quercus obtudloba.

T. purinoseUa (n. sp.)

White, almost hoary, with a faint tinge of creamy yellow ; antennae
yellowish ; vertex dusted with fuscous ; thorax and discal portion of
the fore wing sparsely dusted with fuscous ; basal half of the costal
margin and apex of fore wings densely dusted with fuscous ; cilise pale
fulvous; anterior surfaces of first two pairs of legs dusted. Al. ex.,
one fourth inch, Kentucky.

The larva mines the leaves of the white oak {Quei'cus alba).

Tincina of the Central United States, 111

T. CastayieceeUa (n. sp.)

Face and palpi whitish j^ellow ; vertex yellowish white. Thorax
and primaries pale saffron, almost golden yellow, without markings,
but becoming darker and more reddish toward the apex of the wings,
where they are dusted sparsely with brownish red or rather with dark
brick red. Cilia; of the general hue ; abdomen be\ieath densely dusted
with brownish yellow.

This is the largest Tischena that I have met with, measuring nearly
one third inch in al ex. The larva mines the leaves of the chestnut
(Cadanea americana).

The oak-feeding Tischeria of this country form a very difficuilt group.
Tlie three species described by Dr. Clemens are stated to have been
bred from oak leaves, but Dr. Clemens does not say what kind of oak
leaves. T. badiiella, Cham. , and T. querdvorella, Cham. , were bred from
Qiiercm alba, Q. nigra, and Q. obtusUoba. They are the only species
known to me which might be mistaken for either of Dr. Clemens' three
oak-feeding species ; for, while considering Dr. Clemens' description of
the imago alone, T. tinctonella, Cham., might possibly be mistaken for
one of them, the character of the mine separates it distinctly from them
all, and T. fimomarrjineUa, Cham., is widely enough separated by the
brownish margins of the primaries, and by the character of the mine,
the edge of the leaf being curled downward, although it is found in the
leaves of Q. alba. T. tnidoriella mines leaves of Q. tindmna. In a
publication by Prof. Frey, of Zurich, and M. J. Boll, of Baumgarten,
two species are mentioned which were bred from leaves of Q. tindoria,
gathered by Mr. Boll in this country, and which Messrs. Boll and Frey
suppose to be T. zellerleUa, Clem., and T. quereitella, Clem. But T.
tindoriella is the only species that I have ever bred from Q. tindoria,
and the mine separates it very distinctly from the other species ; it
does not curl the leaf at all, and is at first sight much more likely to be
mistaken for the mine of a LUhocolletis larva of the flat group than for
that of a Tischeria. T. cadanea^ella might possibly be mistaken for
zelleriella, but for its large size.

T. malifoliella, Clem.

In vol. iii., p. 208, of the Canadian Entomologist, I have
recorded the breeding of this species from the leaves of various
plants, and suggested that it probably mined other Rosam ; since
then I have also bred it from the dewberry (Rvbm canadensis),.

112 Tineina of the Central United States.

In the pamphlet above mentioned, Prof, FreyandMr. Boll mentions
having bred a species from leaves of the blackberry (Eubus viUorus),
which they consider distinct from maUfolieUa, and described nnder the
name of T. cenea. They also state that they have bred an allied species,
which they describe as T. roseticolla. The species from the blackberry
I have known for several years ; I have not considered it distinct from
maliJolieUa, Clem., and 1 regard the specimens bred from all the
species of Ruhus, Pyrus, Malus and Crakegus, as belonging to the same
species, T. maHfoliella, Clem. T. roseticolla I have not seen ; I incline to
doubt its specific difference from maUfoliella.

In the two following allied species I observe a peculiarity which I
have not heretofore observed in any other species, nor have I seen any
reference to it by any author. It is this : the third joint of the palpi
have two long bristle-like scales, about as long as the joint itself,
which spring from its base on the under side, and which I think are
usually appressed to the surface, so as not to be distinguished from it,
but which it can, and in articulo mortis al\\ays does, separate from the
joint, so as to form with it a letter V.

T. ambrodceella (n. sp.)

Lemon yellow, or, perhaps, more properly, ocherous yellow. Face and
palpi whitish yellow ; thorax and fore wings dusted with dark brown,
the dusting being almost uniform over the general surface of the wing,
but in some portions aggregated into lines and spots. One of these
lines begins on the costa, not far from the base, and passes very ob-
li(juely backward as far as the fold in the direction of a small patch of
dusting about the middle of the dorsal margin. There is a larger
patch of dense dusting immediately before the costal cilia, and an oppo-
site dorsal one, and the apex is densely dusted. The cilia are of the gen-
eral hue, or a little paler, with a dark brown "hinder marginar line at
their base. The antennee are brown, and the first two pair of legs are
dark brown on their anterior surfaces ; the posterior pair and the venter
are yellow. Alex., a little more than one fourth inch, Kentucky;
in Summer and Fall.

The larva mines the leaves of Ambrosia trifida. The mine is -irreg-
ular in outline, longer than wide, and sordid whitish; the parenchyma
being eaten out entirely, except within the limits of the circular nidus,
in which the pupa reposes, and into w'hich the larva frequently retreats.
The nidus bears some resemblance to those of the beetle Metonixis laev-
igatus and those of some species of Lithocolletis of the flat group, as e. g.,
L. guttifiniteUa, Clem., but it differs from mines of that character by

Tineina of the Central United States. 113

heing most distinct on the under, instead of the upper side. It is in-
dicated on the upper side only by a slight mamillary bulge, the paren-
chyma not being removed, while on the under side the cuticle is loos-
ened and the parenchyma eaten over the whole mine. The imago emerges
through the under surface. In all these respects it is in marked con-
trast with the species described below, and which is nearly allied to it
iu many respects.

I have also received from Miss ]\Iary E. Murtfeldt, of St. Louis — to
whom I am under many obligations for "Micros"— specimens which I
believe to belong to this species, and which only differ from it by being
a little paler and less dusted. Miss Murtfeldt bred them from mines in
the leaves of Ambrosia artemisifolia, one of which she sent to me. This
mine is at the edge of the leaf, while in A. trifida the mine occurs any-
w-here on the leaf ; and the species from artemisifolia emerges through
the edge of the leaf, instead of from the under surface, nevertheless, I
think it is the same species.

T. heliopsi sella (n. sp.)

This species, while closely allied to the preceding, differs from it
strikingly in some respects. It also mines the leaves of A. trijida, and
also those of Heliopsis kevis. The mine is of irregular outline, ap-
proaching the circular or ovate form, and larger than that of amhromeella.
It is placed anywhere in the leaf ; the parenchyma is entirely
eaten out, except from the under surface of the nidus, which is
most distinct on the upper surface. The imago emerges from the upper
surface. The mine is sordid whitish, and the nidus is indicated on the
muler surface by a mamillary bulge. The insect, though similarly
colored, is decidedly distinct from amhrosicEeUa, besides being larger,
measuring three eighths inch in o/. ex. In Kentucky it is found at
the same seasons w4th amhrosiaxUa, which it resembles, but is more dis-
tinctly marked, and more densely dusted.

The two anterior pairs of legs are dark brown on their anterior sur-
faces ; the third pair is yellow, with the tihVi marked with brown on the
outer surface, and the tarsi dark brown annulate at the joints, ivith yelloio;
the venter is deeper yellow, and tinged with fuscous at the margins nj the
segments ; the palpi and head are ocherous yellow, and the tuft (m the
vertex is a little Hecked with brown. The thorax and anterior wings
are deep ocher yellow, with golden reflections in some ligiits ; the
thorax is dusted with dark brown scales, with a dark bromi line from
the anterior margin to the tip, and another over the tegidce, passing back
along the base of the dorsal margin of tiie fore wings; the fore wings are

114 Tineina of the Central United States.

less dusted, but are traversed by numerous dark broim oblique dreaks,
which are confluent, and which occupy nearly half the superficies of the wing,
^v•hich is of a deeper ocherous yellow than In avibroda;ella ; as in that
.species, the entire costal margin is dusted with dark brown, the dusting,
however, in this species is very dense, and is continuous with the dusting
of the apex; as in anibrosiceella, also, there is a dark brown streak (which
in ambromeella is only a streak of dusting), which begins on the costa,
not far from the base, and passes very obliquely back as far as the fold,
in the direction of a dark brown spot, placed about the middle of the
dorsal margin. But in heliopsisella this streak is intersected about its
middle by a straight, median, dark broion streak from the base of the
wing, and the oblique streak itself sends off backward, within the costal
margin, a short dark brown streak which runs parallel to the casta, and
tvhich is connected across the wing, just behind the middle (by a streak of
dusting), xoitha dark brown streak, which is emitted obliquely backward
from the dark broion dorsal spot. About the apical third of the loing
length a narrow dark broicn streak passes obliquely across the wing
to the dorsal margin, at the beginning of the cilia, and proceeds thence
around the base of the dorsal cilia. This oblique line, moreover, from
about its middle, sends obliquely backward two lines to the apical
cilia, which are a little lighter than the ground color of the wing.
The dark brown lines which thus traverse the surface of the wing and
intersect each other are somewhat difficult to trace out, because
they occupy so much of the surface of the wing, and the spaces
of the ground color are also a little dusted with brown. The ground
color is deeper than in Ambrosiceclla, and the dark brown scales are
condensed into more distnict lines. It has all the marks of that species
more developed, and others, which are indicated by the italics above.

OEcoPHORA — CE. Shaleriella (n. sp.)

This insect was captured frequently at Camp Bee Spring, of the Ken-
tucky Geological Survey. I place it in this genus, which it seems to me
to approach nearly, though it is not a typical specimen of the genus. The
species of this group (which I incline to think ought not to be included
in the family Gelechidce, though they approach it closely), are some-
times difficult to locate among the various genera composing it. Thus,
Callima argenticinctella, Clem., appears to me to be very nearly, if not
quite, a typical (Emphora; Q^. horeasella, Clem., differs slightly from it,
but not enough to remove it from the genus ; CE. audralisella, Cham.,
and this species have strong affinities with Dasycera and Q^cogonia and

Tineina of the Central United States. 115

Endrosis, and Hamaclryas bassctteUa, Clem., approaches Butalis some-
what, though it is perhaps nearer to Dasi/cera, and will probably be
found to belong to Pancalia.

In this species the antennae are more like those of (Ecogonia, though
smaller even than in that genus; the palpi more slender than in
tkiUiiiia argenticincella, or (Ecophora boreaseUa, resemble those ot"
G^cogonia perhaps more than those of Dasycera ; the ornamentation is
rather that of an (Ecophora ; the form of the head allies it to Dasycera,
being a little full in the face, and not rising high above the eyes. The
form and neuration of the wings is that of (Ecophora australisella,
having, however, in the fore wings, the apical branch of the subcostal
vein simple instead of furcate, as in the latter species, and in the true
(Ecophora, and it agrees with (E. austraUsella, and differs from the
true (Ecophora in its slender palpi and antennse. (E. austraUsella ha?
the basal joint of the antennae clothed with longscales on its front margin
depending over the eyes, as in Endrosis, and this species (E. shaleriella,
unlike all the others, has the stalk of the antennae ciliated. Thf
neuration of this species is exactly that of (E. horeasella, which see.

Second joint of the palpi white, with a pale yellowish tinge toward
the apex; third joint black; antenna3 dark brown, with silvery cilia;:
face white ; vertex dark brown ; thorax and base of the primaries
brown, with a faint metallic luster, and this hue extends all along the
costal and dorsal margins of the fore wings, to a fascia, which is placed
at about the basal fifth of the wing, and is margined both before and
behind with the metallic brown hue, being entirely surrounded by it;
in the brown basal portion of the wing, before the fascia, is a lemon
yellow spot ; the fascia is silvery white, with a pink tinge above the
fold, and simply white beneath it ; behind the fascia the wing is lemon
yellow on the disc, but the brown hue still extends along both the
costal and dorsal margins, and about the middle of the costal margin
the brown color spreads, so as to cover the costal half of the wing
beyond the middle ; it also deepens in color, and extends as far as the
cilia, and contains near the middle of the wing (just behind the point
where it widens) a patch of scattered silvery scales. It is followed on
the costal margin by a lemon yellow spot, which is margined before
(next to the brown) by a silvery fascia. Beyond this lemon yellow
spot the apical part of the wing is brown, and so are the dorsal cilia,
except a small lemon yellow spot at their beginning, and also imme-
diately at the apex, where they are lemon yellow. Beyond the first
fascia the brown of the dorsal margin does not extend to the cilia, but
passes gradually into a large velvety black patch on the margin, which
coutains three bright metallic spots, and two small lemon yellow ones,

116 Tineina of (he Central United States.

and which is separated from the brown of the costal half wing by the
lemon yellow of the disc, which extends backward to the middle of the
dorsal cilia. Secondaries fuscous. Al. ex., one half inch.

CoLEOPHOEA — C. Shaleriella (n. sp.)

White; extreme costa near t lie base brown. The fore wings are
marked with several longitudinal ocherous lines, which appear in some
lights to be faintly tinged with golden. One of these lines begins on
the base just within the costa, and reaches the costal margin just before
the cilia; another begins at the base beneath the fold, and reaches the
dorsal margin at the fold ; another extends along the dorsal margin ;
there is an indistinct line above the fold, but close to it, which begins
about the basal one fifth and extends parallel to the fold to the dorsal mar-
gin ; two others begin at nearly the same point with that last men-
tioned, one of which goes to the costal cilia, and the other along the
middle of the wing, sending off' one (or two?) branches to the costal cilia.
The cilia are yellowish white. The antennae are simple, and are not
annulate with brown. AL ea;., 7-1 6ths inch.

This species evidently approaches C. cratlpendla, Clem., which I
have not seen ; but ihe markings on the wings differ from Dr. Clemens'
description, and cra^(^je/ie//a has the antennae annulate with brown. It is
sufficiently distinguished from C. gigantella, Cham., by the size as well
lis by the ornamentation. It was taken at the light at Camp Bee
Spring, of the Kentucky Geological Survey (Edmonson county), and
I have named^it in honor of Prof. Shaler, State Geologist of Kentucky.

Ornix — 0. quercifoliella (n. sp.)

Iron gray, mottled with dark brown ; labial palpi gray, with two
brown annulations between the middle and tip of the third joint. Legs
and under surface pale yellowish gray, streaked and spotted with dark
'brown; antennae darker brownish gray, faintly annulate with pale gray;
thorax brown, with the tip pale gray; fore wings iron gray, ob.«curely
•streaked and spotted with dark broyvn and white, having a brown spot
about the middle of the costal margin, behind which is a curved brown
streak, which passes obliquely backward, nearly halfway to the dorsal
margin, and thence curves backward toward the tip, becoming almost
■ confluent with another straight, oblique costal streak, behind which
again is another very narrow, straight, oblique, costal, dark brown streak ;
behind the brown sjwt above mentioned are two or three very indi.s-

Tineina of the Central United States. 117

tiiict pale gray streaks; the curved streak is margined behind indis-
tinctly by pule gray, and on the costa, between the curved streak and
the first straight, oblique streak, is a minute white streak, margined all
around by a narrow, dark brown line ; the first straight, oblique sti-eak
is margined behind faintly by pale gray, and the third (narrow) oblique
streak is margined behind by a narrow, faint, metallic white streak, which
passes obliquely backward to the middle of the apical part of the
wing. At the apex is a circular brown spot, which has a small white
costal streak or spot before it, and also an opposite dorsal one, and is
margined behind by an almost semi-circular, narrow, white line, along
the base of the cilia, which are dark brown at the apex ; the dorsal
cilia are pale gray. The apical spot is thus, by means of the semi-
cular line and the opposite costal and dorsal streaks, entirely surrounded
by white, except in front, and partly on the costal margin. The dor-
sal margin of the wing is largely margined with white, especially near
the base ; just within the basal fourth is a very small, dorsal, white streak ;
another, a little larger, is placed just before the middle; just behind the
middle are some indistinct, zigzag, brown lines, partly margined with
white ; about the apical fourth is a very oblique, slightly curved, dorsal,
white streak, dark margined behind, and extending around and beyond
a small dark brown dot, just before the cilia. Al. ex., one third inch.
A single specimen received from Miss Murtfeldt, who informs me that
the larva curls down the edge of oak leaves. In its earlier stages it is,
probably, a leaf miner.

Nepticula,— JV. castanccafoUeUa (n. sp.)

This species makes a linear, crooked mine on the upper surfoce of
leaves of the chestnut (Castanea aviericana). The larva is bright
green, and the mine has a distinct central line of frass.

The imago has the palpi, vertex and eye-caps creamy white ;
head dark brown ; thorax and primaries dark purple brown, with pale
ciliic. Posterior tibije and anterior legs, except the femora, dark brown ;
legs otherwise sordid whitish, silvery tinged ; abdomen greenish above,
beneath whitish, margined with fuscous along the sides ; antennae brown
above, pale fuscous beneath, and very faintly annulate with while. AI.
ex., ~2 inch, Kentucky.

N. fiiscotihiella, Clem, N. cilicefuscella , Chum.— Can. E7it. , vol. iv., p. 1 28.

Dr. Clemens describes the species as having the cilia? pale grayish.
In the captured specimen, from which dike fuscella was described, the

118 Tinelna of the Central United States,

eilise appeared black, probably from having been a little singed by the
lamp ; since then I have bred the species from willow leaves, and I am
satisfied that it is the same described bv Dr. Clemens. The mine is
long, narrow, and on the upper surface it gradually widens throughout
its entire length, but does not become wide at any time, and at about
the middle of its length it is bent sharply backward, tlie large end
being bent back to the uarrrow one, like a long, slender club, bent
double. N. apicialhdla, Cham., only differs by having the apical cilise
white.

N. nigriverticella (n. sp.)

Face rust red ; palpi silver-tinged, yellowish white ; tuft, small and
black; eye-caps pale ocherous ; antennae fuscous, silver-tinged. Tliorax
and primaries pale ocherous, faintly dusted with fuscous ; at the base of
the dorsal margin of the fore wings is a purple black spot, extending
half across the wing, and just at the beginning of the cilia is a wide
purple black fuscia; cilia very pale ocherous. Al. ex., one fifth inch,
Kentucky. The food plant is unknown. It was taken May r2th, on
the hunk of a wild cherry tree, sitting very close. But I know only
one Nepticula mine of the wild cherry leaves, and the species wliich
produces it is very different from this, and has been already described
by me as N. serotinceella. — Can. Ent., vol. v., p. 126.

N. resplcndenseUa (n. sp.)

In rich, gorgeous and brilliant adornment this species surpasses all
other Neptlculce known to me ; indeed, I had almost written that it
surpasses any other microlepidopteron known to me, ana, indeed, while
some others surpass it in variety of coloration, I know of none more
gorgeous and brilliant. The scales are very fine and smooth, and
shining, unlike the rough, large scales of many species. The palpi are
whitish; the tuft pale reddish saffron, and the tips of the tarsi are pale
yellowish ; in other respects it is exceedingly diflicult to determine
what its real hues are. To the naked eye.it appears of a brilliant deep
black, with a wavy golden band extending along the middle of the fore
wings, from the base to the tip. Under the lens the basal half of the
costal margin of the fore wings, and a large spot extending along the
base of the costal fringe, nearly to the tip, and more than half across the
wing, are deep purple or deep velvety black, with a rich purple tinge ;
all other parts of the wings, the fringes, the body, and legs, are of a
brilliant metallic luster, like burnished steel or silver, with prismatic
reflections, and, in a bright light, glistening like gold in the sunlight.

Tincina of the Central United States. 119

I think that if one .could ever get rid of its prismatic resplendence, its true
color would be best described as bright silver, tinged with gold, except
the basal half of the costal margin, and the large spot at the base of the
cilia, before mentioned, the true color of which are a rich purple black.
Al. ex., one fourth inch. Two specimens captured May 23d, under
hackberry trees (^C'tltis occidentalis).

N. uni/ascicUa (n. sp.)

Palpi, legs, under surface of the thorax and abdomen, upper surface
of thorax and basal two thirds of the upper surface of the wings
shining black, with a brilliant metallic luster, like polished steel or silver,
so that a silvery white, rather wide, fascia, placed, at the apical third of
the wings, is scarcely distinguishable in some lights from the remainder
of the wing ; this fascia is nearly straight, and the wing behind it and
the fringes are deep purple black, and the costal nmrgin, from the base
to the fascia, also shows the purple gloss. Under surface of the wings
deep black ; antennjB black ; head and face rufous ; eye-caps silvery
white. The scales ai'e fine and smooth, and it is no mean competitor
of the preceding species as to beauty. Al. ex., three sixteenths inch,
Kentucky.

BuccuLATRix — B. anibrosicefoliella (n. sp.)

Face white ; eye-caps white ; antennae with alternate annulations of
■white and dark brown ; vertex wdiite, stained with ocherous brown :
thorax ocherous yellow, faintly sprinkled with brown. The ground
color of the fore wings seems to be white, but it is so much overlaid
with pale ocherous that the white is only distinct in a few places; thus,
the basal portion along the costa, for nearly one third of the wing length,
is whitish, faintly sprinkled with pale ocherous and brown ; and there is
a distinct, curved, white streak, forming an arc of a circle, beginning on
the dorsal margin, just before the middle, and curving back to the dor-
sal margin, just behind the middle, and margined toward the dorsal
margin of the wing (that is, within the arc) by black scales ; the scales
between this black internal edging of the arc and the costal margin
are ocherous ; the extreme costa, near the base, is dusted with dark
brown, which ends just before the middle in a short, oblique, brown
streak ; there are also scattered blackish scales along the dorsal margin,
near the base. About the middle of tlie costal margin begins a long,
dark brown streak, which passes obliquely across the wing, to the hinder

120 Tineina of the Central United States.

angle, and thence along the base of the cilia to the tip ; it is margined
on the costa rather indistinctly by white. The dorsal cilia are whitish,
mixed with oclieroiis ; there is an oblique streak of dark brown in the
cilia behind tlie tip, and a few scattered scales of the same hue, above
the base of tlie costal cilia. Under surface and legs very pale ocher-
ous. Al. ex., 5-16ths inch. The larva feeds on the leaves of Ambrosia
trijida.

B. quinquenotella (n. sp.)

Face, and entire under surface of body and legs, silvery white, with a
faint, yellowish tinge, and the tar.^i dusted with brown on their anterior
surfaces ; antennie with alternate annulations of silvery white and black;
tuft silvery white, becoming brick red on top ; eye-caps silvery white ;
fore wings reddish orange or reddish ocherous, according to the light, and
sparsely flecked with brown. The basal part of the fore wings is much
lighter than the remainder, and the apical part is more distinctly yel-
lowish than the middle, which is darker. There are three silvery white
costal streaks : the first is placed at about the basal fourth, and extends
obliquely across the wing to the dorsal margin, just before the dorsal
tuft, but becomes near the dorsal margin somewhat suffused with
or even interrupted by yellowish scales ; the second is small, straight,
near the middle of the wing, and the third is placed just behind
the beginning of the cilia, is long and narrow, almost crossing the
wing to the dorsal cilia, where there is a dorsal, silvery white spot im-
mediately before it, at the beginning of the dorsal cilia. There is a
patch of blackish scales in the apex margined before by a silvery streak,
which does not reach either margin. The fringes are silver gray, with
a very distinct, dark brown hinder marginal line at their base. The
dorsal tuft is dark brown, and in perfectly fresh specimens there are a
few scales longer and darker than the others projecting from it. Al. ex.,
one fourth inch, Kentucky.

It seems to resemble Dr. Clemens, B. trifasciella, but can not be it if
Dr. Clemens has correctly described that species.

B. pachirddla, Cham. — Can. Ent., vol. iv., p. 151.

I have bred this species from cocoons found on the trunks of beech
trees. The description loe. cit. was made from two specimens taken at
the light, and on comparing them with bred specimens, I find that
they were a little singed. In the bred specimens the "small brown
dot on each side of the apex of the thorax " is absent, and the portions

Cephalopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 121

described as orange chrome vary with the light, becuining gokleu
brown or greenish brown, according to the light ; there i.s also an in-
distinct tuft of brown scales on the dorsal margin, about the mitldle.
I have not seen B. trifasciella, Clem. It must resemble this species
closely, but I do not find the third silvery streak mentioned by Dr.
Clemens.

Class GephaJopoda (Cuvier), as represented in the Cincinnati Group.

By S. A. Miller.

This class Is divided into two orders: 1st, Dihrmirhkiia (two gilled);
2d, Tdmhranvhlata (four gilled). The Dibramhlata are the highest
organisms in the molluscan scale, and are extensively represented, by
numerous families, in the seas, at the present time, but are not known
to have existed during the Silurian age The Tdrabranchiata are
represented by only one living ftimily, the Nauti/idce, though they
abounded in the ancient seas of every age, from the Silurian to the
Tertiary, and twenty-five or thirty families are known only by their
fossil remains. In these families more than 2,000 species have been
described.

The Xautihis pompiHus, it Is said, inhabits a depth of from 20 to 30
fathoms, where it creeps, like a snail, on the bed of the sea. The
chambers of the shell, not occupied by the animal, are said to contain
water. The animal is attached to the shell, by means of two lateral
adductor muscles, and by a continuous horny girdle around the mouth
of the body chamber. The septa arc pierced by a siphuncle, contain-
ing, for a short distance, a tubular prolongation of the mantel, Avhich,
in the young state, probably forms the main muscular attachment.

Profi Owen says: "The line of atttachment of both the muscles
and the cincture progressively advances with the growth of the ani-
mals. A certain portion of the fundus of the shell thus becomes va-
cated, and the Naittilus commences the formation of a new plate,^ for
the support of the part of the body which has been withdrawn, from
the vacated shell. The formation of the plate proceeds from the cir-
cvimference to the center, and there meeting the conical process of the
mantel, which retains its primitive attachment, the calcification is con-
tinued backward for a short distance, around the process, which now
forms the commencement of the membranous siphon, and ac(|uires the
partial protection of the calcareous tube. An air-tight chamber is thus

122 Cephalopoda of the Cincinnati Gh'oup.

formed, traversed by the siphon, which perforates its anterior wall or
septum ; by a repetition of the same process, a second chamber is
formed, included witliin two perforated septa ; and similar, but wider,
partitions continue to be added, C(mcurrently with the formation of the
new layers, which extend and expand the mouth of the shell, until the
animal acquires its full growth, which is indicated by the body havmg
receded, for a less distance from the penultimate septum, before the
formation of the last septum is begun."

The fossil shells of this class, found in the Cincinnati Group, appear
to have possessed a composition and structure ditierent from that of
the shells of any other class. Their peculiarity is manifested by the
molecular changes, that seem to have taken place in all parts of the
shell — in the siphuucle and septa, as well as in the exterior shell. The
appearance presented by the specimens, which show this molecular
change, is that of a shell having been melted or softened and run to-
gether. Some specimens appear as if the side most distant from the
siphuncle had melted down upon it, and then the siphuncle had
opened longitudinally and formed a row of nodes on each side of
the opening. Flattened specimens of this kind have led to the
suggestion, on the part of some, that the shell might have been flat
on one side, with the siphuncle on the outside. Other specimens
appear as if the siphuncle and septa had melted down uiion one side,
and others, as if part of the exterior shell had run in upon the septa.
These molecular changes seem to have taken place in a high degree
in one part of a specimen, while another i)art remains unchanged.
From a knowledge of the foregoing facts, and an examination of nu-
merous specimens of OrtJwceras, I am led to the conclusion, that all
species of this genus found in our rocks are conical shells, having a
(urcular section.

The shells are not porous, like those of the Brachiopoda , nor horny,
like the Ciuatacea ; neither do they present the same appearance, af;
do the LameUihranchiata, or Gasteropoda. The exact diffei-ence, how-
ever, must be hereafter pointed out, from chemical analysis or micro-
scopical examination. At present, I characterize them as distinct in
structure and composition, for the reason, that the shells of no other
class appear to have undergone these molecular changes, that present
the appearance of the melting and running together of different partK
of the shell.

The siphuncle appears in some species of Orthoceras to be always
central. In other species, however, it appears to cross, from a subcen-
tral or marginal position on one side to the same position on the other.
From these facts, I infer, that there can, properly, be no dorsal or ven-
tral side to these shells.

Cephalopoda of the Cincinnati Group. Vl'-\

No appearance of muscular scars have ever been noticed on the
oast or the shell of the body chamber of any specimen of this cla.'sp
found in our rocks. I have seen a great many good casts of the body
chamber of Oiihoceras, and some good shells of the body chamber,
but none of them have shown the least indication of muscular scart*.
From these facts I have received the impression, that the siphuncle
alone was the point of muscular attachment. If this view is correct,
then the embryonic state of the Nautilus would seem to be the rep-
resentative of the full developed Cchhalopods of the Silurian age.

It appears, too, from an examination of some specimens, that several
>iepta were forming at the same time in the body chamber, the
anterior ones being only rudimentary, while, posteriorly, they ap-
proached nearer and nearer to the siphuncle, or point of muscular
attachment.

The method of growth would seem to have been as follows : each
septum began to form at the circumference of the shell, near the
anterior part of the body chamber, to accommodate the on ward growth
of the shell, and slowly approached the siphuncle, as it moved for-
ward from septum to septum ; the siphuncle being a point of muscular
attachment, was not vacated by the animal between any two septa,
until the anterior one had been firmly closed by attachment to the
it^iphuncle, forming a chamber of support. The chamber, thus cut off,
afterward filled more or less with water, that found its way through
the pores of the shell, but otherwise remained firmly ch)sed. For
this reason the chambers of the Orihoccras are usually filled with
crystalline carbonate of lime, while the siphuncle and body chamber
are filled with minute fossils, fragments of shells, or uncrystalline
matter.

It remains now to be said, that the shells of this class, in our rocks,
are very thin in j^roportion to their size, and that there is nothing to
indicate that the animals were powerful or carnivorous, though they
might have been carnivorous. The character they have received of
" mon!>ters vast of ages past," is not supported by investigation.
They were strong enough to sustain themselves among the much
smaller animals, with Avhich they associated, and that is the most that
can be said of their power.

The Orthoceratidm and the Cyrtoceratidce are the only tAvo fiimilioP
belonging to the Tetrabranchi'ita, represented in the Cincinnati Group,
about which there seems to be no doubt. Prof i\leek, however, de-
scribed a fossil found somewhere about Richmond, Ind., as TrochoceruK
JBaerL If he is right iu his genus, it adds to our rocks the family
Trochoceratidie, a family not before known to exist in the Lower

124 Cephalopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Silurian rocks of America. Some specimens have been found in
a fragmentary condition, that appear to belong to the family
(rp'oceraticke, and others that poi-sibly belong to Fhragmoceratidce.
But I have concluded, because of the doubt about the genera of these
latter specimens, to confine this monograph to the fir.st two families
above mentioned.

Family Orthoceratida;.

Shell externa], straight, conical ; divided by numerous septa into
closed chambers ; last chamber much the largest, ibr habitation ;
siphuncle piercing all the chambers, varying in position, from the
center to the outer margin, and varying in size and form in the dif-
ferent species.

This family includes the genera Orthoceras, Endoceras, and Ormoceras.

Genus Orthoceras — (Brkyn).

[Etym.— Orthos, straight; ke?-as, horo.]

Shell conical, straight ; greater part of the posterior end traversed
by convex, transverse septa; transverse section circular, oval, or more
or less triangular; siphuncle cylindrical, or dilated between the
chambers, and varying in position from the center to the outer margin;
surface smooth, longitudinally or transversely lined.

Orthoceras Mohri — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 10.— Orthoceras Mohri. Longitudinal section showing siphuncle.

Shell elongated, tapering very regularly, at the rate of about 0.16
inch to the inch, to an acute point. Septa rather strongly arched, and
distant, about one fourth the diameter of the shell. (Measurement
of three different polished specimens produced the following result:
diameter 0.62 inch, septa distant, 0,15 inch ; diameter 0.50 inch,
.septa distant 0.12 inch ; diameter 0.25 inch, septa distant 0.06 inch.)
Siphuncle central, and having the appearance of a connected series of
oval beads, with the larger ends directed forward, and gradually

CejjJiahpoda of the Cincinnati Group. 125

dimiuisliing in size, as the distance between the septa becomes less and
less. Greatest diameter of the siph uncle about or a little more than
one fourth the diameter of the shell. Outer chamber more than one
fourth the length of the shell, measuring to the end of the siphuncle.
Outer surfoce of the shells in good specimens smooth, and not showing
the septa within.

Polished specimens show septa commencing to form in the body
chamber, in advance of the siphuncle ; those near the siphuncle
approaching, while those more distant only commencing to leave the
outer shell.

I found this species near Versailles, Ind., about 300 feet below the
Upper Silurian rocks, associated with Anoclontopsis MUeri, Anmaalo-
clojita gigante't, Modinhpsis Versailksensis, CyHo/ites ornatus, showing the
outer shell and surface markings, and other fossils better preserved
than I have found them elsewhere. The specific name is given in
honor of our paleontological friend, Paul Mohr, Sr., Esq.

Orthoceras Dyeri — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. n.— Orthoceras Dyeri. Longitudinal section showing siphuncle.

Shell rather rapidly tapering; outer surface unknown. Septa
highly arched and distant about one fifth the diameter of the shell.
Siphuncle large, subcentral, varying in position, and presenting the
appearance of a string of flattened oblate spheroidal beads, having the
same inclination as the septa, between which they are placed. Great-
est diameter of the siphuncle about one-third the diameter of the
shell, and therefore more than one and a half times the distan«-e
between the septa. Chamber of habitation unknown.

Found on the hills back of Cincinnati, but the range is unknown.

The specimen figured is from the collection of C. 1>. Dyer, Ks:|.,
in whose honor I have given the specific name. The nphuncleis rep-
resented in the figure a little narrower than it should be.

126 Cephalojwda of the Cineinnati Group.

Orthoccras iMeeJci — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 12.— Orthoceras Meehl. Longitudinal section, sliowing siphuncle.

Shell medium size, gradually tapering ; septa moderately arclied,
and distant about one seventh the diameter of the shell; siphuncle
excentric, or crossing from one side to the other, and conr^isting of a
scries of elongate ovate enlargements in each chamber. The greatest
diameter of the siphuncle is usually about one half the distance be-
tween the septa. The exterior shell and body chamber unknown.

It is here to be observed that in this species the distance between
the septa does not always increase as the shell enlarges toward the
anterior end, but sometimes one, two, or three chambers will be narrower
than their predecessor. Take a number of them, however, together,
and a gradual enlargement of the chambers and increased distance
between the septa, as the shell increases in diameter, becomes apparent.

Found on the hills back of Cincinnati ; range unknown.

Specific name given in honor of Prof. F. B. Meek.

Orthoceras Bijrnesi — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 13. — Orthoceras Byrnesi. Longitudinal section, showing sipbunclo.

Shell medium size, very long, and slowly tapering ; arch of the
chambers about equal to the distance between the septa, and distant
about one seventh the diameter of the shell ; siphuncle excentric, or
crossing from one side to the other, and consisting of a series of slightly
ovate enlargements in each chamber. The greatest diameter of the
siphuncle is, as much or a little more than the distance between the
septa, while the septa are pierced Avith. holes about two thirds the
diameter of the siphuncle.

Cq)halopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 127

The distance between the septa does not alv.ays increase uniformly,
sus the shell enlarges its diameter, but take a large number of chambers,
and the increased distance between the septa becomes manifest. It
is likely that the increased distance between the septa Ls more uniform
in rapidly tapering shells than in the longer and more slowly changing
oaes.

Found on the hills back of Cincinnati ; range unknown.

Specific name given in honor of Dr. R. M. Byrnes, of Cincinnati.

Orthoceras Foderi—(S. A. Miller).

Shell large and gradually tapering ; septa moderately arched, and
distant about one eigiith the diameter ; siphuncle excentric, enlarging
in an oval form in each chamber, and rapidly contracting at it?
passage through the septa, presenting the appearance of a string of
oval beads.

A specimen, having a diameter of j%% inch at the small end, show-
27 septa in a length of 4.25 inches ; another specimen, having a diam-
eter of i%% inch at the small end, shows 15 septa in a length of 1.92
inches; and another specimen, having a diameter, at the small end, of
1 .50 inches, shows 20 septa in a length of 1.80 inches.

This species most nearly resembles 0. Bynmi, but the distance
between the septa is less, and the siphuncle proportionally smaller,
while the specimens seem generally to be larger.

Found in Clinton county, Ohio, in the upper part of the Cincinnati

(rroup.

Specific name in honor of \\. B. Foster, Esq., who has a fine cabinet;
and kindly polished many specimens for my examination.

Orthoceras Cincinnaiierms — (S. A. Miller).

Shell medium size, rather rapidly tapering ; arch of the chambers
about half the distance between the septa, and septa distant about
two ninths the diameter of the shell ; siphuncle central, excentric, or
crossing from one side to the other, and consisting of a series of slightly
ovate enlargements in each chamber. The greatest diameter of the
siphuncle is a little more than the distance between the septa, while
tlie septa are pierced with holes, about one half the diameter of the
.siphuncle.

The siphuncle of this species has a very close resemblance to that of
0. Bijrnesi, but the shell tapers more rapidly,, and the septa are more
dLitant and less arched.

128 Cephalopoda of ilic Cincinnati Group.

Fouiul on the hills back of Cincinnati ; range unknown.

A very handsome specimen of this species, in the cabinet of C, B.
Dyer, Esq , about six inches in length, diameter at the small end y^(jthf;
inch, at the large end 1.15 inches, contains forty two chambers.

Orthocpras Halli — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 14. — Orlhoceras Halli. Longitudinal section, showing siphuncle.

Shell large, rapidly tapering; septa distant about one sixth the
diameter of the shell ; siphuncle excentric, or crossing from one side to
the other, and consisting of a series of slightly ovate enlargements in
each chamber. The greatest diameter of the siphuncle is about one
and a quarter times the distance between the septa, while its diameter,
where it pierces the septa, is about one half the distance between th'e
septa. Body chamber about one third the length of the shell. Surfaere
unknown.

Found in the upper part of the Cincinnati Group, in Clinton county,
Ohio.

The specific name is given in honor of Prof. J. W. Hall, of Coving-
ton, Ky., who kindly furnished me his specimens for study. He has
one specimen showing the body chamber four inches in length,
diameter at the mouth, slightly compressed, two and a half inches, at
the rear end two inches (true diameter at the mouth probably not
much exceeding two inches). Seventeen chambers, next to the body
chamber, are four inches in length ; the shell at the seventeenth
chamber being a little over one inch in diameter.

Orfhoceras Harperi — (S. A. Miller).

Shell medium size, rather rapidly tapering; septa moderately arched,
and distant about one ninth the diameter of the shell; siphuncle
excentric, or crossing from one side to the other, and consisting of a
series of longitudinally depressed ovate enlargements in the chambers.

Cephalopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

129

.he greatest diameter of the siphuncle is about one and three fourth.^
the distance between the septa; Avhile the septa are pierced with
holes about one half the diameter of the siphuncle. Body chamber
and outer shell unknown.

Found on the hills back of Cincinnati ; range unknown.

The septa are closer together, and consequently the chambers thinner
in this 'species than they are in any other known to me in the Cin-
cinnati Group. The rapid enlargement of the siphuncle in each
chamber is also a noticeable feature.

The specific name is given in honor of my paleontological friend.
Prof. G. W. Harper, of Woodward High School.

Orthoceras transversa — (S. A. Miller)..

Fig. lb.— Orthoceras transversa, showing exterior markings of the shell and curvature of septs-
Shell medium size, rather rapidly enlarging ; septa strongly arched
and distant about one fourth or one fifth the diameter of the shell ;
siphuncle excentric, its form not observed ; outer shell thin and marked
by strong transverse lines, distant from 1-lOOth to 4-lOOths of an inch,
in a specimen having a diameter at the large end of three fourths of an
inch. The distance between these lines seems to increase as the
diameter of the shell increases, but their distance apart is not uniform
in different specimens of the same size. About four or five of these
transverse lines will mark the distance between the septa, though they
do not seem to have any connection with the arrangement of the latter..
This is the only species, except one, known to me in the Cincinnati
Group marked on the outer shell with transverse lines. And it is a
curious fact, that while with all other species we usually find the
chambers and interior part of the shell, and rarely discover the outer
shell, yet, with this species it is just the reverse. We usually find the
outer shell or a cast marked Avith transverse lines, and rarely find it in
condition to show the chambers or the siphuncle.

Its range, so far as I know, does not extend over 300 feet above low
water-mark. I found it in the excavation for Columbia avenue, at 150
feet above low water-mark, and at Eden Park, 200 feet above low water-
mark. It is not common by any means.

ICO Cephalopoda of the Cincinnati Group.

Orthoceras Ortoni — (Meek, 1872).

■Shell rather rapidly expanding, from the posterior toward the
•aperture ; section oval, or more or less nearly circular ; septa rather
closely arranged ; siphuncle lateral, being at one of the narrow ends of
the compressed section, but not quite marginal, of comparatively
moderate size, and apparently beaded; surface of cast showing traces
of regular, obscure, longitudinal ridges, that were probably not defined
on the exterior of the shell, which is unknown.

A compressed specimen, 2.30 inches in length, measures at the large
end 1.37 inches in breadth one way, and 0.44 inch the other, while,
at the smaller end, its greater diameter is 0.38 inch, and its smaller
0.24 inch. The septa at the large end are separated 0.15 inch, and at
the smaller end 0.07 inch.

Prof. Meek expresses a doubt as to wliether or not this species be-
longs to the genus Cyrtnceras.

Found at Cincinnati ; range unknown.

Genus Endoceras — (Hall, 1847).

[Etym. — Endos, within; and keras, horn.]

Shell straight, conical ; siphunele large, usually excentric, smooth,
except as marked on the outside by the septa. Within the siphunele
are one or more very elongated conical tubes, often one within another,
to the number of four or five.

Endoceras proteiforme — (Hall, 1847).

General form cylindrico-conical, more or less elongated, often coin-
j^ressed, tapering somewhat unequally in different specimens; young
specimens terminating in an extremely acute point; surface marked
hy distinct transverse strise, which usually appear like narrow subim-
bricating bands, with one edge well defined and more elevated than
the other, more or less distinctly striated longitudinally ; striae varying
from extreme tenuity to distinct elevated thread-like lines ; section
circular ; septa distant from one fifth to one fourth the diameter ;
siphunele excentric or submarginal.

Its range seems to be co-extensive with the Cincinnati Group,
but anything approaching a good specimen is quite rare.

Cephalopoda of the Cincinnati Group. 131

Endoceras approximatum(?) — (Hall, 1847).

Cylindrical, gradually tapering; septa ^vith a convexity little more
than one fourth their diameter, distant about one fifth the diameter of
the shell ; siphuncle large, marginal, obliquely annulated by the thin
edges of the septa.

The specimen doubtfully referred to this species I found at Rich-
mond, Indiana. Only part of two chambers are preserved. The
siphuncle is two inches in length, and one half inch in diameter, and
marked by the edges of the septa, with nine strongly oblique annula-
tions. It will be observed, that the proportions of the specimen do not
exactly correspond with the definition of the species; but the
siphuncle is almost cylindrical, tapering but very little, and the
annulations being quite oblique, it must be very closely related to this
species, if not identical.

Family Cyrtoceratidce.

Shell more or less curved on the same plane ; siphuncle varying in
position ; section circular, or sometimes having a transverse or longi-
tudinal diameter the greater ; body chamber sometimes expanded, and
at other times contracted anteriorly.

Genus Cyrtoceras — (GoLDFUSS, 1833).

\_Etym. — Kurlos, curved ; keras, horn.]

Shell curved, or partially involute, sometimes with the transverse,
at others the longitudinal diameter the greater ; aperture sometimes
contracted ; siphuncle varying from the center to the concave or
convex side.

Cyrtoceras vcntricosa — (S. A. Miller).

Shell short, veutricose, gently curved, and very rapidly enlargiag
toAvard the aperture ; section circular or nearly so ; septa slightly
concave, and curving forward on the dorsal side, over the siphuncle.
Siphuncle close to the shell on the dorsal side, and abruptly expanded
Avithin the chambers, forming a cylindrical tube, having a diameter
greater than the distance between the septa, and about five times as great
as the small circular aperture piercing the septa, through which it passes.

Length of specimen, 2.30 inches; diameter at the small end, 0.44
inch, and at the distance of 0.80 inch from the small end, 0.70 inch.

132

Cephalopoda of the Cincinnaii Group.

The specimen being compressed a little at the large end, I can only
give the approximate diameter at 1.20 inches. There are fifteen septa
in the length of 2.30 inches, and their distance a^art increases as the

Fig^. IG.—Cyrtoceras venlricosa. Longitudinal section, showing part of siphuncle.

diameter of the shell increases. The distance between the first two
septa at the small end being 0.09 inch, and between the last two septa
at the large end, 0.24 inch. The fifth chamber from the small end
has a diameter of 0,62 inch; septa 0.13 inch apart; diameter of
siphuncle, within the chamber, 0.16 inch, and where it pierces the
septa about 0.03 inch.

Surface apparently smooth, though the specimen is not in a condition
to definitely determine this point. Chamber of habitation and apex
unknown.

I found this specimen and other fragments in the excavation for
Columbia avenue, east of Torrence road, in Cincinnati, at an elevation,
of about 150 feet above low water-mark.

Cyrtoceras obscura — (S. A. Miller).

Shell large, moderately curved, and very moderately enlarging
toward the aperture. Section subelliptical, transverse diameter
greatest. Septa slightly concave ; chambers thm, siphuncle beaded.,
occasioned by the slight contraction in passing through the septa;
situated close to the dorsal side of the shell ; diameter about three
times as great as the distance between the septa. Shell slightly con-
tracted at the posterior end of the chamber of habitation. Chamber
of habitation and surface unknown.

Specimen showing part of the chamber of habitation and fifteen
septa. Length of fifteen septa on the dorsal side, 3.40 inches ; ventral

Cephalopoda of the Cincinnoti Group.

133

.side, 2.18 inches. Ti-ansverse diameter of the small end, 2.54 inches;
of the chamber habitation, 2.90 inches. Diameter of siphuucle, 0.52 inch.

Fig. 17. — Cyrtoceras obscura. LoDgitudiual section showing part o£ the siphunele.

I found this specimen in the first ward of Cincinnati, about 130 feet
above low water-mark.

For Cyrtoceras Vallandighami (S. A. Meller), see vol. i., p. 232,
of this Joui-nal, July, 1874.

Trochcceras (?) Baeri — (IMeek and Worthen, 1865).

Shell sub-di.scoidal, consistmg of about two or three rather rajiidly
enlarging volutions, Avhich are more broadly rounded on the outer

134 JReview of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers.

surface than on each side, and about one fourth wider transversely
than the dor.-;o-ventral diameter ; each inner vohition slightly impress-
ing the inner side of the succeeding turn. Umbilicus a little more
than half the dorso-ventral diameter of the outer volution, and showing
all the inner turns. Spire apparently scarcely (or perhaps not) rising
above the upper surface of the last turn. Septa rather distinctly concave
on the side facing the aperture ; separated on the outer side of the whorls
(at a point where the dorso-lateral diameter is about 1.25 inches) by
spaces measuring 0.35 inch ; all showing a very slight backward curve
on the broadly rounded periphery, and passing nearly straight across
each side. Surface, siphuncle and non-septate part of the shell not
certainly known.

Greatest breadth of the typical specimen (which is septate) to the
broken outer extremity 5 inches; height or thickness of same about
2.50 inches. Dorso-ventral diameter of the volutions increasing about
three fold each turn.

The locality given for this species in the Ohio Paleontology is the
upper part of the Cincinnati Group, at Eichmond, Indiana, and in
Warren and Clinton counties, Ohio, but I have never heard of any
other specimen than the single one found somewhere about Eichmond,
Indiana.

Review of the Present State of the Controversy Concerning the Motion
of Glaciers. By Peof. E. W. Claypole, B.A., B.S., of Antioch
College, Yellow Springs, Ohio.

In the fii-st part of this paper published in January last, a short sketch
was given of various theories that have been at different times put
forward to account for the motion of a glacier. In all of them the
ice was supposed to move as ice, and the efforts of their authors were
directed to the discovery of some source of power existing in the
glacier, or acting on it, from without, that would be sufficient to pro-
duce the movement observed.

De Saussure, Eendu and Forbes thought they had found this in
the weight of the ice — that is, in gravitation. De Charpentier and
Moseley on the other hand, brought in the additional agency of heat.
The demonstration of the high unit of shear possessed by ice refuted
the theory of Eendu and Forbes, or rendered necessary some great
modifications ; DeSaussure's hypothesis was untenable on mechanical
grounds, and the discovery by Aggasiz of the almost imvarying tern-

Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers. 1 35

perature of the interior of a glacier made the acceptance of the sug-
gestion of DeCharpentier and of Canon Moseley alike impossible.

The important fact established by the investigations of the last
named writer — the high shearing force of ice — raised a new and for-
midable difficulty in the way of theorists upon this subject, which it
was necessary in some way to evade or to overcome. Accordingly, the
most recent suggestion is founded upon a completely different prin-
ciple. It is equally novel and ingenious, and comes from the pen of
Mr. Jas. Croll, now, and for some years past, engaged on the Geo-
logical Survey of Great Britain. Instead of seeking a force sufficient
to overcome the high resistance of ice to shearing, he believes that he
has found in heat a means of undermining that resistance, and thus, of
enabling gravitation, unaided, to produce the movement.

The papers embodying these views appeared in the London, Edin-
burgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, for March, 1869, and Sep-
tember, 1870. In the earlier number, Mr. Croll says:

" Although it is demonstrated that glaciers can not descend by
means of their weight alone, in the manner generally supposed, still
I venture to think, that notwithstanding the demonstration, gravita-
tion, after all, may be the only force moving the ice.

"The correctness of the above conclusion — that the weight of the
ice is not a sufficient cause — depends upon the truth of a certain ele-
ment taken for granted in the reasoning, that the shearing force of
the molecules of icp remains constant. If this force remains constant,
then Canon Moseley's conclusion is undoubtedly correct, but not other-
wise ; for if a molecule should lose its shearing force, though it were
but for a moment, if no obstacle stood in front of it, it would descend
in virtue of its weight.

■ " The fact, that the shearing force of a mass of ice is found to be
constant, does not prove that the same is the case in regard to the
individual molecule. If we take a mass of molecules in the aggregate,
the shearing force of the mass taken thus collectively may remain
absolutely constant, while at the same time each individual molecule
may be suffering repeated momentary losses of shearing force. This
is so obvious as to require no further elucidation. The whole matter
therefore resolves itself into this one question, whether or not the
shearing force of a crystalline molecule of ice remains constant. In
the case of ordinary solid bodies we have no reason to conclude that
the shearing force of the molecules ever disappear, but in regard to
ice it is very different.

" If we analyze the process by which heat is conducted through a
mass of ice, we shall find that we have every reason to believe that

136 Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers.

Avhile a molecule of ice is in the act of transmitting the energy
received (say, from a fire) it loses for the moment its shearing force, if
the temperature of the ice be not under 32° Fah. If we apply heat to the
end of a bar of iron, the molecules at the surface of the end have their
temperature raised. Molecule A, at the surface, whose temperature has
been raised, instantly commences to transfer to 5 a portion of the
energy received. The tendency of this i^rocess is to lower the tem-
perature of J. and to raise that of J5. B, then, Avith its temperature raised,
begins to transfer the energy to C The result is then the same. B
tends to fall in temperature and C to rise. This process goes on from
molecule to molecule, until the opposite end of the bar is reached.
Here, in this case, the energy or heat applied to the end of the bar is
transmitted from molecule to molecule, under the form of heat or tem-
jjerature. The energy applied to the bar does 7iot change its character,
it posses right along from molecule to molecule, under the form of heat or
te)nperature. But the nature of the process must be wholly different
if the transferrence takes place through a bar of ice at the temperature
of 32°. Suppose we apply the heat of the fire to the end of a bar of
ice at 32°, the molecules of the ice can not possibly have their tem-
peratures raised in the least degree. How, then, can molecule A take
in, under the form of heat, the energy received from the fire without
being heated or having its temperature raised? The thing is imposs-
ible. The energy of the fire must appear in A under a different form
from that of heat. The same process of reasoning is equally ajDplicable
to B ; the molecule B can not accept of the energy from A under the
form of heat, it must receive it under some other form. The same
must hold equally true of all the other molecules, till v/e reach the
()j)posite end of the bar of ice. And yet, strange to say, the last mole-
cule transmits in the form of heat its energy to the objects beyond ;
for we find that the heat applied on one side of a piece of ice will
affect the thermal pile on the other.

"The question is susceptible of a clear and definite answer. When
heat is applied to a molecule of ice at 32°, the heat applied does not
raise the temperature of the molecule, it is consumed in work against
the cohesive forces which bind the atoms or particles together into the
crystalline form. The energy, then, must exist in the dissolved crys-
talline molecule under the statical form of an affinity — crystalline affin-
ity— or whatever else Ave may call it. That is to say, the energy then
exists in the particles as a poAver or tendency to rush together again
into the crystalline form, and the moment they are alloAved to do so
they give out the energy that Avas exi^ended upon them in their
separation. This energy, Avhen it is given out, again assumes the

Review oftJte Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers. 137

dynamical form of heat ; in other words, the molecule gives out heat in
the act of freezing. The heat then given out may be employed to
melt tlie adjoining molecule. The ice molecule takes on energy from
a heated body by melting. That peculiar form of motion or energy,
called heat, disappears in f )rcing the particles of the crystalline mole-
cule separate, and for the time being subsists on the form of a tendency
in the separated particles to come together again into the crystalline
form.

" But it must be observed that although the crystalline molecule
Avhen it is acting as a conductor takes in energy under this form from
the heated body, it only exists in the molecule under such a form
during the moment of its transmission, that is to say, the molecule is
melted, but only for a moment. AVhen B accepts the energy from A,
the molecule A instantly assumes the crystalline form. B is now
melted, and when C accepts of this energy from B, then also h in turn
assumes the solid state. This process goes on from molecule to mole-
cule, till the energy is transmitted through to the opposite side and the
ice is left in its original solid state. This is the rationale of Faraday's
proj)erty of re gelation.

" This point being established, every difficulty regarding the descent
of a ghicier entirely disappears ; for a molecule, the moment it assumes
the fluid state, is completely freed from shearing force, and can de-
scend by virtue of its own weight, without any impediment. All
that the molecule requires is simply room or space to advance in. If
the molecule were in absolute contact with the adjoining molecule be-
low, it would not descend, unless it could push that molecule before it,
which it probably would not be able to do. But the molecule actually
has room to advance in, for, in passing from the solid to the liquid state,
its volume is diminished by about one tenth, and it consequently can
descend. True, when it again assumes the solid state, it will regain
its former volume ; but the question is, will it go back to its old posi-
tion? If we examine the matter thoroughly, we shall find that it can
not. If there were only this one molecule affected by the heat, this
molecule would certainly not descend, but all the molecules are simi-
larly affected, although not all at the same moment of time.

"Let us observe what takes place, say, at the lower end of the gla-
cier. The molecule A, at the losver end, say, of the surface, receives
heat from the sun's rays ; it melts, and in melting not only loses its
shearing force and descends by its own weight, it contracts also. B, im-
mediately above, is now, so far as A is concerned, at liberty to descend,
and will do so the moment that it assumes the liquid state. A, by this
time, has become sobd, and again fixed by shearing force, but it is not

138 Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers.

fixed in its old position, to but a little below where it was before. If B
has not already passed into the fluid state in consequence of heat derived
from the sun, the additional supply which it will receive from the
solidifying of A will melt it. The nionjent that B becomes fluid it
will descend until it reaches A. B, then, is solidified a little below its
former position. The game process of reasoning is in like manner ap-
plicable to every molecule of a glacier. Each molecule of a glacier,
consequently, descends step by step as it melts and solidifies,, and
hence, the glacier, consolidated as a mass, is in constant motion down-
ward."

Mr. James Geikie, F.R.S., in his recent work, "The Great Ice
Age," thus speaks of Mr. Croll's hypothesis, after sketching its prin-
cipal features :

"Heat is thus the great lever which forces the hard masses of com-
pacted snow and ice from higher to lower levels, and relieves the
mountains of their loads of frozen water. If it were not for that pe-
culiar property of ice, which enables it to behave in many respects
like a viscous or semi-fluid body, all the waters of the earth, the myriad
rivers, and lakes, and seas, would gradually be lifted up by the
heat of the sun and carried on the wings of the wind to the mountains,
there to accumulate in vast and constantly growing masses, until ocean
and all its feeders had been exhausted. But the heat of the sun, which,
falling upon clay, sand, or solid rock, merely raises the temperature,
without changing the condition of these masses, pulses through the
great piles of ice that cumber the higher elevations of Alpine coun-
tries. The temperature of the ice itself can not rise, but every atom
of its bulk is set in motion, and slowly and gradually the solid heaps
creep down hill-slope and valley, their progress being accelerated or
retarded according to the degree of heat acting upon and passing
through them. It is thus that during day the downward movement
of the ice is less sluggish than at night, and for the same reason a gla-
cier in summer moves more quickly on its way than in winter, when
its motion is exceedingly slow, sometimes not reaching to half the
summer rate.

"The motion of ice, then, being due to the transmission of heat,
which, by momentarily converting into water each molecule of the
frozen mass, in succession allows it to descend by gravitation, it is quite
evident that a body of ice will move down any slope, however gentle
the inclination may be. Its motion is precisely that of running water,
and hence we need not be surprised to find it stealing slowly down in-
clinations which are so slight as to appear to the eye like level plains.

" But it may be asked, how it happens that a body built up of atoms

Revieiv of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers. 1 39

which are constantly passing from the solid to the liquid state, and vice
versa, nevertheless retain an unvarying hard and brittle condition.
This is due to the property of regelation. When two fragments of
ice at :->2° are brought into contact, they instantly unite to form one
solid piece. What is, then, true of ice in the mass, is equally true
of its most minute atoms. Whenever these impinge upon one another,
they immediately freeze firmly together. No sooner does a molecule,
which has momentarily melted, resume the solid state, than it imme-
diately unites to the other solid particles by which it is surrounded ;
hence the continuity of the whole is preserved, and throughout its en-
tire bulk the ice remains a solid body. Such is the ingenious theory
advanced by Mr. Croll."*

Mr. CroU's hypothesis, then, briefly is this, that the glacier moves
not as ice, but as water, during the constant though momentary lique-
faction of its particles, one after another, and that this liquefaction is
caused by the transmission of heat into the ice from without, in the
form of a liquid wave, the substance being incapable of conveying this
motion and at the same time of retainhig its solidity.

In considering this theory, it will be well to define it at the outset a
little more clearly.

In the first place it is evident that the only kind of heat really in-
volved in the hypothesis is that which is carried into the interior of
the glacier by the process of conduction. Radiant heat, as it enters
and passes through the ice, is not concerned directly in the production
of the motion. We will, however, consider this subject further on,
taking into account at present only the heat of conduction.

Now, in order that conduction of heat may occur between two
bodies, the first and essential condition is, that they must be of different
temperatures. The greater this difference, the more rapid the conduc-
tion, and vice versa. A heated cannon ball cools rapidly at first, even
in its interior, and then more and more slowly, as its temperature foils,
until equilibrium is established, when all conduction ceases. Applying
this fact to the theory in question, we have three bodies : overlying air,
the superficial layer of ice, and the glacial mass below. Of these
three, the last is almost invariable in temperature, while the first
varies widely between day and night, summer and winter. The second
holds an intermediate position, and forms a transition link. It re-
ceives heat by conduction from the air at one time, and gives it up at
another. But it is subject to the limitation that it can not be raised

* The Great Ice Age, p. 41.

140 Revieio of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers.

to a higher temperature than 32°.* As soon as that point is reached,
it melts and flows down as water. Consequently, there always inter-
venes between the warm air and the mass of a glacier this superficial
film or layer of inconsiderable thickness, which acts as a barrier to the
free passage of conducted heat into the ice, and introduces a serious, if
not a fatal, objection to Mr. CroU's hypothesis. For we have just at
the point wliere he supposes conduction to take ^^lace, the exact con-
ditions that render it impossible. Instead of two bodies of widely dif-
ferent temperature, we have two whose difference in that respect is
infinitesimally small. The one — the mass of the glacier — is never per-
ceptibly below 32°. The other — the superficial layer of water of melt-
ing ice — never rises above that point. The physical difference between
them — ice and water — is striking ; but this difference does not require
more than an infinitesimal therraometric variation. The heat of
liquidity, though immense in amount, produces no effect on the tem-
perature, and can not, consequently, give rise to any wave of conduc-
tion between the two.

It will no doubt be said in reply, that, as a fiict, heat is conducted
into the interior of ice, and shows itself by melting the ice at a dis-
tance from the surfiice. The experiments of Prof. Tyndall have con-
clusively determined this, and in so far seem to lend countenance to the
theory. "A jjiece of ice containing liquid cavities was placed in a freez-
ing mixture, and the liquid bubbles frozen ; it was then wrapped in
flannel and placed in a dark room, to exclude the effects of radiation.
Nevertheless, in two hours the liquid cavities were completely restored
by heat, which had been conducted through the substance without
visible prejudice to its solidity." f

Tliat ice, therefore, like all other substances, is capable of conduct-
ing heat, is indubitable; but this same experiment of Prof. Tyndall's
shows the impossibility of accounting for the motion of a glacier by
means of this conduction. Though experiments are still wanting to
determine the exact conductivity of ice, yet it is certainly very low.
The greatest distance to which the heat was conducted was a quarter
of an inch, namely, to the middle of a half-inch plate of ice, and this
occupied two hours. J

'■■■ We lay out of coiisitleration all jiassage of heat outward, and also all transmission inward,
when tiie surface has a toiupeiature of less than 32'-% because in neither case can the etl'ects
concern the question at issue.

t Heat as a Mode of Motion, p. 318.

X In this exceedingly low rate of conductivity we can see the reason for the slightness of
variation in the temperaf ure of a glacier. Unable to rise i)erceptibly above 32'' from its phys-
ical constitution, the ice is also unable to conduct the heat of its cbkniiel away fast enough to
fall mucli below it, and, consequently, observalioiis have never sbuwn a lower temper, tore than
about 31. u'' Fah. It is impossible, therefore, to admit, as Mr. Croll's tlicory requires, that the
ice of a glacier can conduct into its niasx from a supe.rficiaUaycr of ncurlij its men temperature
sufficient heat to produce any sensible effect at depths exceeding a few inches or feet.

Reviexo of Vie Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers. 1 41

Instead of " pulsing through the great piles of ice," as Mr. Geikie
says, the small amount of heat that may succeed in entering the mass
crawls along at a rate almost imperceptible. If we assume the velocity
of transmission shown in Tyndall's experiment — a quarter of an inch
in two hours, or three inches per day — a whole year must pass before
the first wave of summer heat can penetrate the glacier to a depth of
90 feet, or, in other words, if the Alpine summer continues for 160
days, its effects can not be felt at a greater depth than 40 feet before
the ensuing winter changes the direction of the current.

But not only does the acceptance of Mr. Croll's theory require the
admission of these two physical impossibilities — the ready conduction
of heat from one body to another of the same temperature, and its
ready transmission through one of the worst conductors known — but it
also assumes, as one of its fundamental propositions, that ice can not
rise in temperature above 32°, even to the slightest extent, without
becoming liquid. This is, we think, not only unproved, but contrary
to proljability. In speaking of the experiment above mentioned. Prof.
Tyndall says :

" Tlie heat of a body Ls referred at the present day to a motion of its
particles. When this motion reaches an intensity sufficient to liberate
the particles of a solid from their mutual attraction, the body passes
into the liquid condition. Now, as regards the amount of motion
necessary to produce this liberty of liquidity, the particles as the
surface of a mass of ice must be ver}' differently circumstanced from
those in the interior, which are influenced and controlled on every side
by other particles. But if a cavity exist within the mass, the particles
bounding that cavity will be in a state resembling that of the particles
at the surface, and by the removal of all opposing action on one side
the molecules may be liberated by a force which the surrounding mass
has transmitted without prejudice to its solidity, just as the last of a
series of elastic baUs is detached by a force which has been trans-
mitted by the other members of the series, without visible sepa-
ration."

Prof. Tyndall here evidently suggests the possibility of the con-
duction of heat thi'ough a mass of ice without melting it, in consequence
of the restraint imposed upon the inner particles by the close presence
of neighboring ones. This, it can not be doubted, involves the possi-
bility of raising its temperature above 32°, if only by a minute fraction
of a degree. But even the fraction of a degree is sufficient, and more
than sufficient, to enable the ice to convey away, ''without prejudice to

142 Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers.

its solidity," the infinitesimally small amount of heat which can be
transmitted into it from a film of overlying water at 32°.*

It may also be worth while to obr-erve in passing, though not a*?
affecting the theory in question, that the Ijottom of a glacier must have
a tem-perature lower than 32°, on account of the weight of the overlying
mass. The experiment of Prof. W. Thomson of Glasgow, in 1849,
showed that the melting point of ice is lowered about 0.013° for every
additional atmosphere brought to bear upon it. Assuming, then, the
weight of glacier ice at 56 lbs. per cubic foot, the pressure will increase
at the rate of nearly one atmosphere for every 40 feet of depth.
Consequently, at a depth of 400 feet, when a pressure of 10 atmospheres,
or 150 lbs., on the square inch would \)c reached, the melting point of
ice would be not 32° but 31.87°, and if the bottom of the glacier lay at
this depth the lower surface must melt whenever that point is attained.
This is the origin of the stream Avhich issues in winter from beneath
the ice. The heat of the earth melts the ice in contact with it, and
keeps it in a constantly thawing condition, though its own surface is
below 32°. Were it not that a great part of tlie water thus produced
solidifies again, as soon as released from the pressure, Ihese winter
streams would be larger than they are.

Though not logically concerned in Mr. Croll's theory, it may be as
Avell also to consider the effect of radiant heat upon the ice of a glacier.
That radiant heat passes into ice more rapidly than the heat of con-
duction is of course true. But even here we fear Mr. Croll's theory
has little to expect. The intensity of solar heat among the Alpine
glaciers is matter of constant remark from travelers in Switzerland.
"I scarcely ever," says Forbes, "remember to have found the sun
more piercing than at the Jardin." On this Mr. Croll himself
remarks: " there is no proof from this that the glacier experiences any
change of temperature. The sun shines down with piercing rays
and the traveler is scorched, the glacier melts on the surface, but it
still remains cold as ice. The scorching rays are withdrawn and the
traveler is subjected to radiation on every side, from (query to)
surfaces at the freezmg point." f

It may, at first sight, seem thai so great an amount of solar heat,
falling directly upon a glacier, must have some effect upon it ; but a
little consideration of the properties of ice toward radiant heat is
sufficient to dispel the illusion. Notwithstanding the transparency

-It is not antecedently more improbable that ice should be capable of existing at temper-
atures slightly above 32°, than that water should be capable of remaining liquid in certain
circumstances at temperatures below the freezing point, which is a thing of constant occurrence.

t L. E. and D. Fhil. Mag., Sept., 1870.

Review of the Contvoveny Regarding the Mut'ion of Glaciers. 143

of ice, its diathermancy is exceedingly low. Melloni has shown, that
of the light and heat radiated from a lamp, and falling on the surface
of a plate of ice one tenth of an inch in thickness, 94 per cent, is ab-
sorbed, and only 6 per cent, emerges from the opposite fall, while of
the total radiation of incandescent platumm only one half per cent, is
transmitted through such a plate. Ice is, in tact, one of the most im-
pervious substances known to the obscure or peculiarly calorific rays,
and while their can be no doubt that the shorter and more luminous
vibrations can and do pass into the mass of the glacier, perhaps to its
very base, it is equally certain that the longer and less luminous ones
fail to penetrate it to any appreciable distance. They are almost
wholly absorbed in warming the superficial layer, if beloAV 32°, and in
melting it if not below.* Hence, the surface of a glacier when exposed
to the sun's rays is soft, the ice is called " rotten." Stream of ice cold
water runs over it in every direction, and the level of the glacier sinks
by "oblation," sometimes amounting to eight or nine feet in the year.

The only effect of the solar radiation, therefore, is to aid in producing
the intermediate layer, of which mention was made above— a layer
whose temperature seldom exceeds 32°, Avhich is constantly being
renewed by liquefaction, as fast as it is removed, and from which, on
Mr. Croll's theory, incessant waves of liquidity are passing into a mas.s
of ice of the same temperature as ifsef.

Another very large deduction must be made from the heat supposed
by Mr. Croll to be thus freely conducted into a glacier. The structure
of the ice is such, that it is full of blebs and cracks, all affording
internal surfaces, on reaching which the heat (admitting its free trans-
mission) will spend itself in melting the ice upon these surfaces and
enlarging the cavities, so as to- aid the heat of radiation in reducing
the superficial layer to a crumbling mass of several inches in thickness,
and feeding the rivulets that trickle over and through the glacier in
summer time. It is hardly possible that if any appreciable amount of
heat should succeed in entering the mass, it could escape meeting on
its passage with one of these cavities, where it would necessarily cease
to become heat of temperature, and become latent as heat of Uquiditi/.
Moreover, Mr. Croll's illustration of his own theory is open to a charge
of partiality. He says :

" Let us observe what takes place, say, at the lower end of a glacier."'
He then supposes the tranfer of heat upward, melting each molecule

* The intense blue color of the ice,when seen from below, is due to the absorption of thelouger
rays by the superficial layers, while the shorter (blue) ones are able to penetrate almost un-
checked. This effect may also be Increased to some extent by fluorescence.

X. E. and Z>, Phil. Mag., March, 18G0.

144 Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers.

in succession, and reducing it to a lower level, so as to make room for
the descent of the next above, as soon as it has become liquid by the
receipt of energy from its resolidified predecessor, now again fixed by
cohesion at a lower level. But, we may ask, does the heat (supposing
it to enter the ice) enter at the lower end of a glacier and pass i;j9-
tvard toward its neve ? On the contrary, if it pass into the ice at all, it
must do so from the surface, and be transmitted vertically downward.
Consequently, the melted molecule can not descend before it passes on
its heat of liquidity to the next helow it. It has no room to fall in. Its
own contraction or melting will leave a space above it temporarily va-
cant. But the particle above it is already solid, and can not fall into
that cavity, and before it can pass on its energy to the molecule below
it, it must surrender that energy itself. The heat, and, consequently,
the liquidity, can not exist in two molecules at the same instant of
time. It must pass from the upper one before it can be possessed by
the lower one. But in passing from the upper one it must cause that
molecule to solidify exactly in the position it previously occupied. By re-
solidifying it would fill again the vacuity temporarily produced by its
liquefaction, and the same process would take place in the succeeding
particle. No downward motion, therefore, can be produced. The
molecules can not flow while in their supposed liquid condition, for
want of space, and when space is given to them by the liquefiiction of
the molecule below, they can not descend, because they are again
chained by cohesion, needing shearing force to overcome it, which is
not present. On a fair application, therefore, of Mr. Croll's own illus-
tration, his theory fails to account for a phenomenon which he ex-
plains by special pleading in one particular and favorable instance.

Having thus discussed some of the most important phj^sical facts,
which jMr. Croll seems to have entirely overlooked, in their hearings
upon his theory, we propose now to follow it into some of its obvious
results, in order to determine how far it fulfills the first great con-
dition of every hypothesis — adequacy to account for the phenomena
observed.

There can be no doubt that if we admit Mr. Croll's premise, that
successive layers of the ice become momentarily liquefied, and during
that short interval flow down to a lower level, we shall obtain a mo-
lecular movement of the glacier downward. This result is entirely due
to the W'cight of the molecule itself, unaided from without. Mr. Croll
does not admit or require any doAvnward pressure of the mass of the
glacier above it. Every particle flows in the glacier exactly as it
would flow in a river, with the single exception that its flow is inter-
mittent. It would follow, therefore, that the different parts of the gla-

Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers. 145

cier must move at different rates, and tliat these rates will be deter-
mined by the amount of heat which each part receives. A region
exposed to the sun's rays must, therefore, move faster than a region
sheltered from them, inasmuch as it is constantly covered by a film of
water, from which Mr. Croll supposes the heat to be conducted. This,
however, is not the case. In the Mer de Glace the rate of movement
increases gradually from the higher parts to the lower. The glacier,.
in fact, moves as a whole, and not molecularly ; with a differential mo-
tion, it is true, but not with such a differential motion as Mr. Croll's
theorv requires, and the result of the motion of the whole is, that its
central and superficial portion is carried along at the rate of about
a yard per day.

This, however, is only true of the glacier as a whole. A cubic yard
cut out of the more swiftly moving part, and kid upon the rock beside
it, would show no more motion than the rock itself, though exposed to
the same access of heat. Yet, on Mr. Croll's theory, both should com-
port themselves alike. Indeed, if the principle upon which his hypo-
thesis is founded were correct, any lump of ice exposed to<a heat above
32° should soften and flow outward, until it had spread itself into a
thin layer, without melting, except at the surface. Nor is there any
reason for limiting this result to the rate observed on the Mer de Glace.
Still greater mobility might be looked for, and ice must be more plastic
than butter to bring about the necessary consequence of Mr. CrolF's
principle. It is needless to add, that such results are never observed.
A lump of ice, even in summer, shows no tendency to spread thus;.
and if the absence of viscosity has proved a stumbling-block in the
way of Forbes' Viscous Theory, the absence of all evidence of liquidity
is an equally fatal objection to Mr. Croll's Liquid Theory. Again, it is
impossible to admit that a glacier, moving as on this Liquid Theory
it is supposed to move, can scratch and groove the rock-bed over which
it passes as glaciers are known to do. Mr. Croll, it is true, claims this
as a legitimate result of his theory, when he says :

"As regards the denuding power of glacier, I may observe that
though a glacier descends molecule by molecule, it Avill grind the
rocky bed over w^hich it moves as effectually as it w^ould do did it
slide down in a rigid mass in the Avay generally supposed, for the
grinding effect is produced not by the ice of the glacier but by the
stones, sand, and other material forced along under it. But if all the
resistances opposing the descent of a glacier, internal and external, are
overcome by the mere weight of the ice alone, it can be proved that
in the case of one descending with a given velocity, the amount of
work pei-formed in forcing the grinding materials lying under the ice

146 Review of the Controversy Regarding the Motion of Glaciers.

forward, must be as great, supposing the motion of the ice to be mole-
cuhir in the way I have explained, as it would be supposing the ice
descended in the manner generally supposed." * But this claim of
Mr. Croll on behalf of his theory can not be admitted. As long as
the glacier moves as ice, it is perfectly easy to admit that it may hold
stones and sand firmly enough to cause them to score the rocks in its
channel rather than to slip from its grasp. But when the glacier
is supposed to descend molecule by molecule, and not as ice, but
as water, it is impossible to believe that such action is any longer
possible. The material carried down by a river never polishes or
grooves its channel, if consisting of rock, and the Liquid Theory imagines
the glacier to flow down as a river flows, with the sole difference, that
its particles move singly, slowly, and intermittently, rather than con-
currently fast, and continuously. Moreover, this very objection has
always proved a formidable obstacle to the acceptance of Forbes'
theory. The slight degree of viscosity demanded by its fundamental
principle made it difficult to admit the possibility of such results as
grooving and striation. It is not, therefore, necessary to dwell upoii
the enhancement of the same difficulty that is introduced by the
Liquid Theory in question.

Mr. Croll further adds :

" We have in this theory a satisfactory explanation of the origin of
crevasses in a glacier. Take for example the transverse crevasses
formed at a point where an increase in the inclination of the glacier
takes place. Suppose a change of inclination from 4° to 8° in the bed
of the glacier. The molecules on the slope of 8° will descend more
rapidly than those above on the slope of 4°. A state of tension will
therefore be induced at this point, where the change of inclination
occurs. The ice on the slope of 8° will tend to pull after it the mass
of the glacier moving more slowly in the slope above. The pull being
continued, the glacier will snap asunder the moment that the cohesion
of the ice is overcome. The greater the change of inclination, the
more readily will the rupture of the ice take place."

Mr. Croll has here fallen into the logical fallacy, so common with
the advocate of new theories, of specially (}U0ting, in his own support,
a phenomenon that is almost equally favorable to all the hypotheses that
have been pnt forward to account for the movement in question.
Even if the claim be admitted, it would form no argument in defense
of the Liquid Theory, because, it may be made with equal show of
reason by the followers of Forbes, and with yet more justice by the

* L. E. and D. Phil. Mag., March, 1869.

Review of the Codroversy Regarding the 3Iotion of Glaciers. 147

adherents of Moseley, De Charpentier, and De Saussure. But, like
the hist, this claim can not be allowed. No difficulty lies in the way
of admitting the crevasse as a necessary result of any theory that sup-
poses the glacier to move as ice, but the moment this ground is
abandoned, and the rigidity of the material in any way removed, the
crevasse becomes a standing obstacle, that has thus far defied removal.
Readers of Forbes' writings upon the subject know well with how-
much ingenuity and labor he has striven to clear it away, as though
fully aware of its fatal character, and they must also have felt how
little success he attained in the effort. The two seem irreconcilable
—viscosity and brittleuess. If the ice is plastic enough to flow, how
can it be brittle enough to allow yawning crevasses, hundreds of feet
deep, to form and grow within it ? And if this phenomenon applied
with such force against the viscous theory, with how much greater
force must it assail the liquid theory of Mr. Croll? According to his
own explanation of it, no sooner is a crack formed than the heat gams
access to the new surface, and passing into the ice, must produce the
same effect as at any other surface, and cause a downward motion of
the momentarily liquified particles, which must again close the opening
and stifle the crevasse at its very birth. A glacier, moving as Mr.
Croll supposes, can neither produce grooves on its channel, nor allow
crevasses on its bosom, but must fioiu onward, without more friction at
its base and with less unevenness on its surfiice than a river of water.
It is evidently impossible to admit a successive molecular liquidation,
which can produce a flow of 36 inches per day down a slope of 8°,
and at the same time a hardness capable of mamtaining vertical walls
of ice hundreds of feet in height,

Mr. Croll has, it may be noticed, only quoted an example of a
crevasse formed by a change of interlineation in the bed of a glacier,
which is a comparatively easy problem. He has made no attempt to
claim, in support of his theory, the far more difficult case, where
crevasses develop themselves along and across the mass while moving
over an unchanging slope, such as margined ■crevasses. On his
theory, it Wi)uld be almost as reasonable to expose the formation of
such chasms in the surface of a river as on that of a glacier of con-
stantly melting ice.

Is it possible, we may further ask, to account for the downward
movement of moraines and other foreign substances lying on the sur-
face of a glacier, or buried in its mass, on the theory of Mr. Croll ?
This is a necessary result of assuming its movement as ice, but it seems
quite incompatible with the admission that it must become liquid as
the condition of motion. In the case of an erratic block lying upon

148 Review of the Controversy Begarding the 3fotion of Glaciers.

its surface, the slight friction of the molecules, as they successively
thaw and glide downward by infinitesimally small steps, would be
quite incompetent to communicate their motion to the underlying mass
of stone. A stake set firmly in the ice must in the same way be left
behind, as the momentarily liquified particles steal past it with no
more friction than that of the water in a river against the trunk of a
tree upon its bank. Instead of recording, as in fact they do, the daily
and hourly flow of the glacier, they would remain permanently where
at first they had been set. And the bodies of victims who have the
misfortune to fall into the depths of some yawning crevasse, instead of
reappearing at the foot of the glacier after an interval of twenty,
forty, or eighty years,* would remain forever sealed up where they
fell, while the liquid molecules successively slide past them. In this
respect, also, it is impossible to reconcile the consequences which would
flow from Mr. Croll's theory Avith the well known facts of glacial
nature. In yet another point is this theory irreconcilable with fact.
The motion of a glacier, it is well known, is not uniform, but diflTer-
ential. The surface moves more rapidly than the parts below, and the
middle more rapidly than the sides. But if, as Mr. CroU maintains,
the entrance of heat and its conduction through the mass of the ice, as
a wave of liquidity, is the sole and suflficient cause of the movement, the
results produced would not accord with the observations. The upper
layer may be supposed to move faster than the lower without incon-
sistency, but theory would certainly require that the side should move
faster than the middle. There can be no reason for supposing that a
liquid molecule near the margin has any greater difficulty in moving
down the slope than a liquid molecule in the middle. Each is sur.
rounded by other molecules in the solid state, each has the same degree
of friction to overcome, and the same interval of time for accomplishing
its movement. But the ice at the margin of the stream being thinner
than that in the middle, is more thoroughly under the influence of the
lie^t, which would less slowly penetrate it, and would be then reflected
from the rocky bed, consequently, every particle must pass more often
into the liquid form^ and for this reason should travel faster than the
particles Ij'ing in mid-stream. f

* The remains of the guides lost in 1820, in Dr. Hauiel's attempt to cross Mt. Blanc, were
found imbedded in the ice of the glacier des Bossons, in 1863. The men and their things were
torn to pieces and widely separated. All around them the ice was covered in every direction,
for twenty or thirty feet, with the hair of one knapsack, spread over an area three or four hund-
red times greater than that of the knapsack." This, says Mr. Crowell, is not an isolated ex-
ample of the seatterinu that takes place in or on a glacier. I myself saw, on the Theodule
glacier, the remains of the Syndic of Val Tournanche scattered over a space of several acres."
t The more rapid flow of a river in (he middle does not invalidate this argument. The
water in a river is all sulyect to the same moving force — gravitation — everywhere equal in
amount. But Mr. Croll's theory obliges us to admit that the ice along the margins of a glacier
is in much more complete subjection to the influence of heat than is that in the middle, and,
consequently, possesses what is equivalent to a greater motive force.

Review of the Controversy Regarding tJie Motion of Glaciers. 149

Mr, Croll has very satisfactorily shown from Canon Moseley's own
data, that the theory of expansion fails to give the motion required
in summer, by observation. He says:

'• It i.s a necessary condition of "Mr. Moseley's theory that the heat
should pass easily into and out of a glacier, for unless this were the
case, sudden changes of temperature could produce little or no effect
on the great mass of the glacier. How, then, is it possible that during
the heat of summer the temperature of the glacier could vary much?
During that season, in the lower valleys at least, everything, with the
exception of the glacier, is above the freezing point; consequently,
when the glacier goes into the shade, there is nothing to lower the ice
below^ the freezing point, and as the sun's rays do not raise the tem-
perature of the ice above the freezing point, the temperature of the
glacier must (therefore) remain unaltered during that season. It
follows, therefore, that instead of moving more rapidly during the
middle of summer than during the middle of winter, the glacier
should, according to Moseley's theory, have no motion whatever dur-
ing summer. ^5^

But is not the same condition equally necessary for Mr. CroU's
theory, viz.: the ready transmission of heat into the mass of a glacier,
in whatever form that heat may pass ? We have already shown that
the low conductivity of ice excludes this condition, and, consequently,
invalidates the theory. Granting, what is probably true, that during
the summer a small amount of heat penetrates to a slight depth the
glacial mass, the approach of night, or winter, reverses the case, and
then, instead of absorbing, the ice gives out the heat it had already
taken in, and its superficial temperature falls below the freezing point.
In these cirumstances no conduction of heat into the interior is possi-
ble, and radiation from without, if it were appealed to for aid, is ex-
cluded by the layer of snoAV which covers the ice. "The appearance
of the glaciers in winter is very impressive — all sounds are stilled j
the cascades, which in summer fill the air with their music, are silent,
hanging from the ledge of the rocks in fluted columns of ice." " There
is no danger in entering the vault of the arveiron, for the ice seems as
firm as marble."! Consequently, if, on Canon Mosele/s theory, no
motion can ensue during the summer, on account of the variability of
the temperature of the ice, on ISIr. CroU's theory, no motion can ensue
during winter, because everything around the glacier, and its own

=:■• L. E. & D., Phil. Mag., September, 1870.
t Tyndall's Fonns of Water, pp. 89-92.

150 Review of the Controversy Eegarding the Motion of Glaciers.

superficial layer of ice or snow, is at or below the freezing point.* All
inward transmission of liquid pulses is impossible.

One point more may be touched upon. Perhaps the most puzzling
of all glacial 2:)henomeua to those who have attempted to find a true
and sufficient cause of the motion, is the behavior of the secondary and
tertiary glaciers, and of those miniature neves and ice streams, which,
from their triangular form, have been named by Agassiz, snow^-trowels.
This is directly opposed to what would naturally be expected, and to
what every theory, ]Mr. CroU's included, requires. The Alpine glaciers
were arranged by De Saussure in two orders : "Glaciers of the first
rank are inclosed in valleys, which, though elevated, are commanded
on all sides by hills." " Glaciers of the second rank are not confined
to valleys, but are spread out on the slopes of the higher peaks. "f

"To complete Saussure's description I will add, that glaciers of the
first rank lie, in genera], on very gentle slopes, varying from 3° to 10°,
while glaciers of the second rank have a much steeper inclination,
ranging from 15° to 50'^, and_ even higher. ''4!

In the years 1841-5-6, careful measurements Avere made by Mr.
Desor, to determine the rate of advance of these secondary glaciers.
►Several of the tributaries of the Aar were chosen for the purpose, and
among them that of the Zinkenstock, whose slope varies from 30° to
50°. These measurements, wdiich others have since confirmed, show,
that while the Mer de Glace, with an inclination of 5° to 8°, advances at
the maximum rate in summer of about 36 inches a day, this secondary
stream, on a slope of 41° only, crawls down at an inch and a half during
that interval.

At the same time the advance of the smaller masses (snow-trow'els)
was also determined, and found to be even less than that of the second-
ary streams, though lying on slopes of equal or greater inclination.

These facts, due to the care and perseverance of Agassiz and his
companions, have proved great difficulties in the way of theories of
glacier motion. If the glacier slid down, it should slide faster on
a slope of 50° than on one of 5°; if it was thrust down by the expansion
of freezing water, or crept down by dilitation, as Mosely supposed, the'
same result should follow. If it flowed by the force of gravitation,
helped by an inherent viscosity, it must flow down a steep slope more
rapidly than over a nearly level surface ; and, finally, if it trickles down
by steps infinitesimally small, during moments of liquefaction infinitesi-

* It is hardly necessary to point out how much more stronj;ly this reasoning applies to the
glaciers of the I'olar ref^ion than to those of Switzerland, v.hich are here directly alluded i\^.
Vet, the constant formation of icebergs is satisfactory proof of their movement.

■j- Voyages dans Ics Alpes.

X Agassiz's S^steme Glaciaire, p. 3.

Mastodon Eemains in Ohio. 151

mally short, as ISIr. Crnll supposes, it must in that case again obey the
same rule and trickle further down a mountain side than along an
almost horizontal valley.

Obvious consequences of the theory propounded by Mr. Croll, such
as these, so directly opposed to all the phenomena of glacier motion,
seem effectually to bar the way to its reception, even as a plausible
theory. Some of Mr. CroH's papers upon geological subjects have been
of great value, but we fear his attempts to read one of the greatest if
not the greatest geological riddle of the present day has not been
successful. Nor do we think the full solution of the problem is possible
at present. Observations have not yet been sufficiently minute,
continuous or extensive, even in classic Switzerland, to enable the
cause of glacial movement to be detected. We do not yet know with
certainty the most important element in the question. The late Mr.
Wm. Hopkins deduced the swifter flow of the middle from the form and
position of the marginal crevasses, though contrary to the opinion of
Agassiz. But experiments have not yet proved whether the median
current of the glacier is in a condition of compression from pressure
behind or of tension from traction in front, or from both at different
places. Possibly this might be determined by the polariscope, but its
application is not easy, and no attempt has thus far been made in this
direction. The secret seems to be rather in the mass of the ice glacier
than in the other conditions. This was the convictiiMi of Agassiz, when,
in the conclusion of his great work on the "Glacial System of the
Alps," published in 1847, he says : '^

"The inclination of its bed is not the essential condition of the
motion of a glacier."

"This motion is determined by its thickness rather than by its slope."

Mastodon Remains in Ohio.— By John H. Klippart.

In Ohio all the Post Tertiary formations are deposited upon the
strata found in Ohio, between and including the LoAver Silurian and
Upper Carboniferous. Many geologists doubt whether coal in Ohio
ever was formed west of the present boundary of this valuable min-
eral ; or, what is the same thing, they doubt whether the Ohio coal-fields
ever were continuous, and connected with those of Indiana and Michi-
gan. In many places in Ohio, the western extremity of the lower

* Systems Glaciaire, p. 520.

152 Mastodon Remains in Ohio.

coal vein is found to be ^[feather-edged," that iy, the vein becomes thin-
ner and thinner, until it disappears entirely, and the shales or sand
rock overlying the vein are continued, until they rest directly upon the
formation underlying the coal, thus demonstrating that the thinning
out is not due to any mechanical process of attrition, such as glacial
action, or erosion of any khid. And yet there is partial evidence at
least, that the formations upon the immediate left bank of the Olen-
tangy, at Delaware, were continuous to Logan county, notwithstanding
that at the present time the Niagara is in isolated and limited localities
the surface rock. If these deposits were continuous at any time in
the world's history, then sedimentary deposits from 550 to 600 feet in
height have been eroded, or removed between Logan and Delaware
counties, the glacial action thus making an island of the eastern half
of Logan county. The upper formation of Logan county — the Huron
shale — is not found eastward from there until the left l)ank of the
Olentangy is attained, in Morrow, Delaware and Franklin counties,
and westward, or rather northwestward the outcrop is found at De-
fiance, Napoleon, and the south-west corner of Lucas county. At these
latter points the shale formation dips to the north-west. At Delaware
and Columbus it dips toward the south-east. Logan county may
have been the crest of the arch of the anti-clinal axis passing through
the State from Cincinnati to the islands in Lake Erie.

The almost level plateau found between the outcrop of the Huron
shale in Central and Northern Ohio, and the State line of Indiana —
most undoubtedly the result of glacial action ; glacial striee having been
found near Lima, in Allen county, in Montgomery and Preble coun-
ties— for want of more perfect drainage necessarily abounded in
swamps and morasses ; and these were admirably adapted to the growth
of aquatic plants, and their margins abounded with succulent herbage,
and which afforded excellent pasturage for the mastodon and other
herbivorse.

Borings made in nearly a hundred of these swamps reveal a very
remarkable uniformity in structure or formatiou. Bowlder clay, sand
or gravel, or a mixture of all three, rests upon the rock in situ; then
a stratum of clay, usually blue or black (if black, the color is usually
derived from vegetable matter, — in a few instances this black clay has
yielded the black oxide of manganese) ; over this stratum is found a
stratum of peat or peaty like substance ; then a stratum of shell
marl ; then humus or vegetable mold, intermingled with sand and
clay. With one or two exceptions only, either peat or a peaty-like
substance and shell marl were found in every swamp in which bor-
ings were made.

Mastodon Remains in Ohio. 153

As the greater portion of the western half of the State was covered
with swamps and morasses, immediately after the glacial period or
" great ice age,'' the vast amount of succulent herbage afforded by the
soni-aqueous surface must have rendered Ohio somewhat of a mastodon
paradise. In no other State have so many fossil, not petrified, remains
of the mastodon been found as in Ohio, and it is perhaps no great
exaggeration to state that in every twenty-acre swamp some remains
of one of these gigantic mammalia may be found in westei-n Ohio.

Nearly fifty years ago, the remains of one of these now extinct animals
were exhumed in digging the canal, near the town of Massillon, in
Stark county. I never saw this skeleton, but a gentleman who assisted in
exhuming it told me that the tusks measured more than 11 feet in
length, and were fully 8 inches in diameter at the base. About the
same time, the tusks, vertebrae, and some other portions of a skeleton
were taken out of a marl pit in Medina county — the tusks were 12 feet
long. About forty years ago, a complete skeleton was exhumed in
Crawford county, and, if I have been correctly informed, the same
skeleton is now in the British Museum. A few years since, a nearly
complete skeleton was dug up in the immediate vicinity of Cleveland,
but was destroyed on the spot by the workmen, who broke all the
bones into fine i)ieces. Near Sandusky, a tusk of one was exhumed ;
a portion of this tusk is now in the museum of the Homeopathic College,
in Cleveland, At Fort McArthur, in Hardin county, a considerable
portion of a skeleton was exhumed. These remains were evidently
drifted out of the Scioto marsh, they being found scattered over a
considerable area. In 1869, w^hilst ditching in his meadow, W. A.
Howard, of Woodstock, Champaign county, dug up a femur in a most
excellent state of preservation, together with small ribs and bones
of the feet as w^ell preserved. This femur was for several years on
exhibition in the State Agricultural Rooms, in Columbus. In 1870, in
digging a township ditch in Clay township, Augusta county, near the
village of St. Johns, an entire skeleton was found standing ui>right,
but sunk down in the surrounding muck, so that the vertebra? were
several feet below the surface. The skeleton was complete when
found, but the tusks, spine, cranium, and some other portions, were so
completely decayed that they crumbled when the attempt was made to
remove them. The lower jaws, teeth of the upper jaw, radius, ulna,
humerus, tibia, fibula and femur, bones of the feet and some of the
ribs, were in a sufficiently good state of preservation to be removed.
A portion of these remains are in the High School building, at Wapa-
konetta. A tusk and some bones were reported to have been found
near Greenville, in Darke county, but I was never able to obtain any

154 Mastodon Remains in Ohio.

details or specific information in relation to them, yet have no reason
to discredit the report. In 1871, a considerable portion of a skeleton
was exhumed in Clark county, and the remains removed to Wittenberg
College, at iSpringfield. Some 3'ears ago an account was published in
the Dayton Jounal of the finding of a tusk, teeth, and some other por-
tions of a skeleton, near German town, in Montgomery county. Portions
of a skeleton were discovered in a swamp or bog, near New Holland, in
Fayette county, but have not yet been removed. The upper jaw,
together with a considerable portion of a cranium, were found several
years since in Pike county. These remains were on exhibition for several
years in the State Agricultural Rooms, and were owned by a Mr. Faust,
of Gallon or Crestline. I have recentlv been advised, that near the
junction of Fi-anklin and Pickaway counties with Madison, a skeleton
has been discovered, and am requested to name a day when I can be
jiresent to direct the removal of it.

The remains found at Massillon were the only ones found within the
coal basin in Ohio, and even these were on the edge or margin, rather
than in the basin.

All of these mastodon remains just enumerated were found imbedded
in swamps, morasses or bogs ; aiid it is fair to presume that as the low-
lands in the north-western part of the State become drained, cleared and
cultivated, many more skeletons, not only of this now extinct mammal,
l)ut many others in addition to it may reasonably be expected to be
found and exhumed. In digging the Ohio canal, in the vicinity of
Nashport, Muskingum county, the right lower jaw of Castor Ohioensis
(now the property of Mr. Van Vorhies, of Nashport), was found some
twenty-five feet from the surface, embedded in a " nuick," as Mr. Van
Vorhies informs me. Within the corporate limits of the city of
Columbus, and near the junction of the Olentangy with the Scioto river,
the skeletons of twelve Dieotijhs (Platygonus) co7npressns were dis-
covered. These last were described by me in a paper read at the last
meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
and published in the last January number of this Journal. In ex-
cavating for the foundation of an exterior wall, at the Ohio Penitentiary,
the warden (Mr. Burr), found the fossil jaw of a horse, with the molars
in good condition. If the teeth and jaw held the same relative pro-
portion to the body as do those of the existing horse, then the fossil
horse must have been fully one third larger than the ordinary horse of
to-day. The foregoing is a complete enumeration of all the fossil post
glacial mammalia which, to the best of my knowledge, have been foinid
within the limits of this State. There is no doubt that Ohio is rich in
the remains of post glacial fauna, which properly organized and directed

Chemical and Geological Essays of T. Sterry Hunt. 155

efforts only can discover and secure. There is no good reason to suppose
that the same species of animals whose remains are so very abundant
in some of the western territories did not once inhabit Ohio, and roam
over the wide-spread prairies, once such a marked feature of Ohio's
landscapes.

Until within the last few years no'effort has been made to preserve
these remains ; and the discovery of all of them was purely accidental.
Cave explorations have been conducted in England by scientific
associations with the happiest results. The British Association has
expended over $5,000 in "digging" in " Kent's Cave,'' in Devonshire.
In 1874, it expended $1,000 in cave explorations alone; an aggregate
sum of $8,000 was appropriated for scientific investigations during the
year 1874. Why can not Ohio associations accomplish something like
that which the British Association is annually doing?

Notice of the Chemical and Geological Essays of T. Sterry Hunt, and of
tJie W07'ds Cambrian and Siluriayi.

Mr. Hunt has republished, in book-form, various memoirs, whicli he
regards as possessing peculiar scientific and historic value, under the
title of "Chemical and licological Essays." He seems to be under the
impression that his scientific work has not been duly appreciated, and
reminds the reader so frequently of his original discoveries, that one
is almost led to believe that> a mistake was made in the title of the
work, which might more appropriately have been, "Mr. Hunt's own
eulogy of himself and his labors."

Had he been contented, however, Avith expressions of his own views
regarding himself and his discoveries, and not attributed to other per-
sons views they never entertained, his work would have been more for-
tunate, and he would have saved himself from some severe criticisms.

Mr. James D. Dana (Am. Jour, of Sci. and Arts, Feb., 1875,)
has reviewed the work so far as it attributes to him ophiions that he
never expressed, and charged Mr. Hunt with a long list of inexcusa-
ble misrepresentations. We will quote one paragraph from Mr. Dana*s
review :

"J have never held, and my writings noivhere sustain, the following
opinions which Mr. Hunt has attributed to vie and others :

1. The possibility of converting almost any silicate into any
other.

156 Chemical and Geological Essays of T. Sterry Hunt.

2. The possibility of converting granite into limestone.

3. The possibility of converting gneiss into limestone.

4. The possibility of converting diorite into limestone.

5. The possiljility of converting granite into serpentine.

6. The possibility of converting granulite into serpentine.

7. The possibility of converting gneiss into serpentine.

8. The possibility of converting diorite into serpentine.

9. The possibility of converting limestone into granite.
10. The possibility of converting limestone into gneiss."

Bnt the self-sufficiency of the author, and the misrepresentation of
the personal views of other individuals, are by no means the only seri-
ous objections to the publication. Chapter xv., on the "History of
the names Cambrian and Silurian in Geology," is an essay pretending
to give the history of these two words, the use that should now be
made of them, and the proper credit that should be extended to the
authors ; but it omits to mention many of the leading events in the his-
tory of the origin of the term Silurian, magnifies, if it does not invent,
trifling incidents in the origin of the term Cambrian, and finally ad-
vocates the substitution of the word Cambrian for Lower Silurian in
American geology, without any good reason and in violation of the
established laws of nomenclature. The word Silurian has priority over
that of Cambx'ian. It was applied to the rocks after their fossil con-
tents had been studied, and after they had been divided into groups,
while Cambrian was applied to a series of rocks without any knowledge
of their fossil contents. The terms, Upper Silurian and Lower Silurian
have been in general use since 1835, in every country Avhere geology
has been pursued as a science, while Cambrian has only been applied
since 1836, locally in Great Britain, to rocks that have long since been
known to constitute part of the Lower Silurian series. A few of the
leading facts connected with the history of the terms LTpper and Lower
Silurian (nearly all of which Mr. Hunt has omitted from his essay)
are as follows :

On the 17th of April, 1833, Murchison finished the reading of his
memoir, commenced at the preceding meeting (March 27, 1833),
before the Geological Society of London, " On the Sedimentary
Deposits which occupy the western parts of Shropshire and Hereford-
shire, and are prolonged from N. E. to S. W., through Radnor,
Brecknock, and Caermarthenshires, with descriptions of the accom-
panying rocks of intrusive or igneous characters." He separated the
rocks, commencing at the base of the old red sandstone, in descending
order, as they succeed each other in Shropshire and Herefordshire, into

CJiemical and Geological Esmys of T. Sterry Hani. 157

six forinations, founded upon their fossil remains and order of super-
position, as follows: First — Upper Ludloiv rock (so named because the
Castle of Ludlow stands upon it), having a thickness of about 1,000
feet, very fossiliferous, and characterized by Stvophomena, Oiihocerat'des,
trilobites of the genera Homahnoins, Cahjmene, etc. Second — Wenloeh
Ihnednne, about 100 feet in thickness, and characterized by the
abundance of its corals, encrinites and mollusca. Third — Lotver Ludloiv
rock, about 2,000 feet iu thickness, and characterized by its Ortho-
ceratites, Litulfes, Asaphus caudatus, Penfame.rus hcvis, etc. Foui'th —
Shell// sandstones, from 1,500 to 1,800 feet in thickness, and charac-
terized by its Leptence, Spiriferi, crinoidal remains, etc. Fifth — Black
trilohlte flagstone, exceeding 2,000 feet in thickness, and characterized
by the Asaphas i^Ogygia) Bachil and other trilobites. And sixtli —
Red conglomnrite sandstone and slaty schist, several thousand feet in
thickness, in which no organic remains had then been observed.

He regarded the deposits four, five and six, as three separate
formations, entirely differing from each other and from the Ludlow
formation, in their characters mineral and fossil, and in the distinctness
of their physical demarkations.

On the 22d day of January, 1834, Mr. Murchisou read another
memoir upon the same subject. After having devoted another summer
to the study of the organic remains and order of supei-position of the
rocks, he divided them into five formations as follows : First — Ludlow
rocks, 2,000 feet in thickness; second — Wenlock and Dudley rocks, 1,800
feet iu thickness; third — Horderly and May Hill rocks, 2,500 feet in
thickness (this was made the equivalent of subdivision four in his
memoir of Mai-ch 27, 1833); fourth — Builth and Llandeilo flags, 1,200
feet in thickness ; and fifth — Longmynd and Gwadaden rocks, many
thousand feet in thickness. This year he accompanied his memoir
with a map, showing the order of superposition and the fossils so far as
they had been ascertained belonging to each of his subdivisions, and it
may be added that those most characteristic were then known and
mentioned by him.

Subsequent study of the fossil contents of these several subdivisions
led Mr. Murchison to the conclusion that they were parts of one
great formation, and in honor of the ancient tribe. of Silures he pro-
posed for the formation the name Silurian, which he published in July,
1835. He divided the formation into Upper Silurian and Lower
Silurian rocks. The first three groups, as named in his memoir of
March 27, 1833, he placed in the Upner Silurian, and the fourth, fifth,
and sixth, in the Lower Silurian.

The President of the Geological Society of London,, Mr, George R

1 58 Chemical and Geological Essays of T. Sterry Hunt.

Greenough, in his anniversary address to the Society, on the 21st day
of Febrnary, 1834, said:

Mr. Murchison has employed three summers in examining a range
of country situate between Shrewsbury and Cserniarthen ; and the
geological positions, as well as the mineral and zoological characters of
the several rocks which border England and Wales, are now determined
with as much exactness as those of any portion of the secondary
'system. Taking the old red sandstone as aline of departure, the rocks
beneath are disposed in descending order, as follows :

1. The Ludlow series, divisible into three parts — the upper, middle,
and lower. To the middle belong the well known limestone of
Amestry and Ledgley ; the upper and lower consist of sand, marl,
or flagstone, having some fossils peculiar to each, and others in common.
The thickness of the whole is estimated at 1,000 feet.

2. The Dudley or Wenlock series consisting of limestone ; its thickness
may be taken at 2,000 feet.

3. The Horderly or May Hill series, composed of party-colored sand-
stone, conglomerate and impure calcareous flagstone; it is said to
attain a thickness of 2,500 feet.

4. The Builth or Llandeilo series, a black flagstone, characterized by
the Asiiphus Buchi'i.

5. The Longraynd or Linley series, consisting of coarse roof slates,
sandstone and conglomerate ; no fossils have been discovered in it.

It is well known that Prof. Sedgwick has studied with equal assidu-
ity the rocks which lie beneath those I have mentioned. When his
observations are published, the Society will have a type of the whole
of the transition rocks of Wales. The rocks described by Mr. Mur-
chison are for the most part exceedingly well characterized by their
fossil contents. Some of the shells which he has discovered appear
to have escaped the notice of antecedent observers ; but the genera,
if not the species, of others may occasionally be found in the works of
Hisinger and other continental writers. If, then, the transition as well
as the secondary and tertiary beds can be identified over great tracts
of country by their fossil remains, let us hope that a clue is now at
hand by which we may find our way through that vast assemblage of
beds, which, not in England only, but in Scotland, Ireland, Germany,
Russia, Sweden and North America, has hitherto presented to the
observer a mere scene of confusion."

On the 19th day of February, 1836, Mr. Charles Lyell, President
of the same society, in his anniversary address, said :

"It is with pleasure that I next call your attention to the investiga-
tions whiidi Mr. Murchison has boen steadily pursuing in the older

Chemical and Geological Essays of T. Sterry Hunt 159

fossiliforous rocks of Wales and the bordering counties of England.
He has at length brought his survey of five years to a successful termina-
tion ; aiid his work will form a most important step in the progress of geo-
logical science, not merely as elucidating the history of a portion of the
sedimentary formations of our island, but as fixing the characters of a
succession of normal groups, to which the strata of other parts of
Europe, and perhaps of America, may be referred. A large, and
beautifully illustrated treatise, in which he intends to give a detailed
description of his original observations and views, will soon be pub-
lished. In the meantime, we have tasted, as it were, by anticipation,
the fruits of his labors, having, year after year, received at our meet-
ings the earliest intelligence of his discoveries, and having freely
discussed and criticised them long before it was possible for him to lay
the whole in a matured and digested form before the public. You are
aware that the system of rocks, Avhich have been the chief object of
his research, constitutes the upper part of Avhat was formerly called
the transition or greywacke series. In these strata, which had prev.
iously remained m a state of obscurity and confusion, he has distin-
guished several formations. The old red sandstone rests conformably
on the uppermost of these, while the lowest of them repose both
conformably and unconformably on the ancient slate-rocks of
Wales. Mr. Murchison proposes the general name of "iSilurian"
for this whole system, as the strata studied in those parts of England
and Wales once occupied by the ancient British nation, the Silures.

The necesssity of a new term has arisen from the uncertain latitude
with which the word "transition" had been applied— some authors
including in it the carboniferous rocks ; and also, from the still greater
confusion introduced by the word " greywacke," a term which can only
be employed conveniently in a mineralogical sense, to designate a pe-
culiar kind of rock which has been formed at many successive epochs.
Thus, for example, in the memoir now under review, it Is shown that
in Pembrokeshire, grits, which have passed for greywacke, occur in
the true coal-measures in the old red sandstone in the Silurian, and in
the still older systems of rock.

Below the Silurian strata are slate rocks of older date, in which
traces of organic remains have been agahi detected ; and Prof. Sedg-
wick, has suggested the name of Cambrian for this more ancient sys-
tem, which is conterminous over a wide territory with the Silurian for-
mations, the relative position of both being clearly seen.

Mr. Murchison has recently traced the Silurian system running in
zones through Pembrokeshire, and there rising out in the coast cliffs
from beneath the old red sandstone as conformably as in the interior

160 Chemical and Geologicnl Essays of T. Sternj Hunt

of the country — au important verification of the accuracy of his pre-
vious determinations. Great lithological changes are, however, ob-
served to take place in these localities, so distant from the best types
of the system ; thus, the "Ludlow and Wenlock" formations are no
longer distinctly separated by subordinate hpiestone, and are therefore
simply termed the "Upper Silurian" rocks, and these, changing their
soft argillaceous characters of "mudstone," become hard sandstones,
yet contam some well known organic remains; whilst the "Lower
Silurian" rocks, or Caradoc and Llandeilo formations, not only maintam
their usual fossil distinctions, but exhibit limestones of much greater
thickness than in any other part of their course.

In brief, Mr. Murchison studied the rocks in England and Wales,
that repose beneath the Devonian, and from their fossil contents
separated them into groups, in the years 1831 and 1832, and published
his labors in that behalf in the spring of 1833. He continued his
study and labors through that year, and determined that the three
groups, which he had found next below the Devonian, were more
intimately connected together by their zoological remains than they
were Avith the next lower groups, which were likewise connected
toofether in the same manner. He here laid the foundation for the
division into upper and lower groups. He not only realized the im-
portance to science of his great discoveries, but his contemporaries like-
wise saw that his study of the organic remains had made it probable,
that his groups would be found extending over a great part of Europe,
and, possibly, determinable even in America. In 1835, in the fifth year
of his special labors on this formation, he applied to the whole of the
groups the name Silurian, and called the three upper groups the Upper
Silurian, and the remainder the Lower Silurian. Subsequently, paleon-
tologists found that his discoveries were world-wide in their application.
Fossils, that he described as characterizing the Upper Silurian and
Lower Silurian, w^ere found, or their equivalents, in Germany, Bohemia,
Canada and the United States, occupying the same relative position in
the rocky strata of the earth. His triumph was now complete. He
had brought order out of confusion, and determined the i-elative position
of miles of strata of the earth, founded upon the fossil contents which
had been hitherto unknown.

In 1836, Mr. Sedgwick, the Cambridge professor, proposed the
name Cambrian, for a series of rocks, the mineralogy of which he had
been studying, and which he supposed to underlie the Lower Silu-
rian. But when the fossils came to be studied and described, they
were found to be Lower Silurian forms, and the strata merely an ex.
tension of the rocks described as Lower Silurian by Mr. Murchison.

Rambles of a Naturalist in Southern Florida. 161

The word Cambrian, therefore, so far as it has been attempted to
apply it to a geological formation, is a synonym for part of the Lower
Silurian. It has not, however, been used in the geological nomencla-
ture of America, for which we may thank the paleontologists connected
with the State and Government surveys, nor is there any likelihood
that it will ever come into use, either as a substitute for Silurian or
in a word compounded with it.

Rambles of a Naturalist in Southern Florida. By W. "W. Calkins.

The " Land of Flowers," where Ponce de Leon sought for the
'* fountain of perpetual youth," first dawned upon my vision from the
deck of a steamer off Cedar Keys, wliere we arrived January 23d,
after a stormy voyage from New Orleans of five hundred miles. We
were on this beautiful moniing suddenly made aware of our entrance
into more genial climes than those of the frozen north, or damp and
foggy Louisiana. While we lay at anclior, seven miles from the shore,
I made my first essay at collecting shells, in five fathoms of water.
For the purpose, I used a small, light dredge, that at home I had
fixed up with a wooden handle, but now I substituted a small rope.
My success was beyond my expectations, and embraced the following
species : Marghiella apicina, Chem. gracilis, Cerith. nigrum, Derdalium
entalis, a few Crustacea and star-fish. Having exchanged mails, we
left Cedar Keys and steered southwai-d. The sea was as quiet as a
mill-pond the rest of the way to Key West. We saw numerous
Phijsalia with their .purple blue barques floating on Uie waves, and
captured specimens of the gulf-weed (Sargasso baccifera), on this we
found crustaceans and shrimps that are peculiar to the gulf-weed.
The auguries were propitious, the weather fine. The heavens and
earth seemed to blend as one, resting on the calm, blue sea. We
forgot our own dear, frozen North, and reveled in dreams of eternal
summer, and things too impossible to be real. But this is the nectar —
the sentiment that makes life sweet, cheers- the heart, and fills us with
new and noble ambitions. Well, we steamed on past Tampa, that
rich ground for collectors, and the Espiritu Santo of De Soto, who
arrived there in 1539. Reaching Key West on the twenty-fifth
parallel, we began to realize that old things are passed away. I sur-
veyed with some interest the people — a heterogenous mass of Ameri-
cans, Africans, Spaniards, et cetera — dressed in linen or cotton, and

162 Rambles of a Naturalist in Southern Florida.

many carrying umbrellas — for my friends must remember that the
thermometer stands from eighty to ninety degrees above in the shade.
Of greater, moment to me, however, were the fruits exposed at every
corner ; here were oranges, lemons, bananas, shaddocks, bread-fruit,
sapodillas, and their cheapness was quite as astonishingas their nov-
elty and richness. The Flora of this island is West Indian and
tropical. The Key, six miles long and one wide, affords a number of
indigenous species also ; but in the whole country no one can be
found who has worked up its botany. I noticed several varieties of
cactus. The Gadacece and Pahnacece are common. I saw, growing
wild, flowers that bore a remarkable resemblance to some at home,
preserved with tender care in greenhouses. Scattered through the
island are date and cocoa-nut palms. The Fauna is rich, but not
numerous in species. Rambling down the beach, I was rewarded by
finding such forms as Nerita peloronta, N. scabricoda, Lit. scabra, Cerith.
nigrum, and stranded by the recent blow, were the lanthina fragilis,
Physalia, Dosinia disciis, Lucina tigerina and others. The small
hermit crab {Eupagiirus longicarpus) are abundant in the Cerithiums
and Littorinas, while the larger species (E. poUicaris), api)ropriate
larger shells for their dwellings, such as Fasc. distans, Trocus, etc.
Walking along the shore, the ear is greeted by a peculiar, rattling
noise, which is caused by the fiddle crab (Gelashmis pugilator). This
variety exists in thousands, and occupy little holes in the sand. If
caught outside by an enemy, they instantly retreat, taking good care
to keep their houses uppermost. It is truly a comical sight to witness
their movements. The posterior part of the body is perfectly soft and
naked, and finding an empty shell suited to their purpose, they never
abandon it until they find a better shell. The horse-shoe crab (^Limu-
hts pohjphemus) may be found in from one to two feet of water.
Occasionally I found a stray sea-urchin {Echinus). Beautiful Alg(^.
float upon the beach. Part of the Key is uncultivated and being
overgrown with mangroves, cactus, etc., affords a good retreat for
land shells. The following are abundant: H. cereolus, H. orbiculata,
Gylindrella Jejuna, Chondropoma dentata; in less numbers I found
Macroceramus Kinieri, and Bulimas undatus. Near some brackish
ponds my efforts were rewarded by specimens of Tralia Floridana,
Tralia cingtdata, and Cerithidea. Having worked up the species here,
including Truncatella bilabiata, which are very abundant, myself and
party sailed in an eight-ton schooner for the Marquesas and Tortugas.
At the first named place, we obtained the following shells, Melongena
corona, Melampus cofea, L. scabra, Area Americana, Mytihis hamatus,
Fasc. distans, F. iulipa, and F. gigantea, Pyrula perversa, Strombus

Rambler of a Naturalist in Southern Florida. 168

gigas, Pyrula carim, besides Cardiuim, Dosinias, and otlier coninion
forms. Fish and birds abound ; among the former, sharks, sting-
rays and saw-fish are the most noticeable. We captured one of the
latter, thirteen feet long. Shark harpooning afforded us much amuse-
ment. One big fellow carried off in his body two of our harpoons,
having first bitten off a piece of the gunwale of the " dingy" in which
we were, and by a sudden flank movement, precipitated five of us into
the bottom of the boat. Besides herons and gulls, we saw plenty of fish-
crows (Cbrvwsossijrrajyws), and a large blackbird (Quiscalm baritus). The
Keys are overgrown with mangroves, making it almost impossible to
get through them. I found no land shells here.

After we had secured a number of specimens, we sailed for the Dry
Tortugas, about forty miles out in the gulf. We went down in a
norther, making it somewhat unpleasant, as the waves rolled high and
fearfully. However, our little vessel rode like a duck, and, at last,
finding ourselves at anchor under the walls of Fort Jefferson, we be-
gan to feel, indeed, as though we were out of the world. Seven small,,
sandy keys, almost destitute of vegetation, constitute this famous
place — the Dry Tortugas. Millions of money have been wasted here-
on the fort and armament. Fort Jefferson, built of brick,, on improper
foundations', and mounted with several hundred heavy guns, is gradu-
ally cracking its walls and sinking in places. It is nearly a mile in
circumference, and surrounded by a deep moat, with which the sea com-
municates. On the walls of this moat I found several species of raoi-
lusks and coral. But the great attraction of the Tortugas are the great
coral reefs now growing around the harbor and outside. The grandest
sight that I ever witnessed, was afforded by looking down into one of
these living forests through a water-glass. Here were the varieties knowni
as brain, star, and finger coral. The latter grows like a tree, spreading
out into innumerable branches, through which may be seen gliding
brilliant-hued fish and mollusks. Waving Gorgonias intermingle. The
sun, shining down on the blue sea, lends a reflected and beautiful radi-
ance. One can easily imagine himself in some fairy palace, built by
unseen hands, and inhabited by fairy forms. Transported with de-
light, 1 had, however, one regret, namely, that more of my friends
were not there to share the enjoyment. The corals that I saw were in
from ten to fifteen feet of water, and embrace a number of species.
We obtained a large amount by means of hooks. I brought up on the
roots of a piece a fine Octopus rugosus, or cuttle-fish, that measured
across the arms over three feet. This is allied to the huge cuttle that
we read of. Its power is in its cup-like suckers, with which it adheres
to its prey or hiding-place. By the free use of alcohol I managed to

164 The Use of Mica Plates by the Mound- Builders.

transfer the specimen to a collecting jar, and I hope to be able to show
it to my friends when I get home. To obtain shells here, one must
dredge. I obtained the following species : Pore, exanthema, Ovuliim
gibbosa, Area Noce, Turb'meUa, Turbo, Marg. fimbriata, Chama macro-
philla, Strombus gigas, St. bituberciilatus, Troens spinosa, a L/ithodomus,
Teredo navalis, etc. Echinus of two or three species are common in four
feet of water. Lobsters, two feet long, and huge green turtles, are to
be found, as well as plenty of shaiks and other fish. Altogether,
Tortugas is a good field for the naturalist, if he goes there armed with
proper collecting apparatus, and does not n)ind the abandoned and
lonesome appearance of everything. A tremendous north east storm
prevailing while 1 was there, hastened my departure ; but I did not
leave without some satisfaction, in having seen this extremity of Uncle
Sam's dominions.

The Use of Mica Plates by the Mound-BuVders — The Age of their Mounds.

By S. S. ScoviLLE, M. D.

About fifteen years ago, an ancient mound, situated upon the East
Fork of the Little Miami, twenty five miles east of Cincinnati, wa«
opened. At the base of the mound, or on a level with the surround-
ing ground, were found human bones in number and character suflB-
cient to show that at least half a dozen bodies had been deposited
here. The remains were so poorly preserved that scarcely an entire
bone could bo found, yet the outlines of an entire skeleton could be
traced. Several of the bodies, if not all, had been placed with their
heads together, or but slightly separated. This was shown by the
cranial bones, a few of which were nearly entire, though disposed to
crumble immediately upon being removed from the earth. The bodie;*
evidently had been placed upon the back. Lying upon, or immediately
over the cranial debi-is, were found plates of mica, some a foot in diame-
ter. These plates were disposed in such a way as to cover an area some-
what larger than that occupied by the crania beneath. However,, it
could not definitely be determined whether the design had been to make
a continuous or common roof over the faces as a group, or whether each
face had a covering of its own. The plates were generally separated
by a few inches. They may originally have been much wider and
overlapped, as their edges were very fragile and disposed to crumbh'.

The above statement is not made from personal knowledge, but was

Tlie Use of Mica Plates by the Momul- Builders. 165

communicated to the writer a few dayf< ^iib<equent to tlie discoveries,
by an intelligent gentleman who conducted the exploration. He pre-
sented me with several pieces of the mica, most beautiful specimens
as regards transparency.

The fact of mica being interred with the remains of the Mound-
Builders is, of course, not new, but for what purpose I had never
ventured even a conjecture. From this, and numerous other discove-
ries, I am inclined to the opinion that mica was used by this ancient
people to exhibit the features of the dead, in the manner that glass
is now used by the more enlightened nations of the earth. Whether
the body at death was put in some kind of casket with the mica placed
over the face, and in this condition seen by the friends for the last
time, or whether it was placed in a vault in the mound where the rel-
atives could enter, and through these transparent plates look upon the
departed, may never be determined. There is some evidence, to
which Ave may briefly allude, fayoring the idea that these burial
mounds, at least some of them, were real vaults or sepulchers.

There is another theory as to the use of mica, and which might be
rendered plausible, if it could be shown that the religious ideas of this
people were similar to those of some of our Indian nations, that is,
that these transparent plates, being placed over the face, assisted the
deceased to see his way as he journeyed to the far off" country, or
"happy hunting ground." To say the least, this peculiar mineral, to
them, undoubtedly possessed wonderful virtues of some kind.

To w'hat extent mounds have been found containing chambers, we
are not advised ; Ave know, hoAvever, that they do exist. With the
smaller mounds Ave should not expect to find the rooms remaining.
Any door-Avay to the interior Avould also be obliterated. It raiglit be
urged, that if these mounds Avere once holloAV, depressions, caused by
the earth sinking from above, Avould be noticeable. Such depressions
may have once existed, but the ceaseless Avear of centuries, it may be,
since the sinking in, has rounded off the exterior, and Ave have, as is
often Avitnessed, a circular mass of earth, say thirty feet in diameter,
with a height of no more than three or four feet.

In opening a mound, it not unfrequeritly occurs that near the
base and center the earth becomes quite loose, and in some cases dark
streaks of vegetable mould are seen, caused, as I believe, by decayed
wood, possibly the roots of trees. In the few cases Avhich have come
under my own observation, the streaks Avere too straight and uniform
in their course for decayed roots. The idea suggested Avas, that the
mounds had contained rooms, and these dark streaks resulted from the
decay of timbers Avhich supported their roofs. These streaks or dis-

166 The Use of Mica Plates by the Mound-Builders.

coloration of the earth, seen by myself, occurred in mounds of small
.size, and in which no human remains were found.

The placing of bodies in a vault, such as we have suggested, might
account for the poor state of preservation in which skeletons are found.
If the remains were placed upon the ground, and compact earth
thrown directly on them, and piled to the height, say, of fifteen feet,
the date of burial must indeed be remote to account for the decay
generally witnessed, especially when we consider that many of these
mounds occupy natural rounded-off elevations favorable to the pre-
servation of whatever they may have contained.

We can not, however, consent to the great antiquity which some
have given to these monuments. In the last number of the Cincin-
nati JouBNAL OF Science, Prof. R. D. Smith speaks of " three feet
and a half' of soil which was passed through in making an excavation
in the top of a mound, and which had, as he supposes, accumulated
since its construction. He suggests that this circumstance might fur-
nish a clue to its age. The top of the mound being level, and large
enough to be cultivated as a garden, was certainly favorable for the
accumulation of soil. But was it quite clear that a depression did not
at one time exist at the center, or place of making the excavation ?
Any old depression or excavation would have been filled up by tillage,
if from no other cause. After describing the potdike hole, which, it
was thought, marked the original height of the mound, the Professor
says : " The excavation was continued to the level of the suri'ouudiug
country, but without further results." Now, if his conclusion is cor-
rect, that three feet and a half of soil had formed on the top of the
mound since it was built, then, evidently, the excavation lacked at
least this distance of reaching the original base ; for surely the soil
upon the surrounding ground, or "surrounding country," would ac-
cumulate as rapidly as it would upon the top of the mound.

My observations, which, I confess, have been quite limited, go to
show that the original bases of these mounds are found to be but a
trifle below the surrounding ground. In the case of the one described
at the commencement of this article, no actual measurement, it is pre-
sumed, was made ; but the base of the mound, where the skeletons
were found, was mentioned as being on a level with the ground adja-
cent. In the case of two mounds of small size, and which were situ-
ated on quite level ground, I could, by the eye, perceive but a slight
difference ; their bases could not have been but a few inches below
the surrounding ground. Trenches were dug from the circumference
to the center, their bottoms following the top of the original soil. Cuts
through the old earth-works show that there has been but a slight ac-

The Use of JEca Platen by the Mound-Bidlders. 167

cumulation of soil upon tlie adjacent ground since the embankments
were constructed. This can readily be verified at Fort Ancient, ou
the Little JNIiami river, where numerous breaks in the earth walls
abound.

There is but little doubt that some of these mounds and earth-works,
found in Ohio, antedate others by at least several centuries. Evidence
of this is found in the fact, that in some instances the accompanying
excavations are completely filled up, or obliterated ; besides, the
mounds or embankments are much more worn or flattened.

' I am inclined to think that a critical examination of the old excava-
tions in the vicinity of these tumuli, or fortifications, would afford at
least an approximation to their age. A fine opportunity is offered for
suck investigations at the fortification, on the Little Miami, just re-
ferred to. I have myself made limited observations in this direction,
not, however, at this place. The original depth of the excavations
can generally be readily ascertained. I have made some calculations
in ihe case of two or three of these old diggings, which were exam-
ined as to the time required to produce the depth of loamy soil found
in them. To give, however, expression to any opinion I may have
formed from observations so limited, would be, to say the least, quite
premature. It is to be hoped that a more careful and extended re-
search, touching the age of these ancient works, will be made. Even
an approximation to the date of these " olden times " might shed
much light upon numerous questions now engaging the attention of
the scientific mind.

A few words more as it regards the use of mica. So far as my
knowledge extends, the plates are generally found as if designed to
cover the face. In a few instances, one of which is given by Prof.
Smith in his communications referred to, they are found placed over
the hands as well as face. The exhibition of some ornaments, or tro-
phies W'orn upon the wrists, may have been intended in these cases.
In the case of the celebrated skeleton, found in a mound on the Scioto
river, four miles below Chillicothe, a history of which is given by
Squire, the cranium, which was well preserved, was lying upon its
face, with the mica placed over the back part of the head. Some are
of the opinion that this person represents the Toltecan race.

There is much in connection with this case which goes to show that
the remains had had a previous interment, and that the bones, but

not all of them, for some were missing, had been removed to this
place. The inferior maxillary and other bones were absent ; those re-
maining had been piled around the head. Now, if our surmises are
correct, that nothing but this partial skeleton was deposited here, the

168 Origin of Flint.

friends would have paid less regard to prevailing customs in its burial.
This same plate of mica may have previously covered the face of this
individual as he lay, it may be, in state. That these remams belonged
to a person of distinction, is highly probable.

We would not be understood as conveying the idea that mica was
used by these people for no other purpose than that which we
have indicated, or that its presence in mounds can, in any way, always
be accounted for. It is sometimes found without any discoverable
relation to relics of any kind. That it was used for windows to their
houses is quite probable. And were we to suppose that these mound's,
some of them, at ^least, were occupied as winter abodes, or as places
for storing away provisions, it might justly be inferred that windows
of this material were constructed for admitting light.

Origin of Flint. By C. 8. S. Griffing.

[Read before the Colurabns Natural History Society, February 27, 1875.1

In the summer of 1870, in company with your vice-president, Hon.
J. H. Klippart, I visited Flint Ridge, in Licking county, and found
beds of buhr-stone, a cellular, siliceous, flinty rock, from which, in the
early settlement of this State, mill-stones of good quality were
manufactured.

We also found beds of flint, massive, compact silica, very hard and
tenaceous, where it had not been exposed above the surface ; but where
it had been thus exposed, often readily broken into small fragments
with a blow from a hammer. In some places, acres of the surface were
covered with broken fragments of flint spawls, where a pre-historie
race had evidently manufactured arrowheads. In many places, de-
pressions of the surface show where excavations have been made, to
reach the unexposed stratum below the friable influence of atmos-
pheric action, from which, evidently, the best implements of the stone
age found in this vicinity were made. Since the time mentioned,
I have repeatedly visited this formation, and learned that there
are two layers of flint, that spread nearly or entirely over the Same
extent of territory. The first, or lowest, is about one foot in thickness,
and above the second seam of coal in our Ohio series ; the second,
some two hundred feet higher, and about four feet in thickness, where
I have observed it, but it is reported to be much thicker in some
other places. In both layers I have found the common carboniferous

Origin of Flint. 169

fossils of that horizon, sometimes the form filled with finely crystallized
quartz, but generally taking the ordinary siliceous texture of the flint.

I have observed that this formation extends from the southern part
of Knox county south for more than an hundred miles, and where
borings have been m"de for salt or oil, it is found to maintain a
generally uniform thickness of four feet. From west to south, I have
traced it on the surface about tliirty miles. The dip, south and east,
conforms to the ordinary strata of rock and coal.

How far this formation extends in either direction, beyond where I
have traced it, I do not know, and only know that here is an extended
field of siliceous matter, which was iu some way deposited of nearly
uniform thickness, and encasing numerous specimens of carboniferous
fossils, with seams of coal laying above and below it. Below this
main stratum of flint is iron ore, and fossilifei'ous limestone, and
lower still, in parts of Licking and Muskingum counties, a white sand
rock, locally called glass stone, that has for a long time been used for
making glass in Zanesville.

The ordinar}' theory for the origin of such siliceous deposts,
I believe, has been thermal springs, or the shields of diatomacese.
But no indications of conical foi-mations exi>ting here, giving evi-
dence of having been vents through which heated siliceous waters
have flown, such as are always found where this phenomenon has
existed, and the absence of any appearance of disturbance in the
luiderlying strata, I think, forbids the acceptance of the thermal spring
theory, and requires us to attribute to some other cause the appearance
attributed to a high temperature present when it originated.

The other theory is, that flmt is made up of the microscopic, siliceous
shields of the diatoms, which are generally regarded as plants, although
Ehrenberg refers them to animalcules. These diatoms, Dana says,
grow so abundantly in some seas, that they are now producing large,
.-siliceous accumulations. Professor Newbery, in a recent series of
notes on the history of plant life on the globe, contrasts the abund-
ance of diatoms during and since the tertiary period with their pre-
vious rarity, and suggests as an explanation, the ready solubility of
the silica of diatom shields, and thinks " the early diatomaceous beds
may have been destroyed and obscured from this cause, and the large
amount of siliceous matter which appears in sedimentary rocks, as
chert, buhr-stone, silico-calcareous beds, etc., in the Western States
especially, may be largely of diatomaceous origin ; and the material
being plainly indigenous in the deposits, there are no such evidences
as would allow", in the cases referred to, of the explanation of thermal
spring action.'' Although the flint of which w^e speak is of carbonifer-

170 Origin of Flint.

ous formation, its origin is probably to be attributed to the same
cause as that of succeeding beds, whatever that may have been.

A British government-vessel, the Challenger, is now engaged in
circumnavigating the globe, on a scientific exploring expedition,
investigating the bottom of the sea at different depths. Last autumn,
some importants reports of discoveries were made, and within the last
month Professor Huxley has delivered a lecture in London upon these
discoveries, and their bearing upon some imj^ortant jjroblems in geolog3\
In reviewing the knowledge that existed on this subject, previous to
the expedition of the Challenger, he says, the world is indebted for it
chiefly to the researches of American ships ; that the Americans had
submitted the greenish mud they had taken from the bottom of the
Northern Sea, at 14,000 feet deep, to Ehrenberg, who had for sixteen
years been maintaining the paradox, that chalk was made up of the
shells of minute animalculae, and from this American collection he had
been enabled to confirm his theory ; that there was found, not only
vast quantities of calcareous matter, but a still larger quantity of
siliceous matter; that the Arctic and Antarctic waters are covered
with a scum of vast extent, and this scum, under microscopic exami-
nation, is found to be made up of two or three species of minute animals,
chiefly Ectdularia, Globutomaria and Foraminifera, and the lowest con-
ceivable plant, .a diatomaceous thing, consisting only of a protoplasmic
shell. The shells of these minute things, the beginnings of organization
on the gh)be, are found to have made the mud of the bottom of the seas
referred to. It is a grayish mud, tinged with green, and so light, that
the plummet was found to have sunk three feet into it, almost as if it
had been water. This mud, under the microscope, was found to be
entirely shoals of shells, and the beautiful snow-white forms which
they individually represent are distinctly shown.

Between TeneriflTe and St. Thomas, the Challenger found two deep
valleys at the bottom of the sea, from which it drew up red mud from a
great depth. This mud showed no shells at all, but Dr. Thompson, the
chemist on the ship, found that, though the shells were absent, the
chemical ingredients of the mud, which was simple clay, were the
same as the mud taken at less depths. Thus, it was proved that the
red clay was the ashes of the plants and animals which had been dis-
solved at that great depth. In the opinion of Dr. Thompson, this was
due to the fact, as shown by observation, that the deeper strata are
very rich in carbonic acid, this, forming more than one third of the
gaseous component of the water. This composition, together with the
very great pressure exercised, causes a rapid solution of carbonate (jf
lime, leaving only the other constituents. Therefore, what Ehrenberg

Origin of Flint. 171

proved of chalk, may now be regarded as true of common clay, viz.:
that it is the ashes of former organizations of minute life.

Professor Huxley showed the important bearing of these discoveries
on the geological construction of the earth. And he further states that,
supposing we had a globe covered with water, wdth no dry land at all,
there could be uo wear and tear of coasts, no denudations, and no depos-
it of sedimentary rocks. The sea surrounding the North and South
poles Avould then be covered with thick layers of these auimalculie,
able to draw silica from the water, transmute it into skeletons, and
then rain a perpetual shower of such siliceous skeletons to the bottom of
the water on the sponge spicules. In the intermediate zones a per-
petual shower of calcareous shells would fall in the same way. If the
sea bottom were depressed until these were entirely dissolved, or the
bottom raised, there would be six different kinds of rocks, such as make
the larger part of the earth, that would be attril)uted to the work of
these infinitesimal builders alone. These conclusions of Huxley,
Newberry, and others, may embrace the correct theory of some
siliceous formations.

The soft mud, found by the Challenger — entire shoaLs of shells, so
light that the plummet sunk into it almost as if it had been water —
may explain the case referred to by Mantel in his Pictorial Atlas of
Fossils, of a stream of liquid flint encasing organic forms.

But other questions arise, to which I have not found satisfactory
answers. If diatoms and animalculae clothe themselves with shields
and shells of silica, and finally fall to the bottom of the sea, as uncon-
nected particles, how is the additional gelatinous form of siKca gen-
erated that gives cohesion and compact structure to these infini-
tesimal particles and forms them into solid masses of flint, as we now
find it?

Inasmuch as diatoms have not the power of solidification, cohesion
and crystallization, but depend upon some other agent for these condi-
tions, may not that other force separate and arrange silica from the
water, and precipitate it to the bottom in a condition to produce
the uustratified form flint presents to us, without the aid of
diatoms or animalculie? And if it Ls conceded that some flints are
properly attributed to diatomaceous origin, is it therefore necessary to
conclude that they must contribute to the formation of all flint beds
that have been discovered ? Some specimens of flint that I have col-
lected, and present for your examination, seem to have been formed
under a high degree of heat, and are tinged with various colors.
Others represent inclosed fossils, mollusks and corals ; others, large and
beautiful quartz crystals — transparent, pellucid, ferruginous and drusy,

172 Orvjin of Flint.

with some so small that a microscope is required to see their perfection ;
while other specimens resemble siliceous sinter, the depfisition of ther-
mal springs. But as I have already said, no indication of thermal
springs have been found here, and Professor Klippart has made a mic-
roscopic examination of this Flint- Ridge silcx, and can find no ap))earance
of diatoms in it. His microscope is a powerful one, the same used for
years by Agassiz and Lesquercux, in their studies of the hidden secrets
of plant and animal life — investigations that have made their names
known and honored in the whole world of science.

Silicon, the base of silica, is one of the elementary substances of the
globe, nearly allied to boron and carbon in some of its properties, and,
next in abundance to oxygen, is unknown in nature in its pure state,
but, combined with oxygen, forms silica or quartz. Although infusi-
ble and insoluble, many oxides enable heat to melt it down and form
glass ; or, if but a trace of alknli be contained in waters, those Avaters,
if heated, have the power of dissolving it, and thus dissolved it may
spread widely, either to enter new combinations or to fill with quartz
fissures and cavities among the rocks, thereby making veins, and act
ing as a general current and solidifier. As an elementary principle in
nature it is found everywhere in proper combination with oxygen, con-
stituting rocks; again, taking part in the construction of plants; asso-
ciated Avith oxygen, hydrogen and with alkalies in silicifiied water ; and
with nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic acid, and other constituent properties,
that make up the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth — the atmos-
phere which is directly or indirectly the cause of numerous geological
observations — the great laboratory in which all meteorological and
electrical phenomena are elaborated. In this combination silica ascends
and descends with all aqueous and gaseous vapors, while contributing
its share to the composition of all organic as well as inorganic substances.

The genei-al theorv has been that all the later siliceous deposits owe
their origin to the breaking up, attrituration and destruction of pre-
viously formed rocks, and that all sandstones and conglomerates are
thus prepared, transported by water, distributed and deposited where
we now find them. But this theory is being somewhat modified by
such scientists as Sterry Hunt, Beaumont, and some others, who con-
clude that more credit should be given to chemical and less to
mechanical action in the formation of sedimentary rocks ; and that
beside thermal springs many waters contain a large proportion of dis-
solved silica. Hunt says : " The large proportion of dissolved silica
which many waters contain appears in sedimentary deposits, not only
replacing fossils, and forming concretions and beds of flint, chert, and
jasper, but also in a crystalline state, as is seen in the crystalline quartz

Origin of Flint. 173

often associated with these amoi'phous varieties, and in some beds of
sandstone which are made up entirely of small crystals of quartz."

Professor John Brainerd, at the meeting of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, at Cleveland, in 1860, took the
same ground in relation to the formaticni of some sand rocks, and also
attributed the origin of the quartz pebbles of the sandstone conglom-
erate to the same cause, instead of water detrition. His theory was
not then adopted, although he presented some irrefutable facts and
ingenious arguments in support of his position.

Waters must be highly charged with silica if they hold in solution
all the material that is apparently laid down by them in the form of
crystalline sandstone, silex pebbles, beds of flint, elc. The decay of
vegetable matter, containing minute proportions of silica, may contrib-
ute, in some degree, but that would leave a large proportion to have
been dissolved from previously formed siliceous rocks, if that is the
only source from which it can be derived.

Ever since the days of Homer, history tells us that blood rains have
fallen from the heavens, filling men's hearts with fear and awe of some
mysterious power that ruled or raged above them. But science, of a
comparatively recent date, has allayed our fears, by determining that
the reddish dust which, accompanied with ram, produces the blood-
showers, are to a great extent made up of microscopic atoms, mole-
cules or organisms, many of them of a siliceous character, the color
being due to the presence of red oxide of iron. These showers are
sometimes of immense extent. One is described as covering an area
of more than a million of square miles ; another covering two hundred
square leagues, and making an earth deposit of an inch in thickness,
or equal to 16,000 cubic feet to a square English mile. Xo discovered
fact or well digested theory accounts for the origin of these showers,
or what relation they may hold to some unexplored deposits that have
been observed. And if they can not be traced to a terrestrial origin,
do not they suggest the probability of being generated, collected, and
precipitated from that great laboratory, the atmosphere, or in obedience
to some law of the universe evolved beyond that even, as in primeval
creation, and that some corresponding accumulation has been showered
into the carboniferous sea whei'e these flint specimens were formed,
enveloping its organisms and assuming the crystalline and varied forms
that are now presented to us. Ehrenberg, who carefiilly studied this
phenomena of "blood-showers," wonderingly asks: '"How many
thousand millions of hundred-weight of micjfgscopic organisms have
fallen from the heavens since the period of Hotaer?" But if we would
look back to the period when the cause and effect of this phenomena

174 The Nebular Hyp'dhesis : Its Present Condition.

Avas in its fullest force, we sliould go back beyond the days of Homer,
beyond the age of man, backward to Ihat indefinite period when the
gaseous envelope of the earth segregated its component elements,
formed new combinations, threw back upon the earth its rejected ex-
halations, or showered upon it the superabundant material it had
accumulated from surrounding space, or had evolved from the chem-
ical trituration of its own inharmonious forces.

The Nebular Hypothesis: Its Present Condition. By John J. Plum-

MER, M.A.
From the Popular Science Review (Eiig.)

In the whole range of science there is no theory Avhich has attracted
so much attention, has passed through so many vicissitudes, and has
been so earnestly and fondly supported in the face of opposing evi-
dence, as the nebular hypothesis of Lajjlace. This has arisen, doubt-
less, to some extent from the respect due to the very eminent astrono-
mers by whom it was first suggested and promulgated, but perhaps
still more to the nature of the hypothesis itself, and to the fact that
many otherwise unexplained phenomena find in it a satisfactory solu-
tion. The whole course of scientific progress has led us to look for the
most simple laws in order to explain the most apparently complicated
results ; and such a law the nebular hypothesis would become, were it
possible to give to it such a high degree of probability as at present
serves for the demonstration of the Newtonian law of gravitation, or
of the undulatory theory of light. That it may one day attain to this
degree of certainty, and be recognized as an established truth, is the
hope of many who are fascinated alike by its simplicity and its com-
prehensiveness— a hope that has often served to sustain it when the
bulk of evidence has not appeared to be in its favor, and one in which
the writer to some extent indulges, although well aAvare that it may
require to undergo considerable modification before it reaches that ex-
alted position.

Previously to the revelations of the spectroscope, the nebular hy-
pothesis stood at a very low ebb. The gradually increased powers of
telescopes, culminating in the gigantic reflector of Lord Rosse, had one
by one reduced the nup?ber of the so-called nebulffi, by resolving them
into clusters of distant stars, very closely packed together, until, al-
though a large number still continued nebulous in appearance under

The Nehdar Hijijothesis : Its Present Condition. 175

all circumstances, it seemed very probable indeed that indefinitely in-
creased telescopic power was all that was needed to resolve the remain-
der. Still it retained a few believers, loth to relinquish the insight
into the origin of the solar system which it holds out, and ready to
sieze at once on the important discovery of true gaseous nebulae by Mr.
Huggins, as direct confirmation of the hypothesis. There can be no
question that the proved existence of immense masses of gaseous mat-
ter does place the theory upon a much firmer footing than before ; at
least, the speculations of Sir William Herschel are now established,
notwithstanding that the superstructure raised thereon by Kant and
Laplace is little, if, indeed, as we shall see further, at all supported
by it.

For this important advance in our knowledge \ve are indebted to the
spectroscope. When all other means had failed to give us fiiithful in-
dications of the existence of remote gaseous bodies, this invaluable in-
strument at once decided without question that, of the nebulae unre-
solved by the largest and most powerful telescopes, a considerable pro-
portion are simply mechanical mixtures of three gases, tAvo of which
are well known to us, namely, nitrogen and hydrogen ; and the third,
although unknown or unidentified, is probably of somewhat similar
character — that is, an elementary, nonliquefiablegas. It is not improb-
able that it may even be a terrestrial element, for our knowledge of
the variety of spectra obtainable from the same substance, under dif-
ferent circumstances, is still too deficient to enable us to speak positive-
ly on this point. But the spectroscope is capable of telling us still
more regarding the nature of the light analyzed by it, and it is here
that the evidence it gives is unfavorable to the hypotheses of Laplace.
The density of the gas from which the light emanates produces an
effect upon the spectrum, and is measured by the breadth of the lines
composing it. Now, the nebular hypothesis requires as a necessary
corollary — and it has accordingly always been admitted as such — that
nebulae of every degree of condensation should be found in the heav-
ens, and the variations of brilliancy of these bodies has therefore been
pointed out as evidence of variation of density. The width of the spec-
tral lines, however, provides us with a much more certain, delicate,
and reliable test.

From the observations of Dr. Huggins, it would appear that the
bright lines in the nebular spectra present no appreciable difference
of thickness in all those cases in which it has been possible to use a
very narrow slit. The lines have invariably been found to be exceed-
ingly fine ; and hence we are furnished with distinct proof that the
gases so examined are not only of equal or nearly equal density, but

176 Tlxe Nebular Hypothesis : Its Present Condition.

that they exist in a state of very low tension ; facts as I have already
t«tated, which are fatal to the hypothesis. It is, of course, possible
that similarly as the numerous lines of the sjDCCtra of nitrogen and
hydrogen are reduced to two or three in the nebular spectrum, in con-
sequence of the faintness of the light operated upon, to may the
width of the lines be diminished from a like cause ; but with this I
have nothing to do. It is my object merely to show at present, so ftir
as the spectroscope has afforded us increased knowledge of the state of
these bodies, it is fatal to the theory, and it remains for those who
uphold it in its integrity to establish by experiment that the spectrum
of a dense gas, when very faint, not only is reduced to a single line,
but that that line itself is narrow when the slit is narrow, as in the
case of rarefied gases. Unless the proposition can be established,
there remains no alternative but to reject the hypothesis, as an invit-
mg but fallacious guide to the explanation of the origin of the solar
system, and to look for some new theory, or for some modification of
the old one, for the solution of those problems which it would other-
wise afford.

There are still further reasons for believing that the nebular
hypothesis in its old form is not altogether trustworthy, and though
of less weight, may help to turn the scale, at the same time that they
prepare the ground for an altered conception of it, free from thest^^
objections. It has been necessary hitherto to assume that the nebul-
ous matter existed originally at a great heat, without suggesting, it
seems to me, any sufficient force by which this high temperature was
reached. This is, at least wanting in completeness, especially as there
is at hand, as I hope to show, the means by which the matter may
have been thus raised in temperature. But a still more fatal objection
would appear to be, that the glass which have been identified in the
nebulae do not seem to be, in themselves, adequate to form a system
such as our own, unless by the addition of foreign matter from with-
out. Probably no advocate of Mr. Lockyer's theory of the disassocia-
tion of the material molecules into their primary or truly elementary
components by enormous heat, will go so far as to imagine that the
two known gaseous constitutents of the nebula?, together with one
other unknown substance, is all that is essential to form a globe such
as our own sun, especially when it has been proved that the actual
materials required are known to exist in the immediate neighborhood-,
and appear to have no other use in the economy of the universe than
that of forming with the nebulee suns and systems such as our own.

It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to point out that it is to the
cometary system that I allude as capable of supplying the necesearj

Tlie Xebular Hi/pothe^m: Its Present Condition. 177

material from without, as well as of causing the enormous evohitiou of
heat of which I have spoken ; but there are one or two misconceptions
w^hich must be cleared away before the mind is prepared to admit the
possibility of such a circumstance. These misconceptions have
I'cference, firstly, to the distance of the nebulae from our own
system, and hence to their true volume ; and secondly, to the magni-
tude, or i-ather the mass, of the generality of comets. As regards the
former, it has clearly arisen from the unfortunate association of the
true gaseous nebulse with clusters of stars. Of the enormous distances
of the latter from us there can be no doubt ; but now that an entirely
different class of objects has been proved to exist m the heavens,
similar only in appearance to the most remote clusters, there can be
no reason to suppose that these are at the like distances. Indeed, it
would seem more probable that they are actually nearer to us, at lea.st
in some instances, than the nearest fixed stars themselves, for the
enormous magnitude which must be attributed to such a mass as the
great nebula in Orion, if it be supposed to be at a. very much greater
distance, must act as a bar to such an assumption. Indeed, the mind
experiences a sense of relief in believing that the nebulae are our
nearest neighbors, and the unif )rmity of nature, which does not offer
to our contemjjlation masses of matter incomparably greater than tho.se
we have to deal with in the solar system, seems to require that the
nebulse should not be conceived as of such surpa.ssing magnitude. If
this be admitted, it brings these objects almost within the range of
comets visiting the solar system ; but there are, doubtless, in the
heavens numerous groups or congeries of comets similar to these, not
to speak of those wonders which move in parabolic or hyperbolic orbits,
and which only require infinite time to travel infinite distance. Thus
the wide gulfs separating star from star, and which appear only to
exist to allow of the free revolution of stellar systems, may be the
theater not only of the movement of comets, but also of the evolution
of new world.s.

The belief in the insignificant mass of most comets, which is also, I
think, open to question, is grounded on more substantial reasons. One
comet (Encke's) has actually been weighed against the smallest of our
planets. Mercury, and has kicked the beam, but perhaps no more
unfortunate instance for the experiment could have been selected than
this. It is a comet without stellar nucleus, and one that has made so
many revolutions round the sun, that supposing, as we have reason for
doing, it loses some portion of its matter at each visit, it must clearly
have been very much wasted at the time (1842) when Encke made its
perturbations by the planet Mercury the subject of his able researches.

178 The Nebular Hypothesis : Its Present Condition.

The only other comet that has given us a favorable opportunity of
weighing it against one of the planets is Lexell's, which in 1767 and
1779 must have approached very near to Juj^iter, without deranging
to any extent, so far as we are aware, his system of satellites. Laplace
has proved that this comet had certainly less than -j^^tli part of the
earth's mass, but there is a very considerable difference between this
evaluation and the " few pounds or ounces " which we sometimes hear
of as a probable estimate of their weight. Let it be further remem-
bered that Lexell's comet, like Encke's, was one of the comets of short
period, which are admittedly the least considerable of their class, and
we must acknoAvledge that the belief in the diminutive mass of comets
rests upon insecure if not insufficent evidence. The important dis-
covery that comets in their orbits are accompanied by streams of
meteors, and that they themselves are either meteors of very unusual
size, or a dense cluster of such bodies, proves that they must have a
mass at least comparable with, if they do not often exceed, that given
by Laplace as the maximum possible for Lexell's comet.

Having to some extent removed these misconceptions as to the masses
of the comets and of the nebula?, it is next to be considered whether
the cometary systems are capable of supplying the nebulous matter
Avith the requisite material for the formation of new suns, and here our
imperfect knowledge of the constitution of the former acts as a serious
drawback. It would seem certain, however, that the composition
of comets is very various. One substance alone that is known to us
at present has been discovered, from spectroscopic analysis, as existing
in comets, and to form it would appear, in those cases in which it is
found, the sole constituent. This substance is carbon,* but it has been
identified only in three or four comets out of a considerable number
whose spectra have been examined. The great comet of the past year
is one of those Avhose spectrum has been thus identified. Others have
yielded spectra which, being simple in character and very similar in
appearance to that of carbon, may possibly belong to some substance
of analogous properties ; at least, it is likely that a single uncombined
element will be found, on increased knowledge, to form their principal
or sole constituent. Again, it is not improbable that other comets may
be of like composition to the meteors, many of which have been
analyzed by the ordinary methods of the chemist ; but whether this is
so or not, since these latter follow in the track of comets, they must
suffer the same catastrophes. The meteors that have fallen upon the

* It is often stated that the material of comets yielding the carbon spectrum must be a
liydro-carbon ; but it is to be remarked that none of the lines of hydrogen have ever been seen,
and the assumption Is therefore an entirely gratuitous one, made to get over the difficulty of
the refractory nature of carbon.

The Nebular HyjMhesis : Its Present Condition, 179

earth have been found to contahi a large number of terrestrial elements
— iron, in a native, uncombined form, and in great quantity; cobalt
nickel, sulphur, silica, in the formof augite ; molybdenum, tin, copper,
and a number of other metals in smaller quantity. All these are
substances of an entirely different character from those elements
identified as composing the nebula?. The former are among the most
refractory of chemical elements ; the latter quite defy our utmost
attempts to liquefy them. In both they appear to exist in an uncom-
bined form, though their union would go far to supply the materials
of a world such as ours. Some important elements, as oxygen,* are
wanting, it is true ; but it must be remembered that we know
already of two important constituents which we are unable to identify
with terrestrial elements, namely, the substance which at least as
frequently as carbon is found the sole component of comets, and the
gas equally known which exists along with nitrogen and hydrogen in
the nebulae.

Although in the system of Laplace the cometary element held only
a very subordinate position, it must not be imagined that it was ne-
glected altogether. On the contary, Laplace, with that far reaching
power of generalization which is characteristic of great minds, perceived
that the encounter of comet with nebula was inevitable, and the
mechanical problem of the diminution of velocity, in consequence of the
former moving impeded through the gases of the latter, received from
him much attention. He perceived that a comet once within the power
of attraction of a nebula had no chance of escape, but must revolve
around its center of gravity in an ever diminishing spiral ; but, unac-
quainted with the peculiar chemical constitution of these bodies, it
was impossible for him to carry his speculations further. In the light
of modern discovery we may perceive, however, that the assimilation
of comets into the nebulous matter, foreseen by Laplace, will be mucli
more rapidly expedited, and that, notwithstanding the augmentation
of temperature produced by friction, a still more considerable evolu-
tion of heat will result from the chemical union of the two. We can
not pretend to explain the exact chemical efiects produced by the
impact, owing to our ignorance of some of the substances themselves ;
but, in any case, an enormous development of heat is certain to result ;
and whether the compound thus formed assumes the liquid or retains the
solid form, it will certainly bo of greater specific gravity than the rest of
the nebula, of which it may now be said to form a part, and the revolu-
tion around the center of gravity of the mass will be conducted precisely

* Except as combined with silicon.

180 The Nebular Hypothesis : Its Present Condition.

* as indicated by Laplace. Those familiar with the extraordinary convo-
lutions of many of the nebulce will not fail to see how easily many such
appearances maybe explained, by imagining a long stream of meteoric
bodies in the track of a comet pouring into the nebulous matter, and
being retarded and absorbed in their passage through it. There is
good reason to suppose that the product of chemical union assumes
generally the liquid, rather than the gaseous form, since it has fre-
quently been noted that a faint, continuous spectrum maybe discerned
along with that of the bright, gaseous lines in many nebulse, and which
is not confined to any particular portion of them.

We may now pretty clearly depict the condition of a nebula accord-
ing to this hypothesis, when after the lapse of many ages a large
numbeiof comets and accompanying meteor-streams have been absorbed
into its substance. It will consist of a greater or less residue of the
original gaseous constituents, which, for reasons well known to
spectroscopists, will still continue to yield most conspicuously the
characteristic bright line spectrum, and dispersed throughout the mass
an immense numl)er of liquid nuclei, all tending toward the common
center of gravity in spiral orbits, the center being occupied by a
brilliant white-hot liquid mass. The temperature of such a nebula
will be much higher than of (me less developed — a fact which will tend
to keep the density of the gaseous constituents at nearly the same level,
in spite of the increased gravitational tendency to condensation near
the center. We may even conceive that this intense heat might be
sufficient to render gaseous the liquid nuclei, when a numerously
bright-lined spectrum should make its appearance, but it would then
be necessary to assume that the faintness of the spectrum Avould make
it difficult to distinguish the difference between this and one truly con-
tinuous. AVe may, on the contrary, imagine the well-developed
nebula to become a compact, liquid mass, in this case also yielding a
continuous spectrum. Nor does it seem unlikely that a considerable
number of bodies in this latter state of existence may actually be
discovered in the heavens. Many nebuke, after having resisted the
utmost efforts of astronomers, armed witli the largest telescopes, to
class them among the clusters of stars, have equally refused to be
entered in the list of true nebulse by yielding the discontinuous spec-
trum, and whose real condition remains, therefore, for the present an
enigma. Of the two suppositions, the second appears to me to be the
most probable ; yet, if it be accepted, it will be necessary to recon-
struct the nebular hypothesis, if it can still be maintained under
the altered circumstances. There are, however, some facts which tend
strongly to show that the first suggestion is the more correct one, or,

The Nebular HijjMhesis : Its Present Condition. 181

in some cases at least, more closely approximates to the true condition
of things. It is well known that the great nebula in Andromeda —
one of those which defy alike the powers of the telescope and spec-
troscojje — presents a very anomalous spectrum. Though apparently
continuous, some portions of the red and orange are altogether wanting,
and the more refrangible portion consists of a mottled band, with
uneven gradation of intensity. This is very much what would be
expected if the spectrum were really one of numerous bright lines, nor
is it a singular instance. Several other nebulte have given rise to
strong suspicions of a similar constitution ; and no theory, so fur as I
am aware, has hitherto been advanced in explanation of these appear-
ances. I need not point out that if this supposition is correct, a state
of things arises in which the nebular hypothesis in its later form will
again apply, with the addition only that the gases of the nebula? are in
a much more complicated condition than was formerly supposed to be
the case.

It is to be remarked that the number of comets Avhich would be
attracted to a nebula would increase in proportion as its mass increased
with each succeeding capture, so that its development would proceed
at an accelerated fate until a certain point was reached, when com-
paratively little of the gaseous elements remain. The comets would
then describe their orbits around the newly formed sun, and Avould
leave only their smaller or outlying meteorites to swell its mass. But
even these would greatly tend to compensate for the dissijiation of
heat by radiation, and would much retard the cooling process — a state
of things that will continue to exist even in a perfectly formed system,
such as our own. I am thus led to regard the meteoric theory of the
supply of solar heat as a part of the modified nebular hypothesis which
I have suggested. If our sun is a nebulous star, surrounded by a far-
extending atmosphere, in which are revolving a large number of
meteoric bodies, visible possibly to us, as the Zodiacal Ijight, the ma-
terials for keeping up a constant or nearly constant te^iperature for a
considerable length of time are at hand, and every succeeding comet
will add soiAe to the number of those meteors which, unlike it, are
unable to make their final escape, and pursue their orbits with scarcely
diminished velocity. The smaller meteors in a stream, as presenting
relatively a larger surface, will be mor% retarded than the larger, and
will more rapidly fall upon the solar surftice — so rapidly, indeed, that
it does not seem unlikely that the universally held belief in the
increased solar heat during years noted for large comets may have a
sound foundation. Such a possibility is sufficient to invest the
movements of comets with great practical interest, and the various

182 The Nebular Hypothesis : Its Present Condition.

circumstances producing tlie increased lieat of such seasons must
give rise to important investigations. Thus we should come to
look upon the nearness of aj^proach of a comet in perihelion, as
an essential element in such a discussion, and perhaps also the
material composition of the comet itself. It has been suggested,
with nnich show of reason, that the larger and nearer planets
when in perihelion simultaneously have a considerable effect upon the
solar surface, by producing spots, etc., and these again, in determin-
ing the amount of heat radiated from the sun ; may we not, therefore,
expect that the arrival in perihelion of a comet from most remote
regions, which, if of smaller mass, often approaches the sun much
more nearly than they, may also produce a marked efiect on the
state of the solar atmosphere? Although the 11-year period of solar
spot frequency is too well marked to admit of any question, there is
already much evidence to prove that there exist many minor disturb-
ances, secondary maxima and minima of solar activity, which remain
to be exjjlained, and which may possibly be due to the occasional and
irregular approaches of comets. It is certain that the solution of no
question can be of more service to the advancement of science than
that of the real practical utility of comets in the economy of the
universe. Speculation on this point has already been too long neglected,
and unless it is carried on now as far and as correctly as the state of
modern science allows, it is certain that it will mask some other results
and hinder progress. Surely none can believe that these bodies are
mere ignes-fatai, coming and going, without being of any service to us
or to other systems; and although much mystery has always hung
about them, and still baffles our researches, perhaps the best way of
attaining to the solution of it is by searching for some purpose that
they may subserve. Without attempting altogether to set up the
nebular hypothesis in as favorable a light as before, the above remarks
and speculations may serve to indicate the position in which it stands
at present, and- the broader basis on which in future the question
must be argued. A certain degree of unity of design seems to result
from these theories, which is consonant Avith the order of nature.
Every known body in the universe appears to have an important and
appropriate function to perform in the development or maintenance
of system like our own — a function that is constant in all conceivable
states of existence of those systems; and while my speculations do not
contradict the various theories of others, they show a tendency to
unite them into one consistent whole. Perhaps the most distinctive
feature of these remarks is, that the effects I speak of must actually
take place, whether or not they have the importance here attached to

Editorial Miscellany. 18o

them. No one will deny that the nebula and the comet will constantly
come into contact ; and were we acquainted with all the materials so
meeting, it would be a comparatively simple problem for the chemist
to determine what compounds would result, and for the physicist to
show in what state, gaseous or otherwise, they would afterward
remain. Both these questions require to be answered satisfactorily
before it is possible to declare whether the celebrated hypothesis of
Laplace is or is not the true key to the solution of the formation and
history of the solar system ; and for these answers, at the present, it
waits.

EDITORIAL MISCELLANY.

ARCHiEOLOGY.— From a recent article in Harper's Magazine, we re-
produce in substance several interesting statements concerning the
antiquities of the Mississippi Valley : Near Osceola, Arkansas, in the
vicinity of a great artificial mound, is a level area of ten acres paved with
adobe, and supposed to have been constructed and used as a threshing
floor, in connection with bins or storehouses, whose remains are still to
be observed in the vicinity. The paved floor is covered with black
loam to a depth of two and a half feet, and experiments are being
made with a view of approximating the age of the works by a method
heretofore suggested in these columns, namely : measuring, by repeated
observations and experiments, the annual deposit of loam from decay-
ing forest vegetation in given districts.

The old river channels of the Mississippi, formed by successive
changes of the current, are to be distinctly traced between Memphis
and the ridge 40 miles west, at whose base flows the St. Francis river.
Everywhere upon the intervening lowland are observed the mounds
and aguadas of the ancient people, from which the inference is
drawn that they were built after the Mississippi had reached a
channel five miles west of its present bed. These remains extend
.southward only as far as Baton Rouge, and, assuming that within a
comparatively recent geological period the Gulf of Mexico extended
far up the present valley of the Mississippi, it is inferred that Natchez
or Baton Rouge stand at what was in the Mound-Builders' era the head
of this extension of the Gulf^a present distance of three hundred
miles. Calculating the annual sedimentary deposit at two hundred
linear yards, and assuming this rate to have been uniform, a period of
three thousand years is supposed to have elapsed since the abandon-
ment of these works.

184 Editorial Miscellany.

The prairies along- the AVhite and Arkansas rivers are dotted with
the remahis of once populous cities, whose outlines may be readily
traced in the foundations of dwellings Avith avenues between. Beside
countless smaller elevations the lowlands west of Memphis contain
many mounds varying from 40 to 60 feet in altitude. In the swamps,
covered with decayed vegetation, are found remains of brick structures ;
and the highway opened years ago t»y Gen. Gaines, follows an artificia)
roadway lifted above the flood-tide of the INlississippi by the ancient
race.

Many interesting relics of primitive art are found which exhibit a
singular beauty of workmanship, but do not differ materially from those
discovered hi other localities. Among these, however, are some whose
evident uses throw new light upon the customs of the aborigines.
Earthen vessels, very thin and light, from graves near Osceola, when
suspended in the air on a hot day are found to render contained water
excedingly cold by rapid evaporation through the porous clay— a use
clearly indicated by the peculiar shape of the vessels. A "bronze"
(copper?) idol from a mound near Fulton, Tennessee, singularly
resembles Japanese workmanship and design. In the same mound
was found an earthen box Avith close-fitting lid, containing "pills."
A skeleton beside it crumbled on exposure to the air. The pills
were sent to Cincinnati for analysis, but the result was never ascer-
tained. A crucible, showing marks of use, and containing glistening
particles of molten metal, and a narrow necked vessel with glossy
surface, resembling Etruscan ware, are also described.

Wheat, grown on the banks of the Mississippi from grains taken out
of an ancient Egyptian sarcophagus, possesses stalks and leaves resemb-
ling miniature Indian corn or sorghum ; and the Avriter quoted, speak-
ing, as is alleged, with specimens so groAvn before him, asserts that the
same wheat, degenerate, but perfect in all its incidents, still grows
among the weeds and grasses that cover the Avorks on the lowlands
referred to, eighteen miles west of Memphis. A mound, sixteen miles
east of Little Rock, Arkansas, is 250 feet in height. Another near
by, 100 feet in height, is a truncated square pyramid, Avhose summit is
an acre in area.

Colorado Antiquities. — The results attained by the First Division
of the Geological and Topographical Survey of the Territories include
the discovery of numerous ruins of towns and dAvellings of extinct
races Avho inhabited the mesas and canons, sometimes elevated a thous-
and feet vertically above the stream beloAV. Remains of glazed pottery,
and the structure of these dwellings and fortifications indicate a more

Editorial Miscellany. 185

advanced state of art than was possessed by any of the modern Indian
tribes.

The Second Division, under Mr. Powell, is still in the field, and the
full results of its labors can not be given. They include similar dis-
coveries in the valley of the Colorado, besides the collection of many
speoiniens of ancient picture-writing, implements, etc., and photo-
graphs of cave dwellings in the cliffs near the St. Elmo, and the ruins
of dwellings and fortified places elsewhere.

Ancient Lake Basins. — Prof C. C. Marsh contributes to a recent
issue of the American Journul of Science and Arts the first part of an
interesting paper on "Ancient Lake Basins of tlT,e Rocky Mountain
Region." The geological explorers of the "bad lands" have estab-
lished the existence of several basins of tertiary fresh-water 'lakes,
which Prof. Marsh briefly discusses under the three divisions : Eo-
cene, Miocene and Pleiocene, corresponding Avith their relative age.
He states that the general characteristics of these basins indicate suc-
cessive elevations and depressions of the surface, which sometimes
brings into juxtaposition deposits of widely separated periods. Thus,
the Green River basin, lying between the Rocky Mountains and the
Wasatch Range contains deposits of great thickness, yielding 140
species of extinct Eocene vertebrates, Avhile, overlying the eroded
deposits, are strata composed of water-worn debris of the surrounding
mountains of a comparatively recent period.

The fauna of the Eocene lakes indicates a tropical climate, and
includes a great number of animals of the tapir kind, monkeys,
crocodiles, lizards and serpents. The flora seems not yet satisfactorily
determined.

The Miocene lake deposits contain the wonderful vertebrate fauna,
made known chiefly through the researches of Prof. Hay den, of the
recent military exploration. These basins indicate comparatively
shallow and quiet watei's. In these, also, there is evidence of the lake
bottom having for a long period been exposed as dry land to the
erosive action of rains, but subsequently submerged and reconverted
into a lake, which deposited extensive beds of clay and sand over the
same area.

The fauna of the White river lake basin indicates a climate less trop-
ical than that of the Eocene lake, as seen in the al)sence of monkeys
and scarcity of reptilian life. The Brontotheridse, the largest known
Miocene mammals, are peculiar to the lower strata of this basin.

The Pleiocene basins were formed by a subsidence east of the
Rocky Mountains at the close of the Miocene period, formmg an ex-

186 Ed'dorial 'Miscellany.

tensive lake, covering the eastern Miocene basin, and extending south-
wardly nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. The strata of this deposit are
cut through by the river Niobrara for two hundred miles of its course.
They are horizontal, light in color, and much more arenaceous than
those of the Miocene below. The upper strata consist of hard sand-
stones or calcareous grits, which wear but slowly, and hence still form
the great table-lands over much of the interior of the basin. Prof.
Marsh states that he has traced these high plateaux and the isolated
buttes from near the Black Hills south to the Arkansas river, and
found them all of the Pleiocene age. The fauna here indicates a
warm, temperate climate, and includes the mastodon, rhinoceros, cam-
els and horses ; remains of the latter being especially abundant.

Acoustics. — Professor Tyndall contributes to the Contemporary
JRevieiv a paper of great interest on "The Atmosphere in Relation to
Fog-Signaling." He states that during the last ten years no less than
273 vessels have been lost on the British coasts, and estimates the loss
as far greater on the American seaboard, as the direct result of fogs
and thick weather. The ini ortance, therefore, of the efforts to find
an effective substitute for light in sound -signals to warn sailors ap-
proaching a dangerous coast can not be overestimated. With this view,
experiments were commenced in 1873, at the South-Foreland, near
Dover, with two powerful magneto-electric lights worked by steam
power, and trumpets, air and steam whistles. In addition to the appa-
ratus supplied by the British government, the Light-House Board of
our own country sent a steam-siren similar to those used in our light,
house system, and which he thus describes:

"The princij^le of the siren is easily understood. A musical sound
is produced when the tympanic membrane is struck periodically with
sufiicient rapidity. The production of these tympanic shocks by puffs
of air was first realized by Dr. Robinson, and his device was the first
and simplest form of the siren. A stop-cock was so constructed that
it opened and shut the passage of a pipe 720 times in a second. Air
from the wind-chest of an organ being allowed to pass along the pipe
during the rotation of the cock, a musical sound was most smoothly
uttered. A great step was made in the construction of the instrument
by Cagniard de la Tour, who gave it its present name. He employed
a box with a perforated lid, and above the lid a similarly perforated
disk capable of rotation. The perforations were oblique, so that when
wind was driven through the lid, it so impinged upon the apertures
of the disk as to set it in motion. No separate mechanism was there-
fore required to turn the disk. When the perforations of lid and disk

Editorial Miscellany. 187

coincided, a puiF escaped; when they did not coincide, the current of
air was cut off. In this way impulses were imparted to the air, and
sound-waves generated. The siren has been greatly improved by
Dove, and specially so by Helmholtz. Even in its small form, it can
produce sounds of great intensity.

" In the steam-siren, as in the ordinary one, a fixed disk, and a rotat-
ing disk are employed, but radial slits are used instead of circular
apertures. One disk is fixed vertically across the throat of a conical
trumpet 16i feet long, 5 inches in diameter where the disk crosses it,
and gradually opening out till at the other extremity it reaches a
diameter of two feet three inches. Behind the fixed disk is the rotat-
ing one, Avhich is driven by separate mechanism. The trumpet is
mounted on a boiler. In our experiments, steam of 70 lbs. pressure
was for the most part employed. Just as in the ordinary siren, when
the radial slits of the two disks coincide, and then only, a strong puff
of steam escapes. Sound-waves of great intensity are thus sent
through the air, the pitch of the note dependmg on the velocity of
rotation."

To these instruments were added three guns — an 18-pounder, a 5^-
inch howitzer, and a 13-inch mortar.

The comparative tests to which these instruments were subjected at
first resulted in favor of the guns, which were heard at a distance of
nearly ten miles, while under other atmospheric conditions the trum-
pets proved superior— the "selective power" of the atmosphere being
more noticeable in autumn than in summer. The results, however,
were for a time, inconstant and unsatisfactory, and with hardly a gleam
of f)rinciple to connect them.

" It is," says Prof. Tyndall, "as already shown, an opinion enter-
tained in high quarters, that the waves of sound are reflected at the
limiting surfiices of the minute particles which constitute haze and fog,
the alleged waste of sound in fog being thus explained. If, however,
this be an efficient practical cause of the stoppage of sound, and if
clear, calm air be, as alleged, the best vehicle, it would be impossible
to understand how, to-day, in a thick haze, the sound reached a dis-
tance of twelve and three-fourths miles, while on May 20, in a calm
and hazeless atmosphere, the maximum range was only from five to six
miles. Such facts foreshadow a revolution in our notions regarding
the action of haze and fogs upon sound."

The explanation, however, was not long deferred. On July 3, it
was determined that the vapor generated at the surface of the sea by
the sun's rays, rising and breaking through the air at various points,
presented the conditions of limiting surfaces producing partial echoe.s
and a consequent waste of sound.

188 Editorial Miscellany.

Other observations demonstrated the existence of acoustic clouds,
lining the optically transparent atmosphere, and causing distinct
echoes of great intensity and long duration, to which the rolling of
thunder is to be ascribed.

" But the strength of science," says Prof, Tyndall, " consists in veri-
fication, and I was anxious to submit the question of aerial reflection
to an experimental test. As in most similar cases, it was not tlie sim-
plest cond)inations that were first adopted. Two gases of different
densities were to be chosen, and I chose carbonic acid and coal gas.
With the aid of my skillful assistant, Mr. John Cottrel, a tunnel was
formed, across which five-and-twenty layers of carbonic acid were per-
mitted to fall, and five-and-twenty alternate layers of coal gas to rise.
Sound was sent through this tunnel, making fifty passages from
medium to medium in its course. These, I thought, would waste in
aerial echoes a sensible portion of sound.

" To indicate this waste an objective test was found in a gas-flame
brought to the vei-ge of flaring. The action of sonorous vibrations on
such a flame was discovered by Professor Le Conte in the United
States, who had the sagacity to seize upon the most essential features
of the phenomenon. A similar observation was subsequently made
by Prof. Barrett, while assistant in the physical laboratory of the
Royal Institution ; and both he and myself, my present assistant, Mr.
Cottrell, and Mr. Philip Barry, have succeeded in pushing such flames
to an extraordinary degree of sensitiveness. The following brief
description of a sensitive flame, 24 inches high, issuing from the single
orifice of a steatite-burner, is taken from my forthcoming ' Lectures on
Sound : ' ' The slightest tap on a distant anvil causes it to fall to seven
inches. When a bunch of keys is shaken, the flame is violently agi-
tated, and emits a loud roar. The dropping of a sixpence into a hand,
already containing coin, knocks the flame down. The creaking of
boots sets it in violent commotion. The crumbling or tearing of a
bit of paper, or the rustle of a silk dress does the same. Responsive
to every tick of a watch held near it, it falls and explodes. The
winding up of the watch produces tumult. From a distance of thirty
yards we may chirrup to this flame, and cause it to fall and roar.
Repeating a passage from the ' Faerie Q.ueene,' the flame sifts and se-
lects the manifold sounds of my voice, noticing some by a slight nod,
others by a deeper bow, while to others it responds by violent agita-
tion."

The exceedingly interesting experiments which are detailed, relate
to the action of layers of air, saturated with the vapors of various
volatile liquids, in the transmission of sound.

Editorial Miscellany. 189

"Thus far," concludes the distinguished professor, " we have placed
our subject in the firm grasp of experiment ; nor shall we find this
test failing us further on."

PEnriTiVE Conceptions. — In his forthcoming work on " Principles
of Sociology," Herbert Spencer strikes at the root of those falser
theories of education which lead our teachers to ply the juvenile mind
with generalities, before it has acquired those concrete facts to which
they refer. " When we see mathematics introduced under the purely
rational form, instead of under that empirical form with which it
should be commenced by the child, as it was commenced by the race —
when we see a subject so abstract as grammar put among the first,
instead of among the last, and see it taught analytically, instead of
synthetically, we have ample evidence of the prevailing inability to
conceive the ideas of undeveloped minds."

From this, the distinguished essayist proceeds to trace the orighi
and growth of primitive ideas among savage nations in some of their
leading traits, conceiving the surroundings as they appeared to the
primitive man. Taking natural occurrences, such as vanishing of
clouds, appearance and disappearance of the heavenly bodies, falling of
rain, mirages, waterspouts, winds, etc., he endeavors to delineate the
mental associations which woidd naturally arise in the primitive mind,
by observing the impressions produced upon the minds of young child-
ren by similar phenomena, and continues :

"Significant facts of another order, from time to time disclosed, may
next be noted — facts irresistibly impressing the primitive man with
the belief that things are transmutable from one kind of substance to
another. I refer to the facts forced on his attention by embedded
remains of animals and plants.

"While gathering food on the sea-shore, he finds, protruding from a
rock, a shell which, if not of the same shape as the shells he picks u]),
is so similar that he naturally classes it Avith them. But, instead of
being loose, it is part of a solid block ; and, on breaking it off, he find.s
its inside as hard as its matrix. Here, then, are two kindred forms,
one of which consists of shell and flesh, and the other of shell and
stone. Near at hand, in the mass of clay debris detached from
the adjacent cliflT, he picks up a fossil ammonite. Perhaps, like the
Gr ypIiKa ^ust examined, it has a shelly coating with a stony inside.
Perhaps, as happens with some liassic ammonites, of v.hich the shell
has been dissolved away, leaving the masses of indurated clay that
filled its chambers locked loosely togctlier, it suggests a series of
articulated vertebrae coiled np; or, as with other liassic ammonites of

190 Book Notices.

which the shell has been replaced by iron pyrites, it ha? a glistening
appearance like that of a snake's skin. As such fossils are sometimes
called "snake-stones," and are in Ireland supposed to be the serpents
St. Patrick banished, we can not wonder if the uncritical savage, class-
ing this object with those it most resembles, thinks it a transmuted
snake — once flesh and now stone. In another place, where a gully
has been cut through sandstone by a stream, he observes on the sur-
face of a slab the outline of a fish, and, looking closely, sees scales
and the traces of fins ; and elsewhere, similarly imbedded in rock, he
finds skulls and bones not unlike those of the animals he kills for
food; some of them, indeed, not unlike those of men.

"Still more striking are the transmutations of plants occasionally
discovered. I do not refer so much to the prints of leaves in shale,
and the fossil stems found in strata aiccompanying coal ; I refer, more
especially, to the silicified trees here and there met with. Retaining
not their general forms only, but their minute structures, so that the
annual growths are marked by rings of color such as mark them in
living stems, these yield the savage clear evidence of transmutation.
With all our knowledge, it remains difficult to understand how silica
can so replace the components of the wood as to preserve the appear-
ance thus perfectly ; and for the primitive man, knowing nothing of
molecular action, and unable to conceive a process of substitution,
there is no possible thought but that the wood is changed into stone."

These, and kindred phenomena, such as development from the egg,
shadows, echoes, etc., it is argued, lead the uncultured mind to belief
in a dual existence, which is formulated in the superstitions of all
savage tribes, and may thus be referred to as general and inevitable
process of mental evolution.

BOOK NOTICES.

The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. By Hubert Howe
Bancroft. Vol. 1., Wild Tribes. Price, $5 50. D. Appleton k Co., New York.

Those interested in the ethnology of the American aborigines will
receive with pleasure the announcement of a series of five volumes,
presenting, in a condensed and accurate form, the gleanings of a library
of 16,000 books, pamphlets and manuscripts, collected by Mr. Ban-
croft, with especial reference to the task whose first fruits are noW
before us.

Book Notices. 191

Students of tlie earlier civilizations of the New World have here-
tofore encountered almost insurmountable difficulties, arising from
the paucity of available sources of hiforniation. The aboriginal
civilization, whether ' we conceive it as radiating northeastward
from tropical America, or southeastward from a lodgment on the
Pacific coast, in either case, emanated from a point farthest removed
from the original center of the later European culture implanted on
this continent, and therefore, least accessible to the spirit of modern
investigation, until almost all vestiges were lost. In Mexico and
Central America, the Aztec and Maya-Quiche civilizations were liter-
ally obliterated by the crushing blight of Spanish avarice and supersti-
tion. In addition to these difficulties, the archseology of our pre-
historic races has long rested under an indifference, which has permitted
even the decaying monuments of their former empires to be defaced
by time, or ruthlessly destroyed by so-called modern improvement.

Recent archaeological discoveries in other countries, however, bring-
ing to light many curious and hitherto unsuspected facts, and enlarging
the boundaries of positive history among Eastern nations, have
awakened an interest in our own autochthones, and created a demand
for a species of information which Mr. Bancroft's work promises to
supply. The work thus appears at a time when a growing want is felt
for the information he offers as the result of his laborious and extended
examination. Dealing with the aboriginal people who dwelt nearest
to what we may regard as the primal seat of the ancient civilization,
his object, as expressed in his own words, is, " to gather and arrange
in a systematic, compact form, all that is known of these people ; to
preserve some facts, perhaps, from oblivion ; to bring others from inac-
cessible nooks, and to render all available to science and to the general
reader."

The volume before us treats of the tribes who inhabited the entire
Pacific coast of North America, whom he divides into seven distinc-
tive groups, namely : I. Hyperboreans; II. Columbians; III. Cali-
fornians; IV. New Mexicans; V. Wild Tribes of Mexico; VI. AVikl
Tribes of Central America ; and VII. Civilized Tribes of Mexico,
which latter class will form the subject of a separate volume.

The nations thus grouped for convenience of treatment, are repre-
sented under those characteristics which distinguished them at the
time of their first intercourse with Europeans, and the facts presented
pertain exclusively to the observed traits, physical and mental
peculiarities, customs, and external surroundings of the tribes in ques-
tion. Each group is treated in a separate chapter, with an excellent
map and supplemental division describing tribal boundaries.

192 Booh Not'ices.

Mr. B'lncroft's style is concise and vigorous, nnd his facts are stated
comprehensively, yet without circumlocution. In presenting the var-
ied ma^s of details, which necessarily form the staple of his work, he
has succeeded admirably in weaving them into the semblance of a
connected narrative, that can not fail to interest even the general reader.
The more minute and technical facts are stated, with references to
authorities, in foot notes and in the appendix supplementing each
chapter.

The precise value of the work before us, in a scientific point of
view, although unquestionably very great, can not be determined with-
out a more extended and critical examination than can as yet be
given. We take pleasure, however, in recommending the work to
our readers, as one well worthy of study, by those who would acquire
a comprehensive knowledge of our aborigines, as well as by those en-
gaged in pursuing a special line of investigation, and shall have occa-
sion to refer more specifically to the work hereafter.

Our Barren Lands. By Gen. W. B. Hazen. Paper, 53 pages. Price, 50 cents.
Printed and for sale by Robert Clarke <fe Co., Cincinnati.

By a careful and conclusive collation of meteorological and agricul-
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"Northern Tropical Belt." His rejoinder to Gen. Custer's nine-column
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and exceptionally favorable season, and hence, of no practical value.

The Doctrine of Evolution: Its Data, its Principles, its Speculations, and its The-
istic Beatings. By Alexander VVincliell, LL. D. New York: Harper & Brothers.

In this little volume, the author presents a popular and condensed
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THE

CINCINNATI QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

EDITORS AKD PROPRIETORS,

S. A. MILLER AND L. M. ROSEA.

CONTENTS:

Page.

Atlantis: a statement of the " Atlantic "
theory respecting Aboriginal Civiliza-
tion; byL. M. Hosea 198

How Ancient America Wrote; by G.
Bruhl, M. D 211

Teneina of the United States; by V. T.
Chambers 226

Review of the Glacial Theory; by S. A.
Miller 259

Natural History Investigations in Florida
Waters and among the Keys; by W.
W. Calkins 267

Description of a new species of Trilobite —
Spherocoryphe ro'mstus; by C. D. Wal-
colt 273

Page.
Some remarks on Plumulites Javitsi; by
8. A. Miller 274

Olyptoc-rinus Shafferi; by S. A. Miller 277

Heterocrinus isvdactylus ; by S. A. Miller... 279

Crania reticularis ; by S. A, Miller 280

Some further remarks upon the Genus
Anomalodonta ; by S. A. Miller 280

Cyrtoceras magister ; by S. A. Miller 28t

Note from Antioch College; by E. W.

Claypole 285

Miscellany— Will of the late Charles Bod-
man— Scientific Association at Rich-
mond, Indiana— Book Notices, etc 286

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JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Vol. II. JULY, 1875. No. 3.

Atlantis: A Statement of the "Atlantic" Theory Respecting Aboriginal
Civilization. By L. M. HosEA.

The age in which we live is preeminently one of experimental
investigation. Men are no longer content to accept theories unless
founded upon a basis of fact amounting almost to positive demonstra-
tion. But while modern methods of practical investigation have so
enlarged the boundaries of physical science, it is hardly probable that
human effort will ever be able to dispel entirely the obscurity which
enshrouds the primitive history of man. Yet the labors of the
archaeologist and geologist have not been altogether in vain. Much
has been done in 6ur own time to clear away the undergrowth of pre-
conceived error, and admit the sunlight of truth into the dark regions
of superstition and tradition.

The same critical and experimental spirit which has effected so
marvelous a change in natural science within a comparatively brief
period, while it has upset many cherished beliefs and exploded many
phlogistic theories, has given us clearer conceptions of the condition
and development of man within the historic period, and proved his
existence long anterior to received dates. Indeed it would appear to
be satisfiictorily established, that man was co-tenant of the earth with
extinct mammals of geologic periods; and it seems not improbable
tliat his occupancy of the earth will be still further ante-elated.

But while the prying curiosity of our age has shattered many false
theories, it is not without value, also, in rescuing truth from the
clutches of error and in establishing that as true which had long been

194 Atlmitis.

regarded as false. Wendell PliillijDs, in his interesting lecture on the
"Lost Arts," illustrates this point by an anecdote of Archimedes, of
whom it is said that when the ships of the enemy besieging Syracuse
drew away from the levers he had arranged to pry them out of water,
he turned upon them the sun's rays focalized by concave mirrors, and
thus set fire to them. This story, so long discredited on account of its
alleged physical impossibility, he shows to be true, so far, at least, as
this objection to its truth is concerned, by an experiment of certain
French scientists who succeeded in fusing lead at the distance of three
hundred feet by the same means.

Again, the long disputed existence of Troy, outside of the glowing
periods of Homer, seems to be now satisfactorily demonstrated by the
researches of Dr. Schliemann, which have not only laid bare the
foundations of Ilium's once lofty towers, but show that they were
themselves reared upon the debris of a civilization old when Troy was
born — a civilization unknown to history and lost even to tradition.

Recent discoveries, also demonstrate the truth of the tradi-
tional history of Rome current among the educated classes of the
capital during the Augustan age. Explorations conducted at the
expense of the late Emperor of the French, and of the Russian govern-
ment, during the last twenty years, show that even in the time of the
Kings, Rome was a fortified city of great importance and immense
population. The wall of Romulus, so long considered a myth like the
suckling wolf, is disclosed to view, corresponding in detail with the
description given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus — the stones composing
it being each a " cart load," and so described in the technique of the
Roman masons to-day.

But in Egypt the most interesting results of modern archaeological
investigation have been achieved, and these relate more nearly to the
subject of our present discussion. On the banks of the mysterious Nile,
the patient labors of Auguste Mariette, formerly a Lieutenant of
French Engineers, have been crowned with a success which sets at
rest many heretofore doubtful points, and, besides, opens to us new
lines of historical and ethnological inquiry.

" Unwearied digging," says Bayard Taylor, " has enabled Mariette to
reach the records of the ancient empire, and to show — what we never
before suspected — that the glory of Egyptian art belongs to the age
of Rameses II. (SesostrLs). Not only the art, but the culture, the
political organization of Egypt, are carried back to the third dynasty,
(4,450 B. C.) and Menes, the first historic king, dawns upon our
knowledge, not as a primitive barbarian, but as the result of a long
stage of unrecorded development. I do not hesitate to say, that since

Atlantis. 195

Charapollion discovered the key to the hieroglyphics, no scholar has
thrown such a broad and clear light upon Egyptian life and history as
Mariette." Scholars have universally discredited the antiquity claimed
by the early Egyptian priesthood for their nation and civilization ; but
the researches of Mariette, so far as they extend, corroborate the chrono-
logical table of the priest Manetho back to a period 5,000 years B. C.
when the art remains indicate a proficiency equaled at no later date,
and clearly "the result of a long stage of unrecorded development."
Archaeological inquiry upon the remains scattered over this continent
has reached, as yet, no definite or satisfactory result. Thus far the
interpretation of these records of antiquity has practically bafiled the
closest scrutiny. Yet whoever attempts to unravel the mystery in
which the history and ethnology of the builders of the ancient mound-
structures of this continent are involved, can hardly fail to become
satisfied :

1. That the ]Mound Builders and the ancient inhabitants of Mexico
and Central America were substantially one people, partaking of the
same culture ; and

2. That the earliest civilization of tropical America, so far as we
can comprehend it through the medium of the Aztec and kindred
races, presents features which negative the supposition of indigenous
and unaided growth.

In view of these conclusions in which investigators have very
generally concurred, the inquiry naturally arises, whence obtained
these ancient nations these peculiar features of their civilization?
Leaving out of view the claim, so strongly urged half a century ago,
respecting the original unity and subsequent dispersion of the human
race, by which all analogies between ancient civilizations were sought
to be explained, as a fact removed by modern investigation to a period
of human history too remote to enter as a profitable element into
present consideration, we may inquire what evidence, if any, exists, to
show that the early American civilization was influenced by external
communication.

In response to this inquiry, our attention has been at various times
directed by classic antiquaries to the tradition of the Atlantic isles,
narrated by Plato in the Timoeus as received by Solon from the
Egyptian priests of the Delta, during a visit thither by the Athenian
law-giver. These priests, as we are informed by Plato, claimed for
their country and race a great antiquity, with written records ex-
tending back 8,000 years, and traditions of events 1,000 years earlier.

" These writings," said they to Solon, " relate what a prodigious force

196 Atlantis.

your city (Athens) once overcame, when a mighty, warlike power,
rushing from the Atlantic sea, spread itself witli hostile fury over all
Europe and Asia. That sea, indeed, was navigable, and had an island
fronting that mouth which you, in your tongue, call the 'Pillars of
Hercules'; and this island was larger than Lybia (Africa) and Asia
(Minor) put together, and there was a passage for travelers of that
day to the rest of the islands, as well as from these islands to the whole
opposite continent" — (or, more literally, the continent beijond) —
" that surrounds the real sea. For as respects what is within the
mouth here mentioned" (i e; the Mediterranean)— " it appears to be
a bay with a kind of narrow entrance ; and that sea is indeed a true
sea, and the land that entirely surrounds it may truly and most
correctly be termed a continent. In this Atlantic island there was
formed a powerful league of kings, who subdued the entire island,
together with many others, and parts, also, of the continent ; besides
which, they subjected to their rule the inland parts of Lybia as far as
Egypt, and Europe as far as Tyrrhoenia (Italy). The whole of this
force then being collected together in one league, undertook to enslave
both your country and ours, and the land besides which lies within
the mouth. * * * Subsequently, however, through violent earth-
quakes and deluges, which brought desolation in a single day and
nisht, the whole of this warlike race was at once merged under the
earth ; and the Atlantic island was itself buried beneath the sea and
entirely disappeared ; whence now that sea is neither navigable nor to
be traced out, being blocked up by the great depth of mud which the
subsiding island produced."

Plato evidently regarded this tradition as true, but his modern
translators, almost without exception, hold, with Mr. Davis, of King's
College, Oxford, that "the whole story of the Atlantic isles is so
improbable, and so at variance with the geographical knowledge of
the Greeks, even in Plato's time, that it can only be regarded as a
mere myth." Other objections have been urged against the truth of
this tradition, among which is the suggestion of M. Claparede that
the subsidence of so large an area as that of the supposed island would
have caused a considerable refrigeration in the cHmate of the northern
hemisphere, with a corresponding change of the fauna and flora of the
Mediterranean region, which would have permanently engraved itself
upon the memory of the Egyptians.

Notwithstanding the weight which at first glance would seem justly
to attach to these objections, there are, it is claimed, many circum-
stances Avhich, from an archseological standpoint at least, are strikingly
consistent with the truth of the tradition, and which seem to indicate

Atlantis. 1"'

America as the " continent beyond" whence " there was a passage for

travelers of that day."

In the interpretation of the tradition, it might be said that we should
allow something for oriental exaggeration and the imperfect knowledge
of the ancient Egyptians respecting the relative dimensions of countries
with which they supposed themselves familiar, and should therefore
place little stress upon the traditional size of the island lying nearest
their territory— if, indeed, the description: "larger than Lybia and
Asia put together," were not in reality intended to apply to the
continent, as would seem most natural. Upon the same principle, we
may make allowance for the magnitude of the alleged cataclysm in
which all trace of the islands and then- inhabitants was lost, and
suppose it to have been but the subsidence of some smaller islands,
perhaps of a volcanic nature, by reason whereof communication with
Egypt was cut off. The early navigators, as is well known, had not
the means of accomplishing extended voyages in the open sea, except
where a chain of islands enabled them to divide their journey into
short stages, That this was the mode of intercourse between Egypt
and the Atlantic continent, appears from the tradition itself; and we
may easily understand how the accounts of such a subsidence, with the
accompanying destruction of life, brought to Egypt by terrified
mariners, would magnify the event into a terrible cataclysm, the
recollection of which would effectually deter further exploration in
that quarter for ages.

The reason assigned by the tradition for making no further efforts
to ascertain the nature and extent of the alleged catastrophe, namely:
that the sea„where the islands had formerly stood, was rendered im-
passable by great depths of mud, would seem to favor this interpreta-
tion, for volcanic scorise have been known to cover the sea for leagues
in extent during and after eruptions, so as to impede navigation
for a considerable period.

Again, if we examine the map of the Atlantic ocean we shall
discover in the North Atlantic, stretching to the westward of Europe
and North Africa, the outline of a vast island represented by the
conventional marks designating a swamp or shoal. It is called the
Sargasso sea, and is generally avoided by ships on account of the great
quantity of sea-weed there collected. The depth of this sea varies
from one thousand to ten thousand feet. The late Edward Forbes
conceived that this weed first grew on an old coast line, since sub-
merged, forming the western extremity of Europe and North Africa,
and extending far into the Atlantic. Sir Charles Lyell, on the other
hand, combats this view, and attributes the collection of sea Aveed in

198 Atlantis.

that locality solely to tlie action of ocean currents by wliich it is trans-
ported from the tropics.

Without presuming to determine whether in fact the Sargasso
sea or shoal is a subsided island or an eddy of the ocean, it is
sufficient for the purposes at hand to observe that in the spot desig-
dated by the Atlantic tradition, there exists and has existed for an
indefinite period an impediment to navigation which may by fair in-
tendment relieve the ancient Egyptians and Greeks of the geographi-
cal ignorance imputed to them.

Besides this tradition, however, there are other allusions to the
Atlantic isles in the writings of Plato and other classic authors. Ac-
cording to Diodorus, the Gardens of the Hesperides and the Atlantic
islands were the same, whereof the soil was fruitful, diversified with
mountains and pleasant vales, and pleasure gardens planted with
divers sorts of trees, and with towns adorned with stately buildings
and banqueting houses in the midst of orchards.

The nebulous "Elysian Fields" were situated in the same favored
spot. From these and kindred associations the name Atlas was itself
derived — the personification of navigation and the conquest of the sea
by mercantile enterprise. In classic mythology he was said to have
descended from Ocean and married Hesperis, or the West, and from
their union sprang the Atlantidse, who inhabited the islands bearing
their name. Homer calls him "one w^io knows all the depths of the
sea" and "who keeps the pillars which hold Heaven and earth asun-
der"— in allusion to the " Pillars of Hercules," or, possibly, to the
Atlas mountains on the west coast of Africa which, to the Egyptians
and other early navigators of the Mediterranean, were a familiar
sight upon the western horizon where the earth and sky met.

Ovid calls him " King of the remotest West"; rich in flocks and
herds, and master of the tree bearing golden aj^ples. Hesiod, also,
speaks of Atlas as neighbor to the Hesperian nymphs. Antaeus, son
of Atlas, who founded Tangier upon the African shore of the Straits
of Gibraltar, is related to have sent abroad for assistance to resist the
attacks of Hercules, and also to have received new strength from his par-
ent as often as he touched the ground ; which has been interpreted as allu-
ding to maritime aids received from Atlas that became effective only
when they reached the shore. The Cabiri, according to Sanchoniatho,
held a tradition that Atlas was buried alive by his brothers, which
may bear reference to the cataclysm mentioned by Plato.

Pliny states that there existed, even in his day, vestiges of an an-
cient population in the ruins of edifices on the Canary Islands ; and
Herodotus speaks of a tribe called Atlantes hving on the west coast

Atlantis. 199

of Africa, whose modern descendants, the Berbers, are strongly dis-
tinguished from the surrounding tribes by their physical appearance
and reddish complexion, and language analogous to that of the abor-
iginal population of the Canaries. Proclus, speaking of certain is-
lands situated in the "outward sea," mentions the fact that the in-
habitants of one of them — Poseidon — preserved a tradition handed
down to them by their ancestors, of the Atlantic island of prodigious
magnitude, which had really existed in those seas ; and which, during
a long period of time, governed all the islands in the Atlantic ocean,
and refers to the Ethiopian history of Marcellus as authority for the
statement. Other classic writers attribute to the kings of Atlantis a
knowledge of astronomy and the invention of the sphere.

Without multiplying these citations, they tend to show, when taken
in connection with the account obtained by Solon in Egypt, that there
lingered among the Mediterranean nations, a tradition, more or less
distinct, of islands lying in the Atlantic ocean at some far distant per-
iod, that were beautiful and fruitful as a garden ; rich in flocks and
herds ; abounding in gold ; governed by wise and powerful kings, ac-
quainted with navigation and astronomy ; and that after attempting
and partially accomplishing the subjugation of the eastern continents,
the inhabitants of those islands were, with their country, by convul-
sions of nature, engulfed in the sea and entirely destroyed ; or, if we
please, became lost to the knowledge of oriental nations by the sub-
sidence of intermediate islands which had aided the . primitive navi-
gation of the time.

Assuming the physical possibility of the tradition being true in sub-
stance, we may proceed to briefly review the evidence upon which it is
sought to apply the same to the continent of America, in referring
our aboriginal civilization to a common source, or an intercourse with
the Egyptians and other nations of the East.

The initial point for our consideration is presented by the word At-
lantis, or Atlas, which gives name to the great ocean barrier separating
the so called New World from the Old. This, we are told, has no sat-
isfactory etymology in any European language. Anthon, it is
true derives the word from a intensive, and rAaw, to enchire —
tracing it, evidently, to the mythological idea of Atlas supporting the
heavens. This derivation, however, appears hardly reasonable, since
the name would seem to have existed before the duty was imposed
upon the god, and was no doubt imported into the Greek through mari-
time intercourse with the African nations. It is more probable that
the original signification of Atlas — king of the Atlantic isles, situated
far in the west beyond the Pillars of Hercules — was gradually lost, as

200 Atlantis.

commerce declined and the tradition of the existence of the islands
became indistinct, and was ultimately merged in the secondary idea
of "keeper of the pillars which hold heaven and earth asunder," —
which stood upon the western horizon where the eye would naturally
turn in looking toward the fabled islands, and thus became crystal-
lized in the mythology of the day. It is, therefore, more reasonable to
suppose that the few greek words, and there are but few, which con-
tain the radical a-1 or rX, all of them involving the idea of support-
ing a burden, are themselves derived from this secondary significa-
tion of Atlas.

Accepting this, then, as an imported word, foreign to European lan-
guage, the argument drawn from comjiarative philology proceeds upon
a precedent established by Max Miiller. This distinguished philol-
ogist traces the locality of Ophir mentioned in the Hebrew bible, in
the following ingenious manner. Speaking of the fleet of Tharsish
which Solomon had at sea together with the navy of Hiram, and which
came once in three years bringing gold, ivory, silver, apes, and pea-
cocks, also gold from Ophir, algum-trees, and precious stones, he says :
"A great deal has been written to find out where Ophir really was ;
but there can be no doubt it was India. The names for apes, peacocJcs,
ivory and algum-trees are foreign words in Hebrew, as much as tobacco
or gutta-percha are in English. Now if we wished to know from what
part of the world gutta-percha was first imported into England, we
might conclude .that it came from that country where the name gutta-
percha formed part of the spoken language. If, therefore, we can find
a language in which the names for peacocks, apes, ivory and algum-
trees, which are foreign words in Hebrew, are indigenous, we may be
certain that the country in which that language was spoken must be
the Ophir of the Bible. That language is no other but Sanskrit ;"
and India, the learned author concludes, is the land of Ophir ; and
argues that the vessels of Solomon traded on the coast of Malabar
and brought away the products floated down the Indus, a conclusion
supported by other considerations as well.

If, therefore, to use the formula of Max Miiller, we can find a
country, in the spoken language of which the word Atlantis has an
indigenous root, there it is said we are justified in seeking traces
of the long lost race.

That language was spoken in the lovely vale of Anahuac, at the
period of its conquest by the rapacious Spaniard ; and tropical Amer-
ica, that land, rich in flocks and herds, beautiful as the Elysian fields,
and so abundant in gold, it is hardly oriental hyperbole to say its trees
bore golden apples.

Atlantis. 201

" It is a tropical Switzerland," says a recent writer. ' ' Flanked by two
oceans, and rising from both to the rich plateaus of the table lands,
Mexico possesses, on both acclivities, all the temperatures of the world,
and ranges from the orange and plantain on the sea shore, to eternal
ice on the precipices that overhang the higher valleys. Change of
climate is attained merely by ascending, and in a region where the
country rises steeply, the broad leaved aloe and feathery palm may be
seen relieved against the everlasting snow of Popocatapetl. All these
delightful climates produce the fruits and flowers of the tropics on the
same parallel of latitude that crosses eternal frost ; while over all, a
never-ending sprmg bends its cloudless arch. Nor are these the only
allurements of this wonderful land ; for Nature, as if unsatisfied with
pampering the tastes of man by crowding the surface of the earth
with everythmg that might please his appetite or delight his eye, has
veined its sterile mountains with precious ores in exhaustless quantity."

Here, too, we find the radical tl or atl, one of the commonest roots
of the spoken language, entering into numerous words of varied signi-
fication, and also existing as a separate word, whose meaning is such
as would render it the one most likely to be transmitted to foreign
nations through maritime intercourse.

The primary signification of the word in the Nahuatl, or Toltecan,
language, was ivater ; from which were derived Atlau, on the border or
in the micht of tvater ; Atlaca, to combat, or, to hurl or dart from the ivat^r,
with preterit Atlaz, and numerous other words of like form, con-
taining the radical in combination.

But an argument drawn from a single philological coincidence,
however strong, is hardly sufiicient to satisfy a critical mind, unless
confirmed by other analogies less general than beauty and fertility of
the country, or its wealth in flocks or gold ; for we may reasonably
assume that an intercourse, however remote, between the primitive
inhabitants of Egypt and America would have left some traces in the
monuments, traditions and social systems of the latter, which would
aftbrd additional evidence of such communication. Besides, the
Aztec races, in whose spoken language these words occur, were com-
paratively recent invaders of Mexico, and the primafacie presumption
would be that their language and customs were also imported, and
that such analogies would, therefore, be wholly valueless as circum-
stantial proof. But, without digressing to answer this objection in
detail, it may be said, generally, that those who have most carefully
investigated the subject, including Baron Humboldt, agree that the
Aztec civilization was founded upon the more elevated and refined
systems of the earlier races whom these invaders supplanted, and that

202 Atlantis.

the civil and religious polity which they enjoyed was mainly the
result of ages of growth among the nations who preceded them.

The case is not without familiar parallels in history, illustrating the
vitality of civilization, especially when conquered amid the physical
monuments of its culture. The survival of the fittest is shown in the
history of our own tongue, and such may have been, by parity of
reasoning, the fate of the early American language, which would have
survived, in great measure, the destruction of all other attainments.
To repeat, Avhat seems an apt figure, the page presented to us by the
Archaeology of tropical America, must be regarded in the light of a
palimpsest, which, beneath the rude characters inscribed by the Aztec,
retains, nevertheless, the impress of a higher and more refined
civilization. Viewing this culture, then, in its general aspects, eliminat-
ing those features evidently engrafted upon it by the barbarism of its
conquerors, and regarding it as a creature of indigenous growth in the
spot where it first became known to Europeans, it is claimed to pos-
sess characteristics so analogous to the ancient systems of the Mediter-
ranean nations, as to offer legitimate ground for inferring communica-
tion at a period when the latter had long emerged from primitive
conditions, and established well defined dogmas of culture and religious
belief.

It is manifestly impossible within present limits to take more
than a cursory view of these points of comparison.

The ancient Mexicans, like the Egyptians, are chiefly known to us
through those enduring monuments which are the memorials of their
former greatness. Scattered through the secluded valleys and crown-
ing the picturesque heights of tropical America, are the raoss-covered
ruins of temples and palaces which excite the admiration and wonder
of the beholder, at the proficiency in the arts of masonry and sculp-
ture which they display. Such architectural ornamentation evidences
"a long stage of unrecorded development." "In the monuments,"
says an eloquent essayist, "we have the human deposit of the ages —
the truth of the historic past. Architecture, in this view, is the geol-
ogy of humanity. Ceasing its testimony at the present surface of the
globe, geology tells nothing of that subsequent history which com-
mences with the existence of man ; here architecture resumes the
thread of the narrative and bears witness of that compound existence
to which it owes its origin. That consecutiveness which is dimly des-
cried in documents, in architecture is apparent ; that human progress
which all belifeve, but which so few show forth distinctly, is beautifully
narrated in the monumental series."

In both Egypt and America the pyramid represents the highest

Atlantis. 203

attainment in architectural form. In both it is the prominent and
pervading feature of the monumental remains. The American pyra-
midal structures, like those of Egypt, in most cases faced the cardinal
points, and many of the temples and sacred places were alike sur-
rounded by walls of earth or stone. The pyramids were often ap-
proached by elevated causeways, and the temples were located in the
vicinity of water which was used in sacred services.

Concerning analogies traceable in mere architectural forms, Hum-
boldt remarks that they "prove very little in favor of intercom-
munication between people, for, under all zones, men have indulged
in rhythmic repetitions of the same forms." This remark is quoted by
Brantz Mayer, and supplemented with an intimation that such forms are
controlled by climatic or. geological necessities rather than by art. If
this be true, we should seek the origin of the pyramid, as developed in
Mexico, in the volcanic character of a region where the largest base
in proportion to height is required to resist the shock of earthquakes.
But how will this avail us in tracing the same development in the val-
ley of the Nile ? If we are prepared to accept the conclusions of the
Astronomer-Royal of Scotland (C. Piazzi Smith), ascribing to the great
pyramid of Ghizeh the character of a great original, built by a
different race from the Egyptians, and which served them as a
model for their later and inferior structures, the solution of the prob-
lem is easy. He thinks it not improbable that the science fossilized in
the great pyramid originated with a now extinct race, who inhabited
islands once existing in the South- Atlantic Ocean, but makes no allu-
sion to the Atlantic tradition.

While it may be true that evidence of analogy in mere architectural
forms would be inadmissible— to use a legal phrase— as not of itself
tending to prove an intercommunication between nations ; yet, it is
claimed, that when a foundation is laid by a distinct tradition of such
communication, such evidence becomes not only admissible but highly
important. And it may be remarked in connection, that Humboldt no-
where mentions the Atlantic tradition, and it does not appear that his
attention ever was called to it. But it is not alone the mere coinci-
dence of form that offers analogy in the architectural monuments of
Egypt and America. Their general spirit and uses were in many cases
identical. jNIodern investigations establish the well known form
of three stages or terraces, surmounted by a temple, as common
on both sides of the Atlantic.

In the general ideas of ornamentation, as delineated in sculp-
ture, there may be likewise traced many striking coincidences. At
Copan, on a stone obelisk were chiseled human figures with caps on

204 Atlantis.

their heads, sandals on their feet, with garments reaching half way
down the thigh. On the tablets of an altar were sculptured sixteen
human figures in low relief, sitting cross-legged upon cushions with fans
in their hands. At the same place were colossal stone figures with
heads of animals and bodies of men. All of these, it must be ad-
mitted, strongly suggest the Egyptian style, not only in the mode of
presentation, but in the selection of subjects. Crouching figures of
animals in the similitude of the Sphinx ; human heads showing the
Egyptian mode of head-dress with singular fidelity; serpents in con-
ventional form, and numerous other works of minor importance, are
cited as exhibiting such resemblances to Egyptian art.

But, before passing from the art remains to other features of the
early American culture, one noble monument is worthy of remark,
no less from the varied and graceful forms delineated in its exterior
ornamentation — which are said to strongly resemble, and indeed, far
surpass, many specimens of Etruscan art — than that in its elevation the
pyramidal form is reversed.

The edifice at Mitla rests upon a solid pyramidal base or pedestal of
brick, five feet in height, encased ^^ ith slabs of dressed stone. From
this base, the walls of the main structure incline otitward and attain
a height of twenty-five feet. The ground plan of these ruins resem-
bles the Greek cross, and seems to have once included three other
structures like the one which now remains, enclosing a square interior
court paved with cement. Three of the interior walls of the existing
edifice, covered with a hard and highly polished cement, contain
horizontal recesses of sufl[icient size for the reception of a human body.
Each wall contains nine of these compartments, arranged in three
tiers. . The exterior finish of the walls is also in three tiers or courses
of stone, divided into rectangular panels, corresponding with the
interior recesses, making, however, sixty-three panels in all in the
exterior faces — the ground plan of the building being in the form of
the letter T. The exterior stonework is of the most accurate char-
acter. Each of the sixty-three divisions or panels is a recess cut into
the solid stone, and contains geometric figures in a mosaic of small
blocks of stone, set in high relief in a mass of enduring cement, forming
numerous designs of great beauty and regularity.

"The spectator," says Brantz Mayer, "who looks at one end of
this singular building, * * might almost fancy that he stood in
front of a gigantic sarcophagus, designed and sculptured in advanced
periods of Grecian and Roman art."

Beneath the paved central area once enchised by these edifices,
are said to exist subterranean apartments, similarly ornamented by

Atlantis. 205

nio?aics of stone. The entire structure, so far as we can judge by
those remains which have survived the ages, was intended as a phxce
of interment— a gigantic sarcophagus, at once suggestive of the rock
sculptured tombs of the Egyptians, with ornamentation of Grecian art.
In intellectual culture, and in certain general features of social
organization, the resemblances between the ancient nations, are
claimed to be equally striking. In both Egypt and America the
occupations of the people were designated in earliest inftxncy, and the
education of youth moulded accordingly. While the "caste
distinction of Egypt was not so sharply defined among the Mexicans,
yet priests, warriors, artizans, farmers, and traders, were, neverthe-
less, separated by defined limits. Among both nations the priestly
classes were numerous and powerful, living apart from the community
in convents, and were curators of learning, especially versed in astron-
omy, exercising an important influence in the administration of the

state.

In the peculiar features of their religion and mythology, many
points of resemblance are indicated as showing a transmission of relig-
ious ideas between the two nations, or, at least, a common origin of
religious belief. Of these, only a few can be here mentioned. Similarly
to the Mediterranean nations, the Mexicans believed in many deities pre-
siding over special affairs of men; also in the existence of spirits
inferior to the gods, who controlled minor concerns, and of whom each
family had a number of images or penates, according to rank. Athor
of the Egyptians, and Astarte of the Syrians, have their counterpart,
it is claimed, in Teteviuau, "Mother of the Gods," in Mexican
mythology. The tradition of Quetzal, is compared with that of
Isis and Osiris, who first showed the Egyptians the use of wheat and
barley, made implements of husbandry and taught their use, gave
them laws, civil organization, marriage, and worship, and, finally,"atter
teaching these arts, assembled a host, and went into all the world,
conquering nations by music and eloquence. In the INIexican theogouy,
Quetzal was a great benefactor who came from the east, and after teach-
ing the arts of peace and civilization, departed again to the far east in a
vessel, promising one day to return — a promise which led the Mexicans
to fkll an easy prey to the covetous Spaniard whom they regarded as
descended from their god. In the Mexican doctrines of the future life,
there is also to be traced a general resemblance, to the Egyptian theo-
ries. Among both nations, the doctrine of the future state was well
established, and closely connected with astronomy. Both believed in
a partial transmigration of souls, and, therefore, bestowed but little
care upon the dwellings of the living, which to them were temporary;

206 Atlantis.

but, upon the tombs of the dead, especially of the great, they bestowed
great care and expense, as fitting for their permanent abodes. Ac-
cording to the Egyptian belief, after the soul finally departed from
the body, it began its transmigration through inferior animals, lasting
3,000 years, when it again entered a human body. Among the Mexi-
cans, a similar belief led to similar results. Religious works and
tombs alone remain to attest the zeal of the builders. They held the
immortality of the soul, and three places of abode therefor — the sun,
wherein dwelt the spirits of nobles, soldiers killed in battle, and women
dying in labor. (A similar belief was held by nearly all the Indian
tribes in the vicinity of the Mexican Gulf.) The happy dwellers of
the sun could after a time revisit the earth and animate clouds, birds,
and animals, and revisit tiie sun at will. Those killed by lightning,
disease, or drowning, went in spirit to a cool, shady place called
Tlalocan, where feasts and pleasure awaited them. All others were
at death consigned to Mictlantocli, kingdom of Mictlan, god of hell, a
dark and gloomy place in the center' of the earth.

In comparing the ancient astronomical culture of oriental and
American nations, we enter upon a field of which but a passing glance
must here suffice. This knowledge both Humboldt and Prescott as-
sign the first rank as a distinguishing feature of the American abori-
ginal civilization, and both likewise frankly admit the difiiculty of
"considering, as the result of observations made by a nation of moun-
taineers in the uncultivated regions of the new continent." "They
measured the length of the tropical year with a precision unknown
to the philosophers of antiquity," — says Prescott, The day with the
American as with the Egyptian and many Asiatic nations, began at
sunrise. The civil year was a solar year of 365 days divided into 18
months of twenty days each, and five complementary days. Besides
the oivil calendar, the priests made use of a lunar calendar by whose
mysteries the festivals were regulated with great exactitude.

Thirteen of the Mexican years formed a cycle, four a "ligature,"
and two of the latter an "old age"' — all of which (excepting the
latter) were expressed by appropriate symbols. The half century of
52 years, was represented by a wheel surrounded by a serpent, with
its tail in its mouth, and four knots signifying the four indictions or
cycles. A similar symbol among the Egyptians indicated a century.

The names and hieroglyphics of the Mexican months, all relate to
the festivals, public works, and climate of Mexico and nothing in
their etymology indicates birth in a more northerly climate, Hum-
boldt admitted the indigenous character of this branch of Mexican cul-
ture, so far as influenced by those purely Asiatic ideas by him attributed
to the Aztec migrations.

Atlantis. 207

In every 52 years, thirteen days were intercalated, wliich is the same
in effect as the addition in the Julian calendar of 1 day every four years,
and consequently fixes the length of the year at 365 days 6 hours.

The Persians intercalated 30 days in every 120 years ; hut the
Chaldeans, Romans, and also the Syrians, who added one day every four
years, all appear to have derived their solar year of 365 days 6 hours
from the Egyptians. This analogy led M. Jouard to suppose the
Mexicans also borrowed theii- measure from the Egyptians, or that
both had a common origin. The same writer also shows that the sign
of the " balance" existed in the Egyptian Zodiac long previous to the
Roman conquest, and that the same sign is found among the sculp-
tured antiquities at Elephanta, and also in the "lunar houses" of the
Peruvians ; and also mentions what he considers a significient fact,
that Cipactli, the first sign of the days in the Mexican calendar cor-
responds with Capricorn the first sign of the Zodiac in the Egyptian
designation.

R. G. Haliburton also finds from an exhaustive inquir}^ into the lit-
erature and traditions of primitive nations that there existed a com-
mon and universal system of chronology based upon the Pleiades — the
year beginning on that night when the Pleiades are " above" or " are
more distinct," that is to say : when they cross the mei'idian at mid-
night. The traces of this ancient knowledge, he finds in the various
festivals and periodic customs of ancient peoples.

Among the Egyptians, the festival of Isia bore a singular resemblance
to that of the cycle among the Mexicans. According to the Egyptian
belief, when the sun descended toward Capricorn and the days grj\du-
ally diminished they feared it was about to leave them forever, where-
upon they put on mourning and the appearance of sadness. When the
great luminary began to mount higher toward the zenith and the days
were lengthened, they put on white robes and flowers amid great rejoic-
ing. The Mexican festival took place on the five unassigned days of the
year preceding the thirteen intercalary days during which they put
on the appearance of deepest distress and fear. All household vessels
and precious articles were broken, fires were extinguished, and the entire
population gave themselves up to lamentation as if the end of the
world were at hand. In the evening of the last day began the Festival
of the New Fire. The priests followed by immense crowds ascended a
sacred mountain, and there, when the Pleiades mounted to the zenith,
the sacred fire was kindled in the pile whereon a human victim lay.
As the flames ascended, joyful acclamations rent the air, repeated far
and wide by watchers on housetops and teocallis, and the new fire was
distributed from temple to temple by fleet messengers and thence to

208 Atlantis.

private dwellings. When the sun reappeared, the acclamations were
renewed and the people, assured of a new lease of the earth for another
cycle repaired to their homes to spend the intercalary days in renewing
and purifying their households and in rejoicing and congratulation.

Concerning these singular customs Mr. Halibui'ton says : " We turn
now to Mexico and there find that the great festival of the Mexican
Cycle was held on the 17th of November, and was regulated by the
Pleiades. It began at sunset, and at midnight as that constellation
approached the zenith, a human victim Avas offered up to avert the
dread calamity which they believed impended over the human race.
This belief was so remarkable that I can not omit a reference to it here.
They had a tradition that at that time the world had been previously
destroyed, and they dreaded lest a similar catastrophe would at the end
of a cycle annihilate the human race. Now it is most remarkable to
find that the Egyptians with their Isia or new year's festival of agricul-
ture, and of the dead, that took place on the 17th day of November,
associated traditions as to the deluge." The subsequent confusion in
computations of time, among the Egyptians he attributes to the later
custom of observing the heliacal risings and settings of Sirius Sothis
or the great Dog Star.

In summing up, Mr. Haliburton concludes that the Pleiades year,
and probably the human race, too, originated in the isles of the South-
ern Ocean and spread thence by ship to more northerly regions. He
traces the same festival and the Pleiades year among the ancient in-
habitants of Persia, India, Egypt, Peru, Australia, Society Islands,
Ceylon, Polynesia, and refers our observance of "Hallow-eve" to the
same source.

Humboldt, on the other hand, attributes these analogies of religious
belief and observances to the natural tendency of superstitious ideas
among all nations to assume the same form at the rise and fall of civ-
ilization.

In thus stating some of the points wherein coincidences exist in the
ancient American and oriental civilizations, which, in connection with
the Atlantic tradition are claimed to establish a ground for inferring
a communication at some very early period in the world's history,
though much is omitted for the sake of brevity, enough is apparent to
show that the subject is, in the present state of our knowledge, incap-
able of very definite discussion.

Investigators are by no means agreed as to the value of the evi-
dences subject to examination. It must be admitted, however, that it
is not easy to find a satisfactory reason for these analogies in the condi-
tions of development of the two races ; for in this view we might

Atlantis. 209

expect to find no greater resemblance than is common between other
nations similarly situated. Common features may, it is true, be ob-
served in the social and religious systems of many ancient peoples, and
it might be said that these do not per se prove a community of origin.
But the resemblances between the Mexican and Egyptian systems, it
is claimed, are of a peculiar character, i-eadily distinguishable from
those common to other nations. The division of the people into
castes ; their special knowledge of astronomy ; the erection of pyra-
mids and temples for worship and sepulchre ; belief in the transmigra-
tion of souls ; together with many other striking resemblances in reli-
gion and arts, it is maintained, can hardly be referred to a coincidental
development of races — one a race of mountaineers, isolated so far as
we can ascertain, from all exterior influences by great ocean barriers ;
the other, residents of alluvial plains, in the immediate neighborhood
of other and distinct races, possessing capacities for elevation which at
an early day produced civilizations which awed the world.

A further fact is asserted by Brasseur de Bourbourg : that among
the early Mexican nations, there was a lingering tradition of a great
cataclysm, such as mentioned by Plato, in which many of their
ancestors were destroyed by a great wave which rolled up from the
Atlantic to the base of the mountains, overwhelming all within its
reach. A violent subsidence of extensive areas of land, accompanied by
earthquakes, ensued, of which the Bahama Islands, Greater and Lesser
Antilles, and Carribbee Islands, are but the higher elevations project-
ins: above the water. It is to be feared, that the enthusiastic Abbe, .
has stated the case too strongly. The reference to a deluge, is a tradi-
tion which the Aztecs possessed in common with nearly all the Indian
tribes of North America, which many bibliologists have supposed
to be a lingering remnant of the Semitic traditions, prevalent on the
plains of Asia ; and their traditions of an age of fire, and one of famine,
to be, in like niauncr, a traditional reminiscence of the destruction of
the "cities of the plain," and of the famine " Avhich was upon all
lands," when Joseph, the Israelite, served the Egyptian Pharaoh.
Catlin says of the Mandan tribe, on the upper Missouri, that they
held a yearly celebration in honor of the preservation of their great
ancestor from the flood in a big canoe, a symbol of which was erected in
the center of their village, and held in great veneration. It is diflficult,
sometimes, to ascertain just how far statements of this kind are tinged
with the prejudices of the observers ; and, the worthy Abbe having
the A.tlantic tradition in his mind, and the enthusiastic Indian artist
feeling certain he was among the long lost tribes of Israel, may, both
have unconsciously colored the facts to suit their respective theories.

210 Atlantis.

In the assertion of Brasseur de Bourbourg, however, be true, it
would seem to form the complement of the Atlantic tradition and
complete a chain of circumstantial evidence of great strength.
The main argument against the tradition, namely : its alleged
physical impossibility, is one upon which scientists are not agreed.
Sir Charles Lyell treats it as a fact, so far as this is concerned,
regarded by the people of that day as a judgment of their supreme
deity. After citing the earthquakes of 1822, in South America, which
the priests made use of to inveigh against the political revolutions in
that country, he says : "In like manner in the account given to
Solon by the Egyptian priests of the submersion of the islands of At-
lantis under the waters of the ocean after repeated shocks of an earth-
quake, we find that the event happened when Jupiter had seen the
moral depravity of the inhabitants." In this there is no hint of the
want of probable truth in the tradition, which would have appeared,
had the distinguished geologist considered it as a thing physically
impossible.

Several authorities are cited by Brasseur de Bourbourg as support-
ing the opinion, that the eastern coast of Central America and Mex-
ico once extended far to the eastward, and included the West India
and Florida islands, and those lying to to southward as far as the Ori-
noco river. Among these are Moreau de Saint-Mery ("Description
topographique et politique de la Partie Espagnole al'Isle de Saint-Do-
mingue," 1796), who considers "the innumerable islands situated
from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Bahama Channel (islands which
include several Grenadins not always visible, in very high tides or
great agitations of the sea), to be the tops of the most elevated of a
chain of mountains which crowned a portion of the continent, whose
submersion has produced the Gulf of Mexico." Mr. Charles Martins
(Revue des Deux Mondes, March, 1867,) is also quoted as expressing
the opinion, that " hydrography, geology and botany agree in teaching
us that the Azores, the Canaries and Madeira are the remains of a
great continent which formerly united Europe to North America.

Undoubtedly, to accept the theory of a cataclysm such as the
tradition of Atlantis requires, we must greatly enlarge the commonly
received theological view of man's antiquity. But the universal ten-
dency of modern investigation is to prove the antiquity of the human
race to be far greater than we can yet conceive. That America forms
no exception to this statement is freely admitted by Bancroft, who
also intimates his belief that there once existed in tropical America a
much higher state of civilization which had temporarily deteriorated
at the time of the Spanish conquest.

Horv Ancient America Wrote. 211

Witliout pursuing further the speculations which the tradition
suggests, we may conclude by suggesting that while the Atlantic
theory is not, in the present state of our knowledge " so preeminently
well founded as to be generally accepted by scientific men," yet, iu
^^iew of all the facts, no clue which has been offered, as leading to a
satisfactory explanation of the aboriginal civilization of this continent,
seems to promise more interesting results than this. While Professor
Owen and other Egyptologists already trace the original Egyptian
culture to a people far different from those known to us as Egyptians—
a race closely resembling the Australian type— we recognise in our
own archaeology, also, the traces of a foreign influence, exerted at
remote periods consistent at least with the explanation afforded by the
Atlantic tradition.

How Ancient America Wrote. By G. Bruhl, M. D.

Brilliant displays of force and courage dazzle more than the quiet
and unobtrusive labors of the mind ; the heroic deeds of great generals
and the foundation of vast empires by victorious conquerors, excite
more attention and admiration than the. intellectual achievements of
nations or the means by which these achievements are realized.

But of what importance toward the advancement of mankind are
changes in the boundaries of states, or murderous wars which
men wage against each other for the aggrandizement of wicked
tyrants, in comparison with those actions of the mind, which calmly
and peaceably foster arts and sciences, and pave the way to civiliza-
tion ?

Foremost among these mental labors ranks the invention and
development of writing — that magic power which embodies and per-
petuates the lofty thoughts of all countries and ages, that zealous
asent which collects and treasures the fruits of intellect for present
and future generations, that wonderful fountain from which streams
of wisdom and learning flow. It is an historical fact, that no
people destitute of written language has ever attained to a superior
state of mental culture or even to an elaborate system of divme
worship.

The development of this beautiful art, whose origin is involved in
mystery, was surely not the act of a single moment nor the happy
thought of one individual, but the toilsome and tedious work of many

212 ffoiv Ancient America Wrote.

ages and innumerable minds. Rude and clumsy in the beginning,
through perseverance and meditation it was wrought out to a more or
less perfect system.

Leaving aside the efforts of the nations of the old world, let us trace
the different methods by which the aborigines of this continent,
unaided by foreign influence, succeeded in solving this difficult
problem. It forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history
of their civilization.

When the savage hunter of the dark forests of the north put each
day a pebble in his moshkimut, to mark the days of absence from his
dear ones ; when the herdsman of the high plateaux of the Andes
made knots in a string to record the number of his flocks, they were
leading the way to the wampum and quippos, the former of which
became the official notation of the Algonquins, the latter that of the
children of the sun. When the proud warrior of the plains tattoed
his totem on his breast, or painted his slain enemies, pierced with
arrows, on his buffalo robe as a proof of his bravery, he practised the
rudiments of that famous writing which received its final touch from
the ingenious sons of Aztlan.

Why the American aborigines resorted to such poor and simple
shifts for the transmission of thought, can be partly explained by the
peculiarity of their language. The natiye dialects abound in figurative
and paraphrastical expressions, thus furnishing readily the symbols for
an ideographic notation. Moreover, their polysynthetic construction,
unitino- the leading idea with all its relations and modifications into one
long polysyllabic word, at once formidable to the eye and ear, pointed
in the same direction. How much labor and time did it save to the
Blackfoot, when he could represent the moon, which he called Na-too-
cou-cou-i with a cusped figure, or the war club (ma-ni-qua-pe-cac-sa-que)
Avith its simple emblem? How convenient was it for the Ojibway, to
denote a skull, which he terms Osh-tig-wa-nee-ge-gan, with a circle
and a few dots, or for the Mohawk, the river, (Ka-ih-ogh-ho) with a
waving line?

There is another peculiarity, or rather defect, in the native tongues,
which had a remarkable influence on the mode of writing. Offering
marvelous facilities, (to quote Dr. Brinton), for defining the perceptions
of the senses Avith the utmost accuracy, but, regarding everything in the
concrete,the native dialects are unfriendly to the nobler labors of the mind
— to abstraction and generalization. For such a limited sphere of mental
activity there is no need of a high-wrought system by which the most
delicate shades of thought can be recorded. Philosophical treatises
the Red man could not and would not write. What he did intend to

Hoiv Ancient America Wrote. 213

clu'onicle— historical events and matters pertaining to government,
religion and social life— could be portrayed with the simple means of
wampum strings, knotted cords and pictographs, since these matters
required merely the recording of concrete ideas in their totality without
regard to the elementary parts of the sentence.

A brief description of these auxiliaries will best elucidate how they
were rendered available. The \Yampum, employed chiefly by the
northern tribes, consisted of beads of shells and colored bits of wood,
pierced in the middle, and hung in such a manner as to form figures
and characters. Each color, size, shape, and combination of strings,
had its peculiar meaning. Brown and deep violet, which were the
most valuable, portended something of serious import ; white signified
peace and kindness; red was the emblem of war, while a black belt
gave warning of an approaching evil, or an earnest remonstrance ; col-
ored figures intermixed with the beads, expressed new ideas ; a red
belt, wrought with the figure of a hatchet m white, declared war; a
black belt, with two hands joined in white, indicated peace. Besides
the strings were used to keep an account of time, and to record events
they were given in the delivery of speeches and messages, and at the
execution of treaties, to recall the chief articles of the transaction.
These public documents, says Loskiel, are carefully preserved in a
chest made for this purpose. At certain seasons, the tribes meet to
study their meaning, and renew the ideas of which they are an emblem
and confirmation ; and as it is the custom to admit even the young
boys, who are related to the chief, to these assemblies, they
become early acquainted with all the affairs of the state, and thus the
contents of their documents are transmitted to posterity and cannot
easily be forgotten.

Besides these belts, various simpler mnemonic aids were employed,
such as strings of pebbles and fruit stones, and circular slabs,
engraved with characters. The Indians of North Carolina and the
Assiniboins, used parcels of reeds of different length and marked with
notches. In memorizing their lessons, the children in the public
schools of Mexico availed themselves of belts of coral. The ancient
Carans, of Quito, were accustomed to perpetuate the memory of im-
portant events by a significant juxtaposition of small pieces of wood,
clay, and stones, of various sizes, colors and forms, which were kept in
their temples, palaces and tombs.* Analagous to the wampum belts
are the knotted cords or quippos, mainly in use with the southern
tribes. They were known to the Chibchas, Cocomucos, Araucanians,

<=Hassaurek, " Four Years in South America." p. 361. Also see Bollaert.

214 How Ancient America Wrote.

and probably to the Mexicans, whose symbols of numeration seem to
have been derived from this source. Certainly they were known to
the neighbors of the Mexicans, the Tlascalans (under the name of
Nepohualtzitzin), to the Chilenians (as pron), and to the ancient
Purahas long before their subjugation by the Incas. Under the gov-
ernment of these princes, they became the sole official notation within
the empire of Tavantinsuya. The poet Ylyia, a favorite of the fourth
Inca, Mayta Capac (1126-1156), is credited with having reduced them
to an elaborate system.* ComjDosed of a number of woolen strings or
threads of different size and color, variously knotted, and intertwined
and fastened to a large base cord, who would not wonder that such
poor contrivances could be rendered profitable as a means of record ?
Still they served admirably this purpose, by allotting to each color,
and to the modes of intertwining the knots or of twisting the pendant
strings a particular signification. Even the succession of the threads
and the distance of the knots from the junction of the thread with the
mother cord varied the meaning. Red indicated war or soldiers; the
yellow, gold; the white, silver or peace; the green, maize (cereals).
Applied to numerals, a single knot meant ten ; two single knots,
twenty; a knot doubly intertwined, one hundred; triply, one thous-
and. The chief objects were always designated by the first thread,
the least important by the last. If the quippo treated of the inhabit-
ants, the first string alluded to the age over sixty, the second to those
over fifty, and the last to the infants ; if it treated of crops, the
threads referred successively to maize, wheat, peas, beans, and millet ;
if of arms, to lances, arrows, bows, javelins, war clubs, hatchets, and
slings.

Thus this simple arrangement of knots and intertwinings, though
probably serving at first the mere purpose of numeration, became in the
course of time by an ingenious application to the various conditions,
phases and relations of life and government, a valuable substitute for
written documents and annals, and answered for the registering of
laws and decrees, of taxes and tributes, of marriages, deaths and
births, of armies and supplies, and for the chronicling of historical
events and statistical fiicts, yea even of religious ceremonies, festivals
and sacrifices. As biographical sketches, the quippos were buried
with the dead, and in our day numbers of them are still exhumed from
the huacas.

But it was necessary for the reader to know two things in order to
interpret these mysterious memorials. Either signs had to be at-

* H. Wuttke. " Origin of Writing," p. 181.

Hoiv Andent America Wrote. 215

taclied at the commencement of the base cord, or, when coming from
a distant j)rovince, a verbal commentary had to be sent with the mes-
senger explanatory of the subject matter of which they treated. The
office of knotting, deciphering and preserving these public documents
was entrusted to the Quippocamayocs, of which each village of any
note had at least one. In order to avoid any confounding or mixing,
all quippos belonging to the same class were placed in separate re-
positories. To guard against interpolation or forgery, a special board
of supervisors was appointed to watch the keepers. Another class of
officials, the Amautas, were charged to give instruction in reading and
knotting the cords, and to relate annually at the festivals the historical
events of the empire to the assembled people.

Judge how much such an intricate system, intelligible only to the
most skillful and learned, served the policy of the Incas, whose favor-
ite maxim was, that science was not intended for the masses ! As
long as the quippos were the sole treasuries of learning, these rulers
had nothing to fear from progress and enlightenment, those dangerous
foes of despotic authority. With the overthrow of the Inca rule, the
more high-wrought system of knotted cords gradually perished. Only
in their simpler form, for the purpose of numeration, they remained
in force. The converted Indians employed them as a mnemonic aid
in their confessions. At the haciendas and cattle stations of the Puna
they serve the herdsmen, even nowadays, in making lists of their va-
rious flocks. Tschudi thinks, however, that in the southern provinces
there are still Indians who know well how to decipher them, but
guard their knowledge as a sacred secret. Yet some of the earlier
Peruvian historians have succeeded in collecting the materials for their
works from these mysterious records.

All attempts made in our day to read them have proved futile.
ISTeither do we know which notion is attached to each knot, nor have
we the verbal commentary to explain the subject matter of the docu-
ment. For curiosity's sake it may be mentioned, that the Prince of
San Severino, a member of the Academy of La Crusca, ia a pamphlet
published in Naples, called forth by the " Peruvian Letters" of Madame
Gravigny, seeks to prove that the knots had an alphabetical value, and
even describes the grammar and dictionary of the cords. But not a
single reason sustains such a bold theory.

Prior to the official sanction of the quippos by the Incas, pictorial
writing, though of the rudest kind, seems to have been the current
method of notation amongst the Peruvians. This opinion rests on
more reliable authority than Montesino's, who states that during the
reign of the third sovereign (according to his list of lOl) the use of

216 Hov: Ancient America Wrote.

letters was known and the Araautas taught the art of writing on
leaves of the plantain, but that under Titu Yupanqui, the«64th sov-
ereign, civil disturbances caused the loss of hitters, and that the 78th
sovereign prohibited his people from making use of the quillca, sub-
stituting the knotted cords instead,* There are still many of the
pictographic relics extant. Tschudi discovered, in the ruins of a build-
ing near Huari, a stone tablet with hieroglyphic inscriptions, and the
walls of the palace of ilacao are similarly ornamented. Rivero found,
near Arequipa and Huaytaca engravings in granite representing ani-
mals, flowers and fortifications; Bollaert saw pintados in the peninsula
of Copakukava, (near Tarapaca) and in the Pampa del Leon, and
refers to a large stone pillar, between Mendoza and La Punta, 150 feet
high, called the " giant," which contains certain marks or inscriptions
resembling Chinese characters. He also mentions another one near
the Diamond river, called by the Spaniards "Stone of St Thomas," con-
taining the impression of a man's feet, together with the figures of
several animals, and some marks which appear to be ciphers or char-
acters. Raymond has copied several other engravings found near the
sea coast.

The mystic characters over the monolithic door of the magnificent
building of Tiaguanacu, and on the head of a statue found in its ruinsf
seem to belong to the same cla.-s. Vollmer gives a description of a
hieroglyphic painting, representing, in his opinion, the transmutation
of matter from its primitive state into man.

But what is of even greater interest, vestiges of hieroglyphic in-
scriptions on portable material have been dbcovered. I will only
mention a lama skin, found near Lake Titicaca, and preserved in the
mvLseum of La Paz ; a piece of cloth, dug from an ancient Huaca,
near Ancon, by Dr. Plongeon ; several sacred vases, and a chuspa,
all covered with mystic figures. +

That so far no specimens painted on paper have been found, seems
to verify Montesino's statement, that after the introduction of the
quip]x>s, all the manuscripts were destroyed. At all events, the relics
cited above, even without the pf^sitive testimony of Acosta, clearly
demonstrate that the children of Tavantinsuya, were familiar with
picture writing. There is equally sufficient proof, that this art was
practised by other nations of South America. Narcissas Gilbar, a
missionary amongst the Panos, on the banks of the Ucayale, found in
the Pampas of Sacramento, manuscripts with hieroglyphic characters,

■' Bollaert, " Researches " page 217.

t " L'Univers Pittoresque," Rjlivie, 1843.

i Bollaert " Eesearches," p. 219.

Soic Ancknt America Wivte. 217

contiuning, as the Lidians said, the wanderings and sufferings of their
ancestors, and such hidden things as no stranger ought to know. In
the interior, beginning at the eighth degree of north latitude and
extending over a waste territory of 750 niile^* in every direction, hiercv
glyphic inscriptions, cut into prominent rocks on the banks of the hirge
rivers, or into the isohited granite blocks of the plains, are quite abun-
dant. They ornament the high cliffs of the Orinoco, Rupunuri,
Essequilx), and Anuuon, and cover the i^\ce of nearly every rock on the
falls of the Me*sai and Engjxnes ; they are found on the head waters of
the Rio Branco, and on the extensive plain bounded by the (Orinoco,
Atap;isco, Xegro, and Casiquiari. They are met by the tourist in
Guiana, Venezuela and ^Xew Grenada.

The^ hieroglvphic^ represent signs of the sun and moon, houses, im-
plements, and coUossal, ill-shaped, human figures, bipeds and quadru-
peds. The outlines are rude and imperfect ; mere dots and lines indicate
the organs of the senses and the extremities, and three convergent lines
the fingers and toes. Proportion is never observed ; sometimes the fig-
ures are enclosed in rectangles, and interspersed with curves and spirals.

Their obliterated condition speaks for their great age. The one,
however, seen by Sir Robt. Scltomburgh, on the Isle of Pedro, in the
Rio Negro, representing, siside from 13 human figures, two Spanish
gallions, must be, of course, of later origin than the commencement
of the XVI century.

Some attribute them to the Guarari tribes ; others, like Humboldt,
consider them as remnants of an ancient civiliz;\tion. Yet it is a re-
markable phenomenon, that the figures on the vases, drinking cups,
oars, and even the hieroglyphic signs which the hunter tribes in our
day paint on the pt>st^ of their huts, have a striking resemblance to
the rock engravings, and that the tent doors are adorned with the
same monstrous heads and spirals enclosed in squares, as look down
from the clifis of the rivers. Hence, the remark of ^lartens' seems,
justified, that the civilization of the engravei*s, though nniloubtedly
older, was not superior to that of the present inhabitants, who
approach the pictured rocks with awe and fear*, unable to decipher the
sacred Tehmehri, or to tell their origin.

More correct and elegant in form and style are the inscriptions
found in western Veraguas, once inhabited by the ancient Dorachos.
The monuments and relics of this tribe are adorned with pictures of
natural objects and fant;xstic ehamcters. The Piedra pintal at Calvera,
a few leagues from the capital of Chiriqui is a fine specimen, every
part of which is covered with figures; one represents a radiant sun,
followed by a series of viiriously formed heads, scorpions, and tantastio

218 Hoiv Ancient America Wrote.

emblems. The top and the sides show signs of a circular and oval
form crossed by lines. Several columns are seen in the town of David,
the characters on which diifer from those of the Piedra pintal by being
raised and are considerably smaller. *

Of a similar character are the delineations found on the rocks in the
mountains of Urnan, though the assertion of Fray Ramon Bueno,
that they represent phonetic signs, is a mere hypothesis lacking all
proof More appropriately this could be said of the rock engravuigs
on the Waraputa river, copied by Sir Robt. H. Schomburgh in his
"Travels in Guiana and on the Orinoco."

In the northern part of our continent the inscriptions are as equally
numerous as in the South. Wuttke, in his work on the " Origin of
Writing," has collected a completelist of these Muzzinabics. We find them
in the Pacific, Middle and Eastern states where the Dighton rock is their
last outpost, along the shores of Lake Erie, and as high up as the
straits of Michilimackinac. The figures, either representative or fan-
tastical, often of gigantic size, are engraved or painted, many of them
well preserved, others nearly efl^aced. A great number are perfect in
shaiDC and color, the various parts of the body are clearly defined, thus
excluding the idea that they are mere freaks of nature or accident.
Others are rude and imperfect in outline. The conformity of style
and design points to a common origin, while the diversity in execution
assigns them to diflTerent eras. Some, representing objects like fire-
arms and garments, known only to the Indians after the arrival of the
Europeans, undoubtedly belong to the post-Columbiau era.

The inscriptions in New Mexico are strangely different from those of
the northern latitudes. Instead of the free and plain juxtaposition of the
principal figures, the lines have a mathematical stiffness and regularity,
and the frequent repetition of parallel zigzag points and alphabet-
like characters, gives them a resemblance to those of Central and South
America.

Although the key for deciphering these mute epitaphs of vanished
generations is entirely lost, their prominent position renders it evident
that they were designed to commemorate important events. They
mark the earliest period of pictorial writing. In later times, matters
of minor import were cut on less conspicuous material, such as trees and
posts. The native mind did not, however, stop with immovable
inscriptions, but sought for means to render the information portable,
to circulate it in public, and preserve it in families and tribes. For
this purpose, smooth bowlders, wooden tablets, flat bones, pieces ot

••'Bollaert "Besearches," page 30.

Soiv Ancient America Wrote. 219

dress, blankets, robes, deer skins, shields, and birch-bark were chosen *
Thus, step by step, we can trace the transition from immovable to
portal)le material chosen for notation. .

Just as easily can we follow the development of pictorial writing
itself through its different stages. But, prior to startuig on this tour
of investigation, let us ask what fundamental principles governed
the pictographic notation ? In the earliest stages, it was a mere por-
trayal of known facts and events by representative delineations of
visible objects. The desire to, awaken new ideas, or chronicle abstract
notions (spiritual matters), suggested the necessity of investing the
figures with an allegoric meaning, or expressing the idea with such a
figure ft-om the material world as had a logical relation to it, by way
of cause, quality or effect. The picture of a deer recalls the ideas,
not simply of a particular kind of quadruped, but,- also of a swift, graceful
animal, whose flesh makes a delicate dish, and whose skin is suitable
for dress and robes. The figure of a deer answers, therefore, very
well for swiftness or gracefulness. The signs over the doors of our
shops are based on the same principle. If we see a half filled bottle,
painted on the windows of a tavern, we know that something stronger
than water can be had within.

Favored by the metaphorical nature of language, and accustomed to
uniform associations of ideas, it was for the native mind neither diffi-
cult to find the proper representative images nor to interpret their
correct meaning. Frequent use of and comparison between the various
emblems employed, led to a uniform adoption of the most judicious
and expressive.

But there are ideas which have neither a direct nor a symbolical re-
lation to any visible object. For such cases arbitrary signs seem to
have been invented, at least there is no other explanation left, where-
ever the relation between idea and symbol is obscure. Why the figure
of the sun signifies watchfulness, a bow with an arrow war, a bone
with a feather the power to fly, or even air, is a matter of easy guess-
ing, since the relation between idea and symbol is apparent ; but why
in the Ojibway scrolls, which have more than two hundred of these
symbols, a simple circle means spirit, a circle with transverse lines
means water, or a horned snake life, can be explained only by the
hypothesis that they are conventional emblems, since the logical re-
lation between idea and symbol is purely fanciful.

In regard to the form of the figures, the desire for saving time and
space led to abbreviations and simplifications. The Indian mind,
gifted with extremely acute senses, was able to recognize from a few

=:-. A fine specimen, painted on a buffalo robe, formerly belonging to a Sioux chief, and
said to contain the history of his tribe, is in the possession of Judge Force, of our city.

220 How Ancient America Wrote.

outlines their real meaning. Hence for the whole figure only the
prominent parts or characteristic features were depicted — for a turtle
only its feet ; for a deer only the head ; a heart or triangle with a circle
for a man. Painted headless, a human figure indicated death ; the
proper name was placed above, the totem beneath it. Again by
moulding the partial figures together, new fantastical symbols for cor-
relative notions were formed.

The relation of the various figures to each other was indicated by
straight connecting lines, the close of a sentence by a few vertical
dashes or strokes. This kind of notation, the Kekeewin, was under-
stood by all tribes from Hudson's Bay to the Gulf, although each one
had its own symbols, and Heckewelder remarks that they could as easily
read a pictograph as we can a letter. The Iroquis are said to have
surpassed the other nations in the more skillful handling of the pencil,
while the Dacotahs painted the rudest figures. No wonder ; it would
be a paradox if it were otherwise.

Aside from the Kekeewin there existed a sacred pictography, the
Kekeenowin, but, like the hieratic hieroglyphics of the Egyptians,
intelligible only to the initiated. It was employed by the Medas and
Jessokeeds of the Algonquins and Dacotahs at the recitation of their
magic songs and ceremonies, each verse, pause and gesticulation having
its own conventional symbol to which a suj^ernatural power was ascribed.
The symbols served merely as a mnemonic aid. The sorcerer had to
know by heart the text of the song ; since the mystic figures did not
in the least suggest their hidden meaning.

Poor and defective as these means of notation were, they mark at
least the advancement from a mere figurative to an ideographic writ-
ing, which acquired the highest development in the didactic painting
of Tula. The restless and wandering life of the hunter tribes left no
leisure for more favorable results. When a people has settled down,
when the building of cities has divided labor and formed social classes,
Avhen the mollifying influence of agi'iculture has softened manners,
when the wants and necessities of life have increased, when ideas and
language have been enriched, and arts and sciences encouraged, then
the enlarged sphere of mental activity calls urgently for an improved
form of notation. We might then expect that the exiles of old Tla-
palan, after having founded a new seat of a rich civilization, would
refine the pictographic system, which they had brought along, to a
high degree of perfection. As early as the sev'enth century, Huema-
tzin, one of their savants, composed in pictorial characters the sacred
Amoxtli, containing the sum of their knowledge and doctrines, their
travels, institutions, rituals and legends. Later, Quetzalcoatl, the

How Ancient America Wrote. 221

IMexican culture hero, collected iu the book of the sun (Tonalomatl)
their historical records, traditions, laws and astrological fancies.

The Aztecs, successors and heirs to the arts and learning of the
founders of Tula, inherited also their method of writing. Confined
at first only to the priests, it was under the rule of the MontezAimas
taught in the academies and promulgated amongst the masses. Thus
it came into constant use in the daily transactions of life, the figures
being painted on slates of soft stone, from which they could be readily
erased with wet sponges or cloth. The vases and monuments, the
columns and walls of the temples and palaces, were adorned with pic-
torial inscriptions and the archives stored with painted volumes. A
coarse, thick paper (mazatl), like the Egyptian papyrus, was manu-
factured from the leaves of the maguay and ikzoil, or pieces of silk or
cotton, covered with rosin for writing purposes. These sheets, from 12
to 15 inches wide and 50 to 60 feet long, were folded in a zigzag man-
ner, and the outer leaves fastened to wooden tablets, giving them the
appearance of a quarto volume, called in the Aztec tongue, amatl.-^

Surpassed only by the fanaticism of the Moors, who burnt the
Egyptian papyrus rolls to kindle their camp-fires, the christianizing
zeal of the Conquistadores has nearly destroyed all these precious doc-
uments. There are, however, a sufficient number preserved (now in
the libraries of Berlin, Dresden, the Escurial, Vienna, Velletri, Rome,
Bologna and Mexico), to give us an insight into the pictorial art and
the dexterity of the Mexican scribes.

In minutely examining these manuscripts, we discover large figures,
either single or in groups, and small colored delineations, together
with fantastic signs, the latter both inclosed in rectangles. The mystic
signs either surround the large figures, not unlike marginal annota-
tions, or are interposed between the smaller delineations, or placed side
by side iu regular rows.

The shape of the figures, whether representing living or lifeless ob-
jects, is mostly bizarre, hard and angular, without the least regard to
elegance or correctness, though more expressive than in the picto-
graphs of the northern tribes. The essential parts are monstrously
exaggerated, not unlike those in our carricatures, the heads thick and
overgrown, the noses unnaturally long, the bodies dwarfish and mis-
shapen, and the faces in profile, with the eyes in the center, showing
conclusively that they were subservient to some other purpose than
mere delineation. I\Iauy of the figures can be readily recognized as
imitations of natural objects, while others appear arbitrary and ob-

- Brinton, '• Myths," p. 10, etc. H. Wuttke, " Gntfteljung bcr Sc^rift," p. 198, etc.

222 Hoiv Ancient America Wrote.

scure. Nevertheless, it is more than probable that their fundamental
types were originally taken from nature, but altered in their course
through various and curious modifications into unintelligible characters.

The important researches of Dr. Allen, rejjorted in the Proceedings
of the Am. Phil. Soc. (page 34), seem to throw a new light on this sub-
ject. The learned investigator has illustrated this process of change
by means of various types (the crotaloid curve, rattlesnake, human
face, etc.), reduced in one direction to their linear elements and in the
other developed into bizarre combinations.

It is obvious that such a complete system could not be, like the Ke-
keewin, deciphered by mere ingenuity, though it was based on the
same fundamental principles. The idea in its totality was recorded by
groups of corresponding pictures, either representative or symbolical,
painted in full or in part, or sketched by a few hasty outlines, without
regard to the elementary parts of the sentence. For minor details
and precise definitions, determinative signs were added or particular
coloring resorted to. For instance, the dead were represented as hav-
ing the feet wrapped up; the living, by small tongues near the mouth,
and by having their feet at liberty. Males were painted reddish
brown, and females yellow. Spaniards were portrayed with red dresses,
blood with red, undulating lines.

To the class of determinative signs the characters for the higher
numerals undoubtedly belonged. While the units were indicated by
dots or circles, the signs for the higher numbers were as arbitrary as
those in the Arabic system. A flag signified 20, crossed by a line 10 ;
a feather meant 400, and a bag of cocoa beans 8,000. The interven-
ing numerals were represented by corresponding divisions of the fun-
damental figure. Thus, 8,217 was written by two dots, three fourths
of a flag, half of a feather and a bag of cocoa.*

The arithmetical signs once fixed, it remained to find apjDropriate
symbols for the computation of time. This purpose was attained in
two ways. The names of the months being similar in sound to either
material or immaterial objects, in the one case the real, in the other
the symbolical figure of the object was chosen as a suitable hieroglyph.
A reed, called agat, became the emblem for the month Acatl; a house
(kali) for the month Kalli; a skull for the month Miquizthj (meaning
death); an arrow head for Tecpatl (flint). In a like manner figures
of natural objects were selected to express such abstract notions as
had homophonous names. Thus momoztla (daily) was depicted by
two altars, pronounced inomoztli. The same rule applied to the rep-

•:• Garaa, p. 130.

How Ancient America Wrote. 223

resentation of proper names led a step further. Being generally
borrowed from objects that strike the senses, from productions of the
soil or the occupation of the inhabitants, and composed of several
words, they were dissected into their radicals and the emblems of these
united to one pictograph. Thus the city of Tenochtitlan (place of
fishermen) was represented by an arm holding a fish ; Ixtcoatl, the
emperor, by a serpent pierced by obsidian knives. Did no type exist,
the full phonetic value of which corresponded exactly with that of
the syllable, they selected one, whose initial sound at least was analo-
gous to it. For instance Moquauhzoma had as device a mousetrap
(rnontli), an eagle (quauhtli), a lacet (zo) and a hand {maitl). Aubin
has collected 104 of such syllabic characters, which used to be at-
tached to the heads of the sovereigns, to indicate their respective
names. As it often happens that a single vowel forms a syllable, like
the 0 in Teokaltitlan, it was easy to designate every one of them by a fixed
pictograph ; thus a by that of waiter (atl), e by that of the bean {etl), i
of the eye (ixtli,) and o of the track or road (ptli).

In doing this, the Aztecs had gradually mastered the whole series
of hieroglyphs. To render their system as perfect as the Egyptian, it
was merely required to complete the phonetic variety and to make a
more liberal use of it than heretofore. While the children of the Nile
relied chiefly on phonetic characters, the sons of Anahuac clung more
to the figurative. Considering, however, their .marvelous progress in
the brief space of a few centuries, we may justly conclude, that, had
they not been disturbed by the Spanish invaders, they would have
likewise advanced to the top of the scale.

The contemplative mind of the Mayas, the Grecians of this con-
tinent, seems not alone to have reached this climax of the pictorial art,
but even to have broken down the thin barrier that divides it from
the alphabet. Indeed the monumental inscriptions in the palaces of
Palenque, and in the ancient buildings of Chiapa, Yucatan and Guate-
mala are strikingly different from the Aztec pictographs. In the for-
mer the large figures have more the looks of ornamental than didactic
painting, and the mystic signs, only sparingly met with in the Aztec
manuscripts, decidedly predominate.

It will not do, as some have attempted, to explain this peculiar
difference by the mere heterogeneousuess of the material upon which
the characters are painted or engraved. This might account for the
greater or lesser elegance of execution and correctness of form, but
not for the predominance of the significant signs. The frequent
occurrence of the latter in different combinations, their arrangement
in groups, and the constant repetition of the same dots, lines and

224 IIo^v Ancient Ameriaa Wrote,

circles, favor rather the supposition, as expressed by Lancia that these,
mystic signs are truly phonetic characters. The eminent archaeolo-
gist, Brasseur de Bourbourg, has lately discovered, in the library of
the Koyal Historical Society of Madrid, the manuscript of the learned
Bishop, which contains, aside from a description of the country, the
Maya alphabet, consisting of 27 letters, and several syllabic char-
acters, with a somewliat obscure explanation of their use.

The deciphering of the inscriptions in question, even with the aid
of this alphabet, is, however, no easy task, because of the polysyn-
thetic construction of the Maya tongue, which renders it necessary
for the interpreter to resolve each group of characters into its element-
ary parts, and rearrange them in proper succession. This analytical
process is the more difficult, as the sense of beauty has allowed the
letters to be irregularly combined, and even to be changed from their
original type, by adorning them with spirals and flourishes, so as to
render them often unintelligible. Add to this, that our knowledge
of the Maya idiom is very limited, that the grammars and diction-
aries are very imcomplete, and the number of preserved manuscripts
very sraall,^'' and we should neither expect a ready interpretation, nor
be surprised that the attempt of Brasseur, tainted as it is by his
prejudiced theories, is more a matter of curiosity than a success.

His countryman, De Chareney, however, was so fortunate as to
spell out a few of the mysterious characters over the Cross of Palen-
que. May it prove the Rosetta-stone for unriddling the numerous
inscriptions which ornament the walls and columns of the ancient
temples of Central America! The publication of the manuscript
dictionary, in the Smithsonian Institute, containing a complete vocabu-
lary of the Maya language, would essentially assist in such a meri-
torious task, and would shed a flood of new light upon the dark
history of that land of Avonders. This hope, of course, will not be
realized, if the opinion, advanced by some learned linguists — that the
Maya alphabet was only invented after the introduction of the Spanish
letters— is correct. But this opinion is hardly credible. If such
were the case, why does not Landa state the fact ? Why have the
Mexicans not been favored by Spanish influence with an equal inven-
tion? Moreover, the Maya alphabet, and the method of using it,
differs so totally from that of any other nation, that we cannot help
considering it their own. And last, but not least, the deciphering of

* The only ones that have escaped the destructive zeal of the Spanish monks, are the one at
Dresden, to be found in " Kingsborough's Mexican Antiquities;" thatof " Troaua," printed by
the French Government, under Brasseur's supervision; the " Mexican manuscript No. 2," of
the Imperial Library ; and, perhaps, that of " Pesth." »

Holo Ancient America Wrote. 22-^

the inscriptions in Palenqne, engraved long before the arrival of the
Castilian adventurers, proves, beyond doubt, its indigenous origin.

But, thus much is true: that the Maya notation was not purely alpha-
betical, but a mixture of both alphabetical and figurative ; "for aside
from the letters," says Landa, " they employed figures, and signs
within the figures," the latter, of course, as syllabic characters. But
what is of the greatest import, this notation enabled the writer to
convey, literally, a full sentence.

It remains to add a few words regarding the order in which the
figures and characters were placed by the painter. According to
Clavigero, he was at libertv to commence at any corner, but he
had to follow the same direction throughout the page, from top to
bottom or from bottom to top, from right to left, or vice versa. Did
he choose to write bustrophedically, then the custom was to begin from
the lower left corner, continuing to the right, thence in the next higher
line to the left, and so on.

The contents of the pictographic manuscripts embraced both divine
and mundane subjects. They treated of theology, dogmas, rituals,
festivals, historical events, public affairs, legal proceedings, tributes,
geographical, statistical and educational matters. They were collected
in libraries, temples and royal palaces. Academies and colleges were
established for recording the annals and giving instruction in reading
and writing. The sovereigns were the benign guardians and pro-
tectors of these institutions. That was the golden era of aboriginal
civilization. It vanished with the downfall of the Montezuraas,
The rude hand of the conqueror destroyed its blossoms. European
letters supplanted the native pictographs. It is true that Charles
the v., because of the legal (Jocuments being recorded in the
ancient characters, established a chair of didactic painting in the
university of the Capital. But since none of the wise professors have
left a syllable on the priuciiDles of this intricate art, the Amalthes will
remain a sealed book to us, until another Champollion detects the
magic key that unlocks its hidden treasures. What problem i<
unsoluble to science?

226 Teneina of the United States.

Teneina of the United States. By V. T. Chambers, Covington, Ky.

In the July number, 1874, of this Journal, I have published a
review of a paper by Prof. Frey and Mr. J. Boll, on some American
Teneina. It was hastily, and somewhat carelessly written, it having
been my intention to remodel it before offering it for publication. It
was, however, published without having been read over after it was
first written, and, as I had no opportunity to correct the proof, it
appears full of verbal inaccuracies and misprints, most of which, how-
ever, are evidently typographical errors. Most of these were corrected
in the next number of the Journal, but a few others were detected
after the corrections were made. The paper also contains some per-
sonal allusions, which had, perhaps, better been omitted (as being
out of place in scientific controversy, although, unfortunately, that is
usually the place where they are found), and would, no doubt, have been
eliminated if I had bestowed more attention upon getting the paper in
proper condition for publication. How these things came about, it is not
necessary to dwell upon. And, if my criticisms upon Prof. Frey's
work were too severe, I can only plead the strength of the temptation
in extenuation ; for certainly, I have never seen an entomological
paper so provocative of criticism, and so full of errors, mistakes and
confusion. It betrays (or, at least, I was at first inclined to think so)
unmistakable evidences of the grossest carelessness in ascertaining
whether his species had not been before made known, and in identify-
ing them so far as tliey were known, combined with complaints of the
defective character of the work of American laborers in the same field.
But, after most thorough and careful study of the Professor's papers,
I am convinced that his errors and mistakes arise more from a defective
knowledge of the English language, than from carelessness. And
now, after another careful study of the Professor's paper, I wish to
offer the following remarks on some of his species. Many of the
Professor's errors, I am satisfied, could not have been committed had
he given to the papers of Dr. Clemens, and the writer the same,
amount of careful study, with a competent knowledge of the Euglisli
language that I have given to his pamphlet.

GracUaria superhifrontella — (Clem. )

This species, is no doubt, rightly identified by Prof. Frey; but,
almost certainly, Mr. Boll gave him incorrect information as to the
food-plant of the larva. Mr. B. thought the larva fed on oak leaves,

Teneina of the United States. Til

whicli is almost certainly an error, if the species is superUfrontella.
Dr. Clemens bred it from the witch-hazel (Hamamelis Virginiea), and
it has never been (so far as I have been able to ascertain), bred from
any thing else in this country ; and, it is exceedingly improbable, that
a species of this genus feeds on two plants so remote from each other
as the hamamelis and oak. Prof. Frey gives an account of the way
in which the mined leaves, gathered by Mr. Boll, were jumbled
together, and, no doubt, the error arose in this way. Besides, it
frequently happened, that the Professor was unable to tell which of
three or four kinds of leaves his species came from (as in the case of
his G. elegantella, and other species), and in, at least, one instance,
LithocoUetis gemmea, where the food plant is given as if it were known.
I shall show, presently, that he was mistaken, in all probability.

G. eleganiella — (Frey).

I have already he. cit stated that this i.s a synonym for G. packardella,
Cham. Prof. Frey, says that it may be from American oaks, or it
may be from the maple (^Aer. sacchainwn) . I have long known the
larva on the maple, and last fall succeeded in breeding G. packardella
from it. The mine is linear and short, and the larva soon leaves it to
feed on the under side of the leaf, curled down so as to make almost
an elongate cone, with a diameter a little greater in one direction than
in the other, and truncate near the top.

G. mirabilh — (Frey).

This is certainly Parectopa robinieUa, Clem., which I had already re-
ferred to Gracilaria. Had Prof. Frey, with an adequate knowledge of
English, examined carefully Dr. Clemens' description of P. roblniella
he could not have failed to recognize it. In the paper in the last July
number, before referred to, I did not recognize 1*. robinieUa in Prof.
Frey's account of mirahilis. I have now no doubt whatever of their
identity. Professor Frey had given Parectopa roblniella (?) Clem., as
a synonym for Lithocolletis gemmea, Fiey, and being misled thereby
and not fully understanding Prof. Frey's description of L. gemmea,
I believed them to be the same, and so treated them in my review of
Prof. Frey's paper. Now after more careful study, I am prepared to
say that in L. mirabilis, Prof. Frey has given a good description of P.
rd>iniella, and that an insect which meets the requirements of his L.
gemmea, can not be P. robinieUa, Clem., nor anything like it. I have
been unable to recognize any Teneid known to me in L. gemmea,

228 Teneina of the United States.

which is no doubt a new species. But Prof. Frey is, I am satisfied, in
error when he says that it is a leaf-miner of the locust. Four insects
are known to mine locust leaves in this country. They are Lithocol-
letis robiniella, Clem., L. ornatella, Cham., Paredopa robiniella., Clem.,
and the beetle Hispa Suturalis, Say. They are all abundant where-
ever I have sought for them, and in this locality they are seriously
damaging the locust trees. Owing to their ravages (mainly however,
to the beetle which feeds on the leaves, both in the condition of larva
and imago), locust groves by midsummer, look parched and dry as if a
fire had swept over them. Only the three above mentioned lepidopterous
mines are known on these trees. So Prof. Frey found only the same
three in his leaves ; and he bred L. ornatella and L. robiniella, from
two of them. Why should he not have bred the third, P. robiniella t
he did no doubt, and he has described it well as G. mirabilis, but not
at all in his account of L. gemmea. He thus describes the three
mines Avhich he found in locust leaves : " A common lAthocolletis dwell-
ing, with smooth border in which the larva is transformed," and in
which we recognize the mine of L. robinieUa, Clem.; also "an upper
and under side mine of rounded not much serrated shape " and which
Ls certainly that of L. ornatella ; and also a " digitated upper side
mine, " which, omitting color, is as acurate a description of the mine of
P. robiniella, as could be given. Now, as there is no doubt about any
of these mines nor in this country, as to the insects which make them ;
and no other locust leaf miners have ever been heard of; as Prof.
Frey had L. robiniella. ; and its mine ; and L. ornatella and its mine ;
and had the mine of P. robiniella ; and as G. mirabilis is a good de-
scription of P. robinieUa, an L. gemmea is no description of it at all ;
then considering the mixed nature of the collection of leaves, it is a
safe conclusion that L. gemmea, was not bred from mines in locust leaves.
I proceed to show Avherein L. gemmea, Frey, differs from P. robiniella,
Clem. The tuft of the vertex in L. gemmea, is said, by Prof. Frey, to be
more developed than in L. ornatella ; in P. robiniella, in perfectly fresh
specimens, it is as smooth as in a Phyllocnistis. In older specimens and
those which have got their scales rumpled more or less, the scales of
the vertex become roughened so that Dr. Clemens, described it as
tufted. In L. gemmea " the forewings are bright saffi'on" but (com-
pared with ornatella), "the darkening at the base is wanting;" in P. rob-
iniella, the wings are dark brown, P. robiniella has no massing of gold
scales on the fold, nor any "pale golden band straight and inwardly dark
margined near the basal third of the wing, " nor any band at all ex-
cept the costal streaks crossing the apical part of the wing as in G.
mirabilis. In short the description of L. gemmea, does not correspond

Teneina of the United States. 229

with that of P. robiniella, in more than one or two particulars, e. g.,
the Avhite tips of the antennse, in which it resembles G. mirabilis. If
Prof. Frey had understood Dr. Clemens' clear, and acurate description
of P. robiniella, he never could have made the mistake of confound-
ing it with L. gemmea, even doubtfully, and had I not been misled by
that identification, I should have detected the difference much sooner.
Prof. Frey was probably led into the mistake, not by the resemblance
of the insects, but by the supposed fact that L. gemmea, came from
locust leaves from which he already had L. robiniella, and L.
ornatdla and the only other lepidopterous mine known was " the digitate
mine of the upper surface," which is inhabited as is well known by
the larva of P. robiniella. Some specimens of L. ornatella, are much
less dark at the base of the wing than others, some are brighter, some
darker golden, and sometimes the second fascia is found slightly in-
terupted in the middle ; but of the hundreds that I have seen, none
had the tips of the antennae white, and but for this I should consider
L. gemmea as being much nearer to L. ornatella than to P. robiniella.
P. robiniella is decidedly larger than L. ornatella. In addition to the
reasons that I have elsewhere given for placing P. robiniella in Gra-
cilaria is the position of the insect in repose.

IMhocolletis quercitorum — (Frey) .

Li the former paper I referred this to L. FlteheUa, Clem. There
seem minute differences between Fitchella and quercitorum as described
by Frey. If not the same, they are very nearly so ; an inspection of
authentic specimens of each would determine. Besides Fitchella there
is no other known American species which has the large dorsal white
spot on the forewings as described in quercUxn'um.

L. longedriata — (Feey).

Identified doubtfully by Frey with L. argentifiynhriella is no doubt
that species. Dr. Clemens states that the antennse are anulate with
dark fuscus, but the annulations are very indistinct in all my speci-
mens. Neither Dr. Clemens, nor Prof. Frey, mention that the apical
joint of the antennae is fuscus, but it is so.

L. alinella (f) — (Frey).

Prof. Frey, supposes that it came from alder leaves, because it so
nearly resembles the European species. But that is by no means a
necessary conclusion. No alder leaf miner has yet been found in
this country. But that does not prove that none exist.

230 Teneina of the United States.

L. intermedia — (Frey).

Is very near L. celtisella, Cham., if I rightly understand Frey's de-
scription. It may be the same, but I think it is not. If Prof. Frey,
is correct in the belief that it mines oak leaves, then it is new, as no
oak leaf Lithocolletis of that group is known in this country.

L. wnmnilella — (Frey).

In the former paper, I suggested that this might prove to be iden-
tical with L. triUeniaella, Cham., which is the only American species
hitherto known in this country, which has the fascia on the fore-
wings, all internally dark-margined ; but the markings behind the
third fascia seem to be diflerent from trita^niaella.

L. scudderella — (Frey).

This is certainly a redescription of L. solicifoliella, Clem. & Cham.,
though I did not recognize it at the time the former paper was prepared.
I have discussed it more fully in a paper now in the hands of the editor
of the Canadian Entomologist.

L. ignota — (Frey)

Or rather the form which Frey describes as the male (?) of it under
the name of L. Bostonicq, is I think L. hiVumthivorella, Cham., though
the ground color of the wings in hilianthivorella is rather darker than
I understand it to be in Bostonica. Only an examination of authentic
specimens can determine it accurately. Hilianthivorella is very near L.
amhrosicerelh, Cham., and is perhaps properly considered only as a va-
riety of it.

Jupiter sometimes nods. Considering the rank of Prof. Frey in
Europe, as a Lepidopterist, it might look presumptious in me to char-
acterise his work as I have done ; but it so happens that he has been
dealing in a manner altogether unworthy of his reputation, with a few
species with which I am especially familiar. And when an authority
like Prof. Frey, does bad work it only calls for severer criticism.

Cosmoptery.

I have sometimes thought that European Micro-lei)idopterists gen-
erally, allow scarcely "ample room and verge enough" for variation

Teneina of the United States. 231

within the limits of species, and that some of their species are perhaps
only varieties. Usually, when specimens are bred from different food
plants, or where there are small differences of larval habits, a mark or
two, more or less, in the imago is usually considered sufficient to found
a new species upon. Examples of this may be found in most of the
little leaf-mining genera as Nepticula, LithocoUetis, Phtjllocniitis Tmherm
and in Butalis and others. This impression has been made upon me
not by inspection of specimens of European species (for the number
of these that I have seen is not great) but by a study of the writings
of European Micro-lepidopterists. Therefore I may be wrong, and an
inspection of specimens of some species, the validity of which I have
been inclined to doubt, might convince me that my doubts were
unreasonable. Following what I conceive to be the example of these
Micro-lepidopterists, I have sometimes described as distinct species,
insects as to which great doubt existed in my own mind whether they
should be so treated Some of our species of LithocoUetis, PhyUocnistis,
Aspidisca, Butalis and others, I regard as only doubtfully entitled to
specific value, though I doubt not they would be regarded as distinct
by most Micro-lepidopterists of Em-ope, because certainly 'species' do
pass current there which are no more distinctly separate than those as
to which I entertain doubts as above stated. Some American species
which have been described in Europe as distinct, 1 am fully satisfied
are not so. And as to the species mentioned and described below I
certainly entertain doubts. If Cosmopteryx orichakea is distinct from
C. hierochloce, and C. Clemensella from C. cjemmifereUa, then the species
here described as C. pidchrimella is entitled to specific rank. But Dr.
Clemens did not consider clemensella and gemmiferella distinct when he
sent them to Mr. Stainton; and as to orichalcea and hierochloce Mr.
Stainton writes: "specimens of C. orichalcea do occur with the apical
streak interrupted, and when that is the case I am quite unable to
point out how the insect can be distinguished from C. hierochloce" {St.
ed. Clem. p. 100, and Nat. Hi^s. Tin, v. 12, p. 24.) I submit that the
difterence thus indicated is not of specific value even if it were constant.
However, it is the old question what constitutes a species, as to
which every naturalist has his own 'notions'; about which nan est dispii-
tandum. For myself, I am much inclined to consider orichalcea and
hierochloce, as synonyms; and gemmiferelki, Clemensella, and the insect
described below, as belonging to the same species.

C. pukhrimella, n. sp. (?).

Rich dark brown, with a faint greenish tinge, not discernible in all
lights. (Dr. Clemens says that gemmiferella is ' dark greenish-brown,"

232 Teneina of the United States,

and Mr. Stainton says, of Clemensella, that it is darker than gemmiferella.
Something — much, no doubt, in such matters — is to be allowed for
" the personal equation.") Substituting '' rich dark brown with a
faint greenish tinge," for " dark greenish-bz'own," the following por-
tion of Dr. Clemens description, is applicable to this insect : "labial
palpi, dark greenish brown, with a silvery stripe on the front of the
third joint, and another beliind, continued to the second joint ; face,
head and thorax, dark greenish-brown, with a narrow central silvery
line continued to the thorax, and one of the same here above the
eyes on each side." In this species, however, the white lines on the
palpi extend the entire length of both joints, and the white line is
not found on the face, and is but very indistinct, if it exist at all, on
the vertex. Dr. Clemens further says, that " the antennae are dark
greenish-brown, with two silvery lines on the basal joint, the stalk annu-
late with silvery rings, and a broad silvery ring before the tip, which is
likewise silvery." In this species, I have not been able to detect any
annulations on the antennae, though each joint of the basal half has a
white line beneath, and instead of the "broad silvery ring before the
apex, which is likewise silvery," there are three silvery annulations
beyond the middle, the first two of which are closer together than they
are to the third, and there are two others before the tip, which is of
the general hue, and not silvery. As Mr. Stainton points out no
difference between gemmiferella and Clemensella, other than those of the
forewings, the presumption is that it does not differ otherwise. Dr.
Clemens' description proceeds : " Forewings, dark greenish-brown to
the middle, and from the apical third, to the tip, with an orange col-
ored patch, rather beyond the middle of the wing, extended across the
wing, and a little produced along the costa behind, having a large,
transverse oval smooth patch of elevated silvery scales ; somewhat
violet-hued on the internal margin, the patch extending nearly across
the wings ; another, smaller and similar, nearly round one behmd it
on the inner margin, and another small one on the costa, behind
the produced portion, with a white costal streak above it in the cilia.
All these patches are somewhat black margined. Near the base of the
wing are three short silvery streaks, one nearly on the disc, one near
the fold beneath it, and an oblique one above it near the costa. The
cilia of the extreme apex is silvery white, black margined above, with
a violet silvery scale in the middle of the wing before the tip. The
inner margin, at the base of the wings, is silvery." Mr. Stainton (loc.
dt., page 25 in note) corrects his description, as follows: "Anterior
wings dark greenish-brown, with three short longitudinal silvery
streaks 'tiear the base, with a reddish-ora.nge fascia, edged with silvery

Tencina of the United States. 233

violet in the middle (thk fascia is considerably broadest on the costa, its
hinder margin being formed by two silvery violet spots, u'hich are by no
means opposite^; at the apex is a short silvery white scale, preceded
by a violet silvery spot, ivith ivhich it is not connected.'" And of Clemens-
dla, Mr. Stainton writes: "The ground color of the anterior wing is
darker, (than in gemmiferella) , the orange fascia is paler, not so reddish,
its margins are pale golden, instead of silvery violet, and its hind
margin is almost straight, and thus, very different from gemmiferella;
finally, the apical streak is continuous, not interupted, and of a sil-
very wliite throughout." In the specimen before me (jyulchrimella) ,
the thorax and forewings are rich dark-brown, tinged with green ;
the silvery white streak on the thorax is interupted, and, as in Dr.
Clemens' description, it extends on to the base of the forewings; at
about the basal fourth of the wing length, are the three silvery streaks
showing a violaceous hue in some lights, the one nearest the costa
begining a little before the others and oblique, and there is another
minute one on the extreme base of the costa ; at the middle of the
wing length is the silvery fascia, which does not quite touch the
extreme costa, though the intervening space is almost inappreciable.
In some lights, this fascia looks like burnished steel, in others it
exhibits pale golden reflections ; its margins are straight and parallel,
anteriorly it has a narrow margin of dark scales, from the dorsal mar-
gin to beyond the middle ; posteriorly, the the costal portion, only, is
dark margined ; at about the apical fourth of the wing length, is an
oblique fascia of the same hue, with the first mentioned fascia nearest
the base on the dorsal margin, and extending to a white spot in the
beginning of the costal cilia, and very narrowly margined before by
dark brown scales. In the space between these two fascia, Mr. Stainton
and Dr. Clemens locate their 'orange,' or 'reddish-orange' fascia.
But, if by ' orange,' or ' reddish-orange,' is meant anything like the
orange, reddish-orange or golden fascia of C. Schmidiella, Orichalcea and
Lienegiella, as figured in Nat. His. Tin., vol. 12, then pulcherimella is
something quite distinct; for, on first observation, the difference
between the color of this part of the wing, and that before the first
fascia, is not likely to be observed ; on closer observation, however,
it will be seen that there is a paler hue, what might be called an
orange-brown, or, in some lights, bronzed, extending entirely across
the wing adjacent to the first fascia, but narrowing backwards almost
to a point on the costa at the second fascia, but much more distiyct
towards the costa. In some lights, the whole space between the two
fascia, shows the orange-brown hue, but, in such lights, the wing
before the fascia exhibits nearly the same hue. There are, also, four

234 Teneina of the United States.

or five minute, violet, silver specks in the space between the fascia.
Behind the oblique fascia, the wiqg is darker brown, with an oblong,
violet, silver spot at the base of the dorsal cilia, and another at the
apex, passing into the snow-white apical cilia. The cilia are, other-
wise, dark brown. The under surface of the thorax and abdomen, and
the basal joints of the anterior legs, are silvery or pale golden, or like
burnished steel, according to the light. Anterior tibite and tarsi, dark
brown before, silvery white behind; posterior and middle legs, dark
brown, with the tibise and tarsi annulate with silvery white, and a
silvery white streak on the posterior tibise behind. Als. ex. scant, 4
lines. Taken at Covington, Ky., May 22, in a season, at least, two
weeks later than usual.

It is the only specimen of the genus that 1 have taken in six years
of active collecting.

Glyphipteeyx.

Of this genus as of Cosmopteryx six years of diligent collecting has
yielded but a single specimen of a single species and it was taken
at the same time and place with the Cosmopteryx (supra) viz.:
Linden Grove Cemetery, Avhei-e more than nine-tenths of my Ken-
tucky Micros have been taken, and at a time when I had given up all
hope of finding there anything new. At the same time and place
I found a new species of Gracilaria. Whilst this locality produces an
abundance of species of most genera, a few genera seem almost un-
represented. As for instance I have taken here but a single specimen
of Anaphora, whilst near Mammoth Cave I find several species, and
took more specimens of that genus than of all others put together
during the two weeks in July that I spent there.

G. exoptatella, n. sj).

This insect was taken at the same time and place with the above des-
cribed Cosmopteryx and like it is the only specimen of the genus that I
have met with here, and therefore conies like one born out of due time
and none the less welcome. It is so near impigritella, Clem., that befi)re
I gave it a close examination I took it to be a specimen of that species.
But Dr. Clemens says that the first (the large curved silvery dorsal
streak is dark margined on both sides in impigritella, whilst in this speci-
men its margins are no darker than all of the basal portion of the wing,
except close to its apex, from which they pass backwards along the
middle of the wing for a short distance, but in some lights they are not

Teneina of the United States. 235

visible at all. The form and position of this streak are almost exactly
as in Haicorthana but it is more slender and pointed. In impigritella
the fore wings are said to be dark bronzy brown slightly touched with
golden brown between the costal streaks ; in this specimen the basal
part of the wing and the thorax and head are dull leaden brown, with
faint bronzy reflections in some lights, and passing about the middle
mto golden brown which covers the apical half of the wing though in
some lights portions of it appear dark brown. There are five costal
streaks placed as in imjngritella and equitella 2, 1, 2 and (as in im-
ingritella) all these streaks are decidedly dark margined internally ;
but these dark margins do not extend across the wing as in impigritella,
nor do the dark margins of the first and second streaks meet; the ex-
treme costal margin is dark brown from the base to the tip, except where
it is in tempted by the costal streaks. Dr. Clemens says that the ' costal
and dorsal streaks in imjngritella are silvery white, and that the violet-
silvery' spots are absent. In this insect the costal streaks are all white
but are tipped Avith violaceous metallic scales, and the second and
third are especially so; the first is oblique decidedly, the second less
so, and the others are perpendicular to the margin ; opposite the points
of the first and second costal streaks is a dorsal white streak placed as
in impigritella, but ending in a violet metallic spot ; the second costal
streak— metallic violet, as in equitella— yioints towards but does not quite
attain a violet metallic spot within the dorsal margin, which is not
mentioned in the account of impigritella, but which in Haworthana is
represented by the second of the metallic spots; and in equitella
by the first one that is the longitudinal or oblique dash, (not
by the spots which in those species the second costal streak nearly or
quite touches,) it is immediately opposite the third costal streak ; with
careful manipulation there may be observed a minute violet metallic
point opposite to the fourth costal streak and just within the dorsal
margin ; the last dorsal and last costal streaks are opposite and both
are white tipped with violet metallic scales and are slightly curved and
almost meet so as to form a fascia concave towards the apex. The
apical patch is velvety dark brown, the cilia of the dorsal margin and
apex are greyish silvery with a wide fuscus band covering their base.
Unfortunately though the insect is perfect in every other respect, the
costal cilia are injured so that I can not tell whether the costal ciliary
dark line of the other species is present or not. The palpi are white
with a dark brown line beneath as in Haworthana Antennae dark
brown, legs and tarsi dark brown, the tarsi annulate with white, and
the middle pair yellowish within; venter silvery white, the anal
tuft a little tinged with yellow. Al ex. f inch. Kentucky.

236 Teneina of the United States.

As with the Cosmoptenjx, 1 hardly know whether this insect repre-
sents a new species, or is only a variety of some described one. The
orhanientation is almost equally like Haivorthana, equitella and impi-
gritella.

LiTHOCOLLETis — L. Rileyella, n. sp.

This is the nearest and only near ally of L. argintinotella, Clem., yet
made known in this country. It is indeed exceedingly close to it, but
It is darker saffron, has six instead of five costal streaks, which are
(as are also the four dorsal streaks) all dark margined internally and
are all very distinct, whilst in argintinotella, the fourth and fifth are
small and sometimes obsolete, and the autennse instead of being silvery
white, are dark ocherous, with brown annulations. As in argintinotella
the face and palpi are white, the vetex yellowish and white, and the
thorax and forewings are golden saffi-on. On each side of the thorax
just above the patagia, is a snow-white line continuous with the rather
wide and distinct snow-white median basal streak of the forewings;
which extends beyond the basal fourth and is unmargined. The first
costal streak is very oblique opposite the basal position of the first
dorsal streak, and is continued very distinctly along the costa to the
base, and after it leaves the costa is very faintly, dark margined above.
The second costal is less oblique, the third is still less so, the fourth
is a hook almost (or quite?) ; meeting the apex of the third dorsal, the
fifth is a short line pointing obliquely forward, and the sixth is a
small spot close to the apex, and just beyond the minute black cir-
cular apical spot ; the first dorsal streak is like that of argintinotella,
but is somewhat wider; it is placed about the basal third, is wide upon
the costa curving back along the middle of the wing to a point near
the apical third, and like all the other costal and dorsal streaks, it \b
strongly dark margined, internally its dark margin produced back-
wards along the middle of the wing till it joins the dark margin of the
second dorsal streak, which is distinct triangular with its dark mar-
gin produced beyond it ; the first dorsal streak recalls the similar
streak in Glyphipteryx exoptatella and G. Haworthana, but is wider on
the base. The third dorsal as above stated is opposite to, and almost
confluent with the fourth costal streak ; the fourth dorsal is small and
opposite to the minute apical spot : cilia yellowish with a brownish
wider marginal line on the base. Abdomen and tuft yellow: hind legs
yellowish silvery with the outer surface of the tarsi dark brown. De-
scribed from two specimens, received from Prof. Riley and Miss
Murtfeklt, from St. Louis, one captured, the other, labeled " tentiform
mine on under surface of red oak leaves, " al, ex. of one, \ inch, the
other ^ inch.

Teneina of the United States. 237

LavePvNA — L. MurtJeldteUa, n. sp.

A single captured specimen received by nie, from Prof. Riley and
Miss Murtfeldt, in perfect condition, seems nearer to L. propinguella
than any other species known to me, but the resemblance is not very
close. Form of palpi nearly as in L. ochraeella, Ins. Brit., Vol. 3.
It has the head and palpi silvery white, the second palpial joint brown
on the outer surface, and the third dusted with brown beneath, the
autennffi are dai'k brown. Anterior wings brown, faintly streaked or
marbled with ocherous. There is an oval white spot on the base of the
dorsal margin, running lengthwise along the margin, but wide enough
to reach the fold ; a little further back is a white dorsal spot partly
grizzled by brown scales, and connected with the first spot by a faint
ocherous line along the fold, the wing between these white spots and
the costal margin is brown faintly streaked with ocherous, and from
the second spot to the costa, in some lights, is indistinctly suffused with
grayish ; just behind the middle of the wing is a nearly semi-circular
ocherous line convex towards the dorsal margin, the hinder part of
this line or narrow band is more distinct than the anterior portion and
contains or rather is interupted by a short white longitudinal dash,
placed near the end of the cilia ; a little further back is an irregular
ocherous spot, containing a short longitudinal brown dash, fol-
lowed by a white one, or by some white scales, the space between
the black dash and the first white one is brown : in some lights, suf-
fused with hoary, and on the extreme costa just before the cilia is a
small hoary spot indistinctly connected with the whitish scales be-
hind the black dash ; behind this the wing is brown with three min-
ute white costal streaks in the cilia and one longer slightly oblique
apical one, all of which are only visible in certain directions ; costal
and apical cilia brown, dorsal cilia silvery gray. The thorax is white
with a pale purplish fuscus spot in front, the legs are silvery yel-
lowish behind, and brown in front annulate with white. Abdomen
brown above, silvery beneath with the tuft yellowish silvery.

Gelech r a — G. Discooeella — C ii a m .

From an examination of a single specimen given to me by Prof.
Riley and Miss Murtfeldt, I find that the two specimens, from which
the description was prepared, are a little worn. In the perfect speci-
men, the so-called ocherous streaks within the inner margin are not
present, except in the fold ; the discal brown spot not so easily dis-

238 Tenetna of the United States.

tinguishable from the surrounding hue ; and the ochreous spots around
the apex are each margined behind with blackish, or more properly,
there are a series of minute black spots margined before with
ocherous scales ; the thorax, though paler than the wings, is rather
brown, tinged with ocherous, than simply ocherous ; the antennae are
rather robust, and somewhat serrated toward the apex. In this speci-
men, the central brown dot in the spot at the end of the cell, is
connected with the surrounding brown, not an ' island' as in my two
specimens. Nevertheless, I have no doubt, it is the same species.
The al. ex. is f^ths inch, whilst, in my specimens, it is ,'gth inch
more. This specimen, is labeled, by Miss Murtfeldt, "Leaf folder of
a small weed." A perfectly fresh glossy specimen is one of our
prettiest species of the genus.

G. physalivorella, n. sp.

A very different thing from G. physaliella, Cham., though labeled,
by Miss Murtfeldt, "from physalis." It rather resembles, in orua-
mentation, G. mnhrododla, Cham., though the ornamentation of the
wings is, perhaps, even more like that of Tkcheria heliopsisella, though
sufficiently distinct from it, also. Second joint of the palpi with spread-
ing scales, almost hmMike, and not twice as long as the third. The fore-
wings are ocherous, mottled with brown spots, connected with each
other by longitudinal and oblique brown streaks ; in the costal half
of the wing, and running nearly parallel to the costa are three black
Hues, in a line with each other, but not connected; the first and
shortest is before the middle, the second and longest begins about the
middle, and the third is before the apex ; cilia of both wings ocherous-
gray, hindwing of a leaden ocherous hue. Abdomen yellow, the anal
tuft suffused with pale-reddish; head and thorax, dark shining-brown;
antennse brown, faintly annulate with ocherous, with the extreme tip
ocherous, and six distinct ocherous annulations before the tip; second
joint of palpi, ocherous and brown, mixed, third joint brown, with
extreme tip, and an annulous before the middle, ocherous. Al. ex. ^
inch. From Prof. Riley and Miss Murtfeldt, from Missouri.

G. siinpliciella, n. sp.

Pale grayish, slightly tinged with ocherous. There is a small
blackish discal spot about the middle of the whig, with four or five-
very small and indistinct ones before it, and two or three nearly in a
line, behind it. Second joint of the palpi but little thickened toward the

Teneina of the United States, 239

apex; third pointed, about half as long as second. Al. ex. little over ^
inch, Kentucky. Has some resemblance to a worn specimen of (*.
Solaniella, but it is quite distinct and more decidedly gray.

G. ina'quepulvella, n. sp. (?)

I am not certain that this of which I have receivei:! a single slightly
worn specimen from Miss Murtfeldt, should be described as a distinct
species, I think, however, that it is distinct. The wings are much
paler than in Solaniella though this may be in part due to the fact that
they are a little rubbed, but there is in Solaniella to which this
approaches most closely no appreciable difference in color between the
general surface of the primaries and the cilia, except that the latter
are darker, the ocherous color being absent though the white cilia are
present. On the contrary in this species the cilia are sordid very pale
yellowish with two ftiint brown hinder marginal lines near their apex
and in this species the head and palpi are creamy white. Al. ex. three-
eighths inch. Hab. Missouri. G. parvipulvelki, Cham., from Texas is
also very near this species but is but little dusted.

G. Marmorella, n. sp.

Palpi slender, third joint as long as second; pale gray marbled irregu-
larly with dark brown, with no salient markings. Al. ex. three-eighths
inch. Difficult to distinguish from G. discomaculella even on com-
parison of specimens. But discomaculella has a tolerably distinct though
pale fascia just before the cilia, and also before the fascia a large costal
and opposite dorsal patch which almost meet behind the middle of the
wing. Hab. Kentucky.

G. ambrosiceella, n. sp.

Palpi scarcely attaining the vertex. Second joint brush-like; third joint
thickened and about half as long as tlie second. It is white suffused over
the greater portion of the body and wings with ocherous yellow, and
the fore wings marbled with dark brown streaks and spots which are
confluent, and especially noticeable abont the middle of the costal half
of the wing. The antenna have the basal three-fourths ocherous
annulate with brown ; the apical fourth has five series of joints each
having the first joints black and the third one white, but at the apex
the penultimate joint is black and the terminal one white. The palpi
are ocherous faintly sprinkled with brown and the third joint hap. a

240 Teneina of the United States.

brown annulus at the base and another about the middle. Vertex,
thorax and forewings whitish suffused with ocherous, the forewings
marbled as above stated and with an irregular brown spot in the apical
part, the basal and dorsal portions however are but little marked with
brown : under surface of body, and the legs, pale ocherous, the first pair
of legs being distinctly marked with dark brown on the basal joints
and but faintly so on the others, except the tarsi which are annulate
with dark brown; the intermediate and posterior legs are but faintly
marked with dark brown. Al. ex. -^-^ inch. Kentucky.

The larva feeds in September and October inside of the seed cap-
sules of the 'hog weed' (Ambrosia trifida). It, while small, severs the
capsule at its base, and eats into it at that point, I have also bred
from the same gathering a beautiful little moth, belonging to the Tor-
trickke, and I am not certain that I have seen the Gelechia larva when
it was very young, as I am inclined to refer all of the very small
larva? to the Tortrix. The smallest Gelechia larvffi were already more
than one-fourth grown; they are then pale green with the head and
shield a little darker green ; the next two segments have each a trans-
verse row of six greenish fuscus spots on top and another spot on each
side. The remaining segments have each two spots on each side, and
on top are two transverse lines or bands of the same greenish fu.^cus
hue, the hinder band scalloped near each end, both before and behind.
But it is probable that the color and arrangement of the marks varies
with each moult, as the larva in its last stage has the head pale fun-
gineous with the other segments, yellowish white, and the transverse
bands and spots almost obsolete, and very pale dusky green, while two
longitudinal pale reddish lines extend along the back on, all the seg-
ments except the head. In the breeding jar the larva leaves the cap-
sule to pupate, and passes the pupa state among the decaying bracts
and small leaves; but frequently like the larvse of G. Hermanella, and
some other species it eats its way into the pith of corn stalks or into
pieces of cork or other soft substances, and mixes the comminuted par-
ticles with its cocoon.

On page 222, vol. 6, of the Canadian Entomologist, Miss Murtfeldt
has mentioned an undescribed species as G. chamhersella and has
obligingly favored me with a specimen. It is quite distinct from G.
avihrodceeUa though allied to it, and though feeding on a species of
Ambrosia it feeds on the leaves and not on the seed. G. ambrosiceella
i.s more distinctly marked then Miss Murtfeldt's species, and the wings
are clouded with fuscus spots and patches. Some specimens emerge
in October and November, some pass the winter the pupa and some in
the larva states.

Teneina of the United States. 241

There is also a coleopterous larva \Yhich feeds on the seeds of A.
bifida eating a large hole in the sides of the capsule. I have not yet
succeeded in rearing it.

G. cristatella, n. sp.

Falpi over arching the vertex with the second joint clavate, the scales at
tfe apex somewhat spreading ; third joint almost acicular more than half as
long as the second, second joint of the palpi brown dusted with white,
and white along the upper surface; third joint white with a brown
annulus before the middle and another before the tip ; tongue aud a
narrow stripe above it, extending along the inner margin of the eyes
dark brown; head white; thorax dark brown sprinkled with white
along the margins, the anterior margins entirely white, and with a
small raised tuft just before the apex. Antennae annulate with white
aud dark brown, forewiiigs at the base dark brown mixed with white
aud with a distinct tuft on the fold margining the dark brown basal
portion behind ; then follows an oblique white costal streak crossing
the fold and interrupted on the fold : Ijehind this another dark brown
band crosses the middle of the wing, margined behind by tw-o raised tufts,
one of which is above ; and the other beneath the fold, and followed
by a transverse band of mixed white and brown, which is margined
in part behind, by a brown tuft within the dorsal margin nearly opposite
the begining of the cilia, behind which the apical part of the wing is
brown sprinkled with white, except a short slightly curved dorsal
white streak at the begining of the cilia, and a similar larger opposite
costal streak. The legs are marked alternately Avith white and brown
or grayish brown spots and bands ; the under surftice of the thorax is
white dusted with brown, the white of the thorax and legs having a
metallic hue. Its external appearance is that of a Jjaverna, but the
wings are those of a Gelechia. Except that the second joint of the
palpi is simple, it resembles the species which I have placed in Ad-
rasteia. But those species shade into Gelechia so that I am now sat-
isfied that Adra^teia, can not be mentioned as a distinct genus. Al.
ex. ^ inch, Kentucky. A very pretty species.

Hyalr — gen. nor.

Head depressed clothed with appressed scales, vertex wider than
long; ftice strongly retreating; eyes moderate; antennae slender
about half as long as the wings distinctly ciliated ; basal joint small ;
tongue rather short, scaled ; no visible maxillary palpi ; labial palpi-

242 Teneina of the United States.

recurved, divergent, over arching the vertex, simple ; the third joint
more than half as long as the second, and accuminate similar to those
of many species of Gelechia. Wings broad; with rather short
short cilice. The forewings in outline and neuration nearly those of
Strobisia iridipenella, Clem,, widest about the middle and with the
apex obtusely rounded ; the costal vein runs near the subcostal for
about half its length and then rather suddenly diverges, attaining the
margin about the middle ; the subcostal subdivides into five nearly
equidistant branches of which the first arises before the middle and
the last attains the apex ; the median subdivides about the end of
the cell iuto three equi-distant branches of which the first arises op-
posite to the third subcostal branch, and the last is parallel to the
apical branch of the subcostal, and is produced forward for a short
distance into the cell which is closed ; there is no discal branch ; fold
very distinct, sub median vein furcate at its base. Hind wings Avider
than the forewings, width equal to half of their length, in form and
neuration like those of Tortrix ; the costal margin is slightly excised
from the base to the apical fourth, and the dorsal margin is very faint-
ly excised beneath the rounded tip. The costal vein is long, the cell
is closed, short and wide, and near the subcostal vein the discal is
strongly angulated towards the base. The subcostal and median are
both furcate behind the cell, the superior branch of the subcostal
going to the apex ; the median emits a branch before the end of the
ceil ; the fold, submedian and internal veins are all distinct. (Perhaps
it would be more correct to say that the median is straight and with
out branches, and that the discal is strongly angulated anteriorly near
to the subcostal vein and still more angulated posteriorly near the
median with a branch from the latter angle which bifurcates behind
the cell). The wings are but slightly deflexed in repose, and the in-
sect sits flat upon the surface of the object on which it rests.

H. coryliella, n. sp.

Shining black with a velvety lustre ; the base and under surface
of the palpi, face, anterior surface of the basal joints of the legs, and
under surface of the abdomen are white ; there is a transverse white
spot on the discal vein of the forewings which is visible also on the
under surface ; sometimes it is faint and interrupted ; and there is
a white streak across the middle of the apical cilise, and sometimes
the entire apical half of the cilia is white. AntennjB fuscus, hind
wings shining fuscus. Al. ex. f inch.

The larva is white and feeds on the under surface of leaves of the
filbert (Corylus Americana), under a thin ■ silken web which is rather

Teneina of the United States. 243

large and is placed in the angle of the midrib, and a lateral vein.
The web is so thin that larva is visible through it ; and yet is so com-
pact, that I at first mistook it for the loosened epidermis, and believed
it to be a mine. When the larva is ready to pupate, it gathei-s the
whole web into a dense mass around it, in the angle of the veins, and
passes the pupa state under it. I have only found it in September
and October, and the moth emerges in April.

Semele — gen. nor.

This genus is allied, but not very closely, to Thiea. In repose the
species sit very flat upon the surface on which it rests, with the wings
nearly horizontal but a little depressed. The tongue is rather short
and is naked. Maxillary palpi well developed, pendant ; labial palpi
divergent, ascending as high as the vertex, with the second joint a
little longer and not much thicker than the third, and clothed with
scattered depressed bristles ; head roughened as in Tinea nearly ; An-
tennae slender simple about §• as long as the forewings. \Yings long
rather narrow (having but a single specimen I have not denuded
them), the cell of the forewings is closed and they are numerous mar-
ginal veins ; the cell of the hind wings appears to be unclosed and
they have long cilife and are narrow, with the costal margin excised
from about the middle and the posterior margin curved like a knife
blade.

S. cridatella, n. sp.

Maxillary palpi yellowish white ; labial palpi with the second joint
dark brown with a white line along its upper surfiice ; third joint
white. Face white, vertex black, antennae brown, and the upper sur-
face of the thorax deep velvety black. Fourwings shining velvety
black with a large spot like burnished silver at the base and not quite
touching the costa, margined behind by a transverse row of raised
scales ; about the basal fourth is a shining silvery fascia which is
slightly curved, a little irregular in outline, widest about the middle
but wider on the costal than on the dorsal margin, and margined be-
hind by a transverse row of raised scales. About the middle of the
wing is another fascia of the same hue, which is a little oblique, being
nearer the base on the costal than on the dorsal margin, and appear-
ing under the lens to be slightly interrupted cibout the middle ; it also
is irregular in outline, and margined behind with a transverse tuft
near the costa, and has some scattered silvery scales margining it behind
from the middle to the dorsal margin, and extending back along the

244 Teneina of the United States.

margin. Just before the costal fringes is a large silvery spot which
extends nearly to the dorsal margin, and almost unites with the sil-
very scales by which that margin is marked behind the second fascia.
In the second fascia, on the extreme costa are two minute white spots,
and on the extreme costa in the large silvery spot before the cilia are
two others and behind them yet two others more distinct ; these last
four spots are nearly equi-distaut, and opposite to them, are three others
at the base of the dorsal cilia. Tip of the fore wings yellowish -white with
some black scales in the middle of the yellowish part, and external
to it is a narrow blackish hinder margined line at the base of the
apical cilia. Cilia showy wdiite. Hind wings and upper surface of
the abdomen silvery tinged with golden. Under surface of the pri-
maries brown, tinged Avith purple, that of the hind wings a little paler.
First and second pair of legs mainly white, the third pair mostly
blackish, but all annulate with white; Venter Avith the basal half of
each segment brown, apical half yellowish white. Al. ex. a little over^
inch. Kentucky, in June. The tufts on the wings are very easily
rubbed off.

The next following fourteen species are from California :
Endeosis — E. ferrestrella.

Dr. Clemens has described a species of this genus as E. Kennicottella,
which Mr. Stainton thinks, will prove to be the well known European
E.Jenedrella. I have not seen Dr. Clemens specimens, nor have 1
found any species of Endrosis in this country. 1 have, however,
received from Mr. Behrens, from San Francisco, specimens, which, in
my judgment, are unquestionably E. fcnestrella ; and, from the rela-
live proportions of the few species sent to me by Mr. Behrens, is by far
the most abundant 'micro' in that region, as abundant, in fact, as all
other species together. The specimens difler greatly, and on compar-
ing them with Dr. Clemens description of E. Kennicottella, I concur
entirely with Mr. Stainton that it must he fcnestrella.

Gelechia — G. lacteus-oclirella, n. sp.

Creamy white, or, perhaps, better described as white very faintly
suffused with ocherous, sparsely flecked with broAvn upon the fore wings,
which become toAvards the tip, suffused Avith grayish, or purplish-
broAvn and ocherous, so that a white costal streak at the begining of the
cilia may be distinguished from the surrounding part of the wing.
The cilia are yet more deeply suffused Avith purple-broAA^n and ocherous-

Teneina of the United States. 245

yellow. There is a minute brown spot on the disc before the middle,
another about the middle, and one about the end of the cell. Al ex.
not quite | inch. California, received from jMr. Behrens.

Gelechia — G. macuIatuseUa, n. sp.

Face white; a bunch of yellow scales or bristles on each side below
the eyes. Anterior margin of the thorax black, the central portion
blackish but deeply suffused with red, with the tip and each side above
the base of the wings. Primaries ashen white sprinkled with numer-
ous small dark brown dots, a row of which extends along the entire
costal margin which is also tinged with roseate ; the wing beneath the
fold to the dorsal margin is also somewhat tinged with roseate, with a
few small brown spots. In some lights a large part of the wing ap-
pears strongly tinged with roseate. Al. ex. f inch. Received from
Mr. Behrens.

G. thoracestrigella, n. sp.

Palpi ocherous with the outer surface of the second joint brownish,
except at the tip and about the middle, and brown annulation at the
base of the third and another before the tip. Head, thorax and pri-
maries ocherous, dusted with brown ; the brown scales on the top of
the thorax are aggregated into three not very distinct longitudinal
streaks, the dusting is dense at the base of the costa and at the base
of the wing, it is aggregated into three indistinct spots, behind which
are three others, and behind these, two or three others ; these spots
form three oblique rows, and behind them the dusting increases in
quantity to the apex. Al. ex. -^^ inch. Behrens, California. It is
somewhat difficult to distinguish it from our G. fuscojmlvella, ante v. 4
p. 170, but careful examination satisfies me that they are distinct.
The palpi in fuscoindvella are much darker, a portion of the dusting
on the thorax is condensed into a transverse band instead of three
longitudinal streaks, and the obliquely placed spots not very distinct
in this species are wanting in fimopuhella. However in fiiscoindvella,
the spots on the margin of the wing are sometimes confluent, and in-
deed there is nothing in the ornamentation of the wings, which would
induce me to consider them as distinct species, but the second joint of
the palpi is larger and more brush like in fuscopnlrella, and this, and
the makings of the thorax above mentioned, sufficiently characterize
them as distinct species.

246 Teneina of the United States.

I

G. ceqiiepuhella — Cham.

I have also received from Mr. Behrens, specimens of this species,
I have also received it from Mr. Belfrage, of Waco, Texas, and have
taken it frequently in Kentucky, as elsewhere stated.

G. tlioracemgrceella, n. sp.

Second joint of the palpi scarcely brush-like and divided beneath. Palpi
dark brown except the basal portion of the inner margin, and two an-
nulations on the third, which are ocherous ; lower face ocherous mixed
with fuscus; head, thorax and base of wings dark brown. Primaries pale
ocherous gray with a row of about ten brown spots on the costa, which
increase gradually in size from the base towards the apex, and a distinct
brown spot or streak on the disc before the middle, behind which the
disc is suffused with fuscus, the suffused part being connected with one
or more of the costal spots. Al. ex., y^ths inch. Behrens, California.
In the dark brown thorax it resembles G fuscomaciilella, Chamb.

G. thoracefasciella, n. sp.

Second joint of the palpi brush-like. Palpi dark brown, except the
upper surface of the second joint, which is white; head, thorax and
wings brown, with a blueish smokey tinge; anterior tarsi annulate
with white, intermediate and posterior tarsi reddish-yellow ; under sur-
face of the abdomen yellowish, densely dusted with dark-brown ; lower
part of the face white, and then is a yellowish-white band across the
thorax just before the tip, and the thorax and wings are microscopically
flecked with white. The primaries have two oblique velvety black
short streaks on the disc, each, of which, is margined before and
behind with ocherous-yellow, and at the end of the discal cell is a
small ocherous spot, margined narrowly behind with a line of velvety-
black scales, there is, also, a minute ocherous-yellow spot just before
the costal cilia, and another opposite dorsal one, and a row of small
velvety-black spots around the apex at the base of the cilia, the one at
the apex being margined before with ocherous-yellow. These black
and ocherous spots are all small and somewhat indistinct. Al. ex., ^
inch. Behrens, California.

G. occidentella , n. sp.

Palpi with a large brush on second joint, which is brown, tipped at
the apex with ocherous-yellow, and the third joint dusted with scales
of the same hue. Head and face pale yellow, silver tinged ; tongue

Teneina of the United States. 247

dark bro\vn; thorax ru?ty-oclierou?, or oeherous-yellow, mixed, more
or less, with dark brown, and the tip dark brown. There is a good
deal of variation as to the amount and intensity, as well as disposition,
of the dark brown and ocherous scales, both on the thorax and on the
wings. The primaries are clothed with brown and ocherous, in about
equal proportions. The costal basal portion is ocherous, passing into
grayish-ocherous and brown on the dorsal margin, the extreme base of
the costa is dark brown, the costal part of the middle of the wing is
dark brown, while, on the dorsal margin, it is pale brown, and in this
brown portion on the disc before the -middle, are two small oblique
velvety-brown streaks; just before the cilia is a curved ocherous fascia,
concave towards the base, distinct on both margins, but indistinct in
the middle from the intermixture of brown scales; the apex, behind
the fascia, is brown ; the cilia are grayish-ocherous, dusted with
brown ; a row of small dark brown spots around the apex at the base
of the cilia, each margined before with oeherous-yellow, Al. ex., §ths
inch. Behrens, California. •"

G. grisseochrella, n. sp.

Second joint of the palpi somewhat brush-like, pale grayish-ocherous,
or, rather, of a pale oeherous-yellow, tinged with gray ; there is a
dark brown streak perpendicular to the base of the dorsal margin, a
small dark brown s^^ot just above the fold (sometimes touching it),
before the middle ; following is an oblong oblique dark brown spot on
the fold, very narrowly margined above with whiteish scales ; there is a
row of small dark brown spots along the costa, one at the end of the
cell, and a row of them around the apex at the base of the cilia. The
under surface of the body is sprinkled with brown, and the legs, on
their anterior surfaces, are, in parts, sprinkled, and in others strongly
suffused with brown. The antennae are brown ; the wings are wide,
the posterior the widest, and the neuration is nearly that of OEcophora
{Calliina, argenticinctella, Clem. Al. ex., ^ths inch. Behrens, Cali-
fornia.

G. oehreostngella, n. sp.

Second joint of the palpi somewhat brush-like. Third joint slender
and little more than half as long as the second. Third joint of the
palpi dark brown ; second joint, tongue, face vertex, a band from the
head to the apex of the thorax and the fore wings beneath the fold pale
oeherous-yellow ; the sides of the thorax are dark purple brown, and

248 Teneina of the United States.

the basal portion of the forewings above the fold and extending along
the costal margin as far as the middle are dark brown with a faint '
purple tint. All the veins and veinlets of the wing are dark brown,
Avhile the cell (which is very narrow) and the spaces between the
marginal vienlets, and between the median and sub-median veins are
pale ocherous-yellow. The pale ocherous-yellow^ of the cell and of the
space betAveen the median and submedian veins extends nearly to the
base ; towards the dorsal margin the course of the fold is also faintly
marked with brown, the apex is brown, the ocherous-yellow spaces the
veinlets, being clouded with brown in that part of the wing. When
the insect is at rest it appears to be dark brown with a pale yellowish
line beginning on the palpi and extending back over the tongue, head,
thorax and dorsal margin of the wings to the cilia with the apical half
or more of the wing except at the apex streaked alternately with dark
brown and pale yellowish. The first two pairs of legs are dark brown
on their anterior surfaces marked with the pale ocherous hue at the
joints; the posterior pair is -^aXe ocherous and the abdomen is pale
ocherous with the basal half of each segment more or less densely
dusted with dark brown. Al. ex. | inch. Behrens, California.

G. disrostrigella, n. sp.

The palpi are missing in the single specimen of this species which I
have received from M. Behrens, of San Francisco. The head is creamy
white with a large bronzed or purple brown spot on the vertex exten-
ding down between the eyes; the basal joint of the antennie is purple
brown tipped with creamy white, the stalk creamy Avhite annulate w-ith
purple brown. The thorax is purplish browai margined before the
apex on each side Avith creamy white, base of the wdngs purplish-
broAvn beyond which to the middle they are creamy Avhite, that color
extending along the dorsal margin to a point beyond the middle but
scarcely to the middle on the costal margin ; on the dorsal margin
about the middle and in the creamy white portion is an ocherous' spot,
and along the costal margin are two or three small broAvnish spots also
in the creamy white part of the Aving, Avhich along the costal margin
about the middle passes gradually into ocherous-yelloAV, as it also does
on the dorsal margin beyond the middle. This ocherous hue over-
spreads the Avhole aj)ical half of the Aving. On the disc, before the middle,
margining the creamy Avhite anterior part of tlie Aving, is an oblique
black transverse spot Avhich is narroAvly separated by ocherous-yellow •
scales from a large somcAvhat diffuse broAvnish patch Avhich covers the
end of the cell and fades out gradually into the ocherous hue of that

Tenelna of the United States. 249

part of the -wing. The extreme costa is marked throughout its length
by small purple brown spots, which also extend around the apex at
the base of the ciha which are greyish ocherous ; under surface and
sides of the thorax creamy white flecked with brownish scales ; legs
purpli.'sh-brown mixed with creamy yellow, venter creamy yellow with
a dark brown spot on each side of each segment. AL ex. f inch. A
rather handsome insect received from ]Mr. Behrens.

G. ocherfuscella, n. sp.

The palpi are also wanting in the single specimen of this species re-
ceived from Mr. Behrens. The insect is brownish-ocherous, the head
being a little paler than the thorax and wings, which, in some lights, are
rusty 6i- reddish-ocherous rather than brown ; the disc just before the
middle, and the costal margin about the middle are distinctly suffused
with fuscus, and that is the prevailing hue of the special pra-t of the
Aving; the cilia are ocherous, with a dark brown hinder marginal line
at their base, and two similiar, but not distinct, lines about their middle,
perhaps, instead of these two last named lines, it would be as accurate
to say that the cilia are sprinkled with brown scales, showing a ten-
dency to arrangement in two concentric lines ; the antennas are brown,
very indistinctly annulate with white; the anterior and middle legs are
dark brown, somewhat dusted with ocherous, and with the tarsi annu-
late with that hue, the posterior legs are ocherous, dusted with brown,
and so is the entire under surface of the insect. Al. ex., ^ inch.

Tinea — T. Behrensella, n. sp.

Palpi yellowish ; hairs of the face and vertex yellowish, mixed with
some of a darker hue; antennae fuscus silvery tinged; primaries
brownish, suffused with pale purple, and paler towards the dorsal
margin, a reddish or purplish-brown line extends along the costal
margin to about the middle, when it leaves the margin, passing back-
wards to the end of the disc, becoming, also, wider ; apical part of the
wing pale purple, or purplish-slate color with white scales intermixed ;
cilia pale straw color; under surface and legs whitish, except the
anterior surfaces of the first and second pair of legs, which are brown,
annulate with yellowish-white at the joints. Al. ex., f ths inch. Named
for Mr. J. Behrens, of San Francisco, from whom I received it.

T. nivcocapitella , n. sp.

Dark brown ; there is a small pale ocherous or whitish spot just
within the dorsal margin, placed about midway of the wing length, and

250 Teneina of the United States.

margined before by black scales ; head very pale yellowisli-white ;
maxillary palpi fuscus, labial palpi dark brown, the third joint tipped
with pale yellowish or white. Al. ex., 7 lines, Behrens, San Fran-
cisco.

T. crocicapiteUa, Clem., resembles this species, but is more robust,
and has the ocherous spot on the disc, and more distinct than it is in
this species, and the head is not white, besides other differences.

Gelechia — G. saphirinella, n. sp.

Forewings very slender, hind wings wider, and excised beneath the
tip ; second joint of the palpi a little thickened with scales beneath,
and a little longer than the slender third joint; palpi white, with
brown marks on the outer side of the second joint, and two annul! on
the third joint, one near the base, the others near the tip ; head white,
streaked almost crimson-red, iridescenct; antennae brown ; thorax and
forewings with longitudinal streaks of almost sapphire-red, intermixed
with brown, gray-brown, and ocherous streaks and spots. Beneath
the fold before the middle is a small brown spot, and behind it, on the
fold, is a brownish streak. The streaks and spots are inextricably
mixed all over the wings, but under a good Codington lens they
appear more distinct, and the bright red is more conspicuous. It is a
slender, handsome and graceful-looking insect. AL ex., §ths inch.

G. nigrella, n. sp.

Secoud joint of the palpi a little thicker and shorter than the
acieular third joint ; very dark, shining brown or black ; head of an
ashy-purple hue, iridescent ; second joint of the palpi yellowish-white,
except the basal jDortion of the outer surface, which is brown; the
third joint becomes fuscus towards the tip ; antennse pale brown ;
under surface of the body and the legs yellowish, stained with fuscus*
Al. ex., h inch.

G. trialhamacidella, n. sp.

Second joint of the pcdpi brush-like ivhite ; third joint shorter than the
second dark brown ; face white ; antenna) brown ; forewings dark
brown but much lighter than in G. nigrella, which it resembles in size,
and also in ornamentation when vievved by the naked eye. There is
a small white spot on the fold before the middle, a costal and opposite

Teneina of the United States. 251

dorsal one before the cilia, and under a good lens a few white dots are
seen scattered over the wing, one of which is at the apex. Under surface
of the body brown, as also are the legs, the joints of which are white.
AL ex. i inch.

G. confuseUa, n. sp.

Second joint of the palpi brush-Uhe, much longer than the third uMch is
sleiuler. Dark brown of nearly the same hue with G. trialbamacidella.
Palpi sparsely dusted with white. There is a small white spot on the
fold of the forewing about the middle, another opposite to it on the
disc— and behind the space between these two is another minute yel-
lowish white spot. The usual opposite costal and dorsal spots at the
beginning of the cilia are present but small. It resembles G. trial-
bamacuiella, but is easily distinguished therefrom not only by its larger
size and the different arrangement of the spots (which in both are
scarce visible without a lens), but also by the form and size of the
palpi, AL ex. ^th inch.

G. latifasciella, n. sp.

Palpi simple, second joint whitish above, dark gray brown beneath,
third joint dark gray brown, with its base tip and a narrow annulus be-
fore the middle white ; head and anterior margin of the thorax white
with a faint purplish tinge ; antennse brown annulate with white ;
thorax and base of the primaries dark brown, and a tuft of raised
scales on each side of the thorax before the tip; just before the mid-
dle of the wing is a broad white fascia widest on the dorsal margin,
and margined m front by two small raised tufts of white scales, one
of which is above, and another beneath the fold ; behind the fascia
is a transverse row of dark brown raised scales, behind which the
wing is dark brown to the ciHa, where it becomes gray from the large
intermixture of Avhite scales, and there is a small irregular patch of
dark brown scales at the apex; nearly opposite the begining of the
cilia are two raised tufts of dark brown raised scales, and -just behind
them is an indistinct narrow curved gray fascia. Under the lens the
apical part of the wing has a white grained color, dusted densely and
as it were, overlaid by dark brown, and some white scales may be dis-
covered as far forward as tlie white fascia. Under surface of the
thorax white ; legs white banded and spotted with dark blueish brown ;
abdomen yellowish white beneath with a subdued silvery luster with
a dark brown spot on each side of the first segment. At. ex., %ih
inch.

252 Teneina of the United States.

I have described the mo?t distinctly marked of these specimens, re-
ceived from St. Louis, Mo., from Miss Murtfeldt, and a single speci-
men in IMr. Belfrazes collection from Texas. In each of the others
the fascia is so densely dusted with dark brown, as to appear gray to
the naked eye, the apical part of the wing is also darker gray, the
tufts on the anterior margin of the fliscia are largely mixed with
brown, and the specimens are smaller. But I have no doubt that they
belong to the same species. They were bred by Miss Mm-tfoldt from
larvae rolling oak leaves.

G. trifasciella, n. sp.

Second joint of the j^alpi brush-like; palpi, head and a wide band
extending to the tip of the thorax, white, sometimes tinged with och-
erous ; sides of the thorax, patagia and forewings dark brown ; on the
forewiugs are three distinct oblique white fascia, one about the basal
fourth, one about the middle, and one just before the cilia, the first
and third being frequently obsolete or interrujited in the middle. It
differs from G. iJwracealhella only by the presence of these fasciae.

G. capiteochrdla, n. sp.

Second joint of the palpi brushdike, third shorter than the second ;
head and palpi pale ocherous, the base of the second joint of the palpi
and tip of the third joint dark; thorax and forewings dark brown,
with the extreme tip of the thorax, and a few minute spots on the
forewings, ocherous ; one of these spots is on the fold towards the
base, three or four others at about the middle of the wing, and there
are two other minute ones in the apical part of the wing; the venter
is ochreous ; legs dark brown, and tarsi annulate with ochreous. Ah ex.,
fd inch.

Sometimes, the usual costal and dorsal spots before the cilia are dis-
tinct, and sometimes absent, when present, they are pale ocherous.

G. palpilineella, n. sp.

To the naked eye, this species resembles G. nigrella, being dark
brown, almost black, and of the same size. Under the lens, however,
a distinct irregular white fascia appears at the beginning of the cilia,
but, which, is sometimes interrupted in the middle ; the third joint of
the palpi is whitish, with three narrow black lines, extending from

Teneina of the United States. 253

its base to its apex, reminding oue of the similar ornamentation in tlie
species of the genus Hayno. It resembles G. albistrigdla, Cham.,
perhaps, as closely as G. nigrella

G. inUleriella, n. sp.

Palpi simple. Ground color very pale grayish-ocherous, almost
white, marked with obscure pale yellow spots on the wiugs, which
are, also, dusted with brown, and marked with minute brown spots ;
one of these spots is on the extreme costa at the base, and just behind
it is another, which is in an oblique line with two others, the last, of
which, is on the fold ; behind this is another small one, also, on the
fold, opposite, to which, on ihe costa, is another; there is a large
brown costal spot on the costa, just before the cilia, and a small one
opposite to it on the dorsal margin, and between these two, are two
somewhat diffuse spots; there is a row of dark brown spots around the
base of the cilia ; the antennre are yellowish, except the apical half
of the basal joint, which is dark brown ; the first and the base of the
second joints of the palpi are dark brown, the palpi being, otherwise,
of the general hue, dusted with dark brown. Al. ex., ^s-ths inch.

G. grissefcisciella, n. sp.

Palpi simple. Insect ash-gray. There is a small oblique black
streak on the forewings about the middle of the costal margin, and a
pale gray or whitish fascia at the beginning of the costal cilia, a little
nearer to the apex on the costal than on the dorsal margin, which
reminds one, somewhat, of the fascia of G. tephriasella, Cham. AL
ex., y%ths inch.

G. palpialhella, n. sp.

Palpi long, slender and simple ; second and third joints about equal
in length, the third acuminate ; palpi whiteish, except the basal
joint and the base of the second joint on its outer surface ; head, thorax
and forewings dark grayish-brown, with obscure small spots of dark
velvety-brown on the wings. Seen by the naked eye it might be mis-
taken for G. phy.saliella, Cham. Al ex., yV^^^ inch.

G. concinmisella, n. sp.

*

Palpi simple, antennae very slender, insect ash gray with three' or
four minute brown spots on the disc. There are two narrow, very

254 Tene'na of the United States.

oblique, short, dark brown, costal streaks near each other, one just
before and the other just behind the middle, followed immediately by
a narrow white costal streak which j^asses obliquely back into the
middle of the apical part of the wing where it meets and forms an
acute angle with an opjDosite dorsal streak, and behind this acute angle
the apex is hoary with anapical black spot or dash. At the base of
the cilia there is a narrow dark brown hinder marginal line which is
margined behind by a row of hoary scales. The costal and dorsal
margins, at the base of the cilia, are suffused Avith jmle ocherous. Al.
ex. ^-^ inch.

G. discoanulella, n. sp.

Palpi simple slender, third joint as long as the second, pale yellow.
Basal half of the antennae thick, apical half narrowing rapidly to the
apex, the basal half with large joints, those of the apical half short and
closely set. Insect, pale ocherous; head tinged with fuscus; thorax
and forewings very pale ocherous, so densely dusted with grayish
fuscus as almost entirely to conceal the ground color ; the fold is
ocherous yellow with two or three brown spots on it ; there are two
or three small brown spots on the disc, and a row of them around the
apex. At the end of the discal cell is a pale ocherous annulus with a
central dark brown spot like that of G. discoocelella, Cham., from
which however the species is otherwise very distinct.

G. ohsciiroocelella, n. sp.

Second joint of the palpi somewhat brush-like, much longer than the
third. Pale or whitish gray ; basal joint of the palpi and base of the
second joint, on the outer surfoce, brown, base of the extreme costa
dark brown. There ai^e three obscure brownish ocherous spots on the
forewing, one of which is on the disc, another near it on the fold, and
the third at the end of the cell, this last having an indistinct annulus
around it. Al. ex. 11-16 inch.

G. suhriiberella — (Cham.)

In some old and somewhat worn specimens the surface markinga
almost, or even, entirely disappear.

Teneina of the United States. 255

G. crescentifasciella — (Cham.) ^

I am afraid this specific name may be misleading, as the ftiscia is
always indistinct, and in some specimens I have not been able to
detect it.

G. ocJierosiiffusella — (Cham.)

Possibly G. deimssostrigella may be the same species, I correct the
former description by stating that the second joint of the palpi is
dusted with white instead of yellow, and the third joint is yellowish
dusted with brown.

OEsEis — Gen. nov.

Palpi long recurved the second joint with a long tuft projecting
downwards, but not forward beyond the apex ; the tuft has almost
exactly the outline of an equilateral triangle, the base of which on
the joint is perhaps a little shorter than either of the other two sides,
one of which is perpendicular from the apex of the second joint.
Antenna simple about as long as the body with the basal joint a little
elongate, third joint of the palpi as long as the second ; vertex as
wide as long face wider than its length. Maxillary palpi small (about
as in Gelechia) ; tongue long, scaled.

The wings are those of Gelechia (some species), from which perhaps
this genius should not be separated. The hind wings very faintly
emarginate beneath the apex.

(E. bianuleUa, n. sp.

Palpi with the tuft blackish at the base of the joint, and along the
under edge of the tuft, otherwise white suftused with grayish, on its
anterior edge and with a blackish spot at the apex at the tuft ; third
joint white a little dusted with brown, and with the apex brown ; an-
tennae redish brown ; head and thorax white tinged with ocherous
and dusted with brown, and somewhat iridescent, and there is a nar-
row dark brown Ime just above the base of the wings. Forewings
ocherous and dark brown streaked with white, with the Ijase of the
dorsal margin rufous, the basal portion of the costal margin white,
tinged with ocherous. The colors on the wing are so intermixed as to
make an intelligible description, almost impossible. The scales cov-

256 Teneina of the United States.

ering the discal cell are dark brown, with a Avhite auiiulus before the
middle of the wing, -and a white sjwt or ring at the end of the cell ;
the wing in other portions is madced with alternate streaks of whit-
ish, and brown many of the white streaks especially in the dorsal por-
tion, being strongly tinged with ocherous, and the streaks are very in-
distinct. Perhaps it would more accurately describe the wing other
than the base, and the cell as being ocherous gray, a little sprinkled
with white, with the position of the veins marked by dark brown
lines. CiliiB ocherous gray. Al. ex., f inch.

HoLCOCERA — H. triangidariseUa, n. sp.

Palpi grayish fuscus the end of the second joint hoary or white ;
face whitish; head, antennjs, thorax and base of the forewiugs gray-
ish fuscus ; then follows on the forewings a whitish triangular fascia,
wide on the dorsal margin, but narrowing almost to a point on the cos-
tal margin, and densely dusted with brown, and it is widely margined
behind by a dark brown costal spot, which extends nearly to the fold
and sometimes is almost triangular in form. Thence to the apex the
wing is whitish, densely dusted with brown and has two minute
end of the cell, under surface of body and the legs densely dusted
with fuscus, the legs annulate with white, Al. ex., {} inch.

All of the species of this genus that I have seen are very variable
and although with two specimens of this species before me, five of H.
elemensella, six of H. glandulella, and one of H. chalcofronteUa (the
variation of which was noticed by Dr. Clemens), the species seem to
be distinct, yet I can not avoid a suspicion that when the species are
better understood in all these stages, and large numbers are available,
the number of species in the genera will have to be greatly reduced.
It will not surprise me if two or three of Dr. Clemens' species will
include all the supposed species of that author, as well as H. glandul-
ella, Riley, and those described by me.

Amadrya and Euplocamus.

Dr. Clemens suggested the resemblance of A. effrenatella, Clem., to
Euplocamus boleti, and Mr. Stainton in his edition of Dr. Clemens'
paj^ers suggests that A. effrenatella (of which he had seen a specimen)
belongs in Eyplocamus. But Mr. Stainton in Ins. Beit v. 3, states that
the palpi of Euplocamus are six jointed, and Dr. Clemens says they
are small and two jointed in Amadrya, and in a single specimen of an

Teneina of the United States. 257

insect which I have taken in Kentucky and believe to be A effrenatella,
the maxilary palpi are microscopic and so concealed that I can not
determine the number of joints. Enplocamus also, according to Mr.
Stainton, has a short tongue; but Dr. Clemens says that Amadrya
efrenatcUa has no tongue ; and I have not been able to detect a
tongue in the specimen above referred to. In the specimen from
Texas, described by me as Amadrya clemensella, there certainly is no
trace of either tongue or maxillary palpi ; but I can not perceive that
it differs otherwise from Amadrya, as defined by Clemens, or from my
supposed Amadrya effrenatella. In the species, described below, as
Euplocnmus fuscofascieUa, of which I possess a single specimen in good
condition, / think I can detect a trace of a tongue concealed beneath
the four jointed maxillary palpi. (If it has six joints the two basal ones
must be very small and concealed beneath the long scales of the face.)
In A. clemensella the spots on the wings, in fresh specimens, are quite
distinct but vary in form and position. Sometimes there is a long,
fascus spot on the fold.

Enplocamus (?) fuscofascieUa, n. sp.

The palpi are brown on the upper and external surfaces, and on the
basal portion of the tuft beneath ; on the inner surface they are yellow.

H ead sordid yellowish ; antennaj brown ; thorax and patagia brown
at base, but becoming yellowish towards the tip. To the naked eye
the forewings appear yellowish, mottled with brown with some distinct
brown spots, and a rather wide irregular brown fiiscia behind the
middle, the anterior margin of which is straight from the costa to the
fold, but having the posterior margin angulated backwards about the
middle of the wing, at the fold the fascia is narrowed suddenly
behind; the basal portion of the wing is distinctly brown, and there
are two distinct brown spots in the apical part of the wing. Under
the lens the entire wing appears to be traversed transversely by
numerous narrow intercepted, confluent, and. irregular brown lines on
a yellow ground, the brown of the fascia and base of the wing almost
entirely obscuring the yellow. Abdomen brownish above, yellowish
beneath. Anterior and middle legs yellowish stained Avith fuscus
with the tarsi fuscus annulate with yellowish ; hind legs yellowish with
some brownish markings on the anterior siu-face, especially on the
tarsi. Al. ex. \\ inch.

Tinea — T. apicimaculella, n. sp.

Antennae and outer surface of the palpi brown, inner surface of the
l^alpi and the apex yellow ; head, sordid yellowish ; thorax and fore-

258 Tenema of the United States.

wings above the fold yellowish, suffused and dusted with fuscus so as
to obscure the ground color ; there is a large brown spot about the
middle of the wing, and one at the end of the disc, and behind it the
apical part of the wing, is marked with more or less obliquely trans-
verse rows of small dark brown spots ; beneath the fold the wing is
but little suffused with fuscus. Al ex., -i inch.

T. unomaculella, n. sp.

Thorax and forewings dark brown with a yellowish spot at the end
of the cell ; antennse and outer surface of the labial palpi brown, in-
ner surface and apex yellowish ; head and maxillary palpi yellowish,
under surface and legs yellowish marked with fuscus. AL ex., f inch.

Besides the species already mentioned found in these collections,
which have been heretofore described from more Northern States, are
some damaged specimens of a Tischeria (T. badiiella, Cham)? and
Tinea Macidabella, Cham. In the latter species "the oblique irregu-
lar streak before the middle " does not quite reach the fold, and the
spot towards which it points is on the fold ; the " longitudinal streaks''
in the apical part of the wing sometimes become more or less rounded
or irregular spots. In specimens slightly denuded the costal streaks
become disconnected spots.

The foregoing descriptions of " Teneina from Texas" are the con-
clusion of a series, the remainder of which have been heretofore
published in the Canadian Entomologist, Since they were prepared
I learn from Dr. Parkards' "Record of American Entomology" that
Prof. Zeller has described (Abhaud, K. K. Zoo. Bot. Ges. Wein,-187o),
many species of North American Teneina, mostly collected in Texas,
by Messers Belfrage and Ball, and much the greater number of which
belonging to the GehcJiidce. No doubt some of the species, especially
of the Gelechidoi described by me in the "Tineinafrom Texas," will
prove to have been previously described by Prof Zeller, in the paper
above referred to; while on the other hand, some of the species then
described will prove to be identical with species previously described
by me from Kentucky, and other more Northern States, in the Cana-
dian Entomologist.

To Dr. Hagen I am indebted for another paper by Prof. Zeller
(Beitrage zur Kenntners der Nordaraerikanischen Nachtfaller &c.,
1872), in which I find Anesychia MtdtipnncteUa, Cham., previously de-.
scribed by Prof. Zeller, as Psecadia semilugens, with a figure of the
wings. I have no access to Hiibners diagnosis of Psecadia. Stephens
(Haust V. 4, p. 241), divides Anesychia into two sections, viz: "A

Review of the Glacial Theory. 259

Anterior icings with confluent black spots, forming a longitudinal streak
from the base nearly or entirely to the apex; Anesychla Hlibner" —
" B. Anterior wings with distinct black spots and blotches of variable
size : Fseeadia Hiibner." Semihigens does not strictly belong in either
section but the ornamentation is nearer to that of section A.

Revieiv of the Glacial TJieory, by S. A. Miller.

[Read before the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, May 4th, 1875].

Mr. President — It is doubtless known, to the most of you, at least,
that Professor Newberry has been for several years an advocate of
certain views, which he and those who profess to believe with him call
the " Glacial Theory." He has discussed this theory over 200 or 300
pages of the Ohio Geological Survey, and finally laid down, in an
essay of about 80 pao-es. in the second volume of the Geology, his " best
impressions" upon the subject. It is not too much to say, that he
has presented the theory, in as favorable a light, as it has been presen-
ted by any other advocate, and if it is geology, no apology is necessary
for the space occupied in its consideration.

I am not convinced, however, that there is any geology in his views,
or anything worthy to be called a geological theory. On the con-
trary, they seem to me to be a collection of wild absurdities, promis-
cuously thrown together. While having the highest regard for the
scholarly attainments and great geological information of Professor
Newberry upon matters in general, I am, nevertheless, disposed to
criticise his glacial theory, and to treat it lightly. It is proper to
criticise the theory of any man, even to ridicule it, because by testing
it we learn its strength. Facts in matters of science will take care of
themselves.

He says that the Continent, since it had its present outlines and
ranges of mountains, and since the close of the Tertiary peri(jil, must
have stood several hundred feet higher than it does now. Where is
the evidence of such elevation, pray ? He says it is proved by the
great system of buried river channels. And where is that system ?
Echo will answer, Avhere? He says it is proved "by the deeply ex-
cavated troughs of the Hudson, Mississippi, Columbia, the Golden
Gate, &c., which could never have been cut by the streams that now
occupy them, unless when flowing with greater rapidity and at a lower
level than they now do." But every physicist knows, that the chan-

260 Review of tJie Glacial Theory.

nels of these rivers could have been cut out, without any elevation of
the continent. Without spi-eading over too much country, let us look
at the trough of the Ohio Eiver. It seems to have been worn out, be-
tween the time of the elevation of the Allegheny Mountains and the
advent of the drift, to a depth of 100 feet or more, below the bed of
the present river. The bottom of that trough is, at this place, about
300 feet above the level of the ocean, and according to probable es-
timates, the river will again clear out that trough and excavate it
deeper, in much less time than elapsed, between the elevation of the
Allegheny range and the deposit of the drift. Indeed, the fall of the
Ohio River, is such, that in the course of time, it may excavate its trough
more than 300 feet below its present bed. Whatever is true of the
Ohio River in this regard, is alike true of the Mississippi and of all
its northern tributaries. The same rule will apply to every stream
that flows from the continent to the ocean. The bed of no trough,
where a river now flows, or where a stream has run since the Tertiary
period, Avithin my knowledge, is lower than the ocean level, and Pro-
fessor Newberry, unfortunately for his theory, has not attempted to
refer to any such. In short, the excavation of the river channels of
this continent do not indicate that the continent was ever higher than
it is novv.

But what power could lift the continent several hundred feet higher
than it is now, and let it down again, without disturbing the course of
the rivers and upturning the geological formations ? Those who see
nothing but cataclysms in the past history of the earth, and are ready
to believe, if they can find it in print, that a rain storm covered the
earth fifteen cubits deep, on the highest mountains, and that a man
collected together the trilobites, cephalopods and whales, and fed them
on salt water until the storm was over, so that not one of them per-
ished, are prepared, no doubt, to believe that the continent was
elevated several hundred feet higher than it is now, since the close of
the Tertiary period, and that after it was supported up there for a long
time, it was gradually lowered again to its present position, without
disturbing the general geological character of the surface, merely be-
cause they find it so written in a book. Such extravagant suppositions
do not constitute any part of science, nor can I see that they are
worthy of being considered part of any geological theory. It has
been the province of geology to show, that the economy of nature, in
the formation of the earth's surface, is the same now, that it has been
for millions of years — even back through the Tertiary and Cretaceous
ages — yea, even back through Silurian and Eozoic time. No geologist
can confidently point to a period, in the earth's history, when there

Review of the Glacial Tliforij. 261

were causes in activity of greater inteimty or more wonderful in their
character, than those now in operation. If geology, as a science,
tends to demonstrate anything, it is uniformity in the laws of nature.
There are no mysterious agencies, and there have never been any in-
terruptions of the uniform laws of change. Continents are not now
lifted up or depressed ; they never have been. Such phenomena are
physically impossible.

This continent is now elevated but a few hundred feet above the
level of the ocean, and yet it has been forming through all geological
time, even from the remotest. First, we had in Eozoic days an island
in British America; next, in Silurian ages, several islands; then an
archipelago marked the Devonian era ; finally, the islands were con-
nected together during the Carboniferous ages, at the close of which
the eastern part of the continent took its present form ; and later,
during tha Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, the southern and western
outlines became fixed. Thus, from the very earliest geological periods
to the present time, this continent has been forming. Deposition has
been in active operation all the time, and this has been assisted from
time to time by active earthquake phenomena. The most remarkable
earthquake elevations in modern centuries have been in Chili, where,
it is said, a narrow strip of land one hundred miles long was raised
three feet high during a single earthquake, but in that inhospitable
region such an earthquake is not liable to occur once in a century.
Such earthquakes are mountain makers. Such earthquakes in. thou-
sands of centuries formed the Alleghenies and the other ranges of
mountains on this continient. They have stamped their characters
upon their work too legibly to be misunderstood. No power has lifted
up continents, and no force sufficient to do it exists in nature.

A theory, having its inception in an impossibility, may be expected
to be clothed with extravagant hypotheses, and so we find this one,
for the next step is not a sequence of the first, but an independent
statement, that there was an Arctic climate all over Ohio, Indiana
and Illinois, while on the mountains of Virginia and Kentucky the
climate was not materially different from what it is now. It was
intensely cold over the central part of the continent, and warm and
pleasant on the mountains on the border, so that the clouds of vapor
could readily pass over the mountains, and " wherever there was a
copious precipitation of moisture from oceanic evaporation that mois-
ture fell as snow." From this arrangement " a great ice sheet moving
from the north northwest covered all New England, and other glaciers
occupied the regions east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio."

Are we to believe that the continent was elevated sufficiently to

262 Review of (he Glacial Theory.

bring about this Arctic climate — about three miles higher than it is
now — and, then, that the climate was warm and pleasant on the
mountains, and intensely cold in the valleys and lowTr lands? The
continent was raised, according to this theory, several hundred feet,
for no other purpose, that I am able to discover, than to get this cold.
But it would require an elevation of several thousand feet to get the
required intensity ; so that we might as well economize our imagina-
tion at once by fixing the elevation enough, and say, approximately,
three miles. Having done this, the question arises (the elevation
being continental) why were there not glaciers on the Allegheny
Mountains? Why this distinction in the climate of different localities
in the same latitude, so contrary to all known laws of climatology? The
answer, these theorists would have us believe, is to be found in the
scratches on the rocks, below the gravel, in the central part of the con-
tinent, and in the absence of such markings on the bordering mount-
ains. The statement of such facts, however, does not constitute an
answer to the question, nor tend to support such theoretical views.
On the contrary, such facts, standing alone and unaided by the sup-
position of an impossible continental elevation, are the only witnesses
necessary to disprove the whole glacial theory. They do not
account for an Arctic climate, nor for this wonderful diversity of heat
and cold, nor is an Arctic climate or the existence of a glacier
necessary to account for them.

The next step, in this theoretical collection, overwhelms the imagina-
tion. The North American continent sank five hundred feet below
its present level — what for, I can't surmise, and it is quite incompre-
hensible to me how Professor Newberry found it out. It may be it
was the result of the study of that toy called " Jack in the Box," or a
scientific flight of the imagination with old Mother Goose: "Now we
go up, up, up, and now we go down, down, downy." The continent
popped up, up, up to get cold, with which to make glaciers, to make
scratches, and sank down, down, downy to thaw them out again*
When this continent was five hundred feet lower than it is now, the
ocean covered the land where the principal part of this city stands (?)

This would account for the finding of so many bones of the walrus,
and the Avhale, and the large masses of ocean shells in the embank-
ments around this city, if any could be found. If such specimens were
found here in abundance, and there was no other way to account for
their presence, than by supposing the continent to have gone under
five hundred feet, by way of divine baptism, then I suppose we would
be compelled to enlarge our faith, so as to take in this step, in the
progress of the glacial theory. But if we know that such specimens

Revicio of (he Glacial Theory. 263

are not found in the Ohio Valley, and that there is not a vestige of
evidence, in this part of the country, indicating in the slightest degree
any su bsidence of the continent, we may well pause at this step, in the
progress of this theory, until the Professor is able to ascertain whether
that nodule, figured on page 39, was held in the glacier or in the shale
while part of it was rubbed off It seems to me that an author able
to see with such certainty such vast changes and startling phenomena,
so directly adverse to every known geological fact, and so contrary to
that uniformity in the laws of nature, which every department of
natural history teaches, ought not to hesitate, on finding a scratched
bowlder, in uncertainty as to whether the bowlder was held in the
ice while it was ground off on another rock, or held in a matrix while
the ice rubbed the other rock over it. Such minor points as deter-
mining which stone was on the upper side, when the scratching was
done, ought to be definitely settled before we pin our faith too strongly
to the larger obstacles in this theory. Professor Newberry says,
however, that there can be no doubt that it was ground off by glacial
action. There is some consolation in this, for we may now know as a
scientific fact that he can tell by looking at a scratched bowlder,
whether it was scratched by an iceberg, a glacier, or a land-slide.
Indeed, he says, " The track of a glacier is as unmistakable as that of
a man or a bear, and is as significant and trustworthy as any other
legible inscription." It has never been my fortune to see the track of
a glacier, but if it is so distinct, one so conversant as he, might readily
tell us whether the track on this bowlder is right side or wrong side up.
It is not necessary, to pursue the glacial theory step by step through
all its continental oscillations and changes of climate, to become con-
vinced of its inadequacy to account for the phenomena witnessed, nor
is the time ordinarily occupied in an evening essay sufficient to follow
it through its elaborate details and criticise it. Without, therefore,
following it farther, though meaning no disrepect to the continent by
leaving it in baptism, I will call your attention to some of the laws
governing denudation by water and ice, to some of the evidences of
the wide distribution of plants and animals, by forces now in opera-
tion, and to some of the facts tending to account for what we very
correctly call the drift.

Water courses of all sorts and sizes are alike, and record the same
kind of aqueous denudation everywhere. Water invariably cuts out
a winding course having a transverse section like the letter V. Ice
marks, of all kinds, differ from water marks. A glacier passing over
a hill country will round off the hills, so that a transverse section will
be represented by the arc of a circle, and hollow out and straighten

264 Review of (he Gtacial Theory.

the valleys, so that a transverse section will be represented by the
lower part of the letter U. The valley of the Ohio, and each of its
tributaries, bear the unmistakable evidences of having been worn out
by the action of water alone, and not a single valley or hill bears any
evidence of having been hollowed out or polished oif by the action of
the ice. The valleys on the north side of the Ohio River, and some
of those on the south side, were filled up in part by sand and gravel
during the period of the drift, but the winding course of the streams
and the V-shaped valleys, where they wex'e unaffected by the drift,
and the cross sections of the valleys affected, where they have been
noticed, and the rough outliers on the hills, all alike testify to the ac-
tion of water and the absence of ice. I think this is the position
taken by Professor Andrews in his survey of Eastern Ohio, and I
think the reader will not discover that Professor Newberry has under-
taken very seriously to controvert it, but rather tried to obviate
bringing his glacial sheet in conflict with the hills and valleys, by
moving it over westerly, beyond Prof. Andrews district, where it might
have easier sading.

It is sometimes said that the climate of the world has so materially
changed during different geological periods, that there is nothing to
excite our astonishment, in the assertion, that the warm climate of the
Southern States, during the tertiary period, extended over the United
States and Canada and as far north as Greenland, and that at the
close of that period, the climate changed from the all-pervading warmth
of sunny climes to an all-pervading Arctic cold ; that the Arctic cli-
mate of Greenland extended south over Canada and the United States
to the Gulf of Mexico, and that nearly the whole country was covered
with a sheet of ice thousands of feet in thickness. But geology does
not teach us, that any such material changes of climate have ever
taken place, nor that any other changes have taken place, the cause
of which we may not readily account for. Let us look at some of the
effects of ocean currents now in operation.

Captain Mack named an island " Mimosa, " in latitude 77° north,
longitude 66° east, because he there picked up chestnut or mimosa
beans — tropical growths carried by ocean circulation to foreign lands.

Professor Campbell, speaking of this subject, says : "To that point
the equatorial current now reaches ; and there the warm water must
plunge under water, which, after a certain temperature, gets lighter
as it gets colder, till it floats ready to freeze. Solid ice was lighter
than sea water off Labrador as 9 is to 10 by bulk. Li Spitzbergen
the chestnuts get to 20° east, 77° north ; and the warm water of the
equatorial current then goes under the ice to warm the sea creatures

Review of the Glacial Theory. 265

who live at the bottom. The Fortress of Vardo and the church at
Vardo are built in coral sand; it is, therefore, possible that fossil
corals may have lived under similar conditions. Numbers of whales
come into the fiord; thirty-two were slain by one small steamer in
1873 before August 6. Fish of many kinds abound. There is plenty
of life in the Arctic basin now to make fossil corals in them. At Ter-
edik, about seventy degrees north, I found a luxuriant vegetation ou
shore— the wild corn of Iceland, " Baldur's flower," the cotton grass,
the "Indian tea" of Labrador, and many bright wild flowers. Ge-
raniums and cacti live in pots in the houses ; and canaries live through
the winter in warm rooms. The winter's darkness does not kill;
therefore, the poles need not be changed theoretically in order to ac-
count for Arctic fossils. The hills are clothed with firs and birches
where there is soil enough for them to stand in. Peat is common ; so
materials for coal grow now, About latitude 69° north, harbors near
the mouth of Kola fiord never freeze. They are sheltered from the
eastern drift, and remain open all winter. A few miles fuather east,
at the Seven Isles, the harbors are blocked every winter. On the 10th
of June, 1873, they were still blocked ; on the 15th of August snow
patches lay on the beach, but no ice was anywhere near on sea or land ;
it had all drifted way."

The warm equatorial current now aflects the climate in the Polar
basni to latitude 80°, in Spitzbergen. The cold Arctic current aifects
the coasts of Greenland, Labrador and North America, and carries
floating icebergs to latitude 37° north. That which the sea actually does
for climate now, the sea may have done when the fossils of the Arctic
basin lived, and when land, now dry, was submerged. Professor
Dawson, of Montreal, after having studied the glaciers of Mont Blanc,
and the iceberg of Bell Isle, and those which enter the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and after having studied the bowlder clay of the post-
pliocene of Canada, and the striated surfaces of the rocks beneath it,
and above all, the fossils of the bowlder clay, has determined, that the
climate was no colder, than that which necessarily resulted from the
course of the Arctic current, during the post-pliocene age, when it
turned up the Gulf of St. Lawrence, carrying the icebergs with it, and
striated the rocks and distributed the bowlder clay, and shells and fish
of the Arctic current over the southeastern part of Canada. He says
" that the casing of glacier ice imagined by many geologists, as well as
the various hypotheses, which have been devised to account for it, and
to avoid the mechanical, meterological and astronomical difllculties
attending it, are alike gratuitous and chimerical, as not being at all
required to account for observed facts, and being contradictory, when

266 Review of the Glacial Theory.

carefully consii.lerecl, to known physical laws as well as geological
phenomena."

In this localit}'-, the drift consists of sand and gravel, which fills up
the old river troughs one hundred feet or more in depth, in which Ave
find, occasionally, banks of clay, loam, and sycamore trees and other
vegetation that now abound in this latitude and a few degrees farther
north, and less frequently the bones of the mammoth and other land
animals. The lower jaw of a mammoth, with a tooth in place, now
the property of this Society, was found in the gravel ridge (Ocean
Terrace, Prof ISTev/berry calls it) at Fourth street and Central Avenue,
when an excavation was being made for a sewer, at the depth of
aljout ten feet. The distribution of the sand and gravel and other
materials, including the formation of the elevated ridges and hillocks
in the bottom lands, which it has pleased Profess(;r Newberry and other
theorists upon a subsiding continent to call " ocean terraces and ocean
beaches" — all alike have the appearance of having been deposited by
a rapid current of fresh water flowing from the north. The total
absence of oceanic remains, in these ridges of sand, gravel and clay,
and the presence of land animals and plants of this and more northern
latitudes, seem to me to be conclusive on the subject. That jaw and
tooth of the mammoth, from Foarth street and Central avenue, are
alone sufficient to put to shame the whole theory of ocean terraces and
beaches, elucidated in the Ohio geology. We might easily imagine a
smile, on that old jaw in the case, at the idea that it was ever used to
crack shell fish, or that it was caught on a gravel bank, by the slow
approach of waters in the arm of an ocean.

The sand and gravel beds and ridges, from here to the Gulf of
Mexico, bear the same evidences of deposition from rapidly flowing
streams of fresh water. The fossils from this locality abound in
Southern drift, as the fossils from more Northern climes abound in it
here. The Northern lakes are lined with beaclies, especially on the
Northern side, that are higher above the level of the ocean than the
highest hills in this vicinity. If we couple the facts determined by
Professor Dawson, with the phenomena as presented by the beaches
surrounding the lakes and the distribution of the sand and gravel from
the lakes to the Gulf, we may readily conceive how this Arctic current,
entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence freighted with icebergs from
Greeidand, would so increase the cold in post-pliocene times that the
St. Lawrence River and the river that led from the lakes to the
Hudson River Valley would be frozen up, and kept closed during the
summer season, while the lakes, losing but little by evaporation, would
continue slowly to rise until one great lake would occupy the central

Natural Hidory Investigations in Floncla Waters. 267

part of the continent, and reach to that latitude, where glaciers would
enter it from the north, and "calve" into icebergs, that would be
carried south across the lake by winds and storms, or by the current,
when it overflowed the hills of Northern Ohio, Indiana and Illinois.
The:?e icebergs would make the scratches', that are found beneath the
gravel, and transport the huge I.aurentian rocks and bowlders of
Canada, that are found south of the lakes, for a distance of two hnndred
miles or more, while such a torrent of water, as would result from an
overflow of the lake and the breaking of its barriers, would transport
the icebergs, and carry with it the sand and gravel and earth of the
higher lands, and distribute them all the way to the Gulf. The
different beaches surrounding the lake would represent the height of
the water, before each great overflow andMestruction of the barriers,
and finally, when the Arctic current ceased to affect the climate, the
water from the lakes would again flow in the natural channel to the
ocean.

Such a theory will account for all the phenomena presented by the
drift in this locality, and all that I have observed elsewhere, though I
have traveled some over Canada and Mississippi and the intervening
States. It involves no elevations or depressions of the continent, no
changes of climate, beyond what would be inevitable from the change
of land and water surface, and the changed course of the Arctic current,
and it requires the intervention of no extraordinary or mysterious
power. It may not, however, account for everything witnessed by
Professor Newberry and others in the neighborhood of the lakes ; but
if it fails to give full satisfaction, we may look elsewhere, within the
range of probabilities, for the true cause or causes of such anomalous
facts, without being driven to seek a solution in the labyrinth of
impossiliilities with which the whole glacial theory is charged.

Natural Hidory Investigations i?i Florida Waters and Among the Keys.

By W. W. Calkixs.

" Awake my St. Jobn! i^eave all meaner things,
To low ambition and the pride of kings. "

These lines occurred to me as our little schooner under full canvas,
sailed gaily along over the Gulf of Mexico, at the rate of six knots
an hour. The day was such as can only be found on these Southern
summer seas. The dashing spray and the dancing wave brought to
us many a choice specimen of the Fauna and Flora of the Gulf.

263 Natur.d History lavedlgatlom in Florida Waters.

Armed with dip nets, my fat friend, the Doctor, and myself, stood
leaning over the rail, fishing up the floating weed, from this we pro"
cured crustaceans, shrimps and litiopa. The Tortugas Cruise and our
narrow escape from shipwreck there, were now forgotten in the en-
joyment of the present happiness. Arriving in Key West, the next
few days were devoted to preserving and shipping our large collection
of specimens. These required oyer thirty barrels and boxes. As my
friend Pablo, the cook, remarked, they were fully an "equivalent" for
our labors and dangers on the most perilous coast known. While Ave re-
mained in Key West, I made some additional collections and secured
several species not enuraei-ated in my former letter. I also came near
losing my coat, in so comical a manner as to be worth relating. Re"
turning one evening from a stroll up the beach, and being late I
retired to my room at the hotel, where having disposed of the spoils
stowed away in my numerous pockets, I lay down for a rest. The
coat mentioned, I had hung up, as usual, on the floor. Sometime
after, I was aroused by a tremendous clatter, clawing, etc., quite mys-
terious. Lookuig up I saw my coat going out the door, at first I
thought the house was haunted and the spirits were on a frolic, or else,
the devil himself was after me. But remembering what my mother
said about ghosts, and having seen several in a more material form, I
resolved to investigate. About this time, I thought Geladmus viinax !
My pockets were filled with "soldier crabs," and not having removed
them, when all was quiet, they determined to vindicate their rights,
as royal Americans to liberty. It is needless to say that I was more
careful after this. But the objects we desired to save were so numer-
ous and interesting that room for all was hard to find. My ' party' were
knowai as ' Bug-hunters ; ' though we did not deserve the title, I suspect
however, that the natives confounded us Avith an old fellow who was
stopping here and making a specialty of moths. On some of our trips
in this and other cities, we were generally accompanied by from ten
to twenty black and tans of small size. So long as our "nickels"
held out we found it easy to command the services of a regiment if
necessary, and with a little showing, the young Nubians soon made
good collectors, diving into out of the way places with the same facil-
ity that a "terrier" goes for a rat hole. While watching them I
thought and wondered if old Diogenes himself would not admire our
way of teaching science. Diogenes who was a teacher of economy
was a pretender. He required the luxury of a tub to live in, he
should have gone West where it would not be necessary. But I must
resume the dry details of science I suppose, to preserve the reputation
it has for being thus. My rambles on the Island of Key West were
rewarded by the following additional species.

Natural History Investigations in Florida Waters. 269

SKrclnca campestris, (Say). This shell occurs abundantly in low
places clinging to coarse grass. At first, I mistook it for Bulimus on
account of its form and the numerous brownish stripes, a peculiarity
that I have not noticed elsewhere. Ccrifhidea scalariformis, (Say).
Abundant on salt marshes subject to inundation. From small man-
grove sprouts, I have taken hundreds in a short time.

Tnnicatella suhnjlindracca, (Gray). I only found occasionally, in
company with T. hilahiata, (Pfr.,) under leaves and logs. Of the
latter species there are millions. IMix cereohis, (Muhf.,) grow to a
large size and may be classed with H. septemvolva, (Say). My friend,
Mr. Binney, to whom I have forwarded a number of live species, says
he finds no difference in the animals, of the two mentioned above.
n. carpentercana, (Bl.,) so called, need study. They are abundant
on Key West. The OrthaUcus, known as undaim and zebra, were
formerly more plentiful here, than at present, I find a marked diff'er-
ence between these and the specimens collected by me further north ^
notably, on Sandy Key and Cape Sable. One seems to resemble a
Central American species. In regard to a number of mollusks found
by me among the Keys, those who are interested in the study will be
glad to know that I was successful in transferring safely home nearly
one hundred species, in alcohol, as well as some alive. The land mol-
lusks, or rather, a portion of them -are now in the hands of "W. G.
Binney. And from recent letters, I am assured that the results, soon
to be published, are most interesting. CylindreUa Poci/ana, (D. Orb.,)
This elegant species resembles C. jejuna, (Gould), very numerous in
gardens around Key West. In the same localities I found now and
then a few Glandinas, which I am assured on good authority, are new
species. However, I am not disposed to take the ipsi dixit of any
man until the matter has been fully investigated by the best scientists
in the country. The foregoing species and those noted in the April
Quarterly were suflacient to render my stay at Key West very agree-
able. But in addition, I obtained some fine marine specimens from the
Harbor, such as Echinaster spinosns, Holofhuria nohilis, Marginella
carnea, etc. The pipe coral, or Manicina areolata, (Ehr.,) and As-
trea cavernosa, are also abundant from Tortugas to Cape Sable, to say
nothing of the other species common to Florida waters. The whole
coast presents a series of keys raised by the coral insect from the
depths of the ocean, and enlarged by drift and accretions to their
present dimensions. The mangrove has largely completed the work
begun by its peculiar growth. The fruitlets of the tree may be found
floating all over the gulf, and at first, I mistook them for cigars, which
they resemble in size and shape, one end being heavier than the other,

270 Natural History Investlgatiom in Florida Waters.

it readily takes root wherever there is the least soil, they grow in the
water as well as out and form a regular net work of roots on the edge
of the key, thus providing a protection for them and at the same time
retaining the debris that may be washed ashore. This process may be
seen best at Markesas, where a shallow lagoon is fast filling up iu the
manner mentioned. But to study all the wonders of this southern
clime would require months and I had only weeks. So having com-
pleted our work at Key West, and our vessel being completely fitted
out for another cruise, we, on the morning of Feb. 17, sailed out of
the harbor with a lively breeze and headed lor the North to study the
Fauna of some other localities. A six hours' run of thirty-five miles
and we anchored at Bahiahonda Key, a low barren island overgrown
with mangroves and oabbage-palms. (Chamcerops iMhiietto), we
found that a portion of the key had been recently separated from the
other part by some tremendous storm. A strong current now ran be-
tween the two. In our little "dingy" we crossed this and found on
the barren rocky island some interesting species. Nerita pdorontif,
(Lam.,) grow here to a very large size. The other species found here
were, N. tessellata, (Lam.,) Lit. muricata, (Lam.,) Lit. angulifera,
(Lam.,) Lit. nodulosa, (Desheyes), Phorus corrugatus, (Reeve), (rare),
Avicula atlantica, (Lam.,) Modiola sulcata, (Lam.,) a species that is
limited as to range in this region, Modiola tulipa, (Lam.,) Strombm
bitiiherculatus, (Lam.,) Area none, (L.) Manjiiiella apicina, (Mke.,)
Marg. roscida, (Redf.,) Cardium isocardia, (L.) In a lagoon I ob-
tained specimens of Bulla occidentalis, (Ad.,) Cerith. ehurnenm,
(Brug.,) Cerith. litteratum, (Born.) All the above were live species.
In the shallow waters adjacent, were Holothuria, Echinus, and star-
fish in abundance. Our work here occupied the rest of the day, so
we lay at anchor to-night off the key at the entrance, to what is called
Yaccas Bay. Some ten or twelve coral built islands form a sort of
harbor ten miles long and four or five wide. Numerous channels di-
vide these keys. The waters are quite shallow and we were frequent-
ly able to walk around and collect on the bars, keeping a good look-
out for the tide and sharks. The tiger-shark is said to have a par-
ticular fondness for legs, as yet, we had not taken any on this trip,
but our harpoons were in readiness and the boys were anxious to get
a regular old " man eater. " While we lay at anchor this evening, I
counted over thirty small schooners within ten miles of us. These were
engaged in sponge fishing. And Vaccas Bay is a favorite sponging
ground. The next morning we sailed up to Vaccas Key, and intend-
ing to spend a day here anchored off the island. The results of our
work embraced some interesting species. -Chiton piceus, (Gmel.,) were

Natu'cal Hidory Investigations in Florida Waters. 271

clinging to the rocks by hundreds. We found some thirty fine speci-
mens of Turbinella muricatum, (Lam.,) near the key in shallow
water. Uros. cinereus, (Say), and TurbineUa eingvJifera, (Lam.,) were
abundant. 3Iarg. guttata, (Dill.,) this fine shell seems to be rare. Of
Asterioidea, we obtained specimens of Oreaster gigas, (Lut.) very large,
and A. floridanus, (V.) Arbacia punctulata , (Gray), we obtained some.
The fish were represented by a number of interesting species, such as
the toad and cow-fish. I examined the land closely but found no
species of mollusks differing from those previously stated. On one of
the keys we added to our Commissary department a number of cocoa
nuts, the milk in them was very welcome. The pa-paw (Carica pa-
paya'), grows here as elsewhere. No human soul inhabits these lone-
ly islands. The "spongers," however, use them for drying their
sponges after they have kept them in pens built in the water near by,
for a week or so, and until the gelatinous matter is expelled by the
action of the waves. We had here a fine opportunity to study sponges
on their native ground, but not being al)le to embrace the whole
• realm of nature in our investigations and thinking something smaller
would do just as well, we did nothing beyond getting a few specimens
of the different kinds, such as glove, finger, sheeps wool, and log-
gerhead. Having looked over as much ground as possible, we loaded
up our collections and on a stormy morning set out for Sandy Key,
across Florida Bay some twenty miles. The sun shone brightly but
the wind blew a gale. However, it was in the right direction to shove
us along at the rate of seven knots an hour, with only our mainsail
set. So we enjoyed the fun, sea sickness never troubled me, buf my
companions du voyage were not so fortunate. The Doctor found
some relief though, by lying down on the deck and chewing cabbage
palm, until the monitor within warned him to desist. In less than
three hours we were at Sandy Key, and it is well named, being only
a mile long and not more than ten rods Avide in the broadest part.
There being no harbor we were obliged to anchor at some distance on
account of shoal water. The little vessel bumped around lively, but
there was no help for it, and so we all went ashore in the " dingy " to
ascertain what we could find. (jetting ashore was a work of some
difficulty, but none ©f us were afraid of a little salt water, as we went
plunging in over the breakers. The Doctor and myself began at once
to examine the island. The trees we noticed to be larger than any we
had seen, and among them I saw the mastic gum, a sight that did me
good, for I knew they were the favorite resort of certain land shells.
In a short time I found Orthalicus zebra, hibernating about ten feet
from the ground. The gum-tree has a smooth and slippery bark but

272 Natural History Investigations in Florida Waters.

I made my way up with mucli greater facility than the fellow who
climbed the greased pole for a pig. My shout of victory brought the
Doctor through the bushes and cactus in such a hurry that his rear-
guard was picked off, by the thorny enemy. However, we had both
fought, bled and died for our country, and the Colonel did not mind
this little brush. I noticed at once the difference between this and
other species previously found. And I now have the pleasure of
knowing that the highest authority in this country has established
some interesting facts in regard to this shell, from specimens collected
by me on Sandy Key and Cape Sable. Well, this first prize stimu-
lated the Colonel and myself to fresh exertions, notwithstanding the
limited area of Sandy Key it is pretty well covered with mangroves
and other trees. And among these a dense undergrowth of brush
and Cadaceae. In our search for Orthalicus we had to force our way
through at the expense of bleeding limbs and torn clothing, however,
it paid as we obtained dead and alive, some two hundred specimens.
The blood — I mean perspiration — ran from every pore and we had
to sit down among the cactus to cool off. The Doctor regretted hav-
ing left his soothing syrup behind, but a little forty rod revived our
spirits wonderfully, and though Ave had as yet, seen no snakes in
Florida, we might in a short time, have seen a whole menagei'ie if the
supply had held out. But the canteen leaked and we blamed the
cook. We are strictly temperate. After this we proceeded more
cautiously, but found no new or interesting species, unless it be sol-
dier crabs of unusually large size. Fx'om the number of dead Ortha-
licus at the foot of gum trees, I have no doubt that the soldier crab
is a Frenchman. As night was coming on we retraced our way to
the vessel, only stopping once on the beach to examine a curious phe-
nomenon. This was no less than a regiment of horsefoot crabs (L.
iwlyphenms) , coming up on shore from deep water to deposit their
eggs. The male accompanies the female and may be known by its
smaller size. Having dug into the sand where the tide reaches, the
eggs are 'milted by the male and left to shift for themselves. They
were making a great fuss and evidently having a fine time. I should
compute one such deposit to number many thousand eggs. Before
leaving the Key, we examined them further, we got home just in time
to avoid being left ashore all night, as a tremendous Norther came up
and made everything howl. We crawled down into the humble quar-
ters termed a cabin and after a slight repast of green turtle, conchs,
and crab chowder (smile not, they are good), we turned in. Mean-
time the sale continued and increased in violence. But this did not
prevent our sleeping sweetly while we rocked on the tossing billows

Description of a Neiv Species of Trilobite. 273

and were lullabyed by the hoarse roar of the waves and the creaking
of the ships cordage. About midnight, however, I awoke to find
myself rolling out of bed. Going on deck I saw that we were drag-
ging our anchor. I called the Captain who concluded to run out the
other anchor. We then turned in again and slept until day break.
Everything was again quiet and looking around we saw hundreds of
acres entirely bare of water. A glorious sight, for we were thus en-
able to collect many rare shells that could not be secured under any
other circumstances. Six miles from Sandy Key and in sight was the
mainland, Cape Sable. We ate a hurried breakfast and gathering up
our baskets disembarked and began work among the Pinnas, Fascio-
larias, and other wonderful things on the mud banks. It proved a
profitable day, as the loads of shells, each of us found, testify. The
list is too long for this paper, and so I must regretfully drop the sub-
ject.

Descriptwn of a Neiv Sp)eeies of Trilobite. By C. D. Walcott, of

Trenton Falls, N. Y.

Genus Spherocoryphe — (AngeFm.)
Spherocoryphe robustus, n. sp.

General form subovate, convex ; cephalic shield subtriangular,
strongly convex; anterior and lateral margins smooth, round edges;
posterior lateral angles produced into long subuliform spines ; jDosterior
margin nearly transverse ; glabella subglobose, constricted at the
base, projects beyond the anterior and lateral margins ; two minute
rudimentary lobes are separated from the anterior lobe by deep fur-
rows each side of the central axis ; neck furrows broad and shallow
upon the central axis, deepens laterally, and extends tothe posterior
lateral angles ; neck segment a narrow elevated ridge ; movable cheeks
triangular, convex.

Eyes prominent, subglobose, directed forward and outward from
the central eminences of the cheeks ; visual surface occupies the outer
lateral margins ; facial sutures, as far as determined, extend from the
posterior third of the lateral margins to the posterior base of the eyes,
thence to the top of the eye, curve around the outer margin and then
down to the anterior base.

Thorax a little longer than the cephalic shield ; axial lobe with ten
segments, arching forward, narrows very gradually, posteriorly as wide

274 Some Remarks on Plumulites Jamesi.

as the lateral lobes ; lateral lobes flattened two thirds the way out,
where they abruptly curve downward/ narrow slightly posteriorly ;
pleuree straight and transverse, two thirds of their length, where they
are geniculated, curving slightly backward, terminate in short mu-
cronate spines.

Fig. J 8, a. Spherocoryphe robustiis.
Fig. 18. 6. Spherocoryphe robuslus; section of glabella.

Pygidiuni, mesial lobe composed of three segments, anterior segment
largely developed, its extemities being produced into long stout
spines, incurved toward their points; posterior margin a rounded
ridge, curving backwards between the spines, forming a subtriangular
depression, upon which, the two posterior segments are situated ; entire
surface finely granulated ; upon the upper surface of the globose gla-
bella the granulations are coarser, so as to be distinguished by the

eye.

This species is related to S. granulata (Angelin), and S. salteri (Bill-
ings), but differs materially from the descriptions of those species.

Formation and locality : In the upper third of the Trenton Lime-
stone, Trenton Falls, New York.

Some remarlcs on Plumulites Jamesi of Hall and Whitfield.
By S. A. Miller.

Through the kindness of U. P. James Esq., I have been permitted
to copy the description (which will appear in the forthcoming volume
of the Ohio Paleontology) of Plumidites jamesi, by Profs. Hall and
Whitfield. It is as follows :

Some Remarks on Phimidites Jamesi. 275

"General form of plates triangular, with the apex a little inclined
to one side, the lateral margins gradually and rapidly diverging from
the initial point, one of them considerably longer than the other.
Basal margin sigmoidal, the convex portion situated next to the longest
lateral face, the concave portion to the shorter, and the shorter lateral
mai'gin deflected downwards in some cases (probably the marginal row
of plates)."

" The surface of the plates is flattened or slightly convex on the
sides, and very faintly depressed along the middle, the whole marked
by rather closely arranged, annulating and scaliform transverse lines
parallel with the basal or sigmoidal margin, and marking stages of
growth. These transverse lines are usually faintest near the apex, and
gradually increase in width with the increased growth of the plate, but
in some cases they are quite irregular in their distances."

"The length from the apex to the basal margin of the plate is
usually a little greater than the transverse diameter, and seldom exceeds
a sixteenth of an inch, the largest specimens seen not measuring a line
in their greatest diameter."

Fig. 19. Plamiihlei ("> ) jnmen , magnified 2 diameters.

It will be observed, that Hall and Whitfield were in possession only
of detached plates, which they determined to belong to the sub-class
Cirrlpedes, and referred to the genus PlumuUtes. Such detached plates
are common, and found at all elevations throughout the Cincinnati
Group. While the general form is triangular, they are more or less
inequilateral, and differ from each other very much in form and size.
And, I can scarcely think, that the transverse lines on the plates,
mark the stages of growth, as suggested by the foregoing description.

J. Kelly O'Neall, of Lebanon, found a specimen, which he has
kindly furnished to me for illustration and des^cription as shown by
Fig. 19. It consists of two series of these plates, apparently connected
at one end by an overlapping plate, but, which, gradually separate
toward the other end. Each series is arranged in the form of a curve,
but, it is possible that the curve is the result of accident or pressure.
There are ten plates in each series, more than half of each of which
is covered by the overlapping plate, except the first plate in each

276 Some Remarks on PlumuUtes Jamesi.

series. The arrangement of the plates is as follows : The outer series
(or lower series, as it appears in the figure), has the concave side of
the series formed by the rapidly deflected lateral margin of the plates,
with the apex of each valve on the concave side. The inner series (or
upper series, as it appears in the figure), has the convex side of the
series formed by the rapidly deflected lateral margin of the plates,
with the apex of each valve on the convex side. These facts indicate
that the two series of plates are in their normal position, unless, it be
a fact, that the curve is the result of accident, and that the first plate
in the lower series is a little moved out of place.

In the cabinet of C. B. Dyer, Esq., there is a specimen showing an
interior view of a series of six plates. The exposed surface of three
plates has a length of yV\ inch, where the plates are yf^ inch wide.
The specimen has the appearance, to the unaided eye, of a small an-
gular gutter of smooth overlapping plates, having one side three times
as wide as the other, but an ordinary glass will detect the tracing of
the transverse lines, that mark the other side of the plates. The
narrow reflected margin, on one side, forming, with the broader ex-
panse of the plates, a gutter, is exactly such a view, as we would
expect to find, by looking at the interior of the second, third and
fourth plates of each series in figure 19 ; other plates, however, in
this figure, would lead one to expect to see a more gradual curvature,
in the form of the gutter.

The two series of plates must, therefore, be regarded as distinct,
though they might have been connected at the bottom of the depres-
sion formed by bringing together the abrupt sides of each. They
never could have been arranged, in the overlapping style of the plates
in Loricula puldwlla, and other Cirripedes. Nor does there appear to
be any reason for supposing, that any other plates were joined or in-
terlocked with either of these two series, forming with these a pine
cone arrangement.

The sessile Cirripedes, according to Mr. Charles Darwin, are first
found, in the Eocene Tertiary, and subsequently abound, in the more
recent deposits, and in the present seas. Our specimen is not a sessile
Cirripede, because it did not attach itself to another object. The
oldest pedunculated Cirripede, known to Mr. Darwin, was from the
lower Oolite, but since his great work, the naturalists have found
them, at a much earlier period and now commonly refer numerous
Silurian Crustacea to this class. Mr. Darwin, says: (monograph of
the fossil Lepadidce or pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain).

" That in the several orders of Cirripedia such important difierences
of structure are presented, that there is scarcely more than one great

Glyptoci'inus Shaffen. 277

character, by which, all Cirripedia may be distinguished from other
Crustacea ; this character is, that they are attached to some foreign
object, by a tissue or secretion (for at present I hardly know which to
call it), which debouches, in the first instance, through the prehensile
anteuuse of the larva, the antennae being thus embedded and pre-
served, in the center of the basis. The cementing substance is brought
to its point of debouchement, by a duct, leading from a gland, which
(and this is perhaps the most remarkable point in the natural history
of the class) is part of and continuous with the branching ovaria.
When we look at a Cirripede, we, in fact, see only a Crustacean, with
the first three segments of its head much developed and enclosing the
rest of the body, and with the anterior end of this metamorphosed
head fixed by a most peculiar substance, homologically connected with
the generative system to a rock or other surface of attachment."

It will appear that the character, upon which the Cirripedia are
distinguished, from other Crustacea, is not only wanting, in our
specimen, but it will require some ingenuity to construct the animal
and supply this character. The two series of valves or plates do not
overlap, as they do in Scqlpellum ornatum, or in Loricida piilcheUa and
other species described by Mr. Darwin. Indeed, about the only
resemblance, between our specimen and any well determined Cirripede,
is to be found in the surface ornamentation, which is of very slight
importance, in determining its affinity. It is not therefore too much to
say, that we are by no means certain, that we have here, under con-
sideration, a fossil Cirripede, and that it may be possible, that we have
the long sought for appendage to Billing's trilolnte. Against the
latter view, in addition to the fact, that nearly all naturalists think it
quite improbable that a trilobite had any such appendage, it may be
urged, that the plates are not tuberculated as all trilobites are, but
transversely lined, in -a way, essentially difierent, from the markings
on any known part of a trilobite ; moreover, it is difficult to see how
such legs could be disposed of wdien the animal curled up, and why it
is that the plates are not specially abundant, among the remains of
trilobites, instead of being somewhat uniformly scattered through the
rocks, without regard to the quantity of fragments or well preserved
trilobites, where they most abound.

Ghjjjfoerinus 'Slmfferi. (S. A. INIiller).

Body very small, only a little larger than the column, and Avithout
sculpture or other ornamentation. Basal pieces small, pentagonal;
radial j)ieces small and wider than long. The third radials sujiport,

278 Glyptocrinus Shafferi.

on the upper sloping sides, the free rays of the crinoid. The radials
form a longitudinally convex elevation above the interradials, which
give the short body a somewhat pentagonal appearance.

Only three interradial plates appear in the figure, and, though I
have examined several, otherwise, very good specimens, I have been
unal)le to discover the outlines of more than three plates ; but from
these examinations, I am led to believe, that there are six interradial
plates or minute pieces arranged about as in other species ofthis genus.

Arms rise free from the third radial, cylindrical on the outside.

Fig. 20. Glyptocrinus Shafferi, magnified 23^ diameters.

bifnrcate, in one specimen on the twelfth plate and in another specimen
on the ninth plate ; (the figure was made from the latter specimen,
but by mistake only seven plates appear in each of two rays) ; and
run to a point, from twenty to thirty pieces distant without another
division. Each plate or arm piece supports, on a shoulder, on one of
its inner lateral sides a comparatively large and strong pinnule. The
pinnules are alternately arranged on the inner lateral sides of the arms
and are composed of pieces three or four times as long as wide.

Column large, compared with the size of the pelvis; composed, near
the head, of alternately thicker and thinner pieces, but a short distance
below the head, three, four or more thin plates intervene between the
thicker ones, presenting the appearance of a string of little spools.

This species is di>tinguished from others, by its small, smooth body,
coarse pinnules, and free arms, above the third radial. The cup
terminates with the third radial. The column is distinguished from
any other in our rocks, by the distance between the larger plates,
which gives it the appearance of a string of little spools.

The range seems to be about the same as that of G. decadadylm, or
between 300 and 450 feet above low water mark, at Cincinnati. It is
quite rare among the collectors, only a few specimens having been thus
far found.

The specific name is given in honor of D. H. Shaffer Esq., who
found the specimen figured above, and kindly gave it to me, for
examination and description. It is a very handsome free specimen,
with all the arras and pinnules folded together, but the figure was
engraved from a photographic view% Avhich elevated the lower part of

Heterocrinus isodactylus. 27j9

the body, at the expense of the upper end of the arms and pinnules.
Dr. C. A. Miller has a splendid specimen on a small slab which clearly
shows the bifurcation of the arms on the twelfth plate from the cup or
third radial, while this specimen shows the bifurcation on the ninth
plate. The specimens are about the same size and otherwise present
the same appearance.

Heterocrinus isodactylus — (S. A. Miller).

Fig. 21. Heteroennusisodaclylus. Natural size.

Body small and tapering but very little to the column. Basal pieces
pentagonal, about 1^ times as wide as long; first radial pieces longer
than wide and quite convex longitudinally ; second radials nearly as
long as wide and longitudinally convex.

The arms bear a striking resemblance to those of if. heterodactijlus,
but as I have only one specimen showing the arms, and it being some-
wdiat imperfect, I am unable to designate the particular diffei-euces if
any exist. It will be observed, that the basal pieces are proportional-
ly wider, and the first radials proportionally longer, in this species,
than they are in H. heterodactijlus.

Column very large in proportion to the size of the body, round or
sometimes slightly pentagonal, and composed, near the head, of alter-
nately thicker and thinner pieces. It is from the character of the
column, that this species may be readily separated, from the H. Jieter-
odactylus, which it most resembles. The column is usually quite round
though sometimes it is slightly pentag(mal, the plates, however, are
continuous discs and show externally no separation into pieces, such
as always characterize the H. heterodactylus.

■ The specimen figured is an unusually large one. Some specimens
have not half the diameter of this one. Its range is from low water
mark at Cincinnati to the top of the hills but specimens are quite rare.

This species has been called isodactylus for the past two or three
years, though it was never before figured or described. I have re-
tained the local name though the species is not egnol fingered.

280 Crania reticularis.

Crania reticularis — (S. A. Miller).

Shell small, subelliptical in outline with a straight cardinal margin,
or sometimes more nearly circular in outline. Dorsal valve moderate-
ly prominent; apex prominent, acute and situated close to the
cardinal margin, in fact, it seems by its abrupt termination, to form
part of this margin.

Fig. 22. Crania reticularis. Magnified 3 diameters.

Surface marked by punctures, arranged, as shown by the figure, in
a pecidiarly beautiful manner. The rows of punctures, from the car-
dinal margin, on each side the apex, curve downwards a little, as they
ascend toward the apex. The rows as they leave the lateral margins
form the same curves, so that the rows soon cross each other, giving
the punctures the rhomboidal form, and the surface the checkered
appearance, formed by curved lines gradually approaching and crossing
oach other, like "engine turnings" on a watch-case.

Length of a specimen 0.08 inch; width 0.11 inch; convexity 0.04
inch.

The specimen figured is one of a number found, attached by the
lower or ventral valve to the under side of a worn piece of Tetradium
fibrattim, near Brookville, Indiana, by Mr. Ed. R. Quick, a collector of
that place. The specimens vary in form considerably, but the punc-
tate surface is as distinct and uniform as it is in Trematis miUepunctata.
The shell has the same appearance, that the shells have in the latter
genus, and it may be, that it is a true Trematis.

The acute apex and the variability of form, however, have induced
me, at present, to class it Avith the Crania. The lower valve and in-
terior are unknown.

Some further remarks upon the genus Anomalodonta.
By S. a. Miller.

Prof. C. A. White takes occasion, once in a while, to ci'itieise the
the genus Anomalodonta. This he has a perfect right to do, in his own
way, and if he showed an ordinary respect for truth and fairness, 1
would enjoy his criticisms, and be only too glad to republish them.
Indeed, no man has any right to object to a truthful criticism of his

Some Furtlier Eemarhs upon the genus Anomalodonta. 281

work, but ought rather to invite it. His reply, however, in the April
No. of the American Journal of Science aftid Arts, to the article,
which appeared in this Journal in October last, is so manifestly unjust,
not to say intentionally false, that its reproduction can have no value,
beyond the opportunity afforded for exposing his misrepresentations.
He says :

"Mr. S. A. Miller, in a reply to my note on the above mentioned
genus, published in the October number (1874) of the Cincinnati
Journal of Science, endeavors to defend his substitution of the name
Anomalodonta for Meek's earlier name. This he does on the ground
(I) tliat Megaptera, having been previously used for a genus of whales,
could not stand ; (2) that although Mr. Meek had subsequently (but
previous to the publication of Mr. Miller's name) proposed to sub-
stitute for it the name 'Opidhojjtera, he did it only provisionally, and
had not Jiimself adopted it in the subsequently published Ohio Report ;
and (3) that neither Meek and Worthen jointly, nor Mr. Meek alone,
had fully defined the generic characters of their type.

To one familiar with the article, in the October number of this
Journal, upon the genus Anomalodonta, the misrepresentations in the
foregoing paragraph are apparent, but as some, who will see this, have
not and will not see the former, it can only be proper to say, that
neither Meek and Worthen, nor Meek himself ever defined the genus Me-
gaptera or OpistJioptera. Meek and Worthen had a shell having all the
characters of an Ambonychia, so far as they could see, and they saw
the cardinal teeth as well as the exterior, but it had a wing unusually
prolonged. They named it Ambonychia, Casei, and suggested, that if
it should prove not to be a true Ambonychia, it be placed in a sub-
genus, for which they proposed the name Megaptera. Later Prof.
Meek said, that if this shell should prove to be the type of a sub-genus,
the name Opisthoptera might if desired be substituted instead of 3Ie-
gaptera. No character of generic or sub-generic value was defined or
suggested and consequently the names suggested were not applied to any-
thing. And furthermore it was quite fully shown, in the October
Number of this Journal, that Ambonychia Casei does not belong to the
genus Anomalodonta, but on the contrary belongs to the genus Ambony-
chia, where Meek and Worthen placed it, and has no characters sufficient
even to found a sub-genus— In other words it is an Ambonychia, simply
that and nothing more. I have not, therefore, attempted to substitute
the name Anomalodonta, for Meeks earlier name, but on the contrary,
if Megaptera or Opisthoptera could live, as generic or sub-generic terms,
they would not be in conflict with Anomalodonta, and when Prof C.
A. White, in a distant Journal publishes the statement, that I at-
tempted to substitute a name for a genus, already provided with one,

282 Some Further Remarlcs upon the genus Anomalodonta.

on the ground, that the earlier name had not been "fully defined"
he does it, without any i*egard for the truth, because in the discussion
of the subject, I said nothing about "fully"' defining a genus or a
sub-genus, but did show, that there had never been any attempt at a
definition of these words by Meek and Worthen, or Meek alone. He
continues his article, however, as follows :

"No further notice would be taken of the matter, were it not that
silence might be construed into acquiescence in views and practices
that it is the interest of all working naturalists to di^^countenance. _ In
the first place, it is by no means a settled question among naturalists
that the same name may not be used for genera in different sub-king-
doms, or even in different classes of the same sub-kingdom. Tliis is
the practice of some of the best and most renowned naturalists.
Troglodytes is constantly used for a genus of apes, and also for a genus
of birds, and many other cases might be mentioned. [What others?]
I think, however, with Mr. Meek, that it would be better to change
the latter name, but he seems to have deferred to the high authority
mentioned [what ?] in only provisionally proposing to change it in the
case of Opidkoptera. That he did not formally adopt the latter name
in the Ohio Report has no bearing on the question. [Indeed !] By-
repeating there the previously published note on Opisthoptera, he niani-
festly repeats the proposal to substitute the latter name on precisely
the same ground that he did at first, namely, in case it should be
found generically distinct from Ambonychia and the name Megaptera
■should be objected to. But it would not have altered the case if he
had there said nothing about it, or even if he had proposed to retract
both Megaptera and Opisthoptera entirely. As soon as the name was
published it became the property of science, and he had no more right
to dispose of it than any other person."

"]\Ir. Miller's argument that both Megaptera and Opi-rf/iopfera should
be discarded because full generic descriptions of them were not pub-
lished, is not, and can not be, sustained by general usage. Even in
recent zoology, where it is possible to ascertain clearly all the char-
acters, no such rule is generally followed. Such a rule would be
utterly inadmissable in the department of fossil shells, because of the
exceeding rarity of specimens that are even approximately perfect ;
for even in the best specimens the most important features (as, for
example, the internal markings and teeth in bivalves) are generally
obscured. Consequently, many of the genera of the latter kind of
fossil shells have been proposed mainly or entirely upon external
characters. The rule w^ould endanger the nama Anomalodonta, be-
cause nothing is yet known of the pallial line and pedal muscular
scars of that shell, to say nothing about the extraordinary position of
the. adductor impression in Mr. Millers figure. Hundreds of cases
might be mentioned of genera established upon external characters."

The misrepresentations above can not be made plainer than by
quoting what was said upon the subject by me in the October number
of this journal, viz.:

Some Further Remarks upon the genus Anomalodonta. 28

"The law of nomenclature, having di^^posed of Megaptnxi, reaches
out its hand and suppresses, at least for the present, Ophfhopiera.
Because only one of the authors suggested the name with an if and
a doubt, and did not himself adopt it, as plainly appears by refer-
ence to the publication in the Ohio Paleontology, above referred to, and
if he had positively proposed the name, it would have fallen under the
twelfth rule governing naturalists, and the reasons therefor, as follows :

' Unless a species or group is intelligibly defined when the name is
given, it can not be recognized by others, and the signification of the
name is consequently lost. Two things are necessary before a zoologi-
cal term can acquire any authority, viz., definition and pnhlicaiion.
Definition properly implies a distinct exposition of essential characters,
and in all cases we conceive this to be indispensable, etc." Therefore ;

' Sec. 12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some
published work, should be changed for the earliest name by which the
object shall have been so defined."

' The only generic 'characters ever given to Megaptera, and conse-
quently the only ones that Opisihoptera , if alive, can inherit, are the
cardinal teeth of an Ambonychia, and a long posterior wing; and the
right of possession of these is dependent upon ascertaining that the
lateral teeth in the posterior wing of the Qisei is essentially different
from the lateral teeth in the posterior wing of the AmbQiii/chia. And
if possession is ever acquired, the characters will only be sub-generic,
and will include, so far as yet ascertained, but one species, whose
name will then be Ambonychia (Ojyidhopdera) Casei (M. & W.)

' The genus Anomalodonta, having a cardinal tooth and hinge line
wholly different from the Ambonychia, can never be aflTected by it or
any subgenus under it. So far, then, as anything is yet known the
genus Anomalodonta will hold its place in the zoological column, rep-
resented by at least two species, Anomalodonta gigantea, the type, and
Anomalodonta alata."

Prof. White, continues :

" Unlike some other genera, Opisthoptera has its more conspicuous
characters external, namely, its form and surface ornamentation,
which when taken together are quite sufficient to distinguish it from
related types, even from the broad types of Myalina, from which the
hinge characters shown by Mr. Miller would not separate it. As
Meek and Worthen, and still later, Mr. INIeek alone, have fully
described and illustrated these external characters of their type, they
have given sufficient means for its identification, which even Mr.
Miller found no difficulty in doing. To jMr. Miller's other remarks it
is hardly necessary to reply."

As Meek and Worthen, and later Prof Meek, never suggested,
described or illustrated any characters for Megaptera or Opisthoptera,
except by indicating the characters of an Ambonychia, the utter want
of any foundation for such remarks will be made apparent by refer-
ence to what they said on the subject. He now comes to consider the
family relations of Ambonychia, as follows ;

284 GyHoceras magider.

"As to the affinities of Amhomjchia with the AvimUdce, which Mr.
Miller rufuses to admit, on account of the equality of the valves, I need
only to remark that to make such family distinctions as that proposi-
tion, would require us to divide well defined genera, some species of
which would fall in one family and some in another, the genus
Inocerarmis being an example. The true (Triassic typical) Monotis,
Halohia, and others are included by the highest authorities among the
Aviculidse, and yet they are equivalve. He refers to McCoy as the
first to refer Amhomjchia to the Aviculidse, being evidently unaware
of the fact that in 1833, Goldfuss in his great work, Petrif, Germ., did
the same. Conrad, Woodward, Brown, Dr. Carpenter, and Dr.
Stoliczska all have done the same, the latter even placing it near
Avicula in the section Aviculinje."

The genus Amhomjchia was formed by Prof. Hall, and first pub-
lished in 1847. Goldfuss described Pterinea carinata, which was
removed afterward to the genus Amhomjchia. Prof. Meek discussed
this matter of the family relations of these shells in his work on the
Paleontology of the Upper Missouri. He divided the family Pteriidce^^
Avicididce into three sub-families, viz.: Pteriniinoe,, Pteriiim and
Melinince. In the first of these sub-families he placed Myalina and
Amhomjchia, and he placed Avicula in the second sub-family. If his
sub-families were raised to the grade of fixmilies, it would seem to me
to be a better classification. In other words, Prof Meek would place
Amhomjchia, Myalina, Anomalodonta, etc., in a sub-family, distinct
from the Aviculince, while I infer from the above that Prof, \yhite
would not.

Cyrtoceras magister — (S. A. Miller.)

In the April number of this Journal, page 132, a new species of
Cyrtoceras was described under the name of ohscurum (by mistake
ohsGura), since that time, I have learned that Barrande had already
described a fossil, under the name of Gyrtoceras ohscurum, and conse-
quently, I had no right to use the word. I now propose for that
species, the name Cyrtoceras viagistei'.

There are two other mistakes in that monograph of the Cephalopoda
that might as well be corrected here. Orthoceras transversa sliould
have been written, Orthoceras transversum, and GyHoceras vcntricosa
should have been written GyHoceras ventricomm.

Note from Antioch College. 285

Note from Antioch College, by E. W. Claypole, B. A. B. S.
The Canker worm. — Anisopteryx vernata.

This destroyer of orchards reached us at Yellow Spi-ings from the
east about four years ago, or at least then first attracted attention.
It is slowly spreading through the town. Every year a few more
brown leafed apple trees in June prove its advance, this, however, is
probably not its extreme western limit though how far it has advanced
and as it were overlapped us, I cannot at present exactly determine.
I have not been able to make a personal inspection during the month
over any extent of country, and without this or the reports of some one
well acquainted with the insect, such a determination is impossible,
so many different species being confounded in popular accounts of
"worms," "millers," etc. It would be very useful if persons living in
different parts of the states, could report the appearance in their
localities of this insect pest, so that its annual progress westward could
be recorded.

Attempts were made by some of the OAvners of the infested trees to
remedy the evil by the usual method, but the measures were not taken
in time. Instead of papering and tarring a belt upon the trunks of
the trees in October, this was delayed until March, consequently the
moths which came out of their subterranean chrysalids in mild weather
during the winter had ascended the trees in large numbers as was
shown by the capture of hundreds, the first night after the tar had
been applied.

The ^Ecidium — Puecinia question. In connection with this point it
may not be uninteresting to remark that the leaves of the may apple
Podophyllum peltatum, which three weeks ago were dotted on their
lower surfaces with "cluster cups," ]}rohvih\y uEcidium berberidis are
noted, June 8th, thickly dotted in many places with a mildew, jmccmia
presenting under the microscope the usual appearance of two brown
cells placed end to end. Each of these cells bear two or more short
thick wistle-like ^projections. Their occurrence on the same plane may
be purely accidental, but if the experiments of Prof. Oersted bear out
his inference that Aeeklium bcrberidis and Puecinia granimis are alter-
nate forms of each other, then may this JEcidimn which I have
assumed to be JE. bcrberidis, because the may apple and the barberry
both belong to the same natural order, be also an alternate form of
the Puecinia which has followed it.

286 ■ Miscellany, Book Notices, etc.

MISCELLANY, BOOK NOTICES, ETC.

By the will of the late Mr. Charles Bodraan of this city, the "Cincin-
nati Society of Natural History" receives a bequest of $50,000. No
conditions are attached to the gift. It is absolute. Mr. Bodnian was
a member of the society, and by his munificence has placed it on a
permanent basis, and enabled it to become one of the principal educa-
tional institutions of the city. No donation, to a public purpose, was
ever more gratefully received, or more likely to perpetuate the
memory of the benefactor than this one.

The cool spring and summer, and the pleasant showers and liard
rains, have rendered this season unusually favorable to collectors in
natural history in this latitude. The increased interest taken in
geological and paleontological science, is manifested by a large increase
in the number of collectors. There are, now, in this city, five times
as many sollectors of fossils and antiquities, as there were that many
years ago, and the number will. continue to increase every year. We
never find a man who has studied and collected fossils at one period of
his life, afterward entirely abandoning the 2:)ursuit.

A scientific association has been organized and incorporated at
Richmond, Indiana. The officers for the ensuing year are James F.
Hibbard, President; Wm. M. Jackson, Vice-President; L. B. Case,
Corresponding Secretary ; and D. H. Dougan, Recording Secretary and
Treasurer. A suitable ro(ftn for a museum has been leased for a term
of years, and a full complement of custodians appointed. Their publi-
cations will be under the name of "Transactions of the Scientific
Association of Richmond, Indiana," the first of which is a neat pamphlet
of 16 pages, containing constitution, by-laws, list of members, etc.

The well at the Insane Asylum, St. Louis County, Missouri, by
Prof. G. C. Broadhead, State Geologist. This well was sunk a distance
of 3,8431 feet. Experiments with a Fahrenheit registering ther-
mometer indicated at the depths of 3,127 feet 106°, 3,129 feet 107°,
3,264 and 3,376 feet 106°, 3,473, 3,533 and 3604 feet 105°, 3,641
feet 104|°, 3,728 feet 105^°, and at 3,800 and 3,837 feet 105°. The
drill was highly magnetized in boring to the depth of 833 feet, but
after passing that depth no farther magnetic influence was observed.

Catalogue of Lower Silurian fossils of the Cincinnati Group, found
at Cincinnati, within a circuit of 40 or 50 miles. New edition much
enlarged, with descriptions of some new species of corals and polyzoa.
By U. P. Jam^s, Cincinnati, April 1875.

'Miscellany, Book Notices, etc. 287

Department of the interior. United States Geological and Geo-
graphical survey of the Territories. F. V. Haydcu, U. S. Geologist
in charge. Bulletin No. 2, second series containing : I. Monograph
of the genus Xeucosiicfe (Swainson) ; or gray crowned purple finches
by Robert Ridgeway. II. The cranial and dental characters of Geo-
mydw by Dr. Elliott Coues. III. Relations of insectivorous mammals
by Theodore Gill. IV. Report on ihe natural history of the United
States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories 1874,
by Ernest Ingersoll. Bulletin No. 3, containing topographical and
geological report on the San Juan Country. Bulletin No. 4, contain-
ing "Notes on the Surface features of the Colorado or Front Range
of the Rocky Mountains," by F. V. Hayden. " Tertiary Physojmla
of Colorado" by Samuel H. Scudder. And "Outlines of a natural
arrangement of the Falconidse" by Robert Ridgeway. Miscellaneous
publications, No. 1, giving a list of elevations ; and Miscellaneous
publications, No. 6, giving Meteorological observations.

Geographical explorations and surveys west of the 100th ]\Ieridian.
First Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, corps of engineers in charge. Systematic
catalogue of Vertebrata of the Eocene of New Mexico, collected in
1874, by E. D. Cope, A. M. paleontologist.

The Native Races of the Pacific States. By Hubert Howe Bancroft. Vol. II,
Civilized Nations. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y., Publishers. Price $5 50.

Mr. Bancroft has already shown us enough to justify the warmest
praise of his work as a whole. Bringing to bear upon a large and
varied mass of materials, collected at great expense and labor in differ-
ent countries — a wise, painstaking and comprehensive discrimination —
he has evolved a work of lasting merit and exciting interest. His
book is not a mere encyclopedia of information concerning the early
, American races. The varied and varying phases of their life, man-
ners, customs, ideas, and surroundings are so fully and vividly depicted,
that the reader is led into their very spirit and reality. The faded
hues of the ancient civilization are again restored, and the figures,
instinct with life, move before the imagination in their accustomed
spheres, as parts of the unique system, which withered at the touch of
the Conquistadores, three centuries and a half ago.

The present volume treats fully of the Maya and Nahua branches'
of aboriginal culture— the last being most fully known to us through
the Aztecs of ancient Mexico, although the Maya nations of Yucatan,
Chiapas and Gauteraala were more advanced in knowledge of arts and
general civilization.

*

288 Miscellany, Booh Notices, etc.

Unfortunately, the evidences of the more elevated, and to us, more
interesting, features of this culture, were almost wholly destroyed by
the Spanish ecclesiastics in their blind bigotry and zeal, Mr. Ban-
croft has, however, succeeded in collecting a large amount of informa-
tion on these points, which is exceedingly valuable. He shows, that
beyond the mere manual dexterity and skill in manufactures, which
excited the wondering praise of the Spaniards, the Mexicans possessed
an advanced literary and artistic culture, which the rude soldiery of
Cortes, and the fanatical priesthood, were entirely incapable of appre-
ciating, and hence, have given us but meager and imperfect accounts.
In the palmy days of the Chichimec empire and indeed down to
the coming of the Spaniards, an academy or council at Tezcuco con-
trolled all branches of art among the ISTahuas, especially poetry,
oratory, history, painting, and lesser arts. Every teacher of the
young was required to have a certificate of his qualifications from this
council, and before it the pupils were brought for examination. Every
literary work was subject to its revision and at certain sessions, poems
and historical essays were read by the authors, new inventions exhib-
ited and rich prizes awarded for excellence in any branch of learning.
Of their literary works few fragments remain ; but these breathe an
elevation of sentiment and dignity of style not unworthy a place be-
side the productions of ancient Greece.

The error of considering the picture Avritings of the Aztecs as a
test of their general knowledge of art is clearly shown ; as in these
a conventional style was absolutely requisite in order to make them
available as records.

Mr. Bancroft is also led to hope after full examination that future
study will unravel the secrets hidden in their sculptured delineations,
and picture-writings, and yield a conclusive solution of those ethno-
logical problems, which have so long bafiled inquiry.

The succeeding volumes Avill treat more fully of their antiquities,
religion and language, and discuss the various conclusions and theories
suggested by scholars as to the origin and growth of these nations and
their civilization.

The work forms one of the most valuable contributions of modern
times, to the science and literature of this subject, and should have an
honored place in every well selected library.

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CONTENTS:

Page-
Teneina of Coorado; by V. T. Chambers, 289
The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic

Explorations; by Richard A. Proctor, 30i
Zoological Recreation ia Florida Bay ; by

W. W. Calkins 31C

On Animal Instinct: in Its Relation to

the Mind of Man; by the Duke of

Argyll 320

Note on the Manufacture of Stone Axes;

by E. W. Claypole 344

New species of Trilobite from the Trenton

Limestone, at Trenton Falls, N. Y.;

by C. D. Walcoit 347

Some new species of Fossils from the Cin-

cianati Group, and Remarks upon .

Page,
some described forms; by S.A.Miller, 349

Sir Charles Lyel) 355

Descriptions of Lepidopterous Larvse,
with Remarks on their Habits and

AflBnities; by A. G. Wetherby 363

Results of Investigations of Indian

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The Square Crinoid Column 378

Book Notices— Sixth Annual Report of
the Geological Survey of Indiana —
PaliEontoIogy of Ohio, Vol. II. — Eu-
sarcus Scorpionis — Sale of Prof. Hall's

Cabinet -373

Obituary — Sir William Logan— Prof. G. P.
Deshayes-Dr. I. A. Laphain 381

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THE CINCINNATI QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Vol. II. OCTOBER, 1875. No. 4.

Tenehia of Colorado. By V. T. Chambers.

Manitou, September 1, 1875.

The following list comprises all the Teneina that I have met with in
Colorado since July 20th. The species do not appear to be numerous,
but the individuals of some of them swarm about the food plants of
the larvce. They Avere captured, or bred, along the course of Clear
Creek, and in Middle Park, and a few at this place; the altitudes
given are the highest at which the species were observed. The flora
of the mountains is, much of it, new to me, and in the absence of all
books, it has been impossible, sometimes, for me to determine the
species of plants ob which larvae feed :

Gelechia — G. gallcesolidagiiiis (?) — Kiley.

Bred from galls gathered on the banks of Grand River, m Middle
Park ; altitude, 8,500 feet. I have no specimens of G. gallccsolidaginn
here to compare with, nor any description, and I am not very certain
that my specimens belong to that species. If they do, they are like
their food plant, dwarfed by climatal conditions, and they are much
less distinctly marked, some of them being simply brown, with the
markings scarcely discernable, though others are more distinctly
marked. The gall, as it is described by Prof. Riley, and as I have

290 Teneina oj Colorado.

found it in Kentucky, is oblong, and sometimes it is so here, but
usually, it is much more rounded, and sometimes might be mistaken
for that of Trypeta solidaginis.

G. rosasuffusella, Clem.
Taken at Manitou, at light, Aug. 30; altitude, 6,100 feet.

G. 10 maculella (n. sp.)

This species, of which I have but a single captured specimen,
reminds one as to ornamentation of G. {Tmjcjate) difficiliseUa, Cham.
It is, however, larger, having an cdar. ex. of about seven lines, Hind
wings not excised beneath the tij:* ; palpi slender, simple with the
third joint nearly as long as the second. Palpi and forewings pale
ocherous, almost white. There is a brown spot on the outer surface
of the second joint of the palpi at the base, and a small one also on
the base of the third joint, which has also a brown annulus before the
tip. Base and tips of the forewings rich brown, also two costal spots
of the same hue, one of which (the smallest) is before the middle and
the other behind it ; there is also a dorsal spot of the same hue oppos-
site to the first costal one ; hind wings and cilia of both pair pale
grayish ; face yellowish ; vertex fuscus ; thorax rich brown ; upper
surface of the abdomen fuscus ; anal tuft ocherous ; hind legs marked
with brown. Taken at Spanish Bar (mouth of Fall River), Clear
Creek, July 28th. Altitude, 7,800 feet.

G. 4 macidella (n. sp.)

Hind wings not excised beneath the tip ; second joint of the palpi
with a large brush beneath ; dark brown ; the forewings have four
obscure darker brown spots, two of which are on the fold, the first
one being the most obscure, one on the disc, and one at the end of
the cell ; legs annulate with ocherous. Al. ex. 8 lines. Taken at the
light, August 6 — a single specimen — Spanish Bar.

(t, fibesella (n. sp.)

Palpi brown, the second joint brush-like, tipped with pale yellowish ;
third joint nearly as long as the second ; head and thorax roseate
tinged with pale yellowish ; antenuse brown above and dotted with

Teneina of Colorado. 291

white beneath; forewings rich brown, a little du.«ted with white and
pale roseate along the costal margin ; and with a white spot on the
disc, margined both before and behind by a spot of darker brown
than the general hue, there is another smaller white spot nearer to the
base, and a white fascia before the cilia, widest on the dorsal margin ;
cilia of forewings bright roseate, in some lights almost brick red, and
somewhat dusted with brown ; behind the fascia the wing is darker
than it is before it, except upon the disc before and behind the white
spot, and to the unaided eye, the whole wing sometimes appears to be
suffused with roseate ; under surface of the abdomen whitish, densely
dusted with brown ; legs brown, annulate with roseate and whitish.
Al. ex. 7 lines. It is one of the prettiest species of this genus. The
larvffi is straw color with six longitudinal roseate stripes, two dorsal,
and two on each side. It feeds upon the leaves of tlie wild Rocky
Mountain red currant as high up as 8,000 feet, and possibly much
higher. It folds the leaf downward from each side and the tip, and lives
within the fold. The folded leaf is difficult to distinguish from that
of a species of GracUaria, which feeds in the same manner on the
same leaves, but which 1 did not succeed in rearing — Spanish Bar.

G. 8 maculella (n-, sp.)

Hind wings a little excised beneath the tip ; second joint of the
palpi a little brush-like, third more than half as long as second; white
dusted with dark brown ; antennae annulate Avith brown. The fore-
wings have a brown si)ot on the dorsal margin near to the base, which
is also brownish, and also a large rust red spot on the disc before
the middle which touches a brown costal spot placed just before it,
there is another rusty red spot at the end of the disc, and a
rather dense small patch of dusting before the costal cilia, and one
also before the dorsal cilia ; hind wings pale grayish fuscus ; abdomen
and anal tuft silvery ; legs densely dusted with brown ; and tarsi
brown, annulate with white. Al. ex. nearly one-third inch. Hot
fSulphur Springs, Mitldle Park. Altitude, 8,500 feet.

(?. albimargmella (n. ?p.)

Palpi simple ; brown ; second joint of the palpi mixed with white ;
third joint whit€ at base and tip ; dorsal margin of the forewings, from
base to cilia, grayish white. Al. ex. two-thirds inch. In company
with G. galloesolidaginh, Riley, on Grand River.

292 Teneina of Colorado.

The species of Gelechia are much less numerous in this region than
in other parts of the United States, as compared Avith species of other
genera.

Plutella. — P. crucifermn, Auct.

This ubiquitous species was taken at an altitude of 11,500 feet near
Berthouds Pass.

CEcoPHOKA. — CE. boreasella, Cham.

This species also has a wide range of altitude as well as latitude and
longitude. It was first described from a specimen sent to me from
London, Ontario, by Mr. Saunders; afterwards I took a specimen in
Kentucky, at an altitude of about 1,500 feet, and I have found it on
Bellevue Mountain, in the neighborhood of Idaho Springs, at an
altitude of about 10,000 feet.

CE. 4 macuMla (n. sp.)

The apical half of the antennae is broken off in this specimen before
me and the insect has so much the appearance of a Gelechia that I
hesitate a little to place it in this genus, notwithstanding the slender
palpi and the form and neuration of the hind wings.

Kich brown ; antennse annulate with white ; forewings each with
four white spots, two costal and two dorsal ; the first dorsal is near
the basal one-fourth, the second is behind the middle (just before the
cilia) ; the first costal is o})posite to the space between the first and
second dorsal, and the second costal is a little behind the second dorsal.
Hind wings and cilia of both pairs greyish fuscus. Al. ex. over one-
half inch. Taken July 28th, at Spanish Bar. Altitude, 7,800 feet.

GiA'PHiPTERYX. — G. viontisella (n. sp.)

A very variable species illustrating the insufficiency of the number
and position of the white and silvery streaks on the forewings as
specific characters in this genus. Taken in great numbers feeding on
the flowers of Heliopsis and Helianthus at Spanish Bar. Altitude,
7,800 feet. Two or more species might easily be made of single
captured specimens, but when the individuals of a species are so
abundant as they are in this case, and when all the variations found

Tcneina of Colorado. 293

among them are frequently found in the wings of the same insect,
no room is left to doubt that we have only a single species.

Second joint of the palpi white at the base, followed by alternate
annulations of white and dark brown, its apex being white ; third
joint with a dark brown annulus followed by a white one and with the
apical half dark brown with a longitudinal white line on each side.
Head antenme and fore wings to the streaks dark brown, with less of
the leaden hue than is found in Gr. e.voptatella, the remainder of the
Aving pale golden or straw color, according to the light, and containing
sometimes five, sometimes six and sometimes seven white costal
streaks; sometimes five on one wing and six or seven on the other.
The first is like that of exoptatella and Haworthxina but narrow ; it is
dark margined both before and behind ; the second is opposite to and
usuallv confluent with the first dorsal streak which is of nearly the
same size but is a little wider on the margin though narrower rather than
Haworthana; together these streaks usually form a fascia strongly
angulatcd behind ; then follow two other slightly oblique costal
stieaks dark margined all around and opposite to each of these is a
dorsal metalic violaceous spot the first of which (i. e. the second dorsal
streak) is placed immediately before the cilia, (this third costal is
frequently absent). Between the fourth costal streak and its opposite
dorsal spot is another metalic violaceous spot. The fifth costal streak
is opposite to the fourth dorsal metalic spot, and between them is a
larger metalic violaceous spot, which is sometimes confluent with the
fifth costal streak, and sometimes this fifth costal streak is only
. represented by a very small violaceous metalic spot while sometimes
it is absent entirely. The sixth costal streak is sometimes short and
sometimes long enough to almost touch its nearly opposite dorsal
metalic spot which is a little elongate, lying along the base of the cilia
and is sometimes confluent with its predecessor, the fourth dorsal spot.
The sixth costal streak is a little behind the fifth dorsal spot, and
there is a metalic spot between them with which the sixth costal is
sometimes united. The seventh costal is before the apex, a little
hooked backwards and almost unites with it, opposite the sixth dorsal
spot which is also hooked backwards. (When any of the streaks are
indistinct or absent it is always the third or the fifth costal ones or
both, and sometimes one or both of them is present in one wing and
absent in the other of the same insect). There is no dark brown
streak in the costal cilia projecting backwards, as in some other
species, and the cilia have their basal half brown and the remainder
silvery, but the dark brown is interrupted by the last dorsal white
streak. Under surface and legs rich dark brown; the hind tarsi

294 ' Teneina of Colorado.

annulate with white ; each segment of the abdomen beneath margined
behind with silvery white, and anal tuft whitish. Al. ex. averaging
about five lines. Season, August.

In company with the multitude of specimens, from which I have
prepared the foregoing description, of what I regard as a single species,
was a single specimen having the base of the dorsal margin of the
forewings white, and the first dorsal streak forming a large square spot
with a tooth projecting towards but not touching the second costal
streak. I regard it also as belonging to the same species.

Argyresthia. — A. goedastella, Auct.

Only known heretofore in this country by a single specimen sent to
me by M. Belanger from Quebec, this species occurs in the greatest
abundance among the leaves of the 'Black Alder' (Abms sp?) along
Clear Creek, and on Grand River, in Middle Park, reaching an
elevation of at least 9,000 feet, where still water freezes nearly every
night in August.

CoLEOPHORA. — C. luttocostella (n. sp.)

Second joint of palpi with a small projecting tuft; basal joint of
tlie antennai enlarged. Dark greyish ocherous, or perhaps as
correctly, dark greyish drab, and in some lights brownish ; basal
joint of the antennse and the annulations of the stalk yellowish
ocherous, and a narrow streak of the same hue along the costal margin
of the forewings, which ai'e a little dusted with brown especially
toward the apex ; abdomen with a leaden hue, sparsely dusted with
ocherous on the under surface and the tuft ocherous. In many
specimens whicli were taken at the same time, the light color of the
costal margin is very narrow being sometimes confined to the extreme
costa or even entirely absent near the base of the wing and sometimes
the brown dusting is very dense. Al. ex-, about seven lines. It occurs
in the latter part of July and in August in swarms in the grass at
Spanish Bar. Altitude 7,800 feet, and a single specimen of it, or of
an allied species, was observed but not secured at an elevation of over
11,000 feet near Berthouds Pass.

C. spaisijndrclla (n. sp.)

Antennte simple. Second joint of palpi with a minute projecting
tuft. White with a faint appearance of ocherous dusting on the
forewings. Al. ex. Q^ lines. Spanish Bar, in August.

Teneina of Colorado. 295

Laverna. — L. albella (n. sp.)

Snowy white ; each wing with about fifteen brown scales scattered
over the apical half, some of which are in the cilia. Al. ex. scarcely
one-half inch. Spanish Bar, August 3d; a single specimen. Probably
not a true Laverna as the palpi are rather small and more like those of
Phyllrenidls. The vertex is short and the antenna) and Avings, inclu-
ding the neuration, are those of Laverna.

L. alhapalpeUa (n. sp.)

Palpi, head and thorax, white, the vertex stained with purplish
fuscus, and base of second joint of the palpi brown on the outer surface;
antenna) brown ; forewings brown mixed with purplish and ocherous;
the dorsal margin of the forewings, from the base to the middle, is white,
the brown color of the wing projecting into the white but not dividing
it into two spots. There is a small white spot about the middle of the
costal margin, and a white fascia placed about the apical one-fourth,
is widest on the costa and contains a brownish spot about its middle,
and there is a confused series of whitish spots around the apex at the
base of the cilia which are yellowish white : hind wings pale greyish
fuscus ; abdomen brown, each segment margined behind with silvery
white ; and tuft yellowish, legs dark brown annulate with white. Al ex. ^
a little over one-half inch. A single specimen captured on flowers of
Heliopds levis at Spanish Bar, August 3d.

L. grisselki (n. sp.)

Second joint of the palpi with spreading scales at the apex beneath.
Head and second joint of the palpi pale ocherous, almost hoary, with
greyish brown intermixed. Third joint of the palpi greyish brown
with an ocherous annulus at the base and one at its middle and the tip
ocherous; Antenms dark brown, with the basal joint a little enlarged
and having some short bristle like scales projecting downwards over
the eyes. Thorax, on the upper surface dark grisseous (pale gray over
laid with dark brown). Base of the dorsal margin of the forewings a
little paler than the thorax, the forewings, otherwise dark brown,
obscurely streaked and somewhat suffused with yellowish ocherous ;
the dark brown hue projects into the pale grisseous of the basal dorsal
margin but does not divide it into two portions ; the pale grisseous
hue extends nearly across the wing at the base, and is margined behind

296 Teneina of Colorado.

by an oblique streak of raised scales which is nearest to the base on the
costal margin, but does not quite touch either the costal or dorsal (?)
margin, these raised scales form a small ocherous tuft at the point
where the dark hue jDrojects into the pale grisseous. About the middle
of the wing length is a precisely similar and parallel oblique row of
raised scales which margins the pale grisseous color behind Avith a
similar tuft. (A very little denudation removes all these raised scales
except the tufts). At about the apical fourth is another similar
oblique streak of raised scales but which differs from the others by
being nearest to the base on the dorsal margin and which is much more
oblique than either of the others approaching the costal margin just
before the apex. Abdomen and anal tuft dark grisseous above with
purpleish reflections. In the general color it resembles somewhat L.
cephalanthiella, Chamb., but it has no close affinity with it. The cilia
are pale fuscus, those of the apex dotted with hoary and with two
brown hinder marginal lines, one about the middle and the other at
their apex. Legs and tarsi brownish gray the tarsi annulate with white.
At. ex. over one-third of an inch. Taken at Spanish Bar. Three
specimens at light in August.

L. grandisella (n. sp.)

A single specimen of this fine species came to the light at Spanish
Bar, August 6th. It has an alar. ex. of a little over eight lines.
Second joint of the palpi enlarged with spreading scales toward its
apex ; palpi brown above, ocherous beneath ; head, antennae and
upper surface of thorax brown, the thorax becoming ocherous toward
the tip ; forewings brown, some little dusted with ocherous, and Avith
the dorsal margin gray to the fold. In this gray portion is a large
dark brown raised tuft which touches the fold about the middle, and
is margined behmd with ocherous scales, and there is another tuft
like it at the beginning of the dorsal cilia ; on the costal margin, just
before the cilia, is an oblique streak of dense white dusting. The
apical part of the wing is more ocherous than brown, and is dusted
with white and brown ; cilia grayish, dusted towards the base with
brown and white, and with a brown hinder marginal hue about
their middle ; the abdomen is dark blueish-brown above, with the
third, fourth, fifth, and last segments marked by two ocherous spots,
and the sixth and seventh having some ocherous scales intermixed ;
anal tuft ocherous; hind wings rather dark gray, a little darker than
the dorsal margin of the forewings ; each segment of the abdomen,
after the first two, in addition to the above mentioned spots, is rear-

Teneina of Colorado. 297

gined behind with white, and on the under surface the abdomen is
brown, and each segment is margined behind with white; legs brown,
the hinder pair annulate with ocherous. After being chloroformed
the specimen deposited a great many eggs, which are almost uniform,
and marked by five ridges which follow the outline of the shell, and
having a length of about -^-^1^, and heighth of about y^^ of an inch.
The food plants of the larvte of these species are not known.
Finding so many species in one locality, and knowing the partiality of
many species of the genus in the larval state for (Enothera and allied
plants, I searched these plants, which are very abundant at Spanish
Bar, carefully for the larvai, but without any other success than find-
ing in a very small mine, in a leaf of (Ebiennis, two young larvae,
which I believe to be those of Laverna, but which afterward died.

Bedellia — B. somnulentella, St.

I have not met Avith this species, but have found at Manitou
Springs (altitude, 6,100 feet), a few of its mines in leaves of Morning
Glory (Ipomea sp, ?).

CosMOPTERYX — C. motitisella (n. sp.)

Rich brown, but faintly tinged with green; second joint of the palpi
with three longitudinal white lines, one of which is on the under-side,
one on the outer and one on the inner surface ; third joint with a
white line beneath and one above ; basal joint of the antennae with a
white line above and one beneath, these lines also extend along the
stalk for more than half its length, the remainder of the stalk ^though
a little rubbed in the single specimen before me) appears to be annulate
with white, and with two large white annulations before the apex.
The head is marked with three white lines, one being over each eye,
and one on the vertex, the latter not extending down on the face;
tongue whitish ; thorax with four white lines, two of which are on
top and one on each side, the two middle ones also behig each continu-
ous with a white line which extends along the dor.-^al margin of the
forewing nearly to the fascia, and the two outer ones are each continu-
ous with a white line which extends along the costal maigin for a
short distance, and then leaving the margin, passes obliquely back-
ward to the fascia; (this is true only of one wing in this specimen, in
the other wing it does not reach the fascia, being much abbreviated,
and perhaps, in the wing, where it seems to reach the fascia, it is
more properly described as being also abbreviated and not reaching

298 Teneina of Colorado.

the fiiscia, but as becoming confluent with a discal oblique streak
which does extend to the fascia on the one wing, but is entirely absent
on the other.) At about the basal one-fourth of the wing length are
two other short obh'que discal white streaks, one above, the other
beneath the fold ; the fascia placed just behind the middle is of an
orange color, and is widest on the costal margin when it is produced
backward along the margin, immediately before it is a transverse
streak of smooth raised silvery scales, which does not quite touch the
costal margin, and is separated from the orange fascia by a narrow
line of black scales ; behind the orange fascia, and separated from it
by a narrow line of blackish scales, is a smooth raised tuft of silvery
scales on the dorsal margin, and there is a similar tuft on the costal
margin behind the produced portion of the fascia also separated by a
blackish line. The wing behind the fascia is brown, with a short silvery
dorsal line, and a similar one at the apex ; hind wings and cilia pale
grayish fuscus ; abdomen of the general brown hue, with a longitudi-
nal band or wide line of orange-yellow extending along the top of all
except the last two segments, and each segment margined beneath
and on its sides with silvery; and tuft silvery; legs and tarsi brown,
the hinder pair annulate with silveiy. Al. ex. a little over one-half
inch. Spanish Bar, August 1. Not surpassed in beauty by any
species of this fine genus.

Gracilaria.

Two species of this genus feed upon leaves of the "Black Alder"
(Alnus sp.) in great numbers. The one which I describe as G.
alnivorella makes a short narrow phyllceiiidis-Yike mine on the upper
surface in its earlier stages, and after leaving the mine it rolls the leaf
downward from the side' and passes the pupa state in a compact whit-
ish cocoon under the edge of the leaf which is curled very tightly
down over it. The other species which I describe as G. alnicolella,
in its early stages makes a small tentiform mine on the under side of
the same leaves, and afterward, leaving the mine, it rolls the leaf
downward from the tip, and passes the pupa state under a dense
greenish-yellow cover or web ribbed or folded along the middle.

G. alnivorella (n. sp.)

The antenna? and the palpi are rather shorter and thicker than is
usual in gracilaria, Gray. Maxillary palpi whitish, with dark gray
or brownish spots; face, third joint of the labial palpi and apex of the

Teneina of Colorado. 299

second joint brown ; antennse grayit^b-brown faintly annulate with gray ;
thorax and abdomen dark gray; patagia a little paler; forewings
gray, marked with numerous small brown spots, which are usually
arranged rather irregularly, but which sometimes seeming to form
about five longitudinal rows, one of which extends along each margin,
and usually, one of the spots on the dorsal margin, and one before its
middle, three beyond the middle of the costal margin, and one at the
apex, are larger than the others, but in a series of specimens, the
spots are found to vary, both in position and size; cilia of the forewings
gray, those around the apex densely dusted with brown, and with a
narrow pale ocherous hinder marginal line about the middle ; hind
wings and cilia paler gray ; fore legs dark gray, annulate with whitish
with the femora pale gray at the base, and mixed with reddish ocher-
ous on their outer surface; intermediate legs dark gray, annulate with
whitish, with the tarsi pale gray ; hind legs pale gray, marked with
dark gray, with the tibia and tarsi paler and annulate with whitish.
Al. ex. 8 lines.

G. alnicolella (n. sp.)

Pale brick red with strong roseate or purplish reflections in some
lights ; antennae silvery white, each joint with a brown dot on the
upper side ; tarsi silvery white, faintly annulate with fiiscus at the
joints; abdomen and anal tuft pale straw yellow, the upper surface a
little suffur^ed with fuscus. AL ex. eight lines. A more graceful and
slender insect than the preceding.

Both of these species are found in great numbers along the course
of Clear Creek and Grand River to an elevation of at least 9,000 feet,
and I have also met with their larvse along the Fontain-qui-bouille near
Colorado Springs.

G. acerifoliella (n. sp.)

Palpi, bead, antennse, thorax and forewings ocherous, with brown
intermixed, the antennse annulate with dark brown, and the thorax
sometimes without the brown dusting. There is a brown streak near
the ba>e of the forewings passing obliquely backwards and reaching
the fold, a brownish spot on the dorsal margin, not flir from the base
and the middle of the wing, is suffused and sprinkled with brown, the
brown becoming much more distinct toward the apex ; there is a row
of brown dots along the costal, and one along the dorsal margin to the
cilia, which are sprinkled and tipped with brown, the dusting indicating

300 Teneiiia of Colorado,

these indistinct hinder marginal lines, the first of which is about the
middle and the third near the tip. The wings show strong purple
reflections and in some lights the ocherous colors become distinctly
golden, but there is a considerable amount of variation in the intensity
and amount of the brown and ocherous hues, some specimens having
so large a portion of the wing strongly suffused with brown that they
would perhaps be best described as brownish ocherous with a pale
ocherous costal triangle truncate at the fold, and produced a short
distance back on the costa with about five brown costal spots in the
triangle. Al. ex. about f inches.

The larvse folds the leaf of the bush maple (Acer, sp?) downwards^
first from one side, then from the other, and then from the tip. Hab.
Clear Creek. Altitude as higli as 9,000 feet.

G. ther-mopsella (n. sp.)

This species is closely allied to G. (Parectopa) robiniella Clem., G.
(Paredopa) lespedegiefoliella Clem., G. saUcifolieUa Chamb. The larvse
and mine and larval habits are very similar to those of G. robiniella,
but the mine is less regularly digitate. It mines the upper surfiice of
the leaves of a vetch ( Thermopsis montanaf) Under surface of the body
white ; legs dark gray brown the tarsi annulate with white. Outer
surface of the second joint of the palpi dark gray brown, inner surface
whitish, third joint whiti.sh with a brownish annulus before the tip.
Head white suff'used with grayish on the vertex ; antennse dark gray
brown annulate with white ; thorax white ; forewings with the dor.«al
margin white, the remamder of the wing gray or greyish brown and
dark brown along the disc ; the dark brown of the disc is divided into
three distinct spots by three short white streaks emitted from the
white dorsal margin, and wdiich pass a little obliquely backwards, the
first placed before the middle, the second about the middle, and the
third behind it, and behind these three are about three white dorsal
spots or streaks, the last of which is just before the apex and is concave
towards it. In the grayish part of the wing are five white costal
streaks; the first of these is long and narrow, beginning about the
basal third of the wing length and passing obliquely backwards until
it almost touches the white of the dorsal margin in the apical part of
the wing, the second is wider and much shorter, the third shorter and
narrower than the second, but both oblique ; while the fourth is still
shorter, and is nearly perpendicular to the margin, and the fifth
presents a concave edge towards the apex, and is opposite to the last
dorsal streak, which it almost touches just before the apex, and behind

\

Tencina of Coloracfo. 301

it is a small white spot in the cilia. The apical third of the wing is
somewhat dusted with white, and the apical spot is dark brown, and is
large, extending to the last costal and dorsal streaks (or perhaps it
would be more correct to say simply that the apical part of the wing,
behind these last streaks, is dark brown). Costal cilia brown ; dorsal
cilia white with a wide dark brown hinder marginal line behind their
middle; ciliary 'hook' dark brown, margined beneath with white.
Upper surface of the abdomen dark brown. Al. ex. three-eighths inch.
Spanish Bar.

As already noted {see Gelechia ribe^ella) there is a Gracilaiia larvse
which feeds on the leaves of the wild red current, which I did not
succeed in rearing:

b'

G. populiella (n, sp.)

Yellowish ocherous, with strong purple reflections, (ocherous or
purple, according to the light.) The costal triangle is only indicated
by a paler yellowish hue about the middle of the extreme costal
margin, which is also sprinkled Avith brown dots, and there is a row of
brown dots extending along the middle of the wing, from near
the base to the tip, and on one wing there are two or three small
ones beneath the fold ; cilia grayish brow^n with the tips brown,
and a dark brown hinder marginal line beyond the middle. Hind
wings and cilia shining, grayish fuscus ; abdomen of the same hue
with the hind Avings. In the single specimen before me the tibia
and tarsi of the forelegs are broken off, the tarsi of the middle
pair are white, faintly annulate with fuscus at the joints, and the
til)ial spurs are white ; hind tarsi and tibia whitish stained with
fuscus ; the legs are a little more brownish than the forewings. An-
tennae brown, annulate with pale yellowish. Al. ex. 7 lines. The
larva feeds on the leaves of poplars, folding the edge dowuAvards, and
feeding and perpetuating under it. This specimen was taken at an
elevation of about 9000 feet, near Berthouds' pass. In the same leaf,
on the underside, was a small tentiform mine, in which the larva
probably passed its first stages.

Ornix — 0. ptdnrosellaf Chanib.

I have not seen this species in any of its stages, but have found its
mine in the bush wild cherry of the mountains, both on Clear Creek,
at Spanish Bar, and on Fontain-qui-Bouille, near Manitou. Altitude
8000 feet.

302 Teneina of Colorado.

LiTHOCOLLETis — L. alnivorella (n. sp.)

Palpi and antenna? rather -short for this genus, and tuft on the ver-
tex, al>-o small ; face, palpi, under surface of thorax and abdomen
and the legs silvery, the palpi a little darker on the outer surface ;
antennae and tuft silvery fuscus, or perhaps as correctly ash-broAvn ;
upper surface of thorax and forewings egg yellow, varying to golden
with change of light. There is a short basal, silvery white streak
along the dorsal margin of the forewings, and a longer median basa]
streak of the same color, and dark iHargined towards the costa. A silvery
white fascia immediately before the middle, posteriorly obtusely angu-
lated about the middle of the wing, and dark margined before, the
dark margin becoming more diffuse along the dorsal margin, where it
is produced forwards until it meets the basal dorsal white streak ; the
point of the angle of the fascia is sometimes margined behind by a
small dark-brown spot, and the fascia is widest on the dorsal margin ;
just behind the middle is a costal silvery white streak, and opposite to
it is a dorsal one, both strongly dark margined before, and both point-
ing a little obliquely backwards, this dorsal streak is placed imme-
diately before the cilia, and a little further back is a small triangular
dorsal silvery spot, dark margined before ; opposite to the space, be-
tween these two, is a straight silvery costal streak, also dark margined
before, which sometimes bends backwards and unites with the second
of the dorsal streaks referred to above, whilst its dark margin bends
forward and unites with the dark margin of the first one; further back
is a third costal streak which is small, straight and dark margined
before. Apical spot triangular and dark brown ; cilia silvery fuscus ;
hind wings and cilia a little darker than the cilia of the forewings.
Abdomen shining bluish black on its upper surface. Al. ex. less than
one-third inch. Spanish Bar. The larva is cylindrical and makes a
large tentiform mine on the under surface of the leaves of an Alnus,
(sp. '? not the black alder. )

L. salidfolieUa ? Clem, and Chamb.

This species has heretofore been bred only from willow leaves 1
believe ; while these specimens were bred, both from willows and
poplars, and the mines were much larger than those from which I bred
salidfolieUa in Kentucky. I have little doubt, however, that it is the
j^ame species. If not,- it is very closely allied to salicifoliella. I have
gathered these mines at more than 10,000 feet, above sea level, more
abundantly than in Kentucky at 700.

Teneina of Colorado. 303

Lyonetia — L. alniella (u. sp.)

This species occurs by thousands along Grand River, Clear Creek,
Fall River and Fontain-qui-Bouille, in all its stages, up to 9000 feet
altitude. The larva is gregarious, four or five being usually found in
a single mine. It is the only American species of the genus of -which
the mine is known. I am acquainted with a larva which mines the
leaves of the red wild plum in Kentucky, and which, I believe to be
that of a species of this genus, but I have never succeeded in rearing
the wings from it ; it makes a linear crooked mine ending in a small
blotch, and leaves the mine to pupate ; but all my specimens died
soon after leaving the mine. The mines of the European species, I
believe, resemble somewhat that in the Avild plum, but the mines of
this species are very different, they begin as a small brown blotch at
the side of a leaf, and frequently spread over more than one -third of
the surface, and it is not unusual to find " black alder" bushes Avith a
fourth of their leaves curled and browned by these blotches. After
leaving the mine its habits are those of the species already known in
Europe, the pupa being suspended among threads of silk spun by the
larva so as to slightly curl a leaf.

Snow white ; antennae brownish, except the base ; forewings with
an oblique grayish brown streak about the basal fourth of the dorsal
margin, and another about the middle, and both pointing a little
obliquely backwards ; dorsal margin, along the base of the cilia, gray-
ish brown, ending in an oblique streak which passes down into the
apical part of the wing, and further back are two other small oblique
dorsal streaks ; beyond the middle of the costal margin are six oblique
grayish brown streaks, the first three pointing backwards, and the
others pointing forwards a little, but being nearly perpendicular to
the margin. Apical spot blackish, circular, with two diverging grayish
brown streaks behind it in the cilia. Frequently the costal and
dorsal streaks are small and distinctly separated, but more frequently
they are confluent in the apical part of the wing, which thus becomes
grayish brown instead of white ; the extreme costa is sometimes gray
brown to the base, and so is the tip of the thorax, and occasionally u
specimen is bred which has the entire thorax and forewings deeply
suffused with grayish brown. Al. ex. 5 lines.

Phyllcenistis — P. populidla, Chatnb.
Common, up to more than 10,000 feet.

304 Teneina of Colorado.

P. ampelojisiella, Chamb.
Manitoii up to 8000 feet or more.

EuRYNOME — Gen. nov.

Allied to Phillonome, but differs from it by having the maxillary
palpi not developed ; it differs from Bucmlatrix by having the labial
palpi developed. The hind wings are wider than those of Bucmlatrix
and Phillonome. The neuration of PhiUonome differs (in the forewings)
decidedly from that of Buccukifrix, to which it is, in many respects,
allied, and resembles that of Elachista, and scarcely differs from that
of Thulva. Having but a single specimen of the species described
below, I have not examined the neuration. It has both pairs of wings
linear lanceolate, the hinder pair narrower than the forewings, with
the costa arched to the middle, and the dorsal margin regularly
curved ; widest just before the middle, and thence narrowing rapidly
to the apex, cilia long ; tuft on the vertex large, extending down
between the antennae as in Phillonome; labial palpi and tongue nearly
as in that genus and in LithocoUetls ; face smooth, rounded, not much
retreating; the ends of the antennae are burned off by the lamp in this
single specimen, and the basal joint is clothed with an eye cap as in
Bucmlatrix, but smaller ; eyes moderate. Ocelli f

E. luteella (n. sp.)

Head, eye caps and palpi white, the latter stained with yellowish;
thorax w'hite above, becoming more yellowish towards the tip ; patagia
and forewings pale saffron yellow, or luteous irregularly and somewhat
indistinctly marbled with whitish anastomosing streaks and spots,
which are not very clearly outlined. To the unaided eye the wing
appears pale, saffron or luteous indistinctly marked with paler streaks
or spots ; one of these pale spots is on the disc within the basel fourth,
and passes obliquely back to the fold and across it, to near tha middle of
tlie dorsal margin, when it becomes more distinct ; another begins on
the costa about or immediately before the middle and after leaving the
margin again curves back to it, enclosing a small saffron yellow spot
on the costa, it is also connected with the first named streak beneath
the fold by a very short branch ; or perhaps, as correctly, both of
these streaks may be described as one thus : beginning on the disc and
crossing the fold to the middle of the dorsal margin, and thence obli-

The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations. 305

quely back to the costal margin just before the cilia, sending off above
the fold a branch to the middle of the costal margin ; but, as stated
before, these whitish marks are not distinctly outlined ; there is, how-
ever, a tolerably distinct white spot on the dorsal margin before the
cilia, which is obscurely connected with a smaller one a little further
back at the base of the costal cilia. Abdomen and anal tuft, more
decidedly yellowish on top. Al. ex. quarter inch. A single specimen
taken at light at Spanish Bar, July 4.

The Past and Coming Transits and Artie Explorations. By Richard A.

Proctor,

The materials obtained during the recent transit of Venus have been
gathered together, and though many months must elapse before the
definite solar distances to which they point can be ascertained, we
already possess the means-of forming an opinion as to their general
value. The result is not altogether that which had been anticipated
by any among those who Avere interested in the preliminary arrange-
ments and preparations ; though, on the whole, it would appear that
the astronomers of America formed the justest anticipations respecting
the probable course of events. I am not, of course, referring here
to accidental circumstances, such as the weather at this or that station. |
It must be clear that the best laid plans were liable to be defeated by
conditions of weather ; for though some of the stations were placed in
regions where the weather probabilities were exceedingly favorable,
and others unfortunately (but necessarily) in regions exposed to
almost continual storms, yet nothing could be confidently inedicatec],
even respecting these stations, and far the greater number had simply
the ordinary chances of fair or foul weather. It happens, indeed,
that of the two most favored regions, Egypt and New Zealand, the
former barely sustained its reputation (the sun at some stations only
just clearing a cloud-bank in time to be seen), while the latter had
worse fortune than any other region of like extent. On the other hand
several stations where bad weather was regarded as too probable — as
St. Paul's Island, Auckland Island, and Kerguelen Land— had very
favorable weather. I may notice, in passing, that even as respects
the manner in which weather probabilities were dealt with, there was
a wide difference between the American and our English manner of
acting. For we find that the official astronomers responsible for the

306 The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations.

English plans considered the unfavoi'able weather likely to prevail
over most of the more suitable southern regions was a sufficient
reason for having feioer southern than northern stations. The Ameri-
can astronomers held just the contrary opinion. " From all the
reports," says Professor Newcomb, the Chief of the Washington
Observatory, "it was found that the chances of good weather were
much better in the northern than in the southern hemisphere ; there-
fore, instead of sending an equal number of parties North and South,
it was deterrnined to send three to the northern and five to the
southern hemisphere."

But it was in the actual observation of the phenomena of the transit
that circumstances were noted which most significantly affect the
value of the various methods. These circumstances I proceed now
to consider, as on them must not only depend the opinion we are to
form respecting the arrangements which should be made for the transit
of 1882, but also the value we are to attach to the results secured last
December.

In the first place, it will be remembered, that though doubts were
expressed in many quarters as to the possibility of determining the
moment of internal contact with great accuracy, the doubts so
expressed were based chiefly on a phenomonon called usually the
"black-drop." It had been supposed that the greater part of the
error in the determination of the solar parallax from the transit of
1769, had arisen from the difficulty caused by the "black-drop."
Some observers were assumed to have taken for the moment of true
internal contact the instant when the edge of Venus seemed to
separate from the sun's at ingress, or to join the sun's at egress — a sort
of dark ligament suddenly breaking in the first case, and as suddenly
forming in the second case. Other observers were assumed to have
judged when the outline of the undisturbed part of the planet's disc
belonged to a circle which, if complete, would have just touched the
sub's edge. The interval between the first kind of contact and the
•second, or between the real contact and apparent contact, was
assumed to have a constant value — seventeen seconds. This done, and
the observations passed through what Leverrier has called the "grist-
mill" of the method of least squares, there came out a result agreeing
very well with the value of the sun's parallax obtained by other
methods. Unfortunately it so happened that many of the observers
in 1769 noted contacts of both kinds, and instead of finding the differ-
ence to be seventeen seconds, or thereabouts, they observed the
differences varying from twenty to forty seconds, and in one or two
instances attaining a yet greater value. This of itself would have

The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations. 307

sufficed to deprive the explanation of all real value ; but it was further
noted, by Continental and American astronomers, that the whole
process by which explanation was attempted corresponded to what
school boys call "fudging," or working backwards from the answer to
the data of the question, with " allowances for error," whenever any
discrepancy seemed disposed to make an appearance. =J' Nevertheless
it was not doubted that the " black-drop " is a real cause of difficulty aud
error in observing contacts, and very elaborate preparations were made
to overcome this difficulty. Models of the transit were constructed,
both in Europe and America, on different plans — one devised by a
Continental astronomer, the other by the American astronomers in
Washiuffton. Elaborate theories were devised to account for the
peculiarities and varieties of the observed phenomena, and it was
judged, not without reason, that the "black-drop" would not cause
the same degree of trouble during the transit of 1874, as it had
occasioned in 1761 and 1769, or at least to the mathematicians who
had to deal with the results then obtained.

But when the transit was actually observed, it was found that the
" black drop" was a much less serious cause of trouble than another,
which, though recorded by observers in 1769, had somehow received
much less notice than it deserved. Professor (jrant, in his fine work,
"The History of Physicial Astronomy," thus describes what was
known of the phenomenon in question before the recent transit :

"It was remarked, by several observers of the transits of 1761 and
1769, that both at the ingress and egress, the portion of the limb of
the planet that was off the sun was visible by means of a faint light
surrounding it in the form of a, ring. La Chappe, who observed the
transit of 1761, at Tobolsk, in Siberia, states that the light of the
ring was of a very deep yellow near the body of the planet, but that
it became more brilliant towards the outer border. MM. Stromer,
Mallott, Bergman, and Melander, who observed the same transit at
Upsal, remarked that when three-fourths of the planet's limb had
entered upon the sun, the remaining fourth was visible by means of a
faint ring which appeared around it. A similar phenomenon was
observed on the same occasion by Wargentin, at Stockholm, by Plan-
mann, at Cajenburg, aud in several other instances. Dr. Maskelyne,
who observed the ingress of Venus upon the sun's disc at Greenwich,
on the occassion of the transit of 1769, states that, when the pjanet
was little more than half entered upon the sun, he said her whole

* For instance, the difference of seventeen seconds just mentioned was inferred from the
result repaired, not from the facts given.

808 The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations.

circumference was completed by meaug of a vivid, but narrow and
ill-defined, border of light, which illuminated that part of her circum-
ference which was off the sun. He adds, that it disappeared two or
three minutes before the internal contact. A similar phenomenon was
witnessed during the same transit by Wales and Dymoud, at Hudson's
Bay, by Pingr6 and De Fleurien, at Cape Francis, in the Island of St.
Domingo, and by various other observers at different places.

A little consideration will suggest the true cause of this appearance,
and show that its effect on the observation of internal contact can not
but seriously affect the accuracy of the timing. No light can show
itself round the portion of Venus outside the sun, between the
moments of exterior and interior contact, unless the planet has an
atmosphere capable of refracting the solar rays ; but, if the planet
has such an atmosphere, the observed effect can not but be produced.
If we suppose an observer on Venus at a point F, on the part of her
limb most remote from the sun — P not being the point which is seen
from the earth at that part of the limb, but so placed that the true
horizon-plane for an inhabitant of Venus there is parallel to the line
from the observer on earth to the center of Venus — then, if there
were no atmosphere, an observer at P could see neither the sun nor
the earth, at least, not where the terrestrial observer is placed. The
sun would be just below the true horizon of the observer on Venus,
and so would the observer on earth ; and d foHiori the observer
on earth would not be able to see the sun round the part P of Venus.
This part would be, as it were, the summit of a hill, from which the
sun on one side and the earth on the other would be invisible, and
therefore invisible from each other. But, if there is an atmosphere on
Venus resembling our own atmosphere in its effects, the observer at
P would see the sun raised by refraction above his horizon, and the
earth, directly opposite, raised considerably above the horizon — pre-
cisely as at the time of total lunar eclipse — the observer on earth, if
so placed that the eclipsed moon is apparently just above the horizon
(really raised by refraction), can see the sun also directly opposite the
moon, and raised wholly above the horizon. And as the line of sight
from the observer at P to the sun on one side, and to the earth on the
other, is thus twice bent by refraction, so the line of sight from the
observer on earth to P is curved doubly as it passes P, and the sun is
brought into that observer's range of view. The same is true for all
points round that part of Venus' limb outside the sun, the atmosphere
of Venus bringing greater and greater quantities of sunlight round
the dark limb the nearer the part of the limb is to the sun. Thus, there
is seen round the arc of Venus, outside the sun, a ring which is not

The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations. 309

to be regarded as mere sunlight, but as a distorted image of the sun
himself.*

The effect of this phenomenon in modifying the conditions under
which internal contact is observed, will be recognised at once. Ob-
servers were told to look for the moment when a line of sunlight
suddenly made its way between the disc of Venus and the solar limb
at ingress, or when the gradually narrowing line of sunlight was
suddenly broken at egress. But here was true sunlight bounding the
disc of Venus long before true contact took place at ingress, and long
afterward at egress, so that the time to be noted was not that suddenly-
marked by the formation or breaking of a line ot sunlight, but that
when the sunlight, bounding the part of Venus outside the solar disc,
was seen at ingress to become merged in the true outline of the sun,
or at egress just began to disturb that outline. The observation to be
made was of precisely the same order as an observation of external
contact, and it had long been admitted that external contact can not
be timed with sufficient accuracy to supi)ly evidence for determining
the solar parallax.

The very first news which reached us on the morning of December
9, pointed to this difficulty, or rather to this circumstance, practically
rendering contact observations untrustworthy. We heard from the
head of the English party in Egypt, that, after internal contact
liad, in reality, been established at egress, an arc of sunlight still
remained visible around the part of Venus which was outside the sun ;
and that the observer, through waiting for this arc to break, lost the
best cusp-measurements. Captain Tupman gives the following ac-
count of the phenomenon as observed at the stations where the transit
began earliest of all, viz.: the set of stations on the Sandwich Isles:
"The important phase of the phenomenon of internal contact pre-
sented wholly unexpected appearances, totally unlike what we had
been led to anticipate. For many minutes before contact a faint light
was seen behind Venus, beyond the ^un's limb, rendering the complete
cii-cle of her disc visible. From that time, until the establishment of
complete contact, no sudden or definite phase could be seized upon,
such as the practice with the working model induced us to Avatch for.
The eye observations of contact, therefore, do not present results
of extreme value." Lieutenant Noble, at the same station, describes
the phenomenon as follows: "From about ten minutes of the time

■> Thi« not only happens when Venus is placed as described, but when her disc is off the
Sdu's. Professor Norton, has seen the whole circuit of Venus surrounded by a border of light
at the time of inferior eoujiinction (within transii). In such case, the semi-circuiar arc of
light nearest the sun, coiisistg, in the main, of reflected sunlight, and the remaining are, in the
jtuain, ol refracted funligbt.

310 The Past and Coming Transits an^ Arctic Explorations.

of internal contact, I kept the telescope pointed at the sun's limb.
While thus watching, I was astonished to see, most distinctly, the
disc of the planet complete, and immediately asked Ijieutenant
Shakespear what time remained before contact ; he said a little over
five minutes." Mr. Nichol, at Honolulu, writes: "To my astonish-
ment, I saw a completion of light round the planet perfectly distinct,
and such as I should have said, from previous model contact, was
immediately after contact. I got this time I'ecorded as the first obser-
vation of contact, by seeing the continuous narrow band of light. I
remained looking at it about two minutes, but could not see no
instantaneous phenomenon of contact nor black-drop." We supposed
the peculiarity due to light from the solar corona ; but, under the con-
ditions of observation, that explanation is quite untenable. We can not
wonder to find Captain Tupman mentioning that Mr. Nichol recorded
a time forty-seven seconds earlier than he did himself Captain
Tupman further says, that "there was nothing sudden to note" (as
had been expected), "and the complete submergence was so gradual,
any one might have recorded ten seconds before I did, and have been
probably quite as accurate. My first impression was [that] such an
observation could not possess any value. It was something similiar,
in principle, to having to decide where the zodiacal light terminates !
bearing in mind, of course, that we expected to get the contact
within a second or so of time."

We can understand, then, the justice of the remark in the recently
issued " Eeport to the Board of Visitors of the Greenwich Observa-
tory," that while " there has been little annoyance from the dreaded
'black-drop'" (Mr. Stone's bugbear), "greater inconvenience and doubt
have been caused by the unexpected luminous ring round Venus ; "
though why the phenomenon should have been unexpected, when Mas-
kelyne, himself an astronomer-royal, recorded it so distinctly in
1769, is left unexplained. A very small amount of labor given to the
examination of the records of former transits would have prevented
this well known phenemenon from taking the observers by surprise; or,
perhaps better, would have suggested that contact observations were
little likely to be of use.

It may be well to supplement the above account by quoting the
description of the same phenomenon as seen at St. Paul's Island, one
of the "inaccessible if not absolutely mythical islands" of our Admi-
ralty authorities, which the French (not usually regarded as more
essentially nautical than we are) succeeded in occupying.* Immedi-

* At another of these myths (Camphell Island) the French observers hart bad weather
unfortunately, during the transit. But the Germans, at a third mytli, (Aivckland Islaad),
saw the whole transit.

The Past and Coming Traiisits and Arctic Explorations. 311

ately after the fii-st identation at the sun's limb had been observed, M-.
Mouchez began to measure the distance between the cusps. " About
a quarter of an hour," he proceeds, " after the first contract, when half
the planet was still outside the sun, I perceived suddenly the entire
disc of Venus, defined by a pale halo, brighter near the sun than at
the summit of the planet" (that is, at the part remotest from the sun's
edtre"). "To make sure that I was not under an illusion as regards
this unexpected phenomenon 1 immediately reversed the position-
circle of the micrometer to 180°, and measured that diameter of Venus
which was still partly outside the sun, and I found it identical with the
diameter perpendicular to the lines joining the centres ; it was, there-
fore, really the entire well-defined disc of the planet which I saw.
But in proportion as the second contact approached, the two extreme
portions of the halo nearest the sun (and more distinctly seen) tended
to unite, surrounding the segment still exterior to the sun with a
brighter light, and this too early union {reunion anticip6e) of the cusps
by a lummous arc was rendered still more perfect by a narrow border
of very bright light bounding the aureole on the disc of Venus.
Foreseeing at once that there would be great difficulty in observing
the geometrical contact, even if it would not be absolutely impossible,
I quickly changed the darkening glass of pale blue for one of deeper
tint, by means of which I hoped to extinguish this halo with its
accidental gleams (Imurs accidentelles) , but it was useless; the halo
still remaining visible, I was obliged to take the original darkening
glass again. Under such circumstances, I had to take the moment ol
contact, not the meeting of the two cusps, or the geometrical contact,
but the moment when the sun's disc no longer seemed disturbed by the
bright light which enveloped the planet at the point of contact. I
observed a very sensible time-difference betAveen the moments when
I believed the contact might have been established and the moment

when 1 felt absolutely certain that contact was established

The third contact was also observed under excellent conditions, in a
very clear sky between clouds, with the same phenomena as at the
second contact, but in reverse order."

It needs no elaborate argument to show that this peculiarity must
altogether prevent the observation of contacts with the degree of
accuracy necessary to improve our estimate of the sun's distance.
With the improvement of telescopes the phenomenon will only be so
much the more clearly recognized ; and it must be quite impossible to
experiment on this phenomenon as on the "black-drop," seeing that
we can not represent by a model the action of an atmosphere whose
real extent and refractive power are unknown to us.

312 The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations.

Nor can photography be of any use in this matter ; for the more
perfect the photographic arrangements, the more exactly will the
optical difficulty be reproduced. Indeed, in the photographic records
of contact, during the recent transit, a peculiarity appears, which
seems, of itself to introduce an absolutely insuperable difficulty. It
would seem that the sun, which photographs itself, is slightly larger
than the sun we see ; in other words, that the gaseous matter of the
sun emits light waves, producing that form of chemical action on which
photography depends, from layers extending to a greater height than
those which emit light waves recognizable by the eye in full sunlight.
Janssen, at least, adopts this interpretation of the fact, that an ingress,
as observed at Nagasaki, the planet appeared still attached to the solar
limb, while the photographs taken, second by second, showed Venus
already somewhat advanced on the sun's disc. It matters in truth,
very little whether this explanation is correct or not, seeing that the
observed facts, however explained, indicate a discrepancy between the
optical and the photographic records of contact which must prevent
our placing reliance on either. If we abandon contact observa-
tions, but one resource seems to be left. It is manifest that all
methods have for their real object the determination of the chord of
transit followed by Venus, as seen from different stations. When
reliance was placed on Halley's method, for instance, although the
element observed was the duration of transit, the element deduced was
the length — and with the length the position — of the chord of transit.
When reliance was placed on Delisle's method, the element observed
was the epoch either of ingress or egress ; but the element deduced
was the position of the ingress or egress end of the chord of transit, and
therefore of that chord itself.

The great difficulty in all other methods of determining the position
of the chord of transit resides in the fact that the exact position of
Venus on the sun's disc (not merely her distance from the center, but
her bearing from the center, referred to some fixed line on the sun's
disc,) must be determined for a precisely -timed moment. So that a
double difficulty is introduced ; first, the observations necessary to
determine Venus's position require time, secondly, the exact longitude
of the station should be known with as great accuracy as for Delisle's
method. But the central part of the chord of transit — the part,
namely, where the planet makes its nearest approach to the sun's
centre — has this advantage over the other parts : the planet's distance
changes so slowly as it is passing this portion, that an error of a few
seconds would be comparatively of small importance. Moreover, this
part of the chord is the most important because the distance of the

The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations. 313

chord from the sun's centre is what is really required. Now, setting
aside the heliometic method, by which it was hoped that the distance
of Venus from the sun's centre might be accurately determined,
photography promised a means of indicating the required element very
satisfactorily, because a solar photograph is secured in the fraction of
a second, and ample means exist for indicating the precise instant at
which each photograph is taken.

In a paper, the geometrical principles indicated in which were
professedly adopted by Government astronomers, in the choice of
stations for photographing the late transit, I showed how the difficulty
of indicating the exact angle of position of the line joining the centre
of the disc might be obviated, and every thing made to depend on the
measurement of the distance between the centres, assuming the longi-
tude of the station known, and the exact instant of each photographic
record assigned. It did not seem to me necessary to point out, that,
as the time of mid-transit drew near, the effect of any time-error
(whether in the indication of the instant of exposure, or in the deter-
mination of the longitude of the station) would be diminished ; for
this is a fact, not only obvious in itself, but taken for granted in the
discussion of the whole matter by all who have considered the
geometrical relations involved. So that I took it as self-evident that
mid-transit was the time when photographic records for determining
the chord of transit would have greatest value. And it was easy to
perceive that, in some cases it might be advantageous to select stations,
either solely or chiefly with reference to the important phase of mid-
transit; in other words, to select stations where neither the beginning
nor the end of transit could be photographed under favorable condi-
tions, but where the middle of transit would be most advantageously
observable. However, when this obvious particular case of general
theory I had dealt with was pointed out by Mr. E. L. Garbett, I
presented the suggestion as though it contained somewhat of novelty,
not caring at that time to show how completely it was included in the
general reasoning advanced by Colonel Tennant, Dr. De la Rue, and,
more fully by myself.*

On the occasion of the late transit only one station was specially
suited for mid-transit photography— Cape Town. Though Natal
would have been worth occupying. Cape Town was superior to every
other southern station for this particular purpose. But somehow the
suggestion that photographs should be secured there was overlooked,

* Nor should 1 aow caH attention to the point but that the special form ofthanks adopted by
Mr. Uarb.tt for what, in reality was unnecessary generosity, consisted Iri denuncumons
addressed t.. mo for overlooking tUe point which had appeared to myself and others too obvioua
for special mcution.

314 The Past and Coming Transits and Arctic Explorations.

and a new cause of regret added to several which will be recognized by
those who come after us, as they scan the history of the late transit.

But in 1882 this method— the mid-transit photographic method —
will be the one on which, I venture to predict, chief reliance will be
placed. Owing to the long duration of that transit (exceeding, by two
hours, the duration of the recent transit,) it will be impossible to find
any pairs of stations, northern and southern, at each of which the whole
transit will be favorable seen. * * * So far, then, as the older methods
of observing transits are concerned, the transit of 1882 can only be
observed by Delisle's method. But we have seen that contact obser-
vations can not be relied upon for improving our knowledge of the sun's
distance. And if they could not be relied upon for that purpose now,
astronomers will have secured valuable determinations of the sun's
distance from observations of the planet Mars, during the singularly
favorable opposition of 1877.-^'

But mid-transit can be advantageously recorded by photographic
appliances in 1882, if only suitable soutliern stations can be occuj^ied
for the purpose ; and as no other method is available, except the demons-
trably untrustworthy Deli^lean method, we can scarcely doubt that an
effo.i't will be made by the scientific nations to overcome the difficultiea
which will be certainly present themselves in the search for and
occupation of stations in the soiithei'n hemisphere. * *

And there will be this further difiiculty in 1882. On the occasion
of the late transit the. Americans, finding that no part of the transit
would be visible from their own territory, appear to have considered
it their natural and obvious duty to occupy stations in Siberia, Jajoan,
the Sub-Antarctic ocean, and other places, where we in England were
assured that no stations would be, and that no stations coidd be occupied.
But in 1882 the whole transit being most favourably observable from
the whole part of the United States, it seems not unlikely that our
Transatlantic cousins will consider it their part to keep their astron-
omers at home, leaving to other nations the task of finding suitable
southern stations. I hesitate to say that this ivill be their view of the
matter, for it is difficult to reckon on considerations of that kind where
Americans are concerned. One might have thought, that after
observing the eclipse of 1869 at a hundred stations in the United
States, American astronomers would have been content to leave the
observations of the Mediterranean eclipse of 1870 to European
astronomers. But, in point of fact, they did nothing of the kind ; but,
with a perversity which can not be too strongly reprehended (at least

* It may wel. be hoped that stellar photography, will be employed to obtain records of the
position of Mars among the stars on that occasion. This method seems to promise better
results than auy other yet applied, or at present available.

The Past and Coming Transid and Arctic Explorations. 315

by all who admire our laisser aller system), they insisted not only on
sending over astronomers, but on positively inviting English astron-
omers (finding we had made no arrangements for observhig the eclipse)
to sail with their expedition to inaccessible Mediterranean regions.
However, supposing that in 1882 the attractions of the transit, as
observable at home, should prevent the Americans from visiting the
southern hemisphere in great strength, the duty will fall on European
nations. Germany and France may then, as last December, occupy
three or four southern myths. But three or four will not be enough.
England will be almost bound to share in the work.

Then arises the question, where is England to send her observers in
those southern seas ? Unless new islands can be discovered there, no
positions worthy of her ancient fame will remain for her to occupy,
save precisely those Antarctic islands which were described, in 1868,
by one naval authority after another, as accessible, tenable and suit-
able, but, unfortunately, by the same authorities, in 1873, a*
inaccessible, untenable and unsuitable. Assuming, as we may not
unreasonably do, that the latter description meant only that it would
cost more time, trouble and money to occupy these regions, than any
conceivable astronomical result could repay, we are brought back to
the considerations which were urged oy the Astronomer Eoyal, as
long ago as 1865, m order to bring schemes of Antarctic explorations
favorably before the notice of geographers and naval authorities.
With these considerations I shall conclude, merely remarking that
whatever force his views had when presented, they have greatly
increased force, now that an Arctic expedition is in progress, the value
of the results obtained by which, would be far more than doubled by
a successful Antarctic expedition following close upon the successful
is.sue of that which has lately set forth. "I have learned," he wrote
to the President of the Geographical Society, "through the public
papers, the tenor of late discussions at the Royal Geographical Society,
in reference to the proposal for an expedition towards the North Pole.
I gather from these, that the object proposed, as bearing on science, is
not so much specific as general ; that there is no single point of very
great importance to be obtained, but a number of co-ordinate objects
whose aggregate would be valuable. And, I conclude, that the field is
still open for a proposal which would give opportunity for the determina-
tion of various results, corre-pouding in kind and importance to those
of the proposed Northern Expediiion, though in a difterent locality,
and would also give information on a point of great importance to
astronomy, which must be sought within a few years, and which it is
desirable to obtain as early as possible. In the year 18F2, on Decern-

316 Zoological Recreation in Florida Bay.

ber 6, a transit of Venus over the sun's disc Avill occur — the most
favorable of all phenomena for solution of the noble problem of
determining the suns's distance from the earth, provided that proper
stations for the observations can be found. (It will be remembered
that it was for the same purpose that the most celebrated of all the
British scientific expeditions, namely, that of Captain Cook to
Otaheite, in 1769, was undertaken.) For the northern stations there
will be no difficulty ; they will be on the Atlantic seaboard of North
America, or at Bermuda; all very favorable and very accessible.
For the southern stations the selection is not so easy; the observation
must be made on the Antarctic Continent, if proper localities can be
found there, and if the circumstances of weather, etc., are favorable,
the determination will be excellent; if these circumstances do not
hold, no use, whatever, can be made of the transit. The astronomical
object of a southern expedition is, I trust, sufficiently explained. In
the event of such an expedition being undertaken, the precise deter-
minations which I have indicated as bearing on the astronomical
question, must (from the nature of the case) take precedence of aU
others. But there would be no difficulty in combining with them any
other inquiries, of geography, geology, hydrography, magnetism,
meteorology, natural history, or any other subject for which the
localities are suitable. And I have now to request that you will have
the kindness to communicate these remarks to the Royal Geographical
Society, and to take the sense of the Society on the question, whether
it is not desirable, if other scientific bodies should co-operate, that a
representation be made by the Royal Geographical Society to Her
Majesty's Government on the advantage of making such a reconnais-
sance of the Southern Continent, as I have proposed; primarily in the
interest of astronomy (referring to my official responsibility for the
importance of the examination at this special time) ; but conjointly
with that, in the interests, perhaps ultimately more important, of
geography and other sciences usually promoted by the Royal Geo-
graphical Society." — Fopidar Science Review, Eng.

Zoological Recreation in Florida Bay. By W. W. Calkins.

" How silent are the winds! no billow roars,
But all is tranquil as Elysian shores."

We lay oflT Sandy Key, I awoke with the first gray dawn of morn-
ing, and going on deck to get a little sniff" of fresh air, was agreeably
surprised to find that the fierce storm of the night had given place to

Zoological Reireation in Florida Bay. 317

a perfect calm. The "Mud Banks," covering several hundred acre?,
were entirely bare of water. Here was our opportunity. I pro-
claimed the discovery to my comrades below by a sort of Indian whoop,
that brought the Colonel to the deck instauter, minus a shirt button,
who upon ascertaining the cause of the explosion and bestowing a few
adjectives of admiration, retired for repairs. The frugal meal of
bacon, hard tack, and coffee, being over, we prepared to disembark.
This did not take long. The most we required being some baskets
and a canteen of rainwater. The latter being very necessary, as the
weather was hot and thirst easily excited. Since leaving the mouth
of the Mississippi we had been engaged in washing out the fluviatile
deposits of that delectable stream, which seemed disposed to form
jetties all through our systems. Rainwater straight, less a few poUy-
wogs, was our main stay. But even this, after having circulated,
percolated, and exuded, through our epidermis, seemed to change its
nature into that of the marine element around us. Ice was non est.
Key West lightning was seventy miles away. And so reduced to the
pure aqua we resolved to make the best of it. Having embarked in
the dingy we were soon on terra firma again. Landing on the Key we
explored the beach as far as the point where the mud banks began.
The tide being out, was most favorable for our purpose. The wind
and waves had done us good service in washing up shells, which the
day before we had not seen. Most of these were shallow water
species. Cerith. mmcarmn, (Say), and Bulla occidentalis, (Ad.), were
abundant. The mangrove trees growing out in the water were fully
exposed to view. About their network of roots were many thousands
of Ostreas, or raccoon oysters. Some were finely colored and of large
size. Having tested their edible qualities we collected some of the
finest specimens. Clinging to the shells were Mytilus hamatus, (Say),
and a Perna. The "Mud Banks" which extended out into the Bay,
from the upper end of the Key, next engaged our attention. Several
hundred acres were bare of water, thus affording a fine opportunity
for securing species not easily obtained at other times. One of the
first, the largest and most abundant, that we saw, was Fasc. gigantea,
(Kiener). The shell sometimes attains a length of two feet, without,
of a brownish red color, within, the aperture is of a carmine reddish
hue, the same as the foot of the animal. An operculum attached to
this forms a door, and enables the occupant to shut itself in most
effectually. The spawn cases, containing the young shells, are im-
mense, some being three feet long, and each case about the size of a
half dollar, and twice as thick, is united to the next by a long ribbon,
which connects the whole series together. This is simply deposited by

318 Zoological Recreation in Florida Bay.

the female in the mud. The thousands of young mollusks are then
left to shift for themselves. Having broken their prison walls, they
grow ra2:>idly and are scattered over the sea. Of the millions born,
probably more than two-thirds fell a prey to their enemies while
young. We found them in every stage of growth. There woukl
have been no difBculty in securing a wagon load of full grown shells
right here, so the supply is not likely to give ont. The smaller
species^i^afc. tulipa, (L.), and Fasc. dlstans, (Lam.) — were quite
abundant. The shells were clean, smooth, and highly colored. In
the same locality occurred fine specimens of Sycofypus canaliculatus, (L.),
S. pyruin, (Dill.), S. carica, (Gmel.), aS. perversus, (L.), S. papyra-
ceus, (Say), Area Noce, (L.), I found attached to other shells, while
Aira ponderom, (Say), an inhabitant of deeper water, was found on
the mud banks, and had evidently been washed up by the storm
along with some other species. In the valves of dead shells were
Orepidula plana, (Say), and C. fornicata, (Lam.), Venns cingenda,
(Dill.), were abundant, Callista gigantea, (Chem.), and C. macxilata,
(L.), Ranella caudata, (Say), Plicatida ramosa, (Lam.), Murex. tam-
poends, (Con.), FissureUas and Pectuncidus, afforded us good specimens.
Some of each species I put in the alcohol jars for future study of the
animals. No naturalist should go to Florida unprovided with plenty
of alcohol, nor fail to preserve the animals of every species collected.
Careful notes of localities and surroundings should also be made. In
addition to the .species mentioned above we found some that were
common to other parts of Florida, and which I mentioned in former
papers. One, however, of which I had previously seen only the dead
shells, occurred on the banks around Sandy Key in great perfection
and abundance. This was Pivna murieata, (L.), or the fan mussel.
Standing on their small ends, about one-third buried in the mud with
valves open, they resemble a collection of fans. A hairy caudal
appendage, called a byssus, and fine in texture as silk, is attached to
the animal. By means of this they attach themselves to whatever
debris may be near them in the mud where they locate, and having
assumed an upright position, are ready with open mouths to snap up
whatever unfortunate mollusk ventures within reach. At the slightest
touch they close the valves quickly, and by a sucking process hang on
with their byssus most tenaciously to the attachment below. The
longest were about ten inches to a foot long. I soon learned to take
them suddenly, and in this way secured enough to fill a barrel in a
short time. Like the oysters they have their parasite (PinnotJieres.)
These little crabs nestle in the mantle and gills of the animal. On the
exterior of the shell, Anomia glabra, (Ver.), and Crepidulas, make
their home.

Zoological Recreation in Florida Bay. 319

While we were doing our best to secure all the species we could and
explore as much ground as possible, we kept one eye seaward as symp-
toms of the returning tide began to appear. But when we were finally
driven off it was with full loads, and we considered the results satis-
factory. Having transferred our spoils to the schooner, we bade
farewell to Sandv Kev, and -at two o'clock in the afternoon sailed for
Cape Sable. By the calculation of the Captain the distance was
seven miles. The wind having freshened up we sailed over in a little
more than an hour, and came to anchor off the Cape. A number of
sharks were taking their daily rations of mullets and other small fish
along the shore. On one side of us was the sea, on the other a wild-
erness of vast extent and uninhabited. Just the place for fun, as the
Doctor remarked, while we were going ashore, but the Captain who
had left his lassie at Key West could not see the point. Along the
shore the land is much higher than it is further back, and a narrow
strip had evidently been cleared and cultivated at some former time.
It seems that during the Seminole war a force was stationed here. On
examination we found the remains of a cellar, and a few timbers.
The clearing was now ovei-grown with coarse grass, thistles, and a
species of Cactus. We saw numerous large holes excavated here and
there. These belong to the gopher turtle. Having examined the
ground carefully, we found under the leaves of the thistles several
species of land shells, Helix nonlijera, (Shutt.), Helix carpenter iana,
(Bland), and a small variety of Glandina, were quite abundant. A
recent fire, of which we saw the marks, had destroyed some other
species no doubt. We next began our investigations in the adjoining
forest. Along its margin were growing palms, papagas and gums.
On the latter were obtained numerous specimens of Odhalicus Zebra,
(Brug.), similar to those at Sandy Key. AVe first saw here Lignus
fasciata, (Mul.) There were two varieties distinguished by the pre-
sence of black and yellow bands. The tidal wave and hurricane that
occurred in Florida a few years ago had done much damage to the
trees, as many of them were overturned, and the signs of devastation
everywhere apparent. Having " beat around the bush" long enough
to satisfy our curiosity, we resolved to explore further within the
wilderness. This was no easy matter. A tangled mass of young man-
groves, Cactacex, (such as the night blooming cereus), and other
tropical vegetation, filled up the spaces between the larger trees, and
rendered our progress one of diflficulty. All the mosquitoes in Florida
seemed to have concentrated for the purpose of giving us a bloody
welcome. I should say they were of the same genera a.s tlie Northern
variety, but much fiercer, and not having tasted the blood of a Yankee

320 On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man,

for some time, determined to make the most of the present oppor-
tunity. After getting fairly into the swamp, the Doctor suddenly
paused under a mangrove, and called my attention to the top of the
tree. On the branches were most beautiful flowers in full bloom.
These are known as Orchids, or air plants. There were two species.
They simply cling to the bark with their tough fibrous roots, and pre-
sent a very novel appearance. They were not confined to mangroves,
but occur on other trees. On further examination we found many
hundreds. This sight was alone worth all our trouble. The Doctor
proceeded to climb a mangrove, and had gone up some ten feet, when
I warned him to look out for hornets, as I saw one fly out of the foliage
of a plant. This being followed by several more, made him exclaim
that he believed there were hornets around. A fact that I was ready
to affirm, when down came my friend in a manner more rapid and
emphatic than graceful. Having beat a retreat to a safer position we
secured as many specimens as we wanted, and pursued our way
through the swamp. At last I climbed a tree, and seeing no end to the
same unvarying prospect, we worked our way back to the coast, and
went on board the vessel.

Of the air-plants, which I brought safely home, one proves to be
Epidendrum conopseum, (Ait.) The other has not been determined.

On Aniynal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man. By the Duke

OF Argyll,

The very old question whether animals are " automata" was raised
by Professor Huxley in the Fortnightly Review for November, 1874.
It has been since pursued here in successive papers of much ability by
Dr. Carpenter and Mr. Mivart. I find myself in partial agreement
sometimes with one, sometimes with another of these writers, and yet
on some important matters dissenting from them all. Approaching
the subject from a diflTerent point of view,. I cannot better explain the
aspect in which this question presents itself to me than by discussing it
in connection vnth certain exhibitions of animal instinct which I had
occasion to observe during the spring and summer of last ye'ar. They
were not uncommon cases. On the contrary they were of a kind of
which the whole world is full. But not the less directly did they
suggest all the problems under discussion, and not the less forcibly did
they strike me with the admiration and the wonder which no famil-
iar it v can exhaust.

On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man, 321

The Dipper or Water-ousel (Cinches aquaticus) is well known to
ornithologists as one of the most curious and interesting of British
birds. Its special habitat is clear mountain streams. These it never
leaves except to visit the lakes into which or from which they flow.
Without the assistance of webbed feet it has extraordinary powers of
swimming and of diving — moving about, upon, and under the surface
with more than the ease and dexterity of a fish— hunting along the
bottom as if it had no power to float — floating on the top as if it had
no power to sink — now diving where the stream is smooth, now where
it is quick and broken, and suddenly reappearing perched on the
summit of some projecting point. Its plumage is in perfect harmony
with its "environment" — dark, with a pure white breast, which looks
exactly like one of the flashes of light so numerous in rapid streams,
or one of the little balls of foam which loiter among the stones. Its
very song is set to the music of rapid waters. No bird, perhaps, is
more especially adapted to a very special home, and very peculiar
habits of life. The same species, or other forms so closely similar as to
seem mere varieties, are found in almost every country of the world
where there are mountain streams. And yet it is a species having no
very near affinity with any other bird, and it constitutes by itself a
separate genus. It is therefore a species of great interest to the
naturalist, and raises some of the most perplexing questions connected
with the "origin of species."

A pair of these birds built their nest last year at Inverary, in a hole
in the wall of a small tunnel constructed to carry a rivulet under the
walks of a pleasure ground. The season was one of great drought, and
the rivulet, during the whole time of incubation, and of the growth of
the young in the nest, was nearly entirely dry. One of the nestlings
when almost fully fledged, was taken out by the hand for examination,
an operation which so alarmed the others that they darted out of the
hole, and ran and fluttered down the tunnel towards its mouth. At
that point a considerable pool of water had survived the drought, and
lay in the path of the fugitives. They did not at all appear to seek it;
on the contrary, their flight seemed to be as aimless as that of any
other fledgling would have been in the same predicament. But one of
them stumbled into the pool. The effect was most curious. Wlien the
young bird touched the water there was a moment of pause, as if the
creature was surprised. Then instantly there seemed to wake within
it the sense of its hereditary powers. Down it dived with all the
facility of its parents, and the action of its wings under the water was
a beautiful exhibition of the double adaptation to progression in two
very different elements, which is peculiar to the wings of most of the

322 On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

diving birds. The young Dipper was immediately lost to sight among
some weeds, and so long did it remain under water that I feared it must
be drowned. But in due time it reappeared all right, and, being recap-
tured, was replaced in the nest.

Later in the season on a secluded lake in one of .the Hebrides, I
observed a Dundiver, or female of the Red-breasted Merganser {Mergin'
Serrator) with her brood of young ducklings. On giving chase in the
boat, we soon found that the young, although not above a fortnight
old, had such extraordinary powers of swimming and diving that it
was almost impossible to capture them. The distance they went under
water, and the unexpected places in which they emerged baffled all
our efforts for a considerable time. At last one of the brood made for
the shore, with the object of hiding among the grass and heather
which fringed the margin of the lake; We pursued it as closely as we
could, but when the little bird gained the shore, our boat was still
about twenty yards off. Long drought had left a broad margin of
small flat stones and mud between the water and the usual bank. I
saw the little bird run up about a couple of yards from the water, and
then suddenly disappear. Knowing what was likely to be enacted, I
kept my eye fixed on the~ spot ; and when the boat was run upon the
beach, I proceeded to find and pick up the chick. But on reaching
the place of disappearance, no sign of the young Merganser was to be
seen. The closest scrutiny, with the certain knowledge that it was
there, failed to enable me to detect it. Proceeding cautiously forwards,
I soon became convinced that I had already overshot the mark ; and,
on turning round it was only to see the bird rise like an apparition
from the stones, and dashing past the stranded boat, regain the lake, —
where, having now recovered its wind, it instantly dived and disap-
peared. The tactical skill of the whole of this manoeuvre, and the
snccess with which it was executed, were greeted with loud cheers
from the whole party; and our admiration was not diminished when
we remembered that some two weeks before that time the little
performer had been coiled uj) inside the shell of an egg, and that
about a month before it was nothing but a mass of albumen and of
fatty oils.

The third case of animal instinct which I shall here mention was of
a different but of an equally common kind. In walking along the side
of a river with overhanging banks, I came suddenly on a common
Wild Duck (A)ias Boschus) whose young were just out. Springing
from under the bank, she fluttered out into the stream with loud cries
and with all the struggles to escape of a helplessly wounded bird. To
simulate the effects of suffering from disease, or from strong emotion,

On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 323

or from wouiuls upon the human frame, is a common necessity of the
actor's art, and it is not often really well done. The tricks of the
theatre are seldom natural, and it is not without reason that " theat-
rical" has become a proverbial expression for false and artificial
representations of the realities of life. It was therefore with no small
interest tbat on this, as on many other occasions, I watclied the
perfection of an art which Mrs. Siddons might have envied. The
labored and half convulsive flapping of the wings, the wriggling of the
body, the straining of the neck, and the whole expression of painful
and abortive effort, were really admirable. AVhen her struggles had
carried her a considerable distance, and she saw that they produced no
effect in tempting us to follow, she made resounding flaps upon the
surf^ice of the water, to secure that attention to herself which it was
the great object of the manceuvre to attract. Then, rising suddenly
in the air, she made a great circle round us, and returnmg to the spot
renewed her endeavors as before. It was not, however, necessary ;
for the separate instinct of the young in successful hiding effectually
bafiled all my attempts to discover them.

Let us now look at the questions wdiich these several exhibitions of
animal instinct cannot ftiil to suggest ; and first let us take the case of
the young Dipper. There was no possibility of imitation here. The
rivulet beneath the nest, even if it had been visible to the nestlings,
had been dry ever since they had been hatched. The river into which
it ordinarily flowed was out of sight. The young Dippers never could
have seen the parent birds either swimming or diving. This, therefore,
is one of the thousand cases Avhich have driven the "experience "school
of philosophy to take up new ground. The young Dipper here cannot
possibly have had any experience, either through the process of
inciijient effort, or through the process of sight and imitation. Nature
is full of similar cases. In face of them it is now no longer denied that
in all such cases "innate ideas" do exist, and that "pre-established
harmonies " do prevail in nature. These old doctrines, so long ridi-
culed and denied, have come to be admitted, and the new philosophy
is satisfied with attempts to explain how these " ideas " came to be
innate, and how these harmonies came to be pre-established. The
explanation is, that, though the efficiency of experience as the cause
or source of instinct must be given up as regards the individual, we
may keep it as regards the race to which the individual belongs. The
powers of swimming and diving, and the impulse to use them for their
appropriate purpose, were indeed innate in the little Dipper of 1874.
But then they were not innate in its remote progenitors. They were
acquired by those progenitors tlirough gradual effort — the trying

324 On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

leading to success, and the success again leading to more trying — both
together leading first to special faculty, then to confirmed habit, and
then, by hereditary transmission, to instinct " organized in the race."
Well, but even if this be true, was not the disposition of the proge-
nitors to make the first eflTorts in the direction of swimming and diving,
and were not the organs which enabled them to do so, as purely innate
as the perfected instinct and the perfected organs of the Dipper of to-
day ? Did there ever exist in any former period of the world what, so
far as I know, does certainly not exist now — any animal with disposi-
tions to enter on a new career, thought of and imagined for the first
time by itself, unconnected with any organs already fitted for and
appropriate to the purpose? Even the highest acquirements of the
Dog, under highly artificial conditions of existence, and under the
guidance of persistent " interferences with nature," are nothing but
the special education of original instincts. In the almost human
caution of the old and well-trained pointer when approaching game,
we see simply a development of the habit of all predatory animals to
pause when close upon an unseen prey — a pause requisite to verify the
intimations of smell by the sense of sight, and also for preparing the
final spring. It is true that man "selects;" but he can only select
out of what is already there. The training and direction which he
gives to the promptings of instinct may properly be described as the
result of experience in the animal under instruction; and it is
undoubtedly true, that within certain limits (which, however, are after
all very narrow) these results do tend to become hereditary. But
there is nothing really analogous in nature to the artificial processes of
training to which Man subjects the animals which are capable of
domestication. Or if there be anything analogous — if animals by
themselves can school themselves by gradual eftbrt into the deveTop-
ment of new powers — if the habits and powers which are now purely
innate and instinctive, were once less innate and more deliberate —
then it will follow that the earlier faculties of animals have been the
higher, and the latter faculties are the lower in the scale of intelligence.
This is hardly consistent with the idea of evolution, — which is founded
on the conception of an unfolding or development from the lower to
the higher, from the simple to the complex, from the instinctive to
the rational. My own belief is, that whatever of truth there is in the
doctrine of evolution is to be found in this conception, which so far as
we can see, does seem to be embodied in the history of organic life.
I can there therefore see no light in this new explanation to account
for the existence of instincts which are centainly antecedent to all
individual experience — the explanation, namely, that they arc due to

On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to tlie Mind of Man. 325

the experience of progenitors "organized in the race." It involves
assumptions contrary to the analogies of nature, and at variance with
the fundamental facts which are the best and, indeed, the only basis
of the theory of evolution. There is no probability— there is hardly
any plausibility — in the supposition that experience has had, in past
times, some connection with instinct which it has cegsed to have in the
present day. The uniformity of nature has, indeed, often been asserted
in a sense in which it is not true, and used in support of arguments
which it will not sustain. All things have certainly not continued as
they are since the begining. There was a time when animal life, and
with it animal instincts, began to be. But we have no reason what-
ever to suppose that the nature of instinct then or since has ever been
different frum its nature now. On the contrary, as we have in existing
nature examples of it in infinite variety, from the very lowest to the
very highest forms of organization, and as the same phenomena are
everywhere repeated, we have the best reason to conclude that, in the
past, animal instinct has ever been what we now see it to be, congenital,
innate, and wholly independent of experience.

And indeed, when we come to think about it, we shall find that the
theory of experience assumes the pre-existence of the very powers for
which it professes to account. The very lowest of the faculties by
which experience is acquired is the faculty of imitation. But the
desire to imitate must be as instinctive as the organs are hereditary by
which imitation is effected. Then follow in their order all the higher
faculties by which the lessons of experience are put together— so that
what has been in the past is made the basis of anticipation as to Avhat
will be in the future. This is the essential process by which experi-
ence is acquired, and every step in that process assumes the pre-exist-
ence of mental tendencies and of mental powers which are purely
instinctive and innate. To account for instinct by experience is
nothing but an Irish bull. It denies the existence of things which
are nevertheless assumed in the very terms of the denial : it elevates
into a cau.se that which must in its nature be a consequence, and a
consequence, too, of the very cause which is denied. Congenital
instincts, and hereditary powers, and pre-established harmonies, are
the origin of all experience, and without them no one step in experience
could ever be gained. The questiorts raised when a young Dipper,
which had never before even seen water, dives and swims with perfect
ease, are questions which the theory of organized experience does not
even tend to solve ; on the contrary it is a theory wdiich leaves those
questions precisely where they were, except in so far as it may tend to
obscure them by obvious confusions of thought.

326 On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

Passing now fron] explanations v.hich explain nothing, is there any
light in the theory that animals are "automata?" Was my little
Dipper a diving machine ? It seems to me that there is at least a
glimmer shining through this idea — a glimmer as of real light
struggling through a thick fog. The fog arises out of the mists of
language — the confounding and confusing of meanings literal with
meanings metaphorical — the mistaking of partial for complete anal-
ogies. Machine is the word by which we designate those combinations
of mechanical force which are contrived and put together by man to
do certain things. One essential characteristic of them is that they
belong to the world of the not-living ; they are destitute of that which
we know as life, and of all the attributes by which it is distinguished.
Machines have no sensibility. When we say of anything that it has
been done by a machine, we mean that it has been done by something
which is not alive. In this literal signification it is therefore pure
nonsense to say that anything living is a machine. It is simply a
misapplication of language, to the extent of calling one thing by the
name of another thing, and that other so diiferent as to be its opposite
or contradictory. There can be no reasoning, no clearing up of truth,
unless we keep definite words for definite ideas. Or if the idea to
which a given word has been appropriated be a complex idea, and we
desire to deal with one element only of the meaning, sej^arated from
the rest, then, indeed, we may continue to use the word for this
selected portion of its meaning, provided always that we bear in mind
what it is that we are doing. This may be, and often is, a necessary
operation, for language is not rich "enough to furnish separate words
for all the complex elements which enter into ideas apparently very
simple ; and so of this word, machine, there is an element in its
meaning which is always very important, which in common language
is often pre-dominant, and which we may legitimately choose to make
exclusive of every other. This essential element in our idea of a
machine, is that its powers, whatever they may be, are derived and
not original. There may be great knowledge in the work done by a
machine, but the knowledge is not in it. There may be great skill,
but the skill is not in it; great fin-esight, but the foresight is not
in it; in short, great exhibition of all the powers of mind, but the
mind is not in the machine its^elf. Whatever it does is done in
virtue of its construction, which construction is due to a mind
which has designed it for the exhibition of certain powers, and
the performance of certain functions. These may be very simple, or
they may be very complicated, but whether simple or complicated,
the whole play of its operations is limited and measui'ed by the inteu-

On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 327

tions of ite constructor. If that constructor be himself limited, either
in opportunity, or knowledge, or in power, there will be a corresponding
limitation in the things which he invents and makes. Accordingly,
in regard to man, he cannot make a machine which has any of the
gifts and the powers of life. He can construct nothing which has
sensibility or consciousness, or any other of even the lowest attributes
of living creatures. And this absolute destitution of even apparent
originality in a machine — this entire absence of any share of conscious-
uess, or of seusibility, or of will — is one part of our very conception of
it. But that other part of our conception of a machine, which consists
in its relation to a contriver and constructor, is equally essential, and
may, if we choose, be sejxirated from the rest, and may be taken as
representative of the whole. If, then, there be any Agency in Nature,
or outside of it, which can contrive .and build up structures endowed
with the gifts of life, structures which shall not only digest, but Avhich
shall also feel and see, which shall be sensible of enjoyment from
things conducive to their welfare, and of alarm on account of things
which are dangerous to the same — then such structures have the same
relation to that Agency which machines have to Man, and in this
aspect it may be a legitimate figure of speech to call them living
iuachines. What these machines do is different m kind from the
things which human machines do ; but both are alike in this — that
whatever they do is done in virtue of their construction, and of the
powers which have been given to them by the mind Avhich made them.
Applying now this idea of a machine to the phenomena exhibited by
the young Dipper, its complete applicability cannot be denied. In the
first place the young Dipj)er had a physical structure adapted to
<iiving. Its feathers were of a texture to throw off water, and the
?<hower of pearly drops which ran off it, when it emerged from its first
plunge, showed in a moment how different it was from other fle'Iglings
in its iraperviousness to wet. Water appeared to be its " native
element" precisely in the same sense in which it is said to be the
native element of a ship which has been built high in air, and of the
not very watery materials of wood and iron. Water which it had
never seen before seemed to he the native element of the little bird in
this sense, that it was so constructed as to he and to feel at home in it
at once. Its " lines '' had been laid down for progression both in air
and water. It was launched with a motive power complete within
itself, and with promptings sufficient for the driving of its own
machinery. For the physical adaptation was obviously united with
mental powers and qualities which partook of the same pre-adjusted
harmony. These were as congenital as the texture of its feathers or

328 On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

the structure of its wing. Its terror arose on seeing the proper objects
of fear, although they had never been seen before, and no experience
of injury had arisen. This terror prompted it to the proper methods
of escape, and the knowledge how to use its faculties for this object
was as intuitive as the apparatus for effecting it was hereditary. In
this sense the Dipper was a living, breathing, seeing, fearing, and
diving machine — ready made for all these purposes from the nest — as
some other birds are even from their first exclusion from the Q^^.

The case of the young Merganser is still more curious and instructive
with reference to the same questions. The young of all the Anatidce
are born, like the gallinaceous birds, not naked or blind as most others
are, but completely equipped with a feathery down, and able to swim
or dive as soon as they see the light. Moreover the young of the
Mergauser have the benefit of seeing from the first the parent bird
performing these operations, so that imitation may have some part in
developing the perfection with which they are executed by the young.
But the particular manoeuvre resorted to by the young bird which
baffled our pursuit, was a manoeuvre in which it could have had no
instruction from example — the manoeuvre, namely, which consists in
hiding not under any cover but by remaining perfectly motionless on the
ground. This is a method of escape which cannot be resorted to
successfully except by birds whose coloring is adapted to the purpose
by a close assimilation with the coloring of surrounding objects. The
old bird would not have been concealed on the same ground, and
would never itself resort to the same method of escape. The young,
therefore, cannot have been instructed in it by the method of example.
But the small size of the chick, together with its obscure and curiously
mottled coloring, are specially adapted to this mode of concealraent.
The young of all birds which breed upon the ground are provided with
a garment in such perfect harmony with surrounding effects of light as
to render this manoeuvre easy. It depends, however, wholly for its
success upon absolute stillness. The slightest motion at once attracts
the eye of any enemy which is searching for the young. And this
absolute stillness must be preserved amidst all the emotions of fear and
terror which the close approach of the object of alarm must, and
obviously does, inspire. Whence comes this splendid, even if it be
unconscious faith, in the sufficiency of a defense which it must lequire
such nerve and strength of will to practice? No movement, not even
the slightest, though the enemy should seem about to trample on it :
such is the terrible requirement of Nature — and by the child of Nature
implicitly obeyed ! Here again, beyond all question, we have an
instinct as much born with the creature as the harmonious tinting of

On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 329

its plumage — the external furnishing being inseparably united with
the internal furnishing of mind which enables the little creature in
very truth to " walk by faith and not by sight."' Is this automatonism?
Is this machinery? Yes, undoubtedly, in the sense explained befoie—
that the instinct has been given to the bird in precisely the same sense
in which its structure has been given to it — so that anterior to all
experience, and without the aid of instruction or of example, it is
inspired to act in this manner <m the appropriate occasion arising.

Then, in the case of the Wild Duck, we rise to a yet higher form of
instinct, and to more complicated adaptations of congenital powers to
the contingencies of the external world. It is not really conceivable
that Wild Ducks have commonly many opportunities of studying each
other's action when rendered helpless by wounds. Nor is it conceiv-
able that such study can have been deliberately made even when
opportunites do occur. When one out of a flock is wounded all the
others make haste to escape, and it is certain that this trick of
imitated helplessness is practised by individual birds which can never
have had any such opportunities at all. Moreover there is one very
remarkable circumstance connected with this instinct, which marks
how much of knowledge and of reasoning is implicitly contained within
it. As asainst Man the manoeuvre is not onlv useless but it is injurious.
When a man sees a bird resorting to this imitation, he is deceived for
a moment, as I have myself been ; but his knowledge and experience
and his reasoning faculty soon tell him, from a combination of circum-
stances, that it IS merely the usual deception. To Man, theref )re, it
has the opposite eflect of revealing the proximity of the young brood,
which would not otherwise be known. I have repeatedly been led by
it to the discovery of the chicks. Now, the most cuiious fact of all is
that this distinction between Man and other predacious anima's is
recognized and reflected in the insthict of birds. The manoeuvre of
counterfeiting helplessness is very rarely resorted to except when a
dog is present. Dogs are almost uniformly deceived by it. They
never can resist the temptation presented by a bird which flutters
apparently heli)less just in front of their nose. It is, therefore, almost
always sti'ccessful in drawing them off and so rescuing the young from
danger. But it is the sense of smell, not the sense of sight which
makes dogs so specially dangerous. The instinct which has been given
to birds seems to cover and include tJie knowledge that as the sense of
smell does not exist to the like effect in Man. the mere concealment of
the young from sight is ordinarily as regards him sufficient f )r their
protection; and yet I have on one occasion seen the trick resorted to
when Man only wa&the source of danger, and this by a species of bird

330 On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man,

wliich does not habitually practise it, and which can neither have had
individual nor ancestral experience. This was the case of a Blackcap
(Sylvia Atricapilla) which fell to the ground as if wounded from a
bush, in order to distract attention from its nest.

If now we examine, in the light of our own reason, all the elements
of knowledge or of intellectual perception upon which the instinct of
the Wild Duck is founded, and all of which, as existing somewhei'e, it
undoubtedly reflects, we shall soon see how various and extensive
these elements of knowledge are. First, there is the knowledge that
the cause of the alarm is a carnivorous animal. On this fundamental
point no creature is ever deceived. The youngest chick knows a
hawk, and the dreadful form fills it with instant terror. Next there is
knowledge that dogs and other carnivorous quadrupeds have the sense
of smell, as an additional element of danger to the creatures on which
they prey. Next, there is the knowledge that the dog, not being
itself a flying animal, has sense enough not to attempt the pursuit of
prey which can avail itself of this sure and easy method of escape.
Next there is the conclusion from all this knowledge, that if the dog
is to be induced to chase, it must be led to suppose that the power of
flight has been somehow lost. And then there is the farther conclu-
sion that this can only be done by such an accurate imitation of a
disabled bird as shall deceive the enemy into a belief in the possibility
of capture. And lastly there are all the powers of memory and the
qualities of imagination which enable good acting to be performed.
All this reasoning and all this knowledge is certainly involved in the
action of the bird-mother, just as certainly as reasoning and knowledge
of a much profounder kind is involved in the structure or adjustment
of the organic machinery by which and through which the action is
itself performed.

There is unquestionably a sense, and a very important sense, in
which all these wonderful operations of instinct are " automatic."
The intimate knowledge of physical and of physiological laws — the
knowledge even of the mental qualities and dispositions of other
animals— and the processes of reasoning by which advantage is taken
of these, — this knowledge and this reasoning cannot, without manifest
absurdity, be attributed to the birds themselves. This is admitted at
least as regards the birds of the present day. But surely the absurdity
is quite as great if this knowledge and reasoning, or any part of it, be
attributed to the birds of a former generation. In the past history of
the species there may have been change — there may have been
development. But there is not the smallest reason to believe that the
progenitors of any bird or of any beast, however different in form, have

On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 331

ever founded on deliberate effort the instincts of their de>cendants.
All the knowledge and all the resource of mind which is involved in
these instincts is a reflection of some x\gency which is outside the
creatures which exhibit them. In this respect it may be said with
truth that they are machines. But then they are machines with this
peculiarity, that they not only reflect, but also in various measures and
degrees partake of, the attributes of mind. It is always by some one
or other of these attributes that they are guided — by fear, or by desire,
or by affection, or by mental impulses which go straight to the results
of reasoning without its processes. That all these mental attributes
are connected with a physicd organism which is constructed on
mechanical principles, is not a matter of speculation. It is an obvious
and acknowledged fact. The question is not whether, in this sense,
animals are machines, but whethar the work which has been assigned
to them does or does not partake in various measures and degrees of
the various qualities which we recognize in ourselves as the qualities of
sensation, of consciousness, and of will.

On this matter it seems clear to me that Professor Huxley has
seriously misconceived the doctrine of Descartes. It is true that he
quotes a passage as representing the view of " orthodox Cartesians,"
in which it is asserted that animals " eat without pleasure and cry
without pain," and that they "desire" nothing as well as "know"
nothing. But this passage is quoted, not from Descartes, but from
Malebranehe. Malebranehe was a great man ; but on this subject he
was the disciple and not the master ; and it seems almost a law that
no utterance of original genius can long escape the fate of being
travestied and turned to nonsense by those who take it up at second
hand. Descartes' letter to More of the 5th Feb., 1649, proVes con-
clusively that he fully recognized in the lower animals the existence
of all the affections of mind except "Thought" (la Pens6e), or Reason
properly so called. He ascribes to them the mental emotions of fear,
of anger, and of desire, as well as all the sensations of pleasure and of
pain. What he means by Thought is clearly indicated in the passage
in which he points to Language as the peculiar product and the sole
index of thought — Language, of course, taken in its broadest sense,
signifying any system of signs by Avhich general or abstract ideas are
expressed and communicated. This, as Descartes truly says, is never
wanting even in the lowest of men, and is never present, even in the
highest of the brutes. But he distinctly says that the lower animals,
having the same organs of sight, of hearing, of taste, etc., with our-
selves, have also the same sensations, as well as the same affections of
anger, of fear and of desire— affections which, being mental, he ascribes

332 On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

to a lower kind of class of Soul, an " ame corporelle." Descartes,
therefore, was not guilty of confounding the two elements of meaning
which are involved in the word machine — that element which attaches
to all human machines as consisting of dead non-sentient matter — and
that other element of meaning which may be legitimately attached to
structures which have been made, not to simulate, but really to possess
all the essential properties of life. "11 taut pourtant reraai-quer," says
Descartes, emphatically; "que je parle de la peus^e, nan de la vie, ou
de sentiinent." *

The experiments quoted by Professor Huxley and by other Physi-
ologists, on the phenomena of vivisection, cannot alter or modify the
general conclusions which have long been reached on the unquestion-
able connection between all the functions of life and the mechanism of
the body. The question remains whether the ascertainment of this
connection in its details can alter our conceptions of what life and
sensation are. No light is thrown on this question by cutting out from
an organism certain parts of the machinery which are known to be the
seat of consciousness, and then finding that the animal is still capable
of certain movements which are usualy indicative of sensation and of
purpose. Surely the reasoning is bad which argues that because a
given movement goes on after the animal has been mutilated, this
movement must thei-etbre continue to possess all the same elements of
character which accompanied it when the animal was complete. The
character of purpose in one sense or another belongs to all organic
movements whatever — to those which are independent of conscious
sensation, or of the will, as well as to those which are voluntary and
intentional. The only difference between the two classes of movement
is that in the case of one of them the purpose is wholly outside the
animal, and that in the case of the other class of movement, the
animal has faculties which make it, however indirectly, a conscious
participant or agent in the purpose, or in some part of the purpose, to
be su!)served. The action of the heart in animals is as certainly
" purposive " in its character as the act of eating and deglution. In
the one the animal is wholly passive — has no sensation, no conscious-
ness, however dim. In the other movement the animal is an active
agent, is impelled to it by desires which are mental affections, and
receives from it the appropriate pleasure which belongs to conscious-
ness and sensation. These powers themselves, however, depend, each
of them, on certain bits and parts of the animal mechaiiism ; and if
these parts can be separately injured or destroyed, it is intelligible

* OEuvreB de Descartes (Cousin), vol. x. p. 205 et seq.

On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 333

enough that consciousness and sensation may be severed fi>r a time
from the movements which they onliiiarilly accompany and tiiiect.
The success of such an experiment may teach us much on tlie details
of a general truth which has long ben known — that cimsciou< sensa-
tion inseparably connected witli the mechanism of an organic structure.
But it cannot in the slightest degree cliange or modify our conception
of what conscious sen.-ation in itsi If is. It is mechanical exactly in the
same sense in which we have long known it to be so — that is to say, it
is the result oi' life working in and through a structure wlwch has
been made to exhibit and embody its peculiar gifts and powers.

Considering, now, that the body of Man is one in structure with the
body of all vertebrate animals — consideiing that as we rise from the
lowest of these to him, who is the highest, we see this same structure
elaborated into closer and closer likeness, until every part corresponds,
bone to bone, tissue to tissue, organ to organ^ — I cannot doubt that
Man is a machine, precisely in the same sense in which animals are
machines. If it is no contradiction in terms to speak of a machine
which has been made to feel and to see, and to hear and to desire,
neither need there be any contradiction in terms in speaking of a
machine which has been made to thiiik, and to reflect, and to reason.
These are, indeed, powers so much higher than the others that they
may be considered as different in kind. But this difference, however
great it may be, whether we look at it in its practical results, or as a
question of classification, is certainly not a difference which throws any
doubt upon the fact that all these higher powers are, equally with the
lowest, dependent on special arrangements in a material organism. It
seems to me that the very fact of the question being raised whether
Man can be called a machine in the same sense as that in which alone
the lower animals can properly be so described, is a proof that the
questioner believes the lower animals to be machines in a sense in
which it is not true. Such manifestations of mental attributes as they
display are the true and veritable mdex of powers which are really by
them possessed and enjoyed. The notion that, because these powers
depend on an organic apparatus, they are therefore not what they seem
to be, is a mere confusion of thought. On the other hand, when this
comes to be thoroughly understood, the notion that Man's peculiar
powers are lowered and dishonored when they are conceived to stand
in any similar relation to the body must be equally abandoned, as par-
taking of the same fallacy. If the sensations of pleasure and of pain,
and the more purely mental manifestations of fear and of affection,
have in the lower animals some inseparable connection with an organic
apparatus, I do not see why we should be jealous of admitting that the

334 Oil Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man,

still higher powers of self-consciousness and reason have in Man a sim-
ilar connection with the same kind of mechanism. The nature of thi>
connection in itself Is equally mysterious, and, indeed, inconceivable
in either case. As a matter of fact, we have precisely the same evi-
dence as to both. If painful and pleasurable emotions can be destroy-
ed by the cutting of a nerve, so also can the powers of memory and of
reason be destroyed by an injury or disease which affects some bits of
the substance of the brain. If, however, the fact of this mysterious con-
nection'be so interpreted as to make us alter our conceptiims of what self-
consciousness and reason, and all mental manifestations in themselves
are, then, indeed, we may well be jealous — not of the facts, but of the
illogical use which is often made of them. Self-consciousness and reason
and affection, and fear, and pain and pleasure, are in themselves exactly
what we have always known them to be ; and no discovery as to the
physical apparatus v>'ith which they are somehow connected can throw
the smallest obscurity on the criteria by which they are to be identi-
fied as so many different phenomena of mind. Our old knowledge of
the work done is in no way altered by any new inforraation as to the
apparatus by which it is affected. This is the bungle committed by
those who think they can found a new Psychology on the knife.
They seem to think that sensation and memory, and reasoning and
will, become something difierent from that which hitherto we have
known them to be, when we have found out that each of these powers
may have some special "seat" or "organ" in the body. This, however,
is a pure delusion. The known element in psychology is always the
nature of the mental faculty ; the unknown element is always the na-
ture of its connection with any organ. We know the operations of
our own minds with a fulness and reality which does not belong to any
other knowledge whatever. We do not know the bond of union be-
tween these operations and the brain, except as a sort of external and
wholly unintelligible fact. Remembering all this, then, we need not
fear or shrink from the admission that Man is a reasoning and self-con-
scious machine, just in the same sense in which the lower animals are
machines which have been made to exhibit and possess certain mental
faculties of a lower class.

But what of this ? What is the value of this conclusion ? Its value
would be small indeed if this conception of ourselves as machines could
be defended only by a harmless metaphor. But there is far more to
be said for it, and about it, than this. The conception is one which is
not only harmless, but profoundly true, as all metaphors are when they
are securely rooted in the Homologies of Nature. There is much to "
be learned from that aspect of mind in which we regard its powers as

On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 335

intimately connected with a material apparatus, and from that aspect
of our own bodies in which they are regarded as one in structure with
the bodies of the brutes. The significance of it as establishing Plan's
place in the unity of Nature is altogether independent of any theory or
couclu.-ion as to those processes of creation by which his body has been
fashioned on a plan which is common to him, and to so many of the
animals beneath him. Whether Man has been separately created out
of the inorganic elements of which his body has been composed, or
whether it was created out of matter pieviously organized .in lower
forms, this community of form must equally indicate a corresponding
community of relations with external things, and some antecedent ne-
cessity deeply seated in the very nature of those things, why his bodily
frame should be like to theirs.

And, indeed, when we consider the matter, it is sufficiently appar-
ent that the relationship of Man's body to the bodies of the lower ani-
mals is only a subordinate part and consequence of that higher and
more general relationship which prevails between all livuig things and
those elementary forces of Nature which play in them, and around
them, and upon them. If we could only know what that relationship
is in its real nature, and in its full extent, we should know one of the
most inscrutable of all secrets, for that secret is no other than the ul-
timate nature of life. The great matter is to keep the little knowledge
of it which we possess safe from the effect of deceptive definitions. At-
tempts to define life are generally worse than useless, because they
almost always involve a deUberate attempt to shut out from view some
one or more of the elements which are es:7ential to our own knowledge
of its attributes. The real unities of Nature will never be reached by
confounding her distinctions. It may be legitimate to reduce the phe-
nomena of life to its lowest terms, in order the better to conceive its
relations with other things. But in doing so we must take care not to
drop out of those terms anything really essential to the very idea of
life. It is very easy to deceive ourselves in this way — very easy by
mere artifices of language to obliterate the most absolute distinctions
which cau exist in thought. Between the living and the not-living
there is a great gulf fixed, and the indissoluble connection which
nevertheless exists between them is, like the other unities of Nature,
not founded upon sameness, but, on the contrary, rather upon differ-
ence, and even upon antagonisms. Only the forces which are thus
different and opposed are subject to a power of co-ordination and ad-
justment. But this is the fundamental conception of a machine. For
we must not fail to notice the kind of unity which is impUcd in the
words co-ordination and adjustment ; and, above all others, in the spe-

336 On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man,

cial adjustment connected Avith organic life. There are many unions
which do not involve the idea of adju:*tment, or which involve it only
in the most rudimentary form. The mere chemical union of two or
more elements — unless under special conditions — is not properly an
adjustment. We should not naturally call the formation of rust an
adjustment between the oxygen of the atmophere and metallic iron.
When the combinations effected by the play of chemical affinities are
brought about by the selection of elements so placed within reach of
each other's reactions as to result in a given product, then that pro-
duct would be accurately described as the result of co-ordmation and
adjustment. But the kind of co-ordination and adjustment which ap-
pear in the facts of life is of a still higher and more complicated kind
than this. Whatever the relationship may be between living organ-
isms and the elements, or elementary forces of external nature, it cer-
tainly is not the relationship of mere chemical affinities. On the con-
trary, the unions which these affinities themselves produce can only be
reached through the dissolution and destruction of living bodies. The
subjection of chemical forces to the maintenance of a seperate individ-
uality is of the very essence of life. The destruction of that separate-
ness is of the very essence of death. It is not life, but the cessation of
life, which, in this sense and after this manner, unites the elements of
the body with the elements around it. There is indeed an adjust-
ment— a close and intricate adjustment — between these and the living
body ; but it is an adjustment of them under the controlling energy of
a power which cannot hd identified with any other, and always presents
phenomena peculiar to itself Under that power we see that the laws
and forces of chemical affinity, as 'exhibited apart from life, are held,
as it were, to service — compelled, indeed, to minister, but not allowed
to rule. Through an infinite variety of organisms, this mysterious
subordination is maintained, ministering through an ascending series
to higher and higher grades of sensation, perception, consciousness, and
thought.

And here we come in sight of the highest adjustment of all. Sen-
sation, perception, consciousness, and thought, if they be not the
very essence of life, are at least in their order its highest accompani- ,
ment and result. They are the ultimate phenomena, if they be not
the final realities, to which all the les.ser adjustments are themselves
adjusted. For as the elementary substances and the elementary for-
ces of Nature which are used in the building of the body are they held
by the energies of life under a special and peculiar relation to those same
elements outside the body, so also are they held in peculiar relations to
those characteristic powers which are the rudimentary faculties of mind.

On Animal Insfinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 337

It is the unity wliich exists between the living organism and the ele-
ments around it which renders that organism the appropriate channel
of communication with the external world, and a faithful interpreter
of its signs. And this the organism is, not only by virtue of its sub-
stance and composition, but also and especially by virtue of its adjusted
structures. All the organs of sense discharge their functions in virtue
of a mechanical adjustment between the structure of the organ and
the particular form of external force which it is intended to receive
and to transmit. How fine those adjustments are can best be under-
stood when we remember that the retina of the eye is a machine which
measures and distinguishes between vibrations which are now known
to differ from each by only a few raillionths of an inch. Yet this
amount of difference is recorded and made instantly appreciable in the
sensations of color by the adjusted mechanism of the eye. Another
adjustment, precisely the same in principle, between the vibrations of
sovmd and the structure of the ear, enables those vibrations to be sira-
, ilarly distinguished in another special form of the manifold language
of sensation. And so of all the organs of sense — they all perform their
work in virtue of that purely mechanical adjustment which places
them in a given relation to certain selected manifestations of external
force, and these they faithfully transmit according to a code of signals
the nature of which is one of the primary mysteries of life, but the
truthfulness of which is at the same time one of the most certain of its
facts.

For it is upon this truthfulness — that is to say, upon a close and
efficient correspondence between the impressions of sense and the reali-
ties of external nature — that the success of every organism depends in
the battle of life. And all life involves a battle, for though it comes
to each animal without effort of its own, it cannot be maintained with-
out individual exertion. That exertion may be of the simplest kind,
nothing more than the rhythmic action of a muscle contracting and
exj)anding so as to receive into a sac such substances as currents of
■water may bring along with them ; or it may be the more complex
action required to make or induce the very currents which are to bring
*the food ; or it may be the much more complex exertions required in ail
active locomotion for the pursuit and capture of prey : all these forms
of exertion exist, and are all required in endless variety in the animal
world. And throughout the whole of this vast series the very life of
every creature depends on the perfect correspondence which exists
between its sense-impressions and those realities of the external world
which are specially related to them. There is therefore no conception
of the mind Avhich rests on a broader basis of experience than that

338 On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

which affirms this coiTespondence to be real — a unity which constitutes
and guarantees the various senses, each in its own sphere of adapted
relations, to be exact and faithful interpreters of the truth.

Nor is it the least wonderful and striking proof of the trustworthi-
ness of Nature to observe how far-reaching these interpretations are :
how they are true not only in the immediate impressions they convey,
but true also as the index of truth which lie behind and beyond, but
which are not expressly included in either sensation or perception.
This, indeed, is one main function and use, and one universal charac-
teristic, of all sense-impresssions, that over and above the pleasure they
give to sentient creatures, they lead and guide to acts which are in
conformity with the requirements of the natural laws — these laws not
being themselves objects of sensation at all — being, on the contrary,
truths which the creatures most concerned in the requisite conformity
being obeyed cannot themselves either feel or comprehend. It is thus
that the ai:>petite of hunger and the sense of taste, which in some form
or other, however low, is perhaps the most universal sensation of ani- ^
mal organisms, is true not only as a guide to the substances which do
actually give rise to the appropriate pleasure derivable from the sense
concerned, but true also in its unseen and unfelt relations with those
profound and still mysterious correlations of force which render the
assimilation of new material an indispensable necessity in the mainte-
nance of animal life.

The wonderful instincts of the lower animals, the precision and per-
fection of their work, is a glorious example of the accurate adjustment
between the rudimentary perceptions of mind and the laws which pre-
vail in the external world. Narrow as the sphere of those perceptions
may be, yet within that sphere they are almost absolutely true. And
although the sphere is indeed narrow as regards the very low and lim-
ited intelligence with which it is associated in the animals themselves,
it is a sphere which beyond the scope of that intelligence can be seen
to place them in unconscious relation with endless vistas of co-ordinated
action. The sentient actions of the lower animals involve not merely
the elementary perception of the differences which distinguish things,
but the much higher perception of those relations between them which
are the foundation of all voluntary agency, and which place in the
possession of living creatures the power of attaining ends through the
employment of appropriate means. The direct and intuitive percep-
tion of the necessity of doing one thing in order to attain to another
thing, is in itself one of the very highest among the pre-adjusted har-
monies of Nature. For it must be remembered that those relations
between things which render them capable of being used as means to

On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 339

ends are relations which never can be the direct objects of sensation,
and therefore a perception of them is an intuition of something which
is out of sight. It is a kind of dim mental seeing of that which is
invisible. And even if it be separated entirely in the lower animals
from any thing comparable with our own self-consciousness, it does not
the less involve in them a true reflection of and correlation with the
order of Nature and its laws The spinning machinery which is pro-
vided in the body of a spider is not more accurately adjusted to the
viscid secretion which is provided for it, than the instinct of tlie spider
is adjusted both to the construction of its web and also to the selection
of likely places for the capture of its prey. Those birds and insects
whose young are hatched by the heat of fermentation have an intui-
tive impulse to select the proper materials, and to gather them for the
purpose. All creatures, guided sometimes apparently by senses of
which we know nothing, are under like impulses to provide effectually
for the nourishing of their young; and it is most curious and insruct-
ive to observe that the extent of provision which is involved in the
process, and in securiug of the result, seems very often to be greater
as we descend in the scale of nature, and in proportion as the parents
are dissociated from the actual feeding or personal care of their off-
spring. The mammalia have nothing to provide except food for them-
selves, and have at first, and for a long time, no duty to perform
beyond the discharge of a purely physical function. Birds have more
to do — in the building of nests, in the choice of sites for these, and
after incubation in the choice of food adapted to the period of growth.
Insects, much lower in the scale of organization, and subject to the
wonderful processes of metamorphosis, have to provide very often for
a distant future, and for successive stages of development not only in
the young but in the nidus which surrounds them. Bees, if we are to
believe the evidence of observers, have an intuitive guidance in the
selection of food which has the power of producing organic changes in
the bodies of the young, even to the determination and development of
sex, so that, by the administration of it under what may be called arti-
ficial conditions, certain selected individuals can be made the mothers
*nd queens of future hives. These are but a few examples of facts
of which the whole animal world is full, presenting, as it does, one vast
series of adjustments between bodily organs and corresponding instincts.
But this adjustment would be useless unless it were part of another
adjustment — between the instinct and the perceptions of animals and
those facts and forces of surrounding nature which are related to them,
and to the whole cycle of things of which they form a part. Li those
instinctive actions of the lower animals which involve the most distant

SiO On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

and the most complicated anticipations, it is certain that the prevision
involved is a prevision which is not in the animals themselves. They
appear to be, and beyond all doubt really are, guided by some simple
appetite, by an odor or a taste, and, in all probability, they have gen-
erally as little consciousness of the ends to be subserved as the suck-
ling has of the processes of nutrition. The path along which they walk
is a path which they did not engineer. It is a path made for them,
and they simply follow it. But the propensities and tastes and feel-
ings which make them follow it, and the rightness of its direction
towards the ends to be attained, do constitute an adjustment which
may correctly be called mechanical, and is part of a unity which binds
together the whole world, of life, and the whole inorganic world on
which living things depend.

Surely, then, it would be a strange object of ambition to try to think
that we are not included in this vast system of adjustment ; that our
nobler faculties have no share in the secure and wonderful guarantee
which it affords for the truthfulness of all mental gifts. It is well that
we should place a high estimate on the superiorities of the powers
which we possess ; and that the distinction, with all its consequences,
between self-conscious reason and the comparatively simple perceptions
of the beasts, should be ever kept in view. But it is not well that we
should omit from that estimate a common element of immense import-
ance which belongs to both, and the value of which becomes immeas-
urably greater in its connection with our special gifts. That element
is the element of adjustmeut-^the element which suggest the idea of an
apparatus — the element which constitutes all our higher faculties — the
index and the result of a pre-adjusted harmony. In the light of this
conception we can see a new meaning in our " place in Nature;" that
place which, so far as our bodily organs are concerned, assigns to us
simply a front rank among the creatures which are endowed with life.
It is in virtue of that place and association that we may be best
assured that our special gifts have the same relation to the higher real-
ities of nature which the lower faculties of the beasts have to the lower
realities of the physical world. Whatever we have that is peculiar to
ourselves is built up on the same firm foundation on which all animal*
instinct rests. It is often said that we can never really know what
unreasoning instinct is, because we can never enter into an animal
mind, and see what is woi-king there. Men are so apt to be arrogant
in philosophy that it seems almost wrong to deprecate even any semb-
lance of the consciousness of ignorance. But it were much to be
desired that the modesty of philosophers would come in the right pla-
ces. I hold that we can know, and can almost thoroughly understand.

On Animil Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 341

the instincts of the lower animals ; and this for the best of all reasons,
that we ai-e ourselves animals, what<3ver more; — having, to a large
extent, precisely the same instincts, with the additional power of look-
ing down upon ourselves in this capacity from a higher elevation to
which we can ascend at will. Not only are our bodily functions pre-
cisely similar to those of the lower anin\als, — some, like the beating of
the heart, being purely " automatic" or involuntary— others being
partially, and others again being wholly, under the control of the
will,— but many of our sensations and emotions are obviously the same
with the sensations and emotions of the lower animals, connected with
precisely the same machinery, presenting precisely the same phenom-
ena, and recognizable by all the same criteria.

It is true that many of our actions become instinctive and mechani-
cal only as a result of a previous intellectual operation of a self-con-
scious or reasoning kind. And this no doubt is the origin of the dream
that all instinct, even in the animals, has had the same origin ; a
dream due to the exaggerated "anthropomorphism" of those very phi-
losophers who are most apt to denounce this source of error in others.
But Man has many instincts like the animals, to which no such origin
in previous reason can be assigned. For not only in the earliest
infancy, but throughout life, we do innumerable things to which we
are lead by purely organic impulse ; things which have indeed a reason
and a use, but a reason which we never know, and a use which we
never discern, till Ave come to " think." And how different this pro-
cess of " thinking" is we know likewise from our own experience. In
contemplating the phenomena of reasoning and of conscious delibera-
tion it really seems as if it were impossible to sever it from the idea of
a double Personality. Tennyson's poem of the "Two Voices" is no
poetic exageration of the duality of which we are conscious when we
attend to the mental operations of our own most complex nature. It is
as if there were within us one Being always receptive of suggestion, and
always responding in the form of impulse— and another Being capable
of passing these suggestions in review before it, and of allowing or dis-
allowing the impulses to which they give rise. There is a profound
difference between creatures in which one only of these voices speaks,
and Man, whose ears are, as it were, open to them both. The things
which we do in obedience to the lower and simpler voice are indeed
many, various, and full of a true and wonderful significance. But the
things which we do, and the affections which we cherish, in obedience
to the higher voice, have a rank, a meaning, and a scope which is all
their own. There is no indication in the lower animals of this double
Personality. They hear no voice but one ; and the whole law of their

342 On Animal Instinct : in its Relation to the Mind of Man.

Being is perfectly fulfilled in following it. This it is Avliicli gives its
restfulness to Nature, Avhose abodes are indeed what Wadsworth calls
them—

" Abodes in which Self-disturbance hath no part."

On the other hand the double Personality, the presence of "Two
Voices," is never wholly wanting even in the most degi-aded of human
beings — their thoughts everywhere "accusing or else' excusing one
anothei'."

Knowing, therefore, in ourselves both these kinds of operation, we
can measure the difference between them, and we can thoroughly
understand how animals may be able to do all that they actually per-
form, without ever passing through the processes of argumentation by
which we reach the conclusions of conscious reason and of moral obli-
gation. Moreover, seeing and feeling the difference, we can see and
feel the relations which obtain between the two classes of mental work.
The plain truth is, that the higher and more complicated \VH)rk is done,
and can cftily be done, with the material supplied by the lower and
simpler tools. Nay, more, the very highest and most aspiring mental
processes rest upon the lower, as a building rests upon its foundation-
stones. They are like the rude but massive substructions fi'om which
some great Temple springs. Not only is the impulse, the disposition
and the ability to reason as purely intuitive and congenital in JMan as
the disposition to eat, but the fundamental axioms on which all reason-
ing rests are, and can only be, intuitively perceived. This, indeed,
is the essential character of all the axioms or self-evident propositions
which are the basis of reasoning, that the truth of them is perceived
by an act of apprehension, which, if it depends on any process, depends
on a process unconscious, involuntary, and purely automatic. But this
is the definition, the only definition, of instinct or intuition. All con-
scious reasoning thus starts from the data which this great faculty sup-
plies; and all our trust and confidence in the results of reasoning must
depend on our trust and confidence in the adjusted harmony which has
been established between instincts and the truths of Nature. Not
only is the idea of mechanjsm consistent with this confidence, but it is
insejiarable from it. No firmer ground for that cofidence can be given
us in thought then this conception, — that as the eye of sense is a mech-
anism specially adjusted to receive the light of heaven, so is the mental
eye a mechanism sj^ecially adjusted to perceive those realities which
are in the nature of necessary and eternal truth. Moreover, the same
conception helps us to understand the real nature of those limitations
upon our faculties which curtail their range, and which yet, in a sense,

On Animal Instinct: in its Relation to the Mind of Man. 3-13

we may be said partially to overpass iu the very act of becoming con-
scious of them. We see it to be a great law prevailing in the instinct*'
of the lower animals, and in our own, that they are true not only a
guiding the animal rightly to the satisfaction of whatever appetite is
immediately concerned, but true also as ministering to ends of which
the animal knows nothing, although they are ends of the highest im-
portance, both in its own economy, and in the far-off economies of
creation. In direct proportion as our own minds and intellects par-
take of the same nature, and are founded on the same principle of
adjustment, we may feel assured that the same law prevails over their
nobler work and functions. And the glorious law^ is no less than
this— that the work of Instinct is true not only for the short way it
goes, but lor that infinite distance into which it leads in a true
direction.

I know no argument better fitted to dispel the sickly dreams of the
Philosophy of Nescience. Nor do I know of any other conception as
securely founded on science, properly so called, which better serves to
render intelligible, and to bring within the familiar analogies of Na-
ture, even those highest and rarest of all gifts which constitute what
we understand as inspiration. That the human mind is alw'ays in
some degree, and that certain individual minds have been in a special
degree, reflecting surfaces, as it were, for the verities of the unseen
and eternal world, is a conception having all the characters of coher-
ence which assures us of its harmony with the general constitution
and course of things.

And so, this doctrine of animal automatonism — the notion that the
mind of Man is indeed a structure and a mechanism — a notion which
is held over our heads as a terror and a doubt — becomes, when closely
scrutinized, the most comforting and reassuring of all conceptions.
No stronger assurance can be given us that our faculties, when rightly
used, are powers on which w'e indeed rely. It reveals what may be
called the strong physical foundations on which the truthfulness of
reason rests. And more than this — it clothes with the like character
of trustworthiness every instinctive and intuitive affection of the hu-
man soul. It roots the reasonableness of faith in our conviction of the
Unities of Nature. It tells us that as we know the instincts of the
lower animals to be the index and the result of laws which are out of
sight to them, so also have our own higher insticts the same relation
to truths which are of corresponding dignity, and of corresponding
scope.

Nor can this conception of the mind of Man being inseparably con-
nected with an adjusted mechanism cast, as has been suggested, any

344 Note on the Manufacture of Stone Axes.

doubt on the freedom of tlie will, — such as by the direct evidence of
consciousness we know that freedom to be. This suggestion is simply
a repetition of the same inveterate confusion of thought which has
been exposed before. The question what our powers are is in no way
affected by the admisssou or discovery that they are all connected
with an apparatus. Consciousness does not tell us tiiat we stand unre-
lated to the system of things of which we form a part. We dream —
or rather, we simply rave — if we think we are free to. choose among
things which are not presented to our choice — or if we think that
choice itself can be free from motives,— or if we think that we
can find any motive outside tlie number of those to which by the
structure of our minds and of its organ we have been made accessible.
The only freedom of which we ai-e really conscious is freedom from
compulsion in choosing among things which are presented to our
choice, — consciousnees also attesting the fact that among those things
some are coincident, and some are not coincident with acknowledged
obligation. This, and all other direct perceptions, are not weakened
but confirmed by the doctrine that our minds are connected with an
adjusted mechanism. Because the first result of this conception is to
establish the evidence of consciousness when given under healthy con-
ditions, and when properly ascertained, as necessarily the best and the
nearest representation of the truth. This it does in recognizing our-
selves, and all the faculties we possess, to be nothing but the result
and index of an adjustment contrived by, and reflecting the Mind
Avhich is supreme in Nature. We are derived and not original. We
have been created, or — if any one likes the phrase better — we have
been "evolved;" not, however, out of nothing, nor out of confusion,
nor out of lies, — but out of " Nature," which is a word for the Sum of
all Existence, — the source of all Order and the very ground of all
Truth, — the Fountain in which all fullness dwells.

Thus the doctrine which at first sight seems so terrible turns out to
be nothing but one intellectual aspect of the many-sided moral truth
which of old found expression in the Kon nobis, Domine. — ConteMrpo-
vary Revicxo.

\

Note on the Mamifacture of Stone Axes. By E. W. Claypole, B.
A. B. Sc., Antioch College.

Some discussion has at different times been raised concerning the
process by which the savage tribes, who used the stone weapons now

Noie on the Manufacture of Stone Axes. 345

so cominou incur Archaeological Museum?, bored the holes, throuirh the
hammer and axe-head.s into which the handles were put. The greater
part of these tools and weapons were doubtless attached to the ends of
split sticks and secured by withes. But not a few are pierced from
side to side with a clean and round hole. The sides of this hole, on
inspection, show a set of circular markings, proving that it was drilled
out by some implement which was kept in rotatory motion. But the
exact nature of the instrument and the method of using it are yet
quite undetermined.

Some yeai's ago, the writer was spending a morning, in the Archaeo-
logical Museum in Edinbujgh, with the Curator, jNIr. Anderson, when
this subject came up. It was suggested by the sight of a piece of stone,
unique, in the collection, nearly cylindrical in shape about an inch in
diameter, and rubbed at one end, so that it Avas quite smooth arid pol-
ished. At the same time the smooth end was marked with concen-
tric rings, that immediately suggested to the writer's mind the thought,
that it had been used for boring a hole through some other piece of
stone. Ou examining a number of the axe-heads, not one could be
found the hole in Avhich it exactly fitted. This fact, however, is by
no means conclusive against its having been used for such a purpose.

Being made, I believe, of greenstone, which possesses no grit, it must
have been aided by sand. The use of this as an assistant in grinding
seems to involve no very high degree of civilization, but I am unable
to recollect, if any evidence of its employment for this purpose has
been discovered in ancient times, and also if it is now so used Ijy the
Indians of this continent, where they exist in their aboriginal condition
or nearly so.

Another suggestion has been made concerning the method of bor-
ing these axe -heads. I have not the work within reach at present,
but it may be found, if I mistake not, in Keller's Lake Dsvellings of
Switzerland. It is, that the holes were made by means of a cylinder of
wood, either hollow or full of pith, like a cane or a piece of alder.
This is supposed to have been aided by sand and kept in quick rota-
tion backwards and forwards between the palms of the two hands.
No doubt the wood would be worn away much more rapidly than the
stone, but it could be readily renewed. This process like the other
involves an acquaintance with the use of sand for grinding.

It is obvious, at a glance, that the latter method would be by far the
more advantageous of the two, mechanically. It would cut out a hole
as large as the former, but the material removed would not all be
ground to powder. A core would be left and afterwards broken oft' in
the solid state serving while it remained iu the hole to keep the borer in

346 Note on the Manufactiire of Stone Axes.

an upright position. The processes exactly resembled (if we compare
new things with old) the two methods now in use for sinking deep
wells. By one, the whole shaft of stone, that occupied the place of
the future bore-hole, is pounded into dust by a heavy jumper, and
removed as mud by the help of w'ater. By the other the boring tool
only cuts round a core, Avhich is removed, afterwards, entire and lifted
out of the hole.

Being lately at Princeton and looking over a large collection of
relics from the Swiss Lakes recently purchased and imported by Pro-
fessor Guyot, the fact mentioned above was strongly recalled to my
mind by seeing among them some small pieces of stone which exactly
resembled the cores that would be produced by boring out a stone,
tool or weapon in the manner just described. They were roughly
cylindrical, about half or three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and
nearly an inch long, marked with rings in such a manner as to irresis-
tibly call up the thought, that they were the cores left in boring round
holes through pieces of stone. In trying to fit them into the stone
axe-heads, with the aid of the curator, I was, as might be expected,
not very successful. The cores being too large for the holes. It was
hardly to be expected that weapon and core should after so many ages
and so many accidents have found their Avay to the same cabinet. But
the probability nevertheless appeal's very high that such specimens are
related to each other in the way above suggested. The hole in an
axe-head, as every collector knows well, is never of the same diameter
throughout. It is larger outside and then diminishes inwardly to
the middle, where it is smaller. This would naturally result, if they
wei e bored in this way. Let any one take a piece of cane or alder and
try with sand to drill a piece of stone, and he will find, that owing to
the difficulty of keeping the boring-tool perfectly upright the hole will
widen somewhat as it grows deeper. The process appears to have
been to bore to the middle and then break off the core and begin on
the other side and accordingly the cores, if such they be, seldom exceed
in length about one-half of the thickness of an axe-head.

The relics, which I have just described (and that at Pi-inceton College)
are from the Swiss Lake Dwellings. My own collection and knowl-
edge of North American relics is small and I am not able to deter-
mine how far the supposition, I have above mentioned, may be in
accordance with observations made upon these by students more
familiar with North American archaeology. I rather make the sug-
gestion in the hope that some of them may bring forward facts in
favor or in opposition. The early races of men seem to have trodden
paths marvellously similar though in countries very distant from each

New Species of Trllohite from the Trenton Limestone. 347

other, and it may be, that one or both of these methods of drilling
stone-axes was made use of by the aborigines of this continent.

Perhaps some of the readers of the Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of
Science may be able to quote examples of these supposed cores, and to
describe them in some future number.

Neiv Species of Trilobite from the Trenton Limestone at Trenton Falk,

K Y. By C. D. Walcott.

Genus BemopIeurkJes — (Portlock.)
E. striatulus, (n. sp.)

Fin 27. Eemopleurides slrialulus. a Anterior surface of hypostoma. b Ventral surlace of
hypostoina. The hypostoma figured is of the same size as that of the tnlobitp A.

General form obovate, strongly convex. Head subrotund. Gla-
bella prominent, central portion slightly convex, broadest at the pos-
terior third, contracted at the base, where the width is the same as
at the anterior margin of the eyes. A narrow palpebral lobe encir-
cles the lateral margins two-thirds the length of the head. Anterior
margin narrows and curves abruptly downward. Three pair of gla-
bellar furrows are indicated by smooth lines ; anterior and posterior
very obscure. Neck segment narrow, well defined from the glabella
by being slightly depressed ; a minute tubercle occurs upon ihe ante-
rior central third.

348 New Species of Trilohite from the Trenton Limestone.

Movable cheeks ; upper margin forms the base of the eye ; anteri-
orly an acr.te angle terminating under the anterior base of the eye ;
posterior margin with two spines ; the inner short, sharp pointed,
curves downward and backward on a line with the pleura of the first
segment of the thorax ; outer spine long, nearly flat, obliquely striated,
terminates opposite the axial lobe of the fifth segment.

At the anterior base, of the eyes the outer margin of the movable
cheeks curve abruptly downward and under forming a doublure, which
extends around under the anterior margin of the glabella, and back-
ward under the cheeks to a line with the neck segment.

Eyes large, elongated, depressed, occupy the curved space between
the upj)8r margins of the cheeks and the lateral margins of the
glabella : perpendicular in hight to each, surface finely reticulated.

Facial sutures cutting the neck segment on a line with the base of
the eyes, extend obliquely up to the posterior lateral angles of the
glabella; curve outward around the top of the eyes, then abruptly
down forming their anterior margin, curving forward and slightly
upvv'ard they unite in front of the glabella.

Hypostoma ; body quadrate, buccal margin produced into two long

tapering lobes^ with a deep buccal notch between them ; upon the
ventral surface four elevated lines run the length of each lobe, two
central and one on each margin, the marginal lines of the outer
margins continue to the anterior margin of the body, three short
lines separating them near the autei'ior margin ; muscular scars
slightly elevated, oval, situated anterior to the buccal notch, they
are crossed by minute inosculating lines. Interior or dorsal sur-
face of the body cut away anteriorly forming a semi-circular depres-
sion, showing the intei'ior of the ventral surface, and muscular scars as
slight depressions crossed by minute strise ; ventral surface minutely
tubercular, interior surface smooth. The hypostoma was attached
to the doublure beneath the glabella ; the extremities of the buccal
lobes extending back to the anterior, edge of the seventh thoracic
segment.

Thorax with ten segments arching forward, narrows rapidly to the
pygidium ; axial lobe separated from the plural lobes, by a sharp ridge
extending two-thirds the distance across each segment, a slight
diagonal furrow crosses the segments of the axial lobe near the junc-
tion of the axial and plural lobes. Plurae flat, curving dovi'u one-
half the way outward where they are reflected backward, terminating
in short pointed extremities.

Pygidium small, subquadrate, posterior margin narrowing is divided

Some New Species of Fussih from the Cincinnati Group. 349

bya semi-circular depression into two short abruptly attenuate 'points,
obliquely striated from the medial line backwards.

Surface. Glabella finely tuberculated. Movable cheeks very finely
granulated. Axial lobe smooth with a few fine punctures. Outer
spines of the head, pleuroe, (outer and inner surface), and pygidium
striated.

Formation and locality. Upper third of the Trenton Limestone,
Trenton Falls, N. Y. The glabella of this species closely resembles
the glabella described by Prof. E. Billings as Remopleurides Cana-
densis, from the Chazy Limestone. Differs in the narrow palpebral
lobes and glabellar furrows.

Some New Species of Fossils from the Cincinnati Gmvp and Remarlcs iipon
some Described Forms. By S. A. jMiller.

Acidaspis anchoralis (p.. sp.)

Fiff. 23; Head of Acidaspis anchoralis.

Fig. 24. Pygidium.
[Etym, anchoralis anchor shaped.]

Cephalic .shield, irregular, rough, tuberculated and spinous. An
outline of the margin would be represented by a depressed arc in front,
a slightly longer digitated and expanded arc for each cheek, and a still
longer arc for each of the projecting spines, while a half ellipse would
be formed between the projecting spine from the occipital part of the
glabella and each of the cheek spines. The cheeks have about twelve
or fourteen digitations or short curved spines on the lateral margins,
and about twenty prominent tubercles on the face of each, with their
posterior extremities produced, in a strong, round, oblique, curving spine
covered with numerous smaller tubercles or asperities. The eyes are
prominent, directed backwards, and situated near the posterior junc-
tion of the cheeks with the glabella. The glabella is somewhat
anchor shaped in outline ; the middle lobe has an expanded elevation

350 Some JSew Species of Fossils from the Cincinnati Group.

in front just back of the front marginal furrow and is projected poster-
iorly over the middle lobe of the thorax in a strong curving tubercu-
lated spine of equal or greater length than the spines projecting from
the cheeks. There are two lateral lobes on each side of the middle one ;
the anterior ones are somewliat circular with about ten or twelve tu-
bercles on each ; the posterior ones are subelliptical, bear from twelve
to twenty tubercles and extend back between the anterior parts of the
eye tubercles and the middle lobe. A curved row of tubercles start-
ing from the inner lateral side of each eye terminate even with the
anterior lateral lobe of the glabella (in some specimens thei-e are two
rows) and another curved row starting from the anterior part of the eye
and running parallel with the former terminates with the expanded
front of the middle lobe just forward of the anterior lateral lobe.

Thorax unknown.

Pygidium known only from a view of the under surface as shown by
the figure. It appears to be more than twice as wide, as long and to
bear two strong diverging slightly curving spines, which take their rise
from the sides of the last segment in the mesial lobe. These spines are
covered with tubercles. Between these spines there are six prominent
tubercles, four of which seem to have borne very short spines, and to
be visible from the opposite side, the other two placed at the lower
part of the base of the spines, and on each side of the strong curving
spines there are three short spines.

The figures are drawn natural size, but it is not an uncommon occur-
ence to find the glabella, ■with its produced spine, much longer than it
is in the specimen figured. The specimens figured are from the same
slab, collected by me, in Judge Collin's quarry, at an elevation of
about 340 feet. I have found tolerably good specimens of the glabella
on the top of the hill in Mt. Auburn, at an elevation of about 400 feet,
above low water mark.

Beyrichia Cmcinnatiensis (n. sp.)
CD

Fig. 25. Beyrichia Cincinnatiensis.

This is the smallest Beyrichia, known to me, in the Cincinnati rocks.
It belongs to the unisulcate group of "simplices,"' and is very closely
related to the Leperditia. General form, elliptical, with a straight dor-
sal edge. Surface of the valves smooth, convex, with a single depres-
sion extending from the middle of the dorsal margin across about or a

Some New Species of Fossils from the Cincinnati Group. 351

little over half the breadth of each valve. Ventral and terminal mar-
gins bordered by a very narrow depressed rim.

Length of specimen about xlij- ii^ch ; breadth about two thirds the
length.

It is found associated with B. quadrilirata, on slabs, about three
miles east of Weisburg on the I. & C. R. R., and with the same fossil
and B. Chambersi, about two miles north-east of Fort Ancient, on the
L. M. R. R. The rocks at each of these places are about 300 feet be-
low the upper silurian.

Leperditia cylindrica (Hall.)

This species is distributed throughout the rocks of the Cincinnati
Group, and is quite variable in form and size. It was described from
cylindrical specimens, only about two hundredths of an inch in length ;
but forms five hundredths or six hundredths of an inch in length, and
having the anterior third much enlai'ged, making a club shaped shell,
by reason of the minute gradations from one extreme to the other, may
be classified with it. The largest and best club shaped specimens,
I found abundant, on rocks, in the run, on the O. & M. R. R., 1|
miles east of Laughery creek, or about 44 miles west of Cincinnati.
At first, I was disposed to treat this latter form as sufficiently distinct
to warrant me in naming it ; but after an examination of large num-
bers, I came to the conclusion, that I was unable to separate it, by any
constant characters.

Beijrichia ciliata (Emmoijis.)

This species, described by Prof. Emmons, in his American Geology,
from the Blue limestone of Ohio, I believe, is the same, that was de-
scribed, bv Prof. Hall, many years later, under the name of B. tumi'
from. Emmons figured the interior and Hall the exterior, but there
does not seem to be much difficulty, in determining the fossil, from
Emmons' figure and description, moreover, there is no other form,
known in the Blue limestone of this locality, that could for a moment
be confounded with it.

Beyriehia regularis (Emmons.)

This species was described by Prof. Emmons, in his American Geolo-
gy from the Blue limestome of Ohio, and though his figure is not very
good, I know of no form so closely related to it, as B. quahiUrata of
Hall'and AVhitfield, in the 2nd volume of Ohio Paleontology. The
latter name will be found, probably, to be a synonym.

352 Some New Species of Fossils from the CincinnaH Group.

Calamopora fibrosa (Gold FUSS.)

This species was placed by Prof. McCoy in the genus Stenopora,
^vhere it was left by the Canadian geologists. It is quite likely, that it
should be classed in the genus Montlculipora and this would seem to be
the opinion of Edwards and Haime, certain, it is, however, that it does
not belong to the genus Chetetes. And I have elsewhere shown, that
there are no Corals, found in the Cincinnati Group, belonging to the
genus Chetetes. It was described from specimens, obtained by Gold-
fuss, from this vicinity, and there does not appear to me to be any diffi-
culty in identifying it. But Prof Nicholson, after examining the cor-
als of this vicinity, says he can not find it. He finds, however, 3Ion-
ticxdipora ptdchella of Edwards and Haime, whicli is the same fossil,
that I have been labelling Stenopora fibrosa or Montlculipora fibrosa for the
past five years, and which is the same, that Billings and the other Ca-
nadian geologists have called /6ro.*a in Canada. This species is a com-
mon form in the Trenton limestone of Canada and in the Trenton lime-
stone of Minnesota and Wisconsin, and is distributed throughout the
rocks, that we now call the Cincinnati Group, which, in their lower
exposure, are the equivalent of the Trenton rocks, and in their upper
exposure are the equivalent of the Hudson River Group. The coral-
lum forms cylindrical or subcylindrical branches from less than one-
fourth of an inch to an inch and a half in diameter and is composed of
polygonal, thin-walled corallites. It may be readily distinguished
from all other corals, with the aid of a magnifier, by the well marked
groups, on the suiface, of larger siz.ed corallites. The same f )S;il in
palmate or lobate form is identified by Prof Nicholson as Montlculi-
pora mammulata of D, Orbigny, and the massive and hemispheric forms,
have long been known as lycoperdon of Say. Prof Nicholson has made
a species, suhpidchellus, which is distinguished from )i6rosa, only on the
ground, that a few small corallites form the center of each group of
large corallites. If this distinction is sufficient to found a species upon,
then two more species may be provided, for the palmate, massive and
hemispheric forms that are distinguished from the mammidata and ly-
coperdon by the same differences. Prof Nicholson has founded another
species, which he has called Chetetes attritus, upon no other ground,
that I can discover, than the fact, that there are small crystalline
prominences on the surfiice, at the junction of the corallites, on speci-
mens, that have the appearance to thenaked eye of being weather worn,
and that aj^pear more distinctly to be surface worn, with the aid of an
ordinary magnifier. 1 do not know why the small points of lime should

Some New Species of Fossils from the Cincinnati Group. 353

crystalize on the surface, at tlie junction of the covallites, on some
specimens of worn Montimlipora fbrosa, and not on others, but an ex-
amination of several si^ecimens has led me to the conclusion, that such
is the ftict. In other words, the attritus of Nicholson is merely a worn
specimen of fibrosa.

If Prof. Nicholson is correct in identifying this species with pitkhella
of Edwards and Haime, then pidcMla is merely a synonym for fihrom,
but I am not convinced, that these two names are synonymous, on the
contrary, I do not think that pnlchella is found here, at all. Edwards
and Haime had before them many corals from this locality, and as the
coral now referred by Prof. Nicholson to their species is the most
abundant coral in our rocks, it would seem highly probable, that, they
were in possession of it, when they wrote their work on the British
corals, in which they frequently referred to localities for species, in
America, yet when making the species pulchalla the only locality men-
tioned was England. They described pukliella as follows:

"Corallum ramose; its branches often somewhat compressed, and
from two to four lines in diameter. Tubercles broad not very promin-
ent and somewhat stellated. Calices rather regularly hexagonal and
very unequal in size ; those that occupy the center of the tubercles
about one-fifth of a line in diameter and at least twice as large as those
placed in the intervals between the groups thus formed."

Our species is usually much larger than this one, and it is very rare
to find the branches compressed ; the prominences or tubercles are not
stellated ; the calices are not regularly hexagonal, though as they are
crowded together some of them may be hexagonal, while others are
pentagonal or heptagonal or approaching a circle, there being no reg-
ularity in their form and no uniformity in their size. In specimens
four lines in diameter, the calices, that occupy the center of the tuber-
cles, are from i to ^ of a line in diameter ; the distance, from the cen-
ter of one tubercle to the center of the next, is about one line, and the
average number of calices, in that distance, is about twelve. IMore-
over Edwards and Haime distinguished pukhella from Fletcheri, by the
more acute angle of bifurcation of the branches, in the former than in
the latter, while no such distinguishing character could be applied to
our species, as it bifurcates at all angles. Thus it seems, that our
species differs, more or kss, in every character, from those ascribed to
pulchella by its authors.

For these reasons, I do not think, that pnlchella exists in the Cincin-
nati Group, and it is quite evident, that the corals referred to this
species, by Prof. Nicholson, are the same, that were described by Gold-
fuss, in 1826, under the specific name /6rosa. If the corals referred to

354 Some New Species of Fossils from the Cincinnati Group.

do not belong to the genus Stenopora, the names should be written
Monticulipora fibrosa instead of Chetetes pulchellm and Chetetes attritus,
and Monticulipora subpulchella instead of Chetetes subpidchellus.

Monticulipora Dalei (Edwards and Haime.)

The surface of this species is sometimes covered with conical or
elongated tubercles, at other times the eminences consist of trans-
versely elongated ridges, that extend part or all the way round the
branches. The latter form Prof. Nicholson identifies as Monticulipora
rugosa of Edwards and Haime, and he proceeds to point out its distin-
guishing differences, one of which, he says, is the "greater develop-
ment of the system of the minute tubuli between the ordinary coralli-
tes" in rugosa, than is seen in Dalei. It has been well known, by the
collectors at Cincinnati, for several years, that these two forms are
found well developed on the same specimen, some specimens of Dalei
are rugose others are papillose and other specimens are both papillose
and rugose. As a specific name or even as a variety name in classifi-
cation rugosa has no existance, if it is founded alone on specimens from
the Cincinnati (jroup. Chetetes approximatus of Nicholson which should
be written Monticulipora cifproximata, is never, so far as my observation
has extendefi, covered with elongated tubercles, as in the rugose va-
riety of the Dalei. Moreover the approximata is found abundant, in
the rocks from 300 feet to 350 feet above low water mark, where it is
very rare to see a piece of the Dalei, while the latter abounds, in the
rocks, from 350 to 400 feet above low water mark, where the former
is comparatively quite as rare as the latter is, in the rocks first men-
tioned. I think that 3Ionticulipora Dalei and Monticulipora approxi-
mata are good species, always separable, without the aid of a magnifier,
and occupying, in part, a different range of rocks.

Arthraria hiclavata (n. sp.) A

This fucoid consists of a straight cylindrical stem, with an enlarge-
ment at each end, nearly as round as a ball. It has some resemblance
in shape to dumb-bells. It shows no structure. It usually consists of
the impression, only, in slabs — in this form, it is quite common, at the
quarries, on the top of the hill, at the east end of Eden Park, and at
the quarry, on McMillan street, near the residence of Mr. Stahl.
Sometimes, the cylindrical stem, between the balls, is found in tolera-
bly good condition, but it is quite rare to find even part of a ball in the
matrix, and I have never seen a specimen free from a slab. The

,S^(V CJiarles Lyell. 355

specimens vary but little in relative proportions, though they differ
considerably in size. The specimen figured is from one of the numer-
ous impressions, in the slabs, that make the sidewalk, on Tcrrence Koad
near Forest Avenue. ^ It is 4 inches in length ; length of cylinder 2§
inches ; diameter of ball cavities | inch ; diameter of cyHuder \ inch.

Fig. 26. Ai-thraria. hiclavata.
[Etym 6icto!u<a— double clubbed]

The form is constant and prevails, in the rocks, from 300 to 400 feet
above low water mark, at Cincinnati, and in the same range in distant
quarries. It may have a greater vertical range, though I have never
observed it, in either the lower or higher rocks of our Group. As it is
found on slabs, exclusively, it does not make a good cabinet specimen
and therefore but few have ever been collected.

Sir Charles Lyell.

[From the American Journal of Science and Arts, October, 1875:]

No European geologist was so well known, personally, in the United
States as Lyell. His two visits to this country, in 1841 and 1845, re-
corded in four volumes of travel characterized, by great good judg-
ment, large mindedness and catholocity, made his name familiar
throughout the land, and gave a degree of popularity here to his philo-
sophical and technical writings which they would otherwise have hard-
ly obtained.

Called by Mr. Lowell to Boston in 1841 to deliver a course of twelve
lectures on Geology before the "Lowell Institute," Lyell was the first
European, of eminence in science, ^vho appeared upon the platform as
a lecturer before an American audience. That his lectures were high-
ly esteemed is well known, and it was a sufficient evidence of this that
he was again invited to Boston on a like commission in 1845-6, and
before the same institution. The personal relations and friendships
commenced on these occasions endured to the end, and were rendered

356 Sir Charles Lyell.

doubly interesting by the charm shed over every social relation by
Lady Lyell, who won universal esteem by those qualities of manner
which were less iirominent in her often abstracted husband. The fol-
lowing familiar private letter from the late Di;. Mantell, written in
1841 to Prof. Silliman (the elder), gives a vivid sketch of Lyell as he
appeai-ed to his scientific associates at the time of his first visit to the
United States. As all the parties named in this letter are now passed
away there can be no objection to its re-production in this connection.

"London, June 14th, 1841.
"My very dear friend :

"1 was about to write you to inform you
of Mr. Lyell's intentions which he communicated to me but a short
time since. I dined with him last week — a farewell party.
His charming little wife, a daughter of Mr. Leonard Horner, ac-
companies him. I have said so much of you and yours to her that
she is quite anxious to visit New Haven ; if she does I am sure you will
be delighted with her. And now for a strictly private sketch of my
old friend. About twenty years or more ago, one beautiful summer
evening, a young Scotchman called at Castle Place (Lewes*) and an-
nounced himself as ]\Ir. Lyell, stating that he was fond of geology, had
been attending Jameson's lectures at Edingburgh, and had visited his
former Alma Mater, Midhurst Grammar School, in the west of Sussex;
and that, while rambling about the neighborhood, he found some la-
borers quarrying in stone which they called whin. As this term is
Scotic^ trap, the young traveler was much puzzled to know how such a
rock appeared in the south of England, and upon inquiry of one of the
laborers why the stone was so called, the man referred him iM "a mons-
trous mon as lived at Lewes, a doctor who knowed all about them things
aud got curiosities out of the chalk pits to make physic with." The
man, in short, had been formerly a Lewes quarryman, and one of my
collectors. Mr. Lyell being alone and on horseback and having noth-
ing better to do, rode gently over the South Down, some twenty-five
miles, and at the close of the day found himself at my residence. We
were mutually pleased with each other ; my few drawers of fossils were
soon looked over, but we were in gossip until morning, aud then com-
menced a friendship which has continued till now.

Mr. Lyell was educated for the bar. He practiced on the western
circuit for seven or eight years, and he allowed me to correspond with
him only during the vacations. His father, who is a Scotch Laird, is
still living, and there are several sons and daughters. Mr. Lyell is the
eldest, and at the death of the father inherits the family estate, which,

♦ManteU's place of residence at that time.

Sir Charles Lyell. 357

I believe, is moderate. However, about seven or eight years after our
acquaintance, Mr. Lyell with great good sense, abandoned his profess-
ion, with his father's consent, and devoted himself wholly to geology,
content with a moderate income, and living in a very unostentatious
manner in an unfashionable part of the city. A few years ago he mar-
ried Miss Horner, who is much younger than himself (Lyell is 45 or
46), and a more suitable companion he could not have found. He
has no children. In person, Lyell presents nothing remarkable except
a broad expanse of forehead. He is of the middle size, a decided
Scottish physiognomy, small eyes, fine chin and a rather proud or re-
served expression of countenance. He is very absent, and a slow but
profound thinker. He was Professor in King's College, London, and
gave lectures there and at the Royal Listitution, but it so happened
that I never heard him lecture. He always takes part in the discuss-
ions at the meetings of the Geological Society, but he has not facility
in speaking ; there is hesitation in his manner, and his voice is neither
powerful nor melodious, nor is his action at all imi)osing. As a popu-
lar lecturer he would stand no chance with Buckland or Sedgwick.
He is providing himself with very beautiful illustrations for his lectures
at Boston; and I should suppose the prestige of his name and his
European reputation will insure him a flattering reception. ^^ * ^-
^ There is a hauteur or reserve about Mr. Lyell to strangers that
prevents his being so popular among our society as he deserves to be.
I believe him to have an excellent heart, and he is very kind and af-
fectionate wdien his better feelings are called upon." * H< * =!<

This criticism of Lyell's style and manner as a public speaker was
certainly well founded, as all will agree who ever heard him lecture.
But despite all infelicities, so great was the value and richness of his
matter, that he commanded the most respectful and interested at-
tention from his auditors. The reader of his "Principles" could not
fail, however, to be struck with the fact that the classic elegance of
Lyell's style, for which his more important productions are so justly
celebrated, must have been the result of much labor.

We cite from the Geological Magazine edited by Henry Woodward.
F. R S., the following notice of his life and labors. A more elaborate
memoir may be expected in the next annual address of the President
of the Geological Society of London.

"On Monday, the 22nd of February, at his residence in Harley
Street, and in his seventy-eighth year. Sir Charles Lyell, after a long
life of scientific labor, passed peacefully from amongst us, to his hon-
ored rest.

"To the outside world it may seem strange that the death of a man

358 Sir Charles Li/ell.

who was neither statesman, soldier, nor public orator, should arouse
our sympathies so strongly, or that he should be so highly esteemed all
over the world ; but geologists know well what Lyell has done for them
since he published the first volume of "The Principles of Geology" in
1830.

"It is in the character of historian and philosophical exponent of geo-
logical thought that Lyell has achieved so much for our science : nor
can we fail to remember that those clear and advanced views, for which
he became so justly celebrated, were advocated by him forty -five years
ago, at a time when scientific thought was still greatly trammelled by a
strong religious bias, and men did not dare to openly avow their belief
in geological discoveries nor accept the only deduction which could be
drawn from them.

"Born at Kinnordy, his father's seat near Kerriemuir, in Forfarshire,
on the 14th of November, 1797, Lyell received his early education at
a private school at Midhurst, and completed it at Exeter College, Ox-
ford, where he took his Bachelor's degree in 1819, obtaining a second-
class in Classical honors in Easter Term. On leaving the University,
he studied for the Bar, but never practised that profession, his tastes
having been led by Dr. Buckland's lectures to the study of geology as
a science. In 1824 he was eectled an Honorary Secretary of the Geolo-
gical Society of London, of which he was one of the earliest Fellows.
On the opening of King's College, London, a few years later, he was
appointed its first Professor of Geology. He had already contributed
some important papers to the "Transactions" of the Geological Society,
including one "On a Recent Formation of Freshwater Limestone in
Forfarshire, and on some Recent Deposits of Freshwater Marl, with a
comparison of recent Avith ancient Freshwater Formations, and an ap-
pendix on Gyrogonites, or Seed-Vessels of Chara;" also one "On the
Strata of the Plastic Clay Formation exhibited in the Cliffs between
Christchurch Head, Hampshire, and Studland Bay, Dorsetshire ;" an-
other "On the Freshwater Strata of Hordwell Cliff, Beacon Cliff, and
Barton Cliff, Hampshire ;" and an elaborate paper on the "Belgian
Tertiaries." In 1827 he contributed to the Quarterly a review of Mr.
Poulett Scrope's "Geology of Central France" (the perusal of which
is said first to have stimulated him to prepare and publish "The Prin-
ciples of Geology" on which his reputation as a philo.sophical writer
mainly rests). These lesser works all showed a power of observation
and of generalization which prepared the learned world for some
greater and more important treati.-:e from his pen, which should deal,
not with local details, but with the general principles of the science.
Nor were they disappointed when his ^nagnmn opus, "The Principles of

Sir Charles Li/ell. 359

Geology," appeared in three successive installments, published respec-
tively in 1830, 1832, and 1833. The work, subsequently enlarged into
two volumes, has passed through numerous editions, and is still in as
much demand as ever among students of the science. The work was
subsequently divided into two parts, which have been published as
distinct l)ooks, viz. "The Principles of Geology," or the Modern
Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, as illustrative of Geology,"
and secondly, "The Elements of Geology, or the Ancient Changes of
the Earth and its Inhabitants, as illustrated by its Geological Mon-
uments." The substance of the last-named work has also been pub-
lished under the title of "The Manual of Elementary Geology," a
French ti-anslation of which was issued under the auspices of the fa-
mous Arago.

"Already, some time previous to the publication of this work, Mr.
Lyell had been chosen a Vice-President of the Geological Society ;
and in 1828 he had undertaken a journey into the volcanic regions of
Central France, visiting Auvergne, Cantal, and Velay, and continuing
his journey to Italy and Sicily. He published the results of this ex-
pedition in the "Edinburg Philosophical Transactions," and also in the
''Anales des Science Naturelles."

"It was, however, the publication of his "Principles of Geology"
that gave him that established reputation which he ever since continu-
ed to enjoy. "Which of us," asked Prof. Huxley, in his Anniversary
Address to the Geological Society in 1869," "has not thumbed every
page of the "Principles of Geology?"' And he adds, "I think that he
who writes fairly the history of his own progress in geological thought
will not easily be able to separate his debt to Hutton from his obliga-
tions to Lyell." This cordial testimony of a fellow-laborer in the cause
of scientific enlightenment exactly indicates Sir Charles Lyell's place
in the history of that task. He was a man of singularly open mind,
one of those who stand above their coteniporaries and hail the dawn of
new truths upon the world. His own works mark the progress of his
own as well as of the public opinion on' the great problems raised by
scientific discovery, and he remained to the end of hL« life always ready
for the reception of new facts, and for the corresponding modifications
of opinion.

"Sir Charles Lyell had traveled and seen much. Thus in early
manhood he explored many parts of Norway, Sweden, Belgium,
Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, including the volcanic regions of
Catalonia. In 1836 he visited the Danish Islands of Se^and and
Monen, to examine their Cretaceous and Tertiary strata. In 1841 he
was induced to cross the Atlantic, partly in order to deliver a course of

360 >S'tV Cliarles Lyell.

lectures on his favorite science at Boston, and partly in order to make
observations on the structure and formation of the Transatlantic Con-
tinent. He remained in the United States for a year, traveling over
the Northern and Central States, and extending his journey as far
southward as Carolina, and northward to Canada and Nova Scotia, his
explorations ranging from the basin of the St. Lawrence to the mouths
of the Mississippi. On returning from this joui-ney, he published his
"Travels in North America," a work of considerable interest to other
persons besides geologists, and showing that he could extend his obser-
vations to the stratification of society around him as well as that of the
earth beneath his feet. He paid a second visit to America in 1845,
Avhen he closely examined the geological formation of the Southern
States and the coasts that border on the Atlantic and tlie Gulf of
Mexico, and more especially the great sunken area of New Madrid,
which had been devastated by an earthquake 30 or 40 years previously.
Upon reaching England, he published his "Second Visit to the United
States," a companion to his former work. For his other scientifiic
papers we must refer our readers to the "Proceedings" of the Geologi-
cal Society, 1846-9, audits "Transactions."

"Late in life, about ten or twelve years ago, Sir Charles Lyell pub-
lished anothor very important work, on "The Antiquity of Man,"
summarizing and discussing all the important facts accumulated up to
that time in favor of the high antiquity of the human race, viewed
from the slandjwints of the archseologist, the geologist, and the philolo-
gist.

"Numerous honors were conferred on Lyell in recognition of his ser-
vices to science. As far back as 1836 he was elected to the Presiden-
tial Chair of the Geological Society, to which he was re-elected in 1850.
He received from Her Majesty the honor of knighthood in 1848, and in
1855 the honorary degree of D. C. L., of the University of Oxford
was conferred upon him. He had been for many years a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and in 1833 received one of the Royal Society's Gold
Medals for his "Principles of Geology." Li 1858 the Royal Society
conferred upon him the highest honor at their disposal — the Copley
Medal ; and in 1864-5 he filled the Presidential Chair of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. He received the Wol-
laston Gold Medal from the Geological Society of London in 1865 (his
continued official connection with which had precluded his receiving it
earlier). He was raised in 1864, on the recommendation of the then
Prime Miiister, Lord Palmerston, to a Baronetcy, which now becomes
extinct by his decease. He was a Deputy-Lieutenant for his native
county of Forfarshire.

;S'iV Charles Lyell. 361

"Sir Charles Lyell has been so long and so honorably known among
the scientific teachers of the time, that though he had arrived at his
seventy-eighth year, and the period of his chief intellectual and physi-
cal activity had long passed away, probably even the younger men of
the present generation will feel that science is poorer by his loss.

"At the meeting of the Geological Society of London, held in the
Society's room, Burlington House, Picadilly, on Wednesday last (Feb-
ruary 24th), the President, John Evans, Esq., F. R S., before com-
mencing the business of the meeting, alluded to the great loss which
all present had sustained. He little expected, when speaking on the
last occasion, at the Anniversary Meeting, of the services wdiich Su-
Charles Lyell had rendered to science for the previous fifty years, that
he should have on the present occasion to announce and lament his ir-
reparable loss. Sir Charles Lyell had been a titie philosopher and a
sincere friend. He had lived to see the extension of science which he
had so eagerly desired realized. In future times, wherever the name
of Lyell shall be known, it will be as that of the greatest, the most
philosophical, the most enlightened geologist of Great Britain or
Europe.

"In accordance with the wish of the Council of the Koyal Society,
Sir Charles Lyell will rest beside his old friend and fellow-laborer in
science. Sir John Herschel, in Westminster Abbey."

We add the following appi-eciative remarks from Nature of March
4th.

"Lyell's claim of fame lies in this, that he organized the whole meth-
od of inquiry into the history of the formation of the crust of the earth,
and established on a sound footing the true principles of geological
science; his theory being that, by the uniform action of forces such as
are now in operation, the visible crust of the earth has been evolved
from previous states.

"Lyell was not only a keen investigator of natural phenomena; he
was also a shrewd observer of human nature, and his four interesting
volumes of travel in America are full of clever criticism and sagacious
forecasts. His mind, always fresh and open to new impressions, by
sympathy drew towards it and quickened the enthusiasm of all who
studied nature, Had he done nothing himself, he would have helped
science on by the warmth with which he hailed each new discovery.
How many a young geologist has been braced up for new eiforts by the
encouraging words he heard from Sir Charles, and how many a one
has felt exaggeration checked and the faculty of seeing things as they
are strengthened by a conversation with that keen sifter of the true
from the false !

362 Sir Charles Lyell.

"Though by nature most sociable and genial, yet Sir Charles often
withdrew from society where the object of his life, the pursuit of science,
was not promoted ; but when anything interesting turned up he always
tried to share his pleasure with all around. Many of us will remem-
ber the cheerful and hearty "Look here" — "Have you shown it to so
and so ?" — "Capital, capital."

"The little wayside flower, and, from early happy associations, still
more, the passing butterfly, for the moment seemed to engross his
every thought. But the grandeur of the sea impressed him most ; he
never tired of wandering along the shore, now speaking of the great
problems of earth's history, now of the little weed the wave left at his
feet. His mmd was like the lens that gathers the great sun into a
speck and also magnifies the little grain he could not see before. He
loved all nature, great and small.

"jNIuch we owe to Leonard Horner, himself a good geologist, for
having inspired the young Charles Lyell. In after years, when already
well known, Charles Lyell chose as his wife the eldest daughter of his
teacher and friend. Many have felt the charm of her presence — many
have felt the influence of the soul that shone out in her face; but few
know how much science directly owes to her. As the companion of
his life, sharing his labor, thinking his success her own, Sir Charles
had an accomplished linguist who braved with him the dangers and
difficulties of travel, no matter how rough ; the ever-ready prompter
when memory failed, the constant adviser in all cases of diflnculty.
Had she not been part of him she would herself have been better
known to fame. The word of encouragement that he wished to give
lost none of its warmth when conveyed by her ; the welcome to fellow-
workers of foreign lands had a grace added when oflered through her.
She was taken from him when the long shadows began to cross his path ;
but it wasinot then he needed her most. When in the vigor of unim-
paired strength he struggeled amongst the foremost in the fight for
truth, then she stood by and handed him his spear or threw forward
his shield. He had not her hand to smooth his pillow at the last, but
the loving wife was spared the pain of seeing him die.

"It doubtless occurred to many a one among the crowd who saw him
laid to rest among the great in thought and action, that he might have
been eminent in many a line beside that he chose.

"His was a well-balanced judicial mind, which weighed carefully all
brought before it, A large type of intellect— too rare not to be missed.
But it was well that circumstances did not combine to keep the young
laird on his paternal lands among the hills of Forfarshire : it was well
for science that he was induced to prefer the c[uieter study of nature to

Description of Lepidopterons Larva, 363

the subtle bandying of words or excitement of forensic strife. Failing
healtii liad for some time removed him from debates. Still to the last
his interest in all that was going on in the scientific world never failed,
and nothing pleased him more than an account of the last discussion
at the Geological Society, or of any new work done. As a man of
science his place cannot be easily filled ; while many have lost a kind,
good friend."

The number of Nature for August 26, contains an excellent portrait
of Sir Charles Lyell, accompanying a biographical notice by Prof.
Giekie.^-

A list of Lyell's memoirs to the close of 1863 will be found in the
Royal Society Catalogue, numbering, with his elaborate works, no less
tlian seventy-one separate communications in his own name, and five
more in connection with others.

Descriptions of Lepidopterous Larvce, with Remarks on Their Hahlls and
Affinities. Read before the Cincinnati Society of Natural Hidory, at
the regular meeting, Oct. 5, 1875. By A. G. Wetherby

It is a fiict yveU. known to the naturalist, that the early stages, in the life
of all objects of natural history, have been much neglected until with-
in recent years. This is a fact the more to be regretted, when we con-
sider the important part that the morphology and embryology of species
now has, in determining their proper places in the great system of nature.
Although much more has been done in this regard, in entomology, than
in the other branches of zoological science, yet, much more remains to
be done ; not only in bringing to light fkcts in regard to new species,
but new fiicts in reference to those already known. Thousands of species
have been described from the imago, of which all the previous stages
are unknown, and many of the descriptions given are from single speci-
mens, and full of inaccuracies. Especially is this the case in reference
to larvae. The descriptions of the larva; of species of Sphingidce,
which I have lately had occasion to examine, will frequently api^ly as
well to one species as another. Indeed, Sphinx proper, Deilephikt,
Smerinthus and Sesia, are indiscriminately jumbled together, without
pointing out the plain differences which separate them. For purposes
of identification, descriptions should be as full as possible; and when it
is remembered, that the colors of caterpillars differ in the same stages

<-Artisfs proofs of this portrait (engraved on steel by C. H. Jeem) may be bad at the office of
Nature, 29 Bedford Street, Strand, London, W. C. Price 5s. each.

364 Description of Lepidojpterous Larvce.

of the same brood, and that each moult of the larvse adds or subti'acts
essential features, the importance of correctly describing the adult
caterpillar cannot be overestimated. If some of the larvte, forming the
subject of this paper, have been described more fully,! shall be only too
glad to know it. As what I have written, has been from actual study
of the living specimens, bred by myself, those descriptions, which are,
correct, must agree with mine; and those less correct will be rendered
plainer to the student by what is here offered. It may not be out of
place to add, that my experience, in rearing lepidopterous larvse, ex-
tends over a period of five years, during which time many scores of
s^iecimens have been bred, of many species, giving the fullest ojipor-
tunities for their study.

As many of the larvee herein described are, as yet, unknown to me
in the perfect state or imago, I have numbered these descriptions, and
their future determination will depend upon my success with pup® now
in my possession, or upon knowledge already in possession of natural-
ists. The species herein described hp,ve been reared during the present
season, some of which have reached the pupa state, while others ai'e
still feeding in the cages.

Limacodes And Its Allies.

This anomalous group, which derives its name from the slug-like
form of the larvte, has its distinguishing characteristics as follows :
Larvre oval or oblong, flattened beneath, oval, rounded, or flattened
above, (or with two of these peculiarities united), flattened and keeled
at the sides, and frequently ornamented with rows of fleshy spines and
tubercles, inserted at the ridge of the keels. These spines and tuber-
cles, in all the species bearing them that have come under my obser-
vation, are densely spinulose, and often highly colored. The head is
covered by a remarkable development of the anterior margin of the
second segment, which, for convenience, I shall call the Jiood, and which
is brought down over the head and mouth parts of the insect when feeding,
to the margin of the leaf, and folded over the edge to the side opposite
that upon which the insect rests, concealing the head and mouth parts
entirely. The thoracic legs are well developed, though diflicult to see,
as they are withdrawn into the fleshy envelope which surrounds them.
If, however, the insect be placed upon its back, in the struggle to re-
gain its natural position, they will be thrust out, and will be seen as
small, white, sharp j)oints. I have been unable to see that they are of
any use to the insect as organs of locomotion, as, during that process,
they are withdrawn, and not brought in contact with the surface pass-

Description of Lepidopterous L'lrvcc. 365

ed over. I have been unable to detect upon them the sphiules found
upon the thoracic legs of many other caterpillars.

The pro-legs are wanting, but in their stead is a curious, sac-like de-
velopment of the under surfece of the body, which can be protruded
at points where the pro-legs would be situated if present, and by means
of which, combined with an undulatory motion of the whole ventral
region, but notably so of the posterior two thirds, the insect glides
gracefully along any smooth body. Like the slug, their progress upon
dry and dusty surfices is very slow and soon stops. No slime or mu-
cus is exuded. I have bred the larvae of eight species of this group,
during the present season, and a remark as to how it w^as done may
not be out of place. We have among lepidopterous larvae certain ones
which are known as "general feeders ;" that is, they will eat the foliage
of a great many different plants. Notable among these is the whole
family of the Arctians, and scarcely less general, in this respect, is the
group under consideration. I have found the larva3 of Empretia
stimulea (Clemens) on the papaw, raspberry, cherry, basswood, and
Indian corn, during the present season. In confinement, it will
eat one of these plants, one day, and an entirely different one on
the next. If not disturbed, a leaf, which they once begin to eat, will
be entirely devoured, wdthout the insect's leaving it, except the
basal fourth of the midrib. They devour the leaf backwards and for-
wards, from side to side, at right angles to the axis, moving backward
as they eat, until the leaf is consumed, when they seek the nearest one,
creep to the apex, lap the "hood" over in the usual manner, and
begin auew\ They are very voracious, and never seem to rest between
meals like other caterpillars, but wnll always be seen gnawing the leaf
greedily, so that they devour as much food as other caterpillars many
times their size.

I fed my specimens, under common tumblers, putting them on the
under side of the leaf, which is their natural position, and then slid
the leaves under the glass, one edge of which was kept slightly raised
for sake of ventilation. When full fed they leave the food plant, and
soon after eject a few drops of a viscid, watery looking fluid and shrink
to two thirdstheir previous size. When these changes were observed,
I placed them in a box, Avith bits of paper, or a few dry leaves, and
the cocoon, which is dense, brown and oval, was finished in a very few
hours. Indeed, in more than one case, an hour and a half or two
hours only was necessary, for the insect to finish its cocoon, so far as to
be completely hidden, I am positive as to the identity of but one of
the species of which the descriptions follow. The cocoons of the others
are now in my possession, in various numbers, except the second and

366 Description of Lepidopterous Larvoe.

third, the caterpillars of which escaped after they had been brought
nearly to maturity.

Number one. Limacodes ? Larvse flattened above and at the

sides, with dorsal and lateral longitudinal keels, ornamented with
rows of densely spinulose fleshy tubercles, those on the dorsal
keels being much the longer, and of these, two thoracic pairs
on the third and fourth segments, and the pair on the eleventh
segment are much the longest. Color dark grayish green, with rows
of lighter silvery gray spots, small, and nearly round. The same color
extends to the tips of the tubercles, and over the whole dorsal and lateral
surfaces, giving the larvae the appearance, at a short distance, of a bit of
gray bark or lichen. Under surface light dirty green. Thoracic legs
white and minute. Head and mouth parts dark brown, and concealed
beneath the grayish hood. Length f inch : Avidth, at sixth segment,
f inch, exclusive of the spines. September 10, 1875 Planus occklen-
talis. S. L. Hewitt, Esq., one specimen.

Remarks. This interesting larvae was brought me on the date above
mentioned, and when taken from the box, in which it had been placed,
was still feeding. When placed under the glass, it ate the maple and
cherry as w^ell as the sycamore. It is the thinnest species, from the
dorsal to the ventral surface, of any that I have bred. It affords
the best case of protective mimicry, of any larvae I have seen, except
Catocola and some of the Phalenidce, being exactly the color of the
grayish green bark of the tree on which it feeds. The cocoon, which was
spun between two leaves, was finished, to all outward appearance
in half a day. It is small, oval, dense, slightly silky on the outside,
and darker colored than those of its allies.

The striking resemblance of the insect to a bit of grayish bark or
lichen, and the ]'ows of lighter spots, will enable any one to recognize
it at once. If undescribed, it may be called Limacodes anjentatus.

Number Two. Limacodes ? Larvae oval, flattened above,

slightly keeled and flattened at the lateral surfaces.

Color light pea green, with obscure lighter spots irregularly scattered
over the dorsal and lateral areas. Dorsal surface, as seen from above,
nearly oval, more pointed behind. Keels without spines or ornamen.
tation. Under surface light yellowish green, thoracic legs white.
Head and mouth parts light brown, concealed under the hood. Length,
•^inch: width, at sixth segment, § inch. Sept. 5, 1875. Cherry, one
specimen.

Eemaeks. I found this interesting larva, at the date above men-
tioned, on the common cherry. It was full grown, and escaped on
the day but one following, after having commenced its cocoon. It was

Degrrijytion of Lejndoptn'ons Larvce. 367

a soft, pulpy looking caterpillar, with a half transparent appearance,
very sluggish in its motions, and would have been taken for anything
else in the world as soon as for tlie larva of a lepidopteroas insect, A
single specimen only has been observed.

Number three. Limacodes ? Larva oblong oval, flattened

above and at the sides, with dorsal and lateral longitudinal keels,
ornamented with spinulose and fleshy tubercles and spines, the meta-
thoracic pairs, and the last pair on the dorsal keels being the longer.
Color, yellowish green, sprinkled with brown and golden spots. On
the back are two pairs of conspicuous, rectangular, reddish spots,
which are symmetrically arranged eaeh side of the central line. Tips
of the long tubercles lighter than the base.

Under surface very light yellowish green. Thoracic legs white and
minute. Head and mouth parts brown, and concealed under the hood.
Sept. 10 and 24, 1875. Acer saccharhmm. S. L. Hewitt, Esq., two
specimens.

RejMAEks. This interesting and beautiful species was brought me
by Mr. Hewitt at the same time as number one, and was found by him
on the same tree, Planus occidentcdis. Subsequently, on the 24th,
ult., I found a specimen on the sugar maple, (Acer saccharinum.) It
is nearest allied in shape, position of the keels and tubercles, and in
size and comparative flatness of the body, to number one herein de-
scribed. The general appearance is that of a mottled, golden green,
with the four rectangular spots of red very prominent. These features
will enable any one taking the larvae to recognize it readily.

These specimens, after having been fully fed, escaped when about
to make the cocoon, so that I am unable to describe it, and shall not
obtain the perfect insect from which to determine the species.

Number four. Limacodes ? Upper and lateral surfaces flat,

widest in the center, and drawn together in a point at the posterior ex-
tremity of the insect. Upper surface arched, highest in the center,
lowest at the hood, and attenuated at the caudal extremity, ending in
a minute brown point, slightly curved upwards. Lateral boundaries
arched above, nearly straight below, but slightly curved upwards pos-
teriorly. Lateral surflices joining the dorsal at right angles, making
a sharp ridge or keel, extending the entire length of the insect. Larva
without spines or tubercles. Color grass green above and at the sides,
lighter beneath. Along the dorsal ridges are a few obscure markings,
indefinite, except two light spots narrowly edged with brown near the
tail, and a few small, blackish dots, on the lateral surface, just beneath
the keel or ridge. Stigmata very small, and arranged in a straight
line, two thirds of the way down the lateral surfaces. Thoracic legs

368 Description of Lcpilopterous LarvcB.

e cceediugly slender and minute, white, and concealed by tlie fleshy en-
velope. Mouth parts chesnut brown ; head light green, entirely con-
cealed by the hood. Length -^, breadth of under part f , height at mid-
dle, /g inch. Sept. 20, 1873, and Sept. 24, 1875. Burr oak and
Tartarean honeysuckle. Master Ernest Baker. Two specimens.

Remarks. This is by far the most remarkable insect of the group
that I have yet seen, not only on account of its odd and nonde.'^cript
form, but on account of the habit it has of remaining fixed to one leaf,
until it is devoured, down to the very least amount of space upon which
the insect can make its footing secure. When full fed, and before
leaving the food-plant, no segments are visible, the caterpillar some-
what resembling one of the large, triangular leaf-hoppers, Psyllidce.
When turned upon its back, the boundaries of the lower surface, or
edges of the lateral surfaces, give the insect the appearance of being
enclosed in a shell.

When, however, the fluid is ejected, previous to the formation of the
cocoon, and the larva shrinks as before mentioned, the segments be-
come distinctly visible. The specimen captured this season, spun its
cocoon Oct. 2d, 1875. The cocoon is not so dense as that of the other
species described, and is of a lighter color. The insect must besought
on the under side of the leaf, and is evidently very rare, but two speci-
mens having come under my notice in three years.

Number five. Larva of CallocMora cMoris, H-Schaefier. Larva
flattened above and at the sides, with two dorsal and two lateral keels,
ornamented Avith densly spinulated tubercles, there being nine on each
lateral keel, and six on each doi'sal keel. Of the latter, the front pair
is shorter than the others. Between the dorsal keels are four, nar-
row, purple, longitudinal lines, between which are three narrow white
lines, the latter sometimes tinted slightly with pink. Similar lines
extend along the lateral surfaces, between the dorsal and lateral keels,
and below the latter. Head and mouth parts chestnut brown, concealed
beneath the hood, but not so entirely as in the other species of this
genus, except when feeding. Thoracic legs white and minute. Gen-
eral colors rose and orange, the middle third of the dorsal keels and
their spines being brilliant rose color, or light crimson, and the rest
bright orange. A variety, or a species so closely allied, as to show no
difference but in color, has the spines lemon j^ellow, and the general
surface lighter than the specimens here described. Food-plants, Tar-
tarean honeysuckle, pear, oak, cherry &c. From September 3d, to
October. Many specimens.

Remarks. This beautiful insect, by far the most common of the
family, is a conspicuous object, from the contrast of its lively colors

Description of Lepidoplerous Larvce. 369

with the dense green of tlie foliage upon which it feeds. It is the only
member of the family upon which I have observed any parasitic attacks.
In a few cases, I have found the eggs of a species of ichneumon on the
dorsal surface of the specimens, but, having removed them, I was un-
able to find that they had perforated the larvse with the exception of a
single example, which refused food and died. These larvse are easily
reared, though a few will die during the moulting season. It is difficult to
reconcile the theory of jlrotective mimicry, with cases such as this.
The larva is so conspicuous, both from its magnificent colors, and from
their contrast with the dark green of the leaves, that the keen eye of
an enemy would easily detect it. But its resemblance to flowers in the
foliage may serve the theorists for an argument. The imago is in my
possession, from the broods of previous years, so that I am able so iden-
tify the species beyond a doubt.

Number ^six. Larva of Empretia dimulea Clemens. Larva con-
vex above and at the sides as far as the lateral keels; below this flat-
tened, with a narower keel extending around the posterior ex-
tremity. Thoracic segments expanding suddenly from the head back-
ward, and bearing upon the fourth a pair of densely spinulose tubercles,
between which is a light green oval spot. A similar pair of tubercles
ornaments the tenth segment, below and behind which, are two light yel-
low irregularly oval spots. Color of head and thoracic segments cho-
colate brown, as are the metathoracic tubercles, and the pair on the tenth
segment, together with an irregular space at their base. Between the
two pairs of tubercles, and extending down the sides to the lateral keel,
the color is light green, bordered with white, except a large, oval spot,
in the center of the dorsal surface, ^\hich is chocolate brown, ringed
with white. The green space hardly reaches the base of the thoracic
spines, but extends laterally below and back of the pair on the tenth
segment, terminating on each side with a velvety tuft of brown hairs,
which are separated from a pair of similar tufts, close together
on the posterior center of the keel, by two short, densely spinulose
tubercles. Lateral keels ornamented with six tufts of lighter, stift"
hairs, on each side. Thoracic segments bearing four large tubercles and
four small ones, in front of, and below the large pair. Under surface,
dirty white or brown. Head and mouth parts brown, and concealed
under an enormous hood. Thoracic legs white and minute. Length,
y\ inch. Breadth at fourth segment, ^ inch exclusive of tubercles.
Sept 2, to Oct. 1, 1875. Many specimens. General feeder.

Remarks. This beautiful insect, of which I have reared maiiy
specimens, seems to partake of the characters which Dr. Packard gives
both to Endea Monitor Packard, and Empretia divmlea Clemens.

370 Description of Ijepidopterous Larvos.

It is not so common a species as number five, but occurs in limited
numbers every season. The spines sting severely. The insect is easi-
ly reared, and spins a dense cocoon, surrounded by a more open en-
velope, as stated by Packard. This species will readily be recognized
by the green saddle-like marking of the dorsal surface, with the oval
spot in the center, as Avell as by the curious development of the thor-
acic segments. Altogether, it is one of the, most grotesque and beauti-
fu 1 objects among lepidopterous larvae.

Number seven. Limacodes — ? Larva oblong oval, slightly atten-
uated posteriorly. Dorsal surface flattened, highest in front. Dorsal
keels ornamented with eight pairs of rose-colored spiny tubercles, of
which the eighth pair is much longer than the others, as well as lighter
in color. Dorsal surface beautifully clouded with five oval spots, of a
chocolate brown color, surrounded by a narrow rose-colored band, the
third from the front being the largest, and extending over the dorsal
keels slightly below the spines. First three spots separated from the
last two by a slight, yellow, transverse space. The whole upper sur.
face, between the oval spots and around their ends, is light, yellowish
green. Lateral surfaces pea green, bordered above by a yellowish
green line below the dorsal keels. Under surface light dirty green.
Head and mouth parts brown, and concealed under the hood except
when crawling. The second and third thoracic segments are then seen
to be light pea green. Thoracic legs white and very minute. Thor-
acic segments bearing a few, scattering, whitish hairs. Length, when
extended, § inch. Breadth, at sixth segment, /g inch. Oct. 8, 1875.
Acer saccharin um. One specimen.

Eemarks. This extremely elegant little species, so different from any
of its allies, was found on the under side of the leaf on the date
above mentioned. It may be recognized very readily, as the beautiful
(^oloring of the dorsal surface, the row of chocolate brown spots, sur-
rounded by the rose-colored band, and the beautiful golden green of
the remaining space, sufliciently point it out as distinct. As the
larva is yet feeding, I am unable to describe the cocoon. This is much
the smallest species I have ever seen, and by far the most active. If
undescribed, it may by called L f 7}ebulosus.

Number eight, Limacodes — ? Larva oval-quadrate, with the dor-
sal and lateral surfaces flattened, and bearing, attached to the lateral
margins of the dorsal surface, nine pairs of flat, fleshy appendages,
.clothed with stiff, bristly hairs, light brown on the upper surface, and
dark velvet brown beneaUi. Of these api)endages the third, fifth and
seventh pairs project beyond the others, at lea it two-thirds their lengtli.

Of the remaining pairs, the second and eighth are the longest, and

Results of Investigations of Indian Mounih. 371

the first and ninth the shortest. The longer appendnges liave the hairs
parted down the middle, those on the anterior half pointing to the
head, and those on the posterior half pointing to the tail. The hairs on
the short appendages are not so parted. At the base of each appen-
dage, except those of the ninth pair, is a tuft of hairs so arranged as to
point in all directions from the centerof the tuft, and leave a middle,
longitudinal groove, extending the entire length of the dorsal surface.
The third and fifth pair§ of appendages are so twisted, as to exhibit
their under surfaces at the outer third, and to make the tips point up-
ward and forward.

The seventh pair is not twisted, and points obliquely backward, ex-
tending one half its length beyond the caudal extremity of the insect.
Lateral surfaces arched above, straight beneath, witli a row of light
brown tufts of hair above each spiracle. Under surface and lateral
surfaces below the stigmata orange yellow, under surface darker at the
lateral margins. Head and mouth parts jet black and shining, and en-
tirely concealed under the enormous hood, and this under the first and
second pairs of appendages. Length, on dorsal surface j\ inch.
Breadth, exclusive of appendages, y\ inch. Oct. 9, 1874. Ulmus
atnericanus. Master Ernest Baker. One specimen.

Remarks. Tliis remarkable insect bears resemblance to L. hjalinus,
Walsh, and L. tetradadylns of the same author, given in Proceedings
Boston Society Natural History, Vol. IX. Feb. 1864. While it has
characters in common with these, as given in the paper above alluded to,
it is double the size of the first, and much larger than the second.
The tufts of radiating hairs, forming two longitudinal rows along tlie
dorsal surfiice, are a notable feature, and could not have escaped the
eye of so acute an observer as Mr. Walsh. He does not mention the
dark, velvet browai, under surface of the appendages, which is a very
striking feature. In color, and in many other respects, it accords well
with this description of -L. /ii/a/iuHS, and in size with L. tetm-hctiilii:'.
The larva is sluggish, and exceptionally voracious. If uudescribed, it
may be called L. nondemrlptus.

ResulU of Invedlgations of Imlian MoumU.
By Jas. R. Page.

[From Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science Vol. 3 page 226.]

In March, 1873, I investigated several "mounds" in Washington and
Issaquena counties in the State of Mississippi. Throughout the valley

372 Results of Investigations of Indian 3Iounds.

of the Mississippi a very large number of mounds exist, and are espec-
ially numerous in the river counties. I have frequently observed these
mounds in Bolivar, Coahoma, Issaquena, and Washington, but my ex-
aminations have been confined to a very few, and the data obtained
will not admit of any generalization ; I will therefore confine myself to
the facts obtained by the investigations.

In my explorations I observed no works which might be strictly de-
nominated enclosures. One very large mound examined in Washing-
ton County was about 80 feet in diameter and 40 feet high, in the shape
of a truncated cone. The results of the investigation led me to con-
clude that this had been a mound of observation. On opening it no
relics were discovered ; it was entirely composed of the soil of the coun-
try (denominated "buckshot land") ; it is built on the old bank of the
Mississippi river, and crowns a conspicuous point which overlooks the
surrounding country ; — there are no other mounds in the immediate
neighborhood.

The second mound examined contained a large number of flint (pro-
perly "chert") arrow-heads and hatchets; this mound was about 2 feet
high and some 15 or 20 feet in diameter. No doubt at one time it was
higher, but, being situated in the middle of a field which has been
under cultivation for forty years, it has been cut down by the plow.
In the neighborhood numerous arrow-heads lie embeded in the soil and
arc turned up every spring ; no doubt they all existed at one time in
the mound and have been plowed out.

About 100 yards distant I opened a third mound, with much more
satisfactory and interesting results. This mound, though only 11 feet
high, is the most prominent piece of land for miles; it stands in the
middle of a cultivated field, and from the top one can see over the open
ground for a great distance. This mound in general appearance shows
great resemblance to the other mounds in that region, and, though the
mounds differ in height and diameter, they are nearly all of a flat
turncated-cone shape. This mound under discussion was 11 feet high
and 30 feet in diameter at the base. The soil composing the mound is
identical with that of the country; this soil is principally a clay mixed
with a little sand. (See "SUt Analysis of Soils of Mississippi." by E.
W. Hilgard, in American Journal of Science and Art.) The mound
was formerly covered by a heavy growth of timber, but is now nearly
bare, only one tree standing, a very large white oak (Q. alba, L.), 36
inches in diameter ; a few steps distant, and near the centre of the
top surface of the cone, is the trunk of another oak, 30 inches in diam-
eter.

I commenced investigation by driving an open tunnel, from three

Results of Investigations of Indian Mounds. 373

different points, on a, level "with the base towards the centre; after ex-
cavatmg 8 or 10 feet a skull was discovered, but in such a decayed
t^ondition that it immediately crumbled to pieces. A few minutes la*
ter the workmen in the other two ditches made several similar discov-
eries. We now became more careful, and by digging around the skull
we were able to procure it intact by removing a considerable amount
of soil.

The skulls were in a very poor state of preservation — the gelatinous
matter had been entirely dissolved away, and the earthy material very
much resembled a spungy mass saturated with water, being so soft
that water could be pressed out by a very slight force ; the bony struc-
ture was very fragile, but on drying became quite hard and brittle.

The soil contained a great deal of moisture, being perfectly saturated
from two feet below the surface to the base of the mound, and, as the
soil was usually in that condition, it was very unfavorable to the pre-
servation of the remains. In one of the better preserved specimens I
observed a characteristic which Foster points out in his "Prehistoric
Races of the United States" — the tendency at the union between the
parietal and squamous bones towards the straight line. In nearly all
of the specimens, although the skulls were in a very decayed condition,
the perfect form remained ; the nasal bones stood out prominently, and
the large massive jaw-bones were filled with worn but well preserved
teeth ; except portions of the upper jaw-bone, none of the facial bones
were wanting. From the size of the skulls, I judge the twelve skele-
tons exhumed were all adults. Many of the other bones of the skele-
tons were in excellent preservation, as the femurs, tibiae, and tarsi.
As these bones were in a horizontal position and the crania vertical, I
have no hesitation in a.^^serting they were seated in a circle, and in a
sitting posture faced the centre. From the slight examination given
to the skulls during this disinterment. I judged that in brain volume
they were not greatly inferior to the Caucasian ; but judging f/om the
narrow forehead and the receding frontal bone, and the development
of the posterior lobes, the latter must have been the seat of the great-
er part of the brain. The original contents of the crania had been en-
tirely removed and replaced by soil ; this soil dried very rapidly, and
in contracting caused the skulls to break to pieces. I was very care-
ful in packing these specimens, but in transporting them nearly a
thousand miles by river to St. Louis they became very much injured,
some of the skulls being completely destroyed and most of them en-
tirely lost.

I noticed that several of the tibia) were very much flattened, and
.<iipposed it must have been unnatural and occasioned by the pressure

374 Results of Investigations of Indian Mounds.

from the weight of the overlying soil ; until I read H. Gillman's report
upon "Indian Mounds in Michigan" in the American Journal of Science
and Art, January number, 1874, in which he says, "And I here re-
peat the interesting fact that all the tibia; unearthed invariably exhib-
ited the compression or flattened characterizing j)]atycneniic men.

Directly in front of the mouth of each skeleton were placed from two
to three vessels of pottery, beautifully ornamented with etchings and
tracings, and in one or two specimens figure decorations were attempted.
If these vessels were filled on their interment, their contents had long
been removed and afterwards replaced by soil. It they originally
contained food, all traces of the absence of such could be easily ac-
counted for, as the mound was occupied by numerous ant colonies and
other insects; or the contents might have been removed, and then re-
placed with soil by the water which after every rain percolated the
mound. Thinking if the vessels had been filled with food, and if birds
or fish had been an article of diet, most probably bones would remain,
I subjected the contents to analysis, but under a 400 power microscope
no trace of organic remains was to be seen.

Baldwin asks, "What but time could have caused these skeletons to
dissolve and become as dust, as all the circumstances attending their
liurial were unusually favorable to their preservation? The earth
around tliem has been invariably found to be wonderfully compact and
dry." The condition of the bones cannot always be used as an accu-
rate measurment of time, as here were remains found surrounded by
very unfavorable circumstances for their preservation.

Squier and Davis claim to have found a skull belonging incontesta-
bly to the Mound Builders taken from a mound situated in the Scioto
Valley, four miles beloAv Chilicothe; but Foster says (p. 291), "Any
comparative anatomist on referring to their plate will instantly recog-
nize it as of the Indian type." Foster says that our knowledge of the
Mound Builders' crania is exceedmgly scant, as we have found but few
specimens which were incontestibly of that race. In regard to the
bones I disinterred tliere can be no question ; the surrounding circum-
stances prove them to belong to them beyond a doubt ; the positions of
the skeletons, and pottery, and other contents of the mound, clearly
prove they could belong to no other race.

The work upon the various vessels made of pottery would indicate
that the Mound Builders had attained a high degree of skill in the
plastic art, and this race must have been far in advance of those living
in the Stone and even Bronze Age of Europe, as Sir John Lubbock
says that "■few of the British sepulchral urns belonging to the ante-
Roman times have upon them any curved lines. Representations of

Results of Investigations of Indian Mou)ids. 3i5

anlraals and plants are also wanting. They are even absent from all
aitide.s belonging to the Bronze Age in Switzerland, and I might also
say in Western Europe generally, while ornaments of curved and spiral
lines are eminently characteristic of this period. The ornament; I
ideas of the Stone Age, on the other hand, are confined, so far as we
know, to compositions of straight lines, and the idea of a curved line
scarcely seems to have occurred to them. The most elegant orna-
ments on their vases are impressions made by the fingernail, or by a
cord wound around the soft clay." — (Prehistoric Times, p. 257,)

The Mound Builders were not content with straight lines: here are
over 20 specimens taken from this mound, and you can see how beau-
tifully the surfaces were ornamented with fret-work and various figures;
and here is a kettle -like vessel' having for one side the profile of a
human being. One of the specimens was undoubtedly a water jug,
and being unglazed water could readily permeate the clayey material,
and, rapidly evaporating in hot weather, would create a lower temper-
ature than the surrounding air and then impart its temperature to the
enclosed water, and by this device furnish a cool beverage for sum-

mer.

Besides the pottery, the mound contained other interesting relics,
one of which was an article made of magnesian limestone, round m
shape, being two inches in diameter and a quarter of an inch thick,
and discoidal on both sides. This is a characteristic implement, and
frequently found in sepulchral mounds. Foster quotes a number of
speculations indulged in as to the uses of this discoidal stone— among
them the suggestion of Schoolcraft, that they were used as quoits. The
little notches in the sides of the one I have here would give color to
the supposition ; and they were evidently made by striking agamst
some hard substance, for in places the stone was worn very smooth,
as through much handling.

Another implement was made of a very hard sandstone, almost
quartzite ; its shape was a flat quadrilateral figure, 6 inches long by 4
wide, and 2 in thickness.

Among the othef Interesting relics was a pipe, from which it seems
the Mound Builders were not unaware of the narcotic properties of to-
bacco. The pipe was very plain, having not a single line f .r ornament.
During the disinterment a small fracture revealed a fresh surface show-
in- that the pipe was manufactured from fire-clay : it had been burned
ve°ry hard, and from its appearance 1 judged it had seen a great deal of

service

In this mound I discovered no metalic remains, though I was in-
formed by a gentleman who had opened several that he had found im-

376 Results of Investigations of Indian Mounds.

pleraents of copper and plates of mica, with fragments of obsidian.
These facts would indicate that they enjoyed commercial advantages to
a very high dergee, as I am acquainted with no point where obsidian
could have been procured nearer than Mexico — the mica most proba-
bly from North Carolina, it being the nearest point where that mineral
occurs. As the Mound Builders must have been ignox-ant of the art of
smelting, this copper must have been procurred in a native state from
the mines of Lake Superior, and that they did work these mines seems
no longer a question of doubt. Professor Pumpelly, our late State
Geologist, informed me he had seen marks of mining there of great an-
tiquity, which must have been the work of tlie Mound Builders.

We should not be too hasty in drawing our conclusions, as relics
sometimes found under circumstances which would indicate their
Mound Builders origin, are afterwards proved to belong to another
race. Prof. G. C. Forshey, in "Ancient Monuments," says "Mounds!
mounds without number * * * The first of these groups is some fifty
miles above Vicksburg, on the west bank of the Mississippi, two miles
back, on the estate of Dr. Keene Richards, called Transylvania. The
temple, Avhich is the central figure of twelve mounds, looms up grand-
ly from the level of the alluvial plain. ArroAV-heads and pottery have
always been abundantly found on these mounds. One of them is used
as a cemetery for the colored popidation of the plantation.'" (The italics
are mine.) I wish to draw attention to the fact that too great care
cannot be exercised in these investigations as the negroes are usually
hurried in cofiins of light wood, which in that damp soil decay in a very
few years ; and as they are usually interred with their necklaces of
beads and other trinkets, these relics found in the mounds might lead
to great confusion in assigning to them their proper origin. It is not
an unusual case in the South to use the mounds as cemeteries for the
negroes. I have seen several used for that purpose.

I have been in communication with Mr. Anderson, of Centre ville,
Ohio, who examined a large number of mounds throughout the Missis-
sippi Valley to Mexico, and who visited us on the ^plantation in INIissis-
sippi several years ago, and during his stay examined a number of
mounds in the immediate vicinity of my explorations, and I will con-
clude my remarks by reading a few extracts from his letter :

"A desire to send you photographic representations of the articles
found in my hurried explorations of the Issaquena Mounds, is I hope
sufficient apology for the delay in answering your favor of the 21st ult.

"The result of the examinations were to me a great and agreeable
surprise. I knew not what to expect beyond a few pieces of mica,
some broken earthenware, and perhaps a specimen or two of obsidian,
and therefore felt unusual pleasure in bringing to light a rich and re-

Results of Investigations of Indian Mounds, 377

niarkable collection of vases, urns and bo^vls of archseolocrical pottery,
and varied and various implements of stone, which you will find figured
in the accompanying charts. With one exception, the vessels are all
of the same material as those usually found in mound excavations,
well-worked clay intermixed with broken shells or other calcareous
matter. The exception is a little pot-hooked vessel witli ears for hook
suspension, which is of a darker color and apparently of a firmer ma-
terial, though much injured when exhumed.

"I will now give, as you request, some account of the labor and dis-
covery. On the 22d of February, 1871, I commenced opening the
mound by trenching on the level from the west. The first bones dis-
turbed were the extremities of three individuals buried standing. The
femurs, tibite and tarsi were in good preservation, and maintained their
vertical positions so perfectly that one of my companions exclaimed,
"These fellows must have been buried in a barrel.' The more earthly
bones of the dorsal and cervical vertebrae had entirely disappeared.
My surmise was that they were the sentiuels or outstanding guards,
with heads above ground "to watch and ward" over their superiors in
the centre. We next reached a large deposit of ashes and burnt earth,
the residuum of a sacrificial fire was so intense that not a bone or even
tooth was discoverable, over this large bed of undistinguishable rabble,
waiting their delivery.

"Approaching the centre of the mound, and about five feet above
the level we met with a few pieces of pottery, then a whole specimen,
and another and another to the number of twenty-five or thirty. I
confess now to having felt an almost childish delight at the discovery.
I had broken into the domestic sanctum of a venerable Mound Build-
er ! I had resurected his bones and robbed his ancient pantry ! I had
scattered his armory and rejoiced ! I rejoiced at my folly and my good
luck, and why should I not? Messrs. Squier and Davis had said, "It
is much to be regretted that none of these remains have been recovered
entire in the coarse of our investigations." Now bear in mind that
they had opened scores and scores of mounds ; and I now learn from
Llewellyn Jewett, in his "Grave Mounds and their Contents" of Great
Britain, that it must not be supposed that they, (the urns, &c.) are
often found in a peifect state; on the contrary, the urns are usually
very much crushed.

"As near central as possible lay the three great men of the nation;
around them matters of use and ornament, urns and vases, beads and
arrows; adjoining the heads of each, in pairs, a drinking vessel and a
food vessel, all once filled, but now alas! skull, urn, and bowl, quite
empty, dry, and foodless. jSTot far off w^e di.-covered two skeletons on
whose crania the bowls were placed like handets. I know not whether
this was accident or design ; I think the latter. I had no authority to
"prophesy on the bones or make them speak ; but I felt persuaded that
my new-found friends had once been mighty leaders, perhaps glorious
heroes, in their days of action.

"In this little collection you will find some points of agreement and
some of difference from the contents of other mounds. The cinerary
urn on Chart No. 2 is the exact counterpart of those delineated in the
work of Llewellyn Jewett, where, as tiie little comnioa caricature of

^"8 The Square Crinoid Column.

the human face on the same plate, was perhaps never seen before The
colts or wedges have also their concord and discrepance. The three
larger are of silicified wood: the grain, bark and knot marks strongly
resemble sycamore; some are jasper-colored, others gray and j^ellow.
I think I have never before seen instruments Avith keener edge or
brighter polish.

"I send also for your acceptance and consideration the photographs
o^ Uvo curved stones: the one is a copy of the disc obtained f)r me by
my friend Dr. Kobinson, of Lake Washington, Miss., and which was
taken out of an Issaquena mound; the other photograph is of the world-
renowned Toltec Calendar. The first one, with its birds, serpents, and
pipe border, was the moving cause of my subsequent investigation in
Issaquena. The contemplati(m of this stone excited in me an archae-
ological interest I had never known before. My memory carried me
hiitk to the many hours I had spent under the walls of the Cathedral
of Mexico trying to unravel the mystery of that old record of Time. I
have fancied a resemblance, but I cannot establish a complete agree-
ment between the two tablets. Here are the eighteen pipes of tha bor-
der, corresponding to the eighteen months of the year, biit the twenty
days of the month and the five intercaleries are not to be found. The
thirteen hieroglyj)hical figures and the four zodiacal signs, which as
multiples give the forty-two years of the Aztec cycle, are also absent on
the Mississippi stone.

Yours veiy truly,

W. Marshall Anderson."

The Square Crinoid Column — By S. A Mili.er.

The square ci'inoid column has been found at various localities, in
the upper p)art of the Cincinnati Group. It has been found about
Lebanon, in Warren county, in Clinton county, and about Versailles,
Indiana. Dr. W. H. H. Hunter of Versailles recently found a slab,
with several specimens upon it, some of them showing the square
column, as it passes into a beautiful round one. The opinion I have
formed, from an examination of these specimens is, that the column of
the crinoid is round, until it approaches the head, where it changes
suddenly to a square column. It is about the size of an average col-
umn of the Heterocrinus simplex. Generally every fourth plate, in the
column, is about twice as thick as either of the three preceding ones;
the thicker plates are not, however, of uniform thickness, and it may
be that sometimes the third plate or the fifth one is the thickest in-
stead of the fourth. Where the column is round the thicker plates
project very sightly, if at all, beyond the thinner ones, but where the
column is square the thicker plates project decidedly beyond the thin-
ner ones. Each plate is marked with lines radiating from the central
part to the circumference in such manner, that the column shows two

Book Notices. 379

serrated edges fitting together between each two pLatcs whieli makes

it peculiarly beautiful under an ordinary magnifier. The round part

of the column so far as it is composed of plates with serrated faces, the

projecting teeth of one plate fitting into the corre.-pondiug notches of

those in contact with it above and beh)W, has some resemblance to the

columns of Schizocnnus nndoms of the Trenton limestone of New

York, and Glijptoerinm ramuloms of the Trenton limestone of Canada,

though easily distinguished from both of them. The square i)art of

the column is unique, and stands alone in form, among all the ciinoid

columns known to me. The head of the crinoid is wholly unknown and

consequently the genus to which it belongs is undetermined.

The slab is in the possession of Dr. R. M. Byrnes at the corner of Itace

and Fifth streets where it may be seen at any time.

■♦•»■

This number closes the second year of the "Cincinnati Quarterly

Journal of Science," and terminates its existence. We have been
induced to cease the publication not only because it is unremuncrative,
but for the stronger reason, that the Cincinnati Society of Natural
History, having a very large membership and considerable money in
the treasury, ought to sustain a publication of its own, either in the
form of transactions of the Society, or a Journal devoted to Natural
History, and our continuance of this Journal will onlj delay the com-
mencement of such a publication. Indeed, it was never the intention
to continue the Journal, beyond the period, when it should become
evident, that the Society was able and in duty bound to publish its
proceedings, if it aspired beyond the collection and arrangement,
merely, of a museum. We think that time has come and feel gratified
in being able to state, that some steps have already been taken in that
direction, with a prospect of a publication at an early day.

BOOK NOTICES.

Prof. E. T. Cox introduces' the Sixth Annual Report of the Geolo-
gical Survey of Indiana (1874), with the f)llowing declaration :

"In a paper which I read at the Indianapolis meeting of the Amen
can Association for the advancement of science in 1871, attention was
called to the fact that thesilurian beds, so well displayed at Chicinnati,
were not elevated by a local axis of disturbance, but that the rocks of
this famous district simply partook of the general continental flnctua-
tions of level. Neither in Indiana nor in the adjoining State ot Olno,
e.'^pecially in the region around Cincinnati, have I been able to discover
any evidence of a local disturbance or axis of uplift. On the con-
tiary, the strata are almo.«t horizontal for many miles, in a westerly
course, from Cincinnati. Strata equivalent to these which occupy the

3S0 Book Notices.

tops of the liills at Cincinnati, and 430 feet above the Ohio river, are
seen in Jeiierson County, Indiana, at about the same level above the
stream."

It is remarkable, that the State Geologist of Indiana, after having
the sdvantages afforded by this Journal and the Ohio Geological Survey,
should make such a grave mistake. It has been well known for several
years past, by every collector of fossils about Cincinnati, who paid
the least attention to elevations, that the strata dip in a westerly direc-
tion from Cincinnati more than ten feet per mile. The strata, at Cin-
cinnati, bearing Stdlipora antheloidea and Orthis sinuata 360 feet above
low water mark of the Ohio, are found at Lawrenceburg about 200
feet above the river. The strata, at the tops of the hills at Cincinnati
450 feet above the Ohio, pass below the bed of Laughery Creek, at the
distance of 40 miles west of Cincinnati. The rocks may be traced by
their lithological character and shown to have their dip westerly ; but
their fossil contents make an easy and unerring guide from hill to hill
and from valley to valley, and if there is any locality in the western
States, where the fossil contents of the rocks have been closely studied
and their variable characters at different elevations approximately as-
certained, it is in the vicinity in question — Such study and observation,
however, have not been, it would seem any part of the labor of the
Indiana Geologists — for we find, not only the errors in the foregoing
quotatiou, but a published list of the lower silurian fossils found at
Madison, Jefferson County, wherein are placed under the head of "Tri-
lobites" (the first subdivision) the name Phacops gallicepJiahis ; under
the head of "Orthis" (the 2nd subdivision) such names as Ambonychia
radlaia, Avicula insueta, MocUolopds modioliru, Streptelasmacorniculnm iunX
Cjjrtoceras lainellatum ; under the head of "Univalves" (the 3d subdi-
vision) such names as Orlhoceras junceum, Chetetes tuberculata,Chetetcs pon-
derosa, Chetetes ijonderosa var gracilis and Stenopora fibrosa; under the head
of "Parasitic corals" such names as Stenopora petropolitcona and Ortonia
minnta ; and under the head of "Enerinites," Heterocriniis s%ibc7'assi(S
and GraptoUtJnis mucronatus. It is quite true, that the State Geologist
did not make this catalogue, but somebody should be responsible for
its publication, and we presume the author of the paper read before the
Indianapolis meeting of the American Association, without much hesi-
tation, assumed the responsibility. It is a pity, however, that such
matter should find its way into any State Geological Report this side of
Texas, where the Chief Geologist has been informed, that the wooden
foundations of school houses petrify in twenty -five years and standing
trees are stopped in tlieir growth by petrification, but uever could find
time to visit the locality.

Paleontology of Ohio Vol. 2 — We have received advance
sheets of part of this volume. Profs. Hall and Whitfield have made
three new genera for fossils found in the Cincinnati Group and fifteen
new species. The genus Schizocrania includes but one species which
has been called heretofoi'e Crania filosa or Trematis filosa. The genus
Cuneamija includes two new species; and the new genus Orthodesma'm-
eludes two new species and the two species heretofore called Orthonota
parallela and 0. contracta. The new species are as follows : Lingida

Orhltuary. 381

Coviugfonensls, LwcfuMla Chiohinaiieml^. (This species lias heretofore
been called Llngula quadmta) 3Iodlolopsis conccntrica, Modlolopds Cin-
ciimatietisis (This species has heretofore been called M. anodontoides)
Sedgwlckiaf divaricata, Ciineamya 31{amiensis, C. scajiht, Orthodes-
ma recta, 0. ciirvata, Orfhoceras Dic^cri, 0. Carlryi, 0. turbidvm,
Gomphoeei-as eos, Beurichia qxadrUirata (which is proljubly the synonym
for B. regiilaris) and PlumuUtes Jamesi.

Prof. H. Alleyne Nicholson ha« made one new genus for the corals
of this Group and described nineteen new species. The new genus
Columnopora includes but one species. The now species are as follows:
Columnopora cribriformis, Chetetes appro.thnatus, C. attritus C. snbpid-
ehelbis, C. gracilig, C. delicatuhi^, C. noduhsus, C. Jamm, C. rhombicua,
C. briareus, C. sigillaroides, C. discoidcm, C. chthratidu>i, C. corticans,
C. Ortoiii, C. Neivberryi, C. petechialis, Constellaria polystomella and
Pheophyllum divaricam. Of these, four species had been pointed out
and named by Mr. James, and one, attritus, we have elsewhere shown
to be, probably, merely a peculiarly worn form of Monticidipora fibrosa.
The reason given by Prof. Nicholson for using Chetetes instead of Mon-
tieaUpora does not seem to have been very convincing to himself and we
have no doubt, Avill be sufficient to convince nearly every one, that if
such is the best argument, that can be adduced in favor of c;illing our
corals Chetetes, the sooner it is wliolly abandoned and J/ouiicu//'jpyra sub-
stituted the better it will be for our nomenclature.

Mr. Aug. R. Grote and W. H. Pitt of Buffalo, New York, have
described a new Crustacean, from the water-lime group, allied to the
Eurypterm, for which, they have proposed the name Eusarctis Seor-
pionis.

Prof. James Hall, of Albany, New York, has disposed of his large
and unequalled collection of fossils, to the Central Park Museum of
New York city. It is reported that the sale was effected in considera-
tion of sixtv-five thousand dollars.

OBITUARY.

Sir William Logan, the distinguished Geologist, died at London, in
June last, in his TDtli year. Ho was at the head of the Geological
Survey of Canada from 1843 to 1871, and his work is an everliving
monument of original investigation, extreme care, and profomn
knowledge of Stratigraphical Geology. He never dealt in far fetched
suppositions, and extravagant theories, but sought the facts, and ilem-
onstrated his discoveries, in the plainest, most forcible and clear langu-
age to be found, in American Geological Reports.

G. P. Deshaves, the distinguished paleontologist, died, at Paris, on
the 9th of June last, in his 79th year.

Dr. L A Laphain of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, died on the 14th of
September. He was best known for his labors in arclurology though
he was also a good geologist. He wrote up the^ Monnd-builders
of his State under the title of "Antiquities of Wisconsni, which
was published, with numerous plates and illustrations, by the bmitu-
sonian Institution.

INDEX.

-*•»-

Acidaspls anchoralis, 349.

Afidiispis Onealli, 80.

Acoustifs, 186.

.Ksvle, 97.

,^syle fasciella, 98.

Aniadrya eftVenatt'lla 256.

Ancient burial custom, 91.

Ancient lake basin, 185.

Animal instinct in its relation to the mind

of man, 320.
Anisopteryx vernata, 285.
Anomalodonta. 280,
Archa?nlngv, 90, 183, 184.
Arctic explorations, 305.
Arjryresthia grcvdastella, 294.
Artiiraria l)iclavata, 354.
Atlantis, 193.

Bancroft Hubert Howe, 190, 287.
Barren lands, 192.
Bedellia soninuientella, 297.
Beyrichia ciliata, 351.
Beyrichia Cincinnatensis, 350.
Beyrichia quadrilirata, 351.
Beyrichia re.<,'ularis, 351.
Beyrichia tumifrons, 351.
Bodman, Mr. Charles will of 286.
Bracliiopoda mono<,'raph of, 6.
Broadiiead Prof. G. C, 286.
Bruhl Dr. G., 211.
Bueculatrix ambrosiafoliella, 119.
Bucculalrix quinquenotella, 120.
Bueculatrix Packardella, 120.

Calamopora fibrosa, 352.
Cambrian use of the word, 155.
Cataloi^ue of Lower silurian fossils, 286.
Cephalopoda of Cincinnati Group, 121.
Canl<er worm, 285.
Calkins, W. W., 78, 161, 267, 316.
Chambers, V. T., 97, 220, 189.
(Mncinnati Musem of Science and Art, 87.
Chemical and Geological essays of T.

Sterry Hunt, 155.
Chetetes attritus, 352.
Cincinnati society of Natural History,

280.
Claypole, E. W., 72, 91, 134, 285, 344.
Coleophora shalerieUa, [10.
Colorado antiquities, 184.
Coleophora luteocostella, 294.
Coleophora sparsipulrella, 294.
Cosmoptery, 230.
Cosmoptery montisella, 297.
Cosmoptery pulchrimella, 231.
Crania, 11.
Crania Dyeri, 13.
Crania Lrclia, 12.
Crania multipunctata, 13.
Crania reticularis, 280.
Crania scabiosa, 12.
Craniidaj, 11.
Cyrtoceras, 131.
Cyrtoceras magister, 132, 284.

Cyrtoceras obscurum, 132, 284.
Cyrtoceras Vallandighami, 133.
Cyrtoceras ventricosum, 131, 284.
Cyrtoceratidae, 131.

Description of lepidopterous larvas 363.
Description of a new trilobite 273.
Deshayes, G. P., obituary, 381-
Dieotyles compressus, 1.
Discinidae, 14.
Duke of Argyll, 320.

Endoceras, 130.
Endocerus approximatum, 131.
Endoceras j)roteifornie, 130.
F^ndrosis ferrestrella, 244.
Euplocamus boleti, 250.
Euplocamus fuscofasciella, 257.
Eurynome, 304.
Eurynome luteella, 304.
Eusarcus scorpionis, 380.
Evolutin doctrine of, 192.

Flint origin of, 168.

Geleehia cequipulvella, 246.
Gelechia albimarginella, 291.
Geleehia ambrosiieella, 239.
Gelechia capiteochrella, 252.
Gelechia cincinnusella, 253.
Gelechia confusella, 251.
Gelechia crescentifasciella, 255.
Gelechia cristatella, 241.
Gelechia discoanulella, 254.
Gelechia Discocella, 237.
Gelechia discostrigella, 248.
Gelechia galhesolidaginis, 289.
Gelechia grissefasciella, 253.
Gelechia grisseochrella, 247.
Gelechia ina^quipulvella, 239,
Gelechia laeteusochrella, 244.
Gelechia latifasciella, 251.
Gelechia 8 maculella, 291.
Gelechia 10 maculella, 290.
Gelechia 4 maoulella, 290.
Gel°chia ma(Uilatusella, 245.
Gelechia Marmorella, 239.
Gelechia Milleriella, 253.
Gelechia nigrella, 250.
Gelechia obscurO(;elell!i, 254.
Gelechia occidentella, 246.
Gelechia ocherfuscella, 249.
Gelechia ocherostrigella, 247.
Gelechia ocherosuft'usella, 255.
Gelechia pal[iialbella, 253.
Gelechia palpilineella, 252.
Gelechia physalivorella, 238.
Gelechia ribesella, 290.
Gelechia rosasufl'usella, 290.
Gelechia saphirinella, 250.
Gelechia sim|)liciella, 238.
Gelechia subruberella, 254.
Gelechia thoracefasciella, 240.
Gelechia thoracenigra^ella, 246.
Gelechia thorac estrigella, 245.

Index.

383

Gelochia triiilhiimaculolla, 250.

Gclcchia irifasciella, 'J52.

(Jeoldgical and GeoKrapbical surveys of

the territories, 287.
Glaciers motion of, 72. 134.
Glacial theory review of, 259.
Glyphipteryx, 'l\i.
Glyphipteryx exoptatella, 234.
Glyphipteryx niontisiella, 292.
Glyptocriniis Shatleri, 27T.
Graeilaria, 29S.
Gracilaria elegantella, 227.
Graeilaria acerifoliella. 299.
Gracilaria alnieolella, 299.
Gracilaria alnivorella, 29S.
Gracilaria niirabilis, 227.
Gracilaria populielhi, 301.
Graeilaria siiperbifrontella, 226.
Gracilaria thermopsella, 300.
Griffing, C. S^. 8., 168.

Hall, Prof. James, sale of Museum, 381.
Havden, F. V., 287.
Headlee, Dr. S. H., 94.
Hemipronites, 41.
Hemiiironites elongata, 47.
Hemipronites filitexta, 43.
Hemipronites Hallie, 48.
Hemipronites nutans, 46,
Hemipronites planoconvexo, 48.
Hemipronites planumbona, 45.
Hemipronites sinuata, 50.
Hemipronites subtenta, 46.
Hemipronites sulcata, 4S.
Heterocrinus isodactylus, 279.
Hosea, L. M., 62, 193.
Ho.v Ancient America wrote, 211.
Hvale. 241.
Hyale coryliella, 242.

Indiaua Geological survey, 279.

James, U. P., 286.

Klippart John H., 151.

Laverna albapalpella, 295.
Laverna albella, 295.
Laverna grandisella, 296.
Laverna grissella, 205.
Lapham, Dr. I. A., obituary.
Laverna Murtfeldtella, 237.
Leperditia cylindrica, 351.
Lepido[)terous larvae, 363.
Le plena, .56.
Leptena sericea, 57.
Leptobolus, 10.
Leptol)olus lepis, 11.
Lingula, 0.
Lingula quadrata, 9.
Lingula Xorwoodi, 10.
Lingula ^'an lloruei, 9.
Lingulida', 8.

Lithocolletis annferella, 104.
LithocoUetis albanotella, 101.
Lithocolletis alinella, 229.
LithocoUetis alnivorella, 302.
Lithocolletis ambrosia>ella, HH).
Lithocolletis argentinotella, H'l.

259.
274.
15.5,
s of

Lithocolletis casfana'clla, 104.
Lithocolletis consimilclhi, 230.
Lithocolletis fuscocostclla, 102.
Lithocolletis helianlliiv(u-ella, 100.
Lithocolletis igr.ota, 230.
IjithocoUetis intermedia, 230.
Lithocolletis longestriata, 229.
Lithocolletis lysiniaclii;eella, 100.
Lithocolletis iNlariu'clla, 99.
Lithocolletis (juercibella, 102.
Lithocolletis ((uercitorum, 229.
Lithocolletis liileyella. 236.
Lithocolletis salic'ifoliella, 302.
Liihocolleiis symi)h()i'icarp;eclla, 98.
Lithocolletis unifasciella, 103.
Lgan, Sir Wm— Oldtuary, 381.
Lyell Sir Charles, 355.
Lyonetia alniella, 303.
Lyonetia apicistiigella, 105.

Mastoden remains in Ohio, 151.
Meteorology, 95.

Mica us( d by mound builders, 164.
Miller, S. A.", (brachiopoda, ) 6.
Miller, S. A., (cephalopoda.) 121.
Miller, S. A., (on theglacial theory, i
Miller, S.A-, (Plumulites Jamesi, i
Miller, S. A., (on the word silurian,;
Miller, S. A., (on some new specie

fossils,) 349.
Missouri mound, 94.
Mollusca, 95.

Monograph of brachiopoda, 6.
iMonograi h of cei halopoda, 12!.
Monticulipora a|)proximata, 354,
M.'nticuli[)ora Dalei, 354.
Monticulipora tibrosa, 352.
Monticulipora lycoperdon, 352.
Monticulipora manunulata, 352.
Monticulipora iiulchella, 352.
Monticulipora rugosa, 354.
Monticulii)^ra subpulchella, 352.
Mound Builiier's use of mica, 164.
Mound explorations, 92.
Mounds, Sacrificial, 62.

Native races of the Pacific States. 190.
Natural History development of, 7n.
Natural History investigations in Florida

267.
Nebular hypothesis, 174.
Nepticula castanea'lolifdla, 117.
Ncpticula cilia'fuscella, 117.
Nepticula fuscotibiella, 117.
Ncpticula nigriverticella, 118.
Nepticula resplcndensella, 118.
Nepticula unifasciella, 119.
New si)ecies of trilobite from Trenton

lime-stone, ;!47.
New species of fossils from Ciucuinati

Group. 349.
Note on the manufacture of stone axes,

344.

CEcophora boreasella, 292.
[(Ecophora 4 maculclla. 2!'2.
[(Kcophora shaleriella, 114.

(Eseis, 255.

ICEseib bi.u\ulclla; 255.

384

Index,

Opostega quaclristrigellii, 1(J6.

Origin of flint, 108.

Oniix piiinrosella. 301.

Ornix fiuercifoliella, 116.

Orthis, 1!».

Ortliis aciitilirata, 28.

Orthis belluia, ,31.

Ortliis borealis, 20.

Orthis clvtie, 34.

Orthis costata, 33.

Orthis dentata, 27.

Orthis ella,32.

Orthis emacorala, 24.

Orthis insculpta, 40.

Orthis Janiesi, 33.

Ortliss fissicosta, 30.

Orthis laticosta, 27.

Orthis Ivnx, 25.

Orthis Meeki, 20.

Orthis nuiltisecta, 22.
Orthis occideiitalis, 34.
Orthis plicateUa, 30.
Ortliis retrorsa, 37.
Orthis sinuata, 36.
Ortliis subquadrata, 38.
Orthis testudinaria, 20.
Orthis triplicatglla, 31.
Orthida', 18.
Orthoceras, 124.
Orthoceras Byrnesi, 126.
Orthosc-eras Cinciitnatiensis, 127.
Orthoceras Dyori, 125.
Orthoceras Foster!, 127.
Orthoceras Halli, 128.
Orthoceras Harped, 128.
Orthoceras Meeki, I2S.
Orthoceras Mohri, 124.
Orthoceras Ortoni, 130.
Orthoceras trausversum, 129.
Orthoceratidw, 124.

Page, Jas. R., 371.
Paleontology of Ohio, Vol 2, 380.
Past and coming transits, 305.
Pholidops, 13.

Pholidops Cincinnatiensis, 14.
Phyllocnistis ampelopsiella, 107, 304.
Phyllocnistis liquidanibarisella, 106.
Phyllocnistis, populiella, 106, 303.
Phyllocnistis smilacisella, 107.
Pliiinmer, John J-, 174.
Plumulites Jamesi, 274.
Plutella cruciferum, 292.
Popular Science Monthly, 192.
Primitive conceptions, 1«».
Principles of sociology, 180.
Proctor, Richard A., 305.

Rambles of a naturalist, 161.
Remarks on Plumulites .Jamesi, 274.
Remarks on the genus Anomalodonta.

280.
Reniopleurides striatulus, 347.
Results of investigations of Indian

iMounds, 371.
Review of the controversy regarding the

motion of Glaciers, 72, l.']4.
Review of the development of Natural

History, 78.
Review of the glacial theory, 259.

Richmond Indiana Association at, 286.
Rhynchonella, 17.
Rhynchonella capax, 17.
Reynchonella dentata, 18.
Rhynchoneilida\ 16.

Sacrificial mounds, 62.
Scoville, S. S., 164.
Semele, 243.
Semele cristatella, 243.
Silurian use of the word, 155.
Smith, Prof. R. D., 92.
Spherocorvphe robustus, 273.
Spencer Herbert, 189.
Square crinoid column, 379.
Statement of the Atlantic theory of civil-
ization, 193.
Stone axes manufacture of, 344.
Streptorhynchus, 42.
Strophoinena, 50.
Strophomena alternata, 50.
Strophomena alternistriata, 53.
Strophomena declivis, 66.
Strophomena fracta, 54.
Strophomena loxorhytis, 53.
Strophomena nasuta, 53.
Strophomena squamula, 56.
Strophomena teuuistriata. 55.

Teneina of Central United States, 97.

Teneina of Colorado, 289.

Teneina of the United States, 226.

Tinea apicimaculella, 257.

Tinea Behrensella, 249.

Tinea niveocapitella, 249.

Tinea unomaculella, 258.

Tischeria ambrosiaeella, 112.

Tischeria badiiella, 109.

Tischeria castana>ella, 111.

Tischeria fuscomarginella, 110.

Tischeria heliopsisella, 113.

Tischeria malifoliella, 111.

Tischeria purinosella, 110.

Tischeria quercivorella, 109.

Tischeria tin(!toriella, 108.

Tischeris zelleriella, 110.

Transactions of the Scientific Association

of Richmond, 286.
Trematis, 14.
Trematis Dyeri, 15.

Trematis? tilosa [Schizocrania filosa,! 15.
Irematis multipunctata, 16.
Trematis terminalis? [T. punctostriata.l

14.
Trematospira, 60.
Trematospira grannlifera, 61.
Trematospira quadriplicata, 60.
Trochoceras Baeri, 133.

Walcott, C. D., 273, 347.
Well at St. Louis, 286.
\7etherby, A. G., 363.
Wheeler, Lieut. Geo. M., 287.

Zoological recreations in Florida By, 310.

Zoological Society, 82.

Zygospira, 58

Zygospira Cincinnatien.sis, 59.

Zygospira headi, 59.

Zygospira modesta, 58.

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